Damage and Fracture Mechanics

Taoufik Boukharouba • Mimoun Elboujdaini

Damage and Fracture Mechanics

Failure Analysis of Engineering Materials

Guy Pluvinage Editors

and Structures

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Editors

Université des Sciences et de laTechnologie Houari Boumediene (USTHB)16111 Algiers

Taoufik Boukharouba

El Alia, Bab Ezzouar, Algeria

Guy Pluvinage

57012 Metz

t.boukha@gmail.com

Francepluvina@sciences.univ-metz.fr

e-ISBN: 978-90-481-2669-9ISBN: 978-90-481-2668-2

Mimoun Elboujdaini

Université Paul Verlaine - Metz

Natural Resources Canada CANMETMaterials Technology Lab.568 Booth Street

Canada

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009926284

Ottawa, ON K1A 0G1

melboujd@nrcan.gc.ca

Dépt. Génie M canique & Productiqueé

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ...................................................................................xiii

Editors’ Biographies ................................................................................xv

Foreword ................................................................................................xvii

Preamble..................................................................................................xix

Determination of the Hardness of the Oxide Layers of 2017A Alloys...........................................................................................................1 Chahinez Fares, Taoufik Boukharouba, Mohamed El Amine Belouchrani, Abdelmalek Britah and Moussa Naït Abdelaziz

Effect of Non-Metallic Inclusions on Hydrogen Induced Cracking ....11 Mimoun Elboujdaini and Winston Revie

Defect Assessment on Pipe Transporting a Mixture of Natural Gas and Hydrogen ...................................................................................19 Guy Pluvinage

Reliability Analysis of Low Alloy Ferritic Piping Materials................33 A. Guedri, B. Merzoug, Moe Khaleel and A. Zeghloul

Experimental Characterization and Effect of the Triaxiality on the Behavior of the HDPE..................................................................43 K. Hachour, R. Ferhoum, M. Aberkane, F. Zairi and M. Nait Abdelaziz

Effects of Aggressive Chemical Environments on Mechanical Behavior of Polyethylene Piping Material.............................................49 Souheila Rehab-Bekkouche, Nadjette Kiass and Kamel Chaoui

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Hydrogen Embrittlement Enhanced by Plastic Deformation of Super Duplex Stainless Steel...............................................................59 A. Elhoud, N. Renton and W. Deans

Hydrogen Effect on Local Fracture Emanating from Notches in Pipeline Steels ......................................................................................69 Julien Capelle, Igor Dmytrakh, Joseph Gilgert and Guy Pluvinage

Reliability Assessment of Underground Pipelines Under Active Corrosion Defects.....................................................................................83 A. Amirat, A. Benmoussat and K. Chaoui

An Overview of the Applications of NDI/NDT in Engineering Design for Structural Integrity and Damage Tolerance in Aircraft Structures .................................................................................................93 A.M. Abdel-Latif

Improvement in the Design of Automobile Upper Suspension Control Arms Using Aluminum Alloys................................................101 M. Bouazara

Nadhira Kheznadji Messaoud-Nacer

Damaging Influence of Cutting Tools on the Manufactured

Idriss Amara, Embarek Ferkous and Fayçal Bentaleb

Lotfi Hamitouche, Mostapha Tarfaoui and Alain Vautrin

Vibroacoustic Sources Identification of Gear Mechanism

Abbassia Derouiche, Nacer Hamzaoui and Taoufik Boukharouba

Performances of Vehicles’ Active Suspensions ...................................113

Surfaces Quality.....................................................................................121

Design and Test of a Sandwich T-Joint for Naval Ships ....................131

Transmission .......................................................................................... 143

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Prediction of Structural and Dynamic Behaviors of Impacted

Application of Structural INTegrity Assessment Procedure

Nenad Gubeljak and Jozef Predan

Yu. G. Matvienko

Degradation and Failure of Some Polymers (Polyethylene

Boubaker Bounamous and Kamel Chaoui

On the Structural Integrity of the Nano-PVD Coatings Applied

Miroslav Piska, Ales Polzer, Petra Cihlarova and Dagmar Stankova

Investigation of Energy Balance in Nanocrystalline Titanium

O. Plekhov, O. Naimark, R.Valiev and I. Semenova

M. Benachour, A. Hadjoui and F.Z. Seriari

Spall Fracture in ARMCO Iron: Structure Evolution and Spall

Oleg Naimark, Sergey Uvarov and Vladimir Oborin

Damage Modelling of Impacted Tubular Structures by Using

Mostapha Tarfaoui, Papa Birame Gning and Francis Collombet

Abdelhamid Miloudi and Mahmoud Neder

Plates ....................................................................................................... 153

to Nuclear Power Plant Component.....................................................163

