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PRA CTI CA L

FR E N CH G R AMMA RWI T H EXE R OI SE S

AND I LLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES FROMFRENCHAUTHORS

WI LL IAMDWIGHT Y/VH I TNEYCorrespondent of the I nstitute of France Professor of Sanskritand

Oompa'mtwoPhilology and I nstructor in

in Y ale Colbye.

NEWY ORK '

HENRY HOLT AND COMPAN YF.W. Cmsmnn

PREFACE.

TH I S volume is the outcome of the author's experienceas a teacher of French duringmy years in one of the

departmen ts of Yale College. The design had in view init has been to furnish for such classes, and for preparatoryschools (where training in French iscoming tobemore andmore demanded) , a grammarwhich should combine theadvantages of practice and theory in a higher degree thanothers now existing. To this end, the most importantfacts of the language have been grouped and arranged in a

series of Lessons, in an order suggested by practical conven ien ce, each Lesson being accompanied by sufficientExercises. These Lessons constitute the First orPracticalPart of the grammar, which it is ex pected that everylearner of the language will work through. I ts generalplan , while not unlike themethod followed inmany grammars, is so far accordant especially with that of thewidelyused and valued Conversation-Grammar”ofOtto, that itmay fairly be said to be founded upon the latter—thoughnomore than that, since both text and Exercises are en

titely new, and deviations fromthe older plan not onlynumerous, but of much importance. As one exampleamong many, amore systematic course isfollowed in theimportant itemof the learner

’s in troduction to the verbs

all the principal forms are learn ed and practised, on e afteran other, before any complete paradigmisset forth ; and thecommonest and most useful of the irregular verbs are

worked in by degrees, before they are taken up as a body.

iv PREFACE.

I t is believed that themethod here adopted of presen tingmd teaching the irregularverbshasdecided practicaludvantages overany other, and lightens, asmuch as it is possibleto lighten , this heaviest burden in French grammar. In

the Ex ercises, care has been taken not to embarrass thelearnerwith long lists ofwords ofwhich little use is to bemade, but rather tomake himpractise over and over a

more limited and slowly increasing vocabulary.

If, in the case of any class, the Lessons are found too

returning to take up what was omitted, in the course of

that review and reiteration by which alone the desired

degree ofmastery of thematerial can be obtained.Wherean early introduction to reading is especially aimed at,

the Exercisesmaybe reduced to amin imum, and (somuchlike English are French words and construction ) a Readeror a text can be taken up as soon as the auxiliaries, theregularconjugations, and a fewof the commonest irregularverbs are learned. This summary processwill be greatlyaided by the French V ocabulary, in which are to be found,besidesmany of the oftenest used words of the language,nearly all the form-words—the auxiliaries, the articles andpronouns, and the prepositions and con junctions—with fullreferences to the explanations and illustrations of theiruse

that are given in the volume .

The Second Part is to be regarded and used both as a

supplement and as a successor to the First. Resting uponthe basisof theFirst Part (whilenot rejecting the occasionalrepetition , in more proper connection or in fuller form, of

statements theremade) , it gives amore penetrating viewof

the usages of the language, especially of its syntacticalusages. The framework of Lessons, which could only embarrass such a presentation , is discarded in it. That itshould be worked and written through as soon as the FirstPart is despatched, does not at all lie in the author’s plan .

No class should be expected to take it up in that wayuntil

PREFACE .

afterhMring read oonsiderableFrench text aswell, and thusgained some practical familiarity with the facts of the languagewhich the grammarattempts to systematize. Nothing isworse than to try tomake pupils learnmore Frenchgrammar than they learn French. But the practicalknowledge of the language gained in connection with theFirst Part stands in need of frequent reference to the

Second, for the ex planation orfurther elucidation of special

many students the chief use of this Part will be as a book

of referen ce, to be consulted under the guidance of the

teacher. Anotherway to use it with profit is to read withcare the sets of Illustrative Sen tences, noting in connection

with the reading the grammatical poin ts which those illus

French authors of repute, ex emplifyingmost of the usagesofwhich it is the duty of a grammar to take note ; afterdespatching those, with the accompanying explanations of

the volume, one will meet with little in French readingthat will cause grammatical difficulty. The EnglishThemes of this Part give themeans of reaching the sameresult in a difleren t oran additional way and the EnglishV ocabulary will, it is believed, be found full enough, in itsphrasesand rederences, tomake theirrendering in to Frenchfairly easy. Ha s , again , the working through of these

Themeswill be foun d a suficien t grammatical preparationforrendering into French, orwriting in French, in amoregeneral and freer way. A class, finally, that has due

preparation , in age and knowledge, may profitably go

through the whole Second Part, just as it stands.

An attempt has beenmade to lead the way toward thatcomparison of French with Latin which forms a natural

and even a necemary pm't of the more advanced study ofthe former, by directing attention frompoint to point tothe correspondences between the two languages, by settingforth their general relations in a chapter introductory to

vi mason.

form, the I a tin (and other) etymologies of French wordsin the first Vocabulary. The comparative study of the twolanguages cannot, of course, be taken up otherwise than bythe way, while the pupil has his hands full with learningthemodern language itself ; but this task may be made

here put within convenient reach.

The pronunciation of a newlanguage is not a thing thatcan be learned out of a book and byrule ; itmust hs gottenthrough the earof the pupil fromthemouthof the teacher.Y et there is sufiicient consistency in French orthographyto render it possible to hold a pupil, aftersufficient introductory practice, to responsibility for not making too

blundering work of uttering a word that is normally proh ocused, or even of an exceptional one that he hasmetwithbefore. I n order to this, however, distinct statements as

to the facts of pronunciation are required. And they are

of no small value to the teacheralso, unlesshe have en joyedvery exceptional advan tages. I t is partly in view of the

needsof the greatmajority of teachers not French by birthoreducation , that somuch fulness has been given in this

work to the preliminary chapteron pronunciation , and thatall the commonerwords that are exceptionally pronounced(whether they do or do not occur in the Exercises and

Themes) are entered,marked as such, in the Vocabularies.

D ifierent teacherswillmake difierent use of the chapterminstruction , wcording to their various training and habit.I t is behaved, however, that a class of beginnersmay totheir decided advantage be required to learn at the outset

name correctly the orthographicmarks (5 to tellwhena ismute the value of y as double i the chief

rules as to the nasal vowels (46-7, 58, those as to

final consonants (56a , b) ; as to ch (69) ; to gn to ll

PREFACE . vii

(84a, to liquid l (68, to r (73 , 73a ) ; to a pro

nounced as 2 (74a ) ; to ti in endings (77a) and as to the

linking of final consonants (84a , b, The rest

may well be left to oral teaching, one and another rule

being later brought in as found desirable : especially, thepupilwill need further on to note the rules as to the occur

rence ofmute e and 6 and b ( 1 9, 20a , 21 a) , which settle so

many cases of otherwise doubtful orthography.

The grammars ofwhichmost use has been made in the

preparation of this one are that of Mi tzner (of whichthere is a re-working in English, under the name of“French Syntax,

”by Professor J . A . Harrison—a valuablework, especially for teachers) and that of Ploetz. Fromthemhave been taken also a fewof the Illustrative Sentences.

YmOom N twHava n amm

lLE OF CONTENTS.

MW mto pm-en ly.

8 ; division of syllables, 2 ; accents and

vowels, 4—10; of the digraphs or

made, 1 1 -2 ; of the nasal vowels, 1 2—5 ;nanm, 15-25 ; linking or carrying

-cc of

an ,25—8.

sr,mum, etc ; present ofavoir,l of nouns ; preseut of btre.

ive and inclusive senses of the noun pret

tofdo.,

ial andmeasure ; future of do.,

litions ; propernames ; conditional of do.

ives—gender imperative of do.

ives—number, position ;present subjunc

3 of do.

ation of the verbbtre be,re conjugation,strative and interrogative adjectives,ive and indefin ite adjectives,11 numerals

,

als con tinued—months andweekd ays,rverbs ; first conjugation ,

Third regularconjugation ,

XXI I I .

Demonstrative pronouns ; irregular verbsvonlcir.

I nterrogative pronouns ; the 1rregular verb

1 1 7

Relative pronouns ; the irregularverb (1&1mPouessive and indefin ite pronouns ; the ir

regularverballot ,

Imperson al verbs,XXXI . Adverbs fromadjectives; the irregular verb

venir.

XXXI I . V arious adverbs the irregularverbmire ,

Prepositions ; the irregularverb dire,XXXI V . Conjunctions ; the irregularverb sawir.

Irregularverbs ending in ire (1XXXV I . Irregular verbs in aindre etc. and aitre

etc. (1 5 1 66

XXXV I I . Further irregularverbs in re (21 1 71

XXXV I I I . The remain ing irregular verbs in re 1 75

XXXI X. Irregularverbs in it 1 80

The remain ing irregular verbs in it (5 2 1 85

Irregularverbs in air (6 5 1 90

The remain ing irregularverbs in oir, and those

in er ( 72 1 94

1 1mmor I anssunmV enus, AND COMPOUND 1 99-201

Asmvmxoss or Amoss’Nu se Burmese, 202

mne or comm

rmTm: Bun ion or Fumes ro Lune,

Norms, 209-28

Gender, 209-1 8; number,

'

21 8-1 5 ; case-relations,21 5-21 noun used absolutely, 21 5-0; noun withdo, 21 7-8 ; partitive noun , 220 noun with l . 221 .

I I I . 228-82

Definite article, 228—8 ; indefinite, 229-80.

288-4 1

Adjective forms, 288—4 ; agreementwith noun ,284-8 ; place, 286

—7 noun-adjuncts, 289—40.

V . 241 -4

V I . Paosmmswe Pmomu. Ammrvss, 244-08

Personal proncuns, 244—8 ; possessives, 25 1 dc

monstratives, 258 ; interrogatives, 254—5 ; rela

V sase, 268-840

Ueee of the tenses, 264—8 ; usee of the indioativemode, 272 ; uses of the subjunctive, 272—82 ; subjunctive in independen t clauses, 272-8 ; in sub

atentivo clauses, 274—0; in adjective clauses,278-9 ; in adverbial clauses, 280—2 ; uses of the

imperative, 288—4 ; verb and subject,288-9 ; and

predicate noun and adjective, 292—8 and object,294-6 ; and prepositional phrase, with a, 298-800;with do, 801 -2 ; and adverb, 805 ; negative ex

pre sion , 805- 1 1 ; expletive no, 810- 1 1 ; the infin i

tive, 818-82 ; as subject, as predicate ,in apposi

tion , 81 8-5 asobjeet of, ordependen t on , a verb,81 5—25 ; without sign , 81 5-8 ; with de. 820—1 ;with s, 828-5 ; with de or a. 825-8 ; infinitive

as dependent on an adjective, 827-8 ; on a noun,

828-9 ; ometherprepoeifions than de and a, 880-1 ;the present participle, 882

-8 ; the gerund, 888 ;

Anmss,

IX Panrosmoss,k aowuaorross,

x ii ru ns on com

L Noun ueedI L Noun with

Tenses of the verh

XXXI I .

”3 1 .3 0m

Tm finm

{W orm

8.4.5.

ind izimhimns'

ve csm ,

ve or

'

a noun ,

than do or i ,

Voomunrm,

L French English vocabulary,I I . V ocabulary of French proper names,I I I . English

-French vocabulary,

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3 M . (a.

h The nmnes of the days of the week and of the

monthe are not wriwen with capitale in l‘rench.

-na

o. The word for I , namely je, is not written with a

capinl.

4 . Themles as to howa Frenchword is to be diV idcd

into syllables are of much practical importance in their

hearing on themute e ( 1 8) and on the nasal vowelsa. A single consonan t between vowels always belongs

b. Also two consonants, if they are such asmay begina French word, belong to the following vowel.

have r orl as theirfinalmember: theyare br, blfl : v . 8 1 :marl : tr ; vr.

d . Other groups of two consonants are divided, the formerconsonant going to the preceding vowel, the latter to the follow

1t5.vowel : thus, al-ler, bop -per. in-eu,

e. Groups of three ormore consonants followthe same principlea of division : thus, com-bier. per-(In ,

f

are divided, though the h isWW M

5. Three accent-marks are used in French, and consti

tute a part of the necessary written formof Frenchwords. They are the some seem, as inm, or“; the

om ensmn o um 8

my]: scam,as inMit ch ; and the

out the actually acshowdifierences ofofwords otherwise

of

b. I t is just as great s tanit in writingleli

a

‘

reFrench to leave otf an

acceut or towrite awrong accent, “ to ve out a letter or to

c. I n , the accent should always bemen tioned alongwith the vowe to which it

umfiex , and so on.

0. a. The acute accent occurs only on the vowel e.

b.’

l'

he grave occurs almost always on e , but also on u in a

circumflex occurs on all vowels, usually as a s of con

traction , andmthe greatmajorityof cases showing the of an

formerl written after the vowel nowcircumfiex ed : thus, hateforolder (En fits forfeats feast) , hate forcommM iafor isle . isle) , for flutes (Lat.M ) , maitre forman tra master) , center for counter

(Eng. cost) , and so on .

7. The seems is amark placed undera 0(thus, to

give it its soft ors-sound before the vowels a, o, u (whereit would otherwise be pronounced hard, like 16 : 586)the th e»Mon ."an , s

’e

8. The 131mm (Fr. trams) is a double dot, set (assometimes also in English) overa vowel which is to bepronounced separately froma preceding vowel

,not form

ingwith it a diphthong : thus, hair( i.s. ha-ir), oui (i.s. ou-i ) .

a . I t isalsoused on the vowel that follows a“gmif theuis to beW) : thus, ambigui ambigue (where

9. The aros'moms shows

,as in English

,the loss of a

final vowel which has been cut ofi before anothervowelthus, l

’

smi , s' ila. The vowel thus cut ofi is almost always 0

but in a fewcases it isa ( 1 5) or

4 raomcurron . [lo

10. Themm is need, as in English, butmore frsquently and strictly

,between parts of words

,and whole

words regarded as having an especially close connection

with one another. The caseswhere it isrequiredwill be

ACCENT.

1 1 . The actual accent, orstress of voice on one of the

syllables of a word of two ormore syllables, rests inFre nch on the last syllable that is fully pronounced— Le.

that does not have as its vowel amute 0.

Thus, ”mala 'de maladroit’,indubita reconcilier' , reconcilie

'rent, indivisibilite

’.

6. But the stress of voice is very slight. I n general,the syllables of a French word (except those containmg a

mute c) are uttered with equal distinctness and nearly

c. This evenness of utterance, and equal distinctness of vowelsound 11 1 all the syllables of a word , is one of themost

liarities of French pronunciation as compared withand cannot be toomuch insisted on and practised.

12. QUARTE R — There is no strongly-marked distinction of long and short vowels in French, such as there is

in English (andmGerman) . French vowelsare in generalshort

,though sometimes a little prolonged—oftenest be

fore a final pronounced r, and when circumflex ed.

1 3 . A, a—o.When final, or followed at the end of a

word only by a silent consonant orby r, a has very nearlythe full open sound of English a infor orfatherThua ira dm h mmhru rlflt dn n ur

6. Elsewhere, a is a little flattened, like English a in

flat, cap , j ack, only not quite somuch so.

1 6. An 8. has the grave accent in the preposition andthe adverbs a . there (withmost of its ds, but not cola,

that) , and oh, here with its compound on this side ) , tothese we froma verb), In (article and pronoun ) ,

and on (pronoun) ; also in can. ready (and the almost obsoleteji ) . I t often has the circumflex ; but never the acute .

1 7. B, e.

—This vowel has in French a greater varietyof writte n formand of pronunciation than any other

,

being written as e, 6, s, t, and pronounced with amute,

a closer,and an openersound.

1 8.MUTE on SILENT e.—o. A simple e (that is, one

without accent-sign ) standing at the end of a syllable (4 )has the so-called mute” or

“silent” value (0must)

bio, and what sound it has is like that of English a in but

or ltwrt.b. The sound is uite recisely that in English the before a

consonant in real co utterance z thus,“te ll us the name ot

theman.

” Examples are lo,me, de , to-nir, re-gard, re-gar-de,redo-vs , rams-11a , en-ne-mi. I n many situations—especially atthe end of a word ofmore than one syllable, as table. rare,ma.chine, abortive—it is in ordinary utterance entirely silent ; but

still itmakes

hgi

leoretically a s

lycllhable (thus,

bor-ti-ve w counts as s in

Hostry,

be uttered asmuch as any other sy able.

pronunciation ,the up“must first be able to

to the vowel, and t n duly to slight oromitc. The same sound belongs also to the e oi

’

cs at the end of amonosmblammmmtea.m) .the on of the 8d pers. plural of a verb :“ (in fl am m a tion

6 m ore.

d llore

a The e of je, I , when following the verb, 18 00111lsilentmthe samemanner as at the end of a word ofmorc tharyi

thus hoor I ? nounced as if writtensuin-je, am1 7 as if luige ; a i tad I ?as if avnige ;

19. The acute and grave accents, as used on e, are

signs giving it a full pronunciation , where otherwise it

would be mute. No 6 or t is everwritten unlesswith

out the accent the 6 would (by the rules of the preceding paragraph) have itsmute value.

20. o. As between the acute and grave, the generalrule is that the grave iswritten if a next following syllable in the sameword is amute one ; otherwise, the acute .

hrent, pai -fi-m. t6-nb-hrcs.

But to this rule there are some exceptionsb. An 6 remains 1n the future and conditional of a verb having

6 in the infinitive : thus, c6-do-rai, c6-de-rais.

c. A 11 6, and not é, isusually written before g thus, coI~16-cc,

ah-ré-ce .

But the French.Academhas recentlyruled that 6 should standbefore 3 , just as before ot consonants : thus, college, abs

-ego.

d . On the otherhand, biswritten before s at the end of s lowwords : thus, (lbs, tremprbg aMcx prMprogrbamcbs.

There are a fewother special exceptions : thus, on ly 6 is initial, as in d ie-vet : 6 is used in certain individual words, as développcr. 6v6ncmcnt.m6decin .

21 . o. I t is to be noted that the occurrence of twosuccessive mute syllables in the same word is generallyavoided. Thus, no word is ever composed of, or ends

in, twomute syllables ; nor do two often come together

in the middle of a word ; at the beginning they are not

quite so rare (especially when re or do is prefixed to a

verb already beginning with a mute syllable,as venir,

vownns. 7

corsair, devenir, and even redevenir) . And noword everbeginswith amute c.

6. Hence, such words as len menej ete.

“Wm m or (as Bdbl. of a verb) levent,mo

neat, are impomible 'mFrench : and w erever they would occurin the regular processes of word-formation or inflection , the con

cummce of the two mute s llables is avoided by giving a fullpronunciation to the first. is oftenest done byWgrave accent over it : thus, li ve, mi ne, chére , compute,mum- but sometimes doubling the consonant ( if it be 1 orn or 1) instead thus

, (bel-lo) . appelles, sienna, prennent(8d pl , nette, jette .

renounced as if a part of

the final 6 of a verbaccent is the acute thus,

22. The c with acute accent, or 6, has the sound of

English so called “long o,”in day and they, and the like

(yetWitlnut the van ishing sound of “long withwhich

our long usually ends). I t is called the close 6 (e

23 . The cwith grave accen t, ora, has an openersound,nearly like our“short e,

”in ebb

, send , and the like ; and

it even in some cases, especially before a following r,ap

promheeourstill opener sound of e in titers and the like.

I t is called the open 0 (e covert) .24. The cwith circumflex accent

,or 6

,has the open

sound, like a.

a . The s is not, like 6 and a, restricted to situationswhere the

0would otherwise bemute , but it is found (though not often) before a consonan t in the same syllable thus, foret , benbt.

25. An e that is followed by a consonant in the samesyllable (whether that consonantbe pronounced orsilent)is not mute, but has either the closer sound of 6 or the

a . I t has the closersound in the final syllables (with silent conon, ad : thus, citer. chantier. nos, cites. pied.

b. I t has the opener sound before a pronounced r (whether

final or

a . I t is pmnounced as an a would ba before n andmin

fsmme, derivatives, and ad

b. I t is aometimes used after gmerely as a deviee for sh)mthe g is to have its soft sound, being itself not pron

c. The finalmute e of a monosyllable is generally cutoff before a vowel, and replaced by an apostrophe

pronoun Is in the same position , except before another objectpronoun , as envoyez-l

'

y .

The same elision takes place also in juaque : and i1 1mque,puisque. quoique before il, one, on, nu. Further, in 1 fewcompound words, as quelqu

‘un , pmqu

‘

ile, entr'

acte.Mott-(Thai.

d . Foren and emnasah see is.

27. I , i —The vowel i has in French invariably thesound (as regardse quality) of English long a

,

”orof o in

the wordsmoo/1m, p ique.

Thus,

o . The error of ppronouma French 1 anywhere like theEu lish short 1 ofp in , and the like

,must bev care

in y avoided.

b. For i hefore a liquid h see fis; for in and imnasal, 880 50.

28. a . An i foUowed bymute c haa of courseJtsnunciation

,the 6 being the vowel of a succeedingmute syllagl

0

thus, vie, amiss, rient (divided vi-e , a-mi-se, ri-ent) .5. But an i followed in the same syllable b an e notmute, or

by any other vowel (or diphthong) , is utteredve

mere y-prefix to the following sound : thus, ciel,métier,

i 1e (in verse) regarded as forming a se

parste s llable, it is to

losemore or less of its full nautity be ore anothervowel .m mmeug mcndiu t niain ution.

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10 n on summon . [83

d . Forun and umnasal, se0 51 .

34 . Uoften has the circumflex accent : thus, dd,mur, chute,tat,mm. I t never takes the acute ; nor the grave except in on

where (fordistinction fromon or) .35 . A ufollowed b amute e k its own full sound : thus

,

vue,ms. ed unt ( But re any other vowel—namely, a, i, and e notmute—ih the same syllable, it is abbreviatedand ted, becoming nearly like English 10

, while the followingvowel the principal vowel-sound of the syllable. Thus, inwordswhere it isby exception pronounced afterg and q. lingual.linguists. Guise. loquaeeJoquble. equestre ; after other conso

nants (where it retainsmore of the peculiarFrench sound of u) ,Mennni, antrui fi'uit fuite. cuir, nnire, suivre,cant. duel,mus,

38. Y, y.— The sound of y, when it is the vowel of a

syllable,is the same with that of i : thus, y , style, sys

tems, syllabe, physique, Yves.a. The value of i bel to y alsowhen followed in the same

syllable by another vows as in yous , eyes, Y onne. and a fewotherpropernames and foreign words.

3 7. A y between two vowels has the value of doublei,or i i

,one of the i’s belonging to the vowel of the pre

ceding syllable, the other (as a brief y-like prefix : 286)to that of the following syllable.

Thus, eem 1s prouounced as if wr1tten em1-mr appuyer.

us if appuio ier ; envoyer, ae if envoi-ieu'

; and so on .

a . The same value belongs to the y in pays (pronounced as ifwritten psi-in) , and in its derivatives pay-age, payean.

b. A y is not allowed as final, nor in neral beforemute eand, bothmderivation and in inflection , e interchange of i

y , according as final or not, and as a mute e or any fullynounced vowel follows, is very common : thus, joie, jgym ;

c. But y is in some verbs allowed to stand aftern even ore

mute q as euays ; and it is the rule (though rare) a, “

u] vownxs. 1 1

38. There are a fewvery common combinationsoftwovowels (or three), which represent for themost part simple sounds, but which are commonly called diphthongsthey are ai and ei

,an (and can), on (and can), on. and oi.

a. lt is to be noticed that real di thongs] sounds, like thoseEnglishfile, foul, foil, are altoget erwanting in French.

b. As to vowels followed bymute s. we 45 ; as to the vowelgroups, cornpound both in formand in pronunciation , which begin with i and u, see 35.

39. Al and ei — These compounds have no other

sounds than those of s when notmute,orof 6 orb.

c . A.i nced as é :

like 6. especially in the endmgsm. a1t

b. Bi (which is never final) has usually the sound that e (notmute) would have in the same situation . thus, pains,mine.

a. In certain forms of the verbfi ire. do (XXXI I . 8)—namelglthe pres. ppls.M t and those following its analogy, also

unds of fluent and the derivatives N uance and

is pronounced as a silent 0 (but recen tly also as ai) .

d . Fcr ai and ei nasahwith followgg

n ormsee wc , for

theirpronunciation before liquid 1. see40. Au and can are pronounced as 0would be ln the

Thus,mmmmnammbmm mucus.

4 1 . I n has a peculiar sound, nearly like that of English u infur, hurt (or nearly like GermanI t is closer in fen , lieu.peuple. etc ; and opener in lent .jams,

“ angle. etc

a . (Eu.which ismuch less common , is pronounced in the samemanner as en : thus, va n . e nf, bout.mm.

b. I n all parts of the v common verb avoir. have, on is

pmmmced as fi eimph ui thus omens.etc. The same is true 1n a fewwords afterg , where the e is onlywritten in order to prsserve the scft sound of the n e) : thus,

c. In aword cr two occurembefore liquid lmB : written il) ; itis pronounccd like cu: thna o iL eye.

4 . A fter e and g . before liquid ] (written il orill) , in a very

12 momen tum. [fi

iswritten instead of emand ispronounced like one. Foren nasal, with following n , eee 5l

43 . Ou—The combination on is everywhere pro

nounced like English 00, in pool, boon , etc.

Thus, on , oil con, bout. hiboux . coupe. source. courte.jou~

ion . donlonreux .

a . I n a fewwords, on is followed in the same 8 llabls by a

pronounced vowel (not mute e) . I n such a case. followmgvowel has the principal vowel-sound of the syllable, and the on isshortened before it to a sound nearly like that of English w:

thus, oui. ouais. cumbivonac, fimst,mu tter. etc.

43 . Oi—The combination oi.which is extremely common in French, is everywhere pronounced like the Euglish we in was (not with the broader sound of we in

water) .h i. oieeau. toils. ploie. cloth e, Groin. twin.

a . The i is sflent in oignon onton .

44 . a . As to oy as substitute and equivalent ofoi-i, see 37 ;'

as

to oi nasal, with following n orm, see 50d .

b. Until recently, many syllables now written with ai werewritten with oi, and the latter spelling is still occasionallymetwith : thus, 6toia. Ansieis, connoitre, foible, and so on. Theyshould be pronounced aswhen written with ai. I t is still in good

usage towrite oi in roide and its derivativm, but the usual pronunciation is that of raids.

45. As after i (fi n ) and u so also after 6 and the vowel~compounds, amute 6may stand without ( in prose) anydifierence in their pronunciation : thusw crées. ori ent(8d gaie. guise. aisnt (8d pL) ; blocs, blenes ;mone, Ions.

louse. louent (8d pl ) ; oie, crcie. cruise. croient (8d Nth;appuie. a appuient. I n all such cases, the e is vowel

of an add ticanl thus, f6-e. ion-os,

NABAL VOWELB.

46. If a vowel, simple or compound, .

is followed inthe same syllable by n orm, the n ormloses its separatepronunciation , and the vowel itself ismade nasal.

a . A nasal vowel is one that is pronounced partl through themouth and partly through the nose : thatmwhilve thcmouth

1 3

as in thc utterance of an ordinary vnweh thepemge fromthemouth into ths nose is also o so that a

part of the airgoes through the nose an resoun ds there,

giving a twang to the vowel-tone. Beginnersmay help accustomthemselvee to recognize and produce this nasa l

ytwang by

shutting the nostrilswith the fingers, in which case the nasalitybecomes especially loud and conspicuous.

b. In to pronounce the nasal vowels, the fault especially to be av

”

ed 18 the shutting of themouth oorgans after thevowel-sound, so as to end itwith an like an n orrig

-sound.

A habit of so doiqg

if once form,is extremely hard to get rid

of. Better than is is to leave the vowel at first unnasalized,hoping to learn by degrees to give it the right quality.

47. There are in French fournasal vowels, ornasalizedvowel' sounde. They are very nearly those heard in the

English words won , song, away, and sung, or on , p awn ,

pan ,andp H these would be if the n and nq

-sounde

in themwere not separately uttered, but had their nasal

tone as it were absorbed into the vowel itself.48. The nasalized vowel-sound of Englishwon oron

belongs in French to an and am, and to on and em.

a . The same sound is heard, of course, afterthe rsfix ed halfvowel sounds of i, y . etc , in the same syllable : t us, viande.

croyant (pronounced as croi-iant) , patience. orient, pingouin .

But en after i ory has sometimes a difieuent eound ; 809 506.

49. The nasalized vowel-sound of English p oemor

song belongs in French to on and cm.

plongs, annonce. conter.mdsnomfl plomb tember. romps,action and the like.

50. a. The naealized vowel-sound of Englishmay or

pan belongs in French especially to in and in .

b. The same sound belongs to ymand ya, in the fewwords inwhich they occur thus

,thym, nymphs, symbols ; syntax s.

1 4 rnom cun on . [5°

ai and ci with following 11 or111 .

mm :mommd . The oi of oin has not its ordi

wnar

glvalue, but themof it has

the regularnaeal sound of in. to hic the o gives a prefix like a

w. Thus, accointance.

e. Final en after i (or y) . and.

en everywhere after i in theforms of the verbs tsn ir and ven ir, has the sound of in : thus,rich . bien , sien.moyen (pronounced asmoi-ion ) , tiens, viendra .

Many pronounce in the same way final on after6 : thus, enropémmdéen . En and cmare also pronounced as in in a few

and foreign words : thus,Mentor.Memphis, Ben

51 . The uaealized vowel-sound of English may or

pun belongs in French to un , um, and sun.

0.,I n a fewforeign proper names, un has the sound of on

thus, Dunkcrque, Sund.

b. I n reading Latin , andma fewwords taken unchanged fromthe Latin—as album, mus6um, Te-deum, triumvir, alsoin rhum, rum—umis pronounced very nearly as in English, the

52. If the n ormis followed by a vowel, the preceding vowel is of course not nasal, because (4a) the n or

mis not in the same syllable with it.Thus, ten ir. semer. honorer. une. inutile (divided to-nir. ho

no-reu' . i-nu-ti-le. also inhumain , inhabit-6, etc. (the h be

ing eflent, and not counting as a consonant : see

( 1 . But in enivrcr and enorgusillir and their derivatives the 018 nasal.

53 . A lsowhen the n ormis doubled, the precedingvowel is not nasal.

a . But in ennui and its derivatives, in snnoblir. also in cm~manor. andmost otherwords beginning with sum(from01 1the e is nasal.

b. The combination run is also treated as if a double letter, so

oonsonurrs. 1 5

farae concerns the nasalimtion of a prseeding vowel : thus, 0on

54. Othercases of vowelswhich, against the general rule, are

a. The cn of ent in the 3d plural of verbs (the e being here

b. The on ofm isfit . being pronounced as amute 0“8

7

n ormof a final nasal syl

56. GENE RAL Runes—a . Final consonants, eitheroneormore than one, are in general silen t at the end of a

French word.

b. Butfinal a flk and r are usually pronounced.

Thuamamtic bloamturc ; fiefl viz nsuf ; baL cruel,Mosul :

For ex ceptional cases, in which these four finals are silent, orothers than these are pronounced, see under the several lettersfor the pronunciation of a final usually silent upon a followingin itial vowel

,see 84 etc.

a. Oonsonants written double are,as in English

, pro

nounced as single.

Forcertain exceptions, see below, s8e (c) , 620 (g ) , 73 d (r) .

57. B, b.—The letterb is pronounced as in English.

. Final 1) 18 silen t after 111 : thus, plomb : but after a vowel

an

d

a fewcases only,mostly ‘

fore 11 words and proper names) itpronounced : thus, club, radon . Achab. Joab.

. B is silent alsoma fewproper names : thus, Doubs, Defib

10 m ommies . l“

53 . (i. e.—This consonant hae in French, as in Englinin two sounds : awft sound, like s ; and a hard sonnd,

like k.

Auto cl see the next paragraph.

a . 0 is soft before e and i (ur i ), end the compound

consonants, and asfinal—c has its hard sound.

c. A double as single only if the second 1:

above rule z otherwise, 00 is likeh orn : thus,

thus,mm mmmramvmm)c. For the exc of c and (1 11.when 0comes to be followed

by a soft vowel, seef . The 0of second and its derivatives is pronounced like g .

g. A final c is usually pronounced But 1t is silent after

thus, blanc, jonc. vainc ;—also in soms wordsafter r: thus, dmwra marc ;—also in momac, stomad 1 ;coerce. nook ; caontchouc. ind iambber.

58. 0h, oh.— This combination has in French regu

larly and usually the sound of English sh, or ch in machine.

Thua chmsuchaiu chmd chea wchmchouL chc hute,chuintcr ;a . But there aremanywords of foreign origin (chiefly Greek)

in which cli has the sound of k. Thus, alwa before a

nant, as Christ, chr6tien , chronique, chloral.man n er: —but often also before a vowel, as in archange.

b As special irregularities, 0h is silent in almanach ; it isusually pronouucsd as g in drachmc. Forn h, ses 75c.

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18 Paomourl ou. [fl

. A uafterg .when the uis followed by e or i or y. hasusuin likeman ner the ofiice of giving the

wgits hardmund and

is 1tself silent. But uafterg is pronoun when the follo

mih iugge

(sud wtheirderivatives) , and a fewpropernames,

68. The combination gn has in general a peculiarliquid sound

,nearly like English ny in lanyard orm?in

liens. cicosne. réimsne .cran e.

This is in reality a palatal n-sound,madewith the flat of the

ton

gtuhe,instead of its tip, against the fore part of the roof of themo

a . But'ma considerable numberof words, co fromother

and not yet fully naturalized,the g an n are pro

separately, the 3 having its usual hard sound before a

consonant. Some of the commonest of these are : gnome and

all other wordswith initial gn ) , agnat, cognat,magnat,I n a fewwords

,is silent before n : thus, signet, 00m

riésne.01nsnr Rep ari lh gmnl

64. H , h— Thie consonant is not pronounced in

French ; no such sound as the English It should ever beheard in any French word.

0. But there is a considerable number of words in

which an initial h. though now silent, is treated as if it

were still pronounced— namely , by the absence before itof the elision of the carrying-on of afinal consonant

etc. Such an in itial h is called aspirate h,”the

other being called, fordistinction , mute or silen t h.

”

b. The commonest of the words beginning with aspirate h are

as follows :banter

houillo

the otherwordsrelated with these have

d . I nitial aspirate h is generallymarked in the diction arieswith an inverted thus

,

‘

haie,‘héroe. ‘honte, etc ;

is?the samemethod be followed 1n thiswork in the vocabues.

6. The silen t in itial h is treated as if it had no existence, or as if the word actually began with the followingvowel ; the aspirate in itial h is treated like any othercon

.

Thus, l'

homme like l 'ombre . cat home like cat 0mm. son

henre like son euphonie. etc. ; but le hea rd, cc heroe sa harpe,

f. Thewords eui and on e (with onzieme) are treated as iftheybegan with an aspirate 11 : thus, que oui, 10 once.

9. H with eding 0 forms a compound consonant,nounced likemmsh , see 59 above. I n a number ofwelforeign ori it follows other consonan ts, butwithout changingtheir us pronunciation : thus, thee. athéiste. Rhin , rhum,myrrhe. Ph is pronouneed as f : thus, philomphe.

65. J, j . —This consonan t has in French invariablythe sound of English z in azure

,or a in p leasure (the

same as soft 3 :Th“, iii-mm$0. ioie. iotlion . jugs.W66. K , h

— This consonant occurs in French on ly in a

few borrowedwords ; it has the sound of English It .

a . The k-sound is represen ted in Frenchwords by0hardby ch and by qu

67. L, L— This consonant

,exceptwhen liquid, is pro

p ounced in Fren ch as in English.

Thus, la la . lilie. loi. lui , lucre , lamelle. folle. nul, table,

garlic , and before a consonant afteran. en, on in the endings of

a fewotherwords.

68. An 1 following i in the same syllable is generallyliquid

— that is,it is pronounced as a close y.

20 m useums .

a . The sound of Frenchthat of a palatal l. onemade wi the flat of the tongne,of its tip , against the roof of themoutmneafly hke Enghfi lyin steelywrd , or lli in briilswat , and this eound it still has in partsof France ; but the now prevailing and accepted pronunciationhae chmged the ly-soundmto a simple y.

the i before 1 is preceded by another vowel, simple or

compound that vowel has its own sound not fun n

i es

“!com

poundcompo

wuil the i , the latter's sole omce being to s

of the l thus, travait-availler. conseiL

wcon-e

l

i

i

ller,no (after 0 or g ) and (3 before liquid i1 have the sound of en

thus, accueil, orgneil. (ail. But in poil the oi is the usual diphthong, and 1 has its full sound.

a. But final l is silen t after i in a numberof words. The com

gentil. n ice, except.

at the en d of a sen tence orwhen followed bya consonant, when it issilent) .

d . Final 1 has the proper l-sound after i in a numberofwordsthus, il. be, fll. thread , mil, thousand , N il. N ile, v il , civil.

0

] El l |Q

l0 0

] s lto themore usual pronunciation , in oil. avril,nounced alsowith liquid orwith silen t

I n fact, i1 final oxeen

after a vowel 18 liquid onlymthe fewwords given at the mng of this paragraph ; in some of theothers, usage varies.

8. At the beginning of a word, ill xs not liquid . thus,illatif,

illegal, illimité , illog ique.

f. Double 1 after i has the full l-sound also in the interiorand at the end of a number ofwords : thus v ille.thcnwwad , tranquillw u rd

o

distiller, distill, vaciller.

«urinate, pueillanime, memory (withand derivatives) , and a fewothers.

69. I ,m—Except where it makes the precedingvowel nasal, and is itself not pronoun ced (46 etc ),mhasthe same sound in French as in English.

aut umn .

73] consosams. 21

c. Batmis pronounced as n in automne (not in antmal).etc ; also in damner and its compounds and deri vatives.

70. R , n— Except where it makes the preceding

vowel nasal, and is itself not pronounced (46 11 has

the same sound in French as in English.

71 . P, p.—This consonant is in general pronounced

as in English .

Thus, pare. pm.mule, pourpre. pnr.mite. ple-ire. pré.mew . humcoupe

a . Final p is usually silent as drap , trop, conp : also, a pfollowed by another silent final, as t empt, temps, corps. I t is

also silent in sept, seven , and septibme , seventh (not in other

derivatives of sept . as eeptemhre ;in baptame, baptism, and

baptiser, bap tize , in eoraptor, r ,dompter. subdue, ex emp

ter, pron1pter. sculptor, and the words related with these (ex

cape, and in a fewpropernames, as Alep . Forph. seeMy.

72. Q, q.—This consonant is almost always followed

in French, as in English, by u; but in French the uisgenerally silent, and the combination qn has the sound

of k.

a . A hard k-sound before 0 or i cannot be written in Frenchexcept by (In : and hence qu sometimes takes the place of c in

inflection and derivation when 0 or i is added . thus,vainquez,

vainquent , vainquis, fromvaincre ; torque, fromturc; os

dnque, fromcaduc.

b. But in a numberof Frenchwords quhas the same sound as

éqnateur,

c. A final q occurs (save in a very fewproper names) onlymma lvs, and 00

:1), c and is usually nounced as a k , but

it is silen t in coq'

I nde and 1n cinq ore an initial consonant

of a word numbered by it : thus, cinq livres,five books (not in Iscinqmai.May 5th, etc.

73 . B , r.—Thisconsonan t is alwaysmore orlessrolled

22 mommrion .

or trilled in French, and so ismade muchmore distinctthan in ordinary English pronunciation .

M al i a n “

a . A final r is regularly pronounced but it is

usually silent after e in words ofmore than one syllable.

Thus, silent in fier (verb) , aimer,etc ; pronounced in char, fer. fier

before other silent finals, in 01m,

b. Final r is also pronounced aftere in the words ofmore thanone syllable, amer. bitter, can cer, cuiller, spoon , enfer, hell,hiver, center, and a fewmmwords, chiefly proper names

, asmagistes' , Jupiter. Esther. I t is not silent in such wordsbefore another silent final, unless that final be the plural-sign 8

thus, it is pronounced in envere. Anvers. univers, sequin s,

desert, Robert (but0. Final r is silen t inmonsieur.messieurs.d . I n the future and conditional of the verbs courir. run ,mourir, die, querir, ask, and their compounds, the double t isdis

tinctly to be heard as two separate r'

s : thus, courrai,mourrais.

74 . 8, s— This consonan t is in general pronounced

with the sound which it ordinarily has in English (in our

words sense, sister, etc ) .Thus,mmdmmmspmm rmemfimfiuqne.

a . But 3 between two vowels has the sound of our 3 .

Thus, raser, raison , less, misbre, rose, blouse , ruse ; alsodéshonneur (silent h) , déshabiller. etc.

b. 8 has the sound of 2 also in trans before a vowel : thus,transaction , transhumer (h silent) , transitif: also in

and alsaciemand in balsamique zalso in a few other wordswhere followed by a sonant consonant

, as presbytbre . Beademono, demode. and disgrace (according to some authorities) .c. On the other hand, a has its own se cund even between two

vowels, when it is the in itial of the second part of a compound

perusal. 11°m to“.mauver. Dean e ; also 1n the conjugation of céeir (XL . ex

cept the infinitive gésir itself .d . B final is regularly silent (56) ; but it is sounded in amass,

M mo

morala, om bear, sens, scacs (except in senn

commnn ).m men sue) , toustom, all (except when followed by aword which it ts adjectively) , via, screw, alsoma numberofwords ozf unchanged Latin form, as atlas, bic twice, blocus,M omnibus: also inmost foreign proper names, as Romulna,Adon imMcmphin LeeMAndalonn Ladiclu . Gil Blac, and anumberof Freneh ones, as nons,e. 8 in the in terior of a word is usually nounced, even in

puisque. ns-que-pcrfait :but

(which have kept unchanged an

Romy , Dng necclin ,

75 . There are certain consonant compounds contain ing 3 and

a . A double a, or as. is ounced likebut alwayswith the hmg s-sound, never as3 . thus, uses,

blew , diua groeceeee. ponceaese , prnmemvincse .

b.

c. Sch occurs onl in a fewforeign words, and ismostly pronounced as ch woul be (English 8h ) : thus, schisme, cchamane ;hut somefimes hke sh as in

ngscheme aud its related words, echo

76. T, t—This consonant is generally sounded as in

Thu h h irmmm .

a . Final t is regularly aileut but it is pronounced in a

numberof words : namely, after a vowel in ut, do,Ma ude,

chnn huah ! deficit, dot.ydowry,MfOP ,mh dull, net. neat

euhit, sudden (according to many authorities) , transit, an

hnit, eight (ex cept before the initial consonant of a ward nummeat, leet ,baaa a cuilsmut the s and t msnent inmmt mdusually in Jen s-Christ ) , whist. rapt, rape, upkmmfl exexceptbefore an initial consonant of aword numbered by it) and ving t ,twenty, in the numbers 21-29. As to words endin in ct aftervoweh there ismuch difierence of usage ; o ,

c and t are

M etrict ; onl c is pronounced in circoncpect,mpect, dihboth 0 t are silent in aspect . respect . Final t is

further pronounced in a fewunchanged Latin words, asM

24

cording to soma at the eud of a sen tenccfin bnt goah andMd and wt fool , used as nouus.

t e in Engfish, as

b. But where the ti is preceded by s or x (and ti has in Eng»

lish theM aud) , t retains its proper value : thus, question .

mix tion . The same is the cme in chretien

c. Elsewhere, t before i has its ownpropersound : thus,moitie,

parties. contient, portions and parties before the endings

ions and is: of lat and 2d pl. of verbs) , etc.

79. V , v.—This consonant is sounded as in English.

I t neveroccurs asfinal.

Thus, vai n, venir, veuve, vivant, vienne. vol, voir, vrai,

80.W, w.— This consonant occurs only in a very small num

ber of foreign words. I t is usually pronounced like English 0thus, wagon ; but in a word or two rather as English w: thus,whist, whig (the h silent) .

81 . X, x—This consonant is for the most part pro

nounced like ks, as in English.

Thus,sax e. sex e.fix er, box eur, lux e, Alex andre, annex ation .

ex citer, ex cuse, ex perience .

a . I n the initial 8 liable ex before a vowel, it is pronouncedlike 93 : thus, ex al ex emple, ex ister. ex il, ex ode, ex hort er.

ex humerfli silent) ; as also, of course , in the co unds of suchwords, as inex act. Initial x has in most w the same 92sound : thus, x enophon , Xavier. x ylographe. Xerx es is pronounced gaereme .

6. Final x is regularly silent (56a) but it is pronounced, hirea,in the numerals six , aim, and dix , ten (ex cept before an initial

consonant of aword numbered by them) , in di x -oept, seventeen ,Beatrix . 0adix , Aix en Provenoe ; in A ix -la-Chapelle it is pronounced like 16 , also in a fewforeign words, as A)“ Styx .

larynx , index , prefix . I n the compound numerals dix -huit.eighwen , and dix -nenf.m‘mtccn , it is sounded as x .

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96 W ON . i“

in readgg

alond. , and in formal or solemn discourse, agreat (1 more done than in the freedomof conversation. This clw of

'

erences, of course, is onl to be learned bymuch experience. And lin is to be avoi where there is a

pause, whether by a sign of punctuation ornot.

85. a . Some final consonan ts have their own propersound when carried on to the following in itial vowel.

6. But final a and I , when linked, take the sound of z

(1 takes that of t ; and g (rare) takes that of k.

Thee,1mm nom u nt .M OM men

core, m ane ; demhommee, de beamyenx . des cha

c. A final consonant that is not silent has in general the samesound before a vowel as before a consonant : thus, sud-eueet.David etait Adax ent. But six and dix are linked with a fol

lowing numbered noun after the manner of words ending in

silen t x with z) ; and the f of neuf in a like situation hasthe sound of v : thus, six e enfiante, dix j ommes. nenfem Al

so, according tomost authorities, the a of file, jadie. rem, is

linked as z.

88. Special exceptional cases are to be noted as fol

lows :

a . The t of et cmd is never carried on .

b. A final consonant after r (unlemit be the plural sign 0) isaverse to linking : thus

,varsun e henre. hers nu soul, ii no

t ion (bill.0. The final n of a nasal syllable is carried on on] in cases of

close grammatical con nection ; and when the -ou takes

place, the preceding

vowel losesmore or less (sometimes all) ofto nasal tone, whi e retaining the same vowel-quality as in its

nasal utterance : thus, menfint mau l-mi , ce bmhome ,

a“Allwords having an exceptional unciation will bemarked

in the vocabularies belowby a red asterisk : thus.‘dh . Then

the general vocabulary at the of th e volume will glve the necee

mnna, m oans, mo. 27

omen, ARTICLE , mo.

1 . All nouns in French are eithermasculine or femin ine.

For the distinction ofmasculin e and feminine nouns as shownby theirmeaning orb their ending, see Second Part, § 1 3 etc. I n

general, names of e beings aremasculine, and those of femalebeings are feminine the names of things having nosex aremasculine or feminine, for themost part according as theywere so inLatin ; but, the old neuter havingbeen lost, nouns of that genderin Latin have becomemasculine in French.

2. Hence, words qualifying or relating to nouns

as articles, adjectives, pronouns—have also usually a dis

tinction ofmasculine and feminine form, so as to agreein genderwith the nouns to which they belong.

8. There are,as in English, two articles

, the definite

and the indefinite.

4 . The definite article has in the singular a diflerent

formfor each gender: namely, is before a masculinenoun

,and la before a feminine. Examples arelemmfaflwr lemereJIiemaAerumwmle chevalJJte hom h vechq tlemle iivmfie book la den -, theflower

But in the plural there is one formof the article, lee,

for both genders: thus,1. pam, nefaam 1. mam,

themomlee livree, the books lu flours, theflowon

6. Before a word beginning with a vowel (orhmuteW) , is and la both lose their vowel, and take the apostrophe, becoming alike 1' (260, thus

,

l'eml,WM l'amie, the (female)friendPhon e, theman l'heure

, the hour

28 amou r.

8. The indefinite article is iin before a mascnline

anemia-g amete““ ret a king mreinq a quem

une deur, aflower

The indefin ite article has no plural.

7 . The articlesmust always be repeated 1n Frenchbefore every noon to which they belong (that is, an ar

ticlemay not be understood froma noun to a followingnoun

, as it often is in English) : thus,thefatherandmother, 10pics et Inmorea king and queen ,

an roi et une reins

8. The commonest possessives used with nouns are

mon mace , ma fem.,my ; son m.

, as f. , his or her or

its; notrem. f. our; votrem. f. your : thus,

mn irmmymotlm'

mhfimh ’

e orba-book u dm, hzborhorormflmeervotre on to, your ( femalo)fliand

V I BE-WON.

9. The renew -tense of the verb avoirha ve is as follows

j’ai, [ hoes

tn eq tboukad

out,M(m. ) haee

e

Notice that je is notwritten with a cap ital, English I .

b. I n French, as in English , the pronoun of the

me you, is ordinarily used in addressing an

dtn thou. I n the exercises, therefore you sho d aI

ziys be ren

dered with vans (and yourwith votre) ,W

and tn sheonlywhen than is givenmthe English.

10. The same tense in the interrogative formis as

followsei-je, base I ?not e , had than ) eves-vane, have you?at “, has he? oat-us, have they (m. ) le-t-elle, banthe? out-ollee,Mu they (L)?

can ons, anx iou s, are. 29

a. Fmthe pwnnnciation of je in ai-je and the hka eeeue.

after the verb in asking a questionto the verbby a hyphen .

ends in a vowel, a t iseuever it is followed by

Thie t te that of the ad . lo Lettmreeto l-ed in such caeee by analogy withthe verbe thet have ltmmnghouuu u bmve n t-ll.

1 1 . But if the subject of a verb used interrogativelyis a noun, the noun is generally put first, and then a cor

responding pronoun is put after the verb : that is, thesubject isfirst stated, and then the question isasked aboutit bymeans of a pronoun .

Thus, has theman a book ? is not a l’homme un livre?but

l’

homme a-t theman ,has hc a book t) .

a .

VOCABULARY .

10m1.mum,mommle ecusinm. , the ooud n

l'hcmmem. , themanle lin e tlwbookla plume, deepen“mambo

fi n

a nupére et unemere. A-t-il nuchien on

an chat II a nuchien,et nous avons 1mchat. Avez

vous lo livre Oui,

’aimon livre et votre crayon .

‘Monpere a lo papier et la plume.

’ As tu une 36 117 ? ‘J’ai

une smut at an frére. Ont-ils nucousin“I ls out one

cousins cl un e tante . La femme a-t-elle sa plume ousoncrayon Y Elle 11mon papier et notre crayon. Sa tante

fille. Nous avonsMoU ncle a une

femme. A-t-il nu P il a une fille.

Tum 1 .

I have an uncle. Myuncle has a dog, andmy amthas a cat. H as the man the paper? H e hasmy paperand yourpen . Have you a. brother? No, we have a

Has your

They have ourpencil and your pen . Theman has hisbook, and we have our paper.

FLOR AL OF HOUR S.

1 . The plural of a noun is generally formed in

French,as in English, by adding a to the singular: thus,

loroL t king lammb’mk i n g d om Mi ami/uml'hmmthom WWW

The principal exceptions to this rule are as follows2. Nouns ending in the sibilants s, x , and a have the

same formin the plural as in the singular: thus,1.m lu t lg thamle uk aemia“ muwmmlm10:w lu ne-{010m

rnmn or norms. 81

3 . Nonns ending in an and emand a fewmomadd xinstead of s : thus,

h ahapumtlwhat“Ben thamhmomtha kaaa

x in the

Other a uca g. , fans j bols, clmmila trous

4. Most nouns ending in al and ail change these en6~

ings to aux for the plural : thus,looohon ux , the ha v e

5. A fewnouns formtheir plural quite irregularlythemost importan t are

Pa il, the eye

is theMom lea clean , thebeamForoth cases, see Second Part, 19 etc.

6. Some nouns are used only in the singular, others only in

the plural : some have differen t plural forms, according to theirdifierentmean ings : see Secoud Part, § 1 9 0tc.

7. The plurals of the possessives already given are

mesmy, seaMe or [Wor its, nos our, vos your.

ma ssesos.

8. The mum tense of the verb etre be is as fol

josuis. I amtumthoum't

H eat he r'

s

011000na . Compare the lmn :momtnmme ug n oommmmu tu. 1 1 1 1

b. The usation -forms are snis-je, os-tn . etc. (as for the present of a I . with the subject after the verb, and a hy

1mm, wm la wnmower:um wmw

lo chovah thokon e

“bra-,Moam h jambq tha kyPen na , q

M I”mmEmotes 2

‘V otre pere a» t-il une maison ? ‘Oui, il a nnemaison .

Samaison a un e porte, deux chambres, et quatre fenetres.

‘Mon on cle a deux file ; ils sont mes cousins.

‘J’ai nu

habit et denx chapeaux. L’homme a deux jambes mais

lee chevamt les chiens ont quatre jamb L ’homme adeux bras et deux yeux , et les an ima ont

yenx . La fille a-t-elle une robe La fills a trois robeset nu chapeau. Avez-vous mes tableaux ? J’ai montableau ; maisma cousine a vos tableaux . 8e chambrea trois fenetres et deux portes. V ous avez nos robes etnos habits. Mes cousins on t une maison, nu cheval, et

Tummfz.‘Has the man two legs? ‘

H e has two arms and twolegs, but the animals have four legs. My father andmymother have a house

, three horses, and four dogs. The

girls are my cousins.

“H er cousins are three girls, and

they have three hats and three dresses. Themen have a

dog and a horse . Our uncle has four sons they are our

cousins.

‘H is daughter is also a cousin .

'She has my

hat, and I have her dresses. Your sister has a house .

H erhouse has two doors, three rooms, and fourwindows.

The horse is an animal. "H is brothers have three pic

tures. My two sisters have two horses.

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34 mason m.

3 . The e of de is apostrophized (260) before any

vowel (orsilent h) : thus,d‘n hommq qfamn d’unoflonr, qfaflowerd’ami , qffn ’

cnd d'homne, q rm4 . The preposition a to is in likemanneralways con

tracted with the article In into an, andwith the article lee

in to aux ; but with In and 1’

it remainsunchanged : thus,an peso (never 3 10 pin ), to the anx pereo, to thsfaflwrc

an rol (never i ls rol), to thokthg aux retnomto thewmbut, on the otherhand,

i lamwthawwther i la donr, to thafioweri l'homq to thoma

a. A noun in French is neverused (as it sometimes is in Englisb)datively or as indirect object of a verb without a preposition.

Thus, f give the man the book is alwa s je donne le livre h“mums—literally, [ give the book to t man . The phrase hl'

homme to theman is in some grammarsof homeman—and so with othernouns

5. The prepositions de and amust be repeated beforeevery noun that they govern : thus,

du piru ct dumirmof thefathcn andmathcnaux hemmu, aux temmu, ot aux cufants, tn themm, womm, and

6. For is used the verb Otto be, followed by h to.

Thus, i . qni il whoae is iU il est i ma consine tt ismycousin ’

s (literally, it is orbelongs tomy cousin ) .

VERB-LESSON.

7. Themm tenses of avoir have and ttre be

are as followsj'smtm j

’MI waa istuavaisflhouhadd mam-,Moum

n ame /1mmnomaflmwohadm u les, q vmétiu ,mwralb svaicut,Mhad métaisut,Mum-s

a. Every imperfect in the language, without exception , is in .

m PBEPOSI H ON S A AN D DR.

6. This tsnse exprm past action andis oftsuto be reudered bywas having , kep t having, used to have,

l'cmim. , theft-fend

l’mfintm.Wchadammon ium

b “M “afiel d“!in fin ite l y-be

Emcxss 8.

‘La fills de mon oncle est ma cousins, et is suis son

cousin .

’Ma cousins donns la fleur avotre niece.

‘Le

garcou est ls fils du n eveu de mon pére .

‘Je donns les

fleurs du jardin aux enfauts.

‘V otre scaur a-t-elle mes

crayons? ‘E lle a lea crayons des filles et des garcons.

L’enfan t est ls fils de l’ami dema smur. V oici lamaison

des deux amiss demamere. V otre3m1 a» t-il un jardinVoila les arbres du jardin de mon ami . La femme

donns un e fleur an garcon. La maison est amon pére.

V oila les feuilles de l’arbre ; elles sont a votre amie.

At elle aussi lesfleurs N on,les deure sout al

’en fant.

V oici la ports de ma chambre. La maison de nos

Tum s.

Theman ’s coat and hat. The woman ’s dress. The

are two, his legs are four. I have theboy

’s dog and the girl

’s cat. I give the cat to the chil

l’unis f" thafrt’

ond

10. 1113“, a

“memberl’arbrcm. , tha h

-se

la flcnrmheflowll , ollodouuo, hs, rhom

thmfiormU

36 Lassen rv.

dren , and the dog to the son ofmy cousin . The brothers

house ismy friend’s. " The boy gives his sister a book,

and the girl gives her brother a pen and pencil. The

paper is the children ’s, but the pens aremy sisters’. The

house belongs tomy father’s brother. The sister ofmynephew ismy niece. She gives her aunt a flower and

H e was. Had you? They are. Was she? Thouhadst . They were. Are we ? I had.Was I ? H ad

she or had he They have and they had. AmI ? Y ou

are. Art thou? She is.

LESSON I V .

PART ITIV E AND INCLUSI V E SENS“ OF THE NOUN .

l . The partitive sense of a noun is that which inEnglishmay be expremed by putting some or (my beforethe noun , but which is oftenest left unexpressed.

Thus, have you bread some bread ,or any bread) ?

have books (or, some books) ; thcy had p em,but they had no

some pens, not any ink) ; and so on .

2. In French, this sense of a noun is in general dis

tinctly expressed, by putting before it the preposition doof, along (usually) with the definite article : thus

,

j’al dupain, I harabread (literally, af t/is broad)

an s-vou da lin es, haveyoubook: (literally, of the boats)?domin ateddo la tarlnoot do l

’ug fiwmm flurmm

The rulmfoa' the combination of do with ls aud lsa and forthe tion of do before every noun that it governs, have been

given (I I I . 2,Sometimes, however, the article is omitted, and the

sition alone sxpremes the partitive sense of the noun .

6)cz.mll

'hen the noun has an adjective before it (see below, V I I I .

1 “8,

d’

ex csllsnts lin e s.we have sma llest booksb. Aftera umtive verb (see below, XI I . thus,

je n’ai pas de painmot dupain) , I haue not any bread

nonsn’

avous jamais de hma we never hcee books

4.

the bare nounis the case :

tha ' After meaning neither . . . nor (see below,XIL 7a)08,

je n'

ai ni pain ni bsnrre. I have neither bread norbutter

b. I n long enumerations : thil y a sur la table sanf

'

vin,

“paid

‘bsmsfh omage,

there t'

s on the table water, wine, beer, bread ,butter

,cheese

For further details and exceptions as to the expression of the

partitive sense of a noun,see Second Part, 35.

5. On the other hand, a noun is sometimes used initsmost inclusive sense, or as signifying the whole class

of objects to which it applies. This sense, which isusually left unexpressed in English, requires in French thedefin ite article before the noun : thus,man thewhole race) ismortal , l'hommnotmortalWe ird o”, lamest courts

dwp s’

a thsbmtherof death,le sommeil ut le frbrods lamort

a. The article thus used may con venien tly be called

6. The inclusive article is especially common before abstractnouns : a g. , la. vie life, la haunts beauty, In natureWefortune, la sensibilitssensibility.

38 Lesson rv.

time tsmomy, le tempssst de

VEMMON.

7. The pmsnrr tenses avoirhave and btre be areas follows

i’mf lwd ”M1 106.

tamaouhm tufua flwuumtn oug ha had a n t hemsun w as hed

mmmuthsy had arm amen tsa . As to the pronunciation of en in one etc , see d1b.

b. All retsrits in the language, without exception , have theplural en -mes, -tes, -rent , and before the first two of theseendings they have a circumflex ed vowel (eithera, as here, or t ,or i ) and all ex cepting those of the first regular conjugation(XV I have 4 . 4 1,

-t. as here, in the singular.

c. The

uite (Fr.

(1 . The interrogative formis ens-je, {us-tn. cut-i]. and so on , as

in the other tenses.

the Latin

VOCABULAR Y

“pain t/towardlobeurro. themls ooh thsaalt

“G i lliam“N umeral:

ummm

1;mh vimdq themoatlo fromago, thacham10 1» !mlo théflhem“m acawl’ouore LJha fnk

PABTI TI V B sunmcsnsrvn senses or run sons . 39

Emcrsrwt.

da benrre. Mon frere donne des fruits a votre sceur.

‘Ses filles out-elles ducafe?

‘E lles ont du cafe, et elles

out aussi du lait et du sucre.

‘Avez-vous dc fromage ?'Non,mais j’ai du beurre.

'Je donn e an garcon de la

viands ; il 3 du sel et dupoivre aussi. A-t-il des livreset des crayons? Elle avait du papier st ds l

’eners.

“L ’homme est l’en fant de D ieu,

“D ieu donne aux

hommes les fruits de la terre.

"L ’homme est nu animal.

V oilzl‘des livres ils sont amon ami. As-tudes fréres

et des scents?“Non ,mais j’ai des amis et des amiss.

Turns 4 .

‘Have you any cofiee 313m?’Y es, we have some

coffee, and ourmotherhas some tea. Hismother givesbread andmilk to herchildren . Have your sistersmeat,pepper, and salt No

,but they have bread and cheese.

I have a garden , and I give fruit to my friends. Have

youmy pencils? ‘Your brother has your pencils, but I

have some paper and pens.‘The boy has horses and

dogs. Cats are animals. The dog is also an an imaLGod gives toman flowers, the fruits of the earth. God

is the friend ofman . The earth is the garden of God.

Hadthe child a father ormother? "No, but she had

friends and sisters. "Here are coats and hats. There

Y ou had. H ad they ? H as she?We have. Theywere. Is he? Have you? Y ouwere . H e was. Had

I ? I am. Thouwast. Hadst thou? I was.

40 meson v.

1 . I n French (as ofte n in English) , thematerial ofwhich anything is made is expressed by help of the

pre position do of : thus,mbagu d’ormrwg gold m '

ouiller d’w amof fi cer

um amwmq mdu ohapoaux «What:

ofwlvst

Sueh ex

glressmons as a gold ring

his«Mmmm a sflkmm

c oolest which we use in Eng

h the noun o

if itwere an adjective, are impowbe in French.

6. English adjectives ofmaterialme n orm.aswooden ,woolen ,leatkern , alsohave to be expressed in French by do and the nounofmaterial : thus,uns table dohodg awoodmtable an drup downo, aomewoolmdoth2. Nouns expressingmeasure of quantity, ofweight,

of number, and so on , are also followed (as usually inEnglish) by de of before the name of the thing measured : thus,uno boutdno do flma bottk of uno limdomcro, a pound qftic-maroon : de pth , bit f

inc:

3 . Also after adverbs of quantity, do of is required

in French (though usually omitted in English) thus,

bn uooup d'uu,mud ; water (lita ally.much of wabr)

trop dofimwomud t wim mu de ammugbflomThis construction is that of a noun instead of an adverb. or

like that of the corresponding English words before this andthat : thus, enough of this and toomuch of that.

4. The commonest adverbs

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1 .3m mct . L

de bois et beaueoup de chai-ses.‘ll a plus de chaisbs que

de tables. ‘Combien de tableaux avez-vous? ‘Nous

avons trois tableaux . Le garcon amoins de plumes quede crayons. V otre smur a~t~elle des robes de drap‘Elle a des robes de soie et un chapeau de velours."J’avais deux habits et autan t de chapeaux.

"A vaientelles du drap de laine? A viez-vous autant de soie que

de velours? Nous avons quatremetres de soie, et assezde velours. I l avait trop de vin et trop peu d’eau.

“Elle donne a son fret-e une tasse de the on de cafe.

”B ien des hommes ont peu dc pain at de viande. La

plupart des tables sont de bois.

TM 5.

‘Had youmuch wine ? ‘ I had a cup of tea and a bitof bread. Your daughterhasmy silk dress. I had toomany pens and pencils, and too little paper. Has the girldresses enough ? She has three woollen dresses, and as

many hats. Theman gives a bottle ofwine to his friends.

‘She had also a bit of bread and cheese, and a glass of

milk.

'I have more frien ds than brothers. “Most men

have water enough, and man ymen have toomuch wine.

“Mymother had many yards of silk and velvet. Wehave wooden tables and glass bottles. Most bottles areof glass. My father gives his niece four yards of clothand a little velvet.

“I had three pounds of tea and as

much cofiee, and a pound of sugar. Y ouhave less pepper than salt. There aremany books and sheets of pa

per.

vans-m oist .

She will have.Will he be?Were they?We shall

be. They will have. I s he? H ad you? I shall be.

Shall I have They'

had. We are. We shall have.Wilt than have Y ouwill be.

R EPOSI TI ONS ; PROPER KAI EB. 43

LESSON V I .

PREPOBH IONB ; PROPER sum.

1 . The commonest French prepositions (besidesasaddo) are as follows

derriiroJeMndsw amp-”previous dmebdorefin front “imam:

to) of)

mmimmuwmaf summon m.mOther prepositions and preposition

-phraseswill be given in a

later Lemon (XXXI IU.

a. For in orMa damismore common than sn ; and en isalmost neverused before the definite article ora possessive.

