the economics of teacher supply in nigeria - UCL Discovery

THE ECONOMICS OF TEACHER SUPPLY IN NIGERIA

EMMANUEL OBASI

A Thesis in the Research Unit in the

Economics of Education

Submitted to the Institute of Education in partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

June, 1984

ABSTRACT

The thesis looks at the Government Bursary Scheme for Higher

Education Students in Nigeria and examines two questions relating

to the supply of graduate teachers in Nigeria. First, how effect-

ive has the Scheme been in augmenting the supply of graduate

teachers. Secondly, what is the likelihood that, once trained,

the new graduate teachers will leave the profession in favour of

better paid alternative employment, thereby defeating the object

of the Scheme.

To answer these questions, we have used published time-series

data and have also conducted a survey of our own among some 600

education undergraduate students in three representative Nigerian

universities.

Our findings are that, contrary to the prediction of human

capital theory, which stresses the importance of prospective re-

lative pay in the choice of courses at university, the Bursary

Scheme, which, on the contrary, assumes that it is the relative

cost of different courses which principally determines this

choice, has been very effective, though not so much in persuading

18-year olds to take a B.Ed. instead of a B.A. or B.Sc., as in

inducing experienced primary school teachers to upgrade their

qualifications so as to augment the supply of (graduate) secondary

school teachers. We also show why the fear that B.Ed. graduates

will drift into other professions, which would defeat the object

of the Scheme, may be unwarranted.

2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of this thesis has been signif-

icantly influenced by very many individuals, that a complete

acknowledgement seems virtually impracticable. The few named here,

therefore, are in no way exhaustive of the list of the author's

benefactors.

I feel most indebted to my thesis supervisor, Professor Mark

Blaug for doing what he calls a 'thankless task' besides provid-

ing me with the encouragement and constructive criticisms that

made the timely completion of this thesis feasible.

I am grateful to Professor H N Pandit, Dr S D Akangbou and Dr

A H Lulsegged all my former tutors at the University of Ibadan for

encouraging my further studies at the University of London, which

they have ever since complemented with 'long-distance' suggestions

and advice.

My deep appreciation goes to Professor B 0 Ukeje, Dr A N Okeke,

Dr G E Ogum, Mr R A Nwuzor and Mr C C Madu all of the Anambra State

College of Education, for their unceasing interest in staff develop-

ment and training, particularly, for enabling me to 'invest' in a

higher level of "signalling credibility". I sincerely hope that

my "signalling potential" will be sufficiently constrained, to

enable me to discharge my obligations.

Sincere thanks are due to present and past friends in the

department of Economics of Education, notably John Mace, Christie

Buchta, Maurice Chen-Aleong, Francis Chege and my statistician

3

friend, Wilson Wamani. My thanks also extends to the following:

Awa Nwoke, Steve Nwachukwu, Romy Okoye and Indira Krishnama for

their moral support.

Finally, to Mrs La Rose and Diana Owen who respectively

typed the first and final draft of this thesis report, I say

thank you.

4

To Peter 7r,ar1

5

TABLE OF CONTENT

Page

Title Page 1 Abstract 2 Acknowledgement 3 Dedication 5 Table of Content 6 List of Figures and Tables 9

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

Background to the Enquiry 13 Scope and Nature of the Problem 14 Significance of the Study 14 Organisation of the Thesis Report 16

CHAPTER 2 : REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Approaches to Occupational Choice Study 17 Psychological Explanation 18 Sociological Explanation • 20 Stochastic Explanation 21 Human Career Explanation 22 Career decision and course choice in the United States 23 Occupational preference and course choice in Nigeria 26 The Effect of the Teachers Bursary incentive scheme examined 28

CHAPTER 3 : METHOD OF ENQUIRY

Research Design 29 Description of survey sample 29 Participants 38 Sampling 38 Research Instrument 47 Data Collection 49 Data Preparation 53 Editing and Coding Guide 54 Data Analysis 57

CHAPTER 4 : DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIAL CLASS COMPOSITION OF EDUCATION STUDENTS

Introduction 58 Data Analysis and Interpretation of Results 60 Demographic Characteristics 60 Geographical Distribution 60 Age Composition 62 Age Composition and Practical implications 64 Age Composition, Age-Earning profile and Teacher Stock 64 Age Composition and Psychological theory 66 Sex Composition 67 Marital Status 70 Social Class Competition 71

6

CHAPTER 4 : CONTINUED Page

Family (Parents') Income 71 Parents' Occupation 72 Parents' Education 73 Conclusion 74

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS

Age and Sex 77 Sex, Previous Qualification and Employment 77 Age Composition and Previous Qualification 80 Age Composition and Previous Employment Status 80 Age Composition and Previous Employment Sector 82 Age and Marital Status 84 Sex and Marital Status 85 Sex and Parental Income 86 Sex and Parental Education 87 Sex and Parental Occupation 88 Summary and Conclusion 90

CHAPTER 5 : HISTORY AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE TEACHERS' BURSARY INCENTIVE SCHEME

Introduction 91 Historical Background 91 Objectives of the scheme 92 Administration of the scheme 92 Eligibility for Award 93 Value and Disbursement of the Award 94 Publicity 95 A Conceptual Framework of the bursary incentive effect 100 Cost dimensions in the acquisition of a potential signal 101 Enrolment effect of 'cheap' job signalling 104

CHAPTER 6 : SOME EVIDENCE ON THE BURSARY INCENTIVE EFFECT

Empirical Historical Evidence : enrolment and output response Enrolment Response 1968-1983 Response lag Interpretation of Empirical Historical Results Empirical Survey Evidence Career Information Subject bias Previous Qualification and Employment Bursary and Finance Objective Significance of Bursary Incentive Summary and conclusion

CHAPTER 7 : POST-TRAINING EMPLOYMENT SECTOR

Probable Primary recruitment rate Probable retention rate Legal standpoint

7

106 106 112 113 120 121 123 125 127 131 135

140 142 146

8

CHAPTER 7 : CONTINUED Page

CONSTRAINTS ON 'DESERTION'/'POACHING'

150 Weakness in the domain-distinction argument

153 'Search-cost' and Capital Market imperfections

153

Labour Market imperfections

156 Inertia

157 Signalling/screening illusion

161 Internal Labour Markets

163 Attrition Rates

165 Summary and Conclusion

166 APPENDICES

167

BIBLIOGRAPHY 211

9

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Page

FIGURE 2.1 : Cobweb dynamics in the College Market. 25

FIGURE 2.2 : A course choice Model based on alternative between Returns and Risk. 26

FIGURE 3.1 : A schematic Model showing the Stages in the planning of survey. 30

FIGURE 3.2 : Map of Nigeria showing the geographical location of Universities in the sample. 31

FIGURE 3.3 : Nigerian Education Students enrolment by University and geographical region of origin of student, 1975-76. 33

FIGURE 4.1 : Distribution of Education Students by sex. 67

FIGURE 4.2 : Distribution of Education Students by Marital Status. 70

FIGURE 5.1 : Job signalling Model of Education Students course choice. 103

FIGURE 5.2 : The price effect of a bursary incentive (subsidy) scheme. 104

FIGURE 6.1 : Enrolment behaviour in Nigerian Universities by field of study 1968-1983. 108

FIGURE 6.2 : Graduate output trend in Nigerian Universities by field of study 1971-1977. 111

FIGURE 6.3 : Rates of return in teaching compared with other professions. 117

FIGURE 6.4 : Proportion of Education Students that are beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of the teachers bursary scheme. 128

FIGURE 6.5 : Education Students perception of the effect of a discontinuation of the teachers' bursary scheme on their stay at the University. 134

FIGURE 6.6 : Education Students assessment of the course choice effect of some competing variables. 134

TABLE 3.1 : Bachelor of Education Students' Enrolment in Nigerian Universities 1981/82 Session

35

TABLE 3.2 :

TABLE 3.3 :

TABLE 3.4 :

TABLE 3.5 :

TABLE 3.6 :

TABLE 3.7 :

TABLE 3.8 :

TABLE 3.9 :

TABLE 3.10:

TABLE 3.11:

TABLE 3.12:

TABLE 4.1 ;

Admission into First Degree courses in Education in sample Institutions for 1977/78 session by university, State of origin and geographical region.

Percentage distribution of Education Students intake in sample Institutions be geographical Region, 1977/78.

Sampling plan for selecting sample Students and alternative sample at the University of Ibadan.

Proportion of the population included in the desired sample size of 200 for University of Ibadan, by year of study and sex.

Proportion of the population included in the 20% alternative for University of Ibadan, by year of study and sex.

Sampling plan for selecting sample students and alternative sample at the Ahmadu Bello University.

Proportion of the population included in the desired sample size of 200 for Ahmadu Bello University, by year of study and sex.

Proportion of the population included in the 20% alternative for Ahmadu Bello University, by year of study and sex.

Sampling plan for selecting sample students and alternative sample at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Proportion of the population included in the desired sample size of 200 for the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, by year of study and sex.

Proportion of the population included in the 20% alternative for the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, by year of study and sex.

Proportion of Education students in Nigerian Universities by State of origin.

10

36

37

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

61

TABLE 4.2 : Proportion of Education STudents in annual Enrolments for First Degree courses in Nigerian Universities by States of origin

Page

1978/79 to 1982/83. 63

TABLE 4.3 : Age Composition of Education Students. 64

TABLE 4.4 : Distribution of total enrolment in Nigerian Universities by sex, 1969-1976. 68

TABLE 4.5 : Distribution of Education Students enrolment by sex 1970-75. 69

TABLE 4.6 : Education Students by annual family income. 71

TABLE 4.7 : Unit Direct Social Cost of B.Ed Programme University of Ibadan, 1978/79 (N per Annum). 73

TABLE 4.8 : Proportion of students by parents' occupation. 74

TABLE 4.9 : Proportion of students by highest level of parents' education. 75

TABLE 4.10 : Age Distribution of Education Students by Sex. 78

TABLE 4.11 : Previous Highest Qualifications of Education Students by Sex. 79

TABLE 4.12 : Previous Employment of Education Students by Sex. 79

TABLE 4.13 : Age Distribution of Education Students by Previous (highest) Qualification. 81

TABLE 4.14 : The Distribution of Education Students by Age and Employment Status. 82

TABLE 4.15 : Age Distribution of Education Students by Previous Employment Sector. 83

TABLE 4.16 : Age Distribution of Education Students by Marital Status. 84

TABLE 4.17 : The Distribution of Education Students by Sex and Marital Status. 85

TABLE 4.18 : Annual Family (Parents') Income by Students' Sex. 86

TABLE 4.19 : Highest level of Parents (Fathers') Education by Students' Sex. 87

TABLE 4.20 : Highest level of Parents (Mothers') Education by Students' Sex. 88

TABLE 4.21 : Parental (Fathers') Occupation by Students' Sex. 89

11

TABLE 4.22 :

TABLE 5.1 :

TABLE 6.1 :

TABLE 6.2 :

TABLE 6.3 :

TABLE 6.4 :

TABLE 6.5 :

TABLE 6.6 :

TABLE 6.7 :

TABLE 6.8 :

TABLE 6.9 :

TABLE 7.1 :

TABLE 7.2 :

TABLE 7.3 :

Parental (Mothers') Occupation by Students' Sex. 89

Breakdown of the value of the Teacher's Bursary Award per beneficiary by items per annum. 94

Changes in Student Enrolment in Nigerian Federal Universities by field of Study, 1968 and 1983. 107

Changes in Bachelors Degree output in Nigerian Universities by field of Study 1971 and 1977. 110

White Collar Salaries in the United States. 118

Proportion of Education Students by sources of career information. 122

Distribution of Education Students by major teaching subject area. 124

Previous Qualification and Employment of Education Students. 125

Proportion of Education Students by other sources of income excluding Teachers' bursary.

Proportion of Education Students by level of estimated annual Income from other sources outside bursary.

Education Students perception of training costs in competing University Courses.

Proportion of Education Students by expected primary post-training employment sector.

Proportion of Education Students by expected duration of employment in the teaching service.

Proportion of Education Students by expected permanent employment sector. 144

129

130

132

141

142

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In all likelihood, the human capital research programme will never die, but it will grad-ually fade away to be swallowed up by the new theory of signalling, the theory of how teachers and students, employers and employees, and indeed all buyers and sellers select each other when their personal attributes matter for the purpose of completing a transaction, but when information about these attributes is subject to uncertainty.

B1 aug ( 1980, pp 238-239 )

Background to the Enquiry

Over the years the federal government of Nigeria has applied a

discriminatory financial support (Teachers Bursary) Scheme in favour

of Bachelor of Education Students in higher institutions in Nigeria.

The rationale has been to use the Teachers Bursary Scheme as an

economic incentive aimed at inducing students to choose courses in

Education thereby enhancing the supply of qualified teachers needed

for the nations fast expanding educational system. Most recently, a

review of the scheme to involve State and local governments has been

proposed. The proposal is clearly stated in the Nigerian National

policy on education, 1981, pp 38/39 in the following words:

Teacher Education will continue to be given major emphasis in all our educational plann-ing ... At the NCE and degree levels of Teacher Education the Federal Government will review the Teachers Bursary Scheme in the context of the constitutional pro-vision in order to involve State and local governments.

Plausible economic argument in favour of State subsidies to

higher education students in general abound and is hardly an issue

of contest in this study. However, the selective application of a

13

Student support Scheme to a particular field of specialization will be

a welcome measure worth continuing if it achieves Policy objectives.

Otherwise, in the event of a failure should necessitate a reconsider-

ation of Policy. On this note the following questions are pertinent.

First, how effective has the Scheme been in augmenting the supply of

graduate teachers? Secondly, what is the likelihood that, once trained,

the new graduate teachers will leave the profession in favour of better

paid alternative employment, thereby defeating the object of the Scheme?

This study shall attempt to answer these questions.

Scope and Nature of the Problem

Although the Teachers' Bursary Scheme covers teacher education

programmes in Nigeria at every level from National Certificate of Ed-

ucation to the PGCE, this study is confined to undergraduates reading

for a B.Ed. degree. To this end we have conducted a survey of some 600

undergraduates studying for the B.Ed. at three representative univers-

ities, in Nigeria, in order to elicit their background characteristics,

so as to provide a basis from which:

(i) To examine the likely effect of the Teachers' bursary

incentive scheme on students' choice of education

course as a major field of study.

(ii) To assess the value of the Teachers' bursary incentive

scheme as an active graduate teachers supply policy.

Significance of the Study

The decisions whether to continue, extend or cease the policy of

descriminatory educational subsidy depends on the extent to which the

Scheme contributes towards the achievement of Policy objectives. We

examine the extent to which the Scheme is successful in steering stu-

14

dents away from other competing fields of specialization towards a

course leading to the B.Ed., and find that it has been more successful

in augmenting the supply of graduate teachers, its principal objective,

by providing a means for experienced primary school teachers to up-

grade their qualification. This has obvious practical implications

for manpower planning and educational financing Policies. More gener-

ally, the thesis provides empirical evidence for the effect of a dis-

criminatory educational subsidy on the demand for training in the

affected discipline.

In principle the Teachers' Bursary Scheme is only one possible

way to augment the supply of graduate teachers. Another way might be

to raise teachers' pay in order to attract more people into the pro-

fession. Graduate teachers in Nigeria, like elsewhere, are relatively

lowly paid when compared with graduates in other professions. One is

therefore, in a sense, confronting the choice between two alternative

Policies for attaining the same objective; to subsidize the cost of

acquiring the necessary qualification versus raising graduate teachers

pay. Only a moments reflection will make it clear that the second al-

ternative is likely to be very much more costly. A small percentage

increase in the pay of the estimated 100,000 qualified graduate teachers

in Nigeria is likely to be very much larger than the total cost of fin-

ancing the roughly 12,000 B.Ed. students in receipt of the Bursary at

any one time. It has also to be remembered that if graduate teachers

pay is raised, there is likely to be an immediate demand to increase

the pay of everyone else in the public sector, which would then, part-

ly, defeat the object, by re-establishing the previous relative pay

ratios. An equally strong case against exploring the prospects of

raising graduate teachers pay, as a policy tool for attracting people

15

into the teaching profession is that the teaching service in Nigeria,

like elsewhere, is a monopsony market. In a monopsonistic market like

the teaching service in Nigeria, where public authorities constitute

the sole buyer of teachers' services and teachers' pay is administrat-

ively fixed, one would hardly expect teacher supply to be subject to

the influence of market force (i.e. pay increase). Hence it has not

seemed worthwhile to explore this alternative, instead the emphasis in

this study is on the question of how successful the 'cost-reducing'

policy of augmenting the supply of graduate teachers has been.

ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS REPORT

The thesis reported in this study is organised into seven chapters.

In Chapter One, the problem is formulated and the significance of the

study outlined. Chapter Two attempts a survey of the literature on

career decision making and course choice. In this chapter various para-

digmic approaches are discussed and previous investigations reviewed.

Chapter Three describes the research design and methods employed in our

survey. Chapter Four covers a descriptive analysis of the background

characteristics of Bachelor of Education Students in Nigerian Uni-

versities based on our survey data. Chapter Five starts with a history

and description of the Teachers' bursary incentive Scheme in Nigeria

and goes on to provide a conceptual framework. Chapter Six presents

some of the findings from published data and our survey in the light

of the model formulated in Chapter Five. The thesis ends with Chapter

Seven which discusses the questions whether graduate teachers are

likely to remain in the profession or leave for a more highly paid

occupation.

16

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Approaches to Occupational Choice Study

The literature on occupational choice reveals that there are

several approaches to the conceptualisation and analysis of the pro-

cess. Pavalko (1971, p. 45) assigns three labels; rational decision

making, fortuitous and socio-cultural influence approaches. Ford

and Box (1967, p. 287) identify two main approaches; "those stress-

ing the 'adventitious' nature of such choices, and those stressing

the 'purposive' element". Waddington (1982, p. 203), perceives two

most favoured approaches "which may be called ... 'developmental'

and 'deliberative'" and concludes that a third approach 'indetermin-

acy' theory was needed to explain some random occurrences which

hitherto favoured approaches overlooked (see Waddington, 1982, pp

215-216). Blau, Gustad, Jessor, Parnes and Wilcock (1956, pp 531-

543) analysed three trends which may be labelled as psychological,

economic and sociological approaches and suggest a holistic or

multi-disciplinary approach to occupational choice study.

To facilitate the review intended here the various labels noted

will be subsumed under four broad categories and for purposes of dis-

cussion dubbed explanations of career choice. The categorisations

are psychological, sociological, stochastic and Human Capital ex-

planations. These categorisations are based on the 'disciplinary

matrices' of scholars who have inquired into the field of career

choice.

Psychological Explanation

Explanations under this category derive from a psychological

conceptualisation of career choice. This approach sees career choice

as a dynamic and protracted process rather than a one-shot activity.

The contention is that within the career choice continuum, individ-

ual career decision is a function of interests, capacities, attitudes,

opportunities and values associated with a particular level of de-

velopment or maturation. Notable explanations of career choice based

on a psychological paradigm include the works of Ginzberg, et al

(1951) and Super (1957).

Ginzberg et al postulate that career choice decision making is a

progressive three-stage process; the fantasy stage corresponding to

the ages six to eleven years, the tentative stage which runs through

early up to late adolescence: ages twelve to seventeen years, and

the realistic stage which begins in early adulthood and stretches

into later life: ages eighteen years and above (see Ginzberg, et al,

1951, p. 60). The analytical implications of Ginzberg et al's three

stage process is that career decision at any of these stages is a

function of psychologically determined maturational characteristics

associated with that stage of development (for a full discussion see

Ginzberg et al, pp 60-117). Ginzberg, et al's view of career choice

has been criticised as being too culture and time bound as to con-

stitute a generalised theory of occupational choice (see Pavalko,

1971, p. 46).

Super (1957) extends the work of Ginzberg et al by proposing a

five stage process of 'vocational development' in which a career

choice decision at any stage is seen as an attempt to strike a

1 (3

balance between self-concept and the content of work roles. These

stages can be summarised into the following:

1. Growth stage which starts roughly from birth to the age 14 years.

This is mainly a period of fantasy choices associated with the

child's development of a self-concept. However, as the child

progresses into adolescence he becomes increasingly aware of the

limitations imposed by his environment and capacities (roughly

comparable to Ginzberg's period of fantasy choice).

2. Exploration stage which stretches between the ages of 15-24

years. At this stage individual self examination, role try-outs

and occupational exploration take place in the attempt to im-

plement a self-concept (partially comparable to Ginzberg's

period of Tentative choice).

3. Establishment stage: roughly ages 25-44 years. This stage is

characterised with the modification or implementation of the

self-concept (partially comparable to Ginzberg's period of

Realistic choice).

4. Maintenance stage: roughly ages 45-64 years. Here the attempt

is at preserving or being nagged by self-concept.

5. Decline stage: approximately from ages 65 years to death. The

individual adjusts to a new self-concept.

Sociologists have strongly criticised the psychological explan-

ation of career choice. In the words of Musgrave (1967, p. 37):

Two major attempts by psychologists, Ginzberg et al and Super, have resulted in descriptive, developmental theories.

This pioneering work misses much of sociological relevance ..., Ginzberg's work at least seems more applicable to the U.S.A. than to Britain.

1 0

Sociological Explanation

The sociological explanation revolves about a socio-cultural

perception of the career decision making process. In this approach,

career choice is perceived as a progressive socialization process.

Individuals, it is argued, progressively select careers best suited

to their socio-cultural characteristics. A major contribution in

this field was made by Musgrave (1967).

Musgrave (1967) proposes four stages of career decision process

based "on socialisation seen strictly as learning to take roles".

These are: pre-work socialisation stage, entry to the labour force

stage, socialisation into the job stage, and job changes stage.

Musgrave's four-stage model of occupational choice has been criti-

cised by Coulson, Keil, Riddel and Struthers (1967) as lacking in

sociological perspective, indicating an excessively individualistic

view of society and using such concepts like role and socialisation

without reference to social structure (see Coulson, et al, 1967,

p. 301). On the theorectical and empirical validity of Musgrave's

model, Coulson et al (1967, pp 301-308) conclude that:

The main theoretical weakness lies in the attempt to explain social behaviour in terms of an oversimplified functionalist theory which rests on a consensus model of society.

.. Musgrave's article by reason of its inadequate theoretical assumptions (naive functionalism), imprecise use of concepts of role and socialisation, and inadequate empirical reference..., cannot be granted the status claimed for it - that of an approach towards a sociological theory of occupational choice.

20

Stochastic Explanation

The Stochastic explanation borders on either an 'accident' or an

'impulse' theory which postulates that human decisions could be spon-

taneous at certain times due to either contact with a sudden external

factor or the overt physical expression of internal forces. Spon-

taneous actions, it is contended, could result in random factors like

'accident' or 'impulse' influencing individual career choice. Some

classic examples of explanations predicated on an accidental theory

include the biographical accounts of how David Ricardo became an

economist noted in Ginzberg et al (1951, p. 3). Ginzberg et al (1951,

p. 18) recount that Ricardo explained his interest and subsequent

occupation as an economist as stemming from the accident of stumbl-

ing on a copy of Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations", while vacation-

ing at the English sea-side. Hobson and Hayes (1968, p. 3) note that

Malinowski explained his shift of interest and occupation from chem-

istry to anthropology in terms of the accident of reading Frazer's

"Golden Bough" during a convalescence from tuberculosis. Instances

of 'impulse' theory in the stochastic explanation include the cases

of the sadist who becomes a surgeon or butcher, or the micturition-

prone child who later became a well-known engineer of bridges and

canals all of which are cited by Hobson and Hayes (1968, p. 4).

