T HE

SHE PHERD’

S MANUAL.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE

T H E S H E E P .

DESIGNED ESP E C IALLY FOR AMER I CAN SHE PHERDS.

H EN RY ST EW A R T .

I L L U S T R A T E D

NEW EDITION.— REVISED AND ENLARGED.

.

NE W Y O RK

ORANG E JUD D C OMPANY,

7 5 1 B R O A D W A Y .

18 8 5 .

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1834, by the

ORANGE JUDD C OMPANY,

In the Oflice of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

C O N T E N T S .

PREFAC E

CHAPTER I .

SHEEP As AN INDUSTR IAL PRODUC T

Antiquity of Sheep Husbandry—The Future of Sheep

Husbandry—Its Effects upon Agriculture—Demand for

Mutton Sheep— Value of the Wool Product—Extent of

Pasturage in America.

CHAPTER II .

SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF A FLO CK 11 33

Selection of a Sheep Farm— E ffec ts of Soils upon the

Health of Sheep—What is a Good Pasture — Value ofC ertain Grasses—The W estern P lains as Sheep PasturePastures—Fodder Crops—Root C rops Fold ing SheepDog Guards .

CHAPTER III .

MANAGEMENT OF EwE s AND LAMBS 33 49

Mark ing Sheep—Record for Breeders—Management ofRams—Care of Ewes—Care of Lamb s—Selecting Lamb sfor Breeders—Prevention of Disease—D ipping Preventive of Parasites .

CHAPTER IV.

WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 49 81

Barns and Sheds—Feed Racks—Feed ingValue of D ifferent Fodders, Roots and Grains—Experiments in FeedingProfi t of Feeding—Raising E arly Lamb s for MarketFeeding Sheep for Market—Value of Manure—Marketsfor Sheep.

IV THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

CHAPTER V.

BREED ING AND BREED S OF SHEEP .

HOW Breeds are E stablished— Improvement of Flock sCross Breeding—Breed ing for Sex—Maxims for Breeders—Native Breed s— Improvement of the Merinos—The Me

rino Fleece—Long-Wool Breed s—Med ium and Short-WoolBreeds—Foreign Breeds—Cross-bred Sheep—AmericanC ross-breeds .

CHAPTER VI .

STRUC TUR E AND USES OF WOOL 142-167

The Method of Growth of Wool— Its P eculiar Structure—It s Composit ion—The Yolk—C lassification of WoolsCharacter of Merino Wool—Wash ing Wool—ShearingPacking and Market ing th e Fleeces—Produc tion of Woolin the World - Comparative Values of Wool in D ifferentCountries— Favorable Condit ions for ProducingWool inthe United States.

CHAPTER VII .

ANATOMY AND D ISEASE S OF THE SHEEP 168-249

Physiology of the Sheep—The Teeth—The Bones The

V ital Func tions,Respiration ,

Circulation , and D igestion

The Causes and Prevention of D iseases of the Sheep—Dis

eases Of the Respiratory Organs, of the D igestive Organs,of the Blood—EnzoOtic D iseases—EpizoOt ic D iseasesDiseases of the Urinary and Reproductive Organs , of the

Brain—Parasitical D iseases of the Intestines, of the Sk in—D iseases .of the Feet—D iseases incident to Lambing

Special D iseases—D iseases of Lamb s.

TABLE or APPRO! IMATE EQUIVALENT

CHAPTER VIII .

LO CALTT IE S IN THE UNITED STATES SUITABLE FOR SHEE P-RAISING . 250

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.

It i s w ith a gra t ifying sense of the favor w ith which th e twoprevious ed i t ions of th is work have been rece ived , t h at the aut hor submits t o the publi c a third edi t ion of “ The Shepherd’sManual . ” The work is now i n the hands of several t housandsof persons engaged in sheep rearing, and the product ion ofwool

,both in America and foreign count ries , and many com

plimen tary acknow ledgemen t s of benefi t s rece ived have beensen t to the author by readers of t hi s li t t le book . The au thorwould rather beli eve that these are due to the kindness andsympathy of readers who are engaged with him in a kindredpursu it , and the care and t horoughness w ith wh ich t he workhas been prepared , t han from any other special merit in i t . Iti s pleasant , however, to the au thor, who prepared h is workchiefly from a love for th e gentle

,useful animal , t o know t h at

i t i s received, as was recen tly st at ed by a prac t ic al writ er in aleading agricul t ural journal , as t he h ighest au thori ty in theUn ited States, and t ha t t his favorable Opin ion of i t was endorsed by a well known western breeder of sheep . C ertainlyafter eight years’ later experience , the au thor has found no nec essity for changing any views at fi rst expre ssed , nor has hefound any material addit ion t o the mat t e r requ isi t e

,except ing

so far as regards the development of th e sh eep and wool indust ry in t he more recently set tled t erritory that has been openedt o the en terprise of the Shepherd .

The remarkable increase in th is industry during the pasttwenty years , and especially in the few years s ince th e fi rst edit ion of this work appeared , now eight years ago , should not bepassed over w i thou t not ice here . The follow ing figures exh ibi tthis growth in a conspicuou s manner .

No. of Sheep B oduced in Lbs. of Wool

the United Sta tes. Produced .

In 1860,

1870,

1880,

1884 (estimated ) ,

This increase ha s been a healthy and permamen t on e , and hasnot been stim ulated by any speculat ive excitemen t at all . It is

(5)

VI PREFAC E TO THE THIRD E DITION .

simply an example of the grow th of an indu st ry which is themost profi table branch of agricul tu re when wisely and skillfullycult ivat ed .

How wisely and skillfully th is bu siness has been conduct ed,

may be perceived , when w e see , t h at while t he increase in t hen umber of sheep in t he decade from 1870 t o 1880, w as abou ttw en ty-fi ve per c en t , t he in crease i n t he produc t of woolamounted to no l e ss than fi fty-fi ve per cen t , indi catin g the verygreat improvement whi ch h ad been m ade in th e product iv echarac ter of the various breeds of sh eep . No doubt much Oft his in creas ed produc t has been due to the be ttermen t O f th elow grade sheep reared on the west ern plains, by the u se ofpure bred Merino rams , by wh ic h th e average weigh t of fleecehas been nea rly doubled but a large portion of i t has al so beendue t o the ext ens ive use Of pure bred sheep of the larger breeds

,

specially known as the mutton breeds , whose cultu re has beenst imul at ed by the enl arged demand for mut ton m the homemarkets

,and for shi pping abroad .

There can be no doubt that sheep cu l ture , and th e wool-produc ing industry , will st ill con t inu e i ts presen t h eal thful growth ,and before the next decade comes a round , we may see these become adequ ate

,not only to supply our home dem ands, bu t t o

fu rnish material for profi t able foreign export of wool , as wellas mu tton . A m il lion farms—only a bare fifth of the numberi n this coun try— upon which now t h e blea t of th e sheep is noth eard , can each support a flock with economy and profi t . All

t h at i s requisit e,is , that farmers will see how li t tle i t costs t o

keep a flock,and how profi tably i t may be kept upon fodder

whi ch,at the presen t , for the great er part , goes i nto the ma

nure heap and serves only in i t s leas t profi t able purpose . T he

sheep’s foot i s truly golden , because i t t akes such fodder an dt urn s i t s most valu able port ion in to mut t on and wool , and st il lle aves the remainder greatly increased in eff ect ive u sefuln ess,as a rich manure for the improvement of t he lan d .

HACKENSACK , N. J 1884.

Th e Sh eph erd’

s Manu al.

CHAPTER I .

THE SHEEP AS AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT .

From the earliest ages the sheep has been a source of profit tomankind

,and its keeping and rearing an importan t industry.

Abel,the second son of Adam , chose sheep-b erding as his employ

ment,and although his elder brother chose to cultivate the soil

,

the pastoral life became the favored occupation Of the human racein its early periods

,and the more toilsome tillage of the ground

was fol lowed from necessity rather than from choice . With asparse populat ion

,a scarcity of labor

,but at the same time an

ample territory,the cultivation of flocks became in early times the

readiest means of prov iding food and clothing,increasing the com

forts of man and of accumulat ing transferable wealth.Although

at first sight it is a singular circumstance,yet on reflection it is

seen to be a necessity of the case that the terri tory upon wh ich theflocks of the ancien t patriarch s were fed and tended

,is still the

home of shepherds, and that there , for forty centuries, flocks havewandered from pasture to pasture under the care of their nomadicproprietors . Where the physical features of the country werefavorable to pasturage , there the first civilized occupation was thatOf keeping sheep , and so i t remains to this day.

In view of its bearing upon the future of sheep husbandry inthe United States , i t is importan t to remember this fact

,that where

pecul iarly favorable physical features of the country were presen t,

and the shepherd occupied the land,there the shepherd and his

flock retain possession until this day. Thus,at. the time of the

conquest of Spain by the ancient Romans,that country was cele

brated for its flocks and the quality of its wool,and to day the

(n

3331193 asses

‘

3 i t

tart an “radars

8 THE SHEPHE RD’S MANUAL.

Spanish Merino is equally celebrated , al though through adventi

tious circumstances,but ch iefly political disturbances

,its pre-emi

nence has been lost to Spain ,and other countries enjoy its fruits.

As civil ization progressed stage by stage,and garments of man

ufac tured wool d isplaced those O f skins, careful breeding began toimprove the fleece

,and varieties among sheep became fixed in

type. Before the Christian era the fine wools of Italy were noted ,

and the fineness of the fleece was cul t ivated to a degree unknownto us of th e present day . The sheep of that period were housedand clothed

,their skins were oiled and moistened with wine

,and

their fleeces were combed and washed repeatedly, in order thatthe qual ity of the wool might be refined as far as possible . Al

though this excessive refinement destroyed the vigor and impairedthe constitution of the sheep

,yet their descendants, inferior in

form,as might be expected

,are still fine-wooled sheep . Thus far

the improvement in sheep Operated only towards refining thefleece

,and the carcass was a secondary obj ect , only cared for so

far as it cou ld serve as a vehicle for carrying the wool . The lambof the flock was considered a choice morsel , but the mature sheepwas neglected as an article of food . It is only in recen t t imes thatthe excellence Of mutton has been made an obj ect in the improvement of sheep. tAt the present i t is only in sparsely populatedcountries that sheep are cul tivated for wool alone

,while in densely

peopled locali t ies the production of mutton is of greater consideration than that of wool , or at least is of equal va lue to i t. At thepresent time

,proximity to

,or distance from market

,decides the

choice of breeds,and in fact this consideration alone has in some

cases been the moving influence in the creation of new varietiesor breeds specially adapted to certain local i ties . In a similar manner the necessities Of sheep-breeders have led them to make someimportant modifications in their methods of agriculture , so thatwhile the character of their flocks has been changed for the better,their agricul ture has been improved

,the produc t O f the land in

creased,and its value advanced

,unti l profi table sheep culture has

become synonymous with the most profitable fann ing. In fac t,the character of the farm has been indexed by the character of theflock reared upon i t . This improvement has in greater part occurred only in connection with the rearing of mutton sheep . Tofeed these heavy bodied sheep profi tab ly

,it has been found neces

sary to raise large crops of cheap roots and luxurian t green crops ;and to raise these crops

,the most sk.llt

‘

ul tillage,the cleanest cul

ture , and the most liberal manuring have been requisite . In th isway the product Of the soil has been vastly increased , and the

PRODUCTION OF MUTTON . 9

sheep,directly and indirectly

,has been bo th the gainer and the

means of gain .

The demand for mutton as an agreeable and cheap food is steadily increasing. The markets of the city of New York alone require more than one million sheep per annum . Farmers formerlyhabituated to the daily use of pork are becoming mutton eaters

,

and the convenience of a few sheep upon the farm merelv to sup

ply the family table is now apprecia ted to a much greater exten tthan ever before . Th is cultivation of sheep for mutton alone is abranch Of agricul ture which is yearly becoming more important .As yet we possess no native variety of mutton sheep . T he carcass ofthe “ native sheep, so call ed — but which is really a heterogeneou smixture of all those breeds which have been brought to th is country

,and which having been permitted to increase promiscuously

,

have perpetuated only their poorest qual ities— i s unworthy thename of mutton ; and those flocks of imported sheep of b e ttercharacter

,such as the Southdowns

,Leicesters

,or Cotswolds . are

either al lowed to deteriorate,or are kept for breeding purposes .

It is very true that a really good carcass of mutton rarely find s i tsway to our markets

,except from Canada

,where almost the sole

at tention is given to breeding Sheep for mutton . At the same timethere is a demand for mutton

,both of that substantial kind whic h

is represen ted by legs of 16 to 20 lbs . in weight , handsome saddlesand good shoulders

,and that more del icately flavored kin d repre

sented by the small legs or quarters of the Wel sh sheep .

Unfortunately this fact is not general ly known to farmers, andif it were

,i t is equally unfortunate that we as yet have not the

kind Of sheep to meet the d emand . Before this excellent andwholesome food can become as popular as it ought to be, andsheep keeping can become as profitable as i t may be , farmers mustbe better informed as to the character of the sheep needed , th emanner in which they may be bred , and the methods by whichthey may be fitted for the market. This necessary informationmust include a knowledge of the modern breeds which haveusurped the place of the old kinds

,and the pecul iar management

Of the new races Of sheep, as well as Of the special crops neededfor fodder

,and the methods of cultivating them . Heretofore in

place of this practical information , American farmers have beentreated to long dissertations upon the origin and h istory of thesheep

,and descriptions of foreign breeds which are of no possible

value or intel est to them .

The sheep,in addition to its value as a food producer, yields to

its owner an annual tribute in the shape of its fleece , which in the

10 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL

aggregate is a most important contribution to the comfort and in‘

dust-ry of the people . In 1870 there were nearly 30 mill ions ofSheep in the United States, and the wool product ion in that yearamounted to 120 mil lion pounds , estimating the average weight ofthe fleeces at 4 pounds each . The value Of th is wool in the farmers’ hands would reach at the lowest est imate , But sofar from being anywhere equal to the demand for this staple , thesupply was less than our yearly needs by a quantity equal to avalue Of more than and wool to this amount is annually imported from foreign countries. Besides this in wool

,there

is annually imported with it the value of in foreign labor

,which has been expended in manufacturing wool into cloth

and other woolen goods . Our own necessities , therefore , demandan increase in the supply of wool equal to our present production .

This wool,if produced here

,would not on ly u se up a large quan

tity of corn now thrown upon the markets of the world,and

therefore enhance the value of tha t which would remain for disposal ; but its manufacture into cloths and goods would employ alarge number of persons who are now engaged in raising agricul

tural products for sale,and are therefore in active competit ion

with other farmers . The encouragement of sheep cult ivation,

therefore,has a national importance , and is a subj ect which bears

direc tly upon the in terests of farmers . To increase the wool product to a par with the necessities of the country at the presenttime

,would alone involve the passage through their hands of

yearly— an immense sum,which now goes into the

pockets of foreigners,instead of those of our own people .

The scope for an increase in ou r wool product is comparativelyboundless . A full th ird of the territory of the United States is agrand sheep pasture of the most favorable character. Vast plainsbearing abundance of the most nutritious herbage

,in the most

heal thful cl imate,and the very best conditions for the profitable

breeding of fine and middle wool sheep,and which are valueless

for any other than pastoral purposes , stretch from the 100th meridian for 500 miles west to the Rocky Moun tains

,and from north

to south for mi les . In addition to th is vast tract ,upon whicha hundred mill ion Sheep could feed and thrive with case , there areimmense mountain ranges

,extensive valleys

,and again beyond

these , great plains, altogether covering a still l arger area , of which agreat portion is admirably fit ted for the pasturing of sheep . Withso great a SOOpe

'

for the cheap production of wool , it seems to bea strange th ing

,that instead of exporting largely of this staple

,as

we might and should do,the United States on the con trary is one

PRODUCTION or WOOL. 11”

of the largest buyers in fore ign markets. Again , on the Atlanticseaboard there are mi ll ions of acres of land now useless that would ,if cleared and cultivated

,make excellent sheep farms for the pro

duction of the choicest mutton sheep. There are numberless sal tmarshes upon which sheep

,naturally fi tted through long y ears of

adaptation for j ust such pasturage, could be made to yield muttonof the most delicate flavor. There are als o hills and rocky mountains upon whose sweet herbage hardy races of sheep could bemade to thrive with profi t ; and further inland , highly cultivatedfarms

,where heavy crops of green fodder and roots could be raised

,

that might carry flocks of large framed sheep , yielding combingwool—now so much used in cloth ing materials for both sexes ,and the demand for which is always ahead of the supply . Andfurther south

,where it is possible to pasture sheep the year

round,but where those which are now kept are so neglected

that some of them are never shorn there is also vast room tochange the overdone cotton production for the equally eas y butmore profitable product ion of wool which in that cl imate

,by the

exercise of proper care,may be grown of the finest quality of

staple. What a vast field opens upon our view when we considerthe extent of the territory which we possess suitable for sheep culture ; and what profit and increase of national wealth is there inthis business to those who undertake it as the occupation of theirl ives—not only for a short period and intermitt ingly, and then tobe abandoned for some other temporary speculat ive business— bu tw ith a desire and determination to succeed through the exerciseof patience , perseverance, and skill .

CHAPTER II.

SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP .

The selection of a suitable farm should be the first care of aperson who intends to devote his time and capital to the rearingof sheep . To become a successful shepherd

,requires that a person

should have a liking for the business,and possess tact

,pat ience

,

and perseverance suffi cient to resist the temptat ions which mayarise at seasons of depression to abandon i t for some other temporarily more promising pursuit . Having a determination to st ick

12 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

to his flock,he must have a farm su ited to i ts special needs or i t

w ill not thrive . Sheep cannot bear damp ;and undrained pastu resare fatal to their welfare . Luxuriance of herbage is not generallyfavorable unless the land is heavi ly stocked and the pasture keptshort and closely cropped . O ld permanent meadows

,in wh ich a

variety of grasses are found,are better than artificial meadows

which form part of a rotation with other crops . With a portionof such permanent meadow

,there may be many cultivated crops

grown upon the other portions of the farm upon which the sheepmay be folded with benefit both to themselves and the land .

The land most suitable for sheep is one that is naturally drained,

with a sandy loam or gravelly soil and subsoil,and which bears

spontaneously short,fi ne

,herbage

,l argely mixed with white clover.

It should be roll ing,and may be h illy in character rather than flat

and level . Any low spots or hollows in which aquatic or marshplan ts grow

,are very obj ec tionable

,and should be thoroughly

drained . One such spot upon an otherwise admirable farm mayinfect a flock with deadly disease . No domestic an imal is morereadily affected by adverse circumstances than the sheep , and nonehas less spirit or power to resist them . Virgil , the ancient poet, acl ose observer of such mat ters, says of them , Ones semper infelz

’

a:

peca s,”

(Sheep are always an unhappy flock), and many shepherdssince his day have found reason to hold the same belief . But theexperienced sheepmaster has no fear on thi s score. He knowsthat a reputation for success with sheep is never gained wi thou tmerit

,nor lost without deserving ,” and that failure is not want

of luck,as is so frequently declared , but the consequence of ignor

ance or bad management . The carefu l shepherd will not waitto cure

,he is prompt to prevent ; and every defeat is made a new

l esson for study and an example for fu ture avoidance . It is bylong experience that shepherds have learned that the first requisite for success in their business is

,the choice of a farm upon which

their flocks will enj oy perfect heal th . and that dryness of soil andof air is the fi rst necessitv for their wel l being. By a careful and

judicious choice in th is respect , most of the il ls to which sheep aresubj ect

,with all their contingen t losses to thei r owners, are

avoided .

The character of the soil upon which sheep are pastured has agrea t influence in modifying the charac ter of the sheep . Uponthe kind of soil of course depends the character of the herbageupon which the flock feeds. Certain soils , such as those consisting of decomposed granite or feldspar, and which are rich in potash , are not genera lly favorable for sheep . E ven turnips raised on

ON SOILS. 13

such lands sometimes affect the sheep inj uriously , producing disease under which they waste away

,become watery about the eyes

,

fall in abou t the flanks,and assume a generally unheal thy appear

ance . Upon removal to a l imestone , or a dry sandstone soil , sheepthus affected , improve at once and rapidly recover. The lambs

,

as might be expected,are most easily affected

,and many are yearly

lost by early death upon lands of an unfavorable character. Asa rule

,l ands upon which granite

,feldspathic or micaceous rocks

intrude,or whose soils are derived from the degradation of such

rocks,should be avoided by the shepherd . Such soils are , however,

not W i thout their uses, and fortunately are excel len tly adapted tothe dairy . The soils most to be preferred are sandstone and limestone lands

,of a free

,dry

,porou s character

,upon which the finer

grasses flourish . The soils which are derived from rocks calledcarboniferous

,which accompany coal depos its

,or are found in the

regions in which coal is mined,are those upon which sheep have

been bred with the most success . The original home of the Leicester sheep , as well as that of the famous Shropsh ires , is on the redsandstone ; the L incoln is raised on the alluvial soils based on

l imestone ; the Cotswold has had its home for centuries on thelimestone Cotswold hills ; the Sou thdown , Hampsh iredown ,

andOxforddowns

,are native to the chalk hills and downs of sou thern

E ngland ; the Scotch Cheviot and the hardy black-faced Scotchsheep thrive on sandstone hills and mountains of t rap rocks whichrise amongst them the fine wools of Yorksh ire are produced onmagnesian limestone soils ; and to come to our own soils, we-fi nd

the American Merino reaching perfection on the l imestone hill s ofVermont, beneath which fine marbles are quarried . Unfortunately this is the only instance we possess of having given a localh abitation to a race of sheep in America but how soon we shallhave produced or acclimated several breeds of sheep

,which will

take their pecul iarities from the local ity in which they are bredand raised , is only a question of time . P eat or marsh lands areunfavorable for sheep farms . Salt marshes near the coast

,how

ever, may be excepted from this general condemnation,as the

saline herbage acts as a specific against some of the parasitic diseases— the liver-rot mainly— to which sheep are subj ect uponmarshy pastu res . T he Romney-marsh sheep of E ngland are bredsuccessfully upon the alluvial soils of reclaimed marshes , and produce good wool and a heavy carcass. The gigant ic L incoln

,the

larg est sheep bred , originated and thrives in perfection upondrained alluvial soils .The dry , friable nature and porous character of the soil has as

14 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

much to do with the heal th and growth of sheep as the geologicalcharacter of the rocks upon which it is based

,or from which i t has

been derived . The census returns of E ngland show that the highest percentage of sheep to the 100 acres, is found precisely herethe soil i s naturally d rained and dry, and the lowest , where clayabounds

,and damp

,cold soil s with rank

,coarse herbage are gen

cral. In our own country,al though the time has been far too

short as yet for th is condition to operate largely , we find the same4

fact curiously developed,and Ohio and western P ennsylvania

,

with thei r extensive coal bearing formations underlying dry rolling fields

,possess more sheep than any other district

,while New

York,Ill inois

,Indiana

,and Michigan

,which cover an extensive

deposit of l imestones and sandstones,with naturally dry soils

,come

n ext on the l is t . The vast stretch of prairies in the MississippiValley

,and of plains west of the Missouri to the Rocky Moun

tains,chiefly underlaid with limestones and sandstones , and especi

ally remarkable for a dry,porous soil

,which bears a rich carpe t

of the best sheep pastures in the world,have already proved them

selves to be wel l adapted to the successful growth of flocks bearing fin e and medium wools. The rich alluvial valleys of the eastern rivers where natura l ly or artificially drained , have been foundto be fi tted for the production of large bod ied sheep bearing thelustrous combing wools . All these local ities with the hill s andvalleys of the Middle States will in course of time have their flockssu itable in character to the circumstances in which they are kept .But i t w ill only be in consequence of persistence in careful breeding and culture

,that the final type for each local ity will be

reached ; for while the effects of soil and local i ty are unavoidableand imperative

,the shepherd must be able to discover these effects

and aid in giving them the ir due development if early success ist o be secured . But in whatever local ity it may be , if the soili s not naturally drained

,profitable sheep farms may be sough t

in vain . The profit from sheep raising as a special business wil lnot permit of high-priced lands. Where sheep are kept only as abranch o f general farming

,it may pay to drain the soil artificially

but w ithout drainage , natural or artificial , sheep cannot thrive.The sheep must have a dry foot or diseasefollows.

The character of the herbage depends upon that of the soil,and

the character of the sheep is governed by that of the pasture . Itis a very casual observer who th inks that all k inds of grass a re thesame

,and are equally proper for sheep . The sheep itself

knows better than this,and every shepherd has learned that

his sheep will seek particular spots in preference to others in the

ON PASTURES. 5

same field . It has been well said that the dead earth and thel iving animal are but l inks of the same chain of natural existences,the plan t be ing the connecting bond by which they are tied together .” The flesh and wool of the sheep

,therefore are bu t pro

ducts from the soil,and contain noth ing but what has existed in

the plants wh ich the sheep have consumed . When wool is cleanand dry

,100 pounds of it contain 17 pounds of n itrogen

,and 5

pounds of sulphur. When the pasture is sufficiently nutritiousand the sheep is in good health , a quanti ty of soapy, greasy matter,called yolk

,adheres to the fleece . When this is abundant i t is a

proof that the food of the sheep is heal thful and sufficien t . Whenit is deficient , and the wool is harsh and dry to the touch , it is asign that the sheep’s health is suffering from d efective nutriment .This yolk contains a large proportion of potash . To be properlynutritious

,the food must contain this needed sulphur and pot

ash,along with n itrogen and other necessary matters . A fair test

of the requisite qual ity of the food of the sheep may be taken fromthe composition of the flesh and blood of the animal , for there isnothing in the flesh

,skin

,bones

,or wool that does not exist in

the blood. The following are the inorgan ic or mineral materialscontained in the ash of the blood and flesh of an animal

B lood .

Phosphate of Soda.

Chloride of Sod iumlC hlo1 ide of Potassium

Sulphate of Soda 3 85

Phosphate of MagnesiOxide and Phosphate of IronSulphate of Lime

The bones of the sheep contain from 60 to 70 per cent of phosphate and carbonate of l ime , with a l ittle magnesia . The excrement

,both solid and liquid

,of the sheep contain a large variety of

m ineral elements,which are also necessary to the healthful animal

ec onomy. The urine contains two per cen t of mineral matter,and the dung 134; per cen t , the composition of which is as follows

ASH OF URINE .

Sulphate of PotashSulphate of SodaChloride of SodiumChloride of PotassiumCarbonate of Lime .

Carbonate of Soda .

Carbonate of Magnesia

ghosphate of Lime , Magnesia, and Ironil ica

16 THE sn s pns an’s MANUAL.

ASH O F DUNG .

Chloride of SodiumPhosphate of IronLimeMagnesiaPhosphoric AcidSulphuric Ac id

When it is seen how much earthy matter is needed to build upa healthy organism

,and supply the waste of the sheep

,i t is evi

dent tha t the food must be of a character consistent w ith thesed emands, and if by reason of deficiency in the soil , these mattersare not suppl ied

,the animal suffers, or is not fully developed . The

grasses or other herbage upon which the sheep subsist,must there

fore be such as will supply the pecul iar needs of the animal,or

they must be supplemented by additional food . When sheep feedupon grasses deficient in the requ ired earthy matters, they becomeweak in constitution

,and predisposed to d iseas e . To prevent dis

ease and keep the flock in health , the pasture must be supplemented by other feed which wil l supply the deficiency

,and thus

the cost of maintain ing the flock is increased . A pasture that w illsupply all the necessary nutriment must contain those varieties ofgrasses that have been found by experience most su itable forsheep . O f the common grasses there are several varieties whichhave a high reputation for this purpose. The best of these are ofa low growth and creeping habit

,with fine

,short herbage . The

grasses known as Plzleump re tense, (Timothy) ; Arrhena therum a t e

naceum, (Ta ll Oat Grass) ; P oa a nnua

, (Annual Spear Grass) ;P ort pra tensz

'

s, (Kentucky B lue Grass) Festuca ovina

, (Sheep’s Fes

cue) ; P ea serotina , (False Red-Top) ; Agrostis eulgarz’

s, (Red-Top) ;

D actylz’

s glomerata , (O rchard Grass,) when closely pastured Alonecurus p ra tensz

'

e, (Meadow Foxtail ,) wi th Trzfols

'

um repens, (WhiteClover) ; or P lfmlf/go la nceola ta, (the Narrow-leaved P lantain or RibGrass ,) and some other common plants

,form a desirabl e herbage

for sh eep . The Buffalo Grass and the species of Bouleloua,com

monly called mesquit grasses of the west,with the large variety of

l eguminous wild plan ts,make up a pasture that cannot be excelled .

The occasional dressing of pastures with bone-dust,sal t

.and sul

phate of l ime , is of great service,and furnishes a supply of those

mineral matters which are indispensable.

The value of th e differen t pasture grasses are shown by the fol

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

18 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

diseases known as rot , and red water. Hares and rabbits,which

are also subj ect to the rot,and the presence of the accompanying

parasite, the “ l iver fluke,

”wil l travel long d istances in quest of

this herb,and ground upon which it abounds w ill very soon be

eaten bare by them . For these reasons it is usual in E ngland tosow one pound of seed per acre in permanent pastures where i treproduces itself from seed . It is a biennial plant seeding thesecond year of i ts growth .

Yarrow, (Ae/u

’

llea Mellefolc'

um) , a plant of the order to wh ichchamomile belongs

,i s a perenn ial bitter astringent herb natural

ized in this country from E urope . Sheep are greedily fond of it,

and i t is not to be doubted that this instinctive desire i s promptedby a natural n eed for it

,not so much as a food

,but as a medicine

and a tonic . I t is usually sown in ou t of the way places on theborders of pastures or lanes to wh ich sheep have access

,and where

they can go when instinctively desirous of the plant without beingdriven

,and so that it may not become troublesome as a weed by

unduly spreading in the pasture . It thrives best on sandy banksor the h illy borders of woods upon sandy soil . The Ox EveD aisy , (O/wysa ntlzemwn Leucanfltemum) , a plant of the same botanical order w ith the Yarrow

,is also readily cropped by sheep , the

blossoms being especially att ract ive to lambs. Another relatedplant

,the wel l known Mugwort

, (Artemisz'

a.w lgam’

s) , sometimes , bu timproperly

,called wonnwood , also naturalized here from Europe ,

is greedily eaten by sheep . It is also bitter and aromatic and tonicrather than nutritive

. But these aromatic plan ts must not be supposed to be worthless as food

,for the analysis of yarrow shows it

to be possessed of nutritive qualit ies ; 100 parts of the dry herbcon tain

,according to P rofessor W ay , as follows

ANALYSI S OF YARROW .

Albuminoids or Flesh Formers per cent.Fatty MattersCarbonaceous or Heat P roducingMatters .

W oody FiberAsh

Amongst other common plants readily eaten by sheep is goosefo‘ot, or Lamb’s-quarters

, (Okenopodz'

um a lbum) , which growsplentifully all over our states and territories, being one of the mostcommon weeds upon newly broken prairies west of the Mississippi

,and which belongs to the same botanical order of plants as

the beet and the mangel wurtzel . In addition there are severalvarieties of sea weed and other maritime plants which grow upon

GRASSES on THE PLAINS. 19

the shores that are u seful for the subsistence of sheep . Theseplants are rich in the mineral constituents of common salt , instarch and albumen

,and in some local i ties

,flocks of sheep upon

the sea coasts and islands exist wholly upon this adventitious pasturage. A notable case is stated in a recent publ ication , of a largeflock of several hund red sheep which

,for years

,has subsisted and

thrived wholly upon sea weed and wild herbage on an island offthe coast of Maine

,and th ere are many others in which farmers

adjacent to the sea coast in that state and other parts of New

E ngland,subsist their sheep ch iefly during the w in ter upon the

sea weed which is cast upon the shores . These cases, however, areonly valuable as showing how these real ly hardy and easily accli

mated animals may be made to thrive and yield their valuable products of food and clothing

,under the poorest conditions as surely

,

if not w ith equal profit,as under the most favorable circumstances .

The value of the herbage which covers the wide plains of thewest cannot be predicated as yet from any chemical analysis orscientific examinations . In the light of practical experience wedo not need these useful aids and helps . The fact that the grasseswhich cover those plains have supported and fatten ed countlessmillions of buffalo and antelope

,and the experience already gained

in keeping sheep on the plains,are amply sufl

‘

i c ient to attest thenutritive value of those grasses . The Buffalo-grass , (Buchloéf dactyloides), is one of the most nutritious of all grasses . Its creepingroot stems are always green and of great sweetness . It is low ini ts habit as suits a pasture for sheep

,and furnishes good feeding

the year round . Stock that have fed upon i t withou t any help fromo ther feed have been found in spring fat and in condit ion for thebutcher. Meat produced upon th is pasture has a delicate flavor

,

i s tender, and h as sol id fat . Milk from cows fed upon i t bears acream of the richest character and the h ighest color . It prefers dry

,

l ight soils, which are the very best soils for sheep pastures, andi t forces its roots to a depth

,or several feet beneath the surface

,

where it finds moisture even upon the dry plains where the annualrain -fall is scarc ely equal to 10 inches . One of the several kindscalled Bunch-grass ,

”

(Fear/awn acabrella), is another valuable grasscommon in these regions . I t is exceedingly nu tritive and cureson the stalk , thus afford ing winter pasture . O ther species of Festuca are common ,

“Sheep’s-feseue ” already noted

,being abun

dant . For hay for winter u se there are many vari et ies of h ighlynutritious grass . Indian or Wood-grass

, (Sorghum numnsl, is fou r tofive fee t in hight , and is ful l of a rich , sweet j u ice , wh ich is verypalatable and nutritious . There are several other grasses of almost

20 THE SHEPHERD’

s MANUAL.

equal value which enable the flock-master to provide abundantsuppl ies of hay to carry his stock over those short periods whenpas turing is prevented by snow storms . The variety of nativegrasses su itable for sheep pastures is thus seen to be ample

,and no

country in the world is better p rovided ,while few coun tries are sowell supplied w ith them

,as are the United States and territories

over the whole -length and breadth of their vast surface .

The stocking of the pasture must be closely looked to . O vers tocking causes scarcity of pas ture

,and a deficien t supply of nu

triment. It also causes the sheep to take up much sand and earthinto their stomachs wi th their food , which gives them an unthriftyappearance

,and sometimes induces d isease and death . Sheep

pastured on overstocked fields may be recognized by the worncondition of the ir te eth , and cases have occurred in which this testhas ind icated a difference of two years in their age . Four-yearold sheep have exhibited the worn mouths of six-year-olds . Un

derstocking is an error on the o ther side. Unless the pas ture isclosely cropped

,the herbage becomes hard

,unpalatable

,and indi

gestible, and the sheep do not thrive upon i t . I t is a well provedadage that 24 hours’ gras s is best for a sheep ,

and 8 days’ gras s foran ox .

” This ind icates that the close bite of a sheep should beaccommodated by a very close herbage. T h e tender growth of a.th ick

,short pasture is precisely what is wanted , and if the flock is

not numerous enough to keep it short , the fi eld should be dividedinto plots , and those not cropped closely should be pastured downby cattle or left to be mowed . For the better stocking of the past-ures i t would be well , if practicable , to divide the flock

,sorting

lambs and yearl ings from wethers and aged ewes , and putting theformer upon the best and tenderest pasture . This is a poin t ofgreat importance in the management of a flock

,and should be

don e whenever the welfare of the younger or less vigorous sheeprequires it. Where the range is extensive

,and ample pasture is

provided,any supplementary provision further than an occasional

feed of corn ,oats , bran , or oil-meal , is unnecessary . These add i

tional foods should be suppl ied whenever the condit ion of the pasture requ ires i t

,and constant watchfulness should be exercise d to

d iscover the moment when the pastures fail . It is not that the

growth of. the sheep is arrested then , but the quality of the woolsuffers from the moment that the condition of the sheep begins todeteriorate . T he secretion which suppl ies the mat ter of whichthe wool is formed , is then lessened , and the fiber is weakened atthat particular spot . If the adverse condition continues for someday s or weeks, the w eakened fiber forms what is called a break

SUPPLY OF W'

ATER . 21

in the wool . When the wool comes to be carded or combed , thetension overcomes the resistance of the fiber which breaks at th isweak spot

,and the broken fibers go to waste . “

Break in thewool greatly reduces its value

,and as it is wholly cau sed by defi

c ient nourishment or excessive exposure , it is a loss readily avoidedby proper care . T he extra supply of food must be judiciouslyproportioned to the needs of the sheep

,as over supply will resul t

in an equal disadvantage by unduly stimulating the condition andleading to a reaction when the stimulus is withdrawn . E vennessin the fleece

,although it may be of poor quality

,is better than un

evenness,for even if there be only one short break in a fiber

otherwise of general excellence, the whole is reduced by this singlebreak to one-half its proper length . One neglect of a few daysduration is really worse for the fleece than comparatively poorfeeding

,if i t is only adhered to with regularity. P oor feed ing and

general care,result in a gradually d iminished growth and weight

of fleece,but yet may not aflec t the health

,while irregular feed

ing affects the health and ruins the flock completely.

The supply of water is of the greatest importance . A livingSpring or a clear flowing stream with dry gravelly banks is thebest source of supply . Wells are better than ponds or pools .Stagnant water is exceedingly obj ectionable . Hard water is betterthan soft

,and water contain ing much sal ine or other mineral

matter, is a valuable help to the pasture as fu rnishing many necessary substances . When water is exposed to the atmosphere i tdeposits the greater part of any mineral matter it may contain

,

and becomes soft . It is then rendered of less value for stock purposes . There are some waters that contain potash , l ime , soda,magnesia

,iron

,and sulphur in combinat ion with oxygen

,carbonic

acid,and chlorine to the amount of 15 to 20 grains per gallon

,and

such water is a source of nourishment to sheep . P ond or marshwater is h ighly injurious

,as is also running water in which aquatic

plants are found . It is from drinking such water, as much as frompasturing on undrained soils, that the liver flukes, parasites alwaysaccompanying the disease termed the rot, gain access to the stomach and intes tines of the sheep . A deficiency in the necessarymineral matters may be obviated by giving the sheep stated supplies of a mixture of common salt

,sulphur

,sal tpeter

,sulphate of

magnesia, tepsom sal ts) , phosphate of lime , bone-dust , or fine bone ,

wi th a smal l portion of sulphate of iron, (copperas) . A small tea

spoonful of this mixture given once a week to each sh eep wil l helpgreatly to a heal thful condition

,and resist the tendency to disease

caused by inferior pasture or soft water. The study of the plants

2 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

suitable for a pasture , the character of soils, and the water, shouldbe part of the education of every shepherd .

The exposure of the pasture is another important considerat ion.

Long continued cold winds are productive of great d iscomfort andsickness

,and often cause serious l oss amongst the flock . O n the

sea coast,exposure to the moist sea breezes inj ures the quality of

the wool,and renders it harsh and deficient in quan tity . O f two

adj oin ing flocks upon Opposite sides of a h ill facing north and

sou th,the sheep exposed to the north winds will be several pounds .

less in weight,and their wool wil l be whiter

,harsher

,more uneven

,

and less healthy looking,than those of the flock upon the sou th side.

This experience is very common . The lambs will also be lessthrif ty . O f this , many notable cases occur every season wheresheep and lambs are pastured and fed for the markets . The smallsize of sheep raised upon mountain pastures is a case in point .Where the pasture is circumscribed or poor

,i t may be supple

mented by sowed green . crops to be fed on the ground,or cu t and

fed in racks upon the pasture,or cut and carried to yards and fed

there at night in racks. O f these. rye , clover, mustard , rape , tares,and oats and peas mixed

,furnish an abundant supply . Rye is

sown early in the fall for winter and early spring feeding . Forthis purpose it should be sown thickly

,three bushels per acre

being a fair allowance upon fairly good soil , early in August upto the middle of September. The sheep may be turned upon thecrop in D ecember , and at intervals as may be found proper, up toApril

,when it may be plowed down for a spring crop . Upon

l igh t lands, where the w inters admit of i t , as in some of the middleand southern states, this may be made an excellent means of improving the soil ; some add it ional feed , as bran , pea-meal , corn , orcotton-seed-meal

, (freed from the hull which is indigestible andinj urious) , will much assist i n this improvement of the soil as wel las in bettering the condition of the sheep .

After rye, clover sown the previous spring, but not pastured ,w ill come in turn . This w ill furnish pasture through the summerif kept well stocked down

,and a. choice portion should be fenced

off for the lambs. By changing from one part of the field to another, as one portion is eaten down , the new grow th wil l be tenderand fresh . After June a part of the clever will run to seed , andwhen the field is plowed in August or September, the seed wil lhelp to re ‘ sow the ground

,which may th en be sewn to wheat or

rye . This makes“ an excellent preparation for these creps on landsof a somewhat ligh t character.White Mustard , (Sinapz

’

s alba) , may be sewn in May or June for

FODDER C ROPS. 23

feeding in August and until rye is ready . It is difli cult to eradicate from the soil when it once becomes a weed and has beenallowed to take possession . But a careful farmer wil l have notrouble if he manages the crop so as to prevent the seed beingshed . When sown in August, mustard aflords valuable feed during the w inter , and although the ground may be covered w ithseveral inches of snow

,the sheep will scrape off the covering and

get at it . In this way a plot of mustard may furnish a green bite'

all the winter where the snow fal l is l ight . In the spring it shouldbe plowed down early and not allowed to blossom , and a springcrop taken so that the ground is plowed again in the fall . Treatedthus

,the plant cannot ripen and shed its seeds and b ecome trouble

some . Mustard has a pungen t flavor, and contains a large proport ion of sulphur ; it is on this account a healthful fodder for sheep ,and is very much relished by them . It belongs to the botanicalorder of Crucg

’

fem ,to which the cabbage ,rape, and turnip , belong

a family of plants rich in sulphur,lime

,phosphoric acid

,and other

mineral matter demanded for the sustenance of sheep . Two peeksof mustard seed per acre are sewn , and for a heavy crop of fodderrich soil is required .

Rape , a variety of Brassz'

ca, campestrz’

s,is a very hardy plant

,and

produces a heavy burden of fodder which is read ily eaten by sheep .

I t is very similar in habit to mustard,and should be fed off in the

t al l and winter or early in spring. Two peeks of seed are requiredfor an acre. For fal l feed it should be sewn in July or early inAugust . Both mustard and rape succeed very wel l in the northern

, western , and middle states, and would thrive equally wel l inmosc of the sou thern states if sown somewhat later and fed offduri ng the winter. These plants when sown late ripen their seedearly in the second year.Turn ips are a very frequent fodder cr0 p in those parts of Eng

land where sheep are largely raised but the practice of allowingth em to be fed ofl‘ from the ground is fast becoming obsolete

,and

the plan of taking up the crop and cutting and feeding the rootsin troughs upon the fields or in yards is substituted in its place .But the E nglish climate is excessively moist

,and rain falls two

days out of th ree on the average. It is for th is reason,and the ino

j urions effect upon the sheep of the exposure upon muddy fieldsto c old win try rains

,that the practice is falling into disuse . In

parts of the Un ited States we have every advantage for makinguse of so cheap and convenient a plan of feeding sheep uponthese root crops that are not inj ured by moderate frosts . Wherethe fall of snow is light and soon melts away

,as in Virgin ia

,Ten ~

24 THE SHE PHERD’s MANUAL.

nessee,Missouri

,and the states south of these

,this system of win

ter feed ing has been practiced for many years by the bet ter classof farmers w ith success . Mr. C . W . Howard

,of Georgia

,a

highly trustworthy gentleman,a farmer and a frequent writer

upon agricultural topics,and who has given much at tention to the

culture of fodder crops,communicated some time ago to the Rural

Carol inian the following directions and facts in regard to the culture of turnips for sheep feeding in the Open field in the sou th“ Take a field

,plow it deeply with a two-horse plow

,subsoil if

possible,harrow thoroughly and roll . Lay Off the land in rows

two-and-a-half feet apart , with a wide and deep furrow . If therebe not stable manure , apply three to five hundred pounds of Ammoniated Superphosphate of Lime ; th e addition of some potashwould be useful ; throw the dirt back with two furrows , and levelthe ridge with a board . Use the Weathersfield drill

,or some

other,Oosting about nine dollars . Sow with it two pounds of seed

to the acre . The W eathersfield drill opens the furrow,drops the

seed,covers

,and then roll s i t by one and the same process. When

the plan ts have formed the third leaf, which is rough , th in themout with the hoe and hand to about eight inches apart

,give them

a good plowing with a narrow scooter, and the cul tivation iscompleted . The cultivation of an acre of turnips will cost asfollows :

P lowing .

HarrowingRoll ing

SowingB oeing and ThinningP lowingFertilizer

$17 25

The result w ill vary according to the soil , the season , and thecul tivation

.Five hundred bushels i s a poor crop. One thousand

bushels is a good crop . Fifteen hundred bushels is an extraordinary crop

.This number of bushels, was made last year

by D r.Lavender

,of P ike County, Ga. That gentleman took the

premium at the last Georgia State Fair. His statements deserveimpl icit rel iance

.They were made under oath . His process of

obtaining this remarkabl e yield was as follows :The soil was a sandy loam . Turned over a heavy clover sod

in June with a D ixie plow harrowed twice with a Nishwitz harrow on the 2lst of August ; ran twice in the furrow , deposi ted inthe bottom of the furrow pounds Of stable manure , com

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

26 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

turnips are sown in July, and white turnips in July or August .The soil is prepared by previous plowing and manuring , and mad efine and mellow ; the seed is sown in d ril ls 30 inches apart , andthinned out to 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows . A crop of rootsgrown 18 inches apart, each root weighing 6 lbs . , w ill yield 34 tens,or bushels tothe acre . For beetsor mangels

,4 lbs .

Of seed per acre isrequired if sownwi th a drill ; ofru ta-bagas and turnips 2 lbs . of seed issown . The best beetis Lane’s ImprovedSugar Beet ; thebest mangel

,the

Long Red ; the Fig. 1 .— P 1T FOB ROOTS.

best ruta-baga, theP urple-top Swede ; the Aberdeen turn ip is better than the whi te ,nearly as good as the ruta-baga ; the white turnip has the

Fig. 2.—ROOT -CUTTER .

vantage that it can be sewn late and follow an oat , barl ey , or ryecrop

.The harvesting is done by cutt ing off the tops with a sharp

FEEDING ROOTS. 27

hoe and plow ing a furrow on one side O f the row O f roots,when

they may be pulled from the ground with the hoe or by draw inga dull harrow over the field . The crop i s saved by keeping theroots in cellars or pi ts . P i ts are simply conical heaps coveredwith straw and earth suffi cient to keep ou t the frost , a foot O fstraw and a few inches of earth being su ffi cien t protect ion , (see

fig. Boots should be sl iced or pulpezl when fed , as they aremore readily eaten ,and there is no danger O f the sheepchoking by swallowing too large pieces.A simple cutting mach ine is shown in fig .

2. It consists Of awooden wheel furh ished with longkn ives se t at an anglesimilar to the ironsin a plane

,wh ich cut

the roots into thinsl ices . Fig. 3 is apulper in which , instead of knive s , thereare 144 sharp chisel ; Fig.

—RO0 T PULPER .

points made of quarter-in ch steel, (see a), by which the roots are

torn into shreds and reduced to pulp .

When crops are fed upon the ground,a special arrangement of

temporary fences is used . These are constructed of hurdles , Ofwhich there are several kinds. O ne Of the most readily constructed hurdles is made of light stakes pointed at the ends andfastened together with bars of split or sawed saplings or laths, suchas are shown at fig . 4 . These are made in panels about n ine feetlong, with stakes five and a half feet high .

Q

A line of these hurdlesis set across the field

,enclosing a plot in which the sheep are con

fined,until the crop on the ground is consumed . The shepherd

takes a light pointed iron bar w ith which he makes holes in theground to receive the pointed lower ends of the stakes

,and drives

them down firmly by striking the tops with a wooden mal let . Asthe crop is eaten

,the l ine of hurdles is moved along the field until

the whole is consumed . Much economy in labor of setting thehurdles may be exercised by laying ou t the plots in a certain manner. For instance

,if a square field Of ten acres is to be fed Off

, the

28 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

p lan shown in fig. 5 will be found very convenient . The distanceacross the field is 220 yards. This is the least length of hurdlesthat can be used . But if the field is divided O ff in to strips across,the whole Of the hurdles must be moved each time, and if the field

Fig. 4 ,

—HUR DLE .

is divided into eigh t strips,there will be seven removals of every

hurdle,or the whole length Of netting. In the plan here shown

,

only half this work is necessary,and a field may be divided into

eight sect ions by moving half the hurd les seven times . For ihstance

,plot 1 is fed by placing the

hurdles from a to b,and from c to d .

P lot number 2 i s fed by moving theline from c

,d to b

,e. The next setting

Of the hurdles is from c to f , the nextfrom b to g, the next from h to t

’

,the

n ext from I) to k,the next

,and last

,

from 1 to m. There will be eightset tings Of 110 yards each

,instead of

seven of 220 yards each,which would

be necessary should the field be fed Ofl‘

in the usual manner of st rips across i t.In place Of these hurdles

,netting Of cocoa-nut fiber or hempen

cord is Often used . This is supported by stakes driven into the

ground and hooks, (see fig . Netting Of this kind is made in

Fig. 5 .-PLAN FOR SETTING

HTTRDLE S.

PORTABLE FENCES. 29

England in lengths O f 100 yards, and widths of 4 feet, at about $9the 100 yards . At this price it could be imported with profi t , andprobably cheaper than it could be manufactured here . Anotherform O f hurdles not quite so portable, but more easily moved andset is illustrated at fig. 7. They are 12 feet long, and are made Ofa stou t pole bored with two series Of holes 12 inches apart . Stakessix feet long are put into these holes. SO that they proj ect fromthem three feet on each side of the pole. O ne series Of holes isbored in a d irectionat right angles tothat O f the o ther,and when thestakes are all properly placed

,they

form a hurdle theend Of which lookslike the letter ! .

The e n g r a v i n gshows how thesehurdles are madeand the method ofusing them . A rowis placed acrossthe field . A shi p

of ten fee t wide isset off upon whichthe sheep feed .

They eat UP al l the Fig. 6.—SHEEP NETT ING.

herbage upon thisstrip and that which they can reach by putting their heads throughthe hurdles. The hurdles are then turned over

,exposing another

strip of forage. When this is fed off the hurdles are again turnedover

,and so on . The cheeauw-de-f

‘

re’

se presented by the hurdlespreven ts any trespassing upon the other side of them , and by usingtwo rows the sheep are kept in the narrow strip between them.

Their droppings are therefore very evenly spread over the field ,and i t is very richly fertil ized by them . At night the sheepare taken off, and when the field has been fed over, they arebrought back again to the start ing point and commence once moreto eat their way along. When the crop i s cu t and fed to the sheep ,a somewhat difl‘

erent arrangement is made . This may be made a.valuable means Of improving land . A badly run-down field intested with weeds

,may be cleared Of rubbish , fertil ized , and

THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

PENNING SHEE P IN THE FIELD . 1

brought into grass or clover by judicious managemen t in this way .

Portions of such a field may be set O ff with hurdles as before described , a rough shed erected in which the sheep may be securedat night

,and in which an ample sup ply Of bedding or dry earth , or

other absorbent is placed beneath them ,and here the crop grown

upon another part O f the farm,aided by purchased food , if such

be available,is fed in portable troughs

or racks. A very convenient rack is theone shown in fig. 8 . This is extremelyportabl e

,and may be moved from one

part of the fiel d to another with greatease . Where sheep are permanentlykept

,and fixed arrangements are made

for the flock,it is frequently found con

venien t to provide a permanent and safeshed

,in a cen tral position

,in which they

may be confined at n ight , and from whichthey can be turned into d ifferent fields orportions of the farm . A shed that hasbeen found very conven ient in use isshOwn at fig. 9. It is buil t at the centerO f four fields

,and has doors Opening into

each of them , and is so arranged that itmay be entirely closed from all bu t theone which may be in use at the time .For the protection of the sheep atnight

,small paddocks may be fenced in

around th is shed,and safety from dogs

secured by the use of dog guards. Theseconsist of wires made to run above thefence or at right angles with the top O fi t, as shown at figures 10 and 11.

The separation O f the flock into partsconsisting Of ewes and lambs

,weaned

lambs and weaklings, and rams andwethers, is very necessary. Ewes andnursing lambs should be provided withthe best and tenderest pastures ; the weaned lambs and weaksheep should have a place where they can be furnished with someextra feed withou t interference from stronger neighbors

,and

rams and wethers may do well enough on the coarser herbage.

A frequent change of pastu re i s very advantageous for the flock.

Sheep n aturally love change, and after they have wandered over a

°HOVH

EI’IHVLHOJ

32 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

field w ill become restless, and try to escape . The best method ofkeeping them contented and quiet

,is to change their pasture as

soon as they are Observed to wander about restlessly . They are

Fig. 9 ,—SHE EP SHED .

then losing flesh . To rest rict sheep to one kind of food for aperiod Of more than thirty days, has been found to seriously im

pair their h ealth . Fresh fields and pastures new are thereforenecessary to their welfare , and their health cannot be maintain ed

Fig. 10.—Doe GUAR D .

unless this peculiarity is recognized and accommodated . It isbetter to divide fields into paddock swhere small flocks are kept ,

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

34 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

and to keep them in such a way as w ill produce the highes t pricedlambs . Where mutton is the most profitable , there a differen tmanagement must be adopted

,and frequently a different breed of

sheep must be kept . Where wool on ly is the Obj ect , still anotherd ifferen t course will be chosen . Whichever end is to be gained ,the care O f the breeding ewes and the lambs will be a subj ect ofmuch solicitude. But what would be a proper course in one casewould not be at all proper in another . A few general principlesare involved in the management O f ewes and lambs

,which w ill

first be expl ained , after which the special management prOper tobe adopted for each special case will be considered .

The period of gestation Of the ewe is 150 to 153 days . Fivemonths in round numbers may be taken as the period du ringwhich the ewe carries a lamb . The coupl ing Of the ewes andrams should be so t imed

,that the lambs may be dropped at the

most desirable season . It wil l be found a great convenience tomark the rams and ewes

,or such of them as may be selec ted to

breed stock animals from . Where a small flock only is kept,or

where special careis given to the improvement O f thebreed

,every sheep

should be markedby a number

,that

the time Of its coupl ing may be no ted ,and the date of theexpected b irth Of

the l amb be known . The best method of marking is by means O fmetall ic ear marks , (fig . made by C . H. D ana

,of West Lebanon

,

N . H .,inserted in the car in different way s, to d istinguish the sexes

easily . The method of keeping these records may be as follows : A book is provided which is ruled with six columns . Atthe head Of these columns are wri tten the number of the ewe thatOf the ram , the date of service , the expected time of the lamb s appearance, the date when it is actually dropped , and any remarksworthy of note . The following d iagram exhibits this clearly

Fig. 12.—METALLI O EAR -MARKS.