6. Of the two prepositionsmeaning before amt is used onlyof time

,devant only of place.

c. Chez at fhe hmwe ofmay often be rendered bywith, but in a

different sense fromu se : thue dine: ches nomdimwith us,t. e. at ourhouse ; but dinu avecm dine with us, ti e , alongm us, in ourcompany somewhere.

2. N ames of countri es and provinces in French generally take the definite article.

0. Some of the commonest names of countries arel’Angleta

-ro. England

l’Asis, Asia

h ‘Holh ndqW15 8115 q

1. l

«4 mesos vi .

3 . But the article is omitted before names of coun

tries in certain cases, especially the followinga . A fter an in , inta to : thus, il cst en France he is

in France, je vais en Amerique I amgoing to A rrm' ica .

b. A fter words meaning king, emp eror, kingdom, emp ire,ducky, or the like ; also after hi stoire history, cartsmap , etc :

thus, roi de France king of Fra nce, l’

empire d '

Allcmag'

ne the

emp ire of Germany, une carts d’

Amérique amap ofAmerica .

( 3 . A fter the name of a commodity coming fromthe counof France (Francl'

or do Californ ia

4 .With the name of a country, the preposition en in

used, to express both in and to (literally, in to) ; butwiththe

.

name of a city or town , a isused, to express both toand at or in .

Thus, je vais en Anglsterrs Ivais A Londres

5.With regard to the use of the article, other propernames follow the same rules in French as in English :thus,a . Names of persons and of cities and towns are usedwithout

the article.

6. Names ofmountains and rivers take the article.

0. Examples of common names of persons areJeanne

, Jane, Joan , Joanna

H enriette, Henrietta,MFrancois,mm.mu

l ax-is,Mary,Maria(2. Examples of names of towns are :

Lunar-s, London Gene' s, Gem“mo, Vienna

mmsrmons recess sums.

“WWW “WWWh TmhaMe Thamee

h Dana Membe

But names of single mountains also take the article : thus, lsV ésuvs Vesuvius.

f . A fewnames of ns and places require the article z thus,Mate, lo vre H avre, ls Osire Ca iro.

V I BE-M ON.

8. The connrrronu. tenses of avoirfiaxve and strobe

ans .

jhn d n l ahould hace je serail , I ekould be“m ammuldet haoe tumd q zhoa wmddd befl aufig kemld haoe il seraitJiewotdd be

nousuriom,we ehould be

v msq d be

ils n rsient, tlwywould ltaee mmdmg thegwould bea. Every conditional in the language, without ex ception, is

.

in

flected like these, with the endings -ais. -ais, -ait. -iom, 7108,

d ent—which are precisely the same with the imperfect endings( I I I . 7a) ; and these endings are invariably preceded by r.

ammunition“ in tact, und of lmpa 'fect orput tense to themnn-e,mm m‘kman eiimp my . I t lsmnde up of the infinidve with

the

xparfisct of nvodr to tt tnnra Is z avolr nu b . liternlb, l had to

(Only thewordsof ths lhts glvenmthe IM )

Ex sacrsr 6 .

‘Jean est-i]chez son cousin ? Non,il est chez sa tan te.

Ss smut est avec ses amies dans ls jardin derriére la

maison . Le vin de France était sur In table de bois entreles deux fenetres.

‘Aviez-vous da thé dans votre tasse ?

J’avais da thé avec da lait et dusucre.

’La bouteille de

lait était pour l’enfant. Louis est en France, mais sa

smut est 3 Rome. Paris, sur la Seine, est la capitals de

In France. Serez~vous en Angleterre Oui,nous

46 msson vn .

serons a Londres."La Suisse est en tre la France et

l’I talie. Les Alpes sont en Suisse. Le chapeau do

Jeann e emit sous un e chaise dev ant la porte. A ves-vousdes amis en Amérique ? Mon ami a beaucoup d’arbresdevant samaison.

Turn s.

I s the child at his uncle’s No, he is in his roomwith

his brothers. The fruit on the table is for the girls.Your brotherWilliamis in fron t of the house behind a

tree.

‘John is withMary at her father’s. ‘The chair is

between the two windows. Henry is in France, and hewill be at Paris.

‘The dresswas of French silk, and the

coat was of English cloth.

‘The trees are in the gardenbehind my house, and the fruit is on the trees.

“Y ou

will have sugar andmilk in your cofiee. Henry's dog is

under the table. Frank had water in his glass. The

bread and the Italian cheese will be on the table.

VERB-EXERCI SE.Would you have They will be. She would be. H e

will have. Will she have ? They had. I should be.Wouldst thou be?We are. Have they ?We should

be.Would they be ? I am. Have 1 ? H e bad. Theywill have.

1 . Adjectives in French have in general a variation

of formfor gender and for number,and are made to

agree in both these respectswith the nouns (orpronouns)towhich they relate.

amm o-4 mm. 47

a. Thondjoctivo, whether attributive or appositive orfive whether before or after the word it ualifies or

soparated fromit, whetherqualifying a wo expressed orunderstood,must be of the gender and numberof the qualified word.

6. Exceptions are adjectives relating to nous we and vonsyou, when these pronouns are usedwith reference to a single person . Such adjectives are singularonly. Thus, gouareoerygoodis vous ates tree hon (to aman) , orvons etes tros bme (to a

woman) ; but trosbons or trosbonnoe if addressed tomore thanone .

2. A femin ine adjective ends always in mute o ; and

the feminine ofmost adjectives ismade by simply addingmute o to themasculine form: thus,

t. m. f.

3011. imamvrai, vrd o, trueW»M01 M, nua nakedmur

plan. gamma Mun c hies

But there aremany exceptions to this rule. Thus3 . I f a masculine adjective ends already in omute,

the feminine has the same form: thus,

m. f.

hométe, honeet

4 . Adjectives ending in the masculine in cl, oil, ion,

on, alsomany in s and t, double their final consonant before the addedmute o of the feminine : thus,

f. m. f.

M a ndent

m. M eow h i . mm»not, notta neat lot, comm»

falling under this rule are mostlym (w as) thick.met (motto) hiamuot (muette) mete,and a fewothers. But a s smooth

,

o obtuse, put ready,mat dull , add o simply.

b. Nul (nulls) , gontil (gontillo) , and fol andmoi (below,followthe analogy of adjectives in ol and oil.

5. Adjectives ending in the masculine in x and f

Lesson vn .

change these respectively to s and v before the added o

mute : thus,I . m. f.

hour-u . human .Mm Mt .Mme jmlomneuf

,neuvo, new

Foran exception ortwo, see below, 8.

3 . I n some adjectives, changes of spelling are the no

cessary result of the addition of o for the feminine : thus,a. Adjectives having in the masculine an 0 before a

final consonant (whetherpronounced orsilent) change itto o in the feminine, if the consonant is not doubled

(216) thus,m. f.

And of in likemannerbocomosevo : thue brof brove brief.

b. Final c is changed for tho fmninine to quom) , and final gto snoW) = thua.

m. f.

loos. “WW0. Adjectives ending in 3 1 1 add 8 for the feminine (8a) : thus,

sig n. signs. awn ; w hich .

7. Five adjectives have two different forms in the

masculine, fromone of which the feminine is made ;

nouvoaunonvol, nouvelle, new, novel

vi eux vloil, vialle, old we up“,foufol, follo,foolish,madmonmol, mollo, sofl

Of the twomasculine forms, the one in l is need beaword beginning with a vowel (orhmute) : thus,

u bd hm e a handnmemn

h nouvol wdrq them order

unmupolr, afwlieh hope

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so Lassen vm.

mare. ”h flw mbh nehamais le fmit est rouge ou

noir.”Lemaitre était tree vieux, et l

’éléve était twp

jeans.“Ma vieille tante est ehez ma chere eousine.

”la bean jeune homme est le oouain de mon vieil ami.

Turns 7.

‘I l your brother large?‘Y es, I have s tall brotherand

a pretty little sister. The house ishandsome,but it is tooamall. We have a large house and a small garden . The

flower is red and the fruit iswhite. Your city is largeand beautiful ; our village is small and pretty.

' I wasyoung and happy, butmymasterwas old. The oldmanis tall and black. Thewoman is young, white, and handsome.

”The

,beautiful woman is my dear aunt. The

masterwas too old, orthe pupil was too young. I s yourmother beautiful No, but she is good and happy.

My cousin (fl) is a pretty youngwoman . Milk (I V . 5)iswhite, wine is red, and ink is black. The tree is tall

and handsome, but the fruit is small and bad.

vsmi-sxsaoxss.

Be. Let us have. They were. He would be. Be

(ye) . Y ouwill have. They would have H e is.Wewere. Have (thou) .Will he have ?Would they be ?She has. They (i) will have. Let us be. H e will beWe were. Should I be?

LESSON V I II.

1 . The plural of an adjective is generally formed as

the plural of a noun of like ending would he : thus,a. A feminine adjective (since it ends in 0) always adds a for

tho plural.

m om s—sums , cosmos . 51

add a ; but final s cr x (z does not

an and eu (not on ) add x ; al is

c. But blen bbuemakesblens ; some in al make als (as finals,finals. ovals. etc . ) of the adjectives bavin two forms in the singlarWI I . ,

the plural ismade tromt e formending in uua beanx nonveanx fiuamous.

2. The adjective in French comesmore usually after

French, and itente nce and the

11 case the adjwrules point

out some to stermino thequestion .

8. A fewof the commonest adjectives are almost invariably placed before the noun .

a. These are especially the adjectivesmeaning goodand bad (hon,mauvais), large orbig and small (grand orgroa, petit), young and old (j eans, vieux), also beauhan dsome, vrai true, with some others : thus,

la bcn‘am, gwdmw nn bcaulivro, a h¢mdaomaboak

do gn nda hommaa graztm mcn vicu cmlmmy old oomini . a . An adjective denoting a physical quality, as color or

form, inclines to followthe noun ; one denoting an ideal ormoralquality, to precede it : thus,

doafima n ugmredflmme unc tfite rondg amtmd haadmlit dur, hia hard bsd lobouillon ohaud, thohotbrotk

b. An adjective tends to followthe noun when taken 'mamoreliteral sense, and to precede it when taken in amore figurativesense z thus,

u protond d lenca a daep aaemla harho aolro, tha black bmrd m nek a trahicoma blaokm n

un limchar, a dearback

5. a . An adjective having adjuncts rather follows the noun ;but a aimis adjective rather precedes a noun that has other ad

juncts : us, one fills asses jenne et

rather yozmg and tolembly handsome girl , l 'inunortel auteura aradis perdn the immm'ta l authoe Paradise Lost.

b. An adjective used more appositively, or having a special

prominence or emphasis, or signifying something brought tor

book ismine.

c. In virtue of these difl’erences, some adjectives bave a well

marked distinction ofmeaning , according as they precede or fol

lowthe noun : thus, cher dearmeans costly after the noun, butlowd before it ; brave is brave aften but wcellcnt

,worthy be

fore ; hcnnete is nice civil after, but honsst before ; panvre isindigcnt atter, but poorquality orp itiable before ; simple is

betore ; certain is certa in in the sense of ons orsoms befmof swre after ; dernier is last ela psed after, but conduding,fl beiore ; propre is ncat after, but own hefore—and so on.

6. The partitive sense of a noun that is preceded byan adjective isusually expressed by do alone, without thedefinite article : thus,da bcn pdmyood bmd «mum mmmn

dobellesMun ,WWWa . But if the adjective follows the noun , the article is not

omitted z thus, du pain cmllent ewcellsnt bread , dosmagniflquesmagnificentflowers.

b. Also, if the adjective and following noun formto ther a

current combination, a kind of compound name forsomet the

article remains : thus, dubon sens goodmass, des jams gens

WWN.

7. The smear summonvss of avoirhave and embe are as followsquoj

’d q that I may /ww quc jcmthat I may bequ tuaola that thoumayed bo

qu’il alt,MMWMM qu

’il aoit,”lat hew ho

quam aymthatwmay harc qua ncu aoyona thatwmay beque voua ayuflhatwumay hacs que vomaoyca thatyoumy boqu

’fla dmt thatficymay haw qudh uiemt that theymaybsa. Forthe exchange of i and y in these forms, see 3 7b.

6. I t is customary to prefix the conjunction que that to theinflection of the subjunctwe tenses in French grammars, becausea subunctive usually (not always) has that conjunction before it.Fort e abbreviation of qua to qu

’

, see 26a.

c. The 8d persons of this tense are often used in an imperativetive

, as its 8d persons : thus,

surname—sums, cosmos . 53

wn gawaenm qn’fl acln let himbe

ummmmm quuh admg la thmbo

i mwnaem onda tothe one of the aame name ln utin .

l’éoolo f. , the school l’égllae f the church

1 ; 1m la hmilla, tbofmdy

b eers-ant, in teresting excellent,mam:noun “ (V I I . m

Bw a sa 8.

Aves-vans de belles flours? J’ai,des deure hleues ct

rouges. Les jeun es filles out de beaux chapeaux . Elles

out aussi de nogl elles robes simples etmodestes. ‘MonuJ pauvre oncle a nufile aveugle. Les hommes pauvres out

une vie active at laborieuse. La vieille église est de boisnoir. L ’

enfan t aimable est a l’ecole chez un maitre ex

cellent. L’ex cellen t maitre est un hon ami des enfan ts

riches et des enfauts pauvres.

“Nous avons des livrestree bons et tree intéressants, mais nous avons aussi de

mauvais livres L’honnéte homme laborieux aura une

vie heureuse. Mon frere est nugarcon honnéte et aimable.

"J’ai de hon vin blanc dans des bouteilles noires.

“I la out do hon pain noir, du heurre, et de trés-mauvaisfromage. La pauvre fille aveugle a nupére riche. E lle

a de grands yeux noirs. Mon pére a une famille aimable

Tms S.

‘Have you good friends I have interesting friendsand dear sisters.

‘She is a laborious young girl. ‘My

poor cousin is very unhappy.

‘She has a little blind

daughter.

‘I have a rich uncle.

'My rich uncle is an

54 LESSON IX.

honest man .

'He has a simple and modest life.

‘Weshall have an excellent school in our little village. Thereis an interesting old church . Mary is a pretty andmodest girl. ”

She has small hands and large blue eyes.Have you black bread and good butter? Here isgood white bread and ex cellen t butter. Y ou have old

red wine in n ew black bottles. My good old uncle has

very in teresting books in his little brown house. H e has

a large family.

LESSON IX.

1 . Adjectives in French are for the most part not

otherwise compared than by putting before themad

verbsmean ingmore etc.

a . The comparative adverb is plusmore, and this is

made superlative by prefix ing to it the definite article

thus, ls plus themost.

6.We may also prefix moins less and le moina leaat to an

adjective, producing a comparison downwards, orof diminution .

2. H ence, examples of the ordinary comparison of a

French adjective are as follows

lon e.may plus in ns.younger 10pin i-nne.mm

a. The article before plus is of course varied for genderandnumber

,like the adjective : thus, la plus belle handsom (woman) , h e plus jcunea youngest (men orwomen) .

3 . But three adjectives have a special formfor thecomparative, which then is made superlative by prefixing to it the definite article. They are :hon, good mailieur,utter lomalllenr, but

manual! “Macrame“

m ums—couramon . 55

even beamthe sense of gwdmatured .

4 . Comparison of equality is expressed.

by aussi as

before the adjective. A fter the adjective, both as and

than are expressed by que. Thusamai hello quo aa smun as handsome as heru'

aler

5. Special rules area. The article showing the superlative has to be dropped after

a plus jeune h ere my youngest brother

ective is put after a noun having thethus

,l’

homme lala plus peuplée themostp opulous city.

A fter a superlative, the re'

tion doof, and not dans in

fish-

sod before a word of plgceeo

ts

lius, ls plus bel homme ddmonde the handsorrwstman in the worldfla plus grande ville

“RB-MON.

6. Themann er surmmorrvss of avoirleave and étrebe are as followsquo j

‘cnaae, tlzat 1m'

ght bm que jofuuo, that I m€ght bs

have

qu’il cfit, that hemight have

que nous anx ious, thatwemight

qua voua auction, that youmighthave

qu'

ila euaunt, that they might

a . Ev imperfect subjunctive in the language, without exception, is acted like these, with the endings-sce. 4 003 , -t, a nions.« in .

-saon t. and with a circumflexed vowel (d ora or 1) before

6. The en unctive tenses are by nomeans alwa to be ren

dered in Eng’

with the aux iliariesmay andmig but sometimeswith others, as should and would ,

and sometimesby simple

be

qu’ilm, that hemight be

que nm fusdona lhal wemightbe

qua voua fancies, that youmight

be

qn’lla flaunt, that theymightbe

56 LESSON 1x .

firfim hmmm w m zm rm m.M ew.

plag inora twin ks:

millenn betler.N o flfi uw mm la wmakers”

‘I

‘hautJu

'

gh a‘q

Erasers: 9.

‘Mon frere est le plus joli garcon du village.

‘Mouami est plus beau que ton frere .

‘Le pauvre argon est

le plus jeune des en fants demon vieil ami. ‘tiez-vous

plus jeune que votre smur? ‘N on

,ma smur était la plusjeune et la plus jolie de notre famille.

‘Paris est la plus

grands ville de la France,mais elle est moins grands et

moins riche que Londres. L’Amérique est plus grands

que l’Europe, et moins grande que l’Asie. Louise est la

jeune fille la plus aimable damonde. L’en fan t sera aussi

laid que son pauvre pére. Le meilleur vin était dans laplus petite bouteille.

"Les paysans les plus honnétes etles plus beaux de l’Europe sont dans les plus hautesmontagnes.

"Les éléves son t plus jeunes que ls maitre.

Henri est ls pire des garcons duvillage . Aves-vans domeilleurvin ? L a rose est la plusbelle desfloursdujardin .

Tum 9.

His sister is ugly, but his n iece is the ugliest girl in thecity.

‘The boy is as handsome as his beautiful cousin .

The largest pieces of bread are for the poorest children .

The good and honest peasan ts are less poor than the badmen of the city. The A lps are the highestmoun tains inEurOpe. A city is larger than a large village. Mary isas pretty as Helen , but she is less amiable and interesting.

The youngest of the children aremy sisters. The pret

tiest child ismy youngest sister. The peasants of the

A lpswere hisbest friends. The women are ashandsomeas themen. The smallest horse is larger than the largest

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58 LESSON 1 .

is variabte for gender and number, like any

h. Themst parfidplccomspondsto the lmfin pa-ivc pnrflciple.

5. Compound forms for all the parts of a Frenchverb (except the imperative and the past participle) aremade, as in English, by adding its past participle to the

various forms of an auxiliary verb . The auxiliary isusually avoirhave but some verbs take instead etrc be

a . Hence

}tomake anygiven compound form,

the correspond

ing simple armof avon (orsomenmes of etre) is to be taken ,

and the past participle of the principal verbadded to it.b. The e is for the most part unvaried. or has itsmas

culine singular orm. in the compound forms of the verb whenmade with avoir. But it is a rule in French that if a compoundverb-formhas a direct object, and that object stands before theverb, the participle ismade to agree with it in nderand number : thus, quels livres avez-vons enswhat have youhad .

9

lea flours que j’

ai cues theflowerswhich [ have had, and so on

see Part Second, 1 91 etc.

6. The compounds of the present and imperfect tenses are

best called ,asmEnglish, the n ewerandmuseum ; that of

the preterit, the PAST ANTEB IOB ; those of the future and condi

tichai, themean PERFECT and ooxnrrlonu. Pxnrsc'

r.

a . I n many grammmthe indicative perfect is called the pastindefinite (Fr. passe éfin i) . I t is very often used where inEnglish we have the preterit ; and especially, of anything thathas happened during this day, orduring anyperiod ofwhich the

present 18 viewed as a part.b. For the use of the past anterior, see Part Second, 5 122.

7. The compound forms of avoir have aremade, asin English, with avoir itself as auxiliary. The simpleand compound forms are given together in full below.

Coxrwrs Ooxmoa'riox or avoir have.

avoir, ltaee, to haoe avoiromto hau had

M Pamcmx . m e xcm

ooxwoan on or avait . 59

j’l h I haoe j

’d t mhad

tn u cmtlwuhaet hadil s hm n amhe hae bad110111 "mm amma lian vou svu cu, yeukmhad

ill ont, they bace th ontmtbey ltau had

j'su is, 1M, wae baoing,ta nn in, tboubadet etc.

uamg he had etc.

none svicns, we had etc.

ib uvdmt tbey had etc.

Pmait'rmon.

1 j ’aa bad j’meml bad had

tnm, tlwultadn tn emcmflwukadet badfi entnie bad flmtmke had had

nou ofimumwe had hadmomenQMhad ib oment omthey bad bad0 ”was.

jeans, [ shall have j ’ant ai on , [ shall have hadtuauru, tltouw1

'

lt hacc tuanmcmtlwuwdt hau hadflmlwwfll kace fl ammhewia haw hadm amgouwfll hawmemmeywal haw mew smfltcywia hmhad

I

a" j 'aurun, I ahould hace j’anraismIMId kd

mammoumldstbace

ummmm il snrait emhewould ltaoe hadvou cnrieswouwould ham vmanfin myoumld bw had

mmatmg tbeywould haoe ils anraient emthegmld kaoehad

lymletmbaummmm am, haw, hao¢m

j’avfil oml had hadn aval-en tMuMdrt hadfl avait emhe kad ltadmu ufiomemwe had hadm afiu cmgoa had hadfil ament omtheg had ltad

qnoj‘ntq that fmay haw

qmtuaimtbat flioumaga tmqu

’il d t that lwmay hawqu amayomthatwemay boee

qudh dmh that flwymay hm

uM amemmmam amuseme n ts

malhmomunhom“A?

Exsacxss 10.

‘J’ai 1mmorceau de pain , et j

’aurai anssi du beurre.

Aves-vous eu asses dc fromage? ‘Nous aurions en nu

tant de beurre que de fromage. Eurent-ils de l’argent?‘Elle eut de l

’

argent dans la main , et il avait en de Fer

dans la poche. Mon cousin aurait eu duvin , s’il avait

en un verre. Mes struts auron t de jolies robes. An t-ai

ent-elles en aussi de beaux chapeaux l’ Aye: da cafeavecvotre pain .

" Ayons de la viande aussi. Mon frere 11en un grand cheval laid ; il aura un beau petit cheval.

gu nma n-mant ra may etc.

qu vmayu cmtha tmmay etcqu

’ils aiont on , tbat theymay ctc.

“Tl aura eu deux chevaux . Qu’il ait aussi un chisui

“Si nous avions en un frére

,nous aurions eu des amis.

mQuoique nous ayons beaucoup d’argent,nous sommes

treemalheureux. Ayan t nuhon pére, elle est heureuse.

Quoiqu’il ait en numait're ex cellent

,l’éleve est ignorant

etmalheureux.

“Lemarchend a-to il en de la soie hleue?

I]avait beaucoup de soie,mais j’ay ais trés peud’argen t.

Le boulanger 3 du pain noir et de hon pain blanc. I I

ca nmalheureux , quoiqu’il efit asses de pain et de vin .

THml ? 10.

Had themerchant some pens H e had pens, and hewill have paper, ink, and books.

‘Y ou have bad black

ink hewill have had good red ink . Had youhadwhite

bread I should have had bread enough,if he had had

butter.

‘The boys had money enough ; they will have

meat and wine.

’ Our old masterwould have had a new

school,if he had hadmore pupils. Although he had few

pupils, he was satisfied . Had youa bit of gold in yourpocket I had gold inmy hand, and silver inmy pocket.Have a bit of bread and cheese. Let us have new

hats and handsome red and blue dresses. We shall havehad coffee and tea. Will your sisters have red flowersThough they had much money, they were unhappy.

That I might have some wine and water ! That youmight have had a horse Theman will have a laboriouslife, if he has too little money. The baker

,having had

some win e, had a bottle in his hand. Although the peasan ts have littlemoney, they are happy and con tent. A l

though the girl had beauti ful eyes, she was very ugly.

62 Lxssox n .

LESSON XI .

ooxmcu ton or run vans btre be.

1 . A ll the simple forms of étre be have been given inprevious lessons. They are here repeated in theirorder,along with the compound forms

,which aremade, as in

English, with the help of the auxiliary avoir 11am.

Mbcflobc avdrétawhmbemPw 'e u . PmmPammru .

je luig l am j’ai étéJ haoebem

tun tn asbté

n ut

ih lont

ru n n er.

j’aMMI had bem

tubulil étalt il avait étb

nous“ionsEbbvan “is: été

PmAx ‘rmj’ouMI had bmtumbtb

consumer: or étre. 68

jomah IMbc jh nn iMI ehaa hmbmtumfl oors

fitment ill -mont été

jaun t-, I dwtddbe t MI shouId wnmurals tn anrais étb

11mmvonl auriu étb

{in cursiont été

rayon-, Ietmbe

qu jommat I mayba mj ’aoMMIm n bn n

que tuscis

qu’il loit qn

’il ait été

que nous ayons été

qua 70111 new que vous aye: été

qn’ih soicnt qn

’ils aiont été

qu joM tltat I mtghtbe qu j’mue étfiMI mt’ghtm

quo tufnn cc

quo nons fuuions qno nonsmsiométéqnc vons onuiu bté

qu’ill fnusnt qu

’ill cnuont été

only in to the Latin me etcn the infln ltlvemls“Mafi a:Maw ? are:

2. To express the indefinite subject it of it is,itwas,

etc ,the French generallyuses00, literally this (XXIV .

but sometimes also il it.

64 masca n .

a . I l is used in statements of time, partienlariy of thetime of day ; and ce inmest othercases. Thus:fi n t o it ia4 o

’doek fl étaitmidh t'twacm

ummm emu 10 n utminnit i‘

t t’

omwo’

clock

nmme em fl ut tnmpl do partir, it ie time ¢o90

c’n t btuu

‘

t tcwdl c’étaitmvolmitme fimin

o’n tmot fi I c’étsit noul , 1’

twaaweo’ut t vons qnojoparlofit fi towuthat I epeak

b. I f the verb afterco is followed b a plural noun , ora plural

pronoun of the third person , it is itse made plural : thus,“Mntmmttwac they ce men tmu amis, 1

°

t wfll bemy

uwntmum qu jo voma ie ourbooka that I mVOCABULARY.

n ew, dot , at faiblc,feeble, weak

M idle, lacy content,WWW.Wi n fl ammate country l'heure f. , fire bowrm’

cloek

l prfiont atpmmt,mwEXERCISE 1 1 .

V otre ami eet-il riche ?‘Mon ami est pauvre apre

sent,mais ii a été trés riche.

‘I ls seraient heureux, s

’ils

avaient été honnétes et laborieux .

‘Nous avons été al’boole, et nous serous a l

’eglise avec nos smurs.

‘V ous

auriez en dc trés bon vin , si vous aviez été chezmon oncle.

‘L

’homme a-t-il étémalade? I] a été trcs faible, et il

sera malade. Quoique lee jeunes filles soient tres con

tentes 11 la oampagne, elles seront malheureuses a la ville.

Sois hon et sage, et tuseras heureux . V ous étes jeunect belle soyez conten ts. I l est trois heures apresent il

sen quatre heures. Oe son t les en fan ts de mon frere.

“I la auraien t en de belles flours et des fruits,mais ils out

as treemauvais. I l est deux heures, et elle ma 5

l’eglise.

“O’était l

’homme ls plus

Quoique ls garcon Hi t 11 l’école, i

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66 Lasson x n .

2. Examples of tenses inflected negatively are

jemn hml amnot jc n’avah w sml had not had

tn n'umthoum't not tn n

’avais pus emthoubademothad

il n 'ut pag he ts not fl n’avfitw smhe lwd not bad

m um ps-, we cre not nou n'

afl cns pu emwebad notbadvous n’avioz pus cmwukad not had

ils nosontmtbeymnot ih n’svfient pu omtheg had nothad

8. I nstead of pas is sometimes used point, which makes a

stronger ormore emphatic negative : thus,il n

'

est point, he te not (atall) je n’

avais point on, I (certatn ly)had not had .

b.With some verbs, no isusuallyoralwaysused alone, the pasbeing omitted : see Second Part, 5 1 66.

IF 4. For never,nobody, and nothing, the French say

jamais (literally, not ever), no personne (literally, not a p erson ) and as rien (literally , not a thing),respectively

,the twowords being separated, and the us

put always before the verb (or auxiliary) : thus,jou l nh jamfismd aq amm ia

il n 'avuit jamais étéchex nom, he had neoerbeen at ourhwee

je n’ai vn pa sonno, 1 haoe eeen nobodg

personnon’ammon hmno one kae hadmy book

n’am-vonl rim, have younothing?

d on neM plns crusl, notbtng would bemore cmelb. A verb made negative by no is also followed by

ui ni, to give the seuss of neither nor; by gubre,

to give the sense of comely, but little very often byque (literally tha n : i .s. else them), to give the sense of

only ; and by plus, to give the sense of no longer thus,

fl n’utmjmombumhea ndtkermngmhcndnme

fl n'

ugnéro d’

ugent ke hmkardlyw w

ollo n’

n t pluMshe t’

c no lmwerhere

”f a c e t -V1 ‘ Z ; ) D d “ l

, ‘

NEGATI V E CON JUGATI ON .

8. I hmnegafimg belongs strictly to the verb, andcan L eedj xcept with a verb eggpLessed. If theverb, then ,

is omitted (for example,in answers), the no

is also omitted, and the otherword has by itself a negative sense : thus,

pa umnot onecut out let, who ishere?

7. Aftera negative verb, the partitive sense of a noun

is expressed by do alone, without the article : thus,

je n’

ai pu dc p iml kmembmm n

’

afimn h MMwe hadmrcelywnywmm n

‘

anru plmds pstimq youwfll no longerhmpatt’

ema . A fter ui ui. both proposition and article are omitted,

and the partitive sense is left unexprmd, as in English : thus,

jou'

fi fl p in fi hml booe neitherbmd norbutter' b. On the other hand, afterno qua on ly both preposition

article are used : thus,emit , wewe onlymemes

verb is made interrogative,the

subject-pronoun is put, as usual, immediate ly after theverb (and joined to it by a hyphen), while everythingelse remains unchanged. An example of a tense used

both negatively and interrogatively is as followsn

’

ama i-jo pusMM I not haoe been ?

n'm mm mM not kawbeM?

n'm flw fi m’

ll he not haoe been ?

n'

am mméfi ehall we not haoebem?

a . N'est-oe pas is a much used so .

ndi English questions like is he not . do

like : thuste

fle

zt

st encoremalade. nbut-csatta in. is he not ? vous amnion livre, n

'

est-os pas youmy bwk haoewunot ?

vooasmnv.

9.

i

ii

.

68 Lasson mEn sues 12.

N ’avez-vous pas été chez votre oncle ? Non , il n

’était

pas a la maison .

‘A vez-vous dupain ? Non, nous n

’a

vous pas de pain, nous n’avone que du beurre ,

et du,fro

mags. ‘Le marchand a-t-il du fruit on duvin ? I l n ’

a

ui fruit ui vin .

’Le pauvre paysan n

’a» t-il pas été ma

lade?”II n ’

a jamais étémalade,mais sa femme est tree

faible, et il n’a rien pour ses enfants.

’

Quoiqu’elles

ne soient pas riches, elles n e sont jamaismalheureuses.

V otre frere no sera~t-il pas 11 P aris avec ses amis?Non

,il ne sera ui aParis ui 11 Londres ; il est en I talic.

Personne n’a été chez mon pere N ’

avez-vous rien

pourmes pauvres petite en fan ts? V ous n’avez jamais

eu d’entante ; vous n

’aves que des freres et des ensure.

J’ai en de hon papierrouge et de l

’en cre excellente,mais

je n’ai plus rien . Les garcons h

’avaient-ils pas un tres

mauvaismaitre? Non,lsmaitre n

’était point mauvais;

il n ’a été que faible etmalade. Nous avons asses d’

eau,

mais nous n’avons guere de vin . Je n

’aurais jamais été

a l’école, si mon pere n

’avait pas euune maison aParis.

Elle n’a été chez personn e.

Tenn 12.

Had you not a sister? No, I had neither sister nor

brother, but I hadmany good friends. I s not your fatherat Paris No

,he has never been in Paris. The young

girlswill not be either at the house or at the school theywill be at the church. The poorwoman is not happy ;she has heen ilL and she has only a bit of bread in the

house.

’H as not the peasan t many children ?

“No, he

has no children ; he has only a wife and a niece .

‘The

school was not in the city. A lthough the master wasold, he was not (at all) ugly H e had good scholars,

and he was never unhappy. He would not have beenunhappy, if his pupils had not been very bad. We have

nmssrm'rrvs am) museums wmarrvss. 69

been ill, but no one is ill any longer. If he had n everbeen idle, he would not be poor now. I have only one

friend, and he has n eitherbooks norpaper. Are younot

happierthan yourfriend I shall not have had anywinein my glass.

" If the girls had not had new hats, theywould not have been at the church. The children werein the garden, but they had no fruit. No one had anyfruit. He is no longer atmy father’s.

LESSON XIII .

L In French ismade a fuller distinction than in lhiglish hetween pronominal adjectivesm ap

aaecom8

n an expressed nounwhich they qualify, and pro fives, or pronouns

dmg fora nounpro

uot emmaf

a

ressed. The pronoun forms53?be given in later Lessons V .

ThXXVI“:

pthe adjective

forms, here andmthe next lemon . Thefpronominal adjectives

sh a

gquali

f

ya following noun

, and are c the same genderandwit t.n

2. The nsnossraa'

rrvs ADJEOHV ES, meaning this or

that and these or those, are as follows :cosmf. plural.

Cetm. isused when the following word beginswith a

vowel (orbmute) ; otherwise, cc. Thus :co chapeau, this (or that) hat

cosrobes, time (etc ) dram

out bamboohome, this (etc ) hona tfellow

8.When the demonstrative ismeant to be emphatic,orwhen this and that are to be distinguished fromone

another,the adverbs 051 here and 11. titers are added re

specti vely to the qualified noun , and they are joined toit in writing by a hyphen : thus,

70 LESSON xm.

“chapeau-oi,MWOM LWWW)oot hommo-d ot oottofomno-IL thi‘aman and thatwomwn

4 . The m'

rnssooa'

rxvs ADJEOTIV E ,meaning which or

what, isSing. quslm.

, queue f. ; plur. quelsm. , queues f.

quoflu flours n ntmh tsblq whatflommon the tnble?

5. a. The interrogative adjective is also used in ex

mmma wmm ! qush bcsux livres, what beaq ookel

b. I t is likewise used as relative : thus,

jo nouh quol llmilmI don ’t knowwhich book he hae

is not exprossed in French : thus, quel bel homme , what a handsonwman .

’

VERB' LESSON.

6. I n phrases signifying bodily conditionswhich onefeels or is conscious of, avoir with a noun is uwd inFrench

,where the English has the verb be with an adjoe

tive : thus,

j’

al falm, I amImam(literally, 1 haoe hcmgw)fi a sciLhe ie thiretymterally,

he hao tItiral)

nmam we arewtd vomamohsumgoumwmmtusvais pour, thouwaet qfiaid ilsauront hontq thegwmbeaehaameda Similar phrases are avoirmal b have a p ain or ache in

,

avou‘mison be right or in the right, avoir tort bewrong or inthewrong . thus,

j’

aimal i ls tbto, 1 haoe the headaohevomavu rd nomst j ‘d tcrt youare right and l ammng

b. I n a corres nding mmmuestions as to on e’s personal

condition are ed and answ thus, qu'

aveuvous what is thematterwith you? ( literally, what have you?)and eves-vous quelque chose is an

nanossmmvs AN D mmaaow rvs a n noun ce. 71

h ubuothbquq tha h’

bmq looonte, the dory, ¢alc

h rm tha romanae, nowl l'

hinoirof. , zhe hidoryhmg the taozh

pom-MW?Exmwrsn ls.

Quels en fants ont été a l’ecole? Ces bons petits gar

cons-oi son t toujoursal’école,mais cesfilles lan ’

on t jamamétéal’ecole. Quels livres avez-vous dans lamain Ce

hm ci est nu roman , et cet autre livre est une histoire.

C’étaien t des livres de la bibliotheque de mon oncle.

Ces livres~ la sont-ils intéressan ts? Ces romans-la sont

trés intéressants,mais cet te histoire-ci est trop ennuyeuse.

‘Les contes et les romans sont toujours plus intéressants

que leshistoires. Quelles histoires avaient-ils eues (X. 56)I ls avaien t en l’histoire de France cet autre livre est une

histoire d’Angleterre. Oet homme est-il l’ami de votre

fils Non ,mon ami, c’est son cousin . Qnelmaitre vos

en fants avaient-ils ‘P Je n

’ai pas d

’en fan ts ce gargon-oi

est mon neveu, et cette jolie fine-la est ma niece ils

avaien t un maitre trés hon ,mais tree ennuyeux . Cette

femme a beaucoup de cousins ; mais elle n’a que ces deux

enfan ts. Quels jolis petits enfants“D ans quellemai

son avec-vous été? "J’ai été a Paris chez ma cousins.

Quoique cette femme-ci soit trés pauvre, elle n’est pas

plus malheureuse que cet homme-la. Pourquoi cette

femme est-ellemalheureuse E lle estmalheureuse, parcequ’elle est toujoursmalade.

Tam 1 8.

Thisyoung girl hasbeen in the country with her father.

‘What dresses has she had (X. 56) She has had these

dresses and that hat. These histories are longer and lessin teresting than those novels. What book have you in

72 meson m.

the hmd? ‘This book is a dull little story.

‘Thiswomanis the mother of this httle girh and the aunt of that big

boy.

‘These young girls are not her daughters. ‘

She

ha msny cousina but she hu only this chfld.

“Thesebooks belong (III. 6) tomy uncle’s library. What hmtiful books, and what s large library !

" If thisman hadnot been ill, these children would have had enough bread .

"Although thisman and thiswoman are honest and in

dustrious, they have always been poor. H e had the bot

tle in this hand, and the glass in that hand. I n what

cities have you been ?“ I have been in this city, but I

have never been in that village. This oldman is verydull. Why is he so dull?

”H e is dull because he hasalways been idle, and because he has never been at school.“What an interesting story l

Are youcold ? I amcold, but he iswarm.Will he behungry ? H e will be hungry and thirsty.What is thematterwith him? H e is sleepy. I s anything thematterwith you? No, nothing is the matter with me. Theyhave the headache. I amright and youare wrong. I amalways right ; I amneverwrong. matterwith us. Has she not the toothache is the

matterwith her.We were afraid. ey are ashamed.

LESSON XIV .

Themsssssrvnm omma areBing. monm. ,ma L ; plnr.mum. i . ,my

tonm. , to f. ta m. i’thy

mm.f hig her,

notrom.f; notm.f. . our

votrem. i . ; vosm.f. , your

lotumi kmm. f. , their

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74 mm x xv.

plural ; uul and sum formplural ; quelque has the plural quelqussnine touts. and the plurals tmm,

toutss f.

b. Toutmeans all when followed by an article orpossessive or

ma u vms aammmWmmwthiafime i tout temmatmry time

Quelque signifies amore some than the partitivs ( I V .

1 , and isusually better dered by a little, a few. thus,

d. Nul and aucun both alike require ue with the verb : thus,

unl bome n’

ut pu'h it nomn fipevjeot

n n‘

a aume t e hmnot anyfam

lobauL t-heoz h vuchq the aowla hrebh , the ¢hesp ls ohamp , thefieldhm the apple h pomme de tmq the potato

um hmwm

Exxacrsn l-t.

‘MonsieurB . a-t-il des enfants?‘Ouhmadame, ce gar

con-ci est son fils,mais la pstits fille est sa niece.

‘Ces

demoiselles avecMademoiselle B . son t ass cousines. Ces

mssdeurs sont-ils les amis demonsieurvotre pere? Non ,

oe sont sea frsrss. Mon amie a nu grand vase d’argent.

Quelles ileurs a-t-elle daus lamain ? ‘Elle n

’a poin t do

ressssmsm mnsrmrrs snmorrvns. 75

fisurs ; elle n’a qu

’un livre dans la main,st uns pomme

dans la poche. Mademoiselle votre scsur n’a-t-slle pas

été en A llemagne “Non

, elle a été en Angleterre avecmadame votre tante . As-tu des amie, mon enfant ?

Gui, madame, j’ai plusieurs amis st quelques parents,Cette femme-oi est-elle ta mere ? N on

,madame

, elle

estma taste . V oici mon psre st mambre. Ces paysans on ti ls des vaches et des

'

bceufs Non,mon oncle

,

chaque paysan a une vache st quelques brebis,mais aucunpaysa

'

n n’a de bmufs. Toutes lsurs brebis sont dans les

champs. Quels fruits avsz-vous dans votre panier?J’ai quelques pommes et plusieurs poires. N

’avez-vous

pas aussi des pommes ds terrs Js n’ai aucune pomme

ds terre,mais j’ai des péches.

Tum 1 4.

‘I s yourmother at the house? No

, she is in Paris,

with her cousin,Miss B .

‘Are these boys your friends?

No, cousin ; they are the children ofmy teacher. Theyhave been in all the schools of this whole city.

‘Every

friend ofmy son ismy friend also.

'A ll these peasants

have been in the fields, and each woman has a basket onha head. Severalwomen have vegetables in theirbaskets.

Have youpeaches and pears,my good woman I havea few pears, sir, but I have n o peaches. Do all these

animals belong to your son ? No, sir, the sheep belongto my son , but he has no horse, and we have only threecows. What vegetables have we,Mary ? We have a

few potatoes in the house, and several apples. Each

child will have an apple,but no child will have a peach.

" I had some little money in my pocket , but my brotherhad nothing. I never have potatoes in my pocket.They had some flowers, but they had no vase .

”Thispoor old woman had a basket on herhead. My friend(f.) had herhistory in herhand ; she is nowat school.

LESSON XV .

names of.

numbers are as follows10 dix 6 1 min ute at nu

2. a . Un ismasculine only, and forms the femin ineune ; no othernumeralmakes a distinction of gender.

6. V ingt twenty, score, and cent hundred, are the on lynumerals (belowmillion) thatmake a plural : thus, vingts,cents. This plural formis used when score orhundr

ed

mums“.M ALE. 77

3 . The French has nowno separate names for seventy, eighty,wind y, but after sizes/n in e (as shown in the table) it countssix ty

-ten,six ty

-eleven, etc ,up to sissy

-n ineteen ; and so in likemanner foursoore-ten , j burscored eoen

,etc

,up

a . But the olderseptante seventy, octants eighty, and nonanteM y, are still occaswnallymet with .

4 . The otherodd numbers between the tens aremadein the same way as those for 61 to 69 in the table.

Thus, vingt at an 21,V ingt-dsuxmto-cinq 45 , cinquantsohuit 58, and so on .

a. V ingt-un 21, treats-nu 3 1

,etc , are sometimes used ; also

cant st nu 101 , soix ante et dix 70,min ute-cuss 7 1 but only

5. A hyphen is always inserted between a ten and a

unit immediately following, but not when at stands be

tween ; and it is not used aftercent ormills.

6. Un is not used before csnt ormills in counting : that ia, theFrench says simply hundred , thousand , not one hundred or a

thousand and so on .

7. I n giving dates,the brieferformmil is used in

stead ofmills: thus,mll n pt oentmn utu drs, 1 776mil huit csnt qu tro vlng

‘t-duq, 1 885

a . TheFrench seldomsays, in dates orelsewhere. eighteen hun

dred and so on . but rather (a ) thousand eight hundred etc.

8. Still hi hernumbers are used than those given in the table

thus, an orun billion a thousandmillion,on trillion

amillionmillions, etc .

9. A fterplusmore andmoins less, before a numeral,than is expressed by do : thus, plus de troison emore tha nthree years,mainsdc dixminutes less than ten mtwutee.

VOOABULAB Y .

f. . theyear le n d-, themth

nm ,wm le ionrnho darla ‘socouds, the seoond

mMMmuch f howmang IWJ) la ohooe, the thing

h id-,Me fimo tontmake QXXXI L flb)

78 sw or n .

3 1 23 013 1 1 5.

‘0s paysan-ci a 3 chsvaux , 4 bmufs, 1 8 vaches, st 21 9

brebis. L’annés a 3 65 jours. Chaque joura 24 heures.

L’heure a 60minutesst 3 60secondes. L ’

année a 1 2mois.Lsmois a 29, on 80, on 3 1 jours. Combien deminutesle jour a-t-il 60 fois 24 font 1 440 le jour a 1 440minutes. Combien ds livres avez-vous sur la table? J’ai

plus de 7 livres. Mon oncle a plus de 565 livres dans asbibliothbque. Combien de fruits a-t-il dans son pan ier?‘ II a l l pommes, 7 poires, et plus do 10 péches.

“J’ai

été en Anglsterre 6 mois et 8 semaines. Combiend’heures la semaine a-t~elle? La semaine a 1 68 heures

7 fois 24 font 1 68. 5 fois 9 font 45 .

Tums 1 5.

‘Have youmany books? ‘I have less than a hundred

books, butmy fatherhasmore than a thousand books in hislibrary. Howmany peasants are in this village Ninety

-six ; and each peasant has a wife and several children .

Howmany animals have you,my good friend I havenine cows

,twelve ox en , and a hundred and twenty-one

sheep . Charles,howmany weeks has a year? A year

hasfifty-twoweeks and one day. Three times fourmake

twelve. Five times twomake ten . Seven times nin emake sixty-three Eleven times twelvemake a hundredand thirty-two. Where is yourmother, sir She has

beenmore than fourdays in the country, but she isat homenow. These boys have had 4 1 apples ; theywi ll be sick.We shall have been in London less than three weeks.Amonth has thirty or thirty-one days.

LESSON XV I .

l . The ordinals are mostly formed fromthe cardi

nals, whethersimple or compound, by adding the endingoitme, before which a final 0 of the cardinal is omitted.

But

a . First is premier, and second is either‘sscond or the

regular deux iems -except in compound numbers, wherefirst isuniéme, and second is dcux itme only .

6. Cinq makes cinquibme, with inserted u; and neufmakes neuvibme, with change of f to v.

2. Examples of the ordinals areh t prsmisr riflwM 13

841 mm67th soin nts-uptiims77th ccln nts-din leptlm

10mcsnt uniinm1 1 th ou ibms 7 1 8th rcpt osut trelsibme10th diz-huitibmo 10001111 minim

1mmmills deux cent qu a nta-human ea . A n ordinal is generally preceded by the defin ite

article, ls or is or lea ; and premier and second have a

special feminine form: thus, la premitrs, la seconds.

b. Second and deux iéme are used somewhat indifl'erently ; butpreferred where there are only two objects (noto follow) : time , 10 second tome the second

deux ibms toms, themnd volume (of a

3 . The cardinal numeral sometimes stands in Frenchwhere in English we use the ordinal : namely

so mssox ma. I n giving the day of the month

,except the first

thus,lo deux ju vier, the second q amcamuqmtremle dnq avmmfourth o e qf

'

Apv-a

mammmmmmwmwmasd of fl ay

h dix dnmdq flwlenth qf thomonth

1. premierml, Uwflfl tq ay

6. I n giving the title of a sovereign, except the first

and sometimes the second thus,

Henri queue, Henry I V.

Henri premler, Hmry I .

Charlu dmorCharleouoond, Charleen

c. I n other numerations also, where the number follows thething enumerated thus

,

q .WWWWJW4 . A s in English

,the ordinals are used also as frac

tionals—but only fromfifth upward : thus,an odnqnfinm, cflflh part troisvingtidmeo, threemma . For half,the French has two words, moitié f. as

noun,and demi (demie f.) as adjective. But demi before

a noun is joined to it with a hyphen, and is not variedforgender. Thus

lsmoitié da temps,Waf fles timean denuded, a lum-foot, 1500‘

anne den t-hours, a half-hour,Man homnn piod et demh a foot and a haffu sWfiM mMrawaM

b. The words for third andfourth orquarter are tiersand quart respectively : thus,

trod: at an tiers,Mmand aMu qu fl d'hmc quarmof an hour

m emnmh qmmyord and tkmquarmc. Quint isalso rarelyused forflflh partd nstead of cinquiin e,

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ea Lessox xvn .

at Ptris the 1 8th, and l ehall be in London fromthe 12th

to the 27th of the nextmonth. What history have you?‘I have volnme fifth of the history of HenryV I I .

'

I lenryV I I L was son of H enry V I I . , and father of Edward V L ,Mary, and Elizabeth. E lizabethwas the second queen of

England ; V ictoria is the fifth.

' Have youbeen in Germany? ”I was in Germany a year and three quarters.“I shall have been in school two hours and a half. ”

Six

months are (the) half of the year.

”Each child had a

half-cup of tea and a bit of bread. They had a poundand a quarter of cheese, and three pounds and a half of

sugar.

”These (co) are the children ofmy fourth son .

The first, the fourth, and the six th of the children are

boys.

"The second, the third, and the fifth are girls.

"My grandfather is now in his 83 d year ; he hasmanygrandsons.

"Y ou are the 1 4 th grandson of your grand

father. The France of our days ie not the France of the1 7th century.

1 . The names of themonths are as follows

m , FubruaryW,Mdimlm, December

2. The names of the days of the week are as followsdin-ache, Sundaylandl, arm judl, ram-mya . The names ofmonths and ofweek-days

capitals, as in English, but are treated like common nouns.

3 . I n giving a date, the number (generally cardinal

XV I . 8a) of the month-day stands before the month

m an s : mournsmWEEK-DAYS. 83

name, and is not usually followed by do of ; before itstands the article is (in old style, cc this, and inmercantile style an on the) : thus,

luadi lo premieravril (rarely d’avril).Monday, April latmardl ls quatrs juillst, 1M , July 4ih

“muMpsmemma JuMMpcy etc.

M umaopt smml hult cent,

4 . I n giving the time of day, o’clock is expressed byhour“, literally hours, and the parts of hours, as in the

following examplesone o

’

clock, an hours fieso’

clock, an hours.

M o'

dock iu’

t, quolle hme est-il l

u‘

twfllmn bs dcwn , am bientbtme heuruWMfiwn quamhm et qumwrst un quAfi)at a quartertommi l it u st troh quruor

mamminutespast eight, huit heure et ringtt rohminutesat tuetcemiautssMomtemi dix heurumoimdommlnutua. As the ex anmles show, heures is not to be omitted.

6. But douse hours: is not used foroweI/ve o’clock in

stead of it is saidmidi (literallymidday) for twelve at

noon, andminuit (literallymidnight) for twelve at nightthus,wmm rmmmmrmmmma

w m wm idHorminulnmdu fingtminutu5. One’s age is thus expressed :

ImMmmrc oId , j'si quln e anWa i terfifiwand ammm a dnqmct den l

6. Measure is expressed as followsMis dfsd hfvt ut haut ds slx plsduliterally, hfgh by d fast)MWfifiMWmottsm mlonguode quarants

-d nqmora qw antcd nq piods do loagum

84 Lassos xvn .

7. For ttma with a numeral is used fols : thns, deu fiis

8. Forothernumeral derivatives, see the Second Part, 5567 etc.

VOCABULARY.

loam , length largcur, breadth

convent, often

ici, here 13 , there

spa-Goodman , day qflcrtomorrow

Mar, yesterdayEmcxsa 1 7.

‘Paris, le 23 avril, 1 886. Quel jour da mois avonsnous aujourd’hui ? ‘Aujourd’hui est le 1 9 ou is 20; de

main sera ls 21 . Févrierest ls 2me, et décembre is 1 21 110mois de l’année. Dimanche est le l er et vendredi ls Bmejour de la semaine.

' Nous avonsmercredi aujourd’hui ;avan t-hier a été lundi, et aprés-demain sera vendredi. A

quelle heure seras-tu chezmon pére-demain ? ‘Je serai a

l’eglise a dix heures et demie, et is serai chez ton pere amidi et quart. Quelle heure est-ii ? 11 est o

_n_zg_heures

moins dix minutes, et nous avons été a l’

école deuxheures et trois quarts. Que]age votre filsa-t-il,madameMon fils a dix -neuf ans et demi, et il est grand de six

pieds. Notre maison a quaran te-deux pieds de largeur,et elle est haute de trente» cinq pieds. I ls on t été ici de

dix heures amidi .

“Les en fants ont été a l’ecole deux

fois aujourd’hui, a neuf heuresmoins nu quart, et adeuxheures et demie.

“Amidi ils auront été a l’ecole trois

heures et nuquart. Trois fois quatre font douze. Sept

et huit font quinze. “ 1Tama s 1 7.

‘Londou, Sunday, N ov. 5 , 1 773 . Washington, July 4 ,1 776 . What day of theweek is it to-day I t is Thurs

day, the 9th of June. What daywere you in Paris ‘I

was at ParisTuesday orWednesday of lastweek. Saturv

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a . Thh b the only case ot a real defln tiou: 000V . bun ch.

4 . Fromthe present participle may be found the imperfect indicative and the present subjunctive, by changing ant into airand s respectively : thus,

persons of the

6. Fromthe past participle are made,with the aux

iliary verb avoiror ttre (see XXV III . 5 the

compound forms—the perfect infinitive, perfect indies»

tive,and so on : thus,

Pmm

j’al donné j

’ai h i

6. Fromthe present indicativemay be found the imperative thus,

a . I n general, the three persons of the imperative are the samethe co persons of the merit indicative :

“only,

in the firstnding me final a of t 2d sing. im

tntisusu

ally (see below, lost, so that its formagreeswith of thelet sing. indicative.

7. Fromthe preterit indicativemay bemade the imperfect subjunctive, by changing final 3 (in the first conjugation , that of the 2d sing.) into us : thus,

rmsr assume oonmsarrox . 87

8. The first regular conjugation , with infinitive end

ing in or, contains the great majority of all the verbs in

They are tbe vc ba of the fimt lmfln oouiugaflmium , buta .

shoa fewofmoee them d and thhdwnjugafiona nowcome tobe lnfieetedmu mdmmy bmmwedmd newmademha.

9. As amodel of its inflectionmay be taken the verb

a . The synOpsis of its principal parts and the partsderived fromthemis as follows

doumt

b. The complete inflection of the simple tenses is (withinfin itive and participles prefixed)

m mwg‘mdmua donnmdodmer)

je dou e

tudn au

ll dme commM lmmmm

jammtudmals

il doumltPam dldmm

”a dmi ts.

M IM wummmjo dmoral nousdormsrm

quc nmdonnim

que je donnauo

que tudormauesqu

’il dcnni t qu'

ils dormussnt,c. Of the compound forms,made with the auxiliary

avoir, it will he snficient to give the synopsis, the infiection of the auxiliary being already familiar thus

,

Pl an er lam “. to havemavoir domré

amt donne

[ I nseam Pl an er. t han also» ,we.j'ai donné etc .W . t raum a s.

j'

avais dounéetc.

W W.M 1 0 01MMM Mqus j

’

aia donné etc.

Pwmm .uan mwmmmqua j

‘

eusse dmé etc.

10. a. The 2d sing. impv. of the first con adds a whenfollowed by the object-pronouns emory (XXI I . 5

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90 LI SBON m.

Tm: 1 8.

‘Do youlove your friends?

‘ I love allmy friends andrelations. What plaything shall I give to your brotherLet us give a book to her brother. What cowswas thepeasant looking for? He was seeking his cows, but hehas found nothing. If he does not find his cows, he willnot bringmilk to the city. A lthough he had not foundhis cows, he brought milk enough yesterday. The peasantswork all day. They love the country we love thecity. What letter did Louisa give to thisman ? She

had not found her father’s letter, but she gave to themanheruncle

’s two letters. I often give handsome things

to my friends. My uncle will bring from(110) Romesome beautiful pictures for (pour) his nieces. Children,

let us give some wine to this poor woman She basworked ten hours, and she is very unhappy. Give yourold black coat to thisman ; he is cold. Did these younggirls look for flowers? Y es

,sir they had been seeking

flowers an hour in the garden . Why have they not

brought flowers to theirmother They have found no

flowers ; they have found on ly leaves in the garden.

LESSON XIX.

l . The verbs of the second conjugation, with infinitive ending in ir, aremuch fewer than those of the first.

8. Asmodel of the second conjugation, wewill takethe verbfiuirfim'

di.

SECOND REGULAR CONJUGATION.

a. The synOpsis of pri ncipal and derived parts is

b. The full inflection of the simple tenses iswarm fin ish. toflutsh

Pa-mrrPaar-rein s,fin ishingfiat-rant

M JM ete.

m . [ resen t-Mao. etc.

ill finlmh nt

mamWIMM M

ill findront

m rmmm

ila finiralont

92 Lassorv xrx .

que jsfiniuo

qus tufinlucs

qu‘

ll finft qu’ih fiuiuent

0. Of the compound tenses, the brief synopsis isan irfini, to kewfim'

sbed

amtmmmfiacabed

j'

d fiut awfim‘

shad

j’

avd a finh I hadflffisAcd

j’

eul finL I hadfimhhodj'

aurai finL I shall haceflnid ed

j’

auraisfiuiJ'

should hcccfim’

dwdqu j

’

d sfinh that lmay hmfinw

( 1 . Note that, of the

3 . Two or three verbsof this conjugation have slight irregularities, whichmay be pointed out here :

a . The verbhalrhate loses itsdimresis (that is, has its a and iun ited into a di hthong) in the sin ular persons of the resent

indicative and o the imperative. see two tenses are us infiected :

johail nous humontuh is

il halt ils hat-sentb. The verb fimirflourish, oth

used only in a figurative sense.

c. The verbbén ir blessas adjective, comet-mud thus,

VOOABULAB Y .

fininfim’

sb bi tin bm'

ld

mammals}; ‘halr, kate 1 A“.M uslim“ cuisin es?“

“nimble“h tfioha the tad

' ummmm1.m lumpl. , tlropeopb

ml,“

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94 LESSON x x .

people’s things. Why did you pun ish the dog? I

punished the dog, because be seized this poor boy’smeat.

Do the flowers flourish in your garden 1' I havemanyflowers, and they flourish well in my garden. A lthoughthese children hate their tasks, they love books. Theydid not choose good books ; they chose bad novels.

Theirmaster will pun ish the children . If you havefin ished yourhistory, give the book to your brother.

LESSON XX.

1 . The verbs of the third conjugation , with infinitiveending in to, are but few in number.

2. Asmodel of their conjugation may be taken the

verb vendre Bell (h t. ven dor-e).a . The synopsis of principal and derived parts is

vn dsnt

vandals " ctr vsndu "rdi-uundo

I) . The full inflection of the simple tenses is

man seems commun i on . 95

row

Ocnmomtm wmtc.

jomidi-sis

il vendrait ill vendraiut

vmdu

gasismain s

qua tn n udists

qu’

il vendit

0. Of the compound tenses,the brief synopsis 18

avoir"min, to have sold

j’d mdt mcold

j’svnic vmdml had cdd

j'mvmdmIMd ooldj'

sun i vcndn, [M in ne sota

j’

sud s vudml should hmwldqu j

’

d c vn dmthat lmay hmcdd

qu i'm M MI mwmm

4 . Notice that the verbs of this con ugation have differentvowels in the endings of the preterit of

thu mdimvcndn . In nearly all other

irregular, these two forms agree in vowel.3 . Two or three verbs of this conjugation have slight irregu

larities, which are best pointed out here.

sud derived purts is as fcllows

uvcirvuincu

jc vdues

tuvuiuss

tl vduu {luv-inquestThe compound ccun incrc convince is conjugated in the same

rumpeno) adds a t in the 8d sing. indie.

c. Battre beat (Lat. ban n er-e) loses one of its two t 's in thesingularof the pres. indicative and of the imperative, which are

thus inflected1m m

buttons

ils hottest

vendu, cell pa dre, loco

attend“,wait. «quabutt“.beat

10M11 , thewho 13 voix , the wisel'dn sum. , thebird l

’

cuuauim the enemycutoudro, hear,

understand

En sures 20.

Oe boulangervend dupain et des gateaux . Pourquoin’a-t-il pas vendu de pain a cet homme-oi? ‘

I l n’

a pas

vendudc pain a l’homme, parce qu’il n ’avait pas d

’argent.

I l perdit hiertout son argent. Entendez-vous les oiseauxdans is jardin ? Non ,madame ; is n

’ai point entendulee

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98 LESSON m.

LESSON XXI .

1 . Besides the verbs of the three regular conjugations, the French has a large number (near a hundred)that aremore or less irregularly inflected. Of all these,

the inflection has to be separately learned,and itwill be

given in the lessons following.

2. 0. Of the infinitives ending in or.

there

I) . Butmany verbs of the first conjugation,otherwise

regular, have to undergo in inflection certain changes ofspelling, in accordance with the general rules of the language (laid down above

,in the Lesson on Pronunciation) .

8. Since (210) noword in Frenchmayend in twosilentand their occurrence anywhere in a word is

a . V erbs having in the infinitive a mute syllable before the final syllable have to give the former a full pronunciation whenever in inflection the syllable after itbecomesmute.

b. This isusually done by putting a grave accent uponthe e of the syllable in question .

Thus, fromthe infinitive manor lead,we have jcmm. tnmenu-as, il menu-si t.mane. u’

ilsmencnt, etc ; but nousmsmsnl t etc. Also,fromuchctcr

buy, we have il achete, nousmeter-0m, que tu“betas. etc. ;

0. But a few verbs double instead the consonant (t or1) following the c.Thua fmmjctcr throw, we have jc jcttc, tujettsrnmil jcttc

ruit jettc flqufis jettcnt et and fromappolcr call, we have

il appellc. nous appcucrcns, qua tuappelles. etc.

ransom mas : rms'r cosmos'rlos . 99

étincelcr. renou

d. The synopsis of principal and derived forms ofmanor is as

moun t

The only tenses that show the difierence of spelling in their

tense-inflection are the pres. indicative, the imperative, and the

pres. subjuncu'

ve ; they are :

mesonsn ines menu manic:

mean tAnd in likemannerwith the otherverbs.

4 . Since the accent on an 0 followed byalarly and usually the grave (N a—thereforea. V erbs having in the infin itive an acute 6 before

final syllable change the accent to grave (s) whennext syllable becomes mute—except, however, infuture and conditional, where the acute is retained .

Thus, of the verbcedar cede, forexample,6. The synopsis of principal and derived forms is

cidunt

And the inflection of the tensesthat showa change of accent is

dam0. But the verb crécr mate reta ins the acute throughout

thus, jc créc ih créent. etc ; also, in general usage hitherto , theverbs ending in the infinitivemégcr : thus, fromprotégcr p rotea

mmgs pr

otégent ctcwmut nowbetter jcmtegc

V erbs having 0org (pronounced soft) before finaler of the infinitive retain the soft sound of these letters

through theirwhole con jugation ; and this is signified by

100 LESSON mwriting a cedilla under the 0 (thus, and by keeping an

s after the 3 (62s),wherever in conjugation those letters

come to be followed by a or0.

Thus, fromplacer-place, andmanger eat , we have

6. Since y double i) does notusuallystand before amute c

a . V erbshaving a y before the final erof the infinitivechange it to i when in conjugation it comes to be followed by amute s.

6. Thus, for exam of the verb payer p ay the synopsis of

principal and deri forms”mt

mm ram-oAnd the present indicative is thus inflected

we 11mmwas sure:

paient

0. But verbs in eycr preserve the y throughout : thus, jc(not gmseic) , etc. An d some wri ters retain the y

after a : thua je payc. etc.

7.When the '

1 of a verb ending'

1 n ier comes to be followed byiminflection (namely, in let and 2d plur. impf. indie. andsubj . the two i sremain unchanged (do not become us,fromprior p ray, cublier forget, we have none pritam. vousprim; que ncus cuhlii

VOCABULARY.

appoint , call l obster, buyM 1Wmanger, cet comcnccr, begin

Bottom. clean

“barges-, thu lwphmlomndc, thoworld IOMNWW

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102 Lesson x x n .

take all the children to the school."CallMary ; I called

her, but shewas not there. The shepherd takes the sheepto the fields. A t five o’clock he will take the cows tothe water. H e took the sheep to the water yesterday at

two o’clock.

“If they call the boy, he will protect thesheep . My cousins build houses, and they employman ymen .

”We only employ one servan t. Let us beginthis pretty story.

" I have forgotten the book. Wewere at the school, and you always forgot the books.

These children were employing their time well. Theyhad fin ished the history, and they were beginn ing a newstory . God created all men, he created also the sheepand the cows.

LESSON XXI I .

oonnmc'rxvs rmsomu. enormous.1 . Many pronouns in French, especially the personal

pronouns,have a different formaccording as they are

used conjunctively ordisjunctively.

2. A conjunctive pronoun is one that is immediatelyconnected with a verb, as either its subject or its director indirect object ; anyother is disjunctive.

3 . The subject-pronouns are already familiar ; theyare :

run.

81 1m. jo, I (l, he; elle, the

ilsm. , elles f. , they

a . I n rare instances, however, even the oun is76.

4 . The subject-pronoun stands in general immedidiate ly before the personal verb, only the n egative no

and the object-pronouns being allowed to come in between the two.

cosmo'mrn reasse ss PRONOUNS. 103

on. But, as in English, the subject-pronoun follows theverb in questions, and in interjected phrases like dit-il

b. I n a question, on ly the subject pronoun changes itsplace

,everything else remain ing as itWould be if the

sentence were an assertion .

