Post 8vo, cloth limp, with numerous Illustrations and a

List of Marks, 4s . 6d;

A Handbook of Potte ry and Porce lain ;or

, H istory of those Arts from the Earliest Period .

By HODDER M. WESTROPP.

Collectors , amateurs , and a ll who take an in terest inthe potter

'

s ar t , w i ll find this work very instructive.

A ll the famous manufactor i es , whose works have becomehistor i cal , are br iefly dealt wi th ,

and their marksgi ven , w i th

accompany ing descr iptions , dates. ér’c. A n immense amount

of information has been most ski lfu lly condensed, and the

work i s issued in tasteful form, w ith many admirablei llustrations .

—DAILY CHRONICLE .

M r . Westrojbp has spared no pains tomake his handbookusefu l to the collector and interesting to the genera l reader .

The book is well and copiously i llustrated.

His l i st of manufactor ies is very complete, and hi s ser i eso

oftr ademarks w i ll be a grea t safeguard to buyers .

—GRAPHIC.

CHATTO WINDUS, PICCADILLY , W .

RACTICAL KERAM ICS

FOR STUDENTS

QHARLE S A. JA NV IER

intention

C -H AT T O e» W I N D U S, P I CC A D I L LY

NEW YORK : HENRY . HOLT AND CO .

1880

BALLANTYNE AND HANSO N , ED IN BURGH

CHANDOS STREET , LONDON

PREFACE.

IN preparing this l ittle book, the authorities principally consulted are Brongniart, Salvétat, Ebelmen,Roscoe, Jewett, Shaw, Binns, Stan islas Julien

’s tran

latiori of a Chinese work,Z eigler

, Jacquemart,Marryat, Birch, besides various reports and art iclesin techn ical and other reviews and journals . I am

also indebted to several potters and decorators . for

valuable information .

I have endeavored to give in as small a compassas possible a clear account of the manufacture and

decoration of pottery of all kinds,and even at the

risk of repetition have tried to b e perfectly clear ;always endeavor ing to imagine myself explain ingthe ' various processes to persons utterly ignorantof the subject . Any such persons, if desirous of

knowing more, will find the names given of the

principal works on pottery. No illustrations of

machinery, firing apparatus, etc. , are given, becausethey could not b e made thorough enough to b e of

use to potters, and few others could. understand theWorking drawings which can b e found in full in

iv Preface.

some of the works cited . I have endeavored mostfully to describe the wares that seem to have the

most general interest, and in regard to classificationhave sought to remove the con fusion I have observedexisting in the minds of many persons, trying to

make all defin itions so clear that any one can at

once put any ware in its proper place, withoutregarding the utterly incorrect names often given byshop-keepers and others. As there are so many ex

cellent and easily obtained histories of pottery, Ihave only glanced at this part of the subject ; asalso at the very interesting part relating to ancientandmediaeval pottery. I have not touched at all onmarks and rules for col lectors

,a little information

on this subject being useless. I have given fullerdetails in regard to modern pottery, particularly

porcelains, the so-called Limoges wares, and Chineseand Japanese porcelains, trying to bring together information that is scattered throughmany works, oftendifficult to obtain or consult. The chemical andother scientific terms

,being intended for persons

having little or no acquaintance with science, are

those in every-day use, no attempt having been madeto keep to the perfectly correct nomenclature.

I think that persons intending to paint or otherwise decorate pottery will do Well to read with at

tention all the first part of the book, as some slightknowledge of pastes, glazes and baking is requisite inorder to do good work. To do the best work, particularly in this country, a very thorough knowledge of

Preface.

these is necessary, which knowledge can b e obtainedonly by careful study

,observat ion and comparison.

In the chapter onkeramic painting I have said muchthat may appear very trite to those well acquaintedwith the subject

,but which will b e of service to b e

ginners,and above all to those living far from city

facilities . I t might indeed seem that an undue

prominence has here been given to decoration,but

besides the fact that this is usual ly considered themost interesting part of the subj ect

,it should b e

borne in mind that decoration is not only aesthetically but commercially of great importance . Of two

jugs,both equally well adapted to their purpose, the

prettiest or the most agreeable will have by far thelargest sale. Such things are generally bought bywomen , naturally the ultimate buyers of householdware

,and women notice

,often unconsciously, this

difference, the ignorant wife of the poorest workman

preferring the jug with the softest color and the

brightest glaze to a jug perhaps better made butugly and dull.

CONTENTS.

Preface .

PAR T L—I N TROD UCTION .

CHAPTER 1 .

NOMENCLATURE, DEFINITIONS, DESCRIPTIONS

CHAPTER I I .

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

Probable origin of pottery ; Ancient, mediaeval, modernpottery Table of dates.

CHAPTER III .POTTERY MATERIALS.

Clays, constituents and fusibility , impurities ; Feldspar ,albite, fluorspar , petrosilex , com ish stone ; Kaolin ;Ball-clay ; Po tter’s clay ; Constituents of pastes and

glazes ; Metals used in decorating; Table of analysesof potter

’

s materials, with notes. 24

PAR2”[I Q—PROCESSES OF MAN UFA0.

TURE .

CHAPTER IV.

MANUFACTURE—PASTES.

Pastes. plasticity, shrinkage ; Preparation of pastes, clays,

and rocky matters ; Treading, wedging ; R ipeningTable of analyses of pastes, with notes and remarks .

vii

viii Contents.

CHAPTER V.

MANUFACTURE—SHAPING.

Hand-made pottery ; Potter’s wheel ; Throwing ; Pressing Casting ; Plaster moulds Castingvery thin wareOpen work and lace work Brick , tiles , etc. ; Figures.

CHAPTER VI .MANUFACTURE GLAZ ING.

Biscuit Glazing; Ingredients ofglazes Fritting Methodsof puttingon glazes.

CHAPTER VII .MANUFACTURE—KILNS AND BAKING.

K ilns ; Pyrometers ; Table of temperatures and color of

ware in kiln ; Measuring the heat ; Fuel ; Seggars ;Placing ; Time required for baking ; Placing glazedpottery in kilns or seggars Precautions.

CHAPTER VII I .DECORATION IN GENERAL.

Keramic decoration ; Colors or paints ; Oxides ; Engobeor sl ip Méthode Laurin ,

Limoges style , slip-painting

enamelled oil-painting Limoges glaze Pate-sur -

pfite

Fluxes ; Fluxed pain ts ; Enamels ; Vitrifi able paints,qualifications ; Composition of fluxes ; Medium ; Classifi cation ofpaints Underglaze or gloss- oven colors , how

used ; Hard kiln colors ; Me'

thode Richard ; Regularkiln or mufile colors , degree of heat in fi ring Mufiies ;

Packing or placing ; Tests ; Table of temperature for

muffle colors ; Cooling Soft porcelain Mocoing;

Gilding ; Lustres ; Etching ; Emaux omb rants ;

Lithophanie.

PAGE

Contents. ix

PART I l l —DESCRI P TJ ON O F WARES.

CHAPTER IX.

CLASSIFICATION.

Brongniart’

s table ; Salvétat’s classification ; Soft, hard, andvery hard pottery ; Glaz

‘

es Salve'

tat’

s tables, with notes

and examples.

PAGE

CHAPTER X.

SOFT POTTERY—PASTE, OPAQUE, POROUS, AND MORE OR

LESS COLORED .

Essentially and accidentally soft pottery ; Primitive pottery ; European pottery ; Greek, Etruscan, Roman ,

etc. ; Lustrous pottery ; American pottery ; Asiatic

and African pottery ; Modern pottery, unglazed and

glazed ; Coarse earthenwares , glazes ; Palissy ; Mezza

majolica ; Scrafii to ware ; Modern slip-

painted wares ,Limoges, etc. ; Tin-

glazed wares Kitchenware ; Decoration ; Majolicas, Lucca della Robbia, Delft, etc.

‘

Fai ence d’

O iron Hard. pottery ; Cincinnati ware.

CHAPTER XI .VERY HARD POTTERY.

Essential characteristics ; Fine earthenwares ; Glazes ; Definitions ; Pastes ; Decoration under and overglaze ;Tobacco pipes ; American earthenware ; DecorativeWare .

CHAPTER XII .VERY HARD POTTERY—STONEWARE .

Characteristics ; Coarse stoneware . manufacture , baking,glaze ; Fine stoneware , paste , glazes, Wedgwood,Doulton , etc. ; Decoration ; Bottcher, Elers ; Gres de

x: Contents;

PAGE

Flandre Japanese and Chinese stonewares Trenton

stoneware. I 3 r

CHAPTER XIII .VERY HARD POTTERY—PORCELAIN.

Characteristics Nomenclature Hard andsoft bodyporcelain ; Hard porcelain ; Ingredients and manufacture ;Glaze ; Decoration ; Dresden ,

Vienna,Paris

, etc

Hybrid or magnesite porcelain ; American porcelain .

CHAPTER XIV .

VERY HARD POTTERY—CHINESE AND JAPANESE POR.

CELAIN.

Date of invention Paste, kaolin , petuntze Manufacture ;

Glaze, fem - oil , lime-oil Japaneseglaze Kilns Decoration , paints , fluxes , etc. ; Feeling for color ; Kingte-chin ,

Nankin , Canton , Céladon ; Soft porcelain '

Japan Corea ; Persia ; India ; India ware.

CHAPTER XV.

VERY HARD POTTERY—SOFT PORCELAIN.

Old Sevres , paste, glaze, value , decoration ; Limogesporcelain Persian porcelain English or bone porcelain , paste , glaze , decoration ; Worcester ; Pate-sur

pate ; Modern porcelains ; American bone porcelain.

PART l I/i—F OR THE DECORATOR.

CHAPTER XVI .

KERAMIC PAINTING .

Practical hin ts ; Tracing ; Painting on hard porcelainoverglaze , essentials List of colors, with full notes andremarks English and German colors D irections forpainting,

fi rst studies, monochrome , color studies,flowers , landscapes , heads ; Firing ; Powder col

Contents.xi

ors, grinding, laying grounds ; Gilding, lining; Hardm '

kiln colors ; Soft porcelain ; Fine earthenware ; Un

derglaze painting ; Biscuit painting ; Color makers ;Paintingon majolica or tin-glazed earthenware ; Books.

CHAPTER XVI I .A FEW IESTHETIC HINTS.

Authors Rules Blanc South Kensington ; Owen Jones ;Construction Color-decoration Aims of paintingand

of decorative art Pictorial art on pottery.

APP END IX A .

BOOK LIST.

Book list.

APPEND I X B.

P A RT I .

I N TI? UCTOR Y.

CHAPTER I .

NOMENCLATURE.

Pottery—A pot is a vessel intended to hold

something. A potter is a man who makes pots of

clayey or rockymaterials,which are afterwards either

sun- dried or fi re-baked. Pottery means all that is:made by the potter, the term be ing extended to include not only all kindsof pots, but even such thingsas ornaments, flat plaques, statuettes, or bas- reliefs.

The term pottery is often used in a restricted sense,and

‘

appl ied only to common earthenware or crockery, and sometimes to crockery and fine earthenwaretogether.

Keramics or Ceramics .—The derivat ion of this

word 1s essentially the same as that of pottery, beingfrom the Greek for horn, the first drinking-vessel.Later, drinking horns were made in clay or metal .The Keramicus was the potters

’ quarter in Athens.

Brongniart and Salvetat both suggest that the general term should be keramics, or the keramic

"

arts, pottery then falling into

'

its place as one of

them.

“The whole nomenclature is unsettled, par-f

I

z Keramics.

ticularly in books written in Engl ish . Each authorhas his favorite set of terms, making I t puzzlingfor the novice. Leaving the settlement of thismatter to wise men, it is only necessary to state thatin this book the term pottery includes all terra

cottas,earthenwares (faIences) , stonewares and por

celains. Further on, with the descr iption of the

different wares,are given Brongn iart

’

s full table of

classification, which is the one generally used, andalso Salvetat’s

,which is more complete, and which

i f adopted generally,would do away with the con

fusion at present existing.Potting

—When we speak of a vessel being well

potted, we mean that thedifli culties of manufactureare well overcome. By a potter is generally meantthe man who does only the mechan ical part of thework

,which is subsequen tly ornamented by the dec

o rator. The word Keramist would seem to includeboth these terms, and it is often very conven ient.Such men as Deck and Haviland call themselvesCéramistes.Refractory .

—Difli cult to melt or fuse.

Hard—Means diffi cult to fuse ; also that a p ieceof pottery cannot b e s cratched by a steel

'

point.

Soft.—Fusible—also,can be scratched by a kn ife

or steel point,Flux —Certain infusible substances can b emadefusible by the addition of o ther substances

,cal led

fluxes, not ,necessarily _fus

i

ble in themselves. Salvetat says .

‘

ilsjs apriori diffisult. to.

forma perfectly ,

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

4 Keramics .

Ciment.—Often incorrectly translated cement.See p itchers.

The French words given above are often foundin English books on pottery.For conven ience

,and in order fully to understand

the following description of mater ials and manufactures

,it is wel l to remember that all pottery can b e

divided into two classes ; first, Earthenware (Fr . ,

fai‘

ence), which ranges from the common flower -

pot

to the fine White table-ware such as that miscalled

porcelaine opaque; the character istics of all ware ofthis first class being that the body of the ware isdull and opague,porous, and adheres to the tongue. It

is generally glazed for use, and in the coarseearthenwares the colored body either shows throughthe transparent , glaze

,or the glaze is colored, or

else is rendered opaque so as to hide the coarse

body, or else a layer of finer clay is placed on the

body before the glaze is appl ied . The body itself

can b e made finer andwhiter, and then the necessityof hiding it van ishes,and the glaze is made trans

parent. A common flower-

pot, or a dish of the

commonest crockery, and a piece of gran ite-ware, or

of theporcelaine opaque made by Bridgwood, or of

any other fine earthenware (Fr. , f ai‘

ence fi ne), are

easily procured examples of the two extremes of

this ware. When the coarse body is covered by a

glaze r endered opaque and white by tin, and orna

mented on that,it is generally known as Majo lica.

The second class is composed of Porcelain‘

and

Introduction.

Stoneware. In these the body of the ware is tmc

pervious, and does not cl ing to the tongue. The

stoneware may vary in quality from the commonbutter-

pots to the fine Doulton ware. Porcelainhas the same character ist ics as stoneware, on ly it istranslucent. Stoneware may b e considered an inferior porcelain . Both wares when glazed have an

intensely hard glaze,but being impervious to mois

tur e could b e used without any glaze at all. Forcelain and stoneware are baked at a much greaterheat than the earthenwares

,though in some of the

finer earthenwares now made the heat is great, andthere is an almost imperceptible gradation fromone kind of ware to the‘ other. Some broken p iecesof the above mentioned wares

,and a careful com

parison of one with another,will . teach any one

far more than any descr iption. In.

all ware belonging to the first class, the glaze will b e seen to b e

entirely distinct from the body. In the second classit will seem to b e incorporated with the body, particularly in the case of French andChinese porcelains and all stoneware . N b bpague ware can be a

CHAPTER II .

H ISTORICAL SKETCH.

IT is impossible to assIgn the Origin of Potteryto any age or to any people. We can indeed studymuch of its development in our cotemporaries, forthere aremany savage tribesmaking now,

andhavingin common use

,much such pottery as is found in

prehistoric mounds, and in the lake dwellings, andfrom themwe can run

'

up the scale to the r ichest ma

jolicas and to the delicate egg- shell porcelain of

Japan.

Vessels of sun-driedpottery probably in most cases

preceded those baked in the fire, though this is notnecessarily the case.

But if many men may b e regarded as having had'

a part in the beginning Of pottery, three countriesmay claim the honor In the East and In the West of

’

raising a rude craft to an art. Whether the art

originally began in one, andwas commun icated to

the Others, or whether it arose independently in theseveral centres, we know not as yet but 4000 yearsago China, Babylonia, and Egypt were greatkeramic centres, andof these three it now

‘

seems prob6

7

able that Babylon i'

a may take the precedence.

Many circumstances give “

reason tO "think that theart spread eastward and westward from this greatcent re, but this and analogous questions are not yetsettled. I t is positively known, however, that good

pottery was made in these coun tries about the datementioned

,whence it must b e in ferred either that

they had received the art from preceding nations, ore lse that in the course of time they had slowly ac

q uired the knowledge. Chinese traditions affi rm that

pottery was so much of a science,andwas so well

reduced to a system,that there was an inspector or

superintendent of pottery long before zooo‘ B . C .

In 2 255 B . C . pottery was manu factured in a placenear the present district of Th ing Thao. From thatt ime until 202 B . C . only earthenware

,not porcelain,

was made . As far as porcelain is concerned, thereseems no doubt at all Of the claim of the Chineset o i ts invention . The Babylon ians certain ly made

good pottery 4000 years ago, and we do not knowhow much longer beforehand. In later, but stillvery remote t imes

,they and the Assyr ians made

e xcellent pottery with a fi ne colored sil ico-alkali

glaze,'

ofteri so thick as to seem an enamel . Thisknowledge was still later transmitted to the Persians,and from them to the Arabs, and thence in turn ‘

to

the Europeans : so Lucca della Robbia may b e a

keramic descendant in an unbroken l ine of a potter

cotemporaneous wi th Abraham, or even perhaps withNoah.

"8 sKeramics.

On the o ther hand, although the Egyptiauswerenot as good potters as the Babylonians, the art mayhave originated in Egypt, where, from the paintingson theBe'

n i Hassan tombs,we know it was flourishing

4000 years ago. I t may have been carried intoAs syria and Phoen icia. In those remote t imesthere was probably more commun ication amongcountries than we are accustomed to think

,and in

t ime the knowledge ofvarious craftsmost likely spreadslowly in every direction from different centres, the

Waves crossing and intermingling,so that now it is

often impossible to trace out their origi n . The

Egyptians also understood the making of fi ne

color edglazes . Much of their work is very beautifuland shows great artistic feeling and good technicalknowledge. As time went on, the influence of bothEgypt and Assyria in all probability swamped and

overwhelmed the aboriginal art of As ia M inor,though rel ics of it survived and often flourished in

out- of- the-way corners. Much pottery is found in-Asia M inor with the fi ne glazes in which both of theabove-mentioned countries excelled .

Greek potters, and the potters influenced by themin Magna Grascia and elsewhere, seem to have felt theinfluence of both Egypt andAssyria, but in their bestart pottery, the Greeks, with their usual good taste,borrowed what suited them,

transformed what oftenwas stiff or grotesque, and, adding it to theirown con~

ceptions, created pottery which, so far as concerns

purity of form, grace and beauty of design and dec

9

oratIOn, Is the finest the world has ever seen . Thei rtechn ical knowledge, too, was excellent as far as itwent ; though they never made anything but whatwecall coarse earthenware, most of it being friable, ve ry

porous, andbaked at a low temperature. Apparentlythey did not choose to do more, for it seems incredible that, w ith their intercourse with the Egyptainsand Persians, they should not have known about the irvarious colored glazes ; but they certain ly neveradopted them, except perhaps in the case of the hardglaze on lustrous ware, whichwas also a silico-alkal

’

iglaze, and which they may have invented themselves.There is no trace of lead or tin in any Of these veryold glazes. The great period of Greek keramicart lasted nearly seven or e ight centuries

,its culmin

ating point being about 400 B . C . From that timeit slowly decl ined, and was practically lost inRoman Art, which may be considered as an extens ion and generally a degradation of Greek art. For

a long time everything Greek was very fashionablein Rome.

About the century preceding our era, the Romansarrived at the creation of an artistic pottery, distinCtively their own : the Ter ra Sigi llata, also calledSamian ware, after the Greek ware formerly madeat Samos. The finest of this was made at Arezzoin Etruria, and was the prototype of ware foundwherever theRomans carried their power. And so

the knowledge of making pottery after the GrecoRoman fashion spread all over the Roman Empire,

10 Keramz’

cx.

and in the early part of the Christian era,replaced,

in Europe, the primitive potteries of the half- savagetribes of Gaul, Britain and other countr ies.

With the fall of the Roman Empire, pottery as anart seemed to disappear, and through the dark agessucceeding languished with all other arts. To thisdark time belong many rude potteries, utterly un interesting save as evidences of the constant existenceof the instinctive ability to mould and fashion clay.Much of this pottery still shows faint traces of Roman infiuence, and the excellent Roman methodsand traditions seem to have kept up a precarious existence in some few places. Fine keramic art didnot reappear for years, andthen again came from the

East through the Arabs or the Saracens,who had

preserved many of the traditions of the old Persianpotters . In this revival Spain andMajorca seem

to have been the great centres, bu t sporadic potterles are found 1n various p laces which may have beene ither the survivors of- old potteries or e lse places towhich independent knowledge

'

hadbeen brought fromthe East ; for with the East there seems always to haveexisted a certain amount of intercourse, even in thedark ages.

I t was probably through Spain ,ln the early time of

the Moorish occupation, that the first new art ideasfound their way into the rest ofEurope, and thesemayhave been strengthened by the few traditions leftof Roman methods . The origin of the lead - glaze

seems very uncertain, but no doubt it arose naturally

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x

'

z Keram‘

z'

bs.

Europe. In Staffordshire coarse pottery hadbeenmade from very early t imes. Beginning at Burslem

'

with the Elers,and descending through Astbury and

Wedgwood to the M intons and Doultons of our ownday, the improvement has been steady.While Europe was bringing earthenware and

stoneware to perfection, As ia had long been in possession of the art of porcelain making. Accordingto the Chinese tradition, porcelain was first made at

Sin-P ing, in 1 85 B C. The celebrated porcelain factories at King- te-Chin were established 5 38 A . D.

and‘ from that timewere in fu ll activity,whilemany less

importan t p laces started up . India and Pers ia too,unquestionablymade porcelain at a very early period.

The Japanese, accord ing to their own authorities,derived the art from the Chin ese, making first a k indof stoneware In the 1 6th century porcelainwas first made at Hizen under the direction of

Gorodayu Shonsui, who went to China in order tolearn, while about the same time several porcelainmakers were brought over from the Corea by PrinceNab esshima Naoshige.

Eastern porcelain certainly found its way intoEurope about 1 500, and it very probablywas broughtthere even sooner. Many curious attempts weremade by European potters to reproduce it, but for a

'

long t ime their attempts were in vain . Some of

these attempts bore importan t fruit. Soft porcelainwas successfully made, and according to the latestdiscoveries, the very fi rst porcelain made in Europe

Histor ical Sketcii . 13

was in Venice, there being in the archives a letter,

dated 1 470, from Uielmo'

da Bologna, that seems .

conclus1vely to prove this fact. Soft porcelain wasnext made in T uscany, near the end of the 1 6th

century, under the auspices of the Grand’

Duke,the art was lost ; to be revived again

in France about 1695 . Then the chemist Both :Cher, after many trials

,succeeded in producing ai

true hard porcelain at Meissen, near Dresden, in1 709, and though great efforts were made to keep itsecret, the art spread thence over Europe, and fromEurope to Amer ica.

In England for a time soft porcelain was made,differ ing but l ittle from that made elsewhere, butabout 1 800 Josiah Spode created or rather perfectedwhat was practically a new ware, the bone phosphate

porcelain, the only kind now made in England.S ince that t ime potters have been employed in im

proving themanufacture of all the different wares.

$14

TABLE OF SOME

KIND OF POTTERY.

0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0

Greece,( 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 03 0 9 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Athens

perhaps stonewar

Earthenwaresoft .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0

W ene C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Keramics, 1 5;

IMPORTANT DATES.

REMARKS. AUTHORITIES.From Stanislas Julien ’

s .

His t. et Fabrication de

All these dates are only approximate . The Smith’s Assy ria.

ality of the ware proves previous experience.11

gil ico- alkali glazes ,no lead nor tin

rogniart says the Egyptians were better glass Beni- l—lassan tombs andmake

'

rs than potters , whence their fi ne coloredlazes . The body is often very hard and inusib le more like sandstone than pottery .~Choerebus is said to have invented pottery , andGreek tradition.

Talus the wheel . Such s tatements must

neveram 10

The amian potters were very famous . The Life of Homer , attribest Greek wares were lustrous—and thi s buted to Herodo tus .

See Brogniart .

See Bro

colored and gildedIn Campania w ere made vases af terwardsclassed as T rian or Tyr io- Phenician . Manyauthorities t ink there were potteries on theGreek methods es tablished 1n many places .

Pottery more or less alike , and evidently madeby the same recipes , extended from the sea ofAzof to Cy renaica in Afr ica , an d Sicily in

Hist. et Fab .

d’Hancarville . See Broh iart, also Birch,facquemart , et'c.

cc Brogniart for fullaccount.

I 6"

Keramiér.

TABLE OF SOME

B . c. man or counrmas .

rance , Germany .

Earthenware, very soft 4;England , Denmark

AmericaNo certain Earthenware, Mex ico , Guatamala . .

dates Copan ,andelsewhere.

Earthenware, lustrous , hard i iItaly ,Gaul andBritain

Earthenwai'

e , soft andhard

7 1 : to 780, Arab ia, Pers ia

Iapan, Yamato

Porcelain, stoneware, earthen Chinaware .

Porcelain, fri tted

Italy ,

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Porcelain, hard and fritted India

Porcelain (crackled)Earthenware . Breslau Silesia .

Earthenware

Keramics . 17

IMPORTANT DATES—Continued.

REMARKS . AUTHORITIES .

These potteries vary greatly in quali ty and

decoration , but are the primitive potteries ofthe countr ies in which they are found . Thelist could b e extended . No certain dates .

fi ne pottery with silico-alkali glaze , resem See Brogniart , Birchbling the Roman andGreek lu stre . The date Jacquemart , etc.

is unknown . Remarkable pottery has beenfound in Peru and i n Central America , some

ost dates uncertain . Little or no lead in glazeGlazed generally w ith a sort of silico-alkah

glass , like the lustresPotter

’s whee l introduced b Giyoki . Specimens Japanese Catalogue.

of ware of that epoch sti l exist in temple of

Lead-glaze in common use . May possibly have acquema'

rt.

spread westwardJa! quemart says the first Persian porcelains areof about this date

first lead- I See alsoseems to Demmin

,

Probably tat, and o thers .

porcelain

Glazed , see below . All these are tiles or pave

by aSchlestad Jacquemart and othermieges . May authorities . Art icles

in Gazette des BeauxA rts , and in otherTomb of Henry IV. lead-glazed . perodicals . [N o fur

It is claimed that the above and much other ther authorities w ill b e

given , except for someespecial ware . ]

18’

A . D.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Keramics .

TABLE OF SOMEKIND OF POTTERY. COUNTRIES.

Earthenware soft

soft and hard Pers ia

Earthenware , soft Italy , Pesaro .

Earthenware (majolica) Italy ,Florence

Earthenware (majolica) Nuremberg

iPorcelain (fritted)Porcelain , Chinese ,

Earthenware (majolica) Italy ,Pesaro

Stoneware (gres de Flandre) .

4:(1531

3511

2;Njnzelr

s

n

glégrg.

Stoneware France , BeauvaisOiron earthenware or falence .

Porcelain (eggshell ware)

Porcelain (fri tted‘)

Earthenware (falence) Holland , Delft

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20 Keramics.

TABLE OF SOMEA . n . mun or po

'

r'

t anv .

Earthenware France ,Sevres

Porcelain, England ,Porcelain, fritted France , St. Cloud .

Saxony

Earthenware , fi ne (flint body) . England .

Porcelain, (magnesia or hybrid) Italy

orcelain; Fran ceEngland , Chelsea ?England, Worcester

Porcelain, hard . ugland ,Earthenware , fi ne England ,

Porcelain , hard France, Sevres .

Earthenware , U . S . , Norwich, Conn.

Porcelain ,bone- phosphate England

France , Sévres

Porcelain ,U . S.,

Keramics . 21

IMPORTANT DATES—Cont inued.

REMARKS . AUTHORITIES .From this time until about 1 688 the faience or

tin lazed earthenwares of Rouen , N eversSt. éloud, andother places were very famous ,as were many others . The art istic potte

ceased about 1 700, though some little was s I

made . .

By Dr . Dwight, but it was not until 1 740 thatthe business took root in En land .First fabric, tolerably fi ne . {fort to imitatehard porcelain

Bottscher and Tschirnhaus first d iscoveredkaolin hard porcelain . In spite of effortsto keep .it secret . the knowledge graduallySpread all over Europe . The proper clay wasfound in man places

Astbury in Eng and invented or perfected theuse of calcined flints in the paste , makingpractically a new ware

Porce lain was made w ith magnesite . Verytough. No important resu lts

At Vincennes , thence transferred to Sev’res , 1 756Called second fabric. Very fi nehese porcelams were at first made by i ntro

ducingflintglass into a paste resembling thatof fi ne earthenware . Afterwards calcinedbones were used . Lead-glaze , at first veryWm. Cookworthy made genuine hard porcelain. Commerciall a failure

About this date We gwood made his ueens

ware and stoneware , andalso then an afterwards introduced great improvementsThere seems to have been an attempt to start a Prime, Elliott .bone porcelain pottery in Philadel hia , Pa .

This orcelain was not perfected in uglanduntil ! ater

Good kaolin was discovered at St. Y rieix ,near Limoges . Since that time hard porcelain has been made . At first the glaze hadlime in it . Of late years it has been madeof pegmatite

It is d ifficu lt to fi nd records of early potteries History of Norwich, byin the Un i ted States. Other potter ies were M iss Caulkins .

probably in existence

Brogniart discontinued the manufacture of fritted (soft) body porcela inWm. Ellis Tucker first seriously attempted Letter from Thomasporcelain-making in this country . Bod and Tucker.glaze good and hard. Workmanshi an decoration poor. Corner Schuy lkill ront andChestnut Sts . Ceased about 1 837

22 Keramz'

cs .

TABLE OF SOME

KIND OF POTTERY.

Earthenware fi ne

Porcelai n frittedPorcelain (decoration)

Porcelain (decoration) .

Karamz’

cs . 2 3

IMPORTANT DATES—Continued.

REMARKS AUTHORIT IES.Datingfrom about this time great improvements

have been made in paste and glaze . Kaolin,

feldspar, etc. , are u sed in the paste ; borax,b oric acid , and feldspar in glazes .

manufacture of fr itted or soft body porcelain renewed at Sevres .

ainture a demi rand feu , methode Richard .See Chapter VI I

nven tion of method of compressingpaste imoulds b y means of comp ressed airMéthode Laurin , s till further de eloped b y t

Havilands at L imoges . F irs t applicationlarge scale of slip- painting to

earthenware“ Many experiments in much thesty le decoration had been previously

made . Slip- p ntin on porcelain, (pate- sur

pfite) first tried by Riocreux , at Sévre s , inmitation of Chinese and Japanese

CHAPTER II I .

POTTERY MATERIALS.

CLAYS.

WITH but few exceptions all pottery is made o f

clay,either in its natural state or modified by man .

Clays of various kinds are found all over theworld . Several varieties soften in water

,and b e

come plastic, that is, will form a non - elastic, soft,

tenac ious paste that wil l retain “

any impressionmade on it, and that can also b e made into moulds.

The clays used by potters are of this nature, and are

white,yellowish -white, grey, greenish, reddish ,

and

occasionally black . This last co lor is generally produced by organ ic matters which frequently burn out

of the clay when baked, leaving‘

it perfectly white.

The reddish and yellowish tints are cau sed by theoxides of iron . Many rocks contain a great deal offeldspar, o f which the principal constituen ts are

alumina and silica (also soda and potash, one or the

other predominating—See table, page These

rocks when worn down, disintegrated, and even decomposed by the action of the weather, andby othercauses, make beds of clay more or less fi rm and

24

Pottery Mater ials . as

compact . Sometimes this clay is washed awayand settles down far from the original rock

,gather

ingall sorts of impurities on the road ; sometimesit remains associated .with the rock

,and then con

sists of a clay more or less pure, according to

the nature of t he primitive rock, and accordingto the circumstances which have accompan ied itsalteration .

The chief and characteristic const ituent of all

clays is the lzya’rons silicate of alumina (called kao

linite), associated with which there is always a con

siderable quantity of quartz sand or alkaline sili~

cate, and many other matters. In other and lessscientific terms

,the indispensable ingredients i n

the composition of clay, are silica and aluminacombined together, and with water, and this mayb e taken as a typical clay, and all clays as

they depart from this ideal standard become less

pure.

S il ica and alumina alone are infusible at the

highest heat of the potter’

s kiln, and in order tomelt or soften must be mixed with aflnx of some

kind , such as the alkalies, soda, and potas/z, or with

The principal Impur ities of clays are the ox ides

of iron ,lime, magnesia, t/ze alkalies

,and sometimes

a small amount of iron pyr ites (sulphur and iron),of titanic and of p/zosp/zor io acid. The presence of

these in considerable quantities renders a clay incapable of withstandinga high temperature with

out fusing ; therefore Some clays are very fusib le,o thers refractory . By refractory

,or infusible,

is meant here that a clay will not melt in the

extreme heat of the potter’

s kiln, say 1 600

°

to

1 800° Cent

,29 1 2

6to 3 2 72

°

F. , or about the melting point of wrought iron . All clay at a sufficient heat would melt into a sort of glassy sub

stance.

The more alumina there is in a clay,the more

r ef ractory it is. At the same time,of two clay '

s,

bo th containing the same amount of alumina, one

may be much more fusible than the other, owing tothe proportions of the fluxes and of the silica in it.

As a general rule,clays having the same

'

proportions

of aluminous and silicious elements possess an equal

power of resisting extreme heat . Many substancesare added by the potter to make the c lay more or

less fusible, or to produce certain results after baking.Alumina has a great affi n ity for water

,of wh ich

clays absorb and retain a great deal, requiring a redheat to expel it ent irely. When once thorough lydriven out in this way, the water will never aga inenter into combination with the clay. B akeddayis one of the most durable of substancesFeldspar ,

—This is found pure in various places,Sometimes in crystals, and sometimes in largemasses.

I t is found rubbed intopebbles in the beds of streams,

and often under cliffs,and is one of the constituen ts

of many rocks. At the heat of the porcelain k ilnfeldspar melts into a milky glass. Potters almost

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2 8 Keramics .

'

contains gravel, sand and otherminerals,which have

to be c arefully removed before it can be used forfi ne wares.

Kaolin iswhite, dull, andopaque. When kneadedwith water it forms a duct ile paste or dough ; it isoften mixed with potter

’s clay or with ball clay i n

making different wares. Kaolin is supposed to havebeen used for cen turies in China

,but its discovery

and application in Europe only date from about the

year 1 700.

I t seems uncertain now whether the Chinese use

in making porcelain what we call kaolin,for what

they obtained from the place Kao- ling was a green ishrock as hard as feldspar, which was then madeinto powder .

*Kaolins good for the potter

’

s purposes are foundin comparatively few places. Cornwall in England

(whence Corn ish clay), Aue in Saxony, St. Yrieix’

la

Perche in France, are some of the principal Euro

pean beds, while in the Un ited States i t has beenfound in Delaware

,Ill ino is, M issouri, Vermont, New

Jersey, Pennsylvan ia, etc .,for analyses and de

tails ofwhich see reports of different state geologists.

