ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

F A M I L I A R L E C TU RE S

ACCOMPANED BY

A C O M P E ND I U M ,

SDIBEACINO

A NEW S Y S T E M ATI C ORDER OF P AR S ING

A NEW SY STEM O F P U N C T U A T I ON,

EXERC ISES INF A L SE SYNTAX,

A SYSTEM OF PH I LOSO P H ICA L G RA MM A R,

a xons,

to wmcnARI ADDRD,

AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES,

“BIO I RD

POR TER USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

BYO

SAMUEL KIRKHAM

B T E B B O T Y P B E D I T I ON.

NEW YORK

RO B E RT B . C O L L INS ,

9 6 4 P E AR L S TRE E T .

South-r.m New-York, setBE IT MEMBERED/mmenme 22d (la ofAu

gustA. D. 1829, in the

L . S. 54thyear of the Independence of the United tates 0 America, Samuel K irkham, of the said distncthathdeposited inthis office the title of a book, the

rightwhereofhe claims as author, inthe words following , to w it:Eng lishGrammar infamiliar Lectures, accompanied by aCompendium, embracinganew systemc order of Pars'

anew system of Punctuation, exercises infalseSyntax, and ,

a System of Philosop Grammar innotes : to whichare added anAppendix, and a Key to the Exercises desi

gied for the use of Schools and Private

Learners. By Samuel Kirkham. EleventhE tion, Enlarg ed and unproved." Incon

formity to the actof Cong ress of the Umted States, entitled anact for the encourag ementof learning , by securing the copies ofm charts, and books, to the authorsand proprietors of suchcopies, during the time reinmentioned.

" And also to anact entitled “anact supplem entary to anact entitled anact for the encourag ementof l by securing the copies of ma charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors 0 suchcopies, during the times reinmentioned, and extending the benefitsthereof to the arts of dengmng ,

’

eng ranng ,’

and etching histo'

nicg g

d

fthB

er ts."

Clerk of the SouthernDistriaof New-York.Ks

e

fi

ANESSAY ONELOCUTION,

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNE

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM .

After acareful pemsal of thls worhwe are deddedly of opinlonthat it is the onlynew sful attemptof the kind. The rules are copious, and the author’s explanationsand iDustrations arehappfly adapmi to theW ehm sionof learners. No school shouidbe withoutthis book, and it ou ght to fi nd a place inthe library of every g entlemanwhovalues the attainmentof ajustand forcible M on—Pittsburg hMar. April, 1834 .

Mr. Kirkham has g ivenrules for infi ecfi ons and emphasis, andhas followed them b

illustrative exam les, and these by remarks uponthe inflectionwhichhe has adoptetiand the reasons g r his preference of one inflectionto another—am ostadmirable lanfor suchawork. Copious examples occur inwhichall the various inflections theshades of emphasis are disting mshed with accuracy and clearness. The cate

chetical appendag es of eachchapter, g ive work new value ina school, and theselections made for the exercise of scholars. evince good testaW ent

U. S. Gazette, P Sept. 17, 1834.

The B u y now before us, needsnotdepend onany former work of its author for aborrowed reputation; ithas intrinsic merits of its own. It lays down principlesclearly and concisely. Itpresents the reader withmany new and judicious selections,bothinprose Mm ; and altog ether evinces g reat industry, combined withtasteand ing enuity. Upper Canada, York, Oct. 12, 1833.

Of the talentand judgmentof Mr. Kirkham, wehave already had occasionto speakinterms ofhonestpraise. His work onElocutionraises him still higher inou r esti

mation—The book would be of

goatutility inschools—oucha one as has long been

wanted ; and we are g lad to see forthcoming r - Boltfi vwrc Visitor, July, 1833

Even}; facility for teaching Elocution, whichIhave so oftenneeded, butnever beforefound, exactly furnished in this work les are clearly and concisely laiddown, and are veryhap

fnl adapted to the of the learner. Thoroughly

convinced of its utihty, sgsll lose no time inintroduclng itintom school.Hartford, Conn. Aug . 20, 1834 . NA NIEL WEBB.

Q l I Il

l II

EDUCATION“DEPT ~

R E COM M E ND AT I ONS .

it Is well knownthatthe recommendations whichg enerally accompany new bookshave very little we ightwiththe public. This is as it should be, for thatwork whichrests mo re on its writtentestimonials, thanon its intrinsic merits for support, asserts

no claims to permanent. patronag e. But recommendations whichanalyz e the meritsof a work, and which, uy exhibiting its prominent features ina st light, are

to carry convictionto the reader thatthe system recommen ls meritorious, the author is roud to have it inhis power to resent inthis volume. The following are some of numerous testimonials which has received, and for whichhetenders his g rate ful acknowledgments to those literary g entlemento whose libel

-

siltyand he is indebted tor them. More thanu s:hundred others presented to theauthor, and many ofwhlchare aqually flattering withthese,he hasnotroom to insert.

The following notlce of this work is extracted from the “WesternReview ,

" Thisjournal is ably conducted b the Rev. Timothy Flint, author of Francis Ben-inn,”

and Geo g raphy o the Miss. Valley," and many other popu lar and valuableworks.

W e had not, atthattime, seenMr. Kirkham'

s Grammar infamiliar Lectures ," buthave since g ivenitacursory perusal ifwe com rehend the author’s design, it isnotso muchto introduce new principles, as to ren er moremand intellig ible l osewhichhave beenloug ostablished, and to furnishadditional f ties to anaccurat andthoroughlmowledg e of our lang uag c. Inthis we think he has bcensuccessful.ltis to he expected thatamodest unassuming writer, onp himself before

the blic tribunal as anauthor, will. as far as is consistentwithhis lanavailhimselfof autho of suchas have writtenwell onthe subjectbefore him. Mr. Kirkhamhas accordin y followed Mr. Murray inthe old beatentrack of Eng iishwriters ong rammar, inthe general principles ofhis science ; endeavorlng , atthe same time, toavoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd inthe writings otfliatauthor, and

an enurely new arrang ement. The most useful matter contsined in fi ietreatise of Mu llurray, is embraced inthis ; butinthe definitions and rulet is aim.

titled, and rendered muchmore intellig ible. Thoughour author follows Mr. Murray,the gases-a! principles ot

‘his work,he has, innumerous instances, difl'

ered from him,

pum mg acoum thatappearsw bchhownand inmducing some valuablehnpm e

Among thesemny be mentioned some additional rules and explanatorynotes insyntax. the arrang ementof the parts of s h, the mode of explaining them, manner 01

parsing . manner of explaining some 0 the pronouns, and the use of asyn whichpresents the esscndals ofthe science atone viewnnd is well calculamd ord assistance to learners.inhis arrang ementof the partsof speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have endeavc ed

to follow the order nature, and we are notable to see howhe couldhave done better.

The nounand v as being di e most im rnmtpam of speechare fi rst explained,and afterwards those whichare conside inasecondary and subordinate character.

By following this order,he has avoided the absurdity so commonamong authors, ofdefi nin the minor parts before their princi sis, ofwhic hthey were designed to be theap and has rational] prepared the way for conducting the learner by m yadvances to acorrectview of e science.

inhis illustrations of the various subjects contained inhis work. our audior appearsto have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the a pem nce of being learned butatbeing understood. The clcarncss and perspicu ig e

o his remarks, and theirapplicationto familiar obje¢ta, am wcll calculatcd to nrrest attention,and ald the undof the pupd md thereby to lesseu the lsbor oi

‘the instructer. The principles of die

scienoom si-pl'

and nadaed so pcr ealy msy of eomprd em iomwo should thinkno o rdinary having suchhelp, cou d find them difficult. it is inthistliattlie work appears to possess imchicf merit, and ou W an t it cannot fi ll ofbeing preferred tomany others.lt g im us pleasure to remark inreference to the success oftheamlahlo and moden

author whose work is beforc ua, thatWe quote from thc tlithedition.C incinnati, Aug . 24, 1827.

Tbc following is from the of a tlemanof the Bar, formerly adlstlngnlshe¢,Classical butcher. [Em mm the

gznhlsdona!

4 ascommsivnarious.

presented whichoug itnot to be neg lected. Having myself witnessed, inseveral instances, withinthe lasttenmonths. the practical results of Mr. Kirkham'

s plan, I amenabled to g ive adecisive opinionof its merits. The extensive knowledg eone course by his class inPittsbur and the g reat proficiency evinced byelsewhere, are ademonstrati ono the utility and superiority of his method of teacho

ing , and ahigher encomi um onhim thanI am able to bestow.

The rinciples onwhichMr . Kirkham’

s“Ne system of Grammar” is predicated,

are ju ciously compiled, and happily and brie y expressed ; butthe g reatmerit of

his work conSistsm the lucid illustrations accompany ing the prinmples, and the simpleand g radual manner inwhi chitconducts the learner alon from step to at

?through

the successive stag es of the science. The explanations b W iththe co areaddressed to the understanding of the pupil inamanner so familiar, that they cannotfail to excite inhim adeep interest; and whatever system is calculated to brin intorequisitionthe mental powers, must

, I conceive, be productive of g ood results. myhumble opinion,

qlt

l

l

ii

lesystt

t

e

hm of teach

tgeg'moduced into thisIggé

'k, i

tyill enable a dili

nt upil to ac o, wi outany o a

proctmal

‘ know s o g rammarflm lessangne-fmmhpartofthe time usually devote

Hy views of M r. Kirkham’s system are thus publicly van, withthe g reater plea

sure, onaccountof the literary empiricisms whichhave so extensively practisedinm y parts of the westerncountry.

Cincinnati, April 26, 1826.

From Mr. Blood, Principal of the ChambersburghAcademy, PaMr. Kirkham— It is now almosttwenty years since I became a teacher of youth,

and, during this period, Ihave notonl consulted all, buthave used many of the differentsystems of Eng lishgrammar that ve falleninmy way ; and, sir, l do assure you,withoutthe leastwishto flatter, that yours far exceeds any Ihave yetseen.Your arrang ement and s stamatic order of parsing are most excellent; and expo

rience has convinced me, ving used it, and it only, for the lasttwelve or thirteenmonths)thatascholar will learnmore of the nature and principles of our lang uag e inone nae-tar, from your system, than inawhole your from any other I had previouslyused

q. I do, therefore, most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at

larg e, and especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our lang uag e,are destitute of the advantag es ofaninstrircter.

From Mr. N. R. Smith, editor of avaluable literary journal, styled “The Hesperus)

Sir, I have examined your Lectures onEng lishGrammarwiththatdeg ree ofminuteness whichenables me to yield my unqualified approbationof the work as ag rammadcal stem. The eng ag ing manner inwhich onhave explained the elements of g ram

and accommodated them to the capacities of youth, is anample illustrationof theutility of your plan. Inadditionto this, the critical attention you have paid to ananalytical developmentof grammaticalSl

rinciples, while it is calculated to encourag ethe perseverance of young students in e marchof improvement, is sufficientalso, toemploy the researches of the literary connoisseur . I trustthatyour valuable compilao

tionwill be speedily introduced into schools and academies.W ithrespectyours, N. B. SMITH , A. M.

Pittsburgh, March22, 1825.

From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick LutheranAcademy —Extract.HW y

examined Mr. S. Kirkham’snew system of “Eng lishGrammar

femiiiar I am satisfied thatthe pre eminentadvantag es itpossesses over ourcommon systems, will soonconvince the public, that it is not one of those feebleefi oriaof quackery whichhave so oftenobtruded uponournotice. Its decided supe

riority over all other system, consists inadapting the subject-matter to the capacity of

the young learner, and the h y mode adopted of communicating ittohis mind inamanner so clear and simple, athe caneasily comprehendthenature and the applicationof every prinCiple thatcomes before him.

Inshort, all the intricacies of the science are elucidated so clear I am confidentthatevena private learner, of commondoc can, by perusing system attentively,acquire a better ractical knowledg e of important branchof literature intitresmonths, thanis o arily obtained inone year .

Frederick, Md Sept. 17, lm JOHNE. JUNGMANN.

RBCOMM ENDATIONS. 5

Extract: fromDe WittClinton, late Gov. ofNew -York.l modder the Compendium of Eng lishGrammar. by Samuel Kirkhmn, awork do

serving encourag ement, and well calculated to fuciliinto the ncguisifi onof this awfulwrm‘ .cx.m 0N

Albany . Sept 25, 1824 .

“im a

m—lhave exnunined Grammnr withnwentiomand withn

fltrti

cular view to tthe lnotitutionp

r my chu '

g e. I nm funy oadefled thetitM M inwhichMurray's leo have been g ivento the public. The lecturem m plq nnd g iven inoo

pmd w y hng uag e u to be reudfly undm m,

Yd hg w youmu y. thatl commenoed the exnminnfi onofyour wofl g under a

rig s-

gym it in uenw ot

'

the numerous fl m systemn" withambeentnunm alnmmoatofwhichm no meanaimprovo

mantaonW W

tthe production: of indivxdualnwhom a“M y anmar has ren

ginsane.

"My connctions, therefore, are the result of Mm you, Sir. success inyour publication.

Respectfully. EBERPr. oi

'

Mechanica’ Soc1ety School.

Withthe oplnlonofhlr. Wheatonrespectlng hlrWKh-kham s En Grumman”

heartily concur. NATHANS ARK, Pr. Acad.

g:JOHNJOHNSTON

Newburgh, Aug . v3WM. HEYEB.

From the Rev. C. P. Mc nine nnd others.

So fnr u lhave examined the planof g rnmmnfi cul instructionby Samuel Klrkhnmrl unwcfl eatlsfi ed thatitmeao tkcmnu ofelementary nchools inthmbrnnch, nnd donerve: to be niaed. CHARLES P. MciLVAlNE.

Brooklyn, LJuly 9,

We fully conour inthe above. ANDREW HAGEMAN.E. M. JOHNSON.

From the partial enndnntionwhichl have s'i

w 'wnogflin ln mgmp

hnpmrnh‘l’

:“at. u g up an portantwaded -dance.

Brooklyn. L. 1. June 3 , 1829.

We fully conourhxthe i‘

oregohxg recommGndutlon. . .D. E H ALLOOK.E. KINGSLEYT. 8. lau nch.

From A. W . Dodg e, Esq.

Now-York, July 15, 1829.

m of every one ntnnmquamhed widxflxe bunmeu ofmmuefi m muflnave tnug thim thatthem dy of gnmmarflmportnntu it is to every clu o of learnem u almoetinnriahl ndry and unlntereefi ng omdymyoung beg innm and for fi mveq obvious remon, the

fistems ing enenl uee inthe whoolo, nre far bcyond flae

comprehensionof youtlnend adapted to their years. Hence itlnthat thelr leu ominthis dcpammntof l m m fi ered u mu m d fl oonmnwednlncommted to thc toil/tout Mening lhd r unda'atandi ano thatmnny npupil whohm bem throug the Eng lishgmmma s totally ua u

’

z lted withthe namre em ofthe simplestparts of spw ch.The work othlr. Kirkham ongmmmas well calculeted to remedy these evflq md

mpply ndefi ciency whichhas heenoo l and eo teriously feltinfi ie educationot

‘

youthinthe elementnry kno of their ownlang uag e. y nl imfam iliar, and lucid method of treating the nu ject, he has what was behksome md u

sfiert

zfimble ple

wM inna-active. Inone

d

rd the g rufi imnr of ldr.Kirkimn furni a da b the youthfulmind ln throughthe

’lntricateof verbs, nouns an renouna; and the

reth h

a

w heretofore so

ltnnd unlnviting unto ampcnthe under 0 youth. nnd their energi

y

es lnfru itlcm attempts to surm ount its obemclca, is cleared of obstructions thispioneer to the

l{guthfulmind, and hinted, atevery turn, vim

M am ie rig htm d. 111031n perusal ot‘

theworh mflwill convince

eventhe mootah eul of tiw mithofthcse remnrkg end wfi sfy every one who innotwedded hy preju ce mold m lce m d fom flintuwmmeetme wnnu of tlie community ALLENW. DODGE.

6 ascoumsunsrxoas .

Philadelphia, Aug . 10, 1825.

full conviction that itwill be corroborate d by every candid judg e of the science whobecomes acquainted withthe practical advantag es of this manual.The explicitbrevity and accuracy of the rules and defi mtions, the novel, the striking .

the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying them, the peculiar and advantageousof the various parts of the subject. the facilities proffered by the system

aticmode of parsing"adopted, the convenient and judicious introductionandadapta

tionof the exercises introduced, and the deep researchesand critical investig ations dlBo

played inthe “PhilosophicalNotes, render this system of g rammar so decidedly supe

rior to all other: extant, that, to receive g eneral patronag e, itneeds butto be known.

My knowled e of this system from experience inteaching it, andWitnessing its eti’

ects

inthehands 0 private learners, warrants me insaying , thatalearner W ill, by studyingthis book four months withoutateacher, obtainamore clear conceptionof the natureand proper constructionofwords and phrases, thanis ordmarily obtained incommonschools and academies, in so timcsfour months.

Itishighly to ow, thatwherever this system has beencirculate d, it isvery rapidly supp antmg those works of dulness winchhave so long paralyz ed theon of the youthof our cmmtry.

l the specimens ofverbal criticism, additional corrections inorthog raphy andortheo y, the leading

Eles of rhetoric, and the improvements inthe illustrations

g y, whichMr. is a tintroducing into his u nvnrrn rem-non, will renderquite onW orm onthcfoma'

editions of this work. H . WINCHESTER.

From the Rev. 8. Center, Principal of 3 Classical Academy.1have examined the lasteditionof Kirkham’

s Grammar withpeculiar satisfactionThe improvementswhichappear init, do, inmy estimation, g ive itadecided preferenceto an other systemnow inuse. To pointoutthe culiar qualities whichsecure to

it ofwhichno other system canboast, wouldlfz, if required, perfectly easy. At

presentitis sufficientto remark, that it imbodies all that is essentially excellentanduseful inother systems ; while itis entirel free from thattediousness of method andprolix ity of definitionwhichso muchperp ex and embarrass the learner.

The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham’s g rammar is, the simplicity of its method,

and theplo imwu of its illustrations. Being conducted by familiar lectures, the teacherand pupil arenecessarily brou ghtinto ag reeable contactby eachlesson. Bothare improved by the same task, withoutthe slightestsuspicion, onthe partof the upil, thatthere is anything hard, difi cult, or obscure inthe subject: a conviction,hwhichmust inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be made. Ina word, thetreatise I am recommending , is apractical one ; and for thatreason, if there were noothers to be urg ed, itoughtto be introduced into all our schools and academics. Fromactual experimentI canattest to the practicability of the planwhichthe author hasadepted. Ofthis factany onemay be convinced who will take the pfi ns to matse the

SAMUEL CENTER.

Albany, July 10, 1829.

the WesternCalculator "and WesternSpelling -Book.

Allegheny -Town, (near Pittsburgh) March18, 1825

AD VE R T I SE M ENT

TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION .

The author is free to acknowledg e, thatsince this treatise fi rstventuredonthe wave of public opinion, the ofpatro whichhave wafteditalong ,have beenfar more favors e thanhe reasonto xm

"

te.

Had any one, on its fi rst appearance , predicted, that the demand r it

would call forth 4 0 0 thousand copies during thesastyear, e nu

thor wouldhave ered the redictionextravagantan chimerical. Intitude , therefore , to that pu lic whichhas smiled so propitiously onErhumhle efforts to advance the cause of learning ,he has endeavored,by unremitting attentionto the improvementof his work, to render itasuseful and as u nexceptionable ashis time and talents would permit.

It is behaved thatthe tenthand eleventheditionshave beeng reatly imo

proved butthe author is apprehensive that his work is not yetas accurate and as muchsim lifi ed as itmay be . If, how ever

gthe disadvantag es

of ling ering under a roken constitution, and of being able to devote tothis subjectonly asmall portionofhis time, snatched from the active pursuits oi abusiness life , (active as far ashis imperfecthealth rmitshim to

be ,) are any apolog y for its defects,he hopes thatthe can will setdownthe apolo to his credit. This rsonal allusionis hazarded withthe

tionaliyope , thatitw ill ward 0 some ofthe arrows ofcriticism whichmay be aimed athim,

and render less pointed and poisonous those thatmay fall uponhim . Notthathe would beg atruce withthe g entlemencritics and reviewers. Any compromise w iththem would betray awantof self-confi dence and moral courag e whichhe would, by no means, bewillin to avow . Itwould, moreover, be prejudicial to his intere st; forhe is eterm

'

med, ifhis life be reserved ,to availhimself of the advanta

g es of any judicious and cand'

criticisms onhis production, thatmay appear, and , two or three yearshence, revisehis work, and presentto thepublic another andabetter edition.

The improvements inthe tenthedition, consisted mainly inme additionof many importantprinciples ; inrendering the illustrations more c

extensive, accurate , and lucid ; inconnecting more closely withtheand philosoph of our leng ume g eneral principles adopted ;addin abrie view of philosop g rammar interspersed innotes.introductioninto the navaur u ED ITION, of many verbfl criticisms, ofadditional corrections inorthomhyand orthoepy , of the leading principlesof rhetoric, and of g eneral none and improvements invenousof the work, render this edition, itis believed, far preferable to any ofthe former editions of the work .

Perhaps some will regard the philosophicalnotesasof pedantry. If so , the author’s apolog y is, thatsome investigationsof this nature seemed to be call for l

t

r

hya rtion of the community

whose minds, ol'

iate , appear to be under e inflame of akind of £10

sophical mania and to such these notes are respectfi illy submi thrjustwhatthey may deem their real value. The author’s ownopiniononthis point, is, thatthey proll

'

er no material advan to commonlearners ; butthat they

dmay prtii

itably eng ag e the atten of the curious, andimpart a e 0 interestto the lite oonn ar.pa

M ark. 1829.

rary oigge

CONTENTS.

Address to thelearnerA, an, one 65, 124

And 124

37, 69

‘ofwords

But, then,as

54, 93

37, 171

Governmentdivisionof 17

143, 155

162

225

sounds of 21

75

Manner ofmeaning of words 28;73Moods 134

135, 145, 155

PersonbfNumber of

~l

Case of

Tenses

P R E FACE .

The re ap to be something assuming inthnaotofwriting ,and thrusting into pu lie notice , anew work onasubject whichhas already em

many able pens ; for who would presume to do this, unless-he

vedhis actionto be , insome re ts,superior to every one ofthe

kind which preceded it? Hence , m presenting to the public thissystem of Eng lishGrammar, the author is aware thatanapolog y will belooked for, and that the arg uments onwhichthat apolog y is g rounded,must inevitably underg o a rig id scrutiny. A

faprehensivo, however, thatno explanatory effort, onhis w oul shie him from the imputationof by suchas are b ded by self-interest, or by those who areweddfi to the doctrines and opinions ofhis predecessors, withthem hewill notattemptacompromise ,being , ina g reatmeasure , indill

‘

erenteitherto their praise or their censure . Butwiththe candid , he is willing to ne

anamicable treaty, know in'guflthatthey are always .

ready to ente rmto it onhonorable te rms. In neg otiationhe asks nothing more

thanmerely to restthe merits ofhiswork onits practical utility ,be lievingthat, if itprove uncommonly successful infacilitating the prog ress of youthinthe marchof mental imwovement, thatwill be its bestapolog y.

Whenw e bring into considerationthe numerous productions of thoselearned philolog ists who have labored so long , and, as many sup use . so

successfully, in establishing the principles oi our lang u c ; an more

ially, whenw e view the labors of some of our m cm compilers,0 have displayed so muching enuity and ac uteness inattempting to ar.

rane those princi les insuchamanner as to form acorrect and aneasy111

'

um of mental)

conference ; it does, indeed, ap er alittle like pro

sumptionfor ayoung manto enter uponasubjectw ichhas so frequentlyengag ed the attentionand talents ofmendistin

'

shed for their erudition.

The author ventures forward,however, under e conviction, thatmostof

his predecessors are very de fi cient, at least, inmanner , if not inmatter ;and this conviction,he believes, will be corroborated by amajority of thebest judg es incommunity . It is admitted,

thatmany valuable improvements have beenmade by some of our late writers, who have endeavored to simplif and render this subject inte llig ible to the young learner, butthey have ai overlooked whatthe author considers avery importantobjcet, namely, a systematic order of parsing ; and nearly all have ne

glected to develop and explainthe principles 111 suchamanner as to enab e

the learner, w ithout g reatdiffi culty , to comprehend the ir nature and use

By some this system w ill, no doubt, be discarded onaccountof its aim

zia

‘

ty : while to others its simplicity w ill prove its principal recommeno

tion. Its designis tmhumble one . It profl'

em no g reatadvantag es tothe recondite g rainmarian; it professes not to instruct the lite ral}

conmisseur ; itpresents no attractive g races of a ls to charm , n0

°

aringflights to astonish, no deep researches to g ratd

”

y butinthehumblestsimplicity

‘

of diction. itattempts to accelerate the marchof the juvenflemind inits advances inthe pathof science ,by dispersing those clouds thatso oftenbewilder it, and removing those obstacles that g eneral] retardits prom Inthis way itendeavors to render inte resting amidelightrful asandy whichhashitherto beenconsidered tedious. dry, and irksome .

its leading object is to adoptacorrectand an easy .method, inwhich

fissure is blended withthe labors of the learner, and whichis calcuto excite inhim aspiritof inquiry, thatshall call forthinto vig orous

and useful exercise , evmmlatentenergy ofhismind and thus enablehimsoonto become thorou y acquainte w iththe nature of the .prino

'

ples,and withtheir practimiutility and application

10 PREFACE.

Contentto be usefi il instead ofbe ing brilliant, the writer of these es

has endeavored to shunthe pathof those whose aim appears tohaveTi nto dazzle, rather thanto instruct. As he has aimed notso muchatorig inality as utility ,

he has adopted the thou g hts of his predecessors whoselaborshave become public stock , wheneverhe could not, inhis opinion,furnishbetter and bri hter of his own. Aware thatthere is, inthe public mind

, astrong ilectionfor the doctr ines contained inM r. M urray’s

he has thoughtpreper, notmerely from motives of policy, but

om choice , to selecthis principles chiefly from thatw ork ; and, more

over, to adopt,as far as consistentwithhis ownview s, the lang uag e of that

eminent hilolog ist. Inno instance has he varied from him, unlessheconceived

J

that, m so doing , some practical advantag e w ould be g ained.

He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so frequently and so justlyawarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter,mutilate

,and torture the text of that able w riter, merely to g ratify an

itching propensity tnfi g ure inthe w orld as authors, and gainanephemeral

popularity by arrogating to themselves the creditdue to another.

The author isnotdisposed,how ever, to disclaim all pretensions tonality ; for, althoughhis principles are obied selected, (and who w

presume to make new ones 1) the manner 0 arrang ing , illustrating , andapplyin them,

is princifil his own. Letno one, therefore, if he hey

u to inother wor ideas and illustrations similar to some contained inthe follo 0 lectures, too hastily accuse him of plag iarism. It is

well knownthatsimilar investig ations and pursuits oftenelicitcorresponding ideas indifferentminds : and hence it is notuncommonfor the same

thoughtto be strict] orig inal withmany Writers. The author isnothereattempting to man cture a garment to shield him from rebuke, shouldhe unjustly claim the property of another ; buthe wishes itto be understood, thatalong course of teaching and investigation,has oftenproducedinhismind ideas and ents on the subject of mar

, exactly or

nearly corresponding wi those whichhe afte found, had, undersimilar circumstances, beenproduced in the minds of others. H e hopes,therefore

,to be pardoned by the critic

, even thoughhe should not bew illing to rejecta g ood idea of his own, merely because some one else

has, atsome time or other, beenblessed withthe same thought.As the planof this treatishisa: more comprehensive thanthose of or

dinary g rammars, the w riter could not, w ithout making his work unreasonably voluminous, treat some to ice as extensively as was desirable .

Its designis to embrace , notonly the mostimportantprinciples of thescience, butalso exercises in parsing , false syntax , and unctuation, sufi iciently extensive for all ordinary, tactical purposes, an akey to the exercises, and, moreover, a series oi

)

illustrations so full and intellig ible , ascompletely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learners.Whether this designhas beensuccessfully or unsuccessfull executed, is

left for the public to decide . The g eneral adoption of the work intoschools, wherever ithas become known, and the ready sale of

sand copies, (thou hwithouthitherto qfl'

ording the author any pecuniaryprofi t,) are have le omens.

Inthe selectionand arrang ementof principles forhis w ork,has endeavored to urane acourse betweenthe extremes, of takin blindlyontrustwhateverhas beensanctioned by prejudice and the an ority ofvenerable names, and of thatarrogant, innovating spirit, whichsets atdefiance all authority ,and attempts to overthrow all former systems,and convince the w orld thatall true know ledg e and science are wra up inacrude system of Craries of its owninvention. Notwiths g the authoris aware

.that pub ic prejudice is pow erful, and that he who ventures

nmrs TO rmcusss it

muchby wa of innovation,willbe liable todefeathis ownpurpose byGill.ing into neg set; yethe has takenthe libe to think forhimselfi to investigate the subjectcritically and dispassionate y,and to ado tsuchprincipledonly as be deemed the leastob

’

ectionable ,and best ated to effecttheob

'

ecthe had inview . Butw this system claims as improvements onotliers, consists notso muchinbette ring the principles themselves, as inthe method adopted of communicating aknowledg e of themto themind 0 thelearner . Thatthe work is dd

'

ective , the author is fully sensible : and is

free to acknow led that its defects arise , inpart, fromhis ownwantof'

udgmeatand shilie

But the re is another and amore serious cause of

diam, namel the anomalies and imperfections withwhichthe lang uag eabounds. is latter circumstance is also the cause of the existence of so

widely differentOpinions onmany importantpoints ; and, moreover, thereasonthatthe g rammatical rincnples ofour lang uag e cannever be indis

putably settled . Butprincip es oughtnottobe rejectedbecause theyadmitof excepfi ons.

— He who is thoroughly acquainted w iththe g enius andstructure of our lang uag e , canduly appreciate the truthof these remarks.

Should nts object to the Compendium, fearing itwill soonbedestroyed by £2?children, they are informed thatthe pupil w illnothaveoccasionto use itone tenth rt as muchas he will the book whichitac

besides, if itbe destroyed,he w ill fi nd all the de fi nitionsitcontains, recapitulated inthe series of Lectures

m s To TE ACH E R S AND P R IVATE L E ARNE RS .

As this work anew mode of parsmg , aad pursues anarran e

meat essentiallypidi creat from that g enerall adopted, it may not

deemed im per for the author to g ive some irections to those who maybe to use it. Perhaps they who take only aslightview of theorder of parsing , will not consider itnew, buthlend it w iththose longsince adopted . Some writers have , indeed, attempted plans somewhatsimilar ; butinno instance have they reduced them to whatthe authorconsiders are or s d cmatic order.

The meth s w they have g enerally g ested, require the teacherto interrog ate the pupil as he

‘

proceeds ; or e he is permitted to parse

without g iving any explanations atall. Othershintthatthe learner oughtto apply defi nitions ina g eneral way, but they lay downno stemau

'

c

arrang ementof questions ashis g uide . The systematicorder downinthis work , if pursued by the pupil, compelshim to apply every definitionand every rule thatappertains to eachword he s

,withouthaving a

questionputto him by the teacher ; and, in so doing ,he explains everyword fully ashe g oes along . This course enables the learner to proceedindependently ; and proves, at the same time , a g reatreliefto the instruotor“ The convenience and advantag e of this method, are far g reater thancanbe easily conceived by one who is unacquainted withit. The authoris , therefore ,

anxious to have the absurd practice ,wherever ithas been

established, of causing learners to commitand recite de fi nitionsand rulesw ithoutan simultaneous applicationof them to practical examples, immedin

gyad shed . This system obviates the necessity of pursuing sucha

stu course of drudg ery ; for the young be°

nner who pursues it, willhave , inalbw weeks,all the mostimportantdefinitions and rules perfectlycommitted, simply by a plying them in rsinIf this planbe once adbpted , itis confidz

l

ntlyhelieved thatevery teacherwho is desirous to consult, e itherhis ownconvenience , or the advantag e of

his pupils. w ill readily pursue itinpreference to any forme rmethod. This

12 HINTS TO TEACHERS.

belief is founded onthe advantag es whichthe authorhimself has experienced from itinthe course of several years, devoted to the instructionof

youthand adults . By pursuing this system , he can, w ithless labor.advance apupil farther inapractical knowledg e of this abstruse science,intwo months, thanhe could inone year whenhe tau ghtinthe oldway .

"

Itis presumed thatno instructor, who once g ives this system afi lir trial,will doubtthe truthof this assertion.

Perhaps some w ill. onafi rstview of the wolk, disapprove ofthesitionofmany parts ; butwhoever examines itattentively, will fi nd that,althou ghthe author hasnotfollow ed the common artifi cxaland unnaturalarrang ementadopted by mostofhis

predecessors

, yethe has endeavoredto pursue amore udicious one ,name y, the order of the understandinv .

The learner s Quid commence , notby committing and rehearsing , ut

by reading attentively the firsttwo lectures several times over. He ou ghtthento parse , according to the systematic order , the examples g iven forthatpurpose ; indoin which

,as previousl stated ,he has anopportunit

of committinall the efi nitions and rulesbelong ing to the parts of speechincluded int e examples.

The COM PE NDIUM , as it resents to the eye of the learner acondensedbutcomprehensive view 0 the whole science ,may be pro rly consideredan Ocular Analysismf the Eng lishI g e .

ӢBy re erring to it,

‘

theyoung studentis enabled to apply allhis efi nitionsand rules from the verycommencementofhisparsing . To some

,thismode ofproceduremay seem

rather tedious ; butitmustappear obvious to every rsonof discernment,thatapupil will learnmore by parsing fi vew ords critically,and explainingthem lully , thanhe w ould by parsing fi fty wordsan rfi mally,and‘withoutunderstanding their various properties. The teac or who pursues thisplan, isnot under the necessity of hearing his pupils recite asing le lessonof defi nitions committed to memory, forhehas afair opportunity ofdiscovering their know led e of these as they evince itinparsin All other directionsnecessary for t e learner inschool

,asw ell as for t 9 pr ivate learner ,

will be g iveninthe succeeding pag es of the w ork . Should these feebleefforts prove a savin of muchtime and expense to those yountr personswhomay be dispo to ursue this science withavidity,by enab g themeasily to acquire acriti know ledg e ofabranchof educationso importantand desirable , the author

’s fondestanticipations will be fully realized ; but

shouldhisw ork fall into the handsofanywho are expecting ,by the acquisition

,to become g rammarians, and yet,have not suflicient ambitionand

perseverance to mak e themse lves acquainted withits contents , itishoped,

thatthe blame for theirnonimprovement, will notbe thrownuponhim.

To those cute ruin and intellig entg entlemenwho may be disposed to lecture onthisplan, the an or tales the liberty to offer afew hints by way of encourag ement.

Any judicious instructer of g rm mar, if he take the trouble tomake himself familiarwiththe contents of the following pag es, will find itaneasy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer, is suffi cient. Instead of causing his pupils toacquire aknow ledg e of thenature and use of the principles by intense application, lethim communicate itverbally ; thatis, lethim fi rst take up one partof speech. and, inanoral lecture, unfold and explainall its properties, not only by adopting the illustra'tions g iveninthe book, butalso by g iving others thatmay occur tohis mind as be proceeds7 Afte r apart of speechhas beenthus elucidated, the class should be interrog ated onit, and thentau ghtto parse it, and correcterrors incompositionunder the rulesthatapply to it. Inthe same manner he may proceed withthe other parts of speech,observmg , how ever, to recapitulate occasionally, until the learners become thoronacquainted withwhatever principles may have beenpresented. If this lanbefully ursued, rapid prog ress, onthe part of the learner, will be the mewtable result;and atteacher who pursues it, cannot fall of acquiring distinction, and anenviablepopularity inhis profession. S. KIRKHAM.

F AM I L I A R L E C T URE S

E NG L I S H G R A M M A R.

LECTURE I .

D IVISIONS OF GRAMMAR .— ORTHOGRAPHY .

TO THE YOUNG LEARNER.

You are aboutto enter uponone of the most useful ,and, whenrightly pursued,

‘

one of the most interesting stud ies inthe wholecircle of science . If, however, you, l ike many a misgu idedyouth, are under the impressionthat the study of grammar isdry and irksome, and amatter of l ittle consequence, I trust I shal lsucceed in removing from your mind, all suchfalse notions andungrounded prejud ices ; for I wil l endeavor to convince you, before I close these lectures, thatthis is notonly apleasing study,butone of real and substantial uti l ity ; astudy that d irectly tendsto adornand d ignify humannature, and mel iorate the cond itionof man. Grammar is a leading branchof that learning whichalone is capable of unfold ing andmaturing the mental powers, andof elevating man

'

to his preper rank inthe scale of intel lectualex istence ;2—of that learning whichl ifts the soul from earth

, and

enables itto hold converse w ithathousand worlds. Inpursu ingany and every other pathof science, you wi l l d iscover the truthof these remarks, and feel its force ; for you w i l l fi nd, that, asgrammar opens the door to every departmentof learning, aknow ledge of it is ind ispensable : and should you notaspire atd istinotioninthe republ ic of letters, this knowledge cannot fai l of beingserviceable to you, evenif you are destined to pass throughthehumblestwalks of l ife . I think it is clear, that, inone pointofview, grammatical know ledge possesses a decisive advantage overevery other branchof learning . Penmanship, arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are highly use

ful in the ir respective places ; butnotone of them is so universal ly appl icable to practical purposes, as this . In every situation. underallci rcumstances, onalloccasions - whenyou speak ,

‘2

14 . isnsmsncaamu a.

read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essentia.

Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, thatthey cou lddetect and correctany error in language by the ear, and speakand write accurately w ithout a knowledge of grammar. Nowyour ownobservation'

w i l l soonconvince you, thatthis assertionis incorrect. A manof refined taste, may, by perusing good euthors, and conversing w iththe learned,acqu ire thatknow ledge of

language whichwi l l enablehim to avoid those glaring errors thatoffend the ear ; but there are other errors equal ly gross, whichhave notaharéhsound , and, consequently, whichcannotbe detected w ithouta knowledge of the rules that are violated . Be

l ieve me, therefore, whenI say, thatwithoutthe knowledge andappl icationof grammar rules, itis impossible for any one to think ,speak , read, or write withaccuracy . From a want of suchknowledge, many oftenexpress the ir ideas in amanner so im

proper and obscure as to render it impossible for any one to nu .

derstand them : their language frequently amounts, not only to

bad s ense, butnon- sense . In other instances several d ifferentmeanings may be affi xed to the words they employ ; and whatis sti l l worse, is, that

hnot unfrequently the ir sentences are so

constructed ,as to convey ameaning qu ite the reverse of thatwhichthey intended . Nothing of asecular nature canbe more worthyof your attention, then, thanthe acqu isitionof grammatical knowlcdgf

e

he pathwhichleads to grammatical excel lence, is notall theway smoothand flowery, butinityou wil l fi nd some thorns interspersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted ; or, insimple language, you wi l l fi nd, in the pursu itof .

this science, many intricacies whichit is rather diffi cultfor the Juvenile mlnd complete lyto unravel. I shal l , therefore, as I proceed , address you inplainlanguage, and endeavor to i l lustrate every principle ina manner so clear and simple, that you w i l l be able, if you

your mind, to understand its nature , and apply it to practice as

you g o along ; for I wou ld rather g ive you one useful idea, than

fifty high- sound ing words, the meaning of whlchyou would probably beunable to comprehend .

Shou ld you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of

aword , or the sense of asentence, you mustnotbe d iscouraged ,butpersevere , e ither by study ing my explanations, or by ask ingsome personcompetentto inform you, ti l l you obtainaclear conceptionof it,

'

and ti l l all doubts are removed . By careful ly ex .

amining , and frequently review ing, the fol low ing lectures, youwi l l soonbe able to discernthe grammatical constructionof our

anemsn g amm a. 16

language, and fi x inyour mind the principles by whichit is g ovemed . Nothing del ights youthso much, as a clear and d istinctknowledge of any branchof science whichthey are pursuing ;and,onthe otherhand, I know they are aptto be d iscouraged withany branchof learning whichrequires muchtime and attentionto be understood . Itis the evidence of aweak mind ,however,to be discouraged by the obstacles withwhichthe young learnermustexpectto meet; and the bestmeans thatyou canadopt, inorder to enable you to overcome the difficulties that arise intheincipientstage of your stud ies, is to cultivate the habitof thinking methodically and soundly onall subjects of importance whichmay engage your attention. Nothing w i l l be more effectual inenabl ing you to think , as wel l as to speak and write, correctly ,than the study of Engl ishgrammar, accord ing to the method of

pursu ing itas prescribed inthe fol lowing pages. This system isdesigned, and, . I trust, wel l calculated , to expand and strengthenthe intellectual

’

faculties, inas muchas it involvesaprocess bywhichthe mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar communicated inaninteresting and fami l iar manner.

You are aware, my young friend, thatyou l ive inanag e of

l ightand knowledge — anag e inwhichscience and the arts aremarching onward w ithgigantic strides. You l ive, too, ina landof l iberty — a Iaad on whichthe smi les of Heavenbeam w ithuncommonrefu lgence . The trumpof the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo onour mountains, or inour val leys ;the garments dyed inbloodhave passed away the mighty strugg le for independence is over ; and you l ive to enjoy the richbeenof freedom and rosperity whichwas purchased w iththe bloodof our fathers . hese considerations forbid thatyou should ever

be so unmindfu l of your duty to your country, to yourCfeator, to

yourself, and to succeeding generations, as to be contentto groveltnignorance . Remember that knowledge is power ; thatanenl ightened and a virtuous people cannever be enslaved andthat, onthe intel l ig ence of our youth, restthe future l iberty, the

porosperityflhe happiness, the g randeur, and the glory of our be

ved country . Goon,then,W ithalaudable ambition, and annuyield ing rseverance, in the pathwhichleads to honor and re

nown. forward . Go, and gather Iaurels onthe hi l l of science ; l inger among her unfading beauties ; drink deep of

her crystal fountain andthenjoinin“the marchof fame . Be

come learned and vi rtuous, and you will be great. Love Godahd serve him. and y ou will be happy .

LANGUAGE .

LANG UAG E .

LANGUAGE, inits most extensive sense,‘ implies these signs by

whichmenand brutes communigate to eachother their thoughts,

affections, and desires .

Language may be d ivided, 1 . into natural and artificial ; 2 .

into spokenand w ritten.

NATURAL LAriGU'

AGE consists inthe use of thosenatural signswhichd ifferentanimals employ incommunicating the ir fee l ingsone

‘

to another. The meaning of these s'

8 all perfectly understand by the principles of their nature . his language 18 com

monbothto manand brute . The e lements of natural languageinman, may be reduced to three k inds modulations of the voice'

,

gestures, and features.

“By,

means of these, two savages whohave no common, artificial language, can communicate theirthoughts inamanner qu ite intel l ig ible they canask and refuse:affirm and deny, threatenand su

gplicate ; they cantraffi ck, enter

into contracts, and pl ight their aith. The language of bru'

tes

consists inthe use of those inarticulate sounds by whichthey ex

press their thoughts andaffections. Thus, the chirping of ab ird,the bleating of- a lamb, the neighing of ahorse, and the grow l ing,whining, and bark ing of adog , are the language ofthose animals,respectively .

‘5 'ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists inthe use of words,by means

of whichmank ind.

are enabled to communicate their thoughts toone another.

- Inorder to assistyou incomprehend ing what ismeantby the term word, I w i l l endeavor to i l lustrate the meaningof the term .

Idea. (The notices whichwe gain by sensation and perception, andwhichare tr easured up inthe mind to be the materialsof think ing and know ledge, are denominated ideas. ) For exam

ple, whenyou place your hand upona piece of ice, a sensationis excited whichwe cal l

"

coldness .

”

. Thatfacu lty whichnoticesthis sensationor change produced inthe m ind, is cal led perception and the abstractnotice itself, or notion you form of thissensation, is denominated anidea. This be ing premised, we wil lnow proceed to the considerationof words .

1 IWords are articulate sounds, used by commonconsent,notasnatural ,butas artificial , signs of our ideas. Wordshavenomeaning inthemse lves. They are merely the artificial representativesof those ideas affi xed to them by compact or agreementamongthose who use them . InEngl ish, for instance, to a particu larkind of metal we assignthe name g old ; not because there is, in‘hatsound, any pecu l iar aptness whichsuggests the ideawe w ish

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

I

18 am u se sw an.

cutionand other lie rary attainments, and writers, eminent forcorrecttaste, sol id matter, and refined manner.

g uag e , are conspicuous among the numberand have pow er to control it.

is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its prog ressiveadvancement, var ied for purposes of practical convenience . H ence it assumes any and every form whichthose who make use of it choose to

g ive it. We are , therefore ,as rational andpractical g rammarians, compelledto submit to the necessity of M ensa; to take the lang uag e as it is, andnotas itshould be, and bow to custom .

ll. THILOSOPH ICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the princi .ples of language, as founded inthe nature of things and the orig inal laws of thought} Italso d iscusses the grounds of the classificationof words, and explains those procedures whichpracticalgrammar lays downfor our observance .

( PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the mostconvenient classificationof the words of a language, lays downa system of definitionsand rules, founded onscientific principles and good usag e, illus

trates the ir nature and design, and enforces their appl ication}3 PRINCIP LE . A principle in grammar is a pecu l iar construotionof the language, sanctioned by good usage )DEFINITIOI

‘v.IA defi nition- ingrammar is a principle of lan

guage ex

pressed ina definite form.

1

f RULE . A rule describes the pecul iar constructionor circum

stantial relationof words, whichcustomhas established . for our

observance .

lvENGLISH GRAMM AR is the artof speaking and writing the Eng lishlang uag e w ithpropriety .

GRAMMAR teaches us how to use words ina propermanner .

The most importantuse of thatfaculty cal led speech, is, to con

vey our thoughts to others.

‘

If, therefore, we have a‘store of

words, and evenknow whatthey signify, they w i l l be of no realuse to us unless we canalso apply them to

'

practice, and make

oaruocaArnv. 19

them answer the purposes for whichthey were invented . Gram

mar, wel l understood, enables us to express our thoughts ful lyand clearly ; and, consequently, ina manner whichw i l l defythe ingenuity of manto g ive our words any other meaning thanthat whichwe ourse lves intend them to express . To be able tospeak and write our vernacular tongue w ithaccuracy and ele

gatme, is,certainly, aconsiderationof the highestmoment.

"1 Grammar is divided into four parts ;1. ORTHOGRAPHY, 3 . SYNTAX

,

2 . ETYM OLOGY , 4 . PROSODY .

MORTHoa PHY teaches the nature and powers of

letters, and the justmethod of spelling words:

ORTHOGRAPHY means word-making , or spelling . Itteaches us

the dill'

ercnt k inds and sounds of letters, how to combine theminto syl lables, and syl lables into words .

_

As this is one of the firststeps inthe pathof literature, I presume you al ready understand the nature and use of letters, andthe justmethod of spel l ing words . If you slo, itis unnecessaryfor you to dwel l long onthis part of grammar, which, thoughvery important, is rather dry and uninteresting, for ithas v

nothing to do w ithparsing andanalyz ing language . And, therefore,if you canspell correctly, you may omitOrthography, and com

mence w ithEtymology and Syntax .

Orthog raphy treats, lst, of Letters, 2adly, of Syllables, and 3dly, of Words.

I . LETTERS. A letter is the fi rst principle, or

leastpart, of aword.

The Eng lishAlphabetcontains twenty- six letters.

They are divided into vowels and consonants.

A vowel is a letter thatcanbe perfectly soundedby itself. The vowels are a

,e, i, o, u, and some

times w and y . Wand y are consonants whentheybeg inaword or syllable but

’

inevery other situationthey are vowels.

A consonant is a letter thatcannot be perfectlysounded withoutthe help of a vowel; as, b, d, f, I.All letters exceptthe vowels are consonants.

20 ORTHOGRAP HY .

Consonantsare divided into mutesandsemi -vowelsThe mutes cannotbe sounded atall Without tht

aid of avowel. They are b, p,

1,ii

, k, and candr

ghard.

The semi -vowelshave animperfectsoundof themselves. They aref, l, m,

n,r,v,s,z,x,and c and g

soft.

Four of the semi-vow els, namely, 1, m, n, r ,l ithey readily other consonants, and flow

, as it w ere,into their

sounds.

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pro

nounced by asing le impulse of the voice , as oi invoice, ou insound.

A triphthong is the union of three vowels pronounced inlike manner5as,eaninbeau, ie

'

w inview.

has boththe vow els sounded ; as, oninounce .

only one of the vow els sounded , as, ea inboat.

II . SYLLABLES . A Sy llable is adistinctsound,ut

teredby asing le impulse of the voice ,as

,a,an

,ant.

A word of one syllable, is termed aMonosyllable ;awordcf two syllables, aDissyllable ; awordof threesyllables, aTrisyllable ; aword of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable .

III . WORDS . Words are articulate sounds, used

by cominonconsent,as signs of our ideas.

Wordsare of t o sorts, primitive and derivative.

A primitive word 1s thatwhichcannotbe reducedto asimplerword lnthe lang uag e , as, man, g ood.

A derivative word is that whichmay be reduced

toasimplerword ; as, manful, g oodness.

There is little or no difference betw eenderivative and compound words.

The terminations or added syllables, suchas ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, encc,ent, dam,

hood, ly ,ous,ful, ness, and the like , w ere, orig inally, distinct and

separate w ords , which, by long use , have beencontracted, and made to

coalesce w ithother w ords.

souuns or runLETTER-8. 21

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS .

A.—A has four sounds ; the long ; as inname, basin: the broad ; as in

call, wall ; the short; as infag ohg lau ; and the flat, Italian sound ; as inbar,farther .

The impro r diphthon aa,has the shortsound of a inBalaam,Canaan,

lame ; and e long wundof a inBaal, Gaol, Aaron.

The Latindiphthong , as,has the long sound of c inenig ma, Ce sar, andsome other words. But man authors reject this useless excrescence ofantiquit

g, and write, eni g ma, csar .

The lphthong , ai ,has the long sound of a; as inpail, sail : except inplaid, said, a ain, raillery , contain, Britain, and some others.Au is soun ed like b a intaught, like flat a inanal, like long ain

and like shortainlau rel.Aw always the sound of broad a as inbawl, crawl.Ay has tbo long sound ofa; as inpay, delay .

B .- B has only one sound ; as inbaker , number , chub.

B is silentwhenit follows 1» inthe same llable ; as inlamb, &c . oxee t

inaccamb, rhomb, and succumb. It it also silentbefore tinthe same syhis ; as indoubt, debtor , subtle, Gtc.

C.- C sounds like I: before a, o, u , r , l, t, and at the end of syllables ; as

incart, cottag e, cur ious, craft, tract, cloth; victim,flaccid. Ithas the soundof abefore c, i, and as in centrb, cig ar , mercy . C has the sound of ahwhenfollow ed bya

'

phthong ,and is preceded by the accent, either primaryor secondary ; as insocial, pronunciation, and of z indiscern, sacrifi ce,rice, nf ec. It is mute inarbu scle, cz ar , cz arina, endict, victualo, muscle.

Chts cornmeal sounded like (ch; as inchurch, chin; but inwords derived from the aument lang uag es, ithas the sound of In; as inchemist, charm ,

and likewise in fore ignnames, as inAchish, Enoch. Inwords from theFrench, chsounds like ch, as inchaise, chevalicr ; and also like ohwhenpreceded by l or u : as inmilch, bench, clinch, &c .

Chinarch, before a vowel, sounds like k ; as inarchang el, except inarched, archery , archer , archencmy : but before aconsonant, 1t sounds likeuh, as inarchbishop. Chis silentinschedule , schism, yacht, drachm.

D.— D has one uniform sound ; as indeath, bandag e. Itsounds like dj or

j whenfollowed by long apreceded by the accent; as ineducate, cerdu rc.

Italso sounds like j ing randeur, soldier .

The termination, ed,m adjectives and participial adjectives, retainstinctsound ; as. awick-cd man, aloam -cd man, bless-cd are the meek ; butinverbs the c is g enerally dmpped ; as, passed, walked,flashed, aimed, rolled,&c. whichare ronounced , past, wallet,flaaht, aimd, rold .

E.—E has a ong sound ; as inscheme, severe ; ashortsound ; as inm ,

tent; and sometimes the sound of flata: as inserg eant; and of short i s asinyea, pretty, Eng land, and g enerally inthe unaccented terminations, cc,ct, cu .

F.—F has one unvaried sound ; as infancy ,

mafi a; except ina}: which,whenuncompounded, is pronounced as . A wive ’

s .portion, acalve’shead

are impro r. They should be , wife’s portion, calf : head .

G .— G E23 two sounds. It ishard before a, o, u ,

l, and r , M id atthe endof aword : as in g ay , g o, g un, g lory ; bag , m ug . Itis softbefore c, i , and

y; u ing enius , g m er , E g ypt. Exceptions ; g et, g w g aw, ( inlet, and some

“he“. ( i is silent fore a; w inp ath.H .—H has anarticulate sound ; as inhat, horse, hull. It is silentalter r :

as inrhetoric . rhubarb.

23 COUNDS or m s LETTERS.

I .— I has along sound ; as inj ime ; and ashortone ; as infi u.

’ Before r it

is often sounded like u short; as infi rst, third : and in other w ords, like

shorte : as inbirth, virtue. Insome words ithas the sound of long e ; as

inmachine, proJ —J has the sound of soft g ; except inhallelujah, inwhichit is pro

nounced like y . 0

K .— K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e, i,and y , where e

w ould be soft; as kept, skirt, murky . It is Silentbefore n; as inknife,b ell,b acker .

L .—l. has always a softliquid sound ; as inlove,billow. Itis oftensilent;

as inhalf, talk, almond .

M .— M has always the same sound ; as inmurmur,monumental ; exceptin

comptroller, which13 pronounced controller .