A most recent and forceful articulation of the Stochastic ex-

planation is embodied in Waddington (1982, p. 215) who argues that:

The recruitment of AG's was not wholly in-determinate, but indeterminacy played suff-iciently important part in the process to warrant serious sociological attention. The wider significance of indeterminacy of AG recruitment is that it suggests that the sources of indeterminacy are themselves socially structured and not just idiosyncracies of particular choice situations.

Ford and Box (1967, p. 287) referring to the works of Katz and

Martin (1962) and Caplow (1954) have criticised this approach by

asserting that studies stressing the accidental nature of career

choice can be readily dismissed as having no relevance to the develop-

ment of a sociological theory of occupational choice: characteris-

ation of such choices as unique spontaneous behaviours explicable

only be reference to the idiosyncracies of particular choice situ-

ations is essentially atheoretical (Ford and Box, 1967, p. 287).

Human Capital Explanation

The human capital explanation of career choice is based on the

human capital theory as enunciated by Schultz (1963) and Becker

(1964). The central thesis of the theory is that the process of ac-

quiring education is a conscious investment activity guided by anti-

cipated future returns. With this theoretical base the human capital

explanation of career choice derives its operational impetus from the

Marshallian dictum. According to Marshall (1936, p. 216):

If the advantages of any one occupation ... are above the average there is a quick influx of youth from other occu-pations.

Thus this approach is predicated on the view of man as a utility

maximizer. The contention is that individual career decision makers

given their preferences and ability constraints will prima facie

choose careers that will maximize their expected life time monetary

and non-monetary incomes (Freeman, 1971, p. 3; see also Zabalza,

Turnbull and Williams, 1979, p. 9). In this approach a link is per-

ceived to exist between the Labour and Higher Education markets.

Skill shortages in the labour market are signalled to individual

22

career decision makers through 'wage incentives'. Since individuals

are utility maximizers they respond to the signals by choosing

courses in those fields where the signals emanate from. Alternative-

ly, skill surpluses in the market is signalled to career decision

makers through declining wages which discourage students from choos-

ing courses in those fields where wages are depressed.

Career decision and Course choice in the United States

One of the foremost and most detailed application of Human Cap-

ital Theory to the explanation of career decisions and students

course choice is evident in the works of Freeman (1971, 1975a, 1975b,

1976 and 1981) in the United States of America. Professor Freeman

specified his career decision (enrolment) models using starting/

average salaries as explanatory variables in the decision to choose

careers or courses in Engineering and Scientific fields. Based on

his empirical findings he concludes that individual career decision/

course choice is mainly influenced by labour market situations

measured in terms of either increasing or decreasing wages. The

fundamental proposition is that shortages in certain skill require-

ments in the labour market are signalled to career decision makers

through higher wages which induces increased demand for training in

the field; and since the Higher Education Market has an infinite

skill supply capacity, institutions respond to the increased demand

for training by supplying skill places. Thus skill shortages exist

in the labour market for only short spells of time due to training

lag and thereafter are eliminated and succeeded by skill surpluses

in the field due to cobweb dynamics (see Freeman, 1971, pp 28-32,

1976, pp 60-62 and 1981, pp 109-114). Hence persistent and protract-

ed skill shortages or surpluses in the labour market are most unlike-

23

ly since wage signals will induce or repel massive influx in the case

of either shortages or surpluses respectively. This implies that the

interaction between education and labour markets is such that there

is always a tendency towards dynamic equilibrium. This cobweb model

is illustrated in figure 2.1.

The human capital explanation has not escaped the critical pen

of skilled programme evaluators. Blaug (1976, p. 836) after point-

ing out some disconfirming instances, notably Klinov-Malul (1971) and

Sloan (1971), concludes:

As for actual behaviour apart from knowledge and information, we have seen that the em-pirical evidence for human capital explan-ation of the demand for schooling is far from unambiguous; it is true that it has never been decisively refuted on its own grounds but on the other hand it has only been corroborated in its weaker versions. More-over, alternative economic models have yielded equally good or even better results.

And even most recently, Mingat and Eicher (1982), adducing some em-

pirical evidence on enrolments and rates of return by academic dis-

cipline in France, have raised some questions which challenge the

theoretical premise in human capital explanation of course choice:

(I) if the rate of return guides individual choice, why is there a

noticeable increase in the number of students enroled in liberal arts

and a decrease in enrolments in sciences, when the return on studies

in the liberal arts is less than or equal to the return on scientific

studies?

(2) Should not an even greater increase in medicine be expected as

compared with law and economics, given the substantial difference in

the rate of return (Mingat and Eicher, 1982, p. 215).

2/1

This disconfirming instance lead Mingat and Eicher (1982) to

Market Conditions

Salaries high Employment Opportunities good. "Shortage of Graduates".

Student Supply

Many attracted to field.

25

Salaries depressed. Employment Opportunities weak. "Surplus of Graduates."

Large graduating Classes.

Few attracted to field.

Salaries high. Opportunities good. "Shortage of Graduates."

Small graduating Classes.

Figure 2.1 : Cobweb dynamics in the college market.

Source: Freeman, 1976, p. 60.

argue that students entering higher education do not have a uniform

course choice model based solely on estimates of future returns

likely to come from investing in particular disciplines as human cap-

ital theory predicts. They contend that individual students entering

' higher education have different choice models which could be a func-

tion of either objective features associated with the present (e.g.

relative academic ability in different fields of study/economic and

social limitations) or subjective features linked to the future (e.g.

preferences/financial profitability on the labour market for partic-

ular disciplines). Mingat and Eicher's (1982) model is illustrated

in figure 2.2

7r)

Student Studies

Academic Assets Difficulty of studies

Economic and Social limitations

Financial Profit-ability on

Preferences the Labour Market

Objective\ features

Subjective\ features

Features linked to the present

Features linked to the future

Figure 2.2 ; A course choice Model based on alternatives between Returns and Risk.

Source: Mingat and Eicher (1982, p. 216).

Occupational Preference and Course Choice in Nigeria

The literature on the occupational choice of Nigerian youths is

still very limited. However, the few available throw some light on

the subject. Okeke (1973) has contended that the type of secondary

school subjects offered influences subsequent occupational choice of

students in Nigeria. Oyeneye (1980) shows that students occupation-

al preferences/orientation cannot be totally divorced from their

socio-economic background characteristics. Olayinka (1973), Nwagwu

(1976) and Durojaiye (1973) have observed that the job aspirations

of Nigerian youths are considerably influenced by the prestige and

high income associated with certain occupations and hardly relate to

the students interests and capacity to cope with the training re-

quirements in those occupations. Evident from the studies by Duro-

jaiye (1973) and Nwagwu (1976) is the fact that teaching is ranked

low amongst the major professions. Out of 609 secondary school stu-

dents studied, 71.1 percent of them indicated preference for tert-

iary institutions outside teacher training colleges (Nwagwu, 1976).

And when asked to rank occupations in order of preference the follow-

ing was evident: medical doctor, nurse, university lecturer, agri-

cultural officer, engineer, secondary school teacher etc (Nwagwu,

1976). This ranking noted by Nwagwu is comparable to that noted by

Durojaiye (1973):

Doctor, dentist, engineer, lawyer, accountant (in that order) were mentioned by most students as having the highest prestige.

Hinchliffe's (1973) case study of 254 students at the Ahmadu

Bello University provides a disconfirming instance of the Human Cap-

ital explanation of career choice. A life-cycle view of career opp-

ortunities and hence sensitivity to wage differentials, which Free-

man (1971, 1976 and 1981) adduces to explain students career decisions

and course choice in the United States, do not seem to apply signif-

icantly in Nigeria. According to Hinchliffe (1973, p. 172):

27

It would be reasonable to say that on the whole, as far as wages are concerned the students do have good knowledge, but on the other hand they do not react to economic signals in the form of wage differentials as conventional economic theory would suggest.

Based on his survey findings he concludes that:

"Reading information is the most important single factor influencing students' choice."

On how to influence students' course choice, Hinchliffe (1973, p.

172)concludes that:

Through the mixture of more widespread and effective career guidance and further tightening of the bonding system of scholarships, the matching up of supply with projected demand could be more successful.

The Effect of the Teachers Bursary incentive scheme examined

The obvious inference from Hinchliffe's conclusion is his

demonstrated preference for a bursary incentive as opposed to a wage

incentive as the appropriate signalling device for equating the lab-

our and education market mismatch in a developing country like

Nigeria. Since the signalling effect of Bursary incentive is at

best speculative, this study hopes to provide empirical evidence on

the issue to guide policy.

CHAPTER 3

METHOD OF ENQUIRY

Research Design

The research design employed in the study is what is often

referred to in the literature as the "survey design". Surveys typic-

ally collect data about a population at a particular point in time

with the intention of

(a) describing the nature of existing conditions, or

(b) identifying standards against which existing conditions can be

compared, or

(c) determining the relationships that exist between specific events

(Cohen and Manion, 1982, p. 71; Selltiz, Wrightsman and Cook, 1976,

p. 90; Labovitz and Hagedon, 1981, p. 49).

Surveys, if they are to be successful, usually proceed along

well defined logical stages. This logical and systematic stages are

schematically presented in figure 3.1, and the framework served as

the researcher's methodological guide-post throughout the enquiry.

Description of Survey Sample

(a) Selection of Sample Institutions

Three Universities from the three geographical regions of

Nigeria were selected for the data collection and analysis. These

institutions are;-

1. Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria - North

2. University of Ibadan (UI) - West

3. University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) - East.

Figure 3.2 shows the geographical location of the sample in-

2q

send explanatory letter for postal questionnaire

define objectives

decide information

needed

review existing information •n topic and area

decides preliminary tabulations, analysis programme and sample

'.-----1 examine resources •f staff, time, finance

decide sample cheese survey

method

4

choose data processing method

design questionnaire

structure and wording •f questions

pilot survey

J

MAIN SURVEY

send reminders

edit and code decide final tabulations

tabulate and analyse

write up report

brief interviewers

amend questionnaire and sample

Figure3.1: A schematic Model shoving the stages in the planning of survey.

Source: Adapted from Cohen and Manion, 1982, P.72.

w Kan 0

*Sokoto

* Maidugu

a rcourt

Ai Zaria

46 0 Jos

Abuja

alabar ED Federal Capital Territory o State Capital A University A■ University in Sample

IfEs o • • .an I

)

Benin\ a

A

Lagos

ukka

A 0

31.

Figure 3.2 : Map of Nigeria showing the geographical location of Universities in the sample.

Source;

Adapted from National Universities Joint Admission and Matriculation Brochure, 1980-81 session.

stitutions.

The selection of these institutions for survey was based on

practical considerations rather than any rigorous sampling technique.

It is common knowledge amongst researchers that, in some cases, there

are well defined sub-groups of a population which seem to be repre-

sentative of the population to be studied. In such cases sub-groups

randomly selected from the population, based on probability sampling,

are likely to yield a fairly representative sample of the population.

In other cases practical considerations seem to preclude the use of

probability sampling, and the researcher looks for a representative

sample by other means. That is, he looks for a combination of sub-

groups which put together becomes typical of the population as a

whole. This combination of sub-groups is used as a 'barometer' of

the population. Observations are thus restricted to these combin-

ation of sub-groups, and conclusions from the data obtained are

generalised to the entire population (see Ackoff, 1953).

Figure 3.3 presents a visual impression of Nigerian Education

Students enrolment by Universities and region of origin for the

1975/76 session (data is not available for the period beyond 1975/76).

From the figure, we observe the distribution of Education

Students in the various Universities in Nigeria in 1976. Ahmadu

Bello University has the greatest concentration of students from the

North, University of Nigeria, Nsukka has the greatest concentration

of students from the East. However, in spite of the fact that the

University of Ife has far greater concentration of students from the

West, it was excluded from the list of sample institutions in prefer-

ence to Ibadan because of the researcher's familiarity and close

37

Enrolment EE Eastern States

1600

NN

WW

Northern States

Western States

WW WW WW

1200 WW WW WW

NN WW NN WW NN WW

800 NN WW NN WW NN WW WW NN WW WW NN WW WW WW NN WW WW WW

400 NN WW WW WW EE NN WW WW WW EE NN EE WW WW WW EE NN EE WW WW EE WW EE NN WW EE WW EE WW EE WW EE NN WW EE WW EE WW EE WW EE WW

0 EE NN WW EE NN WW EE NN WW EE NN WW EE NN WW EE N WW

fr5 4-) 4-) C 4-, +, 4.> •,- .,- • e- C .,- (0 -,- .1- (i) .o- L th 0 .o- N '0 o cn 0 0 W = L L C i m L W S.... 01 S.CIPO M

-0 0 W W W N.0 C)4- W M w -.- m r- > >cn > 0.1 > I-I > -.1 > .7gE: E— •.— .,-- .,-- ..— -.-- .,-- W C C 4- C 4- C 4- C 4- C 4- cr, ‹C m= = 0 = 0 = 0 = 0 = 0 :r_

Figure 3.3 ; Nigerian Education Students enrolment by University and geographical region of origin of students, 1975-76.

Source:

Based on National Universities Commission Annual Review of Nigerian Universities, 1975-76.

association with staff and students of the University of Ibadan for

well over six years. he familiarity and close association was seen

as an advantage which may enhance the level of staff and students co-

operation in that institution during the survey.

33

Although seven new national universities with faculties of ed-

ucation have been established since 1976, none of them was included

in the sample for two obvious reasons:

(i) they have relatively lower population of education students

than the older ones. For instance, whereas the six older

universities whose statistics is shown in figure 5 accounted

for 66% (i.e. 6,977) of the total population of (10,611)

bachelor of education student enrolment in Nigerian Universities

during the 1981/82 session, the seven new ones represented only

34% (i.e. 3,634) of the total. See Table 3.1 for more inform-

ation.

(ii) the geographical spread of students in the new institutions is

not very much different from what we have observed in figure 3.3

since institutions in Nigeria typically attract the greatest

concentration of students from their regional neighbourhood

than elsewhere. Table 3.2 presents a state by state/and region

by region breakdown of bachelor of education students intake for

the 1977/78 session in the three sample institutions.

The table shows that the bulk of students intake come from

states within the geographical region in which the Universities are

located. As can be further seen from Table 3.3, 94% of students in-

take into U.N.N. located in the East came from the eastern states, a

platry 6% came from the West while none came from the North. A sim-

ilar pattern is evident in ABU and UI. In ABU located in the North,

90% of the students intake came from the Northern states and a paltry

4 and 6%'s came from the Eastern and Western states respectively.

The picture is not too different for UI where 72% of the students in-

take came from the Western states, 26% came from the East and a bare

34

TABLE 3.1

Bachelor of Education Students' Enrolment in Nigerian Universities 1981/82 session

Six Older No. of students % of gross Universities enrolled total

IBADAN 855 8.1

LAGOS 907 8.6

NSUKKA 946 8.9

ZARIA 1,859 17.5

IFE 1,563 14.6

BENIN 847 8.0

Total: 6,977 65.8

Seven New Universities

JOS 691 6.5

CALABAR 786 7.4

KANO 603 5.7

MAIDUGURI 383 3.6

SOKOTO 266 2.5

ILORIN 476 4.5

PORT-HARCOURT 429 4.0

Total: 3,634 34.2

Gross Total: 10,611 100.00

Source: Based on statistics obtained from Planning Division, National Universities Commission, Lagos, April 1983.

35

0

CD

LC) co ss) co 0

C

co• < co

-a (..

-

) -o

Ct. J.

0 CD .•

-0 fl, =

(+ 0

-I=• 0_ c=r) •

cr)

0

(f)

0

ra.)

1

cc

c-f

0

0

cc

Ca)

rD O -s

J .

CD (/) 0 J.

0

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r.0 ct - 0

(1)

(.0 CD t 0 rD

-5 -5 0.) CD

CD

• O • c

-s -s co Ln (0

o • rn

a_

sa) cs- J 0

iv

-0

rD

JOI suopnqpsu!

977/78 session by Uni

versi

ty,

------ ci r- z z c m

••••• < ei- -,• 0.) ri- X' < rt

C = CD 0) .-,-. -1 v) -5 -5 C J. I/1 0 VI = sa,

rD ni = 71/4- (1) -5 C 0) -'5 N - (i) J . >. CO cf. CC CD C rt-

`..0 C --. = I<

.-_... .-• Z 0 0 —0 -11 -11

C ■-•■ = = Cr J. J. 0) < (.0 CL a) CD CU -1 -I = (/) J.

- ■ . 0)

cr- .. k<

- -a CO CO Ni

LTI

CO Ni

CS)

Ni Q

cc

Ni

N rD

4=.

rn

IN)

Cr) IN)

-...a Ni --a CO 01 CO VD .....,) 01

r- c-) c O CD C.) 0 • 0) < ch -5 co

-s O CL' (/) J.

J. r+ k<

ill cr

0Y0

OGUN

ON DO

LAGOS

GONGOLA

NIGER

SOKOTO

BENDEL

ANAMBRA

KANO

KWARA

PLATEAU

CROSS RIVER

BAUCH I

BENUE

BORNO

KADUNA

RIVERS

TOTAL

IMO

V) rt. 0

C 1

V) CD

rD CD (A

cn m (-I- Cu Cu Ln c+ cf CD rD (./)

in. 6

!.. A0 Jo a4P4S

2% came from the North.

TABLE 3.3

Percentage distribution of Education Students intake in sample Institutions by Geographical Region, 1977/78

University by % intake by geographical geographical location region of students origin

East North West Total

U.N.N. (East) 94 - 6 100

A.B.U. (North) 4 90 6 100

U.I. (West) 26 2 72 100

Source: Based on Table 3.2.

(b) Selection of sample students

The following sequence of events led to the selection of students

for survey in sample institutions:

1. The researcher visited each of the three sample institutions

with his University of London Student Identity Card and an introduct-

ory letter from his thesis Supervisor - Professor Mark Blaug. At the

first stage of the visit, he approached the relevant University Offi-

cials in the sample institutions, introduced himself, presented his

student identity card and the letter of introduction from his thesis

Supervisor. This was followed with a discussion during which the

researcher explained in detail the purpose of his visit, the general

plan of the study and the level of co-operation required.

2. After permission to carry out the survey was granted, the

37

researcher obtained the current list of bachelor of education students

in each institution and mapped out a strategy for reaching the poten-

tial participants in the survey with the full and commendable co-

operation of both tutorial and non-tutorial staff in each institution.

Participants

Participants in the survey comprise 578 students currently en-

rolled in their prelim, Parts - I, II and III of the four years bach-

elor of education programme.

Sampling

The selection of students was done by first obtaining a roster

of all bachelor of education students from the faculty officers in

the sample institutions during the initial introductory visit. From

this list a random sample of 200 students was selected from each in-

stitution using the method of stratified random sampling and the table

of random numbers in Bruce, W. Tuckman's book; Conducting Educational

Research, pages 226-232 and Appendix B, Table 1. (See also Kidder,

Writhsman and Cook's; Research Methods in Social Relations, pages 432-

436).

An additional 20% of the sample size for each institution was

simultaneously drawn to serve as alternatives if some students were

absent, ineligible or did not wish to take part in the survey or

technically speaking 'out of scope'. When necessary, selection from

alternatives to fill vacancies was done. By so doing the researcher

endeavoured to ensure a very high overall participation rate for the

survey. This is pertinent in view of the fact that a desired sample

size of 5% or roughly 600 out of the approximately 12,000 bachelor of

education students enrolled in Nigeria's National Universities during

the 1982/83 session was proposed for the survey.

The stratification parameters which were specified to ensure the re-

presentativeness of the sample across the population stratum in each

institution were sex and year of study. Tables 3.4 - 3.12 show the

sampling plans, desired samples and alternative samples for the var-

ious institutions.

TABLE 3.4

Sampling Plan for Selecting Sample Students and alternative sample at the University of Ibadan.

Year of

Proportion in the

Total Proportion % of total Study

Population by Sex

in the Population Proportion by Year of Study in the

Population

Male Female

Preliminary 36(3%) 21(2%) 57 5

Part I 287(26%) 135(12%) 422 38

Part II 230(21%) 103(9%) 333 30

Part III 209(18%) 100(9%) 309 27

Total 762(68%) 359(32%) 1,121 100

Source: Based on Roster of Education Students at the University of Ibadan, 1982/83 session.

39

TABLE 3.5

Proportion of the population included in the desired sample size of 200 for University of Ibadan, by year of study and sex.

Year of Study Sex Total

Male Female

Preliminary 6 4 10

Part I 52 24 76

Part II 42 18 60

Part III 36 18 54

Total 136 64 200


40

TABLE 3.6

Proportion of the population included in the 20% alternative for University of Ibadan, by year of study.


Male Female

Preliminary 1 1 2

Part I 10 5 15

Part II 8 4 12

Part III 7 4 11

Total 26 14 40


TABLE 3.7

Sampling Plan for Selecting Sample Students and alternative sample at the Ahmadu Bello University.

Year of

Proportion in the


Population by Sex


Population

Preliminary

Male Female

Part I 133(13%) 43(5%) 176 18

Part II 289(29%) 103(10%) 392 39

Part III 302(30%) 135(13%) 437 43

Total 724(72%) 281(2(%) 1,005 100

Source: Based on Roster of Education Students at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1982/83 session.

TABLE 3.8

Proportion of the population included in the desired sample size of 200 for Ahmadu Bello University, by Year of study and sex.


Male Female

Preliminary -

Part I 26 10 36

Part II 58 20 78

Part III 60 26 86

Total 144 56 200


1.3

TABLE 3.9

Proportion of the Population included in the 20% alternative for Ahmadu Bello University, by year of study and sex.


Male Female

Preliminary - - -

Part I 5 2 7

Part II 12 4 16

Part III 12 5 17

Total 29 11 40

Source; Based on Table 3.7.

44

TABLE 3.10

Sampling Plan for Selecting Sample students and alternative sample at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Year of

Proportion in the


Population by Sex


Population

Male Female

Preliminary 208(16%) 175(14%) 383 30

Part I 146(11%) 132(10%) 278 21

Part II 122(10%) 79(6%) 201 16

Part III 242(19%) 183(14%) 425 33

Total 718(56%) 569(44%) 1,287 100

Source: Based on Roster of Education Students at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 1982/83 session.

15

TABLE 3.11

Proportion of the Population included in the desired sample size of 200 for the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, by year of study and sex.


Male Female

Preliminary 32 28 60

Part I 22 20 42

Part II 20 12 32

Part III 38 28 66

Total 112 88 200


46

TABLE 3.12

Proportion of the Population included in the 2-0% alternative for the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, by year of study and sex.


Male Female

Preliminary 6 6 12

Part I 4 4 8

Part II 4 2 6

Part III 8 6 14

Total 22 18 40

Source: Based on Table 3.10

It is worthwhile to note that the proportions included in both

the desired sample and alternative for each institution were based on

the relative proportions of the parameters in the sampling plan for

each institution.

Research Instrument

The research instrument employed in the study is a survey quest-

ionnaire. The questionnaire contains 32 structured pre-coded quest-

ions.

47

Although there was no attempt to split the questionnaire into

sub-sections with specific sub-headings, the scope and objectives

were quite clear. The instrument was designed to collect data rele-

vant to the problems posed in the study. Such data are on;

(i) background characteristics of bachelor of education students.

(ii) year of study and orientation of course.

(iii) highest previous qualification and when obtained.

(iv) sources of career information available to students.

(v) change of course of study and reason for doing so.

(vi) level and sources of student's income and expenditure.

(vii) the effect of the Teachers Bursary Award vis-a-vis Teachers' Starting Salary.

(viii) students' perception of differential training cost in selected disciplines.

(ix) previous employment and future career plan.

A copy of the questionnaire is included in the Appendix A.