5. Of the object-pronouns, direct and int object,

all the forms are these

mm memen to s“ non un io n:

so “, tctytheeJo flw WW1 9WMM; lour, to thm

6. The uses of the object-pronouns are as followsc. Nous and vous are unvaried, standing in every con

struction and position— as conjunctive pronouns and as

disjunctive,as subject and as object, as direct and as ih

direct object, before the verb and after it.6. H e andmoi, and to and tci, are used either as direct

or as indirect object,me and to before the verb, andmoiand toi after it (forone ex ception , see XXIII. Ob) . Thus

tum’

t houlomstmtuudmmthouflua t thyx lfvousmdcnnsg youm'ce tome dunner-Main ta ins

c. Le la, and lss are used as direct object only, 10being masculine, la feminine, and Ice of either gender; luiand lcur are used only as indirect object, both being of

eithergender: thus,

ll l'

slmc, he lomher m ammd h l

’d n g che lomlu’m due lq loueMm

jo lul dcnnq lm‘ce toho’morha donnu-luhgicswhan orhncus lu vcndmwcn ll thcm Wh a madl thmvmhurvn h gmcdl to them m un ,w

104 LESSON mm.

(1 . Thus it is seen that the oh'

pronouns of the lst nud 2dformaccording to position before or after thethat only : while, on the con trary, those of the ad

”accordiug to theircharacteras direct or indirect omand the t object in the singularalso forgender, but they

the same formbefore and after the verb.

3 . Notice that the direct-object pronouns 10 In. 100 have thesame form, and the same distinctionsof genderand number, withthe defin ite article. Lo and 19. also have their vowels cut oif before a following vowel (or iimute) , just aswhen theyare articles.

7. Au object-pronoun , whetherdirect or indirect ohject, stands in general immediately before the governingverb—in the compound tenses, immediately before the

auxiliary : butwith this exception , that if the verb is animperative affirmative, the pronoun stands instead direct

ly after it (and is joined to it by a hyphen) .Forexamples, see above, c.

a . Nothing is allowed to come between the verb and

its pronoun-object ; the subject,and the negative us,

when used, are placed outside of them: thus,

jouomMu t I doMMwumbwkmon ami no t’awmmmbud hmnd m thn

no lu almwvmmdowumt lou thom?no i’nmt flmflnhwfl h nd hawflm’

d ad i fl

b. If the verb is an imperative negative, the objectpronoun precedes instead of following it : thus,

no lui dmuw h uvrq do not giwhimthcbookno lo. than pa , do not loos than

8.When a verb governs two object-pronouns, one

direct and the other indirect,they are both together

placed either before or after it, according to the rules

just given— that is, after it in the imperative afirmative,otherwise before it.a. A verb in French does not have two direct obisch ; and almfi

uever two indirect unless one he en or ymecond Part,

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106 LESSON nzu.

leur a douués. Si vous avez de bone livres, donnez-lesmoi. Apportes-tu cette fleur ama scaur? Oui, monami ; je la lui apporte. Apportez-moi aussi dss fleurs.“Ne lui apportez pas de fruit. Si j

’avais dupain , je

vous ls donnerais.

"I I a faim je ls lui donnerai. Aves

vous votre livre, ou Paves-vous perdu? "Je l

’ai perdu,

monsieur ; je is cherche,mais je us Is trouve pas. Cher

chez-le toujours ; vous ls trouverez. N e me donn erezyous pas ces jolies deure Je no vous lee donnerai pas

is les ai achetées pourma mere, et je les lui donnerai.”Si vous us me l’aviez pas donn é, je ue vous aurais pas

aimé . Tuas Ice pommes de ces en fants ; donne-les-leur.

Si tune les leur donn es pas, je te pun irai.

Tum 22.

I give youthe book ; yougiveme the book ; they giveher the book ; we give themthe book ; he gives us thebook thougivest himthe book. I give it tomy friendthougivest themto thy brother ; we give it to our father.

I give it to you; yougive it tome ; they give it to herwe give it to them; he gives it to us ; thou givest it tohim give it to them; do not give it to her.

‘Will younot give me this apple ? ‘

1 shall not give it to you Ishall give it to thisboy.

‘D o not give it to him; give it

tome. Did not the baker sell the bread to thiswomanY es ; he sold it to her ; he did not give it to her. Will

she give it to herchildren Shewill not give it to themshe is eating it. Give it tome do not eat it. Eat it

do not sell it to them. Bring me the book, and I willbuy it.

“ If she had broughtme cherries, I should haveeaten them. The shepherd had sheep, but he has lostthem. H e is seeking them, and if he finds them, he willlead themto us. Findme the book, and bring it tome.

Does the bakersell bread to the poor people H e does

not sell it to them, because they have nomoney. Let us

msmn crivn m oosnmcrrvs raonouns. 107

buy a piece of bread, and let usgive it to them.

"Althoughwe have bread enough

, we will not eat it we will give it

LESSON XXIII.

1 . Personal pronounsnot immediately connectedwitha verb, as either its subject or its direct or indirect oh

ject, are called disjunctive, orare said to be used disjunetively.

2. The disjunctive forms of the personal pronounsare :

sumtouches lut him; ollo, ha

'

su m, silen t , thema . Note that in the first and second persons thwe pronouns

have the same formwith some of the conjunctives, while in the

third person aux is new, and lui, which as conjunctive pronoun( indirect object) is of either gender, as disjunctive ismasculine

8. The ordinary constructions of the disjunctive pro.

noun are these :

a .With a preposition .

Thus, amoi tome, de toi of thee, avec lui with him, cann onswithout her

, pour eux for tlicm sntre elles between them( f

b. Used absolutely— that is,without any verb expressedwith which they should be immediately connected : thus,qd n dlt ulg whohaa acid that

qd nvmou vmwlmn hammm!

snout pln grande quo tet dis iuaaormmm“ m mdo acl cm

c. I n combination with mama self, to formemphaticpronounscorresponding to ourmyodf, thyself, etc. thus,

mm“, screammmWelles-min es, alumina (f. )

ja single person (VI I . l b) .These pronouns admit of being used as subject : thus, lui.man ome l 'a dit hinwelf has sa id it tome.

d . As predicatesafter the impemonal c'ut ce sont it i‘

s : thus,c’

ost mox it ic ’

est vous it ia you, est-ce lui, is it he?butQ0

k“

; the sense of

the queen ? I amshc

When more than one ronoun ,ora pronoun and noun , are

sub ’

sets of the same verb, t e pronoun has the disjunctive forman if the two are not of the same person , the com nd subjectisusuallyrepresented by a suitable pronoun before verb thus

,

ld ctmmh mt p rfiq he and hfiundomgomThe same is necessary in the case of a compound object : thus,

je vous éooute toi et lui et ello, I lietmto thecand himand her.

g. I f a subject-pronoun is separated fromthe verbby an hingbut the negative no and object~pronouus, it has to take disjunctive form thus, lui, saisissant na crayon , écrivit he, seizinga p encil , wrote ; eux ssuls scnt vsnus they alone hmcomc.

4 . Besides the personal pronouns already given,there

is another, a reflexive pronoun of the 3d person, having

the conjunctive formso and the disjunctive sci (likememoi, to toi) .Se is used in the inflection of reflex ive verbs (XXIX ) , both as

direct and as indirect object, both as singularand as pluralis only singular, and usually relates to an indefinite subject

chm penn i noimmmthiuh ofwnhh a quwwlowoalym’

cw

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1 10 meson x xm.

c.When y and on are used together, sn tollows y : thus, il y

7. En is often used partitively, standing for a noun

with the partitive preposition dc.

Thus, aver-vous dupain ? have youbread ?j'

en ai : je vous sndonnerai. ] have eome ; I will gice yousome.

( 1 .Where the noun would have an adjective ualifyin it, the

adjective takmthe partitive preposition : thus j'emhave some that

mix ) (equivalent to j as dohon pain ) voulez

vous des 7 £ vous en donnerai ds belles do youwafnt

flowers? I wifl give yousome handsome ones.

8. En and y are originallyadverbs, and are, especially y there,not seldomused with that value. They have many idiomuses, forwhich see the Second Part, § 85.

“Milieu“, dam lo théfltmthafieatnlo plaisirJMpkaom

Exanciss 23 .

Es~tuplus grand que ton frére , ouest-i]plus grand quetoi ?

‘ I l est plus beau que moi,mais je suis plus grandque lui. Le plus grand, c

’estmoi ; et ls plus beau, c’est

lui. As-tu ton livre avec toi? N on, je l’ai perdu.

Toi etmoi, nous ls chercherons. Moi-meme l’ai trouvé,sans vous.

‘Le boulanger donne-t-il des gateaux a ces

en fants? ‘ I l en a,mais il ne leur en donne pas.j’en achéterai pour eux ; il en a de bons. Toi st lui, J

avez-vous été nubal hier? Moi seul y ai été il était an c

theatre avec eux . Ce tableau n’est il pas tree beau

1]Peat mais j ’en ai de plus beaux. Cet homme parlebeaucoup de see amis ; mais il n ’

y pense pas ; il n e pensejamais qu’asoi-ineme. Les garcons sont-ils nutheatre Y

1 18 y out etcavecmoi,mais ils n ’

y sont plus. 1 13 y out

an beaucoup de plaisir,mais ils n’euauront plus ; ils sont

al’ecole a present. Menez-m’

y, je cherche leurmaitre .

C’estmoi,monsieur ; je le suismoi-meme. A viez-vous

mom ransom 1 1 1

parlé de ce livre ? ”Nous y avions pensé,mais nous n’enavions pas parlé.

”Lui et elle en pnrleront.

Turns 28.

‘These children are hungry ; give me bread for them.

‘ I haven ’t any ; but I will buy some.

‘No, I will buy

some myself. They are poorer than I, but I amsmallerthan they.

‘They alone are unhappy ; we are not so.

“The most unhappy of men— it is I. ’

I have lost myfriend, and I amunhappy without him.

'I do not speak

of him, but I think always of him.

' I was happy, but Inever shall be so again . This good man never thinks ofhimself. H e hasmuchmoney, and he gives some to thesepoor people. Are thesemen the peasants of the village ?I t is they. If youhavemon ey, giveme some for them.

Have youbeen at the ball No,I have not been at it.

I shall be at the theatrewith herto.morrow Myfriendand I were at the ball. These books are very handsome,but I have handsomer ones in my library. I will give

yousome for yourself . What book have you I haveforgotten the name of it. I shall be at the house ; waitforme there (at it) . “I shall not be there (at it) ; I shallbe atmy uncle’s.

1 12 LESSON x x i v.

00has the value of a pronoun as subject ofOttobein its various tenses and as antecedent of the relative

pronouns qui, que, etc.

a. I n the former case, it is generally to be rendered

by it in English : thus, c’

ertmoi it is I , as fut son devoirit was his duty, a

’s etalui it was (has been ) he, c

’

aurait

”b. Ca tsmuch more ofteu used than il with the ad parsons ofThis is especially the case

when somethin already described or in timated is referred to, sothat the cs d admit of being rendered by tliat ; but it is notlimiwd to such cases. I n fact, il is hardly used exca t in ex

pressions of time (XI . before an adjective followed y a logi

cal] subject-clause (infinitive orrelative) which the il anticipates,an in the parenthetic il est vrahmean ing to bemre.

Thus,il est de partir it is time to leove, il est tard it

late il est six d is fi o’docl ast dificih de vous

éfidont qmvomavu tort it is platn that yoummng,chbmmn ut vmmmma a dwrm

,mbemn ,

but very far —but vous avaz tort. c'ast evident are

wrong, it (that is p la in ; fi itea cela . cs n'

est pu do

un i qui oct pt rfi it is yourfi'tend that has lefl.

c. Co is also sometimes used with pouvoir and devoir as auxiliaries of Otto, and in a fewphm with rambler seem: thus,co pouvait Otre lui itmight be hc, ce doit 0trs itmmt be, cama

8‘

d. Foras as antecedent of a relative, see XXV I . 10.

3 . The compounds of aswith the demonstrative adverbs are written ceci and cola (without grave accent ; itis often contracted colloquially to ca) ; they mean this

and that in an indefinite way, without reference to anyparticular object expremed. They are used in all con

jo no vmw osci ; donnu

qu dius vmdoumw domuy abwt thofla. I n a question , ceci (rarely used) and cell . are divided in to

as oi and as It : thua ut-os lh votra livre is that yourbook ?lent-cosi n emts are thgacyour glom?

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1 1 4 Lesson xxxv .

French Grammar.

in all of them,the three present

indicative, the imperative, and the resen t

person is own ,

0. The only rules for the formation of the derived

parts are those already given for regular verbs (XV III .

1

among the irregularverbs is thethe presen t fromthe present

(1 . I n anW1” verb,the principal parts should

first be andm a familiar, than the synopsis, then theinflection of the present tenses when this is in anyway irregular.

The synopsis of principal and derived parts will be given in this

grammar for every irregular verb, and the inflection of the

presen t tenses when called for. I n the

goopsis, those derived

parts which do not come regularly from a

a ”(principal parts will

ve attention called to themby being prin with sp a ced or

op en letters.

6. The very common verb vouloir wish, desire, will

(Lat. vane), is also a specially irregular and difficult one.

a . I ts synopsis is as follows

voulais avolrvonlu

v oul l lm. SJ."b. I ts pres. indie. and subj . are thus inflected

variant n aillent

o. The regular imperative vsux voulons voulez is very rarelyinstead of it

,the 2d rs. sing. and plur. vanilla vanilla:

are used, but onlywith a fo owing infinitive, and in the sense of

monsmm raosouss. 1 1 5

plewae to, bs good erwugh to : thus, veuillez vousmeoir p lmsit down .

olr

bu in a nmnberofotherverume vowel ot thcmot is chan

ged

on whmm the udtcal “ 0mmmmotha ot tdh tom. Theac tormswx changed vowel arecalled 3mmtoms (ve n t . veul ea t, v euin en t, etc) .

8 . V ouloir isused with the infinitive of another verbalmost asan aaux iliary, and must stand for our will whenever a wish or

request is imlied : thus,mules-vous diner chez nousdinswitli us I t also signifles wish to have, want . as,vomdn lait will youha ve somsmilk ?f .mvouloir. followed byLmeans he ve a grudge at, bow ed

oranm'y at , be hesti le to, etc. : thua fl en vonlait acehomme ke bore a gmdgs aga inst thwp oorman .

VOCABULARY.

lo portuit,“spermlopd ntro, chemist” l’atelierm. , them

micu advIJettor

Exsamss 24 .

Est-os 1avotre pére Non ,monsieur, c’estmon oncle.

I l est vrai que nous ne l’aimons pas,mais c’est parce qu’ilest numauvais homme. Ce sont les trois freres de notre

ami celui-ci travaille toujours,mais ceux -lasont paresseuxet ne travaillen t jamais. Cherchez-vous ceci?

'Je ne

cherche poin t eels je cherche mes livres et ceux de montrére. V oila les portraits dema famille celui-ci est trés

bon ,mais ceux o lasont mauvais. Ce peintre a beaucoupde beaux tableaux dans son atelier. Achéteres-vous cettepeinture-ci oucelle ltl ? Celle-ci est le portrait de LouisXI V ., et cells-la de Louis XV . C

’étaien t deux rois de

Fran ce ; celui-la était nu tree grand roi ; celui-ci était untree mauvais homme. N e me donnez pas cela ; je na

l’aime pas j’aimemieux eeci. Ceci est trop cher je ne

vous l’achéterai pas.

“C’est cher, il est vrai ; mais c

’est

tree bean .

" Si j'avais asses d

’argent, j

’achéterais tout

ceci."Sent-cc 19. vos livres ou ceux da maitre ? "

Ce

sont mes livres ; ceux de mon maitre sen t a l’ecole.

Quoique nous fussions tres riches, nous n’achéterions pas

1 1 6 LESSON mv.

ces tableaux -oi ceux-lason t beaucoup plus beaux . Get

home n’est pas tree riche,mais celui-la est tree pauvre.

P si beaucoup de robes, et je vous donnerai celle-ci. Je

lui donnerai aussi celle dema scaur. Donnez-moi celle1a is l

’aimemieux .

Tenn 24 .

Is that your house ? Y es, it is my house, and it is avery good house. We have prettier ones in our villagebut this one is larger than my father’s. This picture ishandsome I do not like that one. Are you the painterof it ?

‘I amthe painter of this one, and I have manypictures in my studio. D o you like this one better, orthat on e I like this one, but those are also very pretty.Which portrait have youbought? I have bought thatof the king of England. Have you brought me this?Y es ; but if youdo not like this

, I will give you that.

I have lost your present and your brother’s, but I willlook for them. I have found this in the garden , and Iwill give it to you I t is seven o

’

clock,and I amhungry

give me bread. I'

h‘

ave some, but it is not for you.

Y ouhad some fruit, and youdid not giveme any now

I do not give you this. These men do not work, but

thosework always. We have lost ourhorse , but we havemy brother’s. If we had not had these flowers, we should

have bought the old woman ’s. These flowers are not

handsome I like those better.

vans-trams.

V oulez-vous du pain ‘

P Jc n’en veux pas ; je n

’ai pas

faim. N e voudriez-vous pasmangerce fruit V euillezm’

en dormer.

‘ I ls ne veulen t pas travailler.

‘I l voulait

manger. I l ne veut pasme Is donner. Quoiqu’il voult

‘

tt

manger, ii n ’avait rien .

‘ I will ; they do not wish ; will you?we shall have

wished ; youwillwish ; that I might have wished ; thata s“ d

'

ud e l l

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1 1 8 Lnssos x x v.

0. Que is only object of a verb, or predicate with an

intransitive verb : thus,que voulu-voul , what doyouwish?

que uoul dit cct homme,wkat doa thfiman uryww?qu

'

est cc (orqu’eotoe que c

’ect), what is it?

que lent il, qfwkatw ia it?

que devicndra-t-il , whatwill hemm! ( i .s. whatwill becomsqfhimnb. Quoi isused absolutely , andwith a preposition : thus,

elle vous a uni .Whas piemyou—what?doquot park -t il, wh i t inbe speaking?

c. Both que and quoi are frequent in exclamation thus,

de limi t quo de bieutaitc l what ae . howmnch) goo¢h en lwho: (i .e. howmany) kinda“ !

Mde plu hem wha t nwrcfortunate !

quot ! vmy étum what l

d . Que is often also an adverb,meaning how?why ) : thus,

que vmétu bonq hmchandwmemm!

que perlcc-vouu i haut, why doyouopaak w loud?

5. Lequcl is made up of the interrogative adjective

(XIII . 4) and the defin ite article ; it iswritten as it

one word, but both its parts are infimd for gender and

number: thus,

Sing. lequelm. , laquelle I . Plur. launchm. ,Muelle f.They are used in all constructions, in the sense of

which?which one?wha t one ? Thusvoid dm livm: lequel chddmv maramo bomMid da y/cuckoo“?

h quefle demmmefi n afifi whick of hiamten icmfi ed?

purbquel deuc chmwmltmqfthwmdc?a . The article in lequel etc. also combineswith the

A:Aftersome interrogativewords—thepronouns qui and «ma,

adjective queh and the adverhsouwhen ?quaud when ?com

1 1 9

meat how?combien howmtwh, howmany t—a subject-noun is

allowed to be itself put after the verb in asking a queetion (compane l . thus

, que veut cette femme what does this womanM t ouest notre ami wherc is our fflend ? quel livre a

l’

écolierwhat book has the scholar?

/ 7. I t is commen in French to use paraphrasestions: thus

, qu'

eet-os no vous ave: what is itforqu

'

aves-vouswhat soyou5? qui est-cc quiwho sells? and the 1ike; also est-ee quethat youhaoe ? forumvons haeeyou?

que j'

uime instead of aimé—je, and the like.

8. The verb pouvoir be able, can , is, like vouloir

(XXIV . a very common and very irregular verb,used somewhat in themanner of an auxiliary ofmode.

a . I ts synopsis of principal and derived forms is:pouvch

' WM 1mmw orming .“ ” (JAMpouru i ma y”pourre i l

b. This

tar in inflection .

roux . imi

pout peuvent

a lufltx

’

ijsteme te seen the eame emchange

tot e n

da

ngeeuas tn von lo lr. The

pres. I n comes regularWtromanotber orm m pph pn lmn t,mmd only u a dtnary udjecflwmeaulng powerMpuin an t.

d. Puic and pen : are equally common as 1st sing. In questions, however, only puis-je isuseda.When this verb ismade negative before an infinitive, the pa

in erten omitted : thus, cola ne pent tarder that cannot delay.

The omission ismore usual with puis than with peux in lst sing.

prmn t.

fl Ponvoir sometimes expm s general powbility, and is to

be rendered bymay,might, etc. : thus, cola pent Ott o thatmay

ba il pouvait avou'viug t ans hsmtght (p erhaps be 20years

old. I t is sometimesused reflex ively, in the sensc o Impossiblethu ceh se peut that is possibls.

g. Pouvoir often takes an object directlywhere in English wehave to nse another verb z thus, peut-il ettendre can ke wa it,il le pemt he ca n filofl t.

VOCABULARYla ”Motto, the napkin la nappo, the tabuodoth

l'

usiette, the plate to “cui ller, the spoon

laMrchotte, theforkdiner, dine

alors, than

Exmciss 25 .

‘

Qui est ce jeun e homme ? ’C

’

estMonsieur B monami. Lequel de vos amis aimez-vous? Je les aime tons.

Qui ven t diner avecmoi? “Moi, je ls veux je n’ai pas

encore (11116, et j’ai faim.

'Laquelle des deux nappes

voules-vous employer? ‘Nous emploierons la rougea“,

nous voulons nettoyer la blanche. (A qui es9cette assi

ette-ci“O’

est amon fils,mais ii n’est pas encore ici.

Qu’aves-vous amanger V euillezmanger de la viande

et des legumes.

"V oila un e cuiller et un e fourchette ;

laquelle voulez-vous Donnes-moi la fourchette, et nu

couteau aussi."Que vent-i]?

“I l vent du sel et du

poivre . Que lui donn ez-vous maintenant ? "Je lui

donne un e assiette. Lequel de vos freres est ici,et que

veut—il i“ “ I I veut déjeuner avecmoi D e quoi vous a~

t-il parlé I lm’a parlé duconcert ; qu

’en pensez-vous?

“A quoi pensiez-vous alors"Je pensais ama tache.

Aux quelles des jeunes filles pensez-vous maintenant?Jc pense (1ma niece .

Tum 25.Who has been in my room‘

P I t was I, madam.What did youwant I wan ted to find the table-clothand napkins. Which did youfind I found the whiteones. A t what hour do youwish to dine?

‘I will dinenow, because I have not breakfasted to-day. What haveyouon the table ? We have butter and cheese ; which

do youwish I wish cheese with my bread giveme akn ife and a plate. Here is a blue and a white plate ;

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122 LESSON x xvr.

2. By far the commonest relatives are qui and quequi standing as subject, and que as direct object of a

verb. Both of themsignify either persons orthings, ofany gender ornumber. Thus,

l’enfiut qui plemthe chdd that crier

du dmn qui vch ng birduhatfigh fimqum umthe bwhwhich youhaseh emis que nmahumthefricndawhomwe iow

a .

Stre

is also sometimes predicate with an intransitive, espec: thua imbécile que vous etee fool that you are

,cc

uey

’

cest that which it is, ce que vous devenu that which you, ce qu

’

il nous faut what we lack.

b. The participle of a compound tense following que agrees in

genderand number (X. 56) with the word to which que relates :thus, les gants qu

’

il a uchetés the gloves that hc has bought, les

0. A verb having qui as sub ect is ot the person of its ante

: thuamoi qmsuis l am,toi qui as thouthat hast,

etc.

3 . Gal is also used with prepositions,but generally

on ly of persons . thus,l’homme i qui je l‘ai douué, thsman towhom1 hacsaicmitlu auh chu qui vouM t efis

’mdcwithwhommh e

4 . Lequel etc. is used with prepositions of objectsother than persons : thus

,

lo chien auquol j’

al dcnué i manger, the dog to which 1 haocgimbomethingflo eat

lumflsmhmluquellu vmdmeumthe hom in whid

a .

and not qui.

5. But lequel etc. is also used as subject or direct

object of a verb, in place of qui orque—generally, how

ever, only when there is special reasoufor distinguishingthe gender and numberof the person or thing referredto : thus,

who ooma tommflwhere qug if used,mlght seemto reta tomm )

mama mononas. 123

8. Quoi, when used as relative, ismore often a compound relative (orrelative implying also its anteceden t),and ti ken in a general or indefin ite sense : thus,do. chumi quoi oa tait attention, things towhwhmpaycmwrijo noull quol, I don

’t knowwhat

voul mo diru i iwmaar, youmfl tellma on what tordya. De quoi , before an infinitive ,means wherewith : thus, j 'ai

7. Instead of qui or lequel with preceding do is oftenused dont,mean ing of whom, qfwhich, whose : thus,

IWMWN MWWOIM MWwhoaemichm

a. I f the word on which dont is dependent is object of a verb,

6. Dent is y an adverb Lat. d e n ud e ) , meaningwhence

, from and it is often best so rendered : thus,l’

osprit retom'ne aueieL dont il est descenduthe amt‘fit retum

to heaven,whence it descended .

8. The adverbouwhere is also often used almost as a relativenoun ,meaning to orat or in which , and the like : thus, leamem ouvous upm the honors to which you asp ireJ a

And d'

ohmeans fromwhich or whence,

bywhichmute, etc.

generally without antecedent ex pressed : thus, quiconquemont,m puni whoeoer lics ahall be pun ished .

10. The pronoun used as antecedent of a relative (asalready poin ted out

,XXIV . 2, 4a) is not the personal,

as in English he who, theywho, and so on,but the de

monstrative, so orcelui etc.

a . 00qui and os que answer to English what or thatwhich

,the one as subject

,the other as object (orsome

times predicate) oi a verb : thus,

1 24 Lasson x x vt.

ditu-moi oo qui voul troubtoJeamewhatmuNamditn moi co qus voul voubg tellmewhatmwfihditu-moi oe quc vou t eumewhatyoumWt mjom d o aR that I tdl you

b. Cs dent means qf what or that qf' which : thus, ditch-moice dont vous avoz i vous plaindmtellmqf what you hmto

c. Oelui qui or que etc.means in like mannerhe who,the one which, and so on : thus,

od d quimdamlu dang hewho ia in thoheam“Mmmmmwhmwum

1 1 . Note that the relative, often omitted in English,must alwaysbe expressed in French : thus,

thefin’

enc low, loounis qus j’ahns

the booh hc hacbought, lu livru qu’

il a uhoti l

jugated as followsa . Synopsis of principal and derived partsdevoir don ut dfi

dovra i avoirdd dun e

devu i r doi v e

(loin

claim doviu

doimt dad"

f’ Nota that in tho nooented ormong tolms themt-vowel chnngmtmmo to

0

e. The past participle has the circumflex on] in themass. sing.

sto distinguish it fromdu do 10) the other arms are due. dun,

f . Doit etc. veryoften signifles is to,is nncd ordestimd to

thmfl doit vsnmchoz nous demm is to come tomto

morrow, je savail ce ue je devais h ire l knewwhat l waa to

do. I n many cases it aa tbe sense ofmust, have to, etc : thus,

ollo n duetre belle dm sa jsunesse shemust have been beatdiMin her youth . The meaning ought belongs especially to theconditional : thus, quand devrais-jo revenir when ought I tocome backril aurait dd le fi ire he ought to have done it.

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126 LESSON x x vn .

toes still."The frien d at whose house I wish to dine is

he ofwhomyou spoke to me. H e is a handsomemanwhomI love, and whose mother was my friend. The

booksofwhich youspoke tome are Thesehouses are those to which we bring The

man towhomwe sold the eggs lives in that house . Whoeverwishes to be good can he so . I will love himwhofindsme what I have lost. Give me what is in yourpocket, and I will give you what I have in my hand.What is that which youare eating There is themanto whomI soldmy book. Where is the little boywhosefather lives in ourstreet

Jc ne vous dois rien . I lme doit beaucoup d’argen t.11 me donna ce qu’il me devait . Ces en fants devraientétre pun is.

“Nous devious l’apporter hier,mais nous ne

1s pouvions pas. J’ai dd étre ici acinq heures.

H e owes ; they were owing ; we owed theywill owe ; she would owe ; that youmay owe ; that he

might owe.

fWe are to dine at four o’clock. H e was

to be here at noon . Y oumust be hungry. Y ouought

(cond. ) not to forget what I have told you. Theymusthave forgotten it.

LESSON XXV II .

1 .When used substantively,or without an aecom

panying noun expressed, the possessives have a specialform(different fromthat of the possessive adjectives :XI V . and are always preceded by the definite article

thus,

rosssssrvn AN D mnsrmrrs PRONO‘UNS. 127

Pwu n.

Io n ian Iamionno Ioo xniono Ionmionnoo,mtnolo tion In tionno loo tionl loo tionnu, thine

lo tion Io oimo Ion-ions In domhfij crmitaIo nfitro Ia niitro

Io vbtro Ia vdtro lu vdtroo, youra

Io Iour In lour

a . The femin ines and plurals are made regularly, according tothe rules for adjectives (V I I , V I I I ) , except that Iour has thesame formformasculine and femin ine.

3 . These possessive pronouns (as theymay be called)take the genderand numberof the object possessed, andmust be used whenever the noun expressing that objectdoes not immediately follow them: thus,m oh puuot h dmmhat cnd hfimrhon )moh pn ufl h n iomhifl orhofl hat andminonous n on-non human: ot ihmtuohmwe hamourhatc

3 . A few other words,more or less akin with pro

nouns in value, call formention and explanation .

4 . As an indefin ite subject,on is used in the sen se of

one, they, p eop le, and the like : thus,

audit.mum.Mw .wpkw,mInstead of on simply, Y ou (with the article prefix ed) is often

usodaftora vowel sound, especially afterot. ou, oh. que, I i : thus,oi I

'

on voit if one sees . hut not if the nex t word begins with I .

b Tbh b tho inclmive l rflcle av fl a red ln crdor to provmt hh tm; sincon is by ofigin thomoword u uomm amt homo) .c. I t 18 very often convenient to substitutemEnglish a passive

expression foran active with on : thus, it is sa id foron di t.

5. Compounds of un with the pronominal adjectives(XIV . 6 ) chaque each and quolquo some are

ohaounm" ohaouno f. . each, each one, every one

128 Lasson x x vn .

and even/thawby tout or by touts chose (not cheque

3 . Some words used as pronominal adjectives (XI V .

0)maystand also substan tively,or as pronouns : such are

aucunm., aucune f. (with no before the verb), not one, no

one, none nu antro (mother, I

'

autro the other, d

'

autros

others, etc ; plusieurs several ; tout all,everything lo

a . Fromautrocomes the pronoun autrui another, otherp eop le,others than one

‘s self ; it is neverused as subject.

7. Un one and autro other are combin ed into certain

phrases : thus, PMat I’autre the one and the other, i.e.

both ; I n on l‘

autre the on e or the other,i.e. either; ui

I’

un ni I'

antro (with no before the verb)Whoa: the on enor the other, l.o. neither; I

'

un l’

autro the one the other,

i.e. one another, each other.

a . B ath is also expressed by tous deux ortons loodeux

(literally, all the two) .6. Tout lomondo (literally, all theworld ) isa very common expression foreverybody thus

, tout Iomondo I ’aimo

V ERB-LESSON.

3 . The verb allor go is extremely irregular,being

made up in its conjugation of parts derived fromthree

different verbs. I t takes étro as auxiliary (XXV I II . 6a) .a . I tssynopsis of principal and derived parts is

shu t

ira i

trol l s i l l s

6. I ts three present tenses are inflected thusm am

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1 30 Lesson x x vn .

chose, on devrait en acheter une autre. Cosmessieursont Oté leurs chapeaux ; Ote aussi le tion . On etc tou

jours son chapeau dans la maison.

” J’aime toutes les

choees que vous aimoz.

Tnm 27 .

’Are you looking formy brother or hers?

’I have

looked for both, but I have found neither they have din edalready.

'Several ofmy friends are here ; let us dine

without the others. Each one ought to have a cover.

'We have eight places, and we can have others.‘Y ou

have not plates enough some one has broken several. Ifone looks in the kitchen , one will fin d some. We haveseveral dishes whichwill you (have) Will you (have)fish ormeat ? We will (have) neither ; give me somestew. I amnot hungry giveme only very little offthemeat I ought to eat something. (

1‘R emove these sweet

meats, and bringme others. Your sweetmeats aremuchbetter than mine . Ours are good

,but theirs are very

bad. Everybody is hungry, but no one of us eats stow.

I ampoor but I have n ever eaten the broad of others.

My children aremuch more amiable than here, but hisare prettier than yours. Every one loves his children

better than those of other people. If one has good chil

dren , one is always happy. What do you think of (do)this book ? Each of us thinks something of it, but no

one thinks the same of it.

Cd alloz-vous? Jo vais a la ville. Cos en fants iron tchercher leurs amis. I ls vont h l’école. V a chercher

dos confitures, nous allons en manger. Jo vais les appor~ter. A llons, parlons d

’autre chose.

Thougoost theywere going she went ; did yougowe shall go he would go that I may go that hemightgo. We are going to eat. He was going to be hungry.

PASSI V E vnmss. 1 3 1

“I shall go to

-morrow. Did theygo to look forthe dog ?“My friends are going to the city.

“Comc, lct us find

LESSON XXV III .

I. The forms of the PASSI V E conjugation of a verbaremade in French precisely as in English : namely, byprefixing the auxiliary étro be to a past participle.

a . Tomake, then , any given passive formof a verb,add to the corresponding formof ttre the past orpassiveparticiple of that verb : thus

,

hewas praissd, n 6tsit lou6umwmmm n smtmw

b. The participle agrees in gender and number withthe subject of the verb : thus,

shewaemMeI Ie étoit Ieuée

Ik emient été lcuée

c. Note, however, that (V I I . 1 b) if vous is used to represent asingle person , the g

roupie agrees with it only in gender: thus,you (sing. f. ) will p ra ised , vous soroz louéh.

2. a . Taking as an example the verb Iouerpraise, thesynopsis of simple passive tenses is as follows

Pursue-7 PM

I waspmised

Mlmightbepras’sed

m u ra l .

b. ThosynOpsis of compound peesivo tenses isw ba nan a .

Pam PMm " Pm .

hm .

Pa rm.,

MM .WW.

W e lt-truer.

Wear.

3. After a passive verb, by is generally representedby per; but sometimes also by do, if the verb expresses

emental action or feeling : thus,Il eet eln éh tefl lemendeJe is loced h emybodyllMtrcq w h chimhewasfound by the dop

0. The passive is lessused in French than in Eni sh ; instead

of it often stand active verbs with the indefinite subject on

(XXV I I . orreflex ive verbs (XXIX ) .

Avoir on emas aux tuxnrrs.

6. Avcir is the auxiliary used in forming the com.

pound tenses of all transitive verbs, and of the greatmaof intransitive or neuter verbs (including etre be

6. i tto is used tomake the compound forms of all

pan ivos (above, 1 ) and refiex ives (XXI X . and also of

a fewin transitives.

a. The commonest in transitives taking alwaysGtre as

auxiliary areellsr.so

« I n, some (with itscompoundsdevenir, mom-ir, dis

pursuit , otc. ) “cider, deem

fir-r aw?

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1 3 4 LESSON x xvm.

chez vous? Non , monsieur, il n’est pas encore arrivé.

V otremore a beaucoup vieilli pendant l’annéo derniere.

Cetto femme est ucou vie' '

o, ais elle tcen core

trésbelle. Est-037233?3525; aézffiaahlhgfidadamoY

lfon , je suis alléo la cherchor,mais je no l’ai pas trouvée.

Etes~vous invité eu bal Non , madame je no suis

pas in vité,mais vous ot votre smurétes invitées. N’ost

elle pmallée ase chambre Oui,mais nous l’avons rappelée, et elle est retourn ée an salon. Mon ami vout vendre sa maison la mienne est dejé. venduo. Elle a été

achetée parmon riche voisin.

Tours 28.

The republic is loved and praised by everybody. The

country ought to be protected by its citizens. Where isthe king of France ? ‘

Ho has gone to England, but thequeen has stayed here. Has he neverreturned? Y es,

he returned last year. The citizens are praised becausethey obey the laws. Many of the en emies of the republichave been driven away, but some have remained. Has

not Helen been here No,she went by at six o

’clock

,

but she did not stay. She has not yet returned”A t

what hour did you arrive I arrived at ten o’clock.We arrived at half past eight. Y ou (pl.) did not stay

long in Paris. Where hasMary gone She had gone

to herroom, but I called her, and she has returned to the

din ing-room. I s she not invited to the concert tod ay" N o ; we are invited, but she and her sister are not in

vitod. She is still very handsome, although she hasagedverymuch. The enemy passed in to Germany last week.

m e n u s. 1 3 6

LESSON XXIX .

mnmnvn vanes.J.

1 . A mnmvs: verb, or verb used reflex ively, de

scribes the subject as acting upon itself.a . Reflex ive verbsare amuchmoremarked and important

than in English. Some verbs are reflexive exclusively,so ; others are often such ; and almost any transitive

2. A verb ismade reflexive, as in'

English,by adding

to it an object-pronoun corresponding in person and numherto the subject.a . The reflexive pronounsof the first and second per

sons are the same with the ordinary object-pronounsnamely,me and to (or toi) in the singular, noun and vousin the plural. For the third person there is a special reflex ive pronoun , so ; it is the same in singular and plural.b. The place of the reflexive pronoun is the samewith

that of any other object-pronoun (XXII . namely,in

general before the verb, but after it in the imperativeaflirmative (when to becomes toi : XXII .

8. The auxiliary of a verb used reflex ively is always

4. In accordance with the general rule (X. 5b), if thereflexive object is a direct one, the participle in the compound tenses agreeswith it in genderand number; if itis indirect, the participle is invariable.

Thus, fromso hlmcr wowndmac’s self,armmmembm. nmnmoommu hlaufi,

fl a'

utw cno l'MM M MWW

1 36 Lesson xxrx .

5. As amodel of reflex ive conjugationmay be takenthe verb soréjouirdehght ono

’s aolfimowo

I t is a regular verb of the second conjugation , inflected likefln ir (XIX) .

a . The full inflection of the present indicative and imperative, with the synopds of the other simple tenses,is:

Pm Pmrcrru .

lo (etc ) réjoniuant, 760WhmnfiMI w nmnmrfiodmmrdofoetutorfiMIq Moiwd vomvmréjoaimg yourqot‘oanu réjonit hordm'm mfl rfim ww

ma n n er, jomréjoalMI warm‘

a’

ngPan -n u. jomrfiod g l rdda dmun . jomréjouirah l challmfoicomm jomrfiomfiq l dwuld rdo‘w

racial-commons, lot asrejoiceréjoulsuq , rdm’

oa (yo)

rams-r. qns jomrfimmat I may rdmbomm . qno jamor6jonhn , lha1 1might rdofoa

b. The full inflection of the perfect indicative, withthe synopsis of the other compound forms, next follows.To save burdensome tion

,the various forms of the

ive pronoun ( in infin. an pple) , and of the past participle (which

in this verbmust agree in gender and numberwith e object)are not given .

Pn n o'rPam-mum.

s'

fitrorfiioal, (to) fromW“h at rfionl, having rdoioed

jommh rfionl l bcwrdm’ml w w m w wmtut

’

u rfionh tlwuhad rdm‘oad m m fiu rfiofl mh w rc

n imrfiMhohacrdoiood mumtmmmmw

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1 38 LESSON x x tx .

c. Of the intmnsitivesused reflex imthemost notewm'thy iss’

en aller away, clmout, be qf one’a eelf Oiterally,

one’s self it .) The indirect woman -object on always fol

lows the otherpronoun . Thus : m'

en vah l go il s’

en eatal lé he haa gone away, va-t

'

en of l no nons en pae latmnot go away, qu”il na semfflt pu all6 that hemight not haoe

8. Plural reflex ive forms are often used in a reciprocal sensethus, aimou-nons let us looc one another

,ila s

’

aimont tbeycach othar, and so on .

of thil

Emma: 29.

A quelle heure vous étes-vous couché hier? Je mesuis couché a dix heures, et jeme suis levé asix heures.Pourquoi n ’etes vous pasallé aParis la semaine derniereJe neme portais pas bien , et jeme suis arrétéaR onen .

Ces jeunes filles on se promenaien t-elles Elles se sont

promenées dans la ville. Pourquoi s’en allérent-ils I ls

se facherent, et ils ne vouluren t plus t ester. N e vousréjouissez-vous pas Non , nous nous sommes beaucoupennuyés. Nous irons chercherquelque chose de nouveau.

Approche-toi,mon en fant, ne te défie pas demoi. Oet

en fant se doute de tout, at no se fie plusapersonne. Elle

se serait beaucoup réjouie si vousvous étiez approché d’elle.

Nous ne nous serious jamais arretes a Paris, si nous nousétionsdoutésde cela. Pourquoi ces jeunesgene as hfltentils tant I ls s

’en vont chez eux ils veulent se coucher.

V ous vous porteriezmieux si vous vous passiez de votrediner. A rretez-vous je veux vous parler. Je ne peuxm’

arréter apresent ; jeme hate deme coucher. N e vousfies pas auroi il se moque de vous. Nous ne pouvonsnous passerde lui.

Tm: 29.

'Let us rejoice ; I rejoice and you rejoice ; that theymight rejoice thoudidst rejoice shewill rejoice. Have

memos“. vxnns. 1 89

yourejoiced had she not rejoiced I should have rejoicedif you had rejoiced though they rejoiced, we did not re

joice.

’Go to bed ; has he not gone to bed?we should not

have gone to bed ; youwould go to bed ; that theymayhave gone to bed.

‘Get up ; I have got up ; she would

have got up ; will younot get up ?he had not yet got up ;

I have gone tobed, but l will get up ; let us not go to bed,

though he has got up. Have yourchildren gone to bedmine are getting up. Make haste, children ; get up, weare going to take a walk . Helen will not go to walk, because she is not well. ‘I shall be bored, if I cannot takea walk.

' Let us not take a walk ; it is two o’clock, and

we shall dine soon . The dog did not approach the chil

dren ; he did not trust them.

" I cannot do without the

book that I have lost. Take a walk with the dog, and Iwill look for your book. We are going away

,because

we distrust thesemen . H e who distrusts everybodywillneverbe happy. Why did not the little boy come withyou? H e stopped at the baker’s. H e is not well ; heought not to go near the baker. If he does not gowithout cakes, he will be ill. Go away we can dowithout

you. The king cannot return to France, because thecitizens distrust him. Do not be angry ; we will retire.

If youtrust thisman, youwill bemistaken .

LESSON XXX.

1 . A few verbs in French, as in other languages, areused only in the 3d singular, with the indefinite or impersonal subject il it, and are there fore calledmenses“.

verbs. Those oftenest soused are :

1 40 Lassos x x x .

mwfimmm-afim n smm

a . These any others

2. Many other verbs are usedmgreat part impersonally, with il as subject, and often in a somewhat specialmeaning. Examples are :

fl aun t r’

tamfim‘eatfl n utmimit a better

fl s’

agit the quem'

on s'

r

3 . Almost any verbmay take the impersonal subject ilsenting by anticipation its rml subject, stated later . th il

p“nuautre there comes another,il parait qu

’

elle n'

yappears that she was not there.

4 . The English expression there is,there an

,etc ,

is

represented in French by the verb avoir, used impersonally with the adverb y there before it : thus

,

il n‘

y a paq then ia not

y a-t-il on , hac tha e been ?

fi n’

y ammtherewal notben

‘

y aud t-uwmmld thmmhmbnn?

qa'

fl n'

ymmtha t thmmwy notbsqn

’

fl y ottmthat therem’

ght haee bema . Since the following noun is in French grammatically the ob

jcet of the verb, and not its subject as in, there is of

course no chan of numbermthe verbwhen t e noun becomesplural : thus, y avait nn oiseau therem a bird , and il yavait quatre oiseaux than werefourbirds (literally, it had thenone btgd , fourbirds) .6. Even the infin itive, y avoir. isused, alongwith certain verbs

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1 42 mason x x x .

6. But if the subject be a pronoun , a briefer expression ismore often used, the subject beingmade indirectobject of the tense of falloir, which is then followed bythe infinitive of the other verb : thus,

hemestwork, ll Ini taut travaillsr (litcrally, it is nsceumwto himtowrlt)

youmust rsad, i1 vous fant lireshe had togo, il lni fallait aller

lheywdl be obhbed tommdrawfil leurfaudrs u refirer

8. I l fiut etc. is also usedwith a followiug subject uouuto ex

press that somethin is lacking ordesired : thus, il me h utchapeau] wan t a (literally, there is wanting tome a hat) ,

des livres did youwant some books?

The vwabulary tor this above in the

Exsscisn 80.

Est es que vous étes allé a la ville? Non ,monsieur ;il a ueigétoutc la journée, et ilme fallait rosteralamaison .

Nous devious alleraParis mais il géle, et nous resteronschez nous. S

’il dégéle, nous irons domain . Y a-t-il

do jolies villes on Augleterre 11 y on a do trés jolies ;mais la plupart dos villes no sont poin t jolies. Nous yavons été, il y a deux ans. N ’

y a-t-il pas en un bal chezmadame votremere N on ,

il n ’

y avait pasdo bal,maisil y avait plusieurs de nos amis qui dinaient chez none.

I]arrive trés souvent que nous avons dos amie chez nous.I lme faut allera l’ecole, et il faut quemon cousin y aille

avecmoi. Est-cc qu’il y aura nubeauconcert ah theatreI lme faudra entendre ce qu’il y a. V ous faut-il quelque

chose 11me faut quelques livres que je no puis trouvera la bibliotheque.

"I l m’

a fallu les chercher chez mononcle. I l fallait que lespauvres paysans vendissen t toutesleurs brebis. Leur faudra-t-il vendre leurs vaches aussi ?Quoiqu

’il leur ait falluvendre leurs brebis,ils out encore

beaucoup de'

vaches et do chevaux . Que vous faut-il ?I l nous faut do l’argent, nous en avons trop pen.

wynans raon mum s.

Tm ao.

’I t snows and hails, and I shall not go to the school.

If it freezes, do not go there to-morrow. I shall haveto go there tomorrow,

if it does not thunder. I t thawed

yesterday, and it will not freeze to-morrow. There was

no concert yesterday, because itwassnowing. Will therenot be a ball in the town tomorrow There would havebeen a ball, if it had not snowed. What does he need

H e needs some newpictures for his room. She mustbuy a newdress and a hat. Thismanmust buy another

horse the onewhich he has is very old. I t seems tomethat youare never at home. I t happens often that I amin the city. I dinedwith youraun t three days ago. I

should have been there, if it had not snowed. Are there

uot fine things in this book ? I must buy it ”I t seems

to me that everybody is talking of it. I had to go to

England to (pour) buy English books for the library.

”Are there not many fine castles in England ? Theremay be some, but I have not found them. A lthough ithad snowod

,all day, I should have had to go to the city.

My sisterwas expectingme, and I had to speak to her.

If yougo, youwill be bored. Imust go, andmy sister

t

LESSON XXXI .

1 . Most adjectives, in French as in English, have adverbsmade fromthemby adding an adverbial suflix .

The adverb-making suflix in French isment, andit is in general added to the feminine formof the adjoetive—yetwith not a fewexceptions.

1 44 LESSON x x x I .

a .

‘lhemfl x men t comes tromh tin mn ts. ablative of mon s n a

lemmine nMMhence tnkMg hetore it a temhnne adjecdvezthus, fi remenvi n mmumummm8. Most adjectives ending in a consonan t in themas

culine addment to their femin ine form: thus,

MM pld nmn hfefly

mallsmnt, cruelly

vii, lisely vivement, in a licdymannerhsursnssmsnt, happ ily

cher, dear

fianchemsnt,franklyh as. long lonsnmnt, 101W

Exceptions to this rule are the following4 . a . Adjectivesending in ant and out forthemost part

change theirnt into 111, and addment directly to it ; thus,

‘

prudsmmsnt, prudentlypresentement presently, vehemente

b. A fewadjectives change a of the feminine to 6 beforementthus, communément. confin ement, difl'usément. ex pressement ,

5. Most adjectives ending in a vowel add ment totheirmasculine form: thus,

beilsmsnt,may

joli.My 101mm.WMshoals,Mute abutment, absolutely

6. Ex ceptions to this rule are as followsa . Beau, nouveau, fou, andmen addment to their femi

nine form(V I I . thus, nouvellemsnt, follemeut, etc.

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1 46 Lesson x x xr.

b. Thc iuflection of the present tenses is

visnnss unis:

visnuout vionnsnt

of e to is in all the accented orstrong forms

d . The preterit ismr

zguuzirly inflected : th

vlnmes. v1ntes. t (with the pret.“(if

preterit in the language having a nasal vowel.

e. The common verb tenir hold 18 conjugated throu hout precisely like venir (except that it takes avoir as aux iliary .

f. V entrand ten lr ane Lat. ven lre nnd ten ere .

1 1 . a . V enir is followed by an infin itive directly (without 3ordo) , when itmeans come in orderto do an thus il est

camto seeme,venez diner nouscome an d

b. The

used ghimmand imperfect indicative of venir followed bydeare an infinitive to signify time just past : thus, je

visns de le voit aoe just seen him, il venait de diner he had

Such phrasesmoan literally I amcoming from, hewas comingva is le voir I am

mrohsr, was: rim .weep .warfo"

M a gm a

Exxacmx 81 .

Qu’est-ccque vousaimoz lomieux ,mon en fant J’aime

mon pére mieux que tout lemonde. Mon oncle a vieillitrés vite malheureusemeut ii a perdu as fills. Est-cc

que vous allez plus souvent an thettre qu’au concert?

J’y vais constamment,mais je nom’

y amuse quemodérémout. Moi, jem’

y amuse toujours ex trémement. Cette

jeune femme a-t-elle perdusonmari dorniérement Oui ;

mvnass raon xmcrms. 1 47

et qu’il la battit elle

ello lopleure conti uellemen t Do quoi cet homme vous a-t-il parlé si longuemen t“ II a parlé trop has, et je n

’ai absolument rien entendu.

Cette jeunefille chants parfaiteufen t ; elle aunovoix vraimen t belle. Elle no chants pas toujours juste. V ous

marches trop vite,monsieur; vous vous fatiguerez certainemont. Non,madame ; jemarche constammen t, et je no

me fatigue pas facilement. Marcher, c’est cc que j’aimelo plus.

"Malheureusemen t, jo no doismarcherque trésraremen t. Pourquoi parloz-vous si haut Jo parleraiplus doucement, si vous lo voulez.

Tum 81 .

Do youlovemusic, sir? I love it extremely, but unfortunately I cannot sing. Frankly, I do not lovemusic,but it amusesme greatly at the theatre . Y ou go there

often , but I go there oftenest. Can I find easily the

house of youruncle Y ouwillfind itmore easily if youwalk straight to the village. I f youwalk too fast, youwill certainly tire yourself . Walk slowly, we shall easilyarrive in an hour. We ought to take a walk constan tly.

If you love blindly, you will be ex tremely unhappy.

They love her dearly, but she absolutely does not lovethem. If youwish to be well, youmust eatmoderately.

“Speak softly, but do not speak too low,

or I shall not

understand youperfectly. Why does thiswoman weepso cruelly She is ex tremely unhappy, because she haslately lost a child that she loved dearly I trustedmyfriend fully, but unfortunately I was mistaken in him.

No one is constantly happy.

VEEB-LESSON.

V enez-vous chez nous? Pour uoi no vient-il as?fl PI la no sont pas encore venus. V int-il hier N on , ii no

1 48 Lesson x x x n .

viendra que domain. Quoiqu’il vienne, elles no viendront

pas. Je suis venuvous trouver. I l vient do trouver leslivres que vous aviez pordus. V iens ici, jo veux to parlor.

Je viendrai a quatre heures. II serait venu,si vous

l’aviez appelé. Nous venions d’arriver, et il nous fallaitnous en aller encore.

"V euez din er chez moi. Elles

sont venues il y a trois heures.Will she come? they would not come he came you

were coming ; they come ; come ! that I may come ; thatyoumay not come. Has he not come theywould havecome will she not have come though he had not come ;youhad come ; will they have come? I have come to

speak to you. Will you come to dine with us? Ihave just dined with my friend.

“H e had just dined,

when we in vited him. They are going to come to

morrow. She had just gone to Paris, but she is goingto return to-morrow.

LESSON XXXI I .

1 . Of adverbs and adverb-phrases there are in French , ofcourse, a greatmany, which it belongs to the dictionary to give .

Only a fewof those most used will be presented here ; some ofthemhave been already given , and usedmthe Ex ercises.

2. Some of the commonest adverbs of place areici , here Ii , there

of! where?where jusqus, asfaras

prin, supra , near 1°1mensemble, togetherode-sous, beneath

dsdans, within , inside

a . The conjunctive adverbs y and en were explained at XX I I I .

5—8 : the relative adverbs dont and on, at XXV 7.

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1 50 names x x xn .

n’

y am pu étéi ai

the sen tence. General rules are

a . An adverb is almost never allowed before the verb in

French : thmmdmya cfla ollo plembofioml qflmtake

a wa lk joms promémsouvent .

b.With a verb in a compound tense, the adverbs ofmost frequmt use ordinarily come between the aux iliary andciple :mua one a

ywqionrs plem'é ehe has always a i ed , jemétaismvent promené l had oflen taken a zmlk. But such

after the participle, as do adverbialthe words for to-day, yesterday, to-morrow, etc.

the participle.

8. a. Of the very common irregularverbfairemkedo, the synopsis of principal and derived forms 18 as follows :

sauna

{ ora l

( ora l . far-ob. The inflection of the presen t indicative and the imperative

anon anusfimn

c. Note that in this verb (we) fai before a of anothersyllableis pronounced as £0.

(1 . Note the special i rities of the plural : the 2dending in tea ( found cisew ere only in ates and dites) , an he3d in out (elsewhere only in out, sont, vont) .9. Pairs hasmany special uses and idioms ; among

themmay be noticed here

a. I t isused impersonally in describing the conditions

of the weather.

Thus, ilMfi'oid it is cold

,il fiisait chaud it wae wamil

{un buutmmit will beflne wcather even il

iswindyfll a h it dos éclaxrs it has lighk ned , and so on .

VARI OUS Anvsass. 1 51

b. Fairc ismueh used in the sense of oause to etc with

a following infinitive, or as an auxiliary forming a kind

Thus, je lo fiia uvoir l oaues to know it ( i. s. make itkemon ) , xl 1u aMtWhe hasmade thmcome

,vmfcrox

fi iroun habit youwill haoe a coatmade aiterally, will cauee tomake a ooat) .

I make himwrite a letter.

0. Pairs is sometimes (butmuch lamoften than do inused to avoid the repetition of a preoeding verb :

mommmmmm mm w m .)

Emma 82.

‘D ’

od vanes-vous, et cd allez-vous? J’ai été a peu

pres partout . Jc viens d’arriver,et je vais aller sur ls

c a P aris, on j’achéterai des robes a hen marché.

Alors vous viendrez dineraujourd’hui chezmoi, et je vousmenerai plus tard autheatre .

“Nous sommes tout a faitfatigués a present ; nous pouvons apein e marcher. N e

voulez-vous pas ven ir tout de suite déjeuner avec nous?

J’ai dejadéjeun é ; je viendrai domain .

‘J’ai perdumes

gants quelque part ; i]me faut les chercher ; mais j ’iraibientOt, et j

’arriverai dc bonne heure. Jc les

.

ai cherchéspartout,mais je no les trouve nulle part. Je les ai ens

en haut. V oici votre ami ; menez-lo on has, ct allea

vous promener. Jusqu’ounous faut-il aller, at par 06

"Allez jusqu

’a la ville, par ls chemin de Paris.

"La

petite hlls-est dedans; je veux qu’elle vienne dehors. I l

est deja tard ; elle viendra bientbt.

"La France était

autrefois un royaume maintenant c’est nne république.

"Elle as l’a pas été longtemps.

" 0a est ton fret e iI l n

’est pas ici ; il est peut-étre la-bas. D

’od vient la

152 LESSON rm .

lettre quo vous aves dans la main ? "Elle viont domon

Tum sz.Where is your brother? I do not find himhere he

must be elsewhere . Look for himeverywhere youwill

certainly find himsomewhere. H e has already arrived,but the others have not yet come. H e must go imme«diately to the city. He is going to-morrow to Englandbewill stay there almost two years. Iwas there formerly,and I should like (vouloir) to be there stilL I have n evergone so far I have always stayed at home ; but you, youhave been everywhere. I shall come henceforth often toyourhouse. When will themerchan t arrive fromParisH e has already arrived he iswithin . H e cannot havebeen here long . I looked for her

,but she was far from

here. Howfar had she gone She had gone as far asto Paris but she will return soon . Do you like the

country as much as the city ? I have always liked thecity better I do not like the coun try at all. I go thereoften , but I do not stay there long. Whence do youcome now,

and where have youbeen to-day and yesterdayFormerly I often went to my uncle’s, but I no longergo

there ; he lives too far" I have been sometimes at his

house .

V I BE-LESSON.

Que faitos~vous 1a Jo no fais rien . Qu’est-cc qu’ils

vont faire I ls viennent do faire do jolis cadeaux .

‘Feroz-vous chercher vos gants? 'Jo les ai fait chercher

partout. Que ferez-vous domain ? 'Jo forais venir la

servants, si ollo était a lamaison . Si vous no l’avez déja

fait,il faut que vous lo fassiez tout do suite. I l fait beau

temps aujourd’hui

,mais il fora trés chaud domain . Quoi

qu’il fit froid hier, j’on étais content.

Theymake ; will he notmake? let usmake that you

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1 54 LESSON x x xm.

antmdo, aroend, cbout bu dg at the k’me qfma j or

-mg lo loag dcmlongher-Mont e] win dowed”loin dg farfi

'om vh-i-vh dg oppou'

te to

oti-don ut do, in firm: of, to

4 . A fewprepositions are followed by tho infinitivedirectly ; they are :

i t » of (to) pour. inm to. to

a. Of these, p

ar is littlousod, and apric olmost onlywith thoperfect infinitive : thus, w as avoir dineafterhaving dined .

b. The English-toas sign of the infin itive is represented byboth

A and do. Often , the reason for using do, asmeaning roperlyof , firom, is to bo soon : thus

,il ost tomps do partir is time

to leave (literally, time of leaving) , nous sommes défondnl doparlor orbidden to sp eak literal] sp eak

i hae ceaséd to befilifi llq

gmflmnng and so on. But in considerable part this 18 not the case,

and the distinction has to be learned for each phrase. Soo the

Second Part, 1 71 etc.

6. Propositional phrases often followed by the infinitive are :

muse um s , » loin dq farfivmaulimdg t

’mtwd qf imoimdq ehofl oflmmi foroo do, bg d£n¢qf dopeur (crfi nto) dc,forfmqf

plutbt qno dg rather thaa

a . I t is the English infinitive'

in ing that in verymany casescorresponds to the French infinitive aftera preposition orpropositional brass : thus, sans attendre without wa iting, amt domonrir dying, do pour do tomberforfear of falling.

6. Froquont spocialmsos ot i and do aro

a . A ismuch used before the name of that bywhich anyth‘i

‘nfiis characterized (as possessing it, boin for it, acting b it,tho like) : tbus, nn hommoan cmur amaa tmdyerhem't

,

le ver i soie the silk-worm, “ batoaua vapour a steamboat(see Part Second, 5b. Do ismuch used before a numeral to rmthemeasure of

anything, orthat bywhich one thing diflers oranother : thus,

PREPOSI TIOKB. 1 55

Ic‘o de uissmaged w can , long do dou omfhu grn d do h largerby a half

WLB SON.

7. a . Of the very common irregular verb dire say,

tell,the synopsis of principal and derived parts is this

diunt dis din

dis

6. The inflection of the present indicative and imperative (theimpf. subjunctive being quite regular) is:

dit

c. Note the 2d plur. ending in too (like ates,d . Common hrasos containing dire are : on dit (XXV I I . 4)

or il so dit (X it is sa id ; c’

ost h diro that i3 to say,

ooh va sans diro that doos not noed to be stated or is amatter ojcoarse (literally, goes without saying) . V ouloir dire (literally,

lo ohsn in dofcrn admad radway

hmM’

on , depol lobatcau i vcilu, oac%oa¢

law man-wa ter!“ low fi ojwmylama-, the eea

hmttnflhem ‘

ng le colrfihe eoemingh dcnmthe rtoer

En amel: 88.

Par 0d silos-vous a la ville J’y vais par lo chemindo for.

’Est-cc que la garo est pros do votre maison ?

Non , ollo on est tres loin ; ollo est hors duvillage. P lu

tbt que d’allor par lo chemin do for, je n

’irais jamais nudehors du village .

' Quant dmoi, j ’aime ox trémomont A

1 56 Lesson x x xrn .

voyager. Aulieu do roster chezmoi, je suis allé auteur

damonde.

'Je no peux jamais aller sur lamor, do pour

d’étre malade.

'A vant do quitter la France, j

’en avais

toujours pour ; mais a force d’avoir voyage, jo n

’

y

pense plus."’Cc matelot est-il allé ll travers la mor?

Solon lui, ii est allé dix fois jusqu’en Amérique. Esto ce

qu’il va en batoau a vapour on on bateaua voiles? I l

voyage ordinairemont en batoau a voiles. Mon pére

viont d’arrivor, et je suis allé nu-devant do lui. D epuis

quollo heure est-ii ici?"I l est arrivé pendan t la nuit.

V ous nome quitterez poin t, sans fairo co que vous dovezfaire. J’y suis venupourlo faire. Aprés avoirdéjouné,ii nous ménera sur son grand batoau a vapour. Jo n

’ai

pas lo tempsd’aller avec vous. Aulieud’alloraubatean ,iimo faut aller al’écolo.

Tam 3 3 .Where have you been sin ce (the)morning ? I wentto the post in order to find the old sailor.

‘H e came to

meetme, andwe din ed togetheron the steamboat. A fterhaving dined, we wen t around the boat. “

I t is 300 feetlong

,largerby (the) half thanmost of the sailboats. Did

you talk with the sailors?’N o

,one ought not to speak

to them but, in spite of that, I spoke to on e sailor. Be

fore arriving here, he had been around the world.

‘H o

had gone three times as far as America. For lack of

mon ey,I have to remain here

,without travellin g. I n

stead of doing nothing, youmust work, in order to havemoney. By dint of working, one can have as muchmoney as one wants, I t is time to go to the station .

The station is opposite the house ofmy brother. I t is

necessary to go along the river,in order to arrive there.

As for the railroad, I do not like it at all . I have not

the time to travel, but I amnot content without going oftento Paris. R ather than travel by the railroad, I go usu

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1 58 Lesson n xrv.

requires the subjunctive) is in French almost always followed by the indicative (pros. or thus

,

ifhe eome, s‘il vient {f theywere horen'

ils étaient id

But the subjunctive pluperfect is also allowed aftersi : thus, if

he had been here is s'

il oat été ici (ors’

il avait été ici) .Si may be followed by the future (orconditional) when used

in the sense of whether : thus, qui seat s’

il visndra who knowswhether hewill comeNote the abbreviation of si before il or ils (29h) .

that (as well as the relative : XXV I .

2. The interrogativo adverbs, in their relative sense (XXXI I .6a) , have the value of conjunctions : thus, quand jo lo via, jo no“vain vonuwhen I sawhim, I did not know

3 . Correlative conjunctions,used in successive clauses,

are :

4 . Connoctivos of sentences, having the character

ratherof adverbs than of con junctions, areaussi, also, too, accordingly slut, (hm, so

or, now done, then . consequently

puis, then ,new!

néanmoinl , neoerthela s

d’

oillon , besides,moreover5. Many phrases having a conjunctions] value are

made by adding the conjunction que that to a propositionoradverb or adverbial phrase.

a. Some of thosemost commonly used are

mis qu , qflertha¢, qfler

aucd tbt quomemn ae dh qug when . aemn ae

maest qug whae tandlsqnq whde, whmae

momma” ant i que, ““at one,m cutant quq aemueh ae

mamm ox s. 1 59

6. Some such phrases require the following verb tobein the subjunctive ; examples aremquo, in orderthat

fiuqd i ce qnq zuwapmuvuqmq pmmflkd tmu

m a gm a”! aumqa n oan that

A ftersans 41110. the verb

i

0. One or two require the following to

they are h.moins do

fear that, test thus, 8 qu'

il no vienne unhe come.

VBBB-LESSON .