Failure Assessment Diagrams in Structural Integrity Analysis ........ 173

and Polyamide) for Industrial Applications ........................................183

on Cutting Tools..................................................................................... 195

Under Cyclic Loading............................................................................205

Behavior of Stainless Steel 316L Under Impact Test .........................213

Strength .................................................................................................. 219

Material Property Degradation Approach..........................................227

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W.R. Tyson

L. Marsavina and T. Sadowski

Crack Propagation in the Vicinity of the Interface Between Two

Luboš Náhlík, Lucie Šestáková and Pavel Hutař

Ivo Dlouhý, Zdeněk Chlup, Hynek Hadraba and Vladislav Kozák

Numerical and Experimental Investigations of Mixed Mode

M.R.M. Aliha, M.R. Ayatollahi and B. Kharazi

Experimental and Numerical Determination of Stress Intensity

S. Belamri, T. Tamine and A. Nemdili

Dynamic Response of Cracked Plate Subjected to Impact

R. Tiberkak, M. Bachene, B.K. Hachi, S. Rechak and M. Haboussi

L. Řeháčková, J. Kalousek and J. Dobrovská

Correlation of Microstructure and Toughness of the Welded

Rrahim Maksuti, Hamit Mehmeti, Hartmut Baum, Mursel Rama and Nexhat Çerkini

Effect of the Residual Fatigue Damage on the Static and Toughness

P. Cadenas, A. Amrouche, G. Mesmacque and K. Jozwiak

Fracture Control for Northern Pipelines.............................................237

The Influence of the Interface on Fracture Parameters.....................245

Elastic Materials ....................................................................................255

Fracture Behaviour of TiAl Intermetalics...........................................265

Fracture in Granite Using Four-Point-Bend Specimen .....................275

Factors of Crack in Plate with a Multiple Holes.................................285

Loading Using the Extended Finite Element Method (X-FEM)........297

On Heterogeneity of Welded Joint by Modelling of Diffusion........... 307

Joint of Pipeline Steel X65..................................................................... 315

Properties................................................................................................ 323

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Influence of Fatigue Damage in Dynamic Tensile Properties

U. Sánchez-Santana, C. Rubio-González, G. Mesmacque and A. Amrouche

M. Bournane, M. Bouazara and L. St-Georges

Damage of Glulam Beams Under Cyclic Torsion: Experiments

Myriam Chaplain, Zahreddine Nafa and Mohamed Guenfoud

Statistical Study of Temperature Effect on Fatigue Life of Thin

Abdelmadjid Merabtine, Kamel Chaoui and Zitouni Azari

Residual Stress Effect on Fatigue Crack Growth of SENT

M. Benachour, M. Benguediab and A. Hadjoui

Analysis of Elliptical Cracks in Static and in Fatigue

B.K. Hachi, S. Rechak, M. Haboussi, M. Taghite, Y. Belkacemi and G. Maurice

Influence of Coating on Friction and Wear of Combustion Engine

Abdelkader Guermat, Guy Monteil and Mostefa Bouchetara

Optimization Constrained of the Lifetime of the CBN 7020

Slimane Benchiheb and Lakhdar Boulanouar

Comparison of Simulation Methods of Pulsed Ultrasonic

W. Djerir, T. Boutkedjirt and A. Badidi Bouda

of AISI 4140T Steel ................................................................................331

Low-Cycle Fatigue of Al–Mg Alloys ....................................................341

and Modelling......................................................................................... 349

Welded Plates ......................................................................................... 357

Specimen................................................................................................. 367

by Hybridization of Green’s Functions ...............................................375

Piston Rings............................................................................................ 387

During the Machining of Steel 100 Cr6 ...............................................395

Fields Radiated in Isotropic Solids.......................................................405

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Investigation of Ag Doping Effects on Na1.5Co2O4 Elastic