4L

DATA COLLECTION

(i) Pilot Survey

The questionnaire was pilot-tested at the University of Benin

' between 18th - 20th April, 1983. 20 education students selected by

convenience sampling participated in the pilot survey. The time

taken to complete a questionnaire ranged from 8 - 14 minutes, with a

mean completion time of approximately 11 minutes.

After the questionnaire completion exercise, a post partici-

pation conference was held with the students. The objective of the

conference was to elicit the views of students on the clarity of the

questions raised in the questionnaire to enable the researcher effect-

ively evaluate it.

The general comment of participants was favourable, so there was

hardly any need for restructuring or 'debugging' so to say.

(ii) Main Survey

The main survey was conducted consecutively in the three sample

institutions between April and June, 1983. The dates were as follows:

University of Ibadan; 22nd April - 6th May

Ahmadu Bell University; 9th - 24th May

University of Nigeria, Nsukka; 26th May - 10th June.

On the average, the survey in each institution lasted for two weeks.

Procedure

49

The questionnaires were administered directly by the researcher

in lecture halls with the assistance and commendable co-operation of

some tutorial staff in sample institutions. The researcher was first

introduced to the students concerned in each institution by their

lecturers who briefed them on the importance of the study, the time

and resources expended to travel from London to Nigeria to conduct

the survey and the need for maximum co-operation.

After the briefing exercise, students asked questions on the re-

search topic, the general plan of the study, when the results would

be expected and the machinery for communicating the results to them.

Students' questions further included admission prospects into higher

degree studies in Britain for foreign students especially from

Nigeria; admission requirements, foreign students' support schemes,

attitude of British Professors/and Supervisors to foreign students,

etc. The researcher made frantic effort to answer all students'

questions irrespective of whether such questions were relevant or irre-

levant to the survey. The intention was to reduce any students anxiety

Or nervousness as well as satisfy their curiosity thereby enhancing

the level of their co-operation in the survey.

The direct administration of the questionnaire by the researcher

afforded him ample opportunity to correct faults that were likely to

arise from a misunderstanding of the instructions.

The average time taken to conduct a questionnaire filling session

during the survey varied from group to group and between institutions

depending on such contingency factors as time constraint, number of

questions raised by students, and how elaborate the researchers explan-

ations were. On the average the questionnaire filling session lasted

50

for about 25 minutes in each institution.

Completed questionnaires were immediately collected and packed

into 30 x 35cm envelopes by the researcher at the end of each session.

As noted in the selection of students' section, the provision of

a 20% alternative sample as a substitute in case some students in the

main sample were "out of scope" and the use of the direct researcher

- respondents interaction approach in place of the postal approach

ensured a very high overall effective participation rate of 96% for

the survey.

Table 13 shows the summary statement of the overall particip-

ation by institution. We can glean from the table that the desired

proportion of the sample in each institution that was effective or

more technically speaking 'productive' was 100% for the University of

Ibadan, 99% for Ahmadu Bello University and 90% for the University of

Nigeria, Nsukka. The overall productivity rate was 96%.

The 1% unproductivity rate associated with the Ahmadu Bello Uni-

versity was due to the fact that one questionnaire was dropped during

the checking exercise because its completer did not go beyond pro-

viding responses to only the first nine items in the questionnaire,

whereas one student who stayed through the questionnaire filling

session decided to disappear with his completed questionnaire presum-

ably for his future research use. With regards to the University of

Nigeria, Nsukka, the 10% unproductivity rate was largely due to the

fact that this institution was the last to be visited b Y the research-

er and the sessional examination 'fever' sweeping through the institu-

51

TABLE 13

Summary of overall participation by Institution.

Institution Desired Effective % of desired Participants Participants that was

effective

University of 200 200 100 Ibadan

Ahmadu Bello 200 198 99 University

University of 200 180 90 Nigeria, Nsukka

Total 600 578 96

Source; Education Students Survey.

tion then hampered the maximum co-operation of students. This not-

withstanding the fairly high overall productivity rate of 96% leaves

no room for contending the unbiased character of our sample if what

Tuckman (1978, p. 234) has observed as the acceptable response rate

(i.e. 75-90 percent) is something to go by.

52

DATA PREPARATION

As indicated in the procedure section, completed questionnaires

were collected immediately from students and packed into envelopes

at the end of each questionnaire filling session in the sample in-

stitutions. The packets of questionnaires were later sent to the

researcher's temporary base/office at the Anambra State College of

Education, Awka, for Editing/checking and storage.

The checking of the completed questionnaires was done at Awka

between 13 - 17th June, 1983 by the researcher with the assistance of

a colleague in the sub-department of Measurement and Evaluation,

Anambra State College of Education, Awka.

Since pre-codes were assigned to all the provided responses in

the questionnaire, the checking exercise mainly involved what may be

termed 'scouting' for faulty or double entries or assigning codes to

student provided responses which do not fit into those contained in

the questionnaire (see the Editing and Coding Guide,.

The data were subsequently transferred to 80 - culumn, University

of London, Institute of Education general coding form, which the re-

searcher had brought along from London, in readiness for punching us-

ing the procedures for data rostering contained in Bruce W. Tuckman's

book CONDUCTING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, 1978, pp 285-292.

53

EDUCATION STUDENTS SURVEY: EDITING AND CODING GUIDE

, Quest- Col. Code

Instructions

Special ion No. Notes

General

1. Only one response is accept-able in each of the questions.

2. Where students' mark more than one response, print CONFUSED below and assign next highest code.

3. Where students' mark more than one response but cancelled or erased others leaving one, accept the uncancelled.

4. Where students did not mark any response or provide an alternative; print 'NR' i.e. NO RESPONSE and assigif next highest code.

5. Where the response to a pre-ceding question implied skipping some consecutively succeeding questions, the skipped questions should each be assigned the code '0' in the data roster form.

54

01-03

1 05

2 07

3 09-10

4 12

5 14

6 16

7 18

Data Rostering

Leave a blank column between data fields. All

Student Serial Number

Three digit entry All

Circle one code All

-do- -do-

Circle one code - Two digit entry -do-

Circle one code -do-

-do- -do-

-do- -do-

-do- -do-

Quest- Col. Code

Instructions

Special ion No. Notes

8 20 Circle one code All

9 22 -do- -do-

10 24 0 If skipped because res- -do- ponse in Q,9 is NO! enter code O.

11 26 0 -Do- if as in Q.10, otherwise circle one code. Any other assign code 4.


13 30 -do- -do-

14 32 -do- -do-

15 34 -do-

16 36 0 If skipped because response in Q.15 implies so, enter code O.

17 38 If skipped because response in Q.4 implies so, enter code O.


19 42 -do- -do-

20 44 -do- -do-

21 46 -do- -do-




25 54 3 If no response was made or student inserted NONE assign next highest code 3 and circle, otherwise circle one code.

26 56 9 If no response or student inserted Dead or Don't Know assign next highest code 9, otherwise circle one code each for either father or mother. Enter res-ponse pertaining to father under Q.26, as data field in column 56 of the Data Roster.

55

5r;

Quest- ion No.

Col. Code

58

27 60 7

62

28 64-65 12

29 67 4

30 69

31 71 0

32 73

Instructions

Special Notes

Enter response pertaining to mother. All As in Q.26 except that the next highest score should be 7, enter response per-taining to father.

Enter response pertaining to mother. All

If no response or Don't Know assign next highest code 12 and circle, other-wise circle one code -two digit entry.

If no response or Don't Know assign next highest co 4 and circle, other-wise circle one code.

Circle one code

All

If skipped because res-ponse to preceding question implies so, enter code 0, otherwise circle one code.

Circle one code All

DATA ANALYSIS

The statistical tools employed in the data analysis include

frequency counts, percentages and cross-tabulations. The computer

programme used was developed at the University of London Computer

Centre.

57

CHAPTER 4

DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIAL-CLASS COMPOSITION OF EDUCATION STUDENTS

Once again, it seems to me that here is a research area of enormous importance that has gone almost completely neglected. Apart from the Fields study of Kenya, I know of only two or three developing countries where we have any information on the social-class composition of students in higher education. It is only by gathering this inform-ation that we can tell what the problems are in identifying the incomes of students' families for devising income-contingent scholarship programmes and student loans schemes.

Mark Blaug, 1981, p. 93.

Introduction

The survey findings reported in this chapter provide a compre-

hensive picture of the demographic characteristics and social-class

background of Bachelor of Education students in Nigerian universities

(i.e. trainee teachers in higher education). The subjects comprise

578 male and female undergraduates in their first, second, third and

fourth-year; randomly selected from three Nigerian universities dur-

ing the 1982/83 academic year. The sample institutions from which

students were selected are: Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) Zaria,

University of Ibadan (UI) and, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN).

The locations of these sample institutions correspond to the three

main geo-political regions of Nigeria: ABU - North, UI - West and

UNN - East. The research design and sampling plan employed has been

previously discussed in the method section (see Chapter 3). The

survey instrument is contained in Appendix A, while the procedure of

data collection and preparation are outlined in the Appendix B.

The theoretical and practical rationale for including a chapter

on the demographic characteristics and, most importantly, the social-

class composition of trainee teachers in higher education into an

economic analysis of teacher supply in Nigeria which focuses on the

application of a bursary incentive scheme with "strings" as an active

high level teaching manpower supply policy are threefold. First in-

formation on the social class composition of trainee teachers is

relevant in evaluating the likely effectiveness of the scheme either

in terms of its ability to discourage a segment of potential univers-

ity entrants from choosing the highly lucrative courses where the

risks in surviving the financial requirements are presumably higher

relative to education course (due to the incidence of the bursary in-

centive in education course), or in encouraging those who if unsupp-

orted financially would not have had access to higher education; to

take advantage of the scheme and train as teachers - see the concept-

ual framework of the bursary incentive scheme in Chapter 5.

Secondly, any economic argument for or against a subsidy scheme

in higher education on the grounds of equity or efficiency, or pro-

posals for an alternative student financing scheme would draw heavily

from information on the social-class composition of students. Third-

ly, a possible way of looking at the trainee teacher financial supp-

ort scheme is to examine it within the framework of Becker's (1964)

economics of training. Such examination if it is to be thorough and

the conclusions and recommendations based on evidence would, to a

substantial extent, also be based on information on some character-

istics of the beneficiaries. Lastly, in a broader context the chap-

ter provides answers to the fundamental question: What are the gen-

eral characteristics of Nigeria's potential teacher force? The know-

ledge gained from the answers to the question will no doubt contri-

bute immensely towards the efficient planning of teacher stock in

Nigeria.

Data Analysis and Interpretation of Results

To highlight the practical implications of the characteristics

whose discussion is intended here, the data analysis and interpre-

tation of results has been aggregated for the entire sample and the

discussions organised under relevant subheadings. For Demographic

characteristics these subheadings include (1) Geographical distribu-

tion (2) Age composition (3) sex composition and, (4) Marital status.

For social-class composition they include (1) Family income (2) Par-

ents' occupation and, (3) parents education. The chapter ends with

a brief conclusion.

Demographic Characteristics

Data was collected on the following indices of demographic

characteristics (1) Geographical distribution (2) Age composition

(3) sex composition (4) Marital status.

1. Geographical Distribution

The most important point on which to start an analysis of the

general characteristics of education students in Nigeria based on a

survey sample data is the geographical distribution or 'spread' of

the sample. This is crucial to the study because it bears directly

on the external validity of the research findings. The issue whether

or not the results obtained from a survey sample data can be general-

ised to the entire population of students in question depends to a

large extent on the geographical spread or representativeness of the

6 C)

TABLE 4.1

Proportion of Education Students in Nigerian Universities by States of origin.

(51

Serial No State of Origin Survey sample Respondents (%)

1 Anambra 16.8

2 Bauchi 0.5

3 Bendel 7.6

4 Benue 4.3

5 Bornu 1.4

6 Cross River 4.3

7 Gongola 1.7

8 Imo 16.3

9 Kaduna 5.4

10 Kano 1.7

11 Kwara 9.2

12 Lagos 0.9

13 Niger 1.6

14 Ogun 2.8

15 Ondo 7.3

16 Oyo 12.2

17 Plateau 2.4

18 Rivers 2.1

19 Sokoto 1.4

Source: Education students' survey.

of the sample data (see Table 4.1). The table demonstrates that all

the 19 states of Nigeria are represented in the sample. Furthermore,

the percentage share of the various states in the sample is virtually

consistent with the pattern of the proportion of students from the

states in enrolment in Nigerian universities (see also Table 4.2).

The question that immediately arises after establishing the un-

biased and representative character of the data base is; Now does one

analyse and interpret the results of the survey data to bear on the

economics of teacher supply? To this I now turn.

2. Age Composition

The data on the age composition of education students is present-

ed in Table 4.3. From the table we observe that two-thirds of educ-

ation students in Nigeria are over 25 years. Strikingly, roughly

one-third are over 30 years. If we accept, and it is common know-

ledge, that a normal and healthy child from a relatively well-to-do

socio-economic background would enter primary school at the age of 5

or 6 years and, assuming no repetition of class, would usually com-

plete bachelor's degree studies by the age of 21 years or with LOSLA

(see Psacharapoulos, 1982) should even be able to graduate with bach-

elor's degree earlier than that age (i.e. 20 years), then the first

interpretation that the available evidence, some of which is present-

ed in Table 4.3., lend support to is that the age composition of

students at any level of schooling could be a probable indication of

their social-class origin : students who enter higher education at a

later than the conventional minimum entry age seem most likely to

come from low social-class background, and may have had their school-

ing career interrupted by a protracted period at work (I shall return

to this issue later).

62

TABLE 4.2

Proporition of Students in Annual Enrolments for First Degree courses in Nigerian Universities by States of Origin 1978/79 to 1982/83.

63

% Share Mean

Serial State of 1978/ 1979/ 1982/ of (1), (2)

No Origin 79 80 83 and (3) (1) (2) (3)

1 Anambra 11.6 10.8 10.7 11.0

2 Bauchi 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.3

3 Bendel 14.6 14.1 13.1 13.9

4 Benue 3.6 4.6 3.6 3.9

5 Bornu 0.9 2.3 1.1 1.4

6 Cross River 4.7 5.4 6.3 5.5

7 Gongola 1.2 2.1 1.6 1.6

8 Imo 14.0 12.2 12.9 13.0

9 Kaduna 3.1 3.3 2.5 3.0

10 Kano 1.6 2.5 1.7 1.9

11 Kwara 6.6 5.4 6.7 6.2

12 Lagos 2.1 1.6 2.7 2.1

13 Niger 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.2

14 Ogun 7.8 6.8 6.9 7.2

15 Ondo 9.2 8.0 9.6 8.9

16 Oyo 11.2 10.6 12.2 11.3

17 Plateau 1.8 2.6 2.0 2.1

18 Rivers 2.8 3.6 2.7 3.0

19 Sokoto 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2

Total

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source; (1) and (2) are based on Nigerian Abstract of Statistics data, 1981, pp 66 and 68 respectively, while (3) is based on Returns from NUC, 1983.

4.2

28.9

36.2

19.6

6.9

3.8

0.3

0.2

4.2

33.1

69.3

88.9

95.8

99.6

99.9

100.0 100.00

TABLE 4.3

Age Composition of Education Students

Age Category Proportion of

Cumulative (in years) Students (in %)

(in %)

51.

Under 21

21-25

26-30

31-35

36-40

41-45

46 and over

No Response

Total

Source: Education Students Survey

Age Composition and practical implications:

I have attempted to show how an economist can interpret the age

composition of students in higher education. Furthermore, a close

examination of the age composition of education students, or in tech-

nical terms potential teacher force reveals other plausible interpre-

tations which may have practical implications for both economists and

national teaching manpower planners.

(i) Age Composition, Age-Earning profile and Teacher Stock

It is usual for economists to use conventional school leaving age

in developed countries,notably Britain and the United States (the

modal school leaving age for the three levels of education in these

countries are primary - 11 years, secondary - 16 years and university

first degree - 22 years) in the construction of age-earning profiles

and the estimation of the profitability of different levels of educ-

ation or fields of study see Ziderman (1977), Morris (1977) and

Woodhall (1977). Since, it appears to me that, education students

graduate at a much later age than undergraduates in developed coun-

tries or even undergraduates in other fields of study in Nigeria, the

age data would suggest that the application of the conventional grad-

uation age of 22 years to the construction of the actual age earning

profile for graduate education teachers may not likely reflect the

true earning path in the teaching profession for education graduates

as it may over state the profitability of the bachelor of education

degree. The use of the modal age of education students (i.e. 28

years) is more likely to present a better picture. Also an aggregated

age-earning profile for university graduates, say in Nigeria, which

does not take into account the probable modal age in the various

fields may be misleading and at best serve theoretical rather than

practical purposes.

Secondly, the high age of education students or potential teacher

force suggests that in planning teacher stock, especially the inflows

and outflows, age is one of the important variables to take into con-

sideration. Potential teachers who are likely to enter the teaching

profession at a near retirement age are very likely to have a consid-

erably reduced productive cycle due to early obligatory retirement.

The inclusion of the age structure of potential teacher force into the

teacher supply matrix will tend to adjust for the attrition likely to

arise due to early retirement. It is also consistent to argue that

55

high level teacher demand and supply projection which uses the con-

ventional graduation age disregarding the actual age composition of

potential and actual teacher force may end up overstating the supply

during the plan period.

(ii) Age Composition and Psychological Theory

A slight digression into the domain of Psychology by invoking

Ginzberg et al (1951) and Super (1957) on the career relevance of age

composition would suggest that most education students in Nigeria

(approximately 67%) fall into the category which Ginzberg et al (1951)

describe as the 'realistic' choice stage or what Super (1957) calls

the 'establishment stage of vocational development' which roughly

corresponds to the age range 25-44 years. The analytical implications

of this age attribute is that at this stage an individual's choice

tends to be realistic and most likely to be influenced by objective

features associated with the present rather than subjective/prefer-

ence features associated with the future. In short an individual's

choice decision would tend to be a direct response to immediate

'satisficing' signals rather than future maximizing signals. A cor-

ollary of this 'satisficing' behaviour is that an individual's choice

at this stage would tend to be more stable than choice that would have

been made at preceding stages because the desired self-concept has

either been implemented or modified in the light of objective con-

straints.

An interpretation of this digression into Psychology in relation

to the economics of teacher supply which focuses on the application

of bursary incentive (objective feature associated with the present)

as a supply signal leads to the inference that the signal may have

66

been effective and probably efficient. Evidence adduced elsewhere in

the thesis tends to support the inference.

3. Sex Composition

The data on the sex composition of education students is shown

in Figure 4.1. From the figure it can be seen that two-thirds of

the students are males while one-third are females. When female en-

rolment in education course is compared with the total female enrol-

ment in Nigerian universities, irrespective of field of study, one

observes that the proportion of females in education course is much

higher than that for total female enrolment in all university courses

put together (see Tables 4.4 and 4.5).

Figure 4.1 : Distribution of education students by sex.

7

TABLE 4.4

Distribution of total enrolment in Nigerian Universities by sex 1969-1976.

Sex

1969 1970

Academic Year ending June.

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Male 87 87 86 83 85 84 80 81

Female 13 13 14 17 15 16 20 19

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Based on National Universities Commission annual review of Nigerian Universities, 1969-1976.

This result is open to some economic interpretation. The high

proportion of females enrolled in education course relative to the

total female proportion in Nigerian universities seems to be due to

the enrolment effect of the trainee teacher subsidy scheme in educ-

ation. This interpretation appears plausible in view of the fact

that traditional and economic forces usually constrain many families

in Nigeria to invest less in the higher education of females esp-

ecially in fields of study where the training cost is likely to be

enormous. The general impression is that such investments may lead

in the end to a transfer of limited family wealth to other families

who may marry the female on her graduation. It is usually considered

more profitable by many families to invest more in the higher educ-

ation of males and less in that of females since such investment patt-

ern tends to inhere minimal risk arising due to marriage, except

6 3

through natural wastage.

TABLE 4.5

Distribution of education students en-rolment by sex 1970-1975.

Sex

1970 1971

Academic year ending June.

1972 1973 1974 1975 1983 (survey)

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Male 76 76 N.a. 74 73 73 66

Female 24 24 N.a. 26 27 27 34

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Based on National Universities Commission Annual Review of Nigerian Universities, 1969-1976, and Education students survey.

The high proportion of female enrolment in education course, in

terms of teacher supply, is both comforting and discomforting. Com-

forting in the sense that females are less likely to be occupation-

ally mobile and thus less attrition arising from leaving the teaching

service sector for other occupational sectors (see Zabalza et al 1979,

pp 90-93). The discomfort can be seen from the fact that marriage

may lead to early withdrawal of many females from the teaching serv-

ice to become full-time housewife or mother. Watson et al (1972)

based on Canadian evidence estimated annual attrition arising from

this source between 1965 and 1970 at 35 percent of all attrition due

to resignation (see Williams, 1979, p. 55). However, attrition due

69

to marriage is less likely to occur in Nigeria because of the pre-

vailing high cost of living and the evidence on the social-class

composition of most education students, which would suggest that

voluntary unemployment would be a hardly desirable option. (I shall

discuss this issue in greater detail in chapter 7).

4. Marital Status

In figure 4.2 the data on the marital status of education stu-

dents is presented pictorally. The data shows that a very high pro-

portion of education students are married. As high as 53 percent or

over one-half of the population are married, 46 percent are single

and one percent divorced/widowed. This evidence intuitively corro-

borates my contention that education students seem likely to be by

far older than undergraduates in developed countries or even under-

graduates in other fields of study in Nigeria. It also suggests the

likely social-class background of many of the students bearing in

mind the sociologists contention that people from poor or low social

class background tend to marry before planning their career.

70

Divorced/widowed

Figure 4.2 : Distribution of education students by marital status.

Social Class Composition

The survey data on three conventional indices of social-class

composition are discussed below. These are family income, parents'

education and occupation.

1. Family Income

Table 4.6 shows the proportion of education students in differ-

ent family income categories. The distinct feature evident from the

data is the very high proportion of education students in very low

family income categories. 36 percent of the students come from back-

grounds where the annual income is less than N 1,000. Again roughly

55 percent have families with annual income less than N 2,000 and 67

percent of all the students have families earning less than N 3,000.

Only 13 percent come from backgrounds where the annual income is

N 5,000 or more.

TABLE 4.6

Education Students by annual family Income.

Income (NI= £0.90) Proportion (%) Cumulative (%)

Less than N 1,000 35.8 35.8 N 1,000 - N 1,999 19.6 55.4 N 2,000 - N 2,999 11.7 67.1 N 3,000 - N 3,999 5.4 72.5 N 4,000 - N 4,999 8.5 81.0 N 5,000 and over 13.0 93.0 Dead/uncertain 6.1 100.0

Source: Education Students Survey.

71

Although abject poverty prevails in Nigeria and national per

capita income is estimated at $ 120 (in spite of the illusion of oil

wealth); the data suggests that very few education students could be

said to possess the family income background that qualify them for

inclusion into that small segment of the population usually referred

to as well-to-do. The data on parents' education and occupation dis-

cussed below further attest to this foregoing inference (see Tables

4.8 and 4.9).

The wider significance of the data on family income is that in a

situation where the federal government discontinues the free tuition

and bursary scheme for education students and allows universities to

charge full-cost annual tuition fees of N 3,860 (see Table 4.7, N 1

= £0.90) and the students have to depend solely on their families for

tuition fees and maintenance as full time students, the evidence

would suggest that enrolment in education course may drop dramatic-

ally. The argument appears plausible in the face of obvious capital

market imperfections. I shall return to this issue later in Chapters

5 and 6 under the evaluation of the enrolment effect of the bursary

incentive and other income-contingent economic arguments.