Under the head Of remarks should be written anything that maybe desirable to remember in regard to the character of the produceof the anim 113 coupled . A ewe that produces a fine

,large

,active

CARE OF THE RAM. 35

lamb , that is a good nurse , and that rears a profitable marketlamb

,or that rears twins successfully, is a valuable animal to re

tain in the flock so long as She remains product ive. Such eweshave been kept until 10 or 12, or even 16 years Old , and to be ableto ident ify a ewe O f th is kind is very necessary when the greatestprofi t is the Obj ect sought, and more especial ly in those cases whenthe special business IS to rear market lambs or increase the flockrapidly

. NO more than 30 ewes should be apportioned to oneram in any season , unless h e be a full grown one and in vigorousheal th

,and it would be well to Observe the mi les laid down in a

succeeding chapter especially d evoted to breeding, for the management Of the ram at this season . If the ram is equal to thework

,50 ewes may be given to him ,

but it is be tter to err on thesafe side in this matter

,as overwork simply means barren ewes

and loss O f lambs . At the breeding season the ram should besmeared upon the brisket every day with a mixture of raw lin seedO il and red ocher, so that he w ill l eave a mark upon each ewe thatmay be served . As the ewes are served they are to be draftedfrom the flock and placed in a field or yard by themselves. Tworams should not be kept together in a small breeding flock

,as

quarrel ing and fighting are certain to resul t and great damagemay occur. If two rams are necessary

,each may be used on

alternate days . Wethers are a nuisance in a flock O f ewes at thisseason

,disturbing them and keeping them and themselves from

feeding. A plan fol lowed with advantage where the flock consistsO f heavy bodied sheep , and where the necessary at tention can begiven , is to keep the ram in a yard or paddock by himself, out ofsigh t Of the ewes , and to al low a wether to run w ith them . Aseach ewe comes in season

,the wether singles her out and keeps

company with her. On the retu rn Of the flock from the pastureat n ight

,the ewe or ewes in season are turned in to the ram un til

they are served,when they may be removed at once

,or left with

him until the morning . In the morn ing , if any ewes h ave comeinto heat du ring the n ight

,they may be served before the flock i s

turned into the pasture . This is continued until it i s known thatall the ewes are in lamb . By th is method a ram may be made toserve double the number of ewes that he would if allowed indiscriminate access to them

,and exhaust himself in u seless and need

less repeated exertions.As soon as the ewes have been served

,the t ime of each is en tered

in the record as previously described . They are carefully pre»

served from all worry by dogs and needless driving or handling.

P eace and quietness at th is season will tend to the production Of

36 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

quiet and docile lambs. The shepherd should make himself veryfamil iar with them , and by giving sal t or meal in the hand , or asmall d ish

,reduce them to a condition O f perfec t docil ity . Any

ewes that have either refused the ram or have failed to breed,

should be dosed with two ounces of epsom salts and be stin ted intheir feed for a few days to reduce their condition . This wil lgenerally be effective in bringing them into season . Good faircondi tion is better than an excess Of fat

,but ewes in poor cond i

t ion cannot be expected to produce other than poor,weak lambs ;

neither w ill an excessively fat ewe produce a strong lamb. Some

extra food will now be needed by the ewes,and Should be given

at first in small quantities. Bran,crushed mal t

,and crushed oats

and corn mixed , are the best kinds of food . O il-cake,either of

cotton-seed or linseed , unless used w ith great cau tion , is not alwaysa healthful food for ewes in lamb . Any food that actively affectsthe bowels , either way , is to be avoided . Half a pint a day may begiven of the first mentioned foods

,and a change from one to an

other may be frequently made . SO long as pasture is to be had,

th is allowance will be sufl‘i cien t . When the w in ter feeding commences , the rat ion O f grain should be gradually increased until , atthe period when lambing time approaches, a pint daily is given .

Cold watery food is h ighly dangerous at th is t ime,and roots

should not be given in large quantities , nor at all unless pulpedand m i xed with cu t hay and the grain . Turnips or other rootsthat have been h ighly manured with superphosphate O f l ime hasbeen said by several experien ced E ngl ish breeders to be productive Of abortion . Water should be given in small and frequentquantities. It is best to have running water or water from a wellalways at hand for the ewes . If the ewes have not heretofore beenkept apart from the rest of the flock, they should now be separated . The general treatment O f the ewes up to this time shouldbe such as will keep them free from all excitement , and in good ,healthful condition . The record should now be consul ted , and asthe ewes near their time they should be removed into a part Of thestables or sheep barn

,where each one can have a small pen to

herself. These pen s should be made so that l ight can be shut ou tif desired . Here they are permitted to drop their lambs in perfec tquiet ; by this means few ewes wil l d isown their lambs, and nolambs wil l be lost by creeping into feed racks or out Of the wayplaces. The pens should not be larger than 5 x 4 feet . As soonas the lamb is dropped and the ewe has owned and l icked i t

,and

the lamb has once sucked,all danger

,except from gross careless

ness, is passed . The ewe will be greatly helped by a drink of

CARE on THE EWE. 37

sl ightly warm , thin oat-meal gruel well sal ted . The lamb will bebenefi tted by a teaspoonfu l of castor o il , given in new milk, if thefirst evacuations do not pass away freely . These are apt to bevery glutinous and sticky

,and by adhering to the wool to close

the bowel completely unless removed . Warm water should beused to soften and remove these accumulations. The anus andsurrounding wool should then be smeared with pure castor oil.If the lamb is not suffi cien tly strong to reach the teats and suck, itshould be assisted once or twice . Any locks of

_wool upon theewe’s udder

,that may be in the way

,should be clipped . If the

lamb is scoured,a

teaspoonful of amixture of onepint of peppermintwater and oneounce of preparedchalk should be

given every threehours, unti l i t isrel ieved . Whenthe ewe refuses toown the lamb

,she

may be confinedbetween two smallhurdles , as shownin fig. 13 . Twoligh t stakes aredriven in theground close together to confinethe ewe’s head and keep her from butting the lamb . If she isdisposed to l ie down , as some obstinate ones will do

,a ligh t pole

is passed through the hurdles resting upon the lower bar beneathher belly. Thus confined during the day, she is helpl ess , and ifthe lamb is l ively, it w il l manage to get its supply of food

.

Theewe should be released at night . One day’s confinement is oftensufiicient to bring an obstinate ewe to reason .

A twin lamb, or one deprived of its dam,that may need to be

reared by hand, may easily be fed upon cows’ milk.A fresh

cow’

s milk is the best fi tted for th is purpose. Ewe’s milk is richer

in sol id matter than that of the cow,and the addition of a tea

spoonful of wh ite refined sugar to the pint of cow’s milk willmake it more palatable to the lamb . At first not more than a

Fig. 13 .—HURDLE S FOR EWE .

38 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

quarterof a pin t of milk should be given at once. The milk shouldbe freshly drawn from the cow, and warmed up to 100 degreesbefore it is fed . A convenien t method of feeding milk to a lambis to use a small t in can w ith a long spout , such as is used for oil .An air-hole is punched in the cover or cork and a piece of spongecovered with a cloth is tied upon the end of the spout . The flowis thus made easy and equal, and the lamb sucks in a natural manner. The accompany ing illustration , (fig. shows the method .

A very short time is suffi cient to familiarize the lamb with thiskind of foster mother. To encourage the flow of milk in the ewe

Fig. l4 .— FE ED ING LAMBS.

and the corresponding growth of the lambs,the food of the ewes

should be of the best character. Clover hay , bran , and crushedoats

,with some pea-meal , are the most preferabl e foods , produc

ing a rich milk in abundance . The ewes must not be al lowed tofall off in condition

,or the lambs will fail. D uring mild weather,

sugar beets may be given in moderate quanti ty w ith advantage ,but mangels or Swede turnips

, (ruta-bagas) , should be avoided astoo watery and deficient in nutriment

,and productive of scours in

the lamb . In cold weather roots are apt to reduce the temperature of the animal too suddenly if given in any but small quant io

ties , and consequently decrease the flow of milk . Pea straw is afavorite and nutritious food for sheep

,but it will be found profi to

DOOKING AND CASTRAT ING LAMBS. 3 9

able to give only the very best at hand to nursing ewes.The

after growth and condition of the lambs will greatly depend uponthe maintenance Of a thrifty and con tinuous growth during thefir st three months of their ex istence

.

At the age of a week th e operations of docking and castratingthe male lambs

,may be safely performed

. At this age the vounganimal suffers bu t l it tle , there is no loss of blood

,and the wounds

heal by the first intention . The rough and ready method of clipping oif the tail an inch from the rump

, first drawing the skinupwards, and of clipping Off the scrotum and testicles altogetherw ith a pair of sharp sheep-shears

,will be found perfectly safe if

done b efore the lamb is two weeks old . The nerves being veryslightly sensitive at this t ime

,the painful , and when later per

formed , dangerous operation O f emasculation is only sl ightly fel t,

and within an hour a lamb bereft of tail and generat ive organsw ill frequently be seen skipping play fully in the sunshine . TOdock an O lder lamb is a more troublesome Operat ion .

To do thiswi th facil ity, a block Of wood about a foot h igh

,a sharp

,broad

chisel , and a wooden m.allet

,are required . T he operator stoops

w ith bended knees, the block being in front of him,takes the lamb

w ith its head between his knees and its tail in h is left hand,he ld

ing the chisel in his right hand . Backing the lamb’s rump upclose to the block , he lays the tail upon it

,and d rawing back

the skin O f the tail up to the rump,holds the chisel lightly

upon the tail close to and below the fingers of the left hand.

When all is ready he directs an assistant to strike the chiselsmartly with the mallet

,by which the tai l is instantly severed

abou t two inches from the root . A pinch of powdered bluestone(sulphate of copper), is placed on the wound , and the lamb is released . TO castrate an old lamb w i th s afety , the scrotum shouldbe opened by a long free incision with a sharp knife at the lowerpoint

,the animal being at the t ime turned upon its back and

secu red in that position . The scrotum should be held in thehand tightly enough to keep the skin tense . The cut should bemade only through the skin and coats of the testicle , and not intothe gland

,by wh ich a great deal of pain is spared to the animal .

The gland will escape from the scrotum at once if the Opening ismade large enough . It may be taken in the left hand and the cordand vessels scraped apart

,not cut

,by which bleeding is prevented

and healing made more certain and rapid . The Opening being madeat the bottom of the scrotum

,allows the blood and any pus that

forms in the wound,to escape freely. It might probably be bene

ficial to insert a smal l plug of tow in the wound , proj ecting out of

40 THE SHEPHERn’s MANUAL.

i t a short d istance to prevent the edges from heal ing until the ihflamma tion has subsided. This method of Operation is a safe one,and i f i t is neatly done

,the losses need not be one per cent

,while

frequently three lambs out of five may be lost by any othermethod .

While the lambs are still with the ewes, and although the ewesmay be well fed with a special view to the thri ftiness of the lambs

,

yet a supply of addi tional food for the latter w ill be of great advantage to them . To furnish a young animal with all the foodthat it can d igest

,and that of the choicest character, is to create a.

sturdy , thrifty , strong constitutioned animal that wil l be prolificin reproduction and long l ived . To advance the maturity ofan animal is also to lengthen its l ife

,for it matters not at which

part o f its productive career we add a year , i t certainly , so far asprofi t is concerned

,l ives a year longer for us. If a yearling ewe

can be made to produce a healthful , strong lamb, or a lamb can bebrought by care to maturi ty for the market at eighteen months instead of thirty months, this resul t is simply equal to a profit of 40per cent . And feed is the agent by which this profi t is secured , ofcourse made available by proper care in selecting the breedingstock . To provide the means whereby the lambs may procure theextra feed needed for their rapid development, many contrivanceshave been brought into use . Generally these are modifications ofthe plan of providing a pen or yard adj oining that in which theewes are kept, with creep holes in the fence through which thelambs can gain access to it . In this yard some feed , consisting ofoats

,rye

,and wheat bran ground together very finely

,is placed in

troughs or boxes,and l ightly sal ted . They will soon find th is, and

will resort to it several t imes a day . A very simple and couvenient lamb creep ” is figu red at fig . 15

,and has been illustrated

and described in an English j ournal,the Agricultural Gazette. It

is very frequently used by E ngl ish farmers, and is worthy of beingadopted by us . It consists of a small double gate or two half gatesse t at such a distance apart that the lamb can easily force itselfthrough between them . An uprigh t roller on each side of theOpening assists the lamb in getting through the space , and preventsit from rubbing or tearing its wool. The gates are pivoted at topand bottom

,so that they will open a littl e ei ther way ; a wooden

spring being fixed so as to keep them closed after the lamb haspassed in or ou t. The lambs pass in or out at will. Creeps ofthis kind can be made so as to occupy a panel of fence or a gateway , and of a portable character, so that they can be easily fixedto the fence-post on each side bv a wire or w ithe , and removed

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

q.

42 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

both by a stin ting of food and by the nervous irritation conse

quent upon their sudden deprivation . The dams in full flow ofmilk, thus at once deprived of the means of relief, are subj ectedto the engorgement of the udder

,with the consequent congest ion

of all the organs connected therewith . This shock is very inj urious , and frequently produces inflammatory d isorders of the bloodor garget. To avoid these ill effects of the sudden change

,it is

wel l to remove the lambs to a distan t pasture,along with some

d ry ewes or wethers for company . The novel experience of afresh pasture will cause them to forget their dams

,and they will

u tter no complaints nor manifest any uneasiness. At night theyshould be turned in to the fold w ith the ewes

,whose full udders

they w ill speed ily relieve . By withdrawing any extra feed b ithe rto given to the ewes , somewhat gradually, (in no case is i t wiseto make a sudden change in the management of sheep), their supply of milk will gradually decrease . and in two weeks the whole ofthe lambs may be weaned with perfect safety to themselves andthe ewes.After having been weaned

,the lambs should have the first

choice of pasture and the best and tenderest cu ttings of the foddercrops . Many farmers have found it advantageous in every wayto turn newly weaned lambs into a field of corn in the month ofAugust . The corn is too far grown to be inj ured , the suckersonly will be n ibbled by the lambs

,and the weeds which grow up

after the corn is laid by,will be eaten closely . The lambs also

have the benefi t of a cool shade,and where such a field can be

conveniently applied to th is purpose,there are several reasons

Why it migh t well be done .The condition of the ewes must not be neglected at this time .The chief danger is in regard to those that are heavy milkers .Such sheep should be closely watched , and the milk drawn byh and from those whose udders are not emptied by the lambs .The first approach to hardness or heat in the udder should beremedied by an immediate dose of an ounce of epsom sal ts dissolved in water

,and mixed with a teaspoonful of ground ginger.

The next two days 20 grains of sal tpeter should be given eachmorning and evening

,to increase the action of the kidney s. These

remedies will generally relieve the udder,and wil l tend to greatly

reduce the secretion of milk . If hay is given i n place of grass,and the ewe confined in a cool darkened pen , the drying up of themilk will be hastened .

As the improvement of the flock can be bet ter tr ade from withinthan by giving the sole attention to bringing new blood from

SELE CTION OF LAMBS FOR BREEDING . 4 3

without,i t will be very important to select the best lambs , both of

rams and ewes,for breeders. The selection should be made

chiefly in reference to the purposes for which the flock is kept,and strength of const itut ion

,rapidity of growth , size , tendency to

fat ; fineness, length or quality of wool , and prolifi cness and certain ty of breeding

,i n the parents as well as, so far as can be

j udged of,in the lambs themselves

,should be made th e tests by

which the selection is determined . If the production of earlylambs for market is the obj ect

,the produce of those ewes which

bring single lambs of large size and quick growth will be chosento increase the flock ; if the production of mutton sheep, then thoselambs from ewes which drop tw ins

,and are good nurses , ought to

be kept ; and if wool of any particular k ind is desired then theselection should be made chiefly in reference to that . On no ao

count should weakly lambs,or those ewes which are poor nurses,

or fail to breed,or which exhibi t tenderness of const itution , or are

wanderers,or of uneasy

,restless dispositions

,be retained ; but

such unprofitable animals should be closely weeded out and fat ~

tened for sale or for slaughter. The choice of ram lambs is ofch ief importance

,for the influence of the ram runs through the

flock,while that of the ewe is confined to her produce alone . To

select a lamb for a stock ram is a matter requiring a knowledge ofthe principles of breeding

,and some tact and experience . The lat

ter qualifications cannot be acquired from books,but must be

gained by practice ; nevertheless , much as to the selection of lambsmay be learned from a careful considerat ion of what w il l be foundin the succeeding chapter, which is specially devoted in part toth is importan t branch of the shepherd’s knowledge .The proper age for breeding differs with th e class of Sheep bred .

The Merino is not mature enough for breeding un til fully two orthree years old . O ther breeds which matu re more quickly areripe for breeding as yearlings

,but there is nothing gained by suf

fering any sheep less than a year Old to reproduce . A young ramin its second year may be allowed to serve a few ewes

,if he is

vigorous and wel l grown . A ram at two years may serve 30 ewesin a season , and after that from 50 to 60 or 70, according to themanner in wh ich he is kept

,and if he is restricted to no more than

one or two services of each ewe . The strength and vigor of thelamb certainly depends on that of the ram by which i t is sired , aswell as on the condition and character of the ewe . Ewe lambs ofless than a year old Should be kept in a separate flock by themselves where _

they may not be disturbed by the rams . The secondyear they are capable of breeding

,and if they have been well

44 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

cared for, w ill produce as large lambs and as many twins as oldersheep . The young ewes having their first lambs are apt to be nervous

,and need careful attention at yean ing time ; i t is then that

the great convenience resulting from having a docile and friendlyflock

,well acquainted with

,and confiding in , the ir shepherd , is

man ifest . The young ewes should not be put to the ram until theolder ones are served

,so that they will not drop their lambs until

the spring is wel l advanced, and the pressure upon the shepherdbecomes lighter. As a rule they are poor nurses, and if the seasonis cold

,wil l lose many lambs . If they are not allowed to have

lambs until April or May, so much the better ; it will then be necessary to keep them from the ram until November and D ecember.D iffi culty in parturi tion is sometimes experienced with young ewes,and assistance is often needed . This should be gi ven w ith theutmost gen tleness and tenderness. When the presentation is allright and natural

,and the fore feet appear

,but difli culty occurs in

ej ecting the head,a very sl ight and slow drawing upon the feet

may help the ewe in expelling the lamb . Somet imes in her nervous struggles the head may be turned backwards

,and does not

appear when the fore legs have protruded . In th is case the lambshould be gently forced backwards

,and the hand or fingers

,well

O iled with l inseed oil,and the finger nails being closely pared

,are

insert ed , and the head gently brought into position , when it w il lbe expel led without fu rther trouble . For more difli cult and ah

normal presentat ions,the services of an experienced shepherd w il l

be needed , but such cases are very rare, and w ill very seldom oc

cu r if the flock has been carefully attended to , and has not beenoverdriven , or worried by dogs, or knocked about by horned cat tl e.When a ewe loses her lamb i t is best to make her adopt one ofanother ewe’s twins . This may be done by rubbing the skin ofthe l ive l amb with the dead one

,removing the dead one and shut

ting up the ewe and l ive lamb together in a dark pen . When alamb loses her dam , it may be given to a ewe that has l ost herlamb , or from which her lamb has been taken , or with care it maybe brought up by hand without difficulty . In every considerableflock i t will pay to have a fresh cow on hand at the lambing season , to fi ll the place of foster mother to disowned or abandonedlambs, or to assist those whose dams for any reason are short ofmilk .

The question a s to when a lamb becomes a sh eep,al though of

no practical u til i ty,has sometimes been of suflicient importance

to require a decisive reply. A legal decision was given in anEngl ish court not long since

,which is probably as reasonable as

PREVENTION OF DISEASE . 5

we may expect, and may be accepted as being au thoritative . Thequestion arose ou t of the killing of some sheep on a railroad by apassing train , and it was denied that the complaint was properly-made , the animals being lambs, and not sheep . The j udge decidedthat lambs ceased to be lambs, and became sheep as soon as theyhad acqu ired their first pair of permanent tee th . This change ofteeth generally occurs when the lamb is a year old

.At this period

the middle pair of the first teeth drop ou t,and a pair of the per

manent incisors appear. At one year and n ine months,two more

of the first teeth are dropped and two more permanent incisors,

one on each side of the former pair,appear

. Nine months la ter,two more permanen t incisors appear in a similar manner

,and nine

months later still , another pair are produced , SO that at three yearsand a quarter the sheep has eight permanent incisors or nippers

,

and is then called a full-mouthed or perfect sheep . These periodsof dentition are irregular

,and in some of the early maturing

breeds, the first pair of permanent teeth w ill appear before th eend of the first year

,and at 16 months

,four permanen t inc isors

may be found . The earl ier maturity of the high bred and highfed races of sheep

,such as the Leicester

,Cotswold and ShrOp

sh ire,sometimes amounts t o a gain over the common breeds of

nearly a year in t ime,and full-mouthed sheep of no more than two

years and a half old are not uncommonly met with .

The diseases to which lambs are subj ect are bu t few,and those

are mainly the result of carelessness in thei r management . Thelamb

,which appears so del icate and tender an animal

,is really

hardy,and resists much il l treatment

,else with so little consider

ation as they usual ly rece ive,the race would soon become almost

ext inct . D amp and cold are especially to be guarded against inthe spring , and fi l thy yards at all seasons. With clean pens anddry

,clean bedding

,they will resist the severe dry colds of a north

ern January,and thrive and grow while snow storms rage

,if

only wel l sheltered . Sunsh ine has a remarkable effect uponlambs

,and the warmth of the sun will often revive and strengthen

a weak lamb that appears past rel ief. E xtremes of damp and impure air in close pens

,and bad drinking water, will produce d iar

rhea and paralysis,and these are the chiefly fatal d isorders to

which they are subj ect . Constipation is produced by want ofproper laxative food

,and permitting them to feed on dry

,withered

herbage that has lost its nutrit ive qualities beneath the storms of awinter . If the direct ions as to their t reatment heretofore gi ven ,are followed

,there wil l rarely be any need of remedial measures,

and prevention will be found better than any amount of cure. If,

46 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

notw ithstanding all possible care,some weakly lambs are found

to require treatment, the s imple purgatives already men t ioned inthis chapter

,viz : a teaspoonful of caster or raw linseed oil will be

found efl'ec tive, after two or three doses , in removing the trouble

some matter from their intestines , and restoring the bowels tohealthful action

.If in any case , a stimulant seems to be needed ,

as when great weakness and prostration are present, the safest is a

teaspoonful of gin , given in a l ittle warm water w ith sugar. A

stil l more gentle s timulant and anodyne , but one very effective in

prolonged d iarrhea,is prepared by adding to a pint Of peppermint

water,one ounce of prepared chalk, a teaspoonful each of tinc

ture of opium and of tincture of rhu barb ; i t is worthy of the

name given to it by shepherds , viz :“ lambs cordial

,

” and at the

lambing season no shepherd should be w ithout a supply Of it»

The dose is a teaspoonful for a lamb of a few days old , up to atabl espoonful for one of a month . E xposure to cold rains shouldbe Specially guarded against . and if by inadvertence a lamb is foundchilled and rigid from such exposure, it may general ly be restoredby means of a bath of warm water and a teaspoonful of warm sweetened gin and water. After the bath the l amb should be gentlyd ried , wrapped in a warm flannel

,and placed near a fire or in a

wooden box in a gently heated oven of a common stove . Wherethe flock is large

,and the kitchen is not w ith in reach

,the shepherd

should have the conveniences of a shed and an old cooking-stovein which he can keep a fire sufficien t to heat a water bath , and provide a warm bed in th e oven for any lamb that may need suchattention if the flock numbers several hundred head in all

,

there wil l seldom be a day in our changeable spring seasons whenthere will not be one or more patients to be treated . The specificdiseases to which lambs are subj ec t will be found treated of atlarge in Chapter VII .As the season progresses , and shearing time for the ewes haspassed

,the lambs will be found covered with ticks

,unless care has

been exercised to free the flock from this tormenting pest . Theseticks are w ingless, broad , plump , dark red insects, abou t a quarterof an inch in length

,and covered with a very tough and leathery

integument . They are known scientifical ly as Metaphagus om’

nus,

and produce a puparium which is 'nearly round in Shape,red in

color,and as l arge as a radish seed or duck shot . The legs of the

tick are short and stou t,and it adheres with great tenacity to the

wool . By means of a proboscis as long as its head , it pierces theskin and sucks the blood of its victim to such an excess that whennumerous, they have been known to almost entirely empty the

REMEDY FOR TICKS. 47

veins and deprive a lamb of l ife . The draft upon the vi ta l i ty oflambs infested w ith ticks is very great, and sufficient to arres t th eirgrow th al together. To rid the flock of these pests is therefore anecessary labor in the spring or early summer

,and if need be ,

again in the autumn . The easiest remedy is to d ip both sheep andlambs

,as soon as the sheep are shorn

,and again in August or

September, in a decoction of tobacco mixed with sulphur . Coar seplug tobacco

,or tobacco stems

,which are cheaper than the leaves

,

and equally effective,are steeped in water at a boiling heat

,but

not bo il ing, at the rate of four pounds to twenty gallons of water.

Fig. 16.

— D IPBING SHE E P .

O ne pound of flowers of sulphur is then stirred in the liqu id,which

is brought to a temperature of 120 degrees,and kept so during the

dipping by the addition of fresh hot l iquor. D uring the dipping,

the mixture is kept stirred to prevent the sulphur from subsid ing.

The dip may be conveniently placed in a trough or a tub largeenough to allow of the immersion of the sheep or the lamb

,which

is taken by the feet by two men and plunged into the bath at thetemperature mentioned , where it is held for a minu te or two untilthe wool is thoroughly saturated . The animal is then placed in apen with a raised floor slop ing on each side to a trough in themidd le, along which the superabundan t l iquor escapes in to a pailor tub placed to receive it . The method of d ipping

, (shown at

48 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

figures 16 and is calculated for small flocks,or for a few hun

dred lambs. For larger flocks, a larger tank is provided , 12 feetlong

,three feet w ide

,and four feet deep . A fenced platform leads

from a pen in which the sheep are gathered,up to the edge of the

dipping tank, and the sheep are taken one by one from the pen,

led up the platform , and pushed into the tank in which the dipis sufificiently deep to c over them . As the sheep plunge into thedip , they are se ized , and kept beneath it , except the head , whichalone is suffered to emerge above it . If in their struggles a l ittl eof the dip should enter their nostrils

,no harm results

,bu t the hot

tobacco water is , on the contrary , often beneficial to those sheepwhich are affected by catarrh or grub in the head

,and the violen t

sneezings which follow may help to free them from these troublesome parasites which often inhab it the nasal sinuses. The sheepare rapidly passedfrom hand to handalong the tank nu

t il they reach theend , where there isa sloping plankupon which theycan walk up t oanother platform .

Here they are al

lowed to remainwhile the excess of(lip is squeezedfrom their wool .From this theliqu id drains into tubs, and is carried to the boiler to be re

h eated , and then returned to the tank for use again . The cost ofdipping a large flock , numbering several thousands, in this man

ner twice in the season is five cen ts a head , and the improvementin the qual ity of the wool , wh ich resul ts from the cleansing of theskin from dust

,grease

,and the accumulated refuse of its secre

tions,and its increase in quantity consequent upon the greater

comfort of the sheep and th eir escape from the persecution oft icks and other parasites , ,is est imated at 20 cents per head , so thatthe cost is repaid more than three-fold . The comfort ing knowledge to the . humane shepherd that h is flock i s freed from a mostannoying tormen t is al so something

,which

,although i t does not

enter into a pecun iary calculation,and is not measu red by dollars

and cents, yet is not on that account unworthy of consideration .

Fig. 17.

- TROUGH FOR D IP P ING LAMBS.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

50 THE SHE PHERD’

S MANUAL.

necessary to have a store of food and a feed ing place,it may be

well to consider first the subj ects of shelters or barns,feed racks

,

and facil i ties for watering.

The first requisites for the comfort of sheep in their winterlodging are a dry clean floor

,a tight roof

,and abundan t ventila

tion . The site of a sheep-house should therefore be well drained,

and of such a character that it can be kept clean and free from‘il th . It should , if possible, be on high ground which slopes eachway from it , but at any rate it should slope to the south or southeast . The house should be wel l roofed and provided w ith raintroughs and spouts to carry the water away from the yard intoe ither a covered drain or a cistern . It should be open at the front

,

protected only by a proj ecting roof . and the walls, if of boards,need not be battened over the joints, as the air which will enter

Fig. 18.—EHE EP BARN .

through these cracks will be no more than will be needed to keepthat w ithin fresh and pure . Some more carefully protected shel termust be provided for the use of yeaning ewes and young lambs ,in a part of the house or in another building

,but until the appear

ance of the lambs is looked for, this warmer shel ter will not beneeded . The loft over the lower apartment w ill be u sed for storing hay or other fodder, and space for th is purpose may be economized by having the upper floor only so far above the groundfloor as will allow the shepherd a comfortable passage beneath it .A building which is well arranged and convenien t is shown infigures 18 , 19, 20, and 21 . The follow ing descript ion with theillustrations are taken from the Amer ican Agriculturz

'

st. It consists of a barn , shown at fig. 18

,about 20 feet w ide

,16 feet h igh

BARNS AND SHEDS. 1

from basement to eaves,and as long as desirable . This is in tended

to store the hay or fodder. The posts,sills

,and plates are all 8

inches square , the girts and braces are 4 inches square, the beams2x 10, are placed 16 inches apart , and are cross-bridged withstrips

,3 inches wide. The hay is piled inside , so that the feed

passage below,over

wh ich there are trapdoors

,is left uncov

ered . The hay isthrown down throughthese doors

,and fall s

upon a sloping shelf,which carries it intothe feed racks below

,

(see fig . The

basement under thebarn is 8 feet high

,

and is of stone onthree sides ; the frontis supported by posts8 inches square

,and 8

feet apart. Betweeneach pair of posts adoor is hung uponpins

, (fig. whichfi t in to grooves in the

posts, so that the doormay be raised andfastened

,in such a manner

,as to close the upper half of the space

between the posts; or be h eld suspended half way , leaving thewhole open ; or be shu t down and close the lower half ; or beremoved al together. By th is contrivance at l east half the front

of the basement must be left open,

whether the sheep be shu t in or out .The floor of the basement should besl ightly sloping from rear to front , so

Fig. 20 .—HANGINO D OOR that it will always be dry . Fig. 21 showsFOR BARN' the plan of the basement . The feed

passage is shown at c ; the stairway to the root-cellar at b, and theroot-cellar at a . Fig. 19 gives a sect ion of the whole barn . Thehay

-loft is above,and the passage-way and the doors

,by which the

hay is thrown down to the feed-racks below ; as well as the slopingshelf by which the hay is carried into the feed-racks are shown

Fig. 19,—SEC TION OF BUILD ING.

52 THE SHEPHE RD’

S MANUAL.

Below the feed-rack is the feed-trough for roots or meal . A doorshuts off this trough from the sheep at the front, wh i le the feed isbeing prepared , and when it is ready , the door is raised , and heldup to the feed-rack by a strap or a book. The feed-rack is closely

Fig. 21.—eROUND PLAN OF BARN.

boarded beh ind,and th is back part

,which is in the feed-passage,

slopes forward to the front , so as to carry the hay forward to thebottom . The front of the rack is of upright slats, smoothlydressed

,two inches w ide

,and placed three inches apart . T he

b oards of the feed-trough are smoothly dressed and sand-papered,and all the edges are rounded . so that there is nothing by whichthe wool may be torn or rubbed off from the sheep’s necks. Itwi ll be seen by this arrangement, that there is no dangerous thing

Fig. 22.

—SHE E P SHED FOR A SMALL FARM.

by which a sheep or a lamb might be hurt , nor a place where itcan get in to mischief. The root-cellar is at the rear of the basemen t

,and is reached by the stairs already mentioned . The cost

of the barn here described , if bu ilt of pine or hemlock lumber, in

BARNS AND SHEDS. 53

54 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

a plain manner, and of sufficient size to accommodate 100 sheep,would be from $300 to $500.

Another sheep -house suitable“ for small farms,that i s designed

for small flocks, i s shown at figure 22. It is altogether openin the front onthe ground floor

,

and is intendedto face to thesouth . This is avery cheap andconvenien t shedfor a small flockit has an enclosedyard at tached toit . A shel ter intended for a largeflock is shown atfigure 23. Thisb u i l d i n g waserected by Mr.George G rant , ofVictoria

,Kansas,

for h is flock ofsheep . The

walls are of stone,and the roof ofboards . The mainstructure is 570feet in length

,

and the threew ings are each ofequal length . Thewidth of each ofthe sheds is 24feet

,and the h ight

of the walls 10feet . At one corner of the “ cor

Fig. 24 .-MR . SHAw’

s SHE E P SHED .

ral ,” which is the name given on the western plains to such sheds

as this and other enclosu res , is the shepherd’s h ouse , in which heresides, and is at all times near h is flock, and abl e to render immediate at tention . A shed of this character is rather costly in i tsconstruction , and a small capital ist would find it beyond the limi t

BARNS AND SHEDS. 55

of his resources . O ne of a cheaper construction and less perm-as

nent character,but nevertheless of equal value for shel ter so long

as it lasts, is shown in figure 24. Th is shed was buil t by Mr.Shaw

,of Syracuse , Kansas, and was found to answer every pur

pose. I t is made of posts set in the ground , which suppor t a singlesloping roof that is thatched with coarse hay from the river bottoms adjacent to his location. The enclosure contains a windmill,watering trough

,stack-yard

,and feed-racks, and is in tended to

accommodate a flock of 200 to 300 sheep The length of the ehclosure is 200 feet,and the width 100

feet,making in all

600 feet of shed .

Figure25 representsthe sheep-fold ofMr. Henry Nason

,

of O range C . H. ,

Virginia, in whichhis flock of 300 ewesis shel tered fromthe weather as wellas from dogs andthieves by night.This flock

'

is keptmainly for the production of earlylambs for market.E special at tent ionis given to the comfort and care ofthe ewes and the lambs, and warm separate pens are provided forthem when they require them . The yard

,a,is 100 feet -square

,

divided by a hurdle fence,shown by the dotted lines

,into as many

portions as may be desired . The entrance is at b,whe re there is a

gate hung upon a post, 0 , in such a way as to Open or close eachhalf of th e yard . The yard is enclosed on three sides by a

shed 10 feet high,with a roof sloping both ways . The ground

floor, 7 feet high , is appropriated for sheep pens, and the threefeet above for a hay loft . T he shed is 12 feet wide

,and has a

row of separate pens 6 feet wide,upon the north side . O n th e

o ther sides there are narrow doors for the sheep,seen at d

,d,and

sliding shutters , e, e, 8 feet long, and 3a} feet high , which are alsoused for entrances to the shed. The yard is closed at the front by

Fig. 25 .—PLAN OF MR . NASON’

S SHED .

56 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

a fence 10 feet high . There are no outside w indows,and only two

doors,and but one of these

,that at f , is locked from the out

side,so that the turning of one key secures th e whole enclos

ure from trespassers . There is a second yard , 150 by 135 feet,upon the sou th side of the sheep yard , with an Open shed facingthe south

,and d ivided into pens 9 feet deep

,for cows or sheep

,

and a pig pen 35 feet square , at the south -east of the sheep yards .These sheds are made of in ch boards , nailed up and down uponthe frame work

,and the roof is of boards,with a sufli cient pitch to

Shed rain perfectly.

In estimating the size of the sheds required for any given number of sheep i t wil l be safe to allow 10 square feet of floor to eachsheep

,when a yard adjoining the shed is provided

,and there is

abundant ventilation in the shed ; and 125 square feet when thereis no yard

,but only the most ample ventilation by means of boards

at the eaves, to be let down , and trap-doors in the roof to beopened . Space may be economized if thought desirable , and theexpense of the sheds reduced

,by having a second floor for the

sheep which is reached by means of a sloping passage-way ofplanks upon which cleats are nailed crosswise to afford a foothold .

Sheep will readily ascend a gang-way of this kind , and will choosethe upper in preference to the ground floor. The upper floorin this case must be made perfectly close and tight , of matchedboards tarred at the j oin ts

,and ample dry bedding should be pro

vided to absorb all the moisture . This floor should not beless than seven feet above the ground floor ; th is will secure suffi cient ventilation if the lower doors are d ouble , and the upperhalves are kept open , and there are a sufficient number of openwindows or ventilating boards or spaces. A Shed 20 by 50 feetw il l comfortably contain 100 moderate-sized sheep ; 75 large Cots~wold or Leiceste r sheep have been accommodated in a lean-to shedof this size

,w ith venti lating boards and traps in the roof. In

this shed there was a ventilating board arranged near the bottomby partly opening which , a plenty of fresh air could be admitted .

O n the whole, the sheds with a half open front , that may be closedwholly or partly

,with a yard adj oining

,will be found preferable

to those which are made to be entirely closed .

A convenient barn wh ich furnishes space for shearing,room for

the storage of wool,pens for lambs and ewes

,and lofts for fodder

and straw,with ample open sheds and a roomy yard

,is shown at

figure 26. It can be made larger or smaller,to suit the needs of a

large or small flock . The main building,of which this is a repre

sentation, is raised four feet from the ground upon posts, and the

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

58 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

litter daily thrown down in the shed . Hardwood sawdust, dry

seasoned peat or swamp muck,forest leaves , dried spent tan

bark,long or cut straw ,

chaff,or even sand , make very good litter

and absorbents. If a supply of these materials can be procured,suffi cien t for daily use in a crowded pen or yard , the straw, which

would otherwise be needed for this purpose , may with greateconomy be reserved for fodder. If straw or corn-fodder cu t intosmall p ieces, is fed in the racks once a day , there will be a certainport ion pulled out on to the floor which will add to the l itter. Ifstraw is used for litter

,it should be cu t into chatl

‘

, which wil lmuch facil itate the removal of the manure 111 the spring. This isespecial ly conven i en t if pea straw is used , for when a quantity of

pea straw and manure is trodden together, they form such a.

tangled mass that i t is a most tiresome labor to fork it up and rem ove it. Corn-stalks should not be thrown under foot for thesame reason . If it is thought proper to remove the li tter anddung periodically

,every week for instance, then the floor should

afterwards receive a heavy coating of dry l itter . In case the manure is removed

,i t should not on any account be heaped in the

yard. It will undergo an active fermentat ion and become hot,giving forth clouds of vapor in damp weather, and at all timespungent gases . Some of the sheep w ill choose the manure heapto l ie upon at n ights

,and every one that is suffered to do this will

inevitably sicken , and become affected with catarrh or pneumonia,or lose its wool in patches . E ither the litter should not be cleanedout at all , or it should be removed to a distance from the yards.It is easy to manage matters either way

,so that the air of the shed

will be pure and free from offensive smel l,if proper attention is

given , and the shepherd is watchf ul and careful of the conditionof the floors of the shed .

The feed-racks should be so made that the sheep can procuretheir feed wi thout tearing the wool from their necks or fi llingtheir fleeces wi th dust, chafi”, or hay-seed . The floor of the loftshould be made close and tigh t

,using either matched boards or

double boards laid so as to break j oints,and preven t the dropping

of dust from above . A rack for hay or straw should be made inthe manner shown at figure 27 ; it should be 31} feet h igh at thefront. The bars are only three inches apart . They should bemade of ash , chestnut , or oak strips , dressed and smoothly sandpapered , and an inch thick by one and a quarter w ide. The fron tof the rack should SIOpe backwards at the top 3 or

‘

4 inches . Thisprevents hay or clover dust from falling out upon the sheeps

’

heads . At the rear of the rack sloping boards are fitted,so that

FEED RACKS. 59

as part of the hay is eaten , the rest falls down to the front wherethe sheep can reach it . The end of the rack should be closed withbars in the same way as the front , so that young lambs cannotcreep in and get lost. For want of this precaution a fine l ively

young lamb will sometimes ge t into a t igh t place, where i t maybecome ch illed and die. Th is rack may be made of any length,and should extend all round theshed ih order togive the greatestpossible exten tof feeding room.

The form of thisrack prevents thes h e e p f r omthrusting theirheads betweenthe bars andwearing the woolfrom their necks,or from strangling themselvesby getting their Fig. 27.

—FEED -BACK.

heads fast be

tween the bars, which thev will do with many of the racks incommon use , of which the bars are frequently too far apart .For feeding cut or pulped roots

,or fine feed

,such as bran-meal

or grain , a rack made on the plan of that shown at figure 8 on

page 31, will be useful . The rack there figured is a portable oneintended for use in the field or yard

,but a fixed rack similar to it

may be made in the shed if desired . The bars placed over therack prevent the stronger sheep from crowding the weaker onesfrom their feed

,and getting more than their share

,and also pre

ven t the more active ones from leaping into the trough in theireagerness to procure an undue portion of food .

The variety of foods suitabl e for the winter feeding is extensive.Hay , st raw,

pea and bean haulm,corn-fodder, roots of variou s

kinds, com,oats

,peas

,rye

,buckwheat

,cotton-seed and linseed

oil-cake-meal,and bran

,furn ish a variety of food from which a

proper choice can readily be made . The relative feeding valuesof these various substances u sed as food

,will determine their rela

tive money values,and as these differ and fluctuate from time to

time , it is often necessary , to secure the most profit on the feeding,

60 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

to choose the food that is most economical in use,although it may

be the highest in price . Clover hay is the most valuable single foodfor winter u se , if it has been out when in blossom ,

cured so as topreserve all i ts good qualities

,and kept free from damp and mold

.

Where the main obj ec t in view is the production of market lambs,

clover hay should fu rnish the chief subsistence of the ewes.It

will also be found preferable as the staple and cheapest fodderwhen sheep are purchased for feeding for market

,and the most

rapid growth of flesh is desirable. Well cured pea straw will bechosen by sheep next to clover hay and before timothy or anyother hay. Oat straw is readily eaten by sheep

,and is a heal thful

food , especially if harvested before the oats were dead ripe. Bar

ley, wheat, and rye straw will help to keep l ife in a flock,but are

not suffi ciently nutritive to contribute much to the growth of fleshor wool , and should be used only as adj uncts to roots and grain

,

or oil-cake-meal . Rye s’

traw is apt to be sprinkled w ith dust ofergot , a fungus which is frequently found growing on the heads ofrye, and which has a highly inj urious effect upon pregnant ewes,producing abort ion or premature births of the lambs. Rye strawis also frequently the cause of great inflammation of the stomachsand intestines of sheep

,from the penetration of the mucous coats

by the sharp awns or beards of the heads. Cases have occurredin which th e stomachs of sheep fed on rye or bearded wheat straw

,

have been found after death thickly studded with the beards,

which caused inflammation of the coats of the stomachs and consequent death . Such straw should be avoided as food , and usedonly for l i tter. The haulm of beans when well cu red and saved ,is both palatable and nutritious

,and the leaves of corn-stalks fur

nish a food which is useful as a change of fodder, bu t is not nu tritious enough Of itself to support sheep in good condition . Therelative values of the various dry fodders above mentioned may beestimated from the fol lowing tables, in wh ich their compositionand the proportion of actual nutritive matter contained are given .

C OMP OSIT ION OF HAY, STRAW ,AND C ORN-FODDER .

IN 100 PARTS OF Water . Ash

Meadow HayRed C lover Hay .

Bean StrawW heat. StrawRyeBarley Straw.

O a t

C orn Fodder

FEEDING VALUE OF HAY AND STRAW . 61

The composition of clover hay here given is of that out when inblossom

.If out when ripe , this hay has 4 per cent less of flesh

forming material, 9 per cent less of fat , starch , sugar, and gum , or

material forforming fat and sustaining respiration, and over 12perper cent more of crude fiber or indigestible matt er.

C OMPARATIVE NUTR IT IVE VALUE S OF HAY,STRAW ,

E TC . ,

IN ONE HUNDRE D PARTS.

MeadowHay (as the basis) is estima ted a t

Clover HayPea StrawBean StrawWhea t StrawRye StrawBarley StrawOat StrawCorn-fodder, (leaves) , (estima ted )

The different quantities of these several fodders which wouldhave to be fed to produce equal nutritive effec ts

,may be tabulated

as follows, each quantity given be ing equ ivalent to 10 pounds ofcommon meadow hay of mixed grasses of standard qual ity .

QUANT IT IE S OF VAR IOUS FODDE RS E QUAL To 10 P OUND S OF

HAY IN FE ED ING VALUE .

Meadow HayCloverHayPea StrawBean StrawWheat StrawRye StrawBarley StrawO at StrawCorn-fodder 40

The last two tables must be taken with some qual ifications.The values of these different articles of fodder are subj ec t to verygreat variations , arising ou t of the conditions of their growthand the time and manner of harvesting

,curing and preserving

them . With the single exception of corn-fodder,however

,the

estimates here given will approach very nearly the actual feedingvalues as found in practice ; the corn-fodder w ill be found ofsomewhat higher value than indicated by the above figures

,est i

mated from a comparison of it s constituents w ith those of oat

62 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

straw . Generally , those who have fed this material largely, andwho have taken pains to harvest i t when the corn is just glazed,and before the frost has stricken it

,and to cure and house it care.

fully, wil l agree that it at least more nearly approaches in value togood meadow hay than to oat straw

,while some careful

,intelli

gent,and observant feeders w ill insis t that i s very nearly

,if no t

quite equal as fodder,to ordinary meadow hay . The impossibil

i ty of subsisting sheep upon straw will be manifest when its val ueis compared with that of hay ; for if 3 pounds of hay would supply a sheep of 100 lbs. l ive weight with sufficient nutriment tomaintain it in a thriving condition , as i t should do , 17 to 20 lbs . ofstraw would be required as an equivalent

,which is a quantity that

no sheep could possibly be made to consume. Therefore, whensheep are w intered in the straw yard , unless they have a sufli cientsupply of grain along with the small quanti ty of straw they canbe made to consume

,they must l ive in a state of semi—starvation

,

a condition in which unfortunately no t a few flocks are expectedt o exist . Roots furnish a staple food of the greatest valu e forwinter feeding of sheep . When fed in proper quantities, theirl axative effect heal thfully Opposes the tendency of dry hay orstraw to produce costiveness, and in addit ion they supply a considerable proportion of needed phosphates and sulphur for thegrowing animal and its fleece. But if fed in excess , the largequantity of water they contain

,and their large bulk, especially

when they are fed in the w inter,reduce the temperature of the

animal too much,and gradually act unfavorably on the health.

When ewes in lamb are fed roots in any bu t very smal l quantities,abort ion is frequently produced , and this il l effect has been noticed

more conspicuously when the roots have been manured heavilyw ith superphosphate of lime . This has been not iced by some extensive feeders and breeders in England ,where that fertil izer islargely used in root culture

,and their experience should serve as

a warn ing to us . The reason assigned for the loss of lambs byabortion when many turnips are fed

,is not only that the foetus is

affected by the presence of a mass of very cold matter in the stomach of the ewe

,bu t that there is an irritation produced in the in

fest ines by this unacceptabl e food , which causes the death and expulsion of the foetu s . Nothing of the kind has occurred in flocksthat have been largely fed on cooked roots, supplied at such atemperature that wou ld prevent a chil l to the animal . It may,therefore

,be understood that it is the low temperature, generally

near freezing,and often below it

,at which the roots are given ,

and nothing in the roots themselves that act thus injuriously.

FEEDING VALUE OF ROOTS. 63

Knowing this, the il l efl'

ect l ikely to he produced , may easily beavoided .

The roots that are generally fed to sheep are sugar beets,man

gels , ruta-bagas ,yellow turnips , and white or cow-horn turnips,and

are to be preferred in the order in which . they are here enumer

ated . Their comparative nutritive value may be gathered fromthe following table, the estimates in which are from analyses byDrs. Voelcker and Lankester

TABLE OF THE NUTR I T IVE E LEMENT S OF ROOTS.

m 100 PARTS OF

Sugar BeetsMangelsRuta-bagasY e llow Aberdeen TurnipsWh ite G lobe Turnip

Considering the large quantity of water contained in them,roots

may be considered as highly nutritious food,and when fed in con

j unction w ith dry fodder, and in proper proportions , are greatlyconducive t o the health and grow th of the sheep . Their effectupon the quality of the wool , especially the lustrous wool of someof the long-wool sheep , is very favorabl e . The proper quantityof root s to be given depends upon the kind of sheep . As asafe guide , it may be estimated that one bushel of roots wil l be asuffi cien t daily all owance for 10 sheep weighing 150 lbs . each , l iveweight

,if along with the roots

,lb . of hay and 1} lb. of meal or

bran per head be given . The question of food rat ions will,how

ever,be considered at length in another place.

Grain,or preparations of grain of various kinds

,furnish the

concentrated foods,which are found needful to maintain sheep in

a healthful condi tion,or to induce rapid growth and fattening for

market . These foods exist in abundant variety, but no one alonecan be fed with the greatest benefit for any length of t ime . A ‘

change of food is both acceptable to,and healthful for sheep

,and

the difference in the money value of these art icles of food,wh ich

exists at nearly al l times,makes it necessary to exercise a jud i

c ious choice in this respect , in order to secure the greatest profi t.The feeding value of these various substances used as winter feedfor sheep

,varies greatly, as may be seen from the following table :

64 THE SHE PHERD’s MANUAL.

C OMPARATIVE NUTR IT IVE VALUE S OF GRAINS AND GRAINP R ODUC TS.

IN 100 PARTS OF

C ornOatsBarleyP eas

RyeBeansBuckwheatC ottons eed-c ake without husks.

P eanut C akeLinseed C akeBran

,

Bran ,

Shorts , (Wheat)Malt Sprouts .

MaltOf this 16 per cent consists of oil.

The analyses here given,however

,are but an obscure guide as

regards the comparative values of th e d ifferen t substances for produc ing fat . It i s very important to arrive at a clear idea of thisin feeding sheep, because the qual ity of the wool depends greatlyupon the secretion of a requisite amount of y olk which consists in

great part of oil and a matter approaching in character to wax,

to say nothing of the desirability Of rapidly producing fat . Thefat-forming elements in any article of food consis t of starch

,sugar

,

gum,oil

,and fat , all carbonaceous matters , or mat ters rich in car

bon,with the addition of certain proportions of hydrogen and

oxygen . The chemical composition of these elements is very similar, and in some of them is nearly identical . Thus an animal fedupon starch or sugar

,may become fat

, and it is well known thatb ees fed upon sugar are able to produc e either honey or wax fromthis food . In the processes of digestion and assimilat ion

,starch

,

sugar, and gum, are changed to fat . Th is fat is either consumedin the process of respiration

,or is stored up in the tissues of the

body, and increases the weight of the carcass. But in the conosumption of food rich in starch

,a much larger portion is necessary

to produce a given weight of fat , or a given result in the processof respiration , than is required of a food rich in fat or oil . Therelative values of fat or O il

,and starch

,as nutritiv e elements

,is as

one of the former to two and a half,nearly

,of the latter

,or exact

ly , as 10 i s to 24 ; that is, 10 lbs . of oil or fat will go as far in producing fat or in maintaining respiration , and the natural heat of

1

0

55

05

4

3“911

5

2

8

7

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

30m

22

3

2

8

6

154

4n

0 .

2

53

5

2

5

5

00

5

08

0

fi5

0.

5

0

89

31

5

94

1

7

5

81 flu

8

1

1

1

8

99

3

2

5

645

3

05md

700.

cccccsee

ms

9

a

m4

w5

a

a

a

0.

0

0

4

0

5

0.

0

m3

05

7

0.8

ooooooooo

11

11

11

1

11

1

11

t orthis 11 per cent consists of fat and oil.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

66 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

fleece rich in oil or yolk,as that of a pure-bred Meri no

,those

foods which would furnish abundant flesh should be chosen for theone, and those rich in starch and O il for the others. By thuschoosing j udiciously and skillfully , there is an economy in the costof the food , and the obj ec t sought is gained at the least expense .Much may be gained by varying or mixing the food of an ani

mal so as to stimulate the appetite ; for a healthy animal w ill ii icrease in weight in proportion to the food consumed so long as d i

.gestion and assimilat ion are perfect . If a sheep only eat 3 lbs.of hay per day , but will eat and digest in addi tion 6 lbs . of sl icedturnips or beets , with a pound of bran sprinkled upon them ,

amanifest advantage is gained . If changing the hay for straw

, 10

lbs . of turnips and 1 lb. of bran or oil -cake-meal can be consumed,

the money value of the food may be reduced , and the sheep beequally well fed.

In es timating the amount of a sheep’s food,it i s necessary to

take into consideration the age and cond ition of the animal .Whether it be in a growing state or in a state O f maturity

,its

weight,and also the d rain upon its vi tal ity, as in the case of a ram

serving a number Of ewes d aily ; or a ewe in l amb , or suckling alamb or a pair of them . O n this account i t i s absolutely necessaryto grade the flock and provide d ifferent quarters for thos e whichneed special feeding or care . As a guide for the estimation of aproper quantity of food

,and for a j udicious sel ect ion of the kinds

which may be fed,i t w ill be u seful to cons ider the following

instances.In an experiment recently made by D r. Voelcker , the chemist

of the Royal Agricultural Society of England , four sheepwere fed for seven weeks upon 196 lbs. of clover hay, 49 lbs. ofl inseed-cake-meal

,and lbs . Of mangels ; equal to a daily ra

tion for each Of 1 lb . Of clover bay , 4 ounces O f linseed-cake-mcal,and 191} lbs. Of mangels .The nu trit ive elements contained in this daily ration were equivalent to 41, ounces of flesh formers , 53 1} ounces of fat formers , and

42ounces of mineral matter.

Upon th is mixed diet the sheep thrived and gained weight as

followsGain in

o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c c c c c c c c

EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING . 67

The gain on the average was equal to one pound in three days ;or an increase in weigh t of one pound for every 56 lbs. of foodfed or for every 62 ounces of dry matter contained in the food.

This is a very good instance O f a typical fattening food for an ord inary sheep of this size. The results of a large number of experiments made in feeding roots to sheep , go to show that 150 lbs . ofruta-bagas

,or mangels

,fed in open yards

,or 100 lbs . fed in yards

with sheds for protection,may be expected to produce one pound

of increase in l ive weigh t. When 11} lbs . of a mixed feed of oilcake and peas were given daily

,along with 18§ lbs . of ruta-bagas,

fed under shelter the gain was equal to 2 lbs. for every 100 lbs . ofroots

,and 4l lbs. of mixed peas and oil-cake ; showing that 4} lbs.

of peas and oil-cake produced an increase of one pound in the liveweight. A number of experiments in feeding clover hay withlinseed-Oil-cake-meal

,have established the fact that

,allowing 6 lbs .

of oil-cake-meal for one pound of increased live weigh t,i t required

11 to 13 lbs. of hay to make an equal gain . In feeding peas andbeans with root s and hay

,8 lbs. of the mixed grain was found to

produce an increase in weight Of one pound. When oats were fedwith the roots, there was one pound of increased weight for 7 lbs.of the grain . When barley was substituted

,6 lbs. of the grain

produced a gain of one pound . These interesting experiments arerecorded in the Journal Of the Royal Agricul tural Society

,Vol

.

I , p . 169 ; Vol . VII, p . 295 ; Vol . VIII, pp. 27, 28 , and 256 ; Vol .!

, p . 358, and the Highland Society’s Transactions ; and are sub

stantiated by expe riments made by Messrs . Lawes and Gilbert, of

Rothamstead,in which they found that 2724} lbs. O il-cake , 252i

lbs. clover hay, and lbs. ruta-bagas,fed together

,produced

100 lbs. of increase. These resul ts must of course be accepted assubj ect to variations in the quality of the various feeds

,the kind

and condition of the sheep, the state of comfort and repose inwhich they are kept, and the care and attent ion given to them

.

But making every allowance for contingencies,i t may be safe to

estimate from these resul ts, that the .relative quant ities of th e different feeds required to produce one pound of flesh

,are as follows

Ruta-bagas fed in 0 en ardsRuta-bagas fed undgr W i lgglb

s.