Ibrahim Al-Suraihy, Abdellaziz Doghmane and Zahia Hadjoub

The Dynamics of Compressible Herschel–Bulkley Fluids

F. Belblidia, T. Haroon and M.F. Webster

Numerical Simulation of the Behaviour of Cracks in Axisymmetric

N. Amoura, H. Kebir, S. Rechak and J.M. Roelandt

Numerical Evaluation of Energy Release Rate for Several Crack

N. Kazi Tani, T. Tamine and G. Pluvinage

Numerical Simulation of the Ductile Fracture Growth Using

Gaëtan Hello, Hocine Kebir and Laurent Chambon

Enriched Finite Element for Modal Analysis of Cracked

M. Bachene, R. Tiberkak, S. Rechak, G. Maurice and B.K. Hachi

A New Generation of 3D Composite Materials: Advantage

Z. Aboura, K. Khellil, M.L. Benzeggagh, A. Bouden and R. Ayad

Benefit from Embedded Sensors to Study Polymeric Composite

Francis Collombet, Matthieu Mulle, Hilario-Hernandez Moreno, Redouane Zitoune, Bernard Douchin and Yves-Henri Grunevald

Effect of Temperature and Initiator on Glass Fibre/Unsaturated

Nabila Belloul, Ali Ahmed-Benyahia, Aicha Serier and Nourdine Ouali

Parameters.............................................................................................. 415

in Die–Swell Flows .................................................................................425

Structures by the Dual Boundary Element Method ...........................435

Orientation and Position to the Bi-Material Interface Plates ............ 445

the Boundary Element Method ............................................................455

Plates ....................................................................................................... 463

and Disadvantage...................................................................................473

Structures ............................................................................................... 485

Polyester Composite: Cross-linking, Mechanical Properties.............497

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Theoretical and Experimental Investigations of the Plane Strain Compression of Amorphous Polymers in the form

Nourdine Ouali, Krimo Azouaoui, Ali Ahmed Benyahia and Taoufik Boukharouba

Djedjiga Ait Aouit and Abdeldjalil Ouahabi

Characterization of Mixed Mode Delamination Growth

M. Kenane and M.L. Benzeggagh

Modification of Cellulose for an Application in the Waste Water

Lamia Timhadjelt, Aicha Serier, Karima Boumerdassi, Mohamed Serier and Zoubir Aîssani

A Full 3D Simulation of Plastic Forming Using a Heuristic

Tewfik Ghomari, Rezak Ayad and Nabil Talbi

A Novel Approach for Bone Remodeling After Prosthetic

Habiba Bougherara, Václav Klika, František Maršík, Ivo A. Mařík and L’Hocine Yahia

Hybrid Composite-Metal Hip Resurfacing Implant for Active

Habiba Bougherara, Marcello Papini, Michael Olsenb, Radovan Zdero, Paul Zalzal and Emil H. Schemitsch

O. Bélaidi Chabane Chaouche, N.E. Hannachi and Y. Labadi

The Behaviour of Self-Compacting Concrete Subjected

Riçal Khelifa, Xavier Brunetaud, Hocine Chabil and Muzahim Al-Mukhtar

of a Flat Plate ......................................................................................... 505

Wavelet-Based Multifractal Identification of Fracture Stages..........513

and Thresholds....................................................................................... 523

Treatment ............................................................................................... 531

Generalised Contact Algorithm............................................................539

Implantation........................................................................................... 553

Patient ..................................................................................................... 567

Anisotropic and Unilateral Damage Application to Concrete ........... 573

to an External Sulphate Attack ............................................................583

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S. Bouziane, H. Bouzerd and M. Guenfoud

Three-Dimensional T-Stress to Predict the Directional Stability of Crack Propagation in a Pipeline with External Surface

M. Hadj Meliani, H.Moustabchir, A. Ghoul, S. Harriri and Z. Azari

Mixed Finite Element for Cracked Interface ......................................591

Crack....................................................................................................... 601

xiii

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all of our partners and sponsors of the First African InterQuadrennial ICF Conference “AIQ-ICF2008”, which was held in Algiers from 01 till 05 June 2008, for their help to the organization of this scientific event.

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Editors’ Biographies

Prof. Taoufik Boukharouba

Received his Mechanical Engineering Degree (1987) in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Annaba, his Magister (1991) in Mechanical Engineering from Polytechnic School of Algiers and then his Doctorate (1995) from the University of Metz in France. He joined the staff of Houari Boumédiène Sciences and Technology University, (USTHB) in 1996. He was Director of the Mechanical Institute (IGM of USTHB) from 1998 to 2000. Presently, he is member of the “Haut Conseil Universitaire et de Recherche Algéro-Français (HCUR)”. He is president of the Algerian Association of Mechanics and Materials and member of the “Commission Universitaire Nationale (CUN)”.

