Manual of French - Forgotten Books

MANUAL OF FRENCH

PRONUNCIATION AND DICTION

MANUAL OF

FRENCH PRONUNC IATION

AND DICTION

BASED ON THE NOTATION OF THE

ASSOCIATION PHONETIQUE INTERNATIONALE

J. W .

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JAOK MA.

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GEORGE G . HARRAP Es’CO . LTD .

L OND O N CA L CUTTA SYD NEY

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by GEORG E G . HARRAP {v3 CO. , LTD.

2 Portsmoutlz S treet, Kz’

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PREFACE

HIS book is intended for pupils and students whowish to acquire the normal or proper pronunciationof French . Being an elementary work on scientific

lines, it offers a sirnple and reliable means Of ov ercoming the

difficulties which the sub j ect undoub tedly presents to Englishspeaking people . It is a well-known fact that many pupilswho hav e an excellent knowledge of French grammar and

syntax,and hav e ev en passed the higher examinations, are

unable to pronounce French with any degree of success,

although the main purpose of learning a modern language

should be to speak it, and in such awaythat the sounds maybe regarded as proper by a nativ e. By a study of thesepages, a pupil can in due course reach as good results inthe way of pronunciation and accent as can be Obtained bya lengthy residence in France .

The pronunciation of French , like that of allotherlanguages,has no fixed or stereotyped form . It is exposed to the

caprices of fashion and taste , and v aries in different districtsof France . The correct pronunciation is like the romanticfairy

,which vanished in smoke when one approached too

near. All competent judges, howev er, recogniz e that thereis a standard or normal French , v iz . that Of good Parisiansociety or the educated classes in and around Paris and in

Northern France . This standard is for practical purposesfairly uniform , and educated speakers nearly ev erywheretend to conform to it . It is this pronunciation,

withoutpedantry or vulgarity, that is described in these pages,

although it may not always be that giv en by certain dic

tionaries. Ev en in the case of this standard, howev er, one

5

6 MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

must not insist on dogmas;for there are no two educatedpersons in Paris who would be likely to agree in the pro

nunciation of all French words. Many div ergencies exist ,both in isolated words and in groups Of words. In some

cases two, ev en three or four, forms Of pronunciation Of a

certain word must be a dmitted as equally good . But thesediv ergencies do not inv olv e any fundamental difference inthe normal French referred to, and are noticed only by thosewho care to watch for them .

The book is essentially a practical one . While it giv esthe results Of careful study made by distinguished Frenchorthoepists, it does not v enture on any theoretical discussionor scientific explanation Of facts. The author has intentionally av oided all such sub j ects, which would only lead to

complication or confusion . As no exposition of pronuncia

tion , howev er, can be suffi cient without oral practice , he hasadded suitable exercises andlists of words wherev ernecessary .

The use of the phonetic system of the Association PhonétiqueInternationale , now recogniz ed by the highest educationalauthorities, including the English Board of Education,

the

Scottish Education Department , and practically all collegiatebodies both in Britain and the United States, will be foundOf immense serv ice . The science Of phonetics, which has todo with speech-sounds, not only underlies all language , butis a labour-sav ing dev ice to the student , turning the com

plicated difficulties Of pronunciation into a simple system ,

and enabling him to accomplish in a few weeks what wouldotherwise require years. The written language giv es onlya v ery imperfect anddeceptiv e idea of the sounds

,and the use

of reliable phonetics to the language-student is thus indis

pensable , being a v aluable aid in training both v oice and ear.

The student should make a persev ering practice of the

French sounds described in these pages. This is the secretof proper pronunciation . To acquire only a knowledge Of

the sounds is insufficient they must be practised until theircorrect use is second nature .

PREFACE 7

The authorwould take this occasion to record his indeb tedness to the numerous masters of French diction from whoseworks and teaching he has receiv ed suggestions and stimulus,and particularly to Professor Paul Passy, ProfessorMauriceGrammont , Professor Kr. Nyrop,

Dr Ph . Martinon,L

’

Abbé

Rousselot, and other modern authorities, to say nothing Of

Urbain Domergue, Mme Dupuis, Ch . Thurot, M. A. Lesaint ,and a galaxy Of Older writers. The Bibliography appendedmay be Of use to students who desire to extend their knowledge of French pronunciation .