Good c lover hay . 12Beans or peas . 8Oats

7

6Linseed-O il-cake-meal 6Linseed-oil—cake-meal

, and peas mixed 4 i“

The last quantity mentioned,curiously enough corroborates the

68 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

personal experience of many shepherds, and the remark heretoforemade to the effect that much is often gained by vary ing or mixingthe die t of sheep . In this instance the same effect is gained by theuse of three-fourths the q lJantity of the mixed feed , as by thewhole quantity when given separately. The actual money cost ofthe feed may thus be estimated nearly enough for al l practicalpurposes. In estimating the values of the kinds of food morecommonly used in the Un ited States and Canada, there are butfew really trustwor thy data to depend upon , as the careful experimental feed ing of animals for scientific information

,has rarely

been attempted . We have nevertheless amongst the curren t agricultural l iterature of the day

,many recorded results contributed

by careful and em inently capable and trustworthy men . Fromamongst these the following have been selected as being practicaland to the purpose . In an article communicated to the CountryGen tleman , by the Hon. George Geddes, of Fairmount , N. Y . , in

May,1875, are given , the cost of feeding, and the gain in weight of

290 sheep fed by Mr. O . M . Watkins,of O nondaga County, during

the previous w inter,and particularly the cost

,etc . , during the

month of January. The flock consisted of 100 grades,being half

Merino and half Cotswold ; another 100 that were Merinos, and 90were called ful l-blooded Cotswolds

, (probably high grades). All

these sheep were fed al ike,each having one pound of corn daily

—half of it fed early in the morn ing, the other h alf at sunset .Straw and chafi

'

were fed during the day,and one feeding of hay

at night. The corn was worth 80 cents for 60 pounds, the hay $10a. ton . The quantity of hay fed was reported as equal topounds to each sheep per day—making 40 pounds for the month,worth 20 cents . The corn for the same t ime was worth 41 cents

,

making the cost of corn and hay for each sheep for the month,

61 cents.The 100Merino and Cotswold grades increased from 117m} lbs. eachto 128} pounds , th is being a gain for each sheep of 10g pounds, andmaking the cost of each pound cents. The 100Merinos weighedJan . 1

, 941» pounds each , and Feb . 1, 1011} pounds gaining 7} poundseach , at a cost of cents. The 100 so-called ful l-blooded Cotswolds weighed 118 pounds each Jan . 1

,and Feb . 1

,1231—gaining

only 51» pounds each , at a cost of cents per pound . Uponthese fac ts, Mr. Geddes comments as follows : The manure madeduring the time by these sheep

,I consider worth more than the

manure that would have been made by the same number of poundsof beef cattl e . Thirty-two steers

,each weigh ing pounds

,

would almost exactly equal the total number of pounds of these

PROFIT IN FEEDING . 69

three flocks of sheep when they were weighed in the yards on thelst day of January. All the labor involved in feeding and takingcare of the sheep , would not equal that of clean ing the stables forthe steers . Mr. Watkins purchased th e 290 sheep well

,and sold

them well , and he reports h is winter’s doings w ith them as follows :

Cost of 290 sheep (nearly 4c . er lb . $1,260 61do. 435 bushels of corn , at

1800tons of hay, $10 130 00 61

Feb .

0

28th, sold 270 at $8 each . 00do. 18 culls, $4 each. 72 00

Twoo

sheep got cast ; sold pelts for $2each . 4 00 00

Profi t .

This pays over $1.71 for the trouble of buying and sell ing andrisk on each sheep, if we call the manure pay for the labor of caringfor the sheep. The price of hay 18 here very low this season

, but

corn is very high . Straw and chafi‘ we consider as of but littl e

value for manure, unless worked over by the feet of some animal,and used as an absorbent for their manure. For this reason wecredit the sheep with the work of converting a large quantity ofstraw and chafl

‘

into available food for plants.“ I do not give Mr. Watkins’ experience as an average

,for it is

far better than any average that he can make for a seri es of years .

Nor do I th ink it is by any means conclusive as between the

breeds of sheep that he fed . The grade Merino and Cotswold Isold h im the 21st day of last D ecember. They were all ewes

, 2

and 3 years old,and were a very even

,and in all respects a desira

ble lot . The other flocks I did not see , but I suppose, from information

,that they were not so even or desirable and sheep here

usually called full-blooded Cotswolds , come from Canada or theborder

,and are not very good

,perhaps they are mostly the cull s

of the flocks they came from . After al l reasonable allowanceshave been made

,the lesson of th is w in ter’s work of Mr. Watkins

is certainly that sheep are much more profi table makers of meatthan steers

,such as can be bought in Buffalo in the fall of the year

,

and they are still better manufacturers of straw and other coarseforage into manure.Both the facts here given

,and the relator’s comments

,are very

valuable . From the statement as to feed and gain in weight, thefollowing deductions as to th e value of the corn fed for producingincrease of weight

,may be made . Tak ing the three flocks

,we

have the following results for each,accepting the feeding value of

hay as previously given , as a basis for a portion of the increase :

70 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

GRAD E MER INo AND C OTSWOLD,AVE RAGE GAIN

,104 was.

Feed consumed . Ga in in weight . lbs. of j eed for 1 lb. of gain .

40 lbs . of hay . lb s . 12lbs .

301bs . of corn . lb s . 4 lbs .

MER INos, AVE RAGE GAIN,

LBS .

Feed consumed . Ga in in weight. lbs . of fesi for 1 lb. Qfgain.

40 lb s . hay . lb s. 12 lbs .

30 lbs . corn . lbs . lbs .

C OTSW OLD S, AVERAGE GAIN,

LBS.

Feed cons umed . Ga in in weight. lbs. of feedfor 1 lb. of gain.

40 lbs . hay. lb s . 12 lbs .

30 lbs . corn. lb s . 15 lbs .

These d ifferent flocks were evidently uneven in quality , and asMr

. Geddes, who sold the first flock to Mr. Watkins, is an excellentand experienced farmer and stock feeder, it may easily be supposed that the sheep were in excell ent condition and well pre

pared for fattening . The productive value of corn , in the case ofthis flock

,may well be considered as exaggerated, as in the other

instances it would be diminished by reason of the poorer qualityof the sheep . Amean may therefore be taken, and the gain resul ting from feeding the corn estimated as between the two gainsof 4 and thus giving an average of about 6 and bringingcorn to an equal ity of value with barley or l inseed cake , if notshowing it to be superior to either. If the resul t of feeding thefirst flock be taken as the basis for the estimate

,i t would certainly

show corn to be a feed of the highest value for fatten ing sheep ;but one resul t can hardly serve as a basis upon which to foundsuch a rule . Mr. R . J . Swan

,of Geneva, N. Y . , in a communica

tion in the Third Vol . of Rural Affairs,stated his plan of w inter

feeding ; he gives to each hundred fattening sheep, two bushels,(126 lbs .) of corn , or th e same quant i ty of oil cake meal per day ,with wheat straw in racks three t imes a day

,up to the 1st day of

March afterwards feed ing hay instead of straw,and reducing the

corn or oil-cake-meal one-half. The lambs are fed hay three timesa day, with three peeks of oil-cake-meal , or corn-meal , per 100. I ti s to be presumed that hay is fed ad libitum

,al though this account

would have been more satisfactory had the quantity fed beenstated . In a prize essay by Mr. Jurian W inne

,of Albany County

,

N. Y ., the following hints for the win ter feeding of sh eep are

given By feeding liberally with roots, and not too much grain ,

during the first week at least, th e change from green feed to drywill be less apt to affect the sheep . In feeding

,unless a person

can do it himself, which is very seldom the case , the feeder should

METHOD or W INTER FEEDING . 71

be instructed w ith great care , how much grain is to go to eachyard or stable according to the animals it contains. An over-feedat the commencement is almost sure to bring on the scours

,and

after the sheep are over it,it will take at least two weeks’ good

feed ing to put them where they started from . My mode , to avoidmistakes

,is to number my yards and stables, and count the sheep

in each yard and stable— allowing to each sheep one-half pint ofgrain per day to start w ith

,unless they have been fed grain pre

v iously , when I allow a l i ttle more . I then make out a schedulethus No. 1— 60 sheep at one-half pint per day is 15 quarts, whichd ivided into two feeds, is 71} quarts to a feed ; so I write on theschedule

,No . 1— 60 sheep must have quarts at a feed morning

and n ight ,’— No. 2 at the same rate according to number, and so

on unti l I ge t them all. This paper i s tacked up in the placewhere the feed is kept, and by going with the feeder a few timesto show him and see that he makes no mistakes

,if he is a good

man he can do it as well as the farmer himself. As soon as thefeed is to be increased , a new schedule is made out accordingly,and so on

,until the sheep are fed one quar t each per day

,when I

consider them on full feed , especial ly if the feed is corn , beans, oroil-meal , or a mixture of either. If oats or buckwheat composepart of their feed , they should have a l it tle more . Regularity ofhours is very importan t . Sheep should not be fed one morning atfive o‘clock , the next at six , and the third at seven . Our rul e i sthis : G rain and oil -meal are fed at half past five A .M. As soon asthe grain is finished , hay is given— no more than the sheep willeat cl ean . The different yards and stables are carefully fed eachday in the same order

,which is important to avoid confusion and

mistakes—beginning w ith No . 1,and so on through the list .

After breakfast , water is given , going around twice to see that al lare well supplied . The roots are next cut

, (ruta-bagas, which Iconsider best), and of these to my present stock of abou t 350 sheep,I am now feeding 10 bushels a day . At eleven o’clock straw isfed . Twelve is the d inner hour

,and immediately after dinner the

roots are fed . The troughs and tubs are now all examined , andreplenished with water i f necessary—also salt , salt and ashes

,

browse,litter

,and anything else that may be needed, i s suppl ied .

The even ing and next morning’s feeds of grain and oil-meal arenext prepared , and hay got ready for both night and morning.

At 4 R M. feeding the grain is again commenced , followed as beforeby hay

,after which the water tubs and troughs are emptied and

turned over,and the work is finished for the night .”

The value of roots for winter feeding is very inadequately est i

72 THE SHEPHERD’s MANUAL.

mated in the United States , bu t it may be wel l questioned if a flockof sheep can be profitably or successfully kept without them. Acert ain port ion of water must be taken with the food every day.

The more intimately this is mixed with the food , the better for thedigestive process. In feeding 12 lbs . of roots to a sheep 80 to 90per cent

,or 45 to 5 qts . of water are given in them . By the pro

cess of mastication the water is intimately mixed with the sol idmatter

,and a semi-liqu id pulp is formed exactly fitted for the t u

minative and digestive processes of the stomach . By cu tting orpulping the roots

,and sprinkling or mixing the ration of meal

,

bran,or grain

,upon or w ith them

,the whole food reaches the

stomach in the most appropriate condition possibl e . D igest ionproceeds uniformly

,the stomach does not need to be supplied

w ith a large quantity of water at any time,and its solvent j uice s

are not diluted and weakened . The bowels act regularly , andconstipat ion

,one of the most troublesome disordersof the flock

when on dry food , is avoided and prevented . But the daily rationof roots must be apportioned with care and judgment. For lambs5 to 6 lbs. daily will be sufficient ; for two-year-olds and maturesheep

,10 to 15 lbs . will be an ample allowance the smaller quan

tity being enough for a Southdown , and the larger for a full grownCotswold

, Le icester, or L incoln . For a Merino a much lessquantity should be apport ioned

,as this breed cannot produce a

fleece of good qual ity , or great weigh t ,without being suppl ied w ithenough oily matter to secrete the large amount of yolk which theirfleece contains .O f all the roots usually grown , the sugar-beet is the best forsheep

,being the most palatable, and con taining the greatest pro

portion of sol id nutritious matter. For every 100 sheep to be fedw ith roots at the rate of ten pounds per head per day, during thefeeding season of 5 months, about 4 acres devoted to this crop wil lbe requ ired

,yielding abou t 18 tons , or 550 to 600 bushels per acre.

This is a smal l est imate,and only half the yield of

‘a good or a

possible crop , but is near that of our average crops . The amountof food necessary to keep a sheep in good thrifty condition hasbeen determined to be 15 pounds of actually dry substance perweek for each 100 lbs. of l ive weigh t. As grain and hay containabout 14 per cent of water, th is al lowance will be equal to about18 lbs . of hay or grain , or nearly 3 lbs . per day . But as for theperfect digestion of the food

,a certain

_

bulk is requisite, the mixeddaily ration should be composed of such proportions of bulky andconcentrated food

,that 7 to 9 pounds are required to produce an

increase of one pound in live weight . From the data previously

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

74 THE SHE PHERD’

S MANUAL

stock of ruta-bagas,which keep in excellent condi t ion until June,

if needed so long, is provided as a substitute for grass while theewes are being fattened . This latter plan is well su ited as anadditional industry upon grain or dairy farms , in which someadditional capital may be turned over with a prospect of its beingreturned in less than a year w ith a gain of 100 per cent in money,besides a valuable addition to the manure heap .

The select ion of ewes and a ram from which to raise marketlambs

,is the chief point for consideration , the wool being a sec

ondary obj ect . The form of the sheep and the ir temperament arethe first points to be regarded in their selec tion ; but if the flock isto be kept permanently , i t is best to procure sheep which willyield a good fleece as well as a good lamb, as this w il l add to theprofi t. Single lambs of good size, are more profi table than twins,which will generally be of smaller growth . It matters l ittl eabout the breed , as th i s is not a point with the marketmen

, althougha black-faced Sou thdown is most in favor with them , because ofits usual plumpness and fatness . A lamb from a grade Merino

'ewe,and a Southdown or Shropshire ram ,

is fat at any age, and issoon ripe for market

,and wil l sel l better than a larger lamb that

i s more bony and less plump . A cross from a grade Merino ewe‘and a Cotswold ram

,is the next best lamb

,if not altogether as

good a one. A large bodied,short-legged

,broad backed

,native

'

ewe,with some Merino and Southdown blood in her composition ,

i s,perhaps

,al l things considered

,the best sheep that can be chosen

for a dam . A pure bred Southdown , Shropshire , or Cotswold ram,

makes the best sire,the preference to be given in the order in

which they are here named . Ewes that produce twins should beweeded out of the flock

,and those which bring a large lamb

,and

have plenty of milk,and are gentle and kind to their lambs

,should

be kept as long as they wil l breed . Ewes have been kept until 13years old that have yearly brough t and raised a lamb to maturityfor market , without missing a season , or losing a lamb . One eweof this kind may be made to pay the in terest on $100 each year,and i t would be well to raise the ewe lambs of such choice damsto replen ish the flock . Some ewes w ill raise twins

,and by sk ill

ful management,a ewe whose lamb has been sold may be made

to foster another lamb,or at l east be forced to help feed it. If the

ewe shows any reluctance to adept the strange lamb , she shouldbe confined in a small pen

,at stated times

,and the hungry lamb

turned in to her. The lamb will generally succeed in getting allthe milk from her. If she is more than usual ly reluctant , sheshou ld be held while the lamb sucks

,or be confined in stanchions

CHOOSING THE EWES. 75

fas described in a previous chapter), for a time , until she becomesreconciled . The ewes thu s made to serve as foster mothers will

,

after two or three seasons,accept the situat ion

,and readily adopt

the second lamb. In some flocks a lamb has occasionally suckedthree ewes, and in some cases, some enterprising lambs will foragearound and get a meal from any ewe that will permit it to suck

.

It will be necessary to curb the enterprise of such lambs occasionally, l es t they rob the others. When a flock of ewes is purchasedeach y ear, in August or early in September, they must necessarilybe picked up in the most convenien t manner

,either from passing

droves, or some well known drover may be engaged to procurethem . Fairly good ewes may generally be procured by either ofthese methods for about $3 per head . In selecting ewes from adrove

,care should be taken to examine the teeth to ascertain their

age,and none less than three or fou r years old

,or what are called

“ full mouthed ewes, should be chosen . The ram should bechosen in this case as in the previous one . Whatever breed maybe selected

,compactness of form and vigor should be looked for

,

rather than size ; a moderate sized ram ,with a large roomy ewe

,

w ill produce a better lamb than a pair of the opposite characters .High condition in the ram is not desirable ; a merely fair conditionis more conducive to certainty in getting lambs ; nor in this business is it best to confine the ram ; the exercise with the flock beingbetter for the animal’s heal th than confinement . If the flock istoo large for the one ram

,it should be divided and separated , or

two rams used,each being shut up on al ternate days ; no more than

50 ewes can be served by one ram in the time during which theservice is requ ired—or at most 40 to 60 days— for this is the timeduring which the season for sell ing lambs continues . The ramshould not be less than three vears of age. As ewes go five month s ,or about 150 days with young, those ewes that are served in thelatter part of August w ill have lambs in January , and these lambs,without any forcing

,can be made marketable in April . All of the

lambs should be dropped b efore the middle of March , and i t willbe found advisable and convenient to so apportion the ewes to beserved

,that the dropping of the lambs may be spread over the

whole of this period as regularly as possibl e . The presence ofdogs about a flock of this character should not be permitted .

They are not only entirely useless , but are really an annoyance andan injury . After the lamb is a few days old , it

'

thought necessary,it may be taught to suck some warmed , sweetened cow

’s milk , andany help to its growth , in the shape of extra food , will be useful .There is danger

,however

,of over-feeding a young lamb , which

76 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

may be worse than under-feeding it , and caution is to be exercisedin this respect ; no more should be attempted than to encourage ahealthy

,thrifty growth . After the l amb is four weeks old , it may

be taught to l ick some fine bran,with a l ittle salt mixed with it , or

a little sifted oatmeal. As a rule , it will be safer to depend onincreasing and enriching the ewe’s milk

,rather than to force the

l amb to swallow food which i ts stomach is not as yet able to com

pletely digest . It is highly important to prevent the lambs frombeing annoyed and deple ted of their blood by ticks or o ther vermin .

To this end the ewes should be d ipped in the fall to rid them oft icks

,and if a few should appear in the spring upon the lambs,

they should be freed from the insect pests by careful hand-picking,

Fig. 28 .—PAOKING BO ! FOR LAMBs.

repeated if necessary . In case the ticks should be too numerousfor hand-picking, the l ambs may be dipped. This w ill be abeolutely necessary if they are to be kept until after the ewes areshorn

,as then the ticks w ill leave the ewes on which they are

unsheltered , and seek refuge in the closer fleeces of the lambs.When thi s happens

,the growth of the lambs is suddenly stopped

,

and i t is often the case that some of them are t ormented until theyfinally d ie .The marketing of the lambs is one of the most important par ts

of the business so far as profits are concerned . As has been said,

the early lambs bring the highest prices,but i t may be that the later

l ambs will be found the most profi table, as being less costly andtroublesome to rear . When the proper market has been found .

PROFIT IN RA ISING LAMBS. 77

and a trustworthy commission agent to whom they can be sent forsale has been selec ted , the method of packing for shipment shouldbe well considered . A roomy box

,in which the lamb can stand

or l ie,but cannot turn round

,should be procured for each lamb.

Figure 28 represen ts a crate in which the author has shipped manylambs to market wi thout a single case of accident from any cause .The size is 36 inches long

,24 inches high

,and 18 inches w ide . I t

is made of lath 2 inches wide by 3 quarters thick . T he best fast ccning for the top was found to be four pieces of soft twisted tarredhempen cord of the kind known as lath twine

,and used for tying

bundles of laths,at the saw mills . This form of box is also su it

able for shipping stock lambs ; these have been safely sent in themfrom New York to Charleston , S. C . , and also as far as D enver,Col . In case of shipping to a distance , a bag of feed is t ied to oneof the upper corners of the box, containing sufli cien t to last throughthe j ourney

,and a feed trough is fixed at each end of the box

,so

that in case the lamb is carelessly put in wrong end foremost , orhappens to tu rn around

,a trough is ready for use where it is

wanted . On the shipping card should be plainly printed d irectionsto the express agent to give half a pint of feed and water twice aday to the lamb . Shipments for short distances Should alwaysbe made by express

,so that there may be no delays. The time of

shipment should be so arranged that the commission agent maybe on hand to attend to the lambs on thei r arrival . For distancesof not over 100 miles, the time of travel is so short that no feed orwater is needed on the way

,bu t the lambs may be fed ligh tly

and watered before they are placed in the boxes . In this way thelambs travel wit h so l i ttle inconvenience that no loss of weightoccurs

,a matter which

,when the price is 25 cents a pound

,is

worth consideration . The business of marketing lambs is extensively carried on in the neighborhood of large cities in the east,and thousands of ewes are yearly purchased in Ohio and westernparts of New York and P enn sylvania by drovers from New Jersey,and eastern New York

,and P ennsylvania

,in the early fall

,for

sell ing to farmers who keep them over w inter,raise lambs the ‘

next spring,and sell lamb’s fleeces

,and the fat tened Sheep with in

twelve months, and repeat the operation yearly with great profit .As an illu stration of what may be done in this way

,the following

may be c ited : Fifty-five ewes were purchased at $3 per head , anduntil w inter were pastured in a rough field at the rear of the farm

,

where they more than earned their keep and care,by the service

they performed in destroying weeds . The account for one year,opened and kept expressly for this flock

, is as follows :

78 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

Cost of 55 sheepValue of hay , turnips, bran , meal, and oil cake, fed . 205 . 84Freight and charges on 24 lambsBalance of profi t and loss 145 .64

C R .

24 early lamb s sold at from $7 $10 each

12 lambs, $3 .50

8 lambs kept, $4 .00

9 lbs . pulled wool,

30c . .

lbs . of wool,

35c

52 sheep on hand 3 k illed by dogs) 156 .00

This leaves a profi t of nearly 100 per cent . on the original costof the sheep , and in addition a large pile of valuable manure, ofwhich no account was kept .”

FATTENING SHEEP FOR MARKET .

Where the d istance from market prevents profitable sh ipments,

and the home market furnishes insufli cient encouragement tobreed early lambs, the purchase of sheep for fattening may bemade a special business w ith great advantage . In this businessthe proper choice of sheep and shrewdness in purchasing are asnecessary to success as are skil l in feeding and choice of properfood . Where grades of Leicester or Cotswold sheep

,such as are

known in the American markets as Canada sheep,can be secu red

,

those are the most profitable to purchase . The next best sheep aregrade Sou thdowns ; but l itt le profi t is to be made out of our nativesheep in feeding them for mutton . They are poor feeders

,and

difficult to clothe with flesh or fat,and the farmer who would pur

chase sheep to feed for profit, should avoid them . He had betterkeep such sheep for breeding , crossing them with a thoroughbredCotswold ram and feeding the produce.A statement given by Mr. Jurian Winne , of Albany C o. , N,

Y . ,

in the Annual Register of Rural Affairs for 1867—8—9, will be foundof in tere st. In th is case two lots of sheep from a large flock werese t apart for feeding ; they consisted of 60 grade Leicesters fromCanada

,and 61 Merinos ; they were weighed Feb . l0th , and a

careful accoun t was kept of the food consumed during 46 days, upto March 28th , when they were weighed and sent to market.The selection was simply made as a test, and to avoid the trouble

VALUE OF SHE E P MANURE . 79

of keeping'

an accurate account of the whole flock , which weretreated in exactly the same manner as these. The follow ingfigures give the result :

Feb . 20 , 60 grade Leicesters weighedMarch 28 , 60 grad e Leices ters weighed

Gain in weightFeb . 20, 61 Merinos weighedMarch 28

,61

Gain in weightC ost of feed for the fi rst lot .

Cost of feed for th e second lot .

Against the cost of feed there are the gain in weight at 102and10s cents a pound respectively, the advance in price upon the

whole weight,consequent upon the improved condi tion of the

sheep,and the manure left. On the whole

,there was a profi t upon

the firs t lot and a loss on the second one. E xperience teaches tha tthe proper se lection of the breed of sheep is a very important consideration . It would be w ise for such as have not had experience

,

and who do not understand how to choose sheep for feeding, aswell as how to feed and market them j udiciously

,to avoid the

business,until by small ventures

,they have learned how to succeed

with larger ones. To buy judiciously is the great point,for a

flock wel l bought is half sold .

”

VALUE OF MANUR E .

—The manure of sh eep is naturally rich ;their mastication and digest ion are so perfect that seeds of weed sare ut terly destroyed in the passage through the ir intestines

,and

additional value is readily given to the manure by feeding a port ion of concentrated food

,such as oil-cakes

, com -meal,or bran .

The urin e and dung of the sheep are both very rich in fert il izingelements. The urine contains 28 parts in of urea, which is ahighly ni t rogenized substance

,and 12 parts in of sal ts

,rich

in phosphoric acid ; the remainder is water. The fresh dung contains :

Of waterAnimal and vegetable mat terSaline ma tter or ash

per c ent .

The organ ic matter is rich in nitrogen , somuch so, that 36 partsof the dung contains as much n itrogen as 54 part s of horse dung,63 parts of pig’s dung , 125 parts of cow’s dung

,and 100 parts of

m ixed barn-yard manure . The manure yielded is dry , and contain s less water than that of other farm an imals ; thus for 100 lbs.

80 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

of dry fodder,the horse or cow yield s 216 lbs. of fresh manure

equal te 46 lbs. dry—while the sheep gives but 128 lbs. of mois tmanu re—equal to 43 lbs. dry. I t ferments very quickly

,and needs

therefore to be kept solidly packed under foot,and free from

access of air,or to be turned frequently when heaped in the yard.

When the manure,made in the ordinary course of feeding

,pos

sesses th is h igh rela tive value , it may readily be believed that whenfatten ing sheep are highly fed w ith st imulating food rich in albuc

men and phosphates,the starch and oil only be ing assimilated in

the production of fat,and the others being used only in part

their dung forms a. very rich and valuable manure . This is thoroughly wel l understood by English farmers

,who practise the

feeding of sheep more w ith a View to the valu e of their manurethan for profit in other ways

,and i t is unfortunate for u s that we

do not so thoroughly appreciate th is as to practise i t ourselves . Thefollowing quota tion from a. paper upon this subj ect

,read by an

Engl ish farmer at a meeting of a farmers’ club,and reported in an

E nglish agricultu ral j ournal,very clearly sets forthalis v ieThe manurial value of oil-c ake

,when used regular y on a farm ,

can scarcely be over-e st imated , the dung made in the stalls beingso vastly enriched as to enable it to be spread over an extendedacreage , w ith better results than could possibly be obtained fromthe same bulk alone

,whatever the area to which it .might be ap

plied , and the effec t is discern ible on the color and quality of thepasture for a much longer period . The improvement effected ongrass-land by cake-fed stock is an example of the u tility and valueof this excellen t food which every one can understand

,its action

in this way being quicker,and so distinct as to be unmistakable .

With sheep the improvemen t i s peculiarly striking when netted

[confined by nets o r hurdles! over a pasture field and largely cakefed

,the droppings

,both liqu id and sol id

,being so regularly dis

tributed over th e surface,that every rootle t is reached and nour~

ished and the herbage is accordingly forced into ext raord inaryluxun ance .

An other special b ranch of sheep keeping,which offers advan

tages to farmers favorably situated for it , i s the raising of a goodclass of sheep to meet the demands of those who purchase for thepurpose of raising lambs

,or for w in ter feeding and fattening.

Where markets are too distan t to enable these branches of sh eephusbandry to be profitably followed

,a good class of stockers or

drover’s sheep might be raised . Half-bred,long-wool mutton sheep

could be raised in every western state and shipped to the great central markets of Kansas City, Chicago, St . Lou is , Buffalo , and else

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

82 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

mal s becomes domest icated,necessities arise which call for some

thing more than mere Vigor of constitution,although this should

always remain a vital poin t in the breeders estimation . The soleaim of the stock breeder is profit

,and this l ies not so much in a

long l ife as in early maturity. The total resul t of six or ten years ofthe l ife of a wild an imal is crowded into two or four years of adomesticated one . The capacity for consumption of food , and theabil ity to turn a larger quantity of food into flesh or wool in ashorter time are gained by the skill of the breeder

,and in c eurse of

time the quality of the product is refined and improved until hardlya semblance of the original stock remain s in the highly-bred , improved animal . The rapidity wi th which these efl

'

ec ts have beenproduced by some of the most sk illful sheep-breeders iswonderful,and the names of Bakewell and Webb will be remembered

,and

their successes perseveringly emulated for many years to come .No animal is more easily improved in character, and none yieldsmore readily to the breeder’s art

,than the Sheep . But the reverse

is also true,for if on the one hand success rapidly rewards th e

successful breeder,failure as rapidly warn s the unsuccessful one

that he has made a mistake,and must immediately retrace his

s teps.The management and select ion of any existing breed of sheep

,or

of the production of any new breed or variety,must be a question

of profi t . The poin t for the farmer to consider is,what kind of

sheep will pay him best to keep,taking into c onsideration his

locality,his soil , the crops he can convenien tly raise w ith which

to sustain them , and his markets for d isposing of his wool and hisan imals

,whether as lambs or as store sheep

,or fat sheep fi t for

the butcher. For want of thorough acquaintance with the habits,

characteris tics , and peculiari ties of the various breeds , many afarmer has made a fatal m istake

,and failed

,when otherwise he

might easily have been successful . The results of these mistakesin selection , and errors of management , have led to much disappointment and disgust . One of the inost seriou s errors of ourbreeders and farmers , is the endeavor to maintain Up to acertain standard of excellence in this coun try

,in spi te of all the

d ifferences of climate and varieties of food,the h ighly bred races

of E nglish sheep , which have been imported from time to t ime.Nearly every flock of all the pure races has failed to keep up tothe original standard , al though new importations have been addedto them . The farmer who has purchased a few sheep from suchflocks, being w ithout the requisite knowledge as to their management

,or not possessing the fi tt ing food for them

,has found them

SELECTION OF BREEDING ANIMALS. 83

to dwindle away from day to day until only a sorry remnant hasbeen l eft which has been finally absorbed into a flock of hardiernatives

,or has disappeared altogether. Had these farmers judi

c iously purchased male an imals only, and used them , underproper rest rictions, for the improvement of their native sheep,they would in t ime have possessed flocks which they could havemanaged suc cessfully and profi tably , and have secured a permanent type suited to their locality and circumstances . But the

improvement of a flock by brsed ing requires much patience andperseverance

,and a fixed idea of some resul t to be gained . In

breeding,good resul ts rarely come by hap-hazard or acciden t.

There must be a d istinct end in View ,and there must be appropri

ate and painstaking efforts made to reach that end . The breedermust have a clear idea

,not only of what he wants to gain , but of

what he wishes to get rid of,and he must know the character of

his flock in timately . One who knows all this can so accuratelydescribe the kind of ram he needs to improve his flock , that a

. conscient ious breeder from whom he may purchase the neededanimal

,can choose h im as well

, if not better, than he can himself.In breeding to improve a flock

,the qualities of both parents

must be considered,remembering that the male exercises . the

greater influence i n determining the character of the offspring. Apure-bred Cotswold ram

,crossed upon a Merino ewe

,for instance

,

will produce an offspring that much more resembles h imself thani t does the dam . This prin ciple is wel l recognized amongst breeders . Nevertheless, the very best of the females should be chosen ,

and the faul ty lambs culled ou t each year,until the finest only

remain . During this time it would be prudent for the farmer toretain no males of his own breeding

,bu t to secure by purchase or

h ire from some capable professional breeder, such changes ofmales as may be necessary . Much good may be done by unselfishbreeders in the way of letting pure-bred rams for a fair consideration to neighboring farmers who may not have the means topu rchase one outrigh t . By changing rams occasionally, twofarmers may very profitably help each oth er w ithout expend ing adollar for the necessary new blood .

The points sough t for in rams , with which to improve a flock ,are those which directly add to the value of the sheep

,or those

which are evidence of the possession of valuable qual it ies . Thusthe abundance of yolk

,or the fineness of the wool

,or its curl

,or

th e depth or form of carcass,upon which depends the quality and

the quantity of the fleece , are esteemed in the Merinos ; in theSouthdown , the smal l head and leg, and small bones . with the

84 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

black muzzle and legs are h ighly regarded,as these denote quick

fattening properties, and hardiness of constitut ion . The breadthof shoulder, the straightness and levelness of the back, the breadthof loin , and the spring of the ribs and rotundity of the frame ofthe Cotswold , Leicester, and other heavy-bod ied sheep , indicatecapacity for feed ing and digestion , and laying on of flesh , and aretherefore regarded as valuable points. Large bones are an unfavorable point, as they denote an abstraction of nutriment whichshould otherwise go to the formation of flesh and the greatervalue of the carcass . The absence of horns

,for the same reason

,

is desirable in Sheep bred for mutton . A soft,mellow feeling of

skin and the tissu e underneath,and a softness of the fleece

,are

in dicat ive of a tendency to the rapid formation of fat . A roundframe and broad lo in indicat e the exis tence of abundant flesh

,

where it is the most valuable,and a general squareness of the out

l ine of the figure proves the exis ten ce of large muscular development and consequently heavy quarters . In short, for sheep whichare not kept solely for the production of wool

,what is wanted is

,

all the flesh possible with no more bone than can carry it , and thatthe flesh should be where it will be the most valuable , viz : on thosepart s which bring the highest prices on the butchers’ stalls—theloins and quarters . Where wool is the sole obj ect , weight andfineness of fleece alone need to be considered . Where wool andmutton are each equal ly sough t for, the matter becomes complica ted by many considerat ions

,each of which should be studied

with a view to give the preponderance to those wh ich have thegreatest special or local importance .

In crossing breeds,we seek to increase th e size , improve the

shape,or hasten the maturity of the sheep ; or improve the l ength ,

quality,or closeness of th e fleece . But it w ill not do to select at

random any ram which may happen to possess the qual itiesdesi red

,without regard to some aflinity of character with the

ewes,lest l ambs should be produced that are weak in constitu tion ,

or shapeless mongrels,through too w ide a disparity between the

parents . E xperience has Shown that the Leicester ram has madea greater improvement w ith long-wool sheep than with the shortwool breeds

,and that the Southdown has made a more successful

fi rst cross upon the latter . The Cotswold has been very successful ly crossed upon the Merin o

,the Hampshire-down , the South

down,and other races

,and as the paren t of cross-bred races , this

most valuable breed has gained the highest reputation . As a rule,the first cross between a superior and high-bred race, and an inferior one

,produces the bes t sheep for breeding together ; further

CHOI C E or A RAM. 85

crosses often produce an imals which deteriorate in breeding , theprogeny regaining more of the character of its inferior parentage

,

and losing that of the superior one . Judgment and caution areneeded in selecting those results which have been successful

,and in

rej ecting those which are unfavorable,also in continuing the inter

breeding for a suffi cient length of t ime to elimin ate all the defectswhich may reappear at times in the progeny. It is only afterseveral generations that animals can be produced

,which may be

permitted safely to perpetuate their kind without further carefulselection . D uring the intervening period

,very close watchfulness

is necessary ; the form of the animal , the preponderance of thed esired points

,as well as those that are not desirable , the charac

ter of the fleece,and the soundness of the animal’s constitu tion ,

should all be patiently studied . Great contrasts between breedinganimals should be avoided

,as being dangerous to uniformity , and

a gradual approach to a desired end by several steps will be foundmore certainly effective than to endeavor to attain i t by one ortwo violent efforts .The selection of rams for breeding is a matter of the greatestimportance . Not only the character of the flock , but the numberof the lambs

,to some extent

,depend upon th is . For general

purposes,the ram should be chosen for his perfect ion of shape

and fleece,rather than for his size or weight . For mutton sheep

,

whether long wool or medium wool , a round barrel , broad loin ,fine bone

,short legs

,close wool

,especially upon the back and

loins, snt-all head , ful l fore arms and thigh s , and a mellowness offlesh w ithin the fore legs upon th e ribs

,where a poor sheep

never carries any fat,and in general an evenness of excellence

,

rather than any special single point of superiority,whether

of size of body , or length , or weight of fleece,should be

sought . A very heavy,large-bodied ram

,will probably pro

duce very i rregular lambs,which will d isappoint the breeder ;

while a wel l knit,more even

,smoother but smaller ram

,will pro

duce lambs of great uniformity and resemblance to himself,and

very frequently, and especially so if out of wel l selected ewes ,greatly surpassing h im in size of carcass at maturity . In breedingfrom a large ram upon small bodied ewes

,un less there is some

special reason against it , a ram with a small head should be chosen ,and the ewes selected should be wide across the loins

,wi th a broad

rump and wide pelvis . From a disregard of this it is sometimesthe case that severe labor or death in parturition occurs amongstthe ewes. In the first coupl ing of the young ewes, the greatestcare should be exercised in selecting the ram ,

for its influence may

8 6 THE SHE PHE RD’

S MANUAL.

and sometimes will extend beyond his own immediate progeny;and modify that of future sires upon the same dams . While thisinfluence of the first male is no t so general as to afford a basis fora rule

,yet observation has shown i t to be of sufli cient force to

entitle i t to the consideration of careful breeders . The influenceof the ram upon the sex of the progeny, is something equallyworth considering

,although it is as yet somewhat undetermined.

In theory it is supposed to be exerted through a natural provisionby which the fecundity of a race increases along with the be tteropportunities it enj oys for i ts subsistence. Thus i t is reasoned

,

when animals are well fed and cared for,and are not allowed to

breed early,their produce w ill be in greater part females, permit

t ing a more rapid increase,in consistence w ith their more favor

able opportunities for development . On the contrary, when animals are sparely fed or exhaustively used

,and allowed to breed

early, the tendency of nature is to restrict the production by thebirth chiefly of males. This theory receives confirmation throughthe tendency of the early breed ing and exhaust ively producingJersey cow to have male calves

,and through some observed facts

in sheep breeding.

One of the facts directly pertinent to th is matter is recorded inth eAnnales de l

’

Agm‘

culture Framer/!36,as fol lows. It was proposed

at a meeting of the Agri cultural Society of Severac, to divide aflock of ewes into two parts

,that an experimen t might be made to

t es t the quest ion of breeding for sex . One flock of ewes was putinto an abundant pasture

,and was served by very young rams.

The other flock was put into a poorer pasture,and was served by

rams not less than four years old . The resul t is given in the tableswhich follow ; the flock from which the excess of female lambswas expected , being served by rams 15 months to 18 months old ,produced three twin births

,and the flock expected to yield the

most male lambs, and which was served by rams over 4 years old ,produced not one double birth .

Flock for female lambs served by rams under 18 months old

Sex of the Lambs.

Two years oldThree years old

Four years old

Total

The excess of female l ambs in this flock is very remarkable , asi s a lso the excess of male lambs shown in th e nex t table .

E SSENTIALS 'ro succEss. 7

Flock for male lambs served by rams over 4 years oldSex of the Lambs.

Age of Ewes .

Two years oldThree years oldFour years old

Total 2

The resul t certainly j ustified the expectation , but it can scarcelybe held to be anything more than suggestive for further researchor experiment

,rather than conclusive for the founding of a rule .

The following well considered remarks made by the Hon . A . M .

Garland , editor in charge of the sheep and wool department of theNa tionalLive-Stock Journal, at a meeting of the Madison C o.

, (Ill .)Farmers’ Club

,May 8th

,1875

,are suffi cien tly valuable and perti

nent to be recorded here : One essential to successful breeding isa persistent endeavor to attain the standard that has been fixedupon by the breeder as his idea of the perfect an imal . While thesheep will be found to conform more readily than any other an imal

,except perhaps the dog

,to certain wel l understood physio

logical laws,the attainment of al l the desired characteristics

,and

their incorporat ion into the l ife and consti tution so as to insuretransmission w ith the desired force and certain ty

,is a labor involv

ing not alone j udgment and taste,but patience as well . Mythology

tel ls us of the goddess who leaped full-armed from the head ofJove ; but the attainment of perfect ends without the employmentof patient and labori ous means, is not among the blessings thatsurround the business man in this material age . He who expectsto accomplish in a year what others have only completed in a lifetime of labor

,is pretty surely doomed to gather the bitter fruit of

d isappointment,and the chances are largely in favor of pecuniary

loss as well . It required over fifty years of labor, and care, andstudy

,to bring the n ine-pound fleece rams imported byHumphrey

and others,up to the 25 and 30 pound shearers that head a number

of the flocks of the present day. The highest types of the Cotswold and Southdown are the resul t of an expenditure of time , andmoney

,and study

,equal to that bestowed upon the Merino in the »

United States in the last half a century . Such facts as these afl‘

ord

small encou ragement for those young men who see visions , andthose older ones who dream dreams , of a speedy fortune and ana ssured fame by the establ ishment of an intermediate breed ofsheep— one that will combine in a single animal the good qualitiesof all the breeds and the weak points of none . Any of the estab

88 THE SHErHEED’s MANUAL.

lished types will improve what is known as our common nativesheep

,sufli ciently to j ustify the payment of a fair price for a choice

ram . Grades from these flocks of common sheep,bred towards

the long wools,the D owns or the Merinos , w ill be found profi ta

bl e stock to the average farmer. Care should be had to breed allthe t ime in the same direction— that is , always u sing the best ramsof their kind within reach , having due regard to prudence inmaking the purchases. The first cross w ill u sually show a greaterchange from the standard of the coarse-wooled mother than subsequent ones

,though an occasional cropping out of her less desira

ble characteristics may be expected,but should not discourage the

effort at improvement as persisten t crossing by pure-bred ramswill bring its reward in a sightly flock of grades , that can be depended upon to reproduce the ir characterist ics w ith reasonablecertainty .

”

In and in breeding,or breeding between near relatives, is a

subj ect which has given rise to much discussion , and to muchd iversity of opinion . The truth seems to be that close breedingup to a certain point is necessary to secure a fixed type, and when

j ud iciously done , it may be the means of securing most valuableresul ts . The E nglish sheep breeders who have become most notedfor their successes

,have bred very closely

,a most conspicuous

example being Mr. Bakewell with his improved Leicesters . P robably no race of animals were so closely interbred

’

as th is . But it isquestioned by some breeders if the limit of safety in th is respecthas not been overstepped , for no race so strongly exh ibits in theirdefects the evil resul ts which follow from too close breeding forany considerable length of t ime . The small l igh t bone , the baldhead , the prominent glassy eyes, the thin , delicate skin , the tendeney to tuberculous d iseases , and other scrofulous affections , all ofwhich are characteristic of some classes of the Leicesters

,are the

very evils which are kn own to follow from too close sexual affinities. Safety certainly lies in the avoidance of this sort of breedingto any great extent , and as a general rul e for ordinary breeders , i tmay perhaps be laid down

,that to breed a ram to his own lambs

may be permitted , but to breed to the second generation of offspring should be avoided . To change the ram the second yearwould be to act on the side of safety

,and except in rare ins tances

,

and for the attainment of clearly apprehended resul ts,this should

be the l imi t of close breeding. To breed a ram to his own ewe

l ambs is regarded as safer, and not so close breeding as breedingfull broth er and sis ter together, and yet to attain certain desiredends, this is and has been done, and will often be done by breeders.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

90 THE SHE PHERD’S MAN I ’

AL.

native sheep of Spain, d esignated by D r. L . T . Fitz inger, the

author of a paper upon the races of domestic sheep of E urope,

(presented to the Imperial Academy of Science in Vienna, inas the landschaf, or common rustic sheep, (Om

’

a ( trees) . This sheepbore a very meager fleece of coarse wool . It is probab le that al lthat part of the American continen t which became subj ect to itsSpanish discoverers, including the islands of the West Ind ies, wasstocked with th is common race. At th at period the Spanish government very j ealously guarded the Merino sheep

,and forbade

their exportation , even to their own American colonies. I t is"

known , however, that a few Merinos w ere occasionally smuggledinto P eru , and that to these was due the superior characte r of thewool of that country , which exists up to the presen t century.

E lsewhere, however, the character of the dominant race of sheepwas very inferior, and i t now so remains ; the imports of woolfrom South America into theUnited States being coarse in qual ity

,

and rating only as among the third class . O f a similar characterto this is the race of sheep known in our western territories asMexican . Their origin is clearly the same as that of the nativeSouth American sheep

,and their appearance is identical w ith that

of the sheep represented in ancient Spanish paintings as the ordinary race of the country, the property of the peas antry. It maybe concluded as most probable, i f not certain , that th is race, oneof the ten primi tive or dis tinct original races which inhabited Europe

,as determined by D r. Fitzinger, (whose classificat ion is con

firmed by other scientific men), unaltered by more than threecenturi es of acclimatization , is now represented by the bulk of theflocks which roam over Mexico , Texas, New Mexico

,Arizona

,

parts of California,and more recen tly Colorado . These sheep are

hardy,wiry animals

,weighing abou t 40 pounds

,and yielding when

unmixed with any Merino blood , a fleece of about two pounds ofc oarse wool . O f late this inferior race has been improved tosome exten t by crossing with pure Merinos from Vermont ando ther eastern states

,and is found to make an excel len t basis

whereon to build up an improved and useful race . These sheepare of but l i ttle value

,and in flocks are sold and bought at abou t

per head. The bus iness of sh ipping rams wes tward to supply this demand , from almost every state where Merinos are kept,has already reached respectable d imensions, and is rapidly increasing. The“ resul t cannot fail to build up, in course of time, a valuable class of native sheep wel l suite d to these local it ies. Theseimproved sheep produce a fleece weighing about 4 pounds of gradeMerino wool, .

which will supply to a very great extent local manu

NATIVE BREEDS. 91

factories of such woolen goods as are in demand in the westerncountry

,and thus render the far western states independent , so

far as regards their supply of woolen manufactures, of the easternfactories .

THE VIRGINIA SHE ER—A native race of greater pretensions,and far greater value than the preceding , sprung from the firstimportation of E nglish sheep in Jamestown , Va .

, in 1609. Theoriginal settlers of this newD ominion were in part men of wealthand position . The stock they imported would naturally be of thebest that could be obtained

,and the favorable cl imate of the

country for sheep-raising,would tend to preserve the sheep fromdegradation . Repeated importations of excellent sheep weremade during the succeeding two centuries, by prominent Virginians

,amongst whom were the Washingtons, and vari ous members

of the Custis family . Thus was founded a class of more thanusually good , heavy bodied , l ong-wool sheep , which st ill ex ists andis famed for producing excellent early market lambs. O f lat e

years considerable Leicester, Cotswold, and Southdown blood hasbeen mingled with the old stock . Although the Virginia sheepcan hardly claim to be considered as a distinct breed, yet theycertainly furn ish a very good basis upon which

,by careful selec

t ion and interbreed ing, to found a breed thoroughly well adaptedto the local ity, as they are already accl imated and possess established qual ities .

THE IMPR OVED KENTUCKY SHE ER —An account of th e effortswhich have been made to produce native varieties of sheep , wouldnot be complete without the mention of what has been called theImproved Kentucky Sheep .

” This breed or race originated withMr. Robert Scott , of Frankfort , Ken tucky, who crossed the common native sheep of the locality, with Merino , Leicester, Southdown , Cotswold , and O xford-down rams . This was begun about40 years ago , by select ing 30 nat ive ewes, which were bredto a selected Merino ram . The yearl ing ewes of this cross werebred to an imported Leicester ram . The ewes of this cross wereserved by an imported ram of the Sou thdown breed . The produce of this cross were then bred to a ram of mixed blood

,three =

fourths Cotswold and one-fourth Southdown . The next twocrosses were made by Cotswold rams , and the next by an O xforddown ram . The produce of the last cross were bred to Cotswoldrams again . This brought the flock up to 1855 , when a mixedCot swold

,O xford

,Leicester , and Southdown ram was brough t

into service . After this the rams produced by th is very mixed

92 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

breeding were used . In 1867 Mr. Scott furnished an account ofhis sheep for the annual report of the

'

D epartment of Agriculturefor 1866, in which he gave some very flattering testimonials whichhe had received from various parties

,to whom he had sold his

sheep, with pictures of rams and ewes of his flock . At that timehis flock consisted of about 200 ewes and 50 yearling rams. Sincethen the breed has been quietly working its way into favor in Kentucky and the Southern States, and has gained many friends. I ts

character has been gradually fixed by careful breeding by Mr.Scott , and i t i s now a heavy -bodied long

-wool sheep, wh ich produces a heavy fleece

,good mutton

,and a heavy market lamb .

The fleece consists of a long lustrous combing wool , in qualitymidway between the Leicester and the Cotswold . Some skins, andrugs made from the cured skins

,were exhibited at the Centennial ,

and received a prize for their excell ence. In a private letter tothe author

,Mr. Scott states that his sheep have been received with

so much favor,and have become so popular

,that it is w ith di ffi

culty t hat he can keep up the working numbers of his flock. Thi sexample of successful cross-breed ing is an instance of what acareful and skilful breeder may accomplish , rather than a resul t tobe confidently hoped for by any tyro in the art , or any person whomay have an ambition to found a new or improved breed of sheep .

THE AME RICAN MER INO .-One of the most successful instances

of the fortu itous results of sheep breed ing,exists in the establish

ment of the American Merino . In a Treatise upon the Austral ianMerino , by J. R . Graham , superintendent of an ex tensive sheeps ta tion on the Murray R iver, (published in Melbourne, inthe follow ing testimony is given : Of al l imported sheep

,those

of our first cousins,the Americans

,are the best . The best rams

imported into Melbourne of late years were some American rams.”

This coming from so capable a j udge,and in competit ion with the

best selections of Merino sh eep to be procu red elsewhere in theworld

,may be taken w ithout quest ion as proof that the American

Merino is the best sheep of its class in the world . I t is thereforeinteresting to trace the course through which this breed has beenbrought to its present excellence

,which enables it to stand alone

on its own merits,beyond any capab ility of further improvement

by any variety of Merino sheep now existing in any part of theworld .

The history of the American Merino commences w ith the

present century,and with importations of choice sh eep from

Spain . The honor of the first importation seems to belong to Mr.William Foster, of Boston , who managed , with much difficulty

THE AMERIC AN MERINO . 93

and risk ,” to bring with him from Cadiz , two ewes and one ram.

Unfortunately his en terprise came to naught , for presen ting thesevaluable and costly sheep to a friend

,this friend made them into

mutton and ate them . This same friend afterwards paidfor a Merino ram . One ram was imported in 1801

,and was used

on the farm of a French gentleman , Mr. D elessert,near K ingston

,

N. Y . This animal weighed 138 lbs . , and his fleece,well washed

in cold water, weighed 8 lbs . 8 ozs. He was a very fine ram,and

final ly founded a valuable flock on the farm of E . J . D upont,near

Wilmington , D el. Later in the same year,Mr . Seth Adams , of

Zanesvil le , O hio , imported a pair of Spanish Merinos , which re

ceived a premium at the fair of the Massachusetts AgriculturalSociety the next year. In 1802 Mr . Livingston

,the American

Minister to France , sent two pai rs of French Merinos home to hisfarm on the Hudson R iver. In 1807, Mr. Livingston importedsome choice Spanish ewes from Franée, and in 1808 , his flock began to acqu ire a wide reputation

,his rams sell ing for $150 each ,

and half-blood ewes and rams for $12 each . In 1802,Colonel

Humphreys , the American Minister to Spain , sen t 25 rams and 75ewes, selected from the choicest flocks in Spain

,to D erby

,Con

nec ticut . From what particu lar family of Merinos these sheep wereJelected , does not appear, the evidence , however, seems to point tothe fact that they were Infantados, or sheep from the flock of theD uke of Infantado , one of the chief grandees of Spain at thatperiod . This flock was bred and improved by Col . Humphrey s ,with much success . At the death of this gentleman , in 1818 , hisflock was scattered

,and only two or three then obscure farmers had

the luck , or precaution , to preserve them pure and dist inct . On

the rise of the Merinos into their future high reputat ion , these fortunate persons were brought into notice as the possessors of flocksof pure Merino sheep . But the most extensive and noteworthyimportation

,and that which gave form and character to the

American Merinos,was that of the Hon . Wm. Jarvis, the Ameri

can Consul at Lisbon,in 1809 and 1810. This consisted of

sheep of the flocks of Paulars, Negrettis, Aqueirres , andMontarcos

of Spain . These flocks,consisting of nearly head

,had

been , for pol itical reasons, confiscated and sold by the Span ishgovernment

,with other property of the four grandees who had

owned them .

Of the imported sheep , came to New York,

to Boston , and the remainder to Philadelphia, Bal timore, Alexandria,Norfolk, R ichmond , P ortland , Wiscasset , and Portsmou th . An

other shipment of followed in 1810, and were distributed

94 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

between New York and Boston . These sheep were of the primeflocks of Spain , and Spain

’s loss was our gain . Mr. Jarvis re

served 350 of the sheep for h is own Use. A few other minor im

portations of Spanish sheep were made by other parties in 1810 and1811. The knowledge that we had thus obtained the very bestsheep in the world

,started a speculative fever, which was increased

by the war with England in 1812, when Merino wool sold fora pound . Imported rams were eagerly purchased for

to each , and ewes sold for a head . Many flocks ofpure or grade sheep were started in all parts of the country

,and

much care was taken in the breeding of them . This lasted untilthe peace of 1815

,when sh eep that were valued at a head

,

in 1809, sold for and of course all interest in breeding thenceased . Afterwards

,under the stimulus of various protect ive tar

id’

s, the business revived, and fine wool-growing again attracted

a t ten t ion .

In 1824, 77 Saxon Merino sheep were imported by G . 85 T .

Scarle, of Boston , and this was followed by several other importat ions by the same parties. By bad management much loss resultedt o the importers , and in consequence of the poor qual ity of thesheep , the whole business was a failure for all concerned , including the purchasers. The inferiority of the Saxon breed was manifest , and these sheep, which yielded a fleece of but 2% to 3 lbs . perhead

,could not compete w ith the Spanish sheep , which produced

4 } lbs . of wel l washed wool per head , of nearly equal value , although not quite so fine as the Saxon wool . The Saxon sheephave all disappeared since 1846. Then the American Merino cameinto general favor. This class of sheep, in 1840 to 1845 , consistedof several families of dist inctly marked varieties

,due chiefly to the

various courses of breed ing followed by their several owners . Thed istinguishing pecul iarities of these families consisted mainly intheir size and hight of c

'

arcass,length and fineness of wool

,the

pendulous dewlaps and skinfolds of the_rams, and the amount of

yolk in the fleece, and i ts consequent greater weight and darker

color. Up to the period in question , the choicest flocks were tobe found in New England

,on account of the greater care there

taken in breed ing . Some of the Connect icut and Vermont breeders had taken great pains to improve their flocks

,and much emu

l ation existed amongst them in this respect . Gradually,differ

ences became merged and blended by the continued purchase oframs by the owners of defect ive flocks

,from the more careful

breeders,and finally only the two famil ies, the P aulars and the

Infantados continued to be bred as d istinct in all parts of the

INCREASE or SIZE AND FLEEC E . 95

country . Since then these separate families, their crosses ,and thosebetween them and other pure flocks

,have been greatly improved .

The carcass has become larger and heavier, and the fleece hasbeen increased in weight . This is shown by the following table

,

taken from a more extensive one published about 70 years ago byP etri

,who visited Spain for the express purpose of examining the

Spanish sheep,and from some measurements made by the Hon .

H. S. Randall,of Cortland

, N. Y . , and published in his valuablework on Fine Wool Sheep Husbandry, as well as from numberless wel l authenticated weights of fleeces. The table is as follows :

NAMES OF FLOCKS.

Ne g rettr RamEw

Infantado RamEwe

Guadeloupe Ram

E sta ntes of Sierra do Some Ram .

E “e .

Small E stantes RamEwe

American Merino R am

o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o

These differences,it ' will be observed

,occur in those respects

which add greatly to the value of the animal,the heavier weights

of carcass,the shorter neck

,the shorter legs

,and the very greatly

increased width of loin . All these points of improvement tend toshow an animal of excellen t physical vigor and constitution .

As to the fleece : in 1800 t o 1813 , the import ed Merinos yielded3% to 4 lbs . of brook-washed wool , in the ewe , and 6 to 7 lbs . in theram . The heaviest fleeoed ram imported

,that of Mr. D upont ,

produced 81} lbs. of brook-washed wool . In 1845 the product hadincreased to 5 lbs . for some small flocks and 9 lbs. for rams . Mr.Stephen Atwood

,of Vermont

,reported m this year that his heavi

est ewe’s fleece was 6 lbs. 6 oz .,and his heaviest ram’s fleece

,12

lbs . 4 oz . In 1849, a ram ,belonging to Mr. Randall

,produced 13

lbs. 3 oz . of well washed wool . Up to this period the Merinoshad been under a heavy cloud

,and improvement had not occurred

so rapidly as it has done since then . The weights of the fleeces of

Whole

length

.