He is supervising many projects on fatigue of materials as well as cooperation projects with CNRS and CMEP with French laboratories.

His research interest is in damage of composite materials and materials in biomechanics. He has published several technical papers. He is a reviewer for many international conferences and he organized the “Congrès de Génie des Procédés” (2000) in Ouargla, the “Congrès Algérien de Mécanique de Construction” (2007) in Algiers and the First African InterQuadrennial ICF Conference “AIQ-ICF2008”.

Dr. Mimoun Elboujdaïni

Received his Mechanical Engineering degree and Diplôme d’Etude Approfondie (DEA) at the University of Technology of Compiègne (UTC) in France. He obtained an M.Sc. at physical metallurgy at Ecole Polytechnique of Montreal and his Ph.D. at the Laval University in Canada. In 1989 he joined the CANMET the Materials Technology Laboratory of Natural Resources Canada in Ottawa as research scientist working on many industrial projects and very active in the professional field of pipelines – oil/gas/petrochemical industries and has been participating in many professional organizations such as NACE, CIM, ICF, ECS, ASM, etc.

He leads several Canadian as well as international projects in different fields (hydrogen-induced cracking (H2S), hydrogen embritlement, stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), galvanizing, liquid metal embritlement, etc.). He has published in excess of 100 technical papers, contributions to chapters in handbook; edited books and over 14 conference proceedings and organized several conference sessions and symposia.

Editors’ Biographies

xvi

He holds adjunct professorship in the Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering at the University of Alberta and trained and supervised national and foreign Ph.D. students and invited by several universities to serve as external examiner of Ph.D. theses. Selected as Distinguished Lecturer for 2006–2007 by the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy, and Petroleum (CIM). He also served as a member of organizing committees of several national and international conferences. Invited as Distinguished Speaker in addition received many national and international invitations (e.g.; China, USA, Egypt, Canada, etc) and universities. Organized and chairs several short courses. Presently, is the general Chair (2005–2009) for The Twelfth International Conference on Fracture (ICF12) to be held in Ottawa, Canada in 2009 (www.icf12.com).

Prof. Guy Pluvinage

Received his Doctorat de 3éme cycle in 1967 and his Doctorat d’état in 1973 at the University of Lille in France. He was successively Assistant Professor at Université de Valenciennes (1968–1974) and Professor at Université de Metz since 1974.

He was invited professor at University of Newcastle (Australia), (1982), University of Tokyo (Japon), (1984), University of’Auburn (USA) (1986). He was Director of “Laboratoire de Fiabilité Mécanique” from 1974 to 2002. Vice-President of the University of Metz (Research Council) (1988–1992) and Director of Maison du Pôle Universitaire Européen Nancy-Metz (1996–2003).

His expertise is mainly focused on strength of materials and particularly on fatigue and fracture Mechanics. He has published 167 papers in refereed journals: and 322 published communications to scientific meetings: He is author of several books in French, English and Russian. He is member of the editorial board and reviewer of several journals. He has received several honours and awards: Grand Prix du Centenaire de l’AAUL.

Officier des Palmes Académiques; Professor Honoris Causa University of Miskolc (Hungary); Doctor Honoris Causa Univerity Polytechnic of Tirana (Albania).

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Foreword

The First African InterQuadrennial ICF Conference “AIQ-ICF2008” on Damage and Fracture Mechanics – Failure Analysis of Engineering Materials and Structures”, Algiers, Algeria, June 1–5, 2008 is the first in the series of InterQuadrennial Conferences on Fracture to be held in the continent of Africa. During the conference, African researchers have shown that they merit a strong reputation in international circles and continue to make substantial contributions to the field of fracture mechanics. As in most countries, the research effort in Africa is under-taken at the industrial, academic, private sector and governmental levels, and covers the whole spectrum of fracture and fatigue.

The AIQ-ICF2008 has brought together researchers and engineers to review and discuss advances in the development of methods and approaches on Damage and Fracture Mechanics. By bringing together the leading international experts in the field, AIQ-ICF promotes technology transfer and provides a forum for industry and researchers of the host nation to present their accomplishments and to develop new ideas at the highest level. International Conferences have an important role to play in the technology transfer process, especially in terms of the relationships to be established between the participants and the informal exchange of ideas that this ICF offers.