Thanks are also due to Professor E . C. Hills, Of the Uni

v ersity Of California, ProfessorLanderMacclintock , Of IndianaUniv ersity, andMrAlexanderGreen, for valuable suggestionsmade on proof.

J . W. J .

CONTENTSCHAPTER PAGE

XI I .

XI I I .

XIV .

XV.

XVI .

XVI I .

XVI I I .

XIX.

XX .

XXI .

INTRODUCTORY : THE PHONETIC SYSTEM

PART I : THE VOWEL STHE FUNDAMENTAL VOWEL S

I I .

I I I .

IV .

UNSTRES SED E

VI .

VI I .

VI I I .

IX.

OPEN 0 [O]

CLOSE I [i]

CLOSE E [e]

OPEN E [a]

CLOSE A [a]

OPEN A [O]

UN STRE S SED ACLOSE 0 [O]

UNSTRE S SED O

CLOS E [u]

THE MIXED VOWELs : THE VOWEL [y]THE VOWEL [O]THE VOWEL [oe]E MUTE ,

OR E Caduc

THE SEMI-CON SONANTs : THE SEMI -CONSONANT [w] 69

TH E SEMI-CON S ONANT [j]THE SEMI -CON S ONANT [q]THE NASAL VOWEL SDURATION OF SOUNDS , OR QUANTITY

To MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

PART I I : THE CONSONANTSCHAPTER PAGE

XXI I . INTRODUCTORYXXI I I . THE LATERAL CONSONANT LXXIV. THE TRILL S , [r] AND [R]XXV. THE F RI CATIVESXXVI . THE NASAL CONS ONANTSXXVI I . THE EXPLOS IVE S

XXVI I I . THE LETTER HXX IX . THE NUMERALSXXX . DOUBLE CONSONANTS

~

PART I I I : WORDS IN COMB INATION

XXXI . EL I S ION

XXXI I . THE TON IC OR RHYTHMIC ACCENTXXXI I I . L IAI S ON OR L INKING

XXXIV . EMPHATIC OR SUPPLEMENTARY ACCENTXXXV . AS S IMILATIONXXXVI . INTONATI ONXXXVI I . INTERROGATION SXXXVI I I . EXCLAMATIONSXXXIX . EXPRE S S I ON

XL . RHYTHM AND EURHYTHMY

INDEx OF WORD -END INGSINDEx OF PRINCI PAL WORD S CITEDINDEx OF SUB JECTSB IB L I OGRAPHY

INTRODUCTORY

THE PHONETIc SYSTEM

1 . The v alue of a phonetic system in the study Of Frenchpronunciation is ev ident from the fact that the ordinary

esn ot represent the actualsounds Of the language .

No doubt , on the whole, French orthography is more con

sistent in this respect than English , but it is by no means

adequate . There are only Six characters (a, e, i , o, u, y) forrepresenting the v owels, but there are at least sixteen distinctv owelsounds in French;and in the case of consonantalcharacters, many of these are now extinct in pronunciationor quite unstable . The word temps, for example , is writtenwith fiv e letters, but in the actual spoken language it is

composed of only two sounds, t and nasal (1 [ta] . The onlyletter In common is the t, forthe spoken word contains neither

‘

6 norm nor p nor 3. Similarly the words eaux, oies, thoughcontaining four letters each , are represented in speech bythe single sounds [0 ] [W0 ] , which hav e nothing in common

with any Of them . Many words too are spelt differentlybut pronounced the same (e .g. sain ,

~ saint, sem, seing, ceins,ceint, cinq) while others are spelt the same but pronounceddifferently (e .g. Les fils ant cassé les fils tu as l

’

as dc

tréfle les lacs sont pre‘s des lacs) .2 . All this confusion in the conv entionalmethod of Spelling

French leads to difficulties in acquiring the pronunciation,

and hence we make use of a phonetic system as a guide tothe learner. li e system is based on the principle of one

symbol, and only One , for each sound Since ev erysound in the language can be defined, it is ev ident thatwe hav e only to allot a distinctiv e symbol to each one ,

and we immediately possess an exact alphabet , more exactindeed than the notati on employed to represent musicalsounds. In this way we Obtain a rational system of repre

senting the spoken sounds, thus making them infinitely1 1

I z MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

easier to learn . In such a system , tan, tant, taon, tends,tend

, temps, b eing all pronounced the same, are indicated by

the same transcript [ta] , while the v arious sound elementsof the language are all simply and accurately represented ,

and the Old difficulties Of French pronunciation are largelyremov ed .