Cz'rcumerence

I

52

031/

I

flight

Q/‘fore

legs

.

in. in . in .

54 14 15

sogg 4915 1355 50 12

47 12

53 12

47 45 10K51a, 5014 1248 46 11

38 1038 34 847 525 11

475 49g 11

48 51 9

47 48% 8x

3

I

[fight

ofhind

legs

.

10

9k;9

8 1a.00

lw\

6

87

6

6

9

9

9

8

96 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

those early days of the American Merinos are far surpassed now,

and the average of some small flocks reaches over 10 pounds ofwashed wool. Many remarkable reports of recent shear ings migh tbe selected from various agricul tural j ournal s, which go to showa greatly increased production of wool per head , and the reportsmay doubtless be accepted as in the main correct . In the OhioFarmer of June 19th ,

1875, are reported weights of some fleeces ofpure b red AmericamMerinos, viz of a flock of 44

,an aged ram’s

fleece weighed 20 pounds ; 34 yearling ewes’ fleeces weighed 410

lbs. 3 oz an average of over 12 pounds,and 9 aged ewes’ fleeces

,

‘

108 lbs . 7 oz .,an average of 12 pounds. The wool was 3 inches

long, of a clear white color, and therefore free from excessiveyolk . Also of a flock of 80 ; 19 ram lambs, average age 131}months , sheared 325} lbs. , average 17 lbs . 2 oz . per fleece ; 13rams

,2 to 6 years old

,sheared or 17 lbs. 5 oz . per fleece ; 48

ewes produced 668 lbs . 6 oz .,or 14 lbs. nearly per fleece. The

extreme weights of the ram lambs’ fleeces were from 14 l bs. to 20lbs . ; of the rams, 14 lbs. to 24 lbs. 4 oz . ,

and of the ewes,12 lbs.

to 18 lbs. These fleeces,being dou b tless unwashed , would shrink

one-third in washing. In the Michigan Farmer of July, 1875,

the weight of 16 fleeces is reported at 1685 lbs . of washed wool ,an average of 104 lbs. each ; 10 ewes yielded 91 lbs . ; 3 yearl ingrams produced 45 1} lbs and three yearling ewes 32 lbs. TheD etroit Traba ne

,about the same t ime

,reports a flock of 43

ewes and wethers which produced 399 lbs .,an average of

about 9} lbs . of washed wool . Seven yearling rams sheared1001} lbs. , being 13 months

’ growth of wool ; one of these fleecesweighed 15 lbs .

,and the sheep after shearing weighed 49 lbs . One

6-year ram sheared 19 lbs. unwashed wool . Another flock of 33ewes produced 318 lbs. of wool , washed on th e sheeps

’ backs 9d ays previously. These reports are selected at haphazard , uponcasually gl ancing over a few of the papers which are in the habitof publishing news of this character

,sent by known correspond

ents. In all these cases the names and addresses are given withthe reports

,but are withheld here

,as they are in no way excep

tional, or surpass the reports of th e. flocks of numberless oth er

farmers or breeders . Indeed,many thoroughly trustworthy re

ports are constantly being given of greater w eights of fleece thanany of these . The following reports of the weights of the premium fleeces sheared at the annual meeting of the American WoolGrowers’ Association of 1875

,may be given as finally conclusive

of the fact under consideration,viz the'gradual improvement and

present high value of the American Merino in the hands of Ameri

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

THE SE EPR ERD’S MANUAL.

THE FLEECE . 99

to be used in improving the poor,smooth-skinned native race

common on the western plains,in which case a heavy yolked and

much wrinkled ram may be found desirable .

The F leece—A sheep bred exclusively, or chiefly, for wool , mustnecessarily be valued in proportion to the value of the fleece. Thewool of a pure -bred Merino of any value

,should stand at right

angles to the skin , presenting a dense, smooth , even surface on theexterior

,Opening nowhere but in those natural cracks or d ivisions

which separate the fleece into masses . These masses should notbe small in size

,or they indicate excessive fineness of fleece ; a

quarter of an inch is the limit in this respect ; nor too large , lestthe wool be coarse and harsh . The length should be such as

,com

b ined with thickness of staple , w ill give the greatest weight offleece. Med ium wool rs generally in greater demand than finewool

,and i t is more profi tably produced . Two to three inches is

probably the most desirable length Of fleece for profit . A change,

however,is taking place In th is respect

,since the practice of

combing Merino wool has become general,and three inches

and over is a frequen tly desired length Of fiber. It is notdesirabl e to have the face covered with wool long enough to foldup in the fleece . If the eyes are covered with such wool , the sheepis either bl inded

,or the wool must be kept clipped close . The

ears should be smal l,with a coat O f soft mossy hair about half

way to the roots,and for “ the remainder

,covered with wool . A

naked ear is very Obj ect ionable . E venness in qual ity in everypart of the sheep is very desirable. Hair growing up through thewool on the thighs

,the neck-folds , or scattered through the fleece

here and there,is not to be allowed . The wool should be sound ,

that is,of even strength from end to end of the fiber. I t should

be highly elastic and wrinkled,curved or wavy . The number Of

these curls,or waves

,to the inch

,is not so much a test of excel

lence as their regularity and beauty of curvature . A folding backof the fiber upon itself is net so desirable as a gentler curve. (SeeChapter on Wool).

P lz'

ancg/ a nd Softness to the feel ing in handling, is an excellenttest of qual ity

,so much prized by manufactu rers, that practiced

buyers w il l sometimes form an accurate j udgment of a fleece byhandling it in the dark wi th gloved hands.

Yolle.

—TO what extent the yolk should exist in the wool of theMerino

,is a matter of dispu te

,and in some degree a matter of

taste. A certain portion of yolk is absolutely necessary to theexistence Of a good fleece

,and beyond this i t is questionable if any

100 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

excess of yolk answers any good purpose . This is considered atsome length in the Chapter on Wool , where it naturally belongs .When i t is in such excessive quantity as in a fleece which weighed1951bs. before washing, and only 4 lbs . afterwards, it is decidedlyO bj ectionable

,except in the case of a ram chosen to impart greater

yolkiness to a flock which is deficient in this respect . In general,

as wool is the obj ect sought , no more yolk is necessary than thequantity required to promote the growth of the fleece and to keepit in good condition

,soft

,pliant

,and thoroughly well lubricated .

FOREIGN BREEDS.—LONG-WOOL SHEEP .

Long-wool sheep are properly natives O f the rich low-lands ofE ngland

,which are productive of abundant , succulent , nutrit ious

pasture . But there have been great improvements in agricu ltureduring the past century, which have enabled farmers to produceenormous crops Of clover, artificial grasses, and roots , and to purchase large suppl ies Of rich concentrated foods, such as the variousoil-cakes . As one resul t of th is improved agricul ture , the longwool sheep have been taken from the alluvial land s where theyoriginated

,t o the uplands , where they have grea tly increased in

number,and also improved in character. The fact that these large

bodied,heavy fleeced sheep have been found far more profitable

than the l ighter short-wool sheep, has been the all-suffi cient cau seof this adaptat ion of the race to new condi tions

,for profi t is the

moving power in every industry, and what is, is simply because iti s profitable

,and for no other reason in this day of eager search

for increased comfort and weal th . The profi t O f long-wool sheepconsists not only in their weigh t of meat and fleece

,but in their

rap id growth and early maturity . In the change of locality alladed to

,and from circumstances of feed and management

,some of

the ancient breeds have disappeared altogether, and o ther breeds

have been much changed by extensive crossing with the most popul ar and highly bred of them . The long-wool sheep of the presen tt ime may be divided into two classes one of which still remainslocal ized in low rich allu vial soils

,and drained marshes of certain

parts of E ngland ; th is, includes the Lincoln and the RomneyMarsh breeds. The other class belongs to dry arable plains

,or

farms devoted to grain,grass

,and root crops

,and other special ties

of mixed farming. This class includes the Leicester,Cotswold ,

and Oxford-down breeds .

THE L INC OLN is the heaviest bodied sheep in existence. In1826 a three-shear sheep O f this breed , (40 months old , or about

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

102 THE SHEPHE RD’S MANUAL.

that age), was slaughtered in E ngland , which dressed 96} lbs . thequarter ; a two-shear sheep dressed 91 lbs . per quarter, and ayearl ing dressed 71 lbs . per quarter. In a report on L incoln sheep,it is stated that thirty 14 -m0 nths-old wether lambs

,slaughtered at

Lincoln Fair, averaged 140 lbs . each , dressed weight , and 100 together O f the lambs clipped 14 lbs . of washed wool apiece

.The

usual practice of the L incolnsh ire breeders is to feed the sheepuntil about two years old , when they will have y ielded a secondfleece weighing 10 to 14 pounds

,and will dress 120 t o 160 lbs.

dead weight for the butcher. The wool of this breed is very longand lu strous, measuring n ine inches and over . The origin of thepresent highly improved breed , was a race Of heavy-bodied Sheepwhich in i ts pure state is now practically extinct . I t inhabited thelow alluvial flats Of Lincolnshire

,and the adj o ining local it ies

,on

the eastern coasts of England . These sheep were large and coarse ,with a long, ragged , oily fleece

,which nearly swept the ground .

They fed slowly, but made much inward fat, and their meat waswel l flavored , fine grained , j u icy , and not too much overlaid w ithfat on the outside . A century ago this was the established character of these sheep . When the improved Leicesters Of Mr. Bakewell came into notoriety

,the intelligen t Lincolnsh ire breeders Oh

tained some of his rams,and by admixtu re of their blood

,in time

establ ished a dist in ctly new breed . In connection with a systemof farming

,in which heavy crops of roots and green fodder were

the chief productions,th i s improved breed became fixed in its

character as the heaviest producers of mutton and wool in theworld . In one instance 261} lbs . of wool was taken from a 14months old lamb . From 1862 t o 1870, th e maj ority of prizes forlong-wool sheep at E ngl ish fairs, were taken by the Lincolns , buti t was not until the former date

, that the breed was given a d ist inct place as a separate class at these shows . Since then i t hasachieved great prominence , and become very popular for crossingupon o ther breeds

,for the production of feed ing sheep , and for its

y ield of long , lustrous , and worsted wools. The L incoln requiresthe best and richest soils

,and succulent herbage

,and can only

thrive under the best management and very high farming . Atpresent i t i s questionable i f we in this country have any place inour agricul ture which th is sheep can profitably fi ll

,unless it be in

a very few instances , where the highest skill of the breeder is exercised under peculiarly favorable conditions of soil and cl imate .A fine flock Of these sheep was imported by Mr. R ichard G ibson ,O f London Canada, and has been carefully and successfully cultivated by h im. A portion of Mr. Gibson’s flock has been recently

THE ROMNEY MARSH SHEE P . 103

104 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

purchased by Mr. Will iam A . K ing, of Minneapol is , Minn .Mr

.

George Grant,of Kansas

,also has a flock . Their adaptabil ity to

our cl imate is therefore in a fair way of being thoroughly tested.

THE ROMNEY MARSH SHEER —This breed is also an inhabi tan tof low

,alluvial lands. Its home is in sou th-eastern England

,in

the extensive marshes of the county of Kent,which are ditched

and d iked in the same manner as those O f Holland . I t has existed there from time immemorial

,and has fed on th e rich clay

lands which are so productive of herbage as to be capable of carrying 14 sheep to the acre. This breed has a l so been much improvedby crossing with Leicester rams . It is hardier than the L incoln

,

and survives much neglect. I t is rarely shel tered , even in severeweather, and the lambs are generally pastured during the winterIn the stubbles upon the adjoining uplands

,where th ey undergo

many privat ions . t is not improbable that th is h itherto neglected ,but valuable and hardy sheep

,could find suitable homes upon our

eastern coasts,and rich river flats

,where it would serve a better

purpose than the more highly bred and del icate Leicester, in improving

, or d isplacing, our less valuable nat ive sheep . The characteristics of the Romney Marsh sheep are : a thick , b road h ead andneck

,long carcass

,flat sides , broad loin , fu ll and broad thigh ,

n either heavy nor full fore-quarter,thick

,strong legs and broad

feet ; wool long, somewhat coarse , and coarsest on the thighs ;much inside fat

,and a favorite animal w ith the butcher. There is

a tuft O f wool on the forehead . The fleece weighs from 7 to 10pounds

, is O f long staple,sound qual ity

,and brigh t and glossy ;

i t is in demand by French and D utch manufacturers for a sort ofmohair fabric known as “ cloth of gold ,” (D rop d

’

or) . At three

years Old the wethers dress from 100 to 120 lbs . , and the ewesfrom 70 to 90 lbs . After a moderate amount of crossing with theLeicester, it was found that to persevere further in this direct iontended to make these sheep less hardy

,and the cross was at once

abandoned . Inter-breeding amongst the cross-bred Sheep maintained the improvement w ithout sacrificing the hardiness andv igor Of constitution

,which renders this breed so well adapted to

its bleak and w ind-swept pastures.

THE LE I C E STER — It was more than a hundred years ago thatthe old Leicester Sheep fell into the hands Of‘Mr. Robert Bakewell .They were then large

,heavy

,coarse animals, having meat Of a

poor flavor,a long and thin carcass with flat sides , l arge bones, and

thick,rough legs . They were poor feeders , and at two or three

years old made 100 to 120 lbs . of mutton . The wool was long and

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

106 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

coarse,and of only moderate value By a course of breeding,

about which he was very reticent even to his friends, and whichhe kept secret from other breeders , Mr. Bakewell totally changedthe character of these sheep

,and buil t up for himself a reputation

as a successful breeder, which is second to that of no other in theworld

. O f his system of breed ing , the most that is known is , thatb e commenced with the inferior, Old Leicesters , selecting the bestof them he could find . He apparently u sed any animal whatever,w ithout reference to breed or color, nor did he regard relationship,if he considered those coupled together would be most l ik ely to

produce the results that he wished to attain in the O ffspring.

His obj ect was to produce an an imal that would yield in theshortest time

,and with the least consumption of feed , the largest

amount of flesh and fat,meanwhile not n egl ecting the fleece . His

ideal sheep was to him precisely what the desired Short-horn wasto the Cull ey Brothers, Mr. Bates, or Mr. Booth ; and all thesebreeders gave their whole sou l to the attainment of their onesingl e obj ect . The Culley Brothers were pupils of Mr. Bakewell ,and it is but just to give h im some share Of the honor attained bythese ori ginators of the Short-horn . E ach of these b reeders bredin-and-in

,both frequen tly and closely

,and each of them wen t out

side of the breed he was building up and improving for foreignblood

,when anything was to be gained by it . It is stated of Mr.

Bakewell that he used sheep of six or seven d ifferen t breeds, andone visitor to h is establ ishment , reported that , in going about thestables alone

,early one morn ing

,be f ore Mr. Bakewell had risen ,

he saw a black ram , but a very magnificent animal , hidden awayin a pen . In course of time his success was recognized by the besttest— that of the market value of h is sheep . He began in 1755 ; in1760 his rams were le t for an annual sum of about $4 each . In1780 he received $50 for the season

’s use of a ram . In 1784 theprice was raised to $525. In 1786 one ram was let for In1789 he received for the use of three rams

,al l born at one

birth for seven others ; and for the use Of theremainder Of his flock. Twenty-two hundred dollars was paid byeach of two breeders for th e use of one ram for their flocks alone,he reserving one-third of h is use for h imself

,making the yearly

value of this one ram equal to After his death,Bakewell’s

system of close breeding was followed by his successors,but wi th

the effect of reducing the value of the breed to the farmer. Thesheep became delicate

,and weakened in consti tution

,reduced in

size,less prolifi c

,and less careful of their lambs. New blood ,

chiefly of . the hard ier Cotswold,has been of late years introduced

THE C OTSWOLD SHEEP . 107

with the effect of restoring their lost qual ities. The modern improved Leic . ster is without horns ; with white face and legs , asmall

,fine head

,bare on the poll ; a large , bright , and very promi

no t eye square and d eep neck and shoulders ; straight , flat, broadback ; deep body ; hind quarters tapering somewhat to the tail , andnot SO square as in the Cotswold ; clean legs , and fine bone . Theflesh is good , but overloaded with outs ide fat. The fleece is fine ,

glossy,silky

,white

,and of but moderate length

,averaging 7 to 8

pounds in w eight . The skin is th in,soft

,and elastic

,and of a

very del icate pinkish tinge, when the animal is in full heal th . TheLeicester cannot by any means be called a hardy sheep

,as it requires

good keep,careful shelter

,and ski llful treatment to maintain it in

thriving condition . When ailing it gives way at once,and de

clines rapidly . It matures rapidly and early,and at twelve months

old when well fed,will dress 100 pounds

,and at two years reaches

a weigh t of 150 pounds . A four-year-Old ram in prime conditionhas weighed 380 pounds live weight . For use in this country

,the

Leicester cannot compete with the Cotswold,nor is it fitted in any

way to become the farmer’s sheep,excepting in very rare cases

,

when its services might be desired to refine a Cotswold cross in thehands of a breeder who thoroughly understands his business .

THE CO TSW OLD .

—~ This breed has become so common in America

, and has been bred so extensively without fresh importations ofnew blood

,that it may well be adopted as a native sheep . Many

excellent flocks are now self-sustain ing,and under their American

nativity,lose nothing of their original excellence . The Maple

Shade flock,original ly the property of Mr. John D . Wing

,of

D utchess County, N. Y .

,but some years ago divided

,and now

owned by other parties,is one of many instances of the successful

acclimatization of this most valuable sheep . The Cotswold hasan ancient history. It is said to have been introduced into E ngland from Spain , by E leanora, Queen of Henry

‘

II,of E ngland

,in

the twelfth century. Although there is nothing more than tradi»t ion to support this

,yet there is some corroboration of it in the

fact that in Spain there has long existed , and is now ,a breed O f

coarse,long wool Sheep not unlike the original Cotswold in some

respec ts . It is known,however

,that in fifty years after this early

date , the wool of the Cotswold sheep was a source of materialweal th

,and was j ealously guarded by law . Th ree cen turies after

this , ( in permission was granted by the E ngl ish k ing, E dward IV , as a royal favor, to export some of these Sheep to Spain .

They were originally very coarse animals,with th ick

,heavy

fleece , well adap ted to their home upon the bleak exposed Cots

108 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

110 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

the middle . T he wool sometimes reaches a length O f 9 inches, and

although coarse,i s soft and mellow . In some of these sheep , the

fleece is beau tifully waved . NO breed is more valuable for crossing than this . It has helped to establ ish several permanent crossbreeds ; the O xford-downs and the Shropshires in England ; aCotswold-Merino in Germany, and another of this cross, which iswel l under way in this country

,and last

,but not least

,a very

promising cross breed,originated on the Beacon Farm

,Long

Island,by Mr. William Crozier, and called the Beacon-downs . I t

has,moreover

,been used to produce many cross-bred market

sheep in various parts O f E ngland , and is extensively used by oursheep-raisers in the production of market lambs . Being capableof adaptation to almost any locali ty, and producing a wool which ,both in i ts pure state and in its grades , is of w ide availability inthe woolen manufacture

,it may justly claim to be the most valua

ble sheep we have acquired , and to promise a more ex tended usefulness than any other w e at this time possess, or can probablyprocure .

THE O ! F ORD -DOWNS — This is one of the newly establishedcross-breeds

,which has made a favorable reputation , and promises

to become permanent . It has already been introduced here,and

has made its appearance on several farms , the owners Of whichpossess more than usual enterprise . It is classed among the longwool sheep

,but i t is only since 1862 tha t i t has gained the honor

,

or has been awarded the justi ce of a separate class at the E ngl ishfairs . It has rapidly extended its domain in E ngland , and as awool and mutton producer

,firmly holds al l it gains . It originated

in a cross O f a Cotswold ram upon a Hampshire-down ewe,made in

or about the year 1830, by Mr. Twynham and several other farmers,of Hampshire

, E ngland . The produce was a sheep heavier than thedam , and resembl ing the Cotswold in size and fleece . The wool

,

however,was finer and firmer th an that of the Cotswold

,and

from five to seven inches in length . The first cross rams andewes were bred together

,no further cross being made . By con

tinned care the best poin ts have been preserved,and the const itu

tion and character O f the first cross have been maintained . Theresul t is

,a. sheep that is found profitable to feed on a mixed farm

h ardy,producing at 14 months old a carcass O f 80 to 88 lbs . , and a

fleece of 8 or 9 lbs . of wool , which is in great demand in theworsted manufacture . By good feeding these weights are muchincreased . At the Smithfleld

, (London), fat cattle show of 1873 ,a pen Of three 22-monthS-old shearl ings weighed alive 895 lbs . , oran average of 298 lbs . each . Rams have been known to Shear 20

112 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

lbs. of wool for their first fleece . The O xford-down has a headmuch l ike a Cotswold, with a tuft on the forehead , but w ith darkface and legs

,which are derived from its other parent

,the Hamp

sh ire-down ; a th ick set somewhat curly fleece,a round barrel on

short legs,and yields, when less than two years old , a mutt on con

sidered by its friends as superior to the Southdown of the sameage

,but inferior to i t when older than two years . Its nat ive

l local ity is a district at the foot of the Cotswold hil ls, an area ofmixed soils, abounding in springs , and requiring much draining .

At particular seasons in the winter,neither the Cotswold nor the

Southdown could be made to thrive upon these wet soils,but the

cross-bred sheep have successfully withstood the inconveniencewithout being affected with the usual disease of the d is trict

,such

as giddiness,or water on the brain . They have been found very

profitable feeders,requiring but l it tle purchased food , and stand

ing the exposure incident to folding upon green crops in the win ter,

w ithout d iffi culty. Good rams of this breed bring about $60 perhead at the ram sales.

MEDIUM AND SHORT-WOOL SHEEP .

THE SHROP SHI RE SHE ER —The Shropshire is one of the crossbred sheep that owes its origin in part to the Cotswold

,the other

parent being an original breed of sheep common to the district,

and known as the “Morfe Common sheep . This word “ common does not express qual ity, but is used here as referring to anunenclosed tract of land known as “ common land

,

” or publicproperty ; such tracts formerly existed in many localities in E ngland

,and to a considerable extent in the early settlements in New

E ngland . These sheep of Morfe Common , (which was a tract ofacres of land), were the original stock upon which crosses

of Cotswold,and afterwards of Leicester and Southdown

,were

made at various periods . This course of improvement appears tohave been begun about 1792. From the unequal admixture ofblood

,the Shropshires vary somewhat in character, sometimes

possessing the character of a short-wool , and sometimes that of amedium-wool sheep. The original sheep was horned , black orbrown faced , hardy, and free from disease , producing 44 to 56 lbs.of mutton to the carcass, and a fleece of 2 lbs . of moderately finewool

,which was u sed in the cloth manufacture . After three

quarters of a century of cul tivation , they are now without horns,w i th faces and legs of a dark or spotted gray color ; thick, meatyneck

;well shaped , ratner small and fine head : neat ears well set

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

114 THE SHE PHERD’

S MANUAL.

on the head ; broad , deep breast ; straight back ; a good , round barre! ; and clean legs w ith strong bone . They are very hardy , thrivewel l on moderate keep

,are qu ickly fattened

,and produce at two

years old, 80 to 100 lbs. ,

or even 120 lbs . of excel lent meat,which

brings the highest pric e from the butcher. The ewes are prolificand good mothers . The fleece is heavier than that of the South! »

down,being longer and more glossy

,and weighs on the average

abou t 7 lbs . of marke table wool. The portraits on the precedingpage are of some members of a flock imported from Englandin 1874 , by Mr. J. T . Hoyt , of Su isun City , California. Thissheep posse sses many valuable qualities for our uses

,and prom ises

t o make a satisfactory farmer’s sheep in local it ies where mediumwool and choice mutton are profitable , and where the flocks haveto depend upon pasture for the greater part of their support . Itsclose, well set fleece , and hardy constitution , will also help to carryi t through considerable exposure and variable weather

,withou t

inj ury . P rize rams have sold in E ngland for $500 each , but at theannual ram sa les

,the prices run from $50 to $150. There are sev

eral flocks of this breed kept in d ifferent parts of the UnitedStates and Canada, which promise to become sources of supply.

THE SOUTHDOWN .—The modern improved Southdown de

scended from an old establ ished breed of sheep,which have inhab

ited the hilly portions of England from the most ancient period sof known his tory of that country . In the southern part of thec ountry, and in the counties of Sussex , Ken t , Hampshire , andD orsetshire

,there is a range of low hills

,underlaid w ith chalk

,

which descend gradually on the sou th to the sea coast,and on the

north merge into rich cultivated lands . These low h ills orD owns

,

" have a. dry soil , and are covered with a rich , sweet ,short

,dense herbage. Upon th is favorabl e soil the ancien t breed

throve without special care,and when skil lful breeders , emulating

the success of Mr. Bakewell with the_

Leices ters, commenced to

improve it,they speed ily raised its character. At fi rst the Sussex

or Southdown sheep were small , and with few good points longand thin in the neck

,narrow in the forequarters , high in the

shoulders,low behind

,sharp on the back

,and with flat ribs ; the ir

only good point s being a good leg. The-ir mutton , however, chiefly from the excellent character of their pasture , was of the bestflavor

,and highly valued . By the careful attention of Mr. E llman ,

of Glynde, the defects were weeded ou t, and after 50 years of constant sel ection of breeding animals

,he brought his sheep into

repute and favor,as th e first of the short-wool breeds. Mr. Jonas

Webb,of Suffolk ,

continued the course of improvement from 1822,

116 THE SHE PHEHD’s MANUAL.

but it was only in 1840 that he gained a premium for his stock atan exh ibition . After this he took a prize at every exhibition ofhis sheep

,and in 1843 the Highland Society paid him the compli

ment of having portraits of his prize sheep taken for the museumat Edi nburgh . In 1855Webb’s Southdowns were exhibited at theP aris exhibi tion , and a ram ,

for which had been refused,

was presented to the Emperor Napoleon . Since Mr. Webb’sdeath

,many breeders have made a wide reputation with the

Southdowns, and at the presen t time they hold the position ofbeing decidedly the best mutton sheep in the world . As yearl ingsthey yi eld 75 to 80 lbs . in dressed weight, of the choicest meat inthe market , and a flock of high character wil l produce an averageof 6 lbs. to the fleece of a wool in demand for flannels and softgoods. The ewes are prol ific breeders and excellen t mothers .These sheep

,as they are now bred

,are without horns and w ith

dark brown or black faces and legs. The siz e is med ium ; thebody round and deep the forequarters are w ide and deep, and th ebreast i s broad . The back is broad and level ; the rump square andfull

,and the thigh full

,and massive . The legs are short w ith fine

bone. The form is smooth , even , fine , and symmetrical , withoutcoarseness or angulari ty in any part. The habi ts of these sheepare active

,and they are docil e and contented . They are able to

accommodate themselves to any district, or style of farming, wheremoderately good pasturage is to be had

,and are well suited as

gleaners upon an arable farm . Mr. Webb’s.

farm was mostly allunder tillage . For the improvement of our native sheep in a part icular d irection , they are not to be surpassed , and in th is respectthey rival the Cotswold . Indeed

,there is scarcely a cross-bred

race of sheep in England,or E urope

,but has been indebted to the

Southdown for some of its smoothness , rotund ity, hardiness ofconstitut ion , and excellence of flesh . It is an excellen t feeder

,its

lambs are active and hardy, and as the producer of market lambsfrom grade or pure Merino ewes

,the Southdown ram has no su

perior,or equal

,if the favor w ith which the dark faces and legs

of the lambs are received by butchers is considered There are nofatter lambs come to market than those of a cross of Southdownand Merino. The Southdown has become thoroughly natural iz edin America

,and its dark face and compact fleece

,impervious to

the heaviest rains,have l eft their mark upon a large proportion of

our natives,ranking in th is respect next to the Merino .

THE HAMP SHIRE -DOWNS.

—The Hampsh ire-downs have of laterapidly risen in favor. P revious to our late war, many of themwere imported into the southern states under the impression that

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

118 THE SHEPHEHD’S MANUAL.

they surpassed the ir rivals and progenitors , the Southdowns , inadaptation to the climate . Amidst the vicissitudes of a stat e ofwar

,no stock so rapidly suffers and disappears as sheep

,and as

Spain lost her Merinos in the French war of last century, so it i sprobabl e that the south has lost her Hampshire-downs . It is avaluable race of sh eep

,occupying a place where a larger animal

than the Southdown is required . It originated in a cross madeabout 70 years ago between a native , white-faced , horned sheep ofthe district

,and the pure Southdown . The prepotency , or natural

vigor and force of the Southdown ram , entirely changed the character of the breed in a few generations . The horns disappeared

,

the face became black,the frame was made more compact , the

back broader and straighter,the barrel rounder, the legs shorter,

and the qual ity of the flesh superior. The cross reta ined itsancient hardiness

,its Roman nose , and massive head , and large

size . I t became , in fact , a larger Southdown , maturing at an earlyage

,and fa tting rapidly. The large size of the lambs of this breed

make it spec ially valuable under certain circumstances at a y earold they weigh 80 to 100 lbs . The fleece reaches a weigh t of 6 to7 lbs. of wool suitable for combing, being longer than that of theSouthdown , and not so fi ne. The mutton of theHampshire-downsis not overloaded with fat

,and has a good proportion of j u icy

,well

flavored,l ean meat . Thi s breed lS occasionally crossed with the

Cotswold , when it produces a wool more valuable for the worstedmanufactures than that of the pure Cotswold .

THE D ORSE T SHE ER —T I118 is a breed which inhab its a districtin the south of E ngland , where i t has been preserved intact for along period . It has some very valuable characteristics, one of thechief of which is its fecund i ty, and its abil ity to breed at an earlyseason . The D orset ewes . take the ram in April

,yean in Septem

ber, and the lambs are fit for market at Christmas . A large proportion of the ewes produce and rai se twins or triplets , A flockis mentioned owned by Mr P itfield

,of Bridport

,D orset

,E ng ,

consisting of 400 ewes , wh1ch raised 555 lambs in one season . Theewes are ready for the ram immediately aft er yeaning

,and may

thus produce two crops of lambs in a year. Where market lambscan be d isposed of

,this peculiarity may be turned to good account

,

and with great profit . Both rams and ewes are horned . Theyhave white legs ;white , bread , and long faces, with a tuft of woolon the forehead ; b lack nose and l ips ; low ,

bu t broad shoulders ;straigh t back and deep

,full brisket ; the loin s are broad and deep ;

the legs are . rather long,but l igh t in the bone . A related and

neighboring breed known as Pink-nosed Somersets,” have pink

120 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

noses , and are not so valuable . The D orsets are hardy,very qu iet

and docile, and submit to any reasonabl e management with facili ~ty , adapting themselves readily to changes . They matu re early

,

weigh 100 lbs. dead weight,at two years old

,when folded upon

turnips alone, for which kind of feeding they are well su ited.

Thefleece is close and heavy, yielding 6 lbs . of white , soft, clean wooladapted to combing purposes. The lambs are sheared for theirfleeces of “ lambs wool .” When crossed with the Southdown

,the

Dorset ewes produce mostly single lambs,which

,when shorn

,yield

Fig. 39.—D 0RSET EWES or MR . P ITFI ELD

’S E wen —(From 0. Photograph

about 2 lbs. each of valuable wool , and make , when mature , alarger and better feeding sheep , with a heavier and finer fleecethan the dams .

[ A few D orsets have been introduced into Vir

ginia, but have attracted no notice beyond the simple fact of theirexistence there . They certainly possess some valuable points forour use which should make them good subj ects for experiment.

THE CHEVIOT .—T lle Cheviot hills traverse the boundary be

tween E ngland and Scotland . These hills have given their name toa very hardy breed of sheep

,the origin of wh ich is perhaps some

what fanciful ly dated back to the attempted invasion of E nglandby the Spanish Armada . When this formidable and dreaded fleetwas wrecked upon the stormy British coasts

,i t is said that some

of the sheep with wh ich the ships were provided,swam ashore

‘

and

escaped to these hill s,where they bred and multipl ied . They

were originally small,l igh t-boned

,hardy sheep

,and were spread

over most of the hilly part of the Scottish lowlands. A hundred

y ears ago the attent ion of breeders was drawn to the Cheviots, andthey were greatly improved in size and value. I t is said that a

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

122 THE SHE PHE RD’

S MANUAL.

Lincolnshire cross was used for ‘ this purpose,and that a Le icester

cross was tried and failed . It is now a most useful breed ,and

when fed upon sweet , dry herbage , produces a very choice mutton ,

much sought after by the epicure. It is w ithou t horns,the l ead

and legs white, bu t sometimes, though rarely ,dun or speckled

,the

face good , bu t st rong featured and massive ; the eyes lively ; thebody long, set upon clean , fine legs ; the hindquarter and saddlefull and heavy ; the forequarter l ight , as in all mounta in breeds

,

and in hab it they are qu ie t, docile, and submissive to restraint . Asa mountain breed they stand first in every respect

,and yet are

very useful lowland sheep. They fatten quickly on tu rnips,after

pasture, without grain , and make a dressed weight of 80 lbs . at 3years old . The ewes are good mothers

,and the lambs are very

hardy , spending the whole season on the hills withou t shel ter, except in drifting storms of snow

,when

,without protect ion

,they

would be in danger of being buried in the drifts. The final d ispositiou of the Cheviots

,when full grown , is to be sold to sou thern

farmers,who raise a crop of cross-bred lambs by a Leicester ram

,

and fat tening the ewes when the lambs are weaned,sell both to

the butchers,turning over their capital with interest w ith in one

year . Upon good pasture the fleece becomes fine,and sells for a

higher price than when they are fed upon coarse grass . Thefleece yields about 5 lbs. of medium wool , which furnishes thematerial for the useful and fashionable Scotch tweeds and Cheviotcloths . NO wool is in greater or steadier demand than this classof clothing wool .

THE BLACK-FAC E D SC OT CH SHE ER — This breed is w ithou tdoubt the oldest in Scotland . The story of its origin is obscuredby tradition . It is known

,however

,to have existed

,much as i t

now is,for several centuries

,having disputed possession of the

h il l s whereon Norval’s father fed his flock,

” with the wolves andfoxes of the semi-civil ized period

,which preceded the last. pol itical

settlement of Scotland with England . Since the union of the twocountri es, great improvements have taken place in Scotch agricul ture, and the Black-faced sheep have gained with it . They area horned breed

,the horns of the ram being massive, and spirally

curved . The face is black,with a thick muzzle the eye is bright

and w ild ; the body square and compact , w i th good quarters anda broad saddle . They are very muscular and active , and remarka

bly hardy,able to endure the privations inciden t to a life of con

tinual exposure upon bleak and storm-beaten mountains. Onlythe heaviest snow-drifts

,followed by thawing, freezing, and crust

ing of the snow ,overcome them . They instinctively herd together

THE BLACK-FACE D SC OTCH SHEEP. 123

124 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

in storms, and although completely buried in a snow-drift w illmanage to push the snow from their bodies and form a cave overthem

,in which they wil l l ive upon what scanty herbage may be

wi thin their reach , until help comes. Thus buried , these sheephave lived for two or three weeks before they have been foundand extricated After every storm the shepherd’s first du ty is toexplore the drifts and release the imprisoned sheep and lambs.This hardiness fits them for their roving life upon their rockyheather-covered pastures

,the heather in part furnishing their sub

sistence . They dig the heather from beneath the snow , or feedupon i t when all else is covered . They are docile , and easilyhandled with the help of the sagacious Colley dogs , and are generally sufli ciently able to help themselves in emergencies. Theiractivi ty is such that the dog is sometimes unable to head off astraying flock, or even t o get abreast of i t when instinctivelybound to change their abode . Three days before a storm they areon the alert , and seek lower ground and shelter . At lambingtime, the ewes find retired spots

,and year after year return to

the same locali ty to rear the ir lambs . When removed from theirnative haunts, they have been known to journey n ight and day adistance of 60 miles

,and to swim a large river

,to return to their

old pasture grounds. As an instance of the sagacity and activityof the sheep, i t is recorded that a smal l flock which were thus onthe way to a former pasture ground , were obstructed by a canalwhich had to be crossed . As they could not easily pass this obstacle

, the flock , headed by an old wether , traveled along the bankunt il they overtook a canal boat which was passing along in thecenter of the canal . The cunning wether sprang on to the boatand thence to the opposite bank

,the whole flock fol lowing in In

d ian file. These sheep are kept in large flocks,sometimes of sev

eral thousand , and frequently of one to four thousand . Thelambs will survive a surprising amount of cold and hunger

,and are

on their feet almost at the moment of 'birth . The ewes take thegreatest care of their lambs, and will remain with them for severaldays , even after acciden tal or untimely death .

The mutton of th is breed is of pecul iarly fine flavor,and the

saddles are in great request . The carcass weighs about 65 lbs . , and

the fleece averages about 3 lbs. of washed wool . The breed improves easily under the care of a j ud icious breeder

,but the natural

qual ities of this sheep are such that it is fi tted for a place whereno others would profi tably thrive

,and a change in its character

that would cause it to lose this qual ity would unfi t i t for its posit ion , and deprive it of its chief value . How vast the room in our

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

126 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL .

THE SPANI SH MERINO SHEE P. 127

pete with them on their native mountain tops, and none are moreprofitable on the lowland pastures , than a cross upon them ofsmall pure-bred Southdowns, Cotswolds, or Leicesters . The flocksusually kept number from 50 to 500 head .

THE SPANISH,FRENCH ,

AND GERMAN MER INos.

-The Merinosof Spain, France, and Germany, although they now possess differ »

ent characters and habits,have the same origin . The French

,

Saxon , and Silesian flocks,were all original ly from Spain . The

Spanish Merino existed as a distinc t race years ago,and the

fine robes of the Roman Emperors were made from the wool ofthe Spanish flocks. There is no history or tradition as to theirorigin which can be accepted as reasonable by any practicalshepherd . It is probable

,however

,that the fine wooled

sheep,which we read of in the ancien t histories

,were ra ther

the natural product of very favorable condi tions O f soil andclimate by which inferior races were greatly improved

,than of

any d irect efl'

orts to breed them up to a desired standard . Yetluxurious Romans may undoubtedly have created a demand forfine wools

,which Spanish shepherds knew how to produce by

coupling suitable animals,for the art of breeding was well under

stood in those ancient days,and many of the maxims of modern

breeders are simply reproduct ions of those in vogue as long ago asthe early Christian era . The finest Sheep of Spain

,when they

first attracted notice,were found widely scattered over that coun

try, d ivided into varieties occupying d istinc t provinces, and those

varie ties,again , were subdivided in to large flocks

,owned by

weal thy proprie tors,each of which flocks possess ed such marked

characters as would entitl e i t to be considered as a distinct familyor sub-varie ty. The system of cultu re by which these variousfamilies became possessed of their special characterist ics

,are wel l

d escribed in an essay by D r. R . R . Livingston,which was pre

sented to the Society for the P romotion of Useful Arts,of New

York , in the year 1809. It is unnecessary here to do more than torefer to this work . It is sufli eien t to record the fact that

,at a

very early period of modern h is tory, Spa in possessed the only

valuable flock of fine wool sheep in the world,and that all other

naturalized races of Merino,our own included

,have been derived

from tha t country . It may be added,that to a great extent , if not

altogether, Spain has lost her pre-eminence , and breeders do notnow resort th i ther for fresh importat ions . The Spanish sheep areestimated to number ten millions

,in which are included Merinos

o f the two new remaining families,the Infantado orNegretti

,and

the E scurial , and various other fine and coarse wool sheep . The

128 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

Negretti sheep are of more interest to u s than any other of theSpanish sheep

,as it is of this breed alone that any are now

brought to th is country . The E scurial sheep are of li ttle value tous, either for breeding or crossing wi th our own . They are represented here by the Saxon and Silesian Merino , which have descended from them

,as will be hereafter explained . The Merino

cannot thrive in a moist cl imate . A wide range of dry,upland

pastu re is necessary for them ,and they do not require a very nutri

tious herbage . Wet pastures are very unhealthful for them,and

the l iver rot and d iseases of the lungs carry them off from a largeflock by thousands, in unfavorable seasons . On this account

,the

Merino has not thriven in E ngland,and i t now exists and thrives

in those countries only where the climate is dry and warm,or

even hot.

THE FRENCH ME RINo.-As this variety has been imported to

some extent into the United States , and possesses some value forcrossing upon our native Merinos

,or o ther sheep

,it is importan t

to no tice its character and pecul iarities . It originated from animportation of a flock of over 300 Span ish sheep , selected fromthe finest flocks of Spain in 1786. This flock was placed upon apublic farm, for the improvement of stock , at R ambouil let , nearP ari s. In the selection from various sources, it appears that th eflock was of a m ixed character

,but by carefu l breeding

,through

a course of years,the differences became merged into a breed of

sheep,which su rpassed its ancestors

,in the opinion of its French

owners . I t was in increased size of carcass and weight of fleece,that the improvement was chiefly

,if no t wholly

,made. In 1825

they became the largest pure Merinos in existence,with remark

ably loose skin,and immense neck -folds . In 1842 th ere were

flocks of these sheep in France,whose fleeces weighed 14 lbs . for

ewes,and 20 to 24 lbs . for rams . At this time a flock was imported

into this coun try by Mr. D . 0 . Coll ins,of Hartford

,Ct . The wool

of these sheep was considered by"

a competent j udge as equal tothe best Spanish Merino wool . It was of a bril l iant , creamy color,on a rich

,soft

,pink skin

,which was loose and wrinkled . Their

form was fine,their constitution excell ent

,and in size they were

much larger than the American Merino . In 1846, Mr. Ta intor,also of Hartford

,commenced to import these sheep . His rams

sheared from 18 to 24 lbs. of unwashed wool , and ewes from 15 to20 lbs. The ewes weighed al ive from 130 to 200 pounds, and therams from 180 to 300 pounds . There was much less yolk or gumin the fleeces than in those of the Span ish sheep , and there wasconsequently less loss in washing the wool .

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

130 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

‘

Kostern itz , in P omerania. Its wool was 3 inches in length , veryth ick upon the skin , very equal in qual i ty , of fair strength , andcovered the legs and ears. The sire of this ram cl ipped 27 lbs . ofunwashed wool

,wh ich

,when washed in hot water

,yielded 17 lbs .

of clean wool . Ferdinand Schwartz , of Lappenhagen ,exhibited

a French, (Rambouillet), Merino ram ,

whose fleece weighed , unwashed , 31} lbs .

,equal to 15t lbs . of washed wool . This animal

h ad three neck-folds,but no rose ” or rump fold . His wool was

22i nches l ong, and thickly set upon the skin .

P rince Schaumberg-Lippe , of P ost Stalitz , Bohemia, exh i bitedsome combing or delaine wool Merinos

,of French blood , whose

fleeces were of the extraordinary length of 5 to 7 inches . Theyield of the whol e flock

,of more than 800, is said to average 141}

lbs . per head of unwashed wool,which shrank in scouring in the

factory,58 per cent . It is impossible to consider the excellent

points and in trinsic meri ts of the well bred French Merino , and itspoor success

,so far

,in th is country

,without being forcibly remind

ed oi the lack of wisdom of a course frequently and period icallypursued by American breeders and farmers

,and nowhere more

strikingly shown than in the past experience of our sheep husbandryw ith i ts sudden and excessive vicissitudes. The “ ups and downsof th is industry , every few years , is one of the strangest manifestations of unsteadiness ever recorded in any pursui t. I t is unfortunate for us that we can hardly restrain ourselves from over sanguine expectations on the one hand

,or on the other hand

,when

results do not meet our anticipations,from the u tmost depression .

Being too ready to form opinions , and to act in Obed ience ratherto our sudden impressions than to ou r mature j udgments

,we enter

into new enterprises without consideration,and abandon them in

a panic. Thus a thing excell en t in i tself, and of inherent valueto us

,is extolled to the skies without j ustice at the outset

,and

then with equal want of justice,i s condemned and sacrificed as

u tterly valueless, because i t has failed to turn all it t ouched intogold . This is the history of all our agr icultural manias . And theFrench Merino has been made the subj ect of j u st such exalted ex

pectations, and of j ust such deep denunciatio n . Yet there is aplace for this breed i n our agriculture which it will hold and keepat some period in the future “in spite of past adverse experiences .

THE SA! ON MER INO .

— In 1765 the K ing of Spain , on the application of his brother-ih -law

,P rince ! avier, sent 300 Merinos of

th e E scurial family into Saxony. These sheep , naturally the finestwooled and' the least hardy of the Spanish flocks

,were so bred as

to sti ll furth er increase the fineness of the fleece,and to diminish

THE SAXON MERINO . 131

their strength of consti tu tion . The ewes y ielded from a poundand a half to two pounds of washed wool , and the rams from twoto three pounds . T ue wool was almost free from yolk, and re

mained clean and white the staple was from one inch to an inchand a half in length . T he body of this sheep was thin , the legslong

,the neck long and thin , the skin pale, and the constitut ion

weak. Yet the beau ty and extreme fineness of the wool weresuch (a fiber, not of the finest , measuring

‘

/ e4o of an inch in diameter) that it overbore the obj ections to the defects of the sheep .

While this is the general character of the Saxon sheep , there area few breeders who have striven with success to give them moresize and greater compactness of form .

The managemen t of the noted Saxon flock of Baron Sternberg,from which most of our recent importat ions of these sheep havebeen made

,is worthy of note here. This flock consists of

head : 600 ewes,100 rams 250 lambs, and the rest wethers and

y earlings . They are keptin one large brick stabl e , 330 feet long,63 feet wide , and 30 feet h igh ; thi s is well ventilated , and madeto be closed in severe weather. The ewes , rams, eta , are kept indivisions separated by hurdles

,supp orted by stakes driven into

the floor. In these are placed fodder-racks and feed troughs.Above the stable are hay and straw lofts, floored with boards ,which are covered with several inch es of beaten clay . The litterand manure remain in the stable six months at a t ime , until it isin a compact

,sol id mass

,three or four feet thick . The sheep are

stabled here from November to April , and fodde'

red on straw,hay

,

turnips , and brewers’ grains. In summer they are taken out tograze from 9 to 12 in the forenoon

,and from 3 in the afternoon

until sunset . Great care is taken in coupl ing the ewes ; thoserams being selected that are needed to cover defects or improveweak points in the ewes . Mere fineness of wool is not aimed at .The greatest possible size of carcass compatible w ith fine clothingwool , and a fleece at least 2} lbs . in weigh t , are the desired obj ects .The weak and inferior lambs are kil led off when young, and theflock is rigorously weeded of all but healthy animals . The valueof the land upon which this flock is kept with profit is $200 to$300 an acre . The importation of Saxon Merinos in to the UnitedStates have shown that this b reed cannot

,under ordinary circum

stances, profitably compete w ith other varieties of Merinos , on aocount oi the c ost of th e shel ter and extra care needed for itsproper management , and the smallness of the fleece . The superior fineness of the wool does not bring a sufli c iently h igh price tomake up for the deficiency in weight . In competition with the

132 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

American or French Merino,the Saxon has been found unprofita

ble for the product ion of wool in the presen t condit ion of thewoolen manufacture

,yet there may occur cases in which it can be

made useful at some future time, when the demand for very finewool may return under the influence of the changes of fashion .

THE SILE SIAN ME R1N0 .—The Si lesian Meri nos have become

already a successfully acclimated breed in the United States . Thisbreed became es t a blished through importation s from Saxony aswell as from Spain . The flock out of which the only importat ion into America was made

,became naturalized in Silesia by an

importation of Infantado and Negret ti Merinos, in 1811, byFerdinand Fischer, of Wirchenblatt . Mr. Fischer personally selected 100 Infantado ewes and 4 Negret ti rams, and these sheephave been interbred without admixtu re from that date to thepresent . So careful has been the breeding

,that since its com

mencement over 60 years ago, the pedigree of every sheep of theflock has been recorded . This purity of blood is one of the mostvaluabl e characterist ics of the flock in question

,in wh ich

,having

acquired an offshoot from it,we are especially interested . P erfect

purity of blood gives force,or

,to u se the breeders’ phraseology

,

prepotency to the breed used in crossing on other races,and ih

sures uniformity of improvement . If this general opin ion ofbreeders is founded on fact

,as mu st be admitted

,then the value

of the flock to be referred to,can hardly be questioned

,and it

migh t truly be designated as pure Spanish , instead of, by reasonof its accidental location

, Silesian . As it is, however, generallyknown as Silesian

,and is as well en titled to that name as are the

French Merinos to theirs,i t is convenien t to continue i ts use. The

American Si lesian Merinos were imported from the flock of Mr.Fischer

,by the late Mr. Wm . Chamberl in , of D utchess C o.

, N. Y . ,

from 1851 to 1856. In all,212 ewes and 34 rams were imported .

The ewes shear from 8 to 11 pounds of unwashed wool , the ramsfrom 12 to 16 pounds. The wool is from two inches and a half tothree inches long

,dark on the outside , withou t gum , but w ith

plenty of oil of a white and free,but not sticky, character. The

ewes weigh, alive , from 110 t o 130 lbs . , and rams from 145 to 155lbs. They are hardy

,good breeders

,and the ewes are good nurses .

After some years’ experience w ith them , Mr . Chamberlin has

stated that they do not deteriorate,but that the wool grows finer,

w ithou t losing in the weight of the fleece. They mature slowly,and do not reach their full size u ntil four y ears old ; af ter eigh t orn ine years they become l ighter in weight. The mature sheep areas large as the ordinary American Merino . The Si lesian is simply

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

134 THE SHE I HERD’

s MANUAL

the cross-bred sheep could be fed more cheaply,for the same

weight of flesh,than the pure breeds , with but one exception ,

that being the Cotswold . The same necessity to make the mostprofi t on the least expenditure

,exis ts with American as w ith the

E nglish , French , and German farmers , and we are d iscovering, asthey have done

,that the cross-bred sheep bring the most money

to their owners. In E ngland , through the Operat ion of this fact,there has been establ ished for some years past a system of ramsal es

,at which breeders of pure blood sheep offer the ir surplus

rams for sale or for hire by the year. By th is means farmers areenabled to select for themselves such breeding animals as theymay need . These sa les are attend ed by purchasers from all partsof Europe

,Australia

,and Sou th America, and also by a few of the

more enterprising breeders of the United States and Canada,or

their agents . At the Vienna E xposition of 1873,where there were

exhibi ted several cross-breeds of sheep which were highly satisfac

tory,the favorable results of this system were prominently set

forth . The most conspicuous of these was

T HE CO TSW OLD -ME R INO .

— These are fine examples of sheep .

Th ey are without horns,with bare faces resembling the Cotswolds

,

bu t w ith the p ink noses of the Merino ; the ears are slightlydrooping

,and the top-knot shorter

’

and less abundant. than in theCotswold . The wool is much finer than in the Cotswold

,very

bright,with good curl

,thickly set on the skin

,and well fil led

with liquid yellow oil,but free from solid yolk or gum . The

fleece is better closed than that of the Cotswold,and is easily kep t

free from d irt and dust . The flesh is firmer than that of the Cotswold

,and thicker than in the Merino

,both back and ribs being

well covered . The gi rth taken over the wool averages 5 feet 8inches . The wool i s scant below the knee and hock . This is thecharacter of the firs t cross . When interbred w i thou t furtheror i ssing, th is character has been wel l maintained . The cross-b redanimals and the ir produce are of strong constitu tion

,mature

quickly,becoming prime “fat at 12 to 14 months old

,and weigh

alive at that age 140 to 148 pound s. The flock from which someof the specimens exh ibited at Vienna were taken

,numbered 340

head,and was bred by the Moravian Sugar Factory Company , of

Keltschan . Austria . The sheep are fed upon waste beet pulp fromthe factory

,a small quantity of oats , hay ,

and oil-cake,in add ition

to clover pasture and mangels,which completes the round of the

year’s feeding . The mutton is held in high esteem , and bringsthe extreme price of 8 cents per pound, l ive weight , after thefleece is sheared .

THE MERINO caossns. 135

There are many other flocks similarly bred in Austria and Hun o

gary,and all are reported as b eing equally sat isfactory . In refer

ence to these sheep, a German agricultural j ournal publ ished inVienna

,in its issue of June 2, 1873 , remarks as fol lows : W e

cannot sympathize with the complaints of the admirers of high,

fine wool,looking as we do upon the farmer as a merchant who

must keep up with the times,and supply the wants of the market .

As the public have ceased to ask for the very fine cloth which wasso highly valued 50 y ears ago for its beauty and durability , no onecan complain that the manufacturer turns h is attention to clothsof coarser quality , su itable to the present publ ic taste . When themanufacturer no longer requires so much of the h igh

,fine wool

,

the price fall s, and the farmer ceases to produce an article that i sno longer profitable .” There could certainly be nothing morepertinent to our own case than this . The same need has found itssame remedy h ere

,and the Cotswold-Merino is largely bred for

the production of market lambs,and some of our best breeders are

giving their attent ion to the establishment of permanent flocks ofthis cross

,with promising results .

THE SOUTHD OWN-ME R INo.

—This cross has been tried withsuccess in Germany upon a middle quality of land

,not sufficiently

produc tive to support the heavier bodied Cotswold-Merinos . Thefirst cross bred sheep possess good feeding qualities , and when bredtogether without further crossing, lzecp well up to the standard ofthe parents. The Arch D uke Albrecht has a flock of of thiscross

,of which some specimens were exh ibited at Vienna . The

wool is rated as middle fine,weighing 3} lbs . to the fleece in the

shearlings,and 3 lbs . in the two shearl ings . This cross made

upon grade Merinos,is very common in the Un ited States, where

early market lambs are produced,there being no fatter better

,or

mo . e desirable lambs to the bu tcher , although there are heavier .

than those from this c ross . As in the Cotswold-Merinos, the firs tcross is the best for in terbreeding.

THE LE I CE ST ER -ME R IN0 .

—This cross is a somewhat unusuaone

,and does not appear to have been made with a V iew to the

permanent establishmen t of a new race of sheep , except in rareinstances where the possession of a suitable breed of Merinos andthe taste of the proprietor have been coincident . In one case onlyhas the effort to establish th is cross been reported in any publ ication of wide ci rculation . The h istory of a flock of about 500 Leicester-Merinos

,bred by M . E . P luchet, of Trappes , France , given

to the Central Agricultural Saciety ,of France

,in January

,1875 , is

V

136 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

138 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

cester, and the strength and weight of the Cotswold

.It is in

great request for the manufacture of fine dress braids, and is

sought by the manufacturers chiefly in Canada,where the cross

i s most common . The cross is hardier than the pure Leicester,

and yields a fine mutton,but when bred together

,the produce

is very apt to deteriorate. The port rait given on page 139 represen ts a ewe bred by Mr. Burdett Loomis

,of Windsor Locks

, C t. ,and very much resembles one bred by the author

.

COTSW OLD -SOUTHDOWN.—The Southdown is par excellence the

mutton sheep of the world . But mutton alone is not profitablethere must be a fleece as well as the ca rcass

,t o repay the cost of

feed and care. The Cotswold is a profi table wool bearer,bu t i ts

mu tton is not so desirable as that of the Southdown nor is itsfleece adapted to a w ide variety of uses in manufacture

.If the

excellencies of the two breeds c ould be combined,and better mut

ton than the Cotswold , and a bet ter fleece than ei ther be producedby amalgamating the differen t bloods

,a desirable resul t would be

reached. In th is lies the whole secret of the desire to producecross breeds. In th e effort to reach this resul t

,all the cross breed s

have been obtained . It cannot be supposed that sheep breed ershave yet reached the limit of profi table crossing

. The constan tchange in the public taste for cloths, dress goods , and fabrics, andthe new-found needs and capabil it ies of various and peculiar locali ties

,will ever operate t o cause new crosses and combinations of

breeds,and to furnish opportuni ties for the skillful exercise of the

breeder’s art. The Cotswold and the Southdown bloods flowt ogether in more than one firmly establ ished cross breed

,bu t w ith

other admixtures . E fforts to combine these two breeds alone,and

to produce a new race which shall be more profitable than eitheralone

,have been made of late both in th is coun try and in Germa

ny . In the latter country the Morav ian Sugar Factory Company,

previously mentioned in th is chapter, have formed a flock ofcross-bred sheep which successfully answers the purpos e of producing mutton and a wool which , for certain manufactures, i sd esirable and profi table .In the United States , Mr. Wil liam Crozier, of Beacon Farm ,

n ear Northport,Long Island

,has commenced to breed a flock

and found a race which he calls the Beacon-downs. His success so far has been encouraging. A description of this sheepwith the portrait

,from which it is here reproduced ,

appeared inthe American Agriculturz

’

st of June,1875 . The flock was com

menced six years ago by crossing Sou thdown ewes with a Cot-swold ram

,and the first cross

,being very satisfactory

,was interbred .