6. 0. Of the irregularverb savoirknow (Lat. super-e )the synopsis of principal and derived parts isa voir “chantusn ra i un v e i l nach o

l aura i o

b. The inflection of the present indicative and imperative (thepres. suhj . being quite regular) is as follows

a vons

umamt

M m mm m ol themwh umsm7 . a .With an object and a predicate relating to it, uvoirmeans lmow to bc: thus, je le u ismodute l know himto bc

modest ; with a followmg infin itive, itmeans knowhow: thus, iln it u taire hc knowa howto hold hia tongue.

b. hruesused like

anmdicative z thus, jo nemhe personne qui 1 monewhoetc. ; que je mhe so far ax l know. The conditional unrnilis used (negativel ) in the sense of can

, be ablu thua ih ne

unrniont oorvir Mcunable to be o/ use.

c. Thein the sense of oomething, l can ‘

t tell what etc .

with ne alone

1 60 LESSON x x xrv.

la fabrique, (Iwflwtorylomgnfimthoahopn tors umrier,marry, bemmbdl’ouvrierm. ,

theworm l'ouvrlmf. , thewrh ooman133 3 018 3 3 4.

1 1 vs geler ; allez-vous done aParis B ien qu’il gels,il faut que j

’

y aille. B’ailleurs je n e veux pas rester chez

moi tonte la journée. Que ferez-vous pendan t que vousy serez ? ’

Je vais chercher un cadesu pourmon amie,

pares qu’elle vien t de se marier. Des que je suis arrivé,

j’ai cherché partout des cuillers d’argent ; mais je n

’en ai

trouvé de jolies,ui aumagasin ui a la fabrique. Pour

taut onm’a dit que cemarchand en a de tree belles. 11

me les amontrées ; mais plus je les regardais, plus je lestrouvais laides. Alors queme faut-il fairs, afin que j ’aiequelque chose pour elle? 11 faut attendre jusqu

’a ce

qu’on en fasse de plus jolies. Est-os qu’on aura ls tempsde les fairs avan t qu’elle semarie? D epuis que je vous

ai parlé, je suis allé a la fabrique.

"Pourvuqu’il y ait

assez de temps, le fabricant vame les faire. I I as

pourrait les faire, sans qu’il eut de bons ouvriers. ”1 1

en aura,désqu’il voudra en avoir. S

’il efit en de bonsouvriers, il aurait déjadc jolies choses.

Tamm84.

Have youbeen at the shop since youleftme I havebeen both at the shop and at the factory . Then youhavebought something. I wanted to buy either forks or

spoons ; but I have bought neither forks norspoons. If

youhad found some, should younot have bought them?A lthough I have found some, n evertheless they were not

pretty. Moreover, the manufacturer wishes that I wait(subj .) un til he shall make some new ones. Providedthat he makes themat once

, we can wai t ; otherwise we

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l . a. The general aceonnt of the irreguhr verhswas

given above, “XXI V . 5, and some of the commonestammg themhave been explained in full.

m mumv wem, be ablo at

devoirowe at XXV L u ete , go at XXV I I .m am fl etc. . venir come at xmmetc , fi in do at

uvoir lmow at

h I t mmains nowwgi ve the rest of the irregular

verbs, and to explain their inflection .

2. The verbs conduire conduct etc., instruire instruct

etc. ,and cuire cook, are conjugated alike, having past

participles ending in it, and preterits in il is Their derived parts are allmade regularly. Thus

conduit maul-outc. Like conduire are conjugated the othercompounds of -dui.ro

éwnduiro, romoec p oduirq pmdw tn duiro, hM b

ouduiro, doooer

indulro, induaa réduirofl adua

The simple verb, duire suit, isused only in the 8d sing. present.

Of the other two verbs, it will be enough to give the principuparts only.

4 . 2. instrulro instruiunt instrult in trail 1mm

manema vms zmmvomire. 1 63

the othercommandsof-strait sWWW“WNWrecon-mmf 3 . 0uiro

y. Like cuire (Lat. coquero) is conjugated its compound

8. The verbs nuire inj ure and luire shelve are conjugated in the same way, except that their past participleends in i instead of it. Thusa. 4 . nuirs uuisaut uui nuisis

5 . luiro lui

b. The pret . indie. and impf. subj . of h imare not in 1180. Like

it is conjugated its compound

c'l'

hese vuh mM nocere and lueerem-pectively.

4 . The verbs sum“mfice, coufire 1 7mm , and cir

concite circumcise, are conjugated alike, except the pastparticiples, which end respectively in i, it, and in. Theirpreterit ends in is simply

,like the presen t (not in il is,

like the prewding verbs) . Thusa . 6 .Mrs “flaunt

7 . oouflro confluent oouflt

8 . ciroeucin drooudunt airmen cirooncds mm6. These verhs areM ob Lat. sun set-o. con floero. and circumcisi

c. Like couflre is conjugated its compound

5. The very common verb diremy, tell difiers fromcounts only by having in the 2d plural pres. indie. and

impv. dites (instead of discs) . I ts principal parts are. diro about dit dis dis

The complete inflection of thisverbwasgiven above, atXXXI I I .

7 etc.

a. Of the compounds of dire (Lat. d ioere ) , onlyis conjugated precisely like it. Most of the others—namely,

coutudiro, contradict intordiro, ism-did mi di“, predict

fi re like confiro, having-disdz (instead of -ditu) in the fld

1 64 LESSON xx x v .

forms that follow its analogy.

The inflection of the pres. indie. and impv. is

6. Lire read forms its past participle in uand its preterit in us. The other parts and their inflection are likethose of conduits, above Thus1 1 . lire lin nt lu

avoir In

0. Like lire (Lat. leg ere) are conjugated its compoundselite, elect rcliro, read again réélire, ree led

7. The verb ecrirewrite is in themain like conduirebut it has everywhere v instead of a after i in the fullforms of the root. Thusa. 1 2. écrire

b. The inflection of the pres. indie. and impv. is as follows

écrivezGa it

0. Like écrire (Lat. scribere) are conjugated the compounds

dicriro, dem1 ’bs proscrire, prooorfbs tron-a irs, tra nscribe

8. The verb rire laugh is still more un like the aboveverbs. Thusa. 1 3 . riro

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1 66 Lesson mvi .

lisant. Que {sites-vous avec ces jeunes filles? Nous

eu theatre, afin qu’elles s

’

y amusen t. Les

bounce comedies instruisent beaucoup les jeunesgens. Si

vous voulez écrire de la poésie, il faut que vous lisiez les

Tw at .

H e wi ll conduct ; I have conducted we were conducting conduct him! they would conduct her, if she wished

to go there. R ead your letter ; I have read it ; we shall

read it to you let us not read it to her. They werewriting ; shewouldwrite we hadwritten youwill neverhavewritten I shallwrite to nobody nobody haswrittentome.

‘Has he read the letter that she haswritten him?

write h'

nn a letter, in order that hemay read it. “He has

laughed shewill laugh they were laughing while I wasreading ; do not laugh at (de) the bookswhich youread.

I readmuch poetry ; but I have not read theworks of allthe poets. Do youwrite n othing? Y es

,I have always

written a great deal forthe newspapers. I translatemanycomedies, but I do notwrite any. Iwasreading a tragedy,and I did not laugh at it. Why do you not read the

newspapers? Because they do not instruct me. Mydaughterswrite poetry, andmy son haswritten a tragedy.

They have always read the best works of the French

poets, and they have translated English poetry.

mnem vmsmaindre eto. , ann eltre eto.

1 . Among the otherirregularverbsending in re, thereare two importan t groupswhichmay be taken up first.2. A considerable number ofmuch-used verbs have

manom vmsmeiudrem. ,m attre nrc. 1 67

their infin itive in ndre preceded by one of the three digraphs ai, ei, oi— verbs in eindre, cindre, and oindre.

They are conjugated precisely alike, and their derivedparts aremade with entire regularity fromthe principalparts—which, however, are quite irregular in their relations to one another.

8. As examplesmay be taken cruindrefear, peindre

paint, joindre j oin . Thus :a . 1 6 . ereiudre weigueut ereint un in ereignie

b. The inflection of the res.

being quite regular) is as f

c. Of the other two verhs, it will be enough te give the prlnci

pal parta Thus :

a su

eweindren qme out

reetreiudremedrao'nretd ndmdyemm ar-Jami e: Mndrq feu’gn

unidudrq oonjoin eujeh h q em'oe’n pedudre, puactmrejd ndrq edah

rand”. Let.mh mga uch e , “ tin:

mu send w on . gn in rneny of theirfcrme. But -preln dre end

”Mummom en », geme re .

4 . A number of verbs in altre and oitre, some of themvery common ones, are conjugated nearly alike. They,

1 68 LESSON mvr.

too, make their derived parts quite regularly froman

irregularset of principal parts.

5. Asmodelsmaybe taken pareitre app ear and creltregrow. Thus:a. 1 8 . pereitre purulen t

b. The inflection of pres. indie. and impv. is

perd n eut

Note that the circumflex of the infinitive appears here in the8d sing“ but not elsewhere

c. Like nuutre are conjugated its compounds

also counaitre know, be acqua inted with, and its compoundsmesonneitre, fed torecognize recouneitre, recaps“

also peitre grave and its compound“wh o.fwd

But of paitre the pret. indie. and impf. subj . are not in use.

d . Old infinitive forms are apparoir and.

compnroir, for spand comparaitre ; fromapperoir ismade also the im

personal 3d sing. ii appert it app ears.

a . The inflection of the pres indie. and impv. is

eroieeent

Note that the circumflex of the infinitive

the whole singular. The circumflex in

chiefly for the purpose of distinguishingeroire believe (below, XXXV I I .

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1 70 Lesson um.

ne pense pas qu’il nous reconnaitra apresent. ’Ces arbres

ont beaucoup cru, depuisque je as les ai vus. Les enfants

croissent tres vite, et apres peude temps on no les reconnaitplus. I l parait que nous allons avoir une guerre avecl’Allemagne. Tous lesmalheurs de la patrie naissent dela guerre. Aussitbt que la guerre commonest-a, ls bonheurdescitoyensauradisparu. Qui est-cc que vous plaigniez ?Nous plaignions les pauvres soldats, qui doivent allera

la guerre.

"Qui este e que cet homme veut peindre?

II a peint beaucoup de gén éraux de France ; main tenantil va peindre cc soldat-ci.

“N apoleon naquit en Corse

le 1 5 aofit, 1 769.

"La plupart de nos grands hommes

sont nés en France "Donn ons-nous la main , et so

yons

bone amis. Mon pérenaquit en 1 796, etmoi, je suis né

en 1 853 . Nous ne craignons pas lsmalheur ; pourquoils craindrions-nous

Turns 86.

They fear ; we shall fear that hemay not fear ; fearnothing ; did he never fear? hewould have feared it. I

had recognized her ; do younot recognizeme we should

recognise him; he will recognize them; she recognizedhimas he was entering. Will he not appear? if he appears,we shall disappear ; although he had not yet appeared,we went away ; do they not appear?he appeared yesterday ; we appear to-day ; they will appear to-morfow.

Y ou paint ; was he not painting ? I will paint it, if youwish ; give me what you have pain ted. What was theman pain ting ? ‘

He has painted the beautiful flowerswhich grow in our garden . Does he never paintmenThose painters always paint animals. Do younot recog

n ize this picture? Y es, I recogn ize it well ; it is the

portrait of the young general. D id you know him" I knew himvery well, and we have always known hisfamily. Where is he now? H e disappeared last year.

“I t appears that his family has had many misfortunes.

m a mnsma vnassmre. 1 71

Y es, we pity themvery much. When was your son

born ? “H e was born in 1 878. He has grown a good

deal since I went away. Y es, he grows very fast ; allthe children are growing he will still grow a little.

LESSON XXXV I I .

FURTH EB I R B EGULAR V ERBB IN TO.

1 . The verb traire draw,milk lacks the preterit and

the imperfect subjunctive.

21 . treire

b. The inflection of pres. indie. and impv. is

tramtrait traient

0. Like traire (Lat. trehm) are conjugated its compoundsehetreh'

e,Mae! dish-sire, diam rentreire, damretreire

,mi2km'

n

a The verbbraire bray isconjugated like treire, hut ishardlythe infinitive and the 8d sing. and p

’. of pres. ia

conditional.

22. brak e

ha ircut

8. The very common verb fairs make, do, which isalso very irregular, has been given in full above : see

XXXII. 8.

a . 23 . Likeh ire (Lat. uoere ) are conjugated itscompoundsM oonwm miteire, doalWre do harm “mmwh inmompleu «mm

1 72 Lassen x x x vn .

4 . The verbs plaire p lease aud taire keep sflent are

conjugated alike, except that plaire has an irregularcircumflex in the 3d sing . pres. indicative. Thus:a . 24 . pleire plaieeut plu plain

b. The inflection of the pres. indie. and impv. is

pleieent

c. Like plaire (la t. p lecere) are conjugated its compounds

d Platte

.bo

h used iii ) 11 h hraseismuc persona ,especxall

'

iu t e

e’

il vous plait if youp lease.

y y p

e. Ofwire, it is enough to give the principal parts25 . teire teieeut tu

The 8d sing. pres. indie. is il tait.

f . Taire (Lat. tecere ) ismuch used refiex ively, in the sense besilent, hold one

’s p eace thus

, tail-toi orwiser-vousbe silent I5. There are two verbs in oire—namely

, croire think,

believe, and boire, drink—of which the former '

is regular in the formation of its derived parts and in its

tense-inflection , while the latter is irregular in both.

Thusa . 26 . ereire

evoircru

I nflection of the three present tenses

Pan . lame.

croie croyons croie my'leue

erele croient

b. A compound of croire (Lat. credere) . accroire ( in h irewcroire deceive in to believing) , is used only in the infin itive ;another, decroire disbelieve, on ly in the let sing. present.

0. Croire in French is followed by an in

finitive without

in vea ign, where in English we use ins a ependentc ause, or insert a reflex ive pronoun thus, je erode l

’

evoir dit 1think (myself) to have said it, orI think that I have said it.

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1 74 men x x x vn .

mm”but of roclmonly a fewforms are in use.

(Bad de tlnemhoglmtn the lm )

hm, 0wfam h tormtirq thofimwh wm“mala dy n ew ,mwlaw man -uw h ick ,m

En norss 87.

Que haves-vous?’Je bois du lait frais ; mules-vous

en boire oa l’avez-vous trouve La fermiers trayaitsea vaches, et elle m’

en a donn é. Croyez-vous que jepuisse en avoir aussi? E lle les 3 dejatraites,mais elle lestraira encore ce soir. A lors j

’en boirai ce soir. V oila

de jolies fleurs ; elles sont écloses osmatin .

'La roses

éclbront demain , je crois. J’en veux quelques unes.

“Jecroisvous avoirdit que j

’aime ex trémement touteslesfleurs.

Est-es que ces petitesfilles ne vousplaisent pas? Elles

m’on t beaucoup déplu, paree qu

’elles us so taisent jamais.

I l faut qu’un eufant se taise lorsque les autres veulen t

parler. A vant dem’en aller

,il faut que je boive nupeu

de vin .

“V ous en avez déjabu, et nous ne croyons point

qu’il vous en faille encore . Maia le lait usme plait pas.

“Taisez-vous, et buvez ce qu’on vous donne. Jeme tai

rai,mais is ne boirai pas ce quime déplait. N e croient

ils pas os que je leur ai dit? 11s n’en ont rien cru.

Tenn 87.

‘He believes ; does she not believe? they will believe ;

believe what I say ; I have believed what she has said to

me. Will he drink ? do you drink ? they would havedrunk drink, and go away let us drink water hewould

drink wine, if he had some. Does she please you that

would n everpleaseme they have pleasedme. She spoke

m amm e vn ssmro. 1 75

and I was silent ; be silent while yourmotherspeaks ; ifyoudo not keep silence, I shall say nothing. I want to

go to the farmthis morning, if you please.

‘I will conduct you there ; but youmust be silent while I speak tothe farmer’swife. D o youbelieve that she willmilk thecowswhile we are there If she milks them,

she will

give yousomemilk. I drank some fresh milk formerly,and I shall drink some to-day. We drinkmilk often ,

but

we have never drunk wine. D o youthink that the lilieshave Opened They have not yet opened, but they willopen this evening. These violets pleaseme much ; giveme some, if youplease.

"Be silen t

,my child ; you have

displea sed me.

"We thought that we had pleased you.

Since youare silent, we conclude that we displease you.

A lthough we drinkmuchmilk, we are always thirsty.

LESSON XXXV I I I .

THE RMA I N I NG V ERBB I N TO.

1 . The remaining verbs ending in the infinitive in re

have a consonan t next before the r. They are quite discordant, and in part very irregular, in their con jugation,andmust be taken up one by one.

a .Wewill begin with two that are extremely common in use.

2. The verb prendre take is thus conjugated3 0. p a dre prmnt prin proud.

Inflection of the present tenses

proud m t mm p eanu t

a. For the doubling of the n in prometc. , see 21 .

1 76 LESSON mvm.

b. Like prenadro (Lat. prehen d ere) are con jcompounds (some of themverymuch used)approudro, learn

diamond“,unleam commend“,

«m arred repreudre, resumemare, retro

3 . The verbmettrep ut is thus conjugated3 1 .mettre mettant

uoi:ml.

Inflectiouof the pres. indie. and impv. :

a. Likemettre (Lat.mi ttere ) are conjugated its numerous andmuch-used compoundsadmettre, admit omettre, omit remettre, remitm ottre,mm“pumettro, permit somettro, submitdémettre, put out promettre, promise

b. For the brass somettre h begin (literally, set one’s self at) ,see above, X IX. 7b.

4 . The verb vivre live is very irregular in its preteriand past participle : thus,3 2. vim vivant

vin t

vivrais viva

I nflection of the pres. indie. and impv. :

0. Like vivrc (Lat. v ivere ) are conjugated its compounds

b. The pres. sub'

. isused in good wishes forEnglish longthus, viva la roi 9 lice the king. The ex ression qui viva

there? is ex plained asmean ing who do youwish]maylinefirst i.s. on whose side are you2

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1 78 LESBOH x x x vn r.

3 6 . réooudro réooln nt

réooln nt

( 1 . Nearly like résoudre are conjugated the other compoundsof s outh-e (Lat. namely,

shroud”, absolve

smog

that their past participles are absous and discount (fem.

-sou And rem: (onlymasc. ) is also a rarelyused participleofresend”, in the sense of dissolved.

9. Of sourdre (Lat. sun-gore ) rise forth are used only the infinitive and the 8d persons pres. indicative : thus,3 7 . sourdre loud, oonrdent.

(Bad desthe verhs givmin flie lm )

“n ationa lismle ech the collar

la loqou, the lea on h thima themmha theme

131 1 3 01815 38.

Qu’avez-vous appris de votre frere J’apprends qu’il

va entreprendre no long voyage. P ermettez-vous qu’ils’en aille I l l’a résolu, et il faut que je le lui permette.

‘Est-ce qu’il prendra toutes cesmalles avec lui ? '

I l ne

prend jamais qu’un emalle. V oila la malls qu’il a prisel’année dern iére. Prenez ces mouchoirs et mettez-leadans lamalls. Est-cc que vous y avezmis lesmanchetteset les cola? I l faut que je les couse avan t de les ymettre .

Ne les eonsez pas, il en achétera d’autres. Si votre

frére va en Augleterre, il lui faudra apprendre l’ anglais.

" II a résoludc l’apprendre , et il prend des leqons d’nu

glais depuis nu an . Maintenant il l’aura appris treebien , je crois. Comprenez-vous l’ allemand, mademoi

ms unn amse venue i s re. 1 79

cells N on ,monsieur;mais jeme suismiss aPapprendre.

Ce qu’on a résolu d’apprendre, on l’apprend toujours.

Estpce que votre chien vous suit I l m’a toujours .

suivi ; mais il devient vieux, et je n e crois pas qu’il me

suive plus longtemps.

“Les chien s ne vivent pas aussi

longtemps que les hommes. Bien que celui-ci n’ait vécu

que dix ans, il est dejd vieux , et il faut que jeme resolve ii

en acheternuautre. Nous vivronsdésormaisdans la ville.

Turns 38 .

Y ouwill take they have taken take it we took itwill she not take it? I wish that youmay take it ; thouwast taking I have taken nothing. Wewould put that

theymay put let us put it there he put it in his pocket ;will he not put it there I shall put it where I wish he

willhave put it on the table I n everput themthere. Theywere living ; he lived ; do we

'

not live ? live ! I wish that

the kingmay live long youwould have lived. She sewstheywere sewing ; I did not sew if yousew, we shall sew

also ; that he might sew ; let us sew.

‘That hemay re

solve ; I have resolved ; we shall resolve ; would he not

resolve ? they were resolving ; let us resolve ; she wouldnot have resolved . What have you done with (do) thehandkerchiefswhich I was sewing I put themin yourtrunk. I did not permit you to (do) put themthere . IfI had not put themthere,my brotherwould not have beenable to go away. Which trunk has he taken H e has

taken the old black trunkwhich he took last year. Have

you learned why he leaves My father permits himto

leave, in order that he may learn English Does he not

understand English H e does not understand it yet ,

but he is beginning to learn it, and he will understand it

soon . "‘Y ou take English lessons also, I believe.

" N o,

sir but I take German lessons. This childmust understand German , if he is going to Germany. Where have

1 80 LESSON xx x i x.

youput your little dog I t is dead it lived only threemonths. I took your pencil, and put it on the table ; butit is no longer there. Put your book where youwill beable to find it again .

LESSON XXXIX.

I RREGULAR vanes I N ir.

1 . A number of verbs ending in the infinitive in itare conjugated alike, and quite regularly.

Such are pa th set out,lea ve, dep art, sortir go out

, sentir

feel, mentir lie, tell a lie, repentir (reflex ive) rep ent, dormir« These verhs aremore pmpa 'ly reguh r than them ned reguh rverha ot

them d wnjmfionilk e fln trt dnce they dowa lme the h tter. tx wged ) .

eratmpic and lneeptlve arms. But the verbs lthe fln lr aremuch tht

zmore nu

2. The verb parti: is thus conjugated3 8 . partir partant

I nflection of the pres. indie. and impv. :

Mont

3 . Of the others in tir, it will be enough to give the

principal parts3 9 . l eftit sortaut

4 0. until mutant conti

4 1 month mutant menti4 2. repenttr repentant repeati

a . Like these verbs (Lat p a rt it i. sort iri . sen t ire .men t irl.o pwn i tere) are con jugated theircompounds

“pal-tit . distribute roputir, not out again

ren ortir, go out again

oonunttr, comm: prmenttnfora ee month ,feel, recent“month , give the lie to

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1 82 Lesson x xx rx .

4 6 . cusillir

cue i l l era i cueillais avoir cusilli cueillo cusillisu

cue i l l sra i s senile“mm"

The present tenses are like those of assaillir.

a. Like cueillir (Lat. common ) are conjugated its compoundsmoiflir, receive

7. The verb fuirflee, shun has a very regular conjugatien thus

,

4 7 .Mr

The pres. indie. and impv. are

talent

a . Like fnir aa t.mg ereHs con jugated its eomponnds’snfnir, run away,w

8. Of the verb brnire (probably fromLat. rn g ire) roar, benoisy, the fewforms that occurmay best be put here, on accountof theiranalogy with those of fair. They are only

4 8 . 1u'uiro il hruit

9. The verbouir hear (Lat. aud i t-e).

is nowin the infin itive and

tsp-est participle, with the

pluperfect subj . ll

moonjugation is as follows

4 9 . 0u1r

oi ra i

oi ra i s ois

10. The verbfaillirmiss fall short is also verydefective, beingused at present onl in the infinitive, future, and conditional,and in the compoun tenses : thus,

5 0. h illir failli

[h im]a . Other forms of this verb are met with in older use, and

sometimes agreeing in formwi th those of falloir (originally thesame word : Lat. mllere ) . Asmean ing fail (in business) , it issometimes con jugated like fin ir.

b. The perfect j ash illi etc. isused with a following infinitivein the sense come near, just escap e . thus, j

'

ai failli tombor Icame within an ace qf falling.

mnsoum vsassmir. 1 83

1 1 . The verb vbtirclothe difiers fromthe precedingin having it as ending of its past participle. I t is thus

6 1 . vi tir vi tant

avoirvm

vi t vétont

a. But this verb is also sometimes conjugated like finir.

b. Like vstir (Lat. vestire) are also conjugated itscompoundsM , undotks

(Emme vc hs given inme lm )

looonr,Wham l'

unitié f. , thaj h’

ondahiph vd tmthsmv

’

age

umwmbm ls h au-tri q tlwbrd hom'

n-mEmma: 39 .

Pourquoi sortiez-vous de bonne heure aujourd’hui Jc

suis sorti avec mon ami, qui partait pour l’Angleterre.

Onm’avait dit qu’il ne partirait pas avant ce soir. On a

menti,monsieur; il est parti cematin. S’ii n’était pas parti

de si bonne heure, nous nous serious levés pour lui direadieu mais nous dormions encore. Moi, is n

’ai point

dormi ; is me sentais tr0p malheureux.

'R essentez-vous

tant d’amitiépour lui Je nom e pas; is l

’aime de tout

mon caaur. Est-cs que les enfants son t partis lis sor

tirent il y a deux heures.

“Qu’est-ce gu’ils font? "

I ls

von t donneraux pauvres soldatsmalades les fieurs qu’ilsont cueillies. I ls sont sortie ce matin , et ils out cueillilesfieurs dans leschamps. De quoi se sont-ilsservis pouraller aux champs 1 1s as son t servisde notre grands voi

184 LESSON x xm.

turc. Qui est cette femme, qui est vétue de noir C’est

ma tante'

; depuis la mort de son eufant elle se vet ton

jours aiusi. "E lle a failli perdre aussi sonmari. "

J’ai

ourdire que les soldats avaient fui devant l’ennsmi. On

amen ti les soldats francais ne fuient jamais. Cslui qui

ment doit étre pun i. N e sortez pas, mon ami ; il faittr0p froid.

Tum 89.

Let us set out they were setting out she would de

part ; shall you not set out ? that he might depart ; she

has departed youwould have departed. I she not sleeping she slept if he had slept ; sleep that youmaysleep ; ifwe had not slept .

'Y ou clothe ; they had not

clothed ; do I not clothe ? that youmight clothe ; let us

clothe. She gathers flowers ; we will gather flowers forher; she has gathered themfor us ; why have you not

gathered any flowers? Go out of thisroom he will not

go out of it we have gon e out of the town he wen t outby the door ; youwill go out by the window. Why doesthiswoman always dress herself in black ? She dresses

herself in black because she has lost her husband. Let us

gather some violets in order to give to her. Where haveyougathered these beautiful flowers We went out of

the house and gathered themin the garden . D id yourcousins go away in the large carriage No

,theymade

use of the small carriage. Where have they gone

They did not sleep at all here. I go to sleep very early,when I amin (a) the country. We shall sleep beforegoing out . H as the teachergone away without sayingfarewell to us Although he has lied to us, we still feelfriendship for him Why do these women dress themselves so badly They are very poor, and they use old

dresses, which some one has given them. Let us fies,

while our enemies sleep.

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1 86 LESSON XL .

6 . Of the others,itwill be enough to give the principal parts

5 4 . wit h

55 . ouvrir ouvrant cnvcrt cum curri

5 6 . oouvrir oouvrant

6. Of ofi 'ir (Lat. otl’

erre ) and souflrir (Lat. sultan -e) , there areno compounds ; like etim (Lat. a perlre ) and convrir (Lat.coope rit e) are coa their compo

sntr'

onvrir,Wopen

‘L Certain verbs in irare used in only a fewformsa . 5 7 . Férir strike (Lat.Mire) occurs on ly in the infinitive

b. 5 8 . I ssir issue (Lat ex ire ) has only the past

(and, according to some , also the present participlec. Gesir lie (Lat. Jacere ) has only the following parts

gin

And of the pres. indie ,only the 8d. sing. and the plural per

sons are in use : thus,

8“ Mt

especially in the phrase ci git here lies on a tombstone. As tothe pronunciation of s in this verb

,see

‘c .

5. The.

remaining verbs in it change the root~vowelin a part of their forms—namely

,in those persons of the

thme present tenseswhich are accented on the root, beingeithermonosyllables or followed only by amute syllable.

8. The verbs venircome and tenirbold are conjugatedprecisely alike. They change their0 to is in the accentedpersons ; and also in the future and conditional, which

are irregularly formed.

a . Of venir the whole conjugation has been alreadygiven (XXXI . it takes (XXV III. 6) etre as aux ili

ary. Only its principal partswill be repeated here60. venir maut mu vimb. The verb tsnir is thus conjugated

museum vasesmir. 1 87

6 1 . tsuir

t i endra i

t i sn dra i s t i sun o

tisnns

tense

tisunsnt

0. Like vsnir (Lat. ve n ire) and teuir (Lat. te am) are senju

advn ir, happen

intervenir, intervene

provcnir, pmcssd

souven ir, agm rodsvsnir, become againdsvsnir, browns revenir, ream, some subvenir, assist

survemir, some in addi

tion

appartenir, belong sntr'ctn ir,M in

contenir,mtain mutmir, sustaind . For the aux il used with veuir and most of its com

pounds, see XXV I I I .7. The verbmourirdis changes its on to en in the se

sented forms, and is also irregular in the future and con

ditional. I t is conjugated thus6 2. monrirmourra imon rra l s

The inflection of the three present tenses is

Pm. lame.

1 88 LESSON in .

Withmonrir (Lat morl) are formed no compounds.

0. For the pronunciation of f t in the fut. and send , see 73d.

8. Of the simple verb quérirseek, only the infinitiveis in use ; but its compounds are fully conjugated.

As examplemay be taken acquérir acquire. The change of

the root-vowel s is to is (as in vsnir) ; the future ismade as inmourir and courir.

6 3 . acquérira oqusrra i acquired. avoiraoquis acquiers sequin s

a oqn orra i s a cqui éro

The inflection of the three present tenses is

aoquibs acquiirsnt

a . I n the samemannerare conjugated the other compounds of

oouquérir, conquer l’a nérir, inquire reocuquérir, recon-qua

9. The verb bouillir boil is conjugated nearly like parti:

(XXXI X. being irregular only in the singular of the presentindicative and imperative Thus

6 4 . bouillir bouillant

bouillais avoirbouilli hon. bouilliuo

Iufieetiouof the pres. indie. and impv. :

bout bouillsnt

a. Like bouillir (Lat. ba lm-e) are conjugated its compounds

h hag ths stoda’

ng

VOOABULAB Y .

the verbs given in the lesson .)

loMUwfw‘lo soulisr, the alias

la buu-oour,”comm-yard

chan sons-m

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1 90 means x L I .

very fast, your feet will become warm. These poor chitdren have been able to obtain neithershoes nor stockings.

Their father has died, and they have become very poor.

H e died six months ago and now theirmother is dying.We have ofisred her a fowl,but she suflers somuch that

she cann ot eat. They are suffering fromheadache. Ifthey opened the window,

they would have more air, and

they would snfier less. Where does he acquire all his

money ? “He has sold all that which belonged to him,

but he has not acquiredmuch.

“If he workswell, he willacquiremore. This dress belongs tome, and I will ofl’erit to her.

"'Let usofler to the children the old shoeswhich

have belonged to us. The water boils ; make the tea.

Giveme some boilingwater, and I willmake it. Ifmyuncle does not come back tod ay, he will come back cer

tainly to-morrow.

LESSON XLI .

museums masmoir.

1 . The verbs ending in sir are much less numerousthan the irregular ones in it and in re, but some of themare very common and important.Wemay take up first among thema little group ending

'

in theinfin itive in evoir, which in manyy grammars are treated as a

separate regular conjugation—called the third. the verbs in re

bei ng reckoned as the fourth.

2. The verb recevoirreceive is thus conjugated

rece i v e

The in flection of the present tenses is

museums vasesmoir. 1 91

resolve rocovim

molt resolvent

0. Like recevoirare conjugated the othercompounds of 4 :0k(Lat. p ipers) namely,

aperoovuirmawiw3 . I n the same manner is conjugated also the verb

devoir owe, which has been given in full above (XXV I .

1 2 its principal parts are66 . devoir doll

0. Like devoir (Lat. d ebere ) is conjugated its compoundrodsvoir, owe again

4. The verb voirsee is thus con jugated6 7 . voir voyant

v orra i voyais avoirvu

v orra i s vote

The present tenses are thus inflected

a . Like voir (Lat. v id ere) are conjugated two of its com

sntrovoir, seaportly

6. But two other and pourvoirconditionals, and the latter

in us instead of is : thus,

68 . privair Wt

prévoyais avoirprin priva prévin s

0. Of pomoir it will be enough to give the prin cipal parts

6 9 . pourvolr pourvomt pom pom-voi pom-md. Like pourvoir is con jugated its compound

déponrvoir, deprive

5. Of the verb choirfall, on ly the infin itive and the

past participle chn are now in use .

192 LESSON 1 11 .

But its compound deohoirfall, decay is still

gated in full.70. déohoir dichot

d i oh orra i déohoyais avfirdéohn dichot

déoh orra i s déohoio

The pres. indie. and impv. are thus inflected

déchoitis not in use , and in its valus asgerund after

b. The othercompound of choir (Lat. cod ers) , namely

used in ouly a fewof itséchoit (some

6 . The verb pleuvoirmin is impersonal, orused onlyin the third persons singular (XXX . it is thus con

p l euv ra plonvait

p l euv ra i t plmo

a . Of pleuvoir (Lat. p ln ere) there are no compounds.

VOCABULARY.

(Besides the verbsgive : in the le sson.)

ummwm.wed “M ac adamlobscoh ,

tks neod,rsquimon¢ h dlflcd tc c dtM

lomvotrfiho pomr M .M M ‘

Emma 4 1 .

‘J’ai recn une lettre demon ami . Qu’est-cc qu’il vousecrit 1 1ms dit qu’ilme verra domain , s’il n e pleut pas.

I l pleuvra certainement, st je no ls reverrai jamais. ‘I l

faut que vous ls voyiez avan t de partir.

'

Je ne coneois

point pour-quoi vous voulsz partir. I]a concu nn projet,

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1 94 Lesson x tu.

ceived I perceive all the difiiculties, but Imust providefor (t) the needs ofmy family. A lthough I have seen

my father, I have received nomoney fromhim. Whomdid yousee in Paris? I saw no one ofmy friends.

“I t

rained so much that nobody came to seeme. Althoughit rained a good deal, I went to the shops, but I saw noth'

ing there. If it had not rained, I should have seen you

there. Does it not rain I do not think that it rainsnow; but it will perhaps rain this evening. We could

see nothing, for it was night .

LESSON XLII .

m M I NG IRREGULAR verses (moir AND or) .

1 . The remaining verbs in oir are more in

theirconjugation , and for themost part show changes ofradical vowel in the inflection of their present tenses.

2. Of the extremely common verb vouloir wish, bewilling, will, the conjugation has already (XXIV . 8 etc.)been given in full. The principal parts are here re

72. vouloir vouln vonx

0. Of vouloir (Lat. ve i ls) there are no compounds.

3 . The verb valoirbe worth, have the value con

jugated nearly like vouloir. Thus :

7 3 . valoir valant vain

v audra i valais avoirvalu

v a n dra i l v a i l l o

The inflection of the presen t tenses is

vaux

valont vaillent

meomn vnassmoirm er. 1 96

a. li ke valoiraa t. va lere ) are eonjugated its compounds

except that prévaloirmakes the pres. subj . prevale etc.

6. Be worthmore is valoirmieux ; beworth the trouble orbeworth wh ile is vak ir 1a peine.

4 . The impersonal verb fallait be necessary,must hasbeen conjugated in full above (XXX . 6 I ts formsclosely correspond with those of valoir. The principalpartsmay be repeated here74 .m tallant fallu taut fallut

a . This verb and k illit (XXXIX. 9) are by origin one (Lat.

5. The extremely common verb pouvoirbe able, camhas been given in full above (XXV . 8 I ts princi

pal partsmay be repeated here :pean ut pa

8. The verbmouvoirmove is thus conjugated76 . mm mmant mumouv ra imouvra i s mauv e

The circumflex is taken onl by the singularmasculine of the

participle. The inflection of e present tenses is :

mouvcm M VO

mvent mauve moment

but they take no circumflex in the participle : thus, emu,mu.

7. Of the common verb savoirJenow, knowhow the

full conjugation has been already given (XXXIV . 6

The principal parts only are here repeated

7 7 . “voir “chant

a. Sawir (Lat. sapere) has no compounds.

8. The verb seoir sit is defective as a simple verb.

But its compound emit—chiefly used reflex ively, s’

ao

1 96 Lesson m .

seoir seat one’s selfi sit down — is conjugated

Thus78 . w eir w ant

au i éra i mayd " circuit

a n i éra i s mm ”mmThe usual inflection of the presen t tenses is this

law.

unt ied: al l eys: untied: mayo: my“ my“

outed amyen ta . The above are themore usual and accepted forms. But a

variety of others are occasionallymetwith : thus, pres. indie. andimpv. asscia, assoyons, etc. : impf. assoyais ; pres. subj . assoie ;fut.moirai. ormayorai. The compoundm oir seat aga in

is conjugated like asseoir.

b. Of the simple verb seoir (la t. sed ere) in the sense of sit areused almost onlythe infinitivesin ) : but in the sense of sit

misfit isused in the same forms, except the infinitive.

c. Another compound of seoir— namely smeoir sup ersedelacks the pres. participle and the partsmade fromit, and has thepres. indie. sursois and the fut. surseoirai.

9. 79 . Of the old verbsouloir be accustomed (Lat. Bolero) isleft in use only the imperfect soulait, itself antiquated and rare.

10. 80. Of the common auxiliary avoirhave the complete conjugation was given abovea . The solemumof avoir (Lat. h abere) , namely ravoir

have again ,is only in the infinitive.

1 1 . There are only two irregular verbs having the

infinitive ending in or.

One of these,envoyer send, is irregular only in the

future and conditional (which are like those fromvoir) .I t is thus conjugated

on v orra i envoys! avcir envoyé envois envoys-uon v orra i s envcie

a. Like envoyer is conjugated its compound

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1 98 LESSON a .

Timm42.

They have sat down sit down do not sitdown there ;I will sit down ; we sat down ; that shemay sit down ; he

sits down.

’What is that worth ? it is worth nothingtheywereworth ten francs lastmonth ; theywill be worthtwelve francs tomorrow. That is not worth the trouble.

Those books areworthmore than these. Will the dressmaker send youanything to-day She has already sent

me a cloak. Does it fit you? N o,the things that she

sendsme neverfitme ; I shall send it back to her to-morrow. Are yougoing to take the cost which the tailorhassen t you That one wasworth a hundred francs, and Ishall buy onewhich isworth (fut.) only seven ty-five francs.Whomakes yourboots A n Englishshoemakermakesthem,

and they fit me alwayswell. ”I must send [and]buy some. Howmuch are theyworth ‘

P They are verydear ; they are worth fifty fran cs. I t is not worth the

trouble to (do) showthemto me I shall not buy them.

I t will be better to buy ourboots fromthis poorFrenchshoemaker. Why have youseated yourselves about thefire and what hasmoved yousomuch ‘

P Charles is tell

ing (h im) the tale of the poor king. Sit down also, and

hear the tale. This tale does notmoveme, and I do not

wish to sit down . The tale is finished let us go away .

COMPOUND .

ma mm are to the numhermtbem otm and to tbe pagewhuc“10t

décroitre

conduits

advent: ooujoindro

spar-covet

con-anti:appartenu

contraindre

contrch ire

utrcindrc contraventi

domir

disconvonir

onesindre

encourlr

fallait

fienrir, norit

forfaire

imboire

interdire

intervenir

I N DEX OF I RREGULAR VERBS.

menti:

recrui t"

redwoirouvrlr

paraitro réduire

renaitre

pleuvoir

preucntir

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Bourrienne.

Cherb.

5 Laboulaye. dé $ 0.

La Br. La Bruyere.

La F. 1 La Fontaine.

j,M O.

La B . La Rochefoucauld.

Referencesto thesecond Part are alwaysprecededby thcparag-raph

sign : thus, g 1 76a , etc. Arabic numbers without paragraph-signreferto the rules of pronunciation : thus, “mete. References to thc

Immof the First PartarcmdcbyRoman numen ls : thus,XXI 'V .

doH at'

s. dcMaistre.

doH aifa; deMaintenon.

Mar.

Mal.

SECOND PA RT.

I .—THE RELATION OF FRENCH TO LATIN.

1 . The French is a language descended or derived

a . By this ismeant, that the old Latin has gradually changedin to French, by processes of alteration similar to those whicheve living lan

guage English aswell as the rest) isunder

at t e present ay. These processes consist in the loss 050

55words and forms, the uisition of newwords ( in considerable

pa

rt, by borrowing out 0 other lan and new forms (this,waver, on onl a verysmall scale) , an the alteration in respect

tomeaning an construction ofwhat has been preserved fromformer times : and all this, accompan ied by a reat change in the

pronounced formof the words(pr

eser

ved, y by abbreviation ,

partly by turning certain soun in to certain othersounds. To

explain all this 1 1) detailwould be the duty of a comparative orhistorical grammarof French ; only the principal points can betouched upon here.

6.What we call French is only one amongmany dialects foundin France. But it is the principal dialect, the one taught in theschools

, and universallyused by educated ple and in literature.

I n a similarway, whatwe call Latin was t e cultivated orliterarydialect of Rome and its provinces, and some of the peculiaritiesof the other dialects, imperfectly known to us,may be traced inFrench.

0. By race, the French people ismainly Celtic, related withtheWelsh, the Bretons, the I rish, and the Scotch Highlanders.

TheirLatin language was a consequence of the conquest and government of the country by Rome, and the introduction of Roman

Extremely little of Celtic language is left in French.

was later conquered by Germanic tribes, es yfromwhose name come the words France,

etc ; and the French vocab contains a considerable numberof words of German origin. ut also, in later times, a great

204 m unu n ou or reason ro LATI N . [1 .

manywords have been borrowed into French, just as into?lish, out of the classical languages, especially the Latin.

words thus obtained fromLatin are in gen eralymuch less altered

than those that forma part of the language by regulardescen t.

d . Other languages besides French are descended fromLatin,in the same way as French

,and are therefore related (as it is

called ) with the latter. The chief among themare the I talian ,the Spanish and Portuguese, and theWallachian. They formto1gether the group of so-called Romanic languages.

e. The oldest specimens preserved to usofwhat hasthe right tobe called French, asdistin ished fromLatin , date fromthe tenthcentury ; a considerable nch literature begins in the twelfth

But theOld French of that period 18 verydifierent fromthe resent French, so difi

‘erent that a Frenchman has to study it

hardin order to understand it (much as we have to study theAnglo saxon) . I ts condition is in many respects intermediatebetween those of Latin and ofmodern French, and it illustratesin a very instructive way the transition fromthe one to the otherof these.

2. Of the changesof pronounced formby which Latinwords have become Frenchwords, a very brief statemen t,touching only upon themost important points, is here

a . The acq syllable of the Latin word 1s the last

nounced syllable of the French word, being either so

final syllable, or virtually so, as having after it onlycontaining amute 0.

Ex amples are : F. t imer, L. ama 're ; aimémt, amave’rn n t :ffites, firis

'

ti s ; cruel, crud e' lem; faire. tuc'ero ; fiele , frag

'i

lem; siecle, sec'ulum; fable, thb'ulam.

b. I f the accented syllable 18 preceded in Latin by two others,the latter of these, when a short vowel, is lost ; when a long , ischanged to 0: thus, bouts, bon lta '

tem; burner. blasp h ema ’re ;

poitrail. pec tora' le ; cerclcr, c lrcul afre ; but ornament, orn a

men ’tum; vetememt, vest imcn '

tum.

0. Of vowels not lost, those thatmLatin were followed bymorethan one consonant oftenest remain unchanged in French : thus,arbre. arborem; sept, sep tem; fort, fortem; junta, Jn stnmet 1msuch a position becomes 0, and n more usually on : thus,lame, flrmum: sourd. sun-( 1 11m I n other situations, a vowellong 1n quan tity is treated othervnse than a short : short a, e ,

l, 1 1

becoming respectively ai. is, oi , on , asmaigre.maccraw ; ficr.ferum; poire, p irum; loup , lupnm; while long a and e becomec and oims nes,mum; avoine, avemun ; and long i aud u re

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206 THE asu rron or reason so LATI N . [4

and indirect ob or accusative and dative, see the Lessons on

the Pronouns I .-XXV L ) .

and object form, ornominative and accusative, in nouns. Thus,mars 1001! (L. mums) nom.,mur (murum) accus. mur

(muri ) nom.,mars (mums) accus. plan ; and so patrs

a

gfiophm(L. p as

‘tor) nom. , putsur (pa sto

’rem) accus. ; sire gir

d-(L.

se’n ior nom. , sisur (sen io 'rem) accus. But this also ed

grad y out ; and it was generally the accusative or objectiveormthat remained in use , in either number : thus, mur sing.

,murs plur. That is to say, the French noun is, as a rule, therepresentative of the Latin accusative, and has its pronouncedformdetermined by that of this case, and not bythat of the Latin

nominative.

c. I n a few cases, however, the nominative formhas been retaiued instead ; ex amplesare an .smut . peintre, anestre, traitre.

And sometimes (as in pi tta pastsnr, sire sisur,mentioned above)both forms are left in French, as apparently independent words.

( I . There remains in most French nouns and adjectives a dis»

tinction of the plural fromthe singular. And the s thatmarksthe plural is, as seen above, that of the Latin accusative plural

(that is, as found in words having a difference of nominative andaccusative plural, as remrosas ,murimuros ; pastures havingboth values) .

e. The Latin triple distinction of uder, asmasculine, femin ine, and neuter, 18 re resented in nch by a double one on ly,since the differences o masculine and neuter forms have been

two genders have beenmerged in to one, whichwe callmasculine. There are a numberof ex ceptionsto the identity of gender between a Latin noun and itsFrench descendan t ;they are poin ted out below Those adjectives which in

Latin had the same forminmasculine and femin ine, as grun aj a,havemostly come to have a distinction of gender

—as grand,

grands—made in themin modern French, by analogywith the

others ; in Old French thiswaswanting, and such combinationsas grandma s, grand

’messe. p and'

route ( instead of grandsmere etc. ) are relics of the former state of things. Traces of

old neuter forms (used adverbially) are to be seen in the adverbs

mieux (menus) , p is (pain s) , moins (minus) , as distinguishedfromthe adjectivesmeilleur (mel lorem) , pirs (pejorem) ,moindrs (mi n orem) .f . The Latin comparison of adjectives is almost lost ; the su

en tirely gone, and of the comparative onl a fewleft

,in adjectives ( IX. 3 ) and adverbs (X

6. The changes in the inflection of verbs,or in con

jugation , are as follows :

vans-m emos . 207

' b. Of the tenses of the active, there are saved in French theindicative

,and the presen t and

with the value of a past simply.

future and conditional,made byan auxiliary (see V . 50, V I .

verb-phrases,madec. The endings of tense-inflection are much changed, although

the distinctions of person and number are well reserved . Ofthe let singular, all signsof a finalmare lost ; ut an s has inrecent time (since the 1 4th century) got itself nerall added,though even nowsometimes omitted in

rgoetry. e fln s of the

2d singular is everywhere retain ed. e final t of the 3d singular is to a great ex tent lost , but reappears by analogy in case

certain subject-pronouns follow, and 18 treated as if a euphon icinsertion ( I . Themus of the lst plural is reta ined asmesin all preterits and in the present sommes (mums) ; elsewhereit is con tracted to as ( forms) , and a constant o has come to beprefix ed. The tls of the 2d plural is retained as tss in all perits

,and in the presents ates, fait“, ditss ; elsewhere the t is

lost, and sz written,instead of es. The un t of the Sd ural has

become in general ent (of which ,however

,the n iswho ly lost in

pronunciation ) ; but it is out instead in four present tenses,namely sont, font, vont, out (and hence also in the futures,which contain out as aux iliary : V .

d . The Latin infinitive active is saved as French infinitive ; alsoone case of the gerund

iin the ao—called

with an (more propery called gernnd : see X. 3c, The cums and the gerundives, or future passive participles, are gone.

present active and the past (passive) partici les are reta ined ;and the latter, with aux iliaries, makes a doube series of verb

e. The four Latin conjugations are much made over. The

French lst conjugation , indeed , corresponds in themain to the

Latin lst,and has become stillmore the predominant one

,in

cluding perhaps five six ths of all French verbs ; it has drawn inmany verbs fromthe Latin 2d and 3d conjugations, and contains

themajority of borrowed verbs, and of new verbs, made fromnouns and adjectives. The Fren ch 2d conjugation corrmponds ina

general waywith the Latin 4th ( ir ire ) ; but in its inflection

it as becomemix ed with the Latin inceptive conjugation (seeXIX. 1 a) ; it too has drawn in verbs fromthe Latm2d and 8dconjugations, and it contains a considerable numberof borrowedand newverbs. The French 8d conjugation ismade up of a fewverbs fromthe Latin 8d

, which agree in their inflection well

208 ms acumen or reason we LATI N . [t a

c rest are so disccrdant as to

6. Of newsynthetic formations (tha t is, such as result in thecombination into one word of two ind dent words, one of

which acquires the value of a formative s sment) , the French hasnotmany to show. The principal ones among themare the newfuture and conditional, spoken of above, and

8a large class of ad

verbs fromadjectiveswithmeat (L meute) added (see XXXI .0. Many French words, however, exhibit a fusion of two or

more Latin words into one ; and some of the cases are very curious : encore, h an c 11mm; devant , d e aba n te ; désoma18 ,d e ipsa boramag ic ;mm, cemet ipciscimnm: soo the Vocabulary.

7. The changes in the value and construction of

French words as compared with Latin are innumerableand infinitely various.

The lost inflection is in rep ylaccd b fix ed rules of position ,

in part by 11.0m thus, prepositions stand instead of

cases, aux iliary instead of tenses andmodes, and adverbs

instead of endings of com risen . Of parts of h,orwhat

are analogouswith such, t o French has added 0 y the articles

the definite article altered froma demonstrative (le , la , les from1 1 1 11 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 ,mos and l i lac) , and the indefinite fromthe numeral one—both as in other langu Numerous additions, inpart quite peculiar, have been 111 0 especially to the classes of

prepositions and conjunctions.

8. The power ofmaking compound words,possessed

in a high degree by the Latin , has been almost entirelylost in French.

9. I t was pointed out above I n) that many new

words have been borrowed in to French out of otherlangauges : especially, in former times, fromGerman ; recently, fromLatin and Greek ; but also more or less

froma great variety of different tongues.

I n thisway, there are in modern Frenchmany pairs of wordscoming fromthe same Latin word, one by ancient descent, andthe other, much less altered, by recent borrowin : ex amples arefrele andM e fromfrag i lem; burner and b fromblu p h emare ; casein and eumen frome x amen ; center andm ist fromcomputare . and so on . Many new derivatives,also, have beenmade fromprimitives of every kind and source.

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210 norms.

a . Abstract nouns in our (Latin o r masc. ) are femin ineFrenoh : thus, la don1m. nne errenr, etc. Ex ceptions are

honncnr. le labenr. loc pleurc.

b. A numberof nouns corresponding to Latin neuter plurala or la are femin ine in French : e.g. la inuraille (L. mura llamarveille (L. mirabilia ) , n o arms (L . armn ) . Other 04are more lar

,and must be learned fromthe dictions

examples are 16m ( labrnm) , la join (g aud ium) , 18. répc(reopon sum) , and other words fromneuters in um; In 1

(mare etc.

c. Not a fewwords aremasculin e in French thatwere femiiin Latin : ex amples are an épi (sp icnm) , 1momg le (un gulaan art (artem n arbre (arborem lo sort (but ale

1 3 . The genderofmany nounsmay be in ferred frtheir endings.a. I t is notworthwhile to attempt to

'

ve rules

because of the small numberofwords on'

ng to some, andnumerous exceptions toothers only a few0 the principal clawill be noted.

b. Masculine aremost nouns ending in ag a egofirége : 2mad amc imc istc oman. are voyage

also the greatmajority of ti

o. Feminine aremost nouns ending in té and tie (L. s iimtion andsion (L.

-t io n emetc ) , and in once, ence , ance (L.-n t ia

examples are In bonté, 1a pitié, une action , In passion , la 1dance, In defense. 1a oonnaiscance ; also, nearly all those end

inmute e preceded by anothervowel or b a double consona

e.g. unc spec, la vie, 1a vne. la. plaie. liens, 1a chatte

non ette, la faiblesse. la lionne, la fenille.

1 4 . The genderofmany nounsmay be in ferred frtheirmeaning : thus,a . Masculine are the names of all male persons, and als

animals conspicuouslymale : e g. on home. Is roi, lomails ba ni .

But a fewabstracts, used concretely, are feminine cmWthey designate males : thus, 1a caution ba il. unc oonnaicuaagua intamca (also dupe , pratique, recruc, centinollc, victinand the femin ine name of amusical instrument sometimes denotes its player, asme clarinette . a clarinettist.

b. Masculine are the names of seasons, months, days. 11

Gamma. 21 1

c. Masculine are the names of trees and metals : e.g. lc pomd . Masculine are infinitivesused asnouns, as le rirc, liter;

also other parts of speech and phrases used as nouns, as non

-t—on the “wha twill p cop le sayabout it”?most names of letters (not of f, andMeemken as abstract nouns, as le bon et le vrai the good

8 true.

8. Feminine are the names of female ns and of animalsconspicuously female : e.g. la femme, h . t, In vache.

f . Feminine are most names of countri es, islands, towns, andend in e mute : e.g. In France. In Sardaigno, lala Seine : exceptions are 10Hanovre. loMex ique.

lo Beng als. 10E lm, 10Danube, 10 3 110119 , and a fewothers.

9 . Feminine are most names of fruits and flowers : e.g. 1a

pomme, la caries. la rose.

1 5. Some nouns are eithermasculine or femin ine,cording to theirdifierentmeanings.

a . Themost important of these are as followsm. f.

3 140.W? “40,M?

1 1 3 10, standard

couple, pa irorbrass is general

mm.mm(0M) maison, n‘

gn.mack

mobs, alcove

mémoire,memorial mémoire,memorypains-u, clam: pumas-o.mutat ed

pcndnlo, Imaging-clockrem, pool (mametc. ) posts,

vapour, steamer vapour, doomvoile, ocfl voile, am“!

b. In this list are not included words that have accidentallthe same form, though coming fromdifferen t originals. Sueare livrem. book (L. liber) , livre f. pound (L.mi n ) ; pagem.

page ( in wa iting) ( I t.mam) . page L p age (Of a book) (Lothercxamplcsare anne,motile.mousse.posh .comma,

vus.

21 2 cow s. [Wc Amonr, delioe. orgne aremaeculine in the singular, and

feminine in the plural (amour. in poetry, sometimcs in sing. also) ;abo Ptq aeterQfiqne pasewer is fem. alco lusing ) .

Genctedpl. p eople, folks (almost neverusedmsing . ) is in gen

eral trea as amasculine ; but an adjective preceding it has thefeminine form and also tout before such an adjective, providedthe latterisdistinctively femin ine in form thus, lee gens senses,but lee bonnes gene : and tontee lee bonnes gens, but tous leebraves gens, like tons lee gens senses.

e. Enfi nt child is feminine in the singular if itmeans a l

tlms, cette pauvre enfant : and the same is true of occlavo1 6. Some nouns, names of living creatures, have

ma

special derivative formfor the femin ine : thus,a . Many nouns in our. directly fromFrench verbs,

have a feminine in once :

femin ineimpera

ecnlptonr—are used in theirmasculine formfor persons of botlisexes.

6. Some nouns ending in e have a feminine in case : e. . oomtecomteue,maitremaitreeee. 1 ne anesce. More irreguar cases

are abbe abbesee . dien deecse, duc duchecee, péchenr peche

c. Many nouns forma corresponding femin ine 1 n the mannerof adjectives (V I I . by adding e, often along with variousmodification of a final consonant : e.g . ami amie , cousin cocaine .

ours onrse,marquismarquise, lion lionne. chien chienne. chat

paysanne.

d . More irregularcasesare roimnletmole. an d a fewothers.

1 7. Many names of animals are masculine or feminine only,

without to the natural sex of the animals : e.g. an 616

pliant. le l pard, lo cygne ; 1a panthere. 1a eonris. 1amonche .

few ending in 0. take either themasculine or feminine article,as a male or female is intended : e .g. nn bufie one

18. a. The gender of a compound noun is in general deter

mined by that of the noun orthe principal noun in the compound,

towhich the other element serves asmodifier . e. . lo chef-lien .

la fete-dien , nnemappe-monde. le bean-pore, lo t-huant.one

6. Compound nounsmade up of a verb and governed noun are

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21 4 some. [80

the plurals ign when nsed inor the works of so-amd-so . thus, ils

paye they were the Ciceros t heir

cmmtry, j’

ai vu pluaieure R-aphaeh auR aphaels at the p icture gallery.

c. Other parts of speech used as nouns,and the names of let

ters and res, take no plural-si thus, lesmis ot loe ei ifs

and buts, vez trois uwfite t ree a

’

a Otez les deux un can

cel the two l ’ad . Somewords are natural] without a plural,

names and abstract words : us,Europe.modestie .

t nouns are used concretely, and formplurals : thus,the vlrtues,mbontée his kwd nesses.

24. Some nouns are used onlymthe plural.The commonest of themare :males annals

,uncétres ances

25. Some nouns have a specialmean ing in the plural—usually, in addition to their regular pluralmeaning.

The commonest of these are : ciseau chisel, ciceaux chissls

,

and also scissors ; fer iron ,femirons

, fetters, gagegages p ledges, and also wages , and in likemanner lettres it

erature,lunettes p a ir QfWales

,lumiéres en lightenment,

armes coat of arms, and a fewothers.

26. I n compound nouns, the principal word, if a noun

oradjective, takes its plural formfor the plural. Thus

I f the compound ismade up of a noun and an adjectivequali g it, or another noun in apposition with it, both partstake t e

n

plural form: e.g”beauh ere. beau -frames brothen -irn

law,chou-fleur. chain

s-flours cauhfiowers chef lieu, chefi

b. I f the compound ismade upof a noun and a qualifierof

any otherkind, the noun alone ta es the plural form: e.g. poteau-feu broth-kettles, m—en-ciel rainbows, chefs-d

’mmrremasc. I f the compound ismade up of a verband a following oh

ject noun , the plural is regularly hire the lar: e. . lee coupogorge the cutthroats les porte-drapeau t sta rti-bearers.

But thosemore familiarlyused not seldomtake the plural sign .

oma asun ons. 21 5

this kind have

of course without

But aword that has ent and familiar nse the senseof its character as a liable to take the plural-sign

27. No French noun has any variation of formto

express the varying relations of case ; the simple noun

stands as subject and as object, or as nominative and ac

cnsative orobjective ; the other case-relations are in gen

eral expressed by prepositions.

if; {or the gradual loss in French of the Latin cases, see above,

isb.

’

Of the tions, do erand a. to are especially frequen t,and formwi a following noun combinations closely anal uswith the cases of Latin ,

and of various other languages ; so t at.

in some grammars, do l 'homme of the man, for ex ample, . is

called the genitive case”of home. and h. 1 1 10a to thema n

its “dative case” -this, however, is artificial and false. Theuses

of a noun with do and i , aswith other prepositions, will be explained in thiswork underthe various constructions.

28. But the simple noun has a number of independen t constructions (analogouswith those of the accusative

Whither, but 0 rarely, in theout quelque

b. I t often expresses time when : thus, il est venu osmatinbe came thismoming, il viendra le onto he roill oome (on ) theM m h voyou toua leojomwemhimmiy day.

nouns.

But a prepositionin expreeeions of time.

c. I t ex teases verymeasure dimension, of weight, of price, and so on : thus, llrestera deux jours hawill rtay trmdwa ih tn vaillbrent tomla nuit theyworked the whole n ight , allez troiamillea go threemiles

,oela vaut dix fi'ancs that isworth ten francs.

Butelc

iimension with an adjective is usually expremed by do

see §d . A noun is not seldom

hisp oclcets, ellean youx she amweredmewith tears in her

Et, s’il va quelque part, on le met ala porte.

’ Nulle part il n’

y a plus de paroles et moins(0. Sand.) Le 5mai 1 789 était ls jourfix é pour

l’ouvertnre desfitats Généranx . La veille, une cérémon iereligieuse précéda leur installation . Le lendemain , laséance royals ent lien dans la salle des menus. (My )‘Ofi courez~vous la unit? (Rae )

‘Je n e veux de trois

mois rentrer dane lamaison . (Rae ) I]gagnait en nu jour

plus qu’un antre on six mois. (R ae ) I lsattendirent encore

temps, les yeux ‘ toujours clonés snr cette poterne .

‘Je con tinnai ma route l’espace de six

Paris était resté vingt-et-nn jonrs sans noperenr et de la grands armée. (Banie

Elle

vend cc secret mille louis aFonché. (Bout )mérite

vaut bien la naissance. (Mar. On réso ut de perir lesarmee a la main . ( Vol ) conde appuyé snr la ba

lustrado, ls menton dans la main , le regard distrait, elle

avait l’air d’une statue de V énns, déguisée en‘marqnise .

(doMa ia.)“Je pouvais, suivan t nne donce habitude ,

rever lee yeux onverts, en atten dant le dé’

euner. (Lula)Paris tombé, l’expérience a pronvé que la rance tombs.

(Cha t )

q ua.

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218‘

House.

d‘une grands beauté a womaa groat beauty, “

temps de déwrdre et de troubls a time of disorderand trouble,il est d

’un oaractbre tréa générenx he is of a very generous

3 3 . A noun with de isused to signifymaterial.Thus, la table de bois the table of wood (i. s. wooden table) ,

une cuiller d'

argent a silver sp oon .

Owing to the deficiencyof adjectives ofmaterial in French , thisuse is a common one. See Part First, V . 1 .

34 . A noun with de is used partitively, or as a parti.

tive genitive, signifying something of which a certain

part or quantity is taken.

Thua, nh peud’

argent a littlemoney, “ morcean de pain a

bit of bread . trois livres de thé three p ounds of tea .

a . Such a partitive genitive is used after adverbs as well asnouns of qnan : thna aemde pain enough bread ,de courage an n ite amount of courage. Ses Part First

,V .

b. I t is much used after su

firlativss, numerals

, and other

words implying selection : thus, meilleur des amie the best offriends, trois do seemessieurs three of these gentlemen , lequelde nous tons which of us all ?

o. By a grammatical confusion , we meet sometimes with ex

ressions

ompée.which is the greater, t ar or Pomp ey? the alternatives, whenspecified, being treated as if in apposition not with the interroga~

t1ve but with the added genitive phrase (whether ex pressed or

d . A partitive genitive is sometimes used in French where theEnglish has an appositive noun or adjective : thus, cent soldatsdo pfisonniemcent dome. a hundred sold iers prisoners, a

hundred sla in, y a-t-il personne d

’

aesea hardi is there any onebold enough ? domes-nous quelque chose de bon gioe us something good , rien d

’étonnant nothing aston ish ing such instancesas the last two are especially frequent.

Une demi-heurs aprés, il traversait’

ls jardinmaraicher du No. 1 2 do la rue de la Santé , et il sonnait ala ports dcMadame B lonst. (Theoriet) ll nouspour la centiéms fois cette sin istre retraits ds Russia.

34] case-asmuons. 21 9

( lhua)‘I xa lunn :abbs est chknmué

st de jetés in ex ecuuvedépense. (de S is. Les vents, depuis

b trois mois en

chainés snr nos t tee, d’I lion trop longtemps vous ferment

ls chemin . (R ae ) Lises la vie de St. Louis vous verrezcombien les grandeurs ds cs monde sont eu-dessous da

désir dn ccenr humain . (deMaint.) Les hommes, rsssés

par les besoins ds la V ie,et quel nefois par 1s (1 sirdu

gain on de la gloire, cultiven t des snts rofanes, on s’cn

gagent dansdes rofessions équivoques. Br.) I]sentpen apen

°s’amo son cmnr de fonctionnaire. (Them-ia .)Js ne sais qui prononca d

’ebord lsmot dsma

riags mais u’importe" (About ) V otre coquins de

Tomette est evenue lus insolente que jamais. (Mal )O’était nu grand dia ls de arson , d

’nn e quarantain e

d’années. (Coppée ) V otre be e ame de comtesse s’en

mais tout lsmonde n’est pas comtesse.

°

(Man )I l est permis aux gens demauvaise humeur ds‘

la trouver comme 1 1s voudront.‘ (Man ) La femme était

d’uns jolis fi

lggirs, mais d’unemauvaise santé . (Barga in )

pot ds ferproposa an pot ds terrs nuvoyage.

(La F.) Que q

ues chaises de sills,nubureau de noyer,

ormaient tout l amsublemsnt. FDum. )(5 1 1 y a gagné beaucoup d

’1dscs, st perduconsi

dérablement de vigueur. (About ) L ’amour roprs est ls

lus d dc tons les fiattsurs. (La R .)' Ees dieux et

es (1 eases d’Olympe avaient les yeux attachés snr l’ile de

Cal so, pour voir qui serait victorieux , on deMinerve on

de mour. (Fin ) De ton cmur on de toi, leqnel est lsposts C

’est ton occur. (deMu.) Qu

’il achéve, et dégags

ea foi, ct qu’il choisisse aprés de lamort on demoi. (Cor-a. )‘I l n

’

y a pas une senls lante ds perdue ds cslles qui

étaien t con nues de Circé. (Fem) La vie est trop courts'

e voudrais qu’on ent” cent ans d’assnrés, et ls rests

ns l’incertitnde. (do Sév.) La perte des ennemis a étéils ont en , ds leur aveu, quatre mills hommes deSir.) I l n

’

ya rien d’étroit, rien d’asservi, rien

dans la rehgion . (do Se‘

v.)"S’il y a quelque

chose ds bon st d’utile dans ce récit, profitee sn , jeun es

gaunt oni éhai l )

out» .