In Lawrence Co .

,Indiana

,is found a kaol in for

which wonderful qual ities are claimed . The analysisof it is very like that of what is called halloysite.f

‘Am. 7our . Science, March , 1 871 , p . 1 79.

tSince w riting the aboy e , Mr. Shakespeare M . Laughlin has ia

formed me that the Lawrence Co . kaolin or halloy site was thoroughlytested in the pottery at East Liverpool. It did not at all equal the ex

Pottery Mater ials . 29

Ball Clay—often calledpipe- clay .

—This is essentially the same as kaolin

,but has

,as a rule, a greater

proportion of silica in it,and is less pure . I t gen

erally has lime in it, and is usually of a yellowish o r

greyish hue, from the presence of iron . I t i s usedin the making of fi ne pottery.Potter

’

s Clay— Is a sti ll more impure var iety,o ften rendered fusible by the foreign substances itcontains. Common potter

’

s clay,o r loam

,such ”

as i s”

used in brick p its, is one of the most abundant substances in nature, but is so impure that i t can (onlyb e used for the commonest pottery . O ther c laylike mater ials used by potters are mar ls or calcar

eous clays, composed of clay,carbonate of lime a nd

sand in varying preportions, andf er r uginous clays o r

The pr incipal other constituents of paste and

glazes -are :

S ilica— as quar tz, sand, flints.L ime—as gypsum (sulphate), c/zalk (carbonate ) ,

Mono/cate.

Magnes ite, or meerscicaum.

- In this magnesi atakes the place of the alumina .

S teatite—Soapstone, talc, potstone— is also used a

little in porcelains.

Hoa-chi, akind of soapstone, andothermaterials as

pectations to which it gave rise , on account of the impuri ties in it , and.

a lso because there was so much water in i t that the shrinkage was un

usually great. Mr . Laughlin has given me the analy sis of a very re

markable kaolin derived from the decomposition of chert or hornsmne.

-See tab le,N0. at , page 38.

30 Keramics .

yet not very well known, are used i n ChinaandJapan.

Asbestos and the sulphate or carbonate o'

f

Barytes are occasionally used. In glazes and also a

l ittle in pastes are used slag or blastf urnace cinders

(common glazes).N itre or saltpetr e

— (n itrate of p otash).Salt . —Sea- salt

,c/zlor ide of sodium

Albany Dip .- A common clay found near

Albany, N Y . I t is used in this country as a blackglaze for stoneware .

Boric, or bor acicacid—This is pr incipally derived

from Borax—borate of soda— a compound of boricacid and soda. Up to the end of the seventeen th century nothing certain was known either of the sourceor of the composition of borax , which was used as aflux

,and which was brought to the European market

by the Venetians in the impure native state calledt incal. The method

'

of refin ing tincal was long keptsecret, b ut in 1 747 Baron po inted out that boraxconsisted of a compound

'

of boric acid (then calledsedative salt) and soda. I t is now found in a greatm any places, and has of late years been extensivelyused . Borax, or boric acid

,adds greatly to the

brill iancy and hardness of glazes, and also improvesthe color of. the paste .

The alkalies, potash and soda,are very seldom

used alone. They are used in combination as

above.

The oxides of lead, of tin and of ir on.

The ochres—little used.

Pottery Mater ials .

The oxides of manganese. These are said to im

part great toughness to common earthenwares whenused in the glaze .

Hotecast Porcelain .

— Cryolite —fluoridof soda.

This was used in Pennsylvan ia for the manufactureofwhite glass, which was a very good imitation ofporcelain

,and which was called hot - cast porcelain, but

was very brittle . I t was very l ike soft porcelain— and

the cryol ite was used insteadof tlzep/zospnate generallyused ln makingmilk glass.

I t is by understanding the chemical nature and

the real constituents of clays and other matters thatsuch great advances have of late years been madein the manufacture of pottery ; and, judging frommany chemical analyses

,it seems as

'

i f there may b e

many more materials that can b e used in making fine

pottery. Nevertheless,all clays and minerals must

b e carefu lly tested in potteries before their value tothe potter can b e defin itely ascertained . Clays andspars from different local ities that seem alike as far

as chemical analys is is concerned , will act very differen tly in the kiln . Potters generally judge clay byits appearance, by adhesion to the tongue, by smell,and by touch, and by its plasticity. They also fi reit and j udge it by its shades of color .

Pr incipal Metals used ln decorating pottery,some of which are also used for glazes :

1 . Arsen ic— white.

2 . Ant imony— yellow,white.

3 . Barium—yellow,white.

32 Keramics .

4 . Copper— as metal,bluish - green and a red.

5 . Cobalt -blue.

6 . Chromium— green, yellow, blue.

7 . Gold- as metal, p ink, p urpl ish -grey ; also with

t in in purple of Cassius—purp le or crimson .

8 . Iridium— black, grey.

9 . I ron— red, yellow, brown.

1 0 . Lead— yellows .

1 1 . Manganese— brown,violet.

1 2 . Nickel —used in preparat ion of colors.

1 3 . Platinum—as metal,grey, black.

1 4 . Palladium— grey .

1 5 . S ilver— as metal, used in carmines, purples,y ellows.

1 6. Tin— white, a sort of p ink, also with go ld in

purp le of Cassius.

1 7. Titanium -

yellow.

1 8 . Uran ium—black,yellow.

1 9 . Z inc— improves or modifies many colors"

.

These metals are used as oxides,silicates, alumin

ates,chromates

,chlor ides

,etc.

,and are combined .in

various ways,so producing a great variety of colors,

tints and hues. New p igments or combinationsare discovered from time to time, b ut are generallykept secret as long as possible by the keramist whodiscovers them.

Umbers, S ienna earths and ochres are earth'

s

naturally colored by iron and manganese . .They

are not now much used , the same colors b eingobtained by mixtures.

Calcium might perhaps be added to the above listof metals and metalloids, for its protoxide, lime, as

phosphate, is now often used for white instead ofthe oxide of tin . When so used it must b e chemically pure.

The phosphate or meta-

phosphate of l ime seems

destined in future to play a more important .part in

the manufacture of pottery than it has done hereto.

fore. I t is usually made artificially from bones, but

phosphorite and other natural phosphates of limemight b e used in the preparation of the glaze, oreven of the paste of much fi ne pottery besides Engslish po rcelain . Salvetat gives the following analys isof a natural phosphate from the north of France;Clay and s ilica l ime phosphoric acidcarbon ic acid water and volatile mattersand a trace of oxide of iron. I tmust b e noted

that the phosphatevery,

much increases the fusibilityof feldspar.

In one sense the assertion might be made thatalmost al l the potter

’

smaterials are metals ormetallo ids ; alumina, for example being oxygen and alu

min ium, or in other words is the oxide of alum1n1um.

Potassium and sodium furnish the important alkal ies,potash (hydrated protoxide of potassium) and soda

(hydrated protoxide of sodium), while sil icon and

oxygen make s ilica (sil icic acid), the absolutely es;

sential element in all pottery.

34 Keramics .

ANALYSIS O F SOME

1 . Fe ldspar (orthoclase)a . Feldspar (albite)

5 . Fluorspar.

(Fluor id of Calcium) .

6. Yeou-Ko (washed) green ishrock . .

6. Yeou-Ko (raw) .

Ches ter-lite (or thoclase)Stea t ite (soaps tone)

9. Magnesue (Carbonate ofMagnes ia , Baudisser ite) ”

xc Meer schaum, Sep iolite , hydra ted s ilica te of M agu

fis ia (some t ime s called

es ite)1 1 . Spaing

n

aV llecas)Mecrschaum

xz . Cryo lite , Kryolite

1 3 . Tsuj i chu chi (porce lains tone)

trace

1 3 .09 trace

80 672

1 4 . Shiro-chu- ch i

gwashed 80 920 1 5 . 82 2

15 . Saka ime -chu-chi Japan 8 1 1 4 1 1 4 . 542

1 6. Terre a. porce laine du J apon 75 .09

ALUMINA.

(Soda some

t ime s rep laces par t o f the po tas h .)I I

(A small par tbfthe Soda i s

no t alway s , rep laced by potash and also

Rylime .)

ay be considered pure s ilica : it isvery hard , is infusible and insoluble .

Principally s ilica , w ith a very little '

alumina and oxide of iron .

FluorInc .

64 97 0 2 762 o 33 0 1

Mee r

scha'm

(Nearly alway shas meerschaum init .—Brogn1ar t .)

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36 Keramz'

cs .

ANALYSIS OF SOME

1 7. St . Yrieix1 8. China1 9. Lawrence Co ., Indianano. Golconda, Ill

2 1 . Beauregard,MarhleHill,Mo.

23 . Near South Amboy , N . J . .

2 3 . Montereau tracesThese clays con.

24. Stourbridge (England) tain a very little 7 .72

l potash and soda.

2 5 . Devon (England)

26 Woodbridge ,N . J . .

Mt . Sav qo

Mary land2 7:28. Ballclay ,

Keramz'

cs . 37

or THEPOTTER’S MATERIALS—Continued.

trace

.480

trace

REMARKS .

aolins are generally very refractoryShould

.

they contain 2 or 3 per cen tofalkali s they become s light ly fusible

Nos. 1 9 and 2o .—These are rathe r halloy

s ites than true kaolins,and are objec

t ionable in several respects. princi

pally on accoun t of the shrinkage .

Chauvmet No . 2 1 .- Snow-white clay , from decom

and Blair . position of chert ,which is a term oftenapplied to horns tone and to any im

pure flint rock . This is a remarkably fine oliti for potter

’s use .

Salvetat. No. 23 .—Very good—used in fi ne earth

enware .

Salvetat . No . 24.—Refractory -used for crucib les

fi rebricks , etc.

Salvetat . No . 25 .—Fine earthenware , c . c . ware ,

etc. Compare Wi th Montereau .

Nos . 26, 27, 28.—American clays from

Stategeological survey s . Many clays .

contai n t itanic and phosphoric acidin small quantities .

PART I I .

P ROCESSES OF MAN UFACTURE-i ;

CHAPTER iv.

M A N U F A C T U R E ;

PASTES.

THE Simplest method of using clay would b e to*

we t it with ‘water and fash ion it into vessels whichwhen dried in the sun would.answer for holdinganything dry, such as grain. Thi s 18 done i n some

parts of the world, but such vessels are useless forliquids, as they melt in water. Sun -dried br icks areused extensively - in Mexico

,Egypt, parts of China,

and other trop ical countries, where there is ,not

much rain,and answer well enough. Mounds of

them still exist in Assyria, dating from very remotet imes. The next step, and a very great one

,is to

bake the c lay ; thus changing its composit ion, andrendering vessels made of it insoluble in water , andnot easily affected by acids.

Pas te f B ody— clay mass (Fr. prim- names g iven

! to clay either by itself or when mixed andprepared'

with other ingredients, paste, though dough wouldb e more suitable

,being the word generally used in

books . For the very coarsest pottery, the clay is usedas found, but for most wares the

‘

n atural clay serves38 See note 2 Aooendix B

Manufactu‘

re. 39

as a base for the paste, andvarious matters are added

p roducing combinations which are altered or modifi edin baking. Upon the kind of clay used, ‘ upon theingredients with which it is mixed, and upon the degree of heat to which it is subj ected in baking

,de

pend the product ; and in short, paste may b e re

garded as modified silica. A paste of silica and alu

mina alonewill stand any heat. When there is a verylittle iron, l ime

,etc . , in it, it will still stand a high de

gree of heat without melting. Much iron,l ime

, and

other impuritiesflux the paste at a very low heat, so

that it melts into a shapeless mass. The alkal ieswhich are generally in the paste, as feldspar powderor dust

,have no influence at all at a low heat, but

as soon as the heat is sufficient to melt the feldspar, they often

,with lime, act as very powerful

fluxes . Roscoe classes pottery as an amorphoussilicate.

The following table gi ves in a rough or generalway the ingredients in different kinds of ware . Anystudent interested in this part of the subject willfind fuller tables of pastes, etc. , page 46.

TABLE OF PASTES.

Silica alumi limeSlllca alumi ox- i ron

Silica alumi lime ox- iron alkaliSilica alumi ox- iron Bary ta potash Stoneware .

Silica alumi lime potashS ilica alumi lime sodaSilica alumi Piedmontese an

These and other t omb inati'

ons,singly or together,

40 Kcramzcs .

are infinitely varied in differen t potteries, ,and def

pend, as a rule, more on experience and traditionthan on chemical analysis or se ientifi c rules.

P lastici ty is one of the important qualities of

clay or paste. A Plastic substance is one that can

be fashioned into any shape and will keep it. The

plasticity of clay is in the fi rst place owing to the

p resence of water,for which alumina has a

“ greataffin ity, andalso depends on the fineness of the particles of clay. Too much or too l ittle water takesaway the plasticity, the clay being liquid in the one

case, and a dry powder in the other, though thedryest clay still contains water. Somepastes, suchas that of some soft porcelains, have no natural plasticity, and have to b e mixed with gum,

soap water, _or

something of the kind . Some clays, too, are naturally more plastic than others.

Potters call the more plastic clays or pastes fat orlong, the less plastic, Mor t. If the clay is too plas

tic, the shrinkage is such that the ware i s distorted,

and even cracks in drying, and still more in baking.This can be prevented by in troducingvarious non

plastic and unshrinkable substances. Q uartz, sand,calcined flints, calcined bones, chalk, baked clayor paste well pulver ized (Fr. , a

’

mm t), called“Pitchers

” bypotters, are all used . Sawdust is alsoused, especially in making water - coolers. It burnsout

,leaving spaces between the particles of clay.

The more plastic a paste, the more it shr inks.

In some fine wares great allowancemust bemade

Manufacture.

for inevitable shrinkage,and the arrangement must

be such as will assure contraction towards a com

mon centre This is easy in the case of a simplearticle like a plate, but requires careful calculationin more compl icated forms .

Preparation.—For very

‘

fine wares the following operations are used to a greater or less ex

tent."

The clay is dug up in large masses, which,if necessary, are dried

,and then broken up and

all fragments of stone or coloring matter are

carefully removed . The clay is then put into a

cylindrical or octagonal box (blunger) with i n whichis a shaft armed with strong paddles. Water,

which sho uld be very pure, is added until the

mixture is as thin as cream. This mixing wasformerly done by hand with a kind of

‘

rake. Afterworking it until . clay and water are thoroughly incorpo rated, (in the East this is often done by menor cattle treading the mixture in a tank), the liquidor Slip is drawn off through a series of strainerswhich retain all stones or coarse sand . The straining is continued through Sifters or sieves of closerand closer mesh, until the fineness required is oh

tained, in many cases the final strain ing be ingthrough the finest silk gauze . In other cases the

same result is obtained by the clay being washeddown through a succession of p its or

-

tanks, theheavier parts sinking to the bottom, and only thefiner .particles of clay beingcarr ied on by the water .

Any matters that are to be addedto the clay, such'

42 Keramz’

cs .

as calcined flints, spar, sand, or calcined bones, mustbe ground exceedingly fine. This is done by“methods varying from the excellent machinerymsed in

England and America to the rough water mi lls .o f

the Chinese and Japanese. An z'

mpalpaélepowder is

the result in both cases, b ut in the fo rmer there i sa great saving of labor and material . All thesematters are generally ground in water, as the dustfrom them is very inj urious to the workmen. Thisobjection is obviated in Alsing

’

s dry- gr inding cylin

der mill, used in this country, and which grinds thematerials to the finest powder. The potter generally

,tells if the powder b e fine enough by crunch-s

ing it between his teeth, or by feeling it with his

fingers.

After all the clays and rocky matters are pre

pared, they are sometimes mixed together in a pow

dered s tate ; the usual method, however, being tohave each ingredient mixed with a certain propor

tion of water, so that a quart of one will be equal toa quart of the other

,notwithstanding their varying

densities. Then they are generally allmixed togetherin a machine similar to that already described. waterbeing added until the mixture is like cream,

and

will go through the finest sieve o r gauze . I t Will notdo to leave the l iquid paste or sl ip in this state, as

the heavier parts would soon s ink to the bottomand besides, in this state it has no plasticity . The

slip m ust b e dried until it makes a paste of the

proper consistency.

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44 Keramz'

cs .

spiral. By r epeating this operation several times itis claimed that the same or a better effect is pro~

duced than by treading. All this is not enough forvery fine wares, porcelain for example. Just beforeusing

,the paste for this often undergoes the process

of slapping.”

A man of considerable strengthtakes a lump we ighing some fifty or sixty pounds,and cuts it through with a brass wire. The p iececut off is dashed with the man ’

s utmost strength onthe rest of the mass

,and this is repeated until the

mass is perfectly smooth and close in appearance

wherever it is cut. He then often pounds it witha mallet. If all this is done well

,the incorporation

of one part of themass with the other‘

is so thoroughthat coloring matter placed in one part will b eequally diffused throughout the whole mass. I t

also drives out the air, which is of the utmost importance, as a bubble woul d expand in the baking andruin the wa-

re. Wedging now generally takes the

place of the picturesque operation of slapping, butstill in the finest wares nothing seems entirely totake the place of

‘

hand work . The paste of hard porcelain is

,after this, often made up into con ical

forms which are dried and then made into thin shav‘

a

ings on a lathe,and then put again through the same

processes. I t is claimed that this makes an excellent

paste, less liable to crack or warp . A portion of old

paste is also almost . invariably mixed with thenew.

Ripening (Fr.,-paw n },lit. rot) . -The paste, and

I

.Manufacture. 45

in some cases, the clay, is often put into pits or cellars to temper, or else it is allowed to lie for years in

pits exposed to the weather to ripen . The paste is

keptmo ist, and in some cases ismixed with very im

pure water, so as to ferment and putrefy ; some potters being of opin ion that this tends materially to ihcrease the homogeneousness of the mass. In Chinathe paste is always kept for many years

,a rather

absurd etymology of porce lain being that it is der ived from pour cent années, as the paste was

kept for that length of time, andwas often preparedby men for their remote descendants.

Many wares do not go through all these processes,bricks and coarse earthenware and stoneware onlyhaving the stones and other impurities p icked out,

and be ing e ither kneaded or trodden, or else putthrough the wedging-mill

,and then used. The finer

the'ware the more elaborate the preparationof the

paste .

46 [Commit

TABLE OF PASTES.

KINDS or Por '

ranv .

Sof t Body or Pa ste .

1 . Pe ruvian 57 04 I O 332 . Madagascan .

3 . Canipanian (h alo-Greek)

4. Etruscan c o o - o 14 044

5 . Roman (red) Luxembourg. 54 39

6. Roman (gray) .6f 58

7 . Black, Gallic .62 2 2

8. Spain , modern . l r 53 -04

9. Portugal , modern . 54 .02

1 0 . Coars e Ear thenware .

1 1 .

1 2 . Lueca dellaRobbia(majolica)1 3 . De lft Ware 49 07

48 5 41 5 . Rouen 47 96

Ha rd Body .

1 6. Palissy

1 7. Henri I I (F. d'Oiron) 59 1 0

1 8. Luneville ( terre de pipe) .

Very HardBody . (Fi ne Emit}:enu ia r e .)

1 9. Creil

ao..Mint-ou (England)a t . Wedgw ood

g

(England) .

2

Var Ha rd Bodauxhall (w irish) .

23 .Wedgewood (yellowish ,

lazed)24 . C inese

, (reddish-brown ,dglazed)

2 5 . Japanese(reddish-brown ,uglazed) .

3 1 . 20

Either not pres

them.

traces

traces

0 0 0 0

3 -24

8-45

0 0 0 .

-o . 7s

. 0“

04 4 0

C . .

Keramz'

cs . 47

TABLE OF PASTES.

ANALYSES PRINCIPALLY r aou SALvirrA'

r AND

BaocmAar .

ball- clay pas te. Most of his pot

glaze .

w ith a lit tle kaolin in i t,and

itt le iron , etc.

Old- fashi ball-clay body ear thenware ; often w ith tin glaze to make itharder.

Modern French flint-body , fine earthenware,8 made on English recipes .

3 Modern English flint-body , fi ne earthenware .

0 Modern En lish fl int-body , when glazed wi th“3a soft leadglaze , this is much l ike the oldc. c. ware.

Iron-body .

Iron paste ; these soften in the heat of thehard porcelain kiln .

carcely baked at all ; unusually low proport ion of s ilica .

oft,marl-body lime ,p robab ly as silicate . Thi

is the gen eral compos it ion of the fines t po t. teries of this class , very old. Some t imeswith lus trous glaze, now proved to be com

posed of s ilica and alkal i wi th oxide of ironor lime , tran sparent glazes , sometimes black,probably irid ium.

Many analy ses of this Etruscan po t tery upon

great similarity , probably all made by aboutsame recipe .

Not baked enough to dr ive out the carbon;ver low heat .ery ow heat .ery low heat .hese were analyzed before baking ; onl well

gric

t

led, which accoun ts for the water ; al lime

o

Lime ody this takes t in glazes very well .Lime -body .

Lime-body ; often has a borax glaze from tincal.Limeo body .

TABLE or PASTES.—Coiztz’nued.

Kmns o r Por nmr.

Very Ha rdBody . (Porcela im u)

2 6. Nymphenburg (Bavaria)

2 7. Meissen traces

alka

28.

29. Sevres30 . China (first quality)

3 1 . Japan (Eggshell ware)

32 . Japan (th ick body porcelain)

33 . Piedmon t (near

34. Worcester

35 . Sevres (oldpaste , about 1 760)

36. Sevres (about

37. Tournay .traces

38.

I .

Kemmz‘

os . 49

TABLE or PASTES.

3 ANALYSES PRI NCIPALLY PROM SALt AT h isin

3 BROGNAIRT .

CDANALYST.

5 8 trace Laurent

30

Wurtz

Wurtz

wa ter.

ime porcelain , no feldspar is used, b ut a gooddeal of lime . Roscoe gives Passau kaolin,1 00 ; Bodemais quartz , 40 ; marble ( lime) , 1 0.Brogn iar t and Prosse lgive psum ,

not mar

b le '

the alkalis come from t e undecomposedfeldspar in the kaolin , or from the sand . Thelaze is an aluminous lime lass .

ere is also‘

made a hard ody with a leadglaze . This is for decorat ive purposes .

The Chinese glaze s have a large proportion oflime , at leas t 34 , and are more fusible ththe European glazes .

Washed t5 1ji—chu-chi , 70 p . c. Washed shirechu-chi , 30 p . c. For analysis of these clayssee tab le , cha 3 .

Washed shiro-clin-chi, 50 p . c. Washed Sakaime- chu- ch i, 50 p . c . These porcelainsare very silicious , and are more fusible thanthe European .

A similar porcelain is made in Spain’

. Seetable , chap . 3 .

The old English porcelains had fl int-glass lazes , the modern have borax or boric aci inthe laze . N0 available modern analyses .Frit te body , flin t -glass glaze , ve soft

“

andvery br illian t . Soft porce lain wil also takea lime-glass glaze .

t it ted body ,the

,soft porcelain made at Lim

oges , on much the same recipe , has sometimes a borax glaze .

A very good ware , stronger than the Sevre s ,and su ited to household '

use ; also good fOrdecorat ion.

his is the analy sis of an opa ue , fritted'

paSte ,which , when suffi cient ly ba ed, p roduces a

real translucent porcelain, having gen'

er'

ally’

a silica - alkali glaze .

In porcelain pas tes , as in all o thers , the proortions vary s lightly at different times , but

never vary to any great exten t .

Keram225 .

I t mu st b e "

noted that the above are analyses, notrecipes. Suppose a potter wished to make the pas teanalyzed as No . 1 9. (See list.) This is a fine earthenware made at Montereau or Creil, France. The

potter would not take so much pure silica, so much

pure alumina,etc., but obtains the desired result by

takingMontereau clay (almost entirely free from iron) .

Alb erstone clay .

English Kaolin .

Limoges Feldspar '

.

Ground flints or Q uartz

The glaze for'

this is very complicated.

F eldspar (s ilica , alumina, a lka lz’

es)Carbonate of lime .

M iniumLimeGround or pulverized oxide of leadl This

flisall melted together, forming a glass , which is then

I

“mixed with the following,and finely pulverized in water:

Above-mentioned glass (which is fusible)Feldspar (more alkali)

‘ Ground quartz or flints

Some recipes . are even more compl icated . In some

case s the desired result is obtained by mixing different clays. I t is interesting to observe in how

many different ways pretty much the same result isultimately reached .

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52 Keramz'

cs.

Most pottery, however, is made on the Potter’s

W hee l, which is of great antiquity, the figures on

the Ben i Hassan tombs in Egypt showing that it hasbeen in use for at least 4000 years. Birch says :The appl ication of clay to the making of vessels

probably caused‘

the invention of the Potter’sWheel (Fr. ,

tour dpotz'

er), before which only vesselsfashioned by the 'hand, and of rude, unsymmetricalshape, could have been made. But the applicationof a circular. lathe

,laid hor i zontally and revolving

on a central p ivot, on which the claywas placed, andto which it adhered, was in its day a truly wonderful advance in the art. As the wheel spun round

,

all combinations of oval, spherical , and cylindricalforms could b e produced, and the vases becamenoton ly symmetrical in their proportions, but true

'

in

their capacity.“The invention of the wheel has been ascribed

to all the great nations of antiquity . I t IS repro

sented in full activi ty 1n the Egyptian sculptures ; itis mentioned in the Scriptures, and was certainly inuse at an early period in Assyria. The GreeksandRomans attributed it to a Scythian philosopher, andto the states of Athens

,Corinth and S icyon , the

three great rivals in the keramic art. The very oldestvases of Greece

,some of which are supposed to

have been made 1n the heroic ages, bear marks of

having been turned on the wheel . Indeed it 15 not

possible to fi nd any Greek vases, except those

made by the wheel'

or moulds,which latter process,

Mdkufactzére. 53'

was appl ied only at a late per iodto the i r production.

History of Ancient Pottery.i '

Potter’

s W heel. - The most common form of

the potte'

r’

s wheel consists of a spindle finished at

its lower end in the form of a po inted p ivot restingo n a hard substance on which it can easily revolve ;the upper end furnished with a bead or small plafl

form,on which the lump or ball of clay i s placed .

Between the head and the pivot is fixed a horizon tald isk or wheel of large diameter, which acts as a flvWheel

,and keeps the spindle in motion for a long

t ime: The wheel is put in motion either by means

of a. treadle worked by the potter himself, or by'

another man,or else

,as in most large potteries, ste

'

am

power is used . The form of the wheel var ies slightlyaccordin g to the power used in driving it. Suchwheels as that shown in the frontisp iece, and whichmay b e regarded as typical, may b e found almost

'

anywhere ; th is one is drawn directly from that ofa working potter in Philadelphia.

The processes for shapingarticles vary w ith theirform and with the state Of the paste, and principallycons i st of Throw ing, Press ing,

and Cas tingThrowmg i s performed on such a wheel as justdescr ibed, and i s u sed for hollow vessels. The potter

places a ball shaped lump of paste on the l ittle platform

,and as it rapidly revolves, he, wi th his fingers .

and awet sponge, and perhaps some Simple tools,

fashions it into the shape that he desires ; first _mak

ing the lump into a cone,then forcmg it down into

“

KeramzZs .

a heap again ; then thrusting in his thumbs and hollowing i t out

,he runs it up into a sort of hollow cone ;

then b y hands, sponge, and proper tools, s hapes andfin ishes it off. The paste seems to take the desired .

forms b y'

magic, and the work of the thrower looksvery easy to do, but in real ity it is very difficult todo well . Good throwers have to b e trained

,gener

ally from their boyhood, particularly for the makingof delicate ware of any kind . When the p iece isfin ished, the thrower cuts it from the top of. the

wheel by slipping beneath it a brass wire . Sometimes

,while the outside of the article i s still rough,

and only the inside smooth and finished, the throwersets it aside to dry, andmakes others like it. Then

prepar ing a mass of paste as a mould on which he

p laces his vessel upside down, he fin ishes off the out-I

side with a tool resembling those used in turningwood .

The thrower in old times made and finished inthis way all sorts of vessels, in fine as well as incoarse ware ; and when , as was often the case

,he

was a man of true artistic feel ing, he could impresshis individuality upon his work from beginn ing toend. Now-a days in fine wares the above operationsare divided ; the thrower only fin ishes off the inside.and another man does the fin ishing or lathing, on a

,

horizontal lathe, very like the ordinary turn ing- lathe(potter

’

s lathe,Fr. tour anglai

'

s). Smal l inc ised ornaments are alsomade by lathes and too ls such as areused by metal workers . In some cases the paste,

Manufacture. 55

:after being dried until very hard , or even afterlbaking, is entirely fin ished On the lat-he . Old Sevresi rcelain was made in thi s way, and the same fin ishi s appl ied to the Chinese and Japanese pastes.

T he former nation certainly had th'

e'

lathe in coma

imo'

n use as early as the thirteenth century. I t is veryd iffi cult to make p ieces exactly al ike on the wheel,and the result depends on the skill of the potter ;t herefore to insure un iformity

,other and more

m echan ical methods are used .

Press ing— In order to make fiat pieces, such as‘

plates and dishes, the workman, called a press” ,

takes a p iece of paste,, beats and slaps it to ex

pel the a ir, and rolls it out, or beats it into a thin

layer. In some cases the paste is flattened out bymeans of much such a roll ing-pin as a

‘cook uses inmaking pie- crust ; only instead of putting the flattened paste into the plate, the workman places it ona mould of the inside of the plate turned upsidedown . In fine wares great precaution must b e usedin lifting the paste, it being generally rolled out in a

p iece of soft leather. The mould with the paste onit is then p laced on the head of the wheel, which inthis case is called a J igger, and consists simply of

a sp indle resting on its po int, and provided with ahead on which the moulds are placed. If the j iggeris not moved by machinery the workman e itherkeeps it inmotion with his left hand, ormore generallyhas a boy to turn. it. He presses the bottom of the

“

plate with an instrument cal led aprofile, or rib, which

§6 Keramz’

cs.

is sometimes permanently fixed in i tswhich gives the exact profile of the outside of theplate,while the pressure reduces the layer of paste to the

necessary thickness. The pressing is repeated at

least twice . The”

plates are allowed to dry a l ittlewhile

,and then have consistency enough to be taken

off the mould and smoothed off inside, and if neces'

sary fin ished off more sharply and del icately.

Cast ing—Large p ieces, and many small ones, arenow generallv made in moulds of plaster of Paris

,

giving the shape and sometimes the ornaments of

the outside of one-hal f of the vessel . In making,say, a

‘

pitcher, the workman takes a p iece of.

paste,

Spreads it out in a thin layer, then lays it'

i'

n the hol

low mould,and with a wet sponge forces it into all

the depressions thereof,being careful -to

"keep ituniform in thickness. This process is repeated forthe other half. The two halves, and often a p iecefor the bottom

,are now put together and fastened

strongly, the place where they join being wetted withs lip, and pressed and smoothed over. The p lastermould soon absorbs the surplus water, and the

paste is consistent enough to enable the p itcher tob e l ifted out and set away to dry .

~Nomatter how

Care fully the two parts are joined,and the Seam

smoothed over inside and out, the l ine of junctionwill show after baking ; therefore, in fine ware, the

posnion of this line i s of“

considerable importance.

P laster mou lds are a comparatively recent invention; themanner inwhich -

'

this s‘ubstance -ab sorb is

Manufactare.

water rendering it peculiarly suitable. These mouldshave almost entirely superseded thosemade of bakedclay andmetal ; though bronze moulds are stil l usedfor some k inds of crucibles, and small metal mouldsfor ornaments. The Chinese use moulds of driedc

Handles, spouts, and sometimes raised ornaments,are moulded separately, and are fastened on b y slip.

If the handles are oramented they are pressed inmoulds, and the workman has to b e very carefu l notto b end or distort them. Plain round or flat handlesare made by the paste being forced in long stripsthrough holes of the required shape, and are thencut to the proper length and stuck on with slip .

Casting—For very thin ware, p laster moulds are

used, made in one, two, or many more p ieces‘fitted

very neatly together, and held firmly in place by anou ter mould inclosing all. Paste in the form of verythin slip, is poured in to this mould ; the slip soon ad

heres to the absorbent plaster, and the deposit rap

idly increases in thickness. When the potter j udgesthat the deposit is suffi ciently thick, he pours out theextra slip ; and when the layer of paste has driedand contracted, the mould is carefully removed .

Compressed air is often forced into the mou ld inordei to compress the paste, and give it suffi cientconsistency. Without this precaution very thinvases made in this way are apt to fall to p ieces.

This method 1 5 especially well adapted to the mak é‘

ingof ware that requ ires very delicate and neat exe‘

58 Keramz'

cs .

cution, and is now used in making very thin , cups ;

these a re made in a mould,and the foot is afterwards

put on . The handles,too, of the egg

-shell ware are

sometimes hollow,and are moulded in the same

way by liquid slip . They must b e s

stuck o n with“

the greatest care. This same method is also usedfor very large and thick vessels

,the thickness bei ng

obtained by repeated layers of slip.

Moulds of the same nature as the aboveare used for figures, animals, etc. ,

and are then oftenentirely closed up, excep t openingsfor the admi ssionof the slip, and .for the escape of the air. Porcelainbuttons are also made in moulds by machinery.

Openwork or basket ware of any kind is generallymoulded solid, and then the spaces are cut out

with a kn ife in the hands of a very skillful workman

,or rather workwoman . When vessels, such as

jugs and tea-

pots, bowls, etc. ,are made double

,and

the outer case ret iculated or cut into openwork

patterns, the inner shape of the vessel is first made,then the outer shell is put in place, and slip is used onall the points of contact. This operation is verydelicate, as bo th pastes must be of the same drynessor consistency, otherwise they will not contractequally. The ou ter shell is then cut into

‘

the

wished - for pattern , without allowing the point of theknife to touch the inner shell . This does not applyto the delicate lacework and imitations of lace seen

on porcelain or biscuit figures. Inmost cases-the

production of this, diffi cult as it looks, is very ,easy.

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Keramz’

cs .

poured; when these become as hard as the bodyof the tiles,

“

the surface is made smoo th and

level with a steel scraper , which removes all the

superfluous material, til l the colors are shown standing neatly side by side with the greatest precision

(Arnoux).The making of Arch itectural O rnaments ,

F igures , and Bas -re l iefs has always been and

is now an important branch of the potter’

s art.

Figures,large and small

,are modelled by hand

in clay, and baked , being e ither glazed or left

p lain. The value of these consists in the beautyof the workmanship, and of the design

,which

may raise them into the region of the highestart. I n modelling figures dest ined to b e baked,it is necessary to add pounded baked clay, sand,or some other short substance to the clay ; thislessens the plasticity of the clay, b ut rendersit

,

more difficult to model . Such figures,when

well done,'

have a great charm,coming as they

do directly from the artist’s hands,without going

through any intermediate processes. In.an ele

men tary work like this, it is not possible morethan to glance at the above mentioned wonders of

keramic art,some of which indeed seem hardly to

come under the head of pottery.