Topics covered in AIQ-ICF2008 include: concepts of damage and fracture mechanics of structures, cumulative damage crack initiation, crack growth, residual strength, probability aspects and case histories; macro and micro aspects of fatigue; analytical methods for fatigue life assessment in structures; and applications of linear fracture mechanics to failure analysis and fracture control, fracture toughness and fatigue testing techniques, and environmental effects. These are areas where corrosion scientists, chemists, mechanical, civil, metallurgical and chemical engineers, corrosion prevention and coating specialists, operating and maintenance personnel can unite their efforts to better understand the complexities of these phenomena and develop effective preventive methods. Mechanistic understanding of cracking failures of metals and alloys can be used in conjunction with phenomenological data to identify and quantify the influence of environmental and material para-meters. The conference has been devoted to the exchange of ideas and information on the evaluation of materials performance, and the development of advanced materials for resistance to damage and fracture in severe conditions.

Twelve plenary keynote presentations and ten introductory conferences covered a wide range of topics: Computational Materials Engineering/Modelling; Nano-materials; Biomaterials/Biomechanics; Pipeline Materials; Stress Corrosion Cracking & Hydrogen Embrittlement; Materials & Joining/Welds; High Strength Steel; Fracture Mechanics; Failure Analysis; Fatigue; Fracture Dynamics, etc…

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As chairs of this conference, we would like to express our thanks to all authors and reviewers who, collectively, have participated in making this conference a success and for their written contributions that make this proceedings volume a valuable record of the recent advances in Damage and Fracture Mechanics.

Prof. Taoufik Boukharouba Dr. Mimoun Elboujdaini Prof. Guy Pluvinage

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Preamble

Ahmed Djebbar, is mathematician with diploma from Université Paris Sud (1972), from Université de Nantes (1990) and from Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales de Paris (1998). He is Emeritus Professor at Université des Sciences et des Technologies de Lille. (France).

Advisor for Education, Culture and Communication at the Presidency of the Algerian Republic (January, 1992–June, 1992) and minister of Education, of Higher Education and Scientific Research (July, 1992–April, 1994).

He is one of the specialists of the history of sciences and in his assets a dozen works, from which some were translated in several languages. He is one of the specialists of the Arab World whom they consult on questions related to the provision of Arabic and Muslims in science.

We wanted by this preamble just to give a historical overview and not to write the history of sciences and point out the provision of Muslim civilization in sciences and particularly in mechanics object of the First African InterQuadrennial ICF Conference “AIQ-ICF2008”.

We apologize to the author for possible errors in the translation of his original text which was sent to us in French language.

The original version of the text is available to anyone who wants to have the original copy.

The Arabic Phase of the Mechanics For the first time in the history of the International Congress on Fracture, the works of the InterQuadriennal Conference presented in this Book, take place in the land of Africa, in Algeria precisely, one of the regions of the Maghreb which made its contribution to science and technology within the framework of the Arabian-Moslem civilization. How then omit evoking, even quickly, an important chapter of the history of the mechanics, the least known maybe, which was written within the framework of this civilization. The organizers of this meeting thought of it. A conference on this subject was presented. Here is a modest summary which is essentially homage to these discoverers of the past and to my colleagues specialists of mechanics who, through different roads, immortalize the same scientific adventure.

From the end of the VIIIth century to the middle of the XVIth, a new mechanical tradition, expressing itself essentially in Arabic, developed in the immense space governed in the name of Islam and which extended, in certain times, from

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Samarkand to Saragossa and from Palermo to Tombouctou. As quite other scientific activity was practised during this period, the mechanics elaborated at the same time on the theoretical aspect and on the applied one as well, and on both aspects it produces significant results.

The theoretical part of this discipline was integrated into the physics. It concerns the study of statics, of the hydrostatics and the dynamics. Its applied part, which was called “Science of the ingenious processes”, is subdivided into three big domains. The first domain is the one of the playful mechanics. It concerns machines and all the realizations which aim at distracting or at amazing the caliphs, the princes and fortunate people. The second corresponds to the utilitarian mechanics which aims at resolving the problems of the everyday life. The third concerns the military technology and, more particularly, the conception of weapons and machines of seat.