N.—Nhas two sounds ; the one pure ; as inman, net,noble ; the other a

compound sound ; as in ankle, banquet, distinct, &c . , pronounced aug kl,bang kwet. N fi nal is silentwhenpreceded by m ; as inhymn, autumn.

O .— 0 has alon sound ; as innote, over ; and ashortone ; as innot, g ot.

Ithas the sound 0 u short; as inson, attorney, doth, does ; . and g enerally inthe terminations, op, at, or , on, am, at, ad, &.c .

P .— P has butone uniform sound ; as inpin, slipper ; exceptincupboard.

clapboard, where ithas the sound of b. Itis mute inpsalm, P tolemy , tempt,

pronounced like so;

as inquadrant, queen, conquest.R.—R has a roughsound ; as inRome, river, rag e ; and a smoothone ;

as inbard, card, reg ard . Inthe unaccented terminationre, the r is soundedafter the e ; as infi bre, centre.

S.-S has aflatsound like z ; as inbosom,nasal ; and, atthe beg inning of

w ords, a sharp,hissing sound ; as insaint, sister , sample. Ithas the soundof shwhenpreceded by the accentand another s or aliquid , and follow ed

by adiphthongor long u ; as inexpvdsion, censure. S sounds like ahwhen

preceded by e accentandavowel, and followed by adiphthong or long u ;as inbrasier , usual . Itis mute inisle, corps, demesne, viscount.

T.—T is sounded intake, T before u

,whenthe accentprecedes,

and g enerally before eou . soun like tsh; as, nature, virtue, rig hteous, are

pronounced natshure, virtshue, richeus. Ti before avowel, preceded bythe

accent,has the somid of sh; as insalvation,neg otiation: exceptinsuchwords

as tierce, tiara, 8m. and unless ans oes before ; as, que stion and exceptingalso derivatives from w ords ending m ty as inmig hty ,

mig htier .

Th,atthe beg inning , middle, and end of words,is sharp ; as inthick,paa~

ther , breath. Exceptions ; then, booth, worthy , Soc.

U .— U has three sounds ; a long ; as inmule, cubic : a abort; .as indull,

custard : and anobtu se sound : as infull , bu shel. Itis pronounced like shorte inbury : and like shorti inbusy , business.

V.—Vhas uniformly the sound of flatf as invanity , love.

W .— lV,

whenaconsonant,has its sound, whichisheard inwe, beware.W is silentbefore r ;

°

as inwry ,wrap,wrinkle ; and also inanswer , sword,61 0 . Before hit is pronounced as if w rittenafte r the h; as inwhy , when,

what —hwy,hweu , hwat. \Vhenheard.as avow el’, ittakes the sound of u :

as indraw, crew,now .

X .— X has asharp sound, like ks, whenitends asyllable w iththe /

accenton it; as, exit, ex ercise ; or when it precedes anaccented syllable whichbe g ins w ithany consonant excepth; as, ex cuse, extent; butwhenthe follcwing accented syllable be g ins witha vowel or h. itlm g enerally, a61 t

RULES roaerratum . 23

m nd, like g z ; n inez ert, ez hort. t s the sonnd o atthe beg inningof per names ot

'

Greek o'

— Y,whena consonant, its proper sound ; as in youth, York, yec,

um car . Wheny is employed as avowel, ithas exactly the sotmdwe d have inthe same situation; as inrhyme, system,party,pyramid.

Z .—Z hal the saund of flata; as infrcez c,braz ea.

RULES FOR SPELLING .

Spm mc 18 the art of expressing a word by its

proper letters.

The fol lowing ru les are deemed important inpractice, althoughthey assist us inspel ling only asmal l portionof the wordsof our lan uag e . This useful art is to be chiefly acquired bystudying t e spe l ling -book and dictionary, and by strict attentioninreadinRULE r. fi cnosyllables ending inf, l, or a, double the final or

ending consonantwhenit is preceded by asing le vowelmill, pass. Exceptions ; qf, if, is, as,has, was, yes, his,and thus .

"a!“O rthog raph for the learner to correct—Be thou like the gale thatmoves the g ras, to those who ask thy aid.

—The ag ed hero comes forthonhis smf; his y hair g litte rs inthe beam .

—Sha1mortal manbe more justthanGod ‘

l ew know the value of healthtil they lose it. —Our mannersshould be neither g ros, nor excessively re fi ned .

And thatis notthe lark , whose notes do beatThe vaulty heavenso highabove ourheads :Ihave more care to stay, thanwil to g o.

RULE n. Monosyl lables ending in any consonant butf, l, ora, never double the final consonantwhenit is preceded by asing levowe l ; as,man, hat. Exceptions ; add, ebb, butt, eg g , odd, err,inn, bmw, purr, and buzz .

False Orthog raphy .— None ever w entsadd from Fing al.

— He rejoiced overhis sonn.

—Clonar lies bleeding who bedd of death—Many a trapp is set

to insnare the fee tof youth.

The w stmnhas made a g oldensett,And, by e brighttrack of his g oldencart,Gives tokenof a g oodly day to

-morrow .

RULE 111. Words ending iny, form the plural of nouns, thepersons of verbs, participial nouns, pastparticiples, comparatives,and superlatives, by chang ing 31 into i, whenthe y is preceded bya consonant; as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carried , he carries ;carrier, carried happy, happier,happiest.The present participle in ing , retains the y thati may notbe

doubled as, carry, carrying .

24 oarnocm nr .

But wheny is preceded by avowel, insuchinstancesis not chang ed ~ into i ; as, boy, boys ; I clay, he clays ;

exceptinthe Words lay, pay, and say ; from whichare‘formed

laid,paid, and said and their compounds, unpaid, unsaid, &c .

False Orthog raphy .- Our fancys should be g overned by reaso

W earyestthyself invain— H e den ed himself all sinful pleasures.

Winstrafi ng souls withm estyand love ;Castnone away.

The truly g ood manis notdismaied by poveEre freshmorning streak the east, w e must:

~

allies g reen.

RULE IV . Whenwords ending iny, assume anadditional syllable beg inning withaconsonant, the y, if itis preceded by acon.

sonant, is commonly chang ed to i ; as,happy,happily,hamn'

ness .

Butwheny is preceded by,avowel , insuchinstances, itis very.

rarely chan ed to i ; as,’

coy, cay‘

less boy, boyish; boyhood ; joy,10311838, Joy

False Orthog raphy — H is mind is uninfluenced by faincyfi llhumors.—The

vesselwasheavyly laden—Whenw e actag ametconscience,w e become thedestroiers of our ownpeace .

Christiana, maydenofheroic mien!Star of the north! of northernstars the queen!

RULE v. Monosy l lables, and words accented onthe lastsyllable, ending witha sing le consonant, thatis preceded by a sing levowel , double thatconsonantwhenthey assume another sy l lablethatbeg ins withavowel as, wit, witty thin, thinnish to abet,anabetter .

But if a diphthong precedes, or theaccent is notonthe lastsy l lable, the consonantremains sing le as, to toil, toiling to qfi

'

er,

anqfl'

ering maid, maiden.

False Orthog raphy .—The business of to-day, should notbe defered till to

morrow .- Thatlaw is annuled .

—Whenw e have outstriped our errors w e

have w on the race .—By detering our repentance , w e accumulate our sor

rows— The ChristianLaw g iver has prohibitted many thing s whichthe henphilosophers allow ed .

Atsummer eve,whenheaven’s aerial bow

RULE VI . Words ending indouble l, in

ful, after them, general ly omitone I ; as,skilful.Butwords ending inany double . letter butI, and taking ness,

less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double as,harmlessnss s carelessness carelessly , stifly, successful.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

20 arr/mow er AND SYNTAX .

manner as the simple words of whichthey are compoundedas, g lasshouse, skylig ht, thereby, hereafter . Many words endingindouble 1, are exceptions to this rule as,already,welfare, wilful,fulfi l ; and also the words, wherevp

r, christmas, lammas, doc.

False Orthog raphy .— The Jew ’

s pasover was instituted inA . M . 2513.

They salute one another by touching their forheads.— Thatwhichis some

times expedient, is notallways so.

Then, inthe scale of reas’ning life’tis plain,

There mustbe,somwhere

,sucharank as man.

Tillhym enbroughthis icy -delighted hour,There dw eltno

'

oy inEden’s rosy bow er.

The head reclmed, the loosenedhair,The limbs relaxed, the mournful airSee ,he looks up ; aw ofi ill smileLightenshis w o-w orncheek awhile .

You may now answer the fol lowingQUESTIONS.

Whatis lang uag e l— How is lang uag e divided’

.l -Whatisnatu

ral lang uag e l— Whatare the ,

elements of natural lang uag e inmanl— Whereinconsists the lang uag e of brutes l— What is artifi cial lang uag e la t-Whatis anidea

l

l -Whatare words l—a-Whatis g rammar

- Whatdoes Universal g rammar explainl—uWhereindoes Particu lar g rammar differ from universal - 1What is thestandardofg rammatical accuracy il l—Whatis Philosophical g rammar?4—l-WhatisPractical g rammar lL

‘LWhatisaprinciple ofg ram

mar -A definitionli-f- A ru le ill -What is Eng lishg rammar 1?Into how many parts is g rammar divided l

—“Whatdoes Orthography teach2

ETY M OLOGY AND SYNTAX

LECTURE II .

OF NOUNS AND VERBS.

L‘ETYM OLOGY treats of the different sorts of Words,

their various modifi cations, and their derivation.

3 SYNTAX ltreats of the ag reement and g overnmentof words, and of their proper arrang ement inasentencen

The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the orig inor pedig ree of words .

Syn,aprefix fromthe Greek, sig nifies tog ether . Syn- tax,means

placing tog ether or, as appl ied ing rammar, sentence making .

srvmow cr AND srm sx . 27

The rules of syntax , whichdirectto the proper choice of words,and the ir judicious arrang ementinasentence,and the reby enableus to correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on

principles unfolded and explained by Etymolog y . Etymolog i.

cal know ledg e ,then, isaprerequisite to the study ofSyntax but, in

parsing , under the head of Etymolog y, you are required to applythe ru les of Syntax . Itbecomes necessary, therefore, inapractical work of this sort, to treatthese two parts of g rammar in

connexion.

Conducted on scientific principles, Etymolog y would com

prehend the expositionof the orig inand meaning of words, and,inshort, their whole history, including their appl icationto thing sinaccordance withthe laws of nature and of thought, and thecaprice of those who appl y them butto fol low upthe currentof

lang uag e to its various sources, and analyz e the spring s fromwhichit flows, would involve a process altog ether too arduousand extensive for anelementary work. Itwould lead to the studyof all these lang uag es from whichours is immediately derived,and even compe l us to trace many words throughthose lan.

g uag es to others more ancient, and so on, until the chainof re

searchwou ld become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to betraced outby one man. I shal l , therefore, confi ne myself to thefollowing , limited views of this part of g rammar.

l . Etymolog y treats of the classifi cationof words.

2 . Etymolog y explains the accidents or properties pecu l iar to

eachclass or sortof words, and their present modifi cations . Bymodifications, I mean the chang es produced ontheir ending s, inconsequence .of their assuming different relations in respect to

one another. These chang es, suchas fruit, fruits, fruit’s ; he,

has, him ; write, writest, writeth, writes, wrote, written, w riting ,

writer ; a, an; ample, amply, and'

the l ike, will be explained .

intheir appropriate places .

3. Etymolog y treats of the derivation of words ; that is, itteaches you how one word comes from, or g rows outqf another.

For example ; from the word speak, come the words speakest,speaketh, speaks, speaking , spoke, spoken, speaker, speaker

’

s,

speakers . These, you perceive, are all one and the same word,and all, except the last three, express the same kind of action.

They differ from eachother only inthe termination. Thesechang es in terminationare produced on the word in order to

make itcorrespond withthe various persons who speak, the number of persons, or the time of speaking ; as, I speak, thou speaest, the man speaketh, or speaks, the men speak, [ spoke Thespeaker speaks another speaker

’

s speech.

28 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

The third part of Etymolog y , whichis intimately connectedwiththe second, wil l be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV.

and inthe Philosophical notes ; butI shal l not treat larg e ly of

thatbranchof derivationwhichconsists intracing words to for

eig nlang uag es. This is the province of the lexicog rapher, ratherthanof the philolog ist. Itisnotthe business of him whowrites apractical , Eng l ish g rammar, to trace words to the Saxon, norto the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the Mexican, nor the Per.

sian; nor is it his province to explain their meaning in Latin,French, or Hebrew , Ital ian, Moheg an, or Sanscrit; but it is hisduty to explain their properties, their powers, their connexions,relations

,dependancies, and bearing s, notatthe period inwhich

the Danes made anirruptioninto the island of GreatBritain, norin the year inwhichLamechpaid his addresses to AdahandZillah, butatthe particular period inwhichhe writes . His wordsare already derived, formed, established, and furnished to hishand, andhe is bound to take them and explainthem as he findsthem inhis day, withoutany reg ard to their ancient constructionand application.

CLASSIFICATION.

Inarrang ing the parts of speech, I conceive itto be the leg itimate object of the practical g rammarian, to consu lt practicalconvenience. The true principle of classification seems to be ,

not a reference to essential differences in the primitive meaning of words

,nor to their orig inal combinations, but to the man

ner inwhichthey are atpresentemployed . Inthe early and rude

state of society , mankind are quite l imited in their’

know ledg e,and having but few ideas to communicate, a smal l number of

words answers their purpose inthe transmissionof thought. Thisleads them to express their ideas in short, detached sentences,requiring few or none of those connectives, or words of transition.

whichare afterwards introduced into lang uag e by refinement,and whichcontribute so larg ely to its perspicuity and eleg ance .

The arg ument appears to be conclusive, then, that every lan

g uag e mustnecessarily have more parts of speechinits re fi ned

thaninits barbarous state .

The partof speechto whichany word belong s, is ascertainednotby the orig inal sig nificationof that word, butby its presentmanner of meaning , or

,rather, the ofi ice whichitperforms in a

sentence .

The various ways inwhichaword is appl ied to the ideawhichit represents, are cal led its manner of meaning . Thus, The

CLASSIFICATION

painter dipshis paintbrushinpaint, to paintthe carriag e . Here ,the word paint, is first employed to describe the brushwhichthe

painte r uses ; inthis situationit is, therefore , anadjective sec

ondly, to name the mixture employed ; for whichreasonit is anoun; and, lastly, to express the actionperformed ; ittherefore,becomes averb and yet, the meaning of the word is the same

inall these appl ications. This meaning , however, is appl ied inditl

'

erentways ; and thus the same word becomesdifferent partsof speech. Richard took water from the water pot, to water the

plants .

ETYMOLOGY .

Etymolog y treats, fi rst, of the classifi cationof words.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon,Danish, Celtic, and Gothic ; but in the prog ressive stag es of its

refinement, ithas been g reatly enriched by accessions from theGreek, Latin, French, Spanish, Ital ian, and German lang uag es.

The number of words inour lang uag e, after deducting propernames, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns,and adjectives, may be estimated ataboutforty thousand.

There are tensorts of words, calledparts of speech,

namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANT IVE, vane, ART ICLE,ADJECT IVE, PART IC IPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSIT ION

, PRO

NOUN, CONJUNCTION, and INTERJECT ION .

Thus you perceive, thatall the words inthe Eng l ishlang uag eare included inthese ten classes : and what you have to do inacquiring aknow ledg e ofEng l ishGrammar, is merely to becomeacquainted withthese tenparts of speech, and the rules of Syntax thatapply to them . The Nounand Verbare the most im

portantand leading parts of speech therefore they are fi rstpresented : all the rest(exceptthe interjection) are either appenda

g es or connectives of these two . As you proceed, you w ill fi ndthat itwill require more time, and costyou more labor, to g etaknow ledg e of the nounand verb, thanitwil l to become famil iarwithall the minor parts of speech.

The principal use of words is, to name thing s, compare themwitheachother, and express their actions .

Nouns, whichare the names of entities or thing s, adjectives,whichdenote the comparisons and relations of thing s by describing them,and expressing their qual ities, and verbs, whichexpressthe actions and being of thing s, are the only classes of words

3:

30 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

necessarily recog nised inaphilosophical View of g rammar . Bu1

ina treatise whichconsu lts, mainly, the practical ad\ antag es of

the learner, itis believed, thatno C lassificationwil l be foundmoreconvenientor accurate thanthe foreg oing , whichdivides wordsinto tensorts . To attempt to prove, inthis place, that nothingwou ld be g ained by adopting either a less or a g reater numberof the parts of speech, wou ld be anticipating the subject. I

Shal l , therefore,. g ive my reasons‘

for adopting this arrang ementin

preference to any other, as the different sorts of words are re

specti/ely presented to you, for then you wil l be better preparedto appreciate my arg uments .

OF NOUNS.

A NOUN is the name of any‘

person, place, or thing ;as

,man

,Charleston, knowledg e.

Nouns are often improperly cal led s ubstantives . A substanfi ve is the name Of a substance only ; butanounis the nameeither of asubstance or aquality .

Noun, derived from the Latin word nomen, sig nifies name.

The name of any thing* that exists

,whether animate or inani

The w ord thin from the Saxonverb thing ian, to think,is almost nu

limited inits meanmg . Itmay be applied to every animal and creature inthe universe . By the term creature

,I mean that whichhas beencreated ;

as, adog , water, dirt. This w ord is also frequently applied to actions ; asTo g etdrunk is abeastly thing .

”Inthis phrase ,

itsignifi es neither animalnor creature ; but it denotes merely anaction; therefore this actionis thething .

NOTES ON PH ILOSOPH ICAL GRAMMAR .

Perhaps no subjecthas, in this ag e , elicited more patient research, andcritical investig ationof ori g inal, constituent principles, formations, and com

binations, thanthe Eng lishlang uag e . The leg itimate province of philolo ghowever, as I humbly conceive ,

has,in some instances

, beenmade to yie d

to thatof philosophy ,so far as to divert the attention from the: combinations

of our lang uag e whichrefi nementhas introduced ,to radical elements and

associations whichno way concernthe prog ress of literature , or the essentialLuse for whichlang uag e was intended. Were this retrug i essive mode of in

.fvestig ating and a plying principles, to Obtain, among philolog ists, the ascendency over thatw i ichaccommodates the u se of lang uag e to prog ressive re

fi nement,itis easy to conceive the state of barbarism to whichsociety w ould

,

ina shorttime , be reduced . Moreover, if whatsome call the philosophy of

Lang uag e , w ere to supersede , altog ether, the province of philolog y as itapplies to the present, prog ressive and re fi ned state of Eng lishliterature ,

the

g reat Object contemplated by the learned,inall ag es, namely , the approxi

mationof lang uag e , incommonw ithevery thing else ,to thatpointofpe rfec

tionatwhichitis the ObjectOf correctphilolog y to arrive ,w ould be frustrated.

‘The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and ms

ionaries who absurdly endeavor to teachmodern Eng lish, by rejecting the

nouns — commonAND raoraa. 31

mate, or whichwe cansee, hear, feel , taste, smel l , or think of, is '

anoun. Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fi eld, house,modesty, virtue, dang er, are all nouns . In order that you mayeasily disting uishthis partof speechfrom others, I wil l g ive youasig n, whichwill be useful to you when you cannot tel l itbythe sense. Any word that wil l make sense withthe before it, isanoun. .Try the following words by this sig n, and see if theyare nouns : tree, mountain, soul , mind, conscience, understand

ing . The tree, the. mountain, the soul , and so on. You perceive,

thatthey wil l make sense withthe prefixed therefore you knowthey are nouns . There are, however, exceptions to this ru le, forsome nouns wil l notmake sense ,

withthe prefixed. These youwil l be able to disting uish, if you exercise your mind, by theirmaking senseqfthemselves as, g oodness, sobriety,hope, immortality.

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of athing ,as well as its real ity ; as, nothing , naug ht, vacancy, non- existence,invisibility.

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to their manner of meaning ; and nouns are sometimes

used as adjectives, and adjectives, as n’

ouns. This matter w il lbe explained inthe concluding partof this lecture, where you ,

wil l be better prepared to comprehend it.

authority and sanctionof custom,and by conducting the learner back to theorig inal combinations, and the detached, dis

'

ointed, and barbarous constructions of our prog enitors, bothprudence andreason, as well as adue regard

for correct hilolovy , impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, by

bring ing,' to tieiraidalittle sophistry ,muchduplicity , andawholesale traffi c

in the sw elliufrphrases, hilosophy, reason, and commonsense ,

"attempt

to ove rthrow the w isdom offormer 0 es,and show thatthe res ultof all the

labors of those disting u ished philolog i sts who had previously occupied thefi e ld of g rammatical science , is nothing but error and folly, will doubtlessmeetthe neg lect and contempt justly merited by suchconsummate vanityand unblushmg pedantry . Fortunately for those who em loy our lon

g6

as their vehicle of mental conference , custom will not yiad to the spgl

diifalive theories of the visionary . If it w ould, im rovement ln- Eng lishliterature w ould soonbe atanend, and we should e tamely conducted back tomaVandalic a e .

As the use ofwhat is commonly called the philosophy of lang uag e, is evi~deutly misa

pplied by those who make it the test of ammatical certainty ,

itmay not e amiss to offer afew considerations wi aview to expose thehi llacy of so vag ue acriterion.

All reasoning and investigationwhichdepend onthe philosophy of lan

g ua e for anultimate result, must be conducted aposteriori . Its of fice , noc o in" m the ordinary mode of trentino the subject, is to trace lang uag e toits orig in. not for the purpose of determmihg and fi x ing g rammatical associations and dependances , suchas the ag reement, g overnment

, and mutual re lations of word s

, but inorde r to analyz e combinations w ithaview to develothe fi rstprinciples of the lang uag e , and arrive at the primitive meaning of

32 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

NOUNS are of two kinds,commonand proper.

A Commonnounis the name ofasort or species ofthing s ; as, man, tree, river .

A P roper nounis the name of an individual ; as,Charles, Ithaca, Gang es.

i A nounsignifying many, is calledacollectivenoun,r nounof multitude; as, the people, the army .

The distinctionbetweena commonand aproper noun, is veryobvious. For example boy is a commonnoun, because itis aname applied to all boys ; but Charles is aproper noun, becauseitis the name of an individual boy . A lthoughmany boys mayhave the same name, yetyou know itis nota commonnoun

,for

the name Charles is notg ivento all boys . M ississippi is aproper noun, because it is the name of anindividual river ; butr iveris a commonnoun, because itis the name of aspecies of thing s,and the name river is commonto all rivers.

Nouns whichdenote the g enus, species, or variety of being sor thing s, are always common; as, tree, the g enus ; oak

,ash

,

chestnut, poplar, differentspecies ; and red oak, white oak,black

oak,varieties. The word earth, whenitsig nifies a kind or quan

tity of dirt, is a common noun; but whenit denotes the planetwe inhabit, it is aproper noun. The words person, place, river.

w ords. Now , it is presumed,thatno one who has paid critical attentionto

the subject, w ill contend, that the orig inal import of sing le w ords,has any

relation to the syntactical dependances and connexions of w ords in g eneral — to g ainaknow ledg e of which, is the leading objectof the studentin

g rammar . And,furthermore , I challeng e those who have indulg ed insuch

useless vagaries, to show by whatprocess, w iththeir ownsystems,they can

communicate apractical know ledg e of G rammar . I ventu re to predict, that,if the make the attempt, they W ill fi ndtheir systems more splendid inthe.

ory ,t anuseful inpractice .

A gain, itcannotrationally be contended,thatthe radical meaning has any

e fi imency incontrolling the signifi cationwhich, by the pow er of association,customhas assigned to many w ords — asignificationessentially dif ferentfromthe orig inal import. Werethis the case , and w ere the lang uag e now to be

tau ghtand understood in compliance withthe orig inal importof w ords, it

w ouldhave to unde rg o athoroughchang e to be analyz ed,divided,

and sub

divided, almostad infi nitum. Indeed,

there is the same propriety inasserting , that the Gothic, Danish, and Ang lo- Saxon elements in our lang uag e .

0‘

ightto be pronounced separate ly , to enable us to understand our ver naculartong ue , thatthere is in contending , that their primitive meaning has anascendency over the influence of the principle of associationinchang ing , andthe ow er of custom indetermining , the import of w ords. Many of our

ward’

s are derived from the Greek,Roma French, Spanish, Italian, and

Ge rman lang uag es ; and the only use w e fi nake of their oricrinals, is ti

render them subservientto the force of o" l n in cases inwhichg eneral

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34 Brrmomcr AND sr i. rAx .

distinctobjectofthou ght, while w e use the wordwhitethe nounto whichitbelong s ; as, white paper, white

4 . some authorshave proceeded to still more minute divisions and subdivisions -0fnouns ; such, for example , as the follow ing , whichup ear to bemore complex,

than useful : Natu ral nouns, or names of thing s ormed bynature ; as,

’

man, beast, water, air : 2 . Artifi cial nouns , or names of thing sformed by art; as, book ,

vessel,house 3. P ersonal nouns, or thosewhichstand for human- being s ; as, man, w oman, Edw in: 4 . Neuter nouns

,or

those whichdenote thing s inanimate ; as, book ,fi eld, mountain

,Cincinnati.

The following , how ever, is quite arational division: hiaterial nouns are thenames of thino s formed of matter ; as, stone , book : Immaterial nouns arethe names of filing s having no substance ; as, hope ,

immortality .

To nouns belong gender, person,number, and case.

GENDER .

GENDER is the distinctionofsex . Nounshave three

g enders, the masculine, the feminine, and theneuter.

Themasculinegender denotesmales; as,aman, aboy .

The feminine gender denotes females ; as, a woman

,ag irl.

Theneuter gender denotes things Without sex ; as,ahat, astick.

Neuter means neither : therefore neuter g ender signifi es nei .

[her g ender ; thatis, neither mascul ine nor feminine . Hence;sive chang e , inall those combinations, relations, and dependances, even to

the lastletter of the alphabet. And before w e can consent to this radicalmodifi cationand retrog rade ratio of the Eng lishlang uag e , w e must: ag ree to

revive the customs,the habits, and the precise lang uag e of our prog enitors,

the Goths and Vandals. Were all the advocates for the introductionof such

philosophical g rammars into common schools, at once to enter ontheir pil

g rimag e , and recede into the native obscurity and barbarity of the ancientBritons, P icts, and Vandals, itis believed, thatthe cause of learning and re

fi nementw ouldnotsuffer g reatly by their loss, and thatthe g ood sense of the

presentag e , w ould notallow many of our bestteachers to be of the party .

The lastconsiderationwhichI shall g ive aphilosophical manner of investigating and enforcing the Eng lishlang uag e , is, that by this mode of suslyz inc7 and reducing itto practice , itcannot, inthis ag e, be comprehended as themedium of thought. Were this method to prevail, our presentliteral lan

guag e w ould become adead letter . Ofwhatavail is lang uag e ,

if itcannote understood ? And how can itbe accommodated to the understanding ,

unless itreceive the sanctionof common consent? Even if w e admit thatsuchamanner of unfolding the principles of ou r lanG u 0e , is m ore rationaland correctthanthe ordinary, practical method, I thmk itis clear thatsuchamode of investig ationand development, doesnotmeetthe necessities andconvenience of ordina learners in school. -To be consistent, that system

whichinstructs by tracm g a few of our w ords to their origin, must unfoldthe whole inthe sam e manner. But the student in common schools andacademies, cannotafford time to stem the tide of lang uag e up to its source

Nus .— G BNDBB . 35

neuter g endermeansnog ender . Strictly speaking , then, as there"

are buttwo sexes, nouns have buttwo g enders ; butfor the sake

of practical convenience, we apply to them three g enders, bycal l in thata g ender whichis no g ender. The Eng l ishand thepureTemian, appear to be the only lang uag es whichobserve, in

the distinctionof sex, the natural divisionof nouns — The g enders of nouns are so easily known, thata farther explanationof

them is unnecessary, exceptwhatis g iveninthe fol lowingNOTES .

1. The same noun is sometimes masculine and feminine , and sometimes

masculine or feminine . The nounparents is of the masculine and feminineg ender. The nouns parent, associate, neig hbor , servant,friend, chi ld, bi rd,fi sh,&c. if doubtful, are of the masculine or feminine g ender.

2 . Somenounsnaturallvneuter,are ,whenused fi mratively, or personifi ed,

converted into the masculine or feminine g ender. Those nounsare g enerallyrendered masculine ,

whichare conspicuous for the attributes of impartingor communicating , and whichare by natu re strong and effi cacious ; as, thesun, time , death, sleep, winter, ctr . Those , ag ain, are g enerally feminine ,whichare conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bring ing forth, orwhichare very beautifu l, mild, or amiable ; as, the earth

,moon, church, boat,

w as], city , country , nature, ship, soul,fortune, virtue,hope, sprin peace,&c.

This principle for designatio the sex of a personifi ed object, w°

chis quiterational, is g enerally adhere to inthe Eng lishlang uag e ; but, insome instances, the poetapplies the sex according to his fancThe masculine and feminine g enders are disting uished inthree ways

1. By difl'

erentwords : as,Feminine. M asculine.

maid Boysow Brother

and there dive to the bottom of the fountain for knowledg e . Suchlaboroughtnotto be required of him . H is objectis to become

, notaphilosophical anti uarian, butapractical g rammarian. If I comprehend the design( if they ave any) of our modernphilosophical w rite rs onthis subject, it isto make g rammarians by inculcating a few g eneral principles, arising outof

the g enius of the lang uag e , and the nature of thing s, whichthe learner, bythe exercise ofhis reasoning powers, must reduce to practice . H is ownjudgment, ind

ependentof g rammar rules, is to be his g uide inspeaking and

writing eorrec y . Hence , many of them exclude from their svstoms, all

exe rcises inwhat is calle dfalse Syntax . Butthese pro found philolo g icnldictators appear to have overlooked the important consideration. that theg reatmass of mankind, and especially of boys and g irls incommonschools.

cannever become philosophers ; and,consequently , can never comprehend

and reduce to metico their metaphysical and obscure systems of g rammar.I w ishto see c ildrentreated as reasoning being s. But there should he amedium inall thing s. It is . thcretiu e , absurd to instructchildrenas if theywere already prof ound philosophers and log icians.

To demonstrate the utility , and euthrce the necessity, of exercising thelearner incorrecting /also Syn/ax . I need no othe r arg umentthanthe interesting and undeniable fact. thatM r. Murray

’

s labors . inthis department,haveetfected acomplete revolution in the Iinghshlang uag e , in int of verba.accuraev. Who doe s not know . that the best w rite rs of is day, are notguilty ofone gm iomu

'

um‘itarc-mm '

y ,where these authors who wrote before

86 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

Sing er

auntqueenlass madam

2 . By adifi'

erenceabbess

M r. M urray flourished, are g uilty of fi ve And whathas produced this importantchang e for the better ? Ask the hund reds of thousands who havestudied M r. Murray

’s exercises in FALSE SYNTAX . If

,then, this view of

the subject is correct, itfollow s,thatthe g reater portionof our philosophical

g rammars, are far more w orthy the attentionof literary connoisseurs, thanof the g reatmass of learners.

Know ing thatastrong predilection for philosophical g rammars, exists inthe m inds of some teachers of this science , I have thou ght proper, for tho

tifi cationof such,to intersperse throu ghthe pag es of this w ork

,under the

gr

i d of PH ILOSO PH ICAL Nor s s,” an entire system of g rammatical princi

ples as deduced from whatappears to me to be the mostrationaland consistentphiloso hical invest

’

ngations. They who prefer this theory to thatexhibited inthebody of the w ork

,are , of course , at liberty to adoptit.

Ing eneral, aphilosophical theory of g rammar will befound to accord withthe practical theory embraced in the body of this work. Wherever such I

ag reement ex ists, the system contained in these Nor ss will be defi cient. andthis defi ciency may be supplied by adopting the principles contained in theother parts of the work.

wanna— ransom. 87

poetess Sultanpriestess

princess

prioress

prophetessproprietress

protectress

shepherdesssong stresssorce ress

suits-ass

3. By prefi z ingA cock-sparrow

A man-servanthe oat

A he at

A male-childMale-descendants

PERSON.

PERSON is a property of the noun and pronounfvhichvaries the verb.

Thefi rstpersondenotes the speaker. M 3‘PIA“

The second person denotes the person or thingSpokento ; as, Listen, 0 earth!”

The third person denotes the person or thingspokenof ; as, The earththirsts.

”

Nouns have buttwo persons, the second and third. Whenamanspeaks, the pronounI or we is always used therefore nounscannever be inthe fi rstperson. Inexamples l ikethe fol lowing ,

or THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATIONor WmAccording to the method inwhichphilosophical investigations of lang uag ehave g enerally beenconducted, all our words should be reduced to two

for itcanbe easily shown, thatfrom thenounand verb, all the otherparts of speechhave sprung . Nay, more . They may evenbe reduced to

one . Verbs do not, inreality, express actions ; butthey are intrinsicall themere names of actions. The ideaofactionor being communicated by t em,

as w ell as the meaning of words ing eneral, ismerely inferential. The principle of reasoning assumed by the co ebrated Home Tooke , if carried to its fullextent, would result, it is believed, inproving thatwe have butone part ofspeech.Adnomts or adjectives w ere orig inally nouns. Sweet, red, white, are the

names of unlities. rmw ell as sweetness, redness. whiteness. The former ditferfrom the

qlatte r only intheir manner of signifi cation. To denote that the

name of some quality or substance is to be used inconnexionwithsomeothe r name , or, that this quality is to be attributed to some other name , w e

sometimes allix to it the termination on, art, or y : whichsignifi es g ive, add,or join. Whenw e em iloy the words woo den, woollen, wealthy , g rassy , theterminations onand y, y their own intrinsic meaning , g ive notice thatwo

4

Tig e r

Testator

Traitor

Tutor

TyrantVictorViscountVotaryWidoweranother word : as.

A hen-sparrow

A maid-servantA site oat

A she ar

A female-childFemale-descendants

38 e; Immm;s r AND s‘m rax .

some philolog ists suppose the nounto be inthe fi rst. person Thismay certify

,that I, Jonas Taylor, do hereby g ive and g rant,

”

ac . But it is evident, thatthe speaker or writer,inintroducing

his ownname,speaks (y

r himsel f consequently the nounis ofthe thirdperson.

If you wishto understand the persons of nouns, a l ittle sober

thought is requisite and, by exercising it, all difficu lties wil l beremoved. If I say ,my son,have you seenthe young man? you

perceive thatthe nounsonis of the second person, because I address myself tohim thatis, he is spokento butthe nounmanis Of the third person, because he is spokenof. Ag ain, if I say .

young man, have you seenmy son? manis of the second person,and son is of the third .

Hastthou leftthy blue course inthe heavens, g olden-hairedsunof the sky

Father, may the GreatSpiritso brightenthe chainof friend

ship betweenus, thata child may fi nd it, whenthe sunis asleep

inhis wig -wam behind the westernwaters .

LO, earthreceives him from the bending skies !

Sink down, ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise !Eternal Hope, thy g l ittering wing s exploreEarth’s loneliestbounds, and ocean

’s wildestshore .

Inthese examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, val leys.

and hOpe, are of the second person, and, as you wil l hereafte '

learn, inthe nominative case independent. Course,heavens, sky

Spirit, chain, friendship, child, sun, w ig -warn, waters, earth, skies,wing s, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the third person.

intend to g ive, add,or jozn, thenames of some other substances inwhichare

found the properties or qualities ofwood, wool, wealth, or g rass.

P ronouns are aclass of nouns,used instead of others to preventtheir dis

ag reeable repetition. Participles are certain forms of the verb. Articles,

interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are contractions Of ahbreviations of nouns and verbs. An (a, ane, or one) comes from anonad, to

add,to heap. The and that, from the Ang lo

- Saxon verb thean, to g et, assume . L0 is the imperative of look ; fy , offi an,

tohate ; andwelcome means.it is well thatyou are come. Incomes from the Gothic nouninna

,the inte

rior of the body ; and about, from boda,the fi rstoutward boundary . Throu g h

or thorou g his the Teutonicnounthu ruh,meaning passag e , g ate , door. P 7 om

is the Ang lo- Saxonnounf rum,

beg inning , source ,author . H e came f rom

(beg inning ) Batavia. If (formerly w ritteng rf, g ive, g m ) is the impe rativeof the Ang lo- Saxonverb g ifan, to g ive . I w ill remainif ( g ive or g rantthat

fact) he w ill ( remain) Bht comes from the Saxonverb bean- utan,to be '

out. I informed no one but (be-out,leave- out) my brother.

This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the manner inwhich, according to Hor’

ne Tooke’s principles, the tenparts of speechare

reduced to one . But I am , by no means,disposed to concede , thatthis is the

true principle of classifi cation; nor that it is any more philosophical or ra

NOUNS.— NUMBER . 39

NUMBER.NUMBER is the distinction of objects, as one or

more . Nouns are of two numbers, the singular andthe plural.The singular number implies butone ; as, abook.

Thepluralnumber impliesmorethanone ; as, booksnorms.

1. Somenouns are used only inthe sing u lar form ; as,hemp, flax, barley,wheat, pitch, old, sloth, pride ,honesty,

meekness, compassion, &c . ; othersonly in the p uml form ; as, bellow s

, scissors, ashes, riches, snufl'

ers, tong s,thanks, wag es, embers, ides, pains, vespers, &c .

2 . Some words are the same inbothnumbers ; as,deer, sheep, swine ; and,also,

hiatus, ap tus, series, species.

3. The plum number of nouns is snow lly formed by adding ato

g ulnr ; as, dove , doves ; face ,faces ; utsometimes

‘

we add es inthe pluralas, box , boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; carg o, carg oes.

4 . Nouns ending inf orfe, are rendered plural by achanc e ofthatterminatiOninto ass : as, half, halves ; w ife , wives ; except

'

e relief, reproof,and several others, whichform their plurals by the additionof 3 . Thoseending infl

'

,have the reg ular plural as, rufl

'

, ruti'

s ; except stafi‘

,staves.

5 . Nouns endmg iny m the sin lar, w ithno other vow el inthe same 8} l

tilble , chang e it into {es inthe p ural ; as, beauty , beauties ; fl flies. But

the y is notchang ed ,where there is another vow el inthe sylla Is ; as, key,

keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys ; valley, valleys ; chimney, chimneys.6 . Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics,pneumatics,hydraulics,fi e. are construed either as sing ular or plural nouns.

7 . The wordnews isalways smg ular. The nounsmeans, alms, and amends,boughplural. inform, may be either sing ular or plural insignifi cation. An

tiouotthanone whichallow s amore practical divisionand arrang ementofwords. What has been g enerally received as hilosophical g rammar,appears to possess no strong er claims to that imposing appellation than our

common, practical g rammars. Q uery . Is not M r. M urray’s octavo g ram

mar more w orthy the dignified title of a Philosophical Grammar,”than

Home Tooke’s Diversions of l’utley,” or William S . Cardell

’

s treatises on[an ag e ? Whatconstidites a kilosophical treatise ,

onthis,or oe y other

s ub eott PVhercinis there afi splay of philosophy inaspeculative , etymo

log ical perfor mance ,whichattempts to develop and explain the elements

and primitive meaning of w ords by tracing them to their orig in, superior tothe philosophy employed inthe development and illustration of the princi

ples by whichw e re G overned inapplying those w ords to their leg itimatepurpose . namely, twtoffor ming acorrectand convenientmedium by meansof whichw e cancommunicate our thoughts ? Does philosophy consist inransncking the mouldy records of antiqu ity , inorder to g um atthe ancientconstructionand sig ni fi cation of sing le words ? or have suchinvestigations,inreality any thing to do w ithg rammar 7Admitting that all the words of our lang uag e include , intheir or ig inala ifi cation, the import of nouns or names , and yet, itdoes not f ollow ,

thatthey now possess no other wens,and, intheir combinations and connexionsir sentences, are employ for no other purpose , thanbare! to m m? objects.

The/actof the case is , that words are variously combinedand applied , to

answer the distinct and diversifi ed purposes of naming objects, asserting

40 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

tipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiae, are always plural. Banditisnowused as the sing ular of Banditti .

8 . The follow ing norms form their plurals not according to any g eneralrule ; thus, man, men; woman, w omen; child, children; 0x ,

oxen; tooth,

teeth; g oose , g eese ; foot, feet; mouse , mice ; louse , lice ; brother, brothersor brethren; cow , cow s or kine ; penny, pence ,

or pennies when the coinis meant; die , dice for play , diesfor coining ; pea and fi sh, pease and fi shwhenthe species is meant, butpeas andfi shes whenw e refer to the number ;as, six peas, tenfi shes.

9. The follow ing compounds form their plurals thus : handful,handfuls ;cupfu l. cupfuls ; spoonful , spoonfulsz

— brother- in- law,brothers- ia-law ; court

martial, courts-martial .The following w ords form their lurals according to the rules of the lan

g uag es from whi chthey are ad opted.Sing ular .

AntithesisApex

Appendix

ArcanumAutomatonAxis

Basis

Beau

Vortex

Genn, imag inary spirits : g eniuses, persons of g reatmental abilities.

f Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: d ces, whenrefe rring to alg ebraic quantities.

truths. pointing outand ttmiting objects, attributing q ualities to objects, connecting objects

,and so on and onthisfactis fou nded the tru e philosoplzim l

pr inczpte of the classifi cationof words . Hence , anarrang ement of w ords

into classes according to this principle , follow ed by adevelopmentand illustrationof the principles and rules thatre g ulate us inthe proper use and applicationof w ords inoral and w ritten discourse , appears to approximate as

near to atrue de fi nitionofphilosophz'

catg rammar ,asany I am capable ofg iving .

Nmm s, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless consti

tuted the orig inal class of w ords ; ( if I may be allow ed to assume suchahypothesis as an orig inal class of words ;) but the ever-active principle of

Sing ala

GeniusGenu sHypothesisIgnis fatuus

Index

Lamina.Mag us

M emorandum

M etamcrphositParenthesisPhenomenon

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42 sr rnow cv AND SYNTAX .

Tably connected withthe verb, it is impossible for you to under.

stand them until you shal l have acquired some knowledg e of thispartof speech. I wil l , therefore,now g ive you apartial descriptionof the verb m connex ionwiththe noun

,whichwil l enable

me to illust1ate the cases of the nounso clearly, that you mayeasily comp1ehend their nature .

Inthe formationof lang uag e,mankind, inorder tohold conve i sewitheachother, found itnecessary, inthe ti1stplace, to g ive namesto the various objects by whichthey were surrounded. Hence theorig inof the fi rstpartof speech, whichwe denominate the noun.

Butmerely toname the objects whichthey beheld or thoughtof,was notsuffi cient for their purpose . They perceived thattheseobjects existed, moved

, acted, or caused some actionto be done .

In looking ata man, for instance, they perceived thathe l ived,

walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so on. They perceived thatplants g row , flowers bloom,and rivers flow . Hence the necessityof another panof speech, whose oflice itshou ld be to express theseexistences and actions . This second class of words We cal l

VERBS .

A VERB is aword whichsignifi es to BE,to DO

,or

to SUFFER as,I am I rule I am ruled.

Verbs are of three kinds,active

, passive, andneuter. They are also divided into regular, irregular,and defective .

The term verb is derived from the Latin‘

word verbum,which

signifi es a word . This partof speechis cal led averb or word,

because it is deemed the most importantword inevery sentenceand w ithoutaverb and nominative, either expressed or impl ied,no sentence can exist. The noun is the orig inal and leadingpart of speech; the verb comes next inorder, and is far more

complex thanthe noun. These two are the most useful inthelang uag e, and form the basis of the science of g 1a1111nar . Theother eig ht parts of speechare subordinate to these two and

you wil l hereafter leam ,of minor impo1tance .

For all practical pu i pose s the foreg oing defi nitionand u1v1su ;aof the verb though, perhaps, not philosophical ly correct

,w il l be.

found as convementas auv other . I adoptthem,the1efore , to be.

consistentw iththe principle, that, in ar1ang ing the rrate l ials of

this treatise, I shall notaltet 01 rejectany established defi nition,ru le, or p1inciple of g lammar unless

,inmy humble j udg ment

some practical advantag e to the learner is thereby g ained. Thefol lowing , some conside1 a g ood (it fi nition.

A VERB is aword whicherprrsve qflzrmatfoo .

VE RBS.—ACTIVE AND mam a. 43

Ari -active verb expresses action; and

The nominative case is the actor, or subjectof thei erb ; as, Johnwrites.

Inthis example, whichis the verb You know itis the wordwrites, because this word signifi es to do that is, itexpresses action, therefore, according to the defi nition, it is an active verb.

And you know,too, that the nounJohn is ,

the actor, thereforeJohnis inthe nominative case to the verb writes. Inthe expressions, The man walks— The boy plays— Thunders rol l— Warriors fi ght— you perceive that the words walks, plays, roll, andtig ht, are active verbs and you cannotbe ata loss to know, thatthe nouns man, boy, thunders, and warriors, are in the nominativecase.

As no actioncanbe produced without some ag entor movingcause, it fol lows, thatevery active verb musthave some actor or

ag ent. This actor, deer, or producer of the action, is the nominative . Nominative, from the Latinnomino, literal ly signifi es to

name; but inthe technical sense inwhichitis used ing rammar,itmeans the nounor pronounwhichis the subjectof affi rmation.

This subject or nominative may be active, passive, orneuter, ashereafter exemplifi ed.

A neuter verbexpresses neither actionnor passion,butbeing ,

or astate of being as, Johnsits .

Now,inthis example, Johnis not represented as anactor, but,

as the subjectof the verb sits, therefore Johnis inthe nominativecase to the verb. And you know thatthe word sits does notex

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

Plausible arg uments may be advanced, for rejecting neuter and passiveverbs ; but they have beenfound to be so convenient inpractice . that thetheory whichrecognises them , has stood the test of ag es. If you tell theonus; learner, that, in the followino expressions, The church rests 011 its

foundation; The book lies on the desk ; The boys remain( are) idle ,the

nouns church, book, and boys, are represented as actinw , and, therefore ,the

verbs rests . lies,remain, and are, are active, he will notbe lieve you , because

the re is no actionthatis apparent to his senses. And should you proceedGather, and,

by a labored and metaphysical investig ationand developmentof the laws of motion, attemptto prove tohim that every portionofmutter

is influenced by different, active principles, tending to produce chang e ,

"and,

there fore , every thing in universal nature is alway s acting , it is not at all

probable , that you could convince his understanding , in oppositionto thed inner testimony of his senses. Of whatavail to learners is atheory whichthey cannotcomprehend ?Among the various theorists and speculative writers onphilosophical g ram

mar, the ing enious Home Tooke stands pre -eminent; but, unfortunate l hisprincipal speculations onthe verb. have never metthe public eye W illiam

44 srvmonoov AND SYNTAX .

press apparentaction, buta conditionof being ; that is, it repre

sent‘

st

l ohnina particu lar state of existence ; therefore sits is aneuter verb. In speaking of the neuter g ender of nouns, I informed you,

thatneuter meansneither; from whichit fol lows, thatneuter g ender implies neither g entler ; that is, neither mascu l inenor feminine . Hence, by an easy transition of thought, youlearn, thatneuter, when applied to verbs, means neither of theother two classes ; that is, a neuter verb is one whichis neitheractive nor passive . Inthese examples, The man stands— Thelady l ives— The child sleeps— The world exists— the words standslives, sleeps, and exists

, are neuter verbs ; and the nouns, man,lady, child, and world, are all inthe nominative case, because eachis the subjectof a verb. Thus you perceive, thatwhenanounis in the nominative ease to anactive verb, it is the actor ; andwhenit is nominative to aneuter verb

,it is notanactor, butthe

subjectof the verb.

Some neuter verbs express being ing eneral ; as, The manis

King doms exis t. Others express being insome particular state

as; The manstands, sits , lies, or hang s .

I w il l now g ive you two sig ns , whichwil l enable you to dis.

ting uishthe verb from other parts of speech, when you cannottel l itby its sig nifi cation. Any word thatw il l make sense withto before it

,is a verb. Thus, to run

, to write,to smile, to sing ,

to hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any wordthatw il l conjug ate, is averb. Thus, I run, thou runnest,he runsI w rite

, thou writest, he writes ; I smile,660 . But the words,

boy, lady , child, and world, w il l notmake sense withto prefi xed— to boy , to lady, to world, is nonsense . Neither w il l they con

S. Cardellhas also rendered himself conspicuous inthe philolog ical fi eld, btaking aholder stand thanany of his predecessors. H is view of the verb is

novel,and ing eniously supported . The follow ing is the substance ofhis theory

or THE VERB .

A VERB is a word whichexpresses action; as, Manexists

Trees g row VVatersflow Mountains stand I am.

All verbs are active and have one objector m o re than one,expressed or

implied . The pillar stands ; that is, it lreeps itself in an e rect o r standingposture ; it upholds o r sustains itself in that pos inon. Thev are ; i. e . theyair themselves

,or breathe air ; they iftspu

’lf , vw ify, or uphold themselves byinhaling air.

Manyr verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, alwayshave a personalor verbal one implied . The clouds mo re 1 . e . move themselves along . Thetroops marched tw enty m iles aday ; i. c . marched themselves . The moonshines — The m oon shines or shed.» ashining ,

sheen, lustre, or br ig htness .

The sparrow fli es —flees or takes a flig ht. Talkers talk or speak words or

talk ; Walkers walk walking s or wall s ; The rain rains rain; S1tters sit or

hold sitting s or sessions .

Q

VEBBS .— NUM BER AND reason. 45

jug ate— I lady, thou ladiest, doc . is worse thannonsense . Hence

you perceive, thatthese words are not verbs . There are some

exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes used as nouns.

This wil l be explained by and by .

To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense.

At present I shal l speak only of the number and personof

verbs ; buthereafler I wil l g ive you aful l explanationofall the ir

properties. And permitme to inform you, that I shal l not lead

you into the intricacies of the science, until , by g radual and easv

prog ressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved inthem. Only suchprinciples wil l be elucidated, as youare prepared to understand atthe time they are unfolded before

you . You mustnotbe too anxious to g etalong rapidly butendeavor to become thoroughly acquainted withone principle, before you undertake another. This lecture wil l qualify you forthe next.NUMBER AND PERSONor vanes. You recol lect, that the nom

inativa is the actor or subject, and the active verb is the actionperformed by the nominative . By this you perceive, that averyintimate connexionor relationexists betweenthe nominative case

and the verb. If, therefore, only one creature or thing acts, onlyone action, atthe same instant, canbe done ; as, The g irlwrites .

The nominative g irl is here of the sing u lar number, because itsig nifi es butone person and the verbwrites denotes butone aotion, whichthe g irl performs ; therefore the verbwrites is of the

To

Sigve thatthere is no suchthing as aneuterverb, the follow ing appear

to be strong estarg uments adduced .

1. No portionof matter is ever inastate of perfectquiescence ; butthecomponent of eve ry thing are atall times

“influenced by different, active princip es, tending toproduce chang e .

” Hence , it follow s,that no he

higrzr thing canbe represented inaneuter or non-acting state.

is arg umentsupposes the essential character of the verb to be identifi edwiththe primary laws of action, as unfolded by the principles of physicalscience . The correctness of this positionmay be doubted ; but if itcanbeclearly demonstrated, that every particle of matter is always inmotion, itdoes not, by an means, follow , thatwe cannotspeak of thing s inastate of

quiescence . hat is false in factmay be correct ing rammar. The pointm i nted. is notwhether thing s always act, butwhether , whenwe assertor affi rm something respecting them, we always representthem anacting .

2 . Verbs were ori‘

nally used to express the motions or chang es of thing swhich reduced obvious actions, and, by aneasy transition, w ere afte

a li inthe same way . to thing s whose actions w ere notapparent.uis assumptionis untenable , and altog ether g ratuitous.

3 . Verbs called neuter are used inthe imperative mood ; and,as thismood

commands some one to do somethin any verb whichado'

ts it, mustbe acfi ve . Thus, inthe commonplace p u

'aees, Be there quicily ; Stand outof

my way ; Sit or Iic farther.

"

46 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

sing ular number, ag reeing w ithits nominative g irl. Whenthenominative case is plural, the verbmustbe plural as, g irls write.

Take notice, the sing ular verb ends ins, butthe nounis g eneral lyplural whenit ends ins ; thus, The g irl writes— the g irls write .

P erson, strictly speaking , is aqual ity thatbelong s notto verbs,but to nouns and pronouns . W e say, however, that the verbmustag ree w ithits nominative inperson, as wel l as innumber ;that is

,the verb must be spel led and spoken in suchamanner

as to correspond w iththefirst, second, or third personof the nounor pronounwhichis its nom inative .

I w i l l now show you how the verb is varied inorder to ag reew ithits nominative innumber and person. 1

,Thou, He

,She,

It; We, Y e or You , They, are personal pronouns . I is of theperson, and sing u lar number Thou is second person, sing ;She

, or It, is third per . sing . We isfi rstper . plural ; Ye or

You is second per. plural ; They is third per . plural. Theseuronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same

office thatthe nouns would for whichthey stand . Whenplacedbefore the verb, they are , therefore, the nominatives to the verb.

Notice , particu larly, the d ifferentvariatiOns or end ing s of theverb, as it is thus conj ug ated inthe

INDICATIVE Moon, PRESENT TENSE .

Sing ular .

l

'

P lural.

1 . P er . I walk, 1 . P er . W e Walk,2 . P er . Thou walkest, 2 . P er . Ye or you walk,3. P er . He walks, or 3 . P er . They walk, are

the boy walks, the boys walk .

or walketh.

Itis admitted thatthese verbs are here employed inanactivr sense ; butit is certain, thatthey are notused according to their proper, literal meaning .

WhenI tell aman,literally , to stand, sit, or lie, by moving he w ould disobey

me ; butwhen I say ,

“Stand out of my way , I employ the neuter ve rbstand,

instead o f,the active verb more or g o, and ina correspondent sense .

M y meaning is, M ove yourself out of my way ; or take your stand some

where else . This, how ever, does notprove thatstand is properly used. If

w e choose to overstep the bounds of custom ,w e canemploy any word inthe

lang uag e as an active -transitive verb. B e, sit, and lie, may be explained inthe same manner.