All of the processes described , and many more,

vary in different countries,according to the different

wares, and also according as mach inery is more or

less used. Each potte-r has his own methods. The

Manufacture. 6 t

perfection of all the mechan ical part of the workis found in England and America, where there areall kinds of ingen ious lathes and other machinesfor shaping, turn ing, ornamenting, and smoothing offthe wares. At Sevres and at the other great porcelain

potteries, wonderfully ingen ious con tr ivances, whichat the same time lare f

-

“

usually . very simple, are em

ployed for shap ing the inside and outside of vesselsand figures

,and for applying ornamen ts of various

kinds . The best way thoroughly to understand all

of the above, is to visit a large pottery, such as

those at Tren ton, N . J . Greenpoint , N. Y. ,East

Liverpool, Ohio , or others. Once seeing the various

processes stamps them on the mind as no description can possibly do. I f this is not practicable, anycommon pottery where flower -

pots or crockery aremade

,will b e foundvery picturesque and interest

ing to see .

To return to the ware : After it has left the potter

’

s hands, the articles, if moist, are taken to the

drying stove or closet. Here they are placed on

shelves, general ly of plaster, in a temperature of

about 1 25 ° F . ,unti l they are hard enough to b e

easil y handled ; then they are e ither baked andfin ished without any glaze, or else first slightly baked,soft or easy b i scu i t

”

(Fr., f az

’

ble and

then glazed ; orthoroughly baked, biscuit or b isqueware (Fr. , bisem

'

i), and then glazed: or they are,

baked and gl azed at the same time"

.

CHAPTER VI .

MANUFACTURE.

GLAZ ING.

Biscuit. —The baked but unglazed ware is calledb iscuit or bisque ware

,a s ingularly inappropriate

"term,

meaning, as it does, twice baked . All earthenWare biscuitsare porous and absorbent

,as is also the

soft or easy biscuit of porcelain .

‘

Thoroughly baked

porcelain b i scuit and unglazed stoneware are im

pervious to liquids ; but, except in a few cases,are

glazed .

Glaz ing—or glas'

smg,i s simply covering theware

with a thin coat of natural or artificial glass, so ren

dering it impervious to liquids. I t is diffi cult to'

make a good glaze, as one that seems good at firstmay crack after months or even years have elapsed .

‘

Glazes must vary so that their fusibility may bemore or less, according tothat of the ware on whichibey are placed . They must also dilate and

contract in the same proportion as the ware, or elsethey will crack, or as i t i s technically called

“craze .

”

As a rule, very“

siliceous wares ‘

are'

easier to"

glazethan those with a large proportion of alumina.

62

Manufacture. 6

The substances most used for glazes are feldspar, kaolin, quartz, sand , lime i n various forms,borax, and bor ic acid , sea- salt, potash and soda

,

fluorspar, ochres, the oxides of lead, of man

ganese, and'

of iron, and the oxide of tin. The

o

'

xides of all metals will combine with silica and

alkal i to form glass, but few will answer on ac

count of their imparting color to the glass madefrom them. M in ium and l itharge, both oxides

of lead, are powerful fluxes at a comparatively low

temperature, and make a colorless glass, whichon “

account of its cheapness, is much used in glaz

ing.

-When ‘

there is an excess of lead, the glassis yellowish, and the lead is also easily dissolved outof it. Flint glass or crystal is composed of s ilica

(siliceous or flint sand), min ium (red lead), and car

bonate ‘

of potash, andw hen wel l made is hard and

br ill ian t,and has only a small proportion of lead in

it. This,with often the addition of borax, is essen

tially the composition of the glaze for the finerearthenwares and some porcelains. The coarse

earthenwares are o ften glazed with a glass containing an excess of lead

,which melts easily

,and is

therefore used on wares baking at a low temperature.

I t is very unwholesome, and is.

easily scratched.

Glass can bemadewithout lead; crown . glass is madeof -

sil ica,the carbonates of potash and soda and

quick - l ime. The‘

pegmatite or Cornish stone,and

the. zfeldspar used as the. glaze of hard porcelain,may b e considered a natural glass,formed by s ilica,

64’

Keramz‘

es .

‘

alumina, potash , and soda. I t requires -

a great heatto melt into a glass

,which is never perfectly c lear.

Lime augments the fusibility of feldspar, and ' is Sometimes added to it on that account. Fluorspar,WhiCh‘

is nearly all lime, and is very fusible“

,is also used .

B orax and oorz'

e acid are Comparat ively modern additions to the list of glaze m aterials, and greatly ihcrease the lustre and the hardness of the glaze, besides improving the colors placed ou it, and also im

proving the color of the paste. Sea- salt is used inglazing stoneware. The proportions of the differentingredients vary with every manufacturer, and

many make a great secret of their particular glazei

(See Chap. IX ., page

For all ordinary glazes the mater ials are groundto a fi ne powder, the finer the powder the more lti

'

s

trous the glaze,and are mixed with , water -to a

cream- like consistency,a l ittle vinegar

"

beinggenerally added to prevent the precipitation of the heaviermatters. This mixture is used wi thout any further

preparat ion .

Fritting— If, however, any salt,

. soluble in

water, such as borax,nitre or soda

,b e used, then all

or part of the ingredients are firstmelted together intp‘

glass, which is run in to cold water, breaking it'

up'

into fragments:‘

This is called af r i'

fl . The fii tt is

then pul verized , and, if necessary, the insolub lematerials are added; The ware, when ab sorbent

‘

or

porous, is simply dipped into this glaze-l iquid;The water is rapidly absorbed, and a thin " coat: oi '

Manufacture. 65

powder i s left on the surface,looking as i f the ware

was covered with powdered sugar . Any placesremain ing bare are coated with a brush , and the

glaze is wiped off the p ieces where they came incontact with the seggars. When the paste is not

porous other methods must b e used . The glazeliqu i d is sometimes made very thick, and a little isdipped up inside the vessel . The vessel is thenmoved in different d irections ti ll it is covered. The

outside is sometimes coated in the same way, or else,the vessel being of a suitable shape, is dipped intothe glaze - l iqu id so that it j ust reaches the rim without flowing into the inside . This is often donewhen the inside is to be glazed adifferentcolor fromthe outside, and some dexteri ty i s required to oh

tain an even coating.

*The glaze is also put on

with a brush, or by blowing through a tube, the end

of which is covered with fine gauze, or the glazemater ials in p owder are dusted over the ware.

This latter process is also used for very coarseearthenwares in which glaze and paste are onlybaked once. For classification of glazes see Chap.

IX . The ware,being glazed , is taken to the kilns.

I n many cases after dipping in the glaze-liquid,and

before the second baking, en ti re dryness is assuredby subjecting the p ieces for a while to a gentleheat

See note 3 , Appendix B.

CHAPTER VII.

MANUFACTURE.

KILNS AND BAKING.

Kilns .—The main essential of a pottery kiln is

that the heat be equally distributed all over. I t is

also essential that the smallest possible amount offuel b e used . In these, and

’

in other respects, greatimprovements have been made of late years. The

kilns often are somewhat the shape of the old- fashioned b ee-hives

,or else have cone- shaped stacks.

They are often in two stor ies. O thers, again , havestraight sides and arched tops, while in Englandthey are generally a low, vaulted chamber, with acone- shaped stack . In very rough pottery bakingthere is no regular kiln at all

, the pots themselvesbeing p iled up on a sort of floor and arranged to letthe flames play over and through them.

*Pyrometers .

—Heat-measur ing instruments . One

of the great difficulties in baking is in estimatingtcorrectly the degree of heat. So far, no instrumentinvented has been completely satisfactory

,the py

rometers of Wedgwood and Brongniart being theonesmost quoted . Both are good in some respects, but

66 See note 4, Appendix B.

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Keramics .

carefully stopped up when not in use so as not to

allow any cold air to enter.

Fuel . - In old times wood,well dried , but not too

dry, was alwaysused, b ut charcoal, coal, coke, l ignite ,peat - and gas have been and are used in differen tcountries. Coal is now general ly used in Europeand America

,andwood in China and Japan .

*

Seggars . (F r . eazettes.)— Valuable wares, whenready to bake, are generally placed in seggars, boxesof hard pottery, fusible only at a higher temperaturethan the objects they contain, and oval

,cylindr ical

or square in shape. The manufacture of seggars isan especial and important branch of po ttery . Verylarge potteries, however, often make

'

their own seg

gars. The seggar for some wares, porcelain, for examp le, must b e able to stand intense heat

,andmust

not have anything in its composi tion, such as sand,

which would burst with the heat and fall on the

ware,nor must it evolve injurious vapors. The in

side of the seggar is sometimes partially glazed toavoid dust, b ut above all to avoid sucking or absorbing the glaze from the ware. Old seggars are the

best, and even after they are broken,the p ieces are

fastened together for use . After the seggars are

properly packed, they are piled up,‘

the bottom of one

forming the top of the other ; a roll or readofclay being

placed where they meet, so that no vapor can pene

trate. Each seggar is practically a smal l oven . The

p iles of seggars, called bungs, must b e far enough

apart to allow the free circulation of theheat, so thatSee note 5 , Appendix B.

Manufacture. 69

all are equally heated ; nevertheless, there are alwayssome parts of the kiln hotter than others, andhere are

placed the p ieces requiring the greatest heat. Somekilns are- so arranged that two bakings can go on at

the same time, one requir ing less heat than the other,such kilns being generally in two stories. Platesand all flat p ieces require less heat than hollow ware.

The length of time required in baking depends eu

tirely on the kind ofware,fi ne earthenwares taking

about 60 to 75 hours for biscu it, and 20 to 35 glaze ;English or bone porcelain about the same artificialor fritted porcelain from 80 to 1 00 biscuit, 30 glazehard porcelain 20 to 50 hours for paste and glaze ;stoneware from 48 hours to a week. Care must b etaken to cool the ware very gradually, and to

admit'

the cold air with great precaution, or” the

pottery will crack or break in p ieces—dun? or

s/ziver .

Br icks , tiles, and some kinds of common earthenware and stoneware, are

'

often merely piled up

in the kilns,and the fi re plays directly on them.

If necessary to preven t the upper p ieces fromcrushing or distorting the lower by their weight,l ittle supports of fi re - clay are used, or else a kind ofshelves . This same method of supporting i s oftenused in the fi r st baking or sof t biscuit of porcelainand other fine wares ; only then the pieces are verycarefully propped up. The wares

,and what they

rest on,and the inside of the seggars, are generally

sprinkled with fl int sand, or with powdered baked

K'

cranzics .

clay,to prevent the p ieces sticking, just as a

cook uses flour.

Pottery when glazed must b e packed or placed

with t he greatest care in seggars or kilns,which are

then .

‘

called Gloss -ovens . The p ieces are sup

ported and held apart by l ittle fi reclay instru

ments or props, which from their shape derivesuch names as p ins or t/zimoles

, molenes, cock- spurs,tr iangles or stilts . Formerly, the workmen p inchedthese into shape with their fingers ; now,

they are

much better made from steel d ies by machinery, theedges and poin ts in all cases be ing made as sharp as

possible. Sometimes they project from the s ides ofthe seggars

,and the plates hang or are slung upon

them; sometimes they are l ittle tripods supportingthe p ieces on three sharp po in ts . Care is taken to

have the po int of contact as small as possible ; nevertheless

,three small unglazed points can always b e

found on the under s ide or on the extreme borderof

, plates and o ther articles supported in this way.In , old- fash ioned, and in Chinese wares, these pointsare often . large and rough

,bu t in the best factories

of to -day they are ground off and the place o ften

pol ished by mach inery. Hard porcelain ,even when

glazed, generally stands on its base, o r else up side

down ,and the glaze is wiped off the rims before put

ting it in the oven . Earthenware, fi ne and coarse, as

well as some fi ne biscuits,is almost always slung

from thimbles or p ins from the sides of the seggars.

The above methods only apply to wares that do

Manufacture. 71

not soften or soften very little in the last baking.I t is evident that only a stifi p late could have itswhole we igh t supported on three slender pointswithout bending. Wares that soften require the

most minute precau tions, and have supports or set

ters of the same shape, or are held in shape by otheringen ious contrivances . When glazed

,the difficulty,

naturally,is still greater . The old S ‘

evres soft porcelain was a most diffi cult ware to bake ; the pastewas very expensive, and yet had to b e used for thesupports, which could only b e used once. All

ware requiring such precautions must necessarily bevery cost ly.The packingof . kilns

,gloss- ovens, or seggars, and

the p il ing in to bungs of the latter, is of the greatestimportance in all cases

,as

,if there is any de fect in the

'

work,the whole batch may be spoiled . Skilful and

experienced workmen are requ ired , and the man

who is a good placer, . that is,who can pack seggars

very full with safety, is a valuable than in a pottery.

CHAPTER VIII .

DECORATION IN GENERAL.

Decoration - Some pottery is so beautiful andpure in form,

and so del icate in texture that it

seems superfluous to decorate it at all. Neverthe

less, after beingmade into forms more or less good,

potterygenerally is decorated . The decoration may

be effected by applying plain or colored ornamentsin

’

rel ief, or by stamp ing, inlaying, or incising, and

may b e either glazed or,

unglazed . These methodshave been used by nearly all nations, and from the

earliest times. Man is so fond of color that he usesit on almost everything, and to the operation of thisgeneral law pottery is no exception . Even amongsavage races, the effort is made to add to the valueof the vessel by ornamenting it w ith colored sub

stances . When actual colors are not used, light anddark tints or shades are employed, so as to give playand variety to the surface .

Pottery may b e decorated by colors mixed withoil or varnish, but this is not true keramic decoration

,and would be utterly destroyed by a very low

72

Decoration in“

General . 73

degree of heat, and also by many o i ls, acids and

o ther agents.The colors or paints used in decorating po ttery

a re especially prepared, and are practically indest ructible. The fact that all such colors must b eable to bear a high temperature, effectually ex

cludes all an imal and vegetable pigments, and on lyallows the use of metals or of colors der ived fromthem . (For list see Chap. III . , page These are

'

generally spoken of simply as the Ox ides of the

various metals . The oxides are sometimes mixedwith the paste of fine ware, such as porcelain or fi ne

stoneware.

*Much-

pottery is ‘colored by the pres

ence of oxides of iron in the clay. The co lor ingmatter is also combined with earthy or with glassymaterials . In all cases it is necessary that the colorsused

,whether incorporated with the paste, or

laid on the surface,should

,when baked, remain uni

changed in hue, or else should change in a manner

defin ite and predetermined . Also , that when ap

piled on the surface,they should adhere firmly to

the body of the ware, and that when applied on the

glaze they should in most cases be as glossy as theglaze .

E ngob e or slip—When colors are mixed with

earthy matters this name is given to them. Someslips, such as the ochres

,are natural mixtures

,and

require little preparation . In o thers the co lor ismixed with awhite clay. The

'

same name is givento a coat ing of white clay laid over coarse or colored

See notes 5 , 7, 8, Appendix B.

74 Keramics.

pastes to conceal them,and to give a good surface

for decoration, and sometimes in order‘

to econo

mize the tin - glaze,which is not a slip, but an en

amel glaze (see majol ica). S lips of various colorscan b e used on the same article

,and a slip can be

e ither glazed or left unglazed . Slips or engobes,generally without a glaze over them, have beenused at all times, and on almost all potteries ; at

p resent, however, owing to the great improvementsin the texture and whiteness of pastes, they are not

needed to hide the color of the paste of fi ne pot

teries. Much of the Wedgwood ware has a coloredsl ip laid over a white body . This is o ftener seen inlater specimens of the ware

,as the earlier ones

are almost invariably of one color throughout the

paste. The term slip (diluted paste) can also b e

used to designate all appl ications of clays or pastesto the body of the ware, such , for example, as theméthode Laurin

,and pate- sur -

pate—Méthode

Laurin—peinture emaillc’

e (lit. glazed painting),Limoges Sty le . (For origin see Chap . X . , mezza

majo lica.) In this the decorat ion is done by meansof coloring matter

*mixed with thin paste . Thisgives a good body to the paints, so that they canb e used with bristle brushes, and the painting isdone much as in oil painting. S l ip -

paintingwou ld seem to b e a good English name for thismethod and its various modifications, the terms

Which may be either with or without a flux.

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76 Keramics .

In this country people generally speak of all sl ippai nting as Limoges style, or decoration, although thestyle as now used at Limoges really originated atBourg- la-Reine (See Chap . X .) The best work ofthis k ind is done in France by good artists, and the

co lors,no matter how much fused or run together by

the baking or glazing, must b e harmon ious . Many

p’

eop le seem to imagine that the beauty of such

work consists of the jumbling up of a mass of colorwi thout any sense in it. On the contrary, in the

best work the pain ting is done with the greatest

r'

i

'

icety, with especial reference to the after effect desired: Much poor work is sent over here and sold atlarge pr ices. Attempts that, it is to b e hoped , willbe successful , are being made to introduce this or

analogous methods of decoration in several p laces inth is country. (See Chap . XVI .)Pate- sur-Péte (lit , paste on paste) is the name

by which slip painting on porcelain is best known inthis country. Cr u - sur -cr u andpdtes d

’

application are

other French names for th is, which has no distinc~

tive English name . At Sevres, about 1 847, M . Rio

creux was struck by the decoration on a Chinese

porcelain vaSe . This was decorated with raisedornaments in translucent paste . He showed it toM . Ebelmen ,

the chemist,who discovered a method

for'

its reproduction . M . Robert, director at Sevres,has still further improved on this process, andmost

beautiful work is done, in both hard and soft porcelain . Inmost cases, in hard porcelain, the ground

Decoration in General. 77

alone is colored and the figures or ornaments are invery translucent white, b ut sometimes both are

colored. Only a very few colors are available,on

accoun t of the high degree of heat requ i red in firing.The effects caused by the translucent paste are won

‘

derfully beautiful . In soft porcelain'

the range of

color is naturally much greater . This method hasbeen transmitted to the Engl ish by M . Solon M iles.

M . SolOn had some work at our Centenn ial Exhib it ion

,in which the decoration,

con sisting for the most

part of floating figures modelled or rather painted inthin , wh ite, h ighly-fluxedpaste or slip on the co loredbody gave rise to very del icate aer ial effects.

All work of this nature,when it comes directly

from the artist’s.

hands; must always b e very,

precious.

The other method of app lying‘

color to the sur

face of pottery is by mixing it with a transparentglass or flux ; which may b e e ither natural or artificial

,and when baked melts and fi rmly fasten s the

color to the ware. The pr incipal ingredients forfluxes used e ither singly or m ixed, are very muchthe same as those for glazes, and are quartz, feldspar,borax, n itre, the carbonates of potash and of soda,min ium, litharge and the oxide of bismuth

,mak ing

a glass which should be more or less fusible accord

ing to the fusibility of the color, and of the su rfaceto wh ich it is to b e appl ied . As the p igmen ts usedvary in their chemical nature and combination s, theadjustment of the proper flux to its color is a

'

mat ter

‘

78 Keramics .

of great delicacy,and requires knowledge

, skill andexperi ence.

In many cases it is impossible to tell why a fluxmade with a particular sand or feldspar shou ld b ebetter than one made with materials apparentlychemically identical, but so it is. For clearness andconven ience we will call all colors so preparedfluxed paints.

F luxed Paints may b e subdivided into E nam

els and Vitrifiab le Pa ints . This distinction isnot generally ‘

observed in speaking of them, the

terms being used indiscriminately ; and although thedistinction may not b e of much practical value, it iswell to bear it in mind, as the differences betweencertain styles of decoration are then more easily understood. The term fluxed paint covers bothclasses

,and will be soused here.

Enamels — These differ from the m'

tr ifiaole colors,

properly‘

so - called,in that the color ing matter may be

said to b e dissolvedin the glass (in this case a true flu'x).

not mixed with it ; and chemically speaking, enamelsare s ilicates, b orosilicates,

‘

or phosphosilicates, col

ored by oxides in solution . Only a small portion of

coloring matter can b e dissolved in this way, and in

transparent enamels '

or glasses depth ,of color can

only b e '

obtained by the thickness ofr

the enamel.

which is generally,when used as'

a paint,“

percepti

bly raised above the surface of the ware . Coloredglazes andmost of the colors called gloss oven or

underglaze (Fr. ,couleur s de grand enam

Decoration in General.

els. Enamels may e ither first b e prepared with thecolor and placed on the pottery, or else the ingredients for the enamel may b e placed on it

,and

in melting combine together . The lower the temperature at which the pottery bakes, the greaterthe var iety

'

of colors that can b e employed, and

the more fusible the enamel,those used on coarse

earthenwares being very fusible. The beautifulground colors used in Stores and other sof t por

celains are enamels, and in many cases are placedover a colored s lip , giving e ffects of color unattainab le by any other method . When the enamelused as a ground color i s hard enough, other more

fusible decoration s in color or metal can b e p lacedon it. In painting on the glaze, enamels can onlyb e used under cetain conditions, else they will crackoff. Enamels may b e more or less tr ansparent, or

they may be rendered entirely opaque by the addition of very carefully prepared phosphate of l ime

,or

by the ox ides of tin or of antimony. (The enamelused on metal is the same as the above, and suchenamel is now used in Europe in var iousmethods ofdecorating pottery, and has always been used in

Vitrifi ab le Paints —When the coloring matter

is mixed with the flux, instead of being chemi callydissolved in ' it

,we have true vitrifiab le paints of

which most of the colors used in painting on the

AnnaJes de'

Chimie et de Physique (3) XXX I . 257, and XXXV. 3 1 2.

80 Keramics .

glaze of hard porcelain are a good example. In

these the flux melts and envelops the coloring matter

,and fasten s or glues it firmly to the ware. Such

paints must possess the following qualificationThey must melt at a certain known temperaturewi tho ut changing consequently

,any v olat ile or

o rgan ic p igmen t is abso lu tely excluded . . 2 . Theymu st adhere firmly to the

‘

body on which - they are

appl ied and in order to b e sure of this it,is

_nece

'

s

sarv to know the chemi cal nature of the body,so as

to judge of its influence on the color. 3 . They must,

as a rule,b e glossy after they are fired ; an . excep

ti on to this is in the case of flat or unglazed colors.

4 . They must not b e l iable to injury from water,from damp or dry air

,or from gases in the

'

atmos

phere . 5 . They must dilate or contract in the same

proportion as the surfaces on which they are applied .

As a rule also,the tone or shade of the color after

fir ing, should as nearly as possible b e the same as

before firing and in many cases the colors must b e

so composed that they can b e mixed together Wi thout destroying each other. These rules also applyto enamels when used in painting. All fluxed

‘

paints

are generally more fusible than the surface pn whichthey are app lied . Sometimes

,as in the case

’

of thoseu sed in paint ing on the glaze of hard porcelain , thedifference is very great, and

.

the paint, melting at a

low temperature, while the glaze remains hard, willalways have distinct and rather hard outlines, andif notWell compounded may crack

“

or even scale on.

Decoration in General . 8 1

With amore fusible glaze, such as that of soft porcelain

,and some fi ne earthenwares (faiences), which

so ftens enough to allow the paint to s ink a l ittle intoi t,the effect is much more r ich

,and paint andglaze

are so thoroughly incorporated that there is no dan

ger of shalingr In some cases,as in majol ica, color

and glaze melt“

and mingle together,giving great

richness and softness of effect. The substancesgenerally used for fluxes have already been named .

In a work like this it would b e impossible, and, indeed

,useless to give recipes for the making of colors

andHUXes, which vary sl ightly with each maker . As

an example, however, it may b e interesting to knowthat at Sevres the flux for greys (f ondant aux gr is)used in overglaze porcelain painting, and which 18also used for blacks

,reds

,blues

,and ye llows, is com

posed of six par ts of min ium (red- lead) to two of

quartz sand,and one of borax. A German flux used

in much the same way is 60 min ium,1 5 s ilica

,25

boracic acid (cryst). Both flux and color ing oxides,with the greatest care

,are ground to an impal

pablo power ; on the fi neness of wlzic/z depends to a

gr eat extent,the br illiancy of hue

,and glossiness of

surface . They are then mi xed in propo rtions averaging three parts of flux to two of color

,but these

proportions vary according to the hue or shade des ired

,and also according to the ware on wh ich the

paint is to b e used . In some cases—such as the

copper greens and cobal t blues, when in o rder todevelop . the full tone of the co lor it has to be sub

G

Keramics.

jeered to a greater heat than when used as a paintcolor and flux are melted together first,then cooledand ground to a fine powder. I t is as a fi ne powderthat fluxedpaints are usually put in the market. In

order to use them, they may be mixed with water,gum

-water, honey, or any l ike liquid more generallywith turpentine, both in its liquid or thin state

,and

in the thick and sticky state , caused by “

exposureto the air

,techn ically called fat, or fat o il. O il of

lavender can also b e used f at and thin , and presents

many advantages,but is expensive . O ther essential

o ils are used either alone or added to the above,

almost every decorator having recipes of his own .

The great attentiongiven by eminen t chemists inFrance

,Germany, and elsewhere to the manufacture

of fluxed paints of late years has enriched the paletteof the European decorator by the addition of manynew and beautiful colors.

Pottery paints of all kinds are divided into threeclasses, according to their power of resisting heat

,“

as

r . Underglaze hard high refractory or

Gloss -Oven Colors (Fr. couleur s degrandf eu).2 . HardKiln—or medium lzeat (Fr . couleurs de

demi -grandf eu, or de moufi e dures).

3 ; Regular Kiln—sof t or ordinary mufi le fieat (Frcouleur s ‘de moufle ordinaires).Underglaze Co lors —This term,

as the equiva

lent o f the French name,is not perfectly satisfactory,

as much decoration is done in the glaze, or bymeans

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84 Keramics .

in Europe, generally fluxed with feldspar, and are

generally used on slightly baked or easy biscuit po rcelain, which is porous and absorbent . When so

used a thin layer of varnish or gum is first put on,

and then the paintingdone on this, blue being theco lor most used ; the varn ish is then burned awayby baking at a moderate heat, after which the po r

celain is glazed and has its final baking. In Chinathe p aint is used on the unbaked or green body.

(See Chap. X IV.)Formerly in Europe porcelain gloss- oven colorswere but little used except as grounding colors, inwhich case the color was simplymixed with the glaze.

Of. late years much attention is given to paintingin underglaze colors on porcelain, and magnificentresults are obtained, most of the potteries keepingtheir methods secret. The feldspar glaze of hard

porcelain is never perfectly clear, and this givesgreat softness to the colors . Soft porcelain hasa larger range of colors, owing to the less degree of

heat required, and for wares and glazes baking atstill lower temperatures, the l ist is much larger.

In some cases (tin - glazed earthenwares and some

fi ne earthenwares) the painting is done on the nu

bakedglaze (F r . sur cru), which is much l ike driedflour and water ; very absorben t and easi ly rubbedoff. No corrections can b e made, but in the handsof a good

‘

artist beautiful effects can be obtained,color and glaze melting toge ther in the baking and

becomi ng thoroughly incorporated . Sometimes the

Decoration in General . 85

pain ting, particularly on tin -glazed earthenware,IS

done on the baked glaze,and color and glaze are

then melted together . This is much easier to do

than the first method, b ut the effect is riot nearlyso fine. Sometimes the ware is glazed

,and then

painted, and afterwards glazed again , so that thecolor is between two sheets of glazing. Gloss-ovencolors are used on the biscuit of fi ne earthenwares,andare then spoken of asUnderglaze colors. (Fordetails see Chap. XVI . ) Much decoration - i s also

printed or stamped under the glaze. The methodsused in printing on pottery do not essentially differfrom those used in printing on paper, being ef

fected by'

transfer papers from engraved copper

plates. Sheets of gelatine, or of glue, are also used,

this being the more common me thod . Various newmethods are continually inven ted

,a sort of photo

gravure being also used . Print ing Underglaze

ismuch used in'

ear t/zenwares, porcelain being pr intedoverglaze often only in outline, which is then filledupby hand. A species of

"

chromo - lithography h as

successfully been transferred to porcelain in glossoven colors

,but

‘

it is a question if this can b e re

garded as much of an acquisition . The finestw o rk is always done by hand . Printing on potteryw as invented by D r. Wall

,of Worcester,

After decorating, if turpentines or o ils of any kindlh ave been used, the ware undergoes a prel iminarylb aking, before the glaze is put on. This is called

fi ara’

em'

ng on,and requires at least red heat. The

86 Keramz’

cs.

glaze is then put on over the painted o r p rinted dec~oration (generally by a dip), and hides them en

tit ely until it is baked, when it melts into a more or

less clear“glass. All the above methods of using the

gloss-oven colors, except perhaps the painting on

the. biscuit of fi ne earthenware, require skil l and es .

pecial train ing, and should not b e attempted byamateurs. These colors of which we have beenspeaking may b e considered as the Potter

’

s HardCo lors . Decorators when speaking of high or

hard fi re colorsmean those of the second class, generally known as Hard-Kiln, or medium heat colors,and sometimes as hard or high muffle colors. Theseand those of the th ird class

,the regular or ordinary

kiln colors,are applied on the baked glaze, never

under it, and the two kinds differ very little in com

position, the principal difference being that the hardkiln colors have less flux than the regular kiln colors,and consequently can bear a much greater degree ofheat. A background of these colors, therefore, canbe treated almost as the glaze itsel f in regard to theregular colors, which can b e used on it with impunity.A certain kind of gilding can also be used .

The late Francois R ichard , of Sevres, inventeda method of using hard -kiln colors on hard porcelainwhich 15 called after him F . R ic/card),and for which he received numerou s medals. The

mechan ism of this method consists in making a sort

of trinity of fusibil ity for all the principal colors,such as red, yellow, green, etc.,

each color being.

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88 Keramzcs .

them is very great. When u sed on tin-glazed earthenware they are called couleur s a

’

e re‘ver bere

,and

differ slightly in preparat ion . All the great keramists‘,and indeed many good decorators

,have methods of

varying their colors and the effects derived from them,

both over andunderglaze. Most of thesemethods arekept secret, some have been discovered by accident,some by persistent endeavor. I t is possible for thedecorator to fi re or fuse some of the softer glazes inhis oven , or muffle

,but such work would require

knowledge, care, and experience . Much of. the

beauty of a painting on porcelain depends on the

way in which it is baked ; the more del icate the

painting the more care is required .

The term Muffle Co lors is sometimes given to theregular kiln paints, because they are baked in a smalloven or kiln called a Muffi e ;

"

fi re-clay boxes,with

fi re , underneath,or at the side,

“

and with flues so ar

ranged that the heat circulates around the box and

heats it as evenly as possible . I t is essen tial thatneither the fi re nor any vapors from it must b eable to “

get access to the painted ware, as the . colorswould b e damaged, particularly by sul

'

phpr, whichblackens them. These fi reclay

d

or mufi‘les,

may e ither be all in one pi ece, e case withvery small ones, o r b e b uilt l

up to a large s i ze. The'

tp p is generally arched, and themuffles are generallylonger than they arehigh . There is

'

a door in'

front,and a hole is left with a fi reclay tube in it throughwhich a long wire can be introduced with

”

a b it of

Decoration in General. 89

porcelain having the test color on it. There are

also generally holes for the escape of noxious vaporsfrom the paints, or rather from the oils, etc. ,

w ithwhich the paints are mixed . The placing or fill ingthe muflle requires great care

,as the p ieces must b e

so arranged as not to injure each other. Paintings,particularly if del icate, should never be baked inthe muffle with much gilding, as this latter is apt toinj ure the colors. Oldmufii es are always the best ;indeed, a new muffle should never b e used until ithas been brought to red heat two or three t imes

,

so as to dr ive out every particle of moisture, or elsethe colors will b e inj ured very much . As long as amufii e will hold together and keep the smoke out

it is u sed , the broken parts being held together bywire

,and the holes or cracks stopped with clay.

The p ieces to b e baked,and the muffle itsel f,

should b e heated while this latter is being packed .

The placing requires very great care. I t is important to fi ll the mufile as full as possible, and it isdifficult todo so without e ither letting the pieces rest

too much one on the other,or else placing them so

that the c irculation of the heat is interfered with .

All kinds of l ittle props and supports are used.

There is always danger of a l ittle dust in the bestmufii es, and plates and other flat p ieces should b earranged with great care so as to avoid this. Veryfine pain tings should have a cover arranged overthem. Sometimes p ieces of fi reclay or other ma

terials are arranged to shelter the pieces to be

90'Keramics.

baked from the heat from the sides of the muffle,where it is always most intense ; but in regard tosuch arrangement no rules can b e given . In thiscountry very delicate precautions seldom if ever areused, as few of the fi rers have any idea of the use

or necess ity of any such precautions ; and, indeed ,to tell the truth , they are not necessary for most ofthe work done . After the muflle is properly filled,all cracks are stopped up with clay, and this shouldb e very thoroughly done, particularly towards the

bottom. The fi re should b e clear, with no smoke,and the heat should be so arranged as to heat the

ware slowly at first, and then very rapidly at the

end; tltis is very impor tant, for if the heat is aboutthe same all the time

,the colors will not glazewell.

Decorators j udge of the degree of heat either bythe color of the fi re

,or the color of the ware, but

this can only b e done by a man having a long ex

perience in the matter. More generally “tests" are

used : small pieces of ware, painted with a brushmark of color

,almost always carmine, and having

a wire twisted round them by which they can be

easily hooked out ; they are p laced in different

parts of the muffle and are brought '

out and ear

amined fromtime to time.

*The annexed table of

the p rincipal temperatures may be useful.See note 9, Appendix B.

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92 Keramics .

Paintings on porcelain often requ i re three or evenmo re firings ; and, as these should b e very careful ly

graded for fi ne work, it is impossible to have themdone properly except by a fi rer of exper ience. In

this country it is better to prepare the wo rk, if poss ible, for only one, or at the most two , firings. Figuresubjects

,on account o f the delicate iron - reds em

ployed, shou ld have their first firingat a lower tem

perature than that for flowers, and the second shouldbe at a still lower temperature, o r else the flesh redse ither lose their freshness

,or entirely disappear. For

ordinary decorations such precautions are not neces

sary .

The baking usually lasts from three to four hours,and the muffle should b e allowed to cool very gradually. When taken out

,the p ieces should never b e

placed on marble,stone

,or any other cold substance,

but on wood, as any sudden change of temperatureis apt to cause them to crack. .A curren t of cold airw ill be apt to have the same effect. h is better tohave the pain tings thoroughly dry before they are

put in the muffle.

Pa int ings on'

the . glaze of'

car tficnwarcs are

treated in much the same way. Those on soft por

celain (fritted paste) admit of more fir ings, sometimesas many as five or six, which mu st b e cdnductedwiththe greatest care

,by a very experienced fi rer

, 7009

Cent. being the greatest heat allowed. See table.