In the VIIIth century, we already mastered a set of techniques which served in the various domains which have just been evoked. Some of them were of unknown origin but the others had been used by the Romans, the Byzantine or the Persians. With the advent of the phenomenon of translation, writings dedicated to the mechanics were dug up and translated into Arabic. In our knowledge, they were all written in Greek. Having assimilated the ideas found in these texts, the first Moslem specialists of this domain tried, from the IXth century, to bring improvements and complements among which some were real innovations. But these last ones did not concern the only technical aspect. They also allowed bringing to light new concepts, never applied before. Some of them will be completely put into practice to realize complex systems. Others will stay in the state of ingenious findings and will be exploited only much later when they will be rediscovered in Europe.

It is finally necessary to indicate that the researches in this domain continued until the XVIth century and that they became a reality in numerous publications. The contents of those who reached us reveal a rich tradition which was born in Bagdad but which bloomed in the other metropolises of the Muslim empire, as Damascus, Cordoba and Istanbul [1].

1. The playful mechanics

In this domain, the ancient written heritage which reached the first technicians of the countries of Islam is exclusively Greek. The most important references are the Book of the pneumatic devices and the hydraulic machines of Philon of Byzantium (IIIrd century BC) [2] and the Mechanics of Heron of Alexandria (Ist century BC). After assimilation of the contents of these papers, the first specialists began to conceive new machines. In their research for original ingenious systems, they had the idea to use former principles and to realize combinations of technical constituents, as siphons, valves, airholes, cogwheels, ballcocks and cranks. They

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also introduced new principles as that of the conical valve and that of the double concentric siphon.

The oldest Arabic work dealing with this subject is the Book of the ingenious processes of the brothers Banû Mûsâ (IXth century). One hundred of mechanical systems which are described there, 95 are machines [3]. We have no information about the repercussions of this first contribution during the period going from the Xth century to the XIIth century. But it seems that the practices and the knowledge acquired during the first phase remained alive until the publication of the known big second Arabic treaty of mechanics, that of al-Jazarî (XIIth century). This last one indeed makes reference to some of the contributions of his predecessors (others than Banû Mûsâ) by recognizing them the priority in certain innovations. In his work, entitled the Useful collection of the theory and the practice in the ingenious processes, he describes about twenty mechanical systems which are grouped together in two big categories: Water jets and musical machines or jugs of liquids [4]. Most of these mechanisms are his own invention. These subjects perpetuate during the centuries and we find them, in the XVIth century, in the work of Taqiy ad-Dîn Ibn Ma’ rûf (1585) [5].

Considering the manufacturing costs of these machines, only a comfortable clientele could finance their realization. It was quite found among the caliphs, the local kings, the governors, the princes, the fortunate traders, the notables and, generally speaking, the members of the elite who appreciated this type of entertainment.

2. The civil engineering

It especially concerned the hydraulic problems (harnessing and routing of water) and mills. As we notice it by looking at a map of the Muslim empire, this region of the world had, always, to manage the rarity of the water and the weak flows of most of the rivers. This worrisome situation could only deteriorate with the demographic development of cities, the acclimatization of new subsistence crops and the rise of the standard of living of certain layers of the population. It is necessary to add the water requirements of certain vital sectors of the economy, as the paper industry and the textile industry. All these needs encouraged the research for technical means to pump the water, to store it and to forward it to the places of consumption.

The first known work which looked at some of these problems is the one of al-Jazarî (XIIth century) which was already evoked. We find, in particular, the description of sophisticated systems to raise the water of a river or a well by using the animal or hydraulic force. One of them is a device with pendulum, which uses the principle of the gearing segmentaire. Another system conceived for the same usage would have been the first one to use a crank integrated joined into a machine. The third is a water pump whose conception was quite new for that period because it worked by converting the circular movement in an alternative linear

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movement and by use of suction pipes [6]. It is necessary to precise that these models did not stay of simple technological curiosities. Some were realized and their smooth running is attested by their longevity. It is the case of the machine that was built by the middle of the XIIIth century, on the river Yazîd in Syria, the native country of the author, and which worked until the middle of the XXth century [7]. This tradition of engineering continued after al-Jazarî but we have, at the moment, only a single confirming document it and it is issued very late. It is about the Book of the noble processes on the magnificent instruments of Taqiy ad-Dîn Ibn Ma’ rûf, a mathematician and astronomer native of Damascus. Its contents prolong that of his predecessor, in particular in the field of water pumps [8]. With regard to this and considering the nature of this sector, its vitality is especially attested by hundreds of hydraulic systems which were built almost everywhere in the Muslim empire of which remain vestiges which are still often very lifelike.