4 . Neuter verbs are used inconnex ionw ithadverbs whichexpress themanner ofae/ion. They m ust, therefore , be considered active verbs. The childsleeps soundly H e sits g enteelly They lw e contentedly andhappily tog ether.

Theclass of verbs thatare never employed as active,is small. By using

adverbs inconnex ionw ithverbs, w e canfairly prove thatsome verbs are not

active . Itis incorrectto say, I am happily They w ere peacefully ; She re

mains qu ietly The fi elds appear g reenly . These verbs in their commonacceptation. do not express action: for whichreasonw e say , I am happy ;Thev are p eaceful «Sec. But in the expressions. The child sleeps soundly :

vanes — nunnsnAND r eason. 4"

This d isplay of the verb shows you, thatwhenever itends ineat, it is of the second person sing ular ; butwhenthe verb endsins, or eth, it is of the third person sing ular . Walkest, ridest,etandest, are of the second personsing ular ; and walks orwalketh,rides or ridetlt, stands or standeth, are ofthe third personsing ular.

I have told you, thatwhenthe nominative is sing ularnumber,the verb must be ; whenthe nominative is plural , the verb must

be ; and whenthe nominative is first, second , or third person, theverbmustbe of the same person. I f you look ag ainatthe fore

g oing conjug ationof walk, you w i l l notice that the verb variesits end ing s inthe sing ular, in order to ag ree inform w iththefirst, second , and third personof its nominative ; but inthe plural itdoes not vary its end ing s from the first person sing ular.

The verb, however, ag rees in sense w ithits nominative intheplural , as wel l as inthe sing ular. Exercise a l ittle mind, andyou w il l perceive thatag re

’

ement and g overnment in lang uag e donot consistmerely in the form of words. Now , is it not clear,thatwhenI say, I walk, the verb walk is sing ular, because itex

presses but one action1 And whenI say, Two men is it

notequal ly apparent, thatwalk is plural, because itexp two

actions ? Inthe sentence, Tenmenwalk, the verbwalk denotestenactions, for there are tenactors. Commonsense teaches you,thatthere mustbe asmany actions as there are actors andthattheverb, whenithas noform or ending to show it, is as strictly plural, as whenithas . So, inthe phrase, We walk, the verb walkis fi rst person, because it expresses the actions performed by thespeakers : Ye or you walk, the verb is second person, denotingShe sits g racefully They livehappi ly and contentedly w e employ the verbssleeps, site, and live, inanactive sense . Whenno actionis intended, we say,The live happy and contented .

I onscientific principles, it canbe proved thatthose verbs g enerally dc.

nominated neute r, orig inally ex reseed action, the ir resent, accepted mean.

ing w ill still oppose the theory,For the g enerality otpmankind do notattach

i to them the ideaof action.

Thus Ihave endeavored topresentabriefbutimpartialabstractofthemodern1theiory of the verb, leaving itwiththe reader to estimate itaccording to its

4 Vaas .

To g ive asatisfactory de fi nitionof the verb, or suchaone as shallhe foundscientifically correct and unexceptionable , has hitherto baffled the skill

, andtranscended the lear ning , of our philosophical w rite rs. If its essential quality, as is g enerally sup used

,is made to consist inca rear ing afi rmalion. it

remains still to be de med whenaverb expresses athrmntion. InEng lish,and in. other lang uag es. wor ds appropriated to express affi rmation, are oftenbm d w ithoutany suchfo rce ; our ideaofaffi rmation, insuchinstances, be ingFthe mere inference of custom.

Inthe scntcncm Think, lore, andho le, denote moral actions,” the words

think , love, and hate, arc nouns, because they are more names ofactions. 80,

whenI say, John write is an irre g ular verb.

”the word write is a

48 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

the actions of the pei sons spoken to ; third person, They walk

The verb, then, whencorrectly written, always ag rees, insense,withits nominative innumber and person.

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neitherof whichcan be understood w ithouta"

knowledg e of the other.

Ittherefore becomes necessary to explainthem bothinthe same

lecture . You have beenalready informed, thatnounshave three

cases the nominative, the possessive . and the objective .

Pos‘

sssswnCASE . Thepossessive case denotes the

possessor of something ; as, This is John’shorse.

This expression imp l ies, thatJohn is the owner or possessor

of the horse ; and, thathorse is the property whichhe possesses.

When I say, These ai e the men’s, and those, the boys

’hats,the two words,

“boys hats,” p lainly convey the idea, i f they

have any meaning at all, thatthe boys ownor possess the hats.

Samuel Badg er sel ls boys’hats .

” Who owns the hats ? M r.

Badg er . How is that fact ascertained ? Not by the words,boys

’hats,”which, taken by themselves, imp ly, not thatthey

are M r . Badg er’s hats, nor that' they are for boys, butthatthey

are hats of, or belong ing to, or possessed by boys. Butwe inferfrom the words connected w iththe phrase, boys

’hats,”that the

boys are not yet, as the phrase l iteral ly denotes, in the actualpossessionof the hats. The possessionis anticipated .

Inthe phrases, fi ne hats, coarse hats, hig h- crowned hats, broadbrimmed hats, woollen, new, ten, some, these,many hats, the wordsin ital ics,-are adjectives, because they restrict, qual i fy, or definethe term hats ; butthe term boys

’ does notdescribe or l imit themeaning of hats . Boys,

’therefore, is not, as some suppose, an

adjective .

“The slave’s master . Does the slave possess the master ?Yes . The slave has amaster . I fhe has him, then,he possesseshim — he sustains that relationto him whichwe cal l possession.

noun butwhenI say ,

“John, wrzte your copy ,

write is called averb.

Why 18 this w ord considered anoun in one construction and averb intheother

,whenbothconstructions, until you pass beyond the w ord w rite

,are

exactly alike If w rite doesnot express actioninthe former sentence,nei

ther does it inthe latte r, for, inboth, it is introduced in the same manner.

Onscientific rinciples, write must be considered anoun in the latter sentence , for it (lboesnot express action, or make anaffi rmation butitmerelynames the actionwhichI w ishJohn to perform ,

and affirmationi s the inj er enleal meaning .

The verb inthe infi nitive,as w ell as in the imperative mood, is divested

of its affi rmative or verbal force . Inboththese moods, itis always presented inits noun- state.

If, after dinner, I say to aservant, Wine,”he infers, that I W ishhim to

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

50 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

putting tog ether letters so as to form syl lables, sy l lables so as ttform words, words so as to form sentences

, and sentences so as to

form a discourse, the process is cal led synthetic . Analysis, onthe contrary, is the actof decomposition that is, the actof separating any thing compounded into its simple parts, and therebyexhibiting i ts elementary principles . Etymolog y treats of theanalysis of lang uag e . To analyz e a sentence , is to separate

from one another and classify the differentwords of whichit iscomposed and toanalyz e or parse aword, means to enumerateand describe all its various properties, and its g rammatical relations w ithrespectto other words inasentence, and trace itthroughall its inflections or chang es . Perhaps, to you , this w i l l , at fi rst,appear to be of l ittle importance ; but, if you persevere, you w i l lhereafter fi nd itof g reat uti l ity, for parsing w i l l enable you todetect

, and correct, errors incomposition.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING .

The order of parsing aNOUN, is— a noun,and

why — common, proper, or collective,and why

g ender, and why -

person, andWhy —number,and

why — case, and why — RULE — decline it.

The order of parsing aVERB, is— averb

,andWhy ?

active, passive, or neuter, andwhy —ifactive— tran

sitive or intransitive,andwhy — ifpassiQe

— how is itformed —reg ular, irreg ular, ordefective

-and why 7

mood, andwhy — tense,andwhy —

personandnumber

,and why —withwhat does itag ree — RULE :

conjugate it.I w i l l now parse two nouns according to the ;order, and, inso

doing , by apply ing the defi nitions and ru les, I wer al

rocedure has beenadopted,and ,

inmany instances, is still practised,inour

lang uag e . An, ori g inally affi xed to ou r verbs. inthe prog re ss of re fi nenwnt,w as chang ed to en, and fi nally dropped. A few centuries ag o ,

the plural

number of our verbs was denoted by the terminationen thus. they we : m ,

they loven; but, as these te rm inations do not supersede the necessity of ex

pressing the subj ectofaffi rm ation, as is the case inthe Latinand Greek verbs,they have beenlaid aside ,

as unnecessary excrescences. For the same rea

son,w e fli ght, w ithout any disparag emei to the lang uag e , dispense w ith

the terminations of our verbs inthe sing ular .

ln support of the position,that these term inations w ere once separate

w ords, w e cantr ace many of them to their orig in To denote the feminine

g ende r of s ome nouns, w e affi x 8 93 ; as , ii eirf cs , instructress . 1'c is a cpn

tractionof the Hebrew nouncssa, a female . Of our ve rbs, the termination

novxs AND vanes — mamas . b:

mined the order of parsing anounand verb, y ou may proceed

.withme ; tut, recol lect, y ou cannot parse a verb infull, until oyou shal l have had amore complete explanationof it.

John’s hand trembles .

John’s is anoun, [because itis] the name of aperson—proper,

the. name ofanindividual— mascul ine g ender, itdenotesamalethi rd person, spokenof— sing ular number, it impl ies butoneand inthe possess ive case , itdenotes possession— itis g overned bythe noun“hand,

”according to

RULE 12 . A nounor pronoun in the possessive case, is g ov

erned by the nounitpossesses .

Decl ined— Sing . nom. John, poss . John’s, obj. John. Pluralnom . Johns, poss . Johns’, obj . Johns .

Hand is anoun, the name of athing — common, the name ofa

sortor species of thing s— neuter g ender, itdenotes a thing w ithout sex— third person, spokenof— sing . number, it impl ies butone— and in the nominative case

,it is the actor and subjectof

the verb trembles,”and g overns itag reeably to

RULE 3 . The nominative case g overns the verb — that is, thenominative determines the number and personof the verb.

Decl ined —Sing . nom. hand, poss . hand’s, obj . hand. Plur.

nom . hands, poss . hands’

,obj . hands .

fl embles is a ve rb, aword whichsig ni fi es to do— active, it exresses action— third person, sing u lar number, because the nom

tnative “hand is withwhichitag rees,according to

RULE 4 . The .verb must ag ree withits nominative innumberand person.

You mustnotsay thatthe verb is of the thirdpersOnbecause itisspokenof. The verb is never spoken of ; but it is of the thi rd

person, and sing ular or pl ural number, because its nominative is.

Conj ug ated— Firstpcrs . sing . I tremble,2 pers . thoutremblest, 3.

rs . he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plu ral , 1 pers . we trem.

le , 2 pers . ye or you tremble , 3 pers . they or the hands tremble .

eat is a contractionof ( local , clip. of death, a, of does . We say, thou dost or

doestlove : or thou lovest: i. e . love-dost, or love - (local . Some be lieve theseterminations to be contractions of honest, haveth. has . We aflix ed, acontmctionof dedc, to the presenttense of verbs to denote thatthe actionnamcd, is, dirt, doed, or done .

To and do , from the Go thic nountoni. signifying actor (f eet, are , according to Hom e Tooke ,

nearly alike inmeaning and force and whenthe cue

tom of affixing some mo re ancientvorbaliz inv adjunct. be ganto be droppedits place and meaning w e re g enamlly snp lied by pre fi xing one of theseWhen1my , I am g o ing to walk,

"the verbal or affi rmative force 18 conve

ed by the use of to. meaning the some as do and walk is employe d metal;

52 ETYM OLOG Y AND SYNTAX .

Government, in lang uag e, consists in the powerwhichone word has over another, in causing thatother word to be in some particular case, number.

person, mood, or tense.

ILLUSTRATION.

RULE 3 . The nominative case g overns the verb.

If you employ the p1onounI, which18 oi'

the fi rstperson, sing u lar number, as the nom inative to averb, the verb mustbe of

the fi rst pers . sing . thus,I smile and when your nominative is

second pers . sing . you r verb must be ; as, thou smilest. Why,inthe latter instance, does the ending of the verb chang e to est

Because the nom inative chang es, And if your nominative isthird person, the verb w i l l vary ag ain,

thus, he smi les, the mansmi les . How clear it is, then, that the nominative g overns theverb, that Is, the nom inative has power to chang e the form and

meaning of the verb, in respect to num . and person. Government, thus far, is evinced in the form of the words, as wel l asinthe sense :

RULE 4 . The verb must ag ree withits nominative innumberand person.

It is improper to say, thou hear, the menhears . Why im

proper? Because hear is firstpers . and

‘

the‘nom inative thou is

second pers . hears is sing u lar, and the nom . menis plural. Ru le4thsays, The verbmust ag ree withits nominative. The expres

s ions should, therefore, be, thou hearest, the menhear ; and thenthe verb wou ld ag ree w ithits nom inatives . Butwhy musttheverb ag ree w ithits nominative ? Why mustwe say , thou talk.

est, the man talks, men talk ? Because the g enius of our lan

g uag e, and the common consent of those who speak it, require

sucha construction and this requisitionamounts to alaw or r ule.

This rule, then, is founded inthe nature of thing s, and sanctionedby g ood usag e.

RULE 12 . A nounor pronouninthe possessive case, is g overnedby the nounwhichitpossesses .

It is correctto say, The maneats,he eats butwe cannotsay,the mandog eats, he dog eats . Why not? Because the manis

as a. verbal name ; that assert that I shall do the act whichI name bythe w o1d walk, or the act of walking .

Pe rhaps such 8 ecnlations as these w ill prove to be more curious thanpro fi table . If it e made clearly to appear, that, on scientifi c principles,whenever the ve tbal name is unaccompanied by averbaliz ing adjunct, it isinthe noun- state, and does not express affi rmation, still this theory w ould bevery inconvenientinpractice .

I shall resume this subjectinLecture XI .

nouns ans vanes — mu ms . 53

here representedas the possessor , and dog , the property, or thingpossessed and the g enius of our lang uag e requires, that whenwe add to the possessor, the thing whichhe is represented as possess ing , the possessor shal l take aparticu lar form to show its case,or relationto the property thus, The man

’s dog eats,his dog eats .

You perceive, then, thatthe added noun, denoting the thing possessed, has powe r to chang e the form of the nounor pronoundenoting the possessor, according to RULE 12 . thus, by adding dog ,inthe preceding examples, man is chang ed to man

’s, and he, to

his .

Now parse the sentence whichI have parsed, unti l the manneris quite fami l iar to you ; and thenyou wil l be prepared to analyz e correctly and systematically, the fol low ing exercises. Whenyou parse, you may spread the Compendiinnbefore you ; and, if

you have not al ready committed the de fi nitions and rules, youmay read them onthat, as you apply them. This mode of pro

cedure w i l l enable you to learnall the defi nitions and rules byapply ing them to practice .

EXERCISES INPARSING .

Rain descends— Rains descend— Snow fal ls— Snows fal lThunder rol ls— Thunders rol l— Man

’s wor

‘

lcs decay— Men’

s la

bors cease —John’s dog barks

— El i z a’s voice trembles— Jul ia’

s

sister’s chi ld improves— Peter’

s cousin’

s horse l imps.

Inthe nextplace , I w ill parse anounand aneuter verb, whichverb, you w i l l notice, differs from anactive only inone respect.

B irds repose onthe branches of trees.

B irds is anoun, the name ofathing or creature— common, thename of a g enus or class— mascu l ine and feminine g ender, itdenotes bothmales and females— thi rd person, spoken of— pluralnumbe r, it impl ies more than one— and inthe nominative case ,it is the subject of the verb “

repose,”and g overns itaccording

to RULE 3 . The nominative case g overns the verb. DeclinedSing . nom . bird, poss . bird’

s, obj . bird. Plural ,nom . birds, poss.

birds ' , obj . birds .

Repose is a verb, 9. word thatsigni fi es to be— neuter, itexpresses neither actionnor pass ion, buta state of being

— thi rd pe 1son,plural number, because the nominative bi rds” is withwhichitag rees. ag reeably to RULE 4 . The verbmustag ree withits nominative ihnumber and person.

Dec l ined— I . pe rs sing . I repose, 2 . pers . thou reposest, 3.

pers . he reposes, or the bird reposes . Plur. 1 . pers. we repose,2 . pers . ye or you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or birds repose .

54 arruoLOGY AND s'm x .

Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs thatare disting u ishedby italics, inthe fol low ing

EXERCISES IN PARSING .

The book lies on the desk— The cloak hang s on the wal lllfan’s days are few— Cathmor’s warfi ors sleep indeath— Gallbo

reposes inthe narrow house— Jocund day stands tiptoe on them isty mountaintops. The sunbeams restonthe g rave where her

You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all thatfol low ,fi ve or six times over, if you please .

OBJECTIVE CASE .— AOTIVE TRANSITIVE VERBS .

The obj ective case expresses the objectof anactionor of a relation. It g enerally follows a transitive

verb,aparticiple, or apreposition.

A nounis in the objective case whenit is the object of some.

thing . Atpresent I shal l explainthis case only as the objectofan action; but when

‘

we shal l have advanced as far as to thc

pr. position, I w i l l also i l lustrate itas the objectof a relation.

Anactive verb is transitive whenthe actionpassesover from the subjectornominative to anobject;Richard strikes John.

Transitive means passing . In this sentence the actionof theverb strikes is transitive, because itpasses over from the nom inative Richard to the objectJohn; and you know that the nounJoanis inthe objective case, because it is the objectof the actionexpressed by the active -transitive verb strikes. This matter isvery plain. For example : Gallileo invented the te lescope . Nowit is evident

, thatGallileo did not exert his powers of invention,w ithoutsome objectinView . Inorder to ascertainthatobject, putthe question, Gallileo invented what? The telescope . Telescope,then, is the real object of the action, denoted by the transitiveverb invented and, therefore, telescope is inthe objective case .

If I say, The horse kicks the servant— Carpenters build houses—Oss ian wrote poems— Columbus discovered America— you

readi ly perceive , thatthe verbs kicks,build, wrote, and discovered,

express transitive actions ; and you cannot be ata loss to te l lwhich

'

nouns are inthe objective case — they are servant,houses,

poems, and America.

Thenominativeandobjective casesofnounsare g eneral ly knownby the fol low ing ru le : the nominative does something ; the ob

jectivehas something done to it. The nom inative g eneral ly comes

vsaas.—raxnsxrivs sun INTRANSITIVB . 55

bg’ore the verb ; and the objective,after it. WhenI say, Georg e

struck the servant, Georg e is inthe nominative, and servant is inthe objective case ; but, whenI say, The se rvant struck Georg e,servant is inthe nominative case, and Georg e is inthe objective .

Thus you perceive, that Case means the differentstate or situa

tionof nouns w ithreg ard to other words .

It is sometimes very diffi cult to tel l the case of a noun. Ishal l , therefore, take up this subject ag ain, whenI come to g iveyou anexplanationof the participle and preposition.

Bes ides the three cases already explained,nouns are sometimes11 the nominative case independent, sometimes in the nominativecase absolute , sometimes in apposition inthe same case, and

sometimes inthe nominative or objective case after the neuterto be, or after anactive - intransitive or passive verb. These casesare i l lustrated inLecture X . and inthe 2 1 and 22 rules of Syntax .

ACTIVE - INTRANSITIVE VERBS .

Anactive verb is transitive, whenthe actiontermiastes onanobject: butAnactive verb is intransitive, whenthe actiondoes

notterminate onanobject; as, Johnwalks.

You perce ive thatthe verb walks, inthis example, is intransitive, because the actiondoes not pass over to anobject; that is,the actionis confined to the ag entJohn. The fol low ing sig nw il l

g eneral ly enable you to disting u isha transitive verb from aniatransitive. Any verb that w ill make sense w iththe words a

thing , or a person, after it, is transitive. Try these verbs by thesig n, love, help, conquer, reach, subdue, overcome . Thus, you cansay, I love apersonor thing — I canhelpa personor thing — and

so on. Hence you know that these verbs are transitive . But

an intransitive verb wil l notmake sense w iththis sig n, whichfactwi l l be shown by the fol low ing examples : smile, g o, come, play,bark, walk,fly . We cannot say, if we meanto speak Eng lish,I smi le apersonor thing — l g o apersonor thing — hencc you per.

ceive that these verbs are nottransitive , but intrans itive .

if you reflect uponthese examples for a few moments, you w il lhave a clear conceptionof the nature of transitive and intransitive ve rbs . Before I close this subject, however, it is necessaryfartherto remark, thatsome transitive and intransitive verbs expresswhat is cal led amental ormoral action and others

, a corporealor physical action. Verbs expressing the ditfe rent affections or

operations of the mind, denote moral actions ; as, Brutus loved

56 E’

I’YM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

his country James hates vice We believe the tale — to repent,to relent, to think, to reflect, to mour n, to muse. Those express ingthe actions produced by matter, denote physical actions ; as, Thedog hears the bel l V i rg i l wrote the [Encad Col umbus discovered America —to see, to feel, to bCZnplO smell, to run, to talk, tofly,o strike. Inthe sentence, Charles resembles,

his father, the verbresembles does not appear to express any action atall ; yettheconstructionof the sentence, and the offi ce whichthe verb per

forms, are such, thatwe are obl ig ed to parse itas anactive-tran

sitive verb, g overning the neonfather in the objective case .

This you may easi ly reconci le in your m ind, by reflecting , thatthe verbhas adirectrfg

‘erence to its object. The fol low ing verbs

are of this character : Have, own, retain as, I have abook .

Active intransitive verbs are frequently made transitive. WhenI say, The birdsfly, the verbfly is intransitive ; butwhenI say ,The boy flies the k ite, the verbfly is transitive, and g overns thenounkite inthe objective ease . A lmost any active intransitiveverb

,and sometimes evenneuter verbs, are used as transitive .

The horse walks rapidly The boy runs sw iftly ; My friend liveswell The mandied of afever . Inall these examples the verbsare intransitive ; inthe fol low ing they are transitive The manwalks his horse ; The boy ran a race ; My friend lives aholyl ife ; Letme die the deathof the righteous.

The foreg oing developmentof the character of verbs,is deem

ed suffi ciently critical for practical purposes ; butif we dip al ittle deeper into the verbal fountain, we shal l discover qual itieswhichdo not appear onits surface . If w e throw aside the ve i lwhicharthas drawnover the real structure of speech, we shal lfi nd, that almostevery verbhas e ither apersonal or averbal objcet

,expressed or impl ied. Ve rbal objects, whichare the ej ects

or productions resu lting from the actions, being necessari ly im

pl ied, are se ldom expressed.

The fire burns . If the fi re burns, itmustburnwood,coal

,tal.

low, or some other combustible substance . The, man laug hs.

Laughs what’

.

Z Laughs laug hter or laug h. They walk ; that18

, They walk or take walks . Rivers flow (move or rol l them.

selves or the ir waters) into the ocean.

I sing the shady reg ions of the west. ”

And smile the wrinkles from the brow of ag e .

The chi ld weptitself sick and then, by taking (or sleeping ) asnortnap,

itslept itself qu ietand wel l ag ain.

“He w i l l soonsleephis everlasting sleep that is, “He w i l l sleep the sleep of death.

Thinkers think thoug hts ; Talkeis talk or employ words, talk.

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58 srvnow ev AND SYNTAX .

Trans . verb. P oss . case. Obj . case.

The g ale sweeps the mountain’s brow .

Pope translated Homer’s I l l iad.

C icero procured M i lo’s re lease .

A lexander conquered Darius’ army .

Perry met the enemy’s fleet.

Washing ton obtained his country’s freedom .

NOTE 1. The w ords the, that, those, and his, you need notparse .

2 . A nouninthe possessive case ,

' is sometimes g overned by anoununderstood i as, Julia

’s lessonis long er thanJohn

’s [ lesson. ]

As you have beenanalyzing nouns inthe ir three cases, itbe

comes necessary to present, inthe next place , the declensionot

nouns, for you mustdecl ine every noun you parse . Declens ionmeans putting anounthroughthe differentcases : and you w i l lnotice, thatthe possessive case varies from the nominative initsterm ination, or ending , butthe objective case ends l ike the nominative . The nominative and objective cases of nouns, must,

therefore, be ascertained by the ir situationinthe sentence, or by

considering the offi ce they perform .

DECLENSIONOF NOUNS .

SING .

‘ PLUR. SING . PLUR.

Nom. king king s Nom. man men

P oss . king’s king s

’P oss . man’s mens

Obj . king . k ing s. Obj . man. men

Now ,if you have parsed every word inthe preceding exam

ples, (exceptthe, that, those, and his ,) you may proceed w ithmeand parse the examples inthe fol low ing exercises, inwhichare

presented nouns and active- intransitive verbs.

My flock increases yearly .

Fhmk is anoun, a name denoting animals— anoun of multitude, it signi fi es many in one col lective body— mascul ine andfem inine g ender, denoting bothsexes— thi rd person, spokenof

sing ular number, itdenotes butone flock— and inthe nom inative

case, his the active ag entof the verb“increases, and g overns

it, accordinr to RULE 3 . The nominative case g overns the verb.

(Decl ine itsIncreases is averb, a word thatsig ni fi es to do— active, itex .

presses action— intransitive, the action does not pass over to anobject— of the third person, sing ular number, because its nomi .native flock conveys unity of idea and itag reesw ith flockag reeably toRULE 10. A noun (y

’ multitude conveying unity of idea, 772qhave averb or pronounag reeing withitinthe sing ular.

Nouns AND vanes - Panama. 59

The divided multitude hasti ly disperse.

Illultitude is anoun, aname thatdenotes persons—acol lectivenoun, or noun of mu ltitude, it sig ni fi es many— mascul ine andfeminine g ender, it impl ies bothsexes— third pe rson, spokenof

sing ular numbe r, it represents but one mu ltitude , or col lectivebody ; (but in another sense, it is pl ural , as it conveys plural ityof idea, and, also, impl ies more individuals than one — and inthe nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb dis

perse ,

”whichit g overns, according to RULE 3 . The nom. case

g overns the verb.— Decl ined.

— Sing . nom. multitude, poss . multi

tude’

s, obj. multitude— Plur. nom . multitudes, poss . multitudes’,obj . mu ltitudes.

Disperse is a verb, a word that signi fi es to do—active, itex

presses action— intransitive, the actiondoes.not terminate onanobject— thi rd person, plural number, because its nominative mul.

titude”conveys plural ity of idea; and it ag rees w ith“mu lti

tude”ag reeably to

RULE 11 . A nounof multitude conveying plurality of idea,musthave averbor pronounag reeing withit inthe plural.

Ru les 10, and 11, rest onasandy foundation. They appear

notto be based onthe principles of the lang uag e and, therefore,itmight, perhaps, be better to rejectthanto retain them . The irappl icationis qu ite l imited. In many instances, they w i l l notapply to nouns of multitude . The ex istence of suchathing asunity or plural ity of idea,

”as appl icable tonouns of this class,

is doubtful. It is just as correctto'

say, The meeting was di

vided inits sentiments,”as to say, The meeting were divided in

their sentiments .

” Bothare equal ly supported by the g enius of

the lang uag e, and by the power of custom . It is correct to say,e ither that, “The fleetwere dispersed The council were unan.

imous ;” “The council were divided ; or that, “The fleetwas

dispersed“The council was unanimous ;

” “The council was

divided.

”But, perhaps for the sake of euphony, in some ia

stances, custom has decided infavor of a sing ular, and inothers,ofaplural construction, connectedw ithwords of this class . For

example ; custom g ives a preference to the constructions, My

people do not consider ;” The peasantry g o barefoot;

” Theflock is his object instead of, My people dothnot considerThe peasantry g oes barefoot The flockare his object.

”In

instances l ike these, the appl icationof the foreg oing rules may beof some use ; butthe constructions inwhichthey do notapply,are probabl y more numerous thanthose inwhichthey do.

60 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

EXERCISES IN PARSING .

Intron. verb. Nom. case. Intran. verb.

M en labor. The sun sets .

Arm ies march. The moon rises .

Vessels sai l . The stars tw inkle .

B irds fly . The rain descends.

C louds move . The river flows .

M u ltitudes perish. The nation mourns.

Y ou r improvement ing rammar depends, notonthe number ofwords whichyou parse, buton the attentionwhichyou g ive thesubject. You may parse the same exercises several times over .

For the g rati fi cationof those who prefer it, I here presenteuother

DIVISION OF VERBS.

Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive .

A verb is transitive when the action affects anobject; as,Earthquakes rock king doms ; thI

‘ones and palaces are shaken

down; and potentates, princes, and subjects, are buried in onecommong rave .

”

The nominative to apassive verb,is the object, but not the ag ent, of the

A verb is intransitive whenithas no object; as, The waterscame uponme

“I am he who was, and is, and is to come.

”

As anexercise onwhat you have been study ing , I w i l l now

putto you a few questions, all of whichyou oughtto be able toanswer before you proceed any farther .

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED INPARSINGW ithwhattwo g eneral divisions of g rammar does the second

lecture beg in7 —Of whatdoes Etymolog y treat7— Of whatdoesSyntax treat7—7—Onwhat Is based the true principle of classifi ca

tion7— How do you ascertainthe partof speechto whichawordbe long s 7— WhatIs meantby its manner ofmeaning 7— Name theten parts of speech.

— Whichof these are considered the most

important7— By whatsig nmay anounbe disting u ished 7— How

many kinds ofnouns are there 7— Whatbe long tonouns 7— \Vha’

is g ender 7—How many g enders have nouns 7— What is per

son7— How many persons have nouns7— What is number 7

How many numbers have nouns 7— What is case 7—wHow many

cases have nouns 7— Does case consist in the in ections of

9.

noun7— How many k inds of verbs are the re 7 y what sig nmay averb be known

7 —Whatbelong to verbs 7 —WhatIs 5.

ia

thesis 7— What1sanalysis7— What1sparsing7- Repeatthe or tr

NOUNS AND VERBS.— PARSING . 6]

of parsing the m um— Repeat the order of parsing the verb.

What rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the possessivecase 7— \Vhat rule, inparsing anouninthe nominative case 7

‘Vhat rule appl ies inparsing averb7— What is meant by g overnment

'

l— Explain ru les 3, 4 , and 12 .— By what rule are the

nominative and objective cases of nouns known7— By whatsig ncanyou disting uishatransitive from anintransitive verb7— Do

transitive verbs ever eXpressamoralaction7— Are intransitive andneuter verbs ever used as transitive 7— Give some examples of

transitive verbs w ithpersonal and verbal objects — Whatrule doyou apply inparsmg anouninthe objective case 7— Explainrule20.

— Inparsing averb ag reeing w ithanounof multitude conveying plurality of idea, what rule do you apply 7

QUESTIONS ONTHE NOTES.

Whether the learner,be required to answ er the following questions, ornot,

is,of course , leftdiscretionary withthe teacher. The author takes the lib

arty to su g g est the expediency ofnot, g enerally , enforcing sucharequisition,until the pupil g oes throu ghthe book a second time.

Name some participial nouns— What are abstractnouns 7— \Vhat is thedistinction between abstract nouns and adjectives i— What are naturalnouns ‘t— Artifi cial nouns 1—What is the distinction betw eenmaterial andimmaterial nouns t—Arenouns ever of themasculine and feminine g ender 7Give examples — Whenare nouns, naturally neuter, converted into the masculine or feminine ender i— Give examples

— Speak some nouns that arealways inthe sing u ar number.

-Some thatare always plural.— Speak some

thatare inthe same form inbothnumbers —Name all the various ways of

forming the plural number of nouns— Of what number are the nounsnews,means, aims, and amends l—Name the plurals to the following compoundnouns,handful, cupful, spoonful, brother- imlaw,

court-martial.

QUESTIONS ONTHE PH ILOSOPH ICAL NOTES.

Whathas usually been the object of philosophical investigations of lan

guag e ? (pag e —Do the syntactical dependauoesand connexions ofwordsspend ontheir orig inal Import71 - 15 the ow er of associationand custom

e ffi cient inchau ff ing the radical meaning 0 some w ordsT— Have w ords intrinsically asigni fi cationof their own; or is their meaning inferential ; i. e .

suchas c ustom has assigned to them ? (pag e- Ou whatfact is based the

true, philosophical principle of classifi cation1—De fi ne ihilosophical g rammar .

—~Whichis supposed to be the orig inal partof spece i— How w ere theothers formed from that‘l— How many parts of speechmay be recognised inascientifi c developmentand arrang ementof the princi les of our lang u 0 e 7

Name them.—Whattestimony have we thatmany thing s do notact? pag e

43.— Repeat some of the arg uments in favor of, and ag ainst, the principle

whichregards all verbs as active .— Inwhat moods are verbs used in their

m aq tale 7 pag e—Give examples

— What is said of the terminations,at, eth, s, an en, and of the w ords to and do 7

REMARKS ONVERBS AND NOUNS.

You have already been infor med, thatverbs are the mostimportantpartof speechinour languag e ; and to convince you of their importance , I nowte ll you, thatyou cannot express athoug ht, or cmnmunioate anidea, w ithout

62 srvmorosv AND SYNTAX .

making use of averb, either expressed or implied Verbs express,notonlythe state or manner of bein but

,likew ise

,all the differentactions and move

men/s ofallcreatu resand thmg s, whether animate or inanimate . As yetIhaveg ivenyou only apartial descriptionof this sortof w ords ; butwhenyou arebette r prepared to comprehend the subject, I w ill explainall their properties,and show you the proper manner of usinsz themA w ord that is g enerally anoun, sometimes becomes a verb ; and averb

is frequently used as anoun. These chang e s depend onthe sense whichthew ord conveys ; or , rather, onthe ofi ice itperforms in the sentence ; that is,the manner in.whichit is applied to thing s. For instance g lory is g enerallyanoun; as , The g lory of God’

s throne .

”Butif7 say,

I g lory inrelig ion;or

,H e lorics inw ickedness, the w ord g lory becomes averb. The love of

manismoonstant. Inthis sentence , love is anoun inthe next, it is averbThey love virtue . H e walks sw iftly ; Scaven

g ers sweep the streets ; Theship sails w ell . In these phrases, the w ords walks, sweep, and sails, are

verbs ; inthe following they are nouns : Those are pleasantwalks ; H e takes

abroad sweep ; The ship low ered her sails.

Thus you see, itis impossible for you to become ag rammarianw ithoutexercising your judg ment. If youhave suffi cient resolutionto do this, you w i l l

,ina shorttime, perfectly understand

the nature and offi ce of the different parts of speech, the ir various properties and re lations, and the rules of syntax that applyto them and

,ina few weeks, be able to speak and w rite aeeu

rately . But you mustnot take thing s for g ranted, w ithout ex

amining the ir propriety and correctness . No. You are nota

mere automaton, or boy-machine butarati‘onal be ing . You ought

therefore, to think methodical ly, to reasonsoundly, and to investz

g ate every principle critical ly . Don’t be afraid to think for

yourself. You know notthe highdestiny thatawaits you . You

know notthe heightto whichyou may soar inthe scale of intellectual ex istence . Go on, then, boldly , and w ithuny ielding perseverance and if you do not g ainadmittance into the temple of

fame, strive, atallhaz ards, to drink of the fountainwhichg ur

g les from its base .

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX .

Nora1, TO RULE 12 . A nounin the possessive case , shouldalways be disting u ished by the apostrophe, or mark of e l ision;as, The nation

’s g lory .

That g irls book is cleaner thanthose boys books.

Notcorrect, because the nouns g irls and boys are bothinthe possessiycase , and,

therefore , require the apostrophe , by whichthey shou ld be disting uished ; thus ,

“g trl

’3 , according to the preceding Nora. [Re

peatthe note ]

Thy ancestors virtue is notthine .

If the wr iter of this sentence meant one ancestor, he shouldhave insertedthe apostrophe afte r r

,thus, if more than one . after 3, thus.

NOUNS AND vanes — ru se SYNTAX . 63

anced on'virtue ; but, by neg lecting to place the apostrophe , he has left

his meanino ambig uous, and we cannotasce rtainit. This, and a thousandothe r mista es onw ill oftenmeetw ith, demonstrate the truthof my declaration.name y, that w ithout the know ledg e and applicationof g rammar

r ules, you will oftenspeak and w rite in suchamanner as notto be under»

stood.

’

You may now turnback and re examine the il lustration” of Rules

3, 4 , and 12, onpag e 52, and thencorrectthe follow ing examples aboutfi vetimes over.

A‘

mothers tenderness andafathers care, are natures g it'

t’s for

mans advantag e . W isdoms precept’s form the g ood mans inte

restaudhappiness . They suffer for conscience ’s sake . He is

reading Cowpers poems . James boug htJohnsons D ictionary .

RULE 4 . A verb mustag ree w ithits nominative innumberand person.

Those boys improves rapidly . The men labors in the fi eld.

Nothing del ightsome persons . Thou shuns the l ight. He dare

notdo it. They reads we l l .

I know you cancorrectthese sentences w ithoutarule, for they allhave aharshsound,

whichoffends the ear. I w ishyou, however, to adoptthe habitof correcting errors by applying rules ; f or, by

-and-by, you w ill meetw itherrors in composition whichyou cannotcorrect, if you are ignorantof theapplicationof mmar rules.

Now let us c early unde rstand this 4thRule . Reenllect, itapplies to theverb, and notto the noun; the refore ,

inthese Okatnple s the verb is nug mwmatical. The noun(mg/8 , inthe first sentence , is of the third personplum ],and the verb improves is of the third pe rsonsing u lar , there fore , Rule 4thisviolated, because the verb does notag ree w ithits nominative innumber . It

should be , boys im rave .

”The verb w ould thenbe plural, and ag ree w ith

its nominative accor mg to the Rule . Inthe fourthsentence , the verb doesnotag ree inpersonwithits nominative . Thou is of the second person, andchum is of the third . It should be , thou shunned ,

"Se

c. You may correctthe other sentences, and, likew ise ,

the follow ing exercises in

FALSE SYNTAX .

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye . The number ofinhabitants of the United States exceed nine mi l l ions. Nothingoutvainand fool ishpursu its del ightsome persons.

Invainour flocks and fi elds increase our store,

\Vhenour abundance make us w ishfor more.

Whi le ever and anon, there fal lsHug e heaps of hoary, moulder

’d wal ls.

64 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

LE CTURE I II .

OF ARTICLES .

An article'

is a word prefixed to nouns to limit

their signifi cation; as, aman, the woman.

There are only two articles, aor an,and the. A

or anis called the indefi nite article. The is called

the defi nite article.

The indefi nite article limits thenounto one of a

kind, butto no particular one ; as, ahouse.

The defi nite article g enerally limits the nounto a

particular object,or collection of objects ; as, the

house, themen.

The smal l claims of the article to a separate rank as adistinct

partof speech, oughtnotto be adm itted ina scienti fi c classifi ca

tion of words . A and the, this and that, ten, few, and fourth,and many other words, are used to restrict, vary, or defi ne thesig ni fi cationof thenouns towhichthey are joined. They might,therefore, w ithpropriety, be ranked under the g eneral head of

Restrictives, Indexes, or Defining Adjectives . But, as there is amarked distinction inthe ir particu lar meaning and appl ication,eachclass requ ires a separate explanation. Hence, no practicaladvantag e wou ld be g ained, by rejecting the ir establ ished classification, as articles, numerals, and demonstratives, and by g ivingthem new names. The character and appl ication of aand thecan be learned as soon whenthey are sty led articles, as whenthey are denom inated specifying or defi ning adjectives .

The his‘ory of this partof speechis very brief. As there arebuttwo articles, aor anand the, you w i l l know them whereverthey occur.

A noun used w ithout anarticle, or any other restrictive, istakeninits g eneral sense ; as, Fruit is abundant Gold is

heavy“M an is bornto trouble .

” Here we mean, fru it and

g old ing eneral ; and all men, or mankind .

Whenwe w ishto l im itthe meaning of the nounto one object,butto no particular one

,we employ a or an. If I say, Give me

a pen“B ring me an apple you are at l iberty to fetchany

pen or any apple you please . A or an, then, is indefi nite, because it leaves the meaning of the nounto whichit is appl ied,as far as reg ards the personspoken to

,vag ue, or indeterminate ;

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06 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

ture The w ind blows ;” The wolves were howl ing inthe

woods . Inthese examples, we do not refer to any particu larl unatics, poets, lovers,horses, dog s, w inds, wolves, and woods, butwe refer to these particular classes of thing s, in contradistinctionto other objects or classes. The phrase, Ne ither the one nor theother,

”is an idiom of the lang uag e .

REM ARKS.— Thls method of elucidating the articles, whichis popular. with

Blair,Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris , Beattie , Coote , M urray , and many

other disting uished philolog ists, is discarded by some of our modernw riters .

But, by proving thatthis theory is exceptionable , they by no means make it

appear, that itou ght, therefore , to be rejected .

Exceptionable or not, theyhave notbeenable to supply its place w ithonethat is more convenient inpractice. Neither have they adopted one less ex

cep. ionable . The truthis, after all whichcanbe done to render the de fi nitions and rules of mmar comprehensive and accurate ,

they w ill still befound, whencriticaIl

—l

y

a

examined by menof learning and science ,more or lessence ptionable . These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidableconsequence of the imperfections of the lang uag e . Lang uag e , as w ell as

every thing else ofhumaninvention,w ill always be imperfect. Consequent

ly , aperfect system of g rammatical principles, w ould notsuitit. A perfectg rammar will notbe produced, until some perfectbeing w rites itfor apero

fect lang uag e ; and aperfect languag e will not be constructed ,

until some

s uper-humanag ency is employed inits production. All g rammatical princi

ples and systems whichare notperfect, are exceptionablc.

NOTES.

1. The article is omitted before nouns implying the differentvirtues, vices,passions, qualities, sciences, arts , metals

,herbs, &c. ; as, hfodesty is becom

mg ; F alsehood is odious ; G rammar is useful,

” &c .

2 . The article is notpre fi xed to prope r nouns ; as, Barronkilled Decatur :

except by way of eminence ,or for the sake of disting uishing a particular

family ,or whensome noun is understood ; as , H e is nota Franklin; H e is

at Lee , or of the fam ily ofthe Lees ; W e sailed downthe (river) M issouri.”

3 . Anadj ective is frequently placed betw eenthe article and the nou nw ithwhichthe article ag rees ; as,

“A g ood boy ; anindustr ious man.

”Some

times the adjective precedes the article ; as, As g reatamanas Alexander ;Sucha shame .

”

4 . Inreferring to many individuals, whenw e w ishto bring eachseparate

ly under consideration,the inde fi nite article is sometimes placed betw een

the adjective man and a sing ular noun; as, Where many a rosebud rears

its blushing head Full many aflower is bornto blushunseen.

”

5 . The defi nite article the is frequently applied to adverbs inthe compara

tive or superlative deg ree ; as, The more I examine it, the better I like it;I like this the leastof any .

”

You may proceed and parse the fol low ing articles, when youshal l have committed this

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSINGThe order of parsing an Article, is— an article,

and why — definite or indefi nite, and why l— withwhatnoundoes itag ree — RULE .

ARTtCLss .— M asmu . 67

He is the sonof a king .

The is anarticle , a word pre fi xed to anounto l imit its signifi .

cation—defi nite, it l imits the nounto a particular object— itbe.

Ionrs to the noun son,”according to

cu: 2 . The defi nite article the belong s tonouns inthe sing ularor plural number only .

A is anarticle, aword placed before anounto l imitits sig uifi cation— indefi nite, it l imits the nounto one of akind, butto no

particu lar one— itag rees w ith“king ,

”ag reeably to

RULE I . The article aor anag rees withnouns inthe sing ularnumber .

Non . By considering the orig ina1meaning of this article , the proprietyof Rule 1, w ill appear. A or an, ( formerly w rittenone.) being equ ivalenttoone, any one, or some one, cannotbe pre fi xed to nouns inthe pluralnumber.

re is, however, anexceptionto this rule . A is placed before a plural

nounwhenany of the following adjectives come betw eenthe article and thenoun: few, g reat, many , doz en,hundred, thousand , million; as, a few men, athousand houses, 4 m.

Aher having parsed these articles several times over, please toread this third lecture three times. Thenturnback, and examine the second lecture critical ly, observing to parse every exam

ple according to the di rections previously g iven, whichw i l l pre

pare you to parse systematical ly,all the articles,nouns, and verbsinthese subsequent

EXERCISES IN PARSING .

A bird sing s . Aneag le fl ies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue pleasure . The reaper reaps the farmer

’s g rain.

Farmers mow the g rass . Farmers’ boys spread the-hay . Theclerk se l ls the merchant’s g oods . Anostrichoutruns anArab’

s

horse . Cecrops founded Athens. Gallilco invented the telesCOpe . James Ma hersontranslated Ossian

’s poems.

’ Sir Francis Drake c ircumnavig ated the g lobe . Doctor BenjaminFrank.

lin invented the l ig htning - rod. Washing ton I rving wrote theSketch- Book .

I w i l l now offer a few remarks onthe misappl ication of thearticles, which, w iththe exercise of your own discriminatingpowers, wil l enable you to use them w ithpropriety . But, before

you PTOCQO ) ,Jlease to answer the fol low ing

Q UESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING .

How many articles are there — Inwhatsense is anountaken,whenithas no article to limit itl— Rcapeatthe order of pars inganarticle — What rule appl ies inparsing the '

de/i uite article 2Whatrule inpars ing the mdej im

’

te

(is ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

QUESTIONS ONTHE NOTES.

Before whatnouns is the article omitted —Is the article the ever applied

to adve rbs l— G ive examples —“flint is the meaning ofa or anl— Whents

aor anplaced before apluralnounl— From whatare a, the, and thatderived

EXERCISES IN PALaSE SYNTAX .

NOTE TO RULE 1 . Anis used before avowel or si lenth, andbefore aConsonantor it long , and also before the word one.

It is notonly disag reeable to the-

ear,but

,according to thisnote , improper

.0 say , a apple , ahumble suppliant, anhe ro ,anuniversity , because the w ord

apple beg ins witha vow el,and his not sounded in the w ord humble, for

whichreasons a should be an in the fi rst two examples ; but, as the hissounded inhero,and thanislong iu university ,

a ou ght to be pre fi xed to thesew ords : thus

, an apple , anhumble supphant: a hero, a university . You

may correctthe following

EXAMPLES .

A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, anhorse, anherald, anheart,anheathen

,anunion, a umbre l la, anuseful book, many an one .

This is anhard say ing . They met w ithanheavy loss. He

would not g ive anhat for anhorse .

NOTE 1, To RULE 2 . The articles are oftenproperly omittedwhenused they shou ld be justly appl ied, according to the ir distinct character ; as,

“Gold is corrupting ; The sea is g reen; Al ionis bold.

”Itwould be improper to say, The g old is corrupt

ing ; Sea is g reen; L ionis bold.

The g rass is g ood for horses, and the wheat for men. G rassis g ood for the horses, and wheat for the men. G rass looks we l l .Wheat is bl ighted.

Inthe fi rst o f these sentences w e arc notspeaking of any particular k indof g rass or wheat. ne ither do w e w ishto limitthe meaning to any particularcrop or field of g ras

s. or quantity of wheat; butw e are speaking of g rass

and wheat g enerally , the refore the article the should be omitted . Inthe se

cond sentence ,w e do not re fer to any de finite kind, quality . or numbe r of

hor ses or men; butto horses and m eng enerally ; that is, the terms are he reused to denote rehole species . therefore ,

the article should be omitted, and thesentence shou ld read thus

,G rass is g ood for horses . and “heat for men.

”

In the third and fourthexamples, w e w id i to lim it our meaning to thecrops of g rass and wheatnow onthe g round,

which, in CO Itl fi ttIi~ lilltj ll0u to

the cr ops heretoib re raised, are considered as pm /irul/Ir Obiems ; thereforew e should say , The g lass looks w e ll The wheat is blighted.

"

NOTE 2 . Whenanounis used inits g eneral sense, the articleshould be omitted ; as,

“P oetry is a pleasing art;” “Orang es

g row inNew Orleans.

”

FALSE SYNTAX .

Cornm the g arden, g rows wel l ; but corn in the fi eld, doesnot. How does the tobacco sel l ? The tobacco is dear. How

do you l ike the study of the g rammar ? The g rammar is a

or ADJECTIVES . 69

pleasing study . A candid temper is proper for the man. \Vorldis w ide . The manis mortal . And I pe rsecuted this way onto

the death. The earth, the air, the fi re, and the water, are thebur e lements of the oldphi losophers.

LE CTURE IV.

OF ADJECTIVES.

AnADJECTW E isaWord addedto anounto expressits quality or kind

,or to restrict its meaning as

,a

g ood man, abadman, afreeman, anunfortunate man,one man, forty men.

Inthe phrases, ag ood apple, abad apple, alarg e apple, a small

apple, a red apple, awhite apple, a g reenapple, a sweetapple, asour apple, a bitter apple, a round apple, ahard apple, a so]?apple, amellow apple, afair apple, aM ay apple, anearly apple,a late apple, awinter apple, a crab apple, a thorn apple, a welltasted apple, an ill- looking apple , a water- cored apple, you per

ce ivathatallthosewords initalicsare adjectives, because eachex

presses some qual ity or property of the nounapple, or itshowswhatkind of anapple it is of whichwe are speaking .

The distinctionbetweenanounand anadjective is very clear.

A nounis the name of athing ; butanadjective denotes simplythe quality or property of a thing ; This is fi ne cloth. In thisexample , the difference betweenthe word denoting the thing , andthatdenoting the quality of it, is easi ly perce ived. You certainlycannotbe at a loss to know, that the word clothexpresses thename , and fi ne, the quality, of the thing ; consequently fi ne must

be anadjective. If I say, He is a wise man, a prudent man, awicked man, or anung rateful man. the words initalics are adjec

PHILOSOPH ICAL NOTES.

annovns.

Aduomt or Adjective, comes from the Latin, ad and Jicio , to add to .

Adnouns are aclass ofwords added to nouns to vary their comprehension,or to dete rmine the ir extension. Those whiche fi

'

ect the former object, arecalled adjectives , or attributes : and those whicheffectthe latte r, restriction.

It is not, inall cases, easy to dete r mine to whichof these classes anadnounshould he re fe rred . Words whichexpress simply the qualities ofnouns, areadjectives ; and suchas denote their situationor number , are restrictives.

Adjectives were orig inally nouns or verbs.

70 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

tives, because eachexpresses a quality of thenounman. And,if I say, He is a tall man, ashortman, awhite man, a black man,or a persecuted man, the words, tall, short, white, black, and persecuted, are also adjectives, because they tel l -

whatkind of amanhe is of whom I am speaking , or they attribute to him some par

ticular property .

Some adjectives restrict or limitthe sig nifi cation of the nounsto whichthey are joined

,and are, therefore, sometimes cal led

definitives as,one era, sevenag es, the firstman, the wholemass,

no trouble, those men, thatbook, all reg ions.

Other adjectives defi ne or describe nouns, or do both; as, fi nesilk, blue paper, a heavy shower

, pure water, g reenmountains,

bland bree z es, g urg ling ril ls, g lass w indow, window g lass, beaverhats, chip bonnets, blackberry ridg e, M onroe g arden, Juniatairon,Cincinnati steam -mil l .Some adjectives are secondary, and qual ify other adjectives ;

as, pale red l ining , dark blue silk,deep sea g reen sash, soft iron

blooms, red hot ironplate .

Y ou wil l frequently find the adjective placed after the nounas, Those menare tall ; A lion is bold ; The weather is calm ;The tree is three feetthick.

Should you ever be ata loss to disting uishan adjective fromthe other parts of speech, the fol lowing signwil l enable you totel l it. v

'Any word that wil l make sense withthe word thingadded, or withany other noun fol lowing it, is an adjective ; as,ahig hthing , a low thing , ahotthing , a cold thing , an unfi nishedthing , anew-fashioned thing — or, a pleasantprospect, a long - de

serted dwel ling , anAmerican soldier, a Greek Testament. Are

these words adjectives, distant, yonder,peaceful, long - sided, double

headed A distantobjector thing ,yonder hill, d-c. They are .

They wil l make sense withanounafter them .— Adjectives some.

Some consider the adjective , in its presentapplication, exactly equivalentto anounconnected to another nounby means of juxtaposition, of a prepositiou , or ofacorresponding fi exion. A g oldencup,

”say they, is the same

as ag old cup,or acup of g old .

”Butthis principle appears to be exception

able . A cup of g old,” may mean either acup

-full of g old, or acup made

of g old. Anoakencask,

”signifi es anoak cask ,

or a cask of oak i. e . a

cask made of oak ; but abeer cask,and a cask of beer , are tw o different

thing s. A virtuous son; a sonof virtu e.

The disting uishing characteristic of the adjective , appears to consist initsbothnaming aquality, and attributing thatquality to some object.The terminations en, cd, and ig , (our moderny,) signifying os, add ,join,

denote that the names of qualities to whichthey are postfi x are to be at

tributed to other nouns possessing suchqualities : w ood-en, w ood-

y . See

page 37 .

u efl is the past participle of the verb leave. Horne Tooke de fines rig ht

ADJEC‘I’

IVBS. 7 1

times become adverbs . This matter wil l be explained inLee .

ture VI. inparsing , you may g eneral ly know anadjective byits qualifying anounor prono un.

Mostwords ending ining are presentparticiples . These arefrequently used as adjectives ; therefore, most participles wil lmake sense withthe additionof the word thing , or any othernoun, after them ; as, a pleasing thing , amoving spectacle, mouldering ruins.

Inthe Latinlang uag e, andmany others, adjectives, l ike nouns,have g ender, number, and case ; but inthe Eng l ish lang uag e,they have neither g ender, person, number, nor case . Theseproperties belong to creatures and thing s, and notto their qualities ; therefore g ender, person, number, and case, are the pro

perties of nouns, and notof adjectives.

Adjectives are varied only to express the degreesof comparison. They have three degrees ofcomparison,thePositive,

theComparative,andtheSuperlative .

The positive degree expresses the quality ofanob

ject Without any increase or diminution; as, good,wise, great.

The comparative degree increases or lessens the

positive insignifi cation; as, better,w iser, greater,

less wzse.