Coarse potter ies are sometimes. decorated by drop

ping paint or slip on them while'

very moist, and so

D ecoration in General. 93

obtaining peculiar tree- l ike forms andmottled effects.

The slip is generally very liquid, and is put on by, athing looking very like a tea-

pot, which process iscalled moco- ing. Pottery is also decorated bymetalsin their natural

'

states, used either ingilding or as

lustres .

Gi lding.

—Go ld, platina, silver, and occasionally

copper, are used for this purpose, being either finely

pulverized or else dissolved in acid,and then pre

fi

cipitated. In e ither case, the powder thus“

obtainedis mi xed with its flux, oxide of bismuth , and usedas a paint over the glaze . When fired it is dull

,and

has to b e burn ished . At the French Exhibition of

1 878, there were some remarkable decorations in a

sort of transparent gilding, in golds of differentcolors on colored backgrounds. The pattern in

this is fi rst put on with oxide of alumin ium, and thenthe gold put over it. Underglaze gold backgroundsofa peculiarly magnificent effectwere shown byDeck,and also underglaze patterns in gold by Parvillée.

The glaze in these two last must, of course, melt ata lower point than the melting point of gold .

Lustres are films of metal so thin that theyoften become iridescent. For gold lustre the metalis disso lved, precip itated, andmixed with turpentinewithout any flux . I t is applied With a brush

’

overthe glaze . When fired it shines with a bright metallic lustre, but does not wear well . Platina lustre isnearly the same, only . giving the silvery shine peculiar to that metal . S ilver is not much used

,as it is

See note 1 0, Appendix B.

gfi

l

apt to blacken. Other lustres are the Burgos , orBurgau, ormother 0

’

pearl lustre, made from sulphur,go ld and potash . The copper lustre on Moorishwares

,and on some majol icas, is much the same in

appearance, only rather more purple. I t has beenreproduced successfully of late

,as have also the

magn ificent ruby and other lustres formerly used.

The Canthar is , or canthar ides lustre was very"

brill iant

, but is now seldom made, owing to the diffi

culty of its manufacture . I t was made from leadglaze, b ismuth

Tfand

I

silver,and the difli cult part of

the process Was the exposing of the hot ware to,the

smoke of burn ing an imal and vegetable substancesgiving green

,reddish

, yellow,and blue tints. A

common ware, made principally'

in Germany,has a

'

lead- lustre, yellow,blue and green. Very beautiful

iridescent or firework lustres, for both glass and porcelain

,are now made

,and the iridescen t effect can

be produced on or in different colors. The processes

are too long and too compl icated to b e describedhere. Ju les Brianchon, of Paris, is particularlynoted for these. A porcelain fromBe l leek ,

’

Ireland ,has a very pretty si lvery, or pearly iridescent lustre .

Very b eautifu l effects are produced by E tch ingon the Glaze ; done either with hydrofluoric acid

iwhi‘

ch is also used to remove desperate errors in

porcelain painting), or else with a wheel such as is

used by engravers on glass. TheWedgwoods do part icularly fine work with the acid

, producing verydelicate and beau tiful effects peculiar-to themselves.

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PA R T I I I,

DESCRI P TI ON OF WARES.

CHAPTER'

1X.

CLASSIFICATION.

To M . Brongniart’

s classification, which regards asprimarily essential the characteristics derived from thepaste, and as secondary those deri ved from the glaze,there are a good many objection s. These are obviated in the following table by Salvetat. In Brongniart

’

s table moderately soft potteries, such as someball clays, have to b e classed among hard potteries.

Stonewares, too, have all kinds of glazes,which

should not be confounded in one and the same or

der. There seems to be no place for new products ;such, for example, as lead-glazed porcelains, parian,feldspar pastes, etc.

’

M . Salvetat makes two granddivisions, one, unglazed or simple pottery, the other

glazed or composite pottery. Each of these classes issubdivided into opaque and translucent. All Trans

lucent potter ies have certain common characteri s

t ics,inasmuch as they are always very liard, and are

,

almost always perf ectly waite. On the contrary,Opaque potteries present very considerable difi erences. The color var ies very mac/z; some are sof t,some are lzard, and some are very eard; these last

98

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100 Keramics.

I t will be noticed that this table is very elastic,al lowi ng the admittance of new genera and speciesas needed, and naming each genus and species according to its distinguishing characteristic. I t alsoco incides well with the usual division of pottery intoear tbenware, stoneware

,and porcelain; and the ex

pressions coar se and fi ne can , when needed,re tain

their place as characterizing the preparation of the

paste. When for any reason it ' is necessary exactlyto identify any particular ware, it is very easy to doso. Majolica, for example, 15 coarse l ime-body, tinglazed earthenware . To characterize a ware oftenconfounded with this

,we simply change the name of

the glaze to “colored lead- glazed. Iron paste, saltglazed stoneware

,with the prefix fine or coarse, de

scribes kitchen ware, or else. some of the fine orna

mental ware made in England,another variety of

which would be feldspar-body, borax- glazed. Whennecessary

,bone phosphate body, borax - glazed por

celain is easily distinguished from either feldsparbody, feldspar- glazed, or fritted body , lead -alkaliglazed porcelain . Certain Eastern wares are coarsesand body, l ime-glass- glazed earthenware . Flintbody, lead - glazed earthenware descr ibes the old c.c . ware ; and if great exactness should b e needed

,

feldspar -flint-body, borax - glazed,would describe the

ware oddly called opaque porcelain . Semi-porcelain is a term that might perhaps be used instead of

-

.fine earthenware in speaking of the wares intermediate between opaque and translucentware, when such

Classification. 101

“wares are slightly translucent. Such questions settlethemselves in practice, b ut with our conven ient language we have no excuse for ambiguity in suchmatters.

Glazes are made e ither with or without lead .

Both borax and tin glazes have a l ittle lead in them,

b ut are never classed as lead -glazes. Glazes in general can be classed under the following heads,which, when necessary

,can b e sub -divided as needed .

(The l ist of bodies and glazes— genera and speciesc0uld bemademuch larger and fuller than that givenh ere

, but would take up too much room,while it

wouldo nly b e o fuse to the manufacturer or dealer).1 . Lead-Glaze.

—Th is includes a large numberof glazes, from the unwholesome glaze

,with a very

large proportion of lead, used on some very coarse pot .

ret ies, to the glaze of old Sevr es, and the first Wedg

wood ware. This last has nearly the same compositionas the well-known intensely brilliant flint-glass or

crystal (potash- lead - si licate). The termflint shouldnot b e understood as mean ing bard, for this is reallya

,soft

"

and fusible glass the silica for it was formerly .

obtained from fl ints,whence the name. Flint-glass,

with Stil l more lead, is strass, the composition used inmaking artificial gems. The nameA lkal ine -Glaze

is often given to lead - glass, or flint-glass glaze, b ut ishardly distinctive enough . I f used

,it would b e better

to add the prefix lead— all glazes being more or lessalkal ine. Z inc, thallium,

and other metals willmake a very brill iant glass.

102 Keramics.

Boracic Glaze.-Much the same in composition

as flint-glass glaze, only with borax, or bor1c-ac1dadded, which greatly increases the hardness .and the

brilliancy. Boric-acid is much used now in glazes,instead of borax .T in-Glaze .

—This may b e considered a lead“

glaze,made opaque and white by the addition of

oxide of tin,which also renders it harder and less

fusible.

Si l ica-Alkali. —The salt-glaze used on stone

wares is the principal glaze of this nature . I t is a

soda- glass . The lustre on some ancient potterieswould come in here, as analysis proves it a potash

glass.

Earth-Alkali.—This includes feldspar andothernatural glazes, besides artificial ones that might beclassed as lime-

glass-

glazes. Feldspar may b e con

sidered as a natural glass, rendered very tough and

strong by the alumina in it. Lime, sand (silica), andother ingredients are added to feldspar as needed.At Sevres a rock (pegmatite) consisting of a naturalmixture of quartz (silica) and feldspar is u sed without any addition . In China a petro- silex (uncrystalized or compact feldspar), mixed with pure lime isused. A very thin transparent glaze is often calleda lustre.

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Keramz’

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CLASS I I .—GLAzzD on Composx'rx P01 7 “?

ORDER I .—OPAQ UE BODY .

SUB-ORDER x.—Sof t Body .

e cms . Gu m s . EXAMPLES AND N OTES .

1 . Lead laze lso called p lumb iferous , plum

(Plomgiféred bcous,alkal ine .

2 . Boracic-glaze’

d

(Boracique . )Tin -glaze Also called stann iferous.

‘

(Stann ifére )Silica-alkali . Salt-glaze or salxnc-glaze.

(Silico- alcaline .)Ear th alkali .

(Alcalino terreuse .)

Lead-glaze

Boracic-glaze

T in-

glaze

Silica-alkali

Earth alkali

1 . Lead-

glaze2 . Boracxc glaze

4. Silica -alkali

5 . Earth-alkali

x. Lead-glaze

a. Boracic-glaze

Of 3 . Tin

4. Silica-alkali

}5 . Earth-alkali

Leadglazedbricks—coarse earthenwares .

Coarse earthenwares . Some Persian potteries in wh ich tincal isused .

Arab ian and Persian earthenwares . Some of these

‘

, w ithsufficien t heat ,make p orcelain .

mall Egy p tian fi gures , alsomany lustrous Roman potter ieswith iron in glaze .

4

ome A rab ian pot ter ie s , andsome mode rn pot ter ies wi thlime-glass glazes .

Coarse glazed earthenwares .

Coarseglazedear thenware . Muchof th i s is of very good quality .

Tiles for s toves and s ome decorat ive work. N ot so good fOr this

glaze as lime- body .

early all the fi ne ancientRomanand Greek pot teries belong to 4and 5 and have a very thin

glaze or l us tre that sometimesseems potash and s ilica ( thes ilica very l ikely from the

‘

b odyof the ware) , or e lse a glazewi th a little l ime or even i ron ,

never any lead.

oarse glazed ear thenwares . The

glaze i s often colored.

Common crocke ry , e tc . Theas te has often to be modifi edo r th is glaze .

arthenwares . Pers ian,Delft

ware , Majolica, ancien t and

modei'n .

hese glazes do not answer on

th is body unle ss i t is modifi ed.

Keramz'

cs .

CLASS IL—Gu zzo on Comrosrr x Por r xmi.

ORDER L—OPAQUE Bonv .

SUB-ORDER a.—Hard body . SUB- ORDER 3 ,

—Very hard hazy .

GBNBRA. Booms .

(No . i . Charcoal

p aste , is never

glazed. )

No. a. Ball-claybody .

SUB-ORDER z .—Ha rd body .

1 . Lead-glaze

a . Boracic-glaze

3 0 Tin ’ glaze o o o o e o

4 .

5 .

Silica-alkali .Earth-alkali.

Falence d’Oiron . Some Pal issy

ware . This was the firs t fi neear thenware , and had sa nd,not fl i nt , i n it .

Decorative potteries .Waremadeby Regal and Sanejouand.

Some Palissy ware . Palissy usedbut little tin in his glaze.

Tiles ,‘

b ricks , e tc. , with ei therlime lass glaze , or glazes fromslag, asalt , e tc.

SUB- ORDER —Very ha rd body .

Lead-glaze

Boracic-glaze

T in-glaze

Silica-alkal i

Earth-alkal i

Lead-glaze

Boracic-glaze

T in-glaze

Silica-alkali

Earth-alkal i

Lead-glaze

Boracic-glazeT in-

glaze

Silica- alkali

Earth-alkali

Original Wedgwood cream-coloredware.

Fine earthenwares , modern c. c.

ware granite~ware , etc.

Fine unéville ear thenware .

Decorative wares .

Some Elers ware , glazed by volat ilizat ion .

Some fi ne modern wares , withlime-glass glaze .

Decorative stonewares in Europe . Some coarse s tonewares.

Gooddomestic s tonewares,whichoften have ba ta in the glaze .

Chinese and apanese s tone

wares.

Nearly all coarse s tonewares .

Some Doulton ware, salt

glazed.

Stonewares , glazedwith slag.

Mos tly decorat ive stoneware ,

glazed by volat ilization.

English stonewares .

Ch i n e se stonewares . These arealmos t porce la ins .

Fine s tonewares. Doulton ware,salt-glaze .

Fine s tonewares . Sometimes a

good deal of l ime is used.

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CHAPTER X .

SOFT POTTERY.

PASTE OPAQUE, POROUS, AND MORE OR LESS COLORED.

Soft Potterymay b e divided into essentially softand accidentally soft

,the former being made of

clays which from their constitution will only admitof a small degree of heat Without fusing into a

shapeless mass, while the latter would include all

potteries that are soft from insuffi cient baking. Ac

cording to Brongniart’

s table as usually given , soft

potteries are rather difii cult to classify specifically ;though all kinds are fully described in - the course of

his work .

Soft pottery may b e ei therGlazedorUnglazed.

—All pr imitive potter ies belong to this class,and

many of them were decorated by Colored"

claysfi xed to the body or to the glaze bymeans of a sligh tdegree of heat.

Ware of this nature has been made at all timesand in all countries

,even amongthemost barbarous

tribes. Much of this primitive pottery is good inform

.

and pleasingly decorated . Some of it is so

sl igh tly baked that all the water is -

not driven out

108

Sof t Pottery . 109

of the clay and the paste is very soft and friable.

(See table, Chap. IV. , Nos. I , 2 , 4 , 6, 7, 8, Othersare well baked . F ired - clay is one of the most

indestructible substances known,and the remains of

pottery are found in good° condition in the oldest

and most dilapidated ruins,and also in the lak e

dwellings in Switzerland and elsewhere.

European Pottery—Ancient— Glazen’ and

unglazed. Greek Pottery .

—This term generallyincludes not only pottery made in Greece, but all

potteries made under Greek influence. I t now

seems pretty well proved that the Greeks themselvesreceived their knowledge from Egypt and from the

East. The Greeks were excellent potters, thoroughly understandingthe composition of good paste,and also the use of the wheel and of moulds. They

paid particular attention to the form of their vases,and in their finest pottery the curves have that delightful balance and sobriety that this nation showsin all its best art work. A number of beautifuland spirited figures or statuettes have lately beenfound at Tanagra, which weremade

'

inmoulds andafterwards touched up by hand, particular attentionbeing paid to the head , Little accessories, such ashats

,etc. , were modelled and added afterwards.

Some seem to have been glazed , and manycolored .

There is a whole l iterature on the subject of

Greek vases, and the different vessels are classed asfollows by Denn is :

Keramics.

Class r .

—Vases for holding oil, wine o'

r'

waler

amphora, pelice, stamnos.

Class 2 . Vases for carrying water - l—hydria‘

,

calpis.

Class 3 .

—Vases for mixing wine and water

crater, celebe, oxybaphon.

Class 4 .

—Vases for pouring wine, etc.—ings,

oenochoe, olpe, prochoiis.

Class 5 .

—For drinkingcups and goblets—carthae

rus,cyathus

,carchesion, holcion, cyphus, cyl ix,

lepaste, phiale, ceras, rhyton .

Class 6 .

—For ointment or perfumes— lecythus,

alabastr'

on, ascus,bombylios, aryballos, cotylisms.

Note—The names are often written leylix ,

keras, etc.

E truscan W are—From the circumstance that

anc ient vases were first found in E trur ia,the mme

Etruscan was given to all vases found in MagnaGraecia

‘

and other colon ies in Italy. Most of these

vases are clearly of Greek manufacture,beingnade

by Greeks settled in Italy,and are now correctly

called Italo-Greek. The finest Greek or Italo -Gfeek'

vases were polished or lustrous, the decorations very

s imple in color, but very fine in design and execu

t ion . The colors were principally a dull brick red,a black, and a brownish black

, produced by the redbody showing though the thin coat of black over it. “

The Greeks occasionally used a few slips, brightbrick red, purplish red, yellow and white ; andyet,with dull colors and a coarse kind of paste, they

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I 1 2 Keramies .

This lustre glaze must not b e confounded with '

the

metallie lustres used on some wares. In . » Roman

pottery it generally covers the who les urface. In the

Greek it often is used decorative'ly only in parts.

The color varies from black to bronze,and even

bright red, this latter proving the presence of iron(sulphuret). All of the above pottery may,

b e

classed as marl or sand body, and some o f it

"

is

both fine and hard. The glaze is sil ica-alkali.(See table, Chap. IX.) All the other nations o fEuropemade pottery more or less good, most it beingmadeunder Roman influence

,and following the same

methods.

America.—Very good pottery has been found - in

aboriginal America, and some of it seems to have a

glaze ana’ lagous to the lustrous ware just described .

Much ancient American pottery shows great skill inthe workmen

,as there are no traces at all of the use

of either wheel or moulds, and many of the shapes,some of which are good, others grotesque, are verydiffi cult to make . According to Germaine de

Poligny, there is a strong resemblance betweenMexican keramic art and that of the borders of theMediterranean , so much so that he thinks it givesus reason to suppose the races are nearly allied .

As iatic and African pottery— The P /zcenieiarzs,

Egyptians, B abylonians, and Assy r ians-were all good

potters, particularly the last three, who understoodthe composition of colored glazes or enamels of finequality. From them

,through the Persians, the

Arabian s probably der ived“

the ir knowledge, whichafterwards was brought to Europe either by Spain orby Majorca. The Egyptians had a peculiar fashionof glaz ing or

‘

enamelling soapstone (steatite), and

also a very gritty, hard paste which Salvetat thinksmay have been a natural sandstone (gre

’

s) and not a

made paste. This last has been erroneously called

porce lain— tile Egyptians made no truepor eeloin.

The discoveries of late years of the numerous

early potteries in Cyprus , As ia M inor, and

elsewhere have completely upset the old ideas of

the genes is and deve lopment of . Greek and other

ancient pottery, and have made, particularly as re

gards the influence of nations on each other,a com

plete revolution in the history of pottery. Historyin general has also been aided in determin ingmanydisp uted points in chronology. The whole subject18 i ntensely interesting, b ut can only be glanced at

here . I t can b e studied to a certain extent in Birch,

Jacquemart, Brogniart and other writers, and to a lessdegree in any good general history of pottery. Primeand Youngboth have in teresting chapters on

’

earlyAmerican pottery — See also The ScientificAmerican

,

”

for an interesting series of articles, beginningMarch 29th, 1 879 .

M odern Pottery .—Common unglazed ware, as

flower-

pots, is made of clay compoundedwith sand,or with the same pottery pounded fi ne. The paste hasbut l ittle preparation , though for the better quality ;of ware it is washed and ground in a mill

,and

,

1 14

generally made on the wheel . As it does not softenin baking, and has no glaze, the p ieces can be p iledup in any way in the kilns. A lthough this potteryis made almost everywhere, it is not good for mosthouseho ld uses on account of its porosity ; but thisvery quality renders it valuable in many warn coun

tri es Where porous vases, named aleo razzas inSpain ,

and in India called monkeys by theEnglish, are usedto coo l water by evaporat ion . In some countriessawdust is mixed with the clay and burned out inthe baking, thus leaving the vessels very porous.Slightly baked porcelain makes an excellent alcarazza

,and has the advantage of not communi cating

to the water the clayey taste given by the earthenware ones. Very pretty fi ne pottery of this clas is nowmade for ornamental purposes, generally in imitation of Greek forms . In this the paste, which isusually reddish or yellowish

,is carefully prepared,

and being very plastic can b e fashioned on the

wheel, cast or modelled .

The same earthenware as just described, only witha transparen t lead -

glaze, is the Coarse Earthen

ware or crockery made almost everywhere. The

coarsest wares of this kind , those which are gen

erally found in coun try districts, bake at a very lowtemperature,

'

and have a very fus ible glaze. Owingto the large proportion of lead, and to the fact that

"

it is easily affected by acids, or even by hot grease ,this glaze is exceedingly unwholesome. When ,

however, the paste,

is well compounded andwell baked,

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I r6 Keramz’

cs.

tural ornaments are made in this ware,and are often

glazed.

Eastern nations make a variety of lead-

glazedearthenwares, inmany ofwhich the paste is white , andon ly belongs to the soft potteries on account of its

insuffi cien t baking. Some glazes without any leadin them have been used on this pottery by the Arabsand Persians. Other wares are covered with trans

parent Or translucent colored enamels. These are

sometimes used on incised or on raised patternsand the effect is very good (F r . emaux ombm nts).

.Mezza-Majolica.—Lz

'

me body— lead-

glaze.

—InItaly this ware preceded the true majolicas

,and

is of importance from an artistic point of v iew,

and also because it is a good example of decoration by a slip or engobe. The earthenwares withtransparent lead -

glaze, just described, though a

great advance on unglazed pottery, were unsuitedto fine painted decoration of any kind, because of

the ugly color and coarse texture of the paste . Thisobjection was first obviated in Europe by the use

of a slip, which was dried or baked, then painted ,and afterwards covered with a lead -

glaze. The

principal color'

s used were yellow,blue

,black, and

green. The slip itself was sometimes colored, andthe painting was done by means of various col

ored slips. In still another style of decoration . the

pattern was scratched or etched on the slip, so thatthe darker color of the body showed through the

glaze, which in the I talian wares was generally col

Sbf t Pottery . I I7

ored . This style was called Scraffi to (lit. scratched)ware. Both of these often were enriched by metallic lustres .

A revival and development of these methods isshown in the potteries made by M . B

’

ouVi'

erf and

decorated with sl ips of different colors, in which thedesign is scratched or etched . Many decorativeearthenwares ‘made principally at Limoges and at

Bourg- la- Reine, in France , can also properly be de

Scribed here, as they are lead-

glazed ear t/zmwares of

more or less hard body, and in decoration are r eallya rev ival of and an improvement on slip-

pain ting,which is one of the very oldest methods of ‘ decorat ing pottery, sl ips or engobes having been em

ployed from very early times. The modern method*originatedwith Messrs. Laurin , Chaplet and Lafondin 1 873 , at Bourg

- la-Reine , where it is still carriedOn by _

M . Laurin . Messrs. Chaplet andLafond wereemployed by the Havilands at Limoges, who are

now particularly famous for their use of this styleof decoration done at Auteuil under the supervisionof M . Braquemond. Beautiful effects are producedin various

'

ways, the transparen t lead -

glaze givinggreat depth and beauty to the colors, which are alsooften improved by the use of borax, particularly th

'

e'

blues . Figures are carved or modelled in unglazed ,

“

paste, and used on glazed and colored vases. All

s uch work, when not perfectly well done, is very disagreeable . This slip -

painting, and other processesSee Chap . VIl I . , page 78.

I I8 Koramz’

cs ;

more or less resemblingit, are used by many famousFrench

‘potters, the details of paste and glaze b eingnaturally kept secret. The pottery varies - in color,and verymuch in hardness, and the decoration hidesthe body . The most noted French potters for thenew decorative ware, besides those mentioned,

'

are

Deck,who shows gold underglaze backgrounds, very,

r ich“ in effect,Collinot and Parvillée

,nearly all of

which potters also make the tin -

glazed pottery de'

s

crib ed in the next chapter. Attempts at sl ip painting are be ingmade in this country

,but as yet most

of it is only groping in the dark . A peculiar styleof sl ip painting has also been used for some timein Switzerland, and much curious work similar incharacter is done in Russia; Eastern nations use

both this and the following methodsof decoration :T in-Glazed or EnamelledEarthenwares .

Coar se ear t/zezzware,with astanm

'

f eroas , or opaque tin

glaze, is esentially the same Ware as the Italianmajo lica and the Delft ware made in Hol land,and at Rouen and Nevers in France, and manyother places. I t has a zo/zz

'

tz'

siz or ooloredpo’

rous sof t

paste, which being coarse in qual ity requires butlittle preparation . I t is plastic, and can b e thrown

,

pressed, cast,or modelled by hand . The opaque

tin-

glaze, or rather enamel , is generallymade of calcine

,that is

,lead and tin i ntimately mixed and cal?

cmed 47, sand 47, carbonate of soda 3 , sea- salt 3these proportions as usual varying with the dif

ferent potters, and other matters being sometimes

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an excellent effect. In fact, all kinds of figures andornaments can be made. This ware readily lendsitself to the most artistic decoration . When the

tin -

glaze is hard enough , almost all the regular M n

t olors can be used over it, b ut the effect is apt to b e

harsh ; When the colors are made expressly for thisware they differ slightly in composition from thoseused on procelain.

Painting in the gloss-oven colors on the unbaked

glaze is extremely difficult to do, and requires greatskill and experience, the powdery glaze very easilyrubbing off and being excessively absorbent. But

the effect of the work when well done is very fi ne,

glaze and color beingthoroughly incorporated . (SeeChap . VI II .)The most famous enamelled earthenware is thatknown as Majolica or Maiolica ( the pronunciat ion is the same in Italian), Which is the Ital ianname

, given to tin -

glazed earthenware. This ware

probably was first u sed by the Arabs or Persians,

and was introduced by them into Italy through . the

Balearic islands, of which Majorca is one, whencethe name

,Majorica, subsequently softened into

majolica. To this day there are potterl es ln

Majorca, lineal descendants of these old ones, s til l'

makingwares decorated very much in the Arabianstyle . At one t ime the term majo l ica was on lyappl ied to the lastrea

’wares of Spa in and I taly ,

but now it is used for decorated tin-

glazed earthen'

ware dishes, ewers, and other articles.

made in Italy

Sof t Pottery .

during the renaissance per iod , and also to modernWares reproducing or imitat ing them.

' The most

famous majolicas were made at Urbino,Gubbio,

Castel-Durante, Pesaro,

and other places in

Italy. Lucca della Robbia. whose name is often'

given to this ware, takes precedence of all otherdecorators, as, though he does not seem to have invented the tin -

glaze, he was the first to bring i t to

perfection in Europe. His majolicas and o thersowe

,their great value to their beautiful deco rations

,'

both in colors and in metallic lustres , which lasthave never been equalled . During the timewh en majolica was at its height, great artists wereemployed to decorate it, copies also were made of

‘many of the most famous paintings by Raffae l andothers. I t was even said that Raffael himself pain tedon majolica, but there

'

is no proof of this. Raffael

W are, or Raffael majolica, is not that decoratedwith copies of the great master

’

s p ictures, bu t thatwhich is ornamen ted with arabesques

,scrolls

,and

s imilar designs .

Delft W are .—This enamelled earthenware was

celebrated for the beauty of its blu ish -white tin

glaze, and for its good decoration . Former ly therewere in Delft from 1 50 to zoo potteries making thisWare, and now there is not one.

T in-

‘glazed

'

earthenwares were made in Europe,

As1a,_

and in many other p laces than those men

tioned here, all the“

wares presentingmore or lessthe same characteristics . For a long time, such

1 22 Keramz'

os.

Ware,either plain or decorated

,was the best tab le

ware known, but it has been almost entirely superseded by fine earthenware, and by porcelain, bothbeingmore suitable for this purpose. After the in

vention of porcelain, the manufacture of artisticearthenwares of all kinds ceased almost '

entirely.

An attempt has been made to revive them in our

day, b ut with what permanent success remains to b eseen . Tin glazed is also called onamel/ea

'

ear tftmware

in many works (fai'

em‘

e

Henr i I I .Ware—Faience d’

Oiron.- This re

markable ware, of which there are only about 67

p ieces in existence, deserves an especial mention.

Though u tterly unconnected with the invention of

them,it may b e regarded as the precursor of the

fi ne ear tfzenzoares. The body is of ball clay, and

perhaps a little kaolin . This is covered by a thinlayer of a finer and whiter clay

,in which the decor

ation is cut out or engraved, and is then filled in withcolored clays, the whole being glazed with a trans

par ent lead-

glaze. Both potting and decoration are

perfect of their kind . The origin of this ware longremained unknown . The fact is now ascertainedthat it was made under the direction of Helene deHang

est,w idow of Arthur Gouffier

,at the chateau

Fac- similes of some of this ware were to b e seen

at the Centenn ial in the Engl ish Exhibit. A full and

interesting account is given byJacquemart1 both

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CHAPTER XI.

VERY HARD POTTERY.

Hard or Very Hard Pottery is so namedfrom the fact that the paste is very hard

,and

,

expect i n some s tonewares, is eithe‘

. p erfectlywhite, or nearly so. This pottery .

fl

s

'

dvided intoF ine Earthenware, Stoneware andPorcelain.

In the last two there is a commencemen tof vitrificaation which renders the body dense or z

'

fiperw'

oas to

liquids.

I t must b e noted that the modern eathenwares,

the stonewares, andporcelains run in to each other byalmost imperceptible gradations, the porcdains beingthe

'

most dist inct group, owing to their ransluoenoe.

The distinctions between the wares were formerlymuchmore evident, but of late years suci great im

p rovements have been made, both in paste and in

glaze, thatmuch of the accepted classifi caion is veryarbitrary, and more a matter of conven iei ce than offact. When

,however

,the main ingrediei ts of paste

and glaze are' known

,each ware can b r defin itely

classed, and if needed new genera and species canb e added . I t would save trouble if marufacturers

1 24

Very Hard Pottery . 1 25

would adopt some'

syste‘

m,instead of adhering to

names that often mislead as to the character of theware.

Nearly all of the wares described so far havebeen

,for table and other domestic use, ent irely

superseded by the F ine Earthenwares (fai‘

ences

fines), the paste of which is white,opaque, son

orous, or r inging, more or less porous , and con

sequen tly adheres more or less to the tongue. Thesewares all spring from improvements upon the ori

ginal ware made of'

ball or pipe- clay alone, andwhich has been hardened by the addition of fl int

and later of feldspar and kaolin to the paste,

making it White andable to stand a high temperaturein baking, while the original soft lead-

glaze has beenhardened and also rendered more brill iant by the useof borax and bo ric-acid . The principal diffi cultyin the manufacture of thisware is not

‘

so much in obtaining a good body as to fi nd a glaze su itable to it,and which shall never craze. When well made -thisis

,next to porcelain, the best ware yet made for

domestic use. The principal objection to it. i s thatwhen cracked or n icked

,the paste, beingporous, ab

sorbs grease, and is easily discolored . In manv

wares now made this objection is obviated to a

greate xtent by the'

introduction of feldspar, whith ,partly melting, makes the body more dense.

The glaze is now almost always boracic, but insome few cases a tin-

glaze was used . A l ime-

glass

glaze can also be used, as can a feldspar glaze,

11 26 Keramz

'

cs.

when the body is hard enough to stand the necessary heat. All kinds of articles for various san itaryand manufacturing purposes are now made of thisware

,and new applications of it are made every day.

The' best wares of this class were invented and

brought to perfection in England, beginn ing withAstbury andWedgwood, andcomingdown to our ownday. By French writers the t itle ordinar ily appliedto fi ne earthenware is faz

’

encefi ne or f az‘

enoe anglaz'

se.

Sometimes the word oaz'

l loutage is used. The firsttitle is always given, however, if there is danger of

ambigu ity. The opaque tin-

glazed ear t/zenzoare,or

majolica,is called either Fa

’

ience or Fai’

ence Em

ai l lée, while the coarse transpar ent glazed earthenwares are called faz

‘

enees communes. In many Englishworks ofgood standing, these wares are confoundedtogether in a very bewilder ingmanner, it beingsomet imes stated that the opaque tin -

glaze is always usedon faz

’

enee,fine or coarse . This confusion probably

arises from the apparent similarity of the names in

French,sufli cient attentionnot beingpaid to the qual

ifyingwords. In English there seem to b e nogenerallyaccepted names among authors, faience sometimesmeaning faience fine, and sometimes mean ing tin

glazed ware or majol ica.

' The historical c. 0. (cream color) ware, made by ’

Wedgwood, and afterwards named Q ueenswarein honor of Q ueen Charlo tte, was formerly classedamong the fine earthenwares, but c. c. ware is now

placed among the better kinds of coarse earthen?

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1-28 KeramzZ's.

made a ware of this kind, which though fine and

white was much sof ter than the Engl ish, both in

paste and glaze. This being objectionable, a tin

glaze was tried , which made a handsome but expens ive ware. This was practically given up, and the

English methods and compositions adopted . Ex

cellent ware is made at Montereau or Creil,

Cho isy -le Roi,Bourg la Reine, Chantilly, and other :

places. When French clays alone are used,both

paste and glaze are apt to be softer than the Engl ish .

Decoration.—Be ing very plastic, the paste of .

fine earthenware can be moulded or pressed intoany ornamental forms, and wil l also admit of the

richest co lor decorations by all the methods used indecoratingporcelain both over and underglaze, thelatter being particularly good in effect . The colorsfor the last must be prepared especially for theware on which they are intended to b e used,so as to suit the fusibility and composition of the

glaze which varies considerably. (See ChapaVII I.)All the regular kiln colors can b e used on the

harder glazes, as such glazes do not soften at all at

the low heat requ ired for firing these colors. Beau

tiful effects are produced by painting on or in the

glaze before it is baked, color and glaze then melting together. For ordinary use this ware is orna

mented by patterns printed either under or over _the'

glaze ; sometimes only the outl ines are printed , andthe patterns then fil led up by hand. Decoration on

129

fine earthenware should be bold and striking instyle. The color of the ordinary Ware is apt to b espo iled by too much blue in

’

the glaze, this beingdesigned to correct the yellowish tint of the paste ; a

tint that is very agreeable in itself, and that needsnodisguise.

Common Tobgeco P ipes aremade of much thesame paste as that of fine earthenware

,but are baked

at a lower temperature, and are not glazed . Theyare baked in kilns very ingen iously arranged .

Excellent pottery of this kind is made in th iscoun try where all the materials are found in abundance. Some of these potteries are remarkably fine intexture

,andare capable of delicate fin ish . The deco

ration with a very few exceptions ihpoor in designand crude l n color. A visit to any of the large potteries

,such as those at Trenton

,or at East Liver

pool, Ohio, will show all the modern improvements.Within a comparatively short time, there has

arisen a“

whole class of beautiful decorative pottery,rather diffi cult to

'

classify, which comes more or lessunder this head . The paste is generally ‘

oery bard.

out not always very sol ute,with a transpar ent lead,

borax,or even feldspar glaze, in this last case

the sulphates of lime and baryta beingused in con

junction with pulverized fl int glass . All of these

glazes are sometimes colored, producing effects re

sembling those very often found in Eastern ware.

Wares of this sort are made at Limoges and elsewhere in France,by thepottersmentioned on page 1 r7,

x

I 30 Ker-amz'

cs.

and also by Boulenger at Choisy, whohas discoveredthe hitherto hidden secret of r ouge fi amme

’

or

flamoe; by Massier,and by O . M ilet (Sevres).

There also are famous potteries at Creil,Montereau,

Longwy , .Gien, Sarreguemines, all having stylesof the ir own, and all worth careful study and com

parison ; a remark applying also to the Englishwares of this class

,some of which are wonderfully

fi ne, being bold and original in treatment. The

M inton and Lambeth or Doulton earthenwares or

faiences are well known, also the Wedgwood .