3. The alphabet used is that of the International PhoneticAssociation , which is now the most widely used and highlyperfected Of allRoman alphabets for indicating pronunciation .

It consists, forthe purposes Of the French language , of eighteenconsonants, three semi-consonants, and sixteen v owels.

Wherev er possible , the same signs are used as in ordinaryspelling, and hav e practically the same v alue . This is thecase with the consonantal signs 15, b, t, d, k , g, m , n , l, r,

f , v , s, z , and the aspirate h. But the followin tableshould be noted , containing three new consonant signs,

find the three semi-consonants. These will be explainedater on .

Howpronounced

L ike English sh (e .g. in shot) .

y,i,ll payer, bien,

briller L ike English y in yet, yes.

oui,fouet

,moi

,L ike English II) in win

,

dwindle.

lui,cuit

,nuage This is the compoundvowel

[y] (see table on p . I but

sound S O Shortened as to

make one syllable withthe vowel immediately

L ike 3 in pleasure, z in

azure .

L ike ng in English sing, butwith point o f tongue keptdown behi ndlowerteeth ,

and rest of tongue raised

swi ftly against hard

palate .

THE PHONETIC SYSTEM 13

On the princi ple of one symbol for each sound, it willbe understpO

'

d that such symbols, as [k , g, s, z ] are usedfor v arious consonants or combinations in the ordinaryspelling. Thus

[k] is used for hard c (i .e . 5 before a, o, u, or anotherconsonant);for qn in such words as quatre, qualité for

ch in such words as chasm ,orchestre etc.

[g] is used for hard g (i.e . g b efore a, 0 , n, or anotherconsonant) for gu in such words as gnerre, langue,

Guillaume;forc in second;etc.

[5] is used for soft e (as in z’

cz’

,laeet) fore(as in gereon,

frangaz'

s) etc.

[z ] is used fors between two v owels(as in maison, causer)forx in liaison (as in deux hpmmes) etc.

In such a way, by restricting the existing signs to one

sound each , and introducing a few new Signs into the con

v entional alphabet , it will b e seen that the method of re

presenting sounds is considerably simplified, and the studyof pronunciation facilitated .

4. The following table contains the phonetic signs repre

senting the sixteen normal v owel-sounds of French . Of

these v owels eight are Fundamental, one (e mute) isIndeterminate , three are Mixed, and four are Nasal.All these sounds

,like the consonantal ones, will be explained

in the following chapters, but the pupil is urged to acquainthimself with them now as far as that may be possible, so asto be able from the outset to read phonetic transcripts. Thecolumn containing the ordinary Spelling is not exhaustiv e ,but it willgiv e some idea Of the v ariety of method adopted incurrent orthography to represent each sound .

The Sign : after a v owel indicates that the sound is long.

Thus : [rixv ] , rive, [pair] , pe‘

re. Sometimes it maybe necessaryIn strict pronunciation to indicate half-length, in which case

one dot is used, as v ivant.Attention is called to the lip-rounding required in

some of the sounds, as indicated in the fourth column .

This is a distinctiv e characteristic of French , the lips beingmuch more used than in English, and it should be diligentlypractised .

I 4 MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

e e aI,oe

ou,Ou

,Ofi

FUNDAMENTAL VOWELS

Examples

L ong rive, pire , green (long) , react (short) .

tige , bise Not like i in bit, live, etc .

Short v i f S I

Short été,les

, Scotch orNorthern English

gai , oesophage‘

a in take, case,

etc.

American a in the firstsyllable Of aerial, aorta,

Shakespeare.

L ong ere,tete , dairy (long) , deaf (short) .

mer,aire

,faite ,

neige , B eyle

S hort dés, pret

net , laid, plait

rayon , peineVolneyL ong page , part, path (long) , pat (short) .boire , cloitre Scotch orNorthern En

Short madame , lish sound of theseworla, donnames

, Also American sound Offemme

,soif ,

cloitrer

father (long) . The shortcroire

,croitre

, form is found in Southern

American sounds.