The superlative deg ree increases or lessens the positive to the highestor lowest degree ; as, best, wisest,g reatest, leastwise.

to be thatwhichis orde red or directed . The r ig hthand is thatwhi chyourpanents and custom directyou to use inpreference to the other. And when

you employ that inpreference . the other is the leaned, leav’

d, or lefthand ,

1 e . the one {cave/I. or left. The one shallbe taken,andthe other ( leased) left.

”

O wn. Fo rmerly aman’s o wnwas whathe workedfor, own being apain

participle of a ve r signifying to work.

Restr i cliacs . Some restrictives, inmoderntimes, are applied only to sin

gular nouns ; suchas a or an

, another, one, this, that, each, every , eitherthere, only to plural nouns ; as , these, those , two, three, few , several, all.

Butmost restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to bothsing ular and pluralnouns fi rst, second, last, the ,former , latter , any , such, same, some ,which, rahat.Numerals . All numerationwas, doubtless, orig inally performed by the

fi ng ers : fo r the numbe r of the fi ng ers is still the utmostextentof its signification Tcnis the pan articiple of tynan, to close , to shutin. The handstyned . toned , closed, or shut in, signifi ed ten: for there numeranonclosed .

To denote anumber g reate r thanten, we mustbeg inagain, tenand one, tenand two . Sec.

72 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

Alone and most form the comparative and superlative deg reesby increasingthe positive ; and less and least, by diminishing it.

Comparisonby increasing the positive .

Comp. o Sup.

greater,

greatest.Wiser

, wisest.more holy, mostholy .

more frugal,

mostfrugal.Compari sonby diminishing the positive .

Sup.

less Wise, leastWise.

lessholy, leastholy .

less frugal,

leastfrugal.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES .

Words used incounting,are callednumeral adj ec

tives of the cardinal kind ; as, one, two, three, four,twenty, fifty, &c.

Words used innumbering,are called numeral ad

j ectives of the ordinal kind ; as, fi rst, second, third

fourth, twentieth, fiftieth, &c.

NOTE . The w ords many ,few , and several, as they always refer to aninde fi nite number

,may be properly called numeral adj ectives of the indefi nite

kind.

NOTES .

1. The simple w ord, or Positive ,becomes the Com retive by adding r,

or er : and the Positive becomes the Superlative , by ding st, or est,to the

end of it; as , Pos. w ise ,Com . wiser

,Sup. w isest; rich, richer , richest; bold,

bolder,boldest. The adverbs, more and most, less and least, whenplaced

before the adjective ,have the same effect; as , Pos. w ise , Com . more w ise ,Sup. mostw ise ; Pos . w ise , Com . less w ise , Sup. leastw ise .

Twain, twa—in, twa-ain, twa~ane,is a. compound of two (twa, twae, twee,

twi, two or dwo or duo) and one ( one, ain, an.) It signifi es two units joined,united, ancd, or oued. Twenty (twa-ane-ten) signifi es two tens oued, oued, or

united . T-hing s sop/r ated into parcels of tw enty each,are called scores.

Score is the past participle of shear , to separate .

The O rdinals are formed like abstractnouns ineth. F ifth, sixth, or tenth,is the number whichfi v—eth, six - eth, ten- eth, or mak -ethup the numberfi ve,six , or ten.

Philosophical wri ters who limit our acceptationof w ords to thatinwhichthey w ere orig inally employed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet

oftendefinable , as sociations whichthe g radual prog ress of lang uag e and iatellecthas connected w ithw ords, are to be reduced to the standard of our

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74 Brrnow c it AND SYNTAX .

The . g reatnationwas oncepowerful ; butnow it is feeble.

Great is anadjective, a word added to anoun to express itsqual ity— pos. g reat, com . greater, sup. g reatest

— it is inthe positive degree, it expresses the qual ity of an object w ithout anyincrease or diminution, andbelongs to the noun‘fnation,” according toRULE 18 . Adjectives belong to

, and qualify,nouns expressed orunderstood.

Was is averb, aword thatsignifi es to be— neuter, itexpressesneither actionnor passion, but being or a state of be ing — thirdperson singular, because its nominative “nation” is a noun of

multitude convey ing unity of idea— it agrees w ith nation,”agreeably to

RULE. A nounof multitude conveying unity of idea, mayhave a verb or pronounag reeing withitinthe singular,P owerful is an adjective belong ing to

“nation,” according to

Rule 18 . Feeble belong s to“it,

”according to Note 1, under Ru le

18. Is is aneuter verbagreeing w ith“it,” agreeably to Rule 4 .

“Bonaparte entered Russiawith men.

”

Four-hundred- thousand is anumeral adjective of the cardinalkind, itisaword used incounting,andbelong s to the noun“men,according to Note 2, under Rule 18 . Numeral adjectives belongto nouns, whichnouns mustag ree innumber withtheir adjectives .

If, inparsing the fol low ing examples, you fi ndany wordsaboutwhichyou are ata loss, you w i l l please to turnback, and parseall the foreg oing examples ag ain. This course w ill enable youto proceed w ithoutany diffi cu lty .

M ore is anadverb. Of and to are prepositions,governing the

bonus thatfollow them inthe objective case .

EXERCISES IN PARSING .

A benevolentmanhelps indig entbeggars . Studious scholarslearnmany long lessons. Wealthy merchants own larg e ships.

The heavy ships bear larg e burdens ; the l ighter ships carry lessbu rdens . Just poets use fi gurative lang uag e . Ung rammaticalexpressions offend atrue c ritic’s ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No compositionis perfect. The rabble was tumul

connexionw ith the w ord , g ivimyplace to othersw ith w hich, from some acci

dental causes,ithas beenassoc1ated .

Tw o or three instances w ill illustrate the truth of these remark s. Inanancient Eng lish version of the New Testament, we fi nd the follow ing language I

,Paul

, a rascal of Jesus Christ, unto on Gentiles,

” &c. But

who , inthe present acceptationof the w ord,w on. dare to call the great

apostle of the Gentiles” a rascal ? Rascal forme rly meantaservant: onedevoted to the i nterestof another ; but now it is nearly synonymous w ith

at) : BO'

I’

IVES .— PARSINO . 75

tnous. The late -washed g lass looks g reen. Shady trees fo rmadelig htful arbor. The setting sun makes a beautiful appearance the variegated rainbow a pears more beauti ful . Epami.

acudas was the greatestof the hebangenerals ; Pclopidas wenextto Epaminondas .

The fi rstfleet contained three hundred men; the second con.

taincd four thousand . The earthcontains one thousand mi l l ioninhabitants . Many a cheering ray brightens the g ood man

’s

pathway .

Nora. Like, Worth. The adjecn'

ve like is acontractionof the participlelike ned, and generally has the prepositionunto understood after it. She islike [ unto]her brother ;” They are unlike [to] him .

" The kingdom ofheavenis like [ likened or made like] unto ahouseholder.The nounworthhas altogether drop d its associated words. The cloth

is worthtendollarsa yard that is, T e cloth is of the w orth of tendollarsby the yard , orfor a, one, or every yard .

Some eminentphilologists do notadmitthe propriety of supplying anellipsis after like, worth, ere, but, ex cept, and than, butconsider them prepositions.

Anomalies, inthe latter partof this work .

REMARKS ONADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

A critical analysis requires thatthe adjective whenused w ithoutits noun,should be parsed as anad

'

ective belond ing to its noun understood as,The vi rtuous [persons an the sincere person: are always respectedProvidence rewards 9 good [people,] and punis es the bad

The evil [ deed or deeds] thatmendo, l ives afte r them ;The good [ deed or deeds] is oft interred w iththe ir bones.

Butsometimes the adjective , by its manner of meaning, becomes anoun,and has another adjective joined to it; as, the chief good The vastimmense [ immens ity] of s ace .

"

Various nouns place before other nouns, assume the character of adjectives, according to the ir manner ofmeaning ; as, Sea fi sh, iro nmortar

, winevesse l, gold watch, com fi eld , meadow ground , mountainhe ight."The principle which recognises custom as the standard of grammatical ac

curacy. might restfor its support on the usage of only six words, and defyall the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the genius andanalogy of our language w e re the standard , it w ould be correctto obse rvethis nimlo y , and ea Good , gooder , g oodest; bad, badder , baddest little

,

l ittler. littest; muc mncher , mucheet." By this mean Whatare thenews .

”But sucha crite rionbetrays only the W eakness of those who at

tempt to establish it. Regardless of the do and edicts of the philosophical umpire , the good sense of the peop e w ill cause them, inthis instance , as we ll as inathousand others, to yield to custom, and say, Good

,

villain. Villainonce had none of the od ium w hichisnow associated w iththe te rm but itsignifi ed one who , under the feudal system, rented or heldlands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vat-teal or tenant, As

you are anaccompl ished villain, I orde r that onrece ive £ 700 outof theublic treasury .

" The word villain, then,has givenup its oric inal idea, andbecome the representative of anew one , the word tenanthavhi g supplantedit. To prove that the meaning of wo rds changes, a thousand example.could he adduced ; butw ith the intell igentreader, proof is unnecessary .

76 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

better, best; bad, worse, worst; l ittle , less, least; mu ch, more, most; " Bythis means What is the news l ”

W ithre frard to the using of adjectives and other qualify ing w ords,care

mustbe taten, or our'

lang uag e w ill frequently amountto absurdity ornonsense . Letthe follow ing general remark ,

whichis bette r thanadoz enrules,putyou onyour g uard . Whenever you utter a sentence , or putyour penonpaper to w rite , w eighw ell inyour mind the meaning of the words which youare aboutto em loy . See that they convey precisely the ideas w hichyouw ishto express y them ,

and thus you w ill avoid ’

innum erable e rrors. Inspeak ing of a man, w e mby say , with propriety, he is very w icked , or ex

ceedinr ly lavish, because the terms wicked and lavishare adjectives thatadmit cf

9 comparison; but, if w e take the w ords in their literal acceptation,there is a solecism in calling amanver honest, or ex ceedingly just, for thew ordshonestand just, literzilly admito no comparison. In omt of fact, amanis honestor dishonest,Justor unjust: there canbe no me ium or excessinthis respect. Very correct, very incorrect, very right, very Wrong

,are

common expressions ; but the are not literally proper . What is notcorrect

,must be incorrect; and t at w hich is not incorrect

,must be correct.

w hat is not r ight,must be wrong ; and that w hich is notwrong

,must be

r ight. To avoid that circumlocutionwhich mustotherw ise take place ,our

best speakers and w riters, how ever,frequently compare adjectives which do

not lite rally adm it of comparison The mostestabli shed practice Themostuncertainmethod Irving,asawriter, isfar more accu rate thanAddison The metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars, arestill more incomprehensible to the learner .” Comparisons like these ,

shou ldgenerally be avoided ; but sometimes they are so convenientinpractice, asto render them adm issible . Such ex ressions canbe reconciled with theprinciples of grammar, only by consid

ldg ing them as fi g urative .

Com arative members of sentences, should be set indirectoppositiontoeachot er ; as,

“Pope was r ich, but Goldsm ith was poor .” The follow ingsentences are inaccu rate : Solomonwas wiser than Cicero was eloqu ent.

~

The principles of the reformationw ere deeper inthe prince’s m ind thanto

be easily eradi cated .

” This latter sentence contains no compar ison at all ;ne ither does it literally convey any meaning . Again, if the Psalm isthadsaid , “I am the w isest of my teachers,” he w ould have spokenabsurdlbecause the phrase w ould imply , thathe was one of his teachers. Butm

saying, I am w iser thanmy teachers,”he doesnotconsider h imself one of

them,butplaces himself incontradistinctionto them .

Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the fol low ingQUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING .

What. is the d istinction betweena nounand an adjective l— f

By whatsignmay anadjective be knownl— Are participles everused as adjectives l— Does gender, person, number, or case, be;long .

to adjectives — How are they varied — Name the threedeg rees of comparison.

—Whateffecthave less and leastincom

paring adjectives —Repeatthe order of parsing anadjective .

What rule appl ies inparsing anadjective l— What ru le inparsing averb ag ree ing w ithanounofmu ltitude convey ing unity of

ideal— What Note should be appl ied in parsing an adjectivewhichbelongs to a pronounL —What Note in parsing numeraladj ectives ?

I

l

sometim e — ram SYNTAX . 77

QUESTIONS ONTHE NOTES .all the various ways of forming the de g rees of comparison,menthe fi rst fi ve Nou s — Commatheseadjectives ; r ipe,frug al. mis

chievous . happy , able , g ood little, muchor many , near, late, old .— Name

some adjectives that are afways inthe s lative , and never compared .

Are compound adjectives , compared 7—W nit is said of the terminationink,and of the adverb ow l—Whendoes anadjective become anoani—Whatcharacter do es anounassume whenplaced be fore anothernounit ~ How can

you prove thatcustom is the standard of g rammatical accuracy ?QUESTIONS ONTHE PH ILOSOPH ICAL NOTES

How are adnouns divided 7— What'

constitutes the true character of an

s are appof twain, keenly ,

aid of the chang es produced inthe meaning of words, by the principle of1association

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX .

NOTE 9, under Ram; 18 . Double Cmnparatives and Superlatives should be avoided ; suchas, worser,lesser, more deeper,more wickeder, &c . : chiefest, supremest, perfectest, rightest or

more perfect, mostperfect, mostsupreme, &c.

Virtue confers the mostsupreme dignite onman,and itshouldbe his chiefestdesire .

He made the g reater l ightto rule the day, and the lesser lightto rule the night.The phrases most supreme

,and “

chiefest,

” in the fi rst sentence , are

incorrect, because supreme and chic are in the an rlative deg ree w ithouthaving the superlative form sup ded, whichadditionmakes them doublesuperlati

ves. They should be w ritten, confers supreme dignity,”and his

chief desire .

We cansay, one thing is less thananother, or smaller thananother, becausethe adjectives 1 m and smaller are inthe comparative deg ree ; butthe hraselesser light,

” inthe second sentence,is inaccurate . Lesser is a cable

comparative , which, according to the preceding Note , should be avoided .

Lesser is as incorrectas badder , g ooder ,worser . The smaller light,"w ould

be less exceptionable . You cancorrectthe follow ing withoutmy assistance .

Correctthemfour times over.

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable thanthose of imag inationor sense .

The tong ue is like arace-horse, whichruns the faster the lesser weight itcarries.

The nig hting ale’s voice is the mostsweetestinthe g rove .

The MostHighesthathcreated us for his g lory .

He was admitted to the chiefestoffi ces .

The fi rstwitness g ave a strong proof of the fact; the nextamore strong er stil l butthe lastwitness,the most strong er ofall.He g ave the ful lest and the most sincere proof of the truer

friendship.

78 ETYMOLocv AND SYNTAX .

LECTURE V .

OF PARTICIPLES .

A PART IC IPLE is aword de’

rived from averb,and

partakes of the nature of averb,andalso of anadjec

tive .

Verbs have three participles, thepresentor imperfeet, the perfect, and the compound.

The present or imperfectparticiple denotes actionor being continued, but not perfected. It always

ends ining as, ruling, being“

.I am wr iting a letter.

”

The perfectparticiple denotes actionor being perfooted or fi nished. When derived from a regularverb

,itends ined

,and corresponds Withthe imper

feettense ; as, rated, smiled The letter is written.

”

The compound participle implies action or beingcompletedbefore the time referred to . Itis formedby placing having before the perfect participle ; as,having ruled, having beenruled : Having wr ittentheletter

,be mailed it.”

The term Participle comes from the Latinword particzpio,whichsignifi es to partake and this name is g ivento this partofspeech, because itpartakes of the nature of the verb and of theadjective .

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

Participles are formed by adding to the verb the terminationing , ed, or en.

Ing signifi es the same as the nounbein Whenpostfi xed to the noun- state

of the verb,the compound w ord thus ormed

, expresses 23.continued state of

the verbal denotement. Itimplies thatwhat is meant by the verb,is being

continued. Enis an alteration of an, the Saxonverbaliz ing adjunct; ed is

acontractionof dede ; and the terminations d and t, are acontractionof ed

Participles ending ined or en, usually denote the dado, dede, daed, did, done,or fi nished state of what is meantby the verb. The book is printed. It is

aprint- cd or print-done book ,or suchaone as the done actof printing has

made it. The book is written; i. e . it has received the done orfi nish-cd act

of wri t- ing it.Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to nouns.

They might, therefore , be styled verbal adjectives . But that theory whichranks them w ithadnouns , appears to rest onasandy foundation

- lnclassi

raarrcrrw s. 79

By many writers, the participle is classed withthe verb, andtreated as apartof it; but, anithas no nominative, partakes ofthe nature of anadjective, requires many syntactical rules whichapply notto the verb, and, insome other respects, has properties

pecu liar to itsel f, it is believed that its character is suffi cientlydistinct from the verb, to entitle itto the rank of aseparate part

of speech. It is, ,in fact, the connecting l ink between, notonly

the adjective and the verb, butalso the nounand the verb.

A l l participles are compound intheirmeaning and ofiice. Like

verbs, they express actionand being , and denote time ; and, likeadjectives, they describe the nouns of whichthey denote theactionor being . Inthe sentences, The boatmanis crossing theriver ; I see amanlaboring inthe fi eld ; Charles is stowting

you perceive thatthe participles crossing and laboring express theactions of the boatmanand the man, and standing the state of

being of Charles. Inthese respects, then, they partake of thenature of verbs. You also notice, thatthey describe

‘the several

nouns associated withthem, l ike describing adjectives ; and that,inthis respect, they participate the prope rties ofadjectives . A“ti,furthermore, you observe they denote actionswhichare stil l g oingon; that is, incomplete or unfi nished actions ; for whichreasonwe cal l them imperfectparticiples.

Perhaps I canil lustrate their character more clearly . Whenthe imperfector presentand perfectparticiples are placed beforenouns, they become defi ning or describing adjectives, and aredenominatedparticipial adjectives as, A loving companion Therippling stream Roaring winds ; A wilted leat

'

; Anaccomplishedscholar. Here the words loving , rippling , roaring , wilted, andaccomplished, describe or defi ne the nouns withwhichthey areassociated. And where the participles are placed after theirnouns, they have, also, this descriptive qual ity . If I say , I see

Sling words, w e oughtto be g uided more by their manner of meaning , andair inferential meaning , thanby their primitive , essential signifi cation.

I have abrokenplate i. e . I have aplate—broken: I have broken alate .

”If there isno difference inthe essential meaning of the w ord broken,

inthese tw o constructions, itcannot be denied, that there is awide difference inthe meaning inferred by custom : whichdifference depends on thesum mer inwhichthe te rm is applied . The former constructiondenotes, thatpom “aplate whichwas broken, (whether w ithor Withoutmy ag ency, is

net intimated) rha one hundred or one thousand years ag o ; whe reas ,the meaning 0 thehitter is, that I performed the actof reducing the platefrom aw lmle to abrokenstate ; and it is not intimated Whether I possess it,

30 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

the moonrising The horse is running arace ; The dog IS beaten,

I desc1ibe the seve1al objects, as a rising moon, a running horse,and abeatendog , as wel l as when I p lace these participles beforethe nouns . The same word 1s a participle or a particip ial adjective, accmd1ug to its manner of meaning . The preced ing i l lustration, however, shows that this d istinctionis founded onave1yl ig ht shade of difference inthe meaning of the two. The folow ing examp les w i l l enable you to d isting u ishthe one from theother .

Participial adjectives .

See the sunsetting . See the setting sun.

See the moonrising . See the rising moon.

The w ind is roaring . Hear the roaring w ind .

The tw ig is broken. The brokentw ig fel l .The vessel anchored inthe The anchored vessel spreadsbay, losther mast. her sai l .The present or imperfect participle is knownby its end ing in

ing as, floating ,riding ,hearing ,

seeing . These are derived fromthe verbs, float, ride, hear, and see. But some words end ing ining are not participles ; suchas evening , morning , hireling , sapling ,

uninteresting ,unbelieving ,

uncontrolling . When you pal seaword end ing in ing , you shou ld always consider whether itcomes from averb ornot. There 1s suchaverbas interest,hence

you know thatthe word interesting is a participle butthere 1s no

suchverb as uninterest, consequently , uninteresting cannotbe aparticip le : but it is an-adjective ; as, an uninteresting story .

You w i l l be able very easi ly to disting u ishthe participle fromthe other parts of speech, whenyou shal l have acqu ired amoreextensive know ledg e of the verb.

Speak the particip les from eachof these verbs, learn, walk,shun, sm i le, sai l , conquer, manag e, reduce, r elate, d iscover, overrate, d iseng ag e . Thus, Pres. learning , Perf. learned, Comp .

having learned . Pres. walking , Perf. walked, Compound, havingwalked, and so on.

You may now comm it the order of parsing a participle, andhenproceed w ithme .

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING .

The order of parsing aPARTICI PLE, is— apartici

ple, andwhy — fromwhat verb 18 itderived —speak

the three -

present, perfect , or compound, and why .7

- to Whatdoes itrefer or belong —RULE.

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82 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

whichyou cannot parse correctly and systematically by referringto your Compend for definitions and ru les, you w i l l please '

to turnback and read over ag ainthe whole fi ve

'

lectures . You mustex

ercise a l ittle patience ; and, for your encourag ementtpermitme

to rem ind you, that,when you shalk have acqu ired a thoroughknowledg e of these fi ve parts of speech, only fi ve more wi l lremainfor you to learn. Be ambitious to excel . Be thoroughinyour investig ations . G ive your reasoning powers free Scope.

By studying these lectures w ithattention, you w i l l acquire more

g rammatical . knowledg e in three months, than is commonlyobtained intwo years.

Inthe fol low ing examp les, the words purling , crusted, slumbering , and twinkling , are particip ial adjectives . Thereand its youmay omit.

EXE RCISES IN PARSING .

‘

Orlando leftthe herd g laz ing . The hunters heard the young ,

x

dog barking . The old fox heard the sportsman’s hornsound ing .

Deep rivers float long rafts . Purl ing streamsmoistenthe earth’ssurface . The sun approaching , melts the crusted snow. Theslumbering . seas calmed the g rave old hermit’s m ind . PaleCynthiadecl ining , cl ips the horizon. Manbeholds the twink l ingstars adorning night

’

s blue arch. The strang er saw the desertthistle bend ing there its lowly head .

REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES .

Participles frequently become nouns ; as , A g ood understanding ; Excellentwriting ; H e made a G ood beg inning ,

butabad endinConstructions like the

t

following ,have long beensanctioned by the bestauthorities : The g oods are selling Thehouse is building The w ork

11< 1w publishing .

"A moderninnovation, how ever, is likely to supersede

t is mode of expression thus,The g oods are being sold ;

” The house isbeing built The w ork is now being published .

”

You may now answer theseQUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING .

How many kinds of participles are there — What is the end

ing of a present particip le —What does a perfect participledenote — W ithwhat does the perfect participle of areg ular verbcorrespond —Whatis acompound particip le -From whatwordis the term participle derived — Why is this partof speechthusnamed ’

.l —Where indoes this partof speechpartake of the nature

of averb — Do all participles participate the properties of ad

jectives —Inwhat respect — Whenare particip les cal led par-

7

ticipial adjectives — G ive examples — How may a present participle be known —Repeat the order of parsing a participle .

What rulg appl ies inparsing a presentparticiple— What Rule

inparsing a participial adjective —Do participles vary in then

or anvsass . 88

term inations inorder to ag ree withthe ir subjector actor t— WhatRule applies in parsing a noun in the objective case, g overnedby a participle —Do participles ever become nouns t— G iveexamples .

QUESTIONS ONTHE PHILOSOPH ICAL NOTES .

How are participles formedT—Whatdoes the impbrfect part. express1Whatdo perfectparticiples denote i

LE CTURE VI .

OF ADVERBS .

AnAnvsns is aword used to modify the sense of

averb, aparticiple, anadjective, or another adverb.

Recol lect, anadve rbnever qual ifies anoun. It qual ifies anyof the four parts of speechabovenamed, and none others .

To nwdifyorqualify, you know, means to produce some chang e.

The adverbmod ifies. I f I say, W irt’s style camels I rving

’s, the

propositionis affirmative, and the verb excels expresses the affi r.

mation. But when I say, W irt’s style excels not I rving

’s, the

assertionis chang ed to aneg ative . Whatis itthatthus mod ifi esor chang es the meaning of the verb excels You perceive thatitis the l ittle word not. This word has power to reverse themeaning of the.

'

sentence. Not, then, is amodifier, qual ifier, orneg ative adverb.

Whenanadverb is usetfi o mod ify the sense of averb or par

ticiple, itg eneral ly expresses the manner, time, or p lace, inwhichthe actionis performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the phrases, The man rides g racefully, awkwardly,

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES .As the happiness and increasing rosperi ty of apeople essentiall

ydepend

onthe ir advancementinscience ansthe arts, and as lang uao e , ina1 its sub

limo purposes and leg itimate bearing s, is strictly identifi ell w iththese ,it

may naturallv be supposed , that that nationwhichcontinues, throuchs uc

oussivo g enerations, steadily to prow ess inthe for mer, w ill notbe neglectfnlof the cultivationand refi nemento the latter. The truthof this remark is

illustrated by those who have , for many ag es, employed the Eng lish lang uag e as the ir medium for the transmissionof thought. Among its refi ne

ments may be ranked those procedures by whichverbsandnounshave beenso modifi ed and contracted as to form whatwe call adverbs, distributivee.

conjunctions, and prepositions : for I pre-tune itwill be readily conceded,

84 m ow er AND SYNTAX.

badly, swiftly, slo wly, (Sec . or, I saw the manrid ing swiftly, slowly,leisurely, veryfast, &c . , you perce ive that the words g racefully,awkwardly, are adverbs, qual i fy ing the verb rides, orthe particip le riding

,because they express the manner in which

the actiondenoted by the verb and phrticiple, is done .

Inthe phrases, The manrides daily, weekly, seldom,frequently,often, sometimes, never ; or, The man rode yesterday, heretofore,long since, long ag o, recently, lately, just now or, The manw i l lr ide soon, presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to- day, hereafter, you perce ive that all these words initalics, are adverbs,qual ify ing the meaning of the verb rides, because they expressthe time of the actiondenoted by the verb.

A g ain, i f I say , The man l ives here,near by, yonder, remote,far of somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, &c .

, the words in ital,ics are adverbs of place, because they tel l where he lives .

Adverbs l ikew ise qual ify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs ; as, more w ise, most w ise ; or more wisely, mostwisely.

Whenanadverb is joined to anadjective or adverb, ing enerallyexpresses the deg ree of comparison; for adverbs, l ike adjectives,have deg rees of comparison. Thus, inthe phrase, A ski l fu l artist,you know the adjective skilful is inthe positive deg ree but, byplacing the adverb more before the adjective, we increase thedeg ree of qual ity denoted by the adjective to the comparative ;as, A more ski l ful artist: and mostrenders itsuperlative ; as, Amostski l fu l artist. And i f we place more and mostbefore othe radverbs, the effect is the same ; as, sk i l ful ly, more sk i l ful ly, mostsk i l ful ly .

COMPARISONOF ADVERBS .

P ositive. Comparative, Superlativc.

soon, sooner, soonest.often, ofi ener, oftenest.much, more, most.

wel l, better, best.

far, farther, farthest.w isely, more w isely, mostw isely .

justly, more justly, most justly .

justly, less justly, least justly .

You w i l l g eneral ly kndW anadverb at sight; but sometimes

thatconciseness, as w ell as copiou sness and perspicu ity in lang ua e,is the

offspring of re fi nement. That an immense amount of time and reathissaved by the use of adverbs, the follow ing developmentwill clearly demonstrate . H e who is succe ssful in contracting one mode of expressionthat isdail used by thirty millions, doubtless does muchfor their bene fi t.host adverbs exPress inone word whatw ould otherw ise require two or

or snvaass. 85

you w i l l fi nd itmore difi ioultto be d isting uished , thanany otherDart of speechinthe Eng l ishlang uag e . I w i l l , therefore, g ivej ou some sig ns whichw i l l assist y ou a l ittle .

Most words end ing inly are adverbs ; suchas, politely, g racefi ll/y, judiciously . Any word or shortphrase that wi l l answerto any one of the questions, how how much2 when2 or whereis anadverb ; as, The river flows rapidly He walks very fastHe has g one far away ; but he w il l soon return; She sing ssweetly They learnnone atall. fl ow , or inwhatmanner doesthe river flow ? Rapidly . How does he walk ? Very fast.Where has he g one ? Far away . Whenwi l l he return Soon.

How does she sing Sweetly . How muchdo they learn Noneatall. From this il lustration, you perceive, that, if you couldnot tel l these adverbs by the sense , you wou ld know them bytheir answering to the questions. However, your better way w il lbe to d isting uishadverbs by considering the offi ce they performinthe sentence ; or by noticing their g rammatical relation, or

the ir situation, w ithrespectto other words . To g ainathoroughknowledg e of their real character, is highly important. Rapidly,

fast, far away, soon, sweetly, &c . are known to be adverbs bytheir qual i fying the sense of verbs . A very g ood pen writesextremely well. Well, inthis sentence, is. knownto be anadverbby its qual i fying the sense of the verb writes ; extremely,by its end ing inly, or by its being joined to the adverb well to

qual ify it; and very is knownas anadverb by its joining theadjective g ood.

Expressions l ike these, none at all, a g reat deal, afew daysag o, long since, at leng th, invain, whenthey are used to denotethe manner or time of the actionof verbs or participles, are g enerally cal led adverbialphrases .

more w ords : as, He did ithere,"for

,H e did itinthis place there, for, in

thatplace where, for, inwhatplace no w, for, atthis time . Why meansforwhat reason how - iawhatmind ,mood,mode , or manner ; exceeding ly

—to a

g reatdeg ree : very—ia aneminent deg r ee ; oflcnand seldom signify many

tina ,j ero times.

The procedures by whichwordshave beencontracted,modifi ed and combined . to lbrm this class of words, have beenvarious. The most proli fi cfamily of this illeg itimate race , are those inly ,acontractionof like. G entlevwa-ly . means mailm an- like, like a entleman. We do not yetany, Iadily .

butlady-like . he northBritons sti say, vicelike, m alilcc, instead of, wirely , manly .

Q uick comes from p ri ck. the pastpart. of the Ang lo~saxonverb g m'

ccian,to vivify, g ive life . Q uick ly or lave-ly ,means, inaquirk-lake or life-li kemauncf z inthe manner of acreature thathas life . Rapid—ly—rapid

-Iilrc, like arapid aquick

-[y or swift-[y running place inastream .

Always , contractionof inall wag r . By aslight transition. it means inor

6 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

Adverbs, thoughvery numerous,may, for the sake of practicalconvenience, be reduced to particu lar classes .

1 . Of Number as, Once, tw ice, thrice, di e .

2 . Of Order ; as, F irst, second ly, lastly, finally , &c .

3 . Of P lace ; as, Here, there, where, e lsewhere, anywhere,

somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward , downward, forward, backward, whence, thence

,

whithersoever, &c .

P resent; as,Now, to day, 650 .

Past; as, A lready, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore,hitherto, long since

,long ag o, &c .

g

Future ; as, To-morrow ,not yet, hereafter, henceforthh

henceforward , by and by , instantly, presently, immed iately,ere long , straightways, &c .

Time indefi nite as, Gil, often, oft- times, often- times,some

times,soon, seldom,

dai ly, weekly , monthly, yearly ,always, .

when, then, ever, never, ag ain, dz c .

5 . Of Quantity as, Much, l ittle, sufficiently,how much,how

g reat, enoug h, abundantly , &c .

6 . Of M anner or quality ; as, W isely, fool ishly, justly, nujustly, qu ickly, slow ly, &c . . Adverbs of qual ity are themost numerous kind ; and they are g eneral ly formed byadd ing .

the term inationly to anadjective or a participle , orby chang ing 26 into ly as, Bad, bad ly ; cheerful , cheerfu l ly able, ably adm irable, admirably .

7 . Of Doubt; as, Haply , perhaps, peradventure, possibly , perchance .

8 . Of Afi rmation; as, Veri ly ,tru ly, undoubted ly, doubtless,

certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, real ly, di e .

9. Of Neg ation; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all,inno w ise, (Sec .

1

10. Of Interrog ation; as, How,why , Wherefore, whither, &c . ,

and sometimes when, whence, where .

atall times . Al-o ne,contractionof all-one . Ou - ly

— one-lilce. Alf so— all thesame (thing ) Each -anag e . For ever and ever —for ag es and ag es . Eve r

is not synonymous w ithalway s. Never— rte ever . It sxgnifi es no ag o, no

period of time. No, contraction~ of not. Not, a modifi cation of no-thing

teeth- ing , nau g ht. H e is not g reater"

-is g reater innau g ht—«inno thing .

Adriftis the pastpart. adrifed, adrif’d,adr ift; from the Saxondrifan, on

adr ifan, to drive . Ag o, formerly w rittenyg o, g en, ag on, g one, ag one, is thepastpart. of the verb to g o . Itrefers to time g one by . Asunder , the Saxon

rt. asundr en, from the verb sondrianor asondrian, to se rate . Aloft— on

the loft, on luff, on lyft; lyft be ing the Ang lo- Saxonw e for air or clouds

Astray, the part. of straeg an, to stray . Awry , part. of m ythan, to w rithe .

Needs- fi wed-is ; anciently,nedes,node is.

snvanss .— u asme . 87

11. Of Comparison; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst,less, least, very, almost, l ittle, al ike, 650 .

NOTES.

1. This catalo 9 contains but a small portionof the adverbs inour lanMany verbs are formed by acombinationofprepositions w iththe

adverbs of place, here, there, where ; as, Hereof, thereof, whereof hereto ,

thereto. whereto ; hereby,thereb whereby ; herewith, therew ith. where

w ith; here in, there in, w terein; erelbre , ( i . e there -for,) where fore , ( i . e.

whe re -for.) hereu n,hereon, thereu n, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c.

2 . Some adver s are com d o nouns or verbs and the lette r a, usedinstead of at, on, &c. ; as , Aside , athirst, afoot, .asleep, aboard , ashore , abed,ag round, afloat, adrift, aghast, ag o, askance , away, asunde r, astray,You w i l l now p lease to read this lecture four times over, and

read slowly and careful ly, for unless you understand wel l thenature and character of this part of speech, y ou wi l l be frs

quently ata loss to d isting uish it from others in composition.

Now do you notice, that, in this sentence whichyou have justread, the words slowly, carefully,well,andfrequently,are adverbsAnd do you ag ainobserve, that, in the questionI have justputto you, the words now and justare adverbs ? Exercise

'

3. l ittlesober thought. F ifteenminutes spent in reflectionfi are worthwhole days occup ied incareless read ing .

Inthe fol lowing exercises six parts of speechare presented ,namely, Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs ; and I bel ieve you are now prepared to parse them all

ag reeably to the systematic order,four times over. Thwe wordsinitalics are adverbs.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING .

The order of parsing anADVERB, is— eu adverb,

and why l— What sort l— what does it qualifyRULE .

My friendhas returned ag ain buthishealthisnotvery g ood .

Ag ain, is anadverb, a word used to mod ify the sense of averb— of time indefinite, it expresses a period of time notprecisely defi ned— itqual ifies the verb

“has returned , accord ing to

To—m’

l, the infinitive of witan, to know . Itmeans, to be known.

Ay or yea signifies have it, enjo it. Yes is ay- f s .have , possess, e joy that.

Our co rrupt0-

304 of the crier, is t 0 Frenchinipem tixc ,oyez , lieurrklisten.

Straig ht way— by astrni htway . M i le— wheel , period inwhichsomething whites or wheels itsel round. Till— to while .

Per, Latin, - the En lishby . Perhaps—pe r haps, per chance .

These examples of erivationare'

venw iththe vi ew to invite the atten

$0athe intellig ent pupil to the Diversions of Parley, by JohnHorne00 e .

89 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

RULE 29. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, am:

other adverbs .

Notis anadverb, aword used to mod i fy the sense of an adverb— of neg ation, it makes the a ertionneg ative; that is,

‘ itchang es the proposition from anafi rmative to aneg ative— anditqual ifies the adverb very ,

”ag reeably to RULE 29. Adverbs

qualify verbs,Very is anadverb, aword used to qual i fy the sense of anad

jective— of comparison, it compares the adjective “g ood ,”and

qual ifies itaccord ing to RULE 29 . Adverbs qualify adjectives, (5-0.

EXERCISES INPARSING .

The travel ler described a lofty castle decay ing g radually .

Very few l iterary men ever become d isting u ished poets . The

g reat Milton excels not Homer . The Romanwomenonce,vol.

untarily contributed their mostprecious jewels to save the city .

Many smal l streams uniting , form very larg e rivers. Theriver Funza fal l ing perpendicularly, forms avastcataract. Attentive servants always drive horses very carefully ; neg l ig ent ser

vants (f len drive horses very carelessly . Assiduous scholarsimprove very fast; id le scholars learnnone at all. Friendshipoftenends inlove ; butlove infriendship,neger .

NOTE . Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walkedNotyetquitefar enou g h, perhaps. Not, yet,far , and enou g h, qualify havewalked” understood ; perhaps qualifies not; and qu ite qualifies far . Theadverbs always and car efully bothqualify the verb drive the former ex

presses time, and the latter, manner . Once and voluntarily qualify the verb“contr ibute d the former expresses number , and the latter, manner . The

w ord their you need not parse . The active verb to savehas no nominative .

The nouns love and friendship . follow ing in, are in the objective case,and

g overned by thatpreposition.

REMARKS ON ADVERBS.

Whenthe w ords therefore, consequently , according ly ,and the like

,are used

inconnex ionw ithother conjunctions, they are adverbs ; butwhenthey appear sing le , they are commonly considered conjunctions.

The w ords whenand where, and all others of the same natute , suchaswhence, whither , whenever , wher ever , till, until, before, otherwi se, whi le, where

fore, &c . may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature bothof adverbs and conjunctions ; of adverbs, as they do

note the attributes either of time or place ; of conjunctions, as they conjoinsentences .

There are many w ords that are sometimes used as adjectives, and some

times as adverbs ; as, M ore men thanw omenw ere there I am more dill

entthanbe .

” Inthe former sentence more is evidently anadjective , for it18 joined to anounto qualify it; inthe latter it is anadverb,

because itqualifi es anadjective . There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, and

sometimes as adverbs ; as, to-day’s lessonis long er thanyesterday

’s .

"In

this exertiple, to-day and yesterday are nours inthe possessive case ; but in

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99 tarvmom er AND SYNTAX .

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX .

Non 3, TO RULE 29. Adjectives are sometimes improperlyapplied as adverbs ; as, indifferenthonest; excel lentwel l ; miscrable poor — She writes eleg aigt; He is walking slow .

The adjectives indif ferent, ex cellent, and miserable, are here improperlyused, because adjectives do not express the deg ree of adjectives or adverbs,but suchmodifi cations are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, therefore

,be

,

“indifi‘

erently honest, ex cellently w ell,miserably poor .

”E leg ant

and slow are also inaccurate , for itis notthe oflice of the adjective to expre ss

the manner,time

, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it isthe ofi ce of the adverb. The constructions should be , She w rites eleg antly H e is walking slowly .

You may correct the followmg examples several times over,

and explainthe principles thatare violated.

FALSE SYNTAX .

He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent.She reads proper, and writes very neat.They once lived tolerable wel l ; but now they are miserable

poor .

The lowering clouds are moving slow .

He behavedhimself submissive, and was exceeding careful notto g ive offence .

NOTE 4 , TO RULE 29. Adverbsare sometimes improperly usedinstead of adjectives ; as,

“The tutor addressed him interms

rather warm, butsuitably to his offence .

”

The adverb suitably is incorrect. It does notexpress the manner of theactionof the verb addressed

,

” butitdenotes the quality of the nountermsunderstood ; for whichreasonit should be anadjective ,

FALSE SYNTAX .

The manwas slow ly wandering about, solitari’

ly anddistressed.

H e l ived inamanner ag reeably to his condition.

The study of Syntax should be previously to thatof Punctuation.

He introducedhimself inamanner very abruptly .

Conformably to their vehemence of thought was their vehemence of g esture .

I saw him previously to his arrival .

raarosm ous. 91

OF PRE POSITIONS .

A PREPOSITION is aword whichserves to connectwords, and show the relationbetweenthem.

The term prepositionis derived from the two Latinwords, pre,whichsig nifi es before, and pone, to place. Prepositions are so

cal led, because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns whichthey g overninthe objective case .

The principal prepositions are presented inthe fol lowing l ist,whichyou may now committomemory, and thus you wil l be en

abled to disting uishthem from other parts of speechwhenevervou see them incomposition.

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS .

over at after betwixt

under near about beside

through up against athwartabove down unto towar ds

below before notw ithstandingbetw een behind around outof

beneath off amidst instead of

within from onupon throu ghout over againstbeyond among underneath accord ing to

This l istcontains many words thatare sometimes used as con

junctions, and sometimes as adverbs butwhen you shal l havebecome acquainted withthe nature of the preposition, and of theconjunctionapd adverb too, you w il l fi nd no diffi culty inascertaining to whichof these classes any word belong s .

By looking at the defi nitionof a preposition, you wil l notice,that itperforms ado uble offi ce ina sentence, namely, it connects‘

words, and also shows arelationbetweenthem. I w il l fi rstshowyou the use and importance of this partof speechas a connect

ive . When corn is ripe— October, it is g athered— the fi eld

PHILOSOPH ICAL NOTES.

F rom. according to H . Tooke , is the Ang lo-Saxonand Gothic norm frnm,

Waning , source , author. H e came from (be fining ) Rocheste r ” Ofsupposes to be afrag ment of the Gothic ant Saxonnounafar-a, conse

quence , ofi spring , follow er.

“Solomon, the sonof ( ofl‘

m ng ) David . Ofor of in its mo dernacceptatiou, signifi es disjoined, muttered . A intro of( of ) the leaf, is apiece dicjm

’

ned, or sep arated from the loaf. The lP amuseof or of the rose .

For signifi es came. I writo for your satisfaction i. e . your satisfactionbeingthe came. By or be 111 the imperative byth, of the Saxonbeen, to be .

the imperative of within, to join: or, whenequivalentto by , cfm

92 m ow er AND SYNTAX .

men— who g o— hil l— hil l— baskets, —whichthey put the ears .

You perceive,that inthis sentence there is atotal want of con

nexion and meaning ; but let us fi ll up eachvacancy witha

preposition, and the sense wil l be clear. Whencornis ripe,2'

nOctober, it is g athered inthe field

”by men, who g o from hil l tohil l withbaskets, into whichthey putthe ears.

”

From this il lustration you _

are convinced, no doubt, that our

lang uag e would be very defi cientWithoutprepositions to connect

the various words of whichit is composed. It would, in fact,amounttonothing butnonsense . There is,however, another partof speechthat performs this offi ce, namely

, the conjunction.

This wil l be explained inLecture IX . inwhichlecture you wil llearn, thatthe nature of apreposition, as a connective particle,is nearly al lied to thatof a conjunction. In the '

next place'

Iwil l show you how prepositions express a relation between

words . 0

”The boy’s hat is under his arm : In this expression, whatrelationdoes the preposition under show ? You know thathatand arm are words used as sig ns of two objects, or ideas ; butunder is not the signof a thing you can think of : it is merelythe sig nof the relationexisting betweenthe two objects . Hence

you may perceive, that since the word under is the signof therelationexisting betweenparticular ideas, italso expresses arelwtionexisting betweenthe wordshatand arm,

whichwords are therepresentatives of those ideas .

The boy holds his hatinhishand. Inthis sentence the prepositiou inshows the relationexisting betweenhat_andhand, or thesituation, or relative position, eachhas inreg ard to the other. And,if I say , The boy

’shat is onhis head, you perceive thatonshows

the relationbetweenhat and head . Ag ain, in the expressions,The boy threw his hatup stairs— under the bed— behind the ta

ble— throug hthe window— over the house— across the street— into

the water— and so on, you perceive thatthe several prepositions ex

than,to be . I will g o withhim . I , joinhim ,

will g o . Incomes fromthe Gothic nouninna, the interior of the body ; acave or cell . About

,from

boda,the fi rst outward boundary . Among 18 the past part. of g amaeng an,

to ming le . Throug h or thoroug his the Gothic substantive dam-

o, or theTeutonic thu ruhf Itmeans passag e , g ate , door .

Befor e— before, be-hind,be- low, be- stdc

,be- sides, be-neath, are formed by

combining the imperative be, w iththe nouns fore, hind, low, side, neath.

Noath- Saxonneothan,neothe,has the same signifi cationas nadir . B e-tween,

be-twixt— be and twatn. A dual preposition. B e-

yond— be-

passed . B eyondaplace , means

,be passed thatplace .

Notwithstanding —w ot—stand- zng-with,not-withstanding . Any order to the

contrary not-withstanding”(this order ;) i. e . noteffectually withstanding or

opposing it.

“newness — m em e . 93

press the differentrelations existing betweenthehatand the othernouns, stairs, bed, table, window,

house, street, and water .

A prepositiontel ls where athing is thus, The pear is onthe

g round, under the tree .

Pre itions g overnthe objective case, but they do notexpressanactiondone to some object, as anactive - transitive verbor per

tieiple does . Whenanounor pronoun fol lows apreposition, itis inthe objective case , because it is the object of the relationexpressed by the preposition, and notthe objectof anaction.

I cannow g ive you amore extensive eXplanationof the objective case, thanthatwhichwas g iveninaformer lecture . I havealready informed you, thatthe objective ease expresses the objectof anactionor ofarelation and, also, thatthere are three partsof Speechwhich g overn nouns and pronouns inthe objectivecase, namely, active- transitive verbs, participles derived fromtransitive verbs, and prepositions . A nounor pronouninthe ob«

jective case, cannotbe, atthe same time, the objectof anactionand of a relation. Itmustbe either the object of anactionor

of a relation. And I wishyou particularly to remember, thatwhenever anounor pronoun is g overned by a transitive verb

or participle, it is the object of an action; as, The tutor

instructs his pttpils or, The tutor is instructing his pupils ; butwhenever a nounor pronounis overned by a preposition, it isthe objectof a relation; as, Th tutor g ives g ood instructiontohis pupils .

Before you proceed to parse the fol lowing examples, pleaseto review this lecture,

_

and thenthe whole sevenin the manner

previously recommended,namely, read one or two sentences, andthenlook oti

'

your book and repeatthem two or three times overinyour mind. This course wil l enable you to retainthe most

importantideas advanced. If you wishto proceed w ithease andadvantag e, you musthave the subject-matter of the precedinglectures stored inyour mind. Do notconsider itanunpleasanttask to comply withmy requisitions, for when you shal l havelearned thus far, you wil l understand sevenparts of speech andonly three more wil l remainto be learned.

If you have compl ied withthe foreg oing request, you maycommitthe fol lowing order, and thenproceed inparsing .

svsbsm rtc ORDER or PARSING .

The order of parsing aPREpostrwN, is— a prepo

sition, andwhy —whatdoes itconnect -whatrelationdoes itShow ?

94 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

He saw anantelope inthe wilderness .

Inis apreposition, aword whichserves to connectwords, andshow the relation betweenthem— it connects tne words “antelope

”and wilderness ’

-and shows the relationbetweenthem .

Wilderness is anoun, the nametof aplace— com . the name of

a sort or species— neut. g end. it denotes athing without sex

thi1d pers . spokenof— sing . num . it impl ies butone— and intheobjective case, it is the objectof a relationexpressed by the prelposition in

,

’’and g overned by it, according to

RULE 31 . P repositions g overnthe objective case.

The g enius of our lang uag e wil l not al low us'

to say, Stanobefore he Hand the paper to they . Prepositions require the pronounfol lowing them to be inthe objective form, position, or case ;and this requisition amounts to g overnment. Hence we say,Stand before him Hand the paper to them.

” Every preposition expresses a relation, and every relationmusthave anobject consequently, every prepositionmust be fol lowed by a

nounor p1enouninthe objective ease .

EXERCISES IN PARSING .

Tme all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speechuponman,for the mostexcel lentuses . Aug ustus heard the orator pleadingthe cl ient’s cause, ina flow of mostpowerfu l eloquence . FairCynthia smiles serenely over

gpture

’s softrepose . Life

’s vary

ing schemes no more distractt'

e laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing onthe shore of Eg ypt.A beam of tranquil lity oftenplays round theheartof the truly

pious man. The thoughts of former years g lide over my sou l,

l ike swif’t shooting mete01s over Ardven’s g loomy vales .

At the approachof day , night’s swiftdrag ons cutthe clouds

ful l fast, and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home tochurch- yards .

Love stil l pursues anever devious race,True to the wincfi ng lineaments of g race .

Nora.— The w ordsmy and and youneed notparse . Thenoun meteors,

”

fbllowing the adverb“like ,

” is in the objective ease,and g overned by

understood ,according to Nora 2 , under Rule 32 . The noun“home

” is

g overned by to understood, according to Rule 32 .

REMARKS ONPREPOSITIONS AND VERBS .

A nounor pronoun in the objective case ,is often g ove ed by 3

tion undetstood ; as,“Give him that book ; that is, “give that ook to

him ;’

Ortu g rul was one day wandering , &c. that one day . M er

cy gives afi ictiona g race’that is, M ercy g ives a g race to affliction. See

Note l , u11der Rule 32 .

To be able to mak e a proper use of prepositions, particular attention isrequisite . There 13 apeculiar propriety to be observed m the use of by and

rnonouns . Do

with: as. lie walks withastaff by moonlight He was takenby strata

g em, and killed withasword . Put the one preposition for the other, andany , He walks by astati

'

withmoonlight H e was takenwithstrata em,

and k illed by asw ord and itw ill up ear, thatthe latter expressions fille rfrom the former insignifi cation, more than one , at fi rstview ,

would be apt

to imag ine .

Verbs are oftencompounded ofaverb and apreposition as, to uphold, to

withstand, to over look ; and this composition g ives a new meaning to theve rb ; as, to understand, to withdraw , to for g ive . But the preposition ismore fi eqnently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like anadverb ; in whichsituation it does not less atfect the sense of the verb, and

g ive itanew meaning ; and inall instances, whether the propositionisplacedeither before or afte r the verb, if it g ives anew meaning to the verb, itmaybe considered as a partof the verb. Thus, to cast means to throw : buttocod 1: anaccount, signifi es to compute it therefore up is apartof the verbThe phrases. tofall on, to bear out, to g ive over , convey very difi

‘

erentmeaning s from what they would if the prepositions on, out, and over , were notused .

‘ Verbs of this kind are called compound verbs.

You may now answer the fol lowing

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING .

From whatwords is the term prepositionderived -Why is 1'

thus named — Repeatthe listof prepositional—Name the three

parts of speechthatg overnnouns and pronouns inthe objectivecase — When is a noun or pronoun in the objective case , theobject of anaction— When is it the object of a relation2?Repeat the order of parsing apreposition

— What rule do youapply inparsing anounor pronoung overned by apreposition?Does every preposition require anobjective case after it — ls a

nounor pronounever g overned by a prepositionunderstood 1’

Give examples — What is said of verbs compounded of a verb

and preposition — Give the orig inand meaning of the prepositions explained in the Philosophical Notes.

LE CTURE VIII.

OF PRONOUNS .

A PRONOUN is aword used instead of anoun, andgenerally to avoid the too frequent repetitionof thesame word. A pronoun is, likewise, sometimes asubstitute for asentence

, or member of a sentence.

The wordpronouncomes fromthe twoLatinwords, pro, which

meansfor, or instead of, and m en, a name, or noun. Hence

96 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

you perceive, that pronounmeans for a noun, or instead of anoun.

Inthe sentence , The manis happy ; he is benevolent; heisus

e fu l you perceive , that the word he ‘is used instead of thenounman consequentl y he must“be a pronoun. You observe,too, that, by making use of the pronounhe inthis sentence

,we

,

avoid the repetitionof the nounman, for w ithoutthe pronoun, thesentence Would be rendered thus, “The manis happy ; themanis benevolent; the manis usefu l .

”

By looking ag ainatthe defi nitionf you wil l notice,that pro

nouns always stand for nouns, but they do not always avoid therepetition of nouns . Repetition means repeating or mentioningthe same thing ag ain. In the sentence,

“I come to die for mycountry,

’O

the p1onouns,Iand my, stand for the name of the personwho speaks butthey donotavoid the repetitionof thatname,because the name or nounfor whichthe pronouns are used, is

not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the third person, g eneral lyavoid the repetitionof the nouns for whichthey stand ; but pro

nouns of the fi rstand second person, sometimes avoid the repeti

tionof nouns, and sometimes they do not.

A little farther il lustrationof the pronoun wil l show you its

importance, and, also, thatitsnature is very easily comprehended .

'

f we had no pronouns inour lang uag e , we shou ld be oblig ed toexpress ourselves in this manner : “A womanwent to aman,and told the

“

manthatthe manwas indang er of being murdered

by a g ang of robbe i s as a g ang of robbers had made preparations for attacking the man. The manthanked the womanforthe woman

’

s kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend

the man’s self, the man left the man’

s house, and went to aneighbor

’s .

”

This wou ld be a laborious style indeed ; but, by the help of

pronouns, we canexpress the same ideas withfar g reater ease

and conciseness A womanwent to aman, and toldhim, thathe was ing reatdang er of being murdered by a g ang of robbers,whohadmade preparations for attacking him. He thankedher forher kindness, and, as he was unable to defend himsel he lefthishouse and wentto aneig hbor

’s .

”

If y ou look atthese examples afew moments, you cannot beata loss to tel l whichwords are pronouns ; and you wil l observe,too, thatthey all stand for nouns.

Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds,the P ersonal, the Adj ective, and the Relative prououns. They are all knownby the lists.

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98 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

PERSON. Pronouns have three persons innumber.

I,is the fi rstperson

Thou, is the second persott Singular.He

,she

,or it

,is the third person

We,is the fi rstperson

Ye or you, is the second person Plural.