Some of these deserve most careful study. A l ittleware something in this style is made in this country,but asyet calls for no very particu larmention, thoughthere is hope for the future. All thisware is generally spoken of as faience, and called after the

var ious potters who make it, or after the places inwhich it is made, the names beingoftenmixed up inthe most remarkable way by dealers.

T iles andP laques are alsomade of fine earthenware and decorated by hand or by printing, offeringgreat resources to the keramic artist.

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I 32 Keramics.

adoption of an endless rack mill,in which the paste

is ground and r iddled ready for uSe .

Sometimes the clay as found has all the necessary

p roperties : sometimes clays from different localities,one r ef ractory , the other f usible, are used. More

l ime and sand are often added . When the paste

is too plastic, ground pitchers (Fr. cz’

ment), that is,the baked ware pounded fine, is used, though sand

generally answers this purpose.

No particular precautions are necessary in ar

ranging the wares for baking. The coarser sorts

are generally placed on shelves,or in divisions of

the kilns, or are even p iled up , only separated by

“slugs

”- 'rolls or p ieces of sandy clay— while the

finer sorts are more carefully arranged . The bakingrequ ires a high temperature and a great deal of fueland may last from two days to a week. The paste

when baked is so compact that it really needs no glaze ;nevertheless it is glazed, both for appearance sakeand also because in coarse or badly-made ware the

body is full of l ittle holes and cracks caused by theirregular contraction of the pastes in baking. All

stoneware, from butter-

pots up to fine Doulton ware,can b e glazed in a way peculiar to itself. Duringthe

.

first and only firing, when at white heat,sea

salt is thrown i nto the kiln (many potters claimthat the '

salt from salted cod-fi sh is the best, whichmay b e so on account of the phosphate). The

intense heat decomposes the Salt ofsodium), and the

'

chlorine escapes as vapor, but

Very Hard Pottery . I 33

the soda, meeting the white-hot ware,

*takes

from it a portion of its silica and makes a silicate

of soda or soda glass. This is the perfection of

glaze, being thin , transparen t, and intensely hard.

A method somewhat analagous to this consists of

smearing the inside of the seggars with a mixture of'

salt,soda

,andmin ium

,which is volatilized by the

intense heat,and with the . sil ica from the ware itself

forms a thin glaze . O ther methods, used in Europe,of glazingcommon wares are : 1 . By dipping it intoochre and water before baking, which gives a sort of

glaze more or less yellow or brown,according to the

degree of heat and the quantity of ochre. 2 . By

pulven zedslagfrom ironworks, either refiningcindersor blast furnace cinders, the latter beingvery fusibleon account of the large proportion of lime

, wh ilethe former are

'

composed almost entirely of s ilicaandiron (protoxide). Lime, sand or clay is added ifnecessary . The dried ware is dipped in Water, andthen dustedb ver with the mixture, afterwhich glazeand ware are baked and are generally of a r ich chestnut brown .

Drain'

p ipes are sometimes made of stoneware,

"

which seems to possess all the qual ities essential forsuch a purpose. Coarse stoneware of excellentqual ity is now made in this country

,and is often l

given a black glaze in whole or in part, by means ofthe Albany dip . (See page I t is very interestingto watch the making of stoneware on a common

Which must be very silicious in order toglazewell.

1 34 Keramz'

cs.

wheel. All coarse stonewares, and some fine,are

classed as n on -body, andgenerally salt-glaze.

F ine Stoneware is simply stoneware made with

great care, and is excellent in every way. The com

position of the paste varies. Feldspar is often

added, rendering the ware moref usible, so that itbakes at a lower temperature. The feldspar thentakes the place of sand as anti -plastic. Kaolin isalso used—impure kaol ins contain ing iron servingthe required purpose, making a ware that in manyrespects resembles porcelain . In fact there is a

great variety of ware, that runs into porcelain at one

end,.and into the hard earthenwares at the other. Itgenerally can b e classed as feldspar body. The

clay and other materials go through nearly all theoperations descr ibed in the chapters treating of

manufacture. The glaze is generally a salt-glazel ike that used for common stonewares

,and this is so

thin that it does not interfere with the most delicateornament, either sunken or in relief. The feldsparstonewares really requ ire no additional glaze. The

feldspar fusing in baking gives them a sufficient

gloss ; nevertheless they are often glazed with glazessuch as those used on the fine earthenwares

,and

even with the feldspar glaze of hard porcelain, eitherwith or Without lime. F ine stonewares are often

first baked a soft biscu it, and then glazed by a dip.

The unglazed fully baked stoneware is called'

dry

body by potters. The paste is So plastic that itcan be fashioned in

'

any style, and all impressed

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136 Keramics.

are continually improving the character of the ware.

The kaolin or f eldspar stonewares,and all those

with softer glazes than the salt-glaze, admit of a

large range of color decoration . This can be put

on very thickly , in the style of the Japanese and

Chinese stonewares, which are often“

ornamentedwith raised enamels on brown or yellowish bodies,o r on a slip either white or colored. Sometimes thewhole vase is covered with a tin -

glaze and then

painted . Bottcher ’s first attempts at porcelainreally resulted in a fine reddish -brown stoneware, and

as he did not know how to glaze it, it was simply

polished. The Elers made an almost similar ware1n England ; first red, like Bottcher

’

s ware,then yel

lowish white, but with a genu ine salt-glaze. Thisware was very fine in texture, and had del icate em

bossed ornaments made in copper moulds. The old

stoneware known in a general way as Gres de

Flandre was very beaut ifu l in form,decoration

,

and color of paste, which varied from whitish tobrown and light grey ; this last being sometimesdecorated with embossed ornaments

,and colored in

blue and purple. Much of the finest ware wasmade at Cologne, and in other German cities ; atCreussen , in Bavaria, and at Beauvais

, France.

Very fine stonewares, mostly iron -body,are made

in Japan and China,and decorated with enamels.

Stoneware is often covered with a layer of porcelain and then decorated . There is also a most delicate stoneware, called Buccaro, or boccaro, which

Very Hard Pottery I 37

is superior to any European stoneware, and is decorated with colored enamels raised a good deal abovethe surface. The fine Japanese stonewares knownas Satsuma andAwata are made of a very refractory porcelain clay which undergoes hardly any

fusion . The glaze is composed of feldspathic'

materials,and l ixiviated wood ashes (potash), and

when cooled always presents a net-work of fi ne

cracks. At Awadje is made a stoneware remarka

b le because it is glazed with a soft lead glass:Banko ware

,called after its inventor, is made in

the province of I se, and resembles Wedgwood . I t

is made of extremely tough and plastic brown clay,in all sorts of fantastic forms, and is decorated by

paintings in opaque enamels. Some of it is lightl n color, and some wares are mottled by mixing thetwo co lors.

A good fine stoneware is made at Trenton , N.

J . , the coloring of the paste be ingparticularly agreeable ia many cases.

CHAPTER XIII .

VERY HARD POTTERY.

PORCELAIN .

Porcelain differs from all the before- describedpotteries in being translucent. The paste is dense,

vitr eous, intensely Izard, and zonite. The deriva.

t ion of the word seems uncertain . I t is supposedto b e derived from a bright shining shell (cowr ie)called porcellana by the Portuguese ; but it is foundin use in Europe before the introduction of porce

lain,and then seems always to sign ify some very

p recious substance. Marryatt suggests a species of

agate, perhaps chalcedony, which resembles porce

lain in its milky hue and semi -translucent character, and from which the name porcelain may havebeen transferred to the new substance introducedby the Portuguese . Pure white porcelain of the best

quality, has a wonderful charm in its milky translucence, and in the East the white porcelains, when perfect

,are prized over all others . Fine earthenwares do

not possess this beauty, and they, as well as the tin

glazed earthenwar’

es,are suited to r ich , magn ificent

decoration,

hiding the surface of the ware. It looks138

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Keramics .

When this test cannot b e applied, it is often difficultto distinguish between the two kinds. Marryatt re

lates how the learned M . Brogniar t, be ingpresentedwith a choice specimen of oldWorcester, affirmed itto be oriental porcelain, till he tested the glaze witha steel po int, and found it would scratch easily. The

glaze, moreover, of soft porcelain seems more vel

vety to-the touch

,andlooks o ily. I t is very lustrous,

also it usually covers the bottoms and bottom r ims,which in hard are almost always left unglazed .

O ld -Sevres gives a good type of the softes t por

celain ; next come the English porcelains, then theChinese, and the hardest of all are the Germanand the French hard porcelains. In date of in

vention, however, they range as follows : 1 . Chinese ;2 .

~European soft porcelain ; 3 . European hard porcelain .

HardPorce lain is the household warewith whichWe are all famil iar, and which

,no matter where

made, is commonly sold in shops as French porcelain

,or French china. Like stoneware, it is com

posed of a f usible and an inf usible element ; thislast, which is opaque, enabling the porcelain to

stand the heat necessary to v itrify the fusible ele

ment which is transpar ent, or nearly so . Kaol inmakes the plastic, opaque, and infusible part of the

paste to which it gives its name, and for ordinary

porcelain is often used as found ; but for del icatewares much of the sand found in it must be washedout. The fusible and nearly transparent substance

Very Hard Pottery . 14 !

IS either pure Feldspar or pegmatite, often called

petuntze, or a mixture of sand, chalk and feldspar,

which,melt ing and enveloping the kaolin

, gives the

porcelain the translucence that is its distingu ishingcharacter istic. The preparation of these materialsrequires all the precautions possible, andvaries ac

cording to the qual ity of the kaolin .. They first, and

the paste afterwards, go through all the operationsdescribed in .the chapters treatingof manufacture

,

many of thembeingrepeated several times. The paste

is not'

very plastic, but is enough so to b e tb rozo'

n’

,

pressed and moulded by Skilful workmen, larg’

e' '

ar

ticles be ing usually made in several p ieces. The

ware is first slightly baked or b iscuited, so that beingstill porous, it can be glazed by a dip. As it ddes

not soften in this first or biscuit baking, it can b e

p iled up in the oven or seggars without any unusual

precautions beingtaken .

Glaze—This is almost invariably made of feldspar or pegmatite (Corn ish stone). I t is used eitheralone, as at Sevres, or with the addition of a littlekaolin quartz

,or carbonate of l ime,or an artificial

lime-

glass may b e used . Glaze andpaste are bakedtogether at the highest temperature used in potterybaking: equal to the meltingpoint of wrought iron,or from 1 500

0 or 1 600° Cent. (27oo ° to to

sometimes 1 8og ° Cent. (3 272 F.) After baking, the

glaze shorilil b e perfectly even and brill iant, intensely hard, and with no spots. The paste, soften

ingslightly in the final baking, has to be supported

1 42 Keramz'

es.

propped and placed with the greatest care, and all

k inds of ingen ious .contrivances are used for this

p urpose, it be inggenerally necessary that support andp iece shal l be of the same paste, so

'

as to contract

equally. The articles scarcely ever rest .ou . the

bottom of the seggar, but stand on setter s of'

paste

or clay, .the glaze beingwiped off of any poin ts of

contact with seggar or supports, which are spr inkledwith an infusible powder in order to prevent the

parts sticking together. The rough edges left inthis. way are now always ground off

,and even

polished on a lathe. In old porcelains they wereleft on rough . Attempts have been made to applyother than feldspar or ear thy glazes to hard p orcelain. The salt-glaze of stoneware does not answer

well, owingprobably to a want of silica. Good ef

fects are produced by .the use of soft lead -

glazes, .or

of different soft enamels a ppl ied on the hardbiscu it

,all of which

,on

'

account of the lead, are ob

jectionab le, .except for purely decorative purposes.

Statuettes and figures .of all kinds are made of a

porcelain biscuit, differi ng slightly in compositionfrom that of the ordinary ware. Such figures are

usually cast by means of slip in closed moulds,and

are .very difficult t o support and bake without distortion. In theirm anufacture very careful calculat ion is requ ired as to contraction , the paste shrinkinga

good deal in drying,andstillmore in baking. They aresometimesglazed,but the effect is seldom good; Theunglazed figures, and also vases, are occasionally

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144 Keramz'

es .

Very beautiful effects are obtained with hard kilncolors by the me’tfiode R ic/lard, and also by peltesur -pdte, or sh}?painting. (See pages 74 and

Very fine specimens in both styles were shown at the

French Exhibition of 1 878, where also were to be

seen porcelain from Limoges. which in whitenessand del icacy of paste rivalled the Sévres wares.

From Sevres were sent cups with the paste p iercedin patterns, and the holes filled up with coloredenamels. Wonderful applications of slip-

painting,both in white and in colored paste, were also shown,as well as some remarkable effects obtained by theuse of tin-

glaze over the body,somewhat in the

Chinese style. For interesting reports of all thissee the

“Gazette des Beaux Arts,”

for 1 878 ; also the“Art Journal, and l

'

Art,for the same year .

The Saxony hard porcelains are very famous,both for fine qual ity of paste and of decoration.

Meissen and Dresden are other names for the

same ware, the latter beingperhaps the best knownname in this country. This ware has deteriorated,but vz

'

eux Saxe, or O ld Dresden, is as famous in

its way as w'

eux Sevr es . I t must b e rememberedthat it is a hard porcelain, and so is decorated in an

entirely different way from the old Sevres, whichwas Soft

:Hard porcelain of the finest qual ity and

decoratlon is made at Sevres,Paris

,Limoges,

Vienna, Berlin, Capo di Monte

, and many lessnoted places, and expenments Of all kinds are conducted with more or less happy results. A porce

‘

145

lain which deserves an’

especial mention on account

of the materials employed was made in some parts

of Italy and in Spain . In this the infusible element,

instead Of'

kaol in‘

,is a magnesite. Brogniart cal ls

this Hybrid, or mixed porcelain . Paste made inthis way is very refractory

,but h as little plast icity,

and is diffi cult to work ; it -also shr inks“very much.

In Spain magnesite was used,in Italy (P iedmont)

gioberti te, both being'

much the same mineral . At

Nymphenburg, Bavar1a, a l ime porcelain is made, inwhich gypsum and quartz are used instead of

feldspar . (See table of pastes).Hard porcelain is made in this country

, where all

the necessary mater ials can be found . So far the

ware has been good in quality, but very poor as re

gards decoration . The first serious attempt at making it was in Philadelphia, by William E llisTucker, about a fact still commemorated bythe name of a l ittle street. Since then hard poroclain has been“ made in various parts of the UnitedStates, pr incipally at Greenpoint, N. Y.

* Mr.

Smith of the Un ion Porcelain Works at that place ,writes :“Our glazes differ from those generally used (inEurope). As far as I have been ab le to learn

,they

almost un iversally use feldspar in their glaze I donot use it

,for the reason that I get a harder and

more durable glaze without it, and I burn at a

higher heat than they do, in fact a. stronger fi re than

While I w rite , a p roject is on foot for estab lishing a large porcelainpottery in Philadelphia.

'

146 Keramz'

es .

is good for a feldspar glaze . He adds: We use

no metallic oxides to flux theglaze. We use nothingbut simple earths.

I f our potters can b e convinced that it is the artistic element that gives its highest valueto pottery,and will procure the services of ar tists of talent,there seems no reason why in time

“

to come weshould not have good and well-decorated porcelainmade 1n thiscountry.

In Miss Young’s book there is an interesting, well written, and

well illustrated, but not at all cr itical article on American pottery , and es

pecially porcelain. See also Prime and Elliott.

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148 Keramios .

consideringwhether such intense heat in all cases is

n ecessary. The finer Chinese and Japanese pot celains are wonderful ly beautiful , are of the most del icate texture

,and are very translucent. The Japanese

porcelains seem to vary in hardness of body,while

the glaze is not so closely incorporated with the

body as in the best European wares.

Paste.~—Chinese and J apanese, l ike European

porcelain, is composed of a fusible.

and trans

paren t and an opaque and infusible substancethe first is supposed to b epetuntze the

second lcaolz'

rz.

Pe- tun- tze (lit. , wh ite brick, tze diminutive.) Thisname

,as used in Europe, is applied only to feldspar

in various forms,and is not strictly correct. In

China it is given to any porcelainmater ialswhen putup in the forms of l ittle bricks or blocks (tan), and isalso given to porcelain paste or glaze ingredients,when mixed

,dried and put up in this shape. The

two terms,however

,kaolin—mean ing porcelain

clay, and petuntze mean ing feldspar, etc —havedefin itely taken their p lace in keramic nomenclaturein Europe.

According to careful investigations made at the

t ime of the Centenn ial Exhibition ,the finest Japanese

porcelain seems to b e made without the use of any

j Petrosilex, compact feldspar—felsite. A petrosilex is not necessarily

pure feldspar , but generally has quartz , and often other elements In it.

In a._pestrosilex or petrosil icious rock , the elements composing it are not

Cry stalized or distinct, but are in invisib le particles. In pegmatite these

particles are distinct.

1 49

kaol in at'

all, or of any equivalent therefor,being

compounded as to its body solely of petuntze- likeor ,

petrosilicious mater ials. The same thing has

been suspected in Chinese porcelain , . and it now

seems a fair inference that most Chinese porcelainsalso have a strictly petro

‘

silicious basis,and that the

word kaolin is applied by the Chinese to a washedand pu lverized petrosilex, and not to the claywe callkaol in . Baron von Richtofen , in a letter in the

American Journal of Science ”

for“March

,1 87 1 , says :

The material from which the porcelain of Kingte -Chin

,is

,or rather was

,made

,is a rock of the hard

ness of feldspar, and of a green color,l ike jade. [See

table Chap . III . , No . (The inferior kinds are not

so hard .) This rock is reduced by stamping to a fine

powder of which“

the finest port ion IS ingen iou sly andrepeatedly separated ; this is then moulded into small

br icks . The_

Chinese distingu ish two kinds of thismaterial, both sold

"

in this form. They are made at

d ifferen t places in the same manner,but the aspect

o f the rock is nearly al ike in bo th cases. Formerlythe best of these came from Kao - l ing (high - ridge),but this place has lost its prestige for cen turiesnevertheless the Chinese still cal l

'

the best of theseearths Kao - l ing. The appl ication of the name byBerzelius to porcelain earth was made on the erro

neons suppo s it ion that the white earth he rece ivedfroma member of one of the embassies

,I think

Lord Amherst, occurred naturally in this state.

The same kind of matenal is called pe-tun- tze.

1 50 Keramics.

The above statements open the way tomuch interesting investigation which would be out of p lace here ;only it may b e suggested - that doubtless our potters

can find in this country minerals suitable for makingjust such porcelains. Should the above investigationsbe proved correct, our kaolin clay porcelain wouldseem to be a new invention, which must be classedby itself as kaolin body, while the Japanese and

Chinese porcelains. would then be classed as e itherfeldspar or petrosilex body as seemed most cor

rect. In this connection it may be mentioned thatmuch surprise was expressed by M . Paul Gasnault

,

Sec. Museum Dec. Arts, in the Gazette des BeauxArts

,that the Japanese, in their exhibit in Parisstated that no kaolin was used in their por

celain, but only in faience. M . Gasnault took for

granted that the Japanese report must be incorrectlywritten or translated.

The first efforts in Europe to make porcelainfrom some Chinese materials b rought t here were nu

successful, as only a fusible elemen t, perhaps a block

of glaze material, had been sent over by some mis4

sionaries, and as Father Ly, a Chinese Chr istian,quaintly says : “

Some matters make the bones,others the flesh of porcelain . If kaolin alone

should be used for vases they would crack in the

furnace ; if on the contrary they were made of othermatters without kaolin being too weak to support

the heat during twen ty -four hours, they would dissolve in the fi re, as flowers fade under the heat of

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1 52 Keramz'

es .

pi ece'

of porcelain, thereby reducingthe friction verymuch . They also use the Potter

’

s Lathe, whichin China was certainly in common use as early as1 368 A. D. ,

and probably long before. Both countries also use clay moulds for paste (in Japan theyare now adopt ing the use of the plaster mould), butnot the closed moulds for slip, making, however, byother means , and by more diffi cult processes, vasesand cups as thin as those made in Europe by thiseasy method .

Chinese and Japanese potters succeed'

m the most

del icate effects of slip -

painting, and of mould ingormodel ing on the body of the vase

,and in carving

patterns thereon with tools, also in all kinds of openor reticulated work, seemingto take pleasure in over

.

cominggreat diffi cult ies of potting, and in Spite ofinferior tools, obtain ingwith apparent ease effects

never yet reached by the European potter .

.A very delicate style of ornamentation is obtainedby punching out the pattern in the paste, the holes .

thus made being filled in by the glaze ;'

this is called

grains of r ice. Cloisonne enamel,in imitation of,

enamels on copper, the knowledge of which the

Chinese derlved from the Arabs, is also done on

porcelain. The brass wire is fastened to the, poree

lain by means of melted glaze, and the enamels thenapplied as in metal work . In many cases the bodyis covered with .a slip or layer of fine white clay or

paste, which takes the ,

color w ell . This method isalso used inmaking the best crackled ware ; in this

Very'

Hard Pottery . 1 53

the glaze is not crackled at all,but the slip being

more or less contractile than the body or core of

the vase, breaks into coarser or finer cracks. Coloringmatter is rubbed in to these, and the glaze is fi nally put over all. Hoa- chi—a sort of soapstone or

steatite— is also used in this process. At the Frenchexhibition there were some Japanese wares in whichthe decoration was del icately inlaid in the style of

the O iron faience.

The Glaze used in China differs in compositionfrom that generally used in Europe, which is almost1nvariably made of pegmatite or feldspar alone, andvery seldom with a large amount of lime

,while in

China and Japan glazes with a large proportion,“

often as‘

much as one fourth lime, are the rule. In

China h it-men or else yeou -ko,

*a petrosilex chosen

with as l ittle iron in it as possible, and -which"

is gen

erally so ld washed,crushed and put up in the form

of p'

e- tun tze,or l ittle white br icks, is finely pul

verized and mixed with water. This IS added to l imewhich has been elaborately prepared by

'

burn ingl imestone and fern leaves in alternate layers. Salvetatdoes not think that the fern leaves have any very

great effect, because in the first place so l ittle of

the fern ashes get into the glaze liquid, and in thesecond these ashes only contain a l ittle silica

,and a

trace of phosphoric acid . Before adding it to the

petrosilex, the mixture of l ime and ashes i s burnedover several times, is carefully washed and allowed

See analy sis No. 6, tab le, Chap. III .

'

1 54 Keramies.

to settle, and in the end the ashes are thrown away ;so that the object of the whole precess seems onlyto b e to obtain the purest l ime possible. A fibrous

gypsum (elzy -kao) is also added, but the action of

this seems to b e merely to precip itate the mineralmatters . The proportions vary,b u t for the best glazeare about ten of petrosilex and water (stone~o il) toone of lime and water (fern oil, l ime oil). I t mayb e well to mention here that in most of the workstreating of Chinese pottery the techn ical

_

term oil

used in China for glaze or glaze fluids is l iterallytranslated oil, therebymaking the descriptionswhollyun intelligible to European readers

,no oil being

used either in the preparation of the glaze, or of its

ingr edients. I t is said that in old times carnelianwas used in glazes, carnelian being almost puresil ica, and burning white, this might well b e the

case .

After the ware is thoroughly dr ied, but not baked atall

,it is painted, and then glazed . The Chinese put

on the glaze so as not to soften or break the ware,

dipping it into the glaze liqu id with great care, or

else pour ing the liquid over or into it. Very fineand thin wares will not stand these processes, andthey have to b e glazed by blowingthe liqu id througha tube covered with gauze . The bottom of the cup

o r vase is not finished , until the glaze and the paintingare put on, but is left as a

'

handle several incheslong. This is then taken off

,the bottom of the foot

of the vessel is hollowed out, and aname ormark is

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Keramics .

order to obtain certain effects, and not the result ofignorance. This v iew is supported by the fact thatin onepart of China (see Histoire et Fabr ication, bookV. Page 1 28) it seems as if glaz ingwas done as in

Europe. In this connection an art icle in the “London Builder, by G. J. Morrison , M . Inst. , M . E . ,

copied into Van Nostrand ’s Magazine,”

for May,

1 879, is interesting, for it expressly states that the ornamental brickwork made at Lien l i Ku

,near

Pekin, is fi rst baked and then glazed. He alsostates that this brick will rank with the highestclass of bu ildingmaterial . This is valuable if thewriter understands keramic processes, and has madenomistake. The article is also interest ing in its descnption of the mater ial— hard blue shale, as hardas slate

,which is crushed by gran ite rollers and then

used .

The Japanese Kilns are built on the slope of a

hill,in a l ine of from four to twenty

,the base of

each kiln lyingabout three feet higher than that of

the foregoing, so that if all the kilns were uncoveredthe whole of them would present the aspect of ter

races formed by a series of platforms each three feethigh , the kilns growing wider and wider as they extend up the hill. A draught is established throughthe whole l ine of kilns

,which ends in a range of short

chimneys corresponding to the draught-ho les o f thelast kiln . There are no separate furnaces or fi re

places, but the fuel is thrown directly into the kiln ,this

beingso arranged that the flame does not strike the

Very .Hard Pottery . 1 57

porcelain directly, and is, besides, forced to take a

c ircu lar or whirl ing motion. The kilns are fired insuccession, beginn ing with the lowest ; by the timethis is fin ished the n ext one is redhot, and so on, thuseffecting great economy in fuel . The placing and

setting of p ieces in the kiln is done in much the

same way as in Europe, b i1t comparatively few

p ieces are baked in seggars. The Chinese kilns appear to b e constructed on much

’

the same principle,only

'

in China all the ware is packed in seggars,

which has to b e done with the greatest care, as theunbaked ware is extremely fragile. In both coun

tries the firing is an“

especial branch of pottery, andthe kilns are tended by men who do nothing else

,

and who consequently become very expert in thisbranch . The kilns are rented to the different manufacturers .

The l ist of colors used for Decoration is smal lcompared to those u sed in Europe, as so far the

Chinese and Japanese have not had the chemicalknowledge n ecessary to produce many of our colors.

They have some beautiful igloss-oven colors,among

the most famous of which are the celadon and the

r ozcge flamme'

or flambe; this last from the native

protoxide of copper, requi r ing most careful management of the heat . They also have colors thatfre-a

'

semble our hard -kiln colors in composit ion , such asviolet, turquo ise blue, yellow,

andgreen . In China allunderglaze painting is necessarily done on the

'

dried

unbaked paste, this requiring great skill and -much

'

1 58 Keramics .

practice. Both nations use gilding, and thoroughlyunderstand all efi

’

ects produced bymore or less flux,or by

'

a greater or less degree of heat applied to thecolor. Their regular kiln colors are nearly all enamels, and in composition and fusibility are very likethe enamels used onmetals. They are really lead - alkal ine glasses, colored by a few hundredths of coloringmatter dissolved in the glass. Salvetat and Ebelmen in their Memoir*give the composition of thisflux or glass as silica, oxide of lead in slightly varying proportion (6 of minium,

2 of silicious sand,and 1 of borax), and a greater or less quantity ofsoda and potash . Japanese colors have much thesame flux. The colors are few in number, consistingof copper for greens and blue-

greens, gold forreds

,cobalt for blues, antimony for yellow,

arsen icand tin for white. Iron reds and manganese black ,

are also used ; these last are not enamels, b ut vitrifiab le

paints. Black is usually obtained by bringinga colorto its utmost intensity, or by placing two very deepcolors over each other, as deep red over deep blue.

The colors are not mixed with turpentine, but withwater or thin glue, as used to b e the custom in Eu

rope. The artist adds a l ittle l ime or white lead, ashe judges proper. Owing to the difference of paste

and glaze, these Chinese over -

glaze paints will notadhere on European hard porcelain, but crack off.

The European vitrifiab le pamts, however,will generally answer well on Chinese ware.

I? Annales de Chymic et de Phys ique (3) XXXI. 257, and XXXV. 3m.

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1 60 Keramics .

nialExhibition,the F lux for Japanese colors consists

of silica,l itharge (red lead), and n itre (po tash), form

inga glass which is powdered , and to which is addede ither White lead or powdered silex

,in order to in “

crease or to d imi n i sh its fus ibility . The coloringoxides consist of copper, manganese, an timOny,

'

red

oxide of iron,impure oxide of cobalt (black), a sort

smalt (blue) from China, gold reds,and gold for

gilding, this last mixed with white lead or borax .

All the ingredients are mixed by the painter himself and used directly. The whole design is tracedin black lines

,and the shades

,if used

,are only in

dicated by strokes. The colored enamels are put onin a thin layer when opaque, or in a thick layer whenthey are to produce, after melting, the effect of

colored glass through which the black tracing of the

design is v isible. Sometimes relief paintings are produced by first coating the porcelain with a whiteopaque enamel

,which contains no oxide of tin

, but is

merely a mixture of glass, white lead, and powderedstone

,andon which the other colors are then applied.

The Japanese:also use -lacquer in the decoration of

porcelain ,this substance is almost as imp erishable as

the vitrifiab le paints, and so perhaps may be consid

ered a legitimate keramic decoration .

The Japanese and Chinese, in common with-”

all

Eastern nations,are very fond ofB lue, andmuch of

theirmost beautiful ware is decorated with this color,generally under the glaze, which is apt to b e slightly

‘

bluish . . The Japanese get a very beautiful effec t

Very Hard Pottery . 161

with underglaze blue, heightened with an overglazeblue .

In many instances Chinese overglaze colors, particularly blacks and reds, do not glaze at all

,and the

colors also often run into each other ; but the Chinesedo not regard this, as we should regard it, as a defect.For that matter much of the harmonious effect of

Chinese, and, indeed, of much Eastern ware, is due tojust such acciden ts. Salvetat, who on this subject is‘

entitled to b e heard with respect, suggests that muchof the beauty of coloring in Chinese and Japaneseporcelains is owing to the ir small list of colors, andto the fact that these being nearly all enamels

,can

not b e made very intense or glaring, so that theharmony results from necessity rather than from

cho ice . However this may b e, good color seems

to belong to the Eastern nations. All through theEast perfect knowledge of, and feel ing for beauty ofco lor seems instinct ive ; at least it has been so heretofore. In the various branches of the potter

’

s art

in Japan , and above all in China,the division of labor

is carr ied to a great exten t,and traditions and

methodsof potting, and of using the comparativelysmall list of colors, descend from father to son

, eachfamily devo ting itself to some particular branch .

The skilfulness and precision both of eye andof handmust be enormously developed by inheritance, so

that in time it may b e that this skil l and precisionbecome an instinct ; and with his usual environment,it may be as impossib le for the Eastern potter br

M

1 5 2 Keramics.

colorist to make a mistake in his work as for a birdto bu ild its nest wrongly. But it is qu ite possible,and unfortunately probable, that with the great

changes go ing on in our day, and which seem to

disturb the hitherto immovable East, breaking intoits quietude with our steam-dr iven civilization

,that

the workman will lose his old and accustomed environment, and with it his instinct. After that it willb e a very long time, if ever, before he will be ableto reproduce his lovely harmon ies by reason ingthemout. Already we can see a change in the art -workof India and of Japan , both of which countries, and

particularly the latter, seem to offer peculiar advantages for study and comparison . In spite of our

boasted advantages, our influence in the East is undoubtedly bad as regards art, for our vaunted c iviliszation does not flower out into splendid art

, but

develops more like the useful but ugly potato .

The great porcelain factory in China was at Kingte-Chin ; it was destroyed some t ime ago. Most of

the porcelain from there was decorated at Nankinand at Canton .

The oldest Chinese pottery is very like stoneware,

being hard, and covered with a thick'

and almost

translucent enamel . The term céladon was or igin

ally given to wares of this kind, in which the glaze

was colored a delicate sea-

green, bUt has since been

given to other shades. These are often decorated

with raised or depressed patterns on the body, or

withflowers (celadonflenr i). In the best céladon the

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164 Keramz'

cs.

celains attributed to the Corea by Jacquemart haves ince proved to be Japanese.

Porcelain, both hard and soft, was also made inPers ia. Dates and authorities are in great con

fusion ; but as new discoveries are made every daythe whole subject may soon b e settled . An effort

was made to revive this industry in Persia not verylongago, but failed.

Genu ine hard porcelain of fine quality was alsomade in India, but there are no very certain dates.The decoration on India porcelains is characteri zedby wonderful delicacy and minuteness of finish

,both

in figure and flower painting. All the details are

worked out'

as in the finest min iature painting, while

gold is employed with great skill and taste . The term

India W are does not mean porcelain from Hindustan, butwas applied to Chinese porcelains broughtfrom the East by the East I ndia Companies.

CHAPTER Xv.

VERY HARD POTTERY.

SOFT PORCELAIN .

Soft Body Porcelain is generally divided intoNatural or Bone, and F ritted or Artificial

Porcelain, the latter beingalmost entirely an artificial product, with no natural clay in it. O ld Sevre

'

s

—this being the most famous soft porcelain—can be

taken as

'

a type of the artificial paste . I t was the

result of the efforts made in France to imitateChinese porcelain . These efforts failed fromthe

want of proper mater ials, bu t resulted in the makingof a beautiful ware

,which for purposes Of color

decoration has never been surpassed . The manu

facture began at St. Cloud, about 1 695 , and was

transferred to V incennes, and thence to Sevres,

where, vas carried on until 1 804, and then abandone This is what is generally called Vz

’

eux

sew }; After 1 804 , for a time, only hard pastewas made at Sevres ; but about 1 847 the manufacture of the soft was rev ived, and since then bo thkinds have been made . The manufacture of o ld

Se'

vres was exceedingly troublesome, requiringgreat165

166 Keramz'

cs .

care and vigilance. The p aste was composed of a

clay- like marl, with a good deal of l ime in it, and of

a frit composed of sand,

n itre (potash),salt (soda), alum dry carbonate of soda

,

gypsum,the whole was melted together

into a kind of glass, then pu lverized, andmixed withmarl and chalk. This paste Was ground in water

for a long t ime,then dried

,then broken up again,

then mixed with water, with two parts of old paste

to one of new. The glaze was a crystal or flint

glass, with a good deal of lead in it,fusible and

easily scratched . (See Chap. VIII . , page 7 The

paste not beingplastic at all,had to b e mixed with

gum or soft- soap . The p ieces weremoulded roughly,and very much thicker than they were to b e whenfinished . They were then dried, and afterwardsshaped and thinned on a turn lng lathe with

'

irontools. The dust caused by this was very unwholesome

,andwas one of the principal reasons for aban

don ing the manufacture. The baking was veryslow ; it lasted for seven or e ight days, and had tobe conducted with the greatest care

,with a clear

flame with no smoke . The paste softened and

shrunk very much,nearly a seventh , and it had not

only to b e carefully propped, but in some cases sup

ported on moulds of the same paste, contract ing at

the same rate,andpowderedover with infusible sand

to prevent adhes ion . This involved great waste, asthe moulds could only b e used raw or green , andconsequently were useless after 0ne baking. As

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168 Keramz'

cs .

tory. An expensive fancy was imitating naturalflowers in porcelain ; an 1mitation generally very welldone. Since 1 875 beautiful soft porcelain has beenmade at Limoges. A commoner sort of soft

porcelain is also made,which in France is in

“

great

request for household ware, and also for decorative

purposes. Precautions are now taken in all the

potteries to prevent the workmen from being in

jured by the dust. These porcelains all come underthe head of f r itted body with various glazes,generally fl int-glass, and Fritted Body Porce laincertain ly seems a better name than the one generallyused . The paste of the Pers ian Soft Porce lainis very much the same as of the old Sevres, but witha different glaze ; this having no lead in it, beingmade of silica and

.

the ashes of a plant that growsin salt lands, and which furn ishes the alkal i necessary to ' make the glass. As can b e seen by thetable, page 48, old Sevres is a very silicious ware

,

even more so than the Japanese porcelains—be ing,indeed, in many respects more l ike glass than p0rcelain . At the last Paris exhibition (1 878) some soft

body porcelains were shown in which the colors,no

doubt enamels, were put on in powder, and fusedat a low temperature, producing a very beautifuleffect.