”0 [U

35. A m p uuded by h h ith or v iflsout the dd »

uite uficbyh ving flie n h e of uwfifin gen ifimis

much uued in Freneh vbue it is dw'

red to ex plmueeb

tain pan or nnmber or qumfity of whut dis noun signiMor vhele in flngli h we put ormigbt putme or

mbefmtbe n

This is called the rm x ouxmr the nonn used

parfitively. I t 1 113d in my noun comtrucnon—as

mbject, as object, ae pled1 cute, as gomned by a prepo

a .

’

l‘

he rules for this uent and importantwere given in First, I V . 1—4 . or further rules as tomoromhsion of the articla see i fi .

b. After s nmtive verb, a noun not properly admitting pntitton is often

pptin the partitivs formflbmil n

‘a pu demm

elle n a d’

autre défi que celui-ci she has no

c. Nouns are often aleoused in a senssmally partitivewithontdo: in an ennmeratimthe usnal par.

titivs expression is omitted (see Part First, IV . also aftercertain prepositions, especially sans : thus, can a nte withoutfault ; also a

‘plnral noun in the predicate ex prswing condition ,

profession , an the like (compare § 50b) : thus, soyons amie letus be friends ; also as objects of verbs inmany familiarphrases,as avoir pour be afraid , chemher fortnne seek one

’s fmtune,

80 011 .

(53 5 De puissantsdéfensenrsprendront notre querelle.

(Rae ) Os sont dss héros ui fondent les empires, et desldches qui les perdent. ( V. ago.) Polyencte a dn nom,st sort da sang des rois. ( Com) ‘

I ls disaient que cs

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222 House. [37‘

sncore, autant qn’nn homme aux yeux noirs, ala chevslure

é ct brune, pent rssssmbleracs souverain aux yeuxb ens, aux cheveux chdtains. (BaL) Combien d’hommss atalent d qui il ne manque qu’nn grandmalheur pour devenir hommes‘ de génie l (Dunn)

I l approcha nne chaise de"la cheminée st s’assit.

J’ai fro1d aux p1eds, dit-il. ( V. H u

g’Son pére

asses loyalement gagn é six a huit e livres de ren ts.

V ons voysz nu homme deguaran te eing a cin

zuants ans, endurci an travail manu (About ) L’

eautait bien bonillante, et je l

’ai versés goutte a goutte.

(Corps )Turns 1 .

CASE-RELATIONS OF NOUNB.

Did yougo nowhere yesterday I wen t to Paris lastweek, and stayed there three days, but I did not findmyfriend he was elsewhere. I shall go thereMonday,May1 5th the ceremony will take place Tuesday, and we willreturn together the nex t day (morrow) . They had beenseveral dayswithout news of their son . H e will remainsome time at Bordeaux ; one cannot gain much in a few

days. These beautiful pictures are well worth a look.

I have just bought themfor francs. Why doyou look at this house with tears in your eyes Because

it wasmy parents’ house. The winds and the rain haveclosed to us the road to Paris, and we shall lose the journey to Italy. Have you read the history of the con

quests of Napoleon ? He wanted tomake also the con

quest of England. H e was born in Corsica, and gainedlater the title of Emperor of France. H is name is admired and loved in all the country of France.

"H ewas

aman ofmuch talen t, but of little virtue. The silverspoons are in an iron box on thewooden table. If I hadmoney enough

,I should buy a little bread. If I had an

-ssse bsi esn

as] ”mews. 223

infinite amount ofmoney, I should give himnone .of it.Which poet is the greater, V ictor Hugo or LamartineVi ctorHugo is the best of all themodern French posts.R eadme something beautiful. There is nothing in ter

esting in thisbook. Good books are rare but there are

books that we love verymuch. One does notmake con

quests by soft words, but by brave deeds."K ings are

not always heroes. The child that has nomother is veryunhappy. Thisman has neithermon ey, nor friends, nortalen t .

’

He is without hope and without happiness.

If he will listen to reason, he will go to seek his fortunein America. Who is this woman with blue eyes and

brown hair I have seen heron the steamboat, but I donot knowher. There are six or eight steamboats on theriver, but I see no sailboat there. I have a pain in the

eyes ; I can see nothing. I hope that youwill be betterlittle by little. They walk two by two.

III.— ARTICLES.

38. The forms of the definite and indefinite articles, and the

general rules as to theiruse, were vsn in Part First. Certain

points require further ormore (1 ed notice hers.

A .—D srrmrs Amman .

3 9. The partitive noun,or noun used partitively with

de (5 3b), is usually accompanied by the definite article.

Thns, dn pun et de la v1ande bread andmeat des soldatssoldiers.

mtive, also before an adjective, and both article and preposition after ui . . ni and in a long enumeration—were given in

Part First, I V . 3 , 4 .

b. The article is also

224 mucu s. [i l

tained : thus, il n’

a pas de pain , il n’

a que de la viande he hasnobread, he has onlymeat.d. Ths article is also somstimssrstainsd aftsra nsgativs verb,when a certain affirmative sense is intended to be implied : thus,n'

avex-vous pas dos amis haoe younot friendsr (1 .e. is it nottrue that youhaoefriends t) , je ne vonsfen i pasdes reprochufi' ivoles it is notfi-ivolous rep roaches that I amgoing tomakee. The article is retained before an adjective, if this and the

isussd alsowith the'

tive genitive afterbienand la plnpart : (ses Part First, V . ig

im40. The article is used in French,muchmore gener

ally than in English, before a noun taken inclusively, or

expressing the whole kind orclass.

Ses Part First, IV . 5. Further sxam chien estl'

omemi dn chauet le chat de la sourisand the cat themom'

s (here ths nsage is the same inguagss : bnt) , le vin l igre est acide oinegar issour, le bois légera moinl de valeur lightwood isworth less

, j'

aime la ulade Ilike salad

,nous appreuons l

'

histoire we learn history. The articwlsst‘hnsusedwe have called the inclusive article (see Part First,a. By a liksusags, ths arti

stract noun : thus, la as. laand hop e, la modestie est une bells vertnmodesty is a beautifid eirMh temps dn péfil ut aussi celui dn conrage the timeof danger is also that of courage. So also with an adjectiveused as an abstract noun : thus

,le culte da beauthe worshiq

the beautifld , elle aime le vert she likes green .

b. But the article is often omitted in proverbial and old-style

expressions, aswell as in various phrases.

(g On a desbraa

ipas de travail; on a duoccur

, pas

d’ouvra ( V . Hugo.) y avait snr cette table, st aprofusion, rosses, sponges, savons, vinai

grse, pommades, etc.,

mais nns goutte d’ean. (Lab) s n’ai vraiment que

dss o ligations an baron Taylor. (Dam. Madame, isn’ai point des sentiments si baa. (Rae ) V ous saves bien

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2126 m ews. [4 1

used instead of en . if the name ofadjective : thus

42.With other proper names, French usage in regardto adding the article is in general the same as English.

But the following diiferences are to be noted

a . The article is used before the n

c. Some propernames are always joined with the article as aninseparable refix to them; the most common are le Ham. an

Caire at Ca ,le Dante. le

e. The plural article is, in a higher narrative style, often putbefore the name of an individual, tomark himas a person of note

and imfiance z thua les a et et les Racine ont été la

gloire leur siécle suchmen as Bossuet and Racine were the

f: Before the name of a saint’s day, 1a stands byfor la.fits do thefestival of : thus, la Saint-Jean St. John

’sday,

is Saint-MartinMarttnmas.

La. isused also before a word for themiddle of amonth thus,

g. A la is familiar] used by abbreviation for A lamode de intheman nerorafler fashion of : thus

,une harbe h la Fran ¢

cois L a beard in the style of Francis I .

Héritier comme archiduc,de l

’Allemagn e orien

tale, souverain desFays-Bas, de l’Espa e, do Naples, de laSicile, comme successeur des duos de urgogn e, des rois

de Castille et d’Aragon , ce possesseurde tan t de territoires,

qui régnait sur les principales iles de laMediterranée, quioccupait parplusieurs points le littoral de l

’Afri ue, n’avait

alorsque dix-neuf ans. (Mignet ) V ous arrives e France

—Ce matin meme. (Scribe ) La loi des V isigoths inte~

13mm amass. 227

l’histoire d’Es e que l’histoire de France.

‘Le roi desmlui ofirait cent 61

Philippeisot )ce qu’il y

sous is front dedes rois qui ont,use Troie. (Fm

)rand Byron . (dcMu.

ls jeuneMazarin . fdc Vi. Si l’ame de larevenue visiter son ch tesu, elle aurait

ut-etre que la vie qu’on men ait manquait de'

eté. YEW.) Je no viens pas pour te parler de la’Ma

53m) . (0. Sand. ) Les scrupules de justi ce no son t as,

en general, ce qui arréte les hommes de la portée des réden s et des N apoleon . (Sta -B .) Tous les arts, a la verité,

poin t été poussés plus loin (

bus sous lesMédicis, sous

les Auguste et les A lex andre. ol.)’Monsieur as sait

pas ce que c’est ue‘ la Saint icolas . aParis on ne

fete pas ce saint‘ lg. (Thearica)48. The article is used before a title.

Thus, le docteur Ah kis Dr. Akakta ,le pmfcsuur BJ ’mf.

B . ,is general Bonaparte Gen . B onaparte. The titles of polite

ness, monsieur etc.

guv. stand before this article : thus,

44 . I n describing the parts of a person orthing , the Frenchordinarii uses, after avert . the article before the name of the

part, an the descriptive adjective after the latter (reall as ob

jective predicate) : thus, elle a les yeux biens she has us

(literally, has her eyes blue) , ii a l’

esprit cultivé he has a ti

catedmind , 10 chene n l ’écorcc rude the oak has rough bark.

45. The article is often used in French where the

English uses a possessive, when the connection pointsout the possessorwith sufficien t clearness.

Thus, je tournai la tete I tumedmy head , fermcs les you:

46. The defin ite article is often used distributively, or

where in English each oreverymight stand.

228 serious.

T‘

hua deu fcis h semsine twice eaeh trois fh ncs ls

livre threefrancs a pomsd ,le bateau part lo et reviwt

ls joudi tlwboat goee ecery l londay, and retummry 1'

hmwday.

in such a case.

4 7. There aremany phraseswhere the article, omittedby abbreviation in English, is retained in French ; as alsowhere, retained in English, it is omitted by abbreviationin French.

Examples are : l l’

6cole at school,i l

'

ég lise at church , l’

an

passé laet year, avu-vous le temps de le h ire hace you time todo it ? vers le soir towand ecen ing ; and h genoux on the lmeee,

under the p retense, courirterre eetfoot on the ground ,

a . In many other hrases, French and

omission of the for

b. Before a numeral following the noun it qualifies, the articleis omittedmore uniformly than in English : thus, CharlesFirstorCharles the First, Charles premier.

c. For the more etc. the French says simply plus etc. see

XXXI V . 3 .

48. a. For Y ouinstead of on one see XXV I I . 4a .

b. I n like manner, l‘un is sometimes used for un : thus, ishec-croisé est l

’un des oiseaux the crossbeak iemwof the birde .

I n the combinations of nuand autre , the article is alwaysusedsee Part First, XXV I I . 7. Forthe article in expressions of timc,see § 70b.

c. I n intimate and familiar address, the article is sometimmput before a noun used vocatively thus, l

'

asni , trois-moi , rentrechez toifriend , takemy advice and go home.

d . Either tons deux or tous les deux both is said ; so withtax;

les trois all three. Higher numbers generally take the arti

49. Though th

popularM atinee, lesministresministers and high QM".

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p ainter, c’

est un pointre it is a p ainter.

d . It is often omitted, especially in familiar speech, beforenombrs, quantité, and the like : thus, jo l

’si vus nombro do

fois Ihave seen her of times.

e. I t is omitted be are cent andmills (see XV . 6) thus,mills

( la

gs, a hundred years ; also after

XI 1 . 5e) : thus, quelle vuswhat a horrible eight !

f . I t is omitted after jamais before a subject-noun : thus, jamais hommo n’s ote plus ox alté necerhae a

is omitted by abbreviation in certain phrases, where theEnglish retains it : thus, mettre fin put an end , h ire presentmake a p reemt, prondre fommo tahe a wife. There are other

phraseswhere the con trary is the case, orwhere the two lan

h. As to English a used distributively, see above, 46.

i . Both articles are omitted in those combinations in which a

soe § 30c.

Sylla, homme emporté,méne violemment lesRoa la liberté Au ste

,ruse tyran , les conduit douce

ment d la servitude. ( on l.)’An ne, bolle-sceurdoGuillaume

I I I . , otfillo do Jacques I L ,mariée aGeorge, prince doDane

mark,était l

’héritiéro constitution nollo do is couronne.

(Remwa t ) Un'

eune homme nommé Croisilles, fils d’unorfevro, reven ait e Paris eu‘ Havre. (deMu. Ma iilleest veuvo d

’un homme qui était fort consi éré dans lo

monde. (H an )“Monsieur est Porsan ? c

’ost uno chose

ex traordinaire ! Comment pout-on etre Person ? (Mont )Dans lo langage dos is

,on set courtisan quand on

appuie la royauté, répu liosia quand on defend la liberté,

‘Ql flc.

303 mam a ARTI CLE. 23 1

traitro ou déserteur quand, de l’opposition

ornament qu’on a voulu. (Re.révolutionnaire gigantesque.

Un vieux domesti no, nommé Jcan , qui servaitdopuis

‘nombro ’

années,s’approcha do lui.

deMu.)’

Quel joli métier vous lui appron es l (Chert)Quelles belles épaulos blanches l quel souriro d

’étornello

jeunesse dans cette toilemerveilleuso ! (Gautier) Jamaispersonne no recouvra la san té avecmoins do laisir que

moi. Sand.)" Jamais homme n

’a eutan t éclat ; jamais omme n

’a on lus d

’ignomin io. (P ara )

"Sain t

Nicholas est descendu ma cheminée et iim’a fait

cadeaud’uno femme. (Theurich)

Tam e.

Have youneitherbrush norcomb Brushes, combs,sponges, we have themall ; and we have soap also ; but

we have no water. Has not the servant brought youwater? H e has not brought me any hot

“; he has on ly

broughtme cold water. I will not return without bringing youn ews of your friends. D o not be an x ious have

younot health, fortune, and friends Young folks havenot always good sense.

‘I do not like history most°histories speak only of war and of famines.

”Force is

sometimes the friend of justice.

“The love of the true

and the beautiful is one ofman ’s finest qualities.

history of Germany is very tedious, but I will give you a

history of the United Provinces, which will interest youvery much.

“ I have travelled in Italy and in ItalianSwitzerland I come now fromGermany, and I shall go

next winter to China or.

Jspan . The queen of Englandis also the“queen of Great Britain and the“empress of

India. We sell French and Spanish win es, Italian silk,

and English wool. Which is the highermountain , V eq au.

ba a.emu. q ua

232 [m_

suvius or Etna? Parnassus is the favorite moun tain of

the poets. Little John is better ; but his grandmother,poor oldMary, died thismorning. Great Demostheneswas themost eloquent orator of ancien t Greece. R achel

was the glory of the French theatre.

"Shakspeare and

Racin e are in literature what Napoleon andWellingtonare in war. The English hardly knowwhat St.Martin ’

s

day is. H e dresses in the style of Louis XV . Gen .

Thomas and Prof. St. Pierre are going to dine to-day withDr. Lucas. Madame Tellier has blue eyes and auburnhair

“H is heart is young, though his hands are weak.

If youare afraid, shut your eyes and giveme your handI will guide you. She is cold, because she has nothingon herhead. H e haslost his right arm. I go to Paristhree times a month I start fromhere Tuesdays, and ar

rive there Fridays. This cloth costs ten francs a yard.

" I wish you good morn ing, sir ; I amgoing to church.

I have not time to go there at present I shall perhaps

go toward evening. The more he goes to school, the

less he likes to study. The greater one is, themore oneruns the risk of falling.

“ I admire one of these ladies

and love the other. As forme,I admire themboth but

I love neither. MarcusAurelius, an emperor of R ome,was a good philosopher also. James II. of England, theson of Charles I. and the brother of Charles II.

,and the

constitutional heir of the crown , was, during many years,a guest of LouisXI V the king of France. William, agrandson of our frien dMr. Morton , is a soldier, and he

hopes to become a gen eral. H is brother is a painter, Ithink . Howcan he be a painter?he hasmade quan tities of pictures, indeed, but they are all very bad. Whatan ugly woman ! Never has an author been more ad

mired than she.

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used nouns of color form

55. As regards comparisona . Certa in French adjectives represent Latin comparatives and

snperlatives, without having (snugmore than the corresponding

words in English) a value as an

3 11mThey are not themselves compared5. Absolute superlatives in issime, as illustriuimo”wet illus

trious and révérendiuimemoatm zd, are late and learned

56. As regards the agreemen t of an adjective withthe noun which it qualifies :

com

marcher tete nae

naked tmth . The

participles ex cepté. suppose, y compris are invariable, as if usedprepositionally, before the noun : th ex cepté lesdamesthe ladies, but les dames ex ceptées t lad ies I n

'

e

mannerM de port p rep aid (as letters etc ) : us, je recois

which but envoyez-mox vos lottres fi'

anchea do portmd

me your lettersprepa id . Ci-inclnsand ci-joint enclosed ,annex ed ,

herewith are invariable at the begin of a phrase, and alsowith a noun not accompanied b the arti e : thus, ci-inclna vousrecevez la copie youreceive the cop y, butvoustroavamci-jointe la copie will find an nmd the cop y. Fen late

(deceased) is variab e only after an article or possessive : thus,ion In reine , but la feue reine. the late queen ; fen ma. tas te,butma feue tante.my late aun t.

b. An adjective following avoir l'

air have the aspect or look issometimesmade to agree with air and sometimes with the subjcet of the verb : thus, elle a Pair content orelle a Pair can

tente she looks satisfied (the onemean ing rather the has a satisfied look, the other the look Qf being satigfia i) .

c. Soi-disant pretended stands always before its noun, and is

invariable : compare 189c.

d . An adjective used as adverb (XXXI . 9) is of course invariable. But in fit is cueilli fresh~

p icked

powerful, the adverbial adjective is treated as an ad’

ective if the

qualified noun is feminine : thus,dos flours enemies

man n er or smscrrvns. 235

etc. , are treated as adjectives while logically rather

thus, les nonveanx maries the newly-married coup le (orcoup les) .For the treatment of tout, see 1 1 60.

57. As regards the formof an adjective qualifyingmore than one noun

,the general rule is that it ismade

plural,andmasculine if any one of the qualified nouns is

masculine.

Thus,Ie fi'ere et la smnr fimsnt contents the bmther and eie

terwere happg, nne veste st un pantnlon bleus a blue oest andtrousers, du padu et dubenrre ex cellents emcellent bread and

a . But the adjective is not seldommade to with the

nearest noun alone, and especially if this 18 add rather as an

equivalent or explanation of another noun,or if a gradation is

implied. Thus,avec une vitesse, nne rapidité inconcevable

with a swiftness, a r ity inconceivable, l’

ostin e et la conflance pnblique the ic esteemand confidence, point de roman ,

point de comedic espwnole sans combata no Sp an ish romanceorcomedywithoutfights.

b. I f two nouns are connected by the disjunctive on or,the

adjective regularly‘and properly onlywith the nearerone

thus,l ’estime ou conflance pn ne the publie eeteemor con

fldence. But it is not his onas.fills perdue pour In last to

society (Vol ) .

58. Two ormore sin

or 10 dimitiéme aiecle et la dix -neu

59. An adjective, of either gender or number, is often used as a noun .

Thus, nn riche a richman , cetto belle thie beauty, lo bometle vrai the good and the true, los panms the p oor.

a. An adjective so usedmay be qnalified by another adjective

236

oran adverb : thna h vn i bu n themw a m

60. The adjective in French, when used attributively,

stands often before the noun that it qualifies, but still

more often after it.The principal rnles respecting the place of the adjectivemPart Fit IE M) ; a fewmore particulars are addeda . The adjectives thatmost regularly and usually pre

cede the noun (compare V I II . 8a ) aremm humhandwueseam

“ a nguished

n eillour, better jeune, qWold

Even these are sometimesmade to followthe noun, and there

are otherswhich nearly as regularly precede.

5. Since (V II I . 4 , 5) a physicalmeaning rather than

an ideal ormoral one, and a literal ratherthan afigurativeone, tend to belong to an adjective following its noun

,

some adjectives have a well~marked difference ofmeaning, according as they precede or follow.

Themost important of these are instanced as followscertain hommomcertainman uns chou certaino, amre thingu psumhmmq a poorfellow u home punma poormanu bn vohomma aflnefellow un homms hravombraosmannn galant hommomgentlaman nn hcmme gslant, aman ofgallanwy

u prommdmhioown hand umainm hisclaan hand

mugo fsmo, amidwifs mtemmugemwisewomanDernier following the noun means last in the sense of neat

Kecedi the present time : thus, l‘année derniére last year, but

année de “ vie the laet year qf his life.

c.With a roper name, the adjective usually precedes : thus,le vortuoux de the oirtuoueAristides, le vénérnbloSomts

the venerable Socrates.

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238 m oti ves. [cc

out on une si grande influen ce sur notre chevalerie. (dc SioLisez les Commen taires de Cesar c

’est un style

d’une netteté et d’une fermeté singuliéres. (Ampere. Sa

vie n’a été

qu’un travail et une occupation perp tuello.

(Messiaen ) I l semble avoir completement onblié qu’ilest file“, at u’il s

’agit de ses pére etmere. (Sta -B .)

(g‘qLes armées francaise et italien ne traversent ls

Tanaro. ( Vol )’La ville de Nuremberg, beaucoup

plus

populeuse aux douzieme et treiziéme siecles qu’elle n e

b ’est

aujourd’hui

, était is centre d’uue grande industrie.

deuxManda .

L’aveugle na répondit rien . (0. Sand.) Des

qn nugrand est mort, on s

’assemble dans unemos uée, et

l on fa1t son oraison funebre. (Mont ) ’ Quelques abilcaanciens contre lesmodernes. (La

cartent des

an sublime.

'V a trouver de ma part cc jeune ambitieux.

profond sous lo régne dupédantisme,én ieux dans une langue in forme et

grossiere,Montaigne crit avec ls secoursde as raison et des

anciens. Son ouvrage,lon ps un ique, demeure toujours

ori al ; et la France, enri'

e tout il coup de brillan tesmerve

'

les, ne sen t pasrefroidirson admiration pources an tiqueset nai

'

ves beautés. ( Vale ncia ) Aumois demai dern ier a,disparu une fi re un iqued en tre les femmes ui ont régn é

parleurbeaut et parleurgrace. de Chateau

riand, dans les vingt dern iéres ann ées, fut lolgrand centre

de son monde. (Ste -B .) A quoi le bon one s ré nd, en

lon de sa prop’

remain neveuE t ne crangnez

~vous int l’im

Le venerableMalesher s’ou‘rit

‘te.MmM .

ADJECTI V ES.

are often,as in English, modified or

limited by nouns,joined to themby a preposition , os

I n themajority of cases, the French pthe one that isused in English

ble qf treason , cher i . see amiegnei l one fromcelebrated (or for) his victories, constant dans l

'

adversité

constant in adversity. But there are certain cases that require

a . De is ofte n used before a noun el

x

ipressingressmg source orcause or

motive, after an adjective which in nglish requires a different

preposition : thus, content de lui satisfied with him, fichedoma fiute sorry formy fault, surpris de cette nouvellemr

fiché sorry, fan farieux ,

ivmjueticiahle. d ense.

b. De is sometimesused in the sense of in resped

to, where

thefilture.

curious about

riche, soignenx , triste. victorieux .

0. De is used before a numeral after an adjective signifyingquantity or dimension : also after a com tive adjective, to

measure of difference. Thus, de six pieds sia feetde deu poncu two incheo ioida ag é de dam ans

twelve years old ; plus haut d’

un pi edWig

a foot,mainsAge de cinq ans less aged byfioe years, de ving t piedstwentyfeet lower.

d . Moreefiz

cnlmr 1s theuse of do afterwordsof nearness : thus,procho d

'

nm to henmisin dugrmd chemin borderingmthe highway (also prés do near to : compare 5 1 62f, end) .e. The preposition a. to, toward , at, is sometimes used in the

sense of in resp ect to where English prefers a differentsion : thus, adroit an jen skil led in p lay, apre an gain

fbrgai n , il n‘est bon h rien he ts good for nothing.

f . Some adjectives are followed bydifferen t prepositions, eitherwithout orwith noticeable differences ofmeaning : thus, cruel hor envers cruel to or toward indulgent i orponr orenverl in

240 sumc'rwss. ln

to etc. , hnbile i or dm or en rlcilled in : but fich6con means angry at, and a ch6 demeans angry on account qforsow-yfor.

g. Participles in general take the same prepositionsas the verbs to which they belong .

h. For theuse of do orhbefore an infin itive after an adjective,

see 5 184 . For the use of do or parwith a passive verb-phrase,

see XXV I I I . 3 .

Saves-vous, aprés tout, de quoi je suis capable(dial ) Oswald étaitméconten t de lui-meme. de Stae

’

l.) Atort on araison lemonde s’imagina queM al était plusamoureux du dadre que du tableau. (About ) Jc n

’en

suis pas surprise ; son caractere était si difiéren t duvotre .

(Man ) I l est trés admit a tous les exercices nul ne tire

mieux l’arc que lui. (Gautier) I]y en a qui sont bravesacon d

’épée, et qui craignent lescoupsdemousquet. (La R .)

e fut sublime de coins et d’attentions pour son vieuxpere, dont les facultés commencaient dbaisser. (Bal.) Fatigue d’écrire, ennuyé de moi, dégoiité des autres, ahiméde dettes, et légerd

’argent,

"ai quittéMadrid. (Beate n )

En 1 783 vivai t dans le Calv une jeune fille, agée devingt-cinq ans, réunissan t aune grande beauté nucaractére

forms at indépendant. (Thin e ) Quoique voisin d’un e

ville ulense, cc lieu presents nu aspect mélancolique .

Tb Un peuple si juste devait étre chéri des dieux.

Tum 8.

We went there at half past four, and we were thereabout half an hour. A hundredmonks, bare-footed, preceded the comuof the late princess, and all the court, ex

cept the ladies, followed it, with bare heads. Do youre

ceive your newspapers prepaid? I receive themeveryday, and I send you one of themherewith.

‘This ladylooks very happy .

‘I t is because the count marries her

to-day at half past ten . To-morrowall their friendswillcome to see the newly-married [couple] there will be no

place for the last comers. ‘She is very well acquainted

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242 smears. [W64 . Gent and quatrc-vingt are used without a in (lat

ing, and also when following the noun in an ordinal

801186 .

Thus, an mil huit cent in (the year) 1 800, tome queue-vingt .page deux cent volume 80, page 200.

65. The indefinite article an is the numeral un withweakened meaning ; and sometimes it may admit of

question whether the word is to be called numeral orarticle.

66. Old ordinals, nowhardly in use as such,or used ouly in

are used also as

still a in one or twonames of sovereigns , Bxx tem67. Collectives are formed fromcardinal numerals

by the ending aine ; theymean abmtt t/wwmber ofThus, une domine a dozm

,about 12

, une vingtainc a score

ar so.une soix antaine come threeacore.

a. The only ones in ordinary use are huitaine, dime, douzaine. quinzains, vingtaine, trentaine. quaran ta ine. cinquantains, soix antains. centaine. I nstead of nus cantaine is said11 11 cent. ly of articles sold by the hundred : thus, nucentdo clone a undred na ils.

6. Oumillier a thousand or so is a like collective frommills.

66. Of specialmultiplicatives are in use only the following

qnintnpu,fivefold mm.“mmFor the other numbers, one says neuf fois n ine times, or

neuf fois autant n ine times asmuch,orneuf foia pluam'

emtimesmore ; and so onze fois decen ttnws, an .d so on

69. a . For the numeral adverbs once, Mice,W,

and so on , the French uses fois f. with the numeral prefixed.

Thus, une fois deux fois, trois fois. quatro fois (four times) ,and so on . Buthis is alsoused in certain special connections for

m eans. 24 3

70. The following special uses are to'

be noted

a . A fter plus more ormoins less, the English than before a

numeral is expressed by do : thus, plus de dixminutesmore tha nteammates,moins de cent ans lees than a humdra i years.

b. The article is not seldomused after vars toward and snr

about in expressions of time : thus, vers or sur les six heuresabout 6 o’clock ; and then by analogy, even in vers lesune heureabout l o’clock.

0. Such expressions aslui cinquibme , literally himself thefifth ,are sometimesused forhe and four others, and the like.

Charles-Quint dans ces temps d’op robre et de

terreur, que fais-tudans ta tombs H ugo.

I]vit devan t lui un e jeune fille d’une vingtained’amn ées, ui se tenait sur lo seuil. ( Thmriet) ’

L ’album

contenait es portraits, parmi lesguels se trouvaient unetren taine d’ami s in times. (Bal. ) I] as retirait toujoursle visa e droit aux ennemis, et l epée au oing, leur donnant p us de crainte qu

’un cent d’autres ichelet.)

Le timbre sonore lentement fremit douse foiset l

’année ex

pire ase voix . ( Tantra ) J’

ai vudeux ou

trois fois iciM. d Autun . (de

(5 V otremajesté aura encore plus d’un e heure ur

s’

y reposer. (Guise!) Les scélérats ilsm’ont attach les

mains, comme vous voyez ; ils étaient plus de vingt. (do

Vi. ) C’était sur lescinq heures de l’aprés-midi, par e 108

beautempsdumonde. ( 9 . Sand.) Tupartirasvers les eux

heures aprés diner ; tu seras la-bas a la unit. (0. Sand. )‘I l est parti lui douzieme ; tout le reste courra aprés.

(dcTurns 4 .

Charles the Fifth died in the year 1 558. He had ah

dicated sovereign power in 1 555 , but he lived, in the clois

ter to which he had retired,more than three years longer.

Have youbegun the second volume of the novel youwere

244 reassessm vacuum“. anmc nvss. [70

reading yesterday ? I t has three volumes, sir ; I havejust finished the second, and I amgoing to begin the thirdthis evening.

’I left at Paris some hundred friends,

among whomthere were notmore than ten or so in timateones. H e would not have ret ired before a hundred ene

mies. He was in the armymore than twenty years ; hehasmade a dozen campaigns, . and has been wounded five

or six times. I have seen himon ly once it was toward

eleven o’clock in the even ing. H e came in, he and nin e

others,but he stayed less than an hour.

V L—PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINALADJECT I V ES.

71 . I n the First Part, the substantive forms and the adjectiveforms of the various classmof pronouns, with their uses, wereexplained

l

separately ; here the two kindswill be treated togetherin each c ass.

A .—Paasonu. Paonoux s.

72. The forms of the personal pronouns, and their prin 1

uses, were explained in theFirst Part (Lessons XXI I . and XXIFurtherrules are added here.

73 . Both the subject-pronoun and the object pronounare ordinarily repeated with each verb to which they belong in sense .

Thus, nous allons ct nous venouswe go and come, is Is vcis st

jc l’

entends I we and hear it.

a . But exceptions are not infrequen t : the rule appliwmorestrictly to object than to subject~pronouns, to pronouns of thefirst and second than to those of the third rsou, and with simple than with compound tenses of the ver The repetition isnecessar if the object-pronouns are in different constructions :

thus, je

‘ai vuet je lmai parlé l ha vemn and spoken to him.

74. If a subject-pronoun is to bemade emphatic, it isusually repeated, in its disjunctive form. either beforethe verb or, sometimes, after it.

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246 raosocss AND raosomst ADJECTI V ES. [70‘

hear, voir see : thus, je l’ai fait h ire I haee caueed tomake ft

(or caused it to bemade) ,heard it ea id (literally, have heard sag it) .For the case of two object-pronouns in such a combination, see

below, 1 58.

b. The same is not seldomthe case with vouloirwish, pouvoirca n

, devoir ou ht : thus, il me ls vent persuader or il ventmela persuader wants to p ereuademe qf it, on le peut gagneror on peut le gagner onem win him, qui le doit emporterwho ought to get the better? Othercases sometimes occur : e.g .

nous l’

allonamontrerwe are going to show it.

80. If an imperative affirmative is followed by eu

other,connected with it by st an d oron or, the pronoun

objects of the lattermay be placed before it instead of

after.

Thus,rob/ anddescri be themtome.

81 . a . The direct object-pronoun of the third person ,Is, is used predicatively without variation of gender or

number to represent a preceding adjective, or noun of

condition or quality,where somay be used in English.

Thus,ates-vous heureux ?je ls suis are youhappy ? I amso,

fut-elle servante? alle le fut was ehe a servant ? showman.

b. But where the question is one of identity, the predicatevaried to agree with the noun to which it relates : us

,

Ghee-vous lauarie 7 je la suis are youMary? I amehe.

82. a . The French often uses 10 to repeat or to an

ticipate something stated in a preceding or followingclause

, while the English omits it.

Thus, ils ne cont pas ici . je lo vois thag are not here, I cee,vous le savez, c

’est un caractbn fi ible gouknow, he ts a weak

The'

tiou, in fact, of either subject or ob t in the

of.

a con unctive pronoun (also on and y) with e verb is a frequen t and familiarpeculiarity ofFrench.

6.With a fewverbs, the French uses lo as a sort of indefin iteconstant ob

ject : thus, l

'

emporter get the better (literally, can '

yit ofi) , le

83 . The disjunctive pronouns of the third person

mason“. Paosoun s. 247

lui , elle, eux , elles—axe chiefly, though not exclusively,

used of persons, othermodes of expression being subeti

tuted when things are referred to.M4. Sci (x xm. 4 ) is used of persons on ly in an in

definite way, when no reference is had to a particularperson . As relating to things, its employment is lessrestricted ; but modern usage tends to substitute for itthe ordinary disjunctives of the third person , especiallyin the feminine, and where definite objects are intended.

Thug mbienfai t porte sa récompense en sci a kindmeebrings its own reward wtth it, but les chosesne sont en elles

mtmes ni puree ni impures thtngs are neitherpure nor impwe

tram way.85. En and y (XXII I. 5—8) are adverbs that have se

quired the value and construction of pronouns,being

used instead of personal pronouns (rarely , of demonstrativsa) in the gen itive and dative cases respectively, orasgoverned by the prepositions de and A. They refer usually to things ; but also to persons, if plural or understood in an indefinite sense ; to a definite person in thesingular, only rarely .

a . Quite frequently, they refer to a whole (preceding) clause,or to something stillmore indefinitel suggested : thus

, il n'

est

gs. ici j

’

en ems sdr he truot here, ameure of’

it,il est sorti .

os-vous y he has gomout,dep end upon it.

b. Hence also, in many special combinations, they have a yetmore indefin ite reference, to nothing specified or distinctly suggested, but to things in general ; and they formidiomatic phwhere they are hardly, if at all, translatable : en meaning in re

sp ect of it, because of it, fromit, away ; and ymeaning there,

Some of the commonest of these combinations ares'

u wmdre k make rapomible,accuse

s’en retomer, eombaek enm sveo, treat, handle

“ ice be at a pot'

ntoreituaa’

on

en voulolt ace a gmdge agaM mvenir i wme to the pofnt qfu bfie h lfibe aa oeer en finir,mahe an end

24s paononn s AN D Psox oman ADJECTI V ES.

y smm a thmfi etc. ymWMy d lcrdqmmEn in the sense of away (as in s

’

en aller) is in manycompounded with a verb : thus, s

’

cafhir rammy, c’onvoler

fly of ,s’

emportea' lose and: self-control, 0mm carry of .

u

d. Foron having the value of a possessive, see below, 886.

Oui, j’etais et je suis encore dans une grande

perplex ité. (About ) V otre lettre,madame,me plait,metouche, et m’

alarme. (Roma ) ’En attendant le jour du

depart j’allais, je venais, ia no ouvaisme rassasierde voir

1a citadelle, l’arsenal

,le port Barth.) Je la vie la veille,

je lui parlai,'

eme désespérai . (Man )oi, sansme vanter, j’ai la mine u’il faut‘

ar les contes a faire" peur. (Courier)’Moi, ’

ai

lament courupour trouver un e femme. (About ) at

tendant, lui ne bouge pas de as fenetre . (Tarpfcr?tS’il

n’en dit rien 11 Claire, ce n

’était pas qu

’il crai de larendre jalouse, ou que lui-meme gardat“eufon ducmurnurests de dépit. (About ) On no loue poin t une femmeui nuauteur comme eux -memes se louent. (La R . )

75 .

’Si vous avez fait de votre mieux , ne vous en

vcuille pas avous-memes. (Joufmyj Je no puis‘ sanshorreurme re ermoi-meme. (D elaviym.)

e les nomme ; et lui, saisissant un crayon , semet a les écrire. (Thin e )

’Mais l i, voyant en moi lafille de son frére,me tin t lieu, chére lise

, et de pére et de

mere . (Baa ) Eux seuls savent'

u saven t penser, savent écrire, doivent écrire. (La r. Lui

, bravant tousles dangers, semblait seul tamr 1a campagne. (B

C’estmoi qui me fie avous. (K ismet ) Oest

l’art et non pas la nature simple qui semontre anous.

(Fén .) J’ai mérité cequi m’

arrive, puisque j’ai pum’

adressera lui. (Scribe ) On trouve aqui parler quandon s

’adresse amoi. (D elam'gne.

J’ai pensea elle ’abord, c

’était mon devoir ;-n x . o. " 1 85 6 . " 1 88 .

4 n xv . 01 . " 1000.

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260 Paononss sun PRONOMI N AL ammns. [06

(0. Sand. ) C’était elle, j’en étais

ment installé is ca bonne meretaut demal de cet homme, et j’yComment s

’

yjmndb n, a la

vais coups? bout.)

’J’en

quand j en tendis appeler"mon nom. (Dow) .

‘Pourquoi

s on prendra aux hommes de ce que les femmes n e sontsamtes (La Br.) C

’en est fait,mes amis il n

’est 53:

de patrie. ( Vol) La dispute s’échaufiant, on en vin t

bientbt aux armes. ( Va let )“I I

ava de ma gloire ; il

faut que je me venge . ( Com) e deux personnes quia’niment, soit d’amour, soit d’amitié, il y an a toujours n ne

qui doit donn erde son ccsur plus que l’autre. (0. Sand.)

Turn s.

We are and always shall be charmed with this book ;it pleases and instructs us. Do youknowwho is its° author? I 4 know and have spoken with him he camehimself to see me, the eve of his departure.

‘He alone

knowshow° towrite really in teresting stories. I will givethis book to yourself, but youwill not permit her to' readit. They also will read it, but he alone will understand

it.’I f he wan ts to present himself to us

, we shall not

showourselves to him. We were thinking of herwhen

she came to us. This house—I cannot accustommyselfto it, although it ismin e.

“ I saw themarrive thismorning. I have caused to say to her that I cannot see herto-day. She sends youthis letter ; take it and read it .

I s she not your sister‘

P She is (so) I was always kindto her, but she has not been so toward me. Y ouknow,

I have N d heremany happy years. I love this roommore than youwould believes. Some men are happierthan they ought‘ to be. One ought not to be toowell

b 0

Jun . urea

,“sass.

”l roam . 261

satisfied with one’s self. Every weakn ess carries its own

punishment in itself. H e who triumphs over‘ himselftriamphs over‘ allmisfortunes.

" I t was she who said so

much evil of them, depend upon it. “I t is all over ; let

usmake an end, and go away . Of all these people, thereis not one that I love.

B .-Possassxvns.

86. The possessives are the adjective forms corresponding tothe personal

pgnonus as substan tives. The forms and principal

uses of themave been already given (XI V . 1-5 , XXV I I .p1 ,

a. The ao-called possessive pronouns (Lesson XXVI I . are onlya different formof the possessive adjectives,made of substantivevalue by prefix ing the definite article.

used predicativelywithout definite article in

stead ofismine

,unmien parent a rdatioa mine.

88. The possessive adjective is often omitted in

Frenchwhere English usage requires it, or itsmean ing isexpressed by the French in an othermanner than in English.

I t is omitted especially in speaking of parts of the body or

drew,where the connectionmakes clearwhat ismeant : thus, ilma dhnna lamain he gmme his hand .

b. I tsmeaning is often expressed by an indirect object-pronounwith the verb or by en : thus, il “

'ut mué lcbras he hasbrokea his arm, le sol en est firtile t

’

ts soil isfefl ile.

c. On the other hand, the ive is used in addressbeforethe name of a relative, the ti e of a superiorofficer, and in other

like cases : thus, bouionr,mon pi t a good day, father, oui.monM y“, General .

88. The possessive ismade emphatic, as in Enaglish

,,by adding

promown ; but also by adding the correspon mg disjunctiveh : thus, domes propres yeux withmy oameyes,

amdmgmm,votre opinion avous your oery own op imon .

enormous a s !) Penm an. anmo'n vns. [0‘

0

(5 Elle eut‘ nous plaire plus oumoins,mais elle

est sienne . (Sat.' Un mien cousin , Cesar, Comte de

Garofa, pres de V elalcazar. ( V. Hugo.)(g

'Je me suis blessé a la main . (Da vim

'

er)' Jeunes femmes, ne les eux sur lesmaitreschanteurs de P as nombreux , ils lo

(Miguel )yeux ; ls cmurLamainmemanque.

en Pologue, il en vit ls roi. (St. S il’ai en de partie parcourue j

’en

connais les promesses, lesr tés, les déceptions. (Joafroy)Mamere,mamere lgurquoi se

-tusi longtemps couchéeerhomme j

’ai diné hier avec lui

lui disais : V ous mange: trop, mon oncle. (A ugier )J’en ferai confidence at tout ls regimen t ; merci, mon

vieux !(g 89 ble en fant, ajoutait-il, votre

vos doux sourires, voilames fétesamoi. A insi,toute ma famille amoi, c’est ma pauvre nourrice, la mereJoseph. (Scribe )

Tam 6.

rossnsstvss.

Here is a cousin of thine ; give himthy hand. I can ~

not give himmy hand ; I have broken my arm. If youperfect your taste, youwill like books better youwill un

derstand their beauties and know their authors. France

is the most beautiful country in Europe, and P aris is itscapital and largest city.

“Cousin , you do not know the

world. Y ouare afraid, friend your hand trembles, andyour courage fails. Come with me, captain ; you shall

see the whole company. I did it with my own hands.

I amnot going to dine with youat the restaurant it is

sn eak.

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254 raononn s AN D monomer. sp am . I“

rien par cur-memes,manifestent desregrets en tombant du

pouvoir. (Bel)(5 93 ) amarche l ca marche l dans huit jours nous

entrerons a rlin . (D au. Aie bien soin de tout ; tumerendras compte de es la-bas ! dit-ii. (Bel) '

Davoust ?Qu

’est-cc que 0

’est que

“

a,—Os, lmonsienr ls marquis,

c’est le héros qui prepara agram. (Sandcas .

’Cc que j e desire, c

’est de" vous voir réussir.

(Rae) II a peur de° rdrc un e minute,temps, c’est de I’argen t. La Faitessieur, que cesmess1eurs avaient attache.

Ten ts 7.

nsuox srnarxvss.

‘I have read the life ofWellington and that of Napoleon the latterwas the greaterman , the former the better citizen . H e alone is happy who triumphs overd himself. ‘Those who love others are themselves beloved.

Thisman , who has never had anything,is happier than

that one, who has lost his great wealth. Wagram what

is that ?‘Wagramwas one of the great battles of N a

poleon’swars.

95. The interrogative adjective and pronouns given,theirprincipal uses explained, in the First Part (XI I I . XXV .

98. De qui is not used in the sense ofwhosct with the governoun immediamfollowing : thus, do qui est-cc lo livrembook is this

97 . The predicative que (XXV . 4a) 1s used almost as subjectin certain im rsonal expressions, where the impersonal subjectis omitted : t us, que vcus cn semble what do you think ofthem (literally, what seemto youof themr) qu’

arrivo-t-il what

98. After qu’cst-ccmeaning what is? a que is added before

the predicate noun thus, qu’ost-cc que la vie what is life 7

a . The same isthe case after the doubled interrogative qu’ost-ccque c

’

est (XXV . thus, qu‘est-os que c

’ost que la vie what

is life

q as. wuss.

out t a .

tel] mum s. 255

fide after an interrogative bcfore two

n cmurmette a votreardi de troublermonpoets —Lomalheur.

V on ez-vous que je vousapprenne la que c

’est que cette lo

glque (Mal.E .— Rm.sr1vas.

100. The forms and principal uses of the relative pronouns

given and explained in the First Part (XI I I .

a . For the use of a relative clause where in English a present

participle stands, see below, 1899 .

101 . a . Lequel is occasionally used as adjective, when in trodueing a clause that has additive value : thus,devaxt épouser lfademoiselle B . whwh gentleman wae tomarryb. I n antiquated and official phraseology, leqnel stands some

timeswhere ordinaryusage“ 220 hasqn i orque : thus, un témoin .

leqnel a dit ” sa id .

102. Dont and

a

de qui are not used as de

pendent npon an an

tecedent that ia governed by reposition t,Ie aux bien

h its duquel ” .

go

the ktng towgow bcmflts103 . Quh que and quoi are all often used as compound rela

she their an tecedent, and having a

general or indefin ite sense.

a . Qui referring topersons thus sigpifiesemy oncwho, whoovm,

and is used also as 0 act thus, qui f am e s’

accuse whoeverswarmIn

’

nwelf accusesJhimself , qu’

importe la vie aqui perd Iebonheur of

’

what use is life to any onewho loees happ imsn jeuo sais qui chercher I don

’t lmowwhomto lookfor.

b. Qui is also used instead of ce qui as referring to things aftervoici and voilh. and in parentheticphrases like qui plus est what(s ome . thus, voilh qui serait merveilleux that would bc ad

c.

.Que hardl occurs in this sense ex cept as object of an

tive 1mm y following it : thus, il ne sait que h ire henotwhat to do.

an atio phrase,mean ing the wherewith, themaamot anything.

b. V ery rarely, qui is used instead of que.with a verh following of which it is the subject : thus

, quoi qui suive whatever

similar sense, see below,

100)'Moi qui suis royaliste

, je le dis franchemen t .

dc Vi. )”Dis-mm, qui os-tu

,toi qui me parles ainsi?Mar.)

‘Ce fut moi qui m’inclinai 9. mon tour. (D am)

Sole1l qui vois, entends, connais tout (Citation )‘Monsieur, c

’est un homme sur la vie duquel

reposent d’énormes capitaux. (Bal. ) Celui-la seul avaitls droit de triompher, sous les auspices duquel la guerreétait faite. (Mont )(5 Qui dit dit plus d’une chose c

’est

une vaste Aqui ven son pere, iln’est rien Qmsort {Ian son pays

Je n’aurai qui tromper,

qui me trompe . C '

J’ai de

‘fluoi me

e quoi vous répon (Rotrou) oilaquim’étonne, que nous ayons été seules, l’un e et l

’autre, tout

’Edouard III. no se crut pas assezfort tout se il cherche qui embaucher dans 83 cause.

(n ma ) C’est la peusée qui fait l

’étre dc l’homme, et

sans quoi on no lo pent concevoir. (P am)no fairs ; s

’il faut parlor, je no

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258 raonommo racsomu. somm es. [105

105. Some of the forms and nses ot thc

gznommal’

fallin nnder this head were given in the Part (XI V . 6.XXVfi3

108. A redicate noun or adjto on as snbject usnall the number and

to the impii mean ing : thusm p eop le aremt slaves, qn

'

on est

a . I f a object-formto on is required, vons hasto be used. A vonsmalso sometimes nsed as subject in an in

defin ite way, as in English, instead of on .

b. 011 is sometimes used to soften the force of a command

masculine (although

These are used not onlywhere the negation is distinct ordistinctly ex prmsed , but also often where a de

gree of negative sense is imlied : thus, sansvoir person aWang/ (med a ls de rien dire demoi l dsfl himtomywar/thing ofmc. I n the sense of English whateverwith subjunctive, quelqueque stands in French in an attributive sense, or directly

qualifying a noun ex pressed : thus, quelques talents que vousayes whatever talents youmay have, do quelque coté qn

'

on so

tome in whatever direction onemay turn .

Compare the corresponding use of qui , quoi, quoi .with following que, above, 5104. Here, also, the que is in rare cases reby qui as subject : thus, quelques nouveaux malheurs qmnousdoivent attendre whatever newmisfortunesmay await as.d . Quelqne is also used in the same way adverbially quality

ing an adjective or adverb, in the sense of however, andis then ,

of course, invariable : thus, grands soient vos ta

lents howover great your maybe, fort qu’

on ao

defends however steady one may resist. Compare the conjunc

s. Qnelque is also invariable when used in the sense of about,nearly, with a word of quan tity, generally a numeral : thus

,

quelque ving t ans some twenty years, quelque pen some little.

Qnelconqne. This is a pronominal adjective of infra.

1 1 4] mnsmrrss. 259

uent meaning whatever, and alwa following the noun it

gualiflel

iw’

thus, domes-moi nn points

qs

nelconqne.

qnelconqnes giveme anyp otnt whatever, avg/points109. Chaqne, chacnn (XIV . 0. XXV I I Of the two wordsmeaning every, chaqne is distributive and individualizing, tentis inclusive and generalizing . thus, tout homme est mortalchaqne homme a son caractbre a lni everyman ismorta l , every

(oreach)ma n has his own character. I n many cases, however,1 10. Tel such. Tel is varied for genderand number like any

otheradjective in el : thus, tel , tela ; tella telles. I t is used inall adjective constructions, and also substantively. I t takes theindefinite article before it, instead of after, as in English . thus,un tel hommo sudz a man

,sa condnite 6tait tello qno . . . his

a . Tel has various idiomatic uses. I t means so-and-ao, or

moh-and such, standing in place of a word which it is desirednot to ex press distinctly01

thus, it tells 6110a at such and-suchan epoch,monsi enrun Mn sueh a one . I tmay often be reudered

1°

l

H'

O

one and another ormany a one, or the like : thus, telchosen qn

‘il n

'

entend pas some peop le talh of thingsthey

1°don ’

t understa nd . Tel . . tel stand for one . . mwtherthus, tel fit tel plenre one la he, anothercries ,

so . thus, tel pbre. tel fils as father. so the von . Tel qnelmm elliptically such as it is,w hatever sort orquality.

1 1 1 . Ancun , nnl (XI V . 0. XXV I L 6 These words are usedboth adjectively and substantively, an both alike require no before the verb. They but rarely occur in the plural.

a . They are used not only as distinct negatives, but also wherenegative sense is imlied or suggested, as after sanswithout

and verbs of denial or oubt : thus, sans nul égard without an ywnsideratiomje donte qn '

aucnn do vons le fiuq nestion

whetherany of youwould do it . Ancnn'

1s occasionally found'

1n

old style French with a fully positive meaning : thus,aucune

1 12. Plusieurs several etc . Plnsienrs (XI V . 6.XXV I I . 6) isonly plural, and used both adjectively and substantively.

same sense are (much as

certa in , sundry. divers,

1 1 3 . Maintmany a ,many. This is an attributive adjectiveonly, having the usual adjective inflection : thus,maint hommemany aman ,

maintes foismany times ormany a time.

1 1 4 . a. Hmself. same ,etc. Thisword , a pronoun by ori

gin , has acquired a variety of values. For its combinationswiththe disjunctive pronouns, moi-memeMa mmal! etc , see the First

260 monoussm m ama . ADJEOI I V ES. [1 14

Part (XXI I I . 3c) . Aftor a nonu, it hss a similarmoan ing, itselfetc. :mmum m m w mm m wh ench themselves , and 1t 1s sometimes best translatod very

b. Before the qualified noun , itmeans same . thus, comemomtin that samemoming , leombmosFrancais the sameM eh~

c. I t is also often used as adverb,meaniug even : thnamamecematin even this nwming, sos ennemism&mo even hisenemies.With this value it is, of coume, invariable in form.

1 1 5. Antro other (XXV I I . Thisword is forthemost psrtan ordinary adjective , capable of being used also substantively.

For its combination with 111 1 into phrases, see the First Part

(XXV I I .a . I t is sometimes added to nous orvous ex pletively, orsimply

to emphaswo the distinction of as oryou fromothers : thus, nonsmus.

Francois weFrenchmen , vous autres Ang lais

b. Antre chose anything else is common with a negative verbin the sense of nothing else.

1 10. Tont all, every (XI V . QXXV I I . 5—7, This is also

in themain an ordinary adjective, but having some values analogouswith pronominal words.

a I n certain phrases, tout signifies all, whole without aecompanying article etc. : thus, 1 tonte force all one

‘smight ;

this is especially the case in the plural . thus, an toutes choose inall things, de tontes sortes of all sorts.

b. Tont everything is somet1mos nsed 1n the sense of everybody.

Le tont is thewhole.

c. Tont is very often used adverbially, meaning wholly, en

tirely, guite, altogether, all, and the like. I n these senses, it remainsmvariablo before a noun, an adverb

,a preposition , a was

culine adjective, and a feminine adjective beginningwith a vowel ,but, before a feminine adjective beginningwith a consonant, it isitself treated as an adjective, andmade to agreewith the followmun : thus, elles sont to“admire“ they are altogether ad

but elles sont tontosmalades they are quite ill, elle étaittont aimablo. tomgracionse she was altogetheramiable an d

d . Tout before an adjective, ornoun used adjectivel , with queaftor it, adds themeanin of however: tout bon qn

’i‘l eut

evergood he is, tont qn'ils ponvaient etre how

evermuch the gentleman theymight be. Here, too, the tent istreated as adjective before a femin ine beginning with a conso

nant : thus, tout“bounce qu’

elles sont good though they are.

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262 mucous AN D monomer. somm es. [1 10

La F. Avec quelques vertns, j’aimaint otmaint défaut.

Cha

C’est la voix memeXa patrie,

gonfiéo do

souvenirs ot do larmos. (D am) la cour, la ville,mémes assions,mémes faibleoses, mémos petitesses. (LaBr. ) e son t encore les Francais,mais non lesmoni es.(Pass. I l est probablemémo ’

nusoul été [doflanorio]u

no on'

t point a fairo nu homme.

' Nous autres plomates profitons volontiersdos fan tos do nos collogues. (Scribe )

’V ons avez fini,

vous autres écrivains, par roudro bien ridicules les femmesqui so

’prétendeut méconnues. (B ah)

‘A vee-vous do For

ct do 1 agent me disen t-ils ; nous no souhaitons pas autroSandchose. Toutes les

'

ons no son t antro chose

que les divers ogros do la c our ct do la froideur do83 11 (La(g es s dos ambassadours tout

(La F.) Auteurd’ollo tout

souifrmt ot gémissait. (Sandean . ) Quandmon pore vonait an parloir, j

’

étais toujoursaccompagné do Oésarine, ui était pour ln1 tont aimable,touto graciouso. (Scribe ) ourvoirdone les passions dansleur d1fiormité naturelle, il faut les considérer toutes nues.

(N icola ) Elle tressaillit, puis dev in t touto rouge. (Thouriet. ) I l est do co héros, do Frédéric II . , qui, tout ro1 qu

’il

était, fut nupenseur profond. (A adrz'

eua) La valour, touthéro

’

i no u’ollo est,no snfiit pas pour fairo dos héros. (Mas.

silloa'i ’

espéranco, touto trompeuse qu’ollo est , sort nu

moins anousmener a la fin do la vie nuchemin agroR . ) V ous sombloz tout cg: ée —Efirayéo?lle ingénumen t, non

,mais tron léo ct con tents.

Tamas 9.

Do not be deceived. How foolish people are to talkthus 1

'Whatever riches we may have, we can lose thorn

in a day. However dull - a man may be, he has alwayssomething good or noble in his character. Whatevergifts may be ofiorod us, we shall not accept them. Ihave been at his house already some ten times without

1 1 1] mnnmrm'ns. 263

finding him.

'A lthough he is already some eighty years

old, he has not yet lost all hiswit.

'I wan ted to give you

something beautiful and interesting, but nothing ismoredifficult than to find such an article. Give me any bookwhatever, and I will be satisfied ; there is nothing easier

than to choose one. Every book pleases me I read

every volume that is given me. Everyman ismore or

lossunhappy, but eachman has his own troubles. Wherehave youseen such a judge and suchministers Somelove sculpture and some painting. Such as are the peo

ple, such is tho government.

“One ought not to admireevery painting, whatever its quality ; praise only those thatare excellent . No life is suficient formore than one art

orformore than one profession . No one hasmore grace,but she iswithout any force. I doubt if there is any

language that she does not speak. Man has many a

weakness,many a defect but inmany things he is strong.

“ I sawmy friend last week, and I have seen himagainthis very morn ing. We saw himat the same time as

you. Even ourweakn esses and our passions are not the

same Y ouwomen , you are always asking gold and sil

ver; youwan t nothing else, it seems to me. Y oumennever see in us anything else than faults. During the

last century, everything has changed . France has

changed in everything. These little girls are quiteyoung still. Life, howeverrich in attractions itmay be ,is not always happy. The h0pes ofmen are altogethervain and deceptive.

1 1 7. The inflection of all the verbs in the langnage, regularand irregular was given in the First Part, together

mwith themore

importan t rules resmcting the uses of the forms ; such furtherparticulars asmost need to be given followhero.

1 1 8. The rsssm tense in French has no variety ofexpression corresponding to the English 1 gm, I do

give, I amgiving, etc. ; all alike are rendered by thesimple present je don e.

a . The present stands for the usual varieties of present action , as purely present, habitual present, expressionof general truths, and the like.

6. As in English, the present is often used instead ofthe past in lively narration .

Thus, la un it approcho. l‘instant arrive ; 06mu ps

-60mn ight draws nigh, themoment comes ; Ctzsarp remztsbinwAnd in Freuch much more often than would be regarded asmuyle in ltnglish, prmnt and past aremixed and interehauge

e same sentenoe.c. The present not infrequently standswhere the fu

ture would bemore logically correct.Thns, d6s qne je pourrai.

'

reviens as soon as l shall bo able,I [shaI l]come back, je pars [Mout hwash -ow.

But the French makes this substitution of present

less often than the English : see below, § 1 28a.

d. The presen t is regularly used (instead of the per

fect,as in English) for past action continued into the

present,or forwhat has been and still is.

Thus, il est ici dcpuis uno semaine hs has bemlm'

e for a

zomh jo l’

ai déjl dcu ans I hamhad it tuo years almdy.

Compare the similar use of imperfect for English pluperfect ,below, 5 1 1 90.

1 1 9. As between the two simple past tenses, imperfect and preterit, the PR ETERIT expresses simply pastaction, without further implication ; the 110mm ex

presses past action viewed as continuous, as a lasting condition or quality, as habitual, repeawd, or the like.

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a . To express general of the past not 1n connection withtheir surroundings : thus, Alex andre ii. détruit l ’empire dosPerson the Persian emp lre was destroyed by Alcwander, Dian a

créé lemonde aod created the world .

6. Especially, the perfect is very often used to expressrecent events

,cona with the present

,as having

taken place within a division of time nowcurrent.

Thus, je ms snis lav6 a eix henres cematin l got up at 6

o’clock fluammlng , 1ni avm par16d id youmcak lohim?0. Not seldom1n other cases, not ea

syto define, the perfect 18

onlemployed where general analogy w lead us to expect the

preterit.

ln amoment.

122. The rammwr and the rmumica both-answer to the English pluperfect, but the French pluporfeet is itsordinary equivalent

,andmuch the commonerof

the two tense-forms.

I n general, the past anteriorisused only after certain particles, which give a special definiteuess to the action expressedin its relation to another past action . These particles

‘

are qmdand lorsqne when ,

aprbs qne qfler, dbs qmand amfimscan da t peine hardly, and the like . thus, lorequ

'

il out ismfil t adflrM I wont out.b. Only the plnperfect caube used aftersi if

122. The future corresponds to the English future.

a. The in

sentences

b. The futnre is used after ai only in the seuse of whetherthus, je ne sais s

‘il viendra 1 knownot whethcrhcwlll come.

e. As in English , the future 18 sometimesused 1 11 an imperativesense : thus tn no tneru pu t/cousha lt not kill , or to oema probability : thus, co sera quelque grand home he is

ka m greatmaa .

osns orm rmrsss. 267

1 24. The future perfect is uwd like the correspondingh se in English.

0. I ts pmliaritiesof use are closely analogons to those of thefuture : flu turecneinerae oe que tn anmseme thou

reap what thouhert (shall havs) mon , personne ne sanral’il am venu no one will know whether he has oome ; i1 anra

125. The . common“. agrees in genera l in use withthe English conditional, or verb-phrase made with theauxiliarieswould and should .

a . The future has in some degree amodal character, as havinga contin

gent orhypotheticalmeaning ; and the conditional,which

apropos l

awt tense to the future, like the corresponding Engand should being past tenses of wlll and shall) , 1s

stillmoremodaL and is often so classed and described, as theconditionalmode.

”

b. Thecondition al answers to a past tense as a future to a present : thus, j

’espbre qu

’il viendra. j’ecpérais qn

'i1 viendrait I

hop e hewillwma l hoped hemdd come ; qui l ’mg aeramort.qui l

’aurait. seraitmort whoeoer has it wlll be a dead man ,

whoeeerhad itwould be a deadman ; je ne sais s’fl viendmjene uvais s

’il viendrait l don’t knowwhethcrhewtll come, l dld

not knowwhelher he would com; and so on.

c. I n a h etical sentence, the conditional is used in the

conclusionshould be satisfied . But instead of it, the past subjunctivemaybe used : see below, 5 1 3 1 61 . I f gua rd is used iustead of si, the

conditionalmay stand also in the other clause : thus.1 ’aurais if I had it ; also after cum. in an idiomatically invertedsentence : thus, je rent als. que je n

’en semis pas content I

might have it, and yet not be satisfied .

d . As in English, the conditional isused to soften a request orsta tement : thus, t itt ies-vous la. you have theM esa ” ,

Bahrain (XXX 7b) is idiomaticallyused in the sense of the

present can .

128. The oonnmonu. PERFECT corresponds to the

same tense in English, and is related to the simple con

ditional precisely as the future perfect to the future .

127 . For the quad tenses of immediate past and immediatefuture, formedWith the present and im ect of aller. and of

venirwith de . see the First Part (XXV I 80, XXXI . l i b) . Cer

268 [a r

tain other phrases have an analog tense

128. Phraseswith a redundan t aux iliaryparticiple are sometimesmade in colloquial French, and occasionally appear even inthe literature : thus

,dds qu

’il aura en fin i as soon as he shall

‘Au quinzieme siecle tout change ; la ée

humaine découvre numoyeu do so perpétuer‘. ( V. ago. )Alors elle tire un couteau do son soin , frappeflanc gauche et en fonce lo for ’

usqn’au cmur.

s’écria-t-il. (fillers ) Comme j’ evaisla quatriome ligne,je love vaguement les youx, et j’apercois de° l’autre cbté

du fossé nuours qui me regardait fix ement. ( V Hugo. )Jo pars dans l

’instan t, .ré udit Charles laissez-moi.

(Guise!)‘Je vous raméne c onmoi en sortant duLouvre ;

la je vous 600t et je pars pour continuermocar rien nom’

ébran lera, je vous en avortis.

songe, depuis quelques jours, que les intérétstrop détourn é do cette ,un ique cusec. (dc Vi.) I] y a

longtemps que je revs d’un o cier qui me sauve la vie.

( V . H ugo.)(5 Quand je reviusamoi, il faisait jour Pour

chasser co cauchemar, je fermai les you ; Is cmurme bat.

me rompre‘ la poitrine ; quand j’osai regarder, "é taisJo n

’avais qn

’ame je laissai Zam ox

haler sa fnrie, at no voulus pas voir qu’1 1me tirait la langue.

(Lab)‘P endan t no j

’écrivais

,une grosse mouche v in t

so poser snr l’oro

'

e eusanglantée domon spectateurJo commencais ame faire aco téte-a-téte lorsque surv intnu incident. ( V . H ugo.) Nous cherchamos, taut qu’il titjour, notre chemin d travers ces bois; mais, plus nouscherehions, plus nous nous perdions, et il était nuit noire quandnous arrivfimes pres d’une maison fort noire On crut

no nous

pprtions les diaman te do la couronne Par les

entes dc porto je vis lo pore,os lampe dans une main ,

dens l’autre nu do see grands couteaux . I l montait, sefemme aprés lui ;moi derriere la porte ; ilouvrit. (Com-ia .)‘V ous vous occupez toujours do police ? lui disait Bonaparts avec une sorts d’admiration .

—Oh ! répondait mo-5 1 aea .

bum on e“.cue» .

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270 n o

drez Vi.) O’est

orsqu’il seramort, elle v at paisible.