They, is the third person

This account of persons wil l be very intel l ig ible, whenyoureflect, that there are three persons who may be the subjectofany discourse : fi rst, the personwho speaks, may speak of himself ; secondly,he may speak of the personto whom he addresseshimself; thirdly, he may speak of some other person andas thespeakers, the persons spokento, and the persons spokenof, maybe many, so eachof these persons musthave aplural number.

Pronouns of the second and third person. always ag ree inper.

sonwiththe nouns they represent; butpronouns of the fi rstperson, donot. Whenever a pronounof the fi rst person is used, it

represents anoun butnouns are never of the fi rstperson, therefore these pronouns cannotag ree inpersonwiththeirnouns.

NUM BER. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers

,the singular and the plural ; as, I , thou,he we

,

ye or you, they .

CASE . Pronounshave three cases, thenominative,the possessive, and the objective .

Inthe next place I wil l presentto you the declension of the

personal pronouns, whichdeclensionyou mustcommitto mem

ory before you proceedany farther.

The advantag es resulting from the committing of the fol lowing declension, are so g reat and diversifi ed, that you cannot be

too particular in your attention to it. You recol lect, that it is

sometimes very diffi cu lt to disting uishthe nominative case of a

noun from the objective, because these cases of nouns are not

marked by adifference intermination; but this difficulty IS re

moved inreg ard to the personal pronouns, for their cases are

alwaysknownby their termination. By studying the declension

you wil l learn, notonly the cases of the pronour s, but,also, their

g enders, persons, andnumbers.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 99

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS .

FIRST PERSON .

Sing .P lur .

Nom. I, we,

P oss. my or mine, our or ours,

Obj . me. us.

SECOND PERSON .

Sing . P lur .

Nom. thou, ye or you,

P oss. thy or thine, your or yours

Obj .

'

thee. you .

THIRD PERSON .

they,their or theirsthem.

THIRD PERSON .

Fem. Sing . P lur .

Nom. she,

they,Poss. her or hers, their or theirs,

her. them.

THIRD PERSON .

Neut. Sing . Plur .

they,their or theirs,them.

NOTES.

1 . Whenself is added to the personal pronouns, ashimself, myself, itself,themselves, &c. the are called compound personal pronouns, and are used inthe nominative or oh’ective case , butnot inthe possessive .

2 . Inorder to avord the disag reeable harshness of sound, occasioned b thefi rectient recurrence of the terminations est, cdxl , in the adaptation0 our

ver 8 to the nominative than, amodern innovationwhichsubstitutes you for

thou, infamiliar style , has g enerally beenadopted . This innovationcontribute. atly to the harmony of our colloquial style . Y ou was fo rmerly re

stric to the plural number ; but now itis employed to represent e itherasing ular or aplural noun. Itoughtto be recollected

,how ever, thatwhen

med as the representative of a sing ular noun, this word retains its orig inal

plural jam ; and, therefore , the verb connected w ithit, should always be

100 am ateur AND svmu .

plural. Inattentionto this peculiarity,has betrayed some writers into thee rrrmeous conclusion, that, because you implies unity when itrepresents asm

'gplar noun, it ought, whenthus employed, to be follow ed by asing ular

ve as, Whenwas you the re 1" How far was you from theparties 1

"

Suchaconstru ction. however, is notsupported by g ood usag e , nor y analoIt is as manifestasolecism as to say , We am,

or w e is . Were it, inanym se . admissible to connectasi lar verb w ithyou,

the use of was wouldstill be ungmmmatical, for this mm of the verb is confi ned to the firstandthird p ersons, and you is second person. Wad be ing second person, itwouldap roximate neare r to correctness to say, you “ It. We never use the sin»

g u or of the present tense withyou —you m , you is ; you walked , you

walks. Why, then, shouldany attemptbe made to force ausag e so unnaturaland g ratuitous as the connecting of the sing ular verb inthe pastterms w iththis pronoun1 in every pointof view , the construction, Whenwere youthere i" How far were you from the parties 1

" is preferable to the other.

3 . The wordsmy , thy ,his ,her , ou r , your . their ,are , by many, denominated

possessive adjective prom vu ; butthey always“andfor nouns inthe possessive case . They ought, therefore ,

to be classed w iththe personal pronouns.

That irinciple ofclassifi cationwhichranks them withthe adjective pronouns,weal also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives.Example The lady gave the entlemau her watchforhis horse .

"Inthis

sentence herpe rstmates, or sta for, the noun lady,

”and his represents

“uentlemanl This fact is clearly shownby rendenng the sentence thus,The lady vs the g entlemanthe lady

'

s watchfor the g entleman’s horse .

"

If lady'

s enga

g u llenan’c are nouns, her and his mustbe personal pronouns.

The same remarks a ply to my , thy , our, your, their,and its . This view of

these w or ds may be 0 jected to by those who speculate and refi ne upon theprinciples of g rammar until they prove theirnon-existence ,

but itis be lieved,neverthe less, to be based onsound reasonand commonsense .

4 . M ine , thine,his, hers , men, w e, theirs, have , by many respectableg rammarians, beenconsidered me re ly the possessive casesof personal pronouns, whilst, by othe rs , theyhave beendenominated pronouns or nouns inthe nominative or Objective case . It is believed ,however, thata little attentionto the meaning and office of these w ords, w ill clearly show the impropriety of boththese classifi cations. Those who pursue the former arrang ement, alleg e , that, inthe examples, “You may imag ine what kind of faiththei r: was : My pleasures are past; hen aud yours are to come ; they applauded his conduct, butcondemned hm and yours,

”the w ords theirs,hers,

and yours, are personal pronouns inthe possessive case ,and g overned by

their respective nouns understood . To prove this, they (ionstruct the sentence thus, “You may imag ine what kind of faiththeir aahwas :—herpleasu r es and yourf

casurcs are to comm—butcondemn her conductand

you r conduct;"

or us, You may imag ine what kind of faiththe faithof

them was — the leasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come :hutcondemned conductof her and the conductof you .

" Butthese con»structions, (bothof whichare correct,) prove too muchfor their

pa

for, as soonas w e so ply the nouns afte r these w ords, they are reso v into

personal pronouns O kindred meaninv , and the nouns whichw e supply :

thus ‘heirs becomes, their fisith: hers,her pleasures ; and you" , your p eas

ures . This evidently g ives us two w ords instead of, and altog ether distinctfrom

,the fi rst; so that, inparsing ,

thei r faith, w e are not, inreality, analyz ing theirs, buttw o other words of whichtheir: is the proper representao

tive. . These remarks also prove , w ithequal force ,the impropriety of calling

these wordsmere ly aim le pronouns or nouns inthe nominative or objectivecase Without attempting to develop the orig inal or intr insic meaning of

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102,

W O 'DGY u rnsrx'

ux .

pronoun, and why l— personal, and why l—person,and why

’

l— g ender and number, and why'

Z— RULE :

case, and Why — RULe .—Decline it.

There are many pecul iarities to be observed inparsing per.

sonal pronou ns inthe i r different pe rsons ; therefore, if you wishever to parse them correctly, you must pay particular attentionto the manner inwhichthe following are analyzed. Nownotice ,particularly, and y ou w i l l perce ive thatwe apply only one ruleinparsing I and my, and two inparsing thou, him, and they .

I saw my friend.

I is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— personal , itrepresents the person speaking , understood— fi rst person, it do.

notes the speaker—sing ular number, it impl ies butone—and in

the nominative case , it represents the actor and subject of theverb “saw,

”and g overns it, ag reeably to Runs 3 . The norm.

case g ov. the verb. Dec l ined— fi rstpers . sing . num . nom. I ,my or mine, obj . me . Plur. nom. we, poss . our or ours, obj . us.

JlIy is apronoun, aword used instead of anoun— personal , it

personates the personspeaking , understood— fi rstpers . itdenotesthe speakeH ing . num . it impl ies butone—and inthe pom mivecase, itdenotes posses sion it is g overned by the noun friend,

”

ag reeably to RULE 12 . A nounor pronouninthe possessive case,is g overned by the nounit possesses . Decl ined— fi rst pers. sing .

nom. I , poss . my or mine, obj. me . Plur. nom. we, poss . our or

ours, obj. us .

Young man, thouhastdeserted thy companion, and lefthim indistress .

”

Thou is apronoun, aword used instead of a noun— personal ,it personates

“man”— second person, it represents the personspokento—mas . g eod. sing . num. because the noun man” isfor whichitstands, according toRULE 13. P ersonal pronouns must ag ree withthe nouns for

whichthey stand ing ender and number .

Thou is inthe nom . case, itrepresents the actor and subjectof.the verb hast deserted,

”and g overns itag reeably to RULE 3.

Thenom. case g overns the verb. Declined— sec . pers. sing . num .

nom . thou, poss . thy or thine, obj. thee . Plur. nom. ye or you,

poss. your or yours, obj. you .

H im is apronoun, aword used instead of anoun— personal , it

personates companion”

-third pers. it represents the person

m tobM M g H M hamm dmm M r mm M aM 1 b rmlatver represents the mme nounas the

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.— PARSING . 103

spokenof— mas . g end. sing . num. because thenoun companion

is for whichit stands : RULE 13 . P ers . pro. doc. (Repeat theRule . ) —Him is m the objective case, the object of the actionexpressed by the active- tfl nsitive v erb hast left, and g ov. byit: RULE 20. Active-trans . verbs g ov. the obj . case. Decl inedthird pers . mas . g end. sing . num . nom . he, poss . his, obj . him .

Plur. nom . they, pose . the ir or theirs, obj . them.

Thrice I raised my voice, and cal led the chiefs to combat;butthey dreaded the force of my arm .

”

They is apronoun, aword used instead ofanoun— personal , itrepresents chiefs”— thirdpers. itdenotes the persons spokenofmas. g end. plur. num. because the noun chiefs” is for whichitstands : RULE 13 . P ers . P ron. (Repeat the Ru le . ) It is

the nom . case, it represents the actors and subject of the verb“dreaded,

”and g overns it: RULE 3 . The nom. case, g ov. the

verb. Decl ined— third pers. mas. g end. sing . num . nom . he,

poss . his, obj . him . Plur. nom . they, poss . their or the irs, obj.them .

Nora. We do not apply g ender inparsing the personal pronouns, ex

cepting the third person sing ular,) if the nouns they represent are un er

stood and therefore we do not, insuchinstances,apply Rule 13. Butwhenthe nounis expressed, g ender should be applied, and two Rules.

EXERCISES.

INPARSING .

I saw a man leading his horse slow ly over the new bridg e .

My friends visitme very oftenat my father’s offi ce . YVe im

prove ourselves by close appl ication. Horace, thou learnestmany lessons . Charles, you, by your di l ig ence, make easy work

of the task g ivenyou by your preceptor. Young ladies, you runover your lessons very carelessly . The strang er drove hishorsestoo far into the water, and, inso doing , he drowned them .

Gray morning rose inthe east. A g reennarrow vale appearedbefore us : its w inding stream murmured throughthe g rove .

The darkhostof Rothmar stood onits banks withthei r g l itteringspears. We foughtalong the vale . They fled. Rothmar sunkbeneathmy sword. Day was descending inthe west

,when I

broughthis arms to Crother. The ag ed hero feltthem w ithhishands : joy brightenedhis thoughts .

Nora. Horace, Charles, :md ladies, are of the second person, and new .

case independ ent see Runs 5, and Nora. The fi rstyou. is used inthe nom.

posts. and obj. case — Itre nts Charles, there fore it is sing ular insense ,altbau hplural inform. nthe nextexam ls , you pe rsonifi es ladies , therefore it is plu ral . Givenis aperfectparticip e . You follow ing

'

ven, is g ov

.erned by to understood, according to Non: 1, under Rule 32 . anover is a

compound verb. And is acoqjunction. The first its personateavale ; thesecond it: represents stream .

104 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

Youmay now parse the fol low ing examples thr 1 : times over.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUN’SJu l iet, retainher paper, andpresentyeare .

Yours is a compound personal pronoun, representing boththe

possessor and the thing possessed, and is equ ivalentto your paper .

Your is apronoun, a word used instead of anoun— personal . it

personates Juliet’

- second person, it represents the personspo

kento— fem . g ender, sing . number, (sing u lar insense, butplural

inform,) because the noun Ju l iet is for which it stands : Rule13 . P ers . P ron. tie — Your is inthe possessive case, itdenotes

possession, and is g overned by“paper,

”according to Ru le 12 .

A nounor pron. tic. (Repeat the Ru le, and decl ine the pronoun. ) P aper is a noun, the name of a thing —m oonimon, thename of a sortof thing s— neuter g ender, itdenotes athing W ithoutsex— third person, spoken of- sing . number, it

'

impl ies butone— and inthe obj . case, it is the objectof the actionexpressedby the transitive verb

“present,

”and g overned by it: Ru le 20.

Active-transitive verbs g over nthe obj . case.

Nora. Should it be objected,thatyours does notmeanyour pa r

,any

more thanit means you r book, you r house, your any thing , letitbe orne inmind, that pronouns have no defi nite meaning , like other w ord s : buttheir

particular signifi cationis always determined by the nouns they represent.

EXERCISES IN PARSING .

Ju l ia injured her book, and soi led m ine : hers is better thanmine . My friend sacr i fi ced his fortune to secure yours : hisdeeds deserve reward ; yours merit disg race . Henry

’s labors

are past; thine are to come . W e leave your forests of beasts

for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin.

Nora. She understood,isnominative to soiled, inthe fi rst example and

the substantive part ofmme,afte r than

,is nom . to is, understood : Rule 35.

The verbs to secure and to comehave no nominative . The pronouns mine,my, you rs, thine, we, your , ou rs, my ,

and yours, personate nouns understood.

REM ARKS ONIT.

For the Wantof aproper know ledcre of this little pronounit. many g rammarians have been g reatly puz z ledhow to dispose of it, or how to accountfor its multiform ,

and, seemin ly , contradictory characters. It is in g reat

demand by writers of every de scription. They‘

use itw ithoutceremony ;either in the nominative or objective case either to representone personor

thing , or more than one . Itis applied tonouns inthe masculine , feminine,or neuter g ender. and, very frequently, itrepresents amember ofasentence ,8. whole sentence , or anumber of sentences takeninamass .

A little attention to its true character,w ill

,atonce , strip itof all its mys

te ry . It. formerlyr w rittenhit, according to H . Tooke ,is the pastparticiple

of the M oose -Gothic verbhaitan. Itmeans,the said,

and,therefore , like its,

near relative that, meaning , the assumed, ori g inally had no respect, inits ap.

plication, to number, person, or g ender . It is awholesome law i. e . the

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- 06 srvmmns v AND . s'

rAx .

count for themselves “Every manmustaccount for himsel f.Eachof these g ssertions conveys the same fact or truth . But

the last, instead of presenting the whole human fami ly for themind to contemplate ina mass, by ;he pecul iar force of every,distributes them , and presents eachseparately and sing ly ; andwhatever is affi rmed of one ind ividual , the mind instantaneouslytransfers to the whole humanrace .

Eachrelates to tw o or more persons or thing s, and signifi es e ither of thetw o

,or every one ofany number takenseparately .

Every relates to several persons or thing s, and signifi es eachone of themall takenseparately .

E ither relates to two persons or thing s taken separately , and sig nifi es theone or the other . E ither of the three,

” is

should be , any of the three .

”

Neither imports noteither ; that is, notone nor the other ; as, Neither ofmy friends was there .

” When anallusion is made to more thantwo , noneshould be used instead ofneither ; as, None of my friends was there .

”

I I . The demonstrative are those whichprecisely

point out the subject to which they relate. List:

this and that, and their plurals, these and those, and

former and latter ; as, This is true charity ; thatis only its image .

”

There is buta sl ightshade of d ifference in the meaning and

appl icationof the and that. Whenreference is made to apar

ticular book , we say,“Take the book but when we w ishto

be very pointed and precise, we say, Take thatbook or, i f itbe near by, Take this book .

”You perceive , then, that these

demonstratives have all the force of the definite article, and al ittle more .

This and these refer to the nearest persons or thing s, thatand those to themostdistant; as, These g oods are superior to those .

”This and these indi

cate the latter, or last mentioned ; thatand those, the former,or firstmen

tioned ; as, Bothwealthand poverty are temptations ; that tends to excitepride, this, discontent.

”

Some place the bliss inaction, some incase ;

Those call it‘

pleasnre ,and contentment

,these.

”

They , those. As it is the offi ce of the personal they to representanounreviously introduced to our notice , there a pears to be aslightdeparturefi'om analog ymthe following applicationof it: They who seek after wisdom, are sure to fi nd her : They that sow intears, sometimes reap injoyThis usag e, how ever, is w ell established, and they, in suchconstructions, is

g enerally employed inpreference to those.

I I I . The indefi nite are those whichexpress theirsubjects inan indefi nite or general manner. L ist

some, other, any, one, all, such, both, same, another,

amscrxva PRONOUNS .— PARSXNG . 307

mm . Of these, oneand other are declined like nouns.

Another is declined, butwants the plural.The indefinite adjectives, l ike the indefi nite article, leave the

meaning unfi xed, or, in some deg ree, vag ue . W itha sl ightshade of d ifference inmeaning , we say, G ive me a paper, onepaper, any pape r, some paper, and so on. Thoughthese wordsrestrictthe meaning of the noun, they donot fi x itto aparticularobject. We therefore cal l them indefinite .

These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns understood ,

inwhichsituationthey should be parsed accordingg lyOOk

,

‘‘You maytake either He ts pleased withthis book, butdislikes that All (men)have sinned . butsome (men) have repented .

"

The words, one, other, and none, are used inbothnumbers and, whenthey stand for HOURS

,they are

not adjectives, but indefi nite pronouns as,

Thegreat ones of the worldhave their failings ;

” “Somemenincrease inwealth,while others decrease Noneescape.

”

The wonl “ones,’inthe preced ing example , does notbe long

to anoununderstood . I f itd id , we could supply the noun. Themeaning is not

“the g reatone men,nor ones men,

”therefore one

is not anadjective pronoun; but the meaning is,“The g reat

‘

menof the world ,”therefore ones is apronoun of the indefinite

kind, representing the nounmen understood, and itoughtto beparsed l ike a personal pronoun. The word others, inthe nextexample, is a compound pronoun, equ ivalent to other men; andshould be parsed l ike mine, thine, do. See Note 4th, pag e 100.

I w i l l now parse two pronouns, and thenpresent some exam

ples for you to analyze . I f, inparsing the fol lowing exercises,you should be ata loss for definitions and ru les, please to refer tothe compendium . Butbefore you proceed, '

ou may committhefol low ing

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING .

The order of parsing an Amac'

rrva PRONOUN,is— anadjective pronoun, and why — distributive

,

demonstrative, or indefi nite, andwhy — to whatnoundoes itbelong, or withwhat does itagree — RULE.

One man instructs many others .

One is anadjective prono’

un, or speci fying adjective. it speci

108 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

fi cally points outanoun— indefinite, itexpresses its subjectinanindefinite or g eneral manner, and belong s to the noun

“man,”

accord ing toRULE 19. . Adjective

'

pronouns belpng to nouns,expressed or

understood .

Others ise a compound pronoun, includ ing bothan adjectivepronounand anoun, and is equ ivalentto other men. Other is anadjective pronoun, it is used specifical ly to describe its nounindefinite, it expresses its subject inan indefinite manner, andbelong s tomen Ru le 19 . (Repeatthe rule . ) him is anoun, a

name denoting persons— common, (Sec . (parse it in ful l and inthe objective case, it is the object of the action expressed bythe transitive verb“instructs,

”and g ov. by it: Rule 20. Active

transitz'

ve verbs, (SocThose books are mine.

Those is anadjective pronoun, it specifies what nounis referred ta— demonstrative, it precisely points outthe subjectto whichit relates— and ag rees w iththe noun books

”inthe plural num

ber, accord ing to NOTE 1, under Ru le 19. Adjective pronouns

mustag ree innumber withtheir nouns .

M ine is a compound personal pronoun, includ ing boththe possesser and the thing possessed, and is equ ivalent to my books .

M y is a pron. aword used instead of anoun— personal , itstandsfor the name of the personspeaking — fi rst person, it denotes thespeaker— sing . number, it imp l ies butone— and inthe pos . case,

itdenotes possession and is g ov. by books,”according to Rule

12 . (Repeat the ru le, and decl ine the pronoun. ) B ooks is a

noun, the name of a thing — common, (Sec . (parse it in ful land in the nominative case after “are,

”accord ing to RULE 21 .

The verbto he admits the same case after itas before it.

EXE RCISES IN PARSING .

Eachind ividual fil ls a space increation. Every manhelps al ittle . These men rank among the g reati

ones of the world .

Thatbook belong s to the tutor, this belong s to me . Some menlabor, others labor not; the former increase inwealth, the latterdecrease . The boy wounded the old bird

, and stole the youngones . None performs his duty too wel l . None of those poorwretches complainof the ir m iserable lot.NOTE . Inparsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, NOTE 2, under

Rule 19, should be applied.

HI . OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS .

RELAT IVE PRONOUNS are suchas relate, ingeneral

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110 E‘YM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

2 . W'

ho should not be applied to children. Itis incorrectto say , Thechild whom w e have just seen,

”&c. Itshould be

, The child thatw e havej ustseen.

”

3. IVhichmay be applied to Remons whenw e W ishtodisting uishone personof tw o

,or a particular person among anumber of others ; as, t ich

of the tw o ? Whichof them ishe 1”

4 . That,in

. preference to who or which, is applied to persons when theyare qualified by anadjective inthe superlative deg ree , or by the pronominaladjective same ; as, Charles X II .

, king of Sw eden,was one of the g r eatest

madmenthatthe w orld ever saw — H e is the same manthatw e saw before } ?

5. Thatis employed after the interrog ative who, incases like the following ; Who thathas any sense of relig ion, w ouldhave arg ued thus 7

”

Whenthe word ever or soever is annexed to arelative pronoun, the combinationis called a compound

pronoun as, whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever

,whatever or whatsoever .

DECLENSIONOF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS .

SINGULAR AND PLURAL .

Nom. who, . P oss . whose,

Obj . whom .

whoever, whosever, whomever .

whosoever, whosesoever, whomsoever.

Whichand thatare indecl inable, except thatwhose is some

times used as the possess ive case of which; as,“Is there any

other doctrine whose followers are punished that is, the fol low.

ers of whichare punished . The use of this l icense has obtainedamong our bestwriters ; butthe constructionis notto be recom

mended , for it is a departure from a plainprincip le of g rammar,namely, who, whose, whom,

intheir appl ications, should be confined to rational being sThatmay be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunc

tion, depend ing onthe offi ce whichit performs inthe sentence .

Thatis a relative only whenitcanbe chang ed to who or whichw ithout destroy ing the sense ; as, They that (who) reprove us,

may be our bestfriends ; From every thing that(which) you see,

derive instruction.

” That is a demonstrative adjective , whenitbelong s to, or points out, some particular noun, e ither expressedor impl ied ; as,

“Return that book ; That belong s to me G iveme that.” Whenthatis ne ither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is aconjunction as,

“Take care thatevery day be wellemployed .

” The word that, in this last sentence, cannot be

chang ed to who or whichw ithout destroy ing the sense, therefore

you know it is nota relative pronoun neither does it point out

any particu lar noun, for whichreasonyou know it is notaneu

jective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a

RELA'NVE Pronouns; 111

If you pay particular attentionto this elucidationof the wordthat, you wi l l fi nd no d iffi culty inparsing it. Whenit is arelative or anadjective pronoun, itmay be knownby the sig ns g ivenand whenever these sig ns w il l notapply to it, you know it is a

conjunction.

Some writers are aptto make too free use of this word . I wi l lg ive you one example of afi

‘

ronted that,whichmay serve as a

caution. The tutor said , inspeaking of the word that, thatthatthat that that lady parsed, was notthe thatthatthat g entlemanrequested her to analyze . This sentence, thoughrendered ine leg antby a bad choice of words, is strictly g rammatical . Thefirstthat is anoun the second , aconjunction; the thi rd , anadjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; the fifth, a relative pm.

noun the sixth, anadjective pronoun; the seventh, anoun; thee ighth, a relative pronoun the ninth, anadjective pronoun. Themeaning of the sentence w i l l be more obvious, if rendered thus ;The tutor said , inspeaking of the word that, thatthatthatwhichthat lady parsed, was notthe thatwhichthatg entlemanrequestedher to analyze .

WHAT.

W atis generally acompound relative, includingboththe antecedentand the relative, and is equiva

lentto that which; as, “This is what I wantedthat is, thatwhich, or,the thing whichI wanted.

What is compounded of whichthat. These words have beencontracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthog raphy of

both be ing sti l l retained : what—wh[ich - t]hat (which- that. )Anciently it appeared in the vary ing forms, tha qua, qua tha,qu

’

tha, g uthat, quhat, kwat, and final ly, what.What may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an

interjection. Whenit is equivalentto thatwhich, the thing which,or those thing s which, itis acompound relative , because itincludesboththe antecedentand the relative ; as, “I w i l l try what (thatwhich) can be found in female del icacy ; What you recol lectwithmost pleasure, are the virtuous actions of your past l i fethat is, those thing s whichyou recol lect, dtc .

Whenwhat is acompound relative, you mustalways parse itas two words ; that is, you must parse the antecedentpartas anoun, and g ive itacase ; the relative partyou may analyze l ikeany other relative, g iving itacase l ikew ise . Inthe first of thepreced ing examples, that, the antecedent part of what, is in theobj. case, g overned by the verb wi l l try which, the relative

112 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

part, is in the nom . case to“canthe found . I have heard

what (i . e . thatwhich, or the thing which) .

has beenal leg ed .

Whoever andwhosoever are also compound relatives, and shou ldbe parsed l ike the compound what as, IVhoever takes thatoath,is bound to enforce the laws .

”Inthis sentence, whoever is equ iv

alentto he who, or, the manwho ; thus, H e who takes thatoath,is bound, &c .

Who, which, and what, when used inasking questions, arecal led interrog ative pronouns, or relatives of the interrog ativekind as, W

’

ho is he .7 Whichis the person

’

.

Z Whatare youdoing ifInterrog ative pronounshave no antecedent; butthey relate to

the word or phrase whichis the answer to the question, for the irsubsequent; as, Whom d id you see ? The preceptor . Whathave you done ? Nothing . Antecedent and subsequent areopposed to eachother insig nification. Antecedent

'

means preced ing , or g oing before and subsequentmeans fol low ing , or com ingafter . What

,whenused as aninterrog ative, isnever compound .

l/Vhat, which, and that,when joined to nouns, are specifying

adjectives, or adjective pronouns, inwhichS ituationthey have nocase, butare parsed l ike adjective pronouns of the demonstrativeor indefinite kind ; as, “Unto whichprom ise our twelve tribeshope to come Whatmisery the vicious endure !Whathavockhastthou made, fou l monster, sin!

”

What and which, when joined to nouns inask ing questions,are denominated interrog ative pronom inal adjectives ; as, H7hatmanis that? Whichroad d id he take 2What, whatever, and whatsoever, which, whichever, and which

soever, in constructions l ike the fol low ing , are compound pronouns, butnotcompound relatives ; as,

“Inwhatcharacter Butler was admitted , is unknown G ive him whatname you choose ;Nature’s care larg ely endows whatever happy manw i ll deig ntouse her treasures ; Let him take whichcourse, or, whichevercourse hewi l l . ” These sentencesmay be rendered thus Thatcharacter, or, the character inwhichButler was admitted , is nuknown; G ive him that name, or, the name whichyou choose ;Nature’

s care endows thathappy manwho w i l l deig n, &c . ; Let

him take thatcourse, or the course which. he w i l l . ” A compoundrelative necessari ly includes bothan antecedent and a relative .

These compounds, you w i l l notice , do not include antecedents,the first partof eachword be ing the article the, or the adjectivepronoun, that; therefore they cannot properly be denominatedcompound relatives — W ithreg ard to the word ever annexed to

these pronouns, it is a sing u lar fact, that, as soonas we analyze

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114 ETYMOLOGY, AND SYNTAX .

thing — com . the name of a species— neuter g ender, ithas ar

sex— third person, spokenOf— sing . number, it impl ies butoneand inthe obj . case, it is the objectof the relation ex pressed bythe p op.

“from,

”and g ov. by it: RULE 31 . (Repeatthe Ru le,

and every other Ru le to which I Tefer . ) Which, the relativepa1tof what, is a pronoun, aword used instead of anoun— relativo, it re lates to

“thing for its antecedent— neut. g ender, third

person, sing . number, because the antecedent“thing is w ithwhichitag rees, accord ing to RULE 14 . Rel. pron. &c . Whichis

i

in“the nom . case to the verb “is recorded,”ag reeably to

RULE 15 . The relative is the nominative case to the verb, whenno nominative comes betweenitand the verb.

Whathave you learned ? Nothing .

Whatis apron. a word used , &c .—re lative Of the interrog

ative kind, because it is used in asking a question— it refers

to the word “nothing”for its subsequent, accord ing to

RULE 17 . Whenthe rel. pron. is of the interrog . kind,itrefers

to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question,for itssubsequent, whichsubsequentmustag ree incase withthe interrog ative. What is Of the neut. g end. third pers . sing . because thesubsequent nothing

”is w ithwhichitag rees RULE 14 . Rel.

pron. ag ree, &c .—lt is inthe obj. case, the object of the action,

of the active - transitive verb“have learned ,

”and g ov. by it,

ag reeably to RULE 16 . t enanom. 650 . See NOTE 1, underthe Rule .

NOTE . 1 . Youneed not apply g end . pers. and numb. to the interrogativewhenthe answ er to the questionis not expressed.

W HO, WH ICH , W HAT .

Truthand simpl icity are twin sisters, and g eneral ly g o handinhand . The foreg oing expositionOf the “relative pronouns

,

”

is inaccordance w iththe usual method of treating them ; but i fthey were unfolded accord ing to their .true character, they wou ldbe found to be very simple, and, doubtless, much labor and per

plex ity, onthe partof the learner, wou ld thereby be saved .

Of the words cal led relatives,”who, only, is a pronoun and

this is strictly personal ; more so, indeed , if we exceptI and we,thanany other word inour lang uag e, for it is always restrictedto persons . Itought to be classed w iththe personal pronouns.

I,thou

, he, she, it, we, ye, you, and they, relate to antecedents, aswel l as who. Which that

, and what, are always adjectives .

They never stand for, but always belong to nouns, either ex

pressed or impl ied . They specify, l ike many other adjectives,and connectsentences.

Who supp l ies the place of whichor what and its personal

RELATIVE PRONOUNS .— PARSING . 115

noun. Who came ? i . e . whatman, whatwoman, whatpersonwhichman, woman, orperson, came ? Theyheard whatI said

’

they heard that (thing ) which(thing ) I said .

“Take what

whichever) course you please — take thatcourse which(course ,you please to take . Whathave you done ?

” i . e . whatthing ,act, or deed have you done ? “Thichthing I also d id atJerusalem. M ichw i l l you take — whichbook, hat, or some.

thing else ? This is the tree which(tree) produces no fruit.”

He that (man, or whichman) acts wisely, deserves praise .

”

'They who prefer this method of treating the relatives,

at l iberty to adept it, and parse accord ing ly .

”

EXERCISES IN PARSING .

The manwho instructs you, labors faithful ly . The boy whomI instruct, learns wel l . The lady whose house we occupy, bestowsmany charities . That modesty whichhighly adorns a woman,she possesses. He thatacts wisely deserves praise . This is thetree whichproduces no fruit. I be l ieve what he says .

~lo

speaks whathe knows . Whatever purifies the heart, also fortifi es it. What doest" thou ? Nothing . What book have youA poem. Whosehathave you John’

s . Who does thatworkHenry . Whom seest thou ? To whom g ave you the presentWhichpen d id he take ? Whom ye ig norantly worship, himdeclare I unto you . I heard whathe said . Georg e , you maypursue whatever science su its your taste . E l iza, take whichever patternpleases you best. Whoever l ives to see this republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, w i l l behold herl iberties prostrated . Whosoever, therefore, w i l l be a friend of

the world , is the enemy of God.

Nora. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and theobjective case , be fore the verb that g overns it. Whom, inevery sentenceexceptone , house, modesty , book, hat, pen, him, the third whatand which, therelative partof the fi rsttwo whats , are all inthe objective case , and g overnedby the several verbs thatfollow them . See RULE 16 , and Nora 1 . Tree is

now . after is,according to RULE 21. Thing , the antecedentpartofwhatever,is now . to fortifi es ;

”which, the relative part, is 110111. to purifies.

” Noothing is g overned by do, and poem, by have, understood . c r is nominative to does, understood . Whose andJohn's are g overned acco ing to Run:12 . I, thou , you ,

him, &c. representnouns understood . H im, inthe lastsentence butfi ve , is g overned by declare, and I isn

ominative to declare . G eorg e

and E liz a are inthe nominative case independent: Rule 5 . t atever

science ,

"620 . is equivalent to , thatscience whichsuits your taste which

ever pattern i . e . thatpatternwhichpleases you best. Whoever is acom»

The second personsing ular of do . whenused as a princi ml verb, isspelled w ithane : thus , Whatthou doest,do quickly butw oncmpled as ansuxilia the 0 should be omitwd ; as, Dostthounotbehold s to

o

d;withitshead of oath1"

116 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

pound relative ; he, the antecedent part, is nominative to “w ill behold.

Take ag rees w ithyou understood . F orsake is inthe infinitive mood aftersee Rule 25.

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS .

Whichsometimes relates to amember of a sentence , or to awhole sentence ,

for its antecedent: as,“We are required to fear God and hes

commandments, whichis the whole duty of man.

” Whatis the wholeof man? To fear God and keep his commandments therefore

,

phrase is the antecedentto which.

The conjunctionas, whenitfollow s such, many , or same,is frequently de

nominated a relative pronoun; as, I am pleased w ithsuchashave arefi nedtaste thatis, w iththose who, or them who have, &c. Let suchas presumeto advise others

,look w ell to their ownconduct that is

,

'

Letthose, or themwho presume ,&c. As many as w ere ordained to eternal life ,believed thatis, they , those, or all who w ere ordained, believed . H e exhibited the samete stimonials as w ere adduced onaformer occasion; that is

,those testimo

nialswhichw ere adduced,&c. But,inexamples like these ,

if w e supply theellipsis whichacritical analysis requ ires us to do, as w ill be found to be aconjunction; thus, I am pleased w ithsuchpersons, as those persons are whohave arefi ned taste ; Letsuchpersons, as thosepersons are who presume

,

"&c .

Q UESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING .

From whatwords is the term pronounderived — Do pronounsalways avoid the repetitionof nouns - Name the three kinds of

pronouns — What d isting u ishes the personal from the relativepronouns — How many personal pronouns are there —Repeatthem .

— What belong to pronouns —Is g ender appl ied to all thepersonal pronouns — To whichof them is itappl ied ”.l— Whichof the personal pronouns have no pecul iar terminationto denotethe ir g ender

"t— How many personshave pronouns —Speak themintheir d ifferentpersons — How manynumbershave pronounsHow many cases —What are they — Decl ine all the personalpronouns.

—When self is added to the personal pronouns, whatare they cal led , andhow are they used — Whenis you sing u larinsense — Is itever sing ular inform — Why are the words, my,thy, his, her, our, your, their, cal led personal pronouns —Whyare the words,mine, thine,his,hers, ours, yours, theirs, denominatedcompound pers. pron. ? —How do youparse these compoundsWhat is said of others — ~ Repeatthe order of parsing a personalpronoun— What ru le do you apply inparsing a pronounof thefirst person, and inthe nom . case - What rule when the pronoun is inthe possessive case — WhatRules apply in parsingpersonal pronouns of the second and thi rd person — WhatRulesinparsing the compounds, yours, ours, mine, &c .

? -Whatis saic’

of the pronounitWhatare adjective pronouns — Name the three kinds —JVhat

does eachrelate to —To what does every relate — To whatdoeseither relate —Whatdoes neither import - To whatdo this and

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118 Errmonoer AND SYNTAX .

as me . This is the manwhom was expected . Her and I deserve esteem . I have made greaterproficiency thanhim . \Vhom ,

of all my acquaintances, do you think was there ’

.Z Whom

,for

the sake ofhis importantservices,had anoffice ofhonor bestoweduponhim .

NOTE 2, to RULE 13 . Personal pronouns being used to supply

the place of nouns, shou ld notbe employed inthe same memberof the sentence w iththe nounwhichthey represent.

FALSE SYNTAX .

The menthey are there . I saw him the k ing . Our cause it

is just. Many words they darkenspeech. Thatnoble generalwho had gained so many victories, he d ied, at last, inprison.

Who, instead of going about doing good , they are continual lydoing evi l .Ineachof the preceding examples, the personal pronounshould be omitted,

according to Note 2 .

Nora 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun inthe objectivecase, shou ld notbe used instead of these and those.

FALSE SYNTAX .

Remove them papers from the desk . G ive me them books.

G ive them men their d ischarge . Observe them three there .

Whichof them two persons deserves mostcred it?Inall these examples, those should be used inplace of them. The use of

the personal, them,m suchconstructions. presents tw o objectives after one

verb or preposition. This is asolecism whichmay be avoided by employinganadjective pronouninits stead .

LE CTU RE IX .

OF CONJUNCTIONS .

A CONJUNCTION is apartof speechthat is chieflyused to connectsentences, joining two or more sim

ple sentences into one compound sentence itsome

times connects only words ; as, Thou and be arehappy, because you are g ood.

”

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joiningsentences in d ifferent ways, mark the connex ions and varioudependances of humanthought. They belong to lang uage onlyinits refi ned state .

CONJUNCTtONB. 119

The term CONJUNCTIONcomes from the two Latin words, can,whichsionifi es tog ether,and jung o, to join. A conjunction, then,is awordthatconjoins, or joins together something . Before youcanful ly comprehend the nature and ofi ice of this sortof words,it is requ isite thatyou should know what is meantby a sentence,asimple sentence, and acompound sentence, for conjunctions arehiefi y used to connectsentences.

A SENTENCE is anassemblag e of words formingcomplete sense .

A SIM PLE SENTENCE contains butone subject, ornominative, and one verb whichag rees w iththatnominative ; as, Wheatg rows inthe fi eld.

”

You perce ive thatthis sentence contains several words besidesthe nominative and the verb, and you w i l l oftensee asimple sen

tence containing many parts of speech; but, if ithas only one

nominative and one fi nite verb, (that is, averb notinthe infi nitive mood ,) it is asimple sentence, thoughit is longer thanmanycompound sentences.

A COM POUND SENTENCE is composed of two. or

more simple sentences connected tog ether ; as,Wheatg rows inthe fi eld, and

'

men reap it.”

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simplesentences joined together by the word and whichword, onaccount of its connecting power, is cal led a conjunction. If we

write this sentence w ithoutthe conjunction, itbecomes two simplesentences : thus, Wheatgrows inthe field . Menreap it.

”

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easi ly i l lus.

trated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you knowwe frequently w ishto add another, or several others, whichareclosely connected w ithit. We general ly effect this add itionbymeans of the conjunction: thus, The Georg ians cultivate riceand cotton;

”that is, “They cultivate rice add cotton.

” Thissentence is compound , and w ithout the me of the conjunction, itwould be writtenintwo separate, simple sentences : thus, TheGeorg ians cultivate rice . They cultivate cotton. The con.

junction, thoughchiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes

connects only words ; inwhichcapacity it is nearly al l ied to theproposition; as,

“The sunand (add) the planets constitute thesolar system.

” Inthis, whichis asimple sentence, and connects

two words .

A few more examples wi l l il lustrate the nature and exhibi .

120 ETYM OLOGY AND SYNTAX .

the use of this part of speechso clearly, as to enable you ful ly

to comprehend it. The follow ing simple sentences and membersof sentences

,have no relationto eachother unti l they are con

nected by conjunctions . H e laborsharder— more successful lyI do. Thatmanis .healthy - he is temperate . By fi l l ing upthevacancies inthese sentences w ithconj unctions, you w i l l see theimportance of this sort of words : thus, He labors harder andmore successful ly thanI do . Thatmanis healthy because he istemperate .

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive .

I . The ConjunctionCopulative serves to connectand continue a sentence by jOlning ona member

whichexpresses an addition, a supposition, or a

cause ; as, TWO and three are fi ve ; I w ill g o ifhe w illaccompany me Y ou arehappy because youare g ood.

”

Inthe firstof these examples, and joins 011 aword that ex

presses eu addition; in the second , if connects a member thatimpl ies a suppositionor condition and inthe third, because connects amember that eXpresses a cause.

II . The ConjunctionD isjunctive serves to connectand continue a sentence by joining ona member

that expresses OppositionOf meaning ; as, Theycame w ithher, butthey wentawayw ithouther.

But joins on amember Of this sentence whichexpresses, not

only something added , but, also, oppositionOf' meaning .

The principal conjunctions may be known by the fol low inglists, whichyou may now commi O memmy . Some words inthese l ists, are, however, frequennj used as adverbs, and some.

time s as prepositions ; but if you study we l l the nature ofall thedifi

‘

erentsorts of words, you cannotbe ata loss to tel l the partof

speechOf any word inthe language .

PH ILOSOPH ICAL NOTES.

Onscientifi c principles, our connectives, commonly denominated prepose

tions and conjunctions, are but one partOf speechJ the distinctionbetw eenthem being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only w ords

,and

some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived hom nouns andverbs and the time has been, when, peihaps, inour lang uag e , they did not

pe rform the Offi ce Of connectives.

I w ishyou to believe, that I w ould notwrlfullyhurtafly Here . inthe

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122 sm onoor m o m ux .

Youwi ll now please to turnback and read this lecture four or

fi ve times over and then, after committing the fol lowing order,you may parse the subsequentexercises.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING .

The order rsing a CONJU NCTION, is— aconjunction, and l— copulative or disjunctive, andwhy l— what does itconnect?

W isdom and virtue form the g ood man’s character.

”

And is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connectsentences ; but inthis example itconnects only words—c epulative, itserves to connect and continue the sentence li

'

y joiningonamember whichexpresses anadd ition— itconnects the wordswisdom and virtue .

”

Wisdom is anoun, the name ofathing— (You may parse itinful l . )— IVisdom is one of the nominatives to the verb form.

”

Virtue is a noun, the name, Gee — ( Parse itinful l — and inthe nom . case to the verb “form, and connected to the nounwisdom by and, accord ing toRULE 33. Conjwwtions connectnouns and pronouns inthe some

Form is averb, aword whichsignifies to do, dam—o f the thirdperson, plural, because its twonominatives, w isdom andvirtue,are connected by acopulative conjunction, agreeably toRULE 8 . Two or more nouns t

'

nthc sing ular nwnber, joined bycepulative conjtmctimu ,musthaveverbs,nouns,and pronouns ag reeing withthem inthe plural .

W isdom or fol ly g overns us.

Or is aconjunction, aword that is chiefly used to connectsentences : it sometimes connects words— d isjunctive, it serves notonly to connectand continue the sentence, butalso to joinonamember whichexpresses oppositionof meaning— it connects thenouns w isdom and fol ly .

”

aparticiple , instead of anadjective ,we should come nearer to its primitive

characte r. Thus, I w ould notW ilfully hurtafly . I W ishyou to believethe assumed [factor statement or, the factassumed or taken.

"

If , ( formerly w ritteng s] , g ive, g in,) as previously stated , is the imperativeof the Ang lo ~Saxonverb g sfan, to g ive . Inim itationof Home Tooke , someof our modernphflm phical write rs are inclined to teachpupils to render itas av’erb. Thus, I w ill g o, i he w ill accompany me H e w ill aecom

y me . G rant— g ive that act] I w ill For the purpose ofascertain

g the primitive meaning 0 this w ord, have no ob'

ectionto sucharesolutien; but, by it, do w e g etthe exact meaning and area of sf as it is applied iaour modern, re fi ned state of the lang uag e 1 I trow not. But, adamt

ting w e do , does this prove thatsuchamob of resolving sentences canbe

comoncrions.— raasmu. 123

Governs is averb, aword thatsignifies, &c.— of the third per

son, singular number, agreeing with wisdom or fol ly,”accor d

ing toRULE 9. Two or more nouns sing ular, joined by d isjunctive

cavtjunctions, musthave verbs, nouns, and pronouns ag reeing withthem in. the singular.

If you reflect, for a few moments, onthe meaning of the lasttwo Ru les presented , you w i l l see, at once, their propriety andimportance . For example ; inthe sentence, Orlando and Themas,who study their lessons, make rapid progress,

”you notice that

the two singular nouns, Orlando and Thomas, are connected bythe copulative conjunctionand, therefore the verb make, whichagrees w iththem, is plural , because it expresses the actionof

bothits nominatives or actors. And you observe, too, that the

pronouns who and their, and the nounlessons, are plural, agreeing w iththe nouns Orlando and Thomas, accord ing to Rum:8 . The verb study is plural, agreeing withwho, accord ing to

Row 4 .

But letus connect these two nouns by ad isjunctive conjunction, and seehow the sentence w i l l read : Orlando or Thomas,who studies his lesson, makes rapid progress.

” Now, you per

ceive, that a d ifferent construction takes place, for the latterexpressiondoes not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, bothstudyand make rapid progress butitasserts,thateither the one or theother stud ies, and makes rapid progress . Hence the verb makesis singular, because itexpresses the actionof the one or the othe rof its nominatives . And you observe, too, thatthe pronouns whoandhis, and the nounlesson, are l ikew ise inthe singular, ng roe .

ing w ithOrlando or Thomas, agreeably to RULE 9. Studies is

also singular, agreeing w ithwho, accord ing to RULE 4 .

itd o eousl adopted by learners incommonschools ! I presume itcannot be eni that instead of teaching the learner to ex ress himself co r

rcctly inmodern En lish, sucharesolution is merely m g him familiarw ithanancient and iarbarous constructionwhichmodern re finementhasrejected . Our forefathers, I admit, who w ere overned by those laws ofnoce ssity whichcom el allnations inthe early an rude state of their lang uag e ,

to express themse ves in short, detached sentences, emplo ed if as ave rbwhenthey used the follow ing circumlocution: M y sonv i 1reform . (hasthatj act. I will forg ive him.

"Butinthe present, improved state of ourhuh

uag e , by usino if as aconjunction, (for I maintainthatit is one ,) w e expressa same thoughtmore briefly ; and our modernmode of ex ressinnhas, too ,

adecisive advantag e over the ancient. notonly inpointof e egance , butals o

inpe rs icuity and fame . In Scotland and the northof Eng land,some pen

ple stil make use of g in, a contraction of g iven thus, I w ill pardonmyson, g inhe refor m.

”Butwho w ill contend

,thatthey speak pure Eng lishl

Butperhaps the advocates of what they call aphilosophical develo mentof lang uag e , w ill say, thatby their resolutionof sentences , they mere y sup

124 m nemo t m o sm u x .

EXERCISES INPARSING .

Josephand his brother res ide in New York. The sun, moon,and sta rs, admonishus of a supe rior and superintending Power .I respec t my friend, because he is uprig h t and obl ig ing . Hen ryand W il liam, who obey the i r teacher, improve rapid ly . Hen ryor W i l l iam, who obeys his teacher, improves ve ry fast . Ne i therrank nor possess ion makes the g u i l ty m ind happy . W isdom,

virtue, and meekness, form the g ood man’s happiness and in te

rest : they support h im ia advers i ty , and com fort h im in prosper i ty . Manis a l i tt le lower than the ang e ls. The United States, asjustly as G reat Bri ta in, can now boastol

' the i r literdry insti tutions.Now . The verb font is plural, and agrees wi th three nouns singular,connected by copulauve conjunc tions, acco rding to Run: 8. The verb comj ortagrees with they for its nominative . It is connected to support by thecmf unctionand , ag reeably to Run: 34 . Angel: is nom. to are understood,and

1G reatBritaints now . to canboastunde rstood . according to Bets 85.

REMARKS ONCONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.

The same word is occasionally employed. e ither as a conjunction, anad‘verb. or a preposition. l submitted, j or it was invainto resist inth isennuple, ar iaa conjunction, becanse it connects the two members of a

compou sentence . Inthe next it is apreposition, and governs victory inthe oh

' tive case : He contended for Victo ry only .

”

In£0

fi rst of the fo llowing sentences, since is aconjunction inthe second,itis apremsition, and inthe third , anadverb ;

“Since“ must lotus

dO itpeacesbly 3 1have notseeu him siacs that time 3 out ip como

menced lon since.

”

He w ill8 repent be orehe dies : Stand before me ; Why did notreturnbefore

”[ that or t than] inthe fi rst of these three examp es, before is

anadverbial con'

nncfi on, because it expresses time and connects ; and inthesecond and it is apreposition.

As the words ot’

asentence are oflentrans so are also its members.Without attend ing to this circumstance, the earner may some times be ataloss to perce ive the conceding power of a preposi tionor conjunction. fi nevery pre positionand every conjunction connects e i ther words or phrases,sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence be w ith aprepositionor conjunction, its membe rs are trans as, Ia days of

Joram, kin of Israe l, flourished the pro bet E “I thou seek theLord. he be found of thee ; but, §f ou forsake him, will castthee03

'

for e ver .

”

i nn ellipsis. Ifi by an elli

psn

,

’ they meansuchaone as is necessary to

51g g ramn'

mtical construction, canno t accede to the ir assumption. Inteaching grammar, as well as inother things, w e oug ht to avoid ex tremes t—w e

ought ne ither to pass superfi cially over anellipsis necessary to the sense ofa

phrase, nor to putmodernEnglish to the blush , by adopting amode of re

solving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language,and carry the learnerhmhto the Vandalic ag e .

But comes from the Saxonverb, beem tmt, lo be-out. All were well but(be-out, leave-out) the stranger.” Manis buta reed , floating onthe currentof time .

” Resolution: Manis a reed , floating onthe current of time ; but

(be-out this fact) he is notastable be ing.

AM T—aned, au

’

d,and, is the past part . ofam ad, to add, join. A,an,mu ,

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126 arrmow cv sunm rax.

QUESTIONS ONTM PH ILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

From what parts of speech are preposi tions and eon'

unctions derived 1What is Horne Tooke '

s opinionof that 1—F‘rom what {iteach of the following words derived, that, u] , but, and . because, nor , else, mite”, lest, though,0

and yetl

LECTURE 2 .

OF INTERJECTIONS .—CASES OF NOUNS

Im 'nam c'nons are words which 8 the sud

denemotions of the speaker ; as, I fear for

life 0 death ! where is thy sting ?”

Interjectibns are not so much the sig ns of thoug h t, as of fee ling . A lmost any word may be used as an in terjection ; butw hen so employed, i t is not the represen ta ti ve of a distinct idea .

A word wh ich denotes a distinc t conception of the m ind, mustnecessari ly be long to some other pa rt of speech . They who wishto speak often, or rather, to make noises, when they have no useful informa tionto commun ica te , are apt to use words very free lyin this way ; such as the fol low i ng expressions, la, la me, my, 0my, 0 dear, dear me, surprising , astonishing , and the l ike .

In te rjec tions not inc luded inthe fol low i ng l ist, are g eneral lylmownby the i r tak ing an exc lamation poin t afler them .

A LIST or rui: PRINCIPAL mu msc'noss.

1. Of earnestness or g rief ; as, 0 ! oh ! ah! alas !2 . Contempt; as, Pish ! . tush !3 . Wonder; as, He ig h ! rea l ly ! st rang e !4 . Cafling ; as, Hem ! ho ! hal loo !5 . Disg ustorhversion; as, Foh! fy ! fudg e ! away !

PHI LOSOPH ICAL NOTES.

The term In sa ne-nonis applied to them inarticulate sounds employedbo th by menand bru tes, not to e ress distinct ideas, but emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds em ed by human bei in g roanmg ,

sighing , crying, screaming. shriek ing, and laugh ing, by thengdg in bark ing,

gmwhng , and whining, by the horse insnorting and ne ighing, by the sheepinbleatmg , by the cat inmewing , by the dove in cooing, by the duck inquackinv , and by the goose inhissinv ,

w e sometimes attempt to representby w e s ; but, as writtenwords are the ocular representativessounds, they cannot be made clearl to denote inorticulatenoises . Such indistinct utterances be ong to natural language ; but they fallbelow the bounds of reg ulated speech. Henee, real inte rje ctions are notepart of writtenlanguage.

XNTERJEC’

I‘IONl .

-PARSTNG

0. Attention; as, Lo ! behold! hark !7 . Requesting silence ; as, Hush! hist!8 . Salutation; as, Welcome ! hai l ! allhail !Non . We frequently meetwithwhat some call aninterjective phrase :

w ell as , Ung rateful wretch! impudence ofhope ! folly inthe extreme ' whating ratitude away w ithhim

As the interjection is the least importantpartof speechintheEng l ishlang uag e, itwil l require but little attention. You may,however,make yourse lf wel l acquainted withwhathas beensaidrespecting it, and thencommitthe

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING .

The order of parsing an INTERJE C T ION, is— eu

interjection and why ?0 virtue ! how amiable thou art!”

0 is an interjection, a word used to express some passionor

emotionof the speaker .

The tenparts of speechhave now beenunfolded and eluci

dated, althoughsomc of themhave notbeenful ly explained. Be

fore you proceed any farther, you w il l please to beg inag ainatthe first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observingto parse eve ry example in the exercises systematical ly . You

w ill thenbe able to parse the fol lowing exercises, whichcontainall the parts of speech. If you s tudy faithfu l ly six hours inaday, and pursue the directions g iven, you may become, if notacritical, at least, a g ood, practical g rammarian, insix weeks but

if you study only three hours ina day, itwil l take you nearlythree months to acquire the same knowledg e .

EXERCISES INPARSING .

True cheer mlness makes amanhappy inhimse lf, and promotes the happiness of all aroundhim .

Modesty always appears g raceful inyouth: itdoubles the lustre of every virtue whichitseems tohide .

The meaning of those w ords commonly called inte rjection,ineasily shown

by tracing them to their roots .

P ick and pshaw are the Ang lo-Saxonpace, pacea: and are equivalent tolrumpery ! i. e . lrompcrie, from hamper .