2. Parents' Occupation

The evidence on the occupations of education students'

parents is presented in Table 4.8. The table demonstrates that a

large proportion of the students parents are either subsistence

farmers/craftsmen: 40 percent for fathers and 25 percent for mothers

or petty traders; 14 percent for fathers and 35 percent for mothers.

Also students with unemployed fathers (4%) and mothers (18%) are en-

rolled in education course. The proportion of education students who

72

TABLE 4.7

Unit Direct Social Cost of B.Ed Programme University of Ibadan, 1978/79 (N per Annum).

Item of Cost Amount

1.

2.

3.

Salary Costs - Faculty Staff

Other goods and services - Faculty level

University Services

565

57

(a) General University Research 164

(b) Other academic costs 367

(c) Central administration 354

(d) Student services 834

(e) Other expenditure 1,042

4. Imputed rent 477

Total Cost 3,860

Source: Nigerian Universities Commission, 1980. (Reproduced in Akangbou, 1981, p. 37).

have parents in civil service, private sector or professional occu-

pations seem to be relatively much lower than those from farming,

petty trading and unemployed backgrounds.

3 Parents' Education

The data on the level of education of the students' parents

is summarised in Table 4.9. The highly significant observation one

makes is that a great proportion of the parents of education students

had no formal schooling at all. As high as 38 percent for fathers

73

TABLE 4.8

Proportion of students by Parents' Occupation.

Occupation Father (%)

Mother (%)

Subsistence farmer/craftsman 40.3 24.7

Self-employed petty businessman/woman 13.5 34.8

Civil Servant 14.7 3.8

Government employee other than Civil Servant (e.g. Teacher, Nurse, Police, Army etc) 6.2 5.2

Private sector employed 3.8 1.6

Self-employed professional/Business Tycoon 6.2 3.3

Unemployed man/housewife 4.2 17.5

Recognised leader, Pastor/Minister of Religion 2.8 0.2

Dead/Uncertain 8.3 9.0

100.0 100.0


and 53 percent for mothers of education students are illiterates, 21

percent for both parental sexes had only primary education, while a

relatively small fraction of the fathers (20%) and mothers (6%) had

some form of higher education.

Conclusion

The remarkable lesson that emerges from the analysis of the data

on parental education is that it supports the income and occupational

74

TABLE 4.9

Proportion of students by highest level of parents' education.

Level Father Mother (%) (%)

None (illiterate) 38.9 53.1

Primary 21.8 21.1

Vocational training 5.7 6.9

Secondary 6.6 4.5

Higher Education (not university) 12.1 4.3

Higher Education (university) 7.4 1.4

Dead/Uncertain 7.4 8.7

Total 100.0 100.0


distribution patterns in Tables 4.6 and 4.8. Parents who are domin-

antly illiterates or semi-illiterates are most likely to be engaged

in subsistence farming or petty trading with a preponderance of them

in extremely low income categories. When the data on education stu-

dent's family income, parents' occupation and highest level of formal

schooling are put together the evidence, it appears to me, seems to

amply suggest that - by any known standard of social-class different-

iation - most education students seem to have low social-class back-

ground characteristics. Furthermore, when the present level of

schooling attained, future income and occupation of most education

students on graduation (well over 75%) are compared with those of

'75

their parents; the evidence would again point to the fact that most

of them seem very likely to be recruited into social-classes whose

characteristics differ significantly from that which they originated.

Depending on who is looking at this issue and the angle from which

he approaches it (as both normative value judgements and positive

analysis are implied), to me, it seems to sufficiently indicate an

enhanced upward social-class mobility which seems to be facilitated

by the increasing access to higher education arising due to the in-

cidence of the teachers bursary incentive scheme: a type of unin-

tended positive 'externality' of higher education subsidy.

The foregoing conclusion, on the social origin of trainee-

teachers in Nigeria, is not inconsistent with sociological research

findings on recruitment to teaching elsewhere. However, see Floud

and Scott (1961) and Wragg (1982, pp. 15-16). Floud and Scott (1961)

in a study on the recruitment to teaching in England and Wales; span-

ning over three generations conclude that a preponderance of teachers

have been progressively recruited from low social class background

"both between and across the generations". A situation which

demonstrates that teaching has, over the years, served as "an impor-

tant avenue of social mobility" for more able youth of low social

origin. Presumably, for the same reason that: "In general, teachers .

. . do not pay the direct costs of their education and training"

(Wilson, 1983, p. 22).

76

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS

A moments reflection will make it clear that there is some inter-

relationship between the various background characteristics of

Bachelor of Education students. These interrelationships are explored

in detail in this sub-section using cross-tabulated data.

Age and Sex

Table 4.10 presents data on the age distribution of education

students by sex. The data shows that there is a marked difference in

the age distribution of the sexes. On the average the females are

much younger than the males. Whereas the modal age of female, B.Ed.

students is 24 years that of the males is 29 years. This suggests

that most female B.Ed. students enter the university at about the age

of 20/21 years while most males enter at about the age of 25/26 years.

This age distribution data by sex suggests that more male B.Ed. stu-

dents than females are more likely to have had previous employment

record. This highly probable relationship is examined next.

Sex, Previous highest Qualification and Employment

Tables 4.11 and 4.12 show the data on the sex distribution of

education students by previous highest qualification and employment

record. The data shows that three quarters of the male proportion of

B.Ed. students had previous teaching qualification and were engaged

in the teaching profession. A similar pattern is equally obvious in

the case of the females. Furthermore, between the sexes, males were

twice as likely to have obtained a lower teaching qualification and

to have been employed as teachers than the females. This sex dis-

tribution of previous qualification and employment record has a strong-

77

TABLE 4.10

Age distribtuion of Education Students by Sex

Age Category Proportion of Proportion of (in years) students (in %) students (in %)

Males Females

Under 21 1.4 2.8

21-25 15.2 13.7

26-30 28.2 8.0

31-35 12.8 6.7

36-40 5.0 1.9

41-45 2.9 0.9

46 and over 0.3 0.0

No Response 0.0 0.2

Total 65.9 34.1

Gross Total 100


relationship with the age and sex distribution of B.Ed. students. Since

the average age of male B.Ed. students is much higher than that of the

females, the males are more likely to be experiencea professional

teachers, than the females. Also the sex distribution of previous em-

ployment record shows that more female B.Ed. students than males were

unemployed. This relationship between sex and previous employment

record is a further reflection of the relatively low average age of the

78

TABLE 4.11

Previous highest Qualification of Education Students by Sex

Highest Qualification Proportion (in %)

WASC/GCE '0' Level

HSC/GCE 'A' Level

Teachers Certificate

Gross Total

Male Female

13.0 10.0

11.8 4.0

41.2 20.1

100


TABLE 4.12

Previous Employment of Education Students by Sex

Previous Employment Proportion (in %)

Male Female

Teaching Service 46.2 22.1

Civil Service 11.6 2.6

Private Sector 1.7 0.9

Unemployed 6.4 8.5

Gross Total 100


79

female students vis-a-vis the males. Another important observation that

one makes from the employment record data is the insignificant proportion

of female B.Ed. students that were previously employed outside the

teaching profession. This would tend to suggest that teaching seems to

be a favourite occupation for females.

Age Composition and Previous (highest) Qualification

Data on the relationship between age and the previous highest quali-

fication of Education Students is shown in Table 4.13. An important

feature that emerges in the data is the relationship between the ages

of B.Ed. students and their previous highest qualification. The younger

age groups who comprise the unemployed (at entry) had only the General

School Certificate (GCE '0' or 'A' Level). Virtually, all the high age

groups had a teachers' qualification prior to entry into a B.Ed. course.

This suggests that the B.Ed. course is hardly a preferred course option

amongst the 18-year olds with School Certificate. It seems to be an

obvious attraction for old and experienced practising non-graduate

teachers.

Age Composition and Previous Employment Status

Cross tabulated data on the relationship between age and employment

status of education students is shown in Table 4.14. The Table shows

that the bulk of unemployed education students (12.1%) are in the lower

age category (ie. below 25 years of age). Invariably this evidence

shows that the minority of unemployed B.Ed. students are youths com-

prised mostly, of the females who are much younger than the males. A

cross tabulation of age and the previous employment of B.Ed. students

reveals some interesting results. This is discussed below.

80

TABLE 4.13

Age Distribution of Education Students by Previous (highest) Qualifications

Age Category Previous (highest) Qualification

WASC/GCE '0' Level

HSC/GCE 'A' Level

Teachers Qualifi-cation

Under 20 3.3 0.7 0.2

21-25 11.4 5.7 11.8

26-30 6.2 4.3 25.6

31-35 1.4 2.6 15.6

36-40 0.7 1.2 5.0

41-45 0.0 1.2 2.6

46 and above 0.0 0.0 0.3

No indication 0.0 0.0 0.2

Gross Total 100


81

TABLE 4.14

The Distribution of Education Students by Age and Employment Status

Age Group (in years) Proportion (in %)

Employed Unemployed

Under 20 0.9 3.3

21-25 20.1 8.8

26-30 33.2 2.8

31-35 19.6 0.0

36-40 6.9 0.0

41-45 3.8 0.0

46 and over 0.3 0.0

No indication 0.2 0.0

Gross Total 100


Age Composition and previous Employment Sector

The data on the distribution of education students by age and pre-

vious employment is summarised in Table 4.15. It is evident from the

Table that a preponderance of the students attracted to the B.Ed.

degree programme, who have very high average age, were previously em-

ployed in the teaching profession. As high as 70 percent of all B.Ed.

students, prior to entry into the university, were already employed as

teachers. And of this 70 percent over 60 percent had already obtained

lower level teachers qualification (see Table 4.11). This suggests

that, in general, the B.Ed. programme has been an avenue for experienced

82

TABLE 4.15

Age distribution of Education Students by previous Employment Sector

Age Category Pre-entry Employment Sector

Teaching Civil Service

Private Un-employed

Under 20 0.9 0.0 0.0 3.3

21-25 14.7 4.5 1.0 8.7

26-30 27.9 4.0 1.4 2.9

31-35 15.4 4.0 0.2 0.0

36-40 5.5 1.4 0.0 0.0

41-45 3.6 0.2 0.0 0.0

46 and above 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0

No Indication 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross Total 100


practising non-graduate teachers to upgrade their qualification thus en-

hancing their prospects within the teaching profession. This opportunity

to upgrade could be seen as a direct consequence of the Teachers'

Bursary Scheme. This, it seems to me, arises from the fact that with-

out the Scheme practicing teachers with lower teaching qualification

could not possibly afford the cost of taking a B.Ed. degree to qualify

themselves to become graduate secondary school teachers. It could thus

be argued that the scheme has been very successful in inducing old and

experienced primary school teachers to upgrade their teaching qualifica-

tions to become graduate secondary school teachers rather than persuading

18-year olds to take a B.Ed rather than a B.A. or B.Sc.

83

Age and Marital Status

The data on the age distribution of Education Students by marital

status is shown in Table 4.16. From the Table one observes that the

bulk of the single students are under 25 years of age while the bulk

of the married students are 30 years and above. One obvious inference

from the proportion of Education Students that are married is that it

reflects the relatively high average age of the students in Education

course. The proportion that is divorced/widowed is equally distributed

TABLE 4.16

Age Distribution of Education Students by Marital Status

Age Category (in years)

Proportion of students (in %)

Single Married Divorced/Widowed

Under 21 4.0 2.0 0.0

21-25 24.0 4.3 0.0

26-30 15.4 20.2 0.5

31-35 1.9 17.6 0.0

36-40 0.2 6.6 0.2

41-45 0.0 3.6 0.2

46 and over 0.0 0.3 0.0

No Response 0.0 0.2 0.0

Gross Total 100

84


between those who are less than 30 years and those that are above.

Since the female B.Ed. students are much younger than the males, they

seem more likely to constitute the bulk of the single students. The

data on the sex distribution of marital status examined below supports

the inference.

Sex and Marital Status

Data on the distribution of Education Students by sex and marital

status is summarised in Table 4.17. A significant observation from

the data that is summarised in the Table is that the proportion of

female and male B.Ed. students that are married is unequally distributed

within the sexes. Well over half the male population of education stu-

dents are married while only roughly half of the female population are

married. The high proportion of the males that are married is a re-

TABLE 4.17

The Distribution of Education Students by Sex and Marital Status

Marital Status Proportion (in %)

Male

Female

Single

29

16

Married

35

17

Divorced/Widowed

0.5 0.3

No Response

0.0 0.2

Gross Total

100


85

flection of the large proportion of male education students that are

in high age brackets (see Table 4.10). Since the female students are

relatively younger there is the likelihood that a lesser proportion

of them would be married before entering the University quite unlike

the males.

Sex and Parental Income

Table 4.18 presents cross-tabulated data on the annual family

income of education students by sex. A notable observation is the

very large proportion of male Education Students that have parents

in extremely lower income categories when compared with the

females. The proportion of male B.Ed. students whose parents are

in extremely lower income category is roughly four times that of

females. On the other hand the proportion of females whose parents

TABLE 4.18

Annual Family (Parents') Income by Students Sex.

Income (N1 = £0.90 Proportion (in %)

Male Female

Less than N 1,000 31.7 7.3 N 1,000 - N 1,999 13.7 8.1 N 2,000 - N 2,999 3.5 2.2 N 3,000 - N 3,999 3.8 2.8 N 4,000 - N 4,999 5.5 6.6 N 5,000 and over 2.9 4.5 Dead/uncertain 4.8 2.6 Gross Total 100

86


are in the relatively high income category is almost twice that of the

males. On the average, the parents of male B.Ed. students have much

lower income than those of the females. The data on the sex distrib-

ution of parents' highest educational level and occupation, analysed

below, supports the parental income distribution pattern between the

sexes.

Sex and Parental Education

The data on the highest educational level attained by the parents

of Education Students is shown in Tables 4.19 and 4.20. A consistent

finding from the Tables is that a far greater proportion of male Ed-

ucation Students than females have parents who have little or.no ed-

ucation (i.e. illiterates/semi-illiterates). Whereas roughly 45 per-

cent of the male students have parents who are illiterates/semi-

illiterates only roughly 15 percent of the females have such parents.

TABLE 4.19

Highest level of Parents (Fathers') Ed-ucation by Sex

Level of Fathers' Education Proportion (in %)

None Primary

Male Female

31.7 13.7

7.3 8.1

Vocational Training 3.5 2.2 Secondary 3.8 2.8 Higher Education (not University) 5.5 6.6 Higher Education (University) 2.9 4.5 Dead/uncertain 4.8 2.6 Gross Total 100


87

TABLE 4.20

Highest Level of Parents (Mothers') Ed-ucation by Sex.

Level of Mothers' Education Proportion (in %)

None Primary

Male Female

40.1 12.8

13.0 8.3

Vocational Training 4.0 2.9 Secondary 2.2 2.2 Higher Education (not University) 1.4 2.9 Higher Education (University) 0.3 1.0 Dead/uncertain 5.0 3.7 Gross Total 100


Generally the parents of the female students have higher levels of ed-

ucation. The proportion of female B.Ed. students whose parents had

some form of higher education is roughly twice that of the males.

Sex and Parental Occupation

Tables 4.21 and 4.22 summarize data on the distribution of male

and female education students by parents occupation. Evident from

both Tables is the fact that the parents of the male students are

clustered in farming and semi-skilled occupations. On the average more

female B.Ed. students than males have parents in professional or skilled

occupations. The relatively higher proportion of male students with

parents in farming and semi-skilled occupations (who are mostly illit-

erates or semi-illiterates) supports the lower income of the parents

of male education students. This finding suggests that in spite of

the fact that education students in general have low social-class

origin; the female students, on the average, seem to have higher social-

class background characteristics relative to the males. This relative-

88

TABLE 4.21

Parental (Fathers') Occupation by Ed-ucation by Sex.

Parental (Fathers') Occupation Proportion (in %)

Male Female

Subsistence farmer/craftsman 33.9 6.4 Self-employed petty business man/woman 7.6 5.9 Civil Servant 6.7 8.0 Government employer other than 3.3 2.9 Civil Service (eg. Teacher, Nurse, Police, Army etc) 1.7 2.1 Private Sector Employee 3.8 2.4 Self-employed professional/Business Tycoon 2.1 2.1 Unemployed man/housewife Recognised Leader, Pastor/Minister of Religion 1.6 1.2 Dead/uncertain 5.2 3.1 Gross Total 100


TABLE 4.22

Parental (Mothers') Occupation by Ed-ucation by Sex.

Parental (Mothers') Occupation Proportion (in A

Male Female

Subsistence farmer/craftswoman 20.1 4.7 Self-employed petty business man/woman 22.0 12.8 Civil Servant 1.2 2.6 Government employer other than Civil 2.1 3.1 Service (eg. Teacher, Nurse, Police, Army etc.) 0.9 0.7 Self-employed professional/Business Tycoon 2.1 1.2 Unemployed man/housewife 11.6 5.9 Recognised Leader, Pastor/Minister of Religion 0.2 0.0 Dead/uncertain 5.9 3.1 Gross Total 100

89


ly higher social origin of the female B.Ed. students vis-a-vis the

males seems consistent with the relatively lower average age of

the females. It also seems to explain why most female B.Ed. stu-

dents were unemployed before entering University and had not previous-

ly obtained a lower teaching qualification since their relatively ad-

vantaged socio-economic background provides them facility to enter

the University at a much younger age than their male counterparts.

Summary and Conclusion

The most interesting and significant empirical findings of the

survey are, first, the high average age (28 years) of B.Ed. students

compared with the age of other undergraduates and the high proportion,

approximately 70 percent, who were practicing teachers before they

entered University. When these two findings are combined they seem

to indicate that the Teachers' Bursary Scheme (whose effect is analysed

in Chapter 6) has not really to any considerable extent had the effect

of inducing 18-year olds (youth) to take a B.Ed. rather than a B.A. or

B.Sc. (and this should be seer_as a major: idling. ) but it has never-

theless been very successful in augmenting the supply of graduate

teachers by providing non-graduate members of the teaching profession

with the opportunity to upgrade their qualifications. Without the

Scheme non-graduate practising teachers could not possibly afford to

take a degree and qualify themselves to become secondary school

teachers. On this ground, it could of course be argued that the Scheme

augments the supply of qualified (graduate) secondary school teachers,

mainly, by reducing the stock of primary school teachers. But this is

not a serious consideration because it is very much easier to replenish

the stock of primary school teachers and, Nigeria is in any case

rapidly approaching the situation where there will be no longer any

shortage of primary school teachers.

90

CHAPTER 5

HISTORY, DESCRIPTION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF

THE TEACHERS BURSARY SCHEME

This Chapter begins with the history and description of the Teachers'

bursary scheme and goes on to suggest a conceptual framework for analys-

ing the effect of the scheme. This historical account is based on in-

formation obtained from the Teachers' Bursary section of the Federal

Ministry of Education during my fieldwork.

Historical Perspective

One of the problems arising from the outbreak of Civil hostilities

in Nigeria during the period 1966-1970 was the mass exodus of expatriate

staff working in different sectors of the economy. The teaching service

was one of the hard-hit sectors on two grounds: (a) post primary ed-

cuational Institutions in Nigeria as at then were mostly owned and run

by expatriate missionary staff some of whom voluntarily fled the country

at the outbreak of Civil war in 1967 or were forced to leave the country

due to their ambiguous and questionable roles. (b) Qualified indigen-

ous teaching manpower was inadequate and in acute short supply relative

to the demand. As at 1966 there were only 4,512 University graduates

teaching in Nigerian secondary schools. Of these, more than fifty per-

cent were without teaching qualification. Again of the total number,

2,223 were Nigerians and 2,289 were expatriates. So roughly fifty per-

cent of Nigeria's high level teaching manpower was comprised of ex-

patriates (Fafunwa, 1970, p. 23). This situation led to a series of

interministerial meetings aimed at exploring ways and means of enhancing

the rapid and massive local supply of qualified post-primary school

teachers needed to off-set the attrition due to the exodus of expatriate

teaching staff as well as provide for the fast expanding school system

91

92

in the country. The obvious outcome of the incessant deliberation was

the launching of a momentous crash financial inducement scheme for the

training of teachers for post-primary educational institutions in

Nigeria late in 1968/69 academic year subsequently assigned the offi-

cial lable Teachers' special Bursary Scheme.

Objectives of the Scheme

The Teachers' Bursary Scheme in Nigeria which provides to Education

Students with free maintenance in addition to the Free Tuition which is

available to all university students, irrespective of their disciplines

has two main objectives:

1. "to use all incentives to mobilize Nigerians to take up teaching".

2. "to subsidize heavily the cost for the training of teachers in the country."

With these objectives it is hoped that the scheme would influence

students course choice in favour of education course thus enhancing the

rapid and massive local supply of qualified teachers needed to off-set

the attrition due to the exodus of expatriate teaching staff, minimize

Nigeria's over-dependence on the services of expatriate teachers as

well as meet the teacher requirements for the nations fast expanding

educational system.

Administration of the Scheme

At its inception the scheme was administered directly by an official

at the Federal Ministry of Education who was charged with the respons-

ibility of overseeing the execution of the scheme in addition to the

officer's prescribed routine official duties. However, as the scheme

became more complex to handle due to its popularity amongs students and

the subsequent rapid increase in the number of applicants, a separate

unit known asTeachers' Training special Bursary unit was established

within the framework of the Federal Ministry of Education to take charge

of all administrative duties and financial disbursements relating to the

scheme.

Eligibility for Award

Selection of students for the Teachers' special bursary award is

based solely on the decision of the applicant to make a career in pro-

fessional teaching by electing to pursue a course of study in education

at the tertiary level. Thus to qualify for an award the applicant must

secure an admission to study for a teaching qualification in education

at the bachelors degree level i.e. B.Ed., BA/BSc. education or any other

teaching qualification approved by the National Joint Consultative

Committee on Education. Such other qualifications include:

1. Postgraduate Certificate/Diploma in Education.

2. Non-degree Diploma in Education.

3. Associateship Certificate in Education.

4. Nigerian Certificate in Education.

All applicants are expected to obtain and complete appropriate

application forms and submit same to the Teachers' Training Bursary Unit,

Federal Ministry of Education through their respective institutions.

The Unit does not deal directly with students. The award is open only

to Nigerians and is only tenable in local institutions. The award is

made to students irrespective of whether they have received bursaries

for lower level teachers course.

93

Value and Disbursement of the Award

The value of the award per student recipient per annum is fixed

for universities in the country. The award provides for the cost of

the board and lodging, books and teaching practice allowance. The

breakdown of the value of the award per student beneficiary by items

per annum is shown in Table 5.1.

The disbursement of money to beneficiaries is done through the

accounts department of universities as soon as stipulated administr-

ative procedures have been fully completed. To check the incidence

of abuse, students are expected to submit a fresh application every

year and cause their sessional examination results to be sent to the

Teachers' Bursary unit for determination as to suitability for sub-

sequent Award. Repeaters usually get their bursaries extended pro-

vided they apply for extension early enough.

TABLE 5.1

Breakdown of the value of the Teachers' Bursary Award per beneficiary by items per annum.

94

ITEMS VALUE (in N)

Tuition Free Board 378.00 Lodging 90.00 Book allowance 60.00 Teaching practice allowance 100.00

Total 628.00

Source: Teachers' Training Bursary Unit, 1983.

Since the inception of the scheme in the late 1968/69 academic

year beneficiaries were expected to enter into Bond with the Federal

Government or the Ministry of Education acting as its agent, to

teach anywhere in Nigeria for a minimum period of two (2) years.

A beneficiary of the scheme ceases to benefit from it as soon

as he withdraws from the university or changes from education to an-

other field of study.