The modern English porcelains are the type of

natural soft porcelain, and, indeed, are the onlyk ind made in England. All the materials necessaryfor the manufacture of hard porcelain are found in

Very Hard Pottery . 169'

England, nevertheless only bone porcelain is made.

The English potters generally explain this by assert

ing that no clay is found there, refractory enough for

seggars in which hard porcelaln may be baked. Kao«

lin i s the base of the paste, to which 15 added a greatdeal ofphosphate of lime obtained fromcalcinedbones

,

those of sheep being thought the very best ; horse and

p ig bones color the paste. This phosphate of lime isthe distingu ishingcharacteristic of the paste of Engl ish porcelains, which are classed as Bone Phos

phate BodyPorcelain’

s . At first the compositionof the paste was almost iden tical with that of fine ballclay earthenware, and fl int-glass was added in orderto secure translucence. In the place of this glass,

Josiah Spode substituted phosphate of lime from

or moulded .

The porcelain b iscuit (clay feldspar body) calledpar ian ,

which 15 so much used for statuettes,is

sl ightly differen t m composition from the above. I t

has an agreeable warm yellowish tint,and is suffi

ciently glazed by the action of the fi re. Itmust, however

, b e cast, the paste not beingplastic enough to b emodelled by hand . Some of theWedgwood colored

I 70 Keramz‘

es .

wares were in real ity porcelain biscu its ; it is often

hard to. distinguish them from fine stoneware. A

boracicglaze, harder than that of S‘

evres soft porce

lain,is generally used now. It is not easily scratched ,

is not affected by acids,and gives great brilliancy

to the colors used . I t is usually put on by a

dip.

Engl ish porcelain is of a soft creamy white color,

very agreeable to the eye, and is a good ware fortable use. It seems to take a place between hard

porcelain and fritted porcelain, while it is mucheasier to make than this latter

,and consequently

,

is

cheaper . Nearly all the regular kiln colors can b e

used on it, and owing to the fusibility of the glaze,which softens at a moderate red heat, the colors sinka l ittle into it, and so acquire a glossmess and

b rilliancy approaching that of the old Sevres.

For the same reason the l ist of gloss -oven and

underglaze colors is large, and much decorat ion iseither painted or printed under the glaze ; this last,l ike all o ther mechan ical work in England, being,

perfectly well done. As a"

rule,the decorations on

ordinary table ware are rather crude in color andcommon-

place in design.

Of late years there has been a wonderful changein the artistic character of expens ive English porcelain . Most beau tiful wares of all kinds are made,

some showing great originality, b ut'

the most of

them beingbut literal copies or close imitations of

Eastern and particularly of Japanese Ware. These

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I 72 Keramzes .

works were established in Philadelphia before1 770, and judging from the advertisement for shankbones in an old paper, and the fact that the porcelainis

“

promised to be l ike that made at Bow, this porcelain must have been like Engl ish bone porcelain.

P A R T IV .

FOR THE 17 5 001314 TOR .

CHAPTER XVI.

KERAMIC PAINTING.

Practical Hints —In order to makegood paintings on any kind of pottery a knowledge of drawingand painting in general is absolutely necessary. In

order to do the best work the decorator should havea thorough artistic train ing. Almost all the difi‘i

culties experienced by would-b e decorators are owingto the fact that they attempt work for which theyhave not had the slightest preparation . Before at

tempting any keramic painting a person should beable to make a correct and accurate copy on

paper of a drawingor painting. I f it can b e done

in color, so much thebetter. Without at least thisslight degree of preliminary training it is useless toexpect to do any good work.

Good effects of a very s imple k1udmay poss'ibly

b e produced by persons ignorant of drawing, if the)r

will b e satisfied with s imple effects, but the troublealmost invariably is that persons who cannot drawat all wish to do the most diflicult work. Unfor

tunately, too, such people, after doing abominablework, have not the knowledge of its badness,

I 73

174 Keramz'

es.

and so are satisfied with the abomination. The

characteri stic of most work done in this country iscrudeness, and utter absence of fin ish, caused bywan t of proper train ing. Many persons think thatby means of tracing they can obviate this difficulty .

Tracing is of use only as a gu ide. and even in the

simplest patterns the hand requ ires train ingin orderto make good and pleasing l ines. I t is rather cur1ous that persons who would acknowledge themselves incapable of makinga good water-color drawing will, without any hesitation, attempt the mostdiffi cu lt work on porcelain .

Painting on Hard Porcelain (Over-glaze).-

'

This is done with the regular kiln or mufflecolors . Read over carefully what is said about themChap. VIII . page 72 . Never attempt to decoratewarethat has been used. Choose the best qual ity of Frenchware. That marked Hi

e ,

is always excellent ; itis made by Haviland and Co . ,

at Limoges. See

that the p ieces are regular and even in shape, andfree from spots or places where the glaze seems

rubbed off. Hold each piece so that the l ight comesacross the surface, and if the glaze seems full ofl ittle depressions l ike an egg

- shell, reject it. Thisdefect is generally caused by the excessive thinnest;of the glaze. Turn it over and see if there is a de

pressed mark across the name ; if so it is a defective

piece, rejected by the factory for decoratiom Nearly

all the plates sent to this coun try are thus marked .

In‘

many cases, however, they can be used. Most

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-I 76 Keramies .

a good one is a treasure. One or two tracer s or

liner s, brushes with very long fi ne hairs, are useful .One or two hard lead pencils, and some lithographiccrayons . A horn or ivory palette-knife and one of

s teel,both as flexible as possible. A needle set ina

handle . A china-

painter’

s palette, which is a porcelain slab full of holes~fo r the colors

,and which

should have a cover. A small glass muller forusing with powder colors. This should b e chosenwith great care, and should b e of a very hard glass ,a s a muller made of a soft lead glass may injuret rem perceptibly. Two or three slabs or pieces of

ground glass ; generally called glass palettes in the

books. For very fine work a large slab shouldb e obtained

,bedded in plaster so as to b e per

fectly_

flat and even . The under surface of the

muller should also b e ‘

perfectly flat, so that the twosurfaces are completely in contact. Tracing and

impression paper, a l ittle modelling wax, plenty of

fine linen rags, some if possible of very fi ne old

linen, such as is used for the finest handkerchiefs.

I t is wel l to have a table arranged expressly for thiswork . Such a table should have one or more smalldrawers for brushes, .colors, etc. ,

and one large one

for designs, plaques, etc. There should also be a piece'

of wood about two feet or less long, and abouts ix inches wide, arranged so that it can be put at

right angles to the table ; this can either be done bymeans of a screw and nut fasten ing to the top of

the table, or it can b e arranged'

so as to slip i n a

Keramic Painting.

groove under the top, l ike a drawer. Many personswork without this rest or support, but it is a great

advantage in many cases. The whole table shouldhave a high edge or border except in the front ; it isconven ient to have this higher than the l it tle bottlesused . This edge supports a coverwhich must always ib e put over the table when not in use. Such a tableis very conven ient ; nevertheless, the ingenious studentcan supply its place by pasteboard boxes and othercontrivances.

A rest for the hand is necessary, which can eitherb e a flat ruler supported on two small blocks

,or a strip

of wood about an inch and a half wide,and as long

as is needed, supported on feet at each end. Large

plaques can b e painted on an easel . In all cases

great care must b e taken to cover the work so as to

keep out the dust or fluff, which is the great enemyof the keramic painter. There are many excellentcolor makers ; but the most convenient paints forbeginners are those prepared with turpentine, etc. ,

and put up in tubes ready for use by A . Lacro ix,of

Paris.

*In buying these the student is certain of ob

tain inggood colors. All the .colors in the following

l ist, and many more, can b e obtained in powder or inthe Lacroix tube colors

,though some of them are a

l ittle difli cult to find in this country . A l ist of the

principal co lors used is here given, with rough indications of their ingredients, so as to prevent im

proper mixtures. These indications apply to all

fluxed colors. The convenient classification inSee note 1 3 , Appendix B.

178

vented by Lacroix is followed . This classes themin regard to their contain ingmore or less or no ir on

“

.

The student will do wel l to learn the heads of thisclassification by heart. These Lacroix colors and

the other articles mentioned can b e obtained at any

good store for artists’

materials . The colors markedwith a star are enough for a beginner . Until otherwisement1oned, the Lacroix tube colors are meant .

These paints are manufactured for use on the glaze

of porcelain and of fine earthenwares (f aiences

fines) only . Their use on other wares,though oc

casionally successful,is,nevertheless

,attended with

great risks, and the baker cannot b e blamed for

failure. Never use over glaze the Lacroix colorsmarked G. F . (grandf en) in one corner to f the label

,

as they are underglaze colors.

In ordering the Lacroix colors always give the

French name in full, as the Engl ish name differs“

withdifferent dealers. Be careful to mention all the

letters or numbers. Those under the columnmarked Sevres should always b e put in brackets in"

Sending to Paris for colors b ut it is not necessaryto do so in '

sending to dealers here, except wherethe Sevres number is repeated in the first column

,

as for example, Jaune M . améler, 4 1 de Sevres

Lacroix color in tubes.

”

Should -

powder color b e desired,state that fact .

If t he groundingcolors are wanted, state distinctlythat the “couleurs pour fonds, or groundingcolorsare wanted .

~Mention also that the colors are to be

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Kerani it s .

GROUP 1 .-Cox.ons wrr rrou'

r IRON wmcn ARE Win-res,

URANIUM-YELLOW, PLATINA

FRENCH NAMES.

Blanc Chinois .

B lane fi xe .

I"Bleu cie l azur*Bleu cie l clair on tendreB leu foncé"Bleu outremer n che

*Bleu Victoria011ordinaire

Bleu ve rt

Bleu

‘ Bleu riche

"Carmin tendre A.

Carmin tendre No .

Carmin No . 2

"Carmin No . 3 foncé‘ Laque carminéePourpre cramoisi"Pourpre xiche.

PourprePourpre

Pourpre ordinaire .

‘Violet d’or clair

‘Violet d’or foncé

JauncGri s dc

Noir

Encmsn Names .

l

De

Sevres.

Conons .

0 0 0 0 0 0

C O C O .

60 Purple ” 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0

i t

Light violet of gold.Deep

Uranium y ellow .

9 Platinagrey

Iridium b lack . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

DarkSoft neutral

Chinese‘white

Permanen t wh1te

ii yhb lif

'

b l v 1 b l1g t s y ue ery pa e ue

Dark b lueDeep ultramarine Bright , but not vcry

darkVictoria or ordinary Very deep rich b lueor common blue .

Blue green Green ish bluesTurquoise:

Dark anddeep in ton eand something likeindigo

Light carmine A Very light pink

No. 1 Pale rosy p ink .

Carmine No . 2 . P ink, a l i ttle b lueish

Deep carmineNo.3 . Rich p ink .

Crimson lake .

Cr imson purp leDeep purp le . More like deep rose

colorRuby purple . Superb dark claret .

Rather l i ht,m

like so fer ino or

crimsonDarker

Rich purples

Keramics . 181

Bu rns , 6 014 ) Cot ons (THAT rs r un COLORS MADE wrr u Gow ) ,GREY AND IRIDlUM -BLACK .

INGRED IENTS . REMARKS .

Tin arsenic, phosphate

of limeCobalt modifi ed by

Cobalt modifi ed b yzinc alumina , ars en1c, etc

Principally cobalt

Purple of Cassius with a All gold colors , which are the carmines , urpleslit tle chlor ide of s ilver gold viole ts and laque carminée must e use

and more or less flux thin and with but l i t tle fa t turpentine . Theyto ligh ten or darken mix well w ith y ellows , greens , b lues andt he colors b rown s . N ever use carmines for flesh on hard

orcelain. The carmines can b e put over ye low in a second baking, and then give a color

Purpl es are the same as like vermillion . The English carmines are theCarmines, modifi ed b be s t , but must be tested before using. Theyoxide of gold and d

'

do no t come in tubes . If carmines are fi red atferent fluxes . too low a temperature , they are y ellowish , if

at too h igh they have a lilac tinge . If app lied

too thick y they are apt to be yellowish also.

Purple of Cassius—very These must be used carefully on fi ne earthen-

.little silver . ware , as they are often spoiled b the glazeshould b e tes ted for delicate wor M ix wellw ith b lues , y el lows andgreens.

Does notmix well .Plat ina- metal ,

. An excellentgrey that can be mixedwith any

color andwil no t injure it as do the iron grey s(group Vc expens ive .

Ox . iridium. Excellent black t at can be mixedwith all celors without injury . Very expensive.

Wh ite is very little used in porce lain painting,as i t is ap t to crack 05 .

Blues can b e shaded or mixedwith each otheror w ith urples and jonquil , and mixing y e llows . ith carmines they make fi ne Viole ts .

Great care must be taken in mix ing themwithochres or b rown , as they do not work well withthe iron colors ; neverthe less , fi ne flesh tonescan often b e ob tained from green

- b lue andother blues and purp lish red mixed, also fromthe violets of iron and b lues . Blue and capu

cine make a warm b lack. Blues should be puton thinly , as they are ap t to scale 05 .

1 82 Keramz'

cs.

GROUP IL—Conons Wrr u LITTLE

J.0k

FRENCH Name s. é Eucr xsn NAMES. Coronas .

0

Jaune pale fi xe Permanen t y ellow .

‘ Jaune M . ameler 4: de 41 Mixing y ellowSevres

Jaunc 43 C 43Jaune 46‘ Jaune d’ivoi re 47 de 47 Ivory y ellowSevres

*J aunc d’argent . Silver y ellow

aune orangé NOt very deep in tone"

v aunc canary y ellow

Jaune d urane up 1

*Ver t No . 5 re 351'Vert No . 6,gr imou olive 39‘Vert No.

Ver t

f. 0 e o e

Ver t bleu , ri che‘Vert chrome 3,Ver t chrome , r iche .*Ver t b leufitre‘.Ve r t émerau

‘

de .

Ve r t

Vert russe

Brigh t , cool yellow

Darker ellowStill dar er

A very'

bright y ellow,

not in the least likeivory

Very b right andwarm

Orange y ellowonq u il y ellowranium ye llow

Gr am .

Grass green ull, soft, rich y elBrown gr een low green .

Dark green cry cold and darkmore like greenish grey

Green No . 36, T ike grass green ,only darker .

Green No . 36, D ike 36 T . , onlydarker .

Deep b lue greenChrome green 3 , B:Rich b luegreenDeep Chrome green A r ich b lueBlu ish een .

Emeral s tone green Deep y ellow green

Apple green Intense crude greenDeep green Rich dark b lue

.greenSap green

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"

1ti

GROUP I I I .—IN WHiCi i IRON i s E ITHER THE BASE OR THE CoLORi NG

FRENCH NAu Es.

‘Rouge chair

*Rouge chair a. .

Rouge chair 3 .

*Rouge carminé .

*Rouge laqueuxRouge v iolfitre pale .*Viole t de fer foncé‘Viole t de fer tein te gr i se

*BrunRouge Sangu in .

Rouge orangé .

’

‘Rouge capucine .

‘Brun , 3 b itume .

.Brun 4 ’ fonCé, 1 7 0 0 0 03 5 0

BrunBrun clair

Brun‘ Brun de

Brun M . ou*Brun sep ia .

"Brun jaune‘ Ocre aver t A . V .

‘Ocm e o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Ocre

.Gris N O.

‘Gr i s NO . 2 .

l'Gris no ir ou foncé

Gris roux ou roussfitreGris rosfi tre

As A RULE THESE COLORS MUST NOT

COLORS.

Laky red Rich redmaroon

Purplish redDark violet of iron . More a rich purp lishGray Violet of i ron . brown than violet

Red brown . More red than brown

BloodOrange red

Capucine red.

ke raw s ienna .

Dark salmon color . .

Very ellow b rown . .

Very li

Much the same as

brun jaune.

Grey NO . x Blu ish greyGrey No . 2 Warmer grey

2 Neutral

3 Warm grey Like light flesh color

3° Rosy grey Same as rouge ch

No. x.

S‘

[

De

Sevres

ENGLiSH NAMES.

Flesh red or carna Cool grey ish redtion I

Flesh red or carna Very like light red i n

t ion 2 oilsFlesh red or carna Ve r like light red int ion 3 . O 0 0

Carmine red

Brown NO. 3

Brown No . 4 or

Golden b rownLigh t b rownDark b rown . .

Wood b rown.

BrownM . or 1 08

SepiaYe llow b rownOchre for green sOchreDark ochre

oi s , darke r

Deep orange

Br illian t , ratherb ricky red

Br ight y ellowishb rown

Rich dark neutralb rown

Reddish . brown

Keramé'

cs .

"I

’

8"5MATTER : REDS, RED-BROWNS , Baos , OCHRES, '

GREvs , BLACKS.

BE M rican W iTH THOSE OF GROUP I .

INGRED i ENTs . REMARKS.

All the iron reds are

made from the red

ox ide of iron varied

by . the me thod of

p reparation , not bymix tures of other

colors .

Browns and Ochres are All good, intens ify in fi ring, so dark touchesmade fromb rown oxide or t in ts should b e reserved for the second bak

Of i ron , modi fi ed by ing. As a rule do not mix well with colors Of'

cobalt and zinc. group i .

Exce llen t for retouching, also for shading b luesin conjunction with certain greys , carmines andy ellows .

Exce llen t color , can b e mixedWi th all colors .

Mixes well with reds .

To mix w ith greens , urp les and carmines .

Mixe s w ith ivory y el ows and the flesh reds fordark flesh t ints , does not mix we ll with reen ,

but is good to glaze green . Ochres an ironreds mix .well.

Greys are made of iron , Apt to injure reds.cobalt and zinc in dif

feren t propor tions .

excellent color , mi xes wi th all others ; darkens ve ry much in fi rinfi

.

Very fus ib le'

good i n.

esh tints ; also forglazi ng

- must be used thin.

Very valuab le colors alone or with y ellow NO .

4l

. DO not mix well with b lacks , grey s or

b ues . They disappear en tire ly when glazedwi th yellow, but ellows can be glazed bythem . None of t e lighter reds will standmuch heat .

Mus t not be confoundedwith laque carminée (agold color) . Can be made from rouge laq ueuxand a little y ellow 47 (ivory y ellow) .

This is a hard color and does not glaze well . Is'

im roved b

ya little ivory y e llow .

Goo in fles (see b lues) . When mixed w ithb lues these colors dull them a lit tle . Mixedw ith y e llow ochre , give beautiful warm b rowns .Rouge v iolfitre pale is sometimes called lightv io le t of iron .

xce llen t c olor , sometimes does not glaze well,then mix with a little ivory y ellow.

With b luemake blacks .

1 86 Keramz'

cs .

GROUP I I I .- IN WHiCH IRON i s E iTHER THE BASE OR THE CoLORiNGAs A RULE THESE COLORS MUST NOT BE

FRENCH NAMES. ENGLiSHNAMES. COLORS .

l

De

Sevres

‘Gris 6 0“Pi fl'l‘= 1 4 Pear l gray Light yellowish gray

Gris 1 5 Blue

Gri s de Platine Platina gray See group i

N oir RavenN o ir d

’Ivory

N oir foncé . 1 9

Noir d’iridium ao I ridium black e o o o o o o o . o o o o o b o o o e o c

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i

1 88 Keramzcs .

LIST OF GROUNDING OR BACKGROUND COLORS.

R ,

These colors and, above all, those marked P F, must not b e mixed

e ither w ith each other or with those in the fi rst list .

FRENCH NAMES . ENGLi SH NAMES . REMARKS.

‘

Bleu Celes te . Celest ial blue A s trong rich b lue .

Bleu Indien Indian blue MuCh the same only deeper.Bleu lavande . Lavender b lue . . What we should call laven

der , not b lue at all .'

Bleu marin Marine blue Much the same as b leu ce leste on ly greener .

’

Brun'

mordoré . Reddish'

b rown Also comes for pain tin

Café au lait . Light cofi'

ee color . . Color of coff eew ithmil in it.Carmélite . Carme lite r ich deep red or maroon .

Céladon . . Celadon A peculiar green ish or b lue

ish gray'

very delicate .

CorailGr is d

’acier Stee l gray .

Gris Tur tle dove gray . . More like a b rown gray or

drab , very soft and pret ty .

I sabelle Isabelle A s ort of fawn color .

{aunc Chinois . Chinese , ye llow . A very bright clear yellow.

ilas fus ible . Fusib le li lacMais . Maize . Com color ;'

Mauve Mauve .

Rose Pompadour . Rose Pomp adour . A bright soft p ink.

T urquoise b leu . Turquoise blue A very r ich rather light bluealso comes for pain tin

g.

lueTurquoise Turquoise A very r ich green ishalso comes for paint ing.

Vert pour fonds Groundinggreen A very b rillian t rather crude

green .

“

Vert d’ eau au cu ivre . Copper water green . A vc delicate beautifulb lu is green , very lighti n tone .

.Vert d’eau au chrome . Chrome water green Much the same as the above,

only greener and darker .

Keramz'

c Painting. I 89

Engl ish and German colors have about the same

power as p igments as the French,bu t the names

given them vary somewhat. (See powder colors.) NOcolors made in this country have as yet been worthmuch .

The first thing is thoroughly to understand thecolors and the effect they produce after they are

fired . For this purpose take two plates, or elsebroken p ieces, of the same kind of ware as that tob e decorated . I f a p late, draw l ines running fromthe circumference to the centre, so dividing the edgeof the plate into as many compartments as there arecolors to b e used . Squeeze out a little of each coloron the glass s lab

,and rub it down well with the

palette-kn ife,usinga horn or ivory knife for the first

and second group of colors. If the color is too thick,add turpen tine ; if it dries too quickly, add a drop ortwo of lavender, which also Often makes the colorsmore easy to manage. E ither use the colors directly from the slab

,or lift them into the holes in

the porcelain palette, where, ifwell covered, they wil lkeep a day or two . Then fi ll each compartment Of

the plate with a color, putting it on very thick at the

one end, and lettingit grow thinner at the other, unt il it fades into thewhite Of the porcelain . Some colorswill b e easy to manage, others very difficult. Mis

takes can b e wiped out with either a dry rag, or one

moistened with a l ittle‘

turpentine. Persevere till al lare as wel l ' graded as possible on both plates or

slabs. After the paint is perfectly dry, which wi ll

-

'

rgo Keramz'

cs .

probably require at least twenty -four hours, andwhich can b e known by its looking dull, put all

around the plate, going over each color, a band ofcarmine

,one of purple, one of pearl grey, and one

of dark grey. These bandsmust b e very narrow so as

not entirely to cover the colors under them. The

middle of the plate should b e left clean, for experiments in obtaininggreys by various mixtures, suchas greens and carmines, greens and purple or goldv iolets, iron violets with green and blue

,etc. All

such mixtures should b e carefully noted down.

When all i s fin ished and qu ite dry, one plate is

baked and the other is kept, and so the differencebetween the baked and the unbaked colors can b elearned better than in any other way. For careful orelaboratework of any kind tests of this nature shouldalways be made ; there is no other way of thoroughlylearn ing the qualities or values of the colors. Whenbaked, the carmine (on porcelain) should b e of a

bright rose color . If not suffi ciently baked,it is

br ick red; if too much baked , it has a vio let tinge.

I t is best to make the first attempt at painting witha single color. Take broken p lates, or any flat bitsof porcelain, or even earthenware tiles

,and trace

c ircles with water -co lor carmine, then try to fill upthese circles with color

,endeavoring to make it as

flat and even as possible. Try not to go beyond theoutline of the circle if this is done by mistake, thecolor should b e scratched off when dry. I t willsoon be discovered that some colors are much

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‘

lgz Keramz'

cs .

b e discouraged if it takes him some time to learn tolay a good flat tint. This is the method generallyused for laying flat grounds of all colors. I t wil lsoon b e found that dark grounds are much harderto manage than light ones. I t is much better to

learn this process from a teacher, or from seeing itdone by a decorator . There is another method with

powder colors much used for grounds or flat t ints,

which will b e described in its place. As soon as the

student can make good flat t ints, he should try imitating an object in rel ief, such as a bal l or an egg.

For the former, circles can b e traced as before, andthe ball should b e shaded with great care, still usingonly one color for each ball , different inethods beingtried in order to have faci lity in working. I t may

all b e done by the puto is ; this will b e found difficult

,but the knowledge and the freedom of hand

obtained by repeated attempts will b e found veryuseful. Other balls shoul d b e shaded by hatching(crossed lines such as are seen in copper

-

plate en-f

'

gravings), and stippling (dotting or fi lling up smal lspaces by dots), or by combin ing both methods.

When the student can make a good ball in all of

these methods, he will have acqu ired a great deal ofcontrol over his tools .

I t will b e well next to practice grading one colorinto another, say blue into yellow. Take l ight blue,and making it dark at the top of the p late or t ile,grade it until it is lost in the white of the porcelain ;then try the same process with the yellow, on ly xc

Keramz'

c Painting. 193

versing i t,so that the l ight parts of both colors

come together. This method is often used f orgraded skies, but in actual practice it is best to

have the first color baked before the next is put on,as otherwise the work is apt to be spo iled in the

baking. I t is hardly worth while to have the aboves tudies baked . They can b e wiped off

,and the

porcelain used for finer work intended to b e kept;When persons are not willing to go through so

thorough a prel iminary train ing, perhaps the bestthings to take are conventional patterns in solidcolors with good clear outlines. Good subjects of

this class, with directions for coloring, can be foundin Piton ’

s fi rst‘

album for paintingon China. Suchwork can b e done on the whiteM inton t iles sold fordecorating. The co lored tiles should b e avo idedby beginners.

The next step had better b e a Monochrome

(Fr. éamai'

eu), that is, a subject painted all in one

co lor,say a group of figures. There are pretty

lithograph s sold, that are very suitable for this pur

pose ;'

but anythingwill do, especially as the first attempts should b e regarded only as studies. I t mayb e remarked that, even for persons never expect ingto

paint figures on pottery, it is well to do them for pract ice

,because they are the most diffi cult things to do

'

well.There are differen t methods of putting the dosign on the plate . I t can b e d rawn at once, usingfor this purpose l ithographic crayon

,which marks

perfectly well on the unprepared porcelain, or else0

194 Keramz'

cs .

a lead pencil can be used ; for this last“

the platemust b e prepared by wiping it over with turpentineor with alcohol . The design . is generally put

'

on by

T racing it, which is the best way, as then everythingcan at once b e put in the r ight place . The tracingis made and is then fastened to the plate by mean s

of small p ieces of modelling wax or of gummed

paper . The impression paper is slipped underneath ,and the design gone over with a point, or a hardlead

. pencil ; on.

lifting off the paper the'

design willb e faintly marked in red lines. The outl ine

~

shouldthen b e carefully gone over and corrected in watercolor carmine

,which will disappear in the fi ring.

The lines must be made as delicate as possible, andthe fewer the better . The tracing paper lines, andthe marks left by the wax should always b e wipedwith a fi ne rag, as otherwise these marks often

affect delicate colors. The design could b e drawnin at once with the carmine if desired . Deep red

brown is a very easy.

color to manage, and lookswell when burnt ; still, if the studen t has faithfully ,

worked at his balls and eggs, he can use any color

with facility . The .carmine outl ine being in water

color, is not affected by the turpentine color ; thusmaking it very conven ient to put in a backgroundwith the putois. In this case

,after the back

ground is dry, the carmine outl ine can b e distinctly?seen through it, and the color can b e scraped off the

pattern with a kn ife,leav ing the white porcelain .

Another way is to take a very little clove oil and

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I"

96 Karamz'

ar.

for backgrounds ; some working much better thanothers. Flowers are perhaps

'

the best subjects tobegin with in colors, as

’

the tints are generally pure.

I f a good paintingon porcelain can b e procured towork from

,so much the better.

Every good decorator is apt to have a color:

method of his own . All methods which succeed are

good, and a skillful painter will get fine effects from

mixtures of colors utterly forbidden in books. The

student must remember that color s are affected by

Jux tapos ition, as well as by their actual tint. In

copyingmake as exact a copy as possible. Let thereb e no slurred nor imperfect work. Wipe it all out

a dozen times, if necessary . Nothing can take the

place of careful practice, and the knowledge gainedby patient endeavor is very valuable. The only wayto obtain freedom and breadth in after work is byelaborate painstaking at first. Even good artistsare bewildered and annoyed by the tricks played bythe ungrateful medium . A second wash of color

should ‘

not b e put on until the first is perfectly dry,“

o r it will come off. When necessary,tints can be

blended with a small putois ; b ut it is better to do

without it if possible and get the effect by means ofthe - ordinary brush . Do not tease

’

or torment the

colors. Try to get the right color in the r ight placeand then leave it alone.

The followinghints may b e usefulColored F lowers .

BLACKBERRIEs.

—Purple put on thin, when . dry

Keramic Painting. 1 97

glaze lights with sky-blue, shadows with sap green

(oer ! a’o verst

'

e) or brown green .

BUTTERCUPS.

—Orange yellow,thin for the lights,

ochre in the shades.CAMPANULAs.

—Lights sky-blue

, purple and bluein shadows.

CORN -POPPIES, RED.

- Two firings : first firing,l ights orange- red, shadows lakey red,

"heart“ iridiumblack ; second firing, touch up the shadows with car

mine NO . 3 .

'

PERIWINKLEs.

—Lights sky-blue, shades ultra

mar ine with a touch of purple, centre s ilver yellow,

touched up w ith carmine r'

e‘

d (rouge- carmine).ROSES , PINK.

—Carmine No . 1,thin in '

high lights.

Carmine No . 3 for shadows,and the same thicker

fort he heart of the flower. When perf ectly o’

ry , glazewith sky

-blue where needed in the l ight, and with

green in . the shadows. (To glaze is to put a thinwashlof' color.)ROSES, RED

,require two -fi rings to b e ‘well done,

so shou ld not b e tried without a good fi rer. F irstfi re, carmine red (lakey red will do with a touch of

ivory yellow). After this firing use .carmine No . 3-to . .fi nish w ith . Glaze shadows with ultramarine .

Do not confound rouge carmine (iron) with laquecczrmz

’

ne’

e (gold), they belong to differen . groups.

ROSES, YELLOW .

— Silver yellow in the ‘

light, yellowOchre in s hadmivs. Deepest shades

'

in orange yellow.

VIOLE ,Ts.

—Sky-b1ue mixed with gold violet, shad{OWS pure gold .violet.

198 Keramz'

cs.

W hite F lowers should have a dark backgroundof leaves, etc. White of the porcelain shadedwith blue ish, green ish or pinkish greys, which are

made from light greys by adding blue, ochre, or pur

ple. Sometimes these four colors, or the three lastalone, mixed in different proportions, will give beaut iful tones of grey. I t is better to use no white

paint. In putting yel low in the centres of flowers,always clean off any color

,so that the yellow will

rest directly on the white porcelain .

Foliage .

—, Use green ish blues for high lights,

chrome green thin for the shades. chrome and ochrefor deep shadows. For yel lowish greens in highlight, s i lver yellow mixed with chrome ; shadowssap green . Dark greens, silver yellow and chromemixed with brown, or even with dark green No. 7.

For young shoots, carmine and silver yel low. For

distant flowers, same t ints as near, on ly much thinner.

For distant leaves, silver yellow,chrome green,

purple,and l ight grey,"

mixed in different proportions,as the tints desired are more yellow,

more pink, ormore grey.Landscape

—Skies .—Sky-b lue .put on with pu

tois.

'

The clouds can b e gently wiped out with a“

fine rag, and the shadows put on with delicate

greys l ike those for flowers. Another way : sky~blue,.violet of iron, ivory yellow, put on side by side indecided flat touches. Then blend with putois.

Dis tances .—Purple, chrome green,s ilver yellow,

black. These four colors are mixed to the desired

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.200 Keran’

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cs .

with the iron colors, in many cases they may be puto ver them in a second baking.

Heads —The general tint is ivory-yellow and

flesh -red No. 1 , about one - third red“

to two - thirdsyellow. Before putting this .ou, the eyes, nostri ls,corners of the mouth, etc can b e sketched in withthe flesh- red pure, and this may also b e used forthe shadows. When dry,put a

- thin wash of the

general tint ; while still wet, the l ips, cheeks, etc .,

can b e strengthened in color with the red. Ochre[is

'

used for reflected lights. A ll are then blendedl th the puto is. Violet of iron and greenish -bluecan b e used for shadows, with sometimes a l ittle

grey. The darker flesh colors can b e used to fin ishw ith . Blue eyes '

can be painted with sky-blue

,

greenish -blue,and grey . Brown eyes

,yellow

,brown

,

and s epia.

“

Pupils. black,and leave or p ick out

spot of ligh t. Light hair, ivory yellow,shadows

yellow-brown and brown 1 08, grey and bitumen.

Darker complexion s are made of the darker t onesOf the same colors— for examp le, iron violet and

ochre for a man '

s dark,ruddy co mplexion . In smal l

heads the needle can be used to p ick out any l ittlelumps of color, and to soften the general effects.

The pain ting can be stippled and strengthened,grading the color carefully towards the high lights.Delicate grey tones can be used in the half- t ints,but must be managed with great care

,as they are

apt to injure the reds. Do not use sky-blue for

this p urpose, but a good grey that has been tested.

Keram'

z'

c Paiiztz'

r.g. 201

Platina grey is perfectly safe, and does not injurethe reds at all. I t is very expensive. O ther combinatiOns answer very well in the hands

.

of,

Skilfulartists

,but the above are

'

those generally used . Ivoryyellow or pale

'

yellowf or flesh tints is made expre’

sslv

for this purpose. T00 much yellow'

will spo il thework. The fle

’

sh colors will not bear as high a

degree of heat as the colors for flowers (see table,Chap. so

"

must b e fired carefully.F iring

— In all cases when a painting is to b e firedmore than once, make the first painting l ight and

sketchy, as though easy to darken tints, it is impossib le to lighten them. In this country two

,or at the

extreme, three firings, should suffice, as few fi rers

here grade the heat. The first firing should b e the ”

hottest. If possible fin ish for one‘

fi ring.