F y o r

{a is the impe rativmfoc. the pasttense , andfok or fau g h, the past

port. of l e Saxonverbflan, to hate .

is the impe rative of look . H alt is the imperative of Maiden, to hold.

Farewell—far ew ell , is acompound offam e , to g o, and the adverb well. It

anemic, to g o well . Welcom —ecell-comc. signifi es, it inwell that you arecome . Adieu comes from the FrenchaDice, to God ; meaning , I commend

you to God.

128 arm owor mo m rs x .

He who, every morning , plans the transactions of the day, andfollows out that plan, carries ona thread that will g uide himthroug hthe labyrinthof the mombusy l ife .

The king g ave me a encrons reward for committing thatbarbarous act; but, alas ! 5fear the consequence .

E’ennow, where A lpine sol itudes ascend,

I setme downapensive hour to spendAnd, placed onhi h, above the storm

’

s career,downward w are ahundred realms aAlas ! the joys that fortune bring s,Are trifli anddecay ;

And those w o mind the paltry thing s,More trifling stil l thanthey .

No" Inthe second sentence of the foregoing exercises, whichis g overned by the verb to hide , according to Run: 16 . H e is now . to carries :who inmm. to plan . Follow: 3 w ithwho understood,and is connectedto plau by aad : 8 01 1 34 . did the g ive ? A rtward lo me .

Thenreward is inthe obj . case ,cv. b g m : on 20, M e is g ov. by to

understood ; Son 1, Run: 32 . he p race . thatbarbarous act,is g ov. by or : Non " under Runs 28 . Hour

- is in e obj . case , g ov. bynew ; on 20. Look is connected to m by e-id ; Run: 34 . Jayne

nom to are. The! is g ov. by hi s Run: 16 . Those is non e) areunderstood. They is nom. to arc round ;

CASES OF NOUNS.

Inaformer lectu re , I promised to g ive you a more extensiveexplanation of the cases of nouns ; and, as they are, inmanysituations, a l ittle diffi cultto be ascertained, I wil l now offer someremarks onthis subject. Butbefore you proceed, l w ishyou toparse all the examples inthe exercises just pm ented, observinto pay particular attentionto the remarks inthe subjoinedNore .

Those remarks will assistyou muchinanalyz ing .

A nounis sometimes nominative to averb placed many l inesafter the noun. You must exercise your judg ment inthis matter. Look atthe sentence inthe preceding exercises beg inningwith, “He who, every morning ,

ӎ zc. and see if you can fi nd

the verb to whichhe is nominative . What does he do ? H e

carries ona thread, doc. He, then, is nominative to the verb

carries . Whatdoes who do ? Whoplans , and whofollows, (Sec.

Thenwho isnom. to plans , and who understood, is nominative to

A soul w ithout reflection, like apileWithout inhabitant, to ruinruns.

”

Inorder to fi nd the verb to whichthe nounsoul, in this sentence, is the nominative, put the question; Whatdoes a soul

Uithoutreflectiondo 2 Suchasoul runs to ruin, like apile with

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130 arrxonoor AND sm u x .

You notice that, inthis expression , I address myself to James,that is, I speak to him and you obse rve, too, thatthere isno verb,e ither expressed or impl ied, to whichJames canbe the nom inative ;the refore you know that James is inthe nom. case independent,according to Rule 5 . Recol lect, thatwhenever a man is of thearcand person, it is inthe nom . case independent; that is, independentof any verb ; as, Selma, thy hal ls are si lent; Love andmeekness, my lord, become achurchman, better thanambitionJerusalem, Jerusalem, how often wou ld I have g athered thy

chi ldren tog ether, evenas ahen g atherethher chickens underhe r w ing s, but ye would not— For a farther i l lustrationof thiscase, see Note 2, under the 5thRule of Syntax .

Nort . \Vhenaprono unof the secondindependent, it is inthe same case ; as, dete stthee .

OF THE NOM INATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE .

A nounor pronoun placed before aparticiple,withoutany verb to ag ree withit, is in the nominative case absolute as,

“The sunbeing risen, we

pursued our journey.

”

Sunis here placed before the participle being risen, andhasno verb to ag ree w ithit; therefore it is inthe nominative case

absolute, according to RULE 6 .

Nor : l . A nounor pronoun inthe nominative case independent, is always of the second person; but, in the case absolute, itis g enerally of thetlu ntperson.

2 . The case absolute is slwayl nominative ; the follow ino sentence isthe refore incorrect; Whose top shall tremble , him descending .

”&c. ; it

should be , he descending .

OF NOUNS INAPPOS ITION.

Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying thesome personor thing , are put, by opposition, inthesame case ; as, Cicero, the g reatorator, philosopher,and statesmanofRome, was murdered by Antony.

”

Apparition, ina g rammatical sense, means something added,

or names added, inorder more ful ly to define or i l lustrate thesense of the fi rstname mentioned .

You perce ive that Cicero, inthe preceding example, is merelythe preper name of aman butwhenI g ive him the three addil ione l appel lations, and cal l him a g reat orator, philosopher, ands'atcsman, you understand what k ind of amanhe was ; that is,

cases or norms — ransom. 131

by g iving him these three additional names, his character andabi l ities as amanare more ful ly made known. And, surely,you cannotbe ata loss to know thatthese four nouns mustbe in

the same case , for they are all names g ivento the same person;therefore , if Cicero was murdered, the orator was murdered, andthe philosopher was murdered, and the statesman?was murdered,because they all meanone and the same person.

Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently inapposition; as, He struck Charles the student. Now itis obvi

ous, that, whenhe struck Charles, he struck the student, becauseCharles was the student, and the studentwas Charles thereforethe nounstudent is inthe objective case, g overned by struck,

”

and putby appositionw ithCharles, according to RULE 7 .

Please to examine this lecture very attentive ly . You w i l l thenbe prepared to parse the fol lowing examples correctly and syste

matically .

PARSING .

Weep onthe rocks of roaring w inds, 0 maid of Inistore .

Maid is a noun, the name of a person— com . the name of a

sort— fem. g ender, itdenotes a female— second pers. spokentosing . num. it impl ies butone— and inthe nominative case inde

pendent, because it is addressed, and has no verb to ag ree w ithit, according toRULE 5 . Whenanaddress is made, the nounor pronoun cd

dressed, is putinthe nominative case independent.

The g eneral be ing ransomed, the barbarians permittedhim to

depart.

”

General is anoun, thename, dz c . (parse itinful l — and inthenominative case absolute, because itis placed before the participlebe ing ransomed,

”and ithasno verbto ag ree withit,ag reeably to

RULE 6 . A noun or pronounplaced before a participle, andbeing independentof the restof the sentence, is inthe nominativecase absolute.

Thou manof God, flee to the land of Judah.

Thou is apronoun, aword used instead of a noun— personal ,itpersonates man — second pers . spokento

- mas. g ender, sing .

num . because the noun“man” is for whichitstands ; RULE 13 .

(Repeatthe Rule . )— Thou is inthe nominative case independent,and put by apposition w ithman, because it sig ni fi es the samething , according toRULE 7 . Two or morenouns , or nouns and pronouns , signify

ing the same thing , areput, by opposition, inthe same case.

o

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

Manis inthe nominative case independent, according to Rule6 . Flee ag rees w iththou understood.

Lo !Newton, priestof Nature, shines afar,Scans the wide world, and numbers every star.

Newton18 anoun, (parse it inful l ,)and m the nominative caseto“shines : RULE 3P riest is anoun, (parse it in ful l ,) and inthe nom. case, it is

the actor and subjectof the verb shines,”and putby apposition

w ith“Newton,” because it sig ni fi es the same thing , ag reeablyto Rule 7 . (Repeatthe Ru le . )

EXERC ISES INPARS ING .

Turn from your evil ways, 0 house of Israe l ! Ye fi elds of

li ht, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your

Mgaker

’’s wondrous power. 0 king ! live for ever. The murmur

of thy streams, 0 Lora, bring s back the memory of the {Best

The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, 18 love ly 1nmy ear. ost

thou notbehold, Malvina, a rock w ithitshead ofheath Threeag ed pines bend from its face ; g reenis the plainat its feet; therethe flower of the mountaing rows, and shakes its white head inthe breeze .

The General be ing slain, the army was routed. Commercehaving thus g ot into the leg islative body, privi leg e mustbe doneaway . Jesus had conveyed himse l f away, amu ltitude being inthat place . I be ing in g reat haste, he consented. The rainhaving ceased, the dark clouds rol led away . The Sonof God,whi le clothed inflesh, was subjectto all the frai lties and inconveniences of humannature, sin excepted ; (that is, sinbeingexcepted. )In the days of Joram, king of Israel , flourished the prophet

El isha. Pau l the apostle suffered martyrdom. Come, peace of

mind, de l ightful g uest! and dwell w ithme . Friends, Romans,countrymen, lend me your ears .

Sou l of the just, companionof the dead !Where is thy home, and whither artthou fled ?Ti l l Hymenbroughthis love-de l ighted hour,There dwe ltno joy inEden

’s rosy bower

The world was sad, the g ardenwas aw i ld,And manthe hermitsighed, til l womansmi led.

Non . Those verbs m italics, ta the preceding examples, are all intheimperative mood, and second person. ag reeing w iththou , ye, or you ,stood. H ouse of Israel is a noun of multitude . Was routed and mustbedone are pu sive verbs. Artfi ed 18 aneuter verbm apassive form . W M

10aperfectparticiple. Till 1s anadverbial conjunction.

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184 m ower m em u .

I . OF THE MOODS .

The Moonor M oonof averbmeans the mannerto whichits action, passionor being , is represented.

WhenI w ishto assertathing , positive ly ,I use the declarative

or indicative mode ; as, The manwalks butsometimes theactionor occu rrence of whichI wishto speak, is doubtfu l , and thenImust not declare tit tively , but I mustadaptanother node ofexpression; thus, I the manM , he will refreshhimself w iththe bland breezes . This second mode ormanne r of representingthe action, is called the n1bjmctioe or conditional mode .

Ag ain, we sometimes employ averb whenwe donotwishtodeclare a thing , nor to representthe actionina doubtful or conditional manner ; butwe wishto contend some one toact. We

thenuse the imperative or com muting mode, and say, Wafi '

, sir .

And when we do not w ishto command amanto acnwe some.

times al lude tohis power or ability to act. This fourthmode of

representing action, is called the potentid mode ; as, He canwalk He eould waflt. Tbe fi fthand last modey called the

or unlimited mode, we employ tnexpressing actioninan.

unlimitedmanner ; thatis, w ithoutconfining it, inreapecttonumher and person, to any particular ag ent ; as, To wofl , to ride.

Thus you perce ive, thatthe mood, mode , or manner of represent.ing the action, passion, or be ing of averb, mustvary accordingto the different intentions of the mind.

Were we to assignaparticular name to every chang e inthemode or manner of representing actionor be ing , the number ofmoods inour lang uag e would amountto many hundreds . But

this princ iple of divisionand arrang ement, if fo l lowed out indetail, wou ld lead to g reatperplex ity ,

w ithout producinglany hen.

efi cial resu lt. The divis ion of M r. Harris, in ermes, ismuchmore cu rious than instructive . He has fourteenmoods ;his interrog otive, oflativeJtortatiee, promism e, precasdioe,mum

tive, em aative, one . Butas far as philosOphical accuracy andthe convenience and advantag e of the learner are concerned, itis be l ieved that no arrang ement is preferable to the fol lowing .

I am notunaware thatplausible objections may be raised ag ainstit; butwhatarrang ementcannotbe objected to ?

There are fi ve moods ofverbs, the Indicative, theSubjunctive, the Imperative the Potential, and theInfi nitive .

The IND ICATIVE Moonsimply indicates or de

moons or vans . 135

clares athing ; as, He writes or itasks aques

tion; as, Does he write .

7 Who wrote thatl”

.The term indicative, comes from the Latinindico, to declare.

Hence,the leg itimate province of the indicative mood, is to declarething s, whether positive ly or neg atively ; thus, positively, He

came withme ; neg atively, He come notw ithme . But inorder

to avoid amultipl ication of moods, we extend its meaning , anduse the indicative mood inasking aquestion as, Who came w ithou

The subjunctive mood being more analog ous to the indicativeinconjug ation, thanany other, it oughtto be presented next inorder. This mood, however, difl

'

ers material ly from the indicative in sense ; therefore you ought to make yoursel f wel l acquainted w iththe nature of the indicative, before you commencew iththe subjunctive .

The SUBJUNCT IVE M oon expresses action, passion, or being , inadoubtful or conditionalmanneror,

Whenaverb isprecededby aword thatexpressesa condition, doubt, motive, wish, or supposition, itis inthe SUBJUNCT IVE M oon; as, If he study,hewill improve ; I will respecthim, thoug hhe chidemo He W ill not be pardoned, unless he repent

Hadhe beenthere,he would-have conquered (thatis, if he had beenthere .)The conjunctions if, thoug h, unless, inthe preceding examples,

express condition, doubt, doc . therefore, the verbs study, chide,repent, andhad been, are inthe subjunctive mood.

Non l . A verb in this mood is g enerall attended by another verb insome other mood . You observe ,

thateach0 the fi rstthree of the precedingexamples . contains averb inthe indicative mood, and the fourth, ave rb inthe potential.2 . Whenever the conjunctions if, thoug h, unless, ex cept. whether , Int, or

any others , denote conting ency or oubt, the verbs that follow them are inthe subjunctive mood as . If he ride outeverv day , his healthw ill probaphly improve that is, ifhe shall or should ri e outhe reafter. Butwhenthese c onjunctions do not imply doubt, &c. the verbs thatfo llow them are inthe indicative ,

or some other mood ; as . Thou g hhe ride: out daily, hishealthis no better.

" The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood ,are

explained inthe conjugationof1the verb to love. See pa

g e 145.

The Inrnuar ivnM oonis used for commanding ,exhorting , entreating , or permitting ; as,

“Depart

180 m ower ai msmu t .

thou ; Remember my admonitions ; Torry awhilelong er ; Go inpeace .

”

The verb depart ex resses a command ; remember exhorts ;expresses entreati; and g o, permission; therefore they are

all inthe imperative mood.

The imperative, from impero, to command, is l ite ral ly thatmoodof the verb used incommanding ; but its technical meaning ing rammar is extended to the use of the verb inexhorting , entreating , and permitting .

A verb inthe irgtemtive mood, is always of the second person,

thoughnever vari inits terminations, ag reeing w iththou, ye, or

you, e ither expressed or impl ied. You may know averb inthismood by the sense ; recol lect, however, that the nominative isalways second person, and frequently understood ; as, Georg e,g ive me my hat; that is, g ive thou, or g ive you . Whenthenominative is expressed, it is g eneral ly placed after the verb;as, Go thou ; Departye or betweenthe auxil iary and the verb;as, Do thang o ; Do ye depart. (Do is the auxil iary .)The POTENTIALM oonimplies possibility,

ornecessity, power, Wi ll, or oblig ation as , Itmayrain; He may g o or stay W e musteatand drinkI canride He would walk They should learn.

”

Inthe fi rstof these examples, the auxil iary may impl ies possibility ; inthe second it impl ies l iberty ; that is, he is at l ibertytog o or to stay ; inthe third, must denotes necess ity ; candenotes

power or abi lity ; would impl ies w i l l or incl ination; that is, hehad amind to walk and should impl ies obl ig ation. Hence you

PH ILOSOPH ICAL NOTES.

The chang es in the termination of w ords, inall lang uag es, have beenformed by the coolem nee of w ords of appropriate meaning . This subjectwas appmached onpag e 49. Itis Gaintakenup for the rpose of showinz , thatthe moods and tenses, as w e as the number an person, of Englishverbs, do not solely depend oninflecn

'

on.

The coalescing syllables whichform the number and personof the H e

brew verb, are still considered pronouns ; and, by those who have investited the sub set, itis conceded . thatthe same planhas beenadopted inthe

ormationof e Latinand Greek ve rbs, as inthe Hebrew . Some lano'nag eshave carried this pwce ss to avery g reatextent. Ours is remarkable

l.

i'

or thesmall number of its inflections. Butthey who rejectthe pass ive verb, andthose moods and tenses whichare formed by employing whatare called

auxiliary verbs,

”because they aref ormed of two or more verbs, do not a

pear to reasonsoundly . Itis inconsistentto admit, thatwalke th, and wal

ed , are tenses, because eachis butone w ord, and to rejecthave walked, andwill walk, as tenses, because eachis composed of tw o words. Elk, as pre

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138 em ow or m w ax .

to write, the infi nitive . Any other verb (except the defective)may be employed inthe same manner.

I I . OF THE TENSES .

Ts e means time .

Verbshave Six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect,the Perfect, the P luperfect,and the Firstand SecondFuture tenses.

The PRESENT TENSE represents anaction or

eventas takmcrplace atthe time inwhichit18 men

tioned ; as, fsmile I see I am seen.

”

Nov: 1. The pre senttense is also used intpenking of acti

w ithoccasional inte rmission; to the presenttune ; as, He ride: outeverymorum

2 . Tgis tense is sometimes applied to representthe actions ofpersons longsince dead ; an,

“Senecarm m and m ah'

z ec well ; Anhonest manie thenoblestw ork of God .

"

3. Whenthe presenttense is preceded by the w ords, when, before, after ,at soona , dx . it is sometimes used to pointoutthe relative time of afu

action; u , t enhe arrives we shall bear the news.

"

The IM PE RFECT TENSE denotes apastactionor

event,however distant; or,The Imr snrec'

r Te ssa represents anactionor

outas pastand fi nished, butWithoutdefi ning thecoise time of its completion; as, I loved her for

and virtue ; They were trave lling postwhenhe metthem.

”

Inthes e examples, the verbs loved and metexpress pastand

fi nished actions, and there fore constitute a perfecttense as strictlyas any form of the verb in our lang uag e ; but, as they do not

as termination . The auxil iary ,whencontracted into aterminating syllable,

retains its distinctand intrinsic meaning , as muchas whenassociated w ithaVe rb by juxtaposition: consequently , an auxiliary verb

” may form apart

of amood or tense ,or passive verb,

w ithas muchpropriety as aterminatingsyllable . They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the auxiliaries distinct, and ing them as primary verbs, are , by the same principle,bound to extend e irn ting -knife to every compound word inthe lang uag e.

Havin thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accurac of thethe n wi ichrecovnises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs, form by theaid O

r

iyauxiliaries . i

,

shall now oti'

e r one arg umentto show that this theory,and this only ,

will subserve the purposes of the practical g rammarian.

As it is not so muchthe province of philolog y to instruct in the exact

moahino of sing le and separate w ords, as it is to teachthe studentto combine andemploy them properl in framing sentences, and as those combina»

tions whichg o by the name 0 compound tenses and passive verbs, are necessary inwriting and discourse, it followsr conclusively , that that theory

0

ransss . 139

define the precise time of the completionof these actions, theirtense may properly be denominated an indefi nite past. By de

fi ning the presentparticiple inconjunctionwith the verb, we haveanimperfecttense inthe expression,were travelling . This course ,however, wou ld notbe inaccordance with the ordinary methodof treating the participle . Hence it fol lows, that the terms imperfect and perfect, as appl ied to this and the next succeedingtense, are notaltog ether sig nifi cantof their true character ; butif you learnto apply these tenses correctly, the propriety or im

propriety of their names is not a consideration of very g reat

moment.

The PERFECT TENSE denotes pasttime, andalsocouve s anallusionto the present; as, I have fi nishod my letter.

”

The verbhavefi nished, inthis example, sig nifi es thatthe action,thoug h past, was perfectly fi nished atapointof time immediatelypreceding , or inthe course of a period which comes to the present. Under this view of the subject, the term perfectmay beproperly appl ied to this tense, for it specifi es, not only the com

lotionof the action, but, also, al ludes to the particu lar period ofts accomplishment.

The PLUPERFEC T TENSE represents apastactionor eventthattranspiredbefore some other past,time

specifi ed ; as, I had fi nished my letter before mybrother arrived.

You observe thatthe verb hadfi nished, inth is example, represents one postaction, and the arrival of my brother, another postaction; therefore hadfi nished is inthe pluperfecttense, because

whichdoes notexplainthese verbs intheir combined,state , cannotteachthe

studentthe correctuse and applicationof the verbs of our lan uag e . Bysuchanarrang ement he cannot learnwhenit is pro r to use t e phrases,d ial! have walked, mi g hthave g one , have seen,

inste of, shall walk, mig ht

g o . and saw ; because this theory has nothing to do w iththe combining of

verbs. If itbe alleg ed,thatthe speaker or w riter

’s ow ng ood sense must

g uide him incombining these verbs,_

and. there fore , thatthe directions of theg nnnmar ianare unnecessary ,

itmustbe recollectml, that suchanarg umentw ouldhear ,

equally , ag ainstevery princi le of g rammar whatever. Inshort,the theory of the compound tense s, altarof the passive verb. appears to be

so fi rmly based in the g enius of our lang uag e . and so practically imp ortantto the student, as to defy all the eng ines of the paralog istic speculator, andthe philosophical quibbler, to batte r itdown.

Butthe mostplausible objectionto the old theory is, that it. is encumberedwithmuchuse less technicality and tedious pfl bllmy

,whichare avoided by

the simple process ofexploding the passive verb, reducing the numbera!

140 er rmow or AND svnu x .

the actiontook place prior to the taking place of the other pastactionspecifi ed inthe same sentence .

The Fras'

r FUTURE Tense denotes a futureactionor event; as,

“I will finish; I shall fi nishmy letter.

”

The SECOND FUTURE Tes sa r futureactionthatw i l l be fully at or beforethe time of another future vent; as,

“Ishall have fi nished my letter when my brotherarrives.

”

Th is example clearly shows you the meanin and the p pero r

use of the second future tense . The verb shag have fi aipshed”

impl ies a future action that wil l be completely fi nished, at orbe fore the time of the other future eventdenoted by the phrase,whenmy brother arrives .

’

Non . What 18 sometimes called the [newline future, is expressed thus,

I sm g o Futu re time is also indiouted biplacing the infinitive t immediatel after the indicative present of verb lo be : thus, “ rrison is to be, or oug htlo be, commander- inchief;fl “Harrisonis to comnand the army .

”

You may now read whatts said respecting the moods and ten.

ses several times over, and thenyou may learnto conjug ate averb . But, before you proceed to the conjug ationof verbs, youwil l please to commit the fol lowing parag raph onthe Aux iliaryverbs, and, also, the sign of the moods and tenses ; and, inconjug ating , you must pay particular attention to the manner inwhich these sig ns are appl ied.

OF THE AUXIL IARY VERBS .

AUX ILI ARY or HELP ING Vas es are those by thehelpof whichthe Eng l ishverbs are principally con

the moods to three , and of the tenses to two. It is ce rtaiu , how eve r, thatif

we rejectthe nam e of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the namesof the potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, inand discourse w e must still employ those verbal combinations whichformthem ; and it is equally ce rtain. that the prOper mode of employing suchcombinations. is as easily taughtor learned by the old theory, whichname:them, as by the new , whichg rves them no name .

Onphilosophical principles, w e might, rhaps, dispense w iththe futuretenses of the ve rb,

by analyz ing eachw o separately but, as illustrated onas 79, the combined words whichform our perfect and pluperfect tensesme anassociated meaning whichte destroyed by analyzing eachword sepa

rately . That arrang ement, therefore , whichrejects these tenses, appears tohe , not only nnphilowphic

‘

al , but inconsistentand InaccurateFor thc satisfi tcfi onof those teachen who prefer ihand for their adop

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ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

Ed— the imperfect tense of reg ular verbs ; as,loved, smi led, hated, walked .

Have— the perfect ; as, have loved .

IIad— the pluperfect; as, had loved .

Shall or will— the fi rst future ; as, shall love, orwi ll love ; shall smile, w i ll smile.

Shall or will have— the second fu ture ; as, shallhave loved, or will have loved .

Non . The re are some exceptions to these signs, which you will noticeby referring to the conjugationtnthe potential mood.

New, I hope you w i l l so far consul t your owncase andadvantag e, as to commi t, rfectly, the signs of the moods and tensesbe fore you proceed arther thanto the subjunctive mood . I f youdo, the supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs,w i l l be transformed into a few hours of pleasant past ime .

The Indicative M ood has six tenses.

The Subjunctive has aléo six tenses.

The Imperative has only one tense.

The Potential has four tenses.

The Infi nitive has two tenses.

CONJUGATIONOF VERBS.

The CONJUG AT IONof averb is the re lar combinationand arrang ement of its 8 numbers,persons, moods, and tenses.

The Conjug ationof anactive verb, is styled theactive voice and that of apassive verb, the passivevoice.

Whenaverb expresses fi nished action, i t is in the past tense ; as, Th ispage (the B ible ) God hung outof heaven, and r etired.

"

A verb in the imperative and infi nitive moods, is alway:in the present

tense ,high au thori ties to the contrary notwithstanding . T command must

necessarily be givenintime present, although its fulfi lmentmust be future:John,

what are you doing ? Learning my task . Why do you learn i t ?Because my preceptor commanded me to do so . Whendid he command

you ? Yesterday s—Notnow,

of course .

That i t is inconsistent wi th the nature of th ing s for acommand to be giveninfutu re time , and that the fulfi lment of the command, though future ,

hasnothing to do w ith the tense or time of the command itself, are truths so

plainas to it to the blush the g ross absurdi ty of those who identify thetime of the hlmentw i th that of the command.

atomUOATION or vsass. 143

Verbs are called Reg ular whenthey form their

perfect tense of the ind icative mood, and theirperfectparticiple, by adding to the presenttense ed,or d only whenthe verb ends ine as,

Pres. Tense . Imp. Tense . Perf. Part iciple.

I favor. I favored. favored.

I love . I loved, loved.

A Reg ular Verb is conjugated inthe fol low ing manner.

To LOVE .- INDICATIVE Moon.

Present Tense .

Sing ular .

1 . P en. I love, 1 . We love,2 . P er: . Thou lovest, 2 . Ye or you love,3. P crs. He, she, or i t, loveth 3. They love .

or loves .

Whenw e wish to express energy or tiveness, the auxiliary do shouldprecede the verb inthe present tense :

P lural.

1. “We do love ,2 . Thou dost love, 2 . Ye or ondo love,3. He doth or does love. 3. They 0 love .

Imperfect Tense .

l . I loved , I . We loved,2 . Thou lovedst, 2 . Ye or you loved,3 . He loved . 3 . They loved .

Or by pre fi x ing did '

to the presentSing ular . P lural.

I . I did love , 1. We did love ,

2 . Thou didst love, 2 . Ye or y ou did love .

3. He did love . 3. They did love .

xxxncrsas i s ransina.

You may read the book which I have printed.

May , an irregular active verb , signifying to have and to exercise mightor strength ,” indie . mood, res. tense , second pers . plur. agreeing with itsnom . you . Read

,anirre g ular verb active ,

infi ni tive mood , pres. tense , withthe signto understood ,

refe rring to you as its agent . Have, anactive verb,signifying to possess, indie . present . and having for its object , book understoodafte r which .

”P r inted , aperf. participle, referring to book understood

Johnson, and Blair. and Lowth , would have been laug hed at, had theyenayed to thrustany thing like our moder niz e dphilosophical grammar downthe throats of the ir cotetnporaries.

Would . anactive verb . signifying to exercise voli tion, inthe past tenseof the indicative . Have,averb , inthe infini tive, to understood . Bernape r

144 srvmowev AND m rax .

Perfect Tense .

Plural.l . I have loved , I . We have loved,2 . Thou hast loved , 2 . Ye or you have loved,3. He bathor has loved . 3. They have loved .

P luperfect T ense .

Plural.l . I had loved , I . We had loved ,2 . Thou hadst loved, 2 . Ye or you had loved,3. He had loved . 3. They had loved

First Future Tense.

l . I shal l or w i l l love, 1. We shal l or will love,2 . Thou shal t or y ilt love, 2 . Ye or you shal l or will3. He shall or w i ll love. love,

3. Theyshallorwill love.

Second Future Tense.

l . I shal l have loved , I . We shal l have loved ,2 . Thou w i l t have loved, 2 . Yo or you wil l have3. He w i l l have loved . loved ,

3. They wi l l have loved .

Nora. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called simple tenses . as, Ileer . I loved ; but those formed by the helpof auxiliaries, are denominatedeowpom d tenses ; as l hase lond . I had loeed, &c .

Th is displeary of the verb shows you, inthe clearest l ig ht, the

appl icat ion 0 the sig ns of the tenses , wh ich sig ns oug ht to be

Berfectly commi tted to memory be fore you proceed any farther.

y look ing ag ainat the conjug ation, you w i l l notice, that have,p laced before the perfect particip le of any verb, forms the perfecttense ; had, the p luperfect ; she”or will, the fi rst future, andso on.

Now speak each of the verbs, love, hate, wads, smile, rule, andconquer, in the first personof each tense in this mood , w i th thepronounI be fore i t ; thus, ind icative mood , pres. tense, fi rst pers.

sing . I love ; imperf. I loved ; perf. I have loved ; and so on,throug h all the tenses . I f you learnthoroug h ly the conjug ation

feet part . of to be, re ferring to Johnson, Blair , and Lowth. Laughed at, perf.part. of to laughat. referring to the same as been. Had, active verb, inthepas t tense of the indicative , agree ing wi th its nom . they . E ssayed, perf

part. referring to they .

0.

Call this “philosophical parsing, on reasoning]principles, according to the

laws of nature and of though t,” and e pill w i]l be swallowed, byts and their dupes. wi th the g reatest ease iinag inable

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146 m ow er sunem u .

junctive mood , aconjunction implying doubt, di e . is prefi xed tothe verb.

thInthe second future tense of this mood , the verb is conjugatedus

Second Future Tense .

Plural.I . I f I shal l have loved , I . I f we shal l have loved,2 . I f thou shal t have loved , 2 . I f you shal l have loved ,3. I f he shall have loved . 3 . I f tney shal l have loved .

Look atthe same tense inthe ind icative mood'

, and you wi l lreadily perce ive the distinctionbetweenthe two conjug ations.

Ix rsan ivit Moon.

2 . Love, or love then, or do 2 . Love, or love yaor you, orthou love . do ye or you love .

Nora. Wo cannot commandmxhorg u either inpast or fum tims ;lune fine itvmfli hi dfi s tnuud isahwayshnthe fneunwtemuh

POTENTIAL Moon.

Present Tense .

Plural.l . I may, can, or must love, 1 . Wemay, can, or must love,2 . Thou mayst, onset, or must 2 . Ye may, can, or

love, in3. He may, can, or mustlove . 3. They may, can. or must

love .

Imperfect Tense .

l . I mig ht, could, would , orshou ld love,

2 . Thou mig htst, couldst,wouldst, or shouldst love,

3. He mig ht, cou ld, would, orshould love .

Pei fee t Tense .

Sing ular .

l . I may, can, or must haveloved,

2 . Thou mayst, canst, or musthave loved ,

He may , can, or musthave loveo .

Plural.We mig h t, could, would, or

should love,Y e or you m ig h t, cou ld,would, or shou ld love,

They mig ht, could, would,or shou ld love .

Wemay, can, ormusthaveloved,

Ye or you may, can, ormust have loved ,They may, can, or mus

'

thave loved .

"ONJUGATlON or vsans. 147

Pluperfect Tense .

r . P lural.

l . I mig ht, could, would, or 1 . We might,could,would, orshould have loved, should have loved,

2 . Thou mig htst, couldst, 2 . Yo or you mig ht, could,wouldst, or shouldst would, or should havehave loved, loved,

8. He mig ht, could , would, 3 . They mig ht, c'

ould, wou ld,or should have loved . or shou ld have loved .

By examining careful ly the conjug at ionof the verb throug hthismood, you wi l l find i t very easy ; thus, you w i l l notice,thatwhenever any of the aux i l iaries, may, can, or must, is placedbefore a verb, that verb is inthe potential mood, present tense ;mig ht, could, would, or should, renders i t in the tential mood ,imperfect tense ; may, can, or musthave, the perfgiit tense ; andmig ht, could, would, or should have, the pluperfect tense .

INm vs Moon.

Pres . Tense. To love . Perf. Tense . To have loved .

Psance Es.

Present or imperfect, Loving .

Perfec t or passive, Loved .

Compound, Having loved .

Non . The perfect participle of aregular verb , corresponds exact] wi thimperfect tense ; yet the former may, atall times, be disting uishe from

the latte r; by the following rule; In compositionnthe imperfect tense of averb always has anominative, ei ther expressed or implied : the perfect participle now has.

For your encourag ement, al low me to inform you, that when

you shal l have learned to conjug ate the verb to love, you w i l l beable to conjug ate all the reg u lar verbs inthe Eng l ish lang uag e,for they are all conjug ated precisely inthe same manner. By

pursu ing the fol low ing d irect ion, you can, ina very short time,

earn to conjug ate any verb . Conjug ate the verb love th roug hall the moods and tenses, in the fi rst personsing u lar, w i th thepronounI before i t, and speak the Part iciples : thus, Ind icat ivemood , pres. tense , fi rst pers . sing . I love, impe rf. tense, I lovedperf. tense, I have loved : and so on, th roug h every mood andtense . Thenconjug ate i t inthe second pers . sing . w i th the pronounthou before i t, th roug h all the moods and tenses ; thus, Indie . mood , pres . tense , second pers . sing . thou lovest; imperf.tense, thou lovedst and so on, throug h the whole . After thatconjug ate i t inthe th i rd pers . sing . w i th he before i t ; and theninthe first pers. plu ral , w ith we before i t, inl ike manner throug hall the moods and tenses . Al thoug h th is mode ofprocedure may

148 m ow er u rnsmi'

nt .

at fi rst,’

appear to be laborious, yet, as i t isnecessary, I trustyouw i l l not hesi tate to adopt i t . My confidence inyour perceverance , induces me to recommend any course wh ich I know wi l ltend to faci l i tate your prog ress .

Whenyou shal l have compl ied w i th my requ isi t ion, you mayconjug ate the fol low ing verbs inthe same manner ; which w i l lenable you, hereafter, to te l l the mood and tense of any verb

wi thout hesitation: walk, hate, smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relatemelt, shun, fail .

OF IRREGULAR VERBS.

IRREGULAR verbs are those that do not formthetr imperfect tense and perfect participle by theadditionof d or ed to the present tense ; as,Pres. TenseI wr ite I wroteI be g in I beganI g o I wentThe following is alist of the irregular verbs. Those marked wi th anR

are some times conjugated regularly .

Tense. P er] . or Pass. Part.abode

Am been

Awake awoke, B

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100 sm omor hnnerm sx .

Know

rid.

rode. riddsl'

sawed sown, B .

shone, B shone , R

' Riddenis nearly obsolete .

lhng asd smk should notbe ussdmm nylo.

museum s vsm . 151

straw

ThrowthThrust rust

Tread troddenWax waxed waxen, R.

Wear w ere wornWeave wove wovenWet w et wet,R.

Weep wept wept\Vin w on won‘Vind wound woundWork wrought, worked wrought, workedW ring wr ung wrung\Vrilo wro te wri tten.

Infamiliar wri ting and discourse ,the followin

gand s ome other verbs, aro

often imprope rl te r minated by t instead of c an: “learnt, spelt, spilt,stopt, latcht. ” They shou ld be , “learned , spelled,

spilled stopped , latched .

You may now conjugate the fol low ing i rreg ular verbs, inamanner simi lar to the conjug at ionof reg u lar verbs : arise, beg in,bind, do, g o, g ro w, run, lend,teach,write . Thus,toarise— Ind icat ive

Spittenisnearly obsolete.

P ed'

. or Pass. Part.smittensown, R.

spokensped

8 ntsgflt, R.

spunspit, spi tten,’splitspread

sprungstoodstolenstuckstunstunstriddenstruck or thickenstrungstrivesstrown,i or strewedsw et, R.

swornswollen, R.

182 sr ruomor u mm u x .

mood, pres. tense, fi rst pcrson,sing . I arise imperf. tense, I arose ;perf. tense , I have arisen, and so on, th roug h all the moods, andall the tenses of each mood and thenspeak the participles : thus,pres. arising , perf. arisen, comp . having arisen. In the nextp lace , conjug ate the same verb inthe second personsing . throug hall the moods and tenses ; and theninthe th ird persons ing . andin the fi rst pers . plural . Aner that, you may proceed in themute manner w i th the words beg in, bind,New read the e leventh and twe l fth lectures four or jive times

over, and learnthe order of parsing averb. You w i l l thenbeprepared to parse the fo l low ing verbs infu l l ; and I presume, allthe other parts of speech . Whenever you parse, you must referto the Compend ium for defi ni t ions and rules, i f you cannot repeatthem w i thout . I w i l l now parse averb, and describe all its properties by apply ing the de fi ni t ions and ru les accord ing to thesystematic order.

We could notaccomplishthe business.

Couldaccomplishis averb,aword wh ich signi fi es todo—active,itexpresses act ion— transitive, the action passes over fnom thenom . we

”to the object business — reg ular, i t w i l l form is

imperfect tense of the indie . mood and perf. part . incd— poten.

tial mood, it impl ies poss ibi lity or power— imperfect tense, i t denotes past t ime however d istant— fi rst pers. plural , because thecom. we

”is w i th w hich i t ag rees, ag reeably to Runs 4 . A

verb must ag ree, Gee . Conjug ated— Ind ie . mood , present tense,fi rst pers . sing . I accompl ish ; imperfect tense , I accompl ished ;perfect, I have aceontplished p luperfect, Ihadaccompl ished ; andso on.

— Speak i t in the personof each tense throug h all themoods, and conjug ate, inthe same manner, every verbyou parse .

EXERCISES INPARS ING .

The” eiz erciscs containacomplete variety of M ood: and Tenses.

I learn my lesson wel l . Charles, thou learnest thy lessonbad ly . John, do you wri te a g ood hand ? Those lad ies wrote abeautifu l letter, but they d id notdespatch it. Have you seenthe

g entlemanto whom I g ave the book ? He has g one . They hadrece ived the news be fore the messeng er arrived . t en w i l lthose persons return? My fr iend shal l rece ive his re ward . He

w i l l have visited me three titties , i f he come to-morrow .

I f E l i za study d i l ig ently , she w i l l improve . I f Charles stud ieshe does not improve . Unless that manshal l have accompl ishedhis work by midsummer, he w i l l rece ive no wag es. Orlando,obey my precepts, unlem you w ish to injure yourse l f. Remem

ber what is told you . The physicianmay administer the medi

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1N arm ow sv AND em u .

gSing . I might. thou might“, he migh t.Plur . We might, ye or you might, they might

CAN.

I can, thou canst, he can.

We can, ye or you can, they can.

Sing . I could, thou couldst, he could .

We could, ye or you oould, they could.

W ILL .

{Sis-g . I w ill, thou w ilt, he will.Pier . We will, ye or you w ill, they will.

I would , thou wouldst, he would.

We would, ye or you would, they would

SHALL .

I shall, thou shalt, he shall.We shall, ye or you shall, they shall.I should, thou shouldst, he should .

We should , ye or you should, they should.

TO DO .

I do , thou dmt or doesg he dothor dvoes.We do , ye or you do, they do .

Sing . I did, thou didst, he did.

P lsr . We did, ye or you did, they did .

Participles. Pres. doing . Perf. done.

TO BE .

Sing . I am, thou 011, he is.

P ie r . We are , ye or you are , they are .

{Si-l g . I was, thou wast, he was.

Pie r . We were , ye or you we re , were . 0

Participles . Pres. be ing. P been.

TO HAVE .

Sing . I have , thouhasg he hath o-rhas.Pier . We have , ye or you have, fliey have .

{Sing I hod , thou hadst, he had.

Plu r . We had , ye or you had, they had.

Participles . Pres. having . Perf. had.

Do, be, have, and will, are sometimes used as principaland whenem loyed as such , do, be, andhave, may be conjug ated,by the help et

Pother aux i l iaries, throug h all the moods and tenses.

Do . The d ifferent tenses of do, inthe several moods, are thusformed : Ind icative mood , pres . tense, fi rst pers. si I do ; imperfect tense, I d id perf. I have done ; p luperfect, had done ;fi rst future, I shal l or w ill do ; see . fut. I shal l have done . Sub

junct ive mood , pres . tense, I f I do ; imperf. i f I d id ; and so on.

Imperative mood , do thou . Potent ial, pres. I may, can, or mus

do, doc. Infini tive, present, to do ; perf. to have done . Par

ciples, pres. doing ; perf. done ; compound, having done.

AUXILIAl Y vm s. 155

HAVE . Have 19 ing reat demand. No verb can be conju

g ated throug h all the moods and tenses w i thout i t . Have, whenused as a principal ve , is doubled insome of the past tenses,and becomes anaux i l iary to i tself ; thus, Ind ic . mood , pres. tense,fi rst pe rs . sing . I have ; imperf. tense, I had perf. I have had ;pluperf. I had had ; fi rst fut. I shal l or w i l l have ; see . fut. I

shal l have had. Subjunctive, present, i f ] have ; imperf. if Ihad ; perf. if I have had ; pluperf. if I had had ; first fut. if Ishal l or w i l l have ; sec . fut. i f I shal l have had. Imper. mood .have thou . Potent ial , present, I may, can, or must have imperf.I mig ht, could, would , or should have ; perf. I may , can, ormusthave had ; pluperf. I m ig ht, could , would, or should have had.

Infinit ive, present, to have perf. to have had. Participles, pres.

having ; perf. had ; compound , having had.

BE . Inthe nex t place I w i l l present to you the conjugationofthe i rreg ular,neuter verb, Be, wh ich Is anaux i l iary whenever i tis placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but inevery other si tuation, i t is aprincipal verb.

To BE .— INnIcm vs Moon.

Pres. Sing . I am, thou art,he, she , or i t is.

Tense . IP lur . We are , ye or you are , they are .

Imperf. Sing . I was , thou wast, he was .

Tense . iP lur . We were , ye or you were, they were .

Perf. Sing . I have been, thou hast been, he bathor has been.

Tango . IP lur . We have been, ye or you have been, they have been.

Plnp. Sing . I had been, thou hadst been,he had been.

I‘ense . gP ie r . We had been, ye or you had been, they had been.

First Sing . I shall or will be , thou shalt or wilt be,he shall or will be .

Fut. T. IP lur . We shall or will be ,you shall or willbe , they shall or will beSecond Sing . I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been.

Fut. T . gP lnr . We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been.

Susmncrrvs Moon.

P res. Sing . If I be ,if thou be , ifhe be .

Tense . iP lur . If w e be , if ye or you be , if they be .

Imperf. Sing . If I were , if thou wert, ifhe were .

Tense . IP lur . Ifwe were , if ye or youwere , if they were .

The neuter verb to be, and all passive verbs, have two formsin the impe rfect tense of th is mood , as wel l as in the present ;therefore, the fol low ing ru le may serve to d irect you inthe properuse of each form. \Vhen the sentence impl ies deubt, suppos ition, and the neuter verbbe, or the pass ive verb, is used w i tha reference to present or futu re time, and is e i ther fol lowed or

preceded by another verb inthe imperfect of the potential mood,the conjunctive form of the imperfect tense must be employed ;as, If he were here, we should rejoice tog ether ; She mig ht

166 m ow er u p sm u .

g o, were she so d isposed . Butwhen there is no reference to

present or future t ime , and the verb is ne i ther wllowed nor pre.

coded by another inthe potent ial imperfect, the indicative ibrm ofthe imperfect tense‘mustbe used as, If he was i l l , he d id notmake i t known Whether he was absent or present, is amatter of no consequence .

” The g eneral rule for us ing the con.

junct ive form of the verb, is presented onpag e 145 . See, also,pag e 135 .

The cc lu cc and fi rst fu ture tenses of the sub'

unotive mood,arewandiiiam r similar to the correspondent tense

'

ii ofthe indioe o

tive . be second future is conjugated thus :Second Sing . I”shall have been, if thou shalt have been, ifhe shall, doc.Put. T. Plur . Ifwe shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, Jae.

Imrsam vx Moon.

Sing . Be , er be thou. " do thanbe .

{Plum Be , or be ye or you, or do ye or you be.

POTENTIAL Moon.

Sing . I may, can, or mus t be , thou mayet, csnst, or must be,hePres. may, can, or must be .

Tense . Plur . We may, can. or must be , ye or you may, can, or must be ,they may, can, or must be .

Imperf. Sing . I m igh t, could , would, or should be , thou might-t,Tense . P ie r . We migh t, could, would, or should be , you m ight,Perf. S ing . I may, can, or mus t have been, thou Inayet. canst, Cw.

Tense . P lnr . We may,an, or must have been, youmay, can, or must GaPluper. Sing . I might. could, would . or should have been, thou, are .

Tense . Pie r . We m ig ht, could, would, or should have been, you , &.c.

INFINITWB Moon.

Pres. Tense . To be . Perf. Tense . Tohave been.

PAB‘I‘ICIPLES.

Pres. Being . Perf. Been. Compound , Having been.Th is verb to be, thoug h very i rre u lar inits conjug at ion, is by

far the most important verb inour Iang uag e, for i t is more froquentl y used thanany other ; many rules of syntax depend onconstructions associated w i th i t, and, w i thou t its aid, no passiveverbcanbe conjug ated . You oug ht, there fore, to make yourse lfperfectly familiar w ith all its chang es, be fore you proceed anyfarther.

I I . PASSIVE VERBS.

The cases“of norms are a fru i tful theme for investig at ionand

d iscuss ion. In the prog ress of these lectures, th is subject hasfrequentl y engag ed our attention; and, now, in introduc ing to

your notice the pass ive verb, i t w ill , perhaps, be found both into.

resting and profi table to present onemore view of thenominative0880.

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158 z'

rm onoov AND em u .

feet participle of anactive- transitive verb, to theneuter verb to be.

If you place ct participle of an ac tive - transitive verbafler this neutc in any mood or tense

, you w i l l have apassive verb inthe same mood and tense that the verb be wouldbe inif the pa rt ic i le were not used as, I am slig hled ; l wasslighted He w i l l be slighted ; If I be d ig /tied ; I may, can , ormust be slig hted, doc. Hence you pe rceive , that when you shallhave learned the conjugation of the verb be, you w i l l be able toconfl

ug ate any pass ive verb in the Engl ishlanguhe regular pass i ve verb to be loved, whichis

a

ge

rmed by adding the pe rfect partic iple loved to the neuter verb to be, is conjugated inthe fol lowing manner

To Br: Leno — lumen !“ Moon.

Pres.gSing . I am loved , thou art loved , he is loved .

Tense . Pb ". We are loved , ye or you are loved , they are loved .

Imperl'

. Sing . l was loved , thou wast loved , he was loved .

Tense . lPier . We were loved, ye ar' you were loved , they were loved .

I have beenloved , thou hast beenloved , he has beenloved.We have beenloved , you have beenloved , they have, 6141.

Pluper. Sing . l had beenloved , thou hadst beenloved , he had been, &e .

Tense . lPie r. We had beenloved , you had beenloved , they had been, &e .

First Sing . I she ll or will be loved , thou shalt or w il t be loved , he, doc.

Future . P inr . We shell or w ill be loved , you shellor w ill be loved , they, 8m .

Sing . I shal l have beenloved , thou wil t have been . oved , be , 8m.

“mura lPie r. We shall have beenloved , you w ill have been loved, arc.

SuamncnvnMoon .

Il'

I be loved , if thou be loved , ifhe be loved .

If we be loved , if ye or you be loved , if they be lovedaImperf. Sing . If I were loved , if thou wert loved , ifhe were loved.Tense . lPie r. If we were loved, if you were loved , if they were loved.

This mood has six tenses z— See conjug ationof the'

verb to be.

ImrsasrtvnMoon .

Pres. Sing . Be thou loved , or do thou be loved .

Tense. Pier. Be ye or you loved , or do ye be loved.POTENTIA L Moon .

Pres. Sing . I may, can, or must be loved , thou mayst, canst, or must, &cTense. F iu r. We may. can, or must be loved , you may, can, or must, docImperf. Sing . I m ig ht, could, would, or should be loved , thou mig htst, GmTense . P iur . We mig ht, could, would, or should he loved, ye or you, 610Perfect Sing . I may , can, or must have beenloved , thou mayst, canst, dw .

Tense . Pie r. We may, can, or must have beenloved, you may, can, drc .

Sing . I m ig ht, coma, would , or should have been loved , thoum ig htst, couldst. wouldst, or shouldst have beenloved,We mig ht, could, would, or should have been loved, you

nsrxc'

rivx vxass. 150

Inruvrrtva Moon.

Pres. Tense . To be loved . Perf. Tense . Tohave beenloved .

PARTlClPLES.

Present, Be ing loved. Perfector Passive , Loved.

Compound,Having beenloved.

NoTl . This conjugation of the passive verb to be loved, is called thepassive voice of the reg ular active

-transitive verb to love.

Now conjug ate the fol lowing passive verbs ; that is, speak

them inthe fi rst pers. sing . and plur. of eachtense, throug hallthe moods, and Speak the participles

“to be loved, to be rejected,

to be sl ighted, to be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to besought, to be taken.

”

NOTE 1. When the perfect participle of anintransitive verb is joined tothe neuter verbto be, the combinationis notapassive verb,

butaneuter verbinapau iveform : as He is one : The birdsare fi own: The boy is g rown;My friend it arrived . The tollovvinfr mode ofconstruction, is, ing eneral, tobe preferred ; He has g one ; The birdshave flown; The boy has g rown;My friend has arrived .

”

2 . Active and neuter verbs may be c on'

ug ated by adding their presenticiple to the auxiliary verb to be, throughall its variations ; as, instead of,

teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c. , w e may say, I am teaching , thou artteachin he is teaching , and, instead of, I taught, &c . ; I was teaching ,&c . T is mode of conjugation expresses the continuation of anactionor

state of being ; and has, on some occasions, apeculiar propriety , and contributes to the harmon and precisionof lang uag e . Whenthe presentparticiple of anactive ver is joined withthe neuter verb to be , the two w ords

united, are , by some g rammar-inns

,denominated anactive verb, either tran

sitive or intransitive , as the case may be ; as, I am w riting alette r ; He is

walking and whenthe presentparticiple ofaneute r verb is thus employedthey term the combinationaneuter verb as, I am sitting ; H e is standing .

Others, inconstructions like these , parse eachword separately. Either modemay be adopted.

I I I . DEFECTIVE VERBS.

DEFEC T IVE VERBs are those whichare used onlyinsome of the moods and tenses.

The principal of them are these .

P res. Tense Imperf . Tense. P erfector Passive Participleis wanting .

might.could.

would.

should.

must

0 ht.

qiitgith.

Non . Mae! and ought are notvaried. Oug htand quot/0are never usedas auxiliaries . is always f ollow ed by a verb inthe infi nitive mood ,

whichverb determmes its tense . Oug ht is inthe present tense whenthe incfinitive following it is in the

pgesent: as, He oug ht to do it and oug ht is

inthe imperfect tense when [lowed by the perfect of the infinitive ; cgHe oughtto have done it.

"

160 m notoer u se SYNTAX.

Before you proceed to the analysis of the fol lowing examples.you may read over the last three lectures careful ly and attent.ively and as soonas you become acquainted withall thathasbeenpresented, you w il l understand nearly all the principles andreg ular constructions of our lang ua e . In parsing averb, or

any other part of speech, be canefu to pursue the systematicorder, and to conjug ate every verb until you become familiarwithall the moods and tenses.

“He should have beenpunished before he committed that atrocions deed.

”

Should have beenpunished is averb, aword thatsignifi es to

do—passne, itdenotes actionreceived or endured by the noun.it is formed by addin the perfect part. punished to the neuterverb to bo—reg ular, tthe perf. part. ends incti— potential mood,it im lies obl ig ation, di e — pluperfecttense , itdenotes apastactwhio was prior to the other pasttime specifi ed by committed”

third pers . sing . num . because the nom .

“he” is withwhichitag rees : RU LE 4 . The verb mustag ree, dim

—Conjug ated, Indie.

mood, pres . tense , he is punished ; imperf. tense, he was punished ; perf. tense,he has beenpunished ; and so on. Conjug ateitthroughall the moods and tenses, and speak the participles.

EXERCISES INPARSING .

Columbus discovered Ame rica. America was discovered byCo lumbus. The preceptor is writing a letter. The letter is writtenby the preceptor. The work canbe done . The house wouldhave been built ere this, had be fu l fi l led his promise . If I bebeatenby that man, he wil l be punished. Young man, if youw ishto be respected, fl u mustbe more assiduous . Being ridi

ou led and despised,he lefi the institution. He is reading Homer.

They are talking . He may be respected, if he become morein annona. My worthy friend ought to be honored forhis benevfi entdeeds. This oughtye to have done .

ADD ITIONAL EXERCISES INPARS ING .

A l l the most importantprinciples of the science, tog ether withmany of the ru les, have now been presented and il lustrated.

But before you proceed to analyz e the fol lowing exercises, youmay turn over a few pag es, and you wil l fi nd ail the ru les presented ina body . Please to examine them critical ly, and parsethe examples under eachrule and note . The examples, you wil lnotice, are g ivento il lustrate the respective rules andnotes underwhichthey are placed ; hence, by paying particu lar attentiontothem, you w il l be enabled ful ly and clearly to comprehend themeaning and applicationof all the rules andnotes.

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162 m ower AND m u x.

to cantear ( index-Wood : but

EXERCISES INPARSING.

The wal l is three feethig hHis sonis eightyears old.

My knife is worthachafi ng .

“She is worthhim and allhis connedm fi ’

“He has beenthere three timcs.

The be! costtendoflan.

“The load weighs atan.

The spar measures ninety feat.Rt m —Am ly hdem ed from the Gmehq withong amd omakc,

similar ; that ig vitl outdmilarfly . Some g ive- its derivationthus ; anomaly,

fmm tbe Lafi nwob fi -

om or outoflmd w arule , nr law , meanam outo

ms

e

er

y

wr

Anomau ss.— pausa~to. 168

anomaly, or itmaynot. Au idiomatical expressionwhichisnotananomaly,canbe analyzed .