Publicity

The Federal Ministry of Education disseminates all information

on the scheme through advertisements in National newspapers, maga-

zines and Federal Government Gazettes. Advertisement for application

usually appear between June and September each year. Copies of the

advert are sent to all the State Ministries of Education, Universities,

Advanced Teachers Colleges/Colleges of Education, and Education depart-

ments of Technical Colleges and Polytechnics.

Application forms are usually made available to universities and

similar institutions by the Teachers' Training Bursary unit at the

beginning of every academic year for distribution to eligible stu-

dents. The forms are free and obtainable from the appropriate offi-

cers of the various institutions. Completed application forms are ex-

pected to be submitted by 15th November of every year to the appro-

priate institutional authorities who forward them en-bloc to the

Teachers' Training Special Bursary unit for processing and compilation

of a roster of award recipients. Although formal application is only

made after students have already begun their course, the award of a

95

Bursary is in fact automatic for any student who is registered for a

B.Ed. degree.

Background to the Conceptual Framework

In this sub-section I present in explicit propositional and schem-

atic form an economic model of discriminatory subsidy effect which, I

believe, has been the rationale behind the economics of teacher supp-

ly in Nigeria and most students' choice of education course in pre-

ference to other fields of study. The particular approach, adopted,

offers a contrasting theoretical viewpoint from what is prevalent in

some leading economic works on the subject of course choice, notably

Freeman (1971) and Zabalza, Turnbull and Williams (1979), which see

the economics of course choice mainly from the conceptual lens of

human capital theory where the wage signal is advanced as the pro-

pelling force. This paradigm case of human capital theory applied to

the economics of teacher supply is evident in the Zabalza, Turnbull

and Williams (1979, p.2) thesis in the following words:

out of any group of potential teachers, a given teacher wage, relative to the wage paid in other occupations, will attract a certain proportion in-to the profession.

Much as I do not totally dispute the contentio'-s of the human

capital thesis, I feel more comfortable with the thesis of Mingat and

Eicher (1982) that entrants to the Credential Market do not have a

uniform course choice model as human capital theory predicts. To a

large extent the human capital paradigm implicitly discounts, rather,

heavily the cost of acquiring training in higher education. The ac-

96

quisition of training - irrespective of the field of study - is not

totally free be it in the developed countries across the Atlantic or

in the developing countries. Even if we allow for free tuition in

higher education, which Blaug (1981, p. 88) observes has been preval-

ent in most developing countries, there are also out of pocket costs

for books, practical equipment - in science, engineering, medicine

and other technical courses - maintenance costs plus the indirect

costs of earnings foregone which are uncompensated while studying

(see Blaug, 1966, p. 166; 1973, p. 23). There is also the fact that

capital markets are not perfectly competitive and freely accessible

to individuals for loans to finance additional education. As Blaug

(1966, p. 168) has argued, the human capital version of educational

choice would appear more convincing if capital markets were perfect-

ly competitive and freely accessible to individuals for loans to

finance additional education. Blaug's view is consistent with Fried-

man's (1962, p. 102) earlier observation which points out the pecul-

iar nature of capital market imperfections as they affect human cap-

ital investors. According to Friedman (1962, p. 102):

Investment in human beings cannot be financed on the same terms or with the same ease as investment in physical capital. It is easy to see why. If a fixed money loan is made to finance investment in physical capital, the lender can get some security for his loan in the form of a mortgage or residual to the physical asset itself, and he can count on realizing at least part of his investment in case of default by selling the physical asset. If he makes a comparable loan to increase the earning power of a human being, he clearly cannot get any comparable security. In a non-slave state, the individual embodying the invest-ment cannot be bought and sold ... A loan to finance the training of an individual who has no security to offer other than his future earnings is therefore a much less attractive proposition than a loan to finance the erection of a building: the security is less, and the cost of subsequent collection of in-terest and principal very much greater.

Thus the overwhelming influence of the uncompensated direct and in-

Q7

direct costs, as well as imperfect and relatively inaccessible cap-

ital markets, will undoubtedly scare the most optimistic socio-econ-

omically disadvantaged labour market speculator who may wish to pred-

icate his course choice solely on the expected high "future returns"

of a particular discipline, especially in developing countries where

abysmal poverty exists and access to higher education is increasing-

ly becoming a right of the priviledged few from well-to-do families.

Furthermore, there is the over-emphasised issue of labour market

imperfections. The labour market in the event of shortages in cert-

ain required skills may not deliver the appropriate signals, and

even if it does, individuals may not respond in the appropriate way

(see Hinchliffe, 1973, p. 165; Cohn, 1979, pp 315-316). Hence, in

the light of these inherent imperfections of: the credential, cap-

ital and labour markets, the predictive value of the Human Capital

paradigm as a unique economic model of course choice seems untenable

and thus has been strongly objected to by some economists who have

reacted to the theory; see Hinchliffe (1973), Blaug (1976), Mingat

and Eicher (1982) and Bowles and Gintis (1975) for a more general

critique based, not only on the market imperfections but also, on a

set of profound ideological objections to the concept of "human cap-

ital". Blaug (1976) revealed his scepticism in his fairly detailed

critical appraisal of the empirical status of Human Capital theory

when he subtly opined that the hypothesis that individuals take a

life-cycle view of career opportunities is yet to be properly tested.

While I do not intend to discount some corroborating empirical

evidence on the human capital theory; I shall, for the purpose of

this study, presume the human capital paradigm of course choice gross-

grs

ly inadequate to fully account for most of the course choice decisions

of some category of higher education students in Nigeria, and shall

therefore explore new grounds on the subject as the evidence moves me.

Seen in this light the study complements rather than competes with pre-

vious attempts by economists to formulate and test explanatory economic

models of course choice within the traditional ceteris paribus frame-

work (see Freeman, 1971, pp 14-15). The only distinct feature between

this study and previous efforts (Freeman, 1971; Zabalza et al, 1979) is

the shift in the locus of emphasis from: a wage incentive paradigm

case of the human capital theory of course choice to a bursary incent-

ive paradigm case of the job signalling theory of course choice taking

into account, in particular, the potency of socio-economic disadvantages

and capital market imperfections which seem to have been heavily dis-

counted by the human capital theory.

Here, therefore, the theoretical application of a bursary incentive

scheme as an economic policy course choice variable is explored. Given

this emphasis, the chapter is concerned with, among other things, the

theoretical analysis of the course choice decision of students majoring

in education at the bachelors degree level in Nigerian universities.

Does the Teachers' bursary incentive scheme - an economic course choice

policy variable aimed at attracting individuals to the teaching pro-

fession, and, through a system of bonding, to ensure that trained teach-

ers stayed in the profession for which they have been trained at public

expense - exert any considerable influence on some students course

choice? Which category of students are influenced and to what extent?

Precisely how effective and efficient is the teachers bursary incentive

scheme as an active graduate teacher supply policy. In the attempt to

answer this question, I now present the conceptual framework for analy-

sing the Bursary incentive effect.

99

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE BURSARY INCENTIVE EFFECT

Let us suppose that education is available as a potential signal ... There are costs, both monetary and psychic, to acquiring an education and good educational record. The problem for the individual who faces wage, salary, and job schedules that may depend on education is to select an optimal level of education keeping in mind both the costs and potential benefits in terms of his future job and salary level.

Spence( 1974, pp 14-15 )

Does the acquisition of a potential signal involve costs? If the

acquisition of a potential signal involve costs, do costs vary be-

tween competing courses? If costs vary, how does a bursary incent-

ive scheme in a particular course - by a central authority - further

affect the variations in costs between the affected course and other

competing courses? Finally, how are some job signalers, particular-

ly the socio-economically disadvantaged, likely to react to the

course with a bursary incentive scheme in the face of Capital Market

imperfections?

In the attempt to provide plausible economic answers to these

questions, I put forward in this section both in theoretical and

schematic forms two corollaries of a bursary incentive paradigm case

of the job signalling theory of course choice. In the sub-section

A, I apply a simplified and empirically testable job signalling model

to some category of students' course choice decision in the process

of acquiring a potential signal, while in section B, I use the price

theory to explain also in a testable form how aggregate individual

course choice decision in the process of acquiring a potential signal

at cheaper costs could lead to an increase in the effective demand

10C

for training and consequently labour supply in the field where a

potential signal is much cheaper to acquire.

A. Cost dimensions in the acquisition of a potential signal

For the purpose of terminological simplicity, the process of

acquiring a potential signal is seen, here, as being synonymous with

the process of acquiring training in competing courses, while the

costs of acquiring a potential signal is the same thing as training

costs.

Now turning to the questions, I have raised in the introductory

section: there is ample reason to believe that the acquisition of

training is not costless even if we allow for free tuition in higher

education. There are also direct costs which include: pocket costs

for books, practical equipment costs for students in medicine, en-

gineering and other technical courses, board and lodging costs,

travels and other incidental costs plus the indirect cost of earnings

foregone which are uncompensated while acquiring training. No doubt

the magnitude of training costs vary between competing courses.

Courses that involve the use of expensive personal practical equip-

ments/and of fairly long duration like the health profession (6-7

years), engineering and other technical courses (5-6 years) invariably

have higher incidence of training costs. While courses involving

little or no use of personal practical equipments/and of relative

lower durations like the Arts, social sciences, Natural Sciences and

Education - all of which are of 4 years duration for GCE Q Level en-

trants tend to be characterised by relatively lower training costs.

Furthermore, the incidence of a bursary incentive scheme in a partic-

ular course, say Education, will further reduce significantly the

101

training costs in that course relative to other courses of higher or

even equivalent training costs: thus making it much cheaper for

many job signalers, particularly those from socio-economically dis-

advantaged background, to acquire a potential signal in the face of

capital market imperfections ('cheap' job signalling).

All that I have said on costs can be summarily presented using

simple mathematical jargon. If for instance, we assume that the

training costs (IC) in any particular discipline is a function of

the direct costs (dc) plus the indirect costs (Idc), we can express

costs in a functional relationship given by

TC = f(dct, Idct, it)

Thus the total training cost in a particular year (t) may be given

by:

TCt = 5_.(dct + Idct)

where t = year of study

Sat = duration of training

t = 1, 2, 3, 4 .... n, for n 7

Tct would vary between competing fields of study depending on dct,

Idct and It characteristic of that field of study.

With a discriminatory subsidy (S) in Education course the magni-

tude of the training cost in education (TCe) relative to other fields

will be significantly reduced to the extent of the magnitude of the

subsidy. The subsidized cost of acquiring a 'cheap' potential signal

is given by: t = n

TCe

= 2 (dct + Idc

t - S

t)

t=1

102

The foregoing formulation is behaviourally illustrated in Figure 5.1.

103

Constraints imposed by some students' socio-economic background/and capital market imperfections

Students' perception of Training Cost differential between competing courses of study

—0

The Teachers' bursary incentive depresses the signalling cost in Education course.

Many Students choose Education Course 4

Potential signal (bachelors degree).

•

Civil Service Job Markets

Teacher Job Market

Private Sector Job Markets

NOTE; the dotted lines denote signalling/screening illusion.

Figure 5.1 ; A job Signalling Model of Education Students Course choice.

Enrolment effect of 'cheap' job signalling

The enrolment effect of the cheap job signalling model of course

choice discussed above is illustrated here, using the price theory

on the effect of a reduction in price on the demand for non-inferior

goods in a commodity market. If we assume that BE represents the

effective demand for a potential signal in Education course, and Bo

for "all other courses" (see Figure 5.2), the teachers' bursary in-

centive scheme (a subsidy) will have a price reduction effect: it

will rotate the budget line BL to the right from its originally un-

subsidized tangency optimum point OP1 on indifference curve El to a

new position BL1 and tangency optimum point OP2 on indifference

curve E2. This price reduction in BE relative to B

o will lead to an

increase in BE and consequently an increase in the output of job

signalers who have acquired a potential signal in Education course.

104

0 e1

e2

L

0

0 0 L0= U

L 41

O

_c

Education Course (BE)

Figure 5.2 : The price effect of a bursary incentive (subsidy) scheme.

It is pertinent to add the caveat that: the overall effective-

ness of the bursary incentive scheme, in terms of actual enrolment

and graduate output response in education relative to other courses

would be significantly influenced by distortions in the credential

market arising due to price reductions in the other competing

courses or a temporary easing in the level of capital market imperf-

ections. Furthermore, like any other economic model, the tradition-

al -ceteris paribus - assumption also holds.

The model presented above, it appears to me, is the theoretical

rationale behind the Federal Government's teacher supply policy seen

purely from the use of bursary incentive to alter most students

course choice in favour of education (and most students choice of

education course), and thereafter retain them in the teaching pro-

fession through a system of bonding. Whether or not this has been

successful we shall see shortly in the next chapter, so I now turn

to Chapter 6 to examine some available evidence.

105

CHAPTER 6

SOME EVIDENCE ON THE BURSARY INCENTIVE EFFECT

A. Empirical Historical Evidence: enrolment and output response

In this chapter, I examine the pattern of structural

changes in enrolment and bachelors degree output by fields of study,

over the years in Nigerian universities, to see the extent to which

the model formulated in the previous chapter explains the changes in

enrolment and bachelors degree output in education when compared with

other fields of study. I concentrate on the period 1968 (the year

preceding the introduction of the teachers' special bursary incentive

scheme (a subsidy scheme) to present date i.e. 1983. Whereas enrol-

ment data is available for the period 1968-1983, graduate output data

is only available for the period 1971-1977. The enrolment data is

based on returns from the Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) ob-

tained during my field-work, while the graduate output data is based

on Nigerian abstract of statistics data. The various sources are in-

cluded in the Appendix D.

Enrolment Response 1968-1983

The empirical historical evidence that some students' course

choice decision seem to have been sensitive to the bursary incentive

in education course appears impressive. Enrolment statistics by

fields of study between the period 1968 (the year preceding the intro-

duction of the teachers' bursary incentive scheme in education course)

to the present time i.e. 1983 depict a stupendous increase in enrol-

ment in education course relative to other fields of study as one would

reasonably expect. Most fields of study lost significantly to educ-

ation and thus experienced marked decline over the period. Table 6.1

106

summarises data on changes in enrolment pattern by fields of study

between 1968 and 1983. While Figure 6.1 presents trend data on the

enrolment behaviour of students during the same period.

TABLE 6.1

Changes in student enrolment in Nigerian Federal Universities by field of study 1968-1983.

Field

of

Study

Academic Year ending June.

1968 1983 1968-1983

No. No. % change

Administr-ation N.a. - 5,211 5.8 -

Arts 1,540 22.7 14,113 15.7 -7.0

Education 743 11.0 15,554 17.3 +6.3

Law 349 5.2 4,935 5.5 +0.3

Social Science 1,210 17.9 13,024 14.5 -3.4

Health profession 870 12.8 9,720 10.8 -2.0

Engineering and Techn-ology 465 6.9 9,358 10.4 +3.5

Natural Science 1,091 16.1 13,529 15.0 -1.1

Agri-cultural Studies 505 7.5 4,475 5.0 -2.5

TOTAL 6,773 100 89,919 100

Source; Based on returns from NUC, 1968-1983 (see Appendix 'D' Table 2)

107

1111)Iii4

Science

Sci

cial

nce

•

N.

IV I VIP%

Arts

Health ofession

ineering

Percentage share (%) fN

108

Education

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

Admini-str. ion

111114P4

Law

cu culture

1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982

Figure 6.1 : Enrolment behaviour in Nigerian universities by field of study 1968-1983.

Source: Based on Table 2, Appendix TO.

From Table 6.1 we observe that Arts which accounted for the high-

est percentage share of total enrolment in 1968 dropped sharply from

22.7 percent in that year to 15.7 percent in 1983 representing a net

loss of 7.0 percent. Education rose stupendously from 11.0 percent

in 1968 to 17.3 in 1983 showing a stupendous increase of 6.3 percent.

Law increased marginally from 5.2 percent in 1968 to 5.5 percent in

1983 showing a marginal net increase of 0.3 percent. Social Sciences

declined significantly from 17.9 percent in 1968 to 14.5 percent in

1983 experiencing a net loss of 3.4 percent. Health profession did

not fare any better either. It dropped from 12.8 percent in 1968 to

10.8 percent in 1983 with a net decline of 2.0 percent. Engineering

was the only field outside education that had an appreciable increase.

It increased from 6.9 percent in 1968 to 10.4 percent in 1983 showing

a significant net gain of 3.5 percent. Natural Science and Agricult-

ural Studies are also in the category of net losers. Natural Science

dropped from 16.1 percent to 15.0 percent while Agricultural Studies

declined from 7.5 percent to 5.0 percent representing net losses of

1.1 percent and 2.5 percent respectively.

Even though engineering and law increased during the period the

increase in their percentage share of total enrolment hardly compare

with that for education which is roughly two times as much as that for

engineering and twenty one times as for Law.

Output Response 1971-1977

Evidence on graduate output during the period 1971-1977 is con-

sistent with what we have observed on enrolment statistics between

1968-1983. A similar outstanding feature in the data is the stu-

pendous increase in graduate output in education relative to other

fields of study. Table 6.2 documents the different pattern of change

in percentage share of graduate output by field of study between the

period 1971 and 1977, while Figure 6.2 provides trend data showing

the striking consistency in the growth pattern of bachelor of educ-

ation output relative to other fields within the same period.

TABLE 6.2

Changes in Bachelors Degree output in Nigerian Universities by field of study 1971 and 1977.

Field Academic Year ending June

of

Study 1971 1977 1971-77

No. No. % change

Admini-stration 157 6.3 295 4.8 -2.5

Arts 614 24.8 1,061 17.3 -7.5

Education 174 7.0 1,133 18.5 +11.5

Law 130 5.3 277 4.5 -0.8

Social Science 406 16.4 740 12.1 -4.3

Health profession 176 7.1 726 11.8 +4.7

Engineering and Tech-nology 224 9.5 719 11.7 +2.2

Natural Science 448 18.1 800 13.0 -5.1

Agricultural Studies 128 5.2 326 5.3 +0.1

Mass Commun-ications 16 0.1 62 1.0 +0.9

TOTAL 2,473 100 6,139 100 0.0

Source: Based on Nigerian abstract of statistics data, 1981, p. 69, Table 5.13 (see Appendix 'D' Table 3).

1,200 Education

Arts

1,000

. Science

. Science Profess ion

800

600

Agricultural Studies

Law

400

200

Mass Communi-cation

•

Graduate output

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Figure 6.2 : Graduate output trend in Nigerian universities by field of study 1971-1977.

Source: Based on Table 3, Appendix 'D'.

It is evident from Table 6.2 that education which accounted for

only 7 percent of the total graduate output in 1971 rose stupendous-

ly to 18.5 percent in 1977 showing a huge gain of 11.5 percent, the

highest relative to other fields. Whereas health profession, Eng-

ineering and Technology associated with relatively high rates of re-

turn only experienced marginal increases, relative to education, of

4.7 and 2.2 percent respectively. Administration decreased by 2.5

percent, Mass Communication studies increased by 0.1 percent account-

ing for the least growth rate. Fields of study like Arts, Law,

Social Sciences and Natural Sciences lost ground by 7.5, 0.8, 4.3 and

5.1 percent respectively. No doubt education picked up most of these

losses.

Response Lag

In spite of the fact that education gained considerably from the

losses by most other fields and hence the stupendous growth in enrol-

ment and graduate output over the years, two factors may have contri-

buted significantly in reducing the full impact-effect (in terms of

enrolment and output response) of the discriminatory subsidy in ed-

ucation course. First is the introduction of a university students

loan scheme at the end of the Civil War in 1970 (the loan has been

discontinued locally and is now only available for Nigerian students

studying overseas who are in their penultimate or final year and

could produce evidence that they would not be able to complete their

studies without additional financial assistance) to assist students

from war affected areas and majority of socio-economically disadvant-

aged students who were in dire need of financial assistance to either

take-up their offers of admission or complete their studies. Second-

ly, sequel to the discontinuation of the Federal Government univer-

1 1 2

sity students loan scheme, some state governments introduced a small

scale intermittent grant to assist most students who would otherwise

have withdrawn from university or declined offers of admission due

to financial constraints. Although the loan scheme has been discon-

tinued and the financial grant by State governments has been inter-

mittent and relatively small compared with the teachers' special bur-

sary award and thus constitute an unreliable means of student finance,

their probable threat to the total effectiveness of the discrimin-

atory subsidy cannot be wholly ignored. However, as noted earlier

this probable threat notwithstanding, enrolment and graduate output

in education has grown stupendously, ever since, relative to other

fields of study.

Interpretation of Empirical Historical results

What is the economic explanation of the observed stupendous

change in enrolment and graduate output in education relative to

other fields of study, in the light of the human capital paradigm of

course choice on the one hand and the job signalling paradigm of

course choice on the other: ceteris paribus?

To a large extent, the empirical historical evidence analysed

above hardly support the human capital paradigm of course choice and

it's ambitious claim to predict enrolment in specific fields of study

in higher education based on differential earnings. If rational stu-

dent behaviour is, in all cases, consistent with the predictions of

the human capital paradigm of course choice one would hardly expect

enrolment and graduate output in education to grow as stupendously as

it has over the period under consideration, relative to other fields

of study. A more consistent structural pattern within the framework

113

of human capital theory would be for Health profession, Engineering

and other lucrative fields to exhibit a more stupendous growth trend.

In terms of profitiability, both, in the short and long run the

teaching profession (i.e. teacher job market) is far from being the

pace-setter. According to Sheehan (1973, p. 110);

Turning to salaries which are directly measurable, we find that in the United Kingdom (and in most developed countries) teachers rank above most manual and unskilled jobs but below most profession-al and managerial jobs. Also teaching tends to be one of the lowest paid occupations in the market for university or other third-level graduates.

Sheehan, (1973, p. 111) goes on to conclude that when compared with

other competing occupations in the labour market especially in terms

of prospective life time, or long run earnings, the teacher seems to

be "relatively lowly paid."

Sheehan's (1973, p. 110) observation on the relatively low pay

received by teachers in the United Kingdom and in most developed count-

ries is not inconsistent with observations based on findings from

African (underdeveloped) countries. Fafunwa (1967, p. 84) in his dis-

cussion of the problems faced by African teachers notes inter-alia;

The African teacher, like his counter-part in most parts of the world, is one of the most poorely paid of all professional workers. In many parts of Africa, the labouring class en-joys greater security than the teacher."

To further substantiate his case Fafunwa quotes from a survey report

on 'the status of the Teaching Profession in Africa' conducted by the

World Confederation of Organisations of the Teaching Profession (W.C.O.T.P.).

According to the report (see Fafunwa , 1967, p. 84):

114

The status of the teaching profession in Africa is low... The teacher often does not get a salary which keeps him contented or enables him to maintain a standard of life comparable to that of others having the same qualification. He often has to work in conditions which would daunt the bravest of spirits.... For a long time the teaching profession has been for many Africans a means to an end, rather than end in itself: it provided an avenue to higher education. The African teacher joined the profession not out of any exalted sense of vocation but rather out of necessity.

Williams (1979, pp 24-25), as if to explain why the teacher

seems to be relatively lowly paid when compared with equally quali-

fied people, contends that the role of market forces in the teaching

service is somewhat limited in all countries; public authorities

constitute a monopsonistic buyer of teachers' services, they fix

or negotiate teachers' salaries and in such situations wages will

not be self-adjusting to reflect changed supply-demand relationships,

nor could one expect teacher supply and demand to be responsive to

changes in wages.

The weight of the informed opinions of Sheehan (1973) and

Williams (1979) is strengthened by the empirical evidence provided

by Wilson (1983) in his article on "The Declining Return to becoming

a Teacher". Wilson (1983) illustrates the rates of return in teach-

ing compared with other professions using time-series data (see

Figure 6.3). In the figure a most interesting and important pattern

is clearly evident. Teachers, excluding university lecturers, ranked

least in the rates of return hierarchy when compared with other pro-

fessions. Furthermore, the decline in rates of return over the years

115

is steeper for teachers than for other professions.