140 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

It was found to maintain its original character pe rfectly,produc

ing a sheep which yielded a fleece of wool closer and finer thanthat of the Cotswold , but not so long, weighing from 11 to 13 lbs . ,

and a much heavier carcass of mutton of a qual ity equal to that ofthe Sou thdown which weighed , at three years old , 150 lbs. Theewes are prolific

,the lambs strong

,healthy

,and maturing quickly

,

reaching a l ive weight of 140 t o 160 lbs . at twelve months. Theyare found to be equally su itable to the l ight pastures of LongIsland

,with either the pure Southdown or the pure Cotswold , and

are perfectly at home 'benea th the hot summer suns of our cl imate.I t is a coincidence which is not at all remarkable

,being founded

on common necessit ies,that in producing this and other crosses

,

the Germans and ourselves have taken up the same materials towork with . The climates of both the United States and southernGermany are similar ; the summers are hot and dry , and the winters compel the use of preserved and dry food for a considerablelength of time . The breeds which would be suitable to the mild

,

moist,and even climate of E ngland

,are not exactly adapted to

Germany or the Un ited States , and we must hesitate to follow,or

must follow with great cau tion , the lead of the Engl ish breeders.But the example or success of the Germans may be

“

made moresafely appl icable to our circumstances , inasmuch as the condition sin both cases are similar. This coincidence is a proof of the factthat in working out these changes, breeders and farmers are forcedto fol low certain natural laws , and that as they work in conformi ty thereto

,they succeed

,but when they oppose these laws , they

must necessarily fail . I t is in exact accordance with this fact thatwe find it d ifficul t or impossible to preserve

,for any length of time

,

the condition of sheep imported from E ngland,more especially

of the more highly refined breeds ; but that we can easily acclimate their produce

,or build up cross breeds which wil l be more

profitable and convenient for us to keep . With our wonderfuldiversi ty of cl imate , soil , and surface, and with the varied demandfor staples for manu factured fabrics

,there is opened a field for

the exercise of the breeder‘s sk ill in producing new races to aecommodate these conditions

,and to meet these demands

,which is

hitherto unexampled in the history of agriculture . This is nomere matter of conj ecture. It has been clearly demonstrated byexperience and practice . Wool of the cross between the Cotswold or Leicester rams on Merino ewes has been imported intoNew York from New Zeal and and Australia , for some years past,to meet the demands of the manufacturers of delaines and otherstaple goods. Our wool-buyers have been in the habit of going to

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

142 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

those distant countries to select wools suitable for their needswhich they cannot procure at home . The heavy expenses involvedact as a protec tion to this industry here

,not to speak of the pres

ent import duty levied on foreign wools. Large quantities of thiscross-bred wool are also used in E ngland, where it cannot be produced so cheaply as here. It would be strange indeed if we cannot

,with our vast territory

,equally favorable in cl imate and soil

w ith those distan t region s of the southern hemisphere , at leastcompete on equal terms with the shepherds of those countries

,

more especially as we enj oy an immense advantage , which theydo not

,in having a market at our very doors for the mutton which

these sheep so profitably produce. In short , the production ofAmerican cross-bred sheep offers a most entic ing field for experi

ment and labor both to the skillfu l breeder and the enterprisingfarmer. For the first in keeping up a supply of pure bred rams,and in improv ing thei r quality so as to meet the demand of thefarmer ; and for the latter in seeking out , selecting , and using thesepure rams on our native sheep w ith proper knowledge

,j udgment

,

and skil l , so as to supply the demands of our own manufacturersat l east

,if not those of other countries . To do this there must be

an actual contact and interchange of ideas and experiences between the woolen manufacturer and the breeder and farmer

,by

means of which the needs of the one and the opportunities andduties of the others , may be mutually explained and made known .

Neither branch of our native wool industry can flouri sh as itshould and might w ithou t this interchange of views and the

recognit ion of an identity of interest.

CHAPTER VI.

WOOL ITS STRUCTURE AND USES.

Wool in i ts charact er and str ucture in no respect differs fromhair. When hair is soft , pl iable , and of a spiral or wavy form ,

i tis what we call wool . Wool , l ike hair, is the ou ter covering ofsome species of animals

,and is agrowth from the skin . The skin

of an animal is a composite structure consisting of two portions,

the outer and insensible layer cal led the epidermis, and a highlysensitive , vascul ar and nervous layer beneath this , call ed the

STRUC TURE OF WOOL. 143

dermal. It is in the derma that the hair is rooted , and from itthat it is nourished . The hair, (or wool), consists O f two portions,the shaft

,or that which pierces through the epidermis and forms

the outer coat or fleece,and the bulb or root which is imbedded in

the derma. The bulb of the hair is rooted in a gland called theli tter follicle, and from this it derives the cells which form the outersurface of the hair . These cells are converted in to flat scales

,ih

closing the interior fibrous structure of the hair,and as they are

successively produced,they overlap like shingles on a roof

,or the

scales O f a pine cone, forming the imbricated coat of the hair tobe hereafter described at length . R ising into the hair bulb is thehair germ , which furnishes the hair with nutrition , and the elements Of its growth . On each side Of the hair foll icle is a glandwhich secretes a viscid fluid . These glands

,known as the sebace

ous glands, open by small canals into the sheath of the hair. O ther

Fig. 47.— SE CT ION OF SKIN HIGHLY MAGNIFIED

, SHOWING THE GROWTH

OF THE HAIR .

sebaceous glands open independently upon the surface of the epidermis. They secrete a flu id which serves to lubricate the skin

,

and in the sheep supplies the Oil and yolk that fil l that purpose for the fleece and prevent any inj ury to the wool by cont inued rubbing, or “ cotting,

” or fel ting,in consequence of the

wearing and friction , while upon the sheep’s back .In a healthy

skin thi s secretion with those of other glands, (call ed the sudori

144 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

parous glands), which are situated in the derma , amoun t to a totalquant ity which surpasses that of the evacuat ions from both thebowels and kidneys.In fig . 47 is shown the structure both O f the skin and the hair

,

the engraving, (from Chauveau’s Comparative Anatomy of the D o

mest ic Animals), represen ting a section of the skin highly magnified . The epidermis is shown atA, the derma at B ,

the hair foll icleat c

,the sebaceous glands at 1

,the bulb or root of the ha ir at 2, the

hair at 3 , a fat cell at 4 , a sudoriparous or sweat gland at 5, and at 6the excretory duct of this gland

,or pore of the skin .

Hair or wool i s composed of three l ayers . The outer one , theep idermis, is very th in , consisting of the flattened cells or scalesoverlapping as previously mentioned . In wool these imbricatedscales are highly developed , and fi ll a most importan t O ffice, giving

Fig. 48.—AP PEARANC E OF W OOL WHE N HI GHLY MAGNIFIE D .

t o it much of its valu e as a material for the manufacture of cloth .

When examined by a microscope of high power, a fiber of woolpresents the appearance sh own in fig. 48 . The discovery O f theserrated surface of wool which is generally at tribu ted to Mr.

Youat t,was previously announced by M . Monge , in Annales do

Clzimie,in 1795 . This serrated or toothed surface confers upon wool

its felting property. When wool is carded it i s torn to pieces andmixed and tw isted in every d irection . The waved or curvedstructure of the fiber of some qual ities of wool aids in th is twistingand entangling of the fibers

, (see fig . and the points of thescales pro jecting as so many minute hooks hold the en tangledmass together closely and firmly. P ressing, roll ing, or beating

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

146 =a SHEPHERD’S MANUAL

h airs of the cow and calf are so unl ike the maj ority of those ofthe wool-bearing animals in their siz e and shape, that i t mightseem easy to make the distinct-ion . They are much shorter, muchthicker at their base

,taper rapidly tow a rds th e point the medulla

occupies a larger proportional part of the whole hair, and the freeedges of the scales of the cu ticle , which are so disposed as to formfrom twenty to forty imbrications to the ’

/ I ooth of an inch , l iequite smoothly upon the surface of the hairs

,so that their con

t ours,as seen under the microscope , closely approximate continu ’

ous lines . These characters are so well marked that the coarserhairs O f the cow and calf can readily be dist inguished from thewoolly hairs of any of the wool-bearing an imals. On the other.

hand , however, the maj ority of the wool ly hairs Of the sheep Offera combinat ion of characters which are never found in the hairs ofthe cow and calf ; namely , each of these hairs extends from halfan inch to several inches in length without any medulla

,and

without perceptible taper. They present at frequent but irregularintervals, well marked , one-sided , more or less spirally arrangedthickenings of the cort ical substance , which give to the wool itscurly character. The mean diameter of each hair varies from1/ 5 0 0 th to the

l

/ I OOOth of an ineh ,or even less ; and the scales of the

cu ticl e are so arranged that their free edges proj ect somewhat,

forming well-marked imbrications,of which usually from fifteen

to thir ty can be counted in the II

/ 1 0 0th of an inch . The fine hairsof the goat and kid

,from the l

/ 1 oooth to the’

/ goooth of an inch orless in diameter, also run from half an inch to an inch or more,without perceptible taper

,withou t medulla

,and are clothed w ith a

cuticle resembl ing that of sheep’s wool,but are almost

,or al to

gether,devoid of the irregular thickenings of the cortical sub

stance which characterizes the latter. Similar hairs are found incerta in deer

,and some other animals

,but never on the cow or

calf .” The report i s accompanied by h ighly finished hel iotypeillustrations of samples of different kinds Of hair and wool .The chemical composition of pure

,dry wool

,is as follows

C OMP OSIT ION OF PURE W OOL.

per c ent .

The fibers of fine wool are very closely seated upon the Sk in .

The pure Merino has from to fibers on a single

THE YOLK or WOOL. 147

square inch the original coarse wooled breeds have from tofibers on an inch . The twentieth cross of a pure Merino

ram upon a coarse wool race had no more than fibers to thesquare inch ; this fact shows very forcibly how long a periodit may take to remove the effects of one cross

,for if this state

ment be true,the presence of only ( less than one mil

lionth part), Of impure blood is sufficient to reduce the fineness ofthe fleec e nearly one-half. The yolk which is sec reted from theglands of the skin is an alkaline substance

,partaking of the char

acter of a soap . At its secretion it is liqu id,and in some breeds

of sheep it remains in th is state,moistening and soften ing the

fleece ; in other breeds, particularly some famil ies of the Merinos,the yolk thickens or dries into a sort O f gum or wax of an orange

y ellow color, which adheres to the wool in scal es, and greatly addsto its weight . The yolk or su int ” has been found by D r.

Voelcker to consist of a combination of fatty acids with potash,

forming a potash soap which is soluble in water. When dried,

the yolk contains 59 per cent of fatty compounds,with some nitro

gen , and 41 per cen t Of mineral matter, Of which from 60 to 84 percen t is potash . In some places th is potash is profi tably recoveredfrom the refuse l iquid of wool washings . In November

, 1865,

Maumené and Rogelet communicated to the Chemical Society ofParis , the detail s of their experiments on the nature of su int ,which led them to take out a patent for the manufacture of potashsalts from th is sou rce . They showed that suint is made up ofneutral fatty salts containing much potash , but not more thantraces of soda

,and rarely even that ; that the soluble portion

yields on evaporation and calcination a mixture consisting mainlyof carbonate of potassium

,with chloride

,sulphate, phosphate , and

s lumino-sil icate of potassium in smaller quanti ties, also a littlelime

,magnesia

,and oxide O f iron and manganese

,the average

composition beingCarbonate of potassiumChlorid eSulphateO ther substances

The yolk solubl e in water forms from 20 to 22 per cent of the'

weight of the fleece , and besides this , the fleece contains from 7 to10 per cent Of oil

,which is not removed in ordinary brook wash

ing unless it be in part dissolved by the action of the superabundan t potash of the soapy yolk . When the O il

'and yolkare removed by washing

,the wool becomes harsh and dry to

148 THE SHEPHERD’s MANUAL.

the touch . The presence of a considerable amount of yolk in thefleece is j ustly supposed to indicate a superior qual ity in the wool ,and while excess ive yolk is undesirable , i t is a disputed poin t j ustwhen that excess begins . A fleece of Merino wool that loses onehalf in washing

,can scarcely be said to have an excess of yolk .

Many breeders do not hesi tate to go beyond th is , and insist thatno amount of yolk can be cal led excessive . In this view they aresupported by the h igh authority of Mr. Youatt , who has said :“ farmers never bestow a thought on yolk , and neither understandnor care about it ; this question without doubt w il l some day beregarded as one of the very cardinal and essen tial poin ts of thesheep

.

” Mr. Randall , our highest au thority on fine wool , in his

work previously referred to,does not favor the production of yolk

to an excessive extent . He very j ustly remarks that when manufacturers cease to pay the same price for excessively yolky woolsas for those which are only moderately yolky , the breeding ofsh eep that produce four pounds of yolk for one pound of wool ,must go out of fash ion . P erhaps th is matter may safely be left inthe hands Of the manufacturers , who are not apt to pay for whatthey do not want ; and while they continue to buy excessivelyyolky wool , i t w ill be most profitable for the farmer to produce it .

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOLS.

Wool is generally classed as short and long. I t is also graded assuperfine,fine, med ium,

and coarse. The terms cardi ng and combingwools are no longer suffi ciently d ist inctive , as many kinds Of woolare now combed that were formerly carded

,and the continued

improvemen t of combing machinery gradually add s to the list ofcombing wools. Merino wools of less than three inches in lengthare now combed

,as are the short wools of the Southdown grades .

It is very important for wool -growers to know exactly the wishesand needs of the wool manufacturers

,and to seek this knowledge

should be their constant aim . At present,and for some time past,

the coarse and medium wools have,in many parts of the country,

borne the same price as the finest Merino wools ; in some marketsfleeces of one-quarter and half-blood Merinos have sold for morethan those from full-blood animal s . The quotations Of wool in theNew York Mercant ile Journal of July 29th

,1875, were as follows

NEW YORK,MICHIGAN ,

AND IND IANA W OOLS.

Super Saxony fleece . . 50c .@52 c .

Full blood Merino 5OC .@52 c .

to i blood Merino . 48c .@50 0 .

C ommon fleeces .

Combingwool 60 c .

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

150 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

finer kinds, as piano and table covers , are made of medium Merinowools. Kn itted goods

,such as undershirts

,vests

,drawers

,hose

,

etc . , require a great variety of wools from the lowest qualities upto the high grades Of Merino ; certain fancy varieties requiringthe finer kinds of combing wools. Fancy cassimeres

,meltons

,

beaver cloths, and overcoatings, require chiefly medium grades ofMerino wool , a small quantity only of the finer grades being

'

re

quired for the best qual it ies . For mixing with shoddy,which is

an extensive manufacture, the finest and longest Merino wools arefound the most profi table , as such wool carries the greatest quan ~

ti ty of the short fiber of the substitu te . Ladies’ cloths,cloakings,

and th in d ress goods require fine long Merino wool ; the finestand longest Merino wool is used for men’s fine worsted coatings.Serges, moreens, alpacas, lastings, mohair lusters, furniture damask , reps, bunting for flags

,webbings of al l kinds , sashes,

picture cords,tassel s

,and soft goods

,such as nubias and shawls,

braids and bindings,are all made of the long combing wool

of the Lincolns,Leicesters

,and Cotswolds

,or their grades.

For variou s carpet-s,coarse Texan or Mexican and Cal ifornia

wools are used,and similar grades of foreign wool known as Chil i

and Cordova carpet wools . This enumeration indicates as closelyas need be

,what kinds Of wool the American farmer may grow

with safety and without risk of wan ting a market . Consideringthat the imports Of wool of many of the grades mentioned , and ofthe recapitulated woolen goods, amount every year to fifty mill ions Of dollars or over

,there would certainly seem to be no danger

that the farmer will lack a profi table market for any kind of woolhe may find it conven ient to grow .

PURE AND GRADE MERINO WOOL .

It will be noticed how large a proportion of the foregoing manufactures derive their material from the Merino , either d irectly inits pure state

,or ind irectly as grades or cross breeds . Some infor

mation as to the character of the Merino wool , and the tests bywhich superior breeding animals may be known and selected forthe improvemen t of native sheep

,will therefore not be out of

place.The character of a Merino fleece may be j udged by the

following tests,viz

Strength of Fiber —This is indicated by the amount of grease inthe wool

,abundance of oil or yolk indicating a healthy condit ion

of the an imal . The first Sign of disease is a change in the character of the secret ions

,and the skin being the chief secreting organ

of the body, it is there that the change may be soonest not iced.

How TO JUDGE WOOL. 151‘

The moment the heal th of the sheep fails, the growth of the woolis arrested

,along with the secretion of the O il or yolk, and the

continu ity of the strength O f the fiber is destroyed to the greatreduction of its value .

Fineness .

— In a perfec t fleec e, the wool should be equally fineover the whole body ; coarser wool may be looked for, if anywhere on the top Of the shoulders and the‘rump, and a weakerqual ity on the breast and belly. The finest wool is but / ,m ofan inch in thickness

,ordinary wools ‘

/m to of an inch ind iameter.

Curl—The curl of th e wool is very important. This is thewaved or crimped character of the fiber which in the perfe c t woolconsists of minute bends or crimps. There s hould be a perfectregularity in these waves

,which ought no t to be so abrupt as to

appear as folds.In very fine wool there should be at least 30 Of

these waves to the inch in length . (See d , e, fig.

Thickness— This quality refers to the closeness of the fibersupon the skin . A pure Merino shoul d have from tofibers upon every square inch o f its skin . The weight of a fleecemust necessarily depend on this characterist ic.

Closure of the F leece - The closure of the fleece on its outersurface is of great importance, for the reason that a well closed

fleece i s impervious todust and dirtwhich wouldotherwis efind

its way intothe wool andi n j u r e i t s

Fig. 50 .

quality. Theclosure is ef

fec ted by the abundance Of yolkwhich gathers at the ends of thewool , and mats the fibers toge ther.

F'

5L18'

T he vrscrd gum gathers dust, thatcoats the fleece with a black surface

,which fee ls to the hand

as a firm crust. When the crust is pressed the elasticity ofthe fleece is at once perceived . Upon parting the fleece to inspectthe wool , the experience or ignorance Of the Operator is at onceperceptible . He should grasp the fleece at the points of the fibersw ith the fingers and thumbs Of both hands , and part the surface

152 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

gently,exposing the wool to the skin . The wool

,on Opening the

fleece,Should appear beautifully white and glossy , or rich yellow

or orange colored,according to the style of the sheep . The fleece

is then closed careful ly without al low ing any dust to fall downinto the O pening . The appearance of the Open fleece should bebanded w ith varying colors of l ight and darker yellow or orange

,

as in fig . 50, or when opened , asa cup in fig. 51. A well closedfleece w ill exhibi t a surface asshown at fig . 52

,and a badly

closed one w ill appear as at fig.

53 . The well closed fleece is d ivided in to small sections, which

F1g. 52’ are tabular or flat and smoot h Fig 53

upon the surface ; when th e fleece i s uneven in l ength , it cannotc lose well

,and a few fibers only are matted together ; the surface

is then dot ted and not smooth ; th is forms the defect known astopp iness.

” The defects i n wool may be enumerated as follows“Stripy or Wa tery Wool, generally Shows itself in inferior ani

mals on or near the shoulder,where the best wool ought to be.

The wool subj ect to this defect is devoid of those beautiful natural curves or waves which are characteristic of really good wool .When compressed in the hand

,it has no elasticity

,and handles in

a dead and l ifeless manner,more like flax than wool . Such wool

is only fi t for making inferior goods. This defect is a surepro

'

of of impure . blood,and no sheep exhibiting it should be bred

from .

Toppiness is not of much importance as aflecting the quality Ofthe wool , but it indicates a defect in the breeding of the sheep . I thas already been d escribed . When th is defect , however, extendsto a matting together of the wool at the ends of the points, a

quantity of noil s are made in working the wool , and there is awaste . When toppiness is found in the fleece O f Old sheep

,i t be

comes a more serious Obj ection,as i t is quite poss ible that a lamb’s

fleece may be toppy by reason of uneven growth in its early life,and after having once been shorn

,the d efect may not reappear.

Broad-topped Wool is seriously defect ive , an d very decidedlyreduced in value ; no animal having this defect should be kept ina flock having any pretentious to character for excellence . Itconsists in an in terlacing of the ends Of the fibers which are spl itfrom the top downwards. The fleece appears in good conditionsuperficially, with a good even top, but the surface is d ivided into

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

154 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

great ease at the middle or some portion of its length . Thereis a weak spot

,and if the fiber is examined with a microscope

,i t

will be found very much attenuated at that spot,and Of a dull

,

dead appearance . From what has been already said about thestructure and growth of wool

,it w ill be easily understood that

when by bad management,neglect

,starvation

,overfeed ing

,i rreg

ularity in feeding, want of water, or any other evil which affectsthe condition or health Of the sheep , the growth of the wool istemporarily stopped

,even for a day

,this suspen sion of growth

must inevi tably be marked by a weakness in the fiber,which can

never be remedied . As the wool grows , this weak spot is carriedforward

,and if the evil is soon removed and the sheep recovers

q uickly, it is stil l there and there it remains. No defect is so frequent as this ; to avoid i t, the flock must be kept w i th perfectregularity

,and must receive no check for however short a t ime it

may be . This involves the most skillful and careful management,which is unfortunately too rare . Regular poor feed may make aninferior staple

, but one worth more than a breachy staple , whichmay result from one single neglect in the course O f a season . Wantof water cau ses more break in wool than any other evil to whichsheep are subj ected by careless owners or ignorant shepherds .Uniformity in the fleece covers many minor defects

,and to de

termine the evenness or un iformity of the fleece,the shoulder is

first examined . Here the finest and best wool should be found .

Taking this as the standard,the wool from the ribs

,th igh

,

rump,and breech

,is compared with i t ; the nearer the latter ap

proaches this in qual ity , the better. If it is all equal in fineness,

the fleece will be eeen in regard to fineness. If the wool on allthe parts mentioned is reasonably regular in length

,and near to

the standard in this respect,the fleece is even

” as regards lengthof staple . The density is then tested . The hand is closed upon aportion of the rump and on the loin , and if the fleece is found tobe as dense and elastic or springy on those parts as it is at theshoulder

,the fleece is even as regards density. A perfect fleece

will be found of nearly equal fineness from the shoulder to thethigh ; of nearly equal l ength a t the shoulder , rib , th igh ,

and back ;of equal density on the shoulder and across the loins

,and free

from any of the defects before mentioned .

Most of the points here indicated,both as regards defects and

good qual ities,refer to oth er wools as well as to that of the Meri

no ; those points which depend on the pecul iar character ofMerino wool and its excessive yolkiness will be readily understoodas nec essarily applying to that alone , and those which depend on

WASHING WOOL. 155

the organic structure of wool and the condition of the sheep , toall sorts of wool alike .Wool in its natural condition contains many impuri ties, dirt ofal l kinds

,sand

,dung

,and the usual secret ions O f the skin

,and be

fore i t can become fi t tezl for the uses O f the manufacturer, it mustbe freed from these impuri ties . The wool-buyer, who generallycomes between the farmer and the manufacturer

,does not demand

that the wool shou ld be thoroughly cleanse I,but only freed from

its grosser impurities . No washing that the farmer could givehis fleeces would be sufficient for the purpose of the manufacturer

,

who scours the wool in hot soapsuds before he can cleanse it suflic ien tly . But nevertheless, the buyer prefers the fleeces to bepar tly cleansed , and this partial cleansing is what is generallyknown as brook washing.

”

WASHI NG THE WOOL on the sheep’s back is the u sual practice .There are several methods of doing this . Where a brook or rivercan be used for the purpose

,all that is needed is to choose a place

where the water is waist deep,and the bottom is gravelly. A

muddy or sandy bottom is to be avoided , as it will be impossibleto prevent some of the bottom from being st irred up and minglingwith the fleece . Cases have been known in which such a bottomhas been chosen for this purpose with the special Obj ect of addingto the weight Of the fleece by the admixture of sand . It is hardlynecessary to say that this mode of cheating can never be profi table if one lot of fleeces thus adulterated be palmed Ofl

‘ upon thebuyer

,his remedy may be a severe one

,and at the best the cheat

w il l not be forgotten . General ly,however

,buyers are not to be

imposed upon , but look sharply enough after their own in tereststo d iscover all attempts at dishonesty

,and to make the perpetrator

pay soundly for his error. In washing and making up wool , themost thorough honesty will be found to pay well in the long run

,

and a reputat ion for fair deal ing will often be found to have adirect money value

,especially when the market happens to be

against the seller.Soft water is to be preferred for wash ing wool . Hard waterleaves the wool harsh and dry to the hand

,and detracts from its

appearance in the market . Soft water leaves the wool soft andmellow

,and it more rapidly recovers i t ; tone and elasticity when

washed in water free from lime . The g . oa nd having been chosen,

the sheep should be closely penned upon the bank of the streamthe side O f the pen next the stream should be narrow

,with a pas

sage-way leading to the water. A plank platform,proj ecting over

the bank , from which the sheep can be plunged directly into the

156 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

water,is very convenient . The washers enter the stream and re

ceive the sheep from the hands of the drivers, plunging thembodily beneath the surface , two or three times . In catch ing thesheep and handling them in the water

,the assistants should avoid

pulling the wool . If a sheep is hauled around by the wool,the

skin is bruised,and the wool is inj ured and weakened at the

bruised spots . To catch a sheep i t should be seized with the righ thand b y the h ind leg above the heck ,

firmly with the whole hand,

yet w ithout unnecessary violence . T he pressure upon the sinewabove the hock j oint paralyses the leg for amoment , and the sheep will rarely struggle.The left hand is then slipped around thebreast

,and the shepherd has perfec t control

of the heaviest sheep,without pull ing in the

least upon the wool . A crook,fig. 54

,is a

convenient implement w ith which to catchw ild or unruly sheep . It i s qu ietly passedin front of the leg

,which is seized and held

whil e the shepherd secures the sheep in theway described . After the sheep is thoroughly soaked , the animal

’s head is held abovewater

,while the fleece is shaken and squeezed

,

so as to free it from dirt. As many as possible of th e tags and matted locks aroundthe breech should be opened and cleansed .

When th is has been done , the sheep ispassed to another washer, who finishes thewashing

,and directs the sheep to the bank

,squeezing the water

from its fleece as i t emerges from the stream . A clean,grassy

bank should be chosen . Some long wool sheep,with heavy fleeces.

which hold a great quantity Of water , may need some help to getupon their fee t as they reach the bank . Ewes that have notlambed should be handled carefully in the washing

,although it is

rarely,in well managed flocks, that ewes are allowed to be in lamb

at this t ime .This method of wash ing is often very disagreeable and inju riousto those who practice i t . Where ague is prevalent

,or where

rheumatism is feared,it is better to choose some other plan . A

rough darn may be made in a small stream , and a spout placed inthe dam . beneath which the sheep may be washed . A sparredroadway may be laid across the stream , through which the waterwill escape . By wearing rubber thigh boots , and a rubber apron ,the washers may be kept dry , and avoid the danger of long con

Fig. 54 .

—CROOK .

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

158 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

mit the fleece to dry and to regain suflicient yolk to recover a softand mellow handling.

TAGGING AND TRIMMING THE FE E T .— If the sheep are very

d irty,and have not been kept trimmed about the tail

,it is advisa

ble that they should be tagged before th ey are washed . Thecoarse soiled tag-locks about th e hinder parts , and the belly of therams and wethers, may be clipped Off in the spring and throwninto a basket or barrel to be soak ed and washed by themselves .

The same t ime will be the most convenient to trim the feet,which

is a more necessary thing to do than is generally supposed . Thet oes O f old sheep , upon soft pas tures, wil l grow long and turn up,and cause lameness

,or the soles and edges of the hoof w ill become

ragged and worn,the horn turning under at the edges. In th is

condition the feet gather fil th or small stones and gravel, whichwork into the hoof and cause disease. Foot-rot is in many cas esthus engendered . The feet should then be trimmed at washingtime

,if not oftener. A sharp knife may be used to pare the ragged

edges of the hoof and the sole, and toe nippers to shorten the toes .

A pair of common wire-workers’ cutting nippers may be used forthe latter purpose. The edge of the n ippers should be filed sharp

,

with the bevel on the inside, and brought to a smooth edge wi tha piece of O il-stone.

SHEAE rNe .

—Sheep should not be shorn until the weather hasbecome warm and settled . May is the usual time for shearing inthe northern states . The tool s of the shearer are a pair Of shears

,

and if desired,a shearing-bench upon which sheep may be placed

to avoid the necessity'

of his stooping so much as is required whenthe sheep are laid upon the floor. The common shears with athumb piece upon one s ide, and an easy spring no stronger thanwill be suflicient to make the shears Open freely when releasedfrom pressure

,is the best tool for the shearer. Several new and

paten ted shears have been introduced,which the inventors claim

may be used even by inexperienced persons w ithout danger ofcut ting the sheep’s skin . A trial of these shears does not supportth is claim , and the common shears are no t yet superseded by anyof these so-call ed improvements. The shears should be b roughtto a fine

,sharp edge upon a fine O il-stone. The bevel Of the cut

ting edge should be abou t 35 degrees , or somewhat more than thatof a common pai r O f scissors

,and less than that of a plane iron .

The floor of the shearing room should be kept perfe ctly freefrom straw

,chaff

,or l itter

,and if'a boy is kept constan tly at work

with a broom in his hand removing d irt,tags

,and rubbish , his

SHEARING . 159

time will be well employed . The shearer has bet ter control overthe sheep when on th e floor than on the bench

,and the handling

is not th e same under both circumstances . In shearing on a benchthe shearer catches the sheep by the left hind leg

,backs it towards

the bench , and rolls i t over upon it . He then sets the sheep on itsrump , and standing with his left foot upon the bench

,lays the

sheep s neck ac ross his left knee,with its right side against his

body . The two forelegs are then taken under the left arm,and

the fleece i s Opened up and down along the center of the bel ly bysmall short cl ips with the shears. The left side of the bel ly andbrisket are then sheared . The tags are clipped from the inside ofthe hind legs and about the breech

,and thrown upon the floor

.

They should be swept up at once and gathered into a basket,and

by no means allowed to mingle with the fleece wool.The breech

is then shorn as far as can be reached . The wool from the pointof the shoulder is then clipped as far as the but O f the ear. Thewool is shorn around the carcass and neck to the foretop

,pro

ceeding down the side,taking the foreleg and going as far over

the back as possible,which wil l be two or three inches past the

back bone . When the j oint of the thigh, (the stifle), is reached ,

the shears are inserted at the inside of the hock and the wool shornaround the leg back to the th igh j oint . The wool over the rumpis then shorn past the tail . The sheep is now completely shornon one side

,and two or three inches over on the other side

,along

the back from neck to tai l . It is then taken by the left hindleg, and swung around with the back to the shearer

,leaving

some wool beneath the left hip , which will ease the position of theanimal

,and keep it more quiet . The wool is then shorn from .the

head and neck down the right side , taking the legs and brisket onthe way. The fleece is now separated . The j ob is completedby clipping the tags and loose locks from the legs .To shear on the floor

,the sheep is set upon its rump

,with the

head thrown back beneath the left arm Of the shearer,and its

back toward him . The wool is then Opened at the neck,and

clipped downwards in regular l ines on the right side from belly toback

,and over the spine as far as possible on the other side in

much the same manner as has already been described . The sheep ,

is then laid on it s shorn side,and the Shearer

,kneel ing on the lef t

knee,and straddling the sheep

,with the left foot laid over the

sheep’s neck,removes the fleece from the left sid e

,and finishes

by removing tag locks from the legs and scrotum . In bad shearing

,the greatest injury to the fleece takes place on the back

,and is

caused by the Operator not ar ising his hand,so as to keep the

160 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

points of the shears close down to the skin . This is knownas cu tting through i t takes place when the sheep is beingshorn on one side ; and , in shearing Over the back , the points O fthe shears cut nearly or quite through the fleece , from the in sideto the out ; then , when the animal is being shorn on the other, orturning out ” s ide

,the Shears are aga in pointed upwards, and the

cuts on the first and last side overlap each other, causing the fleeceto part in two halves all along the back . N0 good Shearer makessecond cu ts ; the fact that wool has been left by the first out

proves that the shears have not been held properly ; and the woolremoved by a second cut being perfectly useless, entails a severeloss on the manufactu rer

,and greatly lowers the repute of the

brand in the markets . Cutting through , and a habi t of continuallymaking second cuts

,are the most Obj ectionable characteristics of

the unskillfu l Shearer. A sheep may be shorn so close as to sat isfythe most exact ing employer

,and yet it may be shorn very badly ;

and the only conclusive test of good shearing,or the reverse , is to

be found not on the outside of the animal,but on the inside of the

fleece .

When the Sheep’s skin has been unavoidably cu t in shearing,each out should be smeared with tar, which will prevent flesh fl ie sfrom depositing their eggs in the wound

,and probably avoid after

trouble.It is said t o be a fact that newly Shorn rams are incapable ofbreeding until their fleeces have recovered considerable growth .

Some evidence in support of th is assertion i s given in a pamphletpublished in Australi a

,in which the author,Mr. J . R . Graham , the

superin tenden t of an extensive sheep stat ion on the MurrayR iver

,states that in a flock Of ewes and 100 rams newly

shorn,he had but 165 l ambs, and on another occasion a flock of

100 ewes,which were drafted with 4 rams

,newly

’

shorn,produced

only 9 l ambs . On anoth er stat ion when the ewes were coupledw i th n ewly shorn rams

,there were not 5 per cent of lambs. This ,

if a fact , is more curious than important in this country, where,except in Cal iforn ia

,sheep are not shorn near the breeding season .

If wool were not shorn,it would be shed annually

,or its growth

would be rendered uneven , and i ts fiber weakened at the seasonwhen the coat of an animal covered w ith hair is usually shed . Afleece that is suffered to grow for two seasons

,shows very dis

tinctly th e division between the grow th of each year. This, however, occurs only in those coun tries where the winter and summercl imates differ

_

considerably , and where the transition from one tothe other is sudden . Where the cl imate is nearly even throughout

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

162 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

Oh io, Pennsylvania , and W . Va. fleece 50c .@520 .

New York,Michigan , and W isconsin fleece, XX .

Illinois,Iowa

,and Missouri fleece, XX

The difference of 4 to 5 cents per pound is the value of the extracare in mak ing up the fleeces . The d ifference is even greater thanthis, for New York,Michigan , andW isconsin wools Of better qual

i ty than some Ohiowools

,are bought

at the regular ratesquoted , simply because the Ohiofle eces come tomarket in better

1! shape . This is no

unreasonable d istinct ion

,as will be

seen when the manner of sort ing W oolis explained further on .

There are variouskinds of wool tablesfor packing the

d fleece other thanthat shown in figure56. One in common

use in New York is thus described in the Amer ican Agrz'

culturt'

st

of May,1872

,with the accompanying engravings, to which the

letters refer. It i s made of three boards one inch thick , andtwelve inches wide.The c en ter one

,fig.

57, i s divided atequal distances ata , a ,

and connectedwith hinges Opening upwards . Thetwo outside boardsare j oined to thecenter square byhinges at b

,b,b,6,

also opening upwards . At 0, c, c, a, screw on the springs, cu ttingaway the wood underneath so that they may l ie flush with the

boards when pressed down . At d, d, d, d ,make a cut one inch deep

Fig. 57.

— PLAN on WOOL TABLE .

Fig. 58 .—wOOL TABLE C LOSED .

PACKING WOOL. 163

with a th in saw,to hold the ends of the strings. A hook is made

,

(e, fig. of hard wood,one inch thick and fourteen inches be

tween the j aws,and the box is done .

To use it,first fix the strings from the cuts d

,d,d,d,in the di

rection of the dotted lin es on fig . 58 . the fleece w ith thecl ipped side downwards on theboards

,bring up

the sides,which

secure by placingacross them thehook

,as in fig. 58 ;

then close the end s,

which the springswill keep in theirplaces ; tie the endsof each string tightly over the wool ;then remove thehook

,and the box

will fall back,leav

ing the fleece tigh tly packed and tied .

Nothing shouldbe tied up in thefleece , nor shouldcoarse tw ine nor toomuch twine be used.

All tags and wasteW ool should bescrupulously keptout O f the fleece

,as

it should not onlylook good

,but

should be good .

This observing Of

l ittle th ings is oneof the ways in which wool growing is made a profitable business .Tag l ocks and dirty wool should be washed in a tub w ith soft soapand cold water and sold by itself. The soft soap tends to give tubwashed wool a mellow handling free from harshness .When the grower sh ips h is wool to a d istan t market

,he necessa

rily packs the fleeces in bales. The bale should be sol idly packed

Fig. 59.— PACK ING W OOL.

164 THE SHEFHERD’S MANUAL.

both for economy in freight,which in l ight bulky articles

,is

charged according to bulk and not by weight,and for the better

cond it ion of the fleeces on the ir arrival at their dest inat ion . Aconvenient method of baling the fleeces

,is to hang the sack from

a trap-door in the wool loft, as shown in figure 59. The fleeces arehanded or thrown to the packer, who places them in the sack,pressing them down close w ith h is bare feet

,and , as he reaches the

top,with h is kn ees ; a handful of tags is pu t in each corner of the

sack and tied tightly to make a handle by which the package canbe hauled about in its transportation to market . When filled

,the

bale should be plainly marked with the exact weight , tare , andnet weight

,upon one of i ts sides .

SORT ING .-When the wool reaches the dealer

,it undergoes a

process of sorting. The same fleece contains wool Of various degrees of fineness

,and it must be prepared for the manufacturer

,

who purchases only exactly what he needs for his particular use.The fleece is unrol led

,and the sorter selects the fine locks from

the coarse ones ; the neck , shoulder, and side wool from th e thigh,

and haunch w ool ; and this from the belly and breech wool . E achfleece is sorted into from six to ten different qualit ies

,which are’

selected by the sorter w ith surprising quickness and certainty . Awell rolled fleece is much more quickly handled than one made updisorderly

,and the saving of the t ime of a highly paid workman

,

is of i tself suffi cient to enhance the value of a well packed fleeceover that O f an Opposite character several cents a pound .

The final disposi tion of the wool,after i t has reached the manu

facturer,is not w ithin the l imits of thi s book

,al though the vari

ous processes of scouring,dyeing, oil ing, plucking, card ing, comb

ing,breaking , drawing, roving, spinning, reel ing, and weaving,

are all of the greatest interest to the wool grower, as relating veryintimately to his share of the general industry

,and showing how

far the best managemen t of his flock goes to ease the labors,and

facil itate the Operations,of the numerous artisans concerned in all

these various branches of the manufacture,and consequently

adding to the value of his raw product . The p erfect ion Of thevarious processes cannot be better illu strated than by the factsthat in only ord inary spinning

,a pound of wool is made to extend

three-fourths of s mile ; in superfine spinning, it stre tches to a distance of 22miles ; and that the very finest woolen yarn hithertoSpun , will reach a distance O f 95 miles for every pound . Fifteenhundred fibers O f the finest wool laid side by side w ill cover onlyone inch of space

,and of them placed compactly to

gether,will make a bundle only one inch square. How much evil

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

166 THE SHEPHE RD’S MANUAL.

America. The average weigh t of fleece , the relative value of thewool per pound ( in American dol lars and cents), and the yearlyincome from each sheep, in wool , is given in the following table :

TABLE OF THE P R ODUC E AND P R I CE OF W O OL AND YEARLYVALUE OF THE FLE E C E IN THE FOLLOW ING C OUNTR IE S IN 1866.

C OUNTRIES.

Great Brita inAustraliaTasmaniaNew ZealandC ape of Good HopeRussiaSweden

NorwayD enmark .

G ermany .

HollandBelgiumFrance

Spain

I talyAustriaSwitzerlandG reece .

United States

General average . 94

The most striking item in the above comparison is the greatlylarger annual revenue derived from each sheep in America thanelsewhere. When we take into account along with this, the lowerpr ice of our l ands, the American shepherd w ill be seen to have afar more profitable business than that of any other Sheep owner inthe world . Much O f this advantage is doubtless due t o the higherprices received by the wool-grower through the Operation of theprotective duties levi ed npon foreign wool . Some of i t is oer.

tainly due to the greater weight O f the fleece consequent upon theimprovement which h as been made in our sheep . With two exc ep tions the average weigh t of American fleeces is the highest inthe list. But by far the greater advantage exists in the highercomparative price of wool

,wh ich is only exceeded very sl ightly in

two instances,those Of Spain and Germany, and in these countries

the bulk O f the wool is of the finer sorts which bear a high marketvalue. The benefit accruing to wool-growers by the presen t tariffis unmistakable

,and although th is is not the place to discuss the

question,it con tinuance would certainly seem to he very desirable.

T he following table gives the number O f sheep, (omitting lambs),enumerated in the decennial census reports of the United Statesfor the years named :

Pounds Price per AnuaolWool pound of Revenue

per Sheep . wool. per sheep .

. 37

NUMBER OF SHEEP IN THE UN ITED STATES. 167

STATES AND TERRITORIE S.

Alabama 370 156Ari zonaArkansas .

C ali forniaC oloradoC onnecticutDakotaD elaware .

D istric t of C O umbia

G eorg ia “

Idaho .

Illinois

In diana

Iowa .

Kansas

KentuckyLouis ianaMaine

MarylandMassac husetts

Mis siss ippi

Missouri 937 445MontanaNebraskaNevadaNew Hampshire

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

c c c c c c c c cO O O O O

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

The increase since the last census,

in the western statesand terri tories

,is very great . For instance , the estimated cl ip Of

wool in California,as reported by Messrs . E . G risar C O . ,

of SanFrancisco , for the three decennial periods named , and for 1875 ,was as follows

18541860

1875

included vi ith Virginia .

7 l 1

168 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

While some Of this very great increase w ill result from the rapidimprovement in the character Of the sheep

,yet there is neverthe

less reason to suppose that the number of sheep in Cal ifornia nowreaches at least which is nearly double the number O f1870.

In Colorado , persons engaged in the sheep industry,estimate

the flocks to amount to about one mill ion and in the neighboring territories Of D akota, Wyoming , New Mexico , and Arizona, this industry has become sO wonderfully developed during thepast five years, that a reasonable estimate wou ld give the wholepresent number O f sheep pasturing upon those pla ins as at least

where in 1870 there were l ittle more than Theprofitable character of the busin ess O f rearing sheep upon thesemagnificen t and costless pastures

,i s tending to stil l further attract

the atten tion Of stock men and capi tal ists,who are establishing

flocks in almos t every available portion O f these terri tories . Abusiness in which capital used with care and skill returns a profitOf 75 per cent , cannot fail to become developed with rapidi ty inso fav orable a local i ty. W hat the l imit O f the product ive capac ityOf these broad pas tures may be , i t would be hazardous to at temptto prognost icate .

CHAPTER VII.

THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP ; ITS D ISEASESAND THE IR REMED IES.

GENERAL VIE W OF I TS ANATOMY.

The structure Of the sheep more nearly resembles that of theOx than any other Of the domestic animals . I t possesses a lessdegree of nervous energy than the horse

,ox

,or pig

,but it is capa '

ble O f enduring greater extremes Of heat and cold with less inconvenience, and p ossesses a more vigorous digestion than those animals . The most O f its nervous energy is expended on its digestive and assimilat ive functions , and the least proportion upon i tssensitive and locomotive organs . None of our domestic animalsso completely digests coarse fodder, or so thoroughly and profi tably turns the most nutrit ious food into flesh and fat as the sheep.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

170 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

and especially of those which are armed w ith heavy horns. T he

skull consists Of tw o tables or plates, half an inch or more apart,the ou ter thick and tough , the inner hard and britt le. Th eseplates are conn ected by ridges O f bone

,which divide the space

between them into compartments cal led sinu ses . This structuregives the skull exceed ing strength and ab il ity to resis t blows andpunctures by sharp substances . The bones of the head are iO inedtogether by sutu res or dove-tails, which are also conducive to extreme strength . In th is manner the brain is protec ted , and thehorns are provided with a solid and elas tic foundation . The formOf the head is shown in figure 61, in which 1 i s the occipital bone ;2,pari etal bone ; 3, core of righ t frontal

b one; 4 , the left core covered by its horn ;5,superciliary foramen ; channel des

cend ing from it ; 6, 1achrymal bones ; 7,zygoma ; 8, nasal bones ; 9, supermaxiliary bones ; 10, premaxiliary bones ;its in ternal process ; 11, incisive Opening.

The cavi ty which contains the b ra in isless than a th ird the siz e Of the rest Of theskull , the larger port ion being devoted tothe functions Of eat ing and smell ing.

The space devoted to mastication is large,and the space oi eupied by the nostrils,which are the breathing passages

,rela

tively smal l . Most Of the bones O f the Fig. 0 1“A

face are hollow,and are divided into sev RAM S HEAD

eral sinuses and cel ls by which the head is rendered l ight andstrong. The sinuses and cells are l ined with membranes whichsecrete mucus, and are therefore cal led mucous membranes . Theinner cavi ty of the skull is lined w ith several membranes whichstil l further add to its strength

,and to the security Of the brain .

The teeth O f the sheep consist Of incisors or cu tters,and molars or

grinders. There are 8 O f the former,all being upon the lower j aw ,

and 24 Of the latter. Upon the upper j aw,in place O f cutti ng

teeth , the sheep has, in common with most Of the ruminants, acartilaginous plate or cushion

,upon whi ch the teeth of the lower

j aw impinge when the mouth is closed. The sheep has no canineteeth or tusks. There is a l ong space Of the j aws on each side between the incisors and molars

,which is destitute Of teeth . The

milk teeth,or deciduous or temporary teeth Of the sheep , are

twen ty in number ; the eigh t incisors on the lower j aw ,and three

molar teeth on each side of both j aws or twelve in all . The two

THE TEETH . 171

central frOnt teeth appear either before or soon after birth , and inabout three weeks after birth , the whole O f the twenty temporaryteeth appear. The first change in the teeth occurs at the age ofthree months

,when the lamb cu ts a permanent molar tooth . The

next change also occurs at the back O f the month,when at n in e

months Old,another

,the second permanent molar tooth appears .

At one year O ld the lamb has but e ight permanen t teeth,or two at

the back O f each side O f each j aw . The age O f fourteen months ismarked by the appearance of two permanent incisor tee th at thecenter O f the front Of the j aw . In j udging Of the age of a sheep,the condition Of the mola rs may be studied with advantage. If asheep is certified to be not exceeding one year Old

,and the fifth

molar, ( the second permanen t one, and the last one on each jaw) , isfound to be sharp on the edges and but sligh tly worn

,the age may

be regarded to be properly stated,even though the central pair of

front teeth have already appeared . But if these teeth are well upand the last molar is n orn and smooth

,and there is a space be

tween this tooth and the angle Of the j aw,the sheep is certainly

over a year Old . The sixth molar tooth is in its place at the ageO f eighteen months , and this is the only test Of this age of thesheep . The second pair Of front teeth , one on each side O f thefi rst. pair

,appear at twenty-one months Of age , and at two years

are fully grown and stand well up from the gum and level withthe first pair. After the sixth molar is cut

,the three forward and”

temporary molars are replaced by permanen t teeth , which arefully grown at the age Of twen ty-Seven months . At two yearsand a half the third pair Of front teeth have become fully grown ,al though in some -forward sh eep O f the quickly maturing breeds,these teeth may appear at two years Of age . Generally they ind icate an age Of two years and a half. At th e age of three years, inthe Cotswolds and other forward b reeds

,the fou rth and last pair

of front teeth appear ; but in other breeds they are not presen tuntil three and a quarter or th ree and a half years . The sheep isthen what is kn own as full mou thed .

” The following table O fthe periods Of dentition wil l be found useful in determ ining theage O f a sheep

At one month , 8 temporary front teeth and three temporarymolars oneach side Of each j aw.

At three month s,a permanent molar is added to these three .

At nine months, the second permanent molar appears .

At fourt een month s,two permanent inc isors appear, (as a , a , fig.

At eighteen month s, the th ird permanent molar appears .At twenty-one months, there are four permanent incisors, fig . 68)

172 THE SHE PHERD’s MANUAL.

At twenty-seven months, the temporary molars are changed , and permanent ones appear.At thirty months, there are six permanent inc isors, (a , a , fig. 6l) .

At th irty-six to forty-two months, there are eigh t permanent incisors, (a , a , fig.

It has been decided in an E nglish court Of law, that a lamb becomes a sheep when the first pair Of permanent incisors have ap

1 !

Fig. 62. Fig. 63 .

peared. When the mou th is full tOOLlled, the sheep is consideredas mature , or full grown , when the teeth begin to show signs Ofwear

,the sheep is aged .

”

The composition Of the bones of the sheep and Of the marrowcon tained in their cavit ies differs in no respect from that O f thebones and marrow O f other domestic animals . Bone consists ofanimal matter and earthy salts ; usually in the fol lowing proport ion , viz : phosphate Of lime, 55 per cen t ; carbonate O f l ime , 4 percent ; phosphate Of

‘ magnesia , 3 per cent ; soda, potash , and com

film

Fig. 64 . Fig . 65.

mon sal t , (chloride Of sodium), 3 per cent , and 35 per cen t Of gelatine . These proportions differ to some extent with the kind Ofbone

,its solidity

,and the age and condit ion O f the an imal from

which i t is taken . The bones O f the skeleton are j oined togetherby means Of cart ilages , or ligamen ts , which form what are knownas articulations . Where th e bones move one upon another, theirends, or the parts brought ' in contact

,are covered with cartilage.

E very bone is enveloped in a h ighly sensitive l ining or membranecalled the periosteum . Al though the bones seem to be solid andinsens ible matter

,chiefly composed O f earthy sal ts

,yet they are

highly sensitive , and are formed O f tiesue which is penetrated by

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

174 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

veins,the bones receive nutriment and means of growth or repair

,

and by means of th e nerves they become sensitive .The skeleton or frame work is clothed with flesh or musculartissue . The muscles consist of bundles of fibers which possess thepower of contraction when excited by sensat ions communicatedby the nerves . The muscles are very diversified in sha pe

,some

being spread out in fan shape,some being th ick and bulky

,and

some long and thin . The fibers are intermingled with fat or w ithcellular memb rane. It is i n the abundance of the cell s wh ich con =tain the fat , and in the power to assimilate food to supply the fat ,that a sheep of a good breed or character is dist inguished from oneof a poor or bad character. The abundance of fat cells both with inand upon the surface of the muscles gives the soft mel low handling which distinguishes ah excellent mu tton sheep . The musclesare either d irectly connected by the ends of their fibers to the periosteum or covering membrane of the bone

,as in the scapula or

shoulder blade or the ends are gathered together closely and ihterlaced with the stronger fibers of the tendons or l igaments whichare attached to the bones . By the cont raction of the fibers of themuscles and tendons . the movements of the j oints are made . Inthe muscular port ions of the sheep consists the whole value of thecarcass to the bu tcher

,and the whole art of th e breeder and

feeder of those heavy-bodied breeds,known as mutton sheep

,

is concentrated in the effort to increase the muscular developmentin those parts of the carcass

,as the loins and legs

,the meat of

which is most h ighly valued . The muscles are enclosed in theskin which forms th e covering of the animal . The protecting coatof the animal grows upon th e skin . This is either hair or wool

,

both being of similar con struction and composition,d ifi

‘

ering onlyin form or degree of fineness and texture .

The brain occupies the cav ity of the skul l,and is the central seat

of sensation and intelligence . From it proceeds the spinal marrow,

which is a con tinuation of the brain,and which occupies a cavi ty

through the cen ter of the spine or backbone,from the head to the

tail . The brain is largely supplied w ith blood by means of thecarotid arteries

,and the jugular veins serve to return the blood

frzm the brain to the heart and lungs . In the sheep the brain isvery small as compared with the size of the body

,its average

weight being but 4s ounces, while that of the dog is (it ounces .This d ifference in the development of brain reasonably accoun tsfor the superior intell igence of the shepherd dog

,one of whic h

easily controls and guides the movements of a th ousand sheep .

The nerves proceed from the brain and spinal cord,and pen

THE VITAL FUNCTIONS. 175

trate in a net -work of the most astonishing fineness to the remot

es t portion of the body,every port ion of which

,however minu te

,

being endowed‘ by the nerves with the faculty O f sensat ion. In

the sheep there are forty pairs of nerves,ten of which proceed

from the brain , and thirty from the spinal cord . E ach O f these hasits p lexus, or system of branches and net-work . T he nerves cons ist of bundles of white filamentsOr threads. The different senses,sight

,smell

,hearing

,tas t e, and touch , are supplied by the nerves,

which proceed directly from the brain . Another importan t brainnerve is the par cagum,

or p neumo-gastn’

c nerve, which proceedsto the heart

,lungs

,stomach

,liver

,and the bronchial or breathing

apparatus. It is th is new e which gives the breathing,c ircu lating

,

and digestive organs their power of motion independent of thewill . Any inj ury or dis ea se Of this nerve affects these vital funct ions, and i ts division or destruct ion occasions instant death . Thespinal nerves convey both sensation and motion. The spinal cordO f the sheep weighs one ounce and three-quar ters .T he vital functions of an animal are resp ira tion,

circulata'

o'

n,and

d igestion or nutrit ion . By the first the system is suppl ied withoxygen , which is one of the sources of animal heat and is the

‘agentby which the blood is purified . By the second , the t issues orliving structure of the an imal are supplied with nutriment andrelieved from dead and used up matter, and by the last the bloodis replenished with fresh suppl ies of nutritive elements .Resp iration commences at the momen t of . birth and continues tothe moment of death . It consis ts of an inspirat ion or ih -drawingand an expiration or out-forcing of air. The motions neces saryto these al ternate actions are made by the diaphragm,

a membranewhich divides the chest from the abdomen . When this membraneis relaxed it is convex or rounded towards the chest

.When its

fibers contract , i t is stra ightened or flattened,and of course. en

larges the cavi ty of the chest and causes a rush of air to fil l theenlarged space. This al ternate contraction and relaxing of themuscles of the diaphragm cause the motion of the chest

,which is

observed in breathing. A corresponding movement is also madein the abdomen , as may be noticed in the flanks of hard drivenanimals. The lungs occupy the largest port ion of the cavity ofthe chest, and enfold the heart . They are two in number

,the

left and the right ; the left lung is d ivided in to two parts,cal led

lobes ; the righ t i s d ivided into four lobes,of which one is curved

around the heart . Fig. 68 shows this peculiarity,1, 1, being the

righ t lung ; 2, 2, the left : 3, the trachea or windpipe ; 4 , the heart ;5, the carotid arteries ; and 6, the eena cam

,or great vein which

176 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

carries the blood which has circulated through the bOdv to theheart

,from wh ich it is forced to the lungs for purification . The

lungs are composed of a spongy,highly elastic mass of cells.