F eet and years. inthe lst,and 52d examples,are not inthe nominative afteris , accord in to Rule 21, because they are notinappositionwiththe respec

tive nouns t recede the verb butthe constructionsare anomalous ; and,therefore, no ru e canhe applied to analyz e them . The same ideas ,however, canbe couve ed by ale

‘

timate constnictionwhichcanbe analyz ed ;thus, Theheig ht0 the wall is ireefeet;

" Theag e ofmy sonis eightyears.

"

Ananomaly, whenascertained to be such, is easily disposed of butsometimes it is very diflicult to decide whether aconstruction is anomalous or

not. The 3d, 4th, and 5thexam les, are g enerally considered anomalies ;but if w e suppl as w e are , per aps. warranted in doing , the associatedw ords whichm ernre fi nementhas dropped, they w ill cease to be anomaplies ; thus, My knife is of the w orthof ashilling

— of the worthof him,

”

6m. He has beenthere or three times ;"as w e say, I was unwell fm

three days, after I arriv or, I was unw ell three days.

" Thus itap

Ears, that by tracing back ,for a few centuries, what the merely modern

g lishscholar supposes to be ananomaly, anellipsis w ill frequently be discovered, which, wheneu plied , destro s the anomaly.

Onextreme po ints, an peculiar an varang construcn'

ons inaliving lan

g uag e , the mostable hilolo ts cannever sc reed because many usag es

w ill always be unset ed an fluctuating , and w ill, consequently , be disposedof according to the caprice of the g rammarian. By some , asentence may betreated as o

ananomaly ; by othemwho contend for, and supply , an elli

the flame sentence may be analyz ed according to the ellipsis supplied whilstothers, whode boththe elliptical and anomalous character of the sentence ,constructarule y whichto analyz e it, whichrule has for its foundationtheprinci lo contained inthat sentence onl This lastmode of procedure, ia

asmuc as itrequires us to make arule {or every peculiar constructioninthehng uag e , appears to me to be the most exce itionable of the three . Itappears to be multiplying r ules beyond the boun s of utility .

The verbs, cost,weighs,and meas ures, inthe 6th, 7th,and 8thexamfles,maybe consideredas transitive . See remarks onresemble,have, own,&c .

,pag e 56.

EXAMPLES .

l . And God said Letthere be l ight,’and there was l ight.

”

Letus make man. Letus how before the Lord.

”Let

high-bornseraphs tune the lyre .

”

2 . Be itenacted.

”Be it remembered. Blessed be he

thatblesseththee ; and cursed be he thatcurseththee .

”My

soul , turnfrom them —turnwe to survey,”etc .

3.

“M ethinks I see the portalsof eternity wide opento rece ivehim. M ethoug htI was incarcerated beneaththe mighty deep.

”

“1was there'

ustthirty years ag o.

”

4 . The i r laws and the i r manners, g enerally speaking ,were

extreme ly rude .

” Considering the i r means, they have cfl'

ectcd

much.

”

5 “Ahme ! norhope nor life remains.

M e mise rable whichway shall I fly?6 . 0 ha inns ! our lie ing

's end and aim !

Gmxfp

pleasure , ease , content! whate'

er thy name ,

Thatsomctliin still whichprompts th'ete rnal sigh,

For whichweiear to live, or dare to die.

"

164 srrntotocr w e srxru .

The verb kt, inthe idiomatic examples undernumber l ,hasno nomhative smcifi ed , and is leftapplicable to anominative of the first, second, orthird penomand ot

'

e ither number. Every actionnecessarily depends onanag entor moving cause ; andhence it follows, thatthe verb. at suchconstruenons, ha s nominative understood ; butas thatndminative isnotpanicularlypointed out. the construction may be considered anomalous .

lasted al um“Let or,“Itie or dwll be enacted ;

"

“Lethim [ lo ]

m m his? ”Lem ma“ “

W“b";our or [root

’s are in ratios,

withanominstive of tbe fi rstor third permn.

W

The second line may be rendered thus ; Whether thou artgood , pr whetherthou artpleasure ,fil

e . or be thy name that {thing}? which

.[ eggm] Itmay

be : be'

perafi ve , ag ree'

W it name 111

82mm haz inaziv‘rafler ad

EXAMPLES .

l . All were we l l butthe strang er .

” I saw nobody buttheer .

” A l l had retu rned buthe . None butthe bravedeserve the fair.

” The thing theycan’tbutpur

pose , they post

pone.

” “This l ife, atbest, is butadream.

”tafl

’

ords buta

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166 ETYXOLOGY m o arsu z .

prehend the meaning , and by supply ing what is understood. youwill be able to analyz e them correctly .

EXERCISES INPARS ING.

I l ike whatyou disl ike .

Every creature loves its l ike .

Ang er; envy, and l ike passions, are sinful .Charity, l ike the sun, brig htens every objectaround it.Thoug htflies swifter thanlig ht.He thoug htas asag e, thoug h he feltas aman.

Hail oftenproves destructive to veg etation.

I was happy to hail him as my friend.

Hail ! beauteous stran r of the wood.

The more I examine Lg:work , the better I like it.Johnsonis abetterwriter thanSte rne .

Calm was the day, and the scene delig htful .We may ex pectacalm afi e r astorm .

To prevent passionis easier thanto calm it.Damp air is unwholesome .

Guiltollencasts adamp over'

our sprig htliest hours.

Soil bodies damp the sound much moreMuch money has beenexpended.

Of'him to whommuch is g iven, much will be required.

It is much better to g ive thanto receive .

Stil l water runs deep . He labored to still the tumult.Those two young proflig ates remainstil l inthe wrong .

They wrong themselves as wel l as their friends.

I wil l now presentto you a few examples inpoetry . P

inpoetry, as it bring s into requisitiona hig her deg ree of menexertionthanpa in prose, wil l be found amore del

lightfi tl

and pro fi table exercise . In this kind of analysis, in o er to

come atthe meaning of the author, you will fi nd it'necessary to

bumpers his lang uag e, and supply w hat is understood and thenyou wil l have the literal meaning inprose .

EXERC ISES IN PARSING .

Arosraorss TO HOPE .— CAMPBELL .

Eternal Hope ! whenyonder spheres sublimePealed their fi rstnotes to sound the march of time,Thy joyous youth beg an— butnotto fade.

W henall the sister p lanets have decayed ;W henwrapt inflames the realms of ether g low ,

And Heaven’s lastthunder shakes the world be low ;Thou, undismay

’d , shalto

’er the ruins smile,

And lig htthy torch atNature’s funeral pile !

POETRY TRANSPOSED.— Pm m0. 167

Tam srossn.

Eternal Hope ! thy joyous youth beg anwhenyonder sublimewheres pealed their fi rst notes to sound the march of time

but itbeg annotto fade — Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over

the ruins, whenall the sister planets shal l have decayed ; andthou shalt lig htthy torch atNature

’s funeral pile, whenwraptin

flames, the realms of ether g low, and Heaven’

s last thundershakes the world below .

Annasss TO Anvsasmr.— Gaav.

Daug hter of heaven, relentless power,Thou tamer of the humanbreast,Whose ironscourg e , and tort

’ring hour,

The bad affrig ht, affl ictthe best!The g en

’rous spark extinctrevive

Teach me to love and to forg iveExactmy owndefects to scan\Vhatothers are to feel and know mysel f aman.

Tsausrossn.

Daug hter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the humanbreast, whose iron scourg e and torturing hour afl

’

rightthe bad,and ailliet the best! Revive thou in me the g enerous, extinctspark ; and teach thou me to love others, and to forg ive them ;and teach thou me to scanmy owndefects exactly, or critical lyand teach thou me thatwhich others are to feel and make thoume to know myse l f to be aman.

ADDRESS TO THE ALM IGHTY .—‘ POPE .

Whatconscience dictates to be -done,Or warns me notto do,

This teach me more thanhell to shun,Thatmore thanbeav’a pursue .

TRANSPOSED.

O God, teach thou me to pursue that (the thing ) which conscience dictates to be done, more ardently thanI pursue heavenand teach thou me to shunthis (the thing ) which conscience warnsme notto do, more cautiously thanI would shunhel l

Trus ts or View s — Manama.

For see, ah! see, while yether waysWith doubtful step I tread,

A hostile world its terrors raise,

Its snares delusivc spread.

0 how shal l I , w ith heart prepared,Those terrors learnto meet?

How ,from the thousand snares to g uard

My unexperienced feet?

168 m uonoov AND svs nx.

TRANSPOSED.

For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world to raise its terrors,and see thou a hostile world to spread its delusive snares, whileI yettreadhe r (mfl uc

’s) ways with doubtfu l steps .

0 how shal l I learn to meet those terro rs with a repared

heart? How shal l I learnto g uard my unexperienced set fromthe thousand snares of the world ?

Tne Mommam SUMMER.-THOMPSON.

Short is the doubtful empire of the nig ht;And soon, observantof approaching day,The meek.eycd mornappears, mother of dews,At fi rst, faintg leaming inthe (lap led ou t,

Til l far o’

er ether spreads the widning g low,

And from before the l ustre of her faceWhite break the clouds away .

Tam srossn.

The doubtful em ire of the nig ht is short; and the meek - eyed

morn, (whichis the; mother of dews, observant of approachingday, soonappears, learning faintly, at fi rst, inthe dappled east,till the widening g ow spreads far over ether, and the whiteclouds break away from before the lustre of her face .

Nareas Bounrrror. .— Axsssrns .

Nature’

s care, to all her childrenjust,W ith richesttreasures, and anample state,Endows at larg e whatever happy manWil l deig nto use them.

Tm srossn.

Nature’s care, wh ich is just to allher children, larg ely endows, with richesttreasures and anamp le state, thathappy manwho wil l deig nto use them.

No n. What, in the second exam ls , is a comp. rel. The antecedentpart is g ov. by teachunderstood ; and re lative part by tofeel expressed:To thanand to rm , inthe third exam is , are inthe infinitive mood , g ov.

by then, accord ing to aNor : under Ru e 23. Faintandfrom, in the 5thexample , are adverbs. Anadverb, inpoetry ,

is oftenw ritteninthe fo f

anadjective . Whatever, inthe last sentence , is acompound pronoun, is

equivalentto thatandwho . That is anadj

. ron. belonging to man; whois nom. to w ill deign;

”and ever is exc ed from s sentence insense .

age 113. Parse these examples as theyanalysis very easy .

ADDIT IONAL EXERC ISES IN PARS ING .

GOLD, NOT GENU INE WEALTH .

Where , thy true treasure ? Gold says, not inme ;And,

“not inme, the Diamond. Gold is poor .

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W OW ? All 0 SYNTAX .

Inruinend : and, now, their proud succemButplants new terrors onthe viewer’s brow .

What pain, to uitthe world justmade their own!Their new so eeply downed and builtso hig hToo low they build, who b

'

uild beneath the stars.

Tu ssrosso .

How few persons, favored by every element, safely make thepromised portwith swel ling sails, andwith all their Wishes freig htcd ! Yeteventhese few persons who do safely make the promisedportwith all their wishes freig hted, sooncomplain. Thoug h they

conthe

course of nature, for they stil l are men and when is mansecure ? Time is as fatal to him, as astorm is to the mariner.

The rush of years beats downtheir streng th (thatis, the streng ththese few and their numberless escapes end in ruin: andtheir proud success only p lants new terrors

'

onthe vict‘or’sbrow . What painit is to them to quitthe world

,just as they

have made itto be their ownworld ; whentheir nests are builtso hig h, and whenthey are downed so deeply — They who buildbeneath the stars. build too low for their ownsafety .

Rsnsm oss onA Seems— LoanBrsort.

Remove yonscull from outthe scattered heaps .

Is thatatemple, whe re aGod may dwel l‘I

Why, ev’nthe worm at lastdisdainsher shattered cel l !

Look onits brokenarch , its ruined wal l,Its chambers desolate, and portals fou lYes, th is was once ambition’s airy hal l ,The dome of thoug ht, the palace of the sou l .Behold, throug h each lack - lustre , eyeless hole,The g ay recess of wbdom and of wit,And passion’

s host, thatnever -brooked control .Canall, saint, sag e , or sophistever writ,

People this lone ly tower, this tenementrefi t?m srosam

Remove thou yonder scnll out from the scattered heaps. Isthatatemple, where a God may dwel l ? Why, even the wormat last disdains her shattered ce l l ! Look thou on its bmkenarch , and look thou onits ruined wal l , and onits desolate chambers, and onits fou l portals,

:— yes, th is scu l l was once ambition’

s

gi

ghal l ; (itwas) the dome of thoug ht, the palace of the s ou l .old thou, throug h each lack - lustre, eyeless hole, the g ay

recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion’s host, which never

namva'

rton. 171

brooked control . Ganall the works which saints, or sag es, or

sophists have ever written, repeople th is lonely tower, or cantheyrefi t th is tenement7For your future exercises in parsing , you may select pieces

from the Eng lish Reader, or any other g rammatical work . Ihave already hinted, that parsing inpoetry, as it bring s moreimmediately into requisitionthe reasoning faculties, thanparsinginprose , wil l necessarily tend more rapidly to facil itate yourpro g ress : therefore it is advisable thatyour future exercises inth is way, be chiefly confi ned to the analysis of poetry . Previousto your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you oug htalwaysto transpose it, inamanner similar to the examples justpresented ;and thenitcanbe as easily analyz ed as prose .

Before you proceed to correct the fol lowing exercises infalsesyntax,

‘

you may turnback and read over the whole thirteenlectures, unless you have the subject-matter already stored in

yourmind.

OF DERWATION.

At the commencement of Lecture I I I informed you thatEtymolog y treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymolog y, importantas it is, cannotbe very extensively treated inanelementary work on g rammar. Inthe course of the precedinglectures, ithas beenfrequently ag itated and now ] shal l offer afew more remarks, which wil l doubtless be useful inil lustratingsome of the various methods inwhich one word is derived fromanother. Before you proceed, however, please to turnback andread ag ainwhatis advanced onth is subjectonpag e 27, and inthe m sormcar. Norss.

1 . Nouns are derived.

from verbs.

2 . Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimesfrom adverbs .

3 . Adjectives are derived from nouns.

4 . Nouns are derived from adjectives.

5 . Adverbs are derived from adjectives .

l . Nouns are derived from verbs ; as, from “to love , comes

“lover ;” from “

to visit, visiter;” from “

to survive, surviver.

”

c.

Inthe lbllowing instances, .and inmany others, it is diffi cultto

172 m aonoov um svrrru .

deter mine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or thenoun fi '

om the verh, viz .

“Love , to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, tofear , slee p, to sleep walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to act,

”

2 . Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimesfrom adverbs ; as, from the nounsalt, comes to salt;

’ from theadjective warm,

“to warm ; and from the adverb forward, to

forward.

” Sometimes theyare formed by leng thening the vowel ,or softening the consonant; as, from

“gm to

graz e ;

’sometirnes

by adding ea; as, from“leng th , to leng then

’’especially to ad .

jectives as, from short, to shorten brig ht, to brig hten.

”

8 . Adjectives are derived fromnouns inthe following manneradjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y ;as, from Health , healthy wealth , wealthy ; mig ht,mig hty,

”dzc .M l,

Adjectives denoting the matter outof which anyare derived from nouns by adding on; as, fromwood, wooden; wool , wool len,

”c .

Ad'

ectives denoti abundance are derived fromnouns by adding as, from oy, joyful ; aimsinful ; fruit, fruitful ,

”dzc .

Adjectives denoting plenty , butwith some kind of dimitiution,are derived from nouns by adding m e; as, from Lig ht, l ig htsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil , toilsome ,

due .

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding1m as, from Worth , worthless ;

” from “care, care less ; joy,

joyless,”dzc .

Adjectives denoting likenm are derived from nouns by addingIy; as, from Man, manly ; earth , earthly ; court, courtly,

”drc.

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or fromnouns by adding id to them which terminationwhenadded toadjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality ; as,W hite, whitish i. e . somewhatwhite . W henadded tonouns,

it signifi es similitude or tendency to a character ; as, “Child,ch ildish ; thief, thievish .

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding thetermination able ; and those adjectives sig nify capacity ; as,“Answer

, answerable ; to chang e, chang eable.

”

4 . Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes byadding theterminationam ; as, W hite,whiteness ; swift, swifi ness ; some.

times by adding tit or t, and making a smal l chang e tnsome of

the letters as, Long , leng th ; hig h , heig ht.”

5 . Adverbs of qnalitry are derived from adjectives,ly, or chang ing Is into ly , and denote the same quality as theadjectives from which they are derived as, from base,

”comes

basely from “slow, slow ly from

“able , ably .

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174 m ower .

M m downsaam w hh fi vm ; M mg o down.

Di, dis M ai nlandaway .

fl efl w—outz aacvjed ,h thmw out; effi nz fl o flow ounw -dads.”

shutout.“extrao rdinary, beyond what is ordinary

Is , tl t, il . w—( is Gothic, u se . a cave or 00113) ag ing/m . to pourThese whhn wi tives or nouns,verse meaning s“,

pro-ta d, to m wh

traum as-nabs

Rc—ag ainor back ; m rw fl o pc again“rem wmce back.

Retro—backwards ; as, W W, 1M RID5 backwards.

Se—aside, apart; m ad m fl o draw aside .

8a6—under tu M s, to wrtte under, ornb—sig sc

Sublet—undenaambk rgflm q flowing undc .

Sum o or over ; “W e, to write abou t w , to

M M W M wanothu z aam m mmcarryTress—over.

over t” 01 700 , pll. GREEK PREFIXES.

disg ui s ; aabyps-crikmns (Ha

an“M g bo chang e tho

sra—W nu 'y or against; mm , s thing conuury to

RULES OF SYNTAX,

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES INFALSE SYNTAX.

The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX , whichtreats of the ag reementand governmentof words,and of their proper arrang ement ina sentenceSYNTAX consists of two parts, Concord and Gov

emment.CONCORD is the ag reementwhichone word has

withanother, ing ender, person, number, or case.

For the il lustrationof ag reement and g overnment, see pag es52, and 53 .

For the defi nition of a sentence, and the transpositionof its

words and members, see pag es 119, 124 , 128, and 167 .

The principal parts of a simple sentencearethenominative er subject, the verb or attribute, or WQrdthatmakes the affi rmation, and the object, or thingatfected by the actionof the verb ; as, A wise man

g overns his passions .

” Inthis sentence, manis thesubject; g overns, the attribute ; and passions theobject.A PH RASE 18 two or more words rightly put to

g ether, making sometimes apartof a sentence, andsometimes awhole sentence.

ELLIPSIS is the omissionof some .Word or words,inorder toavoid disag reeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas concisely, and withstreng thand eleg ance .

In this recapituladon of the rules, Syntax is nted inacondensed '

form, many of the essential Norsemomitted.

This is a necessary consequence of my g eneral plan, in whichEtymolog y and Syntax , you know are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledg e of Syntax from this work, you mustlook over the whole .

176 an or SYNTAa.

You ma now m ood and parse the fol lowing additional exetcises infase Syvrtax ; and, as you analyz e, endeavor to correct

all the errors without looking atthe Key . I f, incorrecting these

examples, you shmrld be at a loss inassigning the reasone whythe constructions are erroneous, you can re fer to the manneradopted inthe foreg oing pag es .

R U L E l .

The article aor onag rees withnouns inthe sinnumber only; individually or col lective ly ; as,

A star, aneag le, a score , athousand.

”

The definite article the be lon nouns inthehu-

olnumber as, tar, the stars ;

Nora ] Anics disfi nct'

nn in the is sometimes efl'

ected by tbeuse or omnasionof the ardcle e . Il l a ,

“e behaved w itha little reve

rence.

" my meaning is positive . Ba

l

i

;his ,

“He

I

behaved w ithlittle reve

rence,”my meanhg is y rather pnise hperson:

by the httenl w ithhm ,

" I speak dimmutively, and meanto represent them as inconaiderable ;“ M lv bere m s few menw ithhinfi l evidenflymtendto make tbe tnost them.

2 . 7he indefi nite arfi cle some fi mes has the meaning of nery or md r as.“M oust fi ve W in

ge d“ ? thi h, ‘ dosen.

’

was to all the oonntry ear,

“And paaing richw ithfony pounds a year '”

but“A black and white

m l : m .

The nominative case g overns the verb ;learn, thou learnes

'

t, he learns, they learn.

”

B M 1 7 .

The verb mustag ree withitsnominative innumber and person; as, The bird sing s, the birds sbtg ,

thou sing ed ?

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178 news or srnu x .

FALSE SYNTAX .

Him Destroyed,Or wonto whatmay work his utter loss,A l l this will follow soon.

Note — Two substantives, whenthey come to ether, and donotsignify the same th ing , the former mustbe in&e g enitive case .

Virtue,however it may be neg lected thr a time, menare so

constituted as ultimately to acknow ledg e and respect g enuinemerit,

R U L E v" .

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing , are put, by app

osition, inthesame case ; as, Paul, th Joram, theking Solomon, the son Icing of Israel,wrote many proverbs.

”

Nora. Anonnis aometirnes t ins

sheriff has justseiz ed and mldfl val is library—(nucl e us) ow er»

has that g reatly depressed him.

”

FALSE SYNTAX .

We onuhtto love God, he who created and sustains all thing s.

The pronom he inthis m kmcmis im y used inthe nominative case .

Itis the objectof the actionof the transttive verb “love ,

"and pathysitionwith“God ;” the refore itshould be the o tive case, hist, meowto Rule 7 . (Repeatthe Rule , and correctthe to ow ing . )

I saw Jul ietandher brother, they thatyou visited.

They slew Varus, he thatwas mentioned before .

Itwas John, him who preached repentance .

Adams and Jeti'

erson, them who died onthe fourth of July1826 , were both sig ners and the fi rm supporters of the Declarationof Independence .

Aug ustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded JuliusCesar, is variously described by historians.

B UL B VI I I .

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, inthe sing ular number, connected by copulative con

junctions, musthave verbs, nouns, and pronouns,em inthe plural as, Socrates and

they were eminentphilosophers.

”

Nora 1. Wheneachor every relates to two or more nominatives in thesing ular, althou ghconnected by acopulative , the verbmustag ree witheachof them inthe c ular ; as, Every leaf, and eeery tw ig , ¢md every drop of

m m , teens with e .

”

notes or svnru . 179

2. Whenthe sing ularnominative of acomplex sentence ,has another nounitwithamachine , it is customary to put the verb and pronounwithit, in sing ular ; as, Prosperity Withhumility, rendersas

possessor truly amiable The General, also, inconjunctionwiththe ofli.

cers, has apphed for redress.

FALSE SYNTAX .

Coflé e and sug ar g rows inthe West Indies : itis exported inlarg e quantities.

Two sing ular nouns coupled tog ether, form aplural idea. The verb g rowsis improper, because it expresses the actionof bothits nominatives, co ffeeand whichtwo nominatives are connected by the co

'

ve conjunction, and : therefore the verb should be plural, g row ; an then it w ouldag ree withcoffee and sugar, according to Rule 8. (Re tthe Rule . ) Thenounit, as itrepre sents boththe nouns, coffee an su gar,

”onhtalso to

plural, they , ag reeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be writtenthus,Coffee and sugar g row in the West Indies : they are exported inlarg equantities.

”

Time and tide waits for no man.

Patience’

and dil ig ence, like faith , removes mountains.

Life and health is both uncertain.

Wisdom,virtue, happiness, dwel ls with the g oldenmediocrity .

The planetary system, boundless space,andthe immense ocean,affects the mind with sensations of astonishment.Whatsignifi es the counsel and care of preceptors, whenyou

think you have no need of assistance ?Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished.

Why is whiteness and coldness insnow ?Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy

mother ; bind itcontinual ly uponthy heart.P ride and vanity always render its possessor despicable inthe

eyes of the judicious.

There is error and discrepance inthe schemes of the orthos.

pista, which shows the imposs ibil ity of carrying them into effect.

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE .

Every man, woman, and child, were numbered.

Notproper ; for, althoughaad couples thing s tog ether so as to presentthewhole atone view , yet every has acontrary effect it distributes them

,

bring s eachseparatelyand sin

glyunder consideration. Were numbered is

therefore improper. t should e , was numbered,”inthe smgular,acconl

ing to the Note . (Repeat it. )When benignity and g entleness reign inour breasts, every

person and every occurrence are beheld inthe most favorableight.

R U L E I X .

Two or more,

nouns, or nouns and pronouns, inthe sing ular number, connected by (llSJllIlCtlve con

190 scans or sm u .

junctions, must nave verbs, nouns, and pronouns,ag reeing w iththem in the as,

“Ne itherJohnnor James has learnedNon 1. When sing ular pronouus, or anounand pronoun, of different

persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb mustag ree, inthatwhtchis placed nearestto 1t. aa, Thou or l an infault;tc hieme : l, or thou or he, u the author of it.” But itwould be hetter tosay.

‘

Mr l

damto blame or th

obztm "

6m .

nd2 . a isjunctive occurs weenasing ular noun or pronouna a

plural one, the verb must ag ree withthe plural nonnor pmnoun,should placed ncxt to ths verb ; as,

“Neither

Constructions lihe these ought g enerally to bc avoidedFALSE SYNTAX .

Ignorance or neg lig ence have caused this mistake .

The vcrb, Lu s caused, inthis sentence . is im noperly used inthe plural,became itexpresses the action, notofboa, butore imer the one or the other

at}: nominativesm; therefor-e

thit should be 111 the sing ular, M s

l

m sed

nulzu

g

dt w H w1

t£ m1seggee m ignorance or neg lig w ce

'

sg rceab y

A circle or asquare are the same inidea.

Neither whiteness nor redness are inthe porpi'

; ry.

Neither of them are remarkable for precision.

Man13 notsuch amachine as aclock or awatch, which movemerely as they are moved .

When sickness, infi rmity, or reverse of fortune, affectus, thesincerity of friendship is proved.

Man’

s hap mess or misery are, ina g reat measure, put intohis ownhanDespise no infi rmity of mind or body, nor any conditionof

life, for they may be thy ownlot.The prince , as wel l as the people, were blameworthy .

B UL B x .

A collective nounor nounof multitude, conveying unity of idea, g enerally has a verb or pronounag reemg w ithitinthe sing ular, as,

“Themeeting waslarg e, and itheld three hours.

”

Nora Rulel , and 11, are limited intheir application. See pag e s9.

FALSE SYNTAX .

The nationare powerfu l .The fleetwere seensailing up the channel .The church have no power to inflictcorporal punishment.

The flock , andnot the fleece, are, or oug ht to be, the objects'

of the shepherd’s

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182 scans or em u .

JamesHart, his book, boug htAug ustthe 19, 1829.

Note 1 . Itwas the men’s, women’

s, and children’s lotto suffer

g reatcalamities .

This is Pete r’s, John’s, and Andrew

’s occupation.

Note 2 . Th is is Campbel l’s the poet’s production.

The silk was purchased at Brown’s, the mercer’s and haber

dasher’s.

Much wil l depend onthe upil composing frequently .

Much depends onthis ru le being 0 rved.

The measure failed inconsequence of the presidentneg lectingto lay itbefore the council .

nuns xm .

Personal pronouns mustag ree w iththe nouns forwhichthey stand, ing ender and number; as

“Johnwrites, and he w i l l soonwrite wel l .

”

N Y than to t

an? ”fl’

i'

a. Je ffWm

’m m mm aimmmfm’

u'

?as, My friend, you were mistaken.

"See pag es 99 and 100.

FALSE SYNTAX .

Every manwil l be rewarded according to their works .

lncorrecthecanse the pronounu'

does ntag ree’

herwiththe noun man,

" for whichitsalads ; cozsequentll

y

nnhl‘td

l

e

t; gr

v

t

ibl

laipted.

Their shouldhe his ; and thenthe nw nwm ld be of the m wulme’

g en

trhsir

ig t

alar number, ag ree ing v i awn, according to Rule 13 . (Repeat

u 0 .

An orator’

s tong ue should be ag reeable to the ear of theiraudience .

Rebeccatook g oodly raiment, and putthem onJacob .

Take handfu ls of .ashes, and letMoses sprink le ittowardsheaven, inthe sig htof Pharaoh , and itshal l become smal l dust.No one shou ld incur censure for being tender of their repu

tation.

Note . Horace, you was blamed and I think you was worthyof censure .

Witness, where was you standing during the transaction?How far was you from the defendant?

nnL E x u r.

Re lative pronouns ag ree withthe ir antecedents, in

g ender, person, and member ; as,“Thou who loves!

w isdom “I who speak from expenence .

”

Nora. Whenare lative pronounis preceded bytwo mtecedents of dif

ferentg

rwnathe re lative and the verb may ag ree in witheither,not tregard to the sense ; as, “l mnthe man W yonf

’or

sums or sw rn . 188

The meaning of the fi rst ot'

these exo

if we render itthus : “'

I who command

has beenfi xed w itheither of the we

out the sentence ; as,“I

forththe heavens alone ;

FALSE SYNTAX .

Thou who has beenawitness of the fact, canststate it.The whee l kil led another man, which make the sixth which

have losttheir l ives by this means.

Thou g reatFirstCause , leastunderstood !Who all my sense confi ned.

Note, 2d part. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and broug hthim forth outof Ur of the Chaldees .

R U L E x v.

The relative is the nominative case to the verb,whennonominative comes betweenitand the verbas,

“The master who taughtus, was eminent.”

FALSE SYNTAX .

If he wil l not hear his best friend, whom shal l be sentto admonish him.

This is the manwhom,he informed me, was my benefactor.

R U L E X VI .

Whena nominative comes betweenthe relative

and the verb, the relative is g overned by the following verb, or by some other word inits ownmember

of the sentence ; as,“He whom I serve, is eternal.”

Nor : l . W , which, what, the relative that, and their compounds, whomever , whom ever ,

&c. . thoughin the objective case , are always placed before the verb ; as, He whom ye seek, has one hence .

"

2 . Every relative musthave anant ent to whichitre lates. either expressed or implied ; as, Who steals my purse ,

steals trash thatis,hc who .

3. The rouanne whichsoever , whatsoever , and the like , are some

g ently dinded by the interposition of the corresponding nouns ; as, Onwhichside sooner the king casthis eyes,

”Soc.

4 . The pronounwhat 18 sometimes improperly used instead of the con

{3306

20 that; a

};He wouldnotbelieve butwhat I was infault. " Itshould

utthat,"

FALSE SYNTAX .

That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.

Not pm , beeause who ,whichis the object of the actionexpre ssed b

the transittgzr

verb esteem,

" is inthe nominative case . itou ghtto be whom.

184 w a s or sm u .

h the objective z and then itwould be g om ned M ermaid a.

Rule 16 . (Repeatthe E den—end, 1114 w Rule 20.

“193th

the friend whom I sincere ly esteem .

"

They who much is g ivento, will have much to answer for.

From the character of those who you associate with , yourownwil l be estimated.

He is amanwho I reatly respect.Our benefactors andtutors are the persons who we oug ht to

love, and who we oug htto be g rate ful to.

They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at therices of fortune .

he did you walk withWho did you see there ?Who did you g ive the book to ?

B U L B x v" .

Whena re lative pronoun is of the interrogativekind, itrefers to the word or ontaining theanswer to the questionfor its whichsubsequentmust incase w ith e interrog ative ;

is that? Joseph’s Who g ave

you this ? John.

”

Nora. ‘Vhether the hits-moath ready refm to asubsequent or not, isdoubtful ; butitis certainthat subsequentshould sg ree m case with

FALSE SYNTAX.

Who g ave John those books ? Us. Of whom did you buythem ? Of a booksel ler, he who lives inPearlistreet.Who wal ked with you ? My brother and him.

Who wil l accompany me to the country 1 Herand me .

B UL B X V I I I .

Adjectives be long to, and qualify nouns, expressedor understood ; as ,

“He 18 ag ood, as we ll as awise,man.

”

Nor: l . Adjectives fi 'equently beloug to pmnouns : as,

“l am -du rable

H e is industr ious .

”

2 . Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, whichnouns must inmm»her w iththeir adjw fi vm whenof the cardinal kind ; as, “Tensad ; Eightyfathom .

”Butsome anomalous and fig urative expressions form anexcep

fi onto this rule ; as, A fleetof j of ty tail ,” “Two hundred head of cattle .

"

sometimes belong to ve rbs inthe infinitive mood, or to apart

as, To see is pIeasmut.’ To be blind js u fortunate ; Tndio

for our country

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180 .nunz s or smu t .

There are bodies, eachof whichare so small as to be invisible.

Every person, whatever the ir stationmay be, are bound by thelaws of morality andNote 3. Oneither e river was the tree of life.Nadaband Abihu took either of them his censer.

B U L B x x .

as

Active- transitive verbs g overnthe objective caseCesar conquered P ompey ,

” Columbcovered Americafl Truthennoblesher.

”

FALSE SYNTAX .

Ye who were dead, hathhe qu ickened.

Ye. 1nthe nominative ease , is ermneous. because itis the ob'

ofthe aetion ex faced by the transitive verb “hath aned , thshouldh

l

e m intbe ohective ease. Yox wou theu be g ovemed b “hathquickened ,

"magnesbly to Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs (it

tu t case .

Who did they ente rtainso freely 1They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury humor.

cannot re l ishthe simple pleasures of nature.

He and they we know, butwho are ye ?She that is neg l ig ent, reprove sharply .

He invited my brother and l to pay hm. a visit.

Who did they send onthatm ission?They who he has most injured he had the g reatest ream to

love .

B U L B m .

The verb to be may have the same case after itasbefore it; as,

“I am the man,

“I believe itto havebeenthem ; ” “H e 18 the thief .

”

Nor : 1. Whennouns or pronouns nextpreceding and following the verbto be, signify the same thin

g , they are in opposition, and,therefore , in

‘the

came ra“. Rule 2 l is pred icated onthe principle contained infi ule l2 . The ve rb to be is oftenunderstood as, The Lord made me man; He

made him whathe was f thatis,

“The Lord made me to be man; He madehim to be thatwhichhe was .

" “They desired me to call them brethren,j’

i. e . by the name of brethren. Theynamed him John i. e . by the nameof John; or, by the name John: puttm g these two

FALSE SYNTAX .

I know itto be they .

I

they 13 inthe nominative afte r . consequent] ,Rule 21 is violated. They in

inappositionw ithit, therefore they ehouldhe them,thaw inthe ohjecfi ve after tobe , according to Rule 21. (Repeatthe Rule . )

sums or sm u g 187

die composed, it is me .

I would notactthus, if I were him.

Well may you be afraid ; it is him, in’eeu.

Who do you fancy him to to be ?

Whom do mensay that I am ? Whom say e that I am ?If itwas nothim, who do you imag ine itto ve been?

He supposed itwas me ; butyou knew thatitwas him .

R U L E X X I I .

Active- intransitive and passive verbs. the verb to

become, and .other neuter verbs, have the same case

after them as before them, whenbothwords refer

to, and signify the same thing ; as, Tom struts a

soldier Will sneaks ascrivener H e was called

Cesar The g eneralwas saluted emperor Theyhave becomefools.

”

No" 1. Active- intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form,

and g overnthe ohiective case ; as , To dream adream ; To runarace ; To10t the horse ; To dance thewhild : Tofly the kite .

”

2 . Accord ing to ausag e too commonincolloquial style , anag entnotliterally the correct one , is empl

ptyed as the nominative to apassive verb,

whichcauses the verb to be follow by anobjective case withoutthe possibility ofsupplying before itapreposition thus, P itticue was ofi

'

ered a large mm by

the king She was promised them (the jewels) byher mother ; I was

salted aquestion.

"It w ould be better sense , and more ag reeab

le to theidiom ofour Iannag e , to say , A larg e mm was offered to Patticuswere promised to) hem

"A questionwas putto me .

”

3. Some passive verbs are fo rmed by using the participles of compoundactive verbs. To m ile, to wonder , to dream, are intransitive verbs , for whichreasonthey have no ive voice ; but, to m ile on, to wonder at, to dreamof, are compound conve-transitive verbs, and. therefore , admit of a passivevoice ; as.

“He was mailed onby fortune ; The accident is not to be wondered al

There are more thing s inheavenand earth, Horatio,

Thanare dreamed of inyour philowphy .

”

R UL E X X I I I .

A verb in the mfi nitwe mood may be g overnedby averb, noun, adjectwe, p

art1c1ple, or pronounas, Cease to do ev11;

”c allhave our talentto

be improved ;” She 18 ea er to learn They are

preparing to g o Letham do 1t.”

ILLus'rRA

'no s . The on principle of g overnmentreferred to inthisrule , may be thus illustra Inthe sent

‘ence , Cease to do evil,

”the pe

manner inwhichcease is introduced. requ ire: or compels us to put theverb do 1nthe infi nitive mood and, according to the g enius ofour lang uag e ,w e cannotexpress this actof doing , whenthus connected withcease, m anyother mood, unless we chang e the constructionof the sentence . Hence w e

; 88 rpm or em ax.

say,thaterase g overns the mood of the verb do. Similar“marks may beapphed to the w ords taleai, eag er , preparing ,and Lisa, inthe respective e x»amples under the rule . 0Many respectable re fer the government of this mood inva

riably to the pre‘s

sinonto refi xed, whichword thq do not ofm conaider apart of verb. Ether- contend, and withaome plausibiliq, thatthis mood is notg overned by any particular w ord . If w e rejectthe ideaofg overnment, as applied to the verb inthis mood , the fl owing rule, if substituted for the foreg oing , might, perhap , mower all pruned purposes.

R U L E .

A verb ll] the mfi muve mood, refers to somenounor pronoun, as its subjector actor.

Itw srn'

ni ox of the example. unler Rnle XX II I. “To do” refers to

thanunderstood for its ag ent; to be improved"refe r: to talent: to learn,

"

mshe to to they : and to do .

"refers to him.

"

Nor : l . e infi nitive mood absolute stands independentof the restofthe sentence : as, To my“: the tmth, I was infau lt."2 . The infi nitive mood is smnetimes g overned by conjunctions or adverbs é

as, Anobjectso higha: to be invisible He is wise enoughto deceinfl'

The army is aboutto march.

"

B E E R XX IV .

The infi nitive mood, or partof asentence, is fra

quently utas the nominative case to averb, or theanactive- transitive verb ; as, To play is

pleasant; warm cli

doesnotcon

eaas;as e am m m W ,

R UL E XXV.

The verbs whichfollow bid, dare,need,make, see,hear, feel, help, let,

‘

and their participles, are intheinfi nitive mood Withoutthe signto prefi xed ; as, He

bids me come “I dare eng ag e Letme g o

Helpme'

do it,” i. e . to come, to g o, to do it, etc.

He ishearing me recite.

j FALSE SYNTAX.

Bidhim to come .

He durstnotto do itwithoutpermission.

Hear him to read his lesson.

It is the difference inthe ir conduct, whichmakes us to ap

prove the one, and to rejectthe other .

It is better live ona little, thanoutlive aI wishhim notwrestle withhis happinem.

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192 sum or em u .

. Nouns signifying extension, duration,medwithouta g ove rning woi'd as, TheBhe is tenyean old ; My hat inworthtendollan.

" These u s

considered anomalies. See pag e 163.

B E L ]! X X X I I I .

Conjunctions connectnouns and pronouns inthesame case ; as, The master taughther and me towrite ; H e and she are associates.

”

FALSE SYNTAX.

My brother andhim are grammarians.

You and me enjoy grea privileg es .

H im and I went to the city in company but Johnand himreturned w ithoutme .

Betweenyou and I there is a greatd isparity of years.

m m x x x " .

Conjunctions g eneral ly connect verbs of likemoods and tenses ; as,

“If thou sincere ly desire,and earnestly pursue virtue, she will assuredly befound by thee, and prove a richreward.

”

N 1. Who difl'

tmoods and tensas nnected confi nement;xthem wristbe

e

rem

;el wd as, He“ fi ssio

n, butheb

ZdI nothwy.

Q Coanctions implying conting ency or doubt, require the subjuncnve

moodsgfter them z u ,See pag es 135 , 145,

3 . The tions thou unless, w ept, M e and led , g enerallyrequire the m

t

jiihctive good aae r themr

4 . Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature , implying no doubt, no

quire the indientive mood ; n vrce fl cedes .

"

FALSE SYNTAX .

Didhe nottel l me his fau lt, and entreated me to forg ive him ?ng e

regard, and to actdiflbrently, d iscovers abase mind.Note ] . e has g one home, butmay retm'n.

The attorney executed the deed, butwill write no more.

Note 2 . I shal l walk to-day , unless it rains.

If he acquires riches, they w ill corrupthis mind .

B U L B xxxv.

A noun or pronoun fol low ing the conjunctionthan, as, or but, isnominative to averb, or g overnedby averb or preposition, sed or understood ;as, Thou art W iser than I saw nobodybut [I saw]him.

”

Nornl . The m when it is connected w ithm h, m y , or

m i snome fi mes, m ly , ofl ed arem m ; m “ln

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194 em u or runm sss.

“He m mnchafflicted lest yeer f’butwhenwe refer to the presentcen

M . w e ought to use the perj ed tense ; as, “Philmhave made g reat discoveries in the present century He has been

muchatilicted this year ;" “an read the president

'

s m ang e this w eelt g”

We have heard importantnew s this because theco events occurred inthis centnry , this yeer, this week end to-dny, end etill tbere renmimapex

-tot tin- century, eer, week , nnd dey, of whichl epeek.

Mwflhe pe t tense maym lied wherever the acnon

°

incon

of thew iththe preaent time , by the existence either rl w suthor

thou ghit have beenperfi lrmed many centuries butueither the author nos'

mZeJork now remeing the pertbcttenee cihsghtnot

employed. Speekmg’

prieetnin g eneral, we may my,“The have,

ma chined g reat power-z"becenee the g enernl order of the

y

prieetpcull ex ists ; but we m oot properly my ,

“The Druid priestshaveclaimed g reet wers z

"because thatorder isnow extinct. We ought, there

fore, to my, he Druid priest chi-d tpow ers.

"

The follow ing example. may serve calm to illustrate the r use

and tionof the tenees.

“My brotber hes recently beento P'

el’

phie. lt ehould be ,

“w e recently atPhiledelphiaf’ become the adverb

m a ll; refe r. to atime completely t, w ithout any allusionto the presenttime .

“Cherlee is g rowncominlerebryfsince l heve eeenhim the lmttime .

”

Corrected.

“Charlee ha gmwnmince 1 m“Paymentwas at

leng thmade , but no m u mw ard for its bein§ so long postponed .

”Cor

rected,

“for its hcein¢ ben eo g poflponedu“The‘y

were arrived nnbour befoee we reached the city :

"bad arrived.

“The workmenwill complete the build at the fi me I takeorit." Itshould be , w illhm eta-plated the ilding ,

”ac. This curiousiece ot

‘

workm ship wu preeew ed. nnd dnownto strm geu for mm~e than£117 your. -

“Aac beenpreserved, and beenshown to stran

gers,

"8m.

“I hnd rather write thanbeg z'—“l ooold u ther write thnnbeg .

Onthe morrow , because he would have knownthe catalog whereofPaul wns accmed of the Jew q be looeed him fi '

om his bande. " It httobe,

“becense he m ld km : The liud

manmid, Lord, that I might receive“lfby enymeane l might

attainnnto the mm rre ctionol'

the deed .

"ln boththeee exam ee,

would be pre fernhle to eu'

g kl .

“ l fenred that l should beve lost pencebefore I arrived that I should lace .

"Itwould have afforded me no

ntisfi ction, if I could perform it." Itought to be , if I could have performed it;

"or, Itwould qford me no sntisfnctionfi f l cotld pcr one it.” “This

dedicationmay serve for almostany book thathas, is, or be published :'

thatha: been, or will be published .

”

4 . In order to employ the two tenses of the infi nitive moodw ithpropriety, particu lar attentionshou ld be paid to the meaningof whatwe express .

Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, oughtto be fol lowed by the PRESENT tense of the Iryim

’

fi ocmood.

“Lestweek I intended to ba c co-id ea, is improper. The inten

w riting was thenpresentw ithme : and, therefore , the construction shouldbe ,

‘j I intended lo write .

" The follow ing examples are also inaccurate l

found him bette r thanI expected to have found him My purpose was

after s

find ing tenmonthsmore incommerce , to have withdrawnmy wealth

to anot r country . They shouldbe ,expe cted to fi ad him

“d !“my“faith.

"

“This is a book whichproves itself .

”bs vrittenby the pemonwhost

mass m u x . 105

name ithears . Itoughtto be“whichproves itself tohave bum written Sec.

To see him w ould have afforded me pleasure allmy lile . Corrected To

have seenh11n or. To see him wonid «f ord 111e pleasure , &c Thear

%11nents w ere su fi icient to have satisfi ed all who heard them w ere

1111 wentto satisfy . H istory painte rs would have found itdltiicultto haveinvented sucha species of be ing s z

'

to invent suchaspecies.

”

5 . General and immutable truths oug htto be expressed inthepresenttense .

Instead of saying ,

“H e did not know thateightand twenty were equal totw enty and eiflht; The preacher said very

o

audibl , that whatever as:useful, was g My opponentw ould notbe lieve, t tvirtue was always

advantag eous; The constr uctions sho uld be ,are equal to twenty ;

"

whatever is useful, is g ood ; virtue is always advantag eous.

"

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROM ISCUOUSLYARRANGED.

W e adore the D ivine Be ing , he who is from eternity to eternity .

Onthese causes depend all the happiness or misery whichex istamong men.

The enemies who we have mostto fear, are those of our ownhearts .

Is itme or him who you requested to g o ?

Thoughg reathas beenhis disobedience andhis fol ly, yetifhesincerely acknow ledg es his misconduct, he shal l be forg iven.

There were ,linthe metropol is, muchto amuse them.

By exercising of our memories, they are improved.

The property of my friend, I meanhis books and furniture,were whol ly consumed.

Amuence might g ive us respect inthe eyes of the vulg ar, butw i l l not recommend us to the w ise and g oodThe cares of this world, they oftenchok

'

e the g rowthof virtue .

They thathonor me, I w i l l honor ; and them thatdespise me,“shal l be l ightly esteemed.

I intended to have cal led lastweek, butcould not.The fi elds look freshly and g ayly since the rain.

The book is printed very neat, and onfi ne wove paper.

I have recently beeninWashing ton, where I have seenGen.

Andrew Jackson,he who is now president.Take the two fi rst, and, if you please, the three last.The Chinese wal l is thi rty foothigh.

It is anunionsupported by anhypothesis, merely .

I have saw him who you wrote to ; andhe wouldhave cameback withme

, if he could.

Not one infifty of those who cal l themse lves de ists, understandthe nature of the re l ig ionwhichthey reject.If thou studiestdil ig ently, thou w ill become learned.

Educationis notattended to props .. ly'

1nSpain.

196 u m m u .

He khow’d itwas his duty andhe ought, therefme , to do it.

He has l ittle more of the g reatmanbes ides the title .

R ichard acted very independentonthe occasion.

We have done no more thanitwas our duty to have done .

The time of my friend entering onbusiness, soonarrived.

His speechis the momperfectspec imenI ever saw .

Cal umny and detractionare sparks which, if you donotblowthey w i l l g o outof themse lves .

Those two authors have eachof them the i r merit.Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense ,L ies inthree words, health, peace , and competence .

A g loatmass of rocks throwntog ether by the hand of naturew ithw i ldness and confus ion, strike the m ind w ithmore g randeur,than if they were adjusted to one another withthe accuratestsymmetry .

A lampoonor asatire do notcarry inthem robbery ormurder.

The side A ,w iththe sides B and C, compose the trian le .

If some persons opportunities were never so favorabIe, theywou ld be too indolentto improve .

It is reported thatthe g overnor w i l l come here to-morrow.

Beauty and innocence should he never separated.

Extravag ance and lhlly may reduce you to asituationwhere

you w i l l have muchto fear and l ittle to hope .

Not one infi fty of our modern infi dels are thoroughly versedinthe i r know ledg e of the Scriptures.

Vi rtueandmutual confi dence is the soul of friendship. Wherethese are wanting , disg ustor hatred ofi enfol low l ittle differences.Anarmy presentapainful sig htto a fee l ing mind.

To do g ood to them thathate us, and, onno occas ion, to seek

reveng e, is the duty of achristian.

The pol ite, accompl ished l ibertine, is butm iserable am idstallhis pleasures : the rude inhabitantof Lapland ishappier thanhim.

There are principles inman, whichever have, and ever w i l l ,incl ine himto offend.

This is one of the duties whichrequ ires g reatcircumspection.They thathonor me, them w i l l I honor.

Every churchand secthave Opinions pecu l iar to themse lves .

Pericles g ained suchanascendantover the m inds of the Atbonians, thathe m ig ht be said to attaina monarehical power in

kAthens .

4‘ Thou, Lord, whohathperm itted afflictionto come uponus, shalldel iver us from itindue time .

Thatw riter has g ivenus anaccountof the manner inwhichChristianityhas formerly beenpropag ated among the heathens.

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198 came“. sausaxs.

“Richard Themmate mode of suppl ing the ellipses inthese constructions, will showimpropriety : than, He was more beloved as Ciuthio

more active as his companion,"Sec.

4 . Adverbs, as illustrated onpag e 85, are rally substitutes for two or

mo re words belong ing to other’fnrts of Will onaccompany me

to Europe nextsummer ? es.

" Do you believe at the voyag e w illrestore your health7

" No.

"InM oe examples, the adverbs yes and so,

are substitutes for whole sentences, and, there fore , do notqualify any w ordsunderstood . Yes. inthis instance, literally means, I v ill aeeonpony you toEm seatssm n”

snd uo,

“I do uotbotieee'

thatthe ooya e m‘

ltrestors

my health.

” mother adverbs are oftenemployed inasimi manner.” is u impmperly used instead of the adverbfi rst:

“ag ood

deal,"insteod of, - eh, or, s cal deal.

“ma mbo

tion be observed intiie usem m ” . Themay employed hi expressin entity

- the , in exprmsi a

deg ree of the qnaltty ; ss,“8 seha teing r is seldom fimnd f

’ “So atem is se found.

"lntbe following exampleg so should be used in

of m h: “li e is m hanextravagant ng mamthat l cannotassociate withhim t

" I never before saw such trees.

"

The affected nse of cu dinal, insteal of osd insl numbers oughtnotto beimitate-

22k“On pag e forty-j ou

" “Look at pag e nineteeu ;"—forty-flflh,

niscte

8 . Passive ag ents to verbs inthe infinitive mood, should notbe employedasactiveag ents . The following are solecissns : Thishouse to let “Horsesand carriag es to let;

”Con has muchbusiness to perform this session?“

because the ag ents, house, s and carriag es, and business, whichare

really passive, are , socording to these constructions, rendered asactive . Theexpressions should be, This house to be let;

”H orses and carriag es to be

let muchbusinem to be performed .

”

9. Axaxouxr r . Nothing is more to be desired thanW isdom .

” Notliterally correct, for sm

’

sdom is certainly more to bo desired thannothing : bn1;asafig urative expression, it is w ell established and nnez ceptiouablo.

A crowm black bird —alarg e, black—bird.

I saw a y throughthe W indow — I saw ahorsefly

connections in oaraocw mr. 190

“I saw ashipglid ing under full sail throughaspy g lass.” I saw , through

I spy g lass, a8 ip g lidmg under full sail.One may see how the world g oes w ithhalf aneye .

half aneye , how the world g oes.

A g reat stone ,that I happened to fi nd, after a lon search, by the sea

shore , se rved me fo r ananchor .

” This arrang ementof e members and circumstances of this sentence ,

confines the speaker’s searchto the sea shore

whereas , he meant, A larg e stone. which, afte r a long search, I happenedlo fi nd by the sea shore, se rved me for ananchor .

"

I shall only notice those called pe rsonal pronouns.” I shall notice only

those called personal pronouns.

10. Tu rretooY .— Avo itl words whichadd nothing to the sense ; suchas,

Now extant, rcc g ratis, slormnope , cold snow ,aIto! sun, aflowing stream, a

dull blockh wise sag es.

" I am justg oing to g o there I am aboutto g o.

11. Assuamrw s AND Inraorm cnas . I canlearnhim many thinIt ought to be , I canleachhim .

”To learn, is to acqu ire or receive

mation; to teach, means to communicate it.I don'tthink it is so.

"You do think, thatitisnot- so .

E ver , always. I have ever been of this mind .

" I have always been.

Ever and always are not synonymous. E ver refers to one inde fi nite periodof time ; as , ll

'

he eccr become rich always means at all times.

Ex cuse . pardon. The former signifi es to release from anobligationwhichrefe rs to the future : the latter, to forg ive a ne g lect or crime that is pastExcuse me for neg lecting to call yesterday z

"

pardonme .

Remember, recollect. we remember athing whichw e retaininour mind ;w e recollectit, when, thoughhaving g one from the mind, w e have power tocall itback .

Defect, defi ciency . A thing whichis incomplete inany of inparts, is defccls

’

oe atotal absence of the thin" , is adefi ciency .

This subjectwill be resumed inthe appendix to this work.

One may see with

CORR E CTIONS IN ORTH OGR AP H Y .

From amo those words whichare oftenerroneously spelled, the following are selec and correctedaccording to Johnson,and to Cobb

’s Dictionary .

Iscoanscr . Coas ser . Isconaacr . Coaascr .

Abridg ement Abridgment camblet camlet

abscision abscission campliire camphorschievment achievement canvas canvaseadze addice carcass

ag riculturalist ag ricultu rist sentinelancle ankle chaseattornie. attorneys chslybeatobaise baize chameleonbason basin chemistbass chemistrybo inbaz in colic

boose choosebonlt cinwterbuccaneer clinchbnrtben cloak

bye cobbler

m ORTBOGRAI'HY .

W V“

paroxysrn

re infi irce tie-enforce

riband

saddles

se igmor

stanch

honied

indict

volleys

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202 CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY .

Oarnomu lu raorsa.