Even in the United States where market forces play a significant

role in wage determination, teachers pay is not too encouraging

either. Peter David reporting in the Times Educational Supplement

(TES) of 21 October 1983 notes inter alia:

virtually every report on the woes of education published this year has drawn attention to the low salaries offered to teachers ... In calling for a rise in basic teacher pay, the committee pointed out that teachers are paid well below the average rates given to other white collar workers.

The comparative statistics on teachers' salaries in the United

States vis-a-vis other qualified professionals adduced by David (1983)

is shown in Table 6.3.

Although rates of return studies by specific fields of study

are not available on Nigeria (I have not seen and do not know of any

in existence so far), the picture presented by Sheehan (1973), David

(1983), Williams (1979) and Wilson (1983) is not different from what

obtains in Nigeria. One of the lenses through which the appaling

and unenviable plight of the teaching service sector practitioners in

Nigeria can be seen is evident in a conclusion by the Nigerian Union

of Teachers (NUT) in a memorandum on a recent salary review commission

116

20 -

LS •

li5S 19e$ 13/0

a. to •

Key:

x—...—x Primary non graduate teacher

o o Secondary graduate teacher

Graduate teacher in further education

x x University lecturer

All graduates

oa Physicist

Chemist

x x Engine .:r

Sources and notes:

(a) The estimates for teachers are for males. Source Table 1.

(b) The estimate for University lecturers is from Table 5.

(c) The estimates for scientists, engineers and all graduates arts taken from Wilson (1933) and some unpublished notes.

Figure 6.3 : Rates of return in teaching compared with other professions.

Source: Wilson (1983) Figure 1.

TABLE 6.3

White Collar salaries in the United States

Occupation Average Annual Salary (in dollars)

Range: entry pay to top level (in dollars)

Lawyer 43,249 25,162 to 76,202

Engineer 34,745 23,622 to 62,494

Accountant 26,306 18,260 to 48,549

Programmer/ Analyst 24,809 15,535 to 35,430

Teacher 18,945 12,966 to 23,437

Secretary 16,539 14,000 to 21,546

Typist 11,915 10,893 to 13,723

Source: Peter David "Trying to turn the salary tables" in TES 21 October 1983, page 16.

report quoted in Adaralegbe (1979, pp 68):

The increase in salaries except possibly with two small groups representing some 2i percent of the teaching force have not kept pace with the rise in prices. With many, this has meant a decrease in the standard of living, and with the remainder an increasing struggle to main-tain the 1959 standard which, itself, was far below that which the proper status of the teacher requires. It is quite obvious that the combined result of salary increases and price increases has not enhanced the status of teachers but in many cases depressed it.

After assessing the salary structure and promotional prospects of

Teachers in Nigeria, Professor Adaralegbe (1979) concludes that the

teaching service will still be faced with the age-long problem of

recruiting and retaining the best teachers into the service since, as

in the past, these teachers will continue to seek greater opportuni-

ties outside of the teaching service where they can get better ad-

vancement.

One important conclusion that the argument presented above in-

variably leads to is that, within the framework of economic analysis

of course choice (see Freeman, 1971), students' enrolment in educ-

ation course do not seem to be a function of 'expected future re-

turns' in the teaching profession as human capital theory would na-

turally explain by linking relatively high enrolments with relatively

high rate of returns in the affected discipline. Rather, the facts

suggest, it appears to me that most students enrolment decision in

education course can best be explained by linking it to the incidence

of the teachers' bursary incentive scheme. These interpretations are

consistent with the conclusion and also reinforce the predictions of

Hinchliffe (1973) based on survey evidence.

Hinchliffe (1973) concluded that students in the process of their

course choice do not in all cases react to economic signals in the

form of wage differentials as conventional economic theory would

suggest and predicted that one of the potentially strongest controls

through which Federal or State authorities can use to influence stu-

dent's course choice along the lines of estimated manpower require-

ments is through the use of bursary incentive accompanied with a

period of bonded service.

However, this is only half the picture and thus would not warr-

ant forceful arguments and conclusions yet: one must also examine

- 9

the survey evidence that is part of this study to see the extent to

which it corroborates the two different sets of evidence adduced so

far. I now turn to the survey evidence.

B. Empirical Survey Evidence

In the preceding section I tried to show how the changes in en-

rolment by fields of study over the years, in favour of education,

can be explained within the framework of a job signalling paradigm

of course choice predicated on bursary incentive. I indicated that

the evidence in spite of it's plausibility was still inconclusive,

since the survey evidence that complements the historical results al-

so needed to be examined to see the extent to which it corroborates

the theory.

The relevant survey evidence has been presented here. In all

578 male and female education students in their first, second, third

and fourth - year of the bachelor of education course in three

Nigerian universities participated in the survey. The criteria for

establishing the unbiased and representative character of the sample

has been discussed both in Chapters 3 and 4. Also the research de-

sign and procedure for data collection are discussed in Chapter 3,

while the research instrument and procedure for data preparation are

contained in the Appendices A-D.

As has been previously noted in Chapter 4, the emphasis on the

practical applications of the research findings (as a guide to teach-

ing manpower supply policy) still dictates the presentation of results

in this section. Thus the analysis and interpretation of this aspect

of the survey results has, also, been aggregated for the entire sa-

mole and organised under relevant sub-headings. These sub-headings

include (1) career information, (2) subject bias, (3) previous quali-

fication and employment, (4) Bursary and Finance; and (5) objective

significance of bursary incentive.

1. Career Information

Table 6.4 presents the data on the sources of education students

career information. A remarkable feature evident from the table is

that mass media based sources constitute a major source of the stu-

dents career information. Majority of the students (approximately

60%) indicated that publications, newspapers, posters, pamphlets etc.

were the major source of career information available to them. Home

and school-based sources played relatively small roles. 21 percent

indicated home based sources, while only 18 percent indicated school

based sources. This response pattern seems to confirm Hinchliffe's

(1973) findings. Hinchliffe (1973, p. 167) observes that "reading

information" was the "most important" source of career information

which help to shape students career choice.

The relatively small role played by home based source is consis-

tent with the low social-class background of most of the students.

The influence of home based sources of career information is, to a

large extent, dependent on students social-class composition. Since

the parents of education students seem to be dominantly illiterates

or semi-illiterates (i.e. only 20% of the fathers and 6% of mothers

had some form of higher education), it is less likely that most of

them would know/and advise their children about career/course options

available at the University.

TABLE 6.4

Proportion of Education Students by sources of career information.

Sources Proportion (5)

Home based:

(i.e. parents, friends, relatives, 21.3 wife/husband, fiance)

School based: (i.e. Teachers/school career advisers)

17.8

Mass Media based: (i.e. Publications, newspapers, poster, 59.7 pamphlets etc.)

Uncertain

1.2


The minority role played by school based sources seems to in-

dicate the low level of career guidance in Nigerian schools, in spite

of the Federal and State governments increasing emphasis on career

guidance and the training and posting of professional career guidance

counsellors to post-primary schools. The evidence would suggest that

Federal and State governments still need to do much in the area of

using the services of professional guidance counsellors in post-

primary schools. The present situation in which most post-primary

schools do not seem to employ the services of professional guidance

counsellors may militate against the effective channelling of stu-

dents to courses/careers which national manpower planners deem ne-

cessary for national development.

122

The dominance of mass media based sources, as a source of career

information available to education students seems plausible in view

of the fact that print material would be more readily available and

also accessible to a literate population like potential university

entrants. The evidence on the large proportion of students whose

major source of career information is mass media based has some prac-

tical significance for manpower planning. In a developing country

like Nigeria where home based sources of career information is likely

to be grossly inefficient (due to high adult illiteracy rate - es-

timated at 70%) and school based sources seem grossly inadequate (due

to shortage/absence of professional career guidance counsellors),

mass media based sources may prove to be the most effective and read-

ily available source of career information that can be used by

Government agencies to disseminate career information, especially in

the areas of manpower shortage. The teaching service and the public-

ity of the teachers' bursary scheme is a case in point.

2. Subject bias

The data on the major teaching subject of education students is

shown in Table 6.5. From the table one observes that most education

students' teaching subjects are biased towards the Arts and Human-

ities. 53.3 percent have their teaching subjects in the Arts and

Humanities while those in the Science subject area represent only 42.2

percent.

This pattern of distribution has a significant implication in

view of the persistent shortage of science teachers in Nigerian

schools and the excessive reliance on the services of expatriate sci-

ence teachers; with its contributory effect on Nigeria's invisible

123

TABLE 6.5

Distribution of Education Students by major teaching subject area.

Teaching Subject Proportion of Area Students (%)

Natural and Applied science biased:

42.2 (Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Maths, Agricultural Science, etc.)

Arts and Humanities biased:

53.3 (History, Languages, Religion, Economics, Geography, Sociology, etc)

No indication 4.5


trade deficits. The evidence seems to suggest that in spite of the

Federal Government's intention to cut down drastically on the re-

cruitment of expatriate teachers in science, the local supply does

not seem to be responsive enough in keeping with the Federal Govern-

ment desired ratio of 60 : 40 in terms of enrolment in science based

subject area vis-a-vis Arts and Humanities based. (See Nigerian

National Policy on Education, 1981, p. 25). This should be a source

of concern that ought to require prompt positive action by government

if the pattern is to be off-set towards the desired direction. A

possible approach to the problem could be to operate a differential

bursary incentive policy between Science based and Arts cum Humanities

based education students. This could be achieved by increasing the

value of the teachers' bursary award in favour of Science based stu-

dents. Such a policy could be used to further influence students

course choice in favour of science based teaching subjects.

124

Whilst seeking private business enterprises for themselves, the subjects in this study preferred prestigious "brainy" jobs such as medical profession, engineering, and lect-uring for their male children. The sub-jects similarly preferred medical work as first choice for their daughters but thereafter shifted to 'female-type' pro-fessions: secretarial work, civil servant, banker etc. for their daughter.

The remarkable observation in this conclusion by Atolagbe is that

primary or secondary school teaching hardly featured in the career

preferences noted.

Secondly, the evidence on the extremely high proportion of the

students that were previously employed before entering the university

(85.1%), would suggest that the opportunity cost (in terms of earn-

ings foregone) of acquiring university training would be very high

for most education students. Thus, if the low social-class back-

ground of most of the students and capital market imperfections are

integrated into the economics of training matrix, the joint evidence

would suggest that majority of education students seem most likely to

have been attracted to education course because of the teachers' bur-

sary award which in part compensates for the foregone income during

training in addition to the free tuition ( a type of in-service

training with reduced earnings during training, where training seems

to be general/non-specific within the framework of Beckers (1964)

model).

4. Bursary and Finance

An outstanding feature in the financing of education students in

Nigerian universities is that the trainee financial support scheme is

a major source of eduction students' income. In addition to free tui-

tion, virtually all education students benefit from the Federal

125

126

3. Previous Qualification and Employment

Table 6.6 presents data on the previous qualification and employ-

ment of education students. An important observation is that major-

ity of education students have previously obtained some teaching

qualification (61.2%), and have previously been employed as teachers

(68.3%). Only a sizeable minority have not previously trained as

teachers (38.7%), have not worked as teachers (16.8%) and unemployed

before entering the university (14.9%).

TABLE 6.6

Previous Qualification and Employment of Education Students.

Proportion (%)

Highest previous qualifications:

WASC/GCE O'Level

23.0 HSC/GCE A'Level

15.7 NCE/Diploma/Certificate in Education

61.3

Total 100.0

Previous employment:

Private Sector

2.6 Civil Service

14.2 Teaching Service

68.3 Unemployed

14.9

Total 100.0


The data lends itself to some plausible interpretations. First,

the high proportion of those with previous teaching qualification

suggests that most education students have previously benefited from

the Federal Governments' teacher training financial support scheme.

Since all levels of teacher training programme in Nigeria are heavily

subsidised relative to non-teacher training aspects of formal school-

ing, the evidence would lead to the inference that the sociologists

'social selection theory' or what I call 'cheap job signalling' has

been at work much earlier than most of the students' university

career. Again this seems consistent with most of the students social-

class background as I have previously tried to demonstrate. To the

best of my knowledge, early teacher training as a career path seems

hardly an attractive option to that segment of the society usually

referred to as well-to-do (in sociological terms middle/and upper-

class). The available sociological evidence (Pavalko, 1971, p. 51;

Atolagbe, 1982, p. 39) support my contention.

According to Pavalko (1971, p. 51):

The social class milieu in which a person is reared, where measured by family income, par-ental occupation, or parental education, re-presents a major constraint upon occupation-al aspirations. Numerous studies done in various parts of the country have consist-ently concluded that the social class levels of the family is directly related to the level of occupational aspirations. The higher the social class level of a young person's family, the more likely he is to aspire to the most prestigious and reward-ing occupational positions.

Pavalko's conclusion is consistent with most sociological findings in

Nigeria. A classic example is a recent study by Atolagbe (1982).

Atolagbe (1982, p. 39) based on survey results obtained from Nigerian

university youths who are dominantly of middle and upper-class back-

ground (67% of a sample of 486) and all of potential middle/upper

class destination concludes:

127

Government's special bursary incentive scheme for the training of

high level teaching manpower. The data on the beneficiaries of the

scheme is shown in Figure 6.4. As can be seen from the figure 95.8

percent of education students benefit from the Federal Government's

teachers' bursary scheme.

128

non-beneficiaries

Figure 6.4 : Proportion of Education Students that are beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of the teachers' bursary scheme.

This dominance in Federal Government financing of the students evi-

dent from the data is consistent with the findings of Akangbou (1981),

as documented in his articale, "Teaching as a career: is it econom-

ically profitable?". See also H-inchliffe (1973). Akangbou (1981,

pp 36-47), based on a case study of fifty (50) education students at

the University of Ibadan notes inter alia:

Most of the students who filled the questionnaire on private costs of university education at Ibadan claimed to be financed by the Federal Government bursary programme. These students were about 90% of the respondents.

In addition to the teachers' bursary a significant proportion of

education students also depend on meagre contributions from other

sources to supplement the bursary income. Tables 6.7 and 6.8 show

the data on the proportion of students by the major source of supp-

lementary income and the levels of estimated income respectively.

TABLE 6.7

Proportion of Education Students by other sources of income excluding Teachers' bursary.

Sources Proportion (%)

Parents and relatives 51.9

Friends and acquaintances 4.8

Wife/Husband 19.9

Previous saving 6.7

Salary and allowances 7.3

Vacation employment 2.6

Any other 1.9

Dependent on bursary alone 4.8

Total 100.0


A salient inference that can be drawn from the data in Table 6.8 is

that the size of supplementary income available to education students

is extremely limited. Approximately one-third of education students

get supplementary income less than N 300 per annum. Again slightly

under two-thirds get supplementary income less than N 600 per annum.

While only roughly one-third get supplementary income of N 600 and

above. This supplementary income size pattern seems to be consistent

129

TABLE 6.8

Proportion of Education Students by level of estimated annual income from other sources outside bursary.

Income Level (N £0.90)

Proportion (%)

Cummulative

(%)

Less than N 100 17.3 17.3

N 100 - N 199 7.1 24.4

N 200 - N 299 8.3 32.7

N 300 - N 399 9.7 42.4

N 400 - N 499 10.7 52.4

N 500 - N 599 9.2 61.6

N 600 and over 36.2 97.8

Uncertain 2.2 100.0


with the low social-class background of most of the students. With-

out any risk of exaggeration, the supplementary income size pattern

seems to indicate the extremely low standard of living of most ed-

ucation students. Even when the value of the teachers' bursary (ex-

cluding the free tuition) is added, the picture painted by the evid-

ence is hardly altered. The wider significance of the limited supp-

lementary income of most education students, due to their low-social

class background, is that it tends to suggest the potency of bursary

incentive scheme in channelling students into a low cost course like

education (i.e. teacher training). This contention seems plausible

in view of the fact that maintenance cost (even where tuition is free)

is undoubtedly one of the most critical input into the decision

matrix of potential university students; on whether or not to enter

the university in the first place and which course of study to

follow on entry (the highly lucrative but expensive or the least

lucrative but cheap?). The cost aspect of the decision problem for

most socio-economically disadvantaged students would seem resolved,

I believe, by the incidence of the teachers bursary in that for those

students who choose to major in education (i.e. train as teachers)

inadequate financing from family sources as the data demonstrates

could be easily compensated by the teachers bursary award.

This evidential framework seems consistent with the theoretical

formulation on the bursary incentive effect, in Chapter 5, which I

presume is the rationale behind the Federal Governments application

of bursary incentive scheme with 'strings' as a high level teacher

supply policy variable and most students choice of education course.

It seems, to me also, that it could be the theorectical basis of

Hinchliffe's (1973) contention that the use of bursary incentive with

'strings' is the potentially strongest control through which govern-

ment can influence students course choice along the line of estimated

manpower requirement. The additional evidence adduced below further

attest to this contention.

Objective significance of bursary incentive

The survey evidence on the objective role of the teachers' bur-

sary scheme in education students course choice is presented here.

Table 6.9 presents the data on students perception of the training

cost differential between education and other competing courses. Vir-

tually all the students perceive education as the least costly uni-

1_31

versity course when compared with other competing lucrative courses

like medicine and engineering.

TABLE 6.9

Education Students perception of training costs in competing university courses.

Course

Proportion of students indicating that the course is least costly (%)

Medicine 3.8

Engineering 2.6

Education 91.5

Uncertain 2.1


An extremely high proportion of the students (91.5%) indicated that

education is the least costly course, while very insignificant pro-

portions indicated medicine (3.8%), engineering (2.6%) as least cost-

ly. Another insignificant proportion of students (2.1%) were uncert-

ain. This response pattern is consistent with the formulation in the

conceptual framework in Chapter 5, and sufficiently suggests that

students are fully aware of the training costs in competing univer-

sity courses. In spite of the fact that courses like medicine and

engineering are both highly lucrative as well as prestigious courses,

their enormous training cost requirements seem obvious to virtually

all the students and could probably account for why most of the stu-

dents gravitated towards education. The evidence on the students per-

132

ception of the effect of a probable decision to discontinue the

teachers' bursary scheme and their assessment of the course choice

effect of the teachers' bursary incentive in education course vis-a-

vis salary in the teaching profession seems to further attest to the

foregoing inference.

The data on education students perception of the effect, on

their continued study at the university, of a probable decision to

discontinue the teachers' bursary scheme is shown in Figure 6.5. It

can be seen from the figure that a significant majority of the stu-

dents (73.5%) indicated they would be seriously affected while a

sizeable minority (24.2%) indicated they will not be affected at all.

For the remaining insignificant proportion (2.3%) the issue was irre-

levant. Although the issue of a probable discontinuation of the free

tuition and introduction of full cost tuition fees (N 3,860) was not

raised, the evidence on the students' family income would seem to

suggest that a much higher significant majority of students would find

their study at the university seriously threatened. I have previously

argued this position under parental income in Chapter 4.

So far, the thesis that the teachers' bursary scheme seems most

likely to have influenced most students' choice of education course

has been argued, based on inference that can be drawn from circum-

stantial historical and survey evidence. I shall now present the

direct survey evidence on education students assessment of the course

choice effect of the teachers' bursary award vis-a-vis salary in the

teaching profession. The evidence is shown in Figure 6.6.

133

irrelevant

salary in

teaching pro-

fession

Figure 6.5 : Education Students perception of the effect of a discontinuation of the teachers' bursary scheme on their stay at the uni-versity.

63.8% teachers'

bursary scheme

Figure 6.6 : Education Students assessment of the course choice effect of some competing variables.

131

From the figure one observes that roughly two-thirds (63.8%) of ed-

ucation students assess the teachers' bursary incentive scheme as

likely to influence a student to major in education. Far less than

one third (25.3%) assess salary in the teaching profession as likely,

while a sizeable minority (10.9%) assess non-economic factors (i.e.

neither bursary nor salary) as likely to influence a student's deci-

sion to major in education. In probabilistic terms this evidence

(whether examined independently or in conjunction with the circum-

stantial evidence hitherto adduced) would amply suggest that the

teachers' bursary scheme seems most likely to have influenced most

students choice of education course - i.e. the decision to train as

a teacher. This inference - in the absence of what Blaug (1982, p.

22) calls "Stodgy conservatism" - is consistent with the predictions

of the bursary theory and also justified within the framework of

"normative methodological principles". As Blaug (1980, p. 22) brill-

iantly argues:

Whenever the predictions of a theory are pro-babilistic in nature (and what predictions are not - any laboratory experiment designed to confirm even so simple a relationship as Boyle's law will never find the product of pressure and volume an exact constant), the notion of assessing evidence without in-voking normative methodological principles is an absurdity.

Summary and Conclusion

To provide a basis for evaluating the analysis so far as well as

a guide post for the rest of the thesis, I shall at this poir recap

the central problem of the enquiry. The central problem which my en-

quiry deals with is: Does the teachers' bursary scheme in Nigeria

exert any considerable influence on most students choice of education

course (i.e. decision to train as teachers)? Which category of stu-

135

dents are influenced; why and to what extent? Precisely, how effective

and efficient is the teachers' bursary scheme in Nigeria as an active

high level teaching manpower supply policy?

The analysis so far leaves no one in doubt that a substantial

part of the question that is central to the research has been attempted,

if not answered, by now. I have tried to argue both with longitudinal

and cross-sectional evidence that the teachers' bursary scheme seems most

likely to have influenced most students choice of education course. I

have also tried to argue based on cross-sectional evidence that students

from low social-class background seem most likely to be mare susceptible

to the manipulation of their course choice with the use of bursary in-

centive. By concluding as I have, I do not wish co be understood as

misleadingly saying that "relative wage" or "mere interest" in competing

courses/career do not play roles in students course choice, as it would

be naive to argue such a position. Rather my central thesis is that as

far as education students in Nigeria are concerned, available evidence

amply suggests that the roles of such factors like "relative wage" or

"mere interest" in the teaching profession seem peripheral as course

choice variables, the dominant influential factor seems to be the

teachers' bursary incentive scheme. Although, not so much in persuading

18 year-olds to take a B.Ed rather than a B.A. or B.Sc, as in inducing

experienced practising non-graduate (primary) teachers to upgrade their

qualifications to become graduate (secondary) teachers (see p. 90).

At the risk of being repetitive, I shall recap the logical pre-

mise of the thesis by stating that "relative wage" or "mere interest"

in competing courses/career are superstructural in nature. Their

effectiveness as course choice variables is predicated on the unten-

able assumption that social-class origin does not matter in course

choice and that capital markets are perfect and accessible to individ-

136

uals to finance additional education. Thus within such a theoretical

framework (human capital), individuals like excited atoms will grav-

itate towards the direction where monetary and non-monetary returns

seem relatively high by choosing courses in that area. However as ob-

jective evidence has shown, social-class origin is far from being

homogenous and capital markets hardly perfect. Whether or not in-

dividuals will choose their course along the lines which promise high

monetary and non-monetary returns would depend substantially on so-

cial class origin and the level of access to capital markets. Where

such structural rigidities are pronounced the course choice effect

of subjective superstructural artifacts like "relative wage" or "mere

interest" would be peripheral in the face of an objective policy tool

like a 'subsidy scheme' (teachers' bursary incentive scheme) which

eases the constraints imposed by structural rigidities on access to

higher education (i.e. the acquisition of a potential signal), as the

evidence suggests.

I strongly believe I have a case and have therefore laboured to

establish it in this aspect of the thesis. The issue whether or not

the case has been argued on logical grounds, I leave to the reader

who has followed the argument from the onset to judge for himself.