'

The more

delicate the work the‘

more precautions must"

b e

taken . For coarseor hold Work many of the abovedirections

'

are superfluous.

Sometimes after the painting is fired, it lookswell,but has no glaze, or is only glazed in spots. This isremedied by putting all over it a thin wash of either

pearl grey, warm grey, l ight carmine A,light sky

blue or ivory yellow; according to the tones of

color used in the painting. I t must‘

then b e firedagain . In some cases it

'

will be found that by '

mix

ing these colors, which are very fusible, with the col

ors that do not glaze well. the effect will b e im

proved . Purple, for example, h ardly ever glazesWell, and a little pearl 1

‘

gre'

y mi xed with it will have

202 Keram‘

z'

cs .

a good effect, andwill not sens ibly affect the color.

The above colors also answer for ton ing down. As '

for white,it is very l ittle used in porcelain painting,

the white of the porcelain taking its p lace. I t is

only used to heighten the effect in small spots of

l ight. For this purpose olancfioce is employed . I t

can be mixed with colors for these high lights, butis very dangerous to use

,as it almost invariably

e ither scales . off or boils up, if the fi rer is not veryskillful.“ For any important work careful prel iminaryexperiments should b e

‘

made with it. There ,is no

iron in it. Chinese white can in some cases b e

mixed with color,and used in painting, but is very

difficult to manage. In usingwhite it should be puton for the second firing, as it does not requ ire muchheat. Always use the colors of the same makeron the same peice of work . This may not always.

b e necessary ; but proof that it is unnecessary isonly to b e had by careful exper iment. Care must.b e taken not

'

to p ile on color too thick,as it may

scale off.After the day’swork is over, brushes must b e care

fully washed in turpentine, and dr ied ; never stroking them against the hairs, but drawing them to a

point. Once in a while theymust b ewashed in brownor soft- Soap lather, and carefully r insed. Brushesmust not b e left with turpentine

“

in them for more

than a day. or two . When very dirty,alcohol will

,

clean them at once, as also palettes, slabs, etc.

Never let“

the alcohol b e near any painr

ting, as a.

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Keramz'

cs .

thicker than the oil paints usually sold, and is used inthe same way as the tube colors. I t will have to b e

prepared each time for n ice work . Should powdercolors when bought b e extremely _gritty, they must’

fi rst b e ground with water on a glass slab, and then .

when dry, ground with turpentine as descr ibed. In

this case a quantity can b e ground in water at a

t ime,and pu t away for use. In grinding differen t

colors, it is absolutely necessary to see that the slabis perfectly clean each time ; it is better to haveseparate slabs for del icate colors . Badly groundcolors

'

can never produce good effects in painting,and it requires a good deal of practice to grindWell,and to know howmuch fat turpent ine to use. Some

decorators do not use lavender, but only the two

turpentines ; some also simply mix or rub down the

powders with a palette-kn ife instead of a muller.

This is dangerous, as with an iron kn ife the little

particles of iron are scratched off by the ground

glass, and mix with the colors, and in the case of

l ight yellows, for example, the inju ry is great.'

Witha horn or ivory kn ife, enough lime may b e scratchedoff to dull the colors considerably. For merelylifting little heaps of color from one place toanother, it does not matter what kn ife is used ; thoughit is safer not to use the iron kn ife with the non - ironcolors. Color for a number of p ieces that are to bealike should all b e prepared at once

,as otherwise

the tints are apt to vary. For grounds, more fatturpentine may be used than for painting, partien4

Keramz'

c Painting. 205.

larly in purples, carmines, and blues, as otherwiseit is diffi cult to manage the putois ..

Laying Grounds W ith Powder Colors —Iris very difli cult to put on dark g rounds with “

the

putois, and the'

method generally used is as fol

lows : Take gr ounding oil which is generally linseed,or still better nut oil

, prepared much as drying oil ;that is

,boiled with a l ittle litharge . In old times

garlic and on ion were used boiled in vinegar unti la sticky syrup was made (this is good for gold onsoft porcelain). Thin

,if necessary

,with turpen

t ine, and put it all over the surface of the p iece, sayof a p late, then with a dabber, made of cotton woolt ied in a piece of soft raw silk

, go all over the sur

face,tapping it lightly till the oil is evenly spread .

Take a large blender, as full of coloringpowder asit will hold, and dust it all over the surface ; if thereis too much powder anvwhere, brush it off lightly.I t is better to learn this method from a decorator.

The backgrounds produced in this way are so per

fectly flat'

and smooth as to b e inartistic; besideswh ich the powders are often very unwholesome,and should not b e 1nhaled. This is the method almost un iversally employed for tea services, etc. ,

decorated in bands,or masses of solid color. The

Lacroix powder colors (snroroye’e No. 3) are excellent

for the above purpose.

Besides the powder colors of Lacroix there are

those of Dubois-Morteleque (very good'

for b luesand Brun Mordoré), Guyonnet, Colleville (some of

3206'

Kemrnz'

cs .

"

I

his blues are'

very fine), Pinard, Bunel, Chapelle,Chalmel, and others in France. All French co lors,and also all materials needed by the keramic painter,can b e obtained in Paris at the sign of the

“Bon

Broyeur,Carré St. Martin . The English powder

colors,when by good makers, are excellent, partie

ularly the carmines. The yellows sometimes haves ilver in them

,and must be used carefully in mix

ing. Emery ’s are the English colors most usedhere. Stevenson is noted for greens. Colclough,Massey ’s successor . is also well known , as are Harrison, andothers. Many German colors are also very

good. Those of C . Seidel Son ,Dresden ,

are re

commended by G . W. N ichols. O ther well- kn0wnGerman color makers, are Schuhardt, Bidtel, and

Ge itner Sons.

The German coral red is the finest made. Un

fortunately German colors are nearly always badly

ground,and when used for any fi ne work should b e

ground over again with the greatest care . The Ger

man regular kiln colors are also norder than the

French and Engl ish , and in some respects are more

l ike the hard kiln colors of those countries . Owingto this want of fusibility they must b e used very

cautiously on soft glazed wares. The fi rer, too,

should b e told that they require a good deal Of heat,or else the baking may b e imperfect. Never mix

colors hy different makers without experimentingcarefully beforehand. I t is better to use F r enclz

colors on F renclzware, Englzs/zon Englzs/z, andso on:

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Keramz'

cs.

“

I f 1n'

powder it is"

rubbed down with fat and thinturpentine and then used . A l ittle pract ice is re

qu ired to knew the right degree of thickness. Whenmixed with the medium, gold looks brown , or even

black . Gold and colors must not b e laid over one

another, nor must the edges of the gold and the

color touch,as the effect will b e bad when fired .

The or Lacroix (Lacroix gold), in powder or paste,

is the safest to buy. Many professional decoratorsfurnish excellent preparations of gold . I t is alwaysexpensive, as to b e good it must b e pure . Or en

cogzcz'

lle can be used over the paint ing after it has

been fired . A s imilar gold is also prepared‘by

Lacroix and sold in l ittle bottles,and called or

lz’

gzcz'

de, or liquid gold . Very pretty effects can be

Obtained by its use, but it wil l not bear much use

or rubbing. I t is really a lustre . I t is best to putthe gilding directly on the white p orcelain, if

possible.

When vessels of any kind are to b e fin ished off

with l ines, either around the ir edges or between any

bands of color, it is done upon a- zol n’

r lz'

ngmole, ortable -wheel something l ike a p otter

’

s wheel—a

horizontal circular slab,so placed on a po inted iron

rodas to spin orwhirl easily and truly when turned bythe hand

,standing firmly on abase or foot, andsol id

so as to b e steady when used . These, when good,are expens ive ; poor ones are worthless . The dec

orator,steadyinghis arm on his painting- rest, appl ies

a brush full of color to any circular p iece of ware,

Keramic Painting. 209

andmoves the wheel round with his other handmaking as fi ne or as thick a line as may b e required;The lines on p ieces of any other shapemust be doneby hand, requiring great skill and practice—all

good professional d ecorators will do this work so

well that it is better to trust it to them.

Hard-Kiln or Medium Heat Colors (readChap. VIII . , page —These procelain colors are

what decorators here cal l izard or nzglzfi re colors,bakingat about 950

°

or more Cent. , 1 742 F.,andare

used overglaze.

‘They must not b e confounded

with gloss-oven colors. Owingto then comparativeinfusibility

, gildingandpaintingwith the softer'

colors

can b e doneon them as on a colored glaze. The

colors are much the same, on ly fewer in number than

the regular kiln colors. These colors,which ordi

narily are used only for b ackgrounds, are not'

sold

here prepared for amateurs, nor is there but a smallcho ice of them to b e obtained in this rcountry.

They can be obtained from professional decorators.

The method'

of using them is the same as that forthe regular kiln colors or ordinary porcelain

‘

paints;I t is better to let the professional decorator putthem on . For full details of the mellzode Rickard,see

.

Chap . VIII ; This method,which gives most:

lovely effects, cannot b e used here, owing to the want

Of proper fi rers, and also because it can b e success:ful only in the hands of very experienced painters.

Soft Porcelain—Artifi cialw—In Paris varioussoft porcelains are sold for decorative purposes,and

P

2 10 Kerdmz'

cs,

occasionally a piece of old white Sevres can be

found in a curiosity shop, b ut the Sevres manufactory does not make any ware for sale. The colorsused in decorating soft porcelain are prepared es

pecially for the purpose, and should b e bought forthe particular make of ware on which they are

'

to be

used. They are much the same as those used inhard porcelain, only fewer in number, the lead-

glaze

preventing the use of many colors. The flesh-redscannot b e used at all, and carmines - have to bemixed with yellows and whites, to obtain such tints.

White is much used in mixing, so it is important tohave a good white. Bright, gay tints are easily 0b ?

tained on soft porcelain ; the difficulty is in obtain ingr ich sober tones. Both colors and porcelain can be

obtained in Paris at the“Bon Broyeur,

”

and alsofrommost of the color makers mentioned on page 205Their proper use can only b e learned from a goodteacher

, .andthe firing must be conducted with theutmost care by a very good baker. When these conditions are fulfilled there is no particular diffi cultyin their use and the effect is very beautiful. It must

b e understood that these remarks do not apply at

al l to the painting in Lacroix or o ther colors. on

Englzirlz soft or bone porcelain, of which the glaze ishard enough to bear any of the regu lar colors, buto nly to the French and other soft porcelains with

,

very soft glazes.Paintingon F ine Earthenware over theglaze.

—All the directions given for the use ofpaints on por~

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2 12 Keramz'

cs.

cular diffi culties to any one knowing how to paintwell . I t is generally spoken of here in rather a

vague way as Painting on Biscuit. The colorsshou ld suit the biscu it, and the glaze must Suit thecolors, or all will be ruined . The biscuit mosteas ily managed is that of finewhiteware. Thegranitehas a fine grain, but takes too hard a glaze formanycolors. I f the biscuit is very porous, it is generallys ized with gum-water or something of that nature ;

though sometimes this is not done, thereby enhancing the diffi culty of the process. The colors

,which

must b e obtained especially for this work. aremixedwith water or gum-water

,or with turpentine ; .if the

latter, the ware must b e brought to a red heat,in

order to drive out the turpentine or o ils,otherwise

the glaze will not answer. This is called lzardenz'

ng

on,and can b e done in a decorator's muffle . I t must

b e remembered that the colors cannot b e rubbedout

,as in overglaze painting. The co lors as used

look very unlike what they will appear when fired,

so a good deal of practice is requ ired,and a suffi

ciently accurate knowledge of drawing,'

to prevent

mistakes. The colors, of course

,are all gloss-oven

,

and in this case are really underglaze colors. The

Lacroix colors sold in tubes andpowder, andmarkedG . F. (grand f en) are intended for underglaze paint.ing, and generally answer well enough .

The Engl ish, French and German firms spokenof, page ao6, alsomake underglaze colors. Thosemostused in this country are prepared by Emery. They

Keramic Painting. 2 I 3

generally must be ground over before using. I t

must b e remembered that these colors are uselessfor painting onporcelain, either biscuit or overglaze .

After glazing, the work may b e fin ished with over

glaze colors or gilding. Experiments must b e madein order to test the colors on the desired waresuch

“

a test plate as that described for hard porcelainbeing the safest Way. Other biscu its besides thosementioned may b e used with good effect. A red

biscu it is used successfully in England, but in thiscountry as yet there are practically no facilit ies forfiring and glazing such work. Almost any of the

large potteries will furnish biscuit and colors,the

latter who lesale, and are willing to bake the ware,

subject to all sorts o f risks on the part of the decorator. A sort of keramic crayons, made of coloringmatter mixed with enough fatty or sticky substanceto give them consistency, can also b e used for decoratingbiscuit . The fattymatter is burnt away before

glazing. These crayons were invented by aGerman,

Mr. M illler . The drawing done b y means of themshould b e in a very bold and sketchy style, either inlarge strokes or by hatchingThe decoratedware should be properly nardened

on, as described, before being sent to the potter to

glaze, or the paintingwill probably be spoiled . No

doubt in time, perhaps even by next winter, theremay be kilns in all the great c ities where such workcan be done, though t he risk is always much greaterthan in overglaze work.

2 14 Keramics .

It may b e of use to mention here that in manyof the French works on pottery, and particu larly inthe smaller ones treating of decoration , the term

Faience when used alone means .Majolica, or tin

glazed ear t/zenwares, and the direct ions of any kind

given in such works for painting or decoration on

faience apply only to this particular ware. In speaking of what in the shops here is generally calledfaience

,they call it faience fine

,faience anglaise,

cailloutage, or porcelaineopaque. Asmany of theseworks are translated without any clear defin itionsbeinggiven as to the wares and their Engl ish names,it is very puzzling for the beginner who has not a

clear knowledge of the different kinds of pottery,and so cannot make out what is meant from the

context. So far, the tin -

glazed earthenwares havenot been decorated to any extent in this country

,

and probably will not b e for some time to come.

The faiences fines,also called opaque porcelain,

granite, iron stone ware, semi -porcelain, etc. , are

much used here,as nearly all themuffle colors can be

used on them over the glaze.

Painting Over the Glaze of T in-Glazed

Earthenware is easy enough, and should b e donein a bold and sketchy style. The colors used are

much the same as the regular kiln colors. In

Paris colors can b e bought especial ly suited to the

different makes of the earthenware ; here it wou ldb e necessary carefully to test the colors first, andthere would also probably b e a diffi culty in having

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2 16 Keramz’

cs.

ardelle, M. Goup il, John C . L. Sparkes, M iss Mc

Laughlin (only for porcelain), andMr. Camille P iton.

The twolatter, beingwritten expressly for Americanstudents, are very good. The series of plates ao

companyingMr. P iton’s make excellent studies forbeginners, particu larly if they will condescend tofollow the direct ions given by the author.

CHAPTER XVII .

A FEW E STHETIC HINTS.

IT IS difficult, almost impossible, to tel l any one

just how to do good decorative work. The bestthat can be done is to give people some idea of

what they may not do, and so warn them againstthings positively ugly. Owen Jones’s “Grammar ofOrnament

”

is considered an authority on decorativework, and it can b e found in any large public l ibrary.The reader must beware of the coloring of the

plates, this being glaring and crude,and not at all

reproducing .the harmon ious tones of many of the

objects represented. Racinet’

s“l’

Ornement Poly~

chrome”

is good, but is not easily seen . M. CharlesBlane

,one of the greatest of l iving writers on art,

promises a Grammar of D ecorative Ar t”

which ifreproduced in full in English will b e very valuableto keramicdecorators. The introduction to CharlesBlanc'

s“Art and Ornament 1n Dressz

”

(Scribner,will also b e found very suggestive, and should

be read carefully. It is a p ity it is not publishedin a separate, pamphlet. This book is part of theabove-mentioned work which is not yet completed

2 1 7

2 18 Keramics.

Many of the Kensington Museum handbooksmay b ereadwith advantage. Z eigler

’

s“Etudes Cc

’

ramigues

is a mine of valuable suggestions to the keramist.

I t is the work of a historical painter who became a

keramist, and made wares noted for excellence of

quality and beauty of decoration. Asfar as I knowit can on ly be seen at the Astor library, New York .

I subjoin a set of rules, or rather remarks by M .

Charles Blane, published in the Gazette des Beaux

Arts”

(beginn ing March 1 st, in an article devoted to the decoration of vases which follows one

on“The Form Of Vases,

”or perhaps, we should

say, of pottery. These rules are excellent,being

b rief and simple, and in many respects are broaderin scope than the better-known ones of Owen Jones.

Many of Owen Jones's precepts are puzzl ing, andsome are very arbitrary, and even useless

, particularlyfor the keramic artist, who 18 not troubled with anyconsiderations of construction in his homogeneousand plastic material . I also give some excellentrules used in the South Kensington Schools, in

'

London.

Blane On the Decoration of Vases .

[Keramic Decoration ]1 . In keramic art

,as in all other arts , decoration

should b e subordinate to the form of the objectdecorated.

2 . Perspective effects are out of place in thedecoration of vases [or of any rounded surfaces ]3 . Picture painting

"

should not be imitatedin vase

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220 Keramics .

cording to the destination of the object decorated,

ware for daily use not receiving the same decoration as wares for

'

show and ornament. [In com

mon'

household wares all useless knobs, excrescencesor depressions should b e avoided, as they breakeasily, or else catch the dust ; and however prettytheir effect may b e

,the good housekeeper soon

learns to avoid them. Househo ld ware must,above

all,look clean. The color decoration of such ware

had better be quietly gay. In wares for ceremon iousor state occasions, the keramist

’

s fancy may havefuller play, but even then the destination of the

plate or cup must b e continuously borne in mind .

Objects of pure ornament, to b e p laced on shelves orbuffets, will offer full scope to the keramist, who

nevertheless should still keep a tight rein on his

fancy.]7. When, as is necessarilythe case in ornamentalkeramics

,the form of the vase is symmetrical, it is .

not necessary that symmetry should b e apparent in

thedecoration . [The Japanese are masters ofwhatBlanc calls balancedconfusion ]8. The most beautiful color decoration of vases

i s by no means that which multiplies various tints,but rather that which, taking two complementaryc

‘

olors which mutually he ighten each “

other, or twocontrastingcolors, tempers and harmon izes them bysome intermediate accessory, and by less showytOnes.

9. Although the imitation of gems, of beautiful

A Few E sthetic Hints. 22 1

stones, of bronze, has produced both curious and iateresting results, the keramic decorator will dowell to avoid all such counterfeiting, and to rest content with the wide field offered by the resources pe

cul iat to his art.1 0. Ornament in high relief is unsuited to ker

amic decoration. Modelled figures trenching on

the sculptor’

s art are unsu ited to the glazed parts.

(A l’

ornement de la céramique ne conviennent pointles hauts rel iefs

,non p lus qu a la partie émailléeles

figures de ronde bosse en tant que ces figures appart iennent a la sculpture d

’

art.)Blane also says, in this agreeingwith Lessing,

whose Laocoon is an excellent work for art studentsto read : We have here still another proof of thetruth that it is dangerous for one art to enter the

domain of another, and just as nations lose their peculiar physiognomy as they approach their frontiers,so an art becomes weakened when it approaches theconfines of its properdemain, and corrupted when itpasses them.

”

South Kensington Rules — 1 . The form

should bemost carefully adapted to use, beingstudiedfor elegance andbeauty of line, aswell

‘

es for capacity,strength, mobility, etc.

2 .

— In ornamenting the construction,care should

b e taken to preserve t/ze general f orm, _and to keep

the decoration subservient to it by the low reliefor otherwise ; [compare with . Blane, rule X .] theornament should be so arranged as to enhance, by

222 Keramics.

its lines, the symmetry of the original form and assistits constructive strength.

3 .

- If arabesques or figures in the round are used,they should ar ise out of the ornamental and con

structive forms used, and not merely app lied.

4 .

- All projectingpar ts should have careful cons ideration to render them as little l iable to injuryas is consistent with their purpose.

5 .

—I t must ever be remembered that repose is requ ired to give value to ornament, which in itself issecondary, not pr incipal .Two other good precepts are

’

1 .

—Let every line of the design have'

meaning.

2 .

—Use the fewest possible lines to convey themean ing.

The followingare the most useful rules given byOwen Jones for keramic decoration, the otherrules referring more especially to architecture, andto textile fabrics.

Rule 5 .

—Construction should b e decorated.Decoration should never be purposely constructed.

Rule 6.

—Beauty of form is produced by lines

growing out,one from another in gradual undula

t ions. There are no excrescences. Nothingcouldbe

removed and leave the des ign equallygood or better.

Rule 7.

—The‘

general forms be ing first cared for,these should b e subdivided and ornamented by

general lines ; the interstices may then b e filled inwith ornament,

'

which‘

may again be subdivided andenriched for closer inspection.

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224 Keramics .

us by its harmon ious intermingl ing of r ich hues ]The above are the most useful rules.

There is not much to b e said about Construetion in keramic art

,for

,owing to the plastic nature

of the material,almost any shape is allowable ; only

for u seful objects it should b e suitable, and for or

namental oneS '

should b e either beautiful or p leas:

ing, and in this last category may b e p laced many

quaint and grotesque forms that charm us by theiroddity. As to Color Decorat ion it should alwaysb e beautiful, Or at the least agr eeable. Uglydecoration should not exist. Crude, raw

,inhar

monious color is inexcusable in this branch of art.

Rich soft color will cover all defects, and often ves

sels havingevery fault are saved b y beauty of color,.While the most perfect drawing and design willnever reconcile us to ugly co lor. This should al

ways b e borne in mind . Much agreeable and simpledecoration is done by the use of black and white, orof other very quiet combinations. The Japaneseexcel in this

,and the beauty and pleasantness of

such work will b e found to depend on the suitabilityof even such simple shades to one another. For ex

ample, in tense black and intense white are not agreeable in large masses , but are so when broken e itherby making the black greyish in actual tone

,or by

subdiv iding it. Exqu isitely del icate work is donewith gold or silver on white grounds .

The earnest worker in Hecorative art will also dowell to s tudy all the good Eastern work he can see

,

A Few ( Est/zetie Hints. 225

and will try to understand its soft and rich harmonyof color, the careful balancing of parts, and aboveall the honesty and truth of the work ; not trying so

much -to imitate it as to seize and make use of its

underlying principles. Some modern work is

civilized out of these fine qual it ies, but there is Still

plenty of good‘

work done in the East.Following and supporting these views

,I can

give nothing better on the subject than an extractfrom the last chapter of

“Modern Chromatics ” b yOgden S. Rood. The whole chapter, which , unfortunately, is too long to quote in full, should b e readby all would -be decorators, and the whole book may

be studied with great profit“The aims of painting and of decorative art

are qu ite divergent, and as a logical consequenceit results that the use made by them of co lor isessen tially different. The Object of Painting isthe -

production, by the use of color, of more or less

perfect representations of natural objects. Theseattempts are always made in a serious sp irit,that is

,they are always accompanied . by some

earnest effort at realization. I f the work is donedirectly from nature, and is at the same time elaborate,

'

it will consist of an attempt to represent, not

all the facts presen ted by the scene,but only certain

classes of facts,namely

,such as are considered by

the artist most importan t or most p ictorial, or to

harmon ize best with each‘

o ther. If it is a mere

sketch , it will include not nearly so many facts ; and

Q

226 Keramies .

finally,if it is merely a rough color-note, it will con

tain perhaps only a few suggestions belonging to a

single class. But in all this apparently careless andrough work the painter really deals

“

with form,lzlgb t

and s/zade,and color

,in a ser ious sp irit, t he conven

tionalisms that are introduccd being necessitatedby lack of time, or by choice of certain classes of

facts tothe exclusion of others . The same is true

of imaginative painting; the form,light and shade,

and color are such as“ exist, or might b e imagined toexist ; .our fundamental notions about these matters

are not flatly contradicted . From this it followsthat the painter is, to a considerable extent, restrictedin the chorce of his t ints ; he must mainly use the

pale unsaturated colors of nature, and must often

employ color combinations that would b e rejectedby the decorator. Un like the latter, he makesenormous use of gradation in

“l ight and shadeand in color ; labors to express distance, and

strives to carry the eye beneath the surface of

his p igments ; isdelighted to hide as it were his verycolor

,and to leave the observer in doubt as to i ts

nature.

In Decorative Art, on the other hand, themain object is to beautify a surface by tbe use ofcolor rat/zer tbau togive a representation of t/zefaets

of nature, R ich and intense colors are often se ,

lected, and their effect is heigh tened by the free use

of gold and silver or white and black. Combinations are chosen for the ir beauty and effect iveness,

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“228 Keramies .

‘

sire to obtain the best resu lt possible under thegi venconditions. In point of fact, color can only b e usedsuccessfully by those who love it for its

’

own sakeapart from form,andwho have a distinctly developedcolor- talent or faculty ; train ing or the obse rvanceof rules will not supply or conceal the absence of

this capacity in any individual case, however muchthey may do

“for the gradual color-education of

the race.

From the forego ing, it is evident that the positions occupied by color in decoration and

painting are essentially different, color being usedin the latter primarily as a means of accompl ishinganend

, while in decoration it constitutes to a much

greater degree the end itself. The l inks whichconnect decoration with paintingare very numerous

,

and the mode of employing color varies con

siderab ly as we deal with pure decorat ion , or

with one of the stages where it begins to merge

into painting.

In a small book by M iss E . W. Johnson, called“Studio Arts (N . Y. ,

can b e found a goodsketch of the rules of con trast of color according toChevreul. Rood’s Modern Chromatics” gives allthe modern theories

,many ofwhich have on ly an in

terest of curiosity for the artist.Manywritersmaintain that nopictor ial work should

b e done on pottery of any kind. O thers maintainthat flat plaques and t iles are as su itable as woodor canvas for p ictures, especially as the technical

A Few zEst/tetie Hints . 229

working difficulties grow less and less every day,and the pottery possessing the advantage of beingp ractically imper ishable wil l preserve forever the

copies or the originals of p ictures . It would certainlybe pleasant to possess a plaque by or after Apelles.

APPEND IX .

BOOK LIST.

I here give a l ist of some of the best works on

keramics. The l iterature is very large, and is increasing every day. Most of the works, exceptingthose on special subjects, are repetitions of Jacquemart and Brongniart.

General Historical T reatises .

JACQUEMART, ALBERT . The History ofCeramicArt,

”

translated from the French by Mrs. Bury Palliser. A descr iptive philosophical study of the pottery of all ages and nations

, , profuse'

ly illustrated.

This is considered the standard work on the sub

ject is expensive“Merveilles de la Céramique,

”

by the same,is much like the above

,but shorter

and with fewer illustrations . Has not been trans

lated ; is not expensive.

TREADWELL.

—“Manual of Pottery,

very good .

MARRYAT, JOSEPH. History of Pottery and

Porcelain ”

(from 1 sth to 1 8th century). Excellentas far as it goes, and well i llustrated. The bestedition is the French translation, annotated by

230

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232 Keramzk’

s .

and that of 1 876. This last edition is enlarged andannotated by Salvetat, and can be found in the

Philadelphia Library. The last edition has never

been translated . I t is an expensive book._

The

average reader will fi nd sufficient techn ical informat ion in articles in any good encyclopaedia. The fact

must b e remembered , however, that most of the en

cyclopaedias give only the Engl ish methods ofmanu

facturing pottery, and so are not always correct in

their remarks upon tin glazed earthenwares and hard

porcelains.

FIGUIER, LOUIS. Merveilles de l’

Industrie.

The first volume of this work is very. fully illustratedas regards the manufacture, and the art history of

glass and pottery .TURGAU . Les grandes u

‘

sines de France See

also the Roret manuals,“Porcelanier, faiencier et

potier de terre.

ARNoux .

—“Bevans Brit. Manufacturing Industries ” (vol. iii ). Very good and clear.SHAw,

SIMEON . Chemistry of Pottery (London,

TENAx,B. P. (B. Prossel). Die

'

Steingut und

Porzellan Fabrikation ”

(Leipsic, «

1 87 Excellent,but purely techn ical.Decoration andArt.

_

Z EIGLER. Etudes Céramiques (Paris,This is a very fine work, .valuab le as coming from

a man who is both artist and potter.

Room;OGDEN N. Modern Chromatics This

Book List . 233

gives excellent advice to decorators. See ChapterXVII . for other works on decoration.

Marks and Monograms .

CHAFFERS,W.

—“Marks and Monograms, whichcontains also an historical essay on English pottery,with illustrat ions.

~ See also his Collector’s Handbook, a supplement to the above-mentioned work.HOOPER and PHILLIP

’

S Manual,

”

a dictionaryof easy reference.

DEMMIN. Gu ide de l ’amateur de fai‘

ence, a

comprehens ive, illustrated work of high authority,with a good list of booksF rench Pottery .

MARESCHAL.

—“Fa1ence populaire au 1 8me siécle

(Paris, 1 872)POTT IER

‘ Histoire des fa1encesdeRouenPOUY. Les faiences d

’

origine Picarde”

FORESTIE. Les anciennes fafenceries de Mon

taubanfi’

DU CLAUZ IOU Poterie Gauloise.

Italy~—Germany—Spain.

PASSERI .—F0r majol ica see his history, treatingof Pesaro and Urbino.

DELANGE .

—For majolica and Italian fa1ence.

FORTNUM . Majolica.

”

BEcxe H.

—“Majolica andFayence (NewYork,A concise and usefu l treatise, with numer

ous photo -engraved illustrations.

English Pottery .

BINNS, R. W.

-“A Century of Potting in Wore

234 Keramzos.

cester (London, A very interesting work.JEWETT . Th e Keramic Art of Great Britain

from pre-historic times down to the present day

(London, A thorough and excellent work ;the techn ical details are full and clear.

METEYARD, ELIZ A . JosephWedgwood and hisWorks” (London,China andJ apan.

JULIEN ,STAN ISLAS. Histoire et fabrication de

la porcelame Chinoise,tradu it du ChinoIS” (Paris,

1 85 This is the standard Chinesework on the sub

ject, and is very curious and interesting. It can be

found in most of the public l ibraries in the large cities.

Chinese Art Objects in the SouthKensington Museum.

”

One of the excellent hand:

books of the South Kensington series .

JARvIs. Glimpse at the Art of Japan . See

also “Reports and Awards,

” Group 3 , CentennialExhibition

,1 876.

Ancient Pottery .

BIRCH.

“History of Ancient Pottery . Thistreats of Assyrian ,

“

Egyptian ,Greek, Roman, Etrus

can,Celtic

,Teuton ic, and Scandinavian pottery,

and is fully illustrated. I t'

also contains a list of the

principal collections of ancient pottery.

et Romaines, tirées du cabinet de M . Hamilton (3vols). This is a finely illustrated work, with Frenchand Engl ish text. There is a copy of it in the Philadelphia Library.

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A P P EN D IX B .

I . (Page 35Piedmontese and Span ish porcelain, see pages 49,

1 45 . This is very tough, and stands fi re so well thatit seems worth While making it for dishes, jugs, etc.

,

in which food can b e cooked or heated. I t takescolor decoration perfectly well, but is greyish intone.

2 . (Page

Paste, body. These terms are synonymous, bodybeing, however, the termmost used by potters, while

paste is generally used in books.

3 . (Page

In Germany the workmen use dippinghooks whenslushingor d1pp1ng some fine wares into the glazel iquid . These are a sort of rings with sharp project

‘

ingpomts ; dipp ing tongs are also used . Skill and

practice are requ ired in this method,which offers

great advantages. The result is excellent, as the

glaze is evenly distr ibuted over the surface, and

there are no finger marks to be penci lled over.

4 . (PageFor descriptions of the very latest improvements

237

238 Keramies.

in kilns andmuffles, see a book by B. P. Tenax (B.

PrOssel). See book - l ist for full title.

5 . (Page

I t is only in comparatively recent t imes that coalhas been much used in bakingporcelain in France.

When coal is used, the wads or rolls of clay betweenthe seggars must be very carefully arranged so thatthe seggars are perfectly tight ; for if coal ashes

penetrate into them,any iron in the ashes IS apt to

cause brown ish spots on the wares. The biscuitbaking, too,must b econductedwithgreat caution, andthe p ieces placed as carefully as for the final firing.

Experiments made at Sevres seem to prove thatwhere the smoke

,etc.

, comes in direct contact withthe biscuit

,it is almost certain

z

to warp in the highfire. I t is thought possible that something in the

smoke softens the paste. Coal also affects the highfi re or gloss-oven colors in various ways. Céladonand chrome greens a re improved in tone. Blue isharder to manage than with wood

,but with an

oxidiz ingfi re, or letting a free current of air cirenlate through the kiln so that all vapors or gases are

consumed,blue succeeds well . When by the use

of coal and wood combined, or by other means, the

potter is able at will to make his fi re e i ther reducingor oxidiz ing, many beautifu l effects can b e obtained .

For example, the oxide of uranium,about 5 parts

oxide to 95 hard porcelain paste, baking in an

oxidizing fi re (with a full draught or p lenty of air),

gives a beautiful light, slightly greenish-yellow. With .

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24d Keramic-s .

the paste, 2 . less fusible, 3 . equally fusible. In the

first case, more kaol in must b e added to harden the

paste, in the second more feldspar o r other fusibleelement. When paste and coloring matter are of

equal fusibil ity, it will still b e found necessary tomake careful experiments, for two colored pastes thatmay answer perfectly wel l separately may be ru inedby mixing them. Careful tests must also b e madeso as to insure the equal contraction

, etc. , of the

paste. All this also applies to porcelain pastes,

thin or thick, used as colors or paints. Very strongeffects can b e obtained by using the coloring oxides

pure or fluxed as for underglaze painting, b ut without paste or slip. The above remarks apply to s lippaintingon all wares. On earthenwares or on soft

porcelains the colors are much easier to prepare onaccount of the softer glaze, and of the lower degreeof heat requ ired in firing.

9. (Page

Developingcolors. Firemen in this country generally know or care l ittle or nothingabout the artistic value of color. A good fireman and placershould know how to bringout the full beauty of a

color, ne ither under nor over firing it. In firingamateurs

’

work,it might b e well for the fireman to

inquire what colors have been used in an important

p iece of work, and even to ask for a test p iece before baking a valuable painting. German muffle

colors requ ire a very hard fi re,while on the other

hand the Engl ish colors requ ire a comparatively

241

low fi re . The French colors are between the two .

Muffles with sloping s ides, so that the cross sec

t ion is coffin - shaped, are considered excellent.Muffles must be kept as clean as poss ible, and, inorder to keep out the sand and dirt

,may be

washed ou t with fresh lime after at least every second fir ing. Iron grids or shelves should neverbe used, as when above red-heat the emanationsfrom them injure the

'

colors. Fire-clay, or stil l b et

ter, porcelain biscuit gr ids, well washed , shoul d be

used. All finely painted ware should b e mostcarefully placed. In no case should stilts or sup

ports of any kind rest on the painting. F iremen inthis country, not be ing trained to appreciate the

artistic value of ware,are often very careless in such

matters, and I have seen fine work utterly ru ined inthis way, for no matter how del icate the points oi

'

contact,the melted co lor or glaze is torn away.