PHY .

fl atten mlt’rflnMemu id mhe’mldeMountain mddnitnNature nt'tehhrt ber nl'rnurO iilige b blé lje

'

Oblique 6-k '

Of OfO il lleOnly 6010" in“Panther pine

’tur

Parent pl rentPartner pl rd

‘nurPastime ph

'uhtr

Patron ;l t'rhn

Pineen plnah'hrz

Pith pA'A

Plait plé é tPoem pbmePoint platePother paras

:

was?Prelude pd

’ladeProcesa pnb

'

ehProduct pro

’dukt

P pab'

Profi le pro'

flle

PumpionPut

Q uoit

rl plnothed

£3“

25”

rdz’fi m

Routine rdd'téne

Oa-rnoemm .

e and fevermmete

Annunciate

Antipodee

Clandestine

Pam-tormcan.

wi 'ttl'in

mé r’midomddn’tinni 'tshhroné 'fl ibr

6-blljdbb llke’

avGilAne’léVANsilentpl rt

’nhr

Slim

On'rnooaa Imraorne. Peon-muPHY .

Said

Sat

Says

ScamScheduleShutShun;

Spil lane“!SPol

SteelyardStampSfi ntSword

TrebleTowards“why

7Verdun

rep'ti l

rid

rindrinserdz

'

lnres- lawImmerse.

fe’vhm- l '

lwl-ter'nltgjt

ln-nhn'shitehind'

l-arntn’te-

podzlp

-

pl r’ent

l rtsh'é - té kotshhrlsflsum ’

shhnlwks—i Q - rési sh-hr—lr’urkris-tshln'e- tbklin—dé s’tlneko—td

'

jd-tntkdm-

pAn’dé -hm

CEI

rhd'

rodf

slkfi é d ad“ad“do sed

net si t

el se at:

shine shinesked

'ule ted jhle

ehé t shutsense sinceellk sleeksliv

’vhr ull

'vli r

eliwu’fi il slblb'

fdlnot as

? 'nl rdspi nht uphespll‘e

’

spi’

lll

all'yhrdz sté l l‘

ylrdotdmp sumpetbnt etintsword ebrd

sl’nbd sin'hd

rnlre’fi re rné r’t'

bre

fil bill

to M8

(M r tM r

trib’bl treb

'bl

to-wl rdz ’ tb'ti rdz

trdf'fe w ratshuz ’dé (he

’d/evhr’jhr vefl

'

hrevl'zhhr viz yeé r

'

vdl'lam vé l’yumew wé r

yl ye

yes yis

yé é storbé st yé st

yit yet

yd y“yhre yM

yhlJt yddlk

Pnorrotmcen.

l'

g doand

'

fé'vfi r

tl- té r’nite

ln—nhn'slnd'l- fi rnln-tip

’o-deé z1p fli nti r’ é - té k- tshotei s-sum’

shhnlwg

—z il'i - ré

si r- s ri ’rl

kris-tshé -tn’é—tékIAn-da’

tinkb—td—ju

’tfi r

kBm-ofin’

ié - fi m

Onrnoom rar .

ConnoisseurCourteousCc rlt’t

CowanlieeDecrepit

DemonstrateDestidcmtumDiamond‘DiscrepanceDisfranchiseDishonestDisorder

E lectrifyEmaciateExpatiate

ExpiatoryExtem re

FeminineF r uentlGe

e

riluine yGuardianGymnasticHallelujahHospitalHumorousIdea

Ig noramuslnilecorousIrradiateLiteratiMaintenanceMasculine .

Mercantile

CORRECTIONS IN 03m m .

iné r'kln-til

mé 'lé -o- rltemdl-é M l ’shhnmo- z é 'umnash'un- l l

ndmé n- kll’tshhro

ndm'é—nt- tiv

db- etré arc-usdk- tA'vdr’t- tor- ré

ph'é ntAje

pi r- shé - l l’lé -fl

ptt’rhn- l

'

o

pi't

r

r

i- l rd

'

l -6t't é - tit- lun

{H l'lb

'

lst

fé - lds’o t

fil-o- zd(“é - ltu

pll'

jI - riunz

204 comm ons n! armou r .

Nor : l .—W'

henthe words learned,“(asthm a-c. are used“pa id?ial adjecfi veg the terminntioned should g ene rally be pronounced as s seporate syllable ; a ‘fl k lnm -cd man; Tho blac-cd Redeemer z” but whenthey am anployed as verbg the ed is wnm cted in prouunciation; es,

“Helem

'

d his lemon; Tbey are lov’d : l hsve

2 . The eccentof the following words falhontlnse syllables exwened in

cu re sn, inter ested, ia ter est ing , rep a rable , rec og nise , leg is lature ,ob li gato ryfi nm ps ra blmir np a ra blg incx o m ble . lna large

late : suchm fon, rare, the" , their , there, air , cInthe w ords m mfccfi m rcyfl uk the like, thevow el e befom rfu oi

’tenerrm oudy eounz l like shons . Its proper sonnd

syllables ; thus, bJ- il, £64 1.

4 . M y , wind . Whom fl y is- contmsted w ith thy , his , he r, your, it is

pronounced, ml : inall other situations. itis prononncee é ; as,“M ; are]

son, g ive ear to my [ inc] counsel." Whenfi nd ends aline inpoetry , s.nd xs

made to rhyme withd ad , bind , kind , Soc. it is Inonounoed, wind ;other situations, itis pronounced, w ind.

“M God incloudq orhem ldmhi the niud.

”

lsooasscr .

'siv

h’on

pdw bnt'

l -tiv

pro-nhn-d -t

'

shhnpro

-

piod-i‘shun

prav'

e—sl noun)prBV

'H lswab)

ti'ebo

rs'

shhnvtld i rt-mintd

'

ltré - flee or (fie)

pbx- zesi iv

pdz- zesh'fin

prQ- vént'iv

pro-nhn—shl- l 'shhn

pro ish-e- l 'shhnH (noun)

prdfl- si (verb)

rs’shé -orhh'on-tl

etk'rtmtntslk'nb—flzew it-aspeta-pln

'dhs

sin'o-nimtrine-

pl'

rintW it -

pl'

reo-d

M aus

vtr-hl 'tirnvdl»kl

‘nbhwtf’fl- uu

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W8 rsovmcu trsxs.

nu meral . costumer .

MD. Va. Kr . M iss . Cw .

rul r rntrewhl r bwi rebl r [bear] hi re

a. “l'

t m to mtg t

g wlne gb‘ing

Nora. Clever , (ly, u g ly , carious . expect, g u n, reckon, thoughrcct Eng lishwe have , among the commonpeople of New Eng landNew York, aproviucial applicationand meaning . Withthem, aclever man.is one ofag entle and obhg

‘ing disposition; histeed of, amanof disting uishedtalents and profound acqui rementa. P retty and ug ly, they 1 to the diepocil ioa of ape rson, instead of. to his ex ternal appearance.

“iii,

stews,one will oftenhear, I g uru it rains,

"whenthe speaker knows this to be a

fi tct, and,therefore , g uessing is uncalled for.

“I upset I can g o or, I

reckon I can;”instead of,

“ i suppose or prew .

’InNew Eng land, a

cler ywan is ofi eo called aw , inNew York, a priest, end south ofN. is

. ape rson. The last is pre ferable .

saw asoaasnonnew roux.

I be g oin. He lives to hum . I am g oing . He lives athH ese bento hum this two weehs. H e has bm al lwmc thu e

You baddent ought to do it. Yes

l ied oug ht.Taintno better thanhiz z en.

Iz z entthatare line W ritw e ll i I: not that l ine well written7Tiz z entno better thau this ere . It is no better, or, itis notany beb

ter thanthis.

The lieow s be g one to hum , neow , The ‘

com are g ome hmne, and l amd I

’

mer g o inarte r um . g oing after then.

He’ll be here, derights, and bring He will be here , directly, and bringthairn. ours and the irs .

He touch’d the stunwhich I shew H e touched the d onewhichIaltowedhim, andi g uess itmade him sithe , Gerhim. and itmade him sig h, for itwas’

twas cissing hot. l ining hot.Bun, Thanel, and cuta staddle . for Go, Nathaniel, and cutasapling , so

to make alever on. he jestag onete rmake alever of . I was about to g o,g o , daddy. or, intending to g o immediately,hither.

Whem sheHI dumpmy carg square ? Where shall l tmload my carti YonDum

Ogi yeuder . Whats the heft of dcr . Whatis the weig ltl of your loed i

your 1

When ju g ithum from Hafl'

ord'

l Whendid yoard urnfromHargford ?afortnit ag o. You diddent, did ye ? A fortnig htag o . Is itpossible I Did

lu see my Dane l, whose sot

:payou see my m Daniel, who ltac opened

lax-Vernthore l No . Hede g one ore a publichome there ? No . H chad lrfll t there . 0, the pesky criter before I arrived there . 0, the paltryRel:soonbe upastamp.

My friode superb mansion is de

lightfu lly sitewated on a note-era]

mound of considerable hithe . Ithe z

raovmcmu sms. 207

stw ENGLAND . coaarcr sn.

nithergeestinnor jokinabout it; but feeling aboutit; but, by permitting

itthey d pe rmit me to g ive em my me to g ive them my viewof the subj ect,idez e , they

’d ohlee fl e me . So I par they would oblig e me . So , I persever

severed, and carried my pinto . ed, and g ainedmypoint. Indeed ! Are

don’

tsay so . Be you from Berkshire ? you from Berkshire 7 I am.

Ibe . Neow I swan! if I aintcleanbeat. I am su rprised .

You baint from the Jerseys, be ye t Are you from New Jersey ? Yes.

Yes . Gosh thenI g uess you kneow ThenI presume you knowhow to tenboow to tend tarveru .

ts rsxs snvsms .

I seenhim .

Yes, I have saw him wunat; andwas before you seed him .

I done my task .

yours ? No, but I be to do it.I be to be there . He know ’d me .

Leave me be, for Ime afear’d.

I never took notice to it.

I wishI haddent did it; howsnm

Have you saw him ?

Have you did

a tavern.

coaaacr sn.

I saw him. Have you seenhim ?Yes, once ; and that was before yousaw him.

I have done my task . Have youdone yours ? No, but I must.I ehall be there ; or, I mustbe there.

He knew me .

Letme be , for I am afraid. O

I never took notice of it: or, betterus

,I never noticed it.

I w ishI had notdone it: however , Iever, I dontkeer : they cantskeerme . disreg ard them. The

ycannotscareme

Give me them there books.

H e ortto g o ; so he ort.

No he orten.

Dontscroug e me .

I diddent g o to do it.Aintthata g ood hand write

Nan? I know’dwhathe meant, buI never leton.

Itis a long mile to town. Ah! Ithought

'twas unle ashortmile .

111133 .

Not here the day ; he went till

Pittsburg .

Letus be after'

raing awee bit.Where did youhis it?

Mn. Vs . Kr . onM ISS.

Carry the horse to water.

Tote the wood to the river.

Have you fochtthe water ?

I’ve made 200 bushels of cornthis

year.

He has runag ainstasnag .

Is thatyour plunder, stran r ?

He w ill sooncome of that bit.

I war thar. and I seenhis boatwascadaad too heavy .

What you 0

Hese inco outwithme .

Did you g etshot of your tobaeca?

Whohoped you to sell itt

Give me those boo 9 .

He ou g htto g o, really .

H e ou g htnot.Don’

tcrowd me .

I did notintend to do it.Is not thatbeautiful writing 7t at7 I knew whathe meant, but

I keptthatto myself .

Itis a little over amile to town. Ah!I supposed itto be less thanamile .

coaancr en.

H e'

is nothere to-day . H e wenttoPittsburg .

Letus parse alittle.

Where did you lose it?coaascrrD.

Lead the horse to water ; or, waterthe horse .

Carry the w ood to the river .

Have you fetched , or brought, thewater 1

I have raised 200 bushels of cornthis year.

He has g ot into difliculty .

Is thatyour bag g ag e, sir 7H e w ill soonovercome, or g et rid of,

thathabit.I was there, and I saw thathis boat

was too heavily laden, or loaded.

Where are you g oing IH e is inpartnership w ithme.

Did you g etrid, or dispose o', y our

tobacco 7

Who helped you to sell it?

208 ransom .

P R OSODY .

Pnosomr treats of the modulations of the voiceaccording to the usag es of the lang uag e we Speak,and the sentiments we w ishto express : hence, inits mostextensive sense, itcomprises all the laws ofe locution.

Prosody is commonly divided into two parts : thefi rst teaches the true pronunciationof words, comprising accent, quan and toneand the second, theAccent. Accent is the laying of apecul iar stress of the voice

Q ma particu lar letter or sy l lable inaword, thatitmay be betterheard thanthe rest, or d istingu ished from them ; as, inthe wordpastime, the stress of the voice must be onthe letter 14, and thesecond sy l lable , same, whichsy l lable takes the accent.Every word of more syl lables thanone , has one accented syl

lable . For the sake of euphony or d istinctness ina long word ,we fre quently g ive asecondary accentto another syl lable besidesthe one whichtakes the principal accent; as,aban’donmg .

Quantity . The quantity of a sy l lable is that time whichisoccupied inpronouncing it. It is considered as long or short.A vowel or sy l lable is long, whenthe accent is onthe vowe l

whichcauses itto be slowly joined inpronunciationw iththe follow ing letters ; as, Fal l , bale, mood, house , feature .

”

A sy l lable is short, whenthe accentis onthe consonant; whichcauses the vowe l to be qu ick ly joined to the succeed ing letter ;as, am, bonnet, hunger.

”

A long sy l lable general ly requ ires double the time of a shortsue inpronounc ing it; thus, mate” and note” should be pronounced as slowly againas mat” and not. ”

Emphasis . By emphasis is meantastronger and ful ler soundof the voice, by whichwe distingu ishsome word or words onwhichwe designto layparticular stress,andto showhow they afl

'

ect

the restof the sentence . Sometimes the emphatic words mustbe

d istingu ished by aparticular tone of voice, as we l l as by agreaterUtress .

Emphasis w ill be more fully explained under the head of Elocution.

Pauscs . Pauses or rests, inspeak ing and read ing, are atotalcessationof the voice during apercepti ble, and, inmany cases, ameasurable space of time .

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210 m om srron.

years of ag e,has sandy hai r, li teyes, thinvisage, withashortnose turned upaboutsix feethig 6m .

”Corrected ; Mr . Jared

B urtonhaving g one to sea, his w ife desires the prayers of thischurch “

thinvisag e, w ithashortnose turned up, aboutsix feethi h, &c .

Tefore one enters uponthe study of punctuation, itis necessaryfor him to understand what is meant by anadjunct, a simple cenlcncc, andacompound ccntcncc.

Anadjunctor impogfcctphm c contains no assertion, or doesnotamountto apropositionor sentence ; as, Therefore stu

dious of praise ;”

inthe pursuitof commerce .

”- For the den.

nitionof asentence, and acompound sentence, turnto page 119.

Whentwo ormore adjuncts are connected w iththe verb inthesame manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, thesentence is compound, and may be resolved into as many simpleones as there are adjuncts ; as, They have sacrificed thei rhealthand fortune, at the tin-inc of vanity, pride, and extravag ance.

”

Butwhenthe adjuncts are 00 a w iththe verb inad ifferentmanner, the sentence is simple ; as, G rass of anexcellentquality, is produced ing reatabundancc inthe northernreg ions of ourcountry .

”

OOM A .

RULE l . The members of a simple sentence shou ld not, ingeneral, be separated by acomma; as,

“Every part of matterswarms withl iving creatures .

”

tions inthevirtue . All fi nery is asignof littleness.

RULE 2 . \Vhenasimple sentence is long, and the nominativeis accornpanied w ithaninseparable adjunctof importance, itmayadmitacommaimmed iately before the verb ; as, The g ood taste

g’

the presentag e, has notal lowed us to neg lectthe cu ltivationofthe Engl ishlanguage Too many of the prctcndcdfriendchipc

of youth, are mere combinations inpleasure.

Ex ercices.—The indulg ence of aharshdisposition is the introductionto

futu re misery . To be mmlly indifferent to or came ra is areal defed

incharacter . The intermixmre of evil in society serves to exercisethe suffering g races and virtues of the g ood .

' RULE 3 . ‘Vhen‘

the connex ionof the d ifferentparts of a sim

ple sentence , is interrupted by anadjunctof importance, the adjunctmust be d istinguished by acomma before and after it; as.

His work is, inmany respects, very impe rfect. It is, therefore,not muchapproved .

”But whenthese interruptions are slight

m ercarrotv. 21l

and unimportant, it is better to omit the comma; as,“Flattery

is certainly pernicious“There is surely apleasure inbenefi

cencefi’

Ensu ring — Charity like the sunbrightens all its objects . G entleness isintruththe atavenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your failings.

Humility aufi npwledg e w ithpoor apparel excel pride and ignorance nu er

costl attire . The best men often experience disappointments. Advice

should no seasonably administe red. No assumed behavior canalwayshidethe real character.

RULE 4 . The nominative case independent, and nouns inappositionwhenaccompanied w ithadjuncts, mustbe d istinguishedoy commas ; as,

“My son, give me'

thy heart;” “Dear Sir, I

write to express my gratitude for your many k indnesses“I am

obl iged to you, my friends, for your many favors“Paul, the

apostlc,ofthe Gentiles, was eminentforhis z eal and knowledgeThe butterfly, child of the summer, flutters inthe sun.

”

But if two nouns inappositionare unattended w ithadjuncts, orif they form only aproper name, they should notbe separated ;as, Paul the apostle, sufi

'

ered martyrdom The statesmanIqfl

'

erson, wrote the declarationof Independence .

Ex orcisa .— Lord thou hast been our dwelling place inall g enerations.

Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. Canstthou expect

thou betrayer of innocence to escape the band of veno eance‘l Deaththe

kin of te rrors chose aprime m inister. Hope the balm of life soothe us

umlger eve misfortune . Confucius the g reatChinese philosopher was emi

uently as well as wise . The patriarchJosepb is anillustrious exampleof true piety .

RULE 5 . The nominative case absolute and the infinitive moodabsolute w iththe ir adjuncts, a participle w ithwords depend ingonit, and, general ly, any imperfectphrase whichmay be resolv

into a simple sentence, mustbe separated from the rest of thesentence by commas ; as, H is father dying ,he succeeded to theestate To confess the truth, I was infault The k ing, approving thc plan, put it inexecution “He, having fi nished hisacademical co urse,has returned home, toprosecutehis professionalstudies .

”

E z erci: ec.— Peace of mind be in secured w e may smile at' misfortune.

To enjoy presentpleasure he sacri ed his future ease and reputation. ll istalents f or med for g reat enterprises could notfail of rendering him conspicuous. The pathof piety and virtue pursue dw itha fi rm and constantspiritwill assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family assem~

bled under the eye of one commonFather.

RULE 6 . A compound sentence mustbe resolved into simpleones by placing commas betweenits members ; as, The decay,the waste , and the d issolutionof aplant, may affect our spirits,and suggestatrainof serious reflections.

”

212 m m artos .

Th ree or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs,connec ted by conjunct ions, expressed or understood , must be separated by commas ; as, The husband, w i fe,"

l and childrend‘suf

feted extreme ly Ina letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort,request, and discuss Dav id was a brave , w ise, and pious manA man , fea ring , se rving , and loving his Creator, l ives for a noblepurpose Success g enera l ly depends on ac ting pruden tly, stead .

ily, and v ig orous ly, in what we undertake .

”

Two or more nouns, verbs, adjec ti ves, pa rtic iples, or adverbs,occurri ng in the same const ruc tion , w i th thei r conjunc tions understood , mnst be separated by commas ; as, Reason , vi rtue, nuswe r one g rea t a im Vi rtue supports in adversity

,mode ra tes in

prospe ri ty Pla in , honest truth , needs no arti fi c ia l coveringWe a re fearful ly, wonderful ly framed .

”

Bu rden—We have no reamnto ccmnphinof the lot of mannor of themutab ility of the world . Sensuali mntaminates the hmdepresses theunderstanding deadcns the moral ee ling s of the heart degrades manfi '

om his rank increation.

and theSe lf-conce it presumption obctmocy' blast ofmany ayouth.

He inalte rnate ly supported by his hither his and his elder brother.

The manof virtue and honor w ill be trusted relied u n and esteemed .

Consc ious g uilt renders one mean-spirited timomus base. Anuprigh tmind W il l neve r be ataloss to disce rnwhat is just and true level honestand of good report. Habits of read ing writing and think ing are indisrrennble qttalifi cations ofagorxl smdent The gm tbushess of lifie is w beem loyed indo ing

vzmtly loving

lmercy and walking humbly with our Creator .

To ive mm teonnl'y ant piously cemprehendathe whole of our duty .

Iu eur thnhk posse-sions connexions pleasures there are canses of

The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so obvious, as

to render it notalittle surprising, that any writer , pmsesg ingmtl

t

ie leastdegreeof rhetorical taste , should r

'eject it. l am bold to afi rm, itis observed

by every correot recder and speaker : and yensnang e as itmay seem, it isg enerally v iolated b those painters who pum tuate by the ear , and all otherswho are influenced the ir pernicious examMe thus, The head . the heartand the hands, should

7

be constantly and actively employed indoingWhy do notomi t the commawhere the conjunctionis unders I It

would be o ing no greater violence to the principles of elocntion; thus,The head the heart and the hands, should be , u .

"or thus, The head the

heart. and the hands, should be employed ," doc.

’

\Vho does not perce ivethat the latter muse ,

whens the conjunctionis expressed , is as necessary asthe former, where the conjunction is understood ? And, since th is is thecase ,

what fair objectioncanbe made to the following me thod of punctuao

tion! The head , the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and acive ly employed indo ing good She is awoman, gentle , sensible , well.educated . and re ligious.

”

i As aconsider-able pause in pronunc iation is necessary betw eenthe lastnounand the verb,acommaehould be inse rted to deno te it ; butas no pauseis allowable be tweenthe

.last adjec tive and the noun, or be tween the last

adverb and the verb,the comma, insuch instances, is properly omitted ; thus,

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214 PUNCTUATION.

n’ticlcs of temporal felici Truthis fi ir nndconsistent. ntempe

and the vig or of our minds.

RULE 9. Where the verb of asimple member is understood.acomma may, in some instances, be inserted ; as, From law

arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, know.

ledg e .

” But inothers, it is better to omitthe comma; No sta

tionis so hig h, no power so g reat, no character so unblemished, asto exemptmenfrom the attacks of rashness, mal ice, and envy .

”

acompanionbe was severe md u tirical : as afriend captions and dang e rous . if the spring put forthno blosw ms insummer the rewill be no beauty and inautumnno fru it. So if youthbe trifled awa without improvement manhood w ill be contemptible and old ag e miner

-shie.

RULE 10. Whena simple member stands as the objectof apreceding verb, and its verbmay be chang ed into the infi nitivemood, the comma is g eneral ly omitted as, I suppose he is atm t,

”chng ed,

“I suppose him to be atrest.”

Butw nthe verb to be is fo l lowed by averb inthe infi nitivemood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case

to it, the verblobe is g eneral ly separated from the infi nitive byacomma as, The mostobvious remedy is, to withdrawfromaflassociations withbad men The fi rstand mostobvious remedyag ainstthe infection, is, to w ithdraw from allassociations withbadmen.

”

Ex orcism—They believed he was dead. He did notknow that I was theman. I knew she was still alive . The g reatestmisery is to be condemnedby our ownhearts. The g reatest misery thatwe canendure is to be condamned by our ownhearts.

NOTES.

1. Whenaconjunctionis separated by aphrase ormember from the mem~

her to whichitbe long s, suchinterveninegrphmse appears to require acomma

ateachextremity ; as, They setout y, and, before the close of the day,arriv

'

ed atthe destmed'

place .

” This rule ,however, isnotgznerally follow edfound of thee ;

but if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever “But if the partsconnected are not short, acommamay be inserted .

”

2 . Several verbs succeeding eachother inthe infinitive mood, andhavinga commondependance , mav be divided by commas ; as, To relieve theindig ent, to comfort the afflicted , to protectthe innocent, to reward the deservmg , are humane and noble employments. "

3. A remarkable expression, or ashortobservation, somewhatinthe formof a quotation, may be properly marked witha comma; as, Ithurts aman’s pride to sa

, I do notknow Plutarchcalls l , thc cice of slaoes.

”

4 . Whenw e s are placed in oppositionto eac other,or withsome

marked variety, they mustbe distingmshed by acomma; as,

Tho’deep, tclear ; tho’

finds, yetnotdull

Strong , w i trag e ; W i uto’

erfi owing ,full.i‘( ivood men, in this fr-aiLhnperfect state , are oftenfimnd, notonly innnionwith, but inoppositionto, the views and conductof eachother.

"

runcruau on. 215

Sometimes whenthe w ord w ithwhichthe last prepositionag rees, is sin

g le , the commamay be omitte d as, Many states were inalliance with,andunder the protectionof Rome .

”

The same rule and restrictions apply,whentw o ormore nouns refer to the

some preposition; as, H e was composed bothunder the threatening , andat the approach, of a cruel and ling ering death H e was not only theking , but the father of his people .

”

5 . The words,“as, thus, n so , hence , again, fi rst, secondly, formerly,

now , lastl once more , above all:onthe contrary , inthe nextplace , inshort,”

and all 0 er w ords and phrases 01asimilar kind, must venerally be separa~

ted from the contextb acomma; as, Remember thybestfriend formerthe supporter of y infancy ; now, the g uar dian of thy youth He

want; hence, he overvalued riches So, if youthbe trifled away ,

"

8m. Ag ain, w e must,have food and clothing F inally, letus conclude .

The foreg oing rules and examples are suffi cient, itis presumed,to sug g est to the learner, inall ordinary instances, the proper

place for inserting the comma but inapply ing these rules, g reatregard mustbe paid to the leng thandmeaning of the clauses, andthe proportionwhichthey bear to one another.

SE M I C O L ON.

The semicolonis used for dividing a compound sentence intotwo or more parts, not so closely connected as those whichareseparated by acomma, nor yet so l ittle dependantoneachother,as those whichare disting u ished by acolon.

RULE 1 . Whenthe preceding member of the sentence doesnot of itsel f g ive complete sense, but depends on the

.

fol lowingclause, and sometimes whenthe sense of that member would becomplete w ithoutthe concluding one, the semicolonis used as inthe fol low ing examples As the desire of approbation, whenitworks according to reason, improves the amiable partof our species ; so,nothing is more destructive to them,

whenit is g overnedby vanity and fol ly The w ise manishappy, whenhe g ainshisownapprobation; the fool , whenhe g ains the applause of thosearoundhim Straws sw im uponthe surface ; butpearls lie atthe bottom .

”

Ex creiscm— The pathof truthis aplainand safe paththatof falsehood a. rplexing maz e . Heavenis the reg ionof g entleness and friendshiphell offi neness and animosity . As there is aw orldly happiness whichGod per

ce ives to be no other thandisg uised misery as there are worldly honorswhichinhis estimationare reproachso there is aworldly w isdom whichinhis sightis foolishness.

Butall snbsists by elemental strifeAnd passions are the elements of life .

RULE 2 . Whenanexample is introduced to i l lustrate a mileor proposition, the semicolonmay be used before the conjunctionas as inthe fol low ing instance : Prepositions g overnthe objective case ; as, She g ave the book tohim.

”

216 resona tors.

No ra. Ininsmnces like the fo re g ,

ploy the colon, instead of the semico on.

C O L ON.

The Co lon is used to divide a sentence into two or more partsless connected thanthose whichare separated by a semicolon;butnotso independentas separate, distinct sentences .

RULE 1 . Whenamember ofasentence is complete initse l f,but

'

followed by some supplemental remark, or farther i l lustrationof the subject, the colonmay be preparl employed as, Naturefe lther inabi lity to extricate herself rom the consequences of

g u i lt: the g ospe l revealed the plan of divine interpositionandaid.

” Greatworks are performed, not by streng th, butby per.

severance : yonder palace was raised by sing le stones ; yet yousee its heig htand spaciousness .

”

Exocrine—The three g reat enemies to

and idleness vice whichin tu itionwhichfi ll it

income“and disg ust.Whenw e look forward into the year whichis beg innin whatdo we behold there ! All my bmthren

'

mablank to our view a uuknownprecents itself.

RULE 2 . Whenasemicolonhas preceded , or more thanone,and asti l l g reater pause is necessary, inorder to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment, the colonshould be appl ied as,A divine leg islator, uttering his voice fromheaven analmighty

g overnor, stretching forthhis arm to punishor reward informingus of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and ot

indignationand wrathawaiting the wicked : these are the considcreticus whichoverawe the world, whichsupport integ rity, andcheck g u i lt.

”

P E B KO D .

Whenasentence is coulplete, and so independentas notto beconnectedw iththe one whichfollows it,aperiod should be insertedat its close ; as, Fear God. Honor the patr iot.

” Respectvirtue .

”

Inthe use of many of the pauses, there is adiversity of prac

tice among our bestwriters and g rammarians. Compound sen.

tenoes connected by conjunctions, are s ometimes divided by theriod ; as,

“Recreations, thoughthey may be of an innocentrind, requi re steady g overnment to keep them w ithina due andl imited province . But suchas are of anirreg ular and viciousnature, are not to be g overned, but to be banished from everywel l - reg u lated mind.

”

The period should fol low every abbreviated word ; as,“A . D .

N. B . U . S . Va. Md. Viz . Col. M r.

”

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110 vnsmcs‘rton.

Pm theses, however , containing interrog ations orexce

ptionto this ru le ; as,

“lf l g rsnt his request, (in) shall wcure his esteem and attachment.”

AND Q U O TAT I ON.

The Apostrophe 1s used to abbreviate aword, and also to 11ethe possessive

ncase of anoun; as,

“’

,tu for itis, tho,’for thaug k;

0’

cr, for ever,” A man’s poverty .

A Q uotationmarks a sentence takentnthe author’s ownlan.

g uag e ; as, The proper study of mankind ts man.

’

henanauthor represents apersonas speaking , the lang uag eof that pe rsonshould be des ignated by aquotation; as, At mycoming in, he said,

“You and the physicianare come too late .

A quotationcontained withinanother, should be disting u ished bytwo sing le commas , as, Always remember this ancientmaxim‘Know

D I R E CT I ONS F OR U SING CAP ITAL L E TTE R S.

Itis proper to inw ithacapital,1 . The fi rstno of every sentence .

2 . Propernames,thea pellauons ofthe Deity ,&c as,“James,

Cincinnati, the Andes, Iguron; “God, Jehovah, the A lmig hty,the Supreme Be , Providence, the Holy Spirit.

”

3. Adjectives erived from proper names, the titles of books,nouns whichare used as the subjectof discourse, the pronoun1and the interjection0, and every line inpoetry ; as,

“American,Grecian, Eng lish, French; Irving

’s SketchBook, Percival

’

s Po

ems ; I wrtte Hear, O earth

APPENDIX.

VER SI F ICATION.

Pom r 13 the lang uag e of passion, or of enl ivened imag ination.

Vsasmtcarton, tnEng l ish, is the harmonious arrang ementof aparticular number and variety of accented and unaccented sy llables, according to particular laws.

Rants ts the correspondence of the sound of the last syllableht one line, to the sound of the last sy l lable tnanother

, as,O

’er the g lad wate rs of the dark-blue sea,

Our thoughts as boundless and onr souls asj ree .

"

BLANK VERSE consists inpoetical thoughts expressed tnreg ularnumbers, but w ithoutthe correspondence of sound at the end ofthe l ines whichconstitutes rhyme .

Poertou . Fear consist inaparticular arrang ement and connexionof anumber of accented and unaccented sy l lables .

m mme .

They are calledfeet, because itis by the ir aid thatthe voice, asitwere, step: along throughthe verse inameasured pace.

All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables ; and are reducible to eightkinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows

Dissru sau . Tatsrnu su :

A Trochee u A DactyleAnlambus u AnAmphibrachu

A Spondee AnAnapaestu u

A Pyt’

rhic U u A Tribm hu u u

A Trochee has the fi rstsy l lable accented, and the lastunaccented ; as, Hatefi

'

tl, pettishRestless mortals toil for naught.

An Iambus has the fi rst syl lable unaccented, and the lastsecented as, Betray, consist

The seas shal l waste, the skies insmoke decay.

A Dacty le has the fi rst sy l lable accented, and the two latterunaccented as, Laborer, possible

From the low pleasures of this fal lenaatt’

ire.

AnAnapaest has the fi rst two sy l lables unaccented, and thelastaccented as, Centravéne,acquié sce

Atthe close of thé day whenthehamletis still.A Spondee ; as, The pale moon: a Pyrrhic ; as, Onthetall

tree an Amphibrach; as, Dé lightfi il : a Tribrach; as,Numé ri ble.

R H ETOR IC .

GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly.

Rttaroatc teaches us to express them w ithforce and eleg ance .

The former is g enerally confi ned to the correctapplicationof wands incon«rusting sing le sentences. The latte r treats of the roper choice of w ords,I the happie stmethod of constructing sentences, 0 their most adran 0

ms arrang ement informing adiscourse , and of the various kinds and n

lies of com osition. The principles of rheto ric are principally b onthose aniol ed and illustrated in the science of mmar. Hence , anac

qnaintance w iththe latter, and , indeed, withthemm arts, is aprerequi

Stte to the study of rhetoric and belles-lettres.

C OM O S IT I ON.

it may be laid downas a maxim of eternal truth, that g oodsense is the foundation of all g ood writing . One who under

stands a subjee‘wel l , w i l l scarce ly write i l l uponit.

Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires inawriter, the unionof g oodsense . and a lively and chaste imag ination. It is, then,her province to teachhim to embellishhis thoughts w itheleg ant and appropriate lang uag e , vivid

and anag reeable variety of expression. Itoughtto be his aim,

To mark the pointwhere sense and dulness meet."

318 vnsmcsrton.

Parentheses,however, conto this rule z as,

“ and who oould refussitI) shall secure his esteem

ar o srno l ' lnt AND Q U O TA T I ON.

The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate aword, and also to markthe possessive case of anoun as,

’

tts , for it is; tho,’for thoug h;

o’

er , for ou r,” A man’s poverty .

A Q uotationmarks a sentence takeninthe author’s own lan

g utge ; as, The proper study of mankind is man.

”

henanauthor represents apersonas speaking , the lang uag eof that personshould be des ig nated by aquotation; as, At mycoming in, he m id,

“You and the physicianare come too late.

A quotationcontained w ithinanother, should be disting uished bytwo sing le commas as, A lways remember this ancientmaxim‘Know

nxu cr l ons F O B ( Jam e CAP I TAL L E TTE RS.

Itis proper to w ithacapital,1 . The fi rstwo of every sentence .

2 . Propernames,theappellations ofthe De ity ,&c. ; as, James,Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron God, Jehovah, the A lmighty,the Supreme Providence,the Holy Spirit.

”

3. Adjectives rived from proper names, the titles of books,nouns whichare used as the subjectof discourse, the pronoun1and the interjectionO, and every line inpoetry ; as, American,Grecian, Eng lish, French; I rving

’s SketchBook, Percival

’s Po

ems ; I write ; Hear, O earth!”

APPENDIX.

VER SIF ICATION.

Pom r is the lang uag e of pass ion, or of enl ivened imag ination.

Vaasmcarton, inEng l ish, is the harmonious arrang ementofaparticular number and variety of accented and unaccented sy l lables, according to particular laws.

Ram s is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllableinone line, to the sound of the lastsy l lable inanother as,

O’er the g lad waters of the dark

;blue sea,

Our thoughts as boundlees and our sou is as

Bu rnt VERSE consists inpoetical thoug hts expremed inreg u larnumbers, but w ithoutthe correspondence of sound at the end '

of

the l ines whichconstitutes rhyme .

POETICAL Fssr consistinaparticu lar arrang ement and conassionof anumber of accented and unaccented sy llables.

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222 ansromc.0

thus, They re turned to the city whence they came . Butwe should becautious of pronin so closely as to g ive ahardness and dryness to the style.

Some leaves must leftto shelter and adornthe fruit.

2 . Particular attentionto the m e of copulation, relatives , and all the pars

tides employed for transitionand connex ion, is rc

pm

’

red . Incompositions of

anelevated character, the relative should g ene ra ly be inserted . Aniujudtcious repetitionofand enfcehles style butwhenenumerating objects whichw e w ishto have a pear as distinct from eachother as poss ible , itmay be

repeated withpeer tar advantag e : thus, Suchamanmay fallaVictim by

pow er ; buttruth, and reason, and liberty ,w ould fall w ithhim .

3. Dispose of tltc Capital word or words inthatpartof the sentence in0M

they will make the moststriking impression.

4 . Cause the members of a sentence to g o onrising intheir importance oneabove another . Inasentence of two members, the long er should g enerallybe the concluding one .

5. Avoid concluding a sentence withanadverb, aproposition, or any into»siderable word , unless itbe cmphalical .6 . t cre taco thing s are compared or contrasted witheachother, arecess

blaace inthe lang uag e and contractionshould be observed.

F IG UR E S OF SP E ECH .

Fig ures of Speechmay be described as that lang uag e whichis prompted e ither by the imag ination, or by the passions . Theyg eneral ly imply some departure from simpl icity of expression;and exhibit ideas inamanner more vivid and impressive, thancould be done by plainlang uag e. Fig ures have beencommonlydivided into two g reatclasses ; Fig ures of Words, and F ig uresof Thoug ht.Fig ures of Words are cal led Tropes , and consist inaword’s

be ing employed to sig nify something that is differentfrom its ori

g inalmeaning so thatby altering the word,we destroy the fi g ure .

Whenw e say of aperson, t

is used inits common, literal sense ; butwhenw e my, be has afi ne tact. fi irwhiting , poetry , or music, w e use the w ord fig uratively .

“A g ood manenjoys comfort inthe midstotadversity ,

” °

m simple lang uag e ; butwhenitis said, To the uprightthere arisethlight indarkness ,

”the mme sentiment

is expressed ina fig urative style , lig ht is put inthe place of comfort,darkness is used to sug g estthe ideaof adversity .

The fol low ing are the most important fi g ures !1 . A METAPHOR is founded onthe resemblance whichone ob.

jectbears‘

to another ; or, it is acomparisoninanabridg ed form .

When I say of some gmat minister, Thathe upholds the amte like apillar whichsupports the w ei htof awhole edifice ,” I fairly make acomparison; butwhenI my of aminister, Thathe is the piaar of state ,

”

the w ord pillar becomes amemher . In the latter comm-notion, the com

parisonbetweenthe minister apillar, is made inthe mind ; butitis expressed withoutany of the words thatdenote 10 in

: vf abound inall writing In the em ptores they may be Eomdmvastvariety . Thus

,our blmsed Lord is called avine, alamb, alion, M

menu s or season. 223

and men, according to their differentdispositions, are styled wolves, sheep,“fi

, serpents, vipers, &.c.

ashing ton Irving , in liking of the deg raded state of the AmericanAbori es who ling er on e bo ers of the “white settlements ,

"em loys

the fo ow ino beautiful metaphor : The proud pillar of the ir independiencehas beenslnatendown, and the whole moralfabric lies inruins .

"

2 . AN ALLEGoaY may be reg arded as ametaphor continued ;or, it is several metaphors so connected tog ether insense, as fre

quently to form akind of parable or fable . Itdiffers from a sin

gle metaphor, inthe same manner thatacluster onthe vine differsmm a sing le g rape .

The following is afi ne example ofanalleg ory, takenfrom the 6othpsalm ;

whereinthe people of Israel are represented under the imag e of avine :Thou hastbroughtavine outofap

t: thou hastcastoutthe heathenandplanted it. Thou

tpreparedstroomhe ore it; and didstcause itto take deep

root, and it fi lled 0 land. The hills w ere covered w iththe shadow of it;and the boughs thereofwere like the g oodly cedars. She sentouther boughsinto the sea, andher branches into the river.

”

3 . A Smarts or COMPARISON is whenthe resemblance betweentwo objects, whether real or imag inary , is expressed inform.

Thus, w e use a simile, whenw e say,“The actions of rinces are like

those g reatrivers, the course of whichevery’

one beholds, attheir spring shave beenseenby few .

" As the mountains are round aboutJerusalem,

so the Lord is round abouthis people .

" The music of Caryl was like thememory of joys that are

(past, pleasant and mournful to the soul.

"Our

Indians are like those wil plants whichthrive best inthe shade, butwhichwither whenexposed to the influence of the sun.

”

The Assyriancame down, like the w olf onthe fold,

Andhis cohorts were g leaming w ithpurple and g old ;And the sheenof their

gp‘ears was like stars onthe sea

Whenthe blue wave to nightly ondeep Galilee .

”

4 . A Marom r is where the cause is putfor the cli'

cot, or the

effectfor the cause the container for the thing contained or

the signfor the thing signi fi ed.

Whenwe say, They read M ilton,"the cause is putfor the efl

'

ect, meaning Milton's works. Gra hairs should be respected ;

" here the effect

is putfor the cause ; meanino y yahaira, old ag e, whichproduces g ray

hairs. Inthe hrase , Thec

ltettle it; the container is substituted for thething contain H e addressed the chair thatis, the personto the chair.

5 . A Smacnocns onConraansnsxon. Whenthe whole isput for a part, or apart for the whole ag enus for aspecies, ora species for a. g enus ; ing eneral , whenany thing less, or anything more, is putfor the precise objectmeant, the fi g ure is cal ledaSynecdoche .

.

Thus, A fleet of twenty sail, instead of, ships. The horse is anobleanimal The dog is afaithful creature here anindividual is put Eor thes

pecies. We sometimes use the head" for the person,and the waves

"for

t e sea. Inlike manner,anattribute maybe putforasubject; as, Youth”fo r the young , the deep

”for the sea.

224 aaz romq,

6 . Paasomrtcu xonor Paosoromau is that fi g ure by whichwe attribute l i fe and actionto inanimate objects . Whenwe say,The g round thirst: for rain,

”or, the earthsmile: w ithplenty

whenwe speak of “ambition’s be ing restless,”or,

“a disease’sbe ing suchexpressions show the faci l ity, w ithwhichthe mind canaccommodate the properties of living creatures to

thing'

s thatare inanimate .

The following are fine examples of this fig ure

straw for- then .M a.Wt m ess I

desert shall rejo ice and blou om3L rose .

”8“ 3

7 . ANAmm oniais anaddress to some person, either absentor dead, as if he were presentand listening to us. The addressis frequently made to a personi fi ed object; as, “Deathis swal.

lowed up in victory . 0 death! where is thy sting ? O g ravewhe re is thy victo ry ?Wee p onthe mch of roaring W indl , O M il of lnictoro : bend thy fair

head ove r the waves, thou faire r than the hostof the hills, whenitmove.inasun-beam atw onove r the silence of m en.

"

8 . Aurt‘rnasw. Comparison is founded onthe resemblance,antithes is, onthe contrastor Opposition, of two objects.

Era-wk .

“ lf you w ishto enrichaatom ,

but to M au i his denim .

"

9. Hvrsasow or Eu ccsu'

rxox consists in magnifyingobject beyond its natural bounds.

“As swifl as the w ind ; aswhite as the snow ; as slow as asnail and the l ike, are ex

travag anthyperboles.

“ l mw their chiefJall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fi r ; hisohie ld, the rising moon; be astonthe ehom uke aclomi ofmistonthe hills.

”

10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is

past, we use the presenttense, and describe itas actual ly passingbefore our eyes.

11 . lm aaooartox . The l iteral use of aninte tion, is toask a question but whenmenare strong ly mov whateverthey wou ld affi rm or deny w ithg reatearnestness, they naturallyput inthe form of aquestion.

Thns'

Balaam expressed himself to Balak : The Lord b notman. thathesho uld lie . nor the eonofman, thathe should re at. Bathtie -aid it? andshall he notdo itt Hathhe spoken it? and £21) he not make itgood t"Bast thonanarm like God i or canstthou thander withavoice like him ?"

12 . Excu nu'

rxons are the effectof strong emotions, suchassurprise , admiration, joy, g rief, and the l ike.

“O that l had inthe w ildemess s lod'

of wajthat l had w ing s like adove t for thenw l fly away , and he at rea!

”

13 . I RON? is express ing ourse lves inamanner'

contrary to our

thoug hts ; notwitha view to dece ive, but to add force to out

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220 m ro m sm om s.

Note.

fw m blsmod ; you were worthy.

—whsro were you 1—hnv fi rm youRuns 14. Whohaetbeen, &e .

—who is the sixththathas losthis ufs by

Who all m sense confluedst: or , did“eonNote. Andwho bm rhted him forthoutfi r.

But : 15. Who shall be sent, ate —This is the manwho, &.c .

Run 16 . Thoy to who. muchis g iven, Gem—with“has. onhe r -whoa I M y respect, &c .

-nhoss,wo oughtto love , to whom, 4~e.

—They who!» conscience, ti e—Withwhom did you walk 1 Whomdid youwe i—To whon dld you the book tRow . 17 . Who gave ohnthose books ? We.

street—My brother andha—She and LRun 18 3 Note 2. Thirty ten.

- twanty feet—onohnndrodfathone.

Note 6 . Ho bonghtapmr of w shooo—pieco of elem furniture —pubof horses—tractof poor land.

at; 7 . Are still more citi es”to be comprehended—most doubtful, orprecarious way, M

— Ths’

s amid e-01sec m m perfectionthanany I, doc.

Runs 19 : Note . Thatsort—these two boun— This kind, dun—He sawmem or m thas w . enter tho g u den.

theNli‘e 2. Better than“n evi—s

'

e so“nulls -he’

s stationmay be,“bound byws.

Note 8. Oneachside , M .—took eaehhis oenser.

Runs 20. Whos did h .—They who. 0 mom—whom luxury.h .

- Hjmand thenwe know ,- Her thatisnag t,mes -my brother

fine, 4-e. Whomdid they send, Gum— Them whomho, &0 .

Run 21. It3 L— lf 1were he .- it ishe . indeed. Whoa do you, dun

Who do menmy, &e .—snd who my ymM —whon do you imag ine it to

1mm boom—hm I : butyou knew thst itwss he .

RULE 95. Bid him cm .—d urstnotdo iL—Hcarhim read , thy - make.

us approve and rejed , 4-e .- bette r to live—thanto outlive , &c .

-to wrestle .

Run: 26 : Note . The taking of pains : or, w ithout taking mine, Gm.

The chang ing of times,— the removin and setting up of king s.

BBL! ‘28 Note 3 . He did me —l ind em itters—he came home —befaflcumy cousin—he would have g one —already d eem—is beg u n—is spoken.

would have cerium—had they written, 4-03.Runs 29 Note 1. It cannot, the refore . be , &c .

—he was notoftenpleas—should never be separated

—We may hve happily , d-e .

UL! 30: Note . I don’

tknow any thing : or . I know nothing , &c .— I did

not see anybody ; or, I saw nobody, &e .—Nothing ever af ecte hex—o nl

hits no shape or semblance axe — There canbe nothing ,os tnor discipline is so forcible as example .

cu : 31. For himself —among themselves .- withwhomhe is, Gee —m i

whom did , Gun— P ram whom did you rece ive instruction?Runs 33. My brother and he . &c.

— You and I, (fi e. H e

he, awn— Betw eenyou and me, doRcu t 34 . And estreatme . (sax—and acting difl

'

erently , ti c.

Note 1. Buthe may retu rn— buthe w ill w rite no more .

Note 2 . Unless it rain.-lf he acquire riches, J-c.

BULK 35 . ThanL—as w ell ashe, thanthey .— but[se .

—butheand L—butthem whohad g one astray .

P romiscuous E m orphs — H im who is from ete rnity , Q’s — depends all thehapplnm — whichex ists , (Se — the enemies whom, 31 .

— Is i t I or he whom

37f. requested Y

— Thmighg reathave boom- «s incerely acknowledg e—There

was, inthe metropolis.- e xercising ou r memories—m as consumed — Aiflu

m e s ay g ive—hut itw illnot—of th. sw orld oftenchoke . Them thathow

m to rm: nm cxsss. 227

onl -and they that despise — I intended to call last week — the fi elds look

{rahand g ay .

— very neatly ,fi nely wovenpaper.—where I saw Gen. Andrewackson. him who — Take the fi rst two,

— last three.— thirty feethig

h—aunion.

— ahypothesis. —I have seenhim to whom you w rote , he w on] havecome back,

or returned .-nnderstands the nature ,

—he rejects.— If thou study,- thou will become — is notproperly attended to.

— He knew— therefore . to

have done iL—thanthe title .— very independently.

—duty to do .—my friend’s

ente ring — is the bestspecimen, or itcomesnearer perfectionthanany . 4 m.

blow them,will g o, die

— Eachof those two author: has his merit—Reasonswhole—lie in.

— strikes the mind,— thanifthe partshad beenadjusted, - withper ect symmetry .

atire does notcarry init.—eomposes the trian

gler —persons' Opportunities

w‘e re even— Ithas been reported .-should never e .

— situationinwhich.—s

'

e

thorouvhly versed inhis.-are the w ith—follows little — Anamiy presents.

—are t e duties of achristian—ha ier thanhe.—alwayshave inclined,and

whichalways w ill incline him to o end — whichrequ ire great— Them thathonor me

,will I.—hae Opinions peculiar to itseUi— that it may he said he

attained monarchical.—hast permitted,— wilt deliver. -was formerly propagated — the measure is,— unw orthy your. -were fa.ithless.— Afler lhad visited .

—nor shall I , consent— Yesterday I intended to walk out, butwas .—malcs

or are thirte en, —leave three .- Ifhe g o,— make the eighthtime thathe will

have visited—1 ’

s nobler.—was possessed , or that ever canbe .—one

edifi ce—smaller onee.

—honesty is.— itto be.

—will follow me,— Icould nothave done —feeling apropensity.

P UNCTUATI ON.

COMMA.

Corrections of the Exercises inPunctuation.

RULE l . Idleness is the tfomenter of all corruptions inthe humanheart. The friend of order as made halfhis way to Virtue. All finery is adgnof littleness.RULE 2 . The indulgence of aharsh disposition, is the introducn'on to

future misery. To be totally indifferentto raise or censure , is a real defectincharacte r. The intermixture of evil in umansociety, serves to exercisethe suffering graces and virtues of the g ood .

RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its 3t . Genfleness is,

in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You,too

,have your fail

ings . H umility and know ledge , w ithpoor apparel, excel(prid

e and ignorance , under costly attire . The bestmen oftenexperience ppointmentsAdvice should be seasonably administered . No assumed behavior canalwayrhide the real character.RULE 4 . Lord , thou hast been our dwelling‘p

la

ce inall generations

Continue, my dear child, to make virtue th chie study. Canst thou ex

pect, thou betrayer of innocence , to escape e hand ofvag aries ? Death,the king of terrors,4chose aprime minister. Hope , the of life, soothsas under every misfortune . Confucius. the great Chinese philosopher, waseminently good , as w ell as wise . The patriarchJosephis an illustriousexample of true piety .

RULE 5. Peace ofmind hein secured ,w e may smile atmisfortune. Toenioy present pleasure , he sacri iced his future ease and reputation. Histalents , formed for tente rprises, could nottail of rendering him conspicuous. The th01piety and virtue . ursued w ithafi rm and constantspirit.willassured lead to happiness. A mankind compose one family, assembled under the eye of one commonFather.

roar to m m orass.

RULE 6.

increation.Self-conce it, mption,and obstinacy.blast the prospectofman s oath.

He ts sltenmmpponed by his father,his uncle , and his elderyhrzither

The manof V irtue and honor, wi.ll be trusted , relied upomand esteemed .

Consc ious guiltwaders one mesnAspirited. timorous, and base . Anuprightmaul w ill never be ats loss to discernwhat is justand true, lovely, honestsnd of g iod

.

Hibits of madiag , writing , and thmkmg , are the indispennble quah ,

ofagood -mdent. Tim ‘bodneu ofljle ig to beemployed m douig ustly. mercy , snd withour God.

the of our duty.To

'

ve soberl

fl. teously, piously , compreh

deg yoflr

perq ptib

nfil'

e lrhing De

l

in; 30? 1m ” m an"

?"I

rm y we to w execute m Anidle, tritl

'

suciety, is near skin tx) snbhss is gopem n beenseriously, sfl

'

ectimtstely admonished, tm vain.

How muchhetter itis to getw isdum thangold. Then-leadships of the world canexist no long er thaninte rest cements them . wis setbefom

loo. They who exc ite envy. w ill easily incur censure .

who is ul' a etrscting spirit, w ill misconstrue the most innocentw ords fi fi t

ttoge ther. Many of the evils which occasionour complamts

‘

Sfthe are wholly imaginary .

The g eutle mind is lihe the smoothstream, whichrefi ects objectinits justpmporfi omand inits fairestcolm

-i . indiatunafl'

é ctefi'

whichspring s from a gentle mind. there is an incomparable clmrm. The Lord,whom l serve , is ete rnil. Thist is the msnwe m yeste rday.

RULE idleness brings fi t and nourishes man he'

d passions.True friend ship will, stall times. a roug h or careless vio r. Healthand peace , s mmlerste foM ne . and s few fi 1eods. sumua the undoubtedarticles ol

'

ternporal fe licity . Tru th is fisir and artless, simple and sincere,uniform and consistent. lntemperance destroys the strength of our bodiessnd the vinor of our minds.RULE As s com ion,he was severe and satirical : ss afriend, cap

tioos snd dsngm os. the spring put fi rflhno hloesmnnin summer therewill be no beauty , snd inautumnmo fruit. So if yoothbe trifi ed a w ithout improvement, manhood W ill be contem lo, and old e ,mixhleRULE 10. They belieq he was d He did not that i wss

the man. I knew she was still alive . The greatest misery is, to be con

l owned hy our ownhearts. The g reatestmisery thatwe canendure , is, to

be condemned by our ownhearts.

ssx tconon.

RULE l . The pathof truthis aplninand safe path; that of falsehood iss perplexing maz e. Heavenis the regionof gentleness and friendship ; he ll,of fi ercen and animosity . As there is a world

liemippiness, which God

pe rceives to be no othe r thandisguised misery ; as te are worldly honors,which, inhis estimation. are a reproach ; so

, there awarldlywhich, inhis sight, is

‘foolishness.

Butall subsists by elemental suj tfe ;And passions are the elements of life .

cow s .

RULE l .