L ong ort,loge ,

toge , ure

S hort : note,

hopital, Paul, Words. Also Americanalbu sound in door (long) ,

L ong chose,

trOne,cause

,

heaume

S hort : mot,dépOt,

haut,beau

L ong rouge ,jour

,douz e

Short : nous,v ouS

,

OI‘

I, gofiter

Scotch orNorthern English0 in home (long) , poetic(short) . Southern English o in domain . Ameri

can 0 in overawe, quarto.

de (long) , j uly (short) .English and Scotch soundof these words. In America the sound is foundshort in whoever, rupee .

THE PHONETIC SYSTEM 1 5

INDETERMINATE VOWEL

Examples H owpronounced

e,ai

,on le , premier, fai Like e in over, taken or a

sant, monsi eur In about, agai n .

MIXED VOWELS

spelling

u,eu Lips as for [u] (i .e. well

eurent rounded and pushed out,

S hort : plus, une , as in whistling) , buteu

,eus sound the phoneticvowel [i] .

eu,efi

,L ong creuse

, Lips as for [O] (t.e. roundedfeutre , jeune and pushed out) , but

Short deux, peu,

soundthe phoneticu, jeuner

oe, oeu,

L ong : fieur, oeil

,

oeuvre , cueilleS hort : jeune

,

oeillet , oeuvrer,cueillir

F orNASAL VOWELS see nextpage.

5. French pronunciation, while based on the abov e sounds,

depends to some extent upon the div ision Of words intosyllables. This div ision takes place according to the followinggeneral rule : F inish with a v owel, and commence witha consonant. Two consonants are div ided, but if thesecond be r or 1, both belong to the next syllable . Thus,ventr [va-nixr] , cadeau [ka-do] , sergent [ser-gd] , tableau [ta-blo] ,nombreux [nO-brn] , agneau [a-no] . In the case Of two con

secutiv e words, the same principle of div ision exists.Thus

,

ps as for [o] (t.e. slightlyroundedandpushedout) ,but sound the honeticvowel [a] .When ong, thesound approximates to

the Southern English onein bird, turn , heard andwhen short

, to that inlove

, glove, hurry.

I 6 MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

NASAL VowELs

H owpronounced

Nasaliz ed [a] , i .a. wi th thesoft palate hangingloose ,SO as to allow some Of

the sound into nose .

Nasali z ed but with a

nombre , punch little more lip-rounding.

S hort : bon,no

lumbago

L ong Inde , Nasaliz ed [ae] ([ae] is South.

simple , lynx , em English a in suchnymphe , words as mad

, rat,vaincre,feinte

Reims, p

Short fin ,impur,

syntaxe , thym ,

main,faim,

plein, bien, loin

un, um, L ong Nasaliz ed [ae] , with lips a

humble little rounded.

S hort : nu, par

fum , ajena

les enfants [le-zdfd] , une heure [y-noexr] , while les aunes andlesmines are both [le-z oxn] .Syllables may be either open or closed. A syllable is

said to be open when it is terminated in pronunciation by' a

v owel. Such words as raison [re bonté [bS-te] , v ivacité

[v i-v a-si-te] , are therefore composed exclusiv ely Of open

syllables. A syllable is said to be closed when it is terminatedin pronunciation bya consonant , as in the words actif [ak -tif] ,ternir [ter-nixr] , percepteur [par-ssp-tocxr] , where allthe syllablesare Of this nature . Open syllables are the more usual in

French , the tendency being to end a syllable on a v owel, asforming the more audible sound . English , on the otherhand , has a preference forclosed syllables.

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PART I : THE VOWEL S

CHAPTE R I

THE FUNDAMENTAL VOWELS

7 . Vowels and Consonants.

—It is v ery important tounderstand the essential difference between v owels and con

sonants. The student must not be led astray by the Old

definition , which represents v owels as sounds which can be

uttered alone , and consonants as those which can only be produced in combination with v owels. The incorrectness of thisdefinition is ev ident , for there is nothing to prev ent some

consonants (e.g. [S , f, f, v ,etc.) being uttered alone without

a v owel either before or af ter them . Unfortunately thismisleading definition is still widespread , and appears in the

word consonant , ’ i .e. sounding along with .