The next logical stage in the thesis after having attempted to

establish that the available evidence amply suggests that the teachers'

bursary scheme seems to have been effective in influencing most stu-

dents course choice decision in favour of education is the efficiency

aspect of the scheme as an active teaching manpower supply policy.

In a question form the efficiency problem, I hope to approach is:

What are the chances of recruitment and retention of education grad-

137

uates in the teaching profession after training them at public ex-

pense, without losing them to other competing employment sectors?

To answer this question, I now examine the survey evidence on

the expected post-training employment sector of education students.

13b

CHAPTER 7

POST-TRAINING EMPLOYMENT SECTOR

A major problem of democratic society is inconsistency between encouragement to achieve and the realities of limited opportunity. Democracy asks individuals to act as if social mobility were universally possible; status is to be won by individual effort, and rewards are to accrue to those who try. But democratic societies also need selective training institutions, and hierarchical work organisations permit increasingly fewer persons to succeed at ascending levels. Situations of opportunity are also situations of denial and failure. Thus demo-cratic society need not only to motivate achievement but also to mollify those denied it in order to sustain motivation in the face of disappointment and to deflect resentment. In modern mass democracy, with it's large organisations elaborated ideologies of equal access and participation, and minimal commitment to social origins as a basis for status the task becomes critical.

CLARK( 1961, p. 513 )

In the preceding chapter, I ended up with the question: What are

the chances of recruitment and retention of education graduates in the

teaching profession after training them at public expense, without

losing them to other competing prospective employment sectors? To

provide plausible answers to the question, I shall use two apparent

proxy measures of the allocative efficiency of the high level teacher

supply market. They could also be considered as the apparent effic-

iency indicators of the teachers' bursary scheme as an active high

level teaching manpower supply policy. These are (i) probably re-

cruitment rate (ii) probable retention rate.

I shall examine the survey evidence on the expected post-training

employment sector of education students under these apparent effic-

iency indicators and subsequently argue, without any intention of

appearing to mislead, that in spite of the picture painted by some

'aspects' of the evidence which seems to be consistent with popular

impressions, the allocative efficiency of the high level teacher

supply market in Nigeria is hardly contestable on the grounds of

sound economic logic. My position on the issue may seem paradoxical,

if not controversial, but theoretically or logically consistent as I

shall demonstrate later in the argument.

(i) Probable Primary recruitment rate

A major obligation (bonding) of student beneficiaries of the

teachers' bursary scheme is to teach anywhere in Nigeria for a mini-

mum period of two (2) years. Thus without making education students

conscious of the bonding implications of their sponsorship, data was

collected on education students expected primary post-training em-

ployment sector to ascertain the proportion that will honour their

bond by electing to enter into the teaching service immediately on

completion of training without external pressure from the government.

The data is presented in Table 7.1.

The table shows that the proportion of the students that expect

to start their primary employment in the teaching service (honour

their bond) after completion of training is substantially high. As

high as 81.8 percent of the students expect to start their primary

employment in the teaching service. A small proportion (14.4%) expect

to enter the civil service, while a very low proportion (3.5%) expect

to enter the private sector. An insignificant minority (0.2%) seem

uncertain. This result is consistent with the findings of Hinchliffe

(1973, p. 166), in which he observes that "For all three student year

groups, teaching and civil service are the dominant occupations",

140

which students expect to enter on completion of training.

TABLE 7.1

Proportion of Education Students by expected post-training employment sector.

Expected Employment Sector

Proportion of Students (%)

Civil Service 14.4

Teaching Service 81.8

Private Sector 3.5

Uncertain 0.2


The evidence would suggest that without external pressure from

the Government the allocative efficiency of the teachers' bursary

incentive scheme (in terms of primary recruitment) seems to be sub-

stantially high. On this note it can be inferred that the teachers'

bursary scheme seems to be a profitable alternative to the Govern-

ment on the economics of high level teacher supply (in terms of the

policy objective), if not in the long-run at least in the short-run.

There is ample theoretical justification or plausible economic logic

to support the foregoing inference, however, I shall withold advanc-

ing them until I have examined the evidence on the second efficiency

indicator (i.e. retention rate) to see the apparent paradox that it

seems to pose for the foregoing inference.

111

(ii) Probable retention rate

To ascertain the proportion of those education students

that will be willing to remain in the teaching service after ful-

filling their bonding obligation, data was also collected discreet-

ly on how long the students hoped to be in teaching employment on

completion of their training. The relevant data is presented in

Table 7.2. It is evident from the table that, in spite of the fact

that most education students expect to enter the teaching service

(i.e. serve their bond) on completion of training, not many of them

expect to remain in the teaching service for a long time.

TABLE 7.2

Proportion of Education Students by expected duration of employment in the teaching service.

Expected duration of Proportion of students employment (in years) (%)

1 - 5 36.5

6 - 10 14.2

11 - 15 5.9

16 - 20 4.2

21 - 25 3.5

Uncertain 0.5


Only 35.3 percent of the students expect to remain in the teaching

service for up to 5 years. A far less proportion (14.2%) expect to

remain for up to 10 years, while a far less proportion (5.9%) expect

142

to remain for up to 15 years etc.

A major inference that can be drawn from the retention data is

that it seems to indicate the low profitability of the teaching pro-

fession and therefore tends to suggest that 'relative wage' and hence

a life-cycle view of career opportunities in the teaching profession

is hardly a plausible explanation of education students course

choice/the stupendous increase in enrolment in education course over

the years as I have previously argued. It rather supports my con-

tention that students investment decision in the choice of education

course seems to be largely dictated by the desire to gain access to

higher education which tends to be facilitated by the teachers' bur-

sary scheme in education course. Put differently, most education stu-

dents course choice is geared primarily towards the acquisition of a

potential signal at cheap cost (i.e. cheap job signalling) rather

than making a permanent career in teaching. In a layman's term this

would mean that students merely intend to use teacher training as a

springboard into other more lucrative careers. It is this apparent

paradox that I hope to resolve later on, but before then I wish to

examine the survey evidence on education students expected permanent

employment sector which further reinforces the apparent paradox over

the use of bursary incentive as a teaching manpower supply policy and

students view of it as a springboard into lucrative careers other than

teaching.

The survey evidence on the expected post training permanent em-

ployment sector of education students is presented in Table 7.3.

From the table it can be seen that most education students expect to

be permanently employed in the private sector. As high as 40.3 per-

143

TABLE 7.3

Proportion of Education Students by expected permanent employment sector.

Permanent employment Proportion of students sector (0)

Teaching Service 38.4

Civil Service 20.9

Private Sector 40.3

Uncertain 0.4


cent expect permanent employment in the private sector. 20.9 percent

expect to make a permanent employment in the Civil Service, while

only 38.4 percent expect to be permanently employed in the teaching

service sector where they have been specifically trained for. The

high proportion of education students who indicated preference for

the private sector as permanent employment sector reflects the rela-

tively high profitability of the private sector in Nigeria since the

petroleum oil boom of the mid-1970's and the desire of most Nigerians

to get rich through private business practice or employment in the

private sector since the oil boom years.

Now the question arises: does the situation not seem contradict-

ory or paradoxical that while the Government is spending public funds

training people to be teachers, those being trained see their training

as a way of acquiring higher education credentials at a cheap cost to

gain them access into other job markets where the monetary returns are

144

presumably higher?

This apparent paradox is probably the most exciting aspect of

the signalling game. I shall argue in the rest of this chapter, that

the apparent paradox which seems to be created by education students

expected post-training employment sector although consistent with

popular impressions, is to a large extent illusory and for anybody to

hold tenaciously to it or see it as a threat to the efficiency of the

teachers' bursary incentive scheme as an active teaching manpower

supply policy will be tantamount to naive economic and sociological

fallacy.

To establish my case, I shall abstract by adopting a stand point

that is contrary to held notions about the economics of training with-

in the human capital framework. As human capital theory would prob-

ably put it: provide a prospective employee with a 'general training'

at full or partial cost to the sponsoring prospective employer and you

lose him to rival prospective employers through 'poaching'. I shall

obdurately argue, with particular reference to the economics of teach-

er supply in Nigeria, that such a mechanistic view of the situation is

again as untenable in all training and employment relations as the

human capital theory of course choice.

By adopting this posture I am not saying that there may not be

losses of trained graduate education majors or that education stuuents

do not view their training and acquisition of a higher education cred-

ential, at a relatively cheaper cost, as a springboard into other occ-

upational sectors outside teaching. This is both theoretically con-

sistent as well as consistent with popular impression as I have demon-

145

strated in Figure 1 in Chapter 5. It is also consistent with the

data on education students expected permanent employment sector.

Rather my contention is that in spite of the fact that most education

students (as evident from the data on expected future employment sec-

tor) would wish to enter other employment sectors, the forces that

will work against them and the 'poaching' firms are enormous as to

make such a proposition unattractive to most education students. On

this ground I shall argue that the loss of trained education grad-

uates that seem likely to occur will not be substantial enough to

defeat the policy objective of the teachers' bursary incentive scheme

as an active teaching manpower supply policy, if not in the long-run

at least in the short-run.

I must admit that this aspect of the thesis may seem apparently

misleading both as a theoretical framework as well as a guide to pol-

icy, but nevertheless paradoxically plausible on both grounds. I

shall argue my case from several standpoints. As a preamble I shall

begin with the straightforward legal standpoint and later settle for

economic logic.

Legal Standpoint

The major condition for the award of the teachers' bursary

scheme as stipulated by the Federal Government is that;

Every candidate who is successful in getting an Award of Scholarship will be expected to enter into bond with the Federal Government or the Federal Ministry of Education acting on its be-half, to teach anywhere in Nigeria for a minimum period of 2 (two) years.

As can be inferred from the evidence on education students expected

primary employment sector, only roughly 82 percent of the students

146

expect to discharge their bond obligation by entering the teaching

service on completion of their training. The remaining 18 percent

expect to enter into other employment sectors. Although the propor-

tion of those who seem likely to enter teaching is substantially high

it can be further improved by tightening the bonding system of the

teachers' bursary scheme or "scholarship" as Hinchliffe (1973, p.

172) has previously observed.

There are two ways in which this could be achieved (1) through

the institution of a bond discharge certificate and following it up

with a national legislation which would prohibit employers of labour

from employing ('poaching') education graduates who have not dis-

charged their two (2) years bond obligation. To ensure the effective-

ness of the law, employers who contravene the 'anti-poaching' act

could be prosecuted and the cost of training the employee in question

could be chargeable to the employer. (ii) by requesting the Univer-

sities to withold the Degree certificate of successful beneficiary

graduates and all reference on them to prospective employers, until

they have discharged their two (2) years obligation to the Government.

This approach to the problem may seem morally wrong, no doubt,

but there is also the rider that: What is morally wrong may not be

legally wrong. In the law of contract, parties to a contract (bond

agreement) are expected to fulfil the terms of the agreement. In the

event of a breach by either party, the injured party has a legal right

to seek redress for damages arising due to the breach of contract.

Repugnant as this approach to the efficiency problem may appear, in

some quarters, it seems to me the most feasible direct policy option

open to Government.

147

The issue of loss of freedom to choose post-training employment

sector without constraints hardly arises. Otherwise the genesis of

freedom to choose should be: whether to accept the teachers' bur-

sary and be bonded for a given period of service or reject it and

retain one's freedom to choose which could also mean not gaining

access to higher education for many, as available evidence suggests.

When seen in this light (i.e. tightening the bonding system of

the teachers' bursary scheme), the efficiency of the teachers' bur-

sary incentive scheme as an active teaching manpower supply policy,

if not in the long-run at least in the short-run, would be hardly

contestable and thus economically justified on the grounds of the

implied policy condition of two (2) years bonded service.

I shall add some words of caution in this regard. The legal pro-

position to the efficiency problem (although part of the signalling

game: "the employee sells his labour services, usually for a speci-

fied period of time" (Spence, 1974, p. 6), and the Government has

the legislative facility to extract the labour from the contracting

party), it's application should only be seen as a last resort by a

panicky Government which feels that it's high level teaching manpower

supply policy is seriously threatened by 'graduate deserters' and

'poaching' firms which encourage the 'desertion'. However, as I shall

argue shortly, the panicky approach is hardly necessary as far as the

economics of high level teacher supply in Nigeria is concerned, on

the grounds of sound economic and sociological logic which are con-

sistent with the signalling paradigm on which this study is predicated.

1 4

In the rest of this chapter, I shall argue that just as social

and economic forces constrained most education students course choice

to be susceptible to manipulation with the use of bursary incentive

scheme, to that extent will identical social and economic forces

constrain most of them to enter and remain in the teaching profess-

ion (despite their high expections about the signalling/screening

ability of their credential), if not in the long-run at least in the

short-run; irrespective of the fact that the teaching profession is

one of the least lucrative and least desired graduate job markets.

This paradox is what I call the signalling/screening illusion -

arising, in part, due to the fact that "there are several qualitat-

ively distinct potential sources of economic discrimination implicit

in the market's informational structure" (Spence, 1974, pr 5-6).

In this regard I shall, in part, re-echo the view of Spence

(1974, pp 3-4) by saying that: Without serious risk of exaggeration,

I believe the reader will find some of the answers surprising and

perhaps a little disquieting from the point of view of the allocative

efficiency of the teacher supply market in Nigeria, in spite of pop-

ular impressions.

149

CONSTRAINTS ON 'DESERTION'/'POACHING'

In the human capital paradigm of training (Becker, 1964, see

also Ziderman, 1979, pp 13-18; for a concise formulation, and Blaug,

1983, p. 20; for a succinct interpretation), a domain-distinction

argument is presented on the economics of training which tends to

draw an 'iron curtain' between 'specific training' and 'general

training' with particular emphasis on their financing implications.

In the argument 'specific training' is said to be an archetype of

training in which the productivity of the trainee is firm-specific.

That is to say, that, the human capital embodied in the prospective

employee undergoing specific training is only usable in the firm

which is providing/sponsoring the training. In this case the pros-

pective employee undergoing training has a limited job market in

which he can transact his newly acquired human capital - a sort of

Hobson's choice. In such a situation a sponsoring firm stands to

gain and therefore has the incentive to finance the training, since

the chances of losing the trainee to other competing firms after

training is either zero or very slim. Outstanding examples of this

archetype of training are "induction programmes for newly hired

workers coupled with probationary periods of supervision" (Blaug,

1983, p. 20).

On the polar extreme of the domain-distinction argument on the

economics of training is 'general training', which is said to be a

non-firm specific training. That is to say, that, the human capital

embodied in the prospective employee undergoing training is usable

both in the firm which is providing/sponsoring the training as well

as any other firm. In such a case the prospective employee undergoing

150

training has a vast array of job markets in which he can transact

his newly acquired human capital. In this type of training: a

sponsoring firm may stand to lose and therefore there is a dis-in-

centive to finance the training, since the chances of losing the

trainee to other competing firms after training seem extremely high.

A notable example of general training is "apprenticeship training,

not just in industry but also in the professions." (Blaug, 1983,

p. 20).

Within the human capital framework it is possible to include,

at least by extension, undergraduate teacher training in the cate-

gory of 'general training'. By analogy this would imply that it is

a less profitable option for any establishment (firm/government) to

sponsor such a training. I would want to make it clear from the on-

set that my concern here is not with the question: So why does a

sensible establishment (Government) embark on sponsoring 'general

training' when the cost-benefit implications are very glaring? To

waste time on such a question, to me, will amount to 'duplication'.

Duplication in this context, means having to regurgitate the text-

book answer to the question: What is the rationale for Government

provision of training? I believe that Ziderman (1978, pp 34-37, 50-

54) provides some standard argument under the headings: market fail-

ure, stabilization and equity considerations; which any interested

reader can browse through in 5-10 minutes. The arguments advanced

by Ziderman (1978) coupled with the positive externalities of the

teachers' bursary scheme, one of which I have earlier noted in Chap-

ter 4, and the fact that Government owned parastatals constitute the

largest graduate job market (over 70%) in Nigeria: are sufficient to

defeat any myopic cost-benefit argument aimed at discouraging the

151

Federal Government financing of undergraduate teacner training based

on a naive economic conceptualization of the issues involved. So I

don't intend to waste time on that either.

I hope to settle on a more concrete argument ,controversial?

It depends ...) whose thesis I have earlier states out shall recap

here, to provide the reader a guide-post for evaluating the argument.

The thesis that will be argued in the rest of this chapter is that:

just as social and economic forces constrained most education stu-

dents in Nigeria to choose to train as teachers (i.e. an undergrad-

uate career path in education course), to that extent will identical

social and economic forces constrain most of them to enter and re-

main in the teacher job market (despite their high expectations about

the signalling/screening ability of their credential), if not in the

long-run at least in the short-run: irrespective of the fact that

the teacher job market is one of the least lucrative and least des-

ired graduate job markets. I earlier indicated tnat this paradox is

what I call signalling/screening illusion: arising,in part, due to

the fact that "there are several qualitatively distinct potential

sources of economic discrimination implicit in the market's inform-

ational structure" (Spence, 1974, pp 5-6). I must admit that it is not

unlikely that the parties to the signalling game in the high level

teacher supply market (education students on the one hand and the

Government on the other, or even those observers wearing conceptual

lenses borrowed from the human capital theory)may not be fully aware

of this aspect of the intricacies of the signallin; paradigm and that

is why the illusion probably exists and the naive economic fallacy

over the allocative efficiency of the teacher supply market tends to

persist.

152

To establish my case on logical economic grounds in this part

of the thesis I shall muster arguments that expose the 'self in-

flicted injuries' (i.e. weakness) in the human capital domain-dis-

tinction argument on the economics of training as well as other 'un-

anticipated injuries'.

Weakness in the domain-distinction argument

Underlying the domain-distinction argument in the human capital

paradigm of training is the concept of 'poaching' or 'bidding off'

of trained manpower whose training embodies non-firm-specific human

capital. As we shall see shortly there are many constraints (be-

side the legal constraint which could be invoked if not already in

operation) which militate against 'desertion' or 'poaching' thereby

making the 'poaching' syndrome underlying the domain-distinction argu-

ment irrelevant, with particular reference to the high level teacher

supply market in Nigeria.

'Search-cost' and Capital Market imperfections

In the first instance 'poaching' or 'bidding off' of trained

high level manpower which is often assumed to take place (within the

human capital framework) because some firms consider it more econom-

ical to 'poach' what could be called 'ready-made-stuff' rather than

engage in staff training to the detriment of the training firm us-

ually involves a long process of 'search' with high costs to both

parties (i.e. the prospective employee and the 'poaching' firm).

Even if we assume that the 'poaching' firm can afford the costs, the

evidence on the social-class composition of most education students

would suggest that most of them cannot bear the 'search-cost' over a

153

protracted period of time without frustration to them and members of

their family who would expect to recoup the benefits of their higher

education at the shortest possible time taking into account the eco-

nomics of short and unpredictable productive human life span evident

in Adam Smith's 'Wealth of Nations' (Smith, 1977, Bk. 1, Ch. 10, Pt.

1), quoted in Blaug (1970, p. 2):

When any expensive machine is erected, the ex-traordinary work to be performed by it before it is worn out, it must be expected, will re-place the capital laid out upon it, with at least the ordinary profits. A man educated at the expense of much labour and time to any of those employments which require extraordinary dexterity and skill, may be compared to one of those expensive machines. The work which he learns to perform, it must be expected, over and above the usual wages of common labour, will replace to him the whole expense of his education, with at least the ordinary profits of an equally valuable capital. It must do this too in a reasonable time, regard being had to the very uncertain duration of human life, in the same manner as the more certain duration of the machine. The difference be-tween the wages of skilled labour and those of common labour is founded upon this principle.

Capital market imperfections equally aggravate the problem of

'job search' financing. We can easily see why it is so by extending

Friedman's (1962, p. 102) argument on the nature of capital market

imperfections as they affect individuals who wish to invest in their

training. Investment in further training and investment in job

search are all aspects of investment in human capital. Thus, just

as it is difficult to obtain a loan to finance the training of an in-

dividual who has no security to offer except his future earnings, it

would also be as difficult for a prospective employee (in a non-slave

State), who has no security to offer except his future earnings, to

obtain a loan to finance a protracted job-search. Such investment

financing equally inheres a higher risk component (arising from the

low security and high cost of subsequent collection of interest and

principal) than a proposition to finance a physical asset, like the

erection of a building, where the risk and cost of recovering the

loan are much lower (because the lender can get some security for

his loan in the form of a mortgage or residual to the physical asset

- building - itself, and can count on realizing at least part of his

investment in case of a default by selling the building). This is

an extension of the Friedman (1962, p. 102) argument to the economics

of job search which is also an aspect of investment in human capital

by analogy.

Thus it can be infered that the same economic forces that makes

the human capital paradigm of course choice untenable as a unique

economic model of course choice also adds to defeat the theory's para-

digm of training i.e. domain-distinction argument; by reducing what

appears to be a 'general training' to a 'specific training' due to

capital market imperfections which militate against investment in job

search which conduces 'desertion'/'poaching'. It is important to ob-

serve that the purpose of destroying the domain-distinction argument

is to establish the argument that 'desertion' or 'poaching' of train-

ed staff is not as easy as those who view it from the conceptual lens

of human capital theory would compel us to believe. In which case

there is no logical justification for the naive economic fallacy over

the allocative efficiency of the high level teacher supply market in

Nigeria.

There are several other potent forces that destroy the simplistic

elegance of the human capital domain-distinction argument. These in-

155

1_ 5 6

clude: (1) labour market imperfections, (2) Inertia, (3) signall-

ing/screening illusion and (4) internal labour markets. I shall

discuss this briefly in turn.

1. Labour Market imperfections

There are certain constraints imposed by labour market imperf-

ections which militate against the 'poaching' of trained high level

manpower. Prominent amongst these is imperfect information flow be-

tween prospective employer and employee. Quite often most prospect-

ive employees do not know the establishments or firms where vacancies

exist (adverts? I shall come to it later), and also most prospective

employers who may wish to 'poach' trained labour may not know where

to find them (annual 'milk round' in institutions? I shall also come

to it). I shall approach this issue systematically.

In the case of prospective employees, they may in such a circum-

stance have to travel from one place to another inquiring about va-

cancies: a situation that could be expensive in terms of time, money

and energy, and above all a very harrowing experience. The opport-

unity cost of voluntary unemployment for graduate teachers (unsatu-

rated teacher job market) entailed during the period of protracted

job search coupled with the evidence on the low social-class back-

ground of most education students would suggest that job search could

hardly be an attractive option even if it is desired. Looking up ad-

vertisements for job vacancies, while feasible, is equally expensive

since it implies high investment costs in job information search.

Particularly noteworthy, in this regard, is the evidence on most ed-

ucation students social-class origin which would suggest that most of

them may not be able to bear the high cost of job information search,

which entails investing in most available newsprints and attending

interviews here and there. This would suggest that job information

search, while feasible, could also be an unattractive option for

many, if not in the long-run at least in the short-run.

What about prospective 'poaching' firms? The hurdles are equal-

ly enormous. They may have to invest very heavily in their 'poach-

ing' venture which may make poaching reasonably unattractive.

'Poaching' firms may have to invest heavily on advertisements and or-

ganising routine interviews for prospective employees scattered all

over the country. Organising annual 'milk round' tours to institu-

tions while economical, because it entails limited visits to a few

institutions to organise group interviews for undergraduates in their

final year, inheres some element of risk since there is no guarantee

that all successful applicants at interviews will pass their degree

examination in the desired grades. This may make annual 'milk round'

unreliable and wasteful to a substantially discouraging extent.