Flat ware should b e p laced with rings, thimbles,pins and covers

,instead of with stilts. In this way

it takes up but l ittle room,and can b e easily p laced

in the muflle, is protected from dust, and the im

portant decoration is no t touched at all. Should thismethod not b e available, the fireman

, or rather

placer, must use his ingenuity to guard the painting against damage. In all cases a cover can b e

arranged over a fine painting. The above sugges

t ions apply equally wel l to underglaze decorations,for the same precautions should be taken in placingware in seggars. Each very fine painting should

R

Kera772ics.

have its own seggars, and decorators should b e will ing to incur the extra expense invo lved in extraprecautions. Soft glazes must b e handled verycarefully . All decorated ware should b e carefullydried before baking, and should no t b e p laced inthe muffle un til the surface is perfectly dull, with noshine at all. I f this is done in a drying stove

,the

stove should b e heated very slowly. If the dryingis done p roperly, the colors are much more br illiantwhen baked .

1 0. (Page

Silvering. The silvering done on some decorated

porcelains is preserved from the action Of the air

by means of a very thin coat of gold over it.

I I . (PageClassification . Salvétat

’

s tables of classificationare here given in full, with no changes except in the

arrangement of the species or glazes which he ar

ranges in chronological order, while in his tables ashere g1ven, they are, for conven ience sake

,arranged

according to their composition . Many new exam

p les and notes are added . The terms l ime- body,magnesia-body and petrosilex-body are suggested .

The former two are of l ittle consequence, but petros ilex seems appl icable to certain Japanese and

Chinese porcelain bodies. The term feldspar-bodymight seem equally appropr iate, but the fact mustb e rememberedthat the names of the bodies indicatethe characteristic ingredient in the paste, no t the

principal element in the chemical analysis. If the

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Keramics .

croix and other French makers are bough t in Eng«land, are ground over again, fired in the biscu it kiln,and then ground again, the process being some

t imes repeated several t imes. The super iority of

many French colors l ies more in the mechan icalthan in the chemical preparat ion .

INDEX AND

A

Abaquesne, Masseot d’

, 1 1 .

[Esthetic hints , 2 1 7.

African pottery ,1 1 2 see also

tab le p . 1 4 .

Albany clip or slip , 30, 1 33 .

Albite , 27 see tab le p . 34.

Alcarrazza, a water cooler,1 14 .

Alkaline glaze , 75 , 1 01 see

tab les pp . l o6 , 1 07.

Alkalies, 30, 39.

Alumina, oxide of aluminum,

24, 25 , 26 33 , 93American porcelain , 1 45 , 146,1 72 ,

bone porcelain , 1 72 ;ancient pottery , 1 1 2 ; modern pottery, 1 1 9, 1 23 (footnote). 1 29. 1 32 1 37. 145.1 46, 1 72 ; see also appendix

B, note 1 2 .

Analyses hardbody pottery, 46 ;fi ne earthenwares, 46 pastes

or bodies, 46, 48 porcelains,

48 potter’

s materials, 34 ;soft b ody coarse earthen

wares, 46 ; stonewares, 46

very hard body pottery , 46,48.

Ancient pottery , 109 to 1 1 3see tab le p . 14 ; American ,

1 1 2 see tab le p . 1 6 glazes,8, 9, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , and tables pp.

1 4 , 47, 1 05Arab ian pottery , 7, 1 0, 1 1 6.

Arch itectural ornaments,60.

Asbestos, 30.

GLOSSARY.

Asia Minor glazes, 8.

Asiatic pottery , 1 1 2 see table

pp . 14 to 1 8.

Assyrian pottery , 7, 8, 1 1 2 see

table p . 14.

As tbury, 1 2 .

B

Babylonian pottery, 6, 7 ; see

tab le p . 1 4.

Backgrounds, 1 94 .

BakingChinese porcelain , 1 56

colors on earthenware, 92 ,201 colors on porcelain , 92 ,201 see appendix B, note 5 ,for effect of coal coolingoff

92 ; earthenware , 69, 70, 1 27hard porcelain , 69, 70, 14 1

Japanese porcelain ,1 56

length of time required in ,

69 ; majolicas or tin glazed

earthenwares , 1 19 fritted

porcelain , 71 stoneware, 69,1 32 .

Ball-clay or pipe-clay, descrip

tion of, 29 b ody, same as

p ipe-clay body, 103 , 1 06, 1 22 ,1 26

Banko-ware (Japanese) , 51 .

Barb otine , dilutedpaste, slip , 3 .

Barytes or baryta, protoxide ofbarium, 30, 1 29.

Beauregard kaolin ,analysis of,

48.

Belleek, 94.

Biscuit, lit. bis cuit or twice

as

2 46 Index and Glossary .

baked,baked unglazed ware,

F r . degourdi or tres fort de’

gou rdi , 3 , 62 ; painting on ,

2 1 1,2 1 2 ; soft or easy ,

‘

F r .

_faible de’gourdi , incompletelybakedpaste, 61 .

Bisque-ware,corruption of bis

cu it ware.

Blacks , F r . noi rs , 1 80, 1 86.

Blane , Charles . Rules for dec

oration,2 1 8.

Blues , F r . bleus , 1 80.

Blunger . Formerly a bind ofrat e

, now a kind of mill, 4 1 .

Body or paste , 38 see appen

dix B, note 2 ; glazed, 1 05 ,

1 06 , 107 ; Opaque , eartben

wares andstonewares , 98, 103 ,104 , 1 05 , 106 ; translucen t ,

porcelains , 98, $ 04 , 1 07, 1 38unglazed,

1 03 , 1 04 .

Bone phosphate or b one body,natural sof t porcelain ,

1 04,107, 1 69 phosphate or b one

porcelain ,1 3 , 36, 1 68, 1 69 to

1 72 ; see tab les pp. 20, 104,1 07 American , 1 72 .

Boracic glaze , 1 02 ; see tab les

pp . 105 to 107.

Borax ,borate of soda , 30, 1 02

boric or b oracic acid,boron

and oxygen . 30. 33. 64Border of a plate , F r . marly , 3 .

Bettcher, 1 3 , 1 36.

Brianchon ,Jules (lustres), 94.

Bricks , 59 b aking of, 69.

Brongn iart’

s tab le o f classifica

tion,2 , 96 ; description of,

98.

Browns, F r . bm ns , 1 84.

Brushes , how to wash ,202 .

Bung,a pi le of seggars , 68

Burgau o r Burgos lustre, 94.

Burslem,1 2 .

Buttons, 58.

Caillou, feldqfiar , 27.

Cailloutage , fa ience fi ne, fi neeart/zenware.

Calcareous , wi tlt lime clay,29.

CamaIeu ,a monocb rome

, 3 , 193 .

Campan ian pottery , analyses ,

46.

Campanulas , coloringof,197.

Can tharis lustre , 94 .

Carm ines , F r . carmins , 1 80.

Carmine, red,F r . rouge car

mine’

(iron color), 1 84 ; tests

for muhl e heat , tab le of,

91 .

Casting,mabingpottery by meansof moulds , 56 , 57.

Céladon ,a color or a ware ,

description of ware , 1 62 .

Chalk , carbonate of lime, 29.

Charcoal-body, 103, 1 06 .

Chesterlite, analysis of, 34.

China. 6, 7 slip-drying in .43 .

China- stone , same as com is/zstone or feldspar .

China-ware , I .

Chinese glazes, 49, 1 02, 1 53 ;

hard kiln colors , 1 57 porce

lain ,1 2 , 147 to 1 64 ; anal

yses, 48 ; decoration ,1 52 ,

1 58, 1 59 ; flux for colors,1 58 composition investigated, 1 50

' materials , 1 5 1 ;

principal actories, 1 63 regu

lar kiln colors, 1 58 ; soft or

fritted porcelain ,1 63 nu

derglaze colors , 1 57 pot

tery , 7 stoneware , 46.

Chrome - lithography on porce

lain ,85 .

Cimen t ,pu lver izedware, 4 , 1 32 .

Classification , 98 Brongn iart’

s

tab le, 96 ; Salvétat’

s tab le,

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248 Inu’ea

°

and Glossary .

pate- sur-pate , 75, pates

d'

application. 74. 7s. 76

pein ture émaillée, 74 , 75 ,

76 ; regular kiln or muffle col

ors , 82 , 87, 1 72 , 1 80 to 1 88 ;rules for , 2 1 8, 22 1 , 222 , 225 ;sli -

painting, 74 , 75 , 76 ; of

so t (or fritted) porcelain ,

1 67, 1 68, 2 10 of stone-ware ,1 35 , 1 36 of t in -

glazedearth

enware (majolica) , 1 20 ; uh

derglaze colors, 82 , 83 , 84 ,

85 .

vitrifiab le paints, 79 of

modern earthenwares , 1 1 7.

Decorative ware , 1 29, 1 30.

Delft ware , description ,1 2 1 ;

analysis , 46.

Devonsh ire clay , analysis , 36.

Doulton ware,1 35 .

Dresden porcelain ,. 1 3 , 144 ;

analysis , 48.

Dry b ody , f u lly baked unglazed

stoneware,1 34.

Drying sl ip , methods of (seeslip , drying of).

Dunt, to break or burst, 69.

E

Earth-alkali-glaze, 1 02 , see ta

b les, pp . 1 05 , 1 06, 107.

arthenwazre , 4 , 69, 70, 85 , 92 ,1 08 1 78, 2 10 to 2 1 5 ;see also tab les pp . 14 , 1 6, 1 8,20, 22 , 46, 103 to 106 ; b ak

ing, 69, 70, 1 27 ; decoration

of, 84 , 1 78, 2 1 0 to 2 1 5 ;fir ing colors on the glaze of,

92 coarse , soft b ody, definit ion and description of, 1 14 ,108 to 1 23 ; see also tab les pp .

1 8, 46, 1 03, 105 ; analy

ses, 46 ancient , principal

factories, 109 to 1 1 3 ; lead

glazed, 1 1 4 , 1 1 5 , 1 16 , 1 1 7 ;see tab les pp . 1 6, 1 8, 105 ;

modern , principal factories,1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 2 1 ; tin glazed or

enameled (majolica), 1 1 8,1 1 9 see tab les pp . 1 8 , 20

,

46, 1 05 fine , hard b ody ,

1 22 , 1 23 ; see also tab les pp .

46, 1 03 , 106 analyses of

46 ; decoration of,85 , 1 28

principal factories, 1 22 fine ,very hard body, definitionand description of

, 1 24 to

1 30 ; see also tab les pp . 20,

22 , 46, 1 04 , 1 06, 1 29 Ameri

can ,1 29

° decoration , 1 28,

principal fac

tories , 1 29, 1 30 ; underglaze

colors used on , 85 , 2 1 1 .

Eggshell ware , manufacture of,

58.

Egyptian glazes, 8, 1 1 3 ; see also

tables pp . 1 4 , 1 05 ; pottery , 6 ,8, 1 1 3 ; See also tables 1 4, 1 03 ,1 05 .

Elers , 1 2 , 1 36.

Email , 2 1 5°

Cloisonne, 1 52 .

Emaux omb rants , 1 1 6.

Enameled o il pain ting, 75 .

(Paintings in oi l colors on

eart/zenware, japannea'

or oar

n is/zed, well dr ied in a low

degree of beat, t/zen oarn is/zed

again andpolisked, are sometimes called by tke above name.

Oil-colors cannot be baked or

fi red ; tkey wou ld burn up at

t/ze lowest beat used in potterybaking of any kind. )

Enamel pain tings , definition of,2 1 5 .

Enamels , 1 59, 1 60,

1 61 ; on metal , 79 .

English colors, 206 ; see tab le

pp . 1 80 to 1 88 ; see also ap

pendix B , note 1 3 .

English porcelain , .1 68 to 1 72,

I ndex and Glossary .

207 (see bo‘

ne phosphate

b ody) ; decoration , 1 70, 207

p rincipal factories. 1 71 .

Engob e , a slip , 3 , 73 .

tching on the glaze , 94.

E truria, pottery of, 9, 1 1 1

analyses, 46.

Etruscan ware , 1 1 0 ; see I talo

Greek ware .

European pottery, ancient, 1 09‘

to 1 1 3 see also tab les pp . 1 4 ,105 ; mediaeval , 1 16 , 1 20 to

1 23 , 1 36 see also tables pp .

1 6,1 8 , 20, 105 , 106 modern ,

1 14 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 19 , 1 24to 1 46, 1 65 to 1 72 ; see also

tables pp . 1 6, 1 8,22 , 105 ,

106 , 107.

F

FaIence , definition ,1 26, 2 1 3 ;

Oiron , see also tab les

pp . 1 8 , 46, 106 ; analysis , 46 .

Faiences communes,

coarse

eartbenware, 1 1 5 (see earth

enware,coarse).

Faiences émaille'

es , enameledcart/trnwares , 1 22 (see earth

ienware , coarse , t in-

glazed).Fai

‘

ences fines, fi ne eartben

ware, 1 2 5 .

Fat,or long, plastic, 40.

Fat-oil , tb iek tu rpen tine, 3 , 82 ,1 75 .

Feldspar , 24, 26, 34 ; analyses ,

34 ; b ody o r paste , Opaque ,

(stonewares), 1 34 to 1 37 see

also tab les pp . 1 04 , 106

translucen t (some porcelains),1 50 see also tab les pp . 104 ,107 ; clay b ody, translucent ,

(pazian) , 169 ; com

pact, petro- si lex , 27, 148

orthoclase , or potask

249

span 34 ; alb ite , or soda

feldspar , 27, 34 .

Ferruginous, wi tlt iron .

Firing of pain tings , 201 (seealso baking of colors) ; underglaze pain tings, 2 1 2 .

Flamb é , or flammé,rouge , 3,

0 I S7Flandre , grés de , see grés deFlandre .

Flin t-body (fine eartkenware),1 24 to 1 30 ; see also tab les pp .

20, 22 , 46, 1 04 , 106 .

Flint-glass , or crystal , 63 , 75 ,101 , g ,

laze 75 , 1 01 .

Flint- rock, 27.

Flints,1 27 analyses , 34 .

Flowers , coloring, 1 96.

Flux, a substance tkat causes

otker substances tomelt, 2 , 8 1

Chinese , 1 58 ; Japanese , 1 60 ;ingredients , 77.

Fluxedpaints, Regu lar andkard

ki ln colors , 78.

Fluor- spar , 27 see tab le p . 34.

French colors, o r pain ts , 205 .

French names'

for co lors , see

tab le pp . 1 80 to 1 88 ; poree

lains , analyses , 48 ; words ,defin itions , 4 .

Frit, a sor t of glassy matterimperfectly melted, 64 .

Fritted body , 1 65 to 1 68 ; see

also tab les pp . 48, 1 04 , 107.

Frittedporcelain , 48, 92 ,165 to

1 68, 209 , see also tab les pp .

107 bak ing, 71 ;baking or firing colors on

,

92 ; see tab le p . Chinese ,163 decoration of, 1 67, 1 68

2 10 ; French ,1 65 to 168

Persian , 1 68.

Fritting, 64 .

Fuel , 68 see also appendixB,

note 5 .

2 50 Index and Glossary .

Fusib ility, 2 clay, 25 , 26

glaze s , 64 ; pastes, 39 see

also appendix B, note 8.

G

Gallic pottery, analysis of, 46.

German colors , or fluxedpain ts206 .

Gildin’

g,-

93 , 207.

Glassing, 62 .

Glaze , alkaline , _s'

ee alkaline

glaze of Chinese porcelain ,

1 53 , 1 54, 1 59, tab les pp . 1 06,1 07 ; of coarse ear thenware ,63 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 8, tab le p . 105 ;of fi ne earthenware , 63 , 1 25 ,tab le p . 106 of hard porce

lain ,63 , 1 42 , tab le p .

107 ; of Japanese porcelain ,

1 55 , tab le p . 1 07 ; l ime of

Sevres and Limoges porce

lain ,1 59 ; oi majolica, 1 1 8

,

tab le p . 105 ; of soft porce

lain , b one , 1 70, tab le p . 107fritted, 1 66

,tab le p . 1 07

stone-ware , 64 , 1 32 ,tab le p . 1 06 .

Glazed bodies , or pastes, 1 05 ,106 , 107 pottery, 1 05 , 106

,

107 ; see also pottery , glazed.

Glazes , 1 1 , 75 , 101,1 05 , 106

,

107, 1 1 5 , 1 1 8,1 25 ,

1 32 . I 37. 1 4 1 , I 4S, I S3. I SS.1 66 , 1 68, 1 70 ancien t , 8, 9 ,

; 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 see tab les pp . 1 4 ,

47, 1 05 ; b last furnace cin

ders usedin , 30, 1 33 classifi

cation of, 101 , 102 fusib ilityof

,64 materials or ingredi

en ts used in ,63 mediaeval ,

1 0,1 1 6, 1 1 8, 1 20, 1 2 1 , 1 22

1 36, tables pp . 1 6, 46, 105

metals used in , 3 1 , 35 ;meth

ods of putting on , 65 ; see

also appendix B, note 3modem

,1 1 , 1 1 7, 1 1 9 ,

1 24 to

1 72 , see tables pp . 1 8,20,

22, 46, 48, 1 05 , 1 06

,107 ;

slag used in , 30,1 33 .

Glazing, or glassing, 62 .

Gloss- oven ,kiln in wkic/zglazes

are baked, 70.

Gloss- oven colors , description

of,82

,83 , 84 , 85 , 86, 2 1 1

for porcelain , 84 .

Golconda , Ill . , kao lin , analys is

of, 46 .

Gold backgrounds, underglaze ,

93Gorodayu Shonsui , 1 2 , see ta

b le p . 1 9.

Grading color , 1 92 .

reco -Roman pottery , 9 , 105 ,1 09 see also Hist . tab le pp.

1 4 to 1 8.

Greek glazes , 9, 105 , 109 ; kera

m ic art , 9, 109, 1 10 ; pot

tery, 8, 105 , 109, 1 10 vases,

decoration of, 1 10 ; classifi

cation of, 1 10.

Greens , F r .

°verts , 1 82 .

Gres de Flandre , a fi ne stone

ware,1 1

,1 36.

Greys , F r . gr is , 1 80,1 84, 1 86,

Gyp sum, sulp/zate of lime, 29.

Handles, 57.

Hard,infusible, ref ractory , can

n ot be scratc/zed,2 .

Hard-body, or hard pottery,

certain fi ne eartltenwares , 1 2 2,1 23 ; see also tab les pp . 46,

1 03, 106 analysis , 46.

Hard colors , bard ki ln or [card

fi re colors (over-glaze),‘

82,

87. I S7. 209.

Hardeningon , 85 , 2 1 2 .

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Index and Glossary .

1 06 , 1 07 ; oil , an erroneous

term f or lime andwater , 1 54porcelain ,

see lime-body,transparent.

Limoges‘

porcelain , analysis ,

48 style , 74 ware , probablylime or flint body , fi inor boracic glaze. 1 1 7 ; other

decorative ware , 1 29.

Lining, 208.

Lists of b ooks , 2 1 5 , 2 1 8, 230.

Litharge, protox ide of lead, 63 .

Lithoce'

rame,a name for fi ne

feldspar - body eartbenware.

Lithography (chromo) on por

celain , 85 .

Lithophan ie , 95 .

Long, or fat , plastic, 40.

Lucca della Robb ia, 7, 1 1 , 1 2 1

ware , analysis of, 46.

Luneville , terre de pipe , a bard

ball-clay pottery ,analysis of,

46 .

Lustre (glaze), see lustrous pottery (decoration ), 93, 1 2 1 .

Lustrous pottery , 9, 1 1 1 see

tab les pp . 14 , 1 6, 46, 105 .

M

Madagascan pottery, analysis0f

, 46 .

Magnesia-body, 145 see tables

pp . 34. 48. 1 04. 1 07 see ap

pendix B , note 1 .

eMagnesite , 29, 34 ; analysi s of,Majolica , lime-body tin -

glazed

eartbenware,1 1 8 to 1 22 .

Manufacture , 38 to 71 hand

made pottery , 5 1 ; processes.

Marl , a calcareous or lime clay ,

29 body, 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 see tables

pp . 47. 103. 1 05Marly, tbc border of aplate, 3 .

Materials, potter'

s , 24“

to

decorator’

s , see keramic

painting, 1 73 to 2 16.

McLaughlin ,M iss , ware made

by , 1 23 (foot-note), 2 16 .

Measuring heat , ways of, 67.

Medieeval glazes , see glazes,mediaeval pottery, 1 1 6, 1 1 8,1 20

,1 2 1 , 1 22, 1 36 see tab le

p . 1 6.

Medium heat,82 .

Medium , wbat paints are mixed wi tb , 3 .

Meerschaum,analysis , 34 .

Meissen,see Dresden .

Meissen porcelain , analysis of,

48.

Metals , 3 1 , 32 , 33.

Me'

thode Laurin , 74 Richard,86, 87.

Mezza-Majolica, a lime bodylead-

glazed eartbenware, 1 1 6.

Mill, Alsings’

dry grinding, 42

wedging, 43 , of ten called a

pug-mill.

Minium,deutox ide of lead,

63 .

Min ton,1 2

, 46, 1 30 ; fi ne earth

enware , very hard b ody , an

alysis , 46.

Mo- coing, a decoration for coarseware, 93 .

Modern decorative earthen

wares , 1 1 7 glazes , see tab le

pp . 1 8, 20,22 ; see glazes ,

modern pottery, see pottery ,modern .

Monkey , a water-cooler .

Monochrome , F r . cama ieu , 3 ,1 93 .

Mon tereau clay , analysis , 36.

Moulds,for figures and an i

mals, 58 metal , 57 plaster,

Mt. Savage (Md.) clay, analysis,36.

Index and Glossary .

Muffi e colors, see colors, regu

lar kiln . Mufii es , descript ion

,88 ; heating or firing,

89 ;‘

placi'

ng or packing, 89see also appendix B, note 9tab le of muffle heat , givingcolor Of ware and of carminetests , 90, 91 .

Nabesshima Naoshige, 1 2 see

tab le p . 1 9.

Nankin,162 .

N itrate of potash , azotate ofpotasb , see n itre .

itre , saltpetre,asb

, 30.

Nomenclature , and definitionsof some terms , 1 , 2 .

Non -

plastic or skort sub stances ,

40.

Nymphenburg, Bavaria, porce

lain , analysis of, 48.

0

Ochre, a ferruginous clay ,29.

Ochres (paints), 30,1 86 .

OldSevres, 1 65 see tab les pp .

20, 48, 1 07.

Openwork ,manufacture of, 58.

Origin of pottery , 6.

Orthoclase, compact” 27 ; feld

spar , 27. 34~Oxides, coloring, 73 ; of lead,tin and iron , 30 manganese ,

33Opaque b odies or pastes, caribenware and s toneware, see

bodies , opaque .

P

Painting, Chinese , 1 59 ; Japanese ,

'

1 60 ; keramic, 1 73 to

2 1 6 keramic, b ooks on ,

2 1 5 , 2 1 6 ; b iscuit, 2 1 2 ; fine

2 53

earthenware or fai ence,1 78,

2 1 1 hard porcelain or fi n e

earthenware , 1 89 to 200

materials necessary for , 1 751 76, 1 78 porcelain ,

w ith

hard kiln'

colors,86

, 209 ;soft porcelain , _

2 10 ; t in

glazed earthenware or ma

jolica, 88, 1 20, 2 1 3 .

Palissy, see 1 1,tab le p . 1 9

1

;ware , a sof t _

or occas iona llybard eartbenware, ei tb er lead

or tin glazed. Tbe name is

of ten given to modern imi ta

tions of it, 46, 1 1 5 analysis

of, 46 .

Parian , feldspar -clay body , 169,see tab le p . 107.

Parvillée , 93 .

Paste or b ody, description of,

38 ; fluxes of, 39 ; impurities oi , 39 ripen ing or tem

pering of, 44 ; slapp ing of,44 ; treading or wedging

'

of,

43 .

Pastes , preparations of, 4 1

rough tab le of, 39 ; tab le of

analyses with notes, 46 .

Pfite-changeante, 3 ; see also

appendix B ,note 6

Pates d’

application , 7

Pate- sur-pate on hard and soft

porcelain , 76, 1 44 , 1 71 ; see

appendix B,note

egmatite , 27.

ersian earthenware , 1 16, 1 64analysis , 46 porcelain ,

1 64analysis , 48 pottery, glaze ,1 68

Peruvian pottery, analys is . of,

46.

Petro-silex, 27, 1 48 ; body ,1 03 , 107, base of Chi

nese and Japanese porce

lain , 28, 148, 149, 1 50.

254 Index and

Pe- tun - tze, sometimes spelled

pib - tun - tz,27, 1 49.

Petunze orpetun tse, Fr . caillou ,

feldspar .

Phenician pottery , 78, 1 1 2 .

Phosphate of lime, 33 , 1 69.

Phosphorite , 33 .

Pictorial art, differs from decorative, 225 on pottery,228.

Piedmont, porcelain of (magne

sia body ), 1 5 1 , see table p . 37,NO . 9 analysis of, 48.

Pipe-clay, same as ball-clay . 29.

Pitchers, ground, powderedware

, 3 , 1 32 .

Plaques , definition of, 2 1 1 .

Plasticity of clay , 40.

Plumb iferous, witb lead, 3 ,

Porcelain , 4 , 7, 1 2 , 1 3 , 144 to

1 78 see tables pp . 14 to 23 ,

34. 48. 96. 1 04. 1 07 ; see

Appendix B,notes 1 , 5 , 6, 8,

9 ; American ,see American

analyses , 48 ; baking, 141 ,1 56 ; see appendix B ,

notes

5 , 8 b aking or firingof colors on

, 92 see appendix B,

note '

9 ; b one-

phosphate , or

natural soft, see bone-phos

phate ; Chinese , see Chinese ;Japanese , see Japanese , pe

110- siliceous base of Chinese

and Japanese , 1 49 ; Corean ,

1 63 difference b etween hard

and soft, 1 39 description

of, 1 38 ; English , see bone

phosphate etymology, 1 38feldspar-body , 1 04, 1 07fritted, see fritted porcelain

°

glaze of. 147. 1 54 . 1 55 .see also Salvetat

’

s

tab le5 °

, gloss-oven andunder

glaze colors, 83 ; hard, see

hardporcelain decoration ,

143 , 1 78 hard kiln , or

medium heat, colors for , 209hot cast

, 31 imitatingChi

nese porcelain ,1 59 Indian ,

1 2 , 1 64 ; Japanese , see

Japanese ; kaolin-body, 35 ,1 40 ; lime-b ody. 3s. 145;magnesia-body, 3 5 , 145 0r1

gi n of, 1 2 , pai n ti ngon ,1 74

°

paints, descrip tion of, 87, 1 77to 1 88 ; full tab le of, w ith

notes , 1 80 to 1 88 ; Piedmon t ,see Piedmont ; petro

- silex

b ody, 1 50,see

tab les pp . 1 04 , 107 ; regular

kiln, colors for, see colors ,regular kiln ; soft, natural

andartificial , 1 2 , 1 65 to 1 72

fritted,1 2 , 165 , 166

,167,

1 68 ; decoration , 1 67, 168,1 70, 1 71 , 209 ; Persian ,

1 2 ,

48, 1 1 6, 164 ; tin -

glazed, see

tab le p . 107 Venetian ,13

see tab le p . 20.

Portuguese pottery , analysis of,

46.

Potash , bydrated protoxide ofpotassium , 33 .

Potstone , talc, 29.

Potter’

s clay , 29 ; hard colors,86 lathe , Fr . tour anglais ,

44 , 54 ,1 52 ; lathe , Ch inese ,

1 52 materials , 24 ; analyses

of. 34 .

Potter’

s wheel , F r . tour apotier , description of, 52 , 53 ,1 5 1 Chinese and Japanese ,1 5 1 .

Pottery , 1 , 2 see tab les pp . 1 6,

349 469 969 1 03 to 1 07 ; ah

alyses , 46 to ancient ,1 1 0 to 1 1 3 , see tab le p . 1 4

°

hard body, see hard body

pottery ; glazed, 1 14 to 1 72,

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2 56 Index and Glossary.

Silica, silicic acid, 29, 33.

Silico -alkali-glaze , 7 , 9, 1 1 , 102 ,1 1 2 see also tab les pp . 106,

Slapping, a process for render

ing clay bomogeneous , 44 .

Slip , F r . barbotine,

diluted

paste, 3 , 4 1 F r . engobe, a tb in

layer of clay or paste, 73 , 1 16drying. a t -kiln

. 43 pain t

ing. 74 . 76. 1 1 8.

Slug, a role or piece of sandyclay used in baking stoneware

,

1 32

Slushing, dipping in glaze

liquid, 65 .

Smalt, blue glass fi nely pulverized, andused as a paint, 1 60

Soapstone , steatite, 29, 1 53 .

Soda, bydrated protoxide of so

diam, 33 .

Soft b ody earthenwares, see

earthenwares, coarse , soft

b ody.

Soft, wi ll scratcb easi ly ,2

°

, fusi ble , 2 ; or easy b iscuit, in

completely baked paste ,

°

or

fritted porcelain , 1 2 , 165 to

_1 72 , see fritted porcelain ;

porcelain decoration 0f,167,

1 68 °

,or ordinary mufi e

see muffles ; porcelain , bak

ing colors on , 92 ; Chinese ,1 63 porcelain , pain ting on ,

2 10 pottery or soft body pot

tery , 108 to 1 22 , see also

tab les pp . 46, 1 03 , 1 05 anal

yses , 46 ; description ,108.

South Kensington rules , 221 .

Spanish pottery , 1 0.

Spar, 27.

Staffordshire , 1 2 .

Stann iferous , witb tin, 3

glaze , 102 , 1 1 8.

Steatite , soapstone, 29, 34.

Stippling, sbading by means ofdots .

Stoneware, Fr . gre

'

s ce’

rame, 5 ,1 1 , 1 3 1 to 1 37 ; see alsotab les pp . 46, 1 04 , 106 ; an

alysis of, 46 ; baking, 69,1 32 ; Chinese , 46,coarse, very hard, i ron u body

generally salt-glaze, 1 3 1

see tab les pp . 46, 1 04 , 1 06 ;English , Doulton ware

,1 35

,.fi ne

,very hard, opaquefeld

glazes , 1 34 ; see tab les pp .

decoration of,1 35

°

Japanese , 1 2 , 1 36, 1 37°

ah

alysis , 46 ; old,gres de F lan

dre, 1 35 , tin -

glazed,1 36 see table p . 1 06 Tren

ton,1 37.

Stone-oil , erroneous term forpetro- si lex and water

,1 59

Stourb ridge clay , Eng. , analysis of, 36.

Suck , Fr . sucer , to absorb tbe

glaze, 68.

Supportingor propping,69, 70.

Sur- cru . To paint on tbe raw

or unbakedglaze, 84 .

T

Tab les—analyses of pastes,with notes and remarks, 46 ;

potter’

5 materials, with notes

and remarks, Brongni

art’

,s 96 ,

fluxed pai n ts and

their attributes,1 80 to 1 88 ;

dates, 14 to 22 ; mufile heat ,

givingcolor of ware and of

carmine tests, 91 ; Salvetat’

3 ,

b rought down to date, with

additional notes and exama

ples , 1 03 to 1 07 ; see appen

dixB,note 1 1 temperatures,

Index and Glossary .

67 ; classification , 96, 1 03 ;hi storical , 14 to 22.

Tale, 29.

Tanagra figurines, 169.

Tanks, 4 1 .

Temperatures, tab le of, 67.

Tempering, r ipening, 45 .

Terra-.cotta, baked clay , 3 , 60,1 1 1 ; - invit1i ata, a name formajolica - sigillata, 9, 1 7,see Samian ware.

Terre a porcelaine du Japon ,

analysis of, 34.

Tests for mufii e or regular kiln

colors, 91 .

Test plates for painters , 1 89.

Throwing, fasbion ing on tbewbeel

, 53 .

Tinajas, Sp . very largejars , 5 1 .

Tincal , native borax, 30.

Tin-

glaze, 9, 1 1 , 1 02, 1 1 8 see

tab les pp . 46, 1 05 , 106, 107earthenwares, see earthen

wares, tin -glazed pain tingon , 84 , 1 20, 1 2 1 , 2 1 3 porcelain , see porcelain , tin-

glazed ; stoneware , see stone

ware, tin-

glazed.

Tiles , 59, 69, 1 1 5 , 193.

Tobacco pipes , 1 29.

Tour anglais, see potter’

s latheapotier , see potter

’

s wheel.Toum ay soft fritted porcelain ,

analysis , 48.

Tracing, use of, 194.

T ranslucent b odies or pastes,

porcelains , 98, 1 38.

Transparencies , litbopbanie, 95 .Treading, 43.

Tsuj i-chu-chi , analysis, 34.Tube colors , 1 77, 1 79.

Turpen tine, 82 , 1 75 ; fat, 82 ,1 75 .

Tuscan soft fritted porcelain ,

1 3 ; see tablet ‘

p. 1 8.

U

Underglaze colors, 82 ; see

gloss-oven colors ; Chinese ,1 57 ; for earthenware , 85 ;for porcelain , 84 .

nderglaze painting, firing of,2 1 2 ; for earthenware

,

Unglazed bodies or pastes, _

1 04 ,1 05 .

Uielmo da Bologna,Umbers, 32.

Vauxhall stoneware, analysis of

46 .

Venetian porcelain , 1 3, 1 8.

Very hard b ody pottery,eartbenwares , stonewares

porcelains , .v . ; analyses , 46 ,

48 opaqueifi neeartbenwaresand stonewares), 1 24 to 1 37,see tables 1 8

, 20, 22 , 46,1 03, 1 04, 1 06 ; tran slucent

(porcelains), 1 38 to 142 ; see

tab les pp . 16, 1 8, 20, 22 , 48,107.

Violet (color),Violets , coloring of, 1 97.

Vitrifiab le pain ts , definition ,

79 ; flux for, 81 .

W

Wad, a roll of clay p laced between seggars to keep ,

out va

pors , 68.

Washing b rushes, 202 .

Water, coloring of, 198.

Water coolers , 1 14 .

Wedging, treading or knea

43 ; -mill, calledpug-mi ll inE ngland, 43.

2 58

Wedgewood, . 1 35 ; stone Worcester porcelain, analysisware, analysis, 46. of, 48.

Wheel , otter’

s, 52 see potter’

s

whee

Whirling tab le for puttinglineson ware , 208. Yellows, Fr . jaunes, 1 80, 1 82 .

Whites , F r . blancs , 1 80. Yeou-ko, 1 53 ; analysi s of, 34.

Woodb ridge (N . J .) clay, an Yrieix, St. , kaolin, analysis of,alysis of, 36. 46.

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