Quand vous en auroz gofité, vous no voudrez lus

d’autre chose . (D am) Jamais, acoup sfir, n'a

antant de bruit de son viven t. (Scribe )(g Jovoulusvoirsi les racesvivantesm’

ofiriraien tplus de vertus, on moins domalheurs que les races évanouies. (Cha t )

‘Si tuavais fait la erre

lin e, tn no parlerais pas comme es. de Vi.)'Si nous de

vious, dos comoude, recevoir lo prix dfi a nos vertus on snos forfeits, toutes les prospérités seraient honorables, etnucon do foudre sera1t nn e mort in famante. (Sain line )Qnaugvous me donneriez cont mille francs, ca nomeforait pas antant dop

laisir no do vous voirmangermonpauvre diner. (Feuil t.) et ex emple

, is l’espere, nosera

gas erdu; is voudrais qu

’il servit a combattre l’espece'

ssemon tmoralqui est la maladie do la génération

nouvelle. Jo saurais étre pauvre, et je m’en

forais gloire. Pomerd.)pendant quem’

anraient servi des conseils

Jo no les aurais pas suivi. (dc Vi.) Madame Recamier lesconnaissait tons, et en arlait trés bien ; celui qui auraitvonluen écrire avec o t aurait (1 11 on causer auparavan tavec elle. Sta -B . one nome répondez pasje trompé (do i.)

Le diner était tout prét il va étro perdu, etlo petit va étre

grondé par son pore. (Millet ) Jo vais

m’enfermer etmabandonnerama douleur. (dcMu.) V ons

cherche: nne ex plication a cc que jc viens do vous dire,n’est-cc Et je no la trouve int, je l

’avone. (Bum)

‘Le par ement de Paris vonait

,

’étre relégné dans un e

petite ville. (Mont )QuandM. Fouquet a on cessé do parlor,M

Pussort s’est levé impé (Sela )

’I i sera sorta

dos qu’il amon achevé la lettre. (D avio'

Tamu X.

TEN SES OF THE V E RB .

1 I find Charlesand speak to himbut he answersnothing,and I leave himagain .

’ I amgoing to-morrow, said he,

and I shall take youback withme. I shall come back in

uses orm rams. 271

half an hour ; wait forme here.

‘I have been here sometime I amwaiting for the young ofiicor. He has beentalking for two weeks of his friend who was to come fromParis. Now I shall leave you; I have listened to you

already two hours.

'As I raised my eyes, I sawhimin

front of me.

'H e was looking at me. I drew near to

him, and said a fewwords. H e listened tome, but saidnothing. H e departed, and I found myself alone.When she first came to our city

,I kept seeking herevery

where. I thought that she had arrived, but I could not

find her As we were going to the theatre yesterday,we discovered them.

“ If they had given me the letter

earlier, youwould already have the answer. H e had

been speaking several hours, and we were all very tired.

During many years,Napoleon had appeared invincible,

but then he fell. We had already been there a weekwhen our friends arrived. LouisXI V . was the greatestmonarch of his time. Where did your friends travel lastwinter? They visited England and Scotland. Wetold the poorboy that we were his best friends, but he didnot believe us. I saw yesterday the picture which hehad made of her, and admired it greatly. My friend,said I to him, you never pain ted anything so beautiful.As soon as I had dined, I foldedmy napkin and went

out. When I had arri ved at home, I began to write.

A fter I had fin ished the letter, I sent it at once to the

post. I cannot tell whether they will come but as longas they are here, I shallbe happy. When youbegin thepicture youwill tellme so. They will get up as soon as

the din ner is ready. I shall recognize themas soon as Ihave seen them. If this world were perfect, we should

receive the reward due to our virtues. If you ate mypoordinner, I should be satisfied. H e would like to giveus a thousand francs, but he has not somuch money. Icannot tell youwhat time it is I have nowatch. Would

272 [myouhavo receivedme, if I had come to see you?

" If Ihad known that youwere coming, I should have stayed at

home in order to receive you. I have just visited one

of our friends ; I amgoing to come to your house againto~morrow at present I have other things to do.

B .—Monns or run V ans.

129. The indicative is used both in independen t andin dependen t clauses, except in the cases to be stated

below.

a . The indicative appears in object-clauses after an afiirmativeverb : thus, saves-vous qui je suis do you krzowwho l amf jevoua ni dit qne j

’

y etais l told youthat l was thm The subjunctive of indirect statement is not a

used ex cept in the plnper

c. The conditional has been treated under the head of Tenses

(above, § 125 there remain , then, only the subjunctive andimperative to be considered.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

1 30. The subjunctive is themode of contingency, an~

ticipation , expectation , requirement. I t belongs for themost part to dependent clauses,and isusually introducedby the conjunction que that.a. Hence, in giving the forms of the verb, it is customary tofix q

b

ue to the subjunctive through its whole inflection : see

I I I . 7

1 3 1 . The subjunctive is used in independent clauses,

orwithout que tha t. in the following cases :

a . I n sache know,used negativel in the i st sin th je ne

saohe pu l hardlg know; also a er que mean so ar cs :

thus, qne je suhe sofarac l knowmnt qne je crois etc)Some regard this as an old or irregular indicative form. As

to vive. in qui vive who is there ) see above. XXXV I". tb (p.

1 78. bottom) .b. Sometimes, in wishes orrequirements—that is, in an

tive or imperative sense : thus, ainsi soit-ii so be it. puis:

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I l n ’est pq de démomen efleg fnt-ce meme

foil davantage, e us

006, il le ffltmiszan col

d’argent des Fa pagnols. ( VOL)"Ame voir‘, vous n

’eus

siez cusi j ’etaismort ouv want. ( Cour-is .)

"La princm

zat en ce moment porté le diadéme de la France, sonfront n’efit été plus t qu’il l’était sous le beaudiadéme demcheveux. (521

6

30

1 32. Subjunctives 1 n dependent clauses (usually afterquo t/lat) may be best classified under the heads of

1 . Subjunctives in substan tive clauses,or those used as

subject orobject of a verb ; 2. Subjunctives in adjecticlauses, orthose used to qualify a noun ; 3 . Subjunctivesin adverbial clauses, or those used to qualify a verb.

M3 3 . The subjunctive occurs in a clause used as logi

cal subject of an impersonal verb— that is, of on e havingthe grammatical subject il or cc (XI . 2)—whenever eu

ticipation , expectation , requirement, or the like, is im

The common est of such impersonal verbs are il faut it is ascessary (XXX. 6) , il convient it is smtable, il sufit it t’s enough ,

il vautmieux it is bettsr, il importe itmactm il se peut it is

possible, il semble tt smns, il est fieilc or dxficiie ornécemircor possible or rare orfaux or singulier it is easy or hard or

mm orp ossible or rare or false orsingular, and the likethus, ii ut qu

’

il soit ici he must be here, 11 sumt qu’

elle sitavons sa faute it is enough that she has wnfmed' herfault, 11out pouible que nous revenions it is posstble that wc come back,c'

est dommagc que je l 'aio perduit is a p ity that l lost it.

a . But the indicative is used if the clause is the distinct statement of a fact ; so especially with il est vrai orsfir orclair it istrue or sure or clear

,il parait it app ewrs, il arrive it hfg

mcm,

1 1 r6lu1te “follows and the like : thus, 1l est vra.i qu u’m

pu encore arrivé it is tmwtha t hshasmtwt an i ved , 11 pmque vous avez raison it app ears that youare right.

rum

1 34] svssuson vs. 275

b. In some cases, eithermode isdegree of actuality implied or of theAnd the use of the subjunctive istheiprincipal clause is negative or in

qu'

soit arrivé is it tme that he has arrivéd ? il ne para it pasqu

’

il ait tort it does not app eartha t he is wrong. The subjuncti ve is also re

quired if itsclause precedes thus, qu

’

il soit arrive.at qu

'

il ait té recuavec joie , tout oela est vrai that he hascome

,and has been received with j oy, is all true.

0. Sometimes the grammatical subject is omitted, or the principnl clause is othermse incomplete : thus

,mieux vaudrait qu’

il

fit si lleurs it would be better that he were elsewhere, quelle

honte qu’il so soit sauvewhat a shame that he has rwn away !

non que j'

éprouvasae duplaisir not that Ifelt anyp leasure.

1 3 4 . The subjunctive stands in a clause which isusedas the object of certain verbs : namelya . Of verbs that signify wishing, requiring, approv

ing, permitting, forbidding, expecting, deserving, and thelike.

Thus, i1 veut’

que nous disions la verité he wishes that we tellthe truth, je defends qu

’

on sorts d'

ici [ forbid any one to go out

fromhere. V erbs of preventing take further a us before thesubjunctive : see § 1 70a .

6. Of verbs that sign ify regarding with such and such

a feeling, as admiration, joy, grief, apprehension , doubt,indignation , and the like.

Thus, jem’

6tonne qu‘il ne nous voie pas l amastonished fluat

he does not (orshouldmn see us,il sc rejouit que vons fussiez

de retour he was glad that youwere back aga in . V erbs of ap

prehending and doubtin require furthera us before the subjunctive (see 5 1 70a) thus, craimqu

’il ne vienne Ifear that (or

lest) he is coming, doutcz-vous que cela no soit vrai do youdoubt that this is true

0. Of verbs that sign i fy thinking,viewing

,supposing,

and representing orstating— but usually only if the sen

tence is negative or interrogative orconditional.Thus

, je no crois pas qu’

il soit deji . arrive I do not believethat he has already arrived

,espérez-vous encore qu

'il vienne

3?dhop e tha t he ts eomiag ? s

'il aflrme que ce soit ainsi

i aflrms that it is so.

d . Under these heads, there are various exceptions. The sub

376 m s.

8future or conditional) ; nor after verbs ex pressive of regardin gwith a certain feeling , it do co is introduced befiore quc : thus,no dro dc oc qu

’

il sst ici lammt that he is hm V erhs ot

dou ( Inn, denying, and the like, are treated as if negative. Ifthe ohjmstivo clause is put first, it requires the subjunctive (of.

h1336. and) .

e. There are various phrases composed of amor avait with

(on, 8mand?hunt. or pour be aeha or afraid , and the like : thus,jo ruuravl qus vons ayoz besoin demoi l am that

mmhavn neod afmewai pour qu'n nemnne pas l he rnia

not name. Even after such nouns as pour and wa nts in other

constructions tho sumnctive is used : thus, do pour qu’i1 no

vienne pu fbrfear he

I . Forthe subjunctive inby a proposition, see below, 5 1 am.

innuwrnx n vs summon - x x . Subjun ctive in Subject and

(5ms.) ll fauclmit que vous vinssiez vous~méme proposer onmaringc ll mon pére. (dcMu.)

’I l fallait que lamhro ct In fillc eussent vécu loin dumonde. (About ) Ce

n’cnt pas que la puissance et les événemen ts personnels

l oiont comparables. ( Vol.‘I l n

’est pas étonnant que

Rome nit sccordécette bu e ; mais il l’est que des personnestoutes-puissant” en aicnt besoin . ( VOL)

‘Oela ne m’e»

tonne pas, dit-i], qu

’il soitmort. (dcMu. Cela me faitsonpqonncr qu

’il so pourrait

‘ bien que es limes desmenhants fussent anéan ttcs ll leurmort. (Rouse ) I l semblequc l

’oune puisse rire se des choses ridicules. (La Br. )

ll serait ourtant singu'

sr t, apres tout cc que

j’

ai fait. altar.) C’est fin i ue décidément

je

suis nu homme de genie. sis il rue semb e

que nous ls savons dé'

a. Qu’une chose sued

visible qu’est la vanité u si peu connue, eels

cat admirable (Pam) I l est bien rare qu’on s’établisse

en six dans cette f on d’etre seche et born ée. (de Steal.

Qfii elmalheur, dit-i que cette fievre ne soit pas échue

wx xv. sf.

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278 vases.Would to God, say I, that he had never gone away ICome what will, we have done ourwhole duty . Had he

been here,we should not have had to seek another. Were

itmy own son,I could not love himbetter. If they had

listened to us, this misfortune would n ot have befallenthem. They had hidden themselves, as if they had beenafraid of beingseen .

Must the boy come back, as soon as he has carried the

letters to the post ? Y es,it is importan t that he be here

before four o’clock. I t is a pity that be is to go so far

who knowswhetherwe find himat the appointed time ?"What amisfortun e that we have not sent himsooner !

fiI wish her to come and bring me the books that I len t

her. Have younot permitted that your friend read thembefore bringing themback ? ”

Y es, but I should prefer

that she read themmore promptly ; I fear that she mayhave lost them.

“ I do not think that they are lost ; Iassure you that she has themstill, and that she will send

themback she iswaiting probably that youask forthem.

My teacher permits that we go into his garden, but hedoes not wish us to carry away anything ; he would beangry if (que) we should do so. We are astonished that

youhave got up so early. I got up early for fear that

youshould not findme ready.

1 3 5. The subjunctive is used in adjective clauses

that is,such as are introduced by a relative pronoun and

qualify a noun—in the following cases

a .When the noun qualified stands in a construction

implying anticipation— as demand, expectation , purpose,and the like.

Thus,”cherche nne retraits on jc soie tranquille I sceh a

nook in which I may be quiet, envoyez-moi quelqu’un qui mereads as service mdme some onewhomay domthis

I n these cases the English also generally has a poten tial orcondi

tions! phrase.

1 30] snaamvomvn . 279

6. A fter a superlative, or a numeral word having a

sense akin to the superlative.

Thus do“ Ismeilleur homme que je comaiue ke is the beetman I know,le premier qui soit arrive juequ

’ici theflrst thathas yet arrived . I n the samemanner, after egg ,

un ique, or thelike thus, la 80111 roi qui ait régné si longtemps the on ly king0. Often

,after a negative or an interrogative or a con

ditional clause.

Thus, il n’

y a personne qui ne soit venuthere ia no omwhohas '

not come, aquoi sertfi n roi qui soit injuste qfwhat uwfi a

king that is unflwt ? s’il a un couteau qmsoit bon if he hae a

kn ife that is So after peu in the sense of butfew,mt

man thus,

’

y a peude roia quimhent gouverner thmare

few ngs that kmwhowto gom .

d . I n all these cases, the indicative isused when greateractu

(5 A ea l’es rit de‘ lui dire quelque chose ui la

persuade. (G. and.) Je cherchai la solitude, et, ad ant’ames qui

ussen tme comprendre, jeme plaign is aDieu.

(D am) semble qu’un pére et qu’une mere soient de

ces étres qu’on ne puisse trop louer, oudumoins trop aimer.

(Ste -B . ) V ous me dites que votre amitié, telle u’elle

est, subsistera toujours pourmoi, tel que je soie.

L ’homme est nuétran

ge an imal je n e sumpas ls premier

ui l’ait dit. (About ) On envoya chercher un carrosse

e louage, le plus beauqui ffit dans toute la ville. (48Ma .)’Le dernier barde u

’on ait oui dans ces desertsme chan ts

les poémes don tun érosconsolait jadis sa vieillesse. (Chat )I l n

’

y a que ls bon D ieu qui uisse gouverner les choseset les hommes. (0. Sand. ) P

vas un talen t, pas un e vertu,

pas nne distinction gu’elle n

’aimat sconnaitre, aconvier

, aobliger. (S ta -B .) I l n ’

y a guere de défautsqui ne soientplus pardonnables ne lesmoyens dont on se sert nr les

cacher. gLa R .) n’

y a personne ui nous va’

le pourl’ordre

,l économie, et les confitures. bout.) Jamals ce

nomne sera ur nu homme ui soit ou ls vainqueuroul’esclave defigme. Com.)

"(

g’il y avait un pays d’Amwzones qui se procurassent une colon ie de petite garqons

s-rsea .

élever comme on éléve les

1 3 6. The subjunctive is used in adverbial clauses

that is, such as limit or qualify the action of a verb— inmany cases, where a looking forward

,anticipation

, con

tingency is implied.

a . The cases falling under this rule are in great part reallythose of substantive clauses in troduced by que that, and hevarious constructions : thus, especially, governed by a

tion, as in avant que. pour que. camque. etc. ; or a tional

to ordependen t on a noun,as in afin que. en casque. mania“

que, etc. ; or in absolute constructionwith an adjective, as in loinque , supposé que, pourvuque. etc ; or inmore elliptical phrases,as hmoms que. bien que. encore que (and quoique. though written as oneword) , etc. But it isconvenient and usual to treat the«me as forming alongwith the preceding word or phrase apound conjun ction or conjunction -phrase (XXXI V . and so to

the clause introduced by it as directly adverbial.

1 87. A dverbial clauses having the subjunctive maybe classified as followsa . Temporal clauses, expressing time before or up to

which anything happens.

The unctions are avant que before , an attendant quematit, jnsqu

'

cc que until, taut que so ton as. Thus, cartonsavant qu

'

il aoit trop tard let ue gomt tt ie too late, jerestored en attendant qu

‘il

‘

vienne I will stay until he comes.

But the indicative is umdsign ified thus

,i] resista

as he could .

b. Concessive and hypothetical clauses,expressing a

supposition (whetheraccepted or refused).The conjunctions are : suppose que oron (or

supposing, pourvu que provided ,

bien que or encore que although,or hat e que without or untm,

malgré que or nonobetant quenotwithstanding that, non que not that , loin que farfima itsbeiag the arse that, and a fewothers less common . Thus, ancan qu

'

il vienne in case he comes, quoiqu

’il ne soit pas cou

pable atthough he r'

s not guilty,malgré que je “mills pas

notrm'

thstandtng that I amunwilling, soit qu'il en ait on qu’

ilhe has any or not, loin qu

’

il soit pauvre. il

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282

5 1 42.

1 39. The tense of the subjunctive in a dmndent

clause is in general governed by that of the principalclause

,being past (impf . or plupf. ) if the latter is past or

conditional, and present (or perfect) if the latter is present or future .

wish himto conw, je vou1ais (orI wanted himto come

, j'

avaisvouluqu

’

fi vint l had wanted himwwrne je ne croie pas qu‘il

soit venu I da not belteve that he has come,je no croyais pas

qu!i1 fat venuI did not believe that he had come

, j’attemlrai

qu'

il vienne or qu'

il soit vena ill watt till he eomee oi-till hehas come, j ’attendrais qu'

il vin t or qu’

il fit venuI should wa ittill he came or till he had come.

a . Tbere are exceptions to this rule of sequence. Sometimes a

presen t ; also, went subjunctiveraimafln quein order that wemaymake uee of tt. Othermore irregularcasesoccasionally occur. In familiar speech , especially, the use of animperfect subjunctive ismainly avoided , by various devices, andin part by putting the presen t in its place : thus, il h udrait qu

’

il

s’en aille snr-lo-champ hewould have to go directly.

'Elle lut avec une grande ferveur les prieres

des agon isants. A vant qu’elle les efit achevées, on vin theurter a la porte . Elleme restera fidele

'

us

qu’d cc que je puisse l

’épouser. (dcMu.) Oui

,vous tee

mon oncle, quoique vous l’ayez onblié ce matin . (About )

J’avais ad'

airs anuennemi qui savaitmieux se battre quernoi

,bien que j

’eusse deux an s de salle. (Le Sage.) Je ne

l’ai dmoins qu’il no soit densmon lit. (About )‘I ls

l’ai éren t aposer se téte sur le billot , sans quelle cesset de

prier. (Mignet ) V oyons, cher beau-‘

pere,vous étre bon -si taut est ue je puisse é

que chose.

'

Quan cc fort n ’eflt

n’nn seul jour, elle serait morte et de fati e.

?Vol. ) Quelque rare que soit le veritable amour, il ’ect

1 40] mesuma . 283

moins que la veritable amitié . (La R . ) Quoisoit, que m’

importe ce que seron t lesméchan ts?Hélas l ouque vous soyez, vous étes mort pourmon.(Rouse ) Combien que lesmalhonnétes gens pros eren t,ne pensea

lpas qu

’ilssoient heureux . (Marmon tel.) tte

,

quelque é oi smen t ue tuaies pourmoi, je suis forcé deor. ) i honnete hom e at si peu in téreseé

ue la vue de l’ar

La liberté doitvaincre a tel prix queremuassent, ls batim St.

rois, ils son t ce que nous sommes.

soie,

'

e no suis pasme ire votre nom,

qui je parle. (do Sév.) SeigneurOluf,

vous, pour ue je passe, dit ls chevalierala visiere baissée.

(Gamma) 'Mais la tristesse avait ris trop impérieusemen t possession de lui pour qu’il se d habituat de sonfl’rir.

(B la ne )”R evien s, ue je te revoie. (Dam)

"Caches

vous dans votre chamre, gu’on vous orone sorti. V. Hugo. )

P lacez-le demaniére qull soit bien ferme. (Gaunt )'

Je no me serais pas consolé si monsieur lscomte efit succombé . (Bastille)

Ou, si d’un sang trop vil

tamain serait trempée, an dé ant de ton bras, prete-moiton épée. (Rae )

'Si j ’etais riche, d

’une condition hon

nete, et que je t’eimasse autan t que je t

’aime

,ton cceur

n’aurait

'

nt dc répugnance pourmoi ? (Man ) ‘I I no

courut par lomonde de chansons ui de vaudevilles_qu

’on ne lui prétat. (S ta -B .)

/ 1 40. The imperative has in general the same uses inFrench as in English (see V I I . 9. V III.a .With the proper imperative rsons (2d sing , and let and

2d no subject is everexpressed.

b. I n the absence of a first person singular, the first lural issometimcsusedwith that value thus, soyons homme,m’gcrmjeletmep lay themarucried l tomyeelf.

0. Some imperatives are used interjectionally ; the commonestare allons come, come on , tions or tenez hold ! stop amoment

,

see here, take notice, and the like, voyons let's see

,see here

,vs.

90! i. e. pehow,nonsense, and the like.

1 4 1 . For the lacking third persons of the imperativeare used the third persons of the present subjunctive.

Thus, qu

’il soit, qu

’ih soient let himbe

,let thembe (lit’ly, that

hemay be, The case is pro rly that of a subjunctive afterverbs of wishia or requiring but with the verb omittedon which the an junctive should d as if is veux qu’

ilmtI

h

wtshhk

that he be, j ’az igo qu’ils t I require that they be, or

t e e.

thus, que je

1 42. The imperative (both the proper imperative and

the paraphrase with que) not seldomhas a concessive or

hypotheticalmeaning.

Thus,avoue-1e. et je te le pardonne confess it, and ]

theefbr it ( i.e. {f thoucon/meet it, I will etc ) , qu’il par

se tait let htmsp eak ( i. e. if he

park on qu’il se taise. peum porte I care little whetherhe

epeake orholde hie p eace.

a . For the infinitive used in the sense of an imperative, see below, § l 76g.

(gSurtout no perds pas la lettre ! so e

as eux cen tmille francs sur ton V. H ege

l

.

)e

tons point car'

e no changerai jamais. or. )vous, et que l

’on onne le mot a toute la maison .

Feignons de sortir, afin qu’ilm’

arrete. (Man ) V oilafortll propos ce fripon de Saint Jean commencons parme debarraeser de lui. (Scribe )

‘A llons, Fanchette ; dis done

adieu at Ma erite. (0. Sand.) V a, le mal n’est pas

conso one-nous. (Man ) ‘Je disais donc qu’ilme

nu tableau précieux . Tones,monsieur, voyez. ( V.

Hugo.)' Ayez fiui votre tache a l

’heure indiquée on no

l’ayez poin t fini ; on novous en témoignera n i plus nimoinsde satisfaction . ( the Sa y. )(5 Guéris~le bien , cherpére,mais pas trap qu‘il

reste asses foupourm’aimer comme je l’aime. (About ) I]y a pourtant nuD ieu que es volon té soit faite l (do Ste.)

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286

carries with himthemanners of his coun try. Howevergreat heroes may be, they are after allmen. Amiableas she is, I cann ot love her. Give me that book, that Imay read it while I await her coming. Wemust alwaysspeak so that others understand us. If you admire thispicture, and if you have means to buy it

, why do you

hesitate? What must he do? Your friend will beobliged to stay with you un til it is fine weather. She

would not get up, although I called her three timbs. Iran away, in order that shemight not seeme. I didnotthink that youwere so cowardly. I knowsome onewhowould be willing to accompanyme.

Letme rememberwhat she said to me. If I mustdie, letme die. Come, let us seek themeverywhere, andperhaps we shall find themagain . Let himstay here,without stirring, and we at least shall not lose him.

C.—Anmnc'

rs or run V ans.

1 43 . The adjuncts of the verb are these : the subject,

the predicate noun or adjective, the object,whether

direct or indirect, the prepositional case-phrase, and theadverb.

SUB .) BOT .

1 44 . I n general, the verb has a single subject, ex

pressed or implied,which determines or governs”it in

respect to number and person .

But the following poin ts require notice

a. The imperativelyused ex clamation vive long live I sometimestakes a plural subject : thus, vive les jeunes gens hurrah fbrthe 1

301 V ivent. however, is in such a casemore usual and

pre erabe.

b. Afterco (not il) as grammatical subject (indefinite or impersonal) , the verb agrees in numberwith the following predicate

let] SUBJECT . 287

noun : also with the following pronoun , if it is of the 8d personthus, ce sont uos amis it ts ourfii endsme sont eux it

is they ; but dont voua it ism.

V ery rarely, the verb remains singular before a plural noun .

Rarely, too, the same agreemen t is made after another subjectthan ce : thus, sa neurriture ordinaire sont des

fbod isfruits. (Bulfon . )

0.With a collective subject, the verb is, as in English, sometimes si lar and sometimes plural, according as the collection ,

or the in viduals compo it, are the leading idea

—more usually plural, if the noun is to wed by de and a plural : thus, nnetroupe dosoldatsmarchaient a troop ofmld iersweremarchingla troupe vient the troop is coming, beaucoup d’

hommes y sontma nymen are there.

(1 . After the relative qui (aswas in ted out above see XXV I .

the verb is of the person aswe as numberof the antecedentof qui.

ial cases are : a

sold ier-has

afterun de (with plural) . qui :soit or

1 45. If a verb hasmore than one subject of the sameperson , it is regularly plural.

0. But the verb is oftener sin if to one noun is added an

other as its equivalent or emp tic repetition or ex planation

thus,son courage. son intrépi dité storms les plus braves his

his intrep id ity aston ish the la beauté et la

gran eur de co spectaclemofia ppa the beauty and grandeur

b. The verbalso often agrees with the nearest noun , the others

being, as it were, lost fromview; so especially where there is a

climax , orwhere the verbprecedes the subjects thus, anmot. nusoupir. nu coup d

’wil, nous trahit a word,a sigh, a glance be

traysus , tombsArgoset sesmun down goArgoe and itswalls.

c. A list of subjects is often summed up by tout all oreach ,

—ehacun each, or the like ; then , of course, the verb is singularthus, hommea, dieux . animm tout y fait quelque rolemen ,

gods, (miracle—e verything p lays some p art in it.

d . A long with two subjects that are con nected by on or or ni

nor, the plural aswell as the singular is sometimes found usedthus

,le temps oulamort sont nos remedes time or death is our

remedy, Ulymni Calchas n’

ont point encoro pm-16 neither

288 vases.

Ulysse

snor aaldmhas yet sp oken , ni l

‘un ni l’antre n’ost orne

. neitherone is .

e. But also, a siugularverb is allowsd aftera plural verb after a singular subject to which an addition isMewmms of avwmmmqmmma w,

or ths like :thus, Fun at l

'

autre m'ennnie both boreme, la general am

1 46. If a verb hasmore than one subject of difiercntpersons, the agreement of the verb in person is as it

would be if the difierent subjectswere summed up in onepersonal pronoun .

Thus, after a first person along with a second or a third,the

verb is of the first person , because he and I , or and I wouldboth alike be represented bywe ; and so a some and third have

a. More often,

ften,such com und subjects are repeated bymeans

of a pronoun that includss t em: thus, vousetmoi, nouscontents and I are sd ixfled , vous ot lui, voussave: l’afl

'

airomend understamd thematter.

1 47 . I t is quits common in French that the trueorlogical subject of a verb is repeated by a pronoun as

The principal cases are the followinga. Regularly and usually, when a noun

,or anything else save

a conjunctive pronoun ,ismade the subject of a verbused inter

thus, votre ami est-ii ici is yourfi' iendhere? co est-il vrai is that tme ?

6. V ery commonly, a lo

gical subject whether a word, a

brass, or a clause—that fo lows the verb 18 anticipated by thendefinite or impersonal il orce with the verb : thus, ilme vientune idée there emnes intomy head an idead l est beaudomomirpour la pntrie it is noble to die forone

’rys count c

’est h vous h

it is for you to sp euk , il est vrai u’

elle viendrn iciis tvue that shewitl come hereme fhrent Phénicim qui

in ventbrent l’écriture it was the P hen iciamwho invented writing (sesXI

e

.

6 1

2, XXIV .

The 1 cal subject is then sometimes preceded byque, as a sort

of com vs to the grammatical subject co : us, c’ut nne

chn -manta chose qn’une femme it is a charming thing, awoman

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290 vanes. [1 4’

tout est fen tout est

est des visages de femme ui

routent l’observation par eur

(Bal.)'E t comment auraito il de la

ceux qui l’ont soigué? C

’est nous !

nombre de chases anciggngs sont restatravers nosrévolutior

ézlpéfiodiques. (Ste -B . Uue fouls

d’écrits utiles et instru sas répandent. dran k .) La

lupart des poétes se sont livréssans con e et sans freinstone les instincts de leur nature. (Ste -B . ) Le peu debons ou dont eme suis pénétré depms que j ’ex istea développ ls psudo bonn es qualités que j’ai. (G. Sand. )

v Et c’estmoi (

Eli ai combine, qui ai conduit tout cela,auisuis la cause e tous ces grands événemen ts. (Scri

Nous ui n ’

y ét ions as,none ne pouvons parlor qu

’avsc

une ex trme reserve e cette épogue. (Ste-B .)

" J’etaisalors nudes plus beaux en fan ts qui aient jamais foulé deleurs pieds nus les ierres de nosmon tagues. Lam. )(g Tout ’intérét et toute l

’ection u roman se

passent dans ce voyage . (S te -B . )’I l souriait doucement

st regardait doucement, et pourtant cs re at as sourire

vous glacaient de terreur. (Gautier) n soupir,un re

gard,on e simple rougeur, uu silence est assez pour expli

quer nucmur. Mel. ) L ’heure, ls lien, i s bras se cho1sit

aujourd’hui.i

om.)‘Ce courage si grand, cette ems si

divine,n’est p 11 8 dign e du jour n1 dign e de Pauline. ( Com)

Quand is crime d’Etat seméle ausacrilege, is sang ui

l’amitien ’ont plus de privilege.

22m Le ciel, tout l

’

un ivers est plein de mes aieux . L

’hsbileté, la pru

dence, lsbon gofit, tout conseillmt ce dern ierparti.igSte -B . )

N i l’un ui l’autrs n

’on t euce qu

’ils faisaient. (dc i. )(g Ah te voila, Bourguignon Monmanteauet toi, avez-vous été bien us

idl er. )

heureux que ui toi uimoi n ’ayona pris sma de ce pauvre

frers. (D os . Dorante etmoi, nous sommes destin és l’unll l’autre

Sor.) Hélas ! non , nous serous tous tristes,

vous,mo1 , esmagistrate et is public. (0. Sand.)

“91 summer. 29 1

Que]sens cela avait-il ( V. Hugo.) La cries

tern ble qu’elle avait provoquée sans lssavoir, guérirait-elle

lemalade (About ) Maia, sprgfoe de tee adieux , iimsrests encore une chose asavoir.

ar.) S’il court deme

chants bruits, c’est qu’on ls calomn ie. (Power

-d. ) I l est

difiicile d’aimer ceux que nous n

’estimons point. (La R . )

IIme sera impossible de retenirmeslarmes cependan t ilfaut s

’en aller ur reven ir. (de See . ) Ce n

’est as nu

petit objet que eux cent mills francs. (Man ) les

sottes gens que nos ens 1 (Man ) Mais o’esttion bien rare pour es espn ts sérieux et judicieux ue cells

do lire une suite de volumes si aisés et si ple

Qui est-cs quime dédommagera de votre perte (MarjD evenir amoureuse d’un jeune homme sur son redet

n’est-ce asune folie (Gautier. ) La plusveritablemarque

d’etre 1 1 avec de grandee qualités, c

’est d’etre né sans en

V 1e (La R .) Moi, je n ’a1 pas révé. (About ) I l regards

si s retourn e la téts, et j e us saurais ls rappeler,moi.or.) Peut-étremes efiorts en ce sens n

’on t-ils pas été

tout-d-fait vains.

A?Soit,ma fills, je ts permets ls déguisement.

or.) Mais peunous imorte et le oete a eu, dans sa

vie, bien d’autres oublis p us graves. S te -B . ) Plfit a

Dieu ue je fusesmort en etfet, si je me trompe, et 81 cc

regar n’était pas pourmoi. (deMu.)

Tum 1 3 .

vans AN D summer.

Is it youwho wish to seeme? No, it is our friends,who come fromthe coun try. Here are your sisters ; it

was they who were looking forus. Which are the fourcardinal poin ts? They are the north, south, east, andwest.Mostmen are ambitious. I went tomeet him a score

of his friends surrounded him,and a company of soldiers

marched behind him. A band of thieves had introduceditself into the house, and was pillaging the rooms. Theirnoise was heard by a few neighbors, who gathered and at

tacked themsudden ly. More than one escaped, but theremainderwere killed or taken . I t was one of themost

292 [150

successful affairs of the kind that have happen ed in our

village. The courage, the dash of our friends was ad,

mirable the con fusion and flight of the thieveswere pitiable. Thouwho art still so young, listen to me who amthy friend.

"I t is we ourselves who wish to aid you.

“Astronomy is one of the sciences that do most honor to

the human mind "My brotheror I will go to see and

encourage him. His ruin or his salvation depends on

(do) his reception of us. H e and I have been good friendsthe past twenty years.

" There has happened to hima

greatmisfortune. I t will be impossible for himto re

cover fromit I t would be a great pleasure tome to seehimagain . Yours is a very handsome watch. Whatwe wish is to see you happy. I t matters little to youwhether they go or stay.

PRED I CATE sous ummmorrvn .

1 50. A predicate adjective or noun agrees in general,

in gender and number, with the word which, throughthe verb, it ismade to qualify .

But there are difisrences in this respect between the adjectiveand the noun , and the agreemen t of the noun ismore restricted.

1 51 . A predicate adjective, not lass than°

an attribu

tive, agrees in gender and numberwith the noun (orpronoun) which it qualities, and is plural if it qualifiestwo ormore.

Thus, as. fortune était grande hisfortune was great, In. ammet la tante forent charméss the sister and aunt were charmed .

a . I t the two words qualified are of differen t genders, the adjective is ordinarilymasculine but it is sometimesmade toonl with the nearerorthemore im rtant noun thus, Is

at vertn sont estimésmerit a virtue are esteemed , le £er. le

bandeamla fiamme est toute prete the steel,the bandamthe

flame are all ready.

b. A predicate adjective qualifying a personal or interrogativeor relative pronoun that does not distmguish gender (or eithergender or number, as qui) is varied in formto agree with the

noun represented by the pronoun thus, nous (hommes) comme.

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294 vsass. [na

non , par cmadameles frais de v

St. ierrs.

‘Monmaitre en Palestin e était une abeille.

Chat.) e. de Schurman n . était pein tre,musicienne,geometre, théologienn e

tricot, les has de soie, et

’avance de ls faire capi

ce que tu(pretends

garan tis étestabl

trouverais grand ;simple. (D am)j ’irai mourir en

' J ’aime la

compagn ie,11102

8 je l’aime

choisie. ( Cette scene efirayante , et plus encore la

crainte d(e la voir se ren ouveler, la tinrent longtemps éveil

lee. (dcMaistre. ) Toute ame grande et forte, aux momen ts on elle s

’anime

, peut se diremaitresse de la arole.

(S te. B .) Cette rudesse ls rendit de fer. (ale Vi.) é

]e demes yeux y voir tomber cc foudre, voir sesmaisonsen cendre et ses lanriers en

poudre. (Com.

2A son

gard si doux , pour nuange il l)

’a

CT

prise. (G. and.)OBJE

1 55. The object of a verb is a noun,or something

having the value of a noun— as a pronoun,an adjective

used substantively, an infin itive, a phrase, or a clause.

a . A partitive noun orone preceded bydo.with orwithout the article, bavin the sense of some orany, is to be regardedas immediately relatedto the verb (whether as subject or predicate orobject}:like a simple noun . 80 alsowith a noun precededby jusqu

’

a dear to,in the sense of not awaiting “ even . thus.

i ts] owner. 295

seeman ia he loves even kis enemies ; orprenearly, about ; and so on .

1 56. The object of a verb is either direct or indirect.The direct object corresponds to the usual En lish objective or

Latin accusative ; the indirect, to the English obactivewith to,or

the Latin dative.

a. The pronouns are the onl words in the language that havea difierent formas subject an as object (XXI I . No noun

b. The personal pronoun of the third person (XXI I . 5. 6c) isthe onlyword in the that has a special formfor the indirect object as distinguis fromthe direct.

e. No noun isused as indirect object immediatelydependent onthe verb. A noun as indirect object is always preceded by i. tothus, je donne Io livre 11mon ami I givemy friend tlwbook ;but, je lui donne le livre [ give himthe book.

d . I f a noun is connected with a verb by the preposition i , itmayusually be re resen ted by an indirect object-pronoun , whatever the logical re tion see § 1 61 9 .

e. For the indirect object-pronoun in the sense of a possessive,see 88b.

f‘

. The indirect object-pronoun is used as a so-called ethicaldative

”— i.s. to express some one indefinitelyconcerned in the action : thus, bate-moi cet homme-labeatme thatman .

1 57. V erbs are called “transitive”or“in transitive”

according as they do ordo not admit a direct object.as transitives are in

bus, j'

obeis aux loisdubut he appmaehes

below, § 1 61b, 1mb. A few verbs usually intransitive may take a direct objectwhen used factitively (i.s. in the sense ofmaking or showing bymeans of a certain action) : thus, tout y respire Ia joie every

breathes joy, cet or aent le sang this gold smells qfer intransitives do so in certain hrases thus, courir

risque run a risk, parlor une langu a language, causerlitter-attire converse about literature. A so-called cognate accusative is very little used in French ; the noun generally takes dobefore it thus,mom-ird'

unemom-t naturello die a natural death ,domir d’un bon sommeil sleep a good sleep .

1 58. A verb in French does not take two direct ohjects, but only a direct and an indirect together.

296 vases. [in

a . An only apparent exception is the seeomd noun tbat is takenas predicate to the sheet of a verb. or as objective radicatsthus, ils le firent roi made himking : see above, 154.

b. The prohibition of two direct objects is extended to thosecompound verb-phrm in which an infin itive is directly (i.s.

without do or a) d odent on another verb, es

gciall fi irs

make, cause. I fmemtive has a direct object, 0 logical objcet of the other verb has to be made indirect. Thus

,1 have

made himsay it is je le lui ai fiit dirt avemademyfi' iend

read your Ietter is j’ai fai t lire votrs lettre amon ami ; and so

je lui fsrai voir ce us je suis tll let himseewhat I mn . I n

all these cases, thegame and following infinitive are treated asforming a kind of unitary verb-phrase a causative verb

,taking

both its objects, if pronouns, togetherbefore it. The same con

struction is also generally uired withouir : thus, leur ai entendu dirs ces parolso

I hmdiizemmg thmwordsJe le lui ai vusssaysr l ha ve seen

himtryis 110d thenmet with : thus, is les ai laissés

and always if the objcet of the infinitive is reflex ive : thus, is l

’

ai laissé s'eguret Ilet himloseMmebf. On the other hand, the object of fairs issometimesmade indirectwhen the infin itive has not a direct ob

ject : thus, ces chants flrent changer de visage aAtala thesesongsmade Atala change coun tenance. (Chat )1 59. A noun is often added to a verb directly

,or

without a preposition , to expressmeasure orexten t, timewhen , or (rarely) place where.

Such a noun is not properly an object of the verb, but is rather

used adverbia

zl

g; though its value shades

I tmaybe call an wmsm. OBJECT . F

§ 280—c.

I] avait do bon sens ; ls rests vient ensuite.

La F. ) I]a de la gaieté dans l’esprit il a do léger et

1 1 plaisant. (Ste -B .) Faut-il tout sacrifier,'

usqu’a l

'opi

nion de la postérité dc V i.) I lmena pres e trois cen ts

gentilshommes aCan'

e asee dépen s, quoiqu’il ne fut pas

riche . ( VOL)1 66 . Cette féte cofita cen tmills livres aM. de V en

dbme. haulieu. ) I I faut montrer aux A llemands la

beauté, la grandeur de notre scene tragi ue. (Thin e )

' Qu’onme l égorge, qn’oume lui fasse griller les pieds,

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298 vanes. [ 100

they are all able artists. We were bold but experiencehas rendered usmore cautious.

‘God has not made li fe

too hard to bear. Y outhin k her sin cere I have foundher false and mendacious. We know them(to be) richand happy. Can one call courageous an action so rash

and foolish I like to see people happy aboutme. Wegard it as certain that they will be here. He had takenme foranother.

She likes everything in him, even his faults and weaknesses. We have seen to-day nearly a hundred pictures,and not one of themhas pleased us. H e has foughtthe good fight let himsleep nowa long and deep sleep.I havemade herwrite the letterof which Iwas speaking

to you and now I shall ring formy servan t, to carry it tothe post. We have heard themtell this story manytimes. Have you not seen her give herhand to yourrival D o not let himforget himself. This cloth is

worth only ten francs a yard, but it has cost me twelvefrancs, and I have had to run about the streets three hoursin order to find it.

PBEPOSI TI ON AL PHRASE

1 60. A verb is extremely often qualified by a prepositional phrase— that is, by a noun or other word or

phrase having substantive value,and joined to it by a

preposition .

All the prepositions are used to connect the nouns they governwith verbs, thus qualifying or limiti

ggut‘he latter’s meaui

Some of these constructions need no ex tion being perfect ysimple and like English constructions somewillbe treatedunderPrepositions (52M a few,

involving the commonest prepositions, aand de.may best be stated here

,as beingmost closely

analogous with the relations ordinarily expremed by cases,the

dative and genitive.

1 61 . A noun with a to is used aftera verb datively,

or in themannerof an indirect object.Hence it is representable by an indirect object-pronoun name

101] rasrosrrxosu. Passes. 299

ly, lui and leur tor and y tor thingt mefimesalsoforpersons) : sse X

a. The uses of aas connecting a noun with a verb come fromits original value asmeaning both to and at

, and it often has tobe rendered by at orabout, and not seldomby otherprepositions,as on ,

by, with, etc. Sometimes, too, it is required where inEnglish the verb takes a direct object. The principal peculiarities of itsuse are noticed here .

6. Some verbswhich in English are transitive requirein French 9. before theirobject.Such are nuire i harm,

infime,outlive, survive thus,

obéisser i vos parents obeyyourparents. Otherverbsma takei . er take it in certain senses or certain phrases : thus, ai or

cider-l a id,help ,

atteindre hattain ,misterhbep resent at, commanda t es-dormer i command

,order

,and persuadsr i per

suade,urge, with a person ,

when the thing commanded orurgedis almex pressed croire i believe in , satisfi irs h satisfy as a

general rule or obligation , teacher i . come in contact with, be

close to,suppléer hmake up as a deficiency. I n a case or two

thewhole construction is differen t fromEn thus, reprocheraquelqu

‘nn as facts rep roach any one orhis fault (lit

’ly, re

pmach to any one hisfault) .

c. A fewverbs take 5 wherewe should expect do, asmeaningfi'omorqf. These are arracher snatch, eztort, bter and onlever

takemy, soutirerwithdraw, échapper escape, demander ask,

borrow, acheter buy (and sometimes gagnsr gain ,

prendra take : thus, an achsr quelque chose a quelqu

‘un

match '

ng fromsomebon e demands pardcmh cet

homme I ask pardon of thisma n, 1 1 a smpruntedo l 'argent h.

an uierhe has bon owedmoney qf a banker. Also pemer i ,cougar in the sense of think up on , turn one

’sthoughts to: thus,

pense: hmoi think ofme.

These verbs (but not demander) take also sometimes do insteadofa. for themost part with little difference of sense ; but a

do means have an op in ion of : thus, que moiwhat do youthink ofme'

d . I n many phrases, a noun with A. is added to a verb to ex

press themanneror instrument of the action thus, il voyage }cheval he travels on horseback (by horse) , il parls h hauts voixhe talks in a loud votoe

, aller i voiles go by satl, foulsr aux

pieds tramp le un derfoot compare 36.

I n some combinations, h.with a noun has the sense of be

na to : so especially with strs : thus, cettemaison out i

300

is mine ; and similarl with trouver. supposer,connaitrs. and croirs credit : tb je trouve un cmur

to possess an emcel heart, il leur croitde bon sens he cred its themgood sense enough.

Related with this is the not in frequent use of the dative, especially of a pronoun ,

instead of a possessive adjective : thus, je luiprends la main [ take her hand ,

il s’

est cassé le bras he hasbroken his arm.I . Of special cases may be mentioned the reflex ive phrases

s’attendrs h be prep ared for, s

’

attaquer h. p ick a quarrel with, se i (orde)meddle with ; also fi ire la guerrs hmake war apomavoir afi

’

a ire i have a diflicultywith, en ven

loir i bear a grudge against, tsmir i dep end upon (compare

g. Ex amples of the use of an indirect object pronoun to remosent a noun re

tiring safter the verb are as follows je lui

I kim,il t y renoncer onemust renounce it

,il leur de

man e leurs noms he asks tlmn their names,nous y pensons

torfiourswe thiszkof it all the tinw, js lui sn veut ave a grudgeagainst him. But the noun ofmanneror instrument, and thatfollowing emin the sense of belong cannot be so replaced.

V otre ingénieuse critique n’obéit pas seale

meat 5 nos nécessité, elle se livre anugoht et a nuplaisir.

(Sta -B .) I l ressemblait it un fan tbme,mais a celui d’un

martyr. (de Vi. ) On touche encore a son tem st treefort, meme quand on le repousse . (Ste -B . utan tl’emprisonnement de son pére pendant la erreur

,M. de

Lamartine nous fait assister ades scenes taut soit peuro

manesques. (Ste -B .)‘I l‘ reproche a Byron de l

’avoir

imité san s le nommer et sans lui en fairs honneur. (Ste -B . )Sa piété était si vive, son effusion si touchan te, son cou

rage si admirable, qu’elle arrachait les larmes s tous lesassistants. (Miguel) Je demands itV otreMajesté la permission deme retirer aCiteaux . (dc Vi.) C

’estMarie qui

a pense a ce canton n ier ;Marie pense a tout, s’avise de

tout. (Ste -B . ) Songe an fleuve de sang 011 ton bras s’ést

baigné . ( Com) Dupon t, lancé en"deche dans l

’Anda

louai s révoltée, est bien tbt obligede se rabattre et de son

get a un e retraits ; mais il y songs trop tard. (Ste -B . )LaMadelon , qui n ’

eveit jamais pense bi en sérieusemen t' Lo. Lamar-t in e.

' IMC.

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302 mes. [ln

sive to thus, il est aim6 de tont lemonde heis loved

d . I t stands before a noun e ngmaterial, conten t, andthe like : thus

,il 1

'

a fait de bo he made it qf wood , remplird

'

zaufill with water . compare § 33 .

I t not seldomexpressesmanner : thus, t amer do fm'ce

bring back byforce, ag ir de bonne foi act in good fa ith , parlorde la sorts talk in thatfashion .

f. Some verbs that are transitive in Englishmquire inFrench a do before their object.

Such verbs are espeeiall jouir em‘oy, amuse, abuser abuse ;ingot judge (sometimes intransitive in

English) ; also redoubler redouble in certain phrases , and

changer when it signifies the ex change by the subject of one

thin for another of the same kind . thus, 11 change d

’opinion

wages his'

n ion , il redoubla d'

efl'

orts he redoubled his

eforts, je jouis e as. favenr l ervoy his favor, ils abusent dema honte abusemkimdmss. Also sometimes heriter inherit : thus, ter d maison inherit a house. Morespecial cases are : do after amor s

'

approcher ap

p roach . thus, 11 s apps-ocha du approached the fire ;

after certain reflex ive verbs, as sapercevoirp erceive, so“he:distrust, se douter susp ect, se passer dowithout, se servirmakeuse, and so on (compare XXIX . thus, je m’

apercois do oela[ p erceive that .

g. A ftertraitor and qualifierwith an object, and afterservir.

de is used to mean in character of bras . thus, je l ai traité de

prince I have treated himas a p rince, 11 me sert de modele heservesme asmodel .h. Ex amples of the use of the gen itive pronoun an in these va

rious constructions (except to ex pressmanner) are : 11 était b I teampag'

ne ; 11 en revient anionrd’

hui hs was in the cwmry, hereturnsm it to-day, il en est déjbmort he has already diedof it, on 1

’en a arm6 they have armed himwith it, il les aimet

il en est aimehe loves themand is loved b them, uses-annuals

n’en ahusez pas ase it, but do not abase it

,Io voyantj l s

’en ap

procha seeing it, he appmaehed iti. Fors tewverbs taking both de and t see § 1 8a

j . For the partitive noun with 110, used like a simple noun as

the object of a verb aswell as in otherconstructions, see 5 35.

with in .

' Oeux

(g'ui ne sortent pas d

’enx -memes sont

tout’B ien ; vous elles deMadrid tout a l’he(11re. ( V ago . ) I l revient de a Grece

100] pamsmosu. reu se . 308

st ds Jerusalem; il aborde en (Ste -B .)‘ II no

vit que de lait, nodescend jamais amanger. (Daze )“Elle se retira ensuite apart, st écrj yjp de samam, codan t

plusieurs heures, des lettres et son testament. Miguel. )Le bourreau lui-meme était ému, et la frappa d’une mainmal assures. (Magnet ) '

Le commissionnaire la renversed’un coup de chaise ; la gouvernante la fouls aux pieds.

Thiers. )’Soudain see traits as con tractérent comme de

l espoirda triomphe.

oSSaintine. ) Jsme sens pigge de ce

discours strange. (M "Je ls connais de vus

,mais jene sais

presson nom. or.) La lune brillait de tout son

éclat. apoléon. ) t il continue de la sorts ds donn er

cours9.un enthousiasmemamas . ) A llons,Zambo,

chantait furieux st comique ; tourne ls robinet

sourMassa. (Lab) I I a été fra

dppé apremiere vus des

éfauts, des travers, des ridicules utemps. Ste -B .) D e

l’heure fu'

tive,batons-nous, jouissons. m. )

"V ous

croyez n’a usant de mon enton te, je rétends atten tera

votre li té. (R ae )"En changeant e nom, tu n

’as pas

change de visa e.

ge

ar. )"'Je leur écris qu

’Achille a

change de pens e.

20Peu

lple sauvage !mecrm-je

en approchant dufeu. b) n ignorant bérita d’unmanuscrit, u’il ports chez son voisin 1s libraire . (La F.)Madame s V aubert avait servi demere aHelene. (San .

dean . ) L ’enthonsiasme nous sert aussi d’asile a nous

memes contre les peines les plus amerce. de Steel. ) E t

j’ai traité cela de pure bagatells. (Mal ) Tn me traites

de mechants sans que j’ais jama is fait de mal. (0. Sand.)

Charlotte Corday est condamn és a la peine dsmort son

beauvisa 0 n’en parait pas emu. (Thurs )

“ J’etais alléaClays, usl ues lieues de Paris. Js m’

en reven ais apm. ( V. ugof) ”

J’ai tr0p d

’avantage, et, en enn emi

généreux,

'

s ne veux as en profiter. (Scribe ) Profits detes biens, eor s.

-Jen use sans plaisir, et les tisns en 11 16pris. (Forward. N ’étes-vous

’

amais passesurune tombssansvous en douter D am.)

’Laissez-moi, l’abbe, laissez

moi, je vous en prie. 0. Sand.)Tun e 1 5 .

vans m men-reu se, wrrn 1 on de.

The boy ought to obey his parents the man, the law

and God. H e who loves his parentswill obey them he

304 [m. ,

who honors the lawwill obey it. 'Wisdomcommandsevery one to renounce all pleasureswhich can in jure him.

She pleases thembecause she resembles her mother.

Tell himwhat we have promised him,and persuade him

to withdraw. Your memory will perhaps aid his.

’ I f

one has pardoned a friend his faults, one no longer re

proaches himfor them. H e asked herwhat book she wasreading, and as she answered himnothing

, he snatched it

fromher. What do you thin k of his conduct? H e

will not escape the punishment due to hismisdeed. H e

came on horseback, and they received himwith open arms.

I bought it cheap, with money that I had borrowed of

my uncle. Speak with a loudervoice, orwe shall not nuderstand you. This house belongs tomy neighbor. I t

is very handsome ; I did not credit himwith so muchtaste. We have found no ill in him. Do not meddlewith this afiair.

" I hear themno ill-will, although theyhave quarreled withmy friends.

They have just arrived fromAmerica ; whether theyremain here depends upon theirhealth. At present, theyare wearied with the trials of the journey. They werepreceded by their courier, and will be followed by theirbaggage ; they are accompan ied by their servants and a

parrot. H e is burning with impatience to see the East

but she is bored by everything, and weeps for grief at having left her country. She haswrittenme several letterswith herown hand. H e occupies himself toomuchwithhis health. H e does not knowwhat to do with his time.

“ I thank you for your kindn ess. If youwish to enjoymy favor, youmust not talk in that fashion . She neverabuses her influence over him. Thisman changes hisreligion as onemight change his coat. H e redoubled hisefforts to approach the shore

,and did not perceive the ef

forts that weremaking to save him. I canmake use ofyou; but ifyouthink thatwe can not dowithoutyou, youare

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306

mdlor point alono : thun lh i-jo pas dit didn’t l acg so? This

y occumex cept in lowor vulgarstyle.

1 66. I n certain cases, no is used alone, without added

pan orpoint, to negative the verb.

The principal andmost usual cases are those stated below. Butthe omission of the second negative is sometimesmade at the arbitrary option of an author.

a .With the verbs savoir, pouvoir. our, and censor, pasorpoint is usually omitted

, especially when an infinitivefollows

,and when the negation is not emphatic.

pont tardor he cannot dday, ollo n’osorait rovenir she

not dars to como back,vons no cossoz do riro youdo not

laughing. Less common cases are such as ne bongorsi dI slrall not xtirfiudgbfl fromhere. Saurais in the sense of can

(XXXI V . 7b) always has no only : thus, jo no saurais lo diro lcannot say ; also usually puis : thus, jo no puis I camwtwut jo

is

a

b. No is often used alone aftersi , afterrhetorical questions iatroduced byqui, afterquo in the sense ofwhy? orunless, with a

perfect after depuis que MM and in a negativeclause depending on one that is negat ve or impliedly so : thus,si co n

'

ost vous (f it is not you, qui do nous n’

a cos (1M whoQfmheu not hisfaults? que no so corrige-t-il why does hc notcorreot himaelf? il y a troismais quo je no l’ai vt aoonot

w himthose threemonths, vous n ’

avoz paumami qui no soitaussi lomien you have not a fi

' iend who is not aLsomim, andamm un uni

youhaoe not) a friend who ia not alaomine?c. He is used without pas or point in certain phrases

thus, n’importe nomatter, n ’

avoir gardo do care not to,n

’

avoir que fairs not ha ve anything to do , no plaice orno (16Wma it not p loaoe or disp loaae, and a fewothers : thus, i .uno p God forbid , je n

'

ai gardodoI tako care not to diaavowmyfault.1 67. Re is also used without second negative particle

along with certain words which are regarded as formingwith it a compound negative phrase

,often tobe rendered

in English by a single negative word.

0. These negative phrases are especial] no rien nothing,

we] memos . 807

any, none, no, no

6. Of the words thus used,rien and jamais and ancun and

snore, though in themselves properly positive, occuralmost onlyin negative phrases and with negative value. Ex ceptions are cc

casionallymet with, especially in clauses that have a negative

implication : thus, personno a-t-il jamais do pareil

has any one seerseen anything like it (i.e. no one, surely, has

ever seen

0. I nstead of rien thi are found sometimes in special phrasescrumb, goutte drop ,

nwte,mot word instead ofjamaisever, are found the obsolete one or onquos ever

, also doma. viein my life, and other similar rossions ; instead of person s

or aucun any one, any, are foun1mque cc soit orquolconqno

any one oranywhatever, and the li e.

d . Of no que.meaning on ly, the quo stands where thanthe expression were filled out thus, jo no verrai

see only her, jo no la vorrai quo domain I shallsee her only to

-morrow, jo no la verrai domain qn ’aproo lodiner

I sha ll see her only after the dinner to-morrow. I f the only

qualifies the verb itself, a paraphrase ismadewith fairsdo thus,ollo no fait que pleure: shemerely cries, or ollo ne faitchose qno plouror ehe does nothing else than cry. Antro otheris not seldomusedwith no alone thus, lo droit n

’

ost antro

que lamisonmemo right is nothing but reason itself.

e. Not seldom,more than one second negative belongswith thesame no : thus, jo no 1ni ai jamais rion donn6 1 ha oe nmrgiven

himmzythnzg, jo n '

on dira.i jamais rion A porsonno l will neoersay anything to any one about it. This is especially frequentalong with quo, and then the rendering onl must be changed to

something else : thus, jo n

’

ai jama is aimque 1ui I ha ve neverloved any one but him, orthe like.

I . Nul none, not any (also its adverb nulloment in no wise) ,and ui nor, though themselves n tive, require also no beforethe verb : thus, ui vousuimoi no pouvons neither you nor Ican do it, mummno h vou l neilher can norwill doit , nul no o n ura nonewill knowit. The same is tbe casewithm plus not anymore : thus, ollo no Pain eshe doesn

’t like it anymore than I .

But nul used appositively or predicatively to mean null,of no

1 68. Re can never be used except directly with a verbexpressed ; if it is omitted, because of the absence of the

308 vsass. [los

verb, the otherword usually associated with it in a negative phrasemay itself be used in the negative sense .

Thus, point may stand by itself fornot at all ; pas not

butwith anotherword, e.

pourquoi paswhy not f ; rien as nothing, jamais as never, porsonno as nobody, ancun as no, non e, plus as no longer. But qnoand guénodo not stand thus (un less in very rare cases) .

a . Bien que noth i [else]than , is used elliptically with a following infin itive in t e sense of merely by thus, rien qu

'

i . ypensermerely by thinking of it.

1 69. The negative word non is especially used as directanswer to a question ,meaning no.

I n this, as in most of its other uses, itma be followed by thesecond negative pas (or rarely by pomt) : t us,fairs? non (orncn pas) will youdo it ? no.

a . I t also stands, in incomplete expression , for

ative verb or clause : thus, is gage que nos: I

nol so, si l’

on souflro on non whether one s ufier or not fie or do

not safer) , non qno je lo croio not ( i.e. it is not the case) that 1believe it.

b. I t is used to negative a icularmember of a sen tence

which is not a verb : thus, il sure 5. la campag ne, non loind

’

ici he lives in the country, notfarfromhere, il pet it, non sans

gloire he perished , not without glory. Especially, with a nega~

tive alternative opposed to a positive : thus, nous voulons unmaitro ot nonwrnon ) nnomaitrossewewant a nwster, andnot a mistress, jo lo non senlomont pomMmais aussimacs enfants I shall do it not onlyfor him, but alsoforhts

rm.

0. Non plus not anymore, not any sooner, stands aftera nega

tive verbor after ui nor, and is often best rendered by either :

thus, jo no lo ferai pas non plus I shall not do it d thertlit’ly,

anymore tha n he or than you, or the like) ; nimoi non plus nor[ either

d . Non had formerly the office of directlymaking a verb ne

gtive,and is sometimes still found so used, in antiquated sty

thus, non ferai-is I sha ll not do it.

1 65 . Je no vous réponds pas des.volontés d’un

twigs je he serai poin t ad’autre qu’aV alére. (Mompénl

est capable de ne pasme croire et s’il me croit, c

’est on

core pis. Scribe. ) C’

est pourtan t triste de ne jamaisdanserfdit Landry . (0. Sand. ) Dans les pieces sérieus_es.

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3 10 mas.

et,

pas nu gendarme. (Lab)qu’on la soula e, qu

’on

Quoi, cousin e personn ePersonne. (Mot ) V ous avez recuquelque education, aumoins — Ancune. D am. ) P lus d

’amour! Ins

do joie (La F.

'h’n is rien , pasméme n ne pme linecéda an cri de uillaume . (D ana)

'

Les legions romaines,ue vous avez imitées,maispas encore égalées, combattaien tarthage our cettememe mer. (N apoléon) Non , jamaismes professeurs no m’

ont donné lo centieme do I ’mstruction no is bums de la, rien qu

’a regarder dans la

er. )N1 69. on

,non ; jeme trahismoi-meme d’ penser.

( Cor-n. ) Elle a raison —Ma foi, j

’

ai soutenn tine non .

( V . H ugo. ) Que 1m '

eux cardinal venille on non,

la veuve'

de Henri-le-Gran no rosters as plus longtemps(de Vi .)

‘II a travaillé pour e moment, et non

pour l’aven ir. (dc V i. )'J’aime votre personne, et non

votre fortune. (Cora )“Nous y en tramos, non sans son

con ; mais comment fairs? (Courier) Non seulement e

coeur ne s’attsehe arien dans ces gites,mais l’esprit y est

inquiet. (About )”Pourmoi, je n

’ai pas grand

’chose a

dire— N imoi non plus. (Mot )1 70. I n dependent clauses, no is not seldomfound

used with a verb expletively,or where no negation is

really implied.

Such a no is never accompanied by a second negative, p“ or

point . I t is inserted by reason of a confusion of two constructions, a positive and a negative being both had inmind at once.

The special cases are as followsa . A fterverbs of fearor ap rehonsion ,

of hindering, ofdoubtorden ial ; also, afternouns an adjectives of likemeamng : thus,jomins qu

’

il no visnns I fear hema come, ompOchsz qu’il no

vienne prevent his coming,mmqu'

no vous par-lo avoid hissp eaking to yoa ,”no doute pas qu

'

il ns visnno l do not doubtthat he is coming, do pour qn

'

il no vienne forfear that he iscoming, point do doute que cola. no soit no doabt that icso, ilut dmgoroux quo h n nité n

’

étonfo h roconnfim it irto

befearod that vanitymay stifle gratitude.

In such cases, the verbof the dependent clause is always an 9.

1 70] memos . 3 1 1

derod in

But there are alsomany exceptions : thus, no is not inserted

after an expression of fear or apprehension that is negative or

implies a negation nor, inmodern style, after defondroforbidnorunless the expression of doubt ordenial is negative or impliesnegation ; nor, generally, before an infin itive—and othermoreirregular cases occur. The ill in trusion of the negative is

comi ng to bemore andmore neg outedb. A fter the expressions of time il y a. que.depuis quo, and

avant que, a superfluous no is sometimes inserted thus, depuis

qns jo no vons ai vn since l eawyoa , jo sorai sorti avant qu'il

n’ontro I shall have yone owt before he comes in . Also after il

s’

onMt there is lacking, with negative implication thus,il no

s’

en h ut. pas beaucoup qn ’il n’

ait perdula.raison he camenear losing his reason .

0. A no is inserted before a verb following and depending on a

comparative : thus, c’

ost plus vrai que vous no lo crow it is

truer tha n you th ink. 80 also after antro (and autromont) :thus

,co1a est antrsmont qno vons nomyo: that tsothen oise

than as you“Mose.

d . A no is inserted before the subjunctive after amains queunless : thus, h.moiusque vous no vsniez

’ Oucraignait que l’on n

’out touché an trésor

c. Vol.) Parco no nous avions pour qu’elle no

nous grondat. (Sigma) I l est abimé,mais il est contentot l

’on no doute pasqu

’il n

’aille ala Trappe. (do Sév. ) J’i

rai vous voir avan t que vous no preniez aucune resolution .

(do Ste. )'D e uis que je no vous ai vu, il s

’est passe do

biengrandee c oses. (At

-ad. ) P en s’on faut queMathan

nomait nommé son éro. (Rae )'Ah

,maman ! lo bon

D ieuest cont foismo'

our gu’on no lo dit. (About ) Oh l

tum’onnaies n

’ai-je bosomd’étremieux que jo no suisMar. ) Jo no

’ai as, amoius qu’il no soit dansmon lit.

About. )" Tontos es cérémon ies furen t aecomlies, sans

qu’il ymanquat rien . (Michelet) Elles s’attach rent plus

que pas nne a leur nouvelle directrice. (St. Simon .)

Tu n ic.

‘II o loveo her toomnch (pour) not to toll her the truth.

’Ploaoe uot lpeak tome while l amlistening to themum'c.

’I caunot understand you, if you speak to me so softly.

I cannot deocribe to youall the beautiful thingsthat l saw.We will not stir fromhere, since yourequire it. ‘The

child did not dare to answor, but it did not cease to weep.

’Wo shall not talto awalk, if sho does not come to aceoun

ponyus. I knowno onewho does not sometimes commitfaults. I t is very long that his friends have not seen him.

Have I anything that is not at his service ? God for

bid that she should love himand not me ! Take care

not to be absent when one calls you.