When the cavity of the chest is enlarged by the contraction O f thediaphragm

,th is e lastic mass swells and fi ll s the cavity. The cells

enlarge,and vacuums are formed in them to fi ll which a stream of

air is immediately directed . The airrushes through the nostrils into thetrachea or windpipe

,and thence in to

the bronchial tubes,which penetrat e

the mass of the lungs in al l dircet ions

,as the branches and twigs of a

tree . By these bronchial tubes, airis carried in to every portion of thelungs

,where i t meets the blood

brought th i ther from every extremityof the body by means of the eena caeathrough the heart . In this contactthe blood , loaded w ith impurit ies,and deprived of the oxygen whichis needed for the support O f thebody

,parts w ith its load of offensive

matter,and takes up from the air

whatever oxygen it requ ires to re

store it to a state of purity , and to Fig» 68—'THE LUNGS EN

enable it to fulfil l the functions ofVELOP ING THE HEART “

circulat ion once more. The air having performed this O ffi ce,is

expelled from the lungs by the relaxing of the muscles of thediaphragm

,and is expired . The expired air is h ighly charged

with carbon ic acid and vapor of water,nearly the whole of it s

oxygen having been absorbed by the blood . It is also chargedwith other products of the constant decomposition or waste O f thetissues of the body

,or of unnecessary matters which have entered

the circulation through the digestive organs .C ircula tion consists . in the constant motion Of the blood fromthe heart th rough the arteries to the inner and ou ter surface ofthe body

,and through every tissu e O f wh ich the body is composed ;

thence back by the veins to the heart thence to the lungs, whereit is pu rified and fi tted to again serve for the nutrition of the body ;i t is then sent from the lungs to the heart to start again upon itsround to the extremities.The blood is the most importan t part in the system of an animal.

It consists of a white fluid colored red by very small globules,

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

178 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

ply the waste O f matter caused by every mechanical movement ofthe animal ; for every con traction of the fibers of the musclescauses a decomposi t ion and destruction O f some port ion of theirsubs tance . Hence i s explained the waste of matter or loss ofweight caused by excessive exertion or insuflfic ient food . Herethe blood also absorbs the dead , used up matter created by this decomposi tion and destruction Of tissue, and carries it Ofl

‘

from thesystem . This i t does by means O f the skin , the kidneys, and thelungs

,through which the blood is fi l tered as it were of matters "

useless to the system by means of these capil laries ; and the excretions of perspiration both sensible and insensible

,that of the urine

,

with some others,are thus thrown ofl. In this manner the blood

becomes depleted of its nutritive properties, and absorbs the wastesof the system in its intricate course through these infinitely smallcapillaries . It en ters them from the arteries a bright red , andleaves them a dark

,blackish purple flu id . It courses onwards

through the veins loaded with impurities,to the lungs, which it

enters still a dark fluid ; here it passes through a second set ofcapillaries much finer than the former

,in which it is exposed to

pure air contained in the cells of the lungs ; the carbonaceous matters i t con tains come in contact with the oxygen O f the air

,and are

decomposed , burned in fact, giving forth the heat n eeded for thecontinuance Of l ife ; when the blood thus rendered pure , leavesthe lungs a bright red once more , again fi tted to fulfill i ts functions . Before entering into the lungs, the blood receives a newsupply of matter from the lymphat ic vessels

,called lymph

,which

is derived from the digested food . The vessel wh ich convey s thelymph or chyle

,is call ed th e thoracic duc t

,and passes upwards

into th e cavity of the chest in close contact with the vertebrae orspine . The temperature of the blood of the heal thy sheep isThe blood is now bel ieved to possess vital ity ;while its circulationexists i t is fluid , and when it i s dead it coagulates . The cause of thecoagulation of the blood is not known

,and there is a d ifference

between its coagulat ion in and ou t of the body . If a part Of thebody be wounded

,the blood which escapes from the divid ed ves

sel s,coagulates between the edges of the wound , forms a clot of

organ ized material,throws out new vessels, and gradually restores

the wounded parts . It is this coagu lating property which savesthe l ife of a wounded an imal and directly leads to recovery ; i fthe blood remained flu id

,the least wound would cause a flow

which would not stop until the vessels were empty and the animaldead . The constituents of the blood are exactly those Of flesh .

D igestion is the process by which food is taken into the body,

DIGESTION. 179

masticated , d issolved by the stomach and intestines , and renderedfit for absorption by the lacteals and lymphatics, and assimilat ionby the blood . The parts concerned in digestion are the lips, teeth,and tongue

,the sal ivary glands , the gullet , the stomach, the intes

tines,the liver

,the lacteals

,and the thoracic duct wh ich connects

the digest ive process w ith the d irect function of circulation andnutrition . The lips are used by the sheep in gathering its food ,very much as they are used by the horse , and to a much greater extent than by the ox. T he sheep’s l ips are thin , and very act ive intheir movement . The upper l ip is divided by a groove , or fissure,so that each half can be moved i ndependently Of the other . Thesheep possesses no mufi e or broad space betwe en the nostrils onthe upper lip, which in heal th secretes a liquid which appears insmal l drops upon its surface. as in the ox . The teeth have beenalready described . Their ofli ce is well known . The tongue servesto convey the food to the teeth

,and from the teeth to th e gulle t

,

and also the cud from the gullet to the teeth . The sal ivary glandssecrete a fluid which moistens the food during mastication

,and

which also possesses some of the character of a solvent , or a preparatory digestive agent , in being able to convert starch into soluble dextrine and sugar

,and thus prepare i t for digest ion by the

stomach . The glands are three in number, and are named theparotid

,the submaxillary ,

and the sublingual . The first is situatedat the outside of the angle of the lower j aw ; the second is placedon the inside of the lower j aw

,near the

"

angle ; and the third isbeneath the tongue . D uets from these glands give ou t the salivanatu rally whenever the membranes of the mouth are excited bythe presence Of food ; or unduly, as in some diseases which causean excessive secretion O f the fluid . The gul let conveys food ordrink from the mouth to the stomach . The pharynx is the upperpart of the gullet , by which it is connected with th e mouth . It isseparated from the larynx

,the entrance into the w indpipe or air

passage , by a carti laginous lid called the epiglottis, which , whenfood is swallowed , closes the larynx and allows the food to sl ideover it . The pharynx

, gullet , stomach and intest ines , togetherform what is termed the alimentary canal . The gullet , also calledthe oesophagus , is a very strong, muscular tube , l ined with insensible white membrane . The fibers of the muscles run spirallyaround the tube , in Opposite d irections, and thus cross each other.By the contract ion of these muscles, gradually extending downr

wards, food is carried into the stomach while by their contraetion in an upward direction

,the food is brought back to the

mouth to be masticated the second time in the process of rumina

180 THE SHEPHEBD’S MANUAL.

tion . The food taken up by the lips and teeth is ground andmixed w ith sal iva in the mouth

,passed backwards by the act ion

of the tongue to the gullet,and then forced into the stomach .

The stomach of the sheep consists of a large irregular sac or pouch,

divided into four compartments,generally referred to as distinct

stomachs,or the first

,second

,third

,

and fourth stomachs, (see figs. 70, 71,

and or the rumen or paunch,

seen at b ; the reticulum or honeycomb

,c ; the omasum or manyplies ,

d ; and the abomasum ,or rennet , or

true digestive stomach,e. The gul

let is seen at a,and the duodenum at

f . The functions Of the stomachsof the ruminating animals are knownonly somewhat obscurely . Anatomyonly teaches their form and character

,and leaves all the rest in doubt,

Flg 70 —R IGHT SID E OF THE or to be dec ided by experiment andSTOMACH.

Observat ion . From the structure ofthe stomachs we are able to form a generally complete idea of theprocess of digestion which goes on within them of some of thedetails there is nothing certain as yet to Ofl

’

er. The first twostomach s are placed parallel to each other, and the gullet endsalmost equally in each

, as seen at ai n fig. 72, which sh ows the insideformation of the stomachs . Thesecond stomach

,e,communicates

with the third by the ( Bs0 phagean

canal, g, which Opens into the th ird

stomach, (not seen in figs. 70 and

and ends there . The fourth stomachis connected with the third by adist inct opening. The paunch , b, isthe largest compartment , being fourt imes the capacity of the other threetogether. I t is divided into four ln Fig. 7L— LEF

’1‘ SID E OF THE

complete compartments by muscular STOMACH

walls, and is l ined with a membrane covered by a mul titude Of softpillars compressed closely together,which make an uneven surface .The second stomach , e, is lined with cells having five or six sidesfrom which i t takes the common name

,the honeycomb . These

two compartments , or stomachs , are in reality one , _

the latter being

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

182 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

4 th . Theomasum completes the maceration or reduction of thefood to a suffi ciently fine condition for dige s tion

,by pressing it

between its leaves.

5th . The abomasum is the t rue d igest ive stomach,and finally

d is solves the food by its gastric secretion .

In these processes the oesophagean canal performs a pecul iar funot ion . The ordinary food of the ruminating an imal is coarse intexture

,and when swallowed is bulky. When i t enters into the

stomach and meets the open ing of the oesophagean canal,i t forces

open,by its bulk, the muscular l ips of which the opening is com

posed , and drops partly into the first , and partly into the secondstomach . M. Flourens has satisfied himself, by careful experiments upon a l iving sheep

,that when the animal ruminates

,a por

tion of the food swal lowed previously and now contained in thefirst and second stomachs—which are really one— is forced by acontraction of the stomach into the oesophagean canal

,and this then

contracting,closes all the o ther Openings except that of the gullet

,

and at the same time compresses the morsel of food into a pel let orbal l

,which is immediately forced by the upward muscular eon

traction of the gull et into the month . When it has been chewedand mingled with the copious secret ion of sal iva which takes placeduring rumination

,it is again swallowed . Being now softened

and in a sem i-l iqu id condition,i t passes over the l ips of the open

ing of the canal,without forcing them apart , into the second

stomach,and enters the third stomach ; a small portion of it only

escaping into the first and second stomachs . When fine or semil iqu id food is first swallowed

,i t follows exactly the same course

,

the same being true of water when drank . From the th ird stomach the food passes on to th e fourth stomach to be finally disposedof

,I t has been found that the pellets of food , returned to the

month for rumination,are of the precise size , shape , and form of

the portion of the oesophagean canal between the first and thirdstomachs. Sheep have been dissected with these pellets readyformed in the canal for transmission to the mouth .

The intestines of the sheep are of great length , being twen tyeight t imes longer than its body. In the duodenum

,which is the

upper portion of the intestines that directly communicates w iththe lower orifice of the stomach

,the partially d igested mass of

food undergoes still further changes . As it pas ses from the stomach it i s termed chyme . In the duodenum the chyme is mingledwith the bile , which comes from the liver, and the pancreat ic j uice,a secretion of the p ancreas , or sweet-bread, and b ecomes fitted

'rnn LIVER . 183

for absorption by the lacteals wh ich communicate wi th the intestines . I t is now termed chyle

,and is a white milky flu id which

en ters the thoracic duct and mingles with the blood as previouslydescribed . The refuse and insoluble portion of the food

,w i th nu

used portions of the bile pass on through the lower in testines , andis discharged by the rectum as dung .

The liner is a large organ with the appearance of wh ich almostevery person is famil iar . It is called a gland

,because its office is

t o secrete a fluid which is pecul iar to i t,and i t IS the largest gland

in the body . Its secretion is called the bile . Its position in th ebody is below the diaphragm and adjacent to the stomachs

,with

the th ird of which it is in direct contact. It is enveloped in theperitoneum or membrane which covers and also encloses the wholeof the contents of the abdomen , and forms as i t were a sac or bag ,one-half of which is doubled into the other half. The l iver in substance is granular, consisting of grains, or lobules , from one-ten thto one-twentieth of an inch in diameter. Its color is reddishbrown . The lobu les of which it is composed are closely packed

,

and are held together by fine t issue and a net-work of minuteveins and ducts. E ach lobule is connected with a blood vessel ati ts base

,and another vessel comes from the cen ter of the lobule

and j oins the former one at its base . Between th ese two i s anexceedingly fine net-work of capil lary vessels similar to those previously described . By means of arteries and veins called portalcanals

,which enter and ramify through the substance of the liver,

the blood is carried into and through the substance of each lobulein streams of exceeding fineness. From the blood thus passingthrough the lobules

,the gall or bile is secreted by small cells not ex

ceedingl

/ l ooolh of an inch in diameter, and is collected into minutevessels called bil iary ducts , from which it is gathered into largerducts .which pour their contents into the great bile ducts . There isa receptacle in the l iver of the sheep known as the gall-bladder

,to

which the gall is carried from the h epatic duct by another ductnamed the cystic duct . When the gall contained in the gall -bladder is required for use

,it returns by the same duct into the hepatic

duct,and thence into the great bil e duct which ends in th e duo

denum,below the stomach .

The gall is an alkaline fluid of composite character,containing

soda,two pecul iar acids, (glycocholic and taurochol ic , the lat ter of

which contains sulphur) ; mucus ; cholesterine ; stearic , oleic, andlactic acids with potash and ammonia

,and a pecul iar coloring

mat ter . I t i s in fact a sort of l iqu id soap . The bile is pouredinto the duodenum by the great bile duct . Near th is duct is

184 THE SHE PHE RD’s MANUAL.

another from which flows the secretion of the pancreas orsweet-bread . This fluid is sl ightly alkal ine and very similar tothe saliva. Its oflice is supposed to be to change the undissolvedstarch in the chyme into sugar

,and to form an emulsion with the

oil or fat of the food , and prepare i t for absorption directly intothe blood or into the lac teals . The office of the gall is to neutral ~ize the acidity of the chyme derived from the gast ric j u ice, whichis an acid fluid

,to assis t in the transforma ion of starch into su

gar,and the absorption of oil or fat. I t is the chief agent in

changing the chyme of the stomach into the chyle, which is theperfected source of nutrition of the blood . The perfect action ofthe liver is therefore absolutely necessary to the sustenance andthe l ife of the animal . The qu antity of gal l secreted by the l iverof the sheep every twenty-four hours is from 3 to 5 pounds . Thewhole of this

,however

,is not destroyed in the performance of its

office,but a large portion is taken into the system in the circula

tion,the su rplus being regained from the b lood by the secre ting

cells of the l iver and again returned for duty to the intestines.Another oflice of th e l iver is to prepare crude albuminous matterof the blood for final absorption into it . It is also able to formsugar from other carbonaceous matters conveyed to it in the chyleabsorbed by the lacteal vessels . Thus the l iver acts as a fil ter, inseparating detrimentalmatters from the blood

,besides supply ing

a necessary agent in digestion,as well as for respiration . Its im

portance in the animal functions cannot be over-est imated .

The lacteals are a series of small absorbent vessels which form anet-work in connect ion with the coats of the intestines

,and pro

ceed to the thoracic duct,where they terminate . They exist much

more numerously in connect ion w ith the small intest ines thanwith the lower ones . Their chief seat is the mesentery

,which is

the th in membrane which supports the small intest ines . The lacteals enter the numerous glands of the mesentery

,and pass

through them , uniting to form larger vessels and becoming fewerand fewer in number

,being finally reduced to two or three ducts

which end in the thoracic duct . The lacteals absorb the chyle,which is presented to them in the intestines

,convey it to the glands

in which i t is enriched and perfected,and thence convey it to

the vessels which terminate in the duct from wh ich the new nutritive matter i s poured in to the large vein near its j unct ion with theheart

,to enter into the circulat ion .

The chyle i s very similar in its compositfon to the blood ,difl

'

er~

ing from it ch iefly in the absence of coloring matter, or the redglobules wh ich give the color to the blood . I t coagulates . on

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

186 THE SHEPHE RD’S MANUAL.

sheep is not so cepious as that of the cow in proportion to its siz e,but possesses a larger proportion of salts. The following is ananalysis of sheep’s urine :

water. per cent .Urea W i th some album1n0 1d

‘

sand coloringmatterSalts of potash , soda, lime, magnesia , silica, iron ,alumina, and manganese.

In fig . 73 is shown a sect ion of the substance of the kidneyhighly magnifi ed

,in which appear the ur iniferous

, (urine carry ing)ducts or tubes

, (a , a) , su rrounded by the secreting glandular substance

, (b, b), which is enclosed in the net-work of the arteries,

(e, e), and the fibrous tissue, (d, d).

The bladder is situated in the pelvic cavity, or the lower part ofthe abdomen . I t i s composed of two coats, the ou ter one bein gmuscular, and capable of contract ing so as to expel its contents .One half is enveloped in a third coat, and the other half in the

tissue of the pelvicregion

,and masses of

fatty matter. The musonlar coat consists o ffibers placed in variousd irections, lengthw ise ,crossw ise

,obl ique

,and

spiral,so that in the act

of contraction the bladd er is reduced in sizeevenly and in every

d irection.A strong muscl e encircles the opening, fromwhich the

urine is discharged,and which is called the neck of the bladder. The

contraction of this muscle closes the neck and retain s the contents,i ts relaxation opens the orifice and al lows the con tents to be ex

pelled .From the neck of the bladder proceeds the urethra , by

which the urine is discharged . In the ewe the u rethra is veryshort , in the ram it is much longer, and pas ses down from theanus along the abdomen to the extremity of the penis. The funct ions of the bladder are very important . It serves as a reservoirfor the urinal fluid which is constantly secreted by the kidneysand retains it until a considerable quantity has been accumulated ,and thus spares the animal from otherwise continually dribblingaway the urine as it i s secreted .

Fig. 73 .

—s'rnuc'rURE OF THE KIDNEY .

The Rep roductive 0 rgana.-These are entirely d ifferen t in the

THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 187

male and female. The female organs are more abundantly developed than those of the male

,and have more intricate functions to

fulfill . They consist of two secret ing organs called ovaries,which

are charged with the elaboration of th e ovum or egg ; the uterinetube through which the ovum passes on leaving the ovary ;the u terus or womb in which it rests after its impregnation

,

and in which it remains unti l i t is fully developed and thevagina or canal through which the foetus or young an imal whenperfected is discharged . In addition there are two mammae ormilk-produc ing glands enclosed in the skin , and attached to thelower part of the abdomen and inner parts of the thighs , each ofwhich has a set of secreting glands and milk ducts flowing intoa tube which has its orifi ce in the teat . These milk glands arecalled the udder. The ovum is a cel l about ‘

/xooth Of an inCh in diameter

,which is contained in another cell or ovisac

,of which the

ovaries contain a certain number. At stated periods called theoestrum or condition of “ heat

,

” the ovaries become excited and

d istended , and discharge one (or more) of these ovisacs , which , partaking of the condition of the ovaries

,becomes distended and bursts

,

releasing the ovum , which , when it is brought into contact withthe impregnating flu id of the male in the uterine tube

,undergoes

a change , enters into the uterus, and in course of time becomes al iving animal . When the female is not brought into connectionwith the male at the season of heat

,the ovum undergoes no change

,

but passes on to the uterus,where i t is absorbed

.The impregna

ted ovum , when it reaches the u terus, becomes grafted upon itsl ining membrane and draws d irectly from the mother’s blood thematerials for its development .In the male the reproductive organs consist of two glands

,which

in the ram are suspended in a sac between the thighs.This sac is

called the scrotum . The glands,called the testicles or testes

,are

each enclosed in four envelopes,being separate and distinct from

each other. O ne of these envelopes is a portion of the peritoneumor lining of the abdomen

,which descends through an opening in

the abdomen . This opening remain s afterwards,and i t is thus

that in castrating the ram , the inflammation which often takesplace, spreads into the abdomen and destroys the animal

.The

glands are oval in shape , and consist of a grayish pulp .They are

attached to the spermatic cord and artery,and their funct ion is to

secrete the spermatic or impregnating fluid,which is alkal ine

,and

contains minute filaments not larger than ‘

/eooo to ’/ eoooth of an inchin l ength . These fi laments possess the power of independen tmovement for some day s after their exp ulsion from the organs of

188 THE SHE PHERD’

S MANUAL.

the male. A canal or duct called the w e deferens, leads from the

testes to the outward and exposed male organ . In the ram thisorgan has at its extremity a small spiral appendage called theoermg

’

form, (or worm-l ike), appendage . This has a very narroworifice

,and is often on th i s account the seat of obstructions which

are difii cnlt to remove .The testic les of the ram are very large in proport ion to its size

,

and the whole reproductive powers are highly vigorous,enabling

him,when well nourished , to serve efl

'

ec tively a hundred ewes ina season .

OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF THE SHEEP .

In j udging of the symptoms of disease in the sheep,i t is neces

sary to take into account the nature,constitut ion , and habits of

this animal . The diseases of the sheep are numerous and moregenerally fatal than those of other domest ic animals . The digest ive organs of the sheep are largely and powerfully developed

,and

its capacity for the production of blood is very great . Yet itsneeds for th is large supply of blood is not to support its nervoussystem which is feebly developed

,nor i ts muscular exertion

,of

which It is incapable to any great extent,nor its circulation

,which

is only of inferior amount,but the surplus must necessarily go to

t he production . of flesh,fat

,and wool . In the sheep

,therefore,

the production of flesh,fat

,and wool , is the chief of its functions ,

and the greater part of i ts vitality is expended in this way,leaving

but a small amount to sustain the comparatively weak vascularsystem . The sheep is unable to sustain sevege muscular labor ; andslow movement

,except for very l imited periods

,is all that it is

capable of. From the small brain developmen t of the sheep , itsweak nervous and circulating system

, it is, to a great extent free fromdiseases of an inflammato ry character . From the large exerciseof its digestive powers

,it i s to be expec ted that diseases of the di

gestive organs should be frequent and serious, and this we find'

to be the case. From the same c auses that render it comparat ively free from diseases of an i rri tating character, i t w ith morethan usual readiness succumbs to those in which debility and theexhaustive effects of parasites are the chief features . Indeed it isto the attacks of parasites , both external and in ternal , that sheepowe thei r most troublesome and fatal disorders . Infectious orcontagious diseases have greater scope for action amongst sheepthan amongst other domestic animals

,by reason of their gathering

together in large flocks,and thus being more exposed to unwhole

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

190 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

E psom Salts and L inseed O il (always raw) are the most suitableand eflec tive.

The action of stimulants given along with a purgative is always beneficial .

Stimulants, of which G inger, Gen tian , Aniseed , and P eppermint-oil are the most u sual and useful, restore the tone of thestomachs and excite them to action

,thus aiding in the operation of

the purgative,which might otherwise stil l further enfeeble them .

Bleeding, when it is necessary in tne outse t of inflammatory disorders or local excitements, should be performed by Operating onthe veins under the eye (see fig. 76) or the ear ; the inside of thefore arm is a convenient place ; when a large quantity is to betaken

,the j ugular vein of the neck may be opened by firs t cut

ting off some of the wool , pressing the vein w ith the finger, andcutting i t l engthw ise— never crosswise— with a sharp lancet . Neverless than two ounces or a w ine-glassful should be taken , and rarelymore than hal f a pint .In referring to the d iseases h ereinafter treated of, as far aspossible

,the causes to which they may generally be attri buted ,

with the means of prevention,wil l be given . The remedies men

t ioned will be those to be given to a ful l-grown animal , for lambs,one-half or less of the doses should be given

,and for very young

lambs,st ill l ess should be given .

The most prolific causes of d isease are over-feeding,under-feed

ing, irregularity of feed ing , want of water, drinking impure water,impure air, damp , and over-driving. If these were avoided therewould be but l ittle complaint of the frequent troubles

,difficul ties,

an l losses in keeping sheep . While they exist , med icine , at thebest, is bu t a temporary expedient , efl

'

ective only during the timein which extra care is used . When this care is allowed to relapsethe trouble w ill infal l ibly recur .

CAUSES, PREVENTION,AND TREATMENT

,OF DISEASES

COMMON TO SHEEP .

D ISE ASE S OF THE R E SP IRATORY ORGANS .

Ca ta rrh is very common during the fall , winter, and spring. Itwill be found on close observation to be rarely absent in any flock .

In our dry climate, subj ect ,however, to sudden changes of temper

ature , catarrh , or cold , is mostly due to exposure to damp in openyards, or to too high a temperature in sheds or pens, rather than toexposure to the weather in open fields. Flocks that are more care

D ISEASES or THE LUNGS. 191

fully tended and housed than usual , are found to be more subj ectto it than o thers . O f two flocks equally well fed

,bu t one of

which is carefully shut up every night and protected from everydraft of fresh air

,and another whose bed is the snow in an open

,

airy,dry yard

,i t w ill be the first that will be troubled with cough

and discharge from the nose,while the latter will be free from it.

Fresh air,ample ventilation in partly open sheds

,dry yards and

clean,dry bedding

,and protection from ch i ll ing rain-storms in

winter,with whatever protect ion may be needed immedia tely after

shearing, should the weather be cold and rainy, will generally beamply suffi cient to prevent any trouble from this complain t . Chasing by dogs and conszquen t over-hea ting , and over-driving, arecertain causes

,and these should be carefully avoided . The judg

ment of the shepherd should be exercised in exceptional cases,act

ing always under the general rule that dry cold is rarely hurtfulto sheep

,while they sufl

’

cr from wet or damp cold,and that moist

,

warm,steamy

,close atmosphere

,especially when confined in sta

bles,will inevitably produce cold or catarrh

,which if not at once

remedied will generally resul t in serious disorders of the lungs .This disease consists of inflammation of the l ining membrane ofthe throat

,windpipe

,nostril s

,and the sinuses of the head . It

produces an increase of the secretion of mucus and consequent irritat ion and coughing. When long continued , the cough becomesdry and deep seated , show ing that the lungs are involved .

The treatment consists in removal of the causes,good nursing

,ad

m inistering sl ightly warm muc il aginous drinks , as oat-meal grucl orlinseed tea

,along w ith a gentle stimulant

,such as half a teaspoonful

of ground ginger . The antiseptic effect of a small quantity of cleanpine tar rubbed upon the sheep's nose,

some of which the animalw ill l ick otf and swallow

,will be beneficial . If there is fever, and

the nose is dry and hot,the follow ing may be given

,v iz

Epsom Sal ts ounce .

Sal tpeter 1 dram .

Ground Ginger 1 dram.

This should be mixed with molasses and placed on the back part ofthe tongue with a long , narrow bladed wooden knife or spatula .

The animal’s head should be held up until the whole is swallowedin repeated small quan ti ti es . Or the dose may be mixed withthin gruel and administered by means of a small horn .

B ronchit is is simply a deep seated catarrh which affects the bronchial tubes or air passages in the body of the lungs . It i s dangerous , inasmuch as the inflammation readily spreads and affects thelungs . In bronchitis the cough is more severe than in catarrh ,

192 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

the pulse and the respirat ion are both quickened , there is somefever and the appetite fails. The treatment is the same as thatprescribed for catarrh

,but to be continued longer

,changing the

dose to the following, to be administered for three or foul days,

reducing the quantity of sal tpeter gradually one half.

Linseed -oil. 1 ounce .

Saltpe ter . 1 d ram .

Powdered Gentian 1 dram.

Bleeding must not be attempted in this d isease . Quietness is ina

dispensable, and a clean , airy, but solitary , pen should be provided ,and a plen ty of pure

,fresh water supplied .

P neumonia or I nflamma tion of the Lemma—This is a more frequent disease than is general ly suspected . Many sheep exhibitthe peculiar symptoms of pneumonia

,and are too far gone for re

covery before the ir too careless owners are aware that they areaffected . High -bred imported sheep

,the Leicester more partien

larly , are very l iable to th is d isease , which is generally fatal tothem . It consist s of i nflammation of the substance of the lungs,and frequently fol lows n egl ected at tacks of bronchitis

,the inflam

mation easily and quickly passing from the lining membrane ofthe air-passages to the cellular t issue of the lungs. Washing i nstreams of cold spring wat er

,or sudden chills from exposure to cold

showers,quickly succeeding hot weather

,or when heated with

d riving, or after Shearing , or too close penning in warm stables incold weather

,are the usual causes . I t is rarely that this disease

develops fully withou t previously passing through the earl ierstages

,or without some serious mistakein the management of the

sheep ; and i t is only by instan t attent ion and proper treatmentthat its usually rapid and fatal course can be arrested .

The symptoms are a qu ick and labored breath ing with painfulh eaving of the flanks ; a painful cough ; discharge of thick yellowmucus from the nos t rils

,high fever

,and great thirst ; hard , quick

pulse ; constant grinding of the teeth , together with loss of appctite and rumination . O n examination after death , the lungs are

found to be ha1d and gorged w ith blood , and if thrown into watel

they sink to the bottom . The disease usually terminates in deathin from twenty-four to thirty six hours .Treatment i s of no avai l unless commenced immediately . Bleed

ing f1om the j ugular vein,until the animal staggers, 1s the fi l st and

most effective remedy . If found necessary, this should be repea tedin six hours. Tw0 ounces of E psom salts should be given immediately after the bleeding if this does no t cause free purging , oneounce more may be given in three hours. Copious purging is not

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

194 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

is found filled w ith flu id ; the surface of the lungs is highly inflamed

,and covered w ith livid patches

,but the ir substance is not

afl'

ec ted . G enerally no trace of disease is found elsewhere .The treatment consists in copious bleeding as for pneumonia

,

but more blood may be taken with benefit. The following maybe given

Powdered D igitalis 1 sc ruple.Nitrate of Pe tas'hNitrous E ther, (Spirits of Nitre ) .2 drams .

to be admin istered in l inseed-meal or oat-meal gruel twice a dayfor four or five days . When recovery begins

,the following tonic may be substituted

Sulphate of Iron dram.

Infusion of Quassia or p int .Ground Ginger dram.

If the animal i s valuable , it may sometimesbe saved after the efl

‘

usion of serum in thechest has occurred to a considerable extent

,

by tapping the cavity w ith a trochar andcanula

, (fig. and drawing cd‘ the flu id .

When this effusion has taken place , i t maybe discovered by tapping the sides of theches t, when a dul l dead sound oniy is heard ;also by a gurgling sound during expiration

,

which is painful and diffi cult . The trocharis inserted cautiously between the eighth andninth ribs

,and the canula left in the open ing

through which the fluid flows . Generous feeding and great care are needed after tapping .

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

Choking—Sheep are not often troubled

with obstructions of the gull e t,except when

fed upon cut or sl iced tu rnips, or permittedto consume the shells of turnips which havebeen scooped out by them in the field . Whena sheep is thus choked

,the head is held

down,sal iva flows from the mouth , breath

Fig. 74 ._ TROCHAR ing is diffi cul t , and the stomach becomes dis

AND CANULA tended with gas, or air swallowed in the efforts to d islodge the obstruct ion . When this occurs , the sheep

’shead should be raised and held firmly be tween one man’s legs ,

C OSTIVENESS. 195

while another pours a teaspoonfu l of l inseed oil or melted larddown the throat and endeavors by gently manipulat ing the gulletto work the obstruction downwards. If this is ineffectual

,a pro

bang should be used . This is a flexible thin rod,as the wash rod 05,

a rifle,or a piece of light rattan or other tough elast ic material

.A

soft ball of tow, or of strips of l inen cloth is securely fastened to theend of the rod . This is well soaked with sweet o il or lard

,and

gently inserted in to the gullet until i t meets the obstruct ion , whenit is to be forced downwards without v iolence

,a few gentle

,but

smart taps on the upper end w ith a light st ick being generallymore effective than continuous pressure . If the lining of the guilet is inj ured in the operation , and the sheep refuses to eat , gruelor other l iqu id food should be given until the soreness disappears

.

If the obstruction cannot be removed in this way,the sheep had

better be slaughtered . If it is a valuable animal,an effort which

is frequently successful,may be made to save it by cutt ing open

the skin and the gullet upon the obstruct ion,and removing it . The

opening in the gullet is then closed by a stitch made with a su rgeon’s curved needle

,and the wound in the skin closed separately

in the same manner. The sheep should be securely held duringthis Operat ion . Soft food should be given until the wound ishealed . (See Treatment of Wounds).

Oostieeness—Stretches.—This complaint is more frequen tly a

symptom of disease than a disease itself. Yet_it frequently occu rs

when changing the flock from pasture to dry food . The dungthen becomes dry

,hard

,and scanty

,and is discharged irregularly.

The termination of the bowel is red and inflamed,and when void

ing dung, the sheep grunts or moans as with pain . Care in changing the food is a preventive, and a few ounces of l inseed-cake -mealdaily wil l obviate the d iffi culty. Inj ections of warm soap andwater

,or of one ounce of l inseed-oil

,wil l rel ieve the bowels

,and

one ounce of linseed-oil given by the month will generally bringabout a cure.

When the costiveness is of long continuance, from neglect , thesheep may be perceived stretch ing itself, spreading the feet apart ,raising the head

,curving the back , and extending the abd omen .

This may also occur from obstruct ion of the bowels, which , however

,is rare with sheep

,but is most frequently caused by costive

ness. A teaspoonful of Subl imed Sulphur , (Flowers of Sulphur),mixed with a small qu an tity of molasses or lard

,may be placed on

the tongue to be swallowed,once a day

,for a week . A regular

allowance of a mixture of four ounces of Sulphur with one pound

196 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

of sal t,placed where the sheep can have access to it at w ill, is a

sure preven tive of costiveness.

D iarrhea or Secure—A looseness of the bowels, without pain ,fever

,or other complications, frequently occurs when sheep are

turned to pasture in the spring,or turned on to rich succulent

green food,as clever, rape , or turnips . I t is sometimes perceived

when they are exposed to the hot sun in early Spring wi thoutshel ter

.It is not dangerous of itself, bu t as the disease very

qu ickly interfere s w ith the process of nutrition , the blood is soonaffected

,and the more serious blood disorder, dysentery, super

venes. D iarrhea may generally be prevented by careful regula

tion of the food,and avoiding sudden changes, and the regular

supply of sal t . It is quickly subj ect to proper treatment , whichconsists of the administration of astringents and cordial preparations

.The following mixture should always be kept on hand by

the shepherd,ready for instant use :

Prepared Chalk 1 ounce.Catechu .4 drams.

Ginger 2

Opium

to be mixed with half a pint of peppermint water and bot tled foruse. Two large tablespoonfuls of this is given night and morningto a sheep

,and half as much to a lamb

,always previously shaking

the mixture wel l . Cotton-seed-cake-meal is both an excell en t preventive and remedy for this complaint

,and a supply should be

kept for use . Half a pound a day should be given to a sheep .

If any mucus or glutinous substance appears in the dung it isa proof of the existence of irritating matter in the intest ines

,and

a laxative should be given previously to the above . This may be

Linseed-oilPowdered Ginger 1 dram.

. 1 ounce.

dram.

to be given in infusion of l inseed-meal.

Haven, or d istension of the rumen , is not uncommon in sheep.

It consists in the formation of gas in the first stomach,or rumen ,

by which it is so much d istended as to press inj uriously upon thed iaphragm or membrane which encloses the chest . This preventing the con traction of the d iaphragm interferes w ith the respirat ion . It appears as an enlargement of the left side of the abdomen

,

by which the skin is tightly drawn until in apparent danger of

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

198 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

The after treatment should be tonic , and t he foOd should bel ight and not bulky. Branor oat-meal

,scalded and

well salted,and given

w ith 1 dram of gingerwould be u seful . Thereturn to copious greenfood should be gradual ,until th e stomach has re

gained i ts tone .Poisoning. At certain

seasons sheep are temptedto devour inj urious herbsor plants. St . John’swort

,when frequent in

pastures, produces soremouth and irritat ion Of

the intestines,which

quickly disappear whenthe sheep are removed to amore wholesome pasture .The Sheep-Laurel

,Lamb

kill , or narrow -l eaved Kalmia

, (Kalmz’

a angustzfolz'

a),(see fig. is eaten bysheep which have accessto i t at certain seasons,chiefly during the w interand spring , and is O ftenfatal to them . The symptoms Of poison ing are disincl ination to move

,froth

ing at the mouth and nose,lessened pulse , staggering gait, and b lood-shoteyes. Immediate atten tionshould be given , as deathgenerally occurs with intwelve hours . To d ilutethe mass of poisonousfood

,and to expel i t

from the system as soonis the proper treatment . This may be done by

75.—SHE E P-LAUREL.

b

D ISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 199

giving two ounces Of Epsom salts in a pint Of warm water, and re

peatingthe dose Of water without the salts in an hour . Inj ections

of warm soap suds will help to remove the injurious mat ter fromthe bowels. To prevent the danger Of poisoning by carefully removing all inj urious plants from the pastures or fences aroundthem would be the obvious duty of the careful shepherd . Thelarge leaved Laurel , (Kalmz

'

a is also eaten occ as ionally bysheep

.In E ngland , the yew tree , which is common in hedges,

causes the loss Of hundreds Of sheep every year. Sheep should

not be al lowed to feed on pas tures which have been dressed with

gypsum,l ime

,soot

,or any chemical fertil izer until after one or

two copious showers have washed the herbage clean .

I nflammation of the Bow ls —This diseas e, ( the braxy O f the

E nglish shepherds), is not frequently met w ith in this country,except as an adj unct to some compl icated inflammatory blood disease

. I t,however

,sometimes occurs as the resul t O f continued in

d igest ion , or the consequence of feeding upon dry , innutritiouspasture

,combined with bad water in hot weather. The first

symptoms are weeping and redness of the eyes, weakness andstaggering

,loss of appeti te and rumination

,inact ion Of the bowels,

swelling Of the flanks, high fever, and diffi cul t breathing, a puckered up appearance of the mouth and nostrils, which gives a peculiar W O-begone and pained expres sion to the face : a tight skinand rapid emaciation . After death

,the stomach is found fil led

w ith putrid food,and d istended with gas ; the bowels are gangre

nous and in a state of decomposition ; the liver is partly decomposed and fil led with degenerated bile ; the spleen i s gorged withblood

,softened

,enlarged

,and not unfrequently rup tured

,ulcer

ated,and exhibit ing a seriously diseased condition . The latter ap

pearance seems to identify th is complicated and fatal disease w iththe splenic apoplexy or Texan or Spanish fever of cattle . D eathis Often very sudden

,many sheeep left in apparent health at n ight ,

being found dead in the morning at the most,two or three days

is the usual course Of this disease .To prevent it,when circumstances favor its appearance , an abnudant supply O f pure water and a change O f pasture should be provida

ed . Low grounds should be avoided,and every thing done that can

amel iorate the circumstances Of privation in which the flock may

be temporarily placed . It is not epizoOtic , and the removal of thecauses will prevent the spread of the disease. A supply Of salt,mixed with one per cent each of sulphate of iron

,ginger

,and gen

tian , to be given every evening to the sheep on their return frompas ture, will be a useful preventive. The treatment should con

200 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

sist of bleeding from the j ugular vein , at the first appearan ce of thedi sease. B leeding from the vein on the abdomen has also beenpracticed w ith success. Mild aperient s— an ounce of L inseed orCas tor O il or E psom salts— are useful , and should be followed bytwice daily doses of one dram of Sulphite, (not sulphate), of Soda.The food shou ld be liquid and demulcent

,such as oat-meal gruel

,

infusion s of l inseed or solutions of gum arabic . E xcept the animal is a very valuable one, it will be hardly worth while to attempt a cure in a cas e of serious character, as the recovery is slow,and the following debil ity is of itself often fatal, after a costly andprotracted course of treatment.

Cone/rations of Fm'ez

'

gn Bodies in tim Stomach—Sheep are sometimes observed to purposely swallow earth in small quantities . In

pasturing green fodder crops or roots , much earth , and sometimessmall stones, are swallowed . In eating hay , or other dry fodder,foreign matters

,such as nails

,pieces of w ire

,or glas s

,will some

times find their way into the stomachs . All these matters causemuch irri tation

,and sometimes death . The trouble is shown by

a suspension of the appetite,the sheep lag beh ind the rest, stand

for long periods w ithout moving, grind their tee th , poking ou t thenose , and depressing the ears . When the flank is pressed a gruntof pain is h eard

,and there is violent purging. When these symp

t oms are observed,and the sheep are known to have been in

danger of swallowing any of these substances, this cause may besuspected .

The only treatment that can be of u se is to give daily doses ofone ounce of E psom Sal ts and feed scalded bran or corn-meal inthe shape of thick mush in order to remove the foreign matterwi th the food if possible . If th is w ill n ot be taken , oat meal orcorn-meal gruel should be given copiously w ith the horn .

Balls of wool and ea rthy matter are sometimes found after deathin the stomachs . These are gathered by the sheep n ibbling themselves wh en irritated by l ice

,ticks

,or scab . Generallv they exist

w ithout suspicion of their presence un til death occurs, and inmany cases w ithou t known il l effect on the animal . It would besafe to avoid possible danger in th is direction by keeping the flock ,especially the lambs

,free from parasit ical and irritating insects.

Congestion of the Liven—When sheep are h ighly fed upon st imulating food , and have but l ittl e or no exercise , the l iver is apt tobecome gorged with blood . This fullness of blood is termed congestion . I t i s occasioned by disordered digestion

,and when it

exist s to a serious exten t,occasions further complicat ions of this

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

202 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

already explain ed , produces what is known as blood d iseases, ordiseases originat ing in and communicated to various organs bythe blood . These may be classified as follows :

1. D iseases ari sing from an impaired , increased , or arrestedfunction

,or process

,viz : rheumatism , plethora, anmmia , scrofula,

dropsy .

2. D iseases called enzoottc because arising from animal poisons,originating either within the subj ect

,or communicated by the same

poisons originat ing in other animals,viz : influenza, dysentery

red-water,heaving or after pains

,navel-i ll in lambs, black-leg or

quarter-i l l or an thrax fever .

3 . D iseases arising from animal poisons of unknown origin , andwhich are highly contagious

,and freely communicated from one

subj ect to another,hence called mimetic diseases, viz : E pizootic

aph tha,small pox .

Fortunately these diseases so fatal in their operation , and so umcontrollable ln their course , are easily prevented by proper precaution and ordinary hygienic or sanitary measures . Also in the salt ,sulphite of soda

,we have a valuable remedy against those ferments

which are the active agents in the maj ority of blood diseases.Rheuma tism—This disease is attended w ith considerable fever

,

constitut ional disturbance,and the presence of acid matters in th e

blood . It affects the serous membrane,as the coverings of the

j oints, the substance of the tendons and l igamen ts , the envelopingmembranes of the heart , lungs, spinal marrow ,

bones,muscles

,and

the brain . As it has a disposition to change its locality almost instantaneously , and to pass from one j oint to another, or one partto another , (a process known as metastatt

'

s), and affects all theseimportant parts of the body

,the seriousness of the disease is evi

dent . I t consists in a pecul iar inflammation of th e parts affectedwhich causes acute pain when they are called into act ion . Wheni t passes from the acu te to the chronic state

,i t causes serious

changes in the struc ture of the j oints affected . Its symptoms aregeneral uneasiness and st iffness

,a d iminished or capriciou s appe

t ite, and Sometimes, suspended rumination . The dung is hard andscanty , and the urine is high colored and deficient in quantity.

O ne of the j oints is found hot and swollen ; in an hour or twothis is rel ieved , and another is found affected . It generally attacksin spring those animals which have been half starved or exposedto cold or damp during the winter. Rams

,which have been ever

worked the previous season,are often affect ed . Young ewes are

rarely troubled with it . If not remedied by proper treatment,the

D ISE ASES or THE BLOOD . 203

animal suffers from continued fever, general prostration , severepain and emaciation

,and eventually d ies miserably . The treat

ment consists of a moderate purgative at first,such as

Epsom Salts 2 ounc es.Sp irit of N itrous E ther 4 drams.

l dram.

to be followed bySulphate of PotashSulphuric Ac idWater

to be given d is solved in water nigh t and morning. P rotectionfrom cold and damp, and soft , laxat ive food are required . Linseed-meal , either solid or made into gruel , is a useful addition tothe food . As this d isease is apt to become chronic

,the patient

shoul d be fit ted for the butcher as soon as possible . A rheumaticram will beget rheumatic lambs .

Plethora consists in a too rapid product ion of blood,by which

the system is engorged,and important organs become congested

.

It is caused by over-feeding with rich albuminous food,and is

counteracted by a simple purgative, or bleeding from a vein on theface or the j ugular. Its efl

'

ec ts appear in a flushed condition ofthe v isible membranes, labored breathing, staggering and sleepi

ness . It never occu rs except in animals in high condition , such asthose prepared for exhibition , and which in case of over fatigue,or excessively hot and damp weather, suffer greatly, and sometimesfatally

,from engorgement of the vessel s of the lungs or brain

,or

both .

Anaemia or P tnz'

ng—This term ,

“ the bloodless condit ion, in

d icates the nature of the disease.’There is a cond it ion to which

sheep may be brought by the effects of dysen tery , or by parasitesin the lungs or intestines

,which much resembles this disease . But

there is an abnormal state of the blood caused by imperfec t nutrition

,which is in itself a disease

,and not a symptom . When from

continued wet weather the pas ture becomes rank and watery,the

flock appears at first in an excel lent and thrif ty state,but in a.

few days the animals are found lying l istless,with drooping heads

and ears, watery eyes, and the expression of the face miserableand painful . A few days afterwards the skin is t igh tly drawn , thewool becomes of a peculiar bluish cast

,the skin beneath of a

pearly whi te color,the eyes are also of a pearly bloodless appear

ance , and death is busy in the flock . On dry,rich clover pastures

the same effects are sometimes experienced . The d isease neverappears on ste ep, rocky hill sides, where the pasturage is short and

204 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

sweet,nor on those pastures which are scant

,but yet nutrit ious

,

and intermixed with coarse herbage ; nor on lands that are abundautly supplied with lime . It is impossible to know beforehandwhether the pasture will produce this effect o r not

,as it seems

most probable that the geological chara cter of the soil has most todo with it . But when once a farm , a pasture , or a field

,is found

to induce this ailment, sheep keeping may be abandoned uponit,unless the flock can be immediately changed to some other part

of it where it will thrive . A change from a pasture field to a cornfield

,where the picking amongst the hil ls furnished but scanty

feed,has been found to produce an immediate change for the bet

ter. No treatment , other than a change of local ity , can be ind icated

,and if the farm does not supply this

,the flock must be dis‘

posed of or removed . The disease unfortunately is not well understood

,for it is sometimes found very destructive to lambs and

yearlings, which are chiefly affected by it . It is frequentlyconfounded with a parasitical disease hereinafter referred to

,but

a post-mort em ex imination of a subj ect will easily identify it asbeing difl

’

erent from it as shown by the absence of parasites in th estomach

,lungs

,or air-passages . An adequate supply of supple

mentary food woul d of course act as a remedy, but the cost ofthis would defeat its obj ect and render the flock unprofitable .

Scrofnlar Tuberculosis— Th is d isease is almost surely fatal incourse of time

,although at fi rst the sheep subj ect to it may be

brought,by proper treatment

,into condi tion for the butcher. I t

is a question,however

,if the flesh of scrofulous animals can be

safely consumed as food,but yet many such go yearly to the

butchers to be thus disposed of. I t would certainly seem that theuse of such animals as food should be carefully avoided , and thesale of their flesh prevented as inj uriou s to the public heal th , forno tain t is more readily conveyed to the system than scrofula. Itis supposed to consist of a

'

diseased condit ion of the blood , bywh ich the lymph

,or white

,serous

,uncolored portion of it is unfi t

ted to nourish properly the tissues of the body and to be built u pinto organized matter. Lest the accumulation of this imperfectblood should embarras the system ,

it is deposited in various partswhere it is productive of least inconvenience , and the nutrit ion ofthe body goes on , as well as it may, with the remainder of theblood thus separated from the useless and injuriou s portion . But

it i s frequently the case that there is not suffi cient left to supplythe waste of the tissues , and a gradual falling off in condition occurs

.The symptoms of “ consumption ,

” a very significan t term ,

as the chief organs are slowly consumed . then appear. The pulsa

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

Nitrate of Potash 1 d ram.

Sulphate of Soda 1 ounce .Ginger 1 d ram .

If the animal is in low conditi on , the su l phate of soda may b e re.placed by the following

,viz

Linseed -oil .2ounces.

ENzoo'ric DISEASES .

Influenza .—This disease being due to causes which occur over

an ex tended locality,is l iable to affect a large number of animals

at the same time. It is erroneously supposed to be infect ious. Itconsists of inflammation of the nasal and bronchial passages, considerable fever, and great prostration , with general d isturbance ofthe system . There is redness and weeping of the eyes

,running at

the nose, cough , great weakness , loss of appe tite, indigestion , w ithimpac tion

‘

and sometimes hoven , or distension of the rumen . I ti s prevalent after continued cold and damp weather

,and is most

severe where the ground is low and undrained,or in river bottoms

or valleys , where morning and evening mists abound . Whenthese conditions occur

,the flock should be kept on high

, dryground , or in dry, sheltered yards, and carefully protected . Theirfood should be somewhat improved

,l inseed-oil-cake or corn-meal

,

buckwheat , c at s, or rye, being added . A dose of the mixed sal tand sulphur

, (1 quart of sal t w ith 4 oz . of sul phur), Should be given ,and any ailing sheep should be wel l nursed and treated to warmgruel . These precau tions will generally prevent a seriou s attack .

The treatment,when the disease becomes severe

, is to give alight dose of some sal ine purgative , such as

Epsom Salts ounce .G inger .

in a quarter of a pint of water,or mixed wi th molasses or honey.

For a large flock the medi cine may be mixed in bulk in properproport ions

,and a quarter of a p int given to each sheep by means

of a horn . Those more seriously affected should receive the following

,viz

T incture of AconiteSolution of Acetate of Ammonia

T o be given every four to six hours,decreasing the aconite at each

dose until five drops only are given , when it may be suspended ,and only repeated in an emergencyIf th e ey es are much inflamed, they should be washed with a

ENzoerIe D ISEASES. 207

solu tion of one grain of sulphate of zinc, and 20 drops of lauda

num,i n one ounce of water. After recovery, the feed should be

laxative and nutritious ; bran mashes , and boiled oats , or cornmeal mush , with a li ttle powdered ginger or gentian , and a pinchof powdered blue vitriol

, (sulphate of copper) , in each mess , wouldbe useful . If not read ily taken - in t he food

,this tonic may be

given for a few days in honey or molasses . Shelter is absolu telynecessary during treatment and recovery .

Dysentery may be distinguished from diarrhea by its more severe symptoms

,there being much fever ; the dung is mixed with

blood and mucus,has a fet id smell

,is discharged frequently

,and

is general ly in hard lumps and scanty ; i t is also voided with pain ,and the sheep arches its back and means in its passages. Thewool feels harsh , and after a short time may be pulled off in handfuls . Sudden changes of pasture, from poor to rich , or from richto poor ; dry , indigestible food ; scanty or impure water ; severelyhot and damp weather such as produces rust in grain

,and neglect

ed diarrhea,are the chief causes . Where large flocks are kept on

extensive ranges,the best course is to remove to some o ther pas

ture,where the water is good

,the ground high and dry

,and other

favorable conditions abound . The trea tment proper for this disease is to give a laxative in the fi rst instance

,as follows :

Linseed-oil 2 ounces.Powdered Opium 2grains.

to be given in l inseed tea or oat-meal gruel . The lin seed or oatmeal should be cont inued several times during the next twentyfour hours

,both as nutriment and for its sooth ing qualities . The

next day,and for several days

,the opium should be repea ted w ith

one dram of ginger. An occasional dose of linseed-oil may begiven if thought necessary . I t can do no harm

,in any event

,if

given every other day. The effect of a hot sun , in an unshadedpasture

,is very aggravating to this d isease . Sheep suffering from

i t should be kept,if possible , in a cool shed , and separated from

the rest of the flock . A pasture that has been occupied by suchsheep will certainly infect others that may feed upon i t duringwarm weather

,the dung conveying the poison to the herbage. l

Red-Wa ter .—When sheep are suffered to pasture upon succulen t

green crops , such as rape , mustard , or turn ips, late in the fall orin the early winter

,and the fodder is covered with hoar frost or

sleet,or when they are forced to scrape their food from beneath

the snow,swal lowing a large portion of snow with their food , or

when the stock water is drawn from fil thy ponds or sloughs, they

208 THE SHEPHE RD’S MANUAL.

are subj ect to a pecul iar disorder which often affects the maj ori tyof the flock quite suddenly

,and is known as red-water. ln this

country this disease is rare,being known chiefly in the south-west

and west,along with the last mentioned disease and some other

d isorders originating from exposure and unwholesome food orwater

,under the general name Of murrain . The symptoms Of

this disease agree with those of a so-called unknown and newdisease ” affect ing sheep in the west , which has been describedrecently by correspondents of the Agricultural D epartment atWashington

.The sheep affected appear dull and stupid , and

stagger,carrying the head upon one side, the eyes are staring, and

sometimes blind,and the bowels are obstinately costive . They

die in a few hours . When Opened the belly Of the sheep is foundfi lled w ith a red fluid wrongly supposed to be blood . There isalso general congest ion of the principal organs .As a preventive

,th e use of sal t is recommended , and a table

spoonfu l of pine tar given to each sheep every ten days has beenfound useful . A pound of E psom salts d issolved in water withtwo oz . Of ground ginger, may be given to every ten sheep . Thesimple removal of the causes and a brisk purgative or d iureticwould doubtles s lead to a recovery if given in - time . Wheninflammation occurs from neglect

,the bowels become affect ed

,and

death is rapid . The peculiar nature of the sh eep makes treatmentat this stage almost hopeless

,but if i t is att empted

,that prescribed

for inflammation of the bowels would be proper.After-P a tna in Ewes, or parturient apoplexy, arises in couse

quence of a feverish condition at the t ime of lambing. It occurs abou t the second Or third day

,and its presence is shown by

panting, straining, heaving of the flanks,a staring look

,scanty

and high colored and strong smelling urine,costiveness

,and swell

ing and redness Of the external h inder parts,which finally be

come purple and black . After death the whole system is congested, and the veins fil led with black blood ; the uterus or womb ,

is charged wi th pus,the absorpt ion Of which poison ing the blood;

is the cause of death . This disease is easily prevented by reduC o

ing the condition O f the ewes when it can safely be done . The

safe time is some weeks before lambing,when a gentle purgative

should be given and the food gradual ly reduced . A bran mash

with 15 grains of saltpeter may be given daily for a few days . Avery gradual course of deplet ion only should be adopted . If,after lambing

, trouble is anticipated , the appearance of the eweshould be closely watched . If the pains occur, the followingsedat ive should be given a t once

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

210 THE SHE PHERD’

S MANUAL.

should be an immedi ate purgative. The following may be givenin oat-meal gruel or any o ther thick mucilaginous liquid

Sulphate of Soda .

Flowers of Sulphur 1Powdered Myrrh

'

1 fcififiié.A teaspoonful of spirits of nitrous ether in a p int of water may

begiven in six hours afterwards . If taken at the commencement ofthe symptoms, thi s treatment w ill probably be effective

,but it"

later, the uncertain remedial action of nature alone can be depended on.

EPIzoOrre DISEASES.

Aphtha , or“ foo t and mouth disease

,which has grievously

affected the herds and flocks of Europe,is not unknown in Ameri

ca. Fortunately our dr ier climate,or some other preservative ih

fluence, has very greatly circumscribed the course of th is d isease

It has appeared in various parts of the country,but only sporadi

cally, or in scattered cases, and never ye t has i t swept over anentire district. Nevert heless, no one can be sure that it never willso appear, and as an isolated case requ ires the same treatment asany other, i t is well that the d isease should be described here. Iti s a true blood diseas e , belonging to a class of eruptive fevers arising from a poisoning of the blood

,and is highly contagious under

favoring circumstances. I t affects al ike cattle,sheep

,pigs , hares,

and rabbits. It appears as an eruption of watery blisters upon thel ips and tongue, and between and around the hoofs . The firstsymptoms are a fi t of shivering, succeeded by fever, cough , and anincreas ed pulse. This is succeeded by a fail ing of the appetite,tenderness over the loins

,flow of sal iva from the mouth

,and

grinding of the j aws. Bl i sters , small and large, appear on themouth and tongu e

,which break and become raw , causing great

pain . The feet are swollen and al so covered with bl isters,which

break and become sore,causing the animal to walk with diffi culty

and shake its fee t or kick or l ie down persistently. In from tento fifteen days th e disease runs its course

,in favorable circum

stances,and the animal recovers gradually

,and is never affected

afterwards. O therwise the symptoms increase in severity, thesheep lose condit ion rapidly

,from inabil ity to eat or move about

the b oots are sloughed OE,and sometimes even the bones of the

feet are cast off,l eaving only a stump . In-lamb ewes when

affected , abort . I t i s considered,where this disease is virulent ,

tha t. the cheapest and most effective plan is to stamp i t ou t by the

SHEE P PO ! . 211

slaughter and burial of every infected animal , and the removal ofthose that are well . In the simple form , a single brisk purgative,such as two ounce s of E psom salts , with a small quantity of ginger

,generally results in a cure to repeat the dose is dangerous.