As regards the mills which were used in the Muslim empire, we can classify them in several categories according to their size, to their use and to their energy consumption. With regard to the size, it goes from the small mill of farm pulled by a mule to the real complex which worked in Bagdad, and which activated hundred pairs of grindstones at once. Sometimes, mills were distributed in the city as it was the case in Nichapour where 70 devices worked at the same time, and in Fes where there would have been up to 400 devices for the local industry of paper and for the grinding of wheat.

The working of these mills depended on local conditions and on the available energy. So, there were systems activated by hand or by animals, as it was practised well before the advent of Islam. There were also those who used the drainage of river waters and who were fixed to the banks of rivers, to the piles of bridge or who floated on barges, in the middle of the river, as those of Bagdad which used the water of Tigre. From the IXth century, we indicate the increasing use of the wind energy in the windiest regions of the empire, as those of Central Asia. We would have even realized, in the XIth century, around Bassora, mills activated by the tide.

Besides two big domains which have been evoked, the works of mechanics present other ingenious processes for other usages: machines of lifting, systems of ventilation, locks with combinations, automatic lamps and even a roasting spit working with vapor.

3. Instruments to measure the time

The measure of time was a constant concern in the profane and religious everyday life of the societies of the Muslim empire. One of the oldest processes was the gnomon, a simple stalk fixed vertically or horizontally and whose shade indicates the time approximately. As this system could not work at night, we looked for other solutions. The most practised, well before the advent of Islam, is based on the principle of the continuous flow of a liquid (what gave water clocks), or of a

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solid enough fluid, as mercury. From the IXth century, the first technicians of the countries of Islam had at their disposal, through the translations, Greek texts giving ingenious solutions of this problem. It is the case of the Book of the manufacturing of clocks attributed to Archimède (212 BC) [9]. From there, a powerful tradition developed and certain number of works which reached us testifies of the high degree of ingenuity and of technicality reached by the specialists of this domain.

The oldest known text was published by Andalusian Ibn Khalaf al-Murâdî (XIth century). It is entitled “The book of the secrets on the results of thoughts”. 19 models of clocks are described there. The one of them announces the hours with lamps which ignite automatically, the other one possesses mirrors which are illuminated, successively, at the end of every hour [10]. At the same time, in Egypt, the big physicist Ibn al-Haytham (1041) described a mechanism giving the hour but its text was not found. From the XIIth century, the treaty of al-Khâzinî reached us, “The balance of the wisdom”, a chapter of which is dedicated to an original water clock called “balance of hours”. Some decades later, Ridwân as – Sâ’âtî publishes his Book on the construction of clocks and their use, dedicated to this subject [11]. He describes a monumental clock which his father had built, in 1154, in Damascus and which we had tried to restore repeatedly. It is finally the author who succeeds in restarting it completely in 1203. The information reported by as-Sâ’âtî confirm the continuous character of the tradition of clocks in East and reveal the existence, in the XIIth century, of a real profession specialized in the realization and maintenance of these devices [12]. It is moreover at the same time that al-Jazarî described, in its famous work which we have already evoked, six water clocks and four clocks with candles [13].

After him, and until XVIth century, we do not know works having immortalized this tradition. But there could have been existed specialists whose papers did not reach us or which realized clocks without feeling the need to speak about it. It is probably the case of certain craftsmen of al-Andalus and the Maghreb as authorize us to think of it the testimonies which we have. We know, for example, due to the information contained in the Libros del Saber, drafted by the middle of the XIIIth century at the request of Castillan king Alphonse X (1252–1284) that water clocks and clocks with mercury or with wax candle were used in Andalus before the reconquest of Toledo in 1085 [14]. We also know that in the XIVth century, the engineer Ibn al-Fahhâm, native of Tlemcen, conceived and realized, in Madrasa Bou Inânia of Fes, a clock which would have amazed his contemporaries [15]. The vestiges of this clock are still visible today. We can also see, in the mosque Qarawiyîn of the same city, what stays of a clock, built by 1357 by the mathe-matician al-Lajâ’î (1370).

It is finally necessary to indicate, the contributions of one of the last represent-atives of this tradition, Taqiy ad-Dîn Ibn Ma’ rûf, who published two works containing descriptions of clocks. In the first one, entitled: The book of the sublime processes on the magnificent instruments, he presents hourglasses and water

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clocks. The second entitled: The precious planets for the construction of clocks, is completely dedicated to the mechanical clocks [16].