“Aman is on ly

good so faras he does hisduty. I never heard anythingso horrible. Say nothing of it to anybody, or I willnever tell you anything. Neither

'

wealth nor famemakes a man truly happy. I neither admire nor loveher. Y ou give himeverything and us nothing.

"On e

should trust his heart, and n ever hismind. That laughis a sign of despair, not of joy. Shall I take this pen ?No, if youplease ; take this one, not that one.

”H e does

not want it, noryoueither.We fearlest he should come before the appointed time .

Nothing can preven t his appearing to—day.

" If hecomes, avoid his seeing youbefore youare ready to receivehim. I do not doubt that he is at home at present .Who can deny that it is so Speak low,

for fear thatsome one hear us.

” I t is ten days since I sawher.

“ Ishould like to speak to himbefore he goes to bed . No

one would dare wake her before she has rung. Since Ihave been there, great things have been done.

”Theircondition wasmore dangerous than they had supposedTheweather is better tod ay than it was yesterday. He

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3 1 4 [1 78

imprudent to speak is imp rudent, i .me is it to speak ?

an ticipated, as inlish, by il orco as grammatical subject ; in that case, it N gu

lary takes do, ex cept after the verbs il fiat it is nm ary, ilvaut autant ormieux it ie aswell or better

,il somblo it seeme,

fnit bon orboauit isp leasan t orlookswell. Thus, il oot facilo

plait d’

obligsrun amiit p leasesmto oblige a friend ,

c’ost h vons do parlor it belongs

to you to spoak ; but il fant pu lor it isnecessary to ep eak, il fi itbon vousrovoir it does one good tosee yoa agamBnt h issometimesused instead of dowhen the sense is future ; i. s. when an

action to follow is indicated : thus, c’ost h vous h. parlor you

have nowto sp eak.

c.Where, after such a verb, there 18 a com rison , the second

infin itive, preceded by que than ,as

, regulary has do : thus, ilso tairo qua ds parlor it ie better to be silmt than

to sp eak.

d . An infinitive as subject (like an ordinaryliable to bew e by a following co ; thus, 8con amL c

’

ost ponssr tout haut to talk wzth one’efi-imd ie to

e. After co, an infinitive (like a noun in neral : § 1 47b) issometimes prweded by que : thus, co n

’

ost t cx'uauté quo do

punir loo coupablos it is not cn zelty to p an ish the guilty°

and

quo is necessary after a predicate infin itive : thus, c’ootmdritor

lamort que do l 'attsndro d '

antrai to awa it death fmmothers isto deserve it. In this case, the domay also be omitted : thus,

L‘.

1 74. The infin itive is sometimesused as a predicate.

a . I t is so used, without sign , after c’oot, after somnlor and

puaitro seemorapp sar, afterso trouvorj ind one’s eelfichance,

and after Gtro consoor suppooé be supp osed or reckoned : thus,végétor c

'ost mourir to segetate is to die, il pa.rait arrivor it

scema to happen ,il est consoOtt omort he isreckoned ae doad .

Barely, a do is found before the infinitive in such a use.

b. I n other prodicative uses, the infinitive has the a

?do

thua son promior commandomont ost d'

aimormou h firdcommad nent is, to looe God.

c. A fteretro, etc. , an infinitive ed by i has the value ofa rodicate adjective (compare § thus, cottomaison out i

this hocmie pmhmble, ollo ost h vondro it isfin 'aale

or to be cold , ollo oot h lcnor it ie to let, co th&mo oot hmthiemrcise ie tobe done ocer agaimnous sommos h ph indrouxare p itiable or to be p itka. As the ex amples show, the corro»

s dingEnglish expmssion is various, and in part identical with

t Frenc

1 74] mmsmvs. 3 1 5

sometimos used as a noun inMa hmondro : wmbattrocoarses to take : flght or rim

J’ai tout son etre, et jusqu

’ason nommémo,

on e. (do Vi. )’LaMadelon s

’étonna aussi pour as

part dujoli parlor do la petite Fadette. (0. Sand. ) Jo no

puisme fier qu’avous pourme dire si je suis riche on

pour savoir an juste lo compte do mou voir.

A ttendre est imossiblo, agir no l’ost pas

clavigne. )’A quoi n vouloir sauverma vie ?

O’estmanquer do respect ala rein e. (Scribe )

o’uimer, c’est uuo lautre affairs. (Man )

or les prin ces des vertusgu’ils n’ont pas, c

’ost leurdire

nomont dei ures.m Sautorahas dulit, conla fenétre,mo toucher les bras et la této, co fut l

’af

d’un instant. (Lab) P lutbt soufirir que mourir

c’ost la devise dos hommes. (La F. ) I I faut no plus nousvoir c

’ost lemonde qui le vent ainsi. (Sandcau) 11mo

semble avoir vuremuercette porte. (D ana ) Que sert do

so flatter? (Rae. Jo n’ai fait u

’uno fauto c

’est do

n’étro pas parti esque jo t

’ai vue. Mar.) C

’est aMon

soigneur a lui fairs oublier lo qu’olle quitte avec

taut do'

oie. (de Seed)a

"D e vous pourquoi, cola serait

long. carter. la donne de la tn stesse, do voir tautdomorts autour do soi. (do Sév.) R ien no rafraichit les

idées comme do so fairs la barbe . Lab.) Quand on no

os on sci-meme, est inutile do Is chor

R . )"Eh ! monsieur

,do quelle consé

vous 8 do moi ? (Man )sorts aux belles actions,

Ce n’est point

sous ces ombrages les

code on qui supplie,uour. (Arnault.)relations fut do

3 1 6

a plus u'

afranchir. (Guisot ) I]n ’ya_pourl’homme

que trgis év nements : naitre, v1 vre, otmourir. (La Br. )

Tenn : 1 7 .

To live is hard ; to die is yet harder. But to die is

better than to live in disgrace . For her to showherselfwas to please ; forme to see herwas to love her.

‘To

hear youpraisedmakesme happy. I tmakes himproudto hear himself praised.

'I t is hard to live with a bad

conscience . There areman y occasionswhen it is aswellto be silen t as to speak. I t ought to sufiice youto knowthat I shall return next week . I t is a fine thing to keepa secret. I t seems tome that I sawyouyesterday. I f

he appears to hesitate, he will be thought to be afraid.

To speak is to ex press ono’s thoughts by words. H e

finds himself to be the last of all the company to arrive.

He is to be pitied who hasno friends. I t istobe hopedthat he will soon go where en emieswill no longerbe to befeared . This is what one calls being happy.

" I havetwo things to do : go to school and go to walk withmyfriend.

1 75. The infinitive is especially used as object of, ordependen t on , a verb. I n this construction , it appearseitherwithout a sign

,orwith do orwith a.

Sometimesmore than one of these constructions is permissiblewith the same verb; but in general, the governing verb deter

mines thematter : compare § 183 .

1 76. The simple infinitive, or infinitive without preceding sign , appears in the following cases

a . After the2361 3 3

54115“ vouloir, pouvoir. devait , fairs,laisser : thus, v os-vous vonirwill youcome? ponvos-voua lo

itrjo dois pu'tir h ctnq houros l amto eet ow

at ve o’cwek

, jo lo forai appoler 1 will have himcaaed ait'

gz1

cause to call him) , vous l’avoz laissé tombor youhave it

But devoir in the sense of owe, having an indirect object, to

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3 1 8 vanes.

e After certain verbs ofmoticn and of causation ofespecially aller go, envoy9r send , also

eet, venir come, rsvenir and retonrnsr return, rentrer come

back in , courir and accourir run atre (in past tenses) in the

sense of

lgo, etc. : thus, ils sont an‘s demurer i Paris. theyhm

gono to ive at Paris, envoyea le trouversend toflnd him, elleviendrame visiter demain she will comeil a été tronver le roi he hae been toflndoften cobrdinates the two verbs

, with and

send amd find him, and the like.

if simple verbs : thus, al ler orv emir chercher fetch (lit’l , go or

come to loolc j br) , envoyer chemher eend for, aner visit.

Also, the presen t and imperfect of aller are used with an infin i

tive to forma sort of tense of the immediate future (see XXV I I .

Sc) : thua je vais h fiire l amgoing to do tt, il allait pw r he

V enir is followed by abefore the infinitive when itmeans hap o

thus s’il venait atomber if he happened ba j al l. I t also

takes do before an infinitive to forma sort of tense of the immediate psst (seeXXXL thua je visns de le faire I have jwtdone it.

fi Special cases are z often after fi illir and ner in the

sense of justmiss, and always after avoir bean in t e sense of

try in va in thus, vous avez h imtomber youcame within an

ace qf’

falling. vous avez been resistor it is of noueefor youtoresist (orresist as youwill) .

9 . The infinitive without sign is often found in incomplete andex clamatory expression ,

where the verbon which it would (1 d

is omitted : thue qne fidre what h’

a one to do ?moi , vous adowner ], abandon you? platbt mills oismonrir rather die athmwand times, on no sait qne fi ire on e qui s

'

adreuer onedoes notMicrowhat to do or towhomto addressone

’e self. donnermoi do quoi écrire giveme wherewith towrite.

An infin itive standing occasional] in the sense of an imperative is of this character : thus

,voir es afiches [onemay]see the

Non seulement je us Is ferai pasaster a la

mes lupuais,mais encore je devrai l

’éberger l

J’ai ait arler ls loup et répondre l’agneau.

Sait-elle cou e,savonner, faire de la soups de

brus uement. ( Comics) Elles ont daign é meseconder. (Scri I l aimaitmieux ne rien faire que de

1 70] mrmmvs . 3 1 9

travailler. (Gautier)'Dans cc récit ) e prétends fairs voir

d'

un certain sot la remontrance vaine .

croyez-vous avoir tué tous lesMaratsdans cemiroir ense voirson II disaitven irdufond e la Boheme. V iens voirmourir ta smut dans les bras de ton pere. (Cora )

"Je fris

sonne encore de ce que j e lui ai en tendu dire. (Mar )J’entends frapper a la porte. J

’ouvre ; bon Dieu! c

’

é

tait lui. (Biranger. ) On m’a voulumener voirMme. la

D auphine . (etc See . ) Je ne peux pas vous donner cen t

mille francs,mais jem’en vaismangervotre diner. (Fertil

let. )“A llons donc l’aifranchir de ces frivoles craintes.

(Com)?

La nouvelle que je viens t’annoncer te fera-t-elle

plaisir? (Man ) V ous sures beau vousmutin er, vous n e

ch

gngerez rien aux faits accomplis. (Sandeau.) Madametampee ?

ui a failli perdre la France . (D am) Quoi lcondamner lla victime, et épargner l

’assassin ? ( V. H ugo. )

"Quel arti rendre ? V otre situation est neuve, assurémen t. Mar. N e pas comrendre mon en thousiasn

xa

pourcet homme Soulié

gog)éfendez-vous Horace

quoi bonme défen re ( 0m

Terms 1 8.

OBJECT-I NFI N I T I V EWI THOUT SI GN .

Can youcome to ourhouse to-day?'I should like to

come but I amto go elsewhere withmy father. ThenI shall hope to see youtomorrow. Y ouowe it tome tovisit me at least three times a week . H e knows how to

read and to profit by what he reads. H e likes better to

read than to play. H e declares he was not at the theatre

yesterday, but I think I sawhimthere with my own eyes.

H e does not deny having been out of the house all the

evening. H e imagines himself to be very cunn ing ; butif he thinks to deceiveme, he ismuch mistaken . Have

younot heard it said that we are going to have a greatwar in Europe? I had not reckoned to see it come inour time . Go findmy servant, and send himto look formy book. I will run and find himat once. We have

380 [1 1 7

been to visit our friends, but we did not see them; theyhad gone to take awalk. Where canmyshoesbe ? someone has perhaps set themto dry at the fire .

“Look for

themas youwill, youwill not find them.

1 77. Many verbs are followed by a dependent infin itive preceded by the preposition do.

a. The numberof such verbs is very large, do being incommon than 3. before the infinitive. I n a majority of

,the de hasmore or less clearly its proper prepositional

value wmeaconstruction of e infin itive is uite a with that od a

noun following the same verb an uiring before it ; but innearly asmany cases it is not so, but t e ds ismere “

sign”of the

infinitive.

1 78. V erbs requiring do before an infinitive-object inthe samemanner as before a noun-objectmay be classifiedas followsa . V erbs afterwhich do has nearly the sense of from: bbl

s’abstmir abstain , so garder keep one

’

s beware, (le on?

dosaccoutumor or deshabituer disacezwtom,am, (I s or so)

dispeusor orem er let of ,mm, (10) t dissuade, (loorso) empecherp revent, hinder, ven irbe coming (5 1 76e) , etc.

b. V erbs after which do has themean ing of, or,muchmoreoften , on account of, in resp ect to, and the like Thus, of lntransitives, souven ir

flee, deaespéror douter doubt,

Gclater etc. (do rite) rst etc. (with laug ng) , enragerbe ina flu mourir in thesense of long parlu talk, rire lmlgh, M eant -irreffer, and but ler in the sense of burn with desire. Further, oftransitives taking a reflex ive orotherobject, orboth ( lo) accuseraccuse

, (lo) avertir natif (so) repentir repent , (lo) ecumenner susp ect ; ( lo) blfimer am, (so) vanter boast. ( lo or so)

gelaindre p ity, (so) réjouirrefoios, (ls) remercier thank , s

’étonner

funastonished , and so

'on (the verbs are too numerous to give in

c. More obscure cases are (ls orso) charger charge, (as) depOcher orhtter hastea eHngémormelermeddle, (so) prossorbe eager, u ps-n or do without, and the impersonal il s’ag itthe question ormatter in hand is.

1 79. V erbs requiring. do as sign before an infinitiveobjectmay be classified as follows

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322 [m

Le souven irdo dernier do see crimes auquel

lassistaim’

a empécbé dc lui arler. do Vi. ) Jo viensdo’apprendre tout a l

’heure. ar. ) s convinrent de s’en

rapporter nujugemen t du cuple N e

me fais plusrougird’en ten re tes V otre

pére soufire dc vous voir en proie sespoir.

(GimrdingacJe to plains de tomber dans sesmains redou

tables.

’Ou no devrait s’étonner que de pouvoir

encore s éton ner. (La R .) L’en fant éclata de rire scette

ridiculemenace. (Memes ) C’est i eux qu’il s’a

git

ur nous do so créer des amie fid es, sincéres. (Ste.

méle, depuis quelque temps,do fairs des vers.

cv.

'Je vous

prie demon ter acheval et de sortir

do ville . (de VifiI] commando an soleil d’an imer la

nature . Him}n’efit point pardonn é ason frére d

’etre

venuvoir la adette et non pas lui. (0. Sand . )‘Je vous

défends,mademoiselle, de danser avec lui. (Scribe ) Ré

pondez done ; je ne demands pasmieux que de meper. (Man ) Grand roi, cesse de vaincre, ou je cease d

’é

oriro. (Embrace ) V ous avez omis deme demander cc queje viens faire d P aris. Sur les pas d

’un banni

craignez-vous de mare or?‘Je vous promets do

no pas oublier votre numéro aujourd’hui. (Scribe ) Au

lieu de les in terrompre, nous feronsmieux d’obsorver ct

d’écouter. (Scribe )

‘Le voila done do courir jusqu

’a la

domeurance de la mére Padet, et de lui con ter se pein e .

(0. Sand.

)Un étran erm’

a jeté cc secret a la face, etchaque é ecteur alors e dire c

’est vrai. (D am) De

recourir a B lanche ; elle avait trop d’intérét adéguiser 1avérité. (Le Sage.)

Tamas 1 9.

ommmrrmrrvs wrra do.

Beware of falling into the water, if youcannot swim.

He has just fallen into thewater, and that preven tshimfromcoming to school. He ought to blush at being absent forsuch a cause. We agreed tomeet here, and l was aston

101] 323

ishod not to find himalready arrived but now I despairof seeing himto-day. I rejoice to hearyousay that you

loveme still. I beg you to remain an hourwithme.

He advisedme to go home and to busymyself with myown afiairs. Allowme to tell youthat yourconduct doesnot pleaseme. I forbid you to behave thus any longer.

She continued to write him, and to reproach himforhisbad conduct ; but he refused to answerher. If youputoff starting, youwill deserve tobe abandoned by the others.

I regret tomake themwait ; but it is impossible formeto do otherwise. Imust risk ofieuding them, for I havepromisedmy father to stay here till he comes. I judgedpr0per to let himsee that he had ofi

‘endedme. H e finds

it better to conceal his evil designs in my presence.

1 80. Many verbs are followed by a dependen t infinitive having before it the preposition a.a . Hero also (aswith do : § 1 77a) , in amajority of cases, the

proposition hasmore or less its own value,asmeaning to, unto,

at, or the like, and the construction of the infinitive 18 analogouswith that of a noun following the same verb, and requiring abefore it : but 1n part the 5. 1s amore arbitrary sign

”of the infini

tive.

1 81 . V erbs requiring a before an infin itive-object inthe samemanner as before a noun-objectmay be classi

fied as followsa . I ntransitivo verbs are : aboutir come (to, as result) , 3 3e

asp ire, attendre watt, defer, con courir concur,condescendro

condescend , consonterconsent, conspirerbonsp ire, contribuercontribute, incliner. incline, parvenir atta in ponchor incline, pen

sor think, rononcor remuncemépmer l repugnance, réumrsucceed , serve, songer think , sufice

, tendrs tend ,

tonir in so ,nso of hold on insist, be eager, visor aim.

b. Transitiveverbs,with reflex ive orotherobject, orwith bothabd uor lower, Mm

.

m ww ,accoutumor accustom,

admettre admit, aguerrir harden , aider aid amonor bring,min or animate, appeler call, appliquer app ly, apprtterprepare, usin or assign ,mujettirsubiect, attachor attacln atton

dre h ep waiting, avilirdebase, bornor limit, complaire acqui

cm, oondmorcondenm, disposor dtspose, oncourager encour

324 [101

begin ) , plaire p lease, porter lead , pousser urge, pr6parer p rereduce

,résip er resign, vouer

1 82. V erbs requiring as sign a. before a dependen tinfin itivemay be classified as followsa . Many verbs take an infini tive preceded by a in the sense of

at, about, in reference to such are the intransitives balancerwaver, mailer ex cel

, persévérer p ersevere, persister p ersist,tarder be slow, delay, travailler labor

, triompher triuumb ;the refiex ives s

'

acharner be eager, ss‘amuser amuse one

’s self,

se consumer wear one’

h eelf out so d1vertir be dioerted, sen~

tondre have sconce, s’

épuiser ex haust one s self , s’essayer try

one’

Js hand s’

étudierataze

onemie s selfl s’

obstinerand s’

opinifitrerbe obstinate, se plaire ph asure , and the transitives employer emp loy, pmer p ass surprendre eatch.With themmaybemen tioned the phrases prendra soin take care

,

prendre plaisu‘or avoir duplaisir take p leasure, il y a plaisir

Otherverbs than these are found taking the

same construction ,it being a current and extensible one.

b. More peculiar cases are consister consist, and gagner gaiu

(where we should expect rather de) .

0. After certain verbs, h is used before an infinitive (much as

toafter the same verbs 1n English) in a sort of future sense, poin t

ing forward to the action ex

piressed by the infin itive as something

anticipated or obligatory t us, after avoir. j'

ai cola Afi iro or

j’ai afi ire celt aoe tbis to do or I baoe to do this , and in like

manner afterdonner '

ve, chercherseek, laisser in the sense of

leave, trouverflnd . ence also 1n the same sense predicativelyafter am(see above, § l 7i e) z thus, cola eat a.mire this is [athing]to do ortobe done (and then also attributively nne chose hfurs a thing to do or to be done) ; and after

’

rester rema in . be

lefl. and the like : thus, il me resto afaire it is lefl me to do,combien coute un cheval anourrir howmuch does a horse oostto keep 3

with b. is used as direct objecto

aftercertain

verbs. the subject of the action of the infinitive being the sameWith that of the verb : thus,aimer love, like me t in condi

tions]: § 1 7Gb) , apprendre learn , chercher dzapprendrs

e. The infinitivewith b. isused as direct object aftera fewverbsthat take an indirect object which is subject of the action or

by th finiti th dorWmmitf‘s all?)“8’ “I”a“)w

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'Aprés une vigom se défensa il était

a faire as rotrmte. (H is-ist ic. ) Toutm’afiige et me unit

at conspire dme noire. (Rae )'L

’erreur no réussit qu

’détablir avec lus d

’éclat la vérité. (Messiaen ) ‘O’était

la premiere ois, do uis son retour, u’elle so décida it a

toucher cette rive. (gander-L ) Elle amena doucemen t dparlor do son fils, et parut s

’in téresser atone see discours.

(Sunda e )‘I l voulait accoutumer aussi sesMoscovites d

’

Qui pardonne aisemen t, invite a l’ofionser. (Cos

-n . ) E lle lee exhorta a de

mourer formes dans la rehgion catholi no.magnet.)I]ex celle aconduire un ar la carriéro.

(Rae ) Le public révolté s’obstine al’admire (Boileam)Tupasses la nuit areveron aécrire ; mais, je t’en avertis

,

tu no réussiras a rien , si cc n’est amaigrir, aétromoius

belle, et an’étre pas reine. (dc V i. ) La poésie no consists

as atout dire,mais a tout faire rover. (Ste -B .)‘Donx

ommos si adroits n’out rien d gagner aso tromper l’un

l’autre. ( V. H ugo.)

’Apres cola, j

e n’ai lus rien avous

gar.) J’ai une famille et 9 nom cais amute

nir. b.) Maia, bpropos do too adieux , il me reste on

core une chose a savoir. (Mar?‘Arréte done, Lisette

j’ai a to parlorpour la dern iere ois (Man ) Oamanger ; on sert uh dé

'

efiner fort ropre.

Elle apprend d chauter, a anser elle it, elle

(de See .) Jo ferai justice ;"aime a la rendre a tous, d

toute heure, on tout lieu. om. ) A ide-moi a oublierque je suis roi. (D am. vous

intendre, on

vous avez raison . (d’

arleville.) vouloir loD ieu lui-meme perdrait os puissance. (Sandman)voir, vous n

’eussiea eusi j

’étaismort ouvivan t. (Cour-ter. )

"Maia elle va a ravir, continua-ti l ; on is croirait faitepourmadame la princesse. (do Vi.

Franchement, ) e nohair-sis pas de lui plain

lui 327

sous lo personnage que jeno laisse pas d

’etre s1ngul men ts

sur la poésie. (Ste -B .) peinea-t-il commencé a lo leur traduire, qu’a l’instant la scene

B .) J’avais commenced’écrire, ot jem’ar

Tam 20.

omncr-mrmmva wrrn a.

'Do you consent to see her?

’H e aspires toWin my

approbation . Everything conspires to aid him, and hewill perhaps succeed in attain ing his end.

‘I have ledhimto con fess hiscrime, and have condemned himto sufierits punishment.

‘This girl excels at playing the piano.

They are slow to come when one calls them. They

were pleased to say that they had amused themselves withtaking a walk, and that they had not heard [any one]call .Let us get ready to depart, for the light is beginn ing to

appear, and we have a long journey to make. I like tosee the sun rise. If youemploy yourmornings

“

at studying French, youwill soon learn to read it, and youwilleven come at last to speak it well. “ I always do wellWhat I have learned to do Helpme

,I beg you, to read

this difficult passage. I will teach youto understand it .

To see youstudy, one would think that you like bettertop ley .

H e has tried to injureme, and I amtrying to restrain

my indignation . H e does not hate to dome an in justice,but he hates to seeme afterward . The lawwill constrain

himto do what he had consen ted to do. Take care not

to approach too n ear, and beware of falling. Do you

ask to drink? then ask some one to give you a glass of

water. Onemust resolve to drink on ly water here .

1 84 . Many adjectives are followed by a dependentinfinitive having do ora as its sign .

value of the preposition is to be seen in

An infin itive precededexpressing a condition or

means of orby reason of (though sometimes other

,or to as infin itive sign , are preferred in

construction of the infin itive is the same with at of a nounfollowing the adjective. Such adjactives are : bien also very

glad , digne worthy, capable cap able, charmé charmed, content

p leased , curieux wrious, desireux desirous, enchantoonchantod ,

6tonn6 astonished , fiche sorry, angry, fier proud , heureuxhappfl‘hontoux ashamed , inconsolable inconsolable, jaloux j eaLweary, meccnteitt dissatisfied , satisfait octimed , cdr

sure, surpris surp rised, and many others of kindred meaning.

pics are heureux de le voir happy to see bim(i.c. on ac»

count of seeing him) , curicux d’apprendre curious to learn ,

lasde la chercherwearyqf looking forher. Also afteretre followedby an adjective bcn , in such phrasos as vous etosbienbon do venir

v

si to youare cery to come so soon , qu‘il est

hardi de lo risquor howdaring is to risk it ! Also in the second termof a c

zmson : thus, si ixrjusto guao de nous punir so

unjust as topu A fewadverbs, havi ng the valueofpred 1cate adjectives, are followed 1n likemanner by an infinitivewithdo : thus, loin de vous aimorfarfromlooing you.

b. An infinitivewith i .’

18 usedmgen eral afteradjectiveswhichwould admit a noun with the same construction the p

uction

having its proper value of to, at , in regard to, fin s

tives aro espocmllyadroit skilfill ,, aisoeasy,

curieux remar dimcile hard , dispose d isposed , in

clined,M10 easy, habile skilled , impossible impossible, lent

slow, prOt ready, promptmt

, propre suited, tristo sad ,

utile useful . Examples aro mangergood to eat, dificilo h

faire hard to do, prbt h partir ready to lease. An infinitivewith i . 18 also common after an ordinal used substantively, especially lo premier and lo dernier. and after lo soul : thus, is premier k venirJo seul i rester theflrst to come, the only one to

stay.

The casesmust be carefully notedwhere the infin itivwsubject since it then takes do : thus cola est imire that is hard to do,but il est difl cilo de fi ire cola it is

hard to do that .

1 85. A noun often takes a dependent infinitive preceded by do orL.

a. The infinitive with do after a nounto the English infinitive in

-ing ed

pable also of being rendered ot erwise) :art Qfwriting, l

'

occasion do parlor the occasion ofmocking.

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330

Tnm zl.

m om m oa mmrmm oa n n ow .

' I amvery glad to see you, but sorry to learn that you

have been so ill. They were curious to knowwhethershe was there still. If he were capable of committingsuch a crime, he would be unworthy to continue in our

society. I ammore ambitions to serve youthan to please

you. We are sure to start at five o’clock, but we are by

nomeans certain of coming back before toomorrow. Far

frombelieving hisstory, they were on the point of havinghimcast into prison as a cheat.

'A ll that is born is liable

to die.

‘H e is equally inclined to acquire and to keep .

’ That is aman very skilful in handling the pencil. "A

thing easy enough to say, but very hard to do. Hewould

be the last to den y what he was the first to say.

“ If I found an opportun ity to serve you, I should be

ashamed not to availmyself of it. Take care to walkstraight, and beware of falling. The problemto solvewas very simple. All men, born and to be born , coun t

upon a life to come. He came down fromhis bedroomto the dining-room.

186. Certain adverbs and adverbial phrases are followed beforean infinitive by do orA, forming a sort of preposition

-phrase gov

erning the infinitive.

a . Those formed with do are especially avant do before, liedo near

, plntbt que dorather than ,hora do apartfrom, loin do

farfrom, afin do for the purp ose of, in order to, a. force dodint of , 1 main do short of, i . condition do on cond ition

h utc de for lack qfl sce XXXI I I . 5 thus, avant de partirbeforosetting outJ .

’Otrc atte short q oing attentice ( i. e.un less one is too plutbt que d

’

étndieu' . il s’amnao rather

than study, he comose himself.b. Those formed with h. are especially domaniéro orMon

'

hin a way to, jnsqu

’

t so far as to : th il est jacqu'

i lain . hewent sol aras to strike her. common are phraseswit the adjectives can! safe and quitte quits, used elliptically :

thus, san f i . reserving the right to change, «with l Otrc

grondé getting 0 with a scold ing.

m] mmmvs. 33 1

1 87. A fewother prepositions, besides do and A, govern the infinitive directly, having before it their own

proper value, as before a noun .

a . Pour is very common before an infin itive, with the sense of

for, in order-to : thus, il ost ici ponr joner he is here in order to

p lay (orfbrp laying, or simply to p lay) and in this sense it isespecially frequent after asses, trap , and the like : thus, trOpjonno ponrmarior too young tomarry. Also sometimes in the

sense offer, on account of : thus, il est pnni pour avoir voleheispun ished forhat ing stolen .

V erbs admittin g do or h before an infinitive sometimes takepour instead, when the sense ismade plainerby it.b. For by now verns the infin itive directlyonly afterverbsof

beginning and en'

ng : thus,il commence par écrire he begins

c. Ape-és after is properly used only before the compound ihus

, aprés avoir'

parlé after having spoken .

d . Sans without : thus, sans parlor mot without saying a

e. Entro between : thus, il balance entre al ler et roster he

wat ers between going and staying.

I l n ’osait tirer, de peurde tuerGuillaume, s’il

p’était mort. (D am) A van t de se mettre a table, 11priaMl e. le Couvreur de réciterquelquemorceau. (Ste -B . )Jo vais jusqu

’a former des vcnux contremoi-meme. (D ela .

signs. ) Avan t deux jours, je le con fondrai domamére ane lui laisser rien arépondre. (P icard.)(5 Jc viens pour épouser, et ilsm’

attendent pouretre mariés ; cela est convenu. (Man ) ’

Je no suis plusgourmand

,pour tro l

’avoirété et

,pour avoir trop r1

, jen’ai plus de gaité. Angler. ) V ousm’aves prédit,milord,

qu’un jour nous finirons par nous aimer. (Scribe ) A res

m’étro rasé, je me trouvai nu tout autre homme. b.)

:iJem’

éloigne sansme plaindre et sansmurmurer. (Sanecu.

Terms 22.

INFI N I TWE AFTER OTHER PR EPOSI TIONB .

Before finding us, he was near despairing of his life.

For lack of having been notified,he did not knowwhere

332 vsnas.

to seek us.

‘ Instead of running and seeking, she standsstill andweeps. I t is not possible to reason thus, short ofbeing crazy. Conduct yourself in amann er to be loved.

'No one is ever too old to learn .

’ I want a pen and

some paper, to write a letter tomymother. H e is sick

now,for having eaten toomuch yesterday. Thisman be

gan by being simple soldier I think hewill end by boooming general. We have return ed, afterhaving been threeyears absent. H e had to depart without seeing her.

There is a great difierence between promising and keeping word.

E —Tns Purrwmns AND Guam .

1 88. The presen t participle has both a participial andan ordinary adjective use ; the gerund agreeswith it inform(not in origin orconstruction : see X. 80, d) .

1 89. a . The present participle,in its participial use

,is

not varied forgenderand number to agreewith the nounto which it relates.

b. The present participle used adjectively is varied

like any other adjective to agree with its noun .

c. The participle is left unvaried when it takes an object,re

other , and, in general , when it has the adjuncts thatctive of a verb : thus, deux hommes parlant ensemble

monde proofsmnoincing everybody, nnembre consolant ea fillsamother consoling her daughter. Hence sci-disant is invariable : thus, dos soi-di sant amie self styledétant are never varied.

d . The part1mple is varied when it has only the ordinary ad

lupoto of an ective, and the construction of one : thus

,'hcmmo ost nno créatnrc parlanteman is a specking crecture,cooprenvos sont bien convaincantes these proofs are serg ean

e.Many common adjectives are by origin present

thus, charmant charming, intéreuant interesting.

such participleswith a somewhat changed spelling : thus,“fati

gnmt fctiguing,Meant tiresome, ox collant ex celling,“

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33 4 vnnns [1 91

Tam as.

Our friendship, triumphing over jealousy, will endure

eternally. Thus he spoke, wi th a triumphan t voice .

They (f.) tookmy book, knowing that itwasmine ? H is

words, striking my ear, attracted all my attention.

'He

addressed to thema few striking words of consolation and

encouragement. H e isa very tiresomeman . Thiswoman,

suffering all that a woman can sufier, appeals to our compassion . Help her she appears [to be]sufiering. Isawher playing at cards an hour ago. We walked slow

ly, stopping often to listen . Night came to part the combatente. H e grewpale while reading the letterwhich

I handed him. Saying these words, the tears came tohis eyes. Even while speaking to us, she trembled and

fainted.

191 . The past participle ismore distinctly and ex clusively an adjective than the present participle ; and itsconstructions are in themain those of an ordinary adjtive

, agreeing in gender and numberwith the noun to

a . I t has a peculiar treatmen t, calling for rules, onlywhen combined with the aux iliaries avoir and tomake thecompound forms of a verb : see XXV I I I . 5—8.

b. The past participle, being passive in its character, does not

take an object ; but it admits the other variousmodifiers of a

verb.

c. Forcertainparticipleswhich are unvaried before the nouns

which they quali y, see $56a .

1 92. As regards the use of the participle with aux

iliaries to make the compound forms of a verb, the following principles are to be noted

a .When usedwith Otre in in transitive and passive verbs (butnot in reflex ives) , the participle has the value of a predicatefestive qualifying the subject of the verb, and with this it wecordingly alwaysagrees in gender and number. Thus, one a tM ohe icgone, ds sont simés tlwyare loved , los lottroowont

195] rm PARTI CI PLB . 335

écrites the lettmweremttmnm serons pt rtis we shali be

ori

b

giWhenMh

tgvoi

zlin ti

f

'

ansitian y e v us 0 an

ing thzuffirect object. Thus, in il a

he hasfound again his lost books, it is the books that are foundagain , and not the finder. Hence it is notwith the subject, butwith the direct object, that the participle ought to agree. In the

present condition of the language, however, it ismade so towhen the object standsbefore the verb, and not otherwise : t us,quels livres avez-vous trouves what books have found ? 0

les ai trouves I have found them, les livres que jyao

iutrouvés

booke which l haoe fomzd ; but j ’ai trouv6 1es livres 1 have

c. I n every verb used reflex ively the aux iliary etre (by a verystrange and anomaloussubstitutionsis taken instead of avoir. I n

the compound forms of such verbs, the participle has the sameformas if avoirwere used that is

,it agrees w1th the

reflex ive object it that object is a d irect one, but not otherwise .

Thus, elle s’

estmmshe lim heresy"(like elle l

‘

a trouvée she has/band her) , ils so sont trouvés they have fmmd one

another (like ils les ont trouves theyhavefound them) but, onthe contrary, elle s

’

est trouveden livres she hasfoimd forheraetf some books; and again , uels livres s’est-elle trouveswhatbooks hasshefomid forhorse t—where the partici ls agreeswiththe direct object livres, and not with either the indirec’

t as orthe

subject elle .

d . Many intransitive verbs now take, or take sometimes, theaux iliary avoir instead of am. I n these , the participle (thoughitmay logicallyqualify the subject asmuch as in the verbs takingOtt o) is nevermade to agree with the subject, but remains nuvaried. Thus, elle a sorti she has gone out (but elle ost sortie) ,

theyhad descended (but ilsetaient ducal »

dun) , ils ont été they have been .

1 93 . Hence we have the following practical rulesa .When used with étre, the participle, except in re

flex ive verbs, agrees in gender and numberwith the subject of the verb.

6.When usedwith avoir, and alsowith Otre in reflexiveverbs, the participle never agrees with the subject ; butit agreeswith the direct object, in case that object precedes the verb .

0. The three cases in which a direct objectmay precede the

1 94 . Certain exceptional or apparently exceptionalcases require to be noticed, as follows:a. The participle of an impersonal verb, orof a

personally, is unvaried : thus, les plnies qu'

il y a

that there have beera quelle chaleur ex cessive a-t-il fiit wha tcm ioe heat thmhasbeen !

b. The participle does not agree with an adverbial ob a

specification ofmeasure or the like (5 thus les

qu’

elle a dnré the years that it has lasted, les trois limes quej'

aimarch‘the three that I have walked. But of cot tercost, courir run , and it be worth, the participle is sometimesmade to agree with such an object ; and, in certain phrases, eventhat of vim live.

0.With an of“, some, etc. (XXI I I . 5 as an indirect object,the“p

articiple of course does not agree ; but after an indefin itewo of quantity, like combien , it is sometimes made to agree

with the noun that is logic

ally implied : thus combien en avez

vous vns howman of t mhase youseen ? (11 10 do choses j'

ai

howmany I have seen I

d. An apparent object of a verb is sometimes really governedby a followmg dependent verbor infin itive, and the participle ofthe formerhas no occasion to agree with it : thus, les livres quej'

ai a n qu’

elleme donnerait thebookswhich I thought shewouldgioe nw, ces tab1eaux , je les ai vn peindrs 1 hacemn thmp ioWM (lit

’ly, have seen [some on e]p aint them) , je 100ai

pa ter n tre part l haoe had themcarried elsewhersfinthese phrases, the les is really object of donnernit . peindre, andporter respectivelyfi

. But if the object is logical] subject insteadof object of the fo owing infin itive, the partici of the formerismade to agree with it : thus, ja l

’

ai vus (orpeindrelos tabloaux ) 1 haoe seen herp ain t (orp aint thep ictures) , jo les

chose [ have let themeat something,

e. But the participle of fairsmake, cause, when used with a

depmdent infinitive, never agrees with the object (fairs beingviewed as forming with the infinitive a sort of compound verbform, of causativemean ing and ect, if the infin itive alsohas an object, taking the indirect je 1. ait anger lmade themeat

,il nou avait fl it sortir he hadmadeus goout.

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m [is

dlta : les femmes nc sont nullement condamées imédiocrité. (dcMaiatm) ‘

Je cesserai peur eux dc papultra animate, st j 'oublieraibe, (0m.) Jo no sais s

’il nous a reconnues. (D ace)

'Si

temps nouillonuait pas leurstraits, uelles traces aux-aimill rdlicudo own passage ? (dc S taé

'

Leurs vetementsat urn amiss, qu’oun

'avait

’

amms et la surprise . (Michael ’Elles avaient uzn air si

strange que Prawovie é rouvait uue certaine erain te, at as

repentait dou’ttrc arret e chez elles.la demiérc moitié da XV I I I’ siécle,talent élevéesdims ls Nord, la Pruess[amcavaliernqui sont tombés sous voscoups se sont attire

ens-memes comalheur. (Le Sage. ) V ous savsz laBistro

idée que 0ms suis faite de monmérite littéraire. emanor.) or regards uraien t avec plaisir les nom~

bruumdemeures us on habitants ds la campagne se sontconstruitel ources auteurs. (Barthélemy)

‘Quo demaux il en est dejaresultsi (Beecher )

cant use dcs idées les plus utiles qu’il y ait jamais en .

( Thomas) Jc regrette lesnombreuses ann éesque“’ai vécu

sans pouvoirm‘iustruire. (Rouse ) Ls premier vo umeeat assurémsut fort intéressant la preface nous donn e uneides dss reclierchcs qu’il a cofitées. (R émusa t. Mesmanuscrita raturss, barbouillés, st presque iudeo itfrahles, attestent la peine qu

’ils m’

on t ocfitée. (Roma ) On pent

gingerdss embarras sans nombrs que lui avait valusoublc areuté. V. H ays.) Mais je n e les ai pas

ces ann es dema vie . (San tos) Tout lsmondem’a offert

des services, at personne usm’sn a rendu. (deMains.) Pen

dan t ces derniers temps, combien en a-t-on vus qui du soir

numatin sont pauvres devsnus l (Laf)“Tous les sol

dats s’étaient laissé rendre. ( VOL) ins l’avons-nous

entendus arlet . at.) 0 Julie ! si le satin t’eut laisséevivre i use. V oila ls su

’

et des larmes que tum’as

vue verssr loria n . ) Elle s est fait aimsr ellem’a faithair. (Com) I I a été libre ds mettre a cet abandon lacondition qu’il a voulu. (Set

-m)(g Maia le combat fini, c’est alorsqu’il semontre.

(Forum-d.) Eux punis, nous pourrons fairs admirer an

monds la liberté. Pm ' d’

lilI l ne sera pas dit que,moi parti, vous rirez . um.) ousavonsplusd’uns piece

1 95] rm remain s. 889

‘Le cas échéant, je d

(Dam) Oes généralités étan t adoptées, l’assemblée

cupa de l’organ isation da pouvoirlegislatif . (Mime) P eu

de gens ds nos'

ours ss sont tués, euégard atons ceux quiont songé als airs. (Ste -B .)

Tune 24 .

rear PART I CI P LE .

'I f we do not hurry, they will have gone before we

have arrived. V irtue is loved by all the good, and on lyhated by those who have addicted themselves to evilhabits. Toomany tearshave been shed over hersorrows.

I have not yet received the letter that my fatherhas sent

me. What books have you already read I have readonly those which youhad recommended tome. Y ouare

mistaken ; I have not recommended themto you.

'The

few inhabitantswhomwar has left in this town are too

poor and weak to be feared. Howmanymisfortuneshavewe not seen in our time ! I thank youf or the troublewhich youhave given yourself in order to come. Mysister has bought herself some beauti ful dresses. The

dresses which she had bought for herself are not yet

brought to the house. What a beautiful evening it wasyesterday That was perhaps the prettiest festival thatthere has ever been . Where has be borrowed thefrancs that this house has cost him? A ll the days thatthis chimn ey has smoked have been rainy . I have foundbeautiful flowers in themeadow, and I have gathered some ;but I have given themall tomymother. Have younot

given any to yoursisters No, they have gathered somefor themselves. Those are actions which I have thoughtthat youwould approve. The story which I have begunto read is very interesting. The letter which I havepromised towrite forher is not yet begun . I heard her

340 mms.

speak of the news which had just arrived, and I let herfinish without interrupting her.

".I sawher buy the pic

ture which we had seen painted last year. They havemade all the ex cuseswhich theirconscience has permittedthem. I pity himfor all the trouble which he has hadto take. The dinnerfinished, he wen t awaywithout saying farewell.

V III.—A DVERBS.

ting adverbs and theiruse have for themost part beenmmThus, as to the formation of adverbs from ves,

1 -8, 9 ; as to the com n of adverbs, XXXI . as to negative adverbs and verbial ex pressions, especially § 1 64 etc.

to words construed nowas adjectives and nowas adverbs,as

s6,1 1 60

,d ; as to adverbsused in themaunerof ronouns

, $85 :adverbs of uantitywith following nouns

,Vp3 , 4 ; as to various

adverbs, 1 4 6 ; as to the usgnal place of adverbs, XXXI I . 7 .

1 97. Adverbs are sometimesused in themannerof adjectives or nouns. Thusa . As predicative adjectives thus, il est bien maintenant he

iswell now, cela n’

est pas ainsi that is not so.

Ra

zc

éldv,as attributive adj ectives : thus, ls ternps jadis the

time qf la page ci-contre the page opposite, la presqneéternité almost etern ity.

e. Governed by a preposition ,like nouns : thus d

'

oh fromwhere

,whence, les bee de devant the forewgs (lit’ly, legs Qf

in front) , la pinie'

hier the ra in of“yesterday, de trap in emcees,

super/limes, par trop toomuch , its too, junqn’

h domain untilto-morrow

,dbs longtemps since ago.

d . Quits rarely, in othernoun constructions.

1 98. Sometimes an adverb 1 11 h 18 represented in Frenchby an adjective . thus, il est arriv lo premier he arriCompare the cases in which the same expression is treated

nowas an adverb and nowas an adjective, § 56.

1 99. An adverb of degree is often separated fromtheadjective which it qualifies. Thus

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342

b. I n likemanner, the uses ofbetween an adjective and noun,5 181 ; before an inflnitive, § 180ete ; and so on .

304 . Furtheruses of demay be noted

,as followsWith the noun cbté side (and sometimmwith part p art) , do

loses al er 1ts sense of removal, and on or at : th in ,

de co on this side,ils se rangent des obtés de la sa lle

they drawon both sides qf the ha ll, de toutes parts on seemb. I n likemanner, dsmeans at or the like in a fewexpressions

of time : thus dumatin at nmring , mthemorntng ( = of a

) , de bonno heure in time or early, “1108 jam-sin owr , dema vie inmy l e

, duvivant de ce roi in the lifetimof this king.

c. Afterplusmore ormoius less, de is used in the sense of than

yeux voient plus que deux four seemore than twfl oan see],and so on. The wordsmidi midqda andminuit midn ightbeing equivalent to douse heures t ve oclock) , also demiquart a quarter, and i .domi or i moitié by half, are treated as

numerals 1n respect to this construction . thus, phls domiuuitaftermidnight, plus as demi ruinémore than half ruined.

205. Furtheruses of amay be noted,as follows

a . The preposition h 1 8 used ellipticallyin the sense of at the

distance of, at the age of, at the rateof, in connections the

out suflicientlywhatg?18 intended : thus, 5 treats Bones

at thirty fromParis, 1l estmort i v1ng t ans he di-ed at

twenty, van i la lim sell by thep ound .

6.While an is in general used with the name of a country tomean either to or in (V I . A.with the article, stands instead

before a plural name, and also before certain names ofmcountries, and of ancien t provinces ofFrance : thus, auxUnis to (or in) the Un ited States, an Japon in Jap an, anMex iqueinMex ico, an Poitouto Pbitou. With partir set out, start, andin one ortwo similarphrases, is used pour : thus, partn t pourla Syria leavingforSyrta .

c.c l isused in such phrases as o'

est bien l vous that isgaad

of you (or in you) , cc’

6tait folio L lui that was fblly in him(orfoolish of him) .d. I toccurs inmany elliptical phrases : as, hmoi ermsecourl

900] Pssposmoss. 34 3

Ml (i. e. come tom,wmfor help ) , aumoir [good-bye]till

wemeet aga in ,h nons denx between ourselves.

206. The otherprepositions have in amuch higherdegree eachits own meanin orran

ge of nearlyrelatedmeamngs, correspond

ing in a gener way ough with not infrequent ex ceptions) tocertain prep

ositions in English and hence theycall foronlybrieftreatment ere.

207 . Dm and en in ,into, ete Of these two

having nearly the same sense, dans ismore defin ite, onmore genoral and vague, in the relation designated.

a. Dans (except with propernames) isalmostalways followed bya limiting word, an article orpossessive ordemonstrative , beforethe noun it governs on. on the otherhand, rarely standssuch a limitmg word ,

especially

the defin ite article (never before10 or les, rarely before 16. I nstead is used before the name of a

countrywhen aecom nied byan adjective thus, dans la Francemeridionale in so: France,dans toute l’Ang lsterre in all

England . Also,both with the name of a country and of a town ,

when themean ing iswithin ,inside of.

c. I n expressions of time, on is used tomean in the year, inthemon th

,in the season : thus

,enmil huit cent treats,“ été,

en juillet . in 1 830, in summer, in July (but, by exception, an

printemps in sp ring) ; but dans la.meme année in the sameyear, and the like. I n expressions for a certain length of time

,

on means rather in the course of, but dans at orb the end ofthus, je finirai ce travail eu une semaine I fin ish this

work in a week , hut je l'

aurai flni dmsuno semaine I shatt haoeitfin ished in a week.

d . En is used in many adverbial phrases ofmanner,means,material, form, and the like : thus,an secret in secret,

glais in English , on or in gold , on blanc in white.

e. E1 1 is used elliptically to signify in the d iameterof, alsotranslatable as like or as thus, ag ir on helmets homme act likean honestman , parlor enmaitre sp eak asmaster.

f . En and les are contracted to Os in certain learned titlesthus

,docteur is sciences doctorof science.

208. A ves with. This preposition usually signifies simmy accompaniment. But it also, like with in English, not infrequen tlydesignates instrument andmanner, ex changing in these senses

with do often with a hardly definable variation ofmeaning : thus, tuer avec une épée slaywith a sword

,ém' ire avec

nne plume writewith a p en , oouvrir avec (or d’

) 11 11 manteaua cloak , and the like.

it withthe action , it

great ex ten t be used after the same verb . do then ex 11

more general orhabitual action ; par, one that 18 more or

exceptional.

210. Sans without. This preposition is peculiartreated 1n some respects as a negative word (since it soimplies a negation of accompaniment) . thus, sansrienout saying anything, sans ou

'ni urgent without gold or silver

,

sans nul doute without any doubt. After it, the partitive sense

avec do Formin21 1 . Depuis, from, since marks a startin

gepoint

min

space or in time especiall

j' the : ,thus do

jungu‘t l 'ocean lps to the ocean , depuispm

cinq heures

jusqu'h six fromflve to simoclock. Butwith a perfect orpluper~

fact, ora present or imperfect 1 1 8d , 1 1 9c) in the sense of such ,

itmeans since,ever since

,during . . past or for, ago, and the

like. Thus, je ne l'

ai pas vudepuis son retour 1 haoe not

himsince h is return,11 y revs depuis trois jours he has

dreaming of it during three days past (or for threeMarx

.est arrivée depuis peudc temps she arrioed a little wh

212. a. A large number of p hon-phrases,or comund

prepositions are made by adding to an o ath’

ective or verb.

The commonest of these were given at XXXI I I . 3 . They call forno furtherremark orexplanation here.

b. The prepositions that govern the infinitiveweregiven above,at £51 87 . The preposition on , governing the gerund,was treatedabove, at § 1 90

21 3 . The required repetition of do and h before each noun

governed by themwas pointed out at I I I . 5. Ex cepted are especially a word added to another in apposition or as equivalen t toit,and a numeral added to anotherwith on or. thus, éc us i

Londres. cap itale des Sax ons bishop at London,the Samon oap i

tal , do deux on trois of two or three.

a . The repetition also of on is nearly as strictly required. Asto the other prepositions, theyma be repeated orom1tted beforesuccessive nouns,much as in Eng ish : thus,malgré lesmmet les fl utes in sp ite of errors and faults, dans la psi: et dansla gusrrs in p eace and in war.

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34 6 ooamno'n oss. [3 1 7

value otantecedentand relative at on ce) ; also bysi in thesenseotwhether :thus, qui vent Ott o aimé doit etre aimable whoever (orhe who)wants to be looed should be loeable, aimez qui vons aime looe(him) who loves you, je ne suis s

’

il vient I don’t knowwhether

he ts coming.

21 8. Adjective clauses are for the most part introduced by relative pronouns, but also by relative adverbs,whichmay then be regarded as conjunctions.Thus, la table oh l ’ai mis the table where (or on which) !

la id it, le livre q est sur la table the book whieh is on the

table, and so on .

21 9. Most conjunctions and conjunction-phrases introduce adverbial clauses, or such as qualify verbs

,ad

jectives, and adverbs, by adding limitation s of time.

manner,degree, condition , supposition , cause, purpose,

and the like.

Thus, je pertain lore?”

entra I was goingawaywhen he

came in ,elle est si aims. 1s qn ‘

on ne peut que‘aimer she isso

lovable that one cannot but touc her, si vous y restea. j'

y reste

rai aussi if youstayhere, I sha ll stay also, quoiqu’

il soit pauvre,il sst comtent though he isp oor, he is happ y, vane: que je vousvoie come

,that I may see you.

220. I t is explained above, under t

1 32eta ) , in what cases the verb of

made subjunctive.m The con junction having the greatest frequencyand varietof uses is que that , and its employment as conjunction shades 0into that as relative pronoun ,

meaning that orwhich , so that insome cases they are not easy to distinguish fromone another.

The I ndex will give references to the passageswhere the varioususes are explained .

a .While that, both as pronoun and as conjunction,is often

omitted in English, itmust always be expressed in French thus,thefriends l haoe is les amis que j ’ai , I knowhe is hen is jeuinqu

’il est ici ; and so in all other cases.

M en the conjunctions and conjunction-phrases conta in ing

que- as lorsque. pmsque. quoique. pendant que. tandin que.pares que. taut que. db: que—are to be repeated, they are gen

erally repeated by que alone ; and (1110 is likewise used in repetition instead of quand, come , and 3 1 : thus, lorsque l

’

empmnr

consum ers. 3 4 7

fut revexmet qu'

il ent visite le cnmp when the empm had re

Met qu’

il venille en avoir plmif he has only a ltttle nwneyand wantsmore.

in , je n‘

y iru.i point qneunlecs (or till orbefore) eoerything is ready.

XI —INTER JECTIONS.

222. The simple orpure interjections in French are

part the same as in English.

a . Those mod used are sh ah (in various senses) , boroh oh,

eh eh , helas alas, aie oh (pain ) , fifie, bah pooh, holi hello, chntsh

,hein hey, parbleusoun ds

,and so on .

b. Manywords and brief phrases are used ellipticall in the

manner of interjections. Examples are : bon good , be

still, pesto gue take it, allons come, tions or tenez hold ,

see

here, w e out, par ex ample indeed ,

a la bonne heure verywell , on avantforward , go ahead , 5moi help—and so on .

c. The interrogative pronouns and adverbs are often einplo ed

in an interjectional or ex clamatory way. The usage in rega to

themis verymuch as it is in English. The same is true of theabbreviation of sentences brought about by their use in exclamation .

E lle a quitté se belle robe eh bien elle n’est

pas plusmal pourcela an con traire. (Scribe ) Le nd

vizir no s’avise pas de s

’informer s

’il est bien onma dans

ses afiaires. (Le Sage. ) Par des récits d’autrefois,mere,

aorégez notre veille. (t mgen ) ‘J’étudiais de loin , en

silence, ce talen t précoce et grandissant. (S te -B .)‘Et

depuis quand as-tucette idée (Dam) Cemoment pourjamais a 6x 6 mon destin . Girardin. ) D ’ici a nu an , je

promets de revetir la robe b nche dubaptéme. (Souvenirs )Puis ii saisit ses deux pattcs de derriére avec ses deuxpattes de devant, st , comme satisfait de cette attitude

348 anvmws, Pssposmons, m.

classique, 11 as remit ame contempler. ( V . H ugo.

cher ami,de ton trop d’

amitié. (Roe. Ce

efiet de leur 11 de lnm1ersa,311 1 les empéche de

ndeur s leurmal. (L01 98 Tranquille jem’

endors, et tranquilleLea raresmoments passep

e

t si rapidesC

(§ 1 99'Ah l mon Dieu! que

(Scribe ) P lus leur cause m’est ch re et plus l

’efietm’

en

blesse. Plus j’

y réfléchis, etmoius je trouve cette

scén Vol. )is non , maman ! y pensez-vous —Mais si,

bien avancé .

mais tum’as fait perdre mes ide

Londres de l’autre cbté de l

’eau?

parts l’on n e voyait que champs

roi arriva, la téte haute,ds, et cherchant lo eu le ar lui ler. Guizot.

gfi

r

ms semble que demod)

tetlhs33 ’

n’était £2com(me cela

).

(Scribe ) Dutemps de l’arc itecture, elle se faisaitmonet s

’emplara

ét puissammen t d’un siécle et d’un lieu.

eta d’abord sur l’omelette avec taut

d’avidite)qu’il semlait n

’avoir mangé de trois jours.

Le Sage. ) En moins de deux ans Gustave V asa rendit la

(duse/s

. )luth

érienn e. ( Vol. I l était alors plus de minnit.

e 1

'C’est nne veuve asses riche

, qui demeure aques lieues de la. ( 8 16. B . )

”A quelques jours de 11 ,

g“: ua la rive droite da Clain . (Sandeou. ) Mon plus10115325011 : fut auPeron .

éFeuillct.) N

’1mporte,madame ;

c’est b1en mal a vous. ( or! Elle frappe M

flanc gauche, et en fonce ls fer jusqu’au cceur.

s’eoria-t-il. (

likin g)

(g 207. baauf était absolument 1nconnudans I ’Amérique m dionale . (Bayou)

'Je suis donc enfin dam

a, s’écrian t : Ah quelleme as asfit pas prier ;moius. ( Courier)

venir la foudre.

la ine puisquels voila-t-il

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350 ARRAN GEMENT. [mdays. ‘I t was a little more than midn ight. ‘

H e willcome in less than half an hour.

’I gave himmore than

half ofwhat he asked. H e sells beer by the pot, butterby the pound, cloth by the yard, and eggs by the dozen .

I t waswise of himto go to the United States, rather than

toMexico. H ewill stay a year in SouthMerica be forereturning. I shall go to find himin three days, and weshall finish ourjourney togetherwithin amonth. He lives

like aman of property.

" I can speak of it only with painand regret. On e must hear her loss with fortitude.

Y oucame in by the door; youwill go out by thewindow.Withoutmoney, without friends, what can one do? I

had to leave without seeing any one.

"She speakswith

out committing faults. For the last fifty years they havetalked on ly of Napoleon . He had not seen themforfivedays.

XII.—ARR ANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE .

‘

228. The arrangemen t of the sentence in French cor

responds in a gen eral way to that in English.

a . That is to say, especially, those very frequent and 11

changes of order, consisting ln inversion or putting the verbhefore 1ts subject

,and transposition or removing the verb to the

end of the sentence, which are characteristic of German, are

mainlywanting in French, as they are in English .

b. Minormatters regardin the position ofwords—such as putting the adjectivemore usu y after the noun , putting an object

pronoun before the verb that verns it, and the like— have beenalready disposed of above

,nu er the different classes ofwords.

0. I t remains here only to ’

ve a fewrules respecting cases of

in version , or puttin the an jcet after the verb, which also in

general are like Eng h cases, yet with some differences.

224 . I n questions, the rule for inversion is in generalthe same as in English : that is, the subject is put afterthe verb

,except when the subject is itself the in terroga.

mvsnmon . 851

tive element (either an interrogative pronoun, orcontaining an interrogative word) .Thus,M vmid arewuhere?but qui est ici who ts here ?

quel homme était ici whatmwn tms here ? combien d’hommesmont ici demin howmanymen will be here to-morrow?( 1 . But it is only the conjunctive sub

'

ect pmnouns, and also on

and co, thatmaywithout restriction to lowthe verbin questions.

I f, on the other hand, the subject is any other pronoun than

thwe, or a noun,the subject isusually required to be stated first,

and then the question asked about it bymeans of a conjunctivepronoun (see I .

b.When , however, the sentence beginswith certain interroga~

tive words (XXV . even a noun is allowed to be put after theverb, unless the verbhas a direct object. Thus, qu

’a. cet home

(or cet homme qu’a-t-il) what is thematterwith thisman on

est votre frere (oroil votre frére est-11) where is yourbrothercombien mt cela (or combien cela. vent-11) howmach le tkatworth 3 but culmont votre fi'erempporte-t-il sonma lheurhowdoesyour bear hismisfortunec. I nterrogative inversion with a noun as subject is very often

avoided by using the paraphrase est-co que is it true tha t, or isit the mse that : thus, est-ce que votre fiére est ici is gourbrother here? And the same paraphrase is also common even

with a pronoun-subject thus

,est-os qu

’

il est venuhas he come—esmcially in the lat sing. , with a verb-formending in 0 : thus,est-co que j ’aime (only rarely aimé-je) do I lore f226. In terjected phrases,marking s quotation asmade

in the words of the one who uttered them,are inverted

in French, just as in English.

Thus, venez,m’

a—t-il dit come, sa id he tome, quoi !m’

écriai-jewhat I cried I .

226. I n optative phrases, or those expressing aWish(sometimes having also an imperative or exclamatorysense) , the inverted arrangemen t is sometimesused, witha subjunctive (seeThis is not common

,a que. in the sense of would that

,being

Examles are : vive la reins long livethe queen ! puisse-t-il (or qu

'

puisse ) revenirbientht may hesoon return .

’plfit h Dieumight itp leaee God !

227. Quite rarely, in version is usedwith a subjunctive

352 ARRAN GEME NT.

(usually past) to give a conditional sense—that is, one thatwould be fully expressed with if or though (seeThus

,ddt-ilm’

en coflterla vie should it i. e. though tt ehould )costmemy lffe, fussin -vona homme on emon were you ae.

whd heryouwere)ma n or demon , ils auraient résist6, n ’ent“6

10 canon theywould have resisted , butfor the cannon (lit’ly, had

the cannon not been )

228. Not seldom, the sentence is inverted when someothermemberof it than the subject is placed at its head .

Such anothermembermay be a predicate adjective, an object,an adverb or adverbial phrase of lace or time orotheracocm~

panying circumstance, and so on . e inversion is nowhere required, but onl more or less common . Some of the casesmayhemore y described as follows :

After certain adverbs and adverb brews—especially hpeine scarcely, en vain in vain , aussi accordingly,Maura ever,encore besides, aumoins ordumoins at least, pent-Ott e p erhap s,tout an plus at the relation—a pronoun subject 1s commonlymadeto followthe verb . thus

,h. peine 6tais-je entré hardly had I

come in , en vain (orvaihemen t) l ’ap t-il essays in va in did he

attemp t it, cc son t debellesstofl'

es. aussi content-elles cher theyare handsome stays, and correspondingly dear, pent-emvousattend-elle p erhap s

cases, a noun -subject also is sometiap

esn'

on : thus, a peine cet home

isman entered .

b. After a predicate ad ective, with em, a noun-subject sometimes follows the verb. is is especiallycommon with tel . thus,tells était an. condition such was his cond ition ,

otherex amare : humblos furen t d ’

ebord lea pouvoirs humblewere atthe powers, autres son t les temps deMoise dw’

erent are lhotim ofMoses.

0. Likewise, after various specifications of time, place, and circumstance : thus, ainsi dit le renard thus sa id the fox ,

ici était

iadu nne vxlle here was formerly a ei ty, alors commenca nne

utte terrible then be an a ta wible stmggle, h cbt6 de notre

ami dtait sa fiemme h e our fn’

end umhtewtfe, aumiliende la foule se trouvai t un petit garcon tn themidet of the orowdwasfound a little boy, h cette condition flit ajontée nne Mitreto thts condttion was added another.

d. Likewise, in a relative clause, after quel. que. oh, and theonesawwhat hisottwd

'

un ami the p leasurewhich the eight Qf afi

-tend giverhim, c’ect li qu’

eat 116 00a n d

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354 vsssrmoan os . [N 0

d’ett es ui n ’étaient poin t pour nos philosophes d’aupara

vant l use.) Aussi lamort de cet homme ne

t-elle point avec sa vie. (Ba!) En Espagne, aumilieuduregne de Philippe I L , éclate la revolution des ProvincesUnies. (Guizot.)

‘Maintenant est fait le laisir de D ieu.

(Michelet. A i nsi s’est écoulé le dix -huiti me siécle. (Barants. ) Aux lettres de pierre d’O hée vont succéder leslettres de plomb de Guttemberg. Hugo. )

“Au-dessous

du 08 po1rier qui touche eumur de la n e était assis,sur e bane de pierre,mon pere ado

p’tig

n

i as. ) Enfin

arrivérent les jours d’agon ie. (Hal ) V oici lamaison

demeure R eboul. (D am) " Tout homme peut faire ce u’a

faitMahomet. (P ace ) C’est 1sque se ravive l

’ame es

séchée sur les bouqums. (Tapfer)“J’essaierai d

’arriver

ainsi acomprendre quel a été dans son ensemble, et d’un e

man iére complete, le développement de notre glorieusepatrie. Je commencais ame faire 5 cc tilts-9.tete lo ue survint nu incident.

229. V iennent ensuite les députés de la Gréce. (Le

XIII —FRENCH V ERSIFICATION.

m Since any one who readsMuch poetry ought to know,

at least in a general way, how it is constructed, the followingbrief statements are added here.

23 2. Since in French there is ( 1 2) nomarked distinction of long and short vowels, and also ( 1 1 ) only a weakaccent, resting on the final syllable of each word, and unaccompanied by a secondary accent on any of the pre

ceding syllables, there can be in French verse no propermetrical movement, either of quantity or of accen t : a

French line of verse is only a certain numberof successivesyllables

,with a rhyme at the end. There is and can be

no French verse without rhyme.

288. a . I nmaking out the propernumberof syllablesfor a line, the silen t syllables, or those containing amute

m] vsnsmcmos . 3 55

e count in general,asmuch as those which have a

full pronunciation in prose.

Thus,there are six syllables in

I l re- lgurde ltoficmand seven in

Une lperle lqu'

il dona lna ;and eight in

h umlml ton fils lutmort ;and twelve in

Oue nt ldn im-lmortsh l lu blen- | N un- | tumiu

Tula ltroublesl lrep'it loette lbéte lmel-I lo.

b. But if a final 0mute comes to stand before an initialvowel of a following word, it is lost, the two vowelsforming together only one syllable .

Le d -[ chevn ulpuisunt

and seven inI l lan oe

vun fou dre

vi l

'

in I stunt ;and eight in

i t l‘

sn néovex pirav

i lu voix

and nine inUnw lemoo-lrg en-cc-lrov

mvhou- lro ;

and twelve in0h ! l 'es ltime publi quoh ello

yest var-les 601m!

and thirteen in

I l ut lpsumJ-lautt- [ legat ohs-lm lfl délah-lse.

c. Certain special rules will be given farther on .

284 . Rhyme is of two kinds, called respectively inas

culine and feminine.

a . Femin ine rhyme is that between words having a

mute syllable after those whose accordance makes the

Thus, feminine rhyme '

18 that betweenmut e and pure , contentsand recente. dis-je and fis—je. est—cc and messe. glorifle andfortifie, due and m. chin a-es and ambres. journées andamides. irritant and habitent. pa' ient and heat. and the like.

I) .Masculine rhyme is that between wordswhich end

with a fully pronounced syllable.