The mouth should be washed in the following solu tion twice a day

Alum in powder 1 ounce.T inc ture of Myrrh ~ 1 fluid ounce.Water .

. 1 quart .

The feet,it affected , should be washed with soap and water, or

with a weak solu tion of sulphate of copper, then dressed with car

bolic ointment ; and afterwards bound up in a cloth so as to keepsand or dirt from irritating the sensit ive surfaces . Sulphur shouldbe burned in the sheds as a disinfectant and purifier , and the drinking water should be acidulated with one dram of aromatic sulo

phuric acid to a gallon of water. All sick animals should beisolated .

Sheep Pox, or variola, is a formidable and fatal d isease, which i svery frequent in the central and eastern parts of Europe , and hasrecently been introduced into E ngland by means of importationsof infected sheep . Although unkn own in it s severe type in th iscountry

,yet we have no security against i ts introduction at any

day. It is recorded in a German publicat ion that on one occasionevery sheep in a whole district was swept off by this d isorder, thesheep dying without any apparent reason

,as though they had

been poisoned . The only known preven tive is artificial inoculation by means of lymph taken from one of the mildest cases .These communicated cases are exceedingly mild . The practice ofhousing sheep is very productive of th is disease

,and it is when

sheep are kept in small flocks and well supplied w ith fresh air'

andgeneral good care that the disease makes no headway . Wheneverour flocks shall be overcrowded

,and poorly cared for

,this disease

may be apprehended . Sheep-pox is not identical with the humansmall-pox , but i s yet of the same type, produced by the samecauses, has very similar characterist ics, and is equally contagious.I t cannot , l ike that of the cow ,

be communicated to mankind,nor

to other animals than sheep,even by inoculation

,and belongs ex

elusively to them . It is a true blood poison,caused originally by

the absorption of impure matter into the blood , probably throughthe lungs, and the course of the diseas e i s an effort of nature tothrow off the poison by th e eruptions which appear on the skin .

There is a period of incubation of the disease,which lasts nine

to eleven days after infection,and during which no symptoms

whatever appear. After th is the sheep sicken,refuse food , and

212 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

suffer from quickened breathing, a hot , dry skin , an unquenchablethirst

,redness of the eyes

,and a discharge from the nostrils.

At this period the eruption occurs on the body j ust as in the human smal l-pox . The bare skin under the arm-pits shows the firstindicat ions of the eruption . P ustules or pimples surrounded witha red ring, (the areola) , appear, and ,

gradually after three clays,

come to a head , and take on a white appearance . It is a t thiss tage of the disease that the matter is collected and preserved forthe purposes of inoculation . The symptoms decrease at this s tageand the sheep improve . The pustules dry up and form scales orscabs which fall off and leave in their places “ pits ” or marks .But i t may be that these pimples run together or become conflu

ent ” and ulcerate . If this happens,the sheep almost invariably

die. O therwise the recovery is rap id .

Treatment by medicine is entirely unavail ing. Good nursingof the patients

,and the use of sustain ing stimulants w ith laxative

and demulcent food includes al l that can be done . Linseed-meal,

rice meal,and oat-meal

,made into drinks

,and given wai m

,with a

small quantity of sugar,or molasses and ginger

,will be suffi cient

in the shape of food . P ure soft water made sl ightly warm ,and

acidulated w ith a few drops of aromatic sulphuric acid , should begiven for drink .

Hopeless cases should be ended at once . If at the last stage thesymptoms become worse

,and the pimples , instead of becoming

brown and drying up,ulcerate . and run

"

together in chains , theanimal should be kil led and buried in a deep pit with plenty ofl ime thrown on the carcass . E very portion of the dead animalw ill convey infect ion

,and in no case should the wool be taken

from it,unless it be at once tub-washed in boiling hot soap-suds.

O n the appearance of the d isease in a neighborhood , the unaffec ted sheep should be inoculated . A quantity of the matter fromthe white pimples is kept in bot tl e s and diluted with water to theconsistency of cream . A needle mounted in a wooden h andlea shoem’aker’s curved awl w il l answer the purpose excell ent lyis d ipped into the fluid and is thrust beneath the skin of the fleshypart of the tail . This rarely fails to communicate the d iseasewhich is so slight as seldom to interfere w ith the feed ing of theflock . In a paper publ ished in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng land , Vol . ! ! V,

P art 2, 1864 , written by agentleman who had had charge of flocks of Merinos varying froma few thousand up to twenty-five thousand , in Russia , and whoalw ays practiced inoculation

,the au thor states that al though the

sheep under his charge were constantly exposed to contagion

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

214 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

ness . The remedy is to bleed copiously from the neck and togive th e follow ing to a large animM.

Linseed-oil 2 ounces .Laudanum . 2drams.

For smaller animals the dose should be reduced prOport ionately.

If there is no improvement the second day, the bleeding should berepeated from the other side of the neck

,and one ounce of l inseed

oil be given daily until rel ief is procured . D iuretics and salinepurgatives should be avoided . After improvement the food shouldbe light

,and infusions of linseed-meal or of gum arabic, would be

useful .

Sediment in the Urinary Canat.—Highly fed sheep , or thosefed on dry pastures

,which are deficient in water, or those care

lessly denied a ful l supply of water 111 winter, when they are fedgrain in less or greater quantities— rams and wethers especiallyare those which are subject to this disorder. Females , from thelarge capaci ty of the canal , are never, or very rarely, affected . But

in mal e animals the peculiar appendage,called the vermiform

,or

worm-l ike appendage,through which the canal finds its exit

,be

ing very small,an easy obstruction is offered to the passage and

discharge of any sandy or muddy deposi t of the urine . Smallstony concret ion s are often discovered attached to the wool orhairs around the ven t on the belly of the sheep. When these arenoticed , extra care should be exercised to give abundant water bywhich the deposi t may be dissolved and carried away. When thed eposits have been arres ted in th is narrow passage

,the urine is

seen to pass drop by drop and the an imal exhibits great pain anduneasiness . All the symptoms of retention of uri ne then appear.The treatment is to place the animal on his rump and draw the

penis out of the sheath . It wil l be found inflamed and tender.I t should be fomented with warm water

,and the urethra or canal

below it gently pressed w ith th e fingers to force ou t the urine andwith

'

it the sediment. If this . is succes ul even in part,some

sweet-oil should be applied to the parts,and a rather large dose

of linseed-oil be admin istered along with an antispasmodic to acton the neek of the bladder

,viz :

Linseed -oil 3 orn ces .

Extrac t of Belladonna 10 grains.On the fol lowing day the urethra should be again examined

,and

the manipulation be again repeated . O ne dram of Carbonate ofP otash Should then be given

,dissolved in water

,three times

a day. If fever is presen t,the belladonna may be repeated

,

but only in case of urgency . No saline purgatives are to be

DISEASES or THE URINAR Y ORGANS. 215

given in affections of the bladder. If the sediment cannot be passed,i t will be necessary to remove it by an operat ion . A lengthwise inc ision is made , with a small sharp knife blade , at the j unction ofthe vermiform appendage with the urethra, on the lower surface,and the stones or gravel are removed by pressure . It may be discovered in this manner , that the obstructions exist all along theurethra

,in wh ich case there is no hope of recovery

,and the ani

mal may be slaughtered . In case of wethers the vermiformappendage of the penis may be cut off at once . In rams i t may besaved if possible , al though it is not absolutely necessary for successinl stock getting. It may be well

,however

,to be on the safe

side, and save the part ou t of respect to the generally accepted bel ief that it is needful. It is known

,however

,that many rams

which had lost the part by this operation,did not lose their useful

ness in consequence .

Ca lculi, or stone in the bladder. For th is disease there is no

remedy,and if after the fact has been ascertained by the previously

described operation , or in any other way , the animal may be killed .

Clap or Gonorrhea — This disease affects the sheath and penisof the ram The first symptoms are very similar to those of sediment in the ure thra . There is great pain in urinating, and theurine comes by a few drops at a t ime . In course of time a whiteacrid discharge escapes

,and this, in case of neglect causes ulceration ,

which may destroy the organ . Rams thus afl‘

ected should not beused

,as the disease is contagious

,and the symptoms are aggrava

ted.The cau ses are excessive work and want of cleanliness . The

treatment consists of turning the animal on its back , withdrawingthe penis gently

,holding it w ith a soft l inen cloth wetted with the

lotion mentioned below,un til al l the diseased parts are seen .

The organ is then bathed and washed thoroughly with the following lotion

,viz

Spirits of Camphor 4 ounces.Sugar of Lead 1 ounce .

Sulph ate of Zinc 2 ounces .Water 1 quart .

Mix and bottle for use. If any of the ewes have become diseasedby contact with a diseased ram

,a soft linen cloth may be wrapped

around the finger,dipped in the solu tion

,and inserted in the parts

until they are thoroughly washed . Or a portion may be inj ectedwith a syringe. A daily dressing should be given un ti l a curecommences, afterwards twice a week will be sufli cient . One ounceof linseed oil should be given every other day until th e minepasses freely. The food should be laxative

,and nothing stimulat

216 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

ing should be given until a cu re is effected . Copious demulcentdrinks should be given , such as infusions of l inseed

,oat-meal

,or

gum arabic.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN.

Wa ter on the Bra in, (Hydroeephalus

‘

.—This is a constitu tional

fault which is presen t in the ewe , or the ram ,used in breeding

.It

exists in the lamb at birth , and the head i s generally so unnaturally enlarged that i t is kil led as not worth raising

,or i t d ies before

it has arrived at maturity. If there are many cases in a flock,the

ram should be changed : if the ewes are at fault,they should be

disposed of by feeding for the butcher. There is no cure,and an

animal so deformed is a d isagreeable obj ect at the best,and it

should be destroyed at birth .

Apoplexy—Staggers.

—Some of the high-bred sheep,the Leices

ters more especially, as well as some native sheep that have beenpoorly kept and fed , are subj ect to occasional attacks of giddinessand blindness, in which they stagger about and run against walls

,

fences, or other obstructions, evidently unable to see . The attackcomes on suddenly, the sheep Stops and stands staggering

,or st il l

moves on its former coursew i th eyes d ilated and prominent , but unconscious o fimpediments . The appearance of the eyes and membranes shows that the vesselsof the head are full of blood

,

and post -mortem examination s have shown the brain tobe high ly congested

,and some

times the vessels ruptured .

Fig' 76°“ THE FAC IAL VE IN P ressure of blood on the brain

is the cause of these symptoms . P lethora from continued h ighfeeding

,or from indigestion or other disturbance of the cond ition

of the digestive organs,produces th is determination of blood to

th e head . Removal of the causes,depletion of high conditioned .

animals,by sal ine purgatives

,or the restoration of the tone of poor

conditioned ones by good food and tonics,tend to a cure . Bleed

ing from the facial vein (a ,fig. is often u seful in extreme cases.

Inflamma tion of the Bra in (P hrenitis) .—The causes which produce apoplexy

,if long continued

,resul t in inflammation of th e

brain,and this produces frenzy. The aflected animals are very

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

218 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

should be given . The body may be swathed in a rag dipped inhot water, to which an ounce of ammonia water has been added.

O n recovery, the food should be general ly improved in character,and a daily dose of one scruple of sulphate of copper may begiven with some meal

,or mixed with molasses and placed on the

tongue . This disease is the most frequent one of the kind fromwhich our flocks sufl

‘

er.

Ep ilep sy is a very similar disease to the preceding. I t occurschiefly in young or poor Sheep which are turned out to feed earlyin the morning when the herbage is covered with boar-frost orSnow . The rumen being chilled , causes the blood to determine tothe brain

,and the animal becomes convulsed . N0 treatmen t can

avail anything,but preven tion is everything.

Lockj aw,which is a violent excitement of the nervous system

,

sometimes occurs in consequence of exposure to wet and cold,and

sometimes in consequence of inj ury to the nerves through the violen t twisting of the spermatic cord and vessels in the Operation ofcastration . The j aws are closed , but can be moved laterally , andthere is grinding of the teeth ; the head is ben t round , the neck

twisted , and one or more of the l imbs are rigid . In this conditionthe Sheep may remain a day and then die , or if it remain longer itmay recover. A warm bath

,if the Sheep is not too large , i s u se

ful; and the animal should be kept warm and in a quiet place . Adose of two ounces of E psom salts should be given ,

followed byt o drams of laudanum after two hours. Warm gruel, with aquarter of an ounce of ginger

,should be given two or three times

a day . Quiet and warmth are indispensable to a cure .

P alsy—This disease consists in a total suspension of action in

the nervous system,generally in consequence of exposure to se

vere cold and wet . Lambs that are thoroughly chilled by coldrain and winds

,or newly shorn sheep similarly exposed

,are the '

most frequent subj ects . Ewes having b een exhausted by protracted labor

,or by abortion ; or newly dropped winter lambs, that

have been neglected,also suffer from it . Heavy feed ing on man

gels or watery roots has been known to produce it , and i t hasbeen stated recen tly that roots grown upon land that has beenheavily dressed with superphosphate of l ime

,have produced th is

complain t in several E nglish flocks . It is very quest ionable if the '

phosphate has any direct agency in producing i t. The Sheep suffering from it l ie totally helpless, the whole body being incapableof movement

,the respirat ion is almost stopped

,and the eye is

d ead looking and lifeless,the eyel ids quivering occasionally.

PARASITIC AL DISEASES. 219

The treatment consists in the applicat ion of warmth, and astimulant such as mustard or ammonia and sweet-oil rubbed onthe brisket and th e spine. The follow ing dose may be given twicea day

,viz

Spirits of Nitrous E ther 2drams.Powdered G inger “ . 1

Gentian . . . 1

Warm d rinks should be given at Short intervals. If the animal ispurged , the chalk mixture prescribed for diarrhea Should be given .

If the palsy is not relieved by this treatment,the follow ing may

be givenTinc ture of Nux Vomica 4 drops .

Strychnine

diffused in a quarter of a pint of linseed gruel,and the dose slightly

increased,afterwards repeated . In the case of a valuable animal ,

this potent medicine should be given with great care,or only by a

veterinary surgeon .

PARASITICAL DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES.

Parasites which infest animals are divided into two classes,in

ternal parasites called entozoa,and externa l ones which are called

epizoa . Since the natural hi story of microsc0pic animals andthose which undergo changes only to be discovered by the use ofthe microscope

,has become better known

,much in regard to some

pecul iar diseases of animals,is now understood . Formerly it was

believed that Spontaneous generat on of minute animalculae couldoccur

,and that parasites were bred ” by d iseased matter. What

was then supposed to be the consequence of certain diseased conditions is now known to be the cause of th em ,

and the whole subj ec tof parasitical disease is in course of satisfactory explanation . But

as yet there is much to learn,and the investigation of the subj ect

i s surrounded with difficul ties . The most important of all the internal parasites which injuriously afl

'

ec t the sheep is undoubtedlythat known as

The Liner Fluke, the distoma hepa tieum of Rudolphi, or the

fasciola hepa tica of L innaeus, wh ich inhabits the gall bladder andducts, and penetrates the substance of the l iver. Its presencein this organ produces disorder of i ts functions and a diseased condition of the animal known as

The Rot, or the Liver Rot—This d isease has been the mostdreaded hy t he she pherd for centuries past . It has carried off

220 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

mil l ions of sheep in a Single year, in Austral ia and South America,and i s very prevalent in E urope . In 1880 two mill ion Sheep d iedin England of this d isease. It exi sts in America both in importedsheep and the native flocks

,and thousand s die every year of it

without their owners having knowledge of the cause . The symptoms of the disease are , however, very marked and signiLcant . In

the healthy sheep the conj unct iva

,or the membrane which

covers the eyeball in front , andl ines the eyel id , i s brill ian tlyred ; so much so, that those nuused to observe these thingsclosely

,would suppose the eye

to be highly inflamed . W henaffected w ith the rot, the con

j unct iva i s pale and eyeballFig. 77.

— SHE E P AFFE C TED W ITH yellowish . When this Sign apBOT ’ pears

,and the Sheep is found to

be ailing,i t is certainly infested w i th flukes . There are other

symptoms which indicate less certainly thi s disease, because theyare found present in other ailments al so

,but thi s symptom is pe

cullar to th is parasite . As thed isease progresses, dropsy isalways present

,and a wa

tery tumor or bag appearsbeneath the lower j aw . Theskin is pale and bloodless

,

and the wool is dry,harsh

,

ragged,and readily parts

from the skin . The skin isd rawn tightly

,and the splne

is arched and prominent,as

seen in figu re 77. The appetite is irregular

,and de

praved , and the thirs t excessive . These symptoms increase untilthe Sheep dies completely emaciated .

The fluke is a member of a family of sucking worms (similar tothe leeches) , known as distomae. It i s a flat

,oval shaped animal

more thickly conical in front,and has a sucker or mouth . Where

th e thicker part j oins th e flatter hinder part,there is a second

sucker upon the underside . In figure 78 are shown the full grownflukes as taken from the gall ducts of a sheep , and in figure 79 arerepresented immature dukes from the same animal. The fluke is

Fig. 78.—MA'rURE FLUKE S.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

222 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

black patches ; the abdomen enlarges from the accumulated fluid;

the animal is very weak,and lies w ith its head thrust out

,soli tary

and separate from its fellows until it d ies . On opening the sheep,

the whole carcass is l iterally rotten . Yellow serum follows theknife everywhere , the abdomen being fil led w ith it . The l iver i sfound full of hard spots and ulcers, and the ducts filled with flukes.

The treatmen t consists wholly in prevention or in atten tion atthe first stages. When the rot has become developed

,no medi

cine avails anything. It is whol ly and surely prevented by keep

ing the sheep on dry pastures and away from stagnan t water.The

fluk e there can find no development . Low pastu1es should bedrained , ponds fenced ofl

‘

, and well water used for drinking purposes . Hay from low grounds may even communicate this d isease. When these preventive measures cannot be wholly carriedout , the sheep should be abundantly suppl ied w ith salt , and onthe fir st appearance of suspic ious symptoms

,the following mixture

should be administered,viz

SaltpeterPowdered Ginger

garbonate of Iron (colcothar of vitriol)alt 1 pound .

Boiling water 3 quarts.

The above to be mixed , and when nearly cool , 9 ounces of spiritsof turpen tine are to be added . The whole is bottled in quart bottles for use

,and when administered Should be wel l shaken to mix

the ingredients thoroughly.

Infected sheep should be kept from food all n igh t, and on thefollowing morning, before feeding , each Should receive two ounces

(a wine-glass full) of the mixture by means of a horn . N0 food

Should be given for three hours . The medicine is repeated everyfourth day f i r two weeks .Sheep may l ive and thrive , and yet carry flukes. How manythey can tolerate without seriou s inj ury , is a question that willprobably never be satisfactorily answet ed . I t i s proper that thesh epherd should be always on his guard against them , for th ereason that th is animal i s now known to he native in this countryas well as in almost the whole world . D eer, antel opes, and hareshave been found infested by them . A careful and trustworthynatu ralist

,Mr . Joseph Batty, a member of P rof. Hayden

’

s explor

ing expedi tions , has discovered over a hundred flukes in the l iverof one hare in Minnesota . A fluke

,of which figure 82 is a draw

ing from nature,reduced one-half, was taken by Mr. Batty from

the l iver of a deer in the winter of 1874-5 . The l iver in question

THE LUNG THREAD-WORM. 223

was filled with them,and a number of them are now preserved

in the museum of the Smithsonian Institu te at Washington . Theauthor found them (along with numerous specimens of strongylus

fila ria in the lungs), in the flock of Southdowns belonging to Royal Phelps, E sq .

, ofBabylon , L . I.

,and also in his own Cotswold,

Le icester, and native Sheep , which had beenallowed to pasture occasionally along the banksof a stream

,and [ u d rink for a whole summer

at a running Spring in which many watercressesand other aquatic plants grew . In these casesthe medicine above prescribed brought abou tan entire cure.As the course of the disease is rapidly ex

haustive, Sheep that are affected should be wellfed with nutritious and easily d igested food ;a pint per day, for ea ch sheep , of linseed-oilcake-meal m ixed w ith bran, will be of the

greatest service on their recovery, or as soon as the appetite returns.The Lung Strangle

—The lung thread-worm , (atrongylus

fila ria), lives in the wind-pipe , the bronchial tubes , and the tissuesof the sheep’s lungs. It is a white, thread-like worm, from oneinch to three inches in length. Its natural history is supposed tohe as follows. The worms present in the lungs breed and produceeggs

,which contain fully developed young

,wound up in a spiral

form in a thin shell . These embryos soon leave the shel l andmove about in the tubes, causing great irritation and a secretion ofmucus

,upon which they feed and grow . It is not certainly known

as yet if the sh eep in the violent coughing caused by the irritationexpels any of the eggs or young worms, and that they then pass aportion of their existence in the open air

,finding their way into

the lungs of fresh bearers by the trachea in the passage of thefood through the mouth or gullet , 0 1 from the stomach in the ac tof rumination ; or if the worm completes its whole exis tence inthe lungs of i ts bearer . It is most probable that the former supposi tion is the tru e one, as it explains the fact that the worms areoften found in young lambs in such quant ities as to cause suflb cation . Besides, it i s known that flocks which follow other Sheepnpon pastures , or which feed upon fields that have been manuredwith sheeps’ dung, have been a ttacked wi th this disease. An interesting case in point is stated by a P ennsylvania correspondentof the Country Gentleman of March 25th , 1875. Some ram lambswere pastured in a field upon which their dams had been kept the

Fig. 82.

—FLUK E

FROM A D EER .

224 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

previous year,and which had been top-dressed with manure from

the sheep sheds. N ineteen out of forty of the lambs d ied . Thefollowing year twenty-three lambs d ied

,and the post-mortem of the

physician showed the fact that the larynx and t rachea were cov

ered on their inner surface w ith a frothy mucus,generally white

,

but here and there of a yellowish hue,

” also in -l is mucus wereseveral worm-like bodies abou t one-half a line in diameter

,and

from one to two inches ia ength .

” Under the microscope theseproved to be articulates , some of which contained what seemedto be ova . A microscopic examinat ion of th e mucus showed th eseova in various stages of development . The worm-like bodies wereundoubted ly the lung thread-worms under con siderat ion . Forseveral years afterwards the lambs which pastured on the topdressed meadows took the disease and d ied . The symptoms whichindicate the presence of th is worm are a loss of cond it ion , a constant and severe cough

,a d ropsical condition

,as shown by the

watery tumor beneath the throat,and a pining and wasting away.

The skin is pale,and the eyes pearly

,and bloodless. After death

there is no sign of d isease , except the presence of the worms in thelungs and w indpipe , and complete emaciation . The means ofprevention are obvious. P astu res or meadows should not be top ~

dressed with sheeps’ manure unless they are to be plowed andsown to grain crops, and if a pasture i s found to be infected , i tshoul d be plowed up and re-sown . All sheep having the characteristic cough should be fattened and killed .

The treatment proper in th is case is the same as that recommended for the l iver fluke

,and th e mixture mentioned on page

222,should be administered as there stated. Turpentine and sal t

are found to be almost sure remedies for internal parasites of allkinds , and extra feed ing to resist the draft upon the system will beuseful.

Hyda tz’

ds or Bladder -Worms.

—The association of th e dog withthe sheep upon farms

,i s productive of much mischief in addition

to the vast annual slaughter of the lat ter occasioned thereby. Thegreat maj ority of dogs are infested with tape-worms. The eggsof the tape-worms d ischarged in the ( lung of the dog upon field sand pastures are swall owed by the sheep with the herbage , and thelarval state of the worms is developed w ithin their bodies

,either in

the lungs,the abdomen

,or the brain

,causing disease wh ich is

often fatal . The larvae of the tape-worm exist '

in the shape'

ofwatery bladders

,or sacs

,which contain the undeveloped worms.

These peculiar creatures are known as bladder-worms or hydatids.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

226 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

species of budding,and thus rapidly increase and spread through

the bodies of their bearers . The most common of these hydatids isThe B ra in Bladder-worm

,or Ocenurus cerebra lz

’

s.—This produces

the common disease known as tarnside,or giddiness

,in which the

sheep turns its head to the left or right,and walks round and

round in a circl e in the direction in which the head is turned,

until i t falls giddy and exhausted . The presence of th is parasitehas been discovered in the liver of our gray squirrel

,and in rab

bits, as wel l as in numerous sheep in th is country . In the sheepit is generally found in the brain

,although it is not peculiar

to that organ . It is only there,however

,that it produces the

usual disastrous effec ts upon the sheep . Figure 85 represents the

Fig. 85.

—HYDAT ID IN THE BRAIN. Fig. 86 .—BRAe 1

'rH FOUR HYD A

'rms

brain infested w ith bu t one hydatid (a) in figure 86 i t has four ofthem (a , 6, In size they are from that of a pea up to that of ahen’s egg. The hydatid is a bladder filled with a viscid fluid , andcovered on its outside surface w ith marks or oval sl its. Thesesl its are the spots to which flask-shaped appendages are affi xedwithin

,and are th e openings which lead to the interior of these

appendages . On examination w ith a common pocket lens, a portion of the bladder appears as in figure 87. The appendages arethe necks and heads of the immatu re tape-worms, each head having four suckers and a series of hooks which are characteristic ofthe mature creatures

,and by which they afterwards at tach them

HYDATIDS IN THE BRAIN; 227

selves to the coats of the intestines , while they suck the juicestherefrom . These heads increase by a process of budding, andoften amount to dozens, and sometimes hundreds in number. Thepressure exerted by these bladders upon the brain , produces thepeculiar symptoms exhibited , and the act of turning to one side orthe other

,helps to determine the seat of the hydat id in the body

of the brain,which

is found to be onthat side to whichthe sheep turns.The natural h istory of this parasitei s as followsWhen the head ofa sheep

,contain ing

the bladder-wormsof this species , isdevoured by a dog

,the larvae are transformed within him into

tape-worms. This worm (teent'

a emnum s) at maturity , or its eggs,being voided by the dog upon the grass of a pasture

,are swallowed

by the sheep,are hatched in its stomach

,and penetrate all parts

of the body,perishing everywhere except in the brain

,which i s

its usual habitation . There they develop,remaining dormant

,

until chance favors their round again . Old sheep are rarelyaffected by this parasite

,the lambs suffer ch iefly from them . One

infested dog will void thousands of eggs which not only escapewith the dung

,but being attached to the anus

,are carried about

and dropped in'

a multitude of places .To prevent the spread of this parasite

,i t is necessary only to

prevent the heads of affected sheep from being devoured by dogsor hogs

,or to keep dogs from the pastures. The heads of sheep

dying from the disease should therefore be burned , and not thrownou t . The treatmen t of sheep subj ect to the parasi te consists in anoperation by which the skull is pierced and the bladder punctured ,when the water in it escapes and is absorbed

,leaving the worm to

perish . The pressure and irritation upon the skull causes someabsorption of its substance

,and a soft spot is caused over the blad

der . This may be easily fel t by pressure of the finger . A curvedawl may then be inserted through the skull and the bl adder piercedor by means of a tubular saw (or trephine), a round piece of boneis cut out of the skull

,a flap of the skin first being laid back, and

the bone being lifted, the bladder is laid bare and removed . The

skin is relaid and held in place by a stitch or plaster, and the

Fig. 87.— HYDATID S MAGNI FIED .

228 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

wound heals . No other remedy than these is safe or certain,and

these frequently fail . This class of parasites possesses someimportance to the shepherd

,not only from the loss occasioned

amongst his flock , but from the danger of the resul ts to theconsumers of mutton . The farmer’s or shepherd's own dog maybe the means of injury to his flock , and he should take means tofree the dog from the tape-worms by means of proper medicines

,

of which the powdered areca nut is the most effective,as well as

to preven t vagran t dogs from stocking his pastures .The areca nut is administered as follows . P reviously

,one seru

ple of j alap, for a dog of 20 to 30 pounds in weight , should be administered

,and a brisk act ion of the bowels set up . This may

also be procured by g iving the dog a quantity of butter or any ofthe common purga t ives . Immediately afterwards half an ounceof the powder of areca nut is to be given in pills or in some acceptable food . Some l ocks of tangled wool dipped in grease ormelted fat are given at the same time to be swallowed . Theworm is ki lled or paralyzed by the areca nut , is entangled in thewool

,and all together are expelled by the purge. The mass should

be immediately burned or buried at a perfectly safe depth in theground . Applied to every dog at in tervals of three months , thistreatment will free them from tape-worms

,and prevent danger of

the sheep becoming infested w ith them .

Tape-worm

, (item'

s plica ta) , in the intestines . The sheep themselves are sometimes infested with mature tape-worms . Th is iseasily explained by the possibil ity of the sheep swallow ing alongw ith their pas ture some of the eggs which may have b een voidedby any of the numerou s bearers of these worms, both domesticated and wild . I t has been stated that the intest inal tape-worm isvery rare

,if not unknown , in sheep in this country. This would

seem to be erroneous . A correspondent of the National L iveStock Journal of September, 1875; from Missouri , reported hislambs all dying of a strange d isease in which the first symptomwas a fall ing off in condition , followed by a mild diarrhea. Thisoccurred in June

,and contin ued up to August , when 30 out of 60

were dead,and nearly all the remainder were ail ing . On exami

n ation after death,the smal l in testines were fou nd packed full

of tape-worms .” This can hardly be a unique case , and we mayvery well conclude that tape-worm in the intestines is one of thep arasitical diseases that we h ave to combat .Generally the symptoms developed by the presence of tapeworms are veracity of appeti te , al ternating with a refusal of food ;loss of condition , desire to swallow earth , stones , sand , or ashes ;

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

230 THE sHEPHERD’s MANUAL.

and the secre tion of a serous exudation which dr ies upon the surface and forms a scab. This d isease was well known to ancientshepherds

,and an exact descrip tion was given by the poet Virgil

in his Georgics . It is mentioned by the historian Livy , as beingvery virulent in his time . But up to a very recent date the causeof the disease was not correctly known . Youatt

’

s work on thesheep

,published in 1840

,by the E nglish Society for the D iffusion

of Useful Knowledge,

” states i t to be caused by bad keep,starva

t ion,over-driving, dogging , exposure to cold and wet, and o ther

”

causes of a suppression of thepersp ira tion. He mentions the acarias carriers of the d isease, bu t not as the cause. In an attempt toaccount for the origin of the insect

,he makes the follow ing re

marks, which in the light of our present kn owledge are a curiousrelic of the ignorance which existed 40 years ago

,and which has

not yet quite passed away.

“Physiologists are beginning to aoknowledge the working of a mysterious but noble principle— the

springing up of lifeunder new forms

,

when the com

ponent principles of

previous beings aredecaying, or haveseemingly perished .

Thus, if we macerate any vegetablesubsta nce, the fluidwill teem with myriads of l iving beings, called intoexistence by theprocess we are conducting, or ratherby that power ofNature , or that prin

c iple which was bestowed by the author of Nature, that lifeceasing in one form shall spring up in others, and this whil e thecreation lasts . Thus we have probably the hydatid in th e brainof th e sh eep

,and the fluke in its liver ; parasitical beings , which

we recognise in no other form and in no other place . They werethe product of the disease of the part . In like manner the s eam sof scab may be called into existence by th e derangements whichour neglect , or unavoidable accident , or d isease , may have made i nthe skin of the sheep . Scab may be, and is, of spontaneous orio

88.

—E EMALE SCAB INSE C T .

THE SCAB-MITE . 231

gin, as well as the product of contagion and the acarus, havingsprung into l ife w ithin the pores of the skin

,obeys the laws of all

l iving beings as to its after existence and multipl ication .

”

It shows with what cau tion speculations should be indulged in,

and how much safer i t is to say we do not know,

” than to hazard explanations which may be wide of the truth and misleading.

It has long been known that the origin of the existence of all animal life is an egg produced and fecundated by parents

,and the

scab-mite being no exception to this law,comes forth from an egg

and springs into l ife j ust as a chicken does . In both cases the eggis deposited and hatched , and produces the mature an imal . Thefemale scab insect , seen at figure 88 , is larger than the malewhich i s shown at figure 89

,magnified

times. One male suffices for manyfemales, and i s longer l ived than thefemale . The latter d ies after producingher eggs, which she deposits in the poresof the skin , or in the furrows of the scabwhich she has helped to produce. Her

eggs are numerous, and being hatched inthree days

,her progeny increase rapid ly .

One female acarus can produce a mill ionand a half of progeny in 90 days . Thisfacility of increase explains the rapidity Fig. 89.

—MALE SCAR

with which the d isease spreads through aINSE C T ‘

flock,and proves the n ecessity for instant and energetic remedies

or effective preventives .The symptoms first observed are restlessness and uneasiness , and

the observant shepherd wil l have his suspicions aroused and searchfor the cause on the first appearance of these symptoms amongsthis flock . As the d isease progresses, the sheep are found rubbingor scratch ing themselves

,or biting or n ibbling amongst their

'

wool . The attention should then be directed to the parts rubbedor bitten . If scab is present

,the skin will be at first white in

color and of a thicker texture than the rest , and moist or coveredwith a yellow exudation . Later these parts are covered with scaband the wool falls off or becomes loose . If a lock of this wool belaid upon a sheet of white paper

,the mites w ill be seen with the

unaided eye , as they crawl from it . If the disease is neglected ,

the scabby spots enlarge and increase in number,the wool appears

ragged all over, and falls ofl’ in patches . Upon these bare spots

dense brown or yellow scales are seen , and if the sheep can reacha. fence or a post, the scabs t i e rubbed until they bleed and be

232 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

come sores . The condit ion of the sheep falls off rapidly, and itbecomes a wo-begone obj ect, such as is shown in figure 90.

The treatment is by dipping in a l iquid which penetrates andsoftens the sc ab so that i t can be removed , and which poisons theinsect

.There are many preparat ions used for this purpose , some

of wh ich are obj ect ionable on account of the ir poisonous propert ies

,such as mercurial or arsen ical compounds , and which are

no more effective than the fol low ing perfectly safe one . Thisconsists of tobacco and su lphur in the proportions of four ouncesof the first

,and one of the second, to the gal lon of water. ~ The

water is brought to a boil ing heat , and the tobacco , either coarsecheap leaf or stems

,which are equally good , i s steeped, (but not

boiled), in it until the strength is exhausted. The sulphur is then

Fig. 90.—SHEEP AFFE C TED W ITH SOAB .

stirred in the l iquid . When it has become reduced in temperature to 120 degrees , i t is ready for use . The sheep are ent irelyimmersed in the l iquid so that the wool is completely saturated .

Hard crusts of scab are broken up and removed with care , andthe raw surfaces are wel l washed w ith the decoction . The dipped animals should be kept in a yard until the wool no longerdrips

,lest the pasture should be fouled

,and the sheep sickened by

the tobacco j uice . After ten days the dipping is repeated to destroy any newly hatched mites . With care the most badly ihfected local ity may be completely freed from this pest

,and it will

n ever app ear if the sheep are dipped tw ice each year as a preventive. The gain in the growth of wool and in its improved qual ityw ill more than repay the cost of the operation . (See pageThe Sheep Tick (Melophrrgus ooinus), has been already referred

to (page if the process of dipping,j u st de scribed

,is regularly

practiced,th is parasite wi ll be easily vanqu ished

,and its annoying

presence prevented . This insect propagates only by single eggs,or rather the perfect pupa is expel led singly from the female,

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

234 THE SHEPHERD’s MANUAL.

fore feet . The grub,when hatched from the egg

,crawls up the

nostril,and lodges in the sinuses of the head , where it remains

feed ing upon the mucus secreted by the membranes,until the fol

lowing spring. In entering the nostrils and in leaving them ,they

cause much irritation to the sheep. The remedy l ies in preven t ~ing the fly from laying its eggs, and this is done by smearing thenostrils of the sheep w ith tar

,diluted w ith grease or bu tter. This

is both distasteful to the fly and fatal to the egg . By preparing apailfu l of the mixture

,and smearing the noses of the sheep with a

brush,as they pass one by one through a half opened gate

,every

morning during fly t im e (July and August), the sheep w ill bespared much annoyance. When grubs are crawl ing down thenostril early in spring

,they may be quickly dis lodged by blowing

tobacco smoke into the nose through a pipe .

T he Maggot , so called , is a formidable enemy of the sheep . I tis the l arvae of the common flesh fly (Sarcophaga ca/rnaria ), theblue-bottl e fly (mused Cesar) , and the meat fly (mused eomitor ia ),all of which deposit thei r e g gs or l iving larvae upon decay ing animal matter. When sheep are wounded by accident , or are allowedto become fi l thy when troubled with diarrhea

,these eggs or larvae

are deposited in vast numbers ; the ovaries of a single Sarcopha

gus having been found to contain eggs . The maggots soonbecome active

,and spreading from their quarters

,atta ck the skin ,

which they irritate and cause to secrete a serous fluid . In timethe skin is pierced, and the flesh suppurates and wastes away,b eing devoured by the multitude of maggots which crawl upon it .In wet seasons the mischief is greatly increased . To prevent themit is necessary to carefully remove the wool from about the tail so

that filth may not gather ; to watch for any accidental wound ; andin warm wet weather, for any dirty tags of wool upon which theflies may deposit eggs

.In case any maggots are found , there is

no better application than common crude petroleum , or whale-oi l,b oth of which are repulsive and fatal to fly and maggot . A sheepthat is struck with maggots will remain separate from the flock ,and may be lost sight of unless the flock is counted at least oncea day

,and the straggler found . Weaning time , when the ewes

may suffer from caked udder , is an especia lly critical period,and

then extra watchfulness is called for.

DISEASES OF THE FEET .

Sheep are subj ect to many disorders of the feet . The structureof the sheep’s foot is different from that of the horse . I t possess es

C ONTAGIOUS FOOT-BOT. 235

no laminae which connect the outer crust or horn with the sensit ive part s w ithin ,

but the cr ust i s connected with the bone by avascular structure

,by which i t is also secreted . The grow th of

the hoof Of the sheep is not from the coronet downwards , as inthe horse

,but from the whole inner secreting surface. In this l ies

both the weakness of the sheep’s foot,and the rapidity with which

repairs are made,when it is injured or diseased . The wall or

crust surrounds the outside O f the foot,and turns under at the

edge of the sole and toe,and it is impossible to distingush where

the crust ends,and the sole begins

,both being so much alike in

structure . The crust is harder and tougher than the sole, whichis soft and ela stic , like India rubber. As the foot wears down bycontact with the ground , the crust is worn off to a sharp edge uponthe outer margin ; when the wear and growth balance each other,the foot is in perfect condition but when ei ther is greater thanthe other

,the conditions of disease are at once established , and

unless removed by proper treatment,lameness occurs .

Another peculiarity of the sheep’s foot is the interdigital canal ,which commences in a small Opening about one inch abovethe foot

,passes downwards and backwards between the toes

and ends in a pouch which is curved upwards upon itself.The canal is covered with hair

,and is studded with glands which

secrete an O ily fluid . This fluid overflows at the opening,and

moistens the skin between the toes,preventing chafing and sore

ness. The peculiar structure of the foot of the sheep , under unfavorable circumstances

, gives occasion to several serious diseases .Of these the most frequent and important isFoot-rot—This d isease is contagi ous

,and may spread through

the flock,if preventive measures are not taken . It consists Of an

inflammation of the whole hoof,the formation of blisters upon

the heels and between the toes,which break and form d ischarging

surfaces,and in a few days

,ulcers

,which suppurate and excrete

fet id matter. The fore feet are the most usually affected .

‘Whenthis happens the sheep may be Observed to go around feedingpainfully upon their knees . If no attention is given

,the hoof is

lost in course of time,and a wounded stump only is left . It is

caused at first by wet pastures in which the feet become foul,the

horn becomes detached under the sole,and harbors fil th which

softens the sole,and influences the vas cular tissue beneath it.

Neglect completes the conditions under which the di sease oc

curs . The treatment should be immediat e on the appearance ofthe first lameness , for when the u lcerative stage has arrived , thecure is long and diffi cult

,the whole condition of the animal being

236 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

involved . As soon as lameness is perceived , the sheep should beexamined . All raw ,

loose,or diseased horn should be cut away

with a sharp knife ; any excessive growth of horn at the toesshould be removed

,and if any pus or matter is found beneath the

b orn,that should be pared away until i t is all exposed . The feet

should then be washed clean w ith carbolic soap and water twice aweek

,and after each washing a piece of tow or lint d ipped into

the fol lowing mixture should be bound on the foot and betweenthe digi ts

,viz

Oxide of CopperArsenic .

Acetic Acid

Or the foot may be thoroughly smeared with the following ointment , v iz

Finely Powdered Blue Vitriol 1 pound .

Verd igrisLinseed—0 int .P ine Tar 1 quart.

This will dry on the foot and will not be washed Ofl"

by the wetgrass as a solution would be.

The follow ing remedy is in general use amongst French andGerman shepherds

Chloride of Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate)Acetate of Copper ”Sulphate of ZHydro-chloric Ac id (muriatic )Water .

T he diseased parts to be touched daily with a feather dipped inthe above solution . In case the d isease has made considerableprogress, and the sheep are found feverish and generally ail ing,each sick one should rece ive

,according to circumstances , a dose

of one to two ounces of E psom salt s dissol ved in half a pint ofwater.‘ At the expiration of two days the following should begiven

,viz

Nitrate of Potash ounce .Flowers of Sulphur /2

mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue until swallowed.

This may be repeated once a week until the feet are well .When the d isease becomes virulen t

,the foot is swollen

,sinuses

are formed,and ulceration progresses until the whole foot is

deeply involved,and the sheep fails to eat , loses flesh ,

and is in acondition of fever from blood poison ing by the absorbed matter.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

238 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

parts beneath,causes inflammation

,which not being at once rem

edied , increases with the above resul ts . The means of preventionare obvious .

The trea tment consists in removing th e offending matter withgreat care and tenderness by means of the knife or a small probe

,

as a kn itting needle or w ire , cleansing the foot, and wash ing it inastringent and antiseptic solutions

,such as the fol low ing :

Chlorid e of Zinc 1 ounce.W ater

sulphate of copper or sugar of lead may be subst ituted for thechloride of zinc . In very bad cases the treatment for malignan tfoot-rot should be adopted . Removal from wet pastures is necessary to a cure

,and for some time afterwards, or the trouble will

qu ickly recur.

Epizootic ap htha (foot-and-mouth disease), is highly contagious,and w ill rapidly spread through a flock . It affects the feet as wellas the l ips and tongue . The treatment has been already describedin this chapter.

I nflamma tion of the Interd z’

gita l Carna l—This is of frequentoccurrence when sheep are driven upon sandy or dusty roads

,are

pastured on sandy lands,or are permitted to l ie in muddy yards .

O ffending matter en ters the canal and causes inflammation , whichspreads to the interior of the foot

,and results in swelling and great

tenderness . Removal of the irritating matter by means of a smal l

probe or the trimmed end of a feather dipped in O il, and bath ingthe foo t in warm water and vinegar, are generally sufficient to re

move the trouble . When sheep become lame,and the foot is

found hot,with no sign of outward cause

,this may be at once

suspected .

Canker of the foot is a very obstinate d isease . It consists Of ihflammation of the sole of the foot , which gives way to a growthof spongy sprouts instead of the na tural hoof

,and a discharge of

,

white curdy matter which has a most offensive Odor. It is a similar disease to thrush or canker O f the frog in horse s. The mostfrequent causes are folding the sheep in yards or sheds, where thedung is al lowed to col lect in a mass which ferments and b ea ts, andfrom neglected cases of common foot-rot or inflammation of theinterd igital canal .The trea tment consists of the removal of all the separated hoof

at the first and every future dressing,along with any that may

appear sound,but has dead offensive matter beneath it . The foot

should then be washed in a solution of one dram of chloride of

DISEASES INC IDENT To LAMBING . 239

zinc in a pint of water,and a pledget of tow or lint dipped in a

mixture of one par t of common (not fuming) nitric acid withthree parts of water

,should be appl ied to the whole Of the cank

ered surface . This should be repeated frequently , unt il a cure ismade .

LAMBING AND DISEASES CONNECTED WITH IT.

The number of lambs raised in proportion to those that aredropped is far less than it ought to be . P robably ten per cent ofthe lambs annually dropped

,are lost through negligence or want

of simple methods of protection . Many are lost through neglectof the condi tion of the ewes . The lambing season is one that call sfor great pat ience on the part of the shepherd , rather than forgreat skil l . A well discipl ined flock

,well provided with shelter

and quie t retreats for the ewes, will raise a larger proportion oflambs than a neglected one . D ogs about a flock at lambing timeare an unmitigated nuisance, and cause many losses . W hen thelambs begin to drop it is not (lifli cult to discover those ewes thatwill come in

,in twenty-four hours . The parts become red and

swollen,and the udder swell s and fi lls . It is at this period that

the ewes need close watching,both to discover anyth ing that may

go wrong,and to render assistance when it is needed . If the ewes

have been carefully tend ed,there is rarely any difli culty encoun

tered that may not be overcome by simple measu res,yet amongst

the most carefully tended flocks there w ill be some occasionalcases wh ich wil l call for the treatment here in described as ap

plicable to the disorders mentioned .

There is rarely any necessity for manual assi stance to the ewesat lambing t ime . Sometimes in cases of protracted labor it willbe necessary for the shepherd to ascertain if the lamb is in properposition , with the fore feet and head first if it is , the ewe may beleft alone with safetv . If the posi tion is unnatural

,help should

be given by an experienced shepherd . If no aid can be Obtained ,i t is dangerou s for an inexperienced person to assist

,lest he may

be too hasty and rough in h is help . If the lamb is presented insuch a manner that i t canno t be expelled

,it should be gently

forced back again by some person with a small hand,the hand

being smeared with sweet-oil . It should then be gently broughtinto such a position that the feet shall be presented first

,with the

head ly ing upon them ,and not doubled back . If the hind parts

are presented , the feet should be gently brought up after the lamb

240 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

has been pushed back. If the placenta or after-birth has no tcome away in due season

,i t may be gently pulled by the hand ,

when i t w ill be generally expelled in a short t ime . If the ewe isweak, a l it tle warm gruel , sweetened and flavored wi th ginger

,

may be fed with a spoon or given with a horn . It 2'

s thepoor , lean ,

badly kep t ewes which eufi'

er most in lambing those in good condi

tion,or evenfa t, ra rely experience any d tfi cnlty .

P arturz'

ent Feoer rarely attacks our native sheep,but imported

sheep are sometimes subj ect to it . It generally occurs w ithin afew days of lambing. The first symptoms are refusal of food

,

twitch ing of the hind legs and ears, dullness and stupidity ; thehead is carried down , the eyes are half closed , and a dark coloreddischarge flows from the vagina. If the lamb is now dropped i tis dead ,but the ewe , i f kept quiet and well nursed , will generallyrecover in two or three days . But if the lamb is not then expelled ,the symptoms grow worse

,the ewe suffers from fever, and moans

w ith pain , and the discharge is very offensive. The lamb , if expelled at this stage , is in a high state of putrefaction , and the ewefalls into a condition of collapse

,from which she rarely recovers .

If the lamb is not expelled,the ewe dies .

The trea tment should consist of the removal of th e ewe fromthe flock to a qu iet pen

,on the first appearance of sickness. She

should be wel l cared for,and fed w ith warm gruel of l inseed or

oat-meal . As soon as the dark colored discharge occurs, the lambis almost certainly dead

,and beginning to decompose , and i ts re

moval is necessary. The vagina Should be washed w ith warmwater

,and the finger

,smeared w ith the extract of bell adonna,

should be introduced into the passage every three hours until i t issuffi ciently d ilated to al low of the expulsion of the lamb . Twotablespoonfuls of the following medicine should be given twice aday , viz

CalomelExtrac t of HyoscyamusLinseed Tea

At the same time a quarter of a pint of the fol low ing should be

given alternately with the above

E psom SaltsNitrate of PotashCarbonate of SodaWater .

The above mixtures should be shaken up before givi ng them.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

42 THE SHE PHE nn’s MANUAL.

a

'

nursing ewe to l ie in the wet and cold in the pasture or theyards . In the summer time

,when lambs are taken from the ewes

and sen t to ma rket , a ewe may become gargeted , and if neglecte d .

may become a vict im to myriads of maggots which will breed in thefestering udder. Ewes are thus lost o ccasional ly . It is obvious thatpreven tion will be most effective. When garget has occurred

,th e

Treatment is to g ive a purgative an d diuret ic to reduce th e flowof milk and any fever that may exist . Thi s may be the following :

Epsom Salts 2ounces.Nitrate of Potash 2 d rams.G inger

to be given in water, and repeated in twenty -four hours . Theudder should be bathed in warm wate r

,and a solution of carbon

ate of soda be inj ected into the teats by a smal l metal sy ringe , andafterwards milked out . The d isease may result in the permanentinjury of the udder, or the closing of one or both of the teats , inwhich case the ewe shou ld be discarded as a breeder.

Inversion of the Uterus may occur in cases of severe labor,

when the ewe is weak . The womb is turned inside out,and pro

t rudes from the body as a red bladder. From ignorance this issometimes cut ofl

‘

,and the ewe destroyed . The par ts should be

gently washed in warm water and cleansed from all foreign mat

ter. The ewe should then be held so that the b inder parts areraised

,and with a small hand well greased with sweet-oil , or pure

fresh lard,the womb should be returned , gently working it into

its natural position by the thumbs or fingers. The finger nailsshould be closely pared

,les t they may wound the tender parts.

A needle with a strong linen thread or fine catgut,shou ld then be

passed through the skin upon both Sides of the vagina,and tied

so as to form a loop across it which will prevent the uterus fromagain protruding ; 20 to 30 drops of tincture of opium should begiven in some warm gruel

,and the ewe left to rest upon a soft bed

in perfect qu iet w ith her h ind parts raised above the level of herhead

,for several day s .

SPECIAL DISEASES, OPERATIONS, AND ACCIDENTS.

Ophthalmia .

—This is a disease of the eye frequently caused bycold , or by grazing in stubble fields , when the straws of the stubble W i l l occasionally wound the eyes . I t is perceived at once bythe tenderness and redness of the organ

,a flow of tears , and a

discharge of pus from the corner of th e eye. It is readily cured

CASTRATION or RAMS. 243

by washing the eye with a solution of four grains of sulphate ofzinc in an ounce of warm water, and keeping the sheep in a darkstable for a day or two . If the eye is seriously inflamed

,and the

sheep d istressed with pain , give a dose of an ounce of E psom saltsd issolved in water, and twenty drops of laudanum may be addedto the zin c solution above men tioned with good effect.

Castra tion—This necessary operation should be performed asearly as possible, as there is less danger of evil effects following itthan when the lamb is older. The lin ing membrane of the scrotum is a continuation of that of

.

the abdomen,and when inflam

mation follows the operation,it is readily communicated to the

abdomen , and peritonitis or inflammation of the membrane liningthe cavity and enveloping the bowels resuI-ts, and th is is generallyfatal . A lamb a week old may be deprived of the whole scrotumand test icles , by one stroke of a pair of shears , without any dangeror the loss of more than a few drops of blood . But when thelamb has become some months old

,the organ has become fully

developed as to nerves and ve ssels,and a more careful operation

must be performed . An excellent method is for the operator tosit upon a long bench

,with one of the lamb’s hind legs beneath

each of his th ighs,the head and fore legs being held by an assist

ant . Taking the scrotum in the left hand,he presses the testicles

towards the lower end,making the skin tight and smooth . He

then makes a free incision with a sharp knife at the bottom ofthe scrotum beneath each testicle ; the membranes which surround them are cu t through

,the cords and vessels which are at

tached to them,are scraped

,not cut asunder

,and the operation is

completed . To castrate a mature ram ,an incision is made at the

bottom of each compartment of the scrotum , each testicle beingremoved separately

,the cords and vessels being always scraped

asunder. The main point to secure is , to have the wound at thebottom of th e scrotum

,so as to allow the pus , which will form

with in it,to escape. If this pus is retained in the wound , i t

becomes absorbed,inflammation is communicated to the adj acent

parts, and a fatal termination is l ikely to ensue. To preventthis , a small lock of wool i s sometimes left in the wound , bywhich it is kept Open and the danger averted .

D ocking—This operation should be performed on all the lambs

when a week or two old . I t is then but sl ightly painful . Thebest method is to take the lamb between the knees , holding itsrump closely against a block of wood . Then drawing the skin ofthe tail towards the rump, with the fingers of the left hand , a

244 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL

sharp chisel is held by the right hand upon the‘ tail,below the

fingers , and two inches from the rump ; a boy gives the chisel asmart rap with a light mallet , and the tail is severed at one strokew ith a smooth out which leaves the bone in a good condition toheal qu ickly . A pinch of powdered copperas may be placed onthe stump of the tail to stanch any bleeding

,and to keep off fl ies .

Fra ctures of the l imbs sometimes occur through negl ect to letdown bars when sheep are entering or l eaving a fold or field

,or

through other accidents . These are easily repaired by bringing~

the broken ends of the bone together in the proper position,and

binding the limbs in splints of wood . The splints should bewrapped with strips of cloth to prevent them from chafing thel imbs

,and the bandage Should be made secure

,but not so tight as

to in terfere with the circulation . T h e bandage should be worn threeor four weeks

,and if occasionally examined

,there wil l be no need

to shut up the patient from the rest of th e flock . An excellentspl int is made by soaking coarse brown paper in water and wrapping it around the broken l imb and then b inding i t w i th bandagesof muslin . When the paper dries a very fi rm support is given ifsufli cien t is u sed .

Wounds, ei ther punctured , inc ised , or lacerated , may occur froma variety of causes . When a Sheep is wounded

,the first thing to

be done is to wash the wound with a soft cloth or sponge andwarm water. If blood flows freely from an important artery

,and

it cannot be stanched by the u se of brown sugar or powdered cepperas

,the bleed ing end of the artery should be sought

,and twisted

two or three t imes,which w il l u sually stop the flow . A sheep

wil l rarely bleed to death,except from a wound which severs the

arteries or veins of the throat . It may faint from loss of blood,

and the flow may then,or soon afterwards , stop . If the wound

i s a clean cut with smooth edges , i t should be closed,the

wool be ing clip ped around it , and two or more stitches takenthrough the skin at the edges

,by which they may be kept together.

The stitch should be passed through the skin in two places direc tlyopposite

,each other on either Side of th e wound ; the thread

should then be tied t ightly enough to keep the edges in contact ,but no more

,and the ends cut off . O ther Similar st it ches are to

be made,and the wound is dressed upon th e surface by smearing

i t wi th an ointment of tar and powdered blue vitriol. If thewound is punctured and deep

,it should be dressed by inj ecting

w ith a syringe a few drops of compound tincture of benzoin , andinserting in i t

‘ a plug of l int or tow dipped in the same . This wil l

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

246 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

as a liquid discharge of a white color,which is simply the passage

through the bowels of undigested milk . I t is cau sed by a changein the qual ity of the ewe’s milk

,which is not coagulated in the

lamb’s stomach , and remains as an irritative agen t,exciting the

bowels to undue action,by which the milk is discharged soon

after it is swallowed , almost without change . The food of the eweprobably has much to do with th is

,as the trouble is most frequent

when the ewe is fed upon rank,succulent

,watery herbage

,or an

excess of roots. When this cause does not exist,i t arises from a

d isordered condit ion of the lamb’s stomach . When the former .

cause is suspected , the ewe should be treated . The food shouldbe changed to other kinds of a more solid and nutrit ious character. A poorer pasture should be provided

,or hay be given for a

few days , along with some crushed oats and corn ,or mal t

,l inseed

,

cot tons eed-meal , bran , or peas . The lamb should rece ive thefollowing daily

,unti l recovered

,viz

Linseed-oil l teaspoonful .E ssence of Ginger 5 drops.