4. The military engineering

Since the conquests of the VIIth century, the war instruments of the Moslem armies did not stop perfecting and diversifying. If we are only held in those which were described in the specialized works and in the history books, we count tens more or less sophisticated: handguns (sabres, daggers, javelins), bows, (wooden or steel), crossbows, machines of seat, rams, incendiary bombs, without forgetting artillery and rifles, for the last period of the empire history. The Arabic works dealing with these subjects were not all dug up. Those who were studied take place after the XIIth century but what they describe concerns partially the previous period. It is necessary to clarify that we have, today, two types of works. In the first category, the authors expose, in three big different subjects, all the subjects linked to the art of the war. Both first ones deal with the cavalry and with the technology of bows. It is in the third, reserved for the tactics, for the military organization and for the weapons, that the technological aspects are developed. Beside this category of general works, there were treaties more specialized in particular on the subject which interests us here. The oldest of them is probably the Book on the war instruments of the brothers Banû Mûsâ (IXth century) which was not found yet. The most known is the Elegant book on the mangonneaux of az-Zaradkâshî (ca. 1462) which is dedicated to catapults and to inflammatory missiles [17].

From a heritage probably of Persian origin, the technicians of the Moslem armies introduced very early the instruments of seat. We indicate their presence in all the important wars until the middle of the XVIth century, date which corresponds to the introduction of artillery in the Ottoman armies and thus giving up the classic shell throwers. The longevity of catapults also explains by their multiple features because various variants were adapted to the nature of missiles: stone coal nuts, arrows, balls of naphte, flares, asphyxiating bombs and even bowls filled with snakes or with scorpions to terrorize the besieged.

At the end of this fast flying over the Arabic mechanical tradition, we can consider that this discipline, by its technological and theoretical contributions at once, not only participated in the extension of the field of the scientific practices, but it also strengthened the links between the learned knowledges and the know-how, allowing these last ones to reach the status of “sciences”. It also has, by its ingenious realizations, illustrated this capacity of the specialists of this domain, when the conditions allowed it, to innovate by by-passing various types of obstacles. For these reasons, and independently of its realizations, the Arabic phase of the mechanics is an important link in the long history of the technologies.

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References

[1] A. Djebbar: Une histoire de la science arabe, Paris, Seuil, 2001, pp. 241–262 (en français). [2] J. Shawqî: Les fondements de la mécanique dans les traductions arabes, Koweït, Fondation

pour l’Avancement des Sciences, 1995 (en arabe). [3] Banû Mûsâ: Livre des procédés ingénieux, A.Y. Al-Hassan (édit.), Alep, Institute for the

History of Arabic Science, 1981 (en arabe). [4] Al-Jazarî: Le recueil utile de la théorie et de la pratique dans l’art des procédés ingénieux,

A.Y. Al-Hassan (édit.), Alep, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, 1979, pp. 223–438 (en arabe).

[5] A.Y. Al-Hassan: Taqiy ad-Dîn et l’ingénierie mécanique arabe, Alep, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, 1976 (en arabe).

[6] Al-Jazarî: Le recueil utile de la théorie et de la pratique …, op. cit., pp. 441–465. [7] A.Y. Al-Hassan and D. Hill: Sciences et techniques en Islam, Paris, Edifra-UNESCO, 1991,

pp. 44–45. [8] A.Y. Al-Hassan: Taqiy ad-Dîn et l’ingénierie mécanique arabe, op. cit. [9] D.R. Hill: Arabic Water-Clocks, Alep, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, 1981,

pp. 15–35. [10] Op. cit., pp. 36–46. [11] Ms. Gotha, Ar. 1348. [12] D.R. Hill: Arabic Water-Clocks, op. cit., pp. 69–88. [13] Al-Jazarî: Le recueil utile de la théorie et de la pratique, op. cit., pp. 7–221. [14] D.R. Hill: Arabic Water-Clocks, op. cit., pp. 125–129. [15] Y. Ibn Khaldûn: Le souhait des précurseurs sur l’histoire des Abd al-Wadids, Alger,

Bibliothèque Nationale, p. 119. [16] A.Y. Al-Hassan: Taqiy ad-Dîn et l’ingénierie mécanique arabe, op. cit., p. 26. [17] Az-Zaradkâshî: Le livre élégant sur les mangonneaux, Alep, Institute for the History of

Arabic Science, 1985.