356 VERSI FI OATI ON .

c. The namesmasculine and femin ine are evidently given be

cause the two kinds of rhyme are such as subsist between the

masculine and the femin ine forms of adjectives respectively :

thus purmfir and pure mflre ; con tents recents and contentesrécentes.

285. I n French verse,masculine and feminine rhymesare required always to alternate.

Thismay be lin e by line, or couplet by couplet, or on e coupletwithin another- or yet otherwise, if more than twomade to rhyme together.

Bien ne pése tant qu‘un secret

Le porter loin est dificile anx femmesEt je saismememce fsit

Domnombro d’hommes qui sont femmes. (La F. )

Oui , je viens dens son temple adorer l’éternelJo viens, salon l

‘

nuge antique et solennsl,

Oélébrer avec vous la fameuse journée0h sur lemcnt sins la loi nous fut donnée. (Rae )

On parlors de sa gloire

80n le °

chaume bien longtemps ;L

'

humble toit, dans cinquan te am,

He connaitrs plus d’sutre histoire. (Bet

-anger.)

288. Rhymes, to be allowed,must have more

themere sound in common theremust also be a certain

correspondence of written form— ao far, especially , thatthe finals would carry on or link (84 etc. ) alike.

a . Thus,mar and put s are never allowed to rhyme , nor con

tent and recents. norbleuand peux , norai and net , and so on ;

norwould bane and quand or cuzap rhyme ; norplier an d £ 6 or

fiez. But words ending in the differen t sibilants, as our and

bleus. or fans and pm and ass. or crevés and doves,mayrhyme also 11 and t, as attend and autant orc and g . asbaneand rang ; also cases like passe and grace. honte and prompte .

meme and theme and aims, gents and temps, and so on .

b. The first singularof a verb is sometimesused in rhymewith

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238. The same diflerence of value is found,muchcombinations of uwith a following vowel ; and, quitethose of on .

Thus, ru-i-no. but plui-e ; xi ii-ag e. but i-gua -ne ; ouais. but

jou-ais ; and so on .

a . A 11 afterq org is in oral onlyan orthographic sign , andhas no separate value in llables. But in ar-gn-er it is

pronounced, andmakes a sy throughout, as in otherverbsin new. like re-inn-er, fin-er.

b.Many otherwise doubtful cases are settled by the use of thedimresis orof an accent.

210. Those pupilswho are to learn to scan the lines of Frenchversemay best be practised in dividing off the syllables two bytwo—in writing, in some suchmanner as is done above, in 288 ;and also in reading themwith the same division. I n 0 naryreading of French poetry, of course, no such artificial divisionshould bemade.

V OCABULAR I ES.

pgp; pronoun .Preli. reflex ive.

v. verb.Wormirregularly pronounced have ‘mfi x ed and reterence to the Bules of

A‘betoremfual h shows itwbe asphme tua-d ) .Muencesmmade in the samemanneras above tn themflsee pm) .

s prep . (am, 206) to , toward.

at, in ; of, for, with , etc.

(characterised by) ; about, inorreference to ; on , by ;

from(§ I dle)lbelouging to

(8 101 6) laud

abandonm. de iimeut, rcnuncistica . [i and bandoii, fr. G .

abattre 11. (XXdown . strike [a forL . ab,and battn .]

abbém. abbé (name and title of aof a certain

M m. aceess, arrival, attack

l tl abbnmbrq[L

absentw. ahmt.

absolumeutabsoln, L .Mums]

abuser 0.make wrongfusemof (doabuse

institutionof learuiiigOmico,

yfeai'nin and

its interests) . [L . , fr. Gr.

11 . overwhelm, crush .

[fr. OF. ca ble, engine ofwar. )acceptor o. a ,ccept submit or re

sign

lone

’

s self to. [L . acceptare.

3 60 FREN CH -EN GLI SH

admin on f. admiration . [L .

admiratimwn ladmirorvmdmire.

adouduomcntm.

grieve. vex . [L .

”liberate en tran

chise. [fr. franc. G . , free ]afi ontor v. stand in fromof.

face, meet, brave . [fr. t out .L . frontom, front.

ann ado. to end : do, for the

adj utarouonlm. (5 280 gran d. t

, on»

senor. [LLWar» , I t L

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3 62 mason -ENGLI SH

known . [L . cmmmtr’are]’antichrist (76a) m. antichrist. arm, weapon . [L .

arrived, arrival.fr. ad rs

'

pam, to

arrivéef. arrival.arsenalm. amenal.

rtifiaum'

uflwsafm. artisat

lz, workman. [ir.

“in‘

ss (‘l mace. [L . aa]

asilem. asylum, refuge. [L fr.

assassin .

assomhlée . assembly. [ir. assom~a

s.assem o. assemblecome together, assemble.n

’mul. together.]spree-midi orm. afternoon . sssccir o. (zrr. 78) sit down takearbre m. 1 8a) tree. [L . arbo s ocotz (L. adrm.)

force (from, a: g isle). [L . abradia n t]

arranger s. arrange : s

range itself, come out

[fr. rang, rank ]arrétcr e. arrest , bring to rset, stop ,

check stay, (qfa dog) point, set :s’

arrest one’

s self, stop,stay. [fr. roster. stay.]

arriorc ads. in the rear, backward.

behind : strik e, backward ,

back , intoo

i‘

he background. [L

VOCABULARY.

steady. [L . assccumrc. )Wt ado. assuredly,

M llariumfl).attacher v. attach , fasten , bind.

tie, join , fix : s'

self, be attached or fastened or

attonfion orregard orcousidera»

tion , considerate notice. [L .]attostor o. attest, bearwitness to[L . amn ion ]

attirer o. draw down , attract

one s self inour.

[i snd tiron, .draw]

attitude attitude. [L . ap titude“

.

Mm.

863

previously, beforehand .

lo), par, and au nt.)“fl

.

a orna worksholpwstudio [LL . anpres adv. near, at hand

of, iu the

soon as (ami) . [aussisoon .]

antant acts. asmuch ormany[L . aliud

ta ntam.

auto]m. tar. [L . altars]auteurm. author. [L .Micron ]’automnc (690 m. autumn . [L .]autoritéf. orit

g. [L .

saauteur ado. aroun roun bout

gs

ioaroumd

nd , about

51mm) .

au( tour turn .

antre pron . other (XXVI L 6, 7 aold.

3 64 FRENCH-ENGL I SH

in advance, beforef. an nua l

avancer 9 . advance, t forward ,

push on, prefer, ggnefit [fr.

avant.)avant prop . before, previous to

do (and): inf ), before ;que, before that, before (anti .1 37a) . [L . (1 6 onto]

avantagem. advan odds on

one’

s side, sumty. [fr.

day.

avec prep . with , along withd

’

avcc, fromwith, from.

d pmi lcoo.

avenirm. e to come, futm‘

e.

greediness.

opinion , waythinking. [L . mloieumJ

avisor o. advxse,bethink one

’

s self , be

one’

sbead. [fr. avia]avoir o. (i w. 80; p . 58) have : yavoir (XXX . there is, etc. :

on avoira, have to deal with ; asducal ,

sec XXV I I I . 6—7 ; for

gi

fiases. see the nouns used : of.

voir

I . 6.

ha[L . fume ]a m. w t one or

property. lint. ofavouerv. avow, acknowledge , con

fem. [LL . adoolarc,comm

, vow.]m. April. [L. upward ]

bagateile , trifle. [fr.

bathe, steep , drench .

bath, L. batucam.]

ba rbamj

edit]basso-conrf. nltry yard. [lit

'

lyloweryardS

o

bateanm. boat avapeur, steamboat, steamer ; i voilcs, sail

?oa

as

lailing vessel. [LL . ba tum.

r.

‘

batimentm. buildin éhatir 0. build. fr.Mutant ]mm 0. (x x to) beat, strilce :

so . . batucra ]beau, bel 7) a beautiful ,handsome, fine avcir bean

l'

l ), do or try in vain ,makeuseless efiort to . [L . bcllmra]

beaucoup ado. (V . 4 )much , a gooddeal, many ; verymuch, very.

[bean and coup, stroke ]

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366 ma cs-assume[fr Go]

bruit na noisa bustle ado . ru~

scorch. consume,

woolen smug,“but (764 ) m. tt. mark ; and

aim, purpose. [w e asbout .]

ca pron . (XXI V . 8 ; g 93 ) that,that thing (orpersonperson .

; [fr

tcela.)

cachor e. conceal,coactmn

, crowded together.]oadsaum. gift. present. [Ltcllum, chain let ]

cadrem. frame. framework , bor

ness, tranquilli , .serenity fr

LL. mamacalmer o. uiet, tranquillize. [ti

-elmcalms.

calmnier o. calumn iate , slander,

[LL . compa nion) ,1"cancer (79b) m.

crab]canon m.

dca

nnO

EE: pondro i .

gunpow or r. can e, cane .

keeper“

[it ga

lte

r. canton , can ton' cacntchcnc (Mg) m. caoutchouc ,

india rubber. [West I ndian

word]

m. captain. [LL . cap i

ashes, cinder. [L . cine

Gr.]

can-toref. career, race-course. [ir.

L . carrum, chariot ]carrossem. carriage. [fr.

comm]casm. case, hap , event : sn toutcu, in any case, at any rate; onor an cas que (ami; gin case that, mppodng. [Lcomm.

m o. break ; quash. [fr. L .

mama]

(they, these, those) : so qui or

que, that which,what ;

'

iceqnc,until, till. [fr. L . (we

[coand ui.]cede, give up : is

sMWt" [L '

VOCABULARY.

cesium]

[ir. certain ]ode. certain ly, assuredly.

[L . eerie ]cessere. cease, refrain from, stop .

[L . comm]cet, sec cc.

chaonn pron . (5 109) web one,

one. [L . quomquo

[L . cathodrom. fr. Gr.] I

'm]chalsnrf. warmth . heat. [L . calo.

chambrof. chamber, roomfemmedo ohambrs, lady’

s maid. [L .

comeram( Sci ]champm. snr

the spot, at once, directly. [L .

campum]chanosler o. (XXI .

changer 0. change, alter : changerdo (5my ), make a change in

gigsgard to

jshift, change . [L .

chanson f. song. ditty. [L . can

i][L . cantor-a][fr. chantor.]

hat. [fr. OF. chaps,.

gbap [L . cap ita

ohevolnre f.

pillochovsn

[fr.

chases f. chase, hunt, sport. [fr.

ohassor. )chassor o. chase, hunt

[fr.

Load of hair, hair.

bolster,w. fr. oL

of. )hairmaxi ]

my pl. [L .

chss prcp . at or to the housoof,

6 ieee. [w illfor, railroad , waycamiaum, fr. Celticfl

y.

chominée f. chimne , fireplace ;chimne -

piece.

’chenil ( )m. kennel .

§ [Maidencher adj . (V I I I . be ; dear.costly, precious, loved , valued.

[L . comm. )chercher 0. seek , look for. try tofind : aller chercher, go for,fetch . [L . circarc. run about.

choromont adc dearlyy, at mucost. at a high price . [fr.

chor.]chorir o. cherish , treatwith affec

3 68 mmon—ssemsnlives, with , among.

the house ]

choisir

choisi , select. [ir. 0. Ichose f. thing, object, matter, ai’fair: quelque chose, something

chose, everything antro

chose, some or any thing else .

L . column ](wan /z. Christ. [Gr.]

’oh

iut 7eu) zumj . hush . [imitat VB .

oi ado. (XI I I . 8, XXIV : 91 )here . L .m ale.

I 6 ; gaca ) caven , sky,

clime ; canopy, awning ; H eavo

cu. [L . co lum.

ci-inclu ci-joint, bcd .

'oinq (

1720) mm. five. [L . gain .

que.

cinqniéme num. fifth [ir.

ciroonrtanoef circumstanlce

i

MEL ]

oitadollef citadel.citoyenm. citizen . [

f

.

xfi

nite, city .

“civil (68d)my. civil. [L . civilcm.

clauiquo adj. classic, classical.

L . allusionm(Bl ct)f. [L . clam .

claw v. nail , vet, fix . [ir.

nail, L . autumn]’clnhw'm)m. club. [English‘uother 171 . heart ; courage , reso n

tion : a omnr ouvsrt, with(h

o

gan

heart, open] , franklyom,w1 th a l one s heart

d

hcart

ily, sincerely. [L . am]calmcollar. [L . column , nech

igooleref choler, angerger, ,ragc wra

L cholaram, fr Git]co 0m. colleague. [Lmmm}colonicf colon . [L .]combatm. corn t, struggle, fight

[ir. combattre.

combattro n. X . 3 6) 00tfight ; fight orstrugglecontendwith . [con and

omhien adv howmuch ormany

commutcre.

commiuionnairommessenger, ermadman , porter. [ir. commit .

l ion, errand.]

o, give in charge to givecommand or order toto, direct[L . commendav'ej

commado. ronj as, just as, like ;in character of, as being. [L .

quomodocommence: v. commence, begin .

[L . cum-miners }comment adv how? howl how

”Wham:compagnc, compan ion .]

comparable adj . comparable, admitti ng comparison , oommensnrahle. [L camper/ta lcum]

complct adj . complete , entire. [Lmm bum]

being included , wi th inclusionof (3 58m [L . comm e ]“compte la) m. account, corn

comptor]

“compte: (Vi ew. compute. count.reckon . [L . commun e ]

computer 0 compute.

comtcm. count earl. "hmcomm”f. countess. [fr comte.

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3 70

cosmolmmck

Mil»

toot—Map,all at once ; i ooup

a certainty, withd’e il, glance, sud

den look ; and compare beaucolaphm, fr. Gr.]culpable, guilty. [L .

ca

couple (§ l §a couple,

cont court ; oourty[L .Men ]

couragem. courage. [fr. coun]courent m. current, stream: an

courant, abreast of the stream,

not behindhand, up with thetimes, well posted. [pplo ofcourir.]

courir c. (irr. 52) run ; be curren t,circulate ; run after, hunt

[L . nurture]courcnncj . crown .

courum. course, run , ven t : donnot

FEEN ( 111 -EN GL I SH

ccutccum.m in

more. tremble. )craintcf. fear, terror dread : dccraintc

%uc, for fear that or lest

[fr. crt in

vomunanr. 3 71

[L . cache deccpm [L . wep

déolamc.

[Russians] and ccuvrir.

dcdanc within. [do and

com

fault,to. [L . blemish dc, in

default of, in the absence of,failing. [fr. dih illir, he wan tmore , ing.]

déicndrc o

[L . dqfcnscram. )

“deficit (760)m. deficit.

a bout ads on end, in uprightstand not

[do an bout,end. )

décédcrc. decease, depart this life.

[L .Wooden . )déccmh cm. December. [L . )

872 FREN CH-EN GLI SH

sion , ven tion , mortification .

and born, without. )already [doc and jfi [pple of dé

j am. now.]déjcmormbreakfast. [LL .Mo 56 ; coo) last,

“inflow. relieve oi b

65101.

licatcucf. delicacy. [fl t,delicate , L . dcdchca tum. )m

df. 1 50) deligh

1t0

; pl

light, ar

JD dclict

'Md

was“

?deluge. 0011 [Lmum

comuda 0. ask , requem(of, i t[L .Manama ]

domain adv. tomorrow: spree-dc

emems?h

as.

learned, sc'

iolist. [L . dimidiuv

ir

‘

z

u]demolir c. dem ,olish unbuild fall . [L .mn

l’mJto pieces. [L . dcmolt'r

qldesertmdesert. L. m . )

demon“a

t .

gen

ion j evil e spirit. den t-tearm. deserter. [ir. diur

r

dontf

depart”

haste, hasten . [LL. dlwaf d,

dis-linm. pl. i§ 9

14 ) expense, cost.

depu

is“, pay out, [doc (

1L. die) and habits“, habit.

cum. li ttle

“pit m. ite , vexation. [L . de- déocrdrcmwdisorder tumult fiuMm

astray, bewilder, baifie. [ta-(ndie) and route, track .)

dam-rib“ prep . behind. [ir. L . dc

retro. )di prep . fromstarting from, be

ginning)with, since : es. que,

rom e time that, as soon as

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3 74 names -mousedivin atb

'

. divine. [L.Mama . )division f. division , corps (of anarmoy) . M mJ

“dix ( 1b, a) mun . ten . [L . de

com. )’ dix-huit (81b) 1mm. eighteen .

num. eigh

doctorem. )

servan t. [L . doma1 a) 0. subdue. [L .

don or 0. donate , give, bestow.

[L . d0W6 .]dont ado. pron . (XXV I . 7 ; 102)

whom,whose. [L .

48) sleep . [L . dor

cur : lo cu éohéant, the case

[L . du

plum.]donoomcnt ado. sweetly, softly,mildly. [ir. doux .

dooillcttcmcnt ado. tly,

douillet, fr. L . de em. )pain, grief. [L . data.

doctor 0. doubt, question (about,do) : suspect.

a) sweet,pleasantmlf. doloam.

domino f. ozen ,tw ve or so

t§ [ir. donsolocculcro. a

' flowor awaydonu n am. twelve. . duodcoim. run by, elapse. [c a ) anddonaiimcnum. twelfth. [fr. donne ocular.)

VOCABULARY.

Goontu d listen tmhear. [L . aac

écricr c.

author. [fr.

LL . coriba num. )Geronlcr o. crumble, fall in

coro

in

fact, indeed, really, to be sm'

e.

ia. cfcctum. )m. eflort. [ir. cl orcar, fr.

cmparc c. possess

self, take possession , seize,

parars,

cmpircm.

[L . coolan'

am,

the throat of,

électeurol fa cntm. element.

875

or awaaway w th

passion ; emporté, passionate,violen t ; l

'omportcr, carry it o

get thebetter][cn (L .mdc) 3nd

porter, carrycmpriaonncmcntm. imprisonment.[ir. am am, fr. on prison , in

“

53g?"

[fr. L .ifmw “

tad;en ado pron . ( . 6-8 5 85

thence, away ; of it.

of them, ofhimorher ;respect to or

mabout it or them;

some orany (XXI I I . onc or

ones.

un prop.

to. into i inl

t

‘

he WW

3 76 omen -snow s

196) ; in char~

[on anddurcir, fr. dur, hard. )

[L .

f

arm infant.-

aw e].v

3

[on and Earn er, fit, L ,We.

cufin cdv. in fine, at thc cnd, at

last, .finally [cn and fim]cnfionccr c. sink , p unldrive in . [ir. on

pandgefond (L.

fondant) . bottom.

cnfuir v. ( irr. 4 7) c‘l

, fice , runaway, take flight. [on adv. andmirwfiee ]

ennemimcnncmicf. enemy.

mumcum.

‘onnoblir (58a) 0. ennoble , raise torank . fr. . and

mnobe.]’ennui ash)

”mennui wearinem.

[ir. L .

ennuyer e. was, bc weal

-led or

rybored or

thud. [fr. ennui .)

stand : a’

about, he a judge of. [L . in

m. enthusiasm. [L .

entire, whole, com

time, in company arunion . [L .

in timid . )

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vooaamar. 379

1 8) farm

be obliged ,must, have to ; be iron

idem

is li'

lwaltin

kiu’g“if:at, ere tt e c

fallow, deceive. )famed : w. famous. [L . famomm. )tan nin

}. familyfamine. fr observe as holi

tantouom. tom,festival or holi

autuamo.

“fun (8 ) m. fawn , whelp .

L .mfatom. ). .fiour

p

farinam.

“fat.

8a ) m. , ;dude

“god”

.

foppish.

p

[L . fatoum, fcuiogc filleaf, sheet. [L . folio,

vesWists! [L . fatalem. ) fivricrm.

fatiguef fatigue, wearincss. [ir.

futizw olmigufatigue”: e, tire, weary :

he tired or weary. [L . self to , trust

fatigm)fautc f. lack , deficiency, faultfauta do, for lack of, in default

[ir. faillir.)favour j '

. favor . on favour do, infavor of, on behalf or accoun t

believe. [L .

'mnmc (28a ) f.

dc chambre,see chambre. [L .

ferrum. )forms firm, strong. [L . fir.

mum.

farmsf farm. [ir. former)fcrmcntcr o. fermen t wor [L

fermentanformer a.make fast, shut it close.

[L .,flnmmt

,make firm.

i In fin , in theend , at length

end , to all eterniword. [L .

dflrwm.

fin adj . fine, elicate , elegant. [L .

finitum, fin ished ]finance f. finance. [fr. fin, and

fina l e f. fineness, art,

cc, finesse. j .]fin ir a. fin ish , bring to an

fin ir,make a finish or close (§Nib). g

.fim'

raJfix er v. determine. [fr. fit s,L. fiamm, fix ed. )

fixement ado. fix edly, steadily.

[fr. fin ,fix ed ]fiammf. flame . [L.]

380 mason -asom

cial.

l[ir. function ,mm.

fondm. bottom, depth, base . [L .

fondant .tender e. an d , base

[L . fundarejfondro v.melt, dissolve. [L . fun

foroe. strength, might,power : 3 three do, by dint or

of. [L . j urtao, strong ]form0. force, compel. lfr. force]tom-faitm. misdeed . [fr. forfaire

,

L . fm'is

ffame .misdo.]

former a. orm, shape, make, con

stitute. [L . forman jfort stro

c

r

li

l

gH—ade strongly

y,mn verym. forumad

forming]. fortune lot in life, fate ;wa lth. [L. fortunam. l

vibrate, thrill. [n

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vooasmar. 383

horreur . horror. [L .]‘hm M out. out

[L . side : hmdq ontside of. out of.

time, early ; 1 la bonne

in good time, very well ,well done : tout 3 Hum, at

thismoment, immediately, just [7]now, present‘

lgo.

L . harem. ) humeurf humor. [L . hammeria]

henn a-mat ppily, lmik ' hymen tud)m. hymen .

ily. [ir. hem-en ] hypocritem. hypocriteheures: ad . happpy, fortunate,lucky. fr. hour, L . augum’um,

a

t“:

‘hidenxm. hideous, horridl {L

hop-80mm, prickly.y.

lhier (784 ) ado. amt

hier, daybefore ay. [L .

hart. )histoire f. history ; story. [L .

helm-mm] (malarialwin ter. [L . kiber eness.

aum‘hollandail Dutch ,

e'

imlandish , of olland. [ir. Hol fancy. [L .

h ula]hommem.man : Gtre home i , be

incident

mason -mouse

L . inter-ma ]inter-Gt m. interest. concern . [L .

intera tjinter-romp e. (XX ah) interrupt,break in upon [L . inter-rom

ignominy.

of old, in old

[L . jamdin .

L . zeIomm.

107 ) never,not ever ; ever [L .

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voosnnmr. 887

malheurm. unhappiness, minimtune . [fr. L .malamaugurt'umJ

or into into the

[L . ma nom]1 1 8)many a,many.

adv. now,at present.

tenir, keep

Moon, in the house. at home.

[L . mustblmn jmaimm. master, owner. ruler,

WMJmaltreeee j . mistress, owner, di land. )marehand m. dealer, retail mer[fr. L .mar.

maman fimamma.

sleeve.

manchettemanga n eat. mouduouro,chew.]manibe fflmanner, way,Win such a wa

so ; de . . quethat. .ifr L .ma n na,fiend}?mantis-ter n.manifest, show. [L .]mana nvrem. f. 1 5a )workmanmanmuvre. r. L . mam: ope.

raw-i,Wort?e

th

fitl

l

i

lghang

.

manqnero. wan or

(in ,

k

“)failbe lacking or absent,

ve way la ve intho

klurch , f

.

miss (gimf[fr. L .manous defective ]mantean m. mantel, clock . [L .

mutation ]manual, with the

i . boa marohé, in a favorablemarket, cheaply. cheap. [L .

meroatomjmmheflmarch , walk : enmarehe,on themarch , in motion . [fr.

u n born]marcher o.march , walk , advance,

sewn N ew [7]

388 FRENCH-ENGLI SH

[L .malodiooro]mann i adj . bad, evil, wicked,naughty, wrong.

mepron .me, tome.

moohanoeté f. wickchief , malicious act. [fr

wicked, bad, evil,

rue-choir, L. minus oadm, turnout ill.]méeonnaitre 9 . (hr . 1 8)misunder~

1 1 4 ) self, self

very ; madn even z de méme,in the same manner, sti the

menuadj .minute -ae nounmatter, detail : aalle doe

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890 amen -muss

moyeum. way, means. [L .

diorama ]moyenner to.mediate, aboutmoyennant, bymeanso in consideration of. [ir.moyeu]magi: 0. low, bellow. [L .montre.]mnraille f. wall. [L mambo]murmurero.murmur. [L .]

be refractory. fr.

L .moms,moved.

secret, se

crecy.

numerous. [L .

m. navel. [fr. L .

nommer v. name, call ormentionby name. nomina te ]mada t§ l

vooumu av . 381

[L . eb

m. onion . [L .

or eflect : nulls part no

where. [L . a nthem]nnilement cute. in no wise, not atall. [fr.

nnmérom.mm (in a numbered

obéirc. be obedient (to , a: a1m) ,obey.

objet m. article, 4 ; 108) one ,

people, they. hem

, L.

minors ]one, onqnea

O

ado. (5 lO‘

Io) ever. [L .

unquam.]force ; onclem. uncle. [L . aounoulum.)

dark.

opposero. oppose. [fr. L . ow ]

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voou ou nr. 885

plia 0. fold . bend.

drama,fr. ptumbum,

on foot. [L

[L . patrons, fr

[L-lsorry. pitiful [L

ofiend. fr. (with as: 1 87-8) no longer, no

1 further, ac more ; plus,worse. [L . moreover, besides, further. [L .

kettn ]

POO

Gr.1poesy, poetry. [L . , fr.

weep over,

weep .

71 ) rain . [L .

3 96 Passes-snows

tuna]pear . fw, on account of, forthe of, in fnvor of ; in or~

der to , to ; “ Q uech uam3§ lfl dh in ordcr that [L .

pro.

penn ant Loo. for all that, yet,still , neverthelm. [pm and

75, p. 1 1 9) be able,

[L . procain e]

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398 Pass es -womenqualifier s. qualify, entitle, term(as. 40: [LL 9M“?flours}qualité quality. [L .]

quand ado. can} . when ; if sup.

posing that. [L . quandojquant pron . howmuch ormanyquant a. as for, as regards, inrespect to. [L . quantum]

quarantaine f. two score,forty.

quarante sum. forty. [L . quadmginlaJquart num. fourth 88) asnoun ,

quer

ier, fourth part. [L. quor

tum.

qnatorae new. fourteen . [L . qua~

N arcissism]quatre nom. four.

[L . quantum]

(lustre-vingt! mam. twentim1

eighty. [quatremi

tn ]que prom: interrog.

what, which rdat.which , that, whom

quoi que (ti whatever : dowherewith

, the meansV I . 8 0 id ]

quelque oom’ . 1 a 8 1monl [L M 1

5 although . [quoiu qunm.

quoigran . (XII I . 4 ) what, what a,which

End que 104 ) what 30)

over. M . as back . [t o and

[fr.W, tr.m1 remuer 0. recover,mp h . [L.moat m. stew. regent. WWWALMW] remuer !) p.

or drawor throwrahon f. reason , sense ; motive hack z lo hack ,

L . rc

fr. jme, oung.

0[

bringyback. doubt]

“Jr-Gaul“ [L . ro

d, sw1ft, fleet. dame ]80) recall,

[c211 reurmv cloee or shut again re~

hack .

v

[ro and appoler.] [ro and furnmz]rapper

-termbrtng or carry back , rofi ohir o reflect meditate. [L .

refer: l’

.on . 3 , refer one'

s

130“ the

of. [0

a y t re age .Wmmmotion [L ]“up”? )m. rape. [L .raptum] ran-oldlrowcool down hecome leesrare atb

’

. rare, unusual, uncow warm, chill or slacken . [fr.

mon . [L .mmmJ Mt coldjrea r0. shave. [L .mum] m. look , glance. notice.M or e.Mate, aafifiy surfeit. fru regarder][fr. ad oatmn , f

'

r. notin,Wowlook look to sce ; look

60008113 regard ; have regard

entrance

400 m essa ge

a ngina].

mutant]moontrer 9 . meet, fall in wittl

lt.

th

eir“ 0. (with i : g 1 61b) resist:

M22" 0. (irr. 88) resolve. [L .

and non

ren t, income. [L . reddi

back in .

la low,

knock or throw down . fr. L .

invermjmm o. (irr. 81 ) send back

[fr. L . re se-pan:

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VOCABULARY.

61g22min,

”

[L . smm'o

sumirds, serveone’

s

m a

r

itakw sese ct, employ.

servitude, slavery.

m. sill, threshold. [L .

lsole, alone, only, single .

solely, sim

l i adv. so, as :

quel iéolom. age, century.

lam]sitting ; siege. [fr.

pr .on l ) bis, hers,

sionrm. master. Mr. [L . oem

lent.whe

n]m. furrow. [fr. d lEEJfr

sillmor s. furrow. groove, wrinth emes .

“fiahm8

3:11pm. ) [L .Wm]Mas?”sin[L '

y. [fr.

sonnet s.

mrtem.]cortofi sort, kind, specia : do ll .

Hleir or prendre soin, take care .

eoirm. evening ,latter part of the

day. [L . serum, late ]eoit wnj . whether, os' : be it : be ltso. [subj . pres. 8d sing. of6tre.]

“soin ntaine (810) f. three-score ,

some [ir. eeix ente

feoiu nte lo) 1mm. six ty.

mgt'

nm.soldatm. so dier. [LL . aolda lum,

ca lm, fr. sol, sun . )

“solennel (26a adj . solemn . [frL . eolemm'

s.

isolitaire arti. solsolitude f. solitnd

‘lzsl

:y [I]

. 1 ) his,its. [L . swun

geonm. sound . comm]m. dream, revery. [L .

eomntumJe. dream, muse , meditate ,

ink (of, i g [fr.

ring, ring for. [L .

sonorous, cleareound

folly. Billy

ceed to , follow.

H2:

rnweemsuccess.

,help . unweemn'm.mm

[L . ms.

soup [ir. G.]

If soup-dish, tureen . tout de suite, at

91: sigh ,

[L seo

géo

son at . suspin’

um. (irr.

'sourcil (600) m. eyebrow. [L eeqcuseparati sm] eajet liable

eonrd adj low-toned obscure in aulyectsound , dull ; deaf . [L surdumm]mmbn dz-e ((

in .

118) s

imile. [Lla

sent irem. smfl‘

eg in

Lzyeourire]th below.

the :

position , assume. [ir. L .

some]

about, near to : on accounton thestrength of : w ie che

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406 FR ENCH -ENGLI SH

[L . mum.

timide . ,timid fesw

tim v. raw, pull , deriveqzbucharge shoot cd'

, shoot :

la langue, we langne. [fr. G . ,

Eng. teat ]toi prora thee, to thee.

lL. tc.]

tn le f . cloth : canvas, pic.

ton hof. fr. Gr.

tomber o G . ( 7) line .

tome m. [L . , tr.

Gr. )ton m. tone. [L . , fr. Gr.]ton , ta, teepron. thy. [L . te am]tanner e.W8 . thunder. [L .

Munro]torpeurfi torpor. [L.

torrentm. tzorrent

tort m harm(XI I I . 6a ). in the

wronglortmn

to

fine

lnx adj. tortuous, involved.

ra

is

in . soon . [L . tortum, burnt

7)teacher s. touch , be in contact

be close u

emotion ,

or in contact withwith. [l]

tandemode. always, alleven now,

still, yet , all the same.

[fr. tone jonre, all days.

tourm. turn . [ir. tourner.]tourner o. turn . [L . tomars.

Touuaint f. All Sain ts’

day.

toutl(£mu7u) pron . (XI V . 8b:

in},whole : every

9

g, every y, thewhole : as

1 1 6c) wholly, entirely,

quite , altogether : toute chose,sw ing : tone deux or tone

(XXV I I . 7o) , both

adv. tran

. tranqnille. )

)m. transit.IL

travail 21 10 971 . woe, 1mil, travail. [fr. L h nbem

[ir. travail]traversm. oddit ,

whim,

ecce ntrici travers, scrum,

athwart, [L .Wameermm,

md, dull, dreary. [L .

ceive one’

s self , be mistaken ,make amistake. [l]m. trompeueef. ( 1 6) devet ; as adj . dccci l, mis

leadling, ueacherous. [fr. trom

P0?

treuem. thn os. [L . , fr. Ga]trop ade . too,mo

o

much , in excess,

beyondWhat is called for :trop, superfluous, not wanted .

tatcd or con

fused, falter. . .turbularetr band. [LL . trap

00“;nflndwbe, regard as

figs

done

’

sself chance to be, be. [L .

(urba ne,

valeur f. value : valor,

vafij‘

. valise, portmanteau. [fr.

t.

valoir o. (irr. 73 ) be worth, havethe value of ; have as muchvalue as, be equal to ; befor, win , procure : valoirbeworthmore, be betterorpref

FRENCH-ENOLI SB

ly. [L .]verre m. glam,

drinking-glam,

tumbler. [L . oitrumjvere p toward about.a rm.

7

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mournms N AMESm om I N

t ah (60a ,Mb)m. Ahab (wickedkingof Israel: 1 x x i.

t ille (W) m. A les (chiefGreek here before Troy).

Aehilie Dem-la, a French artist.Afriquef. Africa.

’Aix (en Provence) (Olb f. Aix

(town in southeastern cc) .Alex andre m. Alexander (king of

Allemagnefl German .

Alpeef. Alps (moon of Switzerland).

Amame f. Amazon (femalewarrior) .

f. Andalusia (provinceofsouthern Spain ).

Augleterref. England.

Annef. Anne (queen of England) .Aragon (province of

Ardaeire f. character in Montesquieu

’

s Amace ct Isménie .

”

Asia.

empeAntriebed’Antnn

, name of a French gentle

.

M. Auvray (c

haracter ina story

‘l’

oncic et le gnstus) : name ofotherpereons.

Ch ar-ins f. Ccutine (woman ’

s

de Balzac,m. Balzac (French nov nnine).clist) . chn-lee at. Charles : Charles-Quint,

sis) .l ei-nerdm. Bemard (character inSandeau

’

s Mlle. de la Seichinef. China

Beeeenniire f. the Bemonniére Cireé f. Cimemymph and

(name of a farmin the story

reopen muss. 41 1

of theClaire Clara (character in

About’

s story la Fille da

(French town and palace. southtown near

cone .

Poncho, Fouché (at one timeminMarat).

Cuisines, Croisilles (name of therincipal character in a story of XI V . )eMusset) .

Danemarkm. Denmark .

Danton , Dan ton (noted character

in the French Revolution ).Danubem. Danube.

Dauphin f. Daugl

éi‘ness (title of

thewife of the phin . orheirto the throne ofFrance).

poleon’

smarshals) .Dorantem. Dorante (character insi

x-layofMarivaux , le Jen de

1’

our ct da Hasard

Dupont, Dupont (FrenchEdouard m. Edwardm. , ofmagmaign itef. gg

t. do (irignan, count, son-in olaw oiElisabeth lizabeth (queen of Madame de é.

Englau Guillaume m.Wil WilliamElise f. (character in Eu I I I . (WilliamandMary). kingcine

’

s ofEn land.

Ergeste

)

m. Ergasles (fabricated Gustave aaa. GustavusV ase (hename

f. S n . (inven torucheas, favorite of

I . ofFrance.

Etnam. Etna (volcano in Sicily).Europef. Europe .

Eylaum. Eylau (scene of one ofN apoleon sbattles) .

Pallet, name of a family in GearSand

'

s story la petite a

dette .

”

radotte f. name of a girl, theheroine of the story justmen

king of Prumia .

Genivef. Geneva.

George (character inPonsard’

s pla“ I

'

Honneur et

1 Argent rge, husband of

Queen Anne.

Germain, character in GeorgeSand

'

8 laMamuDiable.

le Havre (V I . bf ), Havre (city ofFrance).

de

Helene characterelmin

msy t

i

gre

n mande war

destruction of thew.

Henri m. Ha iry ; H lo-Grand,Henry the Great (orHenri IV ”king ofFrance .

Henriett H , Harriet.

41 a mon omer or

in

Corneille’

s play of that name) .Humhlot

,lme.,

character inAbout s story

“l'

AlbumduRegimen t.”mam I lium(other name of l adrid m. Madrid (capital oi

Y )I ndaeaflpl. the I ndies,I talief. I taly.

Jacob (We ) at . Jacob (ancestoroi‘James I I . .

Rousseau.

Jeannef. Jane , Jorm. Joanna .

“Jerusalem(Maj . Jerusalem.

of Ahab

Julie Julia.

heroine of a novelof usseau.

“Kremlin (Mm. Kremlin (palacedo Lafayette, l ine , authoress andleader of society in Paris (1 7th

French

Landrym. a characm' in G Band’

s

story“la petite Fadette.

Laurence, name.

lo Oouvreur, I lls celebratedFrench actress.

Legrantl, name of a certain armycorps, fromitson er.

Limesf. abbrce’

n of(name a character inofMarivaux ).

Londream. Londcn.

Lonisef. Louisa.

Maleaherbea, French advocate,onceministerof LouisXV I .

Marat, Marat (ferocious Frenchrevolutionist).Marohal , a character in About

'

s

story“ la Fille da Ghancine.

"

3 3

1

1

35f;Mary,Maria (MaryStuart,

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Ammun An a rrm : re ncun . asthma-enslave. trauma-swan .

a. an . on . orm.

abandon , abandonner.

above, dsssus ads , aud euns

prep .

sent ors’

absenter

absolutely, absolumeut.abuse 0. abuserdo (5 1 62f) .accept, aooepter.

‘haut.

e ra :a

acquaint : be acquainted with , also, aussi .oonnaitre. although , quelque (XXXI V . la ) ,

acquire, acquérir ( irr. bien que, snows que (5 1 s7o).across )n ep . a travers. i h it,

active, aotif.addict one

’

s self, s' .adonner America . Ameriquef.

address 0. adresser: addrmone’

s amiable , aimable.

self. s’adresser. among, parmi (XXV I “L ent“adieu. adieum. fromamong, d

’entre.

amount, an intin

advise, oonseiller.

affair, sh iref.

afraid : be afraid , avoir pourorainte (XI I L

Africa, Afriquef. angry,

after that (eonj .

oonvenir ( irr.

v. alder.

de air, airm.

all . tout (XIV . 6 ; g at all.mat ; afterall , apres tout .

allow, permettre (maalmost,mosque. iMPP“aloft, en haut .

ancient, anoien .

ancien tly, ancienmsrnsnt.and , et .

angry,Wat,count of, do) : be orgetse fi sher.

animal, animalm.

annexed, oi-joint (5 66a) .

VOOABULAB Y .

l’

un l’

autrs, les

(XXV I I . se

anx ious uist.any, ds test art. ( IV 86,

anonn

appear, parai‘

tre (irr.

apple, pomme].

application , application

appointed,convene , di t.

approach, (imam) s'

e or de,se rapprocher de rear), (balm)

arr

gav

f,swim(with stre,XXV I I I .

art, art no.

artist, artistem.

que : asmuch ormany,

autant ; asmuch ormany as

as owj . comme, ainsi que, de

)rmit »

avoir

honte (XI I I .

ask, ask1010

aspect : ve theaspect, avoir

(5aspire, saw-er.

for,

41 5

astronomy, astrononrief.

at, a ; on, dam; (is :

par : at all,dn tout : not at ali, ne .

do ; at.the house of, at some one

’

s,

auburn, bran .

August,“sont ( 1 4)m.

aunt, tantef.

Austria , Autriohsf.

avoid, éviter.

await, s'

attendre a.

back bring back ,we bring, etc.

bad ,mauvais bad weather,man»

vais temps.

nu-pisds,

ill-will.will~will.

bareheaded , with

basket panierm.

battle,bataillef.

be, etre u’

rr. be (in re

beu t to weat r

, fairs

(ma y be all over, en

Otre falt ; be ofl with one’

s self,s’en aller ; be batter, se porter

be to,

4 1 6 enemas-realms

bed,litm. : go tc hed , se ooueher,

bedroom, ehamm-e i oenohsr f.

to) avant,

se mettre (r'rr.

behave , asconduire (irr.behind , derriers.

boy gar-eonm.

brave, brave (V I I I . be) .(to, i I I I .

3b). (the arm.

beneath prep . sous, arr-«lessons deadv. (lessons.

besides prep . outre ; conj . d’ail

bettermy. meilleur ; adobe better (in health) . se portermieux , se remettre (rrr. (be

love

ter, trouver meilleur ; get the

better, l’emporter.

between prep . entre.

beware e. prendra garde

(of seMar

beyond prep . outre, par-dea ns, audsli do.

brother, t h em.

brothfl -ia-law,bean-trio'sm.

brown , bran .

i)rq 70. brossef.

Brussels ‘Brux elles (01 0) f.

build, bier.

burn,brnlsr (with , ris) .

busyone’

sself, s’ooonpsr (with , do)

but eonj . mais prep .

but li ttle (with a ), nebutter, home on .

buy, acheter (XXI . 3b) .by (XXV I I I . (5 do

61c, rese) , u 87a, 101 d) : hymeans of.mayonnant ; by din tof, aforce do.

cake, gi tsaum.

call a. appelea'

(XXI . So) ; canback , rappelc .

campaign , oampagnecm, pouvoir (hmcannot, as poo (in . 1 19

grea t), nosauraisfetc.

7b).

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41 8 meme -3mm

coet o. com.

coun t 0. ccmptermpon ,m).

court emf.

cousin, cand nmcousins].

covern . (place at tablelconvm

credit n : credit one wiih ,

(quelque chm) icrime, crimem.

cruel, cruel.

cry v. cry out , c’écricr.

cuff 70. MM ].

cunning, an.

cup , tun f.

curious, curioux .

curse o.mndiro (irr.

dancer, chumm. , dmnmf.

dare , our.

dash n . intrémditéf.

dkfix vm. of?

82;

difference.

0

f

difficulty, dificnltém“m imeager-room. cellomag). f ‘5

dinner; dinerm.

dint : by din t of, 3 tomdo.

directly, our 10ohm.

disappear, dammit“ (in .

discomfit, déccnnrc (in .

(with , do) .dim-um, cc déflcrdo.

do, h ire (irr. p . 150) doWithin]!

VOCABULARY.

dom, dcmincf.

drew, train (in . draw near,chmcchcr (to, do : IW).

dress0. c'hcbmu.

dress ft .min f.

dressmaker, oontnriérof.

drink, boirc (in .

drive 03 or am chumdry 005. n o

dry 0. “char.

due, dfi (XXV I .dull, (tedious) ennnyou , (stand)

41 9

dwell.m . enter, entrcr (with Gtrc XXV I I I .

early, de bonnc heure : so early, do

at bonne heure ; quite early, dobien (or tric) bonne heure .

earth, teftef.

the East,outm.

Ola)m.

t,

’

seammw t

cesay, coccim.

esteem, “timer.

eternally, étex‘ncllement.

E tna, Etnam.

Europe.Em i t

eve, volllef.

even ,meme (5 1 1 4g) , (noting) ia-qn ’

a <5won ). (wa nd 1900 ) tout .

evening, soir,”use : in the even

ing, de lcir.

every, cheque, tout (XI V . 6b; (5109 ) every one. checun every

lo mondc ; every

m msmwu x cn

ex ercise 13 . en codes an thin em.

exhibition , erpoeidcn f.

ex perience, ex perience f.

express, emin " ; express oue’

s

thoughts, a’

ex primer.

ex traordinary, ex traordinaireex tremely, ex trem e

eye,milm. (pl. you 80a)

fain t, a'

évancuir.

fall, timber (with i tre6 a), déchoir 70) fall short,

(with inf ) flower, ilenrf.

loin do, (with o. ) loin que 1 87b) ; fold v. plier.

esfaras,mas ; en teras, see so. folks, gemtfarewell, adieum. follow, enivre

farm, tsrme f. foolish ,not , M

farmer, fermierm. ; farmer’swife,fermieref.

fashion : in that fashion , de cette

father, pi l em. 5 lm Godfault, fauteft, debutm. , erreurf. forbid, i Dieuac plaicefavor, favourf. force, forcef.

favorite . favori (WI .fear 0. mindre (irr. avoir

pour 4 3fear n . peurf , craintej Z: forof, do penr or crainte do ; for

orcrainte qne m.

good fortune ,

bonheurm

festival, fits].

fetch ,aller or venir chercher (5

quart o».few, pas (de : V . a few, quel fowl, pouh f.

ques (XIV . 6c) ; but few, pen ; frenc h-anon) .

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422 ensues-macs

he, 11 (00d), luihead , tote].

health , oantéf.

hear, en tendu,our (irr.

heart, courm.

heaven ,ciel (I I . 5) m.

heir, héritierm.

help o. alder ; help i i mol fi

her

gro

g. (XXI I ) E?(X ”QM.

,g.hers,ici

oion ( 1

hera ld -oimm. 8,

gyzy lwre or are, voici

l

herewith , oi-joint, oi-inoluo b8a )hero,

‘héroem.

hide one’

sself , as cachet .

l , con ,

history, histoirof.

hold , tonir ( irr.

Holland,‘Hollandof.

home at home, chermoi (etc ) , alamaison ; go home, aller a la

honest, honnete (V I I I . 6c) .honor it . honnonrm.

honora. honorer.

hope a. caperer, (wish) oonhaitor.

oopoirm. , eopéranoof .

horrible, horrible .

horse, chevalm.

horseback on horseback , i cheval

(5mi d) .hot , chaud.

hour, hourofi: half an hour, nne

den t-heure (XV I . i n ) .house,maiaon f. : si the bonac ci ,

how, cement (inter-mg Mat

hurry oJ o hi torhusband,marim.

I , ,mci.id , pareoooux .

if, oi (290;can ) .

“ (XXXI .

inclined,enclin .

inconsolable, inconoolah1o (for, do) .indeed ,

on be sure) lleat out

I ndia , lndeof. pl.

nniment .

aslow).

insist, eoigor.

instead of, aulioudo.

éillustrious, illnetre.

ill-will : bear ill-will to, on von

loir i .

imagine, imginor, a’imagiaer, n

vocu onaav . 423

instruct, inatrniro (irr. om,royanme on.

interest e. um ; interesting , ouioinof.

interrupt, interrompro (XX .M) . p . (be ac.

intimateadi. intime. ocnnattro (iv-r.

into, en , dano (VI . gem. inf. )introduce one

’

s self, o’introd 7a ) ; know to

be, savoir (XXXI V . 7a).

iron , form. ; ad) . ( z of iron ), dofor

,on for. fante do.

'

(XIOHO 1a ; as mlp’ . W2, 2 young

£311 I t

i

alief. lady,mademoiaello (XI5V .

a lien, lament, soM O (or?

its, oion (XXVI I . l ,

J J

50; g at

ames. ecquoom(deceased) fen

“rieommmtlatter, celui-oilaugh e. rire (irr.

h n . riremloi!

azy, parouonx .

lead 0. mener, conduire, (induce)a judge of,

learn , approndroan'

.

learnedWoavant.

Julius, .l m. leastwado lomoinuXXXI . 0) ; atJulY . j at. least, anmoino.

June, jalam. leave, (tram, abandon ) quittor,

gust adj . jute. (leavebehind) laisser ; (men , do.

ust ado : havs or had just (donevonaio do

justice, justicef.

keep ,“nit ( irr. the

kind adjmbon (to, pour) .kind n . mkindness, bonté

ff].

king, roi m.

silent, less,moino (XXXI V .

lesson ,

lest, quomfite 1 70a ).

let, laisser impv. (VI I I . 7c; 5letter, lettref.

424 enemas-macs

man , hommem.

life, viof in all my e, dema manner, manik o f. : in amannet5 1070

Egg n .

§(day ht) jonrm

e. aimer, vouloirarr. p .

like better, aimormloux .

literature, littoraturof.

littles little, un pon , nn pen de ; littleby little, pen apompotit a potit ;too httla trop pen de ; but little

sw o (XI I .

demeurer, (be alive)long live ! vive

in a livcly menner, matter n . afiairo

Mflondadj . ado.

‘haut.Louis, Louism. meanwhile, on attendant, oopon .

Louisa, Loni-of. dant.

love e . aimer ; beaimor mSIor i ordo.

love n . amonrmj . in love meet 0. (wane ) roneontror, (te tra)with , amouronx do. ooronocntror ; go tomeet, aller

low, bao ; i la renoontre oron-devant do.

Lyons, Lyonm.

m. ,montoaoomad, tou(V I I .

madam.madamo (XIV .

be) rendre.

a

i

or.

many, beaucoup do (V . bien do

(Marta V . maint (5manya,maint asmany,antant do ; howmany , comflemdo, que de (XXV . sommy,

tant de ; toomany, trop do.

map . carts.

march e.marcher.March, !marom. ( 74d) .MarcusAurelins, l arooAnrdlom.Maria, l arief.

marry,tmo. éponoor, somatist

hemar

(X1 1 1 .

militia 0. imporm(5

(tyfl

‘

Pmaybe, pent-oft”.

me,me,moi.meadow, proas .

mean 0. vouloirdire

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426 muss-renn et!

( ice

, no . .

w do (5W) ; notrien ; not ever, no

oraton cratonrm.

orderz in crder to,in order that,

m.

maintenant

nowhere, nulls part (520a).null adj .mil (5

out of, hcrodo, horo.

0mmobtain , obtonir (irr.

occasion , occasion

o’

clock , heuref.

oc

gpyone

’

s self, o'

occuper

of do (I I I . 1

0 : be ofl , o’cn allor (XXI X . 70)

aficer, oflciorm.

often , oonvent XXXI . 7).old, vioux ( (so many

) 586 60 ; too old

; be (so0) ; grow

on . our.

once, one fois ; at once, (immedi t, parent

atel ) tont do ouito, onr lo champ, Pal-ism.

(at s same time) 3 la fois. Parnassus, Parnaaoom.

XV . 2a) , (indefi) onone un (

(XXV I I . no one, 000 no ;

come one ,msome ; onc anoth

er, l’

nn Pantre (XXV I I . cc part a . partf. , partiof.

XlXOIX. onwéoiogagone pass e. poo-er.W“Mil“. 110883 80.m

onion ,

“cin ch (48a)m. passion . passionf.

Stre fait.owe, devoir (in . 124 ; 5ownmy. propre

owner, pooooocearm.

ox , boufm. (pl.’bonb ;

VOOABULAB ’

Y .

(07a)

a shy. out

take place,avoir lien .

on .

do, (iota )

5

be pleased to, oo

on tho point of

130k

427

, ,préoentm.

presentmadje at preseat i p

t

eoontmaintenant ; be present at,aooh ter a

presen t s.

present] , préoontement.pretendgd, ooimttflydofimut

princess, princoocof.

prison , pri-corn in or in to prison ,

probably, probablemsntproblem. problémom.

profession , profession fprofmor,mote-ouror.profit, prenter

O

do).mmwojomD t.

promise, promettre (in . 01 : to, i ) .

promptly,

'promptement (7 1 a) .

proper: indse nropemnocr

ishment, puniticn f.

pupil, (scholar) 613“put,mettre (in . put (fl , dif

428 oneness-season

(XV I 46)

quite , test (5 1 100), bien. ti

doferm. , restaurant, restaurantm.

(in .

"some ,

rash , téméraire.

read , lire (in .

reason n . raison f. (5 107a) .reason c. raisouner.

reeover, oorelever.

red, rouge.

redouble, redoublordo (5 10V ) .

run awa ,

se sauver ; run the riskn ee rielregra n . regrotm.

sailboat, batcausvcilosm.

remainder, rootsm. mloon , salonm.

remember, (recall to mind) so salvation , salutm.

rappeler, so souvenir

Saturday, samedi on .

say, dire (irr. p .

retire. so retirer.

return , rmnir (W.Gtrodo rotour

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solely, seulement.

801“mamso)some art. on

(XXI I I . quelque (éV . 00; modsfi; in the

5 quelquesuns (XXV I I .tel (5 some time , qtemps ; some one, y,

quelqu’un (XXV I I . some succmsor, successes: m.

men are, il y a deo gons qui sont such , tel such at, “ teleach such , tel.

something, quelque chose (XXV I I .

5 ; 5 something to .

with . doquoi . suffer, souflrirsufice, be sufficient, sumro

somewhere, quelque part (5son ,m. (000, 74d) as.soon, tot, bientot ; as soon as,

suppose, supposer, croire.

sure, snr.

suspect, so doctordo

adj vorain

8If v a)so sou sweet, oux (m .f

Spanish ,Espagnol, d

'

Bopagno

speak , parlor (with , d) . swim, nager.

spite : in spite of,mslgré. Switzerland , Buisssf.spouse.w oof.

spoon ,

“cuiller (my .

stand : stand still , o'

arrdter.

start, partir (m.

station , garof.

stay, roster.

steamboat, bateau i vapour mvapourm. (5 1 5a ).

stew a . ramm.

dsvan

tom. . hiotcirof.

tearmlarmsf.

tablo, tahlof.

able-cloth , noppof.

tailor, taillonrm.

take,mm (in .M) ,take hock ((along with

onexramoner ; take ofl or a

6m(from, i S Weplace, avoir lion ; take a walk,somanor ; mre, avoir

tale, oontom. , rédtm.

talent, talentm.

vooasmn . 43 1

(in . racontor”do-n ew ,montir (m.

(XV . 9

3 ,

(ran t ) qui, qno, leqnel (XXV Iauthat tout oo thatwhlch,ooqnl orqno 10a).

do ; at the same time, onm6mo

title titrom.

to , N I H . 4—8)61d) ;m.

,

fifi

dsma

thema thimom. mam a

.

after to

too, trop ; toomuch ormany, trapdo ; too llttle or few, crop

pen do.

toward,mo, onvoro : toward evenvoro lo coir ; (about, some~

thinewtion (XXV I I 1 2) w near) voro or anr loo (§Mom‘fi, omerthingfl,mirr. 1 )

travel, voyagor.

treat, traitor (as, do g 1 629)

omor

m.

(over, do)

m (of

thirteen , train . true, vrai.

thou, tn . try, mayor ; try in vain, avdrthough, came asalthough. boon (5 1 7V ).

482 m mM u flhmdayl . »

twelve, don-a ; twelven idi orn inuitmM)m.

twentieth , vlagtlh a.

under, “

we, nous.

wealth, fortunef

upstairs, on haut zv

:mg m.

“5'W Wednesday,mow ed!m.

value : have the value of,

vase, vaaom.

whence , d’ “XXV I .

where , onma).whereas, tandla qno.

wherever, n o (5 on

quelque endroit que.

wherewith , do qnol (XXV I.

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GENERAL I NDEX.

The retoxenceoare topageomut thomnnben ot subdiviaiomocwuing on thepogoaro addod ln parontheoeswhere cnlled tor, tn orderto the ready flndlng otamterence.

MM and Engliahworda aro to bo loohed torin the Vocabularieamd nmin tho lndex .

a, ronun’n of, 4-5 when silent,

( 1 4 ) when elided, 5 itsaccentmarks, 5

absolute construction , 21 6, 387.

abstract nouns, inclusive articleWith, 87 (M) , 224accent of; word , 4 ; relation of

(lintin

‘

and French accent, 204c).

accent-marks or written accen ts,2—8 —andmacute, circumflex ,grave, and the differen t vowels.

accusative

Latin constructionsof,represented in French , 216—6 ;scene. with infinitive, constructions resemblin 81 7 (d) .

acute accent,- a nd sea the

dif eront vowels.

address, vous chiefl used in , 28

(M) ; titles used“;9 23 3gender, :num

288-4 t, 46292-3 ; see, when at

tributive 51-2, 7 : difierenceofmeaning, depending on difference of place , 52 (6c) 286 ;comparison , 54—5 , 284 adverbsfrom, 1 43 -5 : ad . used as adverba, 1 45 (0) 260( I 1W) ;sa noune. 285-6 : witbdoand abeforemodif g noun , 239-40;beforede ent infinitive, 827

8 ; .adj frompresent participles,adjecti

(clauses, 848 ; bjunotive su

used in , 278-0.

adverbs, 840-1 ; made fromad

jectives, 1 43-5 ; adjectivesused

as, 1 45, 284 comparison of adv. 1 45 ;

.

clames,148—9 ; adv . of quan andtheir construction with ilowing nouns, 40—1 ; n adv .

and their uses, 65 805-1 1 ;position of adv. , 150, 840-1 ;adv. in ad tivestruction , 1 49 (M), 840.

adverbial clauses, 346—7 subjunctive used in . 279-81 .

adverbial object of a verb, 21 5

mode of ex pression of,£

a

l

ig

niimdiphthong, pronun

'

,n of 1 1 ; oisometimes written for, 12

ain , nasal vowels, pronou’

n

of, 1 4alphabet, 1 -2.

am, an, nasal vowels, pronou’

n

of, 1 3 ; ex ceptions, i 5 t5i ).an teceden t,

gronoun . of relative,

1 12 1 1 123—4 .

a he and itsuse, 8.

apposi onal noun , omission ofarticle before, 299 (5ou) ; app .

infinitive, 815 .

ar

zangemeut of the sentence,

436 censu smnsx .

comparison of adjectives,“verbs 1 45 : relation of LaandFrench

compound nouns, gnumber

s214;n ofcompono an t, agreement

1 ; aux . verbwith, 287-8 .

120(DC) ; of ln conceooive use of subjunctive, 278mediate past, 146 ( 1 1 6) causetive aux , 1 51 .

ex pres iona of,

0. 1?t of, 1 6 ; hard and soft

xiii“10; u

sgof

a WEDsilmt asfinoi

“pul l 10m,‘rWing on of a finalf0 1071 11! vowel,m

camm0“0

! “Ming in French ,

fl l5-6 ; case relations 81 dby do and a, 21 5-28

causative verlrphm , wi th h ire,1 51 : irect and indirect ohjoawith such, seemdilla, 8

274-68.

clooe and open sounds of o, 7.

come objecggcgverb,. .muomvs ou agreement

verbwith, 287-8 .

color, nounsof. used adjectively,mood). (I , un'

n of, 17 ;M g“. 26V i

rgin -ctive of ad tive, 54 ; of (a) .verb 1 45 : ori comp" 54 , date ,

)mwot, 824 , 241-21 45 ; doaftercom. ,withmeao: dative mm, repm ‘

td by noutture ofdifference t61 e) after with l , 84 pronoun,pin expletive we 100, 247 ; ethica l dative,no aftercomp , 81 1 ao-called , 205 ( 1 5W).

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438 GEN ER A L I N DEX.

0! e and it after,‘n of. 18.

6 (21k ).27 ,” 18 ; rela

tion ofFrench gender to Latin ,

206, 200-10; euder as shownb

iendin

g, 0; 1 meanin

g,

2 on0-1 1 ble , 21 -2 : ( 10iim 1 or indefinite sumt , 1w ,m .

”M

217-8 ; ofmaterial. 21 8 ; partitive, 21 8-20; gen itive pronoun100-10, 247—8.

Germanicwords in French , 208.

gerund , 57 (86 , d) , 888.

gn , digraph , nrou'

n of, 1 8 ; howtreated in syllabication , 2

grammatical subject, soorii , 288

grave accent, 8 (5) —and sea the

(1mm: vowels.

h, pron’

n of, 1 8-0;mute orsilen t

and aspirate h, 1 8-0; h in di

graphs, 10 (Gig) ; in syllabicwt

1) hen ,4 ( 10) used in interroga

vs verbt'

orms, 20 ( lob, o) ° in

compound numerals, 77 beforeobject ronouns, 104 , 105

hypothet cal sentence, verbl ormsul

s

gdb

in , 267 278 (d) , 2807

l, pron’

n of, 8-0 accent, 0(20a)elision offinal , 0(206) metricaitreatmen t, with following vowel. 8 857-8 .

in , nasal vowel, pron’

n of, 1 8

(50) exceptions, 1 5

imperative, 40; use of, 2834made frompresent indicative.

86 impv . use of presen t

in, nasal vowel , pron’

a of,

inclusive article, 87 227 .

indagfin ite article , 28 ; uses, 220

indefiuite pronouns, 78—4 ,

indefin ite or im recuai subject,soor il, 68 —0.

mode, 272.

indirect object, pmoun formstm' ,108 (5) with verb, 205-6.

indirect statement, 272( 1 340)

infinitive , 57 (2) of, 57 (lb) ,1 54 818 ( 1 other pre

positionsand1

raswgzreposition

-11h

governin , (4 , 880-1 ;construct one : inf. as ordinarynoun , 818 as subject ofverb, 818-4 ; as predicate, 814 ;as attribute , 820(b) ; in a

tion , 815 ; as ch w

3g“, 81 6-8 ;Wit do, 820-4 ;

th 5, 828—5 ; with do or i ,825 6 ; inf. dependenton an ad

ve, 827—8 ; on a noun , 828futune and conditionalmade

frominf. , 85-6 ; hnperativemeof inf. , 818W) ; in f. with th insense oi

‘begsn to,

’821 ( g).

inter ted phrases, inversion in ,

in terjections, 847 ; int

imfim’fiai‘lfl; l lm,

ves,

1 58 254-5 ; formof interr.sentence , 28-0, 1 18-0, 850-1 ;with negative 67 interr.

paraphrase 67 (ca ). no (n.

cnmu n mnex . 480

used also as

intransitive verbs, aux iliary takenby, 182—8.

inverted orderof sentence, 850—4in questions, 850-1 ; in in tern 8 (28a) , 10 12 857-8.

jecwd phrases, 851 ; in opta mutc h, 18-0.

tive phrases, 851 ; in conditional mute syllables,

phrases. 851 rence of, 6—7a part of the pre

of first con'

irr. verbs injm

eral , 1 18-4 ; their conjugationin detail , 1 1 4-108 ; al habeticallist, with references, 00-201 .

j , pros ’

s of, 10.

j nrou’

n of, afterverb, 6

k, occurrence and pron'

n of, 10.

l,'

n of, 10-20; liquid 1,10-20; after i preceded by

other vowels 20 exceptional cm , 10, 20.

Latin , relation of, to French , 2080—a nd we French.

letters, French names of, 1 .

linkingorcarrying~on of final

sonants to followingvowels, 256.

liquid 1, see 1.

m, pron 'n of

,20-1 ; makes pre

ceding vowel nasal, 12-5 - nce

naml vowels.

masculd

inc and femin ine, see gener.

masculine rhyme, 855-6.

material, exepressed by noun with

do, 40, 21 (8 .

in xpression fmeasure, do e o

after noun or adverb, 40, 21 8

(610)abso

1 4

modes of the verb, theiruses, 272 o, pron‘

n of, 0 accent, 0object ofverb, 204-8 ; direct and

indirect, 205 ; both with same

n , pron'

o of, 21 ;vowel nasal,vowels.

nasal vowels, pron'

,a oi 12-5 ; anon, 18

1; irn:m

in imum.

oh , 14 .

8X

umino

igi of theirn wlren fi

ne

(

gative co

lagugation

h m65-7, 805

in de

penden t clauses, 0-l .

n

nominative forms, Latin , retainedin French, 206 t4o .

nouns, der, 27, 18 ; numher, 1 . 218-5 ; case, absenceof, 88,W215 ; case relations asex

gassed

;

by ds and i , 88 , 84 , 21 5

absolute and adverbialconstructions, 21 5-6 ; tivenoun , 86-7 , 220° incl ve scusoof noun ,

87, 224; infinitive depending on noun , 828-0.

number, relation of Latin andFrench , 206 (4d) ; number-forms,we plural.

numerals, 76-84 , 241—8; cardinals,76-7 . 24 1 -2 ; ordinals, 70-80,242 ; cardinals for English ar

dinals, 70—80; fractionals, 80,242 ; collectives, 242 ; multiplicatives, 242 ; numeral adverbs, 242-8 dofor than

’

aftera numeral, 842

al l hthong, n’“

ioligwingmarl,

p, pron‘nmm. 574 1 ,to c, aa0- 4

Ne, 334 4 0 111 363 1:

struction , 882.mrtltltmsome ofa noun , 86, 220;impressed by

8°

with orwithmt M1010 M‘

omis-Inn oi articio 87;

57 ,7 003+ ci de, sf 67 (7u) , tion of, 254—8 .

000(c) xon aspartitive pronoun , possessives, adjective, 72-8 ; sub1 10. stantive, 126—7 ; rules for use,

25 1 ; replacedor personal pronoun , (5a) ,281 .

itsuse,

put definite tense, recalled, 88

(u s—ou writ.past iodctin l tense, uncalled. 58

(Ca) z-mperfect.

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442 amass won .

7.

snbordinate clanses,mdependent.substantive clauses, 845-6 ; sub

jnnctive nsed in , 274—6 ; clausesly subst. treated as ad participles an d gerund , 882-9

,moassa ) . —and see the mn bus tamer,

supermlative.made fromcompare

five, 54—5 , 1 45. versification ,rules of, in French ,

syllables, division ofwords into, 2

Latin andFrench vowels, 204-5

Wtenses. nsesof the , 264—72 of su

blW

an

week, names of its days, 82.

as voweh 10; be190 tween vowels, 10; asconsonant,

timen lli

a

fexw bw 25 ; interchange of i and y, 10

6)flfi

ofdsymxmmion Of “(abmanagi n flfassl vewel, pron ’

,n of

transitive and intransitive verbs,18 t500) .

205 ; verbs trsns. in a and

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