When the cause exists within the lamb,two teaspoonfuls of the

following astringent mixture may be given n ight and morning,after the before men tioned has operated

,viz

P repared C halkPowdered Catechu

G inger .

Opium .

Peppermint Water.

to be mixed . Shake before admin istering.

Sometimes the d ischarge consists of a pale, greenish l iquid , similar to whey this is the resul t of indigestion , as the food of th elamb taken in excess is coagulated in the stomach

,and accumu

lates sometimes to several pounds in quantity . When this occurs,

in addition to the looseness and color of the dung,the lamb is

dull,walks mood ily behind the ewe with its head drooped , and

the abdomen is hard and swollen . The following should then begiven twice

,viz : Carbonate of Magnesia, half ounce , mixed in

water,to be followed by half an ounce of E psom sal ts in a teacup

ful of water,after which the astringent medicine should be given .

T his course of treatment should be fol lowed in case of the green

scours,

” which may happen after weaning,when the lamb is

turned upon clover pasture . Sometimes the presence of worms inthe stomach and intestines will cause a looseness of the bowels.In such a case the discharge from the bowels w ill be mixed w ith

DISEASES or LAMBS. 247

sl ime or mucus.The treatment should then be as follows : give

to a year-old lamb

Linseed-oilP owd ered OpiumStarch

mixed in boiling water to make a draught . A teacupfu l of ricewater sh ould be given twice a day . The above to be repeated thesecond day . Af ter the irri tat ion of the bowels is removed , give

the fol lowing

Linseed-oil 2 ounces.Sp irits of Turpentine .

4 d rams.

to be repeated weekly for a month if considered necessary.

Constipa tion—When this occu rs

,the dung is scanty and at long

intervals passes in lumps,which are glazed and hard . There is

pain at the times of discharge,which is evinced by the arching

of the back,and pecul iar but express ive actions of the lamb . The

treatment consists in inj ections of warm water, with two or threehalf-ounce doses of l inseed-oil

,given at in tervals of six hours.

The food should consist of oat -meal , or l inseed gruel , sweetenedwith molasses ; i f it will no t be taken in that way , it should begiven by means of a horn .

Spasrnodfo Oelz'

e produces severe pains,occurring in paroxysms.

The lamb falls and struggles, or remains w ith eyes fixed . as if

convulsed . It is generally an accompan iment of constipat ion , andalways of indigestion . The treatment is to give the followingmixtur e

,viz :

T incture of Rhubarb 1 dram.

C arbonate of Soda .

W armWater sweetened with Molasses 2 ounces .

This Should be administered slowly w ith a Spoon . Af ter thespasms are relieved , give half an ounce of linseed-oil .

P a ralysis— This dis ease may occur through a. severe chill or

exposure to cold rains,or as a symptom of chronic indigest ion

from inaction of t he stomach . The lat ter is to be su spected whenthe appetite is depraved

,and sand

,earth

,and coarse matter is

eagerly swallowe d. In the former case,a warm bath

,w ith fric»

t ion upon the spine,with spirits of turpen t ine , or ammonia water,

followed by a few days nursing , may be found useful . In thelatter case

,the symptoms and post-mortem appearance show that

the base of the brain,the Spine

,and the nervou s system proceed

ing to the stomach are affected . The lamb suflers severely as if ingreat pain . It is unable to rise upon its hind legs, and is con

248 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

valsed with spasms ; the teeth are ground together, and the breath ‘

ing is quick and hard , and death generally results . The only defi a

n ite d irect ions that are l ikely to resul t favorably,are to prevent

the disease by watching the condition of the lamb after it isweaned , and to provide such food as shall keep it in a thrivingcondition . P overty of blood being the direct cause

,any t reat

ment that w ill avo id that condition will be helpful . A smallquantity of l inseed-cake-mcal, bran , or ground oats , should begiven daily after weaning

,and until the first win ter is past . Lambs

of rapidly growing breeds cannot endure stin ting in food,the de

mands of their constitution must be suppl ied to its full capacity,or the heal th sufi

‘

ers , and instead of becoming simply poor andstunted

,they become diseased . D isease thus induced cannot be

expected to submit to medicine , and the only natural remedy i sapt to be applied too late to be of service .

Pa le D isease, Husk, Verminous Bronchitis— This disease consists in the presence of worms in the a ir-pas sages of lambs. Theseproduce great irritation and viol ent coughing. The interruptionthus resul ting to the aeration of th e blood in the lungs

,cau ses gen

eral disturbance of the system The appetite fails,the condition

rapidly falls off,and a naemia

,pale d isease

,

” or “ the bloodlesscondit ion

,takes place

,beneath which the lambs rapidly sink .

How the worms,in large numbers , find their way into the air-pas

sages oi so young animals,i s a query wh ich as yet cannot be satis

fac torily solved . They are there,however

,and that fact must be

suffi cient for th e shepherd . These worms are a species of strongylate or thread worm

,closely ak in to the fatal gape-worm (also

a strongylus), which destroys so many young chickens. It i s thesame speci es which inhabits the lungs and bronchial tubes of thesheep . The lamb being less robust , is carried off with greater easeby these attacks

,than the ful l-grown sheep . P reven tion is the

b est remedy . Lambs Should not be allowed to follow sheepupon the same pasture

,nor to pasture upon meadows that have

been top-dressed with manure from the sheep stable or yards. Nomedicin e can reach the lungs

, except through the blood , and bu tfew affec t them in this way . Sulp hur, turpentine , and assafoelida ,are in part exhaled through the lungs

,and these medicines alone

can be depended upon to reach these parasites .

The trea tment recommended,therefore

,is to administer the fol

lowing,viz

Linseed-oilSpiri ts of TurpentineAssafoetida

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

250 THE SHE PHEBD’S MANUAL.

C H A P T E R V I I I .

LOCALITIES IN THE UNITED STATES SUITABLE FOR

SHEEP RAISING .

It will b e readily gathered from a perusal of the preced ing

pages of this work, that there are certain kinds of sheep speciallyadapted for certain local it ies

,which have peculiar characteristics of

cl imate,soil

,moisture

,or surface

,and that some sheep will thrive

where others would rapidly degenerate . Such has been the costlyexperience of many persons who have entered the business ofrearing sheep with more enthusiasm than knowledge ; and the notinfrequent losses they have met w ith have had the effect of d iverting others from a profitable pursuit . I t is

,therefore

,wise to study

the character of the differen t sect ions of the coun try before choosing ei ther a breed of sheep to keep

,or a local ity in which to keep

them .

The territory of the United States is so extensive, and presentssuch a diversity of cl imate , that in considering its adaptabil ity tosheep-raising

,it becomes necessary to subdivide i t into regions

,

and consider each of them with special reference to this industry .

THE EAST .

The States north of Virginia and Tennessee, from the Atlanticocean to the Mississippi river, constitute the most thickly pepulated portion of the country. Here are located all the great citiesand most of the l arge towns. To supply the demands of themarket created by th i s large and growing population

,there is

needed an increased number of lambs and choice varieties of mutton . Some of these markets demand a supply for which price isa secondary consideration if the qual ity is acceptable

.The early

lambs which , at some seasons , retail for $5 the quarter, are read ilypurchased , and it only needs that there should be a supply of thechoicer varieties of mutton to greatly increase the demand . Inthis portion of th e country indicated as the East

,

” there areseveral mill ions of consumers of lambs and superior mutton sheep.

To supply this demand,varieties of sheep fu rn i sh ing a superior

quality of mutton are needed,the yield of wool being a secondary

consideration . To feed these sheep,pastures of pecul iar characters

EASTERN Lowr.AND DISTRIC T . 251

must be furn ished . In the coast lands and river meadows, theelevated ranges and sheltered valleys o f the region now underconsideration

,every variety of pas ture is furnished or may be

provided by proper methods ; and if we do not already possess thebreeds of sheep which are naturally fit ted to occupy these pastures,and yield the highest qualit y of mu t ton

,they may be procured by

importation a t a very moderate cost .The Ea stern region may be subdivided in to three districts ; the al

lnvial coas t land s the valley and bottom lands and themountains .

THE COAST LANDS

include all that port ion subj ect to the influences of salt water andthe sea air. Salt marshes are not detrimental to the heal th ofsheep

,but fresh water marshes, if undrained , are utterly destruc

t ive of them ; and when drained , are only fi tted for the pasturageof one or two breeds which have be en bred and raised for centuries upon such lands. The herbage of salt marshes gives apeculiar flavor to the flesh of sheep fed upon it, which renders themutton very desirable in the markets . Along the Atlan t ic coastare mill ions of acres of pasture lands which could support at leastthree sheep to the acre. From Main e to Virginia

,the Atlan tic

coast i s indented W i th bays and in lets contain ing numerousis lands and promontories that are excellently adapted for sheepfarms. By fencing across their bases

,the promontories may be

rendered safe,and the islands are naturally guarded against the

d epredation of dogs , the greatest pest of the shepherd in th is port ion of the country. From personal observat ion of these coastlands , the author is satisfied that no more heal thful pastures existanywhere , and nowhere is land cheaper or more easily broughtinto profitable condi tion to support flock s of sheep . The higherport ions of these lands very much resemble the downs of E ngl and , and the trave ller who has seen the numerou s Southdownflocks of that country

,pas turing upon the gently swell ing shore

lands,and inhaling the wholesome sea bree zes

,can not

_but be impressed with the favorable opportunities here ofi ered for the sameprofitab l e and pleasing industry .

The Southern port ion of this coast district has a remarkablymild climate

,which is very favorable

,so far as cost i s concerned

,

for the feeding of sheep through the winter. A specially welladapted locality is that comprising the ea stern peninsula of Virginia .

“A private letter to the author,from Mr . C . R . Moore , of

Johnson town ,in this locality

,states that sheep in that cl imate are

unaffected by any disease whatever,and that farms su i table for

252 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

sheep keeping can be purchased for $10 per acre or less. Anotherexcellent locality is found upon the eastern shores of Long Island

.

Here,good lands

,suitable for sheep farms

,may be purchased for

$5 to $10 per acre.The Sheep suitable for these local ities

,are

,the Sou thdown and

its crosses upon ou r common sheep ; the E ngl ish D orset sheep ;the Cotswold and its crosses, and the E nglish Romney Marshsheep . The last two of these varie ties should be chosen for thericher meadow l ands, and the first two for the l ighter uplands.E ither of these breeds is su itable for the production of marketlambs, but the firs t three are to be preferred in the order named .

THE VALLEY AND BOTTOM LANDS.

These lands comprise the whole of those arable lands of the entireregion in question , which are so prol ific under ordinarily goodcultivation of crops of grass , grain , clever, and roots . The richvalli es which have become renowned for their fertili ty

,as the

Mohawk and the Genessee vall ies in New York ; those of theD elaware and Susquehanna in P ennsylvania ; the Shenandoah inVirginia, the Miami in Ohio ; also the uplands of the blue-grassregion of Kentucky, Ohio , Indiana, and Missouri , with the richfields of the prairie States east of the Mississippi

,as wel l as of

the formerly wooded reg ions of Michigan , Wisconsin , Canada,and New E ngland

,— all these offer a favorable field for the produc

tion of sheep valuable for both wool and mutton .

This district,occupied by three-fourths of the whole population

of the United States and Canada , and possessed of a rich soil , iswonderfully d iversified as to surface and agricul tural capaci ty , iswell watered

,and bl essed with a heal thful cl imate . Thousands of

vall i es watered with clear streams and Springs , and separated fromeach other by dry roll ing table-lands, densely populated in comparison wi th the rest of ou r t erri tory , are occupied by the mostindustrious

,intelligent

,and enterprising farmers in the world , and

are covered with their homesteads and cultivated fields . No se ilin the world is more prol ific in fodder and root crops, and nowhere el se can sheep be raised and kept with more profit thanhere . The shepherd who loves to see flocks dotting the landscape,as he passes th rough this immense territory

,is surprised at the

comparatively small number of sheep .

Here and there may be found considerabl e flocks,and in some

few counties only,the production of mutton and wool is of con ‘

siderable importance . The fol low ing table,which shows those

Counties in the States mentioned which possess over sheep

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

254 THE snnpn s nn’

s MANUAL.

beneath the trees , and interspersed amongst the forests, there is anabundant growth of grass . In Western North Carol ina

,E ast

Tennessee, Wes t Virginia, and Southern P ennsylvania , blue grassand other valuable perman ent pasture grasses are indigenous

,and

spring up spontaneously when the timber is deadened,

”by gird

l ing or removing the bark in a ring around the trees . Upon someof the open table-lands

,especial ly in E ast Tennessee and

North Carolina, there are Open grassy tracts,free from timber

,

which furnish the finest pas turage the year round . The hillsidesand the valleys

,when cleared

,bear luxuriant crops of clover and

grass, while the geological character of the soil , which overlies thecarboniferous formations of limestones , sandstones, and shales , isfavorable to the heal th and vigor of flocks . The abundance ofland and the sparsenes s of population in this portion of the regiontend to very low values

,and large tracts may be procur ed for one

dollar an acre and upwards . Further north,the soil is less fertile

,

and the cl imate less genial bu t the sides and summits of the Alle

ghany ranges bear heavy crops of clover and grasses of variousspecies so soon as freed from the rubbish and debris of the timberwhich has been removed by the lumberman . So the rougher landsof New E ngland , culminating in the ridges of the White Moun ~

tains,may be util ized as pastures for those breeds which are fitted

by nature for such exposed situations . The stil l more bleak andl ess productive mountains of Scotland furnish homes for somemillions of sheep

,and it is around the storm-swept granite crags

of the Scottish mountains that flocks of B lack-faced sheep, numbering from one or two thousand

,up to forty thousand each , are

reared and fed .

The various mountain breeds of sheep are exactly fi tted for suchpastures

,and the Scotch Bl ack-faced , the Cheviot , and the Welsh

sheep might be in troduced upon the rougher portions, while ournative sheep

,improved by the lighter-bodied varieties of the

several D own breeds,would be suitabl e to the better pastures

of the sou thern port ions of this district . I t is in these l ocali tiesthat the choicer kinds of mut ton , and the short bu t valuable wools,suitable for the manufacture of flannels and hoisery , would becheaply and profitably produced . The great pest of the shepherdthroughout the mountain region is the dog. Here game beingplentiful

,th e hunter is abroad

,and scours forest and open ground

w ith his hounds . Contrary to common bel ief, the hound and othersporting degs will pursue and destroy sheep with greater ferocitythan the maligned and mal ignant cur. Cruel and costly experience in a portion of this mountain district has proved this to the

THE SOUTHERN STATES. 255

author beyond a doubt . Where these dogs are kept in more thanusual numbers

,no flock is safe at n ight outside of a substantial

enclosure,or in the daytime without an atte ndant . A method of

protection,however, may be made available in traps and fence

guards,such as have been described in a previous chapter

.

THE REGION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES.

Sheep-keeping 1n the Sou thern States has suffered greatly fromcompetition with cotton-G rowmg Heretofore

,the peculiar system

of labor was better calculated for working in gangs in the cotton,

tobacco,sugar-cane

,and rice fields , than for the independent labors

of ord inary farming. On the plantat ion,sheep were ou t of place

,

excepting where grain , grass , and l ive stock were produced , as insome notable cases in Virginia . On the farm

,sheep are an ah

solute necessity to the most economical management,wherever

they can possibly be accommodated .

Now,under the changed system of labor

,the farm is rapidly

taking the place of the plantation and amongst the variedindustries belonging to the farm , the rearing of sheep mustundoubtedly take a foremost place . For the fine-wool sheep thereare few better local ities than are afforded by the Sou thern States.The climate is very similar to that of countries where the Merinohas attained its highest excellence . Northern Africa , and Southernand Central E urope , have been the homes of this sheep for morethan two thousand years , and our Southern States not only offer anequally favorable cl imate

,but possess in their n at ive grasses

,

equally good,if not a better pasturage . They have also immense

tracts of land covered with the grasses which are useless for anyother purpose

,and are consequently to be purchased for very low

prices.The grasses of the Southern States of the greatest value forsheep pasture

,have hitherto been considered th e greatest pest of

the planter. Bermuda-grass ( Cynodon Dactg/lon), Wire-grass(Aristida stricta ), Crab-grass (E leusine I nd ian), and Crowfoot ” or Barnyard-grass (Panicum Cra g-galli), have been re

garded as not on ly worthless , but plantations have been abandonedon account of being overrun with some of these in Spite of efforts }to keep them down by cultivation . Fortunately i t is now knownthat these abandoned fields w ill keep several sheep to the acre theyear round . In addition to this native pasture , a wonderful varietyof fodder crops are easily grown .

In D r. Howard’s “Manual of the Cul tivation of Grasses andFodder P lants '

at the South, are mentioned Lucern , the Field

256 TH E SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

Pea , the Vetch or Tare, O ats , Red and White and other Clovers,Millet

,B lue-grass

,and most of the other cul tivated grasses com

mon elsewhere . These,with such roots as turnips

,beets

,and

mangels,and wi th cabbages and kohl -rabi

,furnish an abundance

of food which may be fed from the ground in rotation the entireyear. P erhaps there is no portion of North America bet ter fi ttedfor profitable fi ne-wool husband ry, than would be the SouthernStates

,under a system

.

of skillful and enlightened agriculture.It would be d ifficult to point out localit ies in these States that}are more specially adapted than others to the raising of sheep.

,

The cl imate everywhere is genial,and if any one State seems to

offer greater facil ities than another for the shepherd , it is Georgia,and this more on account of the great quantit ies of land suitablefor the keeping of sheep

,which can be procured at almost nominal

prices. For the production of the strictly wo ol sh eep , cheap landis very desirable

,if not necessary

,i n competition with the exten

sive ranges of free pasture found upon the great plains ; and thesheep owner therefore will be attracted to those localit ies wherethis need can be suppl ied .

THE REGION OF THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES.

That portion of the United States designated by the above title,

viz .

,that west of the Missouri R iver

,offers an almost unlimited

field for the profitable rearing of sheep. While other local it iesmay raise sheep , this in the greater part must raise them or lieunused and undevel oped , because the climate and the physicalcharacter of that portion , as a general thing, forbid the prosecut ionof agriculture and invite pastoral pursuits . Almost the whole territory west of the 100th meridian to the coast lands of the P acificis a sheep pasture

,which can never be furrowed by the plow ex

cept under a system of irrigation . Natu re could scarcely havecombined more favorable conditions

,to meet the necessities of the

shepherd than are found here. A dry soil,short

,sweet

,nutritious

herbage, pure water, pure air, a long feed ing season , good w interpasturage or abundance of grass for hay , which can be cheaplysaved , are all here— in some cases to be had without money andwithout price

,but anywhere for a very small expendi ture of

capital . Within the past few years , since this part of the countryhas been made acce ssible by the P acific and other railroads

,and

the mining indust ry has opened up markets for produce,and has

brought in abundan t suppli es,some of the lands have been brought

under irrigation and cultivation ; but these comprise but a veryinsign ificant portion of the whole area . P robably not more than

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

258 T HE SHE P HE R D’S MANUAL.

of his land,free from question or incursion of stronger and richer

neighbors,who

,being in great part engaged in herding cattle

,

drive off the sheep from the range under the impression that theydestroy the feed. Several railroads having immense land grantspass through the best parts of this distric t . These roads bri ng inneeded suppl ies and carry wool and sheep to market ; they alsobring the shepherd within reach of the comforts and influences ofciviliz ed l ife

,so that he is not compelled to lead the life of an ou t

cas t,as it were

,or to deny himself the society of his family

.

Towns and villages are w ithin re ach of the pastures in manyplaces, where the sheep farmer may enj oy every convenience ofE astern life .T he method of managi ng a flock in these various locali ties

,

d iffers very l ittle from that on an E astern sheep farm . The principal difl

‘

erence l ies in the fact that the pasture is ready at hand,and

no preparat ion or cult ivation of the soil is needed . To secure theland ; purchase the flock ; select the rams of whatever breed maybe chosen for improving i t ; erect the shelter necessary du ring thew inter months , and provide a certain amount of feed for thew in ter season , when pasture may fail for a t ime , are all that isneeded for the Shepherd to commence business. I t is no t to besupposed that a previous knowledge of the business is unnecessary

.

Those who have carefully read the preceding pages will not formso erroneous an opinion ; but a capable person , desiring to enterthe business in this d istrict, may do so with greater faci l i t ies andfewer risks than elsewhere .

The class of sheep that have so far been found most profi table ih this district

,is the native or the Mexican ewe

,crossed by

Merino or Cotswold rams. T he late Mr. George Gran t,of Victoria

,

Kansas , whose flock numbered ewes, used , in the way of ex

periment , L incoln , Leicester, Cotswold , O xford-D own , and otherrams upon the native ewes

,but the fleeces of the pure long wool

breeds,when shipped to Boston for sale , actually sold for a lower

price than the wool of the native sheep . As might also have beenexpected

,the experiment failed with the heavy-bodied L incoln and

tender Leicester,for reasons poin ted ou t by the au thor in prev ious

pages of this work . The experience of Mr. G rant has proved thecorrectness of the opinion given by the author in regard to thediffi cul ties in keeping these breeds of sheep excep ting under themost favorabl e. circumstances

,and with al l the aid s of the highest

farming,and also that for general use, the Merino crosses wil l be

found greatly the best in every way . This is the almost universalopin ion of those who have had personal experience , and is cous is

TH E W ESTE RN PLA INS. 259

tent with what would be predicated of the exist ing conditions byan expert in sheep cul ture.But l ittle feed is necessary for the w inter season , one ton ofhay for every 50 head being the usual allowance . When thewinter is favorable , only a few days

’ feeding may be needed , andin the sou thern portion of the district , feed is never stored for thew inter

,pastu1 1n 0' being the entire dependence . Still , where the

flock is of improved grades,i t will certainly be profitable to pro

vide no t only hay,but a moderate quan tity of crushed g i ain (oats

and corn) , for the ewes .The profit actually made upon investments in sheep , when properly managed

,are here from 50 to 75 per cen t per annum. When

labor is all hired,the wool will generally pay all expenses , leaving

the increase of the flock,which is rarely less than 75 lambs to every

100 ewes,as clear profi t . A common method

'

is to let out theflock to a capable shepherd for one half the net increase and pro :

duce ; the losses in the original flock being made up from theshare of the shepherd.A personal inspect ion of these magnificent pastures

,and a short

acquaintance with some of those who are already successfully engaged there in sheep raising , can not fail to give a most favorableimpression to the least sanguine seeker of information upon thisinteresting subj ect.A large portion of this favored territory is susceptibl e of thehighes t cult ivation under ordinary farm crops . The variou sgrains

,flax

,sorghum

,roots and fruits of all kinds . yield abundantly.

For those farmers who follow this mixed system of agricultu re,

and yet who would add sheep ~ keeping to the ir other resources,

might adopt the plan of j oin ing their flocks together after shearingtime

,and pu tting the whole under the care of a shepherd who

should drive them to a distanc e and pas ture them upon the unoccupied lands, until the farms were cleared of crops. This migratory system is very frequent amongst farmers in parts of Germany

,

and is found very convenient . The Sheep and lambs are marked,

so as to distinguish those of the d ifferent owners,and the expense

of their care during their absence is borne proport ionately to thenumber of sheep in each flock . In this way the profits of sheepkeeping could be secured with great advantage

,where

,without it

,

not a sheep could be kept . A number of small flocks of fromfifty to a hundred sheep

,gathered together into one large one of

two or three thousand,migh t be kept at almost nominal expense

for half the year,and be returned in time to glean the stubbles

and consume much fodder that now goes entirely to waste, or

260 T HE SHE PHE R D’S MANUAL.

serves as a harbor for countless myriads of insect pests . Theopportunities for such arrangements as this

,now

,and for

many years to come,are very many

,not only through the district

referred to,but in many others far east of this.

THE CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN DISTRICTS.

This divsion comprises the Terri tories of Wyoming,Utah

,

Arizona,New Mexico , and Southern and Westen Colorado . The

surface consists of broad,dry plains

,covered with buffalo grass

“ sage bush (Artemesta), or elevated vallies w i th broad grassymeadows alterna ting with elevated mountain ranges. The climateis dry , and in parts arid , and the sparseness or entire absence ofpopulation renders it far from desirable as a residence

,except to

adventurous people who may be content to sacrifice the comfortsof c ivil ization for a time in the pursu it of wealth . Only the possessor of considerable capital can have any hope of success inpastoral pursu its here . But with suflic ien t means

,and the requisite

experience,sheep-keeping can be made very profitable . The chief

d rawback is the hostil ity of the cattle-men,who complain

,with

some justice,that sheep inj ure the range as a pasture for their

herds,and these

,being the stronger

,drive the sheep and th e shop

herds from the best grazing grounds.

THE PACIFIC DISTRICT .

The P acific D istrict includes the States of Cal ifornia and O regonand Wash ington Territory. The physical features of a large portion of this extensive district are similiar to those of the localitylast described. There are broad plains, covered w ith low brushand bunch grasses , rolling grassy uplands, mountains and elevatedvall ies

,all furnish ing abundant pastu rage. There are

acres in E astern O regon,which is for the greater part covered

with the bunch grasses (prominent among which is Festuca. ecz

brella), and other herbage which are nu tritious and heal thful forsheep . The climate gives a softness and fineness to the fleece

,

which adapts it t o the production of fabrics of excellen t quality ;the blankets made in O regon being probably the best producedanywhere.Washington Territory possesses a Similar cl imate and other char

acteristics,and offers equal advantages to the shepherd

,though i t

lacks a home market,because of the sparseness of the populat ion .

It is in California,however

,that the industry and enterprise of

the Shepherd have been developed to a greater exten t than else

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

262 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

THE NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT .

The vast terri tory of the North-West , comprising the richregion formally included in the G reat D esert , bu t which i s nowoverflowing w ith wheat , and t eeming wi th herds and flocks ;and including the t erri tori es of D akota , Montan a, Wyoming,and Idaho , furnish innumerable locat ion s for profi t able sheeph erding. The complet ion of the railroad which now stre t chesa cross th e great plains , and pene trates the gorges and vall eysof t he moun tains, furn ishes an inlet for the set tlers who 'arec rowding into the country , and an ou tle t for their product s .O f th is region , t he mountain coun try and the broken foot-hillsare the best adapted for sheep . Moreover these rougher landsare not so w ell suit ed for cat tle , and the shepherd is not annoyed by the persecu t ions of the herdsmen , who alw ays man ~

age to drive the sheep off from the graz ing grounds,upon

which they cast an envious eye . But there is room enoughhere for all , and when the plains break into hill s and canyons,and th ese rise into mountain s and gorges , among wh ich are innumerable - grassy tract s, well watered and shel tered , w ithabundant herbage on their flanks, t he sheep are beyond therange of t he cattlemen , and may find locat ions where theymay no t be d isturbed .

The general features of the coun try after le aving t he plain sin all t he thre e t erritori es— Wyoming , Idaho , and Montanamay be described as a succession of moun tain and valley , wi thhigh . dry table-l ands . The mountains are generally t imbered ;t he vall eys consist of arable land , with abundance of grass ,and the t able-l ands are covered with sage bru sh , and a sparsev eget at ion of bu nch grass, upon wh ich , how ever , sheep subsistcomfort ably and thrive . The C l imate i s e xceedingly changea ble , bu t remarkably healthful enti rely free from malaria ofa ll kinds the summer days are hot , and the night s frosty ; andoccasional severe storms blow for two or three hou rs at a t ime ,and carrying sand and gravel w it h great velocity, make thi ngsextremely uncomfort able for the t ime being . The m iners and

prospectors h ave pen et rated all through the count ry , and thei rt rails furnish the only roads . St reams are forded or crossedby ferries at the principal point s , and already there is a l argeimm igrat ion of s tock— mostly cat tle— from E aste rn O regonand W ashington Terri tory into th is region . At one point ,fourteen herds of catt le and seven flocks of sheep were ferriedover t he Snake R iver in to Idaho from O regon in one d ay , while

THE NORTH-WESTERN D I STR I CT . 203

the arr ivals from the E ast are even larger . The immigrationin toMontana is even larger, and from H elen a, which is the gateof the moun tai n regi on as i t were, a const an t st re am of stock orof expectant stock-owners

,looking for locat ion s, passe s the

whole season . The whole country is so vast , th at for manyyears t here wil l be no d an ger of crowding or hustli ng amongt he new comers ; bu t as wool can be easily grow n all throught his region for twelve or thir teen cen ts a pound , and thus givea respectable profi t in addit ion t o t he increase of t he flock , i t i squ ite probabl e t hat the best locat ions near railroad s w ill not belong v acan t .As an ins tance of what has been don e , and some of t he diffi

culties that have to be met , t he follow ing statemen t of th eowner of a ranche in Montana m ay be given . The flock wasbrough t in from E ast ern O regon in 1882, and was d riven acrossthe mountains, oc cupying four months in t he j ou rney. Theewes dG ped their lambs on th e way ,

which,wit h the s toppage

for shearing, requ ired a rest ing spell of several weeks , notw ithstandi ng the j ourney

,t he loss of lambs was t rifli ng , an d the

increase was over seventy per cen t . The principal loss w as byacciden t in crossing the Snake R iver by ferry— the drown in g ofnearly fi fty sheep . The locat ion of the ranche is on t he Missouri R iver above Bozeman . The owner of t he ranche is an ex

perienced sh eepman , or the losses would doubtless have beenfar greater . The st atemen t is as follows1882.

April 23. Cost of sheep , at $2per headHorses , wagon and outfi t

D ec . 31 Expense of j ourney , shearing , carriage andsh ipp ing of wool and provisions, &c .

Cutting 220 tons of hay , at $2Cost of corrals and sheds

Tota l cost

P roceed s of wool sold 79926 wethers sold .

80 pelts .

Dec . 31 . ewes and rams in stocklamb s

Horses, etcHay on handValue of improvements

Total

264 THE SHE PHE RD’S MANUAL.

The fi rst year’s business showed a profi t of over in

spi te of all th e expenses of the fi rst est abli shment of the ranche .The second year’s bu siness showed the follow ing resul t1853 .

Jan . 1 . Value of stockD ec . 31. E xpenses for the year

Total

Dec . 31. P roceeds of woolsheep on hand

O therValue of ranche .

lambs at each

TotalThe past winter has been a very favorable on e

, notw ithstand

ing t he large snow fall and th e ex t reme cold at t imes , and th isexempt ion from loss has been secured by the wise precau t ion of

providi ng comfort able sheds , ample supplies of fodder, ofwhich a large port ion was m ille t and hay out on the bot tomlands , and above all other necessaries, an abundan ce of pu rew ater procured from well s . This is especially needful on ac

coun t of the prevalence of alkali in t h e surface water and thestreams , and th e necessity of exclud ing t h e sheep from the bottom lands . This example i s an instance of c areful and wisem anagemen t . The fol lowing is on e of a con trary charact er .A ranche in sigh t of th e one above referred to w as in Operat ion at th e t ime this was st art ed ; i t w as then in a ve ry poorcond i t ion

,and the owners , who were two young men from New

York City,qu it e inexperienced in sh eep-keeping, and m isled by

the very common st at emen t th at sh eep requ ired no sh el t er orfeeding du ring th e win ter, were abou t to abandon i t and leavewhat few sh eep they had as a gift to any one who w ould taket hem

.The owners brough t two thousand sheep on t o the

ranche in Sept ember , 1881. They w ere informed that t he sh elt er of some t imber n ear by would be su ffi cien t for the sheep ,and therefore provided no buildings except ing a shack (a roughlog-house) for them selves , and a stable for their horses . Aquant ity of hay

,however

,was cut on some bot tom land severa l

m i les up t he river , more as a mean s for finding work than t oprovide feed for the sheep . Late i n O c tober a heavy fall ofsnow occu rred and last ed four days a violen t w ind then arose ,and drift ed th e snow in to t he gullie s where t he sheep sough trefuge and shel te r

, and buried a large number several fee t

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

266 THE SHE PHE RD’

S MAN I’

AL.

when t he increased expenditu re can be made ou t of the profit s .To begi n w ith such a flock , a capi tal of fi ve thou sand doll arsshou ld be in h and . I f one has more , i t would be bet t er to loanthe remaind er at good interest (tw elve to tw enty per cen t i sreadi ly pa id for loans in thi s region ), an d risk only th is amoun t .The expendi tures w ill be as follows

C OST or START ING A RANCHE .

sheep, at as

20 pure Merino ramsSheds and build ings

E xpenses for first year2 herders and their helpHorses

,wagon , etc

Reserve fund . .

P robab le income and increase

pounds of wool . .

700 lamb s .

Th e fleeces of t he improved lambs will be worth fi fty percen t more than those of t he ewes , including the increase inW e igh t and the higher marke t valu e , and the second year, thew ool w ill at least pay all t he expenses , as no more labor forherdin g w ill be requir ed for two t hou sand than for one thousand sheep . The cost of herding and feed ing a small flock wi l lamount t o abou t seventy cen ts per h ead per year ; for flocks oftwo thousand and over, th e cost will be reduced to fifty cen t s ,or even less , un der favorable circum st ances , and when theowner takes h is share of the work . The Colorado and O regonsheep requ ire l ess feeding in t he w int er than Iowa sheep , as theyare hard ier and be tt er rustlers ,

” th at is,bet t er able to wit h

st and th e rigors of th e w in t er and th e storms .In Wyoming , t he sheep are generally Mex ican s , crossedw it h Merinos or Cot swolds

,and brought from Colorad o .

In Idaho th e flocks are usuallv brought across from O regon ,and are much l ike th e Mex i can , small and light , but strongand hardy . In Montan a th e sheep are of bet t er qu al ity , havingm ore Merino blood in t hem , and m an y well bred grades fromMichigan and Minnesota are brought ou t on the railroad . Pow

der R iver , th e Judi th basin on G raveyard Creek , the Gall at i nValley , around and sou th of Bozeman , and th e Missouri Valleyand it s t ribu t ary valley s past Helena and down to Fort B en ton ,

are e speci ally desirable local i t ies for sh eep in Mont ana . Furt her w est is t he moun tai n region in wh ich good locat ions may

THE NORTH-W’

E STERN D ISTR ICT . 267

be found in abundan ce . The past win ter snow first covered theground about February 1, which remained un ti l t he 20th , whenthe warm sou th w ind

,known as th e C hinook ,

” melted i t , andleft the ground bare in a day . The losses of old sheep arescarcely worth countin g among the young ones two per cen twill cover all , and when the best care is exercised , the losses bydeath may not exceed five in a thou sand , and those from accident s . The most frequent losse s are caused by a nat ive grass ,which bears exceedin gly sharp awn s or beards , and calledpopularly needle grass . Bot an ically it is Stip a sp artea . Ith as a seed much like an oat , to which is at t ached a crooked ,sharp awn five in ches long . These awns tw ist and in tertwistas the weather is dry or wet . and i s on this a ccount calledweather grass . The awns catch in the wool and break off ,t he sh arp poin t then penet rates the skin and works into th eflesh

,and even in to the int est ines . They also break in t he

mouth,or if swallowed , penetrat e the stomach , and then cau se

death,otherwise i t i s necessary to exam ine the sheep frequ en tly

and extrac t t h e “ needles from the wool and skin . Theremedy

,or rath er the method of prevent ion u sed by shepherds

,

i s to make a fi re-break , which is a strip of plowed land arounda port ion of the pastu re , and not permit t in g the fi re to run un tilJun e , when the needle grass h aving start ed in to grow th , t hefire i s st art ed , and t he dead grass bu rn ed off, along w ith whichthe young needle grass is killed for that year.

Another frequen t trouble through most of th is region is fromthe dust

,which is alkal in e and irr it ate s the lu ngs and nasal pas

sages,cau sing a cough and discharge from the nostrils . This

of course is a natural consequence of the charact er of th e soi l,

and can not be overcome , except ing by avoiding pastures of thiskind or prov iding other feed at the seasons w hen the t roublemostly prevail s , which is in lat e fall and winter . Theprevalen t d isease every where known as scab , i s at t imest roublesome to sheepmen , whose flocks run on the range , andth e un iversal t ick i s here , as elsewhere , a great annoyan ce . Asa remedy for these pests , is is u sual to dip th e sheep , an d somefuller descript ion of the m ethod of doing this for large flocksthan has heretofore been g iven , will be useful . The nature oft he scab d isease has been explained elsewhere the manner oft reat ing it is as follows : A system of yards and pens is l aidou t for the easy handling of the sheep

,and these al l lead to a

po in t where a dipping vat is prov ided , to which are annexed

268 THE SHE PHERD’

S MANUAL.

boil ers for heat ing th e dippingfluid , an d drain ing pens forcollect ing th e dripping fromthe dipped sheep . A plan ofth e yards and pens i s shownin figure 93 , and another whichmay be more su itable in somec ases, in figure 94 . The formerplan i s l aid ou t as followsThe large yard markedt apers gradu ally to a lane

guarded by a gate whichswings ei ther w ay , to t u rn thesheep into the pens 4 or 5

,as

m ay be desired . This plan isdevised so as to be made available at shearing time , when thesheep are tu rned in t o the pen5,which has a boarded floor

,

th at i t may be swept and keepthe sheep clean

,and from

which they may be t aken asthey are requ i red into theshear ing yard or shed marked6. This arrangement thusserves both purposes , and everyranche , where more t han athou sand head are kept , shouldbe provided with something ofthi s kind . It is best alwaysto dip the sheep immediat elyaft er shearing , as the d ip thenhas more effect upon th e skin ,bu t a dipping shou ld h avebeen given two weeks previously ,

to cleanse t he wool fromthe mites , which would otherw ise infest t he yards and pens ,and make them a constan tsource of in fect ion . The yard4 i s in tended for the lambs ,which are thu s spared a good

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

270 THE SHEPHERD’S MANUAL.

Opened , th e yards are filled in succession , t h e cent ral on e andthe firs t one being las t fi lled . At V are boile rs and store vat sfi lled w ith hot l iqu id t o supply the va t D . All being in readin ess , fou r sheep are pu t in the decoy pens p , w hi ch have wirefences, so that th ese sh eep are plainly seen by the others . Thefirst pen i s then Opened and the sheep ru n toward th e decoys

,

where they stand on a drop or t il ting st age made betw een thedecoy pens . This st age holds t en or twelve sheep , an d theyare thu s plunged int o the dip an d complet ely immersed . Theyare gu ided to t he sloping floor at the oth er end of the vat , fromwhich t hey are t urned into th e d raining yards

,each of which

i s fil led altern ately , t hus givin g ample t ime for th e sheep to d rybefore th ey are turned ou t . This is necessary , as the sheeph ave lambs at th is t ime , and t he dip is not very agreeable tothe l ambs . When bot h y ards are filled , th e fi rs t one is empt iedand immedi ately fill ed aga i n , while the sheep in the other aredrainin g.

The dip cons ist s of an infu sion of tobacco mixed with sulphur .

The following m ethod is commonly u sed for preparing andusing t he di pping preparat ion Two boil ers and two store vat sare u sed in thi s pl an , which i s a conveni en t one , as th e supplyof hot liquor c an be kep t up cont in uously by means of th is arran gemen t . These boilers should not be less th an on e hundredgallon s for a flock of two thou san d to four thousand sheep .

The store vat s should hold each abou t fou r hundred gallon s ,and t here should b e two of them . These are for hold ing theinfusion of t obacco as i t i s prepared for u se . A water t ankshould be provided n ear the stream , and a pipe from itshould run to each boiler and vat , and also t o th e dipping vatt o supply cold water t hat may be required at t imes . A troughi s made to carry the in fusion int o th e vat , through the m easuremarked S n ear the v at , by wh ich th e qu ant ity u sed may beknown

.If th e quan t i ty to be d ipped in i s two thousand gal

lons,and th e infusmg boilers are of t he siz e ment ioned , i t

w il l be necessary to begin t o prepare th e m ix t ure two days atl east before th e d ipping is to commence . The in fu sion of thet obacco is at th e beginnin g Of th e process , t o be carried ou t exactly in the same manner as with tea— boil ing the tobacco in thefirst water being carefully avoided . Thus fi ve hundr ed poun d sof good leaf tobacco (that is , on e pound to four gallon s of w a

t er,and i t ough t n ever t o be less) is t o be weighed ou t , an d the

infu sing boil ers nearly fi l led w i t h water , an d brought to the

THE NORTH-WESTERN D ISTR IC T . 271

boil ing poin t, t hen . the fires are to be removed from under theboilers, and forty to fifty pounds of tobacco are to be pu t intoeach of them

,and the covers carefully adj ust ed to preven t the

e scape of any steam , which , as already st at ed , would carry O ff

with it some of the m ore act ive curat ive propert ies . In six oreigh t hour s th e infu sion is drawn off and fresh w at er is addedto the tobacco in the boilers , w hich is boiled gently for twohou rs

,the steam being k ept from escaping by covering the

boilers w ith bags or some such material , and drawn Off a secondt ime

,leaving th e tobacco again in the boilers. TO this add a

third water,and boil for two hours more in the same mann er

,

when the strength of the tobacco will be thoroughly exhausted .

Carefully repeat the process of infusing and boiling, until t h eproper quan tity to commence dipping w ith be made up .

Where t here is t ime to make the infusion , previous t o commenc ing t o dip , i t i s a good plan to infuse the whole , or nearlythe whole of the tobacco requ ired for th e d ress ing , and to pu tthe liqu id away in casks aft er filling th e vat . It can easily beseen how conven ient it would be , supposing th e tobacco h adbeen infu sed in water at the rat e of one pound of t he best t obacco t o a gallon of water, i n replen ishing t he d ip , to do so byadding one bucketfu l of the infusion to three of hot water.In this case , as the infusion was made , the tobacco leaveswould be put aside an d aft erw ards boiled as direct ed i n theboilers supplying the hot water . A l though the second andthird waters no doubt cont ain some n icot in e

,which is th e in

gredien t destruct ive to insec t l ife , these boil ings should in praot ice be only reckoned as clear hot w ater . This plan of infusingthe greater part of the tobacco previou s to dipping must ofcourse be always adopted when the requ isit e boilers cann ot beobtained . Wh en more tobacco is required to replen ish the dip

,

i t must be carefully weighed out according to the scale givenabove

,and shou ld be infused and boiled in exactly th e sam e

manner as detai led .

Tobacco ju ice , of a good quality , may , where procurable , beu sed inste ad of tobacco , bu t i t Should never be u sed wi thou t ananalysis , or a guarante e that it con tain s a certa in amount ofn icot in e per gallon

,as t he n atural t endency of all d ip manufac

turers , m ore or l ess , after a good busin ess i s e stabl ish ed , i s t olower th e qual ity of the art icle , man y of th e so-called scab curesproving perfect ly worthless ; wit h fi rst-class tobacco leaf youare never deceived . An excellen t dipping preparat ion is mad e

272 THE SHE PHERD’S MANUAL.

in St. Lou i s , which consist s of a concentrated infusion Of tobacco , and saves much trouble in preparin g the dip , but wat er onlybeing required to dilu te it t o the proper strength .

MI! ING SULPHUR — The quan ty of sulphu r u sed is fourounces to the gallon of dip

,or a pound to four gallons of water

,

put a sufficien t qu ant i ty of it in to a tub or vat half fi lled e i therw ith the tobacco water from the infusion boilers

,or w ith cold

w ater , and sti r and break the sulphur unt il i t be thoroughlym ixed

,and of t he consi stency O f th ick gruel when it is poured

in to the_

dip . R epeat t he process unt il the proper quant ity ofsulphur has been added

,and when requisit e , repleni sh in t he

same manner as th e dipping process . I t i s said to improve thebath by rendering i t m ore pene trat ing, especially when thew ater is hard , to add on e pound of soda ash or two pounds ofcommon soda, to forty gallons of the m ixture .

SPOTTING .—The bes t plan to spot , i s to draft from the differ

en t flocks every sheep showing the least symptoms of the d ise ase in to a

“ dise ased ” fiock ,, and subj ect i t t o three or fou rdressin gs both ex t ra strong and ex tra hot ; and i t would bemaking the cure a cert ain ty if t he sheep in the d iseased flockwere handled aft er th e first dressing , and the dead scurf orscab and th e loose wool removed from , and around the part saffect ed .

THE VAT . The vat shoul d be at least twenty feet i n length ,so that th e sh eep may have a good bath ; and tongu ed , groovedand pitch ed . In order at all t imes to know the depth of th em ixture in th e vat , i t should be gauged or m arked , at everythree inches , an d the number O f gallon s corresponding to thed ifferen t measurem en ts should al so be marked on t he sides .The vat shou ld be suffi cien tly deep so that t he sheep cannott ouch the bot tom and w ill be completely immersed in the dip .

DRAINING YARDS.—These yards are bu il t t o hold not exceed

ing one hundred sheep at a t im e each , and they should be atleast two in n umber

,so as th at in t u rn ing ou t the sheep after

drippin g,those th at are newly from the d ip may not be turned

ou t w ith those that are thoroughly dripped . The bot tom ofth e drain ing yards (w h ich should h ave an in clin e from the sidest o the race) shou ld be lin ed throughou t , th e sam e as those ofthe race and vat and over i t should be placed a grat ing ofba t tens w ith the suppor ts so laid down as to allow t he drain ing

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

I N D E ! .

Abortion , Prevention of 241A fter-pains in Ewes 208*American Merino, D escription ofthe . 92

Analys i s of Ash of Urine 15

D ung 16

Fodder 60—6 1G rain s 64

Manure 79

Boots 63

W ool 146

Yolk . 147

Anatomy of t he Sheep 163Anaemia , Treatment of. 203

Anthrax Fever, T reatment of 209Aphtha,

T reatment of 210Apoplexy , T reatmen t of . 216*Barn for Sheep . D escription of . . 50

Smalla C onven ient

* Beacon-Down Sheep, D escriptionof the 138

Bile , C omposition and Uses of .

* Blackfaced Scotch Sheep , D escript ion of the 122

Black-leg T reatment of 209

Bleeding, how P erforme 190

Bone , Structure of . 173

Brain of the Sheep 174W ater on the ,

Treatment or.216

W orms in the 81

Breeds and Breeding Sheep 81

C ros s ing 84Foreign 100Native 89

Breeders , Maxims for 89Breeding for Sex 86

ln-and in 88Bronchitis . T reatment of 192

C abbage , C ulture of. 25C anker of the Foot, Treatmen t 0 0 23sC astration , P erformance of 30—213C atarrh reatmen t of 191* Gnevi Sheep , D escription of

C hok in fr, T reatment of 194

C ircuih tion of the Blood 177C lap, Trea tment of in Rams 215C olic, Spasmod ic T reatmen t of . . 247C orn , C omparative Value of 65C ostiveness . T r eatmen t 0 1 195-247C otton-Seed-C ake-Meal . Value of . . 65

C otswold ,D escription of the .

Improvement of otherBreeds by 84

0 0 0 0 0

( 6

H (1 5

o o o o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

* C otswold-Leices ter, Descriptionof the

C otswold -Merino,D escrip t ion of

the

C otswold Southdown , D escriptionof the

C rookC ross-bred SheepD iarrhea, T reatment of 196—246D lgest ion ,

P rocess of . . 179

D igest ire Organs , D 1seases of the 194

D ip for Lambs and Sheep 47

D iseases of Lamb sthe Sheep , O bservations on 188

C auses and Prevention 0 12190

of the Blood 201

Bo“els 199

Brain 216D igestive Organs 194

E nZO utic .

E piZO O t ic

O f the FeetParas iticof the R eproductive O r

a s .

espiratory O rans 1

kin 229

Special 242

of the Lrinary O rgans 243

DockingLamb s 243

Dog guards for Fences 32

D orset Sheep . Description of the118

Dropsy , T reatment of 205

D ung. Analy s is of Ash of 16

D 1 Sentery ,T reatment of 207

E ar Marks 34

E nzod t ic D iseases

Epilepsy ,T reatment of 218

E pizobt ic D iseases 210

Ewes Garget 1n ,T reatment of 42

in Lamb , C are of 36

Numb er for One Ram . 35

P eriod of G estation of 34

R ecord of Service of 34

Selection c f for Breed ing 43

Yeanmg, T reatment of 36 45

and Lambs , Managemento f 33—37

E yes D isea se of the

Fatten ing Sheep forMarket 78Feed-Rack 31- 59

Feed ing,Experiments in 66—68—70Roots"

INDEX.

Fences , Portable 27

Flax Seed , Nutritive Value O f . . 65

Flesh and Blood , Analys is O fAsh Of 15Quan t ity P i oduced by C er

tain Foods

Flesh fly , t he 234* Fluke ,

the Liver, D escription of .220

Fodder C rops 22

Analysis of 60

Nutrit lve Value of ” 61

Foods for Winter Feed ing 59

C omposi tion of Vari ous 60

C hoice of 65

P i oper Allowance Of 72

Quantity of Needed 66

for a Pound of

FleshFoot D escription of the

Rot , T reatment ofFoot and Mouth D 1sease 210—238Fractures of the Bones . . 24 1

French Merino, D escription of 128

Gad -,

fly the .233

Ga 1get , T reatmen t of . . 24 1

G lad 1ness or Turnsick T 1ea tmentfor

G rains,Nutri t ive Value of Various 64

G rasses,C ompos ition of Va1 1oa s . . 17

Suitable for P astureHampshire Down Sheep ,

D esel iption of 116

Heart , Structure and Functions of . 177Hoven T 1ea tmen t of 196Hurdles

,Use of 23for R efractory Ewe 37

Hydatids in the Bra in 226Inflammation of the Bladder . 213

Bowels 199Bra in . 216

Liver 201

Influenza , T reatment of. 206Intestines of the Sheep 182

Kentucky , Improved , Shoe 91

Kidney , Structure of the . 186Lac teal Ves sels 184Lambing, D lseases C onnectedwith 239Lambs . C astrating 39—243

D ippmg 48Disease s of 45—245

. 3940

Laxative for 4 1

Newly bo1n Gat e ofRa isin<r E arly MarketT 11 1n eed ingW eaning

Lamb s C ord ialLamb C reep

* Lau1el P 0 1son1ng byLeicester, Improvement of O ther

Breed s b yD escription of the

* Leicester-Merino, D escription of

* Lincoln D esmipt ion of the 100Linseed O il C ake Meal , alue O f . . 64

Substitutefor

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0

o o o o o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o

o o o o o o oo o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o

Litter for ShedsLiver, C ongestion ot

‘

theD escription of theInflammat ion of the

Rot the

Lockj aw,T reatment Of

Louse, the Sheep*Luno's of the SheepLung, orms in the , T reatment for.223

Manure . Value ofMarkets 8-73—81Market Lambs , Methods of Rais ing 74

Box for Shippmg . 76

Profi t of 78Measures E xplanation of 249

Merino,America

Frer ch 128

Saxon “ . 94—130S iles ian 132

Spanish 8—127

Importation 93Improvement of 95

Maturity of 43

R am. Portrait of 98W ool

,Value of 94W eights of Fleeces 96

Mex ican Sheep 90Mustard . W hite , for Fodder 22err/es of the Sheep 174

1‘Nets for Folding Sheep 29

O il C ake,Feed ing Value OfManurial Value of

Oph thalmia, T 1eatmen t of

O xford ~ Down Sheep , D escriptionof the

P ale D isease of Lamb sPack ingP alsy ,

Treatment ofP ai alvsis T 1eatment .of 217—247

P arasit icalD iseas es . 219P arsley ,

Value of in Pas tui es 17P arturientApoplexy and Fever .208—240P as ture, D 1y . Necessary for Heal th 14

C hange Of,Advantageous . 31

Exten t of, in the U. S 10

E xposure of 22

G rasses Suitable for 16

Management of 20

Suitable for Sheep 12

P ining , T reatment of 203

P lants , P oisonous 108P lethora . Treatment ofP leurisy , T reatment of 193Pneumon ia

,T reatment of 192

Poison ing , T reatment of 198

Pox , Sheep, T reatment of . 211

P rices of Wool ln the W orld 166P roduction of Wool in theWorld 165

P urgatives , Use of 189Ram. Selection of the . 43

Rape for Fall and W inter Feeding . 23

Red-water, Trea tment of 207

R eproductive O rgans , t he 187R espiration , Process 0 175

R espiratory O rgans . D isea ses of 190Retention of Urlne, T reatment ofRheumatism , T reatment of 202

Romney Marsh Sheep, Descrip

276 THE SHEPHERD’

S MANUAL.

tion of the 104Root C utter 26

P ulper 27

Boots, C ulture of 26C utting 27

Feed ing 27Nutritive Value of . 63

Quanti ty Needed for a Flock 72

Storing in P its . 26

R 0 1 of the Foot, T reatmen t 0 1 216

in the Live1 ,’1 reatmen t of 22

R umina t ion , Proce ss of . 181

Sa lt Necessary for SheepSaxon Mermo D ese1 ipt ion of the . 130

2 32Scab . T reatment forSea W eed E aten [13 Sheep 19

Scrofula, T reatment of 204

Shearing Sheep 158

Sned for Pasture . 32

Mr. Geo. G rant's 53Mr Shaw

’

s . 54

Sheep, C ensus of in U S . 50, 10 167

W hen a Lamb Becomes a 45

Shelter, E ffect of, on C on sumptionof Food 67Sh1opshire Sheep . D escript ion of . 112

Silesian Merino . D esmipt ion of the132

Skeleton of the Sh eep 169

Skin Structure of the 14 3

Soils Suitable for Pas ta l es 12

Sorting W O O1 . 165

South down Sheep , D escrip t ion of114-’

Vi e t ino . D escriptionof the .

Spanish Merino D escription of the127

Spleen , Func tions of the 185

Sprains .

Stimulants . Us e of

Stomach of the Sh eep 180

Foreign Bod ies in 1.he . . 200

Stretches , T reatment of 195

Summer Management of Sheep . . 11

T able for T y ing Wool 162* T ape Worms . 228

T agging and Trimming Sheep

The items marked with a are illustrated.

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

c c c c c c c c c

0 0 0 0 0 0

W oundsYarrow ,

D escriptionYolk in Wool

C omposition of .

o o o o o o o o o o o o

T eeth G rowth of theT lek the Sheep

T icks, D 1I1 for “

* T i oeha1 and C anulaTurnips, C ultivat ion of 24

Fold ing Sheep U on 25for W inter Fee ing 24

Urinary C anal , Sed iment in the 214O igans Functi ons of the 185

Uterus . In1 e1 sion of 242Urine, Analys is of Ash of 15V

'

V‘gin ia Sheep 91ash ing Sheep 155

W ater. Necess itv of 21

Quality of 21*W elsh Moun tain Sheen D e scn ption of

W estern P la ins , Value of for SheepP as tures 19

W inds, Eflects of , on C ondit ion 22W interManagement of Sheep 49W omb , Invers ion of . 242Wool Break in 21

C lassifi cati on of 148C ompos ition of . 156

How to Judge of 150—153

P ack ing. 161

Prices of 149

Quality of , a T est ofHealth 15—150Merino 99

Sorting 165Structure of 142Value of Imports of 10

W ashing of 155

W orld s Product 1on of 165

W orms . the Bladder . 224

in th e Brain 226

in the Bi onchial Tubes 223in the Intestines 229

in the Lungs 223

1899

147