There is also, another component of 'poaching-cost' which is wage bid-

ding. If we assume that many firms are too keen on 'poaching', there

would be the danger of bidding up graduate labour wage beyond it's

marginal productivity thus making 'poaching' a less profitable option.

2. Inertia

Inertia within the context of 'poaching' could be seen as the

tendency of a prospective employee who has undergone some level of

'general training' to remain in the job market sector for which his

training was financed by a prospective employer. How does inertia

seem from this perspective act as a constraint to 'desertion' or

'poaching' of graduate teachers? This can be approached from a close

157

examination of the demographic characteristics of education students

which I had previously discussed in Chapter 4. These include (i)

Age, (ii) Sex, (iii) Marital status.

(i) Age

The psychological theory on the role of inertia on job market

changes can be infered from the works of Ginzberg et al (1951) and

Super (1957) on the career relevance of age composition of a potent-

ial labour force. Ginzberg et al (1951) and Super (1957) describe

the age range 25-44 years as the period of 'realistic' choice and

'establishment stage of vocational development' respectively. The

inertia implication of this age attribute, as I see it, is that up

the age range, 'job market changes' or 'job shopping' seem less like-

ly to occur because an individual's career choice at this stage tends

to be more stable than choice that would have been made at preceding

stages. This is a type of 'satisficing' behaviour explicable by the

fact that an individual's desired self-concept has either been im-

plemented or modified in the light of objective constraints. This

may seem to be a generalised inference but nevertheless has been ra-

tionalised by economists. To make my case here I shall quote Zabalza

et al (1979) very extensively and later extend the argument to grad-

uate teachers in Nigeria. Zabalza et al (1979, pp 85-86) argue:

A negative relationship between worker mobility and age has been clearly established across very different occupations. Reynolds (1951) explains this regularity in terms of the concept of 'job shopping'. In a world in which information is imperfect, younger workers find a satisfactory job only by a process of trial and error. At any moment, therefore, younger people are more likely than older people to be changing jobs. Becker (1964), on the other hand, provides an explanation placing the emphasis on investment element involved in the decision to move. If

1565

changing job is interpreted as an investment in human capital, then younger people have a greater incentive to move, in as much as they will be able to collect the return over a longer period of time.

The findings of Zabalza et al (1979) shows that 'job market

changing' is a function of age. With reference to the 'teacher job

market' (i.e. teaching profession), Zabalza et al (1979, pp 86-87)

note that the peak leaving age of trained graduates in the teacher

job market is the age of 25-29. They further note that above the age

of 30, the tendency to leave is considerably reduced. How relevant

is this finding to the argument on inertia as a constraint to 'de-

sertion' by trained graduate teachers in Nigeria? The findings of

this study shows that the modal age of education students is 28 years

and roughly one-third are above the age of 30. This would suggest

that the tendency towards 'job shopping' will be considerably re-

duced for many, if not most, education students on graduation.

(ii) Sex

There is a consensus between sociologists and economists that

sex (depending on the angle from which it is viewed), conduces in-

ertia. The sociologist's position can be infered from the words of

Pavalko (1971, p. 58):

In general, women tend to have lower occupational aspirations than men. In large measure this is a consequence of general cultural norms and expect-ations regarding sex and work roles.

This lower occupational aspiration characteristics of some labour

force categories is discussed by economists under 'Segmented Labour

Market' (SLM) theories. With particular reference to sex composition,

it is referred to as 'Segmentation by Sex' (see Reich, Gordon and

159

Edward, 1979). One would think that in spite of the male domination

of the teacher job market, teaching is one of the 'serving mental-

ity' jobs where wages are relatively low and females are favourably

disposed towards. Zabalza et al (1970, pp 91-92) observe that women

teachers show in general a much lower tendency to leave the teacher

job market because of relative career prospects elsewhere. The

significance of this finding is that it suggests that there will be

less 'desertion' by the female population of education students on

graduation thereby reducing the apparent 'general training' to

'specific training' after all. This is comforting for the high level

teacher supply market in Nigeria taking into account the fairly high

proportion of female education students (34%).

(iii)Marital Status

Marriage poses as much, if not greater constraints on 'job shop-

ping' amongst prospective employees and thus conduces inertia. This

is intuitively obvious. The impact of 'job-search' costs will be

more pronounced for a married couple than for a spinster or bachelor

and thus would discourage most education students from embarking on

a costly venture like 'job shopping' when a teaching job is readily

available. When seen in this light, and taking into account capital

market imperfections for investors in 'job-search' and the low social

-class background of most of the students the tendency towards 'des-

ertion' will be considerably reduced. The significance of marriage

induced inertia for the economics of high level teacher supply will

be more appreciated in view of the fact that over half of the educ-

ation student population in Nigerian universities are married (see

Chapter 4).

160

The excursion into psychology and sociology coupled with the

confirming economic findings points to the fact that inertia vari-

ables such as age, sex and marital status, to a large extent, weaken

the strength in the domain-distinction argument in the human capital

paradigm of training.

3. Signalling/screening illusion

Although a University Degree serves as a visa (screen or potent-

ial signal) into the labour market, there is a signalling/screening

illusion arising due to what I shall call 'screening within screen-

ing' or 'tacit statistical discrimination' in several job markets

which would constrain most education graduates to enter into the

teacher job market (may be against their wish - having acquired a

potential signal which they believe will gain them entry into any job

market), thus making the teachers' bursary scheme an efficient high

level teaching manpower supply policy, if not in the long-run at

least in the short-run. This 'screening within screening' can be in-

fered from a recent unpublished study, based on a survey of 150 major

employers, conducted by a team of researchers at the University of

Brunel, reported in the Times Educational Supplement of Friday, Novem-

ber 11, 1983, p. 3 under the title. "Polys Losing out in graduates'

jobs race". According to the report:

In general ... employers were less interested in the subject of a graduate's degree than the person-al qualities he or she showed. These included 'initiative, brightness, interests, adaptability, social skills, flexibility, potential and flair.

The reporter went on to add that although the researchers;

found that employers rarely mentioned the type of secondary school, social class, or family back-ground as factors in recruitment. But some factors such as "communication skills" or "con-

161

fidence at interview" might stand as proxy for these. "We are not asserting here that employers do select by family background and perceptions of social status, but that the evidence suggests that they may do so," they conclude.

What conclusion does this extensively quoted report lead us to?

In my opinion, education graduates, no doubt, have acquired a visa

into the labour market but the fact still remains that it seems to

be a visa with a limited 'port of entry' irrespective of the domain-

distinction argument in the human capital paradigm of training. As

the evidence suggests most education students come from low social-

class background, their degree certificate no doubt will enhance

their upward social-class mobility but the stigma of social-class

origin will still hang around them on the grounds of which they seem

most likely to face 'tacit statistical discrimination' in most job

markets outside the teacher job market: a situation which will con-

strain most education graduates to enter the teacher job market

whether they expect to do so or not. This is a type of labour market

segmentation within the primary segment, in which case higher educ-

ation credential matters but social-class origin may matter more (i.e.

relegation to the 'subordinate' Primary segment).

There is still another type of 'tacit statistical discrimin-

ation' that may still work against most education students due to

their social-class background. This is what I shall call 'links' or

'connections'. This is a type of 'screening within screening' (i.e.

social-class background effect in job markets) which arises when, in

spite of the fact that university graduates have the same level of

degree certificate or even grades, some get easily fixed into top

paying jobs by either 'daddy' or 'mummy' picking up the phone/writing

162

to a highly placed one-time class-mate at the university or colleague

in a previously employed firm asking him/her to do what best he can

to fix his child who has just graduated out of university into a job.

Hard empirical evidence may not exist to support the 'connection'

theory but that does not mean it does not operate. In a nutshell,

when 'screening within screening' is seriously taken into account

(with particular reference to education students in Nigeria) what

appears to be a 'general-training' could be reduced to a 'teacher

job market specific training', to a considerable extent.

4. Internal Labour Market

The evidence on education students previous training and employ-

ment shows that most of them had previously obtained a lower teach-

ing qualification and were previously employed in the teaching pro-

fession. Precisely 68.3 percent were previously employed in the

teacher job market. This suggests that most education students al-

ready belong to an internal labour market within the professional job

market matrice. Each internal job/labour market, whether demarcated

by professions or establishment (firms/Government service sectors)

has its own reward and punishment mechanisms that helps to attest to

either its fairness to its long serving employees or punishment for

inconsistent and disloyal employees such as 'deserters'.

For most Government job markets (e.g. teaching service) part of

the reward system is pension gratuities for long and consistent serv-

ing employees who have an unbroken service record over a stipulated

number of years (usually 10-15 years). This mechanism would dis-

courage most education students from deserting to other job markets

163

on graduation since they would lose part, if not all of their pen-

sion rights if they do not complete the stipulated number of years.

Thus the further training of most education students (68.3%) could

be seen as 'a fringe benefit' in the internal teacher job market

since the period of training (3-4 years) is counted as part of ser-

vice years (i.e. in-service training without pay) with full privil-

eges and promotional prospects, and the enhanced chances of assign-

ment to new and higher responsibilities within the organisational

hierarchy on 're-entry' after completion of training. This situ-

ation will constrain most education students on graduation to 're-

enter' and remain in the teaching profession. The opportunity cost

of 'deserting' (i.e. in terms of loss of privileges and promotional

prospects in the internal teacher job market) would make 'deserting'

a less profitable option.

Even if most are willing to sacrifice this right, there is an-

other internal labour market mechanism that would discourage many

from doing so. This is the 'entry-level' in the 'job ladder' in

other internal labour markets outside the teacher job market. Those

who risk entering other internal job markets may have to join at

lower levels of the job ladder in those markets which implies a loss

of seniority (i.e. beginning afresh). This would equally be a hardly

attractive option for most.

When all these internal labour market phenomena are put together

with a particular reference to the teacher job market in Nigeria,

what is supposed to be a 'general training' of most education students

would be significantly reduced to a 'specific training' since the do-

main-distinction argument is based on ease of mobility which for most

164

education students seems constrained, as the evidence suggests.

5. Attrition Rates

The case made above would, of course, have been greatly strengh-

ented if, in addition to what has been essentially a apriori argument,

we could have presented figures on attrition rates, over the years,

to show what had happened .o past graduates who had benefited from

Teachers Bursaries. Unfortunately, these figures have never been com-

piled by the Ministry of Education, nor is there any previous academic

study on which we might have drawn. To have compiled these figures

ourselves would have been a major undertaking in view of the state

of the Ministry's records, and would have greatly lengthened the

period of study necessary for the completion of this thesis. How-

ever, we hope that future researchers, on the subject, will fill the

missing gap by endeavouring to collect and compile data on qualified

graduate teacher attrition rates, over the years, to show the extent

to which the apriori argument presented here is supported by the

empirical evidence.

165

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The thesis that was argued in this chapter is that the loss

of B.Ed. graduates in Nigeria that seem likely to occur due to

'desertion'/'poaching' because of the supposedly 'general training'

they have undergone at public expense will not be substantial

enough to defeat the policy objective of the teachers bursary

scheme in Nigeria as an active graduate teacher supply policy, if

not in the long-run at least in the short-run. To establish the

thesis the domain-distinction argument in the human capital para-

digm of training, whose underlying thesis is the 'desertion'/

'poaching' syndrome, was critically reviewed with particular ref-

erence to undergraduate trainee teachers (i.e. B.Ed. students) in

Nigeria. The review showed that although tightening the bonding

system of bursaries could be a way to improve the allocative

efficiency of the graduate teacher supply market in Nigeria, the

fear that B.Ed. graduates will drift into other professions, which

would defeat the object of the scheme, may be unwarranted.

166

APPENDIX 'A'

Documents:

1. Cover Letter

2. Sample Questionnaire

7

University of London Institute of Education Director: William Taylor CBE, BScEcon, PhD, DCL, DSc, Litt.D, FCCEA, FCP Deputy Director: Professor Denis Lawton, BA, PhD

Department of Economic, Administrative and Policy Studies in Education 56/59 Gordon Square, London WC1H ONT Telephone: 01-636 1500

Professor T. Blackstone Professor M. Blaug

24 March 1983.

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

The bearer, Mr. Emmanuel Obasi, is a Ph.D. research student in the Department of the Economics of Education at the University of London Institute of Education.

As part of his thesis requirement, he is carrying out a students survey in Nigerian universities during the period April — September, 1983. For this purpose, he requires some information/data from your institution.

I shall be extremely grateful if you give him all the necessary assistance he may require.

Yours sincerely,

°4-9}D. rk Bla7777.

EDUCATION STUDENT'S SURVEY: 1982/83 SESSION

February, 1983

Dear Education Student,

I am a Ph.D research student in the University of London, and my research interest focuses on the career decision of higher education students in Nigeria.

Experience and interaction with students have revealed that in spite of the fact that Education students are the future builders of our great Nation, not much attempt has been made to understand the career decision and problems of Education students in Nigeria. My present effort is a modest attempt in this direction and I am very optimistic that you will give me your fullest co-operation, for your own present benefit and that of thousands of students coming after you.

Enclosed along with this letter is a 32 item pre-coded structured questionnaire for your completion. You will find the format not only very easy to understand and simple to complete, but also very instructive as you may benefit from the experience in the design of your own research questionnaire. On the average it will take 10 minutes to complete.

You are assured that the information obtained from you will be treated as confidential and anonymously presented in the analysis.

Above all every participant in this survey is guaranteed a free copy of the research abstract on request.

Thank you in advance for your co-operation.

Sincerely,

169

6 - 7-'74-57 ■-

E. Obasi Department of Economics of Education Institute of Education University of London.

Note; Your inclusion in this survey is based on a simple random sampling from the population of Education Students in your University.

EDUCATION STUDENTS SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE: 1983

Instruction

Please indicate (by marking X) which of the provided answers that best describe you in the light of a particular question. (e.g., What country do you come from?) X Nigeria

Ghana

Serial Col/

Skip No Code

To

1 What is your sex?

Male

1

Female

2

2 Indicate which of this age range you belong to?

16-20 1

21-25 2

26-30 3

31-35 4

36-40 5

41-45 6

46-50 7

3 Which of these states is your home state?

Anambra 01

Bauchi 02

Bendel 03

Benue 04

Borno 05

Cross River 06

Gongola 07

Imo 08

Kaduna 09

Kano 10

170

Serial No

Col/ Code

Skip To

Kwara 11

Lagos 12

Niger 13

Ogun 14

Ondo 15

Oyo 16

Plateau 17

Rivers 18

Sokoto 19

4 What is your marital status?

Single 1

Married 2

Divorced/Widowed 3

5 In which of these universities are you a student?

ABU 1

UI 2

UNN 3

6 What course are you majoring in?

BSc Education (Chemistry, Physics, Biology, 1 Agriculture, etc)

B A Education (History, Languages, Arts, 2 Religious Studies, etc)

BSc Education (Economics, Sociology, 3 Geography, Business Studies, etc)

7 What is your present year at the University?

Preliminary 1

Part I 2

Part II 3

Part III 4

171

172

Serial Col/

Skip No Code

To

8

Which of the following was your major source of information about the availability of your course/career at University?

Parents, friends, relatives, Wife/ Husband, fiance. 1

Teachers/School career adviser. 2

Publications, Newspapers, Posters, Pamphlets etc

3

9 Have you effected any change of major course of study since entering the University?

Yes

No

1

2

10 If Yes what was your previous major?

Medicine, dentistry and Health Sciences 1

Engineering, Technology and Computer Science 2

Agriculture, forestry and veterinary science 3

Pure Sciences - Chemistry, Physics, Maths, Zoology etc 4

Social Sciences - Economics, Geo- graphy, Admin, Business etc 5

Architecture, town and country planning. Enviromental design 6

Arts, Languages, Literature etc 7

11

If you have effected a change of major course which of the following reasons apply most?

Long period of training and no financial support? 1

Inability to cope with the demands of the course? 2

No financial support only? 3

Serial No

Col/ Code

Skip To

12 Indicate the maximum qualification ob-tained before entering the University.

WASC/GCE '0' LEVEL 1

HSC/GCE 'A' LEVEL 2

NCE or Diploma/Certificate in Education 3

13 When did you obtain your last highest qualification?

Before 1970 1

1971-1973 2

1974-1976 3

1977-1979 4

1980-1932 5

14 Are you a beneficiary of the Federal Governments Teachers' Bursary Award?

Yes

No

15 If yes in Q 14, did you know about the Award before or after entering the University?

Before entering 1

After entering 2

16 If you knew about the Award before entering the University, what was the source of your information?

Parents, friends, relatives, wife/ husband, fiance 1

Teachers/School career, advisers 2

Publications, Newspapers, Posters, 3 Pamphlets etc

173

Serial Col/

Skip No Code

To

17 If you are a beneficiary of the Award which of these categories best describe the range of the Award per Student including teaching practice allowance?

Less than N 300 1

N 300 - N 399 2

N 400 - N 499 3

N 500 - N 599 4

N 600 - N 699 5

N 700 - N 799 6

More than N 800 7

18 How would a decision to discontinue the Teachers' Bursary Award affect you financially?

I will be seriously affected financially 1

I will not be affected financially at all 2

19 What is your major source of income as a student excluding the Teachers' Bursary Award?

Parents and relatives 1

Friends and acquaintances 2

Wife/husband 3

Previous Savings 4

Salaries and allowances due from study leave with pay 5

Vacation employment 6

Any other outside these 7

20 Estimate your average annual income as a

student excluding the Bursary.

Less than N 100 1

N 100 - N 199 2

N 200 - N 299 3

N 300 - N 399 4

N 400 - N 499 5

174

Serial No

Col/ Code

Skip To

• N 500 - N 599 6

More than N 600 7

21 Now put together the values of your bursary in Q 17 and your average income in Q 20; do you spend the whole of the total amount in a year or you save some of it?

I spend the whole of the total amount 1

I save some of the total amount 2

22 If you save some of the total amount, what proportion is saved?

Less than 5% 1

5% - 9% 2

10% - 14% 3

15% - 19% 4

20% - 24% 5

25% - 29% 6

More than 30% 7

23 Were you previously employed before enter-ing the University?

Yes 1

No 2

24 If yes, where were you employed?

Teaching Service 1

Civil Service 2

Private Sector 3

25 Which of these economic conditions in Nigeria today is most likely to influence a student to major in Education?

The relatively high salary/earnings in TETTeaching profession when compared with other professions like Medicine, Law, Engineer- ing etc 1

The Teachers' Bursary Award 2

175

Serial Col/ No Code

Skip To

26 What are your parents' occupations?

Mark X in the appropriate box. Father Mother

Subsistence farmer/craftsman 1

Self-employed petty business-man/woman 2

Civil Servant 3

Government employer other than Civil Service (e.g. 4 Teacher, Nurse, Police, Army, etc)

Private Sector employee 5

Self-employed professional/ Business Tycoon 6

Unemployed man/housewife 7

Recognised leader, pastor/ minister of Religion 8

27 What is the highest level of your parents' education?

Mark X in the appropriate box. Father Mother

None 1

Primary 2

Vocational Training 3

Secondary 4

Higher Education (not University) 5

Higher Education (University) 6

28 Which of these ranges best describe your parents' annual income range?

Less than N 500 01

N 500 - N 999 02

N 1,000 - N 1,499 03

N 1,500 - N 1,999 04

N 2,000 - N 2,499 05

N 2,500 - N 2,999 06

176

Serial No

Col/ Code

Skip To

N 3,000 - N 3,499 07

N 3,500 - N 3,999 08

N 4,000 - N 4,449 09

N 4,500 - N 4,999 10

More than N 5,000 11

29 Which of these major courses is the least costly financially in terms of the number of years required to graduate?

Medicine (MB, BS) 1

Engineering (Bs, Engineering) 2

Education (B Ed) 3

30 On the completion of your study where are you most likely to start your first employment?

Civil Service 1

Teaching Service 2

Private Sector 3

31 If Teaching, how long do you hope to be in this employment?

1 - 5 years 1

6 - 10 years 2

11 - 15 years 3

16 - 20 years 4

21 - 25 years 5

beyond 25 years 6

32 Which of these sectors is likely to be your permanent employment in the far future?

Teaching Service 1

Civil Service 2

Private Sector 3

177

Thank you very much for sparing your precious time.

APPENDIX 'C'

Documents:

Education Students Survey Data Roster

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APPENDIX 'D'

Documents:

1. University Enrolment Statistics

2. University Graduate output Statistics

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APPENDIX 'D'

TABLE 3

First degree award by Nigerian Universities 1971-1977.

Field of Study

Academic year ending June.

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Administr-ation 157 190 153 185 217 277 295

Arts 614 615 606 547 480 762 1061

Education 174 311 367 431 586 787 1133

Law 130 174 171 183 162 188 277

Social Science 406 424 467 538 640 581 740

Health Pro-fession 176 273 364 299 448 635 726

Engineering & Techn-ology 224 317 307 321 387 442 719

Natural Science 448 461 525 620 585 621 800

Agricult-ural Studies 128 260 214 285 326 421 326

Mass comm-unication 16 34 31 36 47 56 62

TOTAL 2473 3059 3205 3445 3878 4770 6139

Source: Nigerian abstract of Statistics, 1981, p. 69, Table 5.13.

207

APPLICATION FOR TEACHERS BURSARY AWARD UNDER THE

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT TEACHER TRAINING SCHEME FOR

POST-PRIMARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Part 1 - To be filled in by the applicant

1. Name in full

SURNAME (in block letters) OTHER NAMES (Rev/Mr/Mrs/

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(Miss)

(Where applicable)

3.(a) School Address

(b) Permanent Home Address (Post Office box please)

4. State of Origin Age

20.9

5. (a) Proposed course of study (Tick (✓) whichever is appropriate)

(i) B.A. (Ed/B.Ed.)(Art). (ii) B.Sc. (Ed/B.Ed,)(Science) (iii) P.G.D.E. (iv) N.C.E (v)

(b) Subjects (i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

6. For P.G.D.E. and post N.C.E. students. (i) Length of service after graduation.

Check (✓) for the appropriate item. (ii) (a) On study leave with pay and course allowance.

(b) On study leave with pay only. (c) On study leave without pay and without course

allowance. (iii) Name and address of last employer:

(iv) Address of last station and date:

Evidence should be produced to substantiate 6 (ii) above.

For Non-P.G.D.E. only.

7. Last School attended

8. Date and year of admission

Length of Course

Date of Graduation

Certificate obtained and year awarded (Attach photocopy of all credentials)

Employment since leaving school

Name of Employer

Address and Place of Work

9. (a) Have you obtained admission to any college or University?

Yes/No

(b) If Yes state name of Institution

(Attach photocopy of admission letter)

(c) If already in an Institution, state:

(i) Year of Admission

(ii) Year of Course

(iii)Anticipated year of completion

Date Applicant's Signature

209

Part II-To be signed by appropriate University or College Authority

(Where applicable)

I certify that the applicant is a student of/has been granted admission into this University/Department/College of Education/ in the Faculty of and that the particulars he/she has given above are true and accurate.

Signature

Rank of Officer

Official Stamp

Part III-For Official use in Federal Ministry of Education only.

210

Conditions of Award:-

1. (a) Every candidate who is successful in getting an Award of Scholar-ship will be expected to enter into Bond with the Federal Government or the Federal Ministry of Education acting on its behalf, to teach any-where in Nigeria for a minimum period of 2 (two) years.

(b) Where a successful candidate is under twenty-one years of age, his parents or other close relatives will be expected to guarantee that the candidate will teach for the stipulated number of years.

2. Change of course and or extension of the period of award MUST be approved in writing by the Federal Ministry of Education. Application for such approval should be passed through the Head of Department and reach this Ministry not later than October of the academic session.

3. Completion of application forms is not a guarantee for the Award.

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Addendum

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