’

A v owel [a, e , 0 ,etc.] is the sound (proceeding from the

v ocalchords) modified bythe resonance chamberOf the mouth ,

there being at the same time a free passage for the breath.

On the other hand , a consonant [S , p , k , etc.] is a soundcaused byfriction or stoppage of the breath somewhere in the

mouth . That is to say,in the former case the v ibrating

breath is modified in the mouth , but not checked;in the

latter case the breath is checked in v arious ways before itleav es the opening Of the mouth .

While the difference between v owels and consonants isthus distinct , there are some sounds which really belong toboth categories. In [m , n ,

l,r] , for example , while there is

a free passage Of air, there is more orless a stoppage Of the

breath (in [m] by closing the lips in [n] by raising the pointOf the tongue;and so on) but as the stoppage is the predominating quality, they are classified with the consonants,making eighteen altogether. In the case of [w, j , q] , thereis both a v oweland a distinct friction of the breath caused

1 8

THE VOWELS 1 9

by a narrowing of the passage, and hence they are classifiedas semi-consonants

8. The Fundamental French Vowels.

-Reserv ing the

consonants till afterwards, we now proceed to consider thev owels, beginning with the fundamental ones. These

, as

already stated , are eight in numb er : [i, e , e, a, (1, O, O, u] .

We giv e a generaldescription of them in this chapter, followedby a detailed consideration Of each one in the immediatelyensuing chapters. In order to describe them clearly and

accurately, we print in each case a front View of the lips

and a side v iew of the mouth , along with French words inphonetic notation containing the sounds. The studentshould set himself to acquire correctly the distinctiv e pronunciation Of each Of these fundamental v owels. Eachone Should be dwelt on decisiv ely, to make sure that thetrue sound has been caught , and it must be repeated tillfamiliarity is acquired .

English green (long) , react (short)

Phonetic : [di, li, Si, Sim , mil, fis, midi, kritik, mirifik ,

I‘iiv , tixg, liIr, b izz , git, fi Ij , bllj , filip] .Same in ordinary spelling dit , lit, Si, cime , mille, fisse,

midi, critique , mirifique, riv e , tige, lire, bise, gite, fille,bille , Philippe .

Scotch orNorthern English a in tak e

Phonetic [de, fe, 3c, pre, kle, ete , prefere, repete, desede,eglixz ,

lise,felisite , efemine , grije , milj e] .

Ordinary : des, chez , j’

ai, pré, clef, été , préféré , répété,

décédé, église, lycée, félicité , éfi éminé, griller, millier.

2 0 MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

English dairy (long) , deaf (short)

Phonetic : [Set , fef, respe, eternal, mexr, bexf, text, teIr,

tel,bek ,

net , perpleks, fidel, tristes, ragle, pest] .Ordinary : cette ,

chef, respect , éternel, mer,beche

,tete

,

terre, tel, bec, net , perplexe , fidéle , tristesse , réglé , peste .

Path (long) , pat (short) , Scotch or Northern Englishsound of these words

Phonetic [5a] , bat , nap , madam , kanal, kamarad, malad,paxg, kaxv ,

ami, ale , imaxg, asje , laskaxr, aspe] .

Ordinary salle,batte , nappe , madame

,canal, camarade ,

malade, page , cav e , ami, allée , image , assied , lascar, aspect .

English fath er (long) no English case of short ,except in diphthongs

Phonetic [pd ,k (1 , 3am,

fcnz , gazz , bcnz , axpr, gate,degd , goto,

klima, amo , gddis, pulaj e , espdxs, moren] .

Ordinary : pas, cas, Jeanne , phase, gaz , O

base, fipre ,

gater, dégfit, gateau,climat , amas, jadis, poulaIller, CSpace,

marraine .

THE VOWELS 2 1

English shawl (long) , black (short)

Phonetic : [od, rob ,rof, form , loxg, fOIr, moxr, oktobr,

etof, epok , porte , modest, poexm , ov al, kuron, omon] .Ordinary: ode , robe , roche , forme

,loge, fort , mort ,

octobre , étofi e, époque , porté , modeste, poéme, oval,couronne

,aumOne .

Scotch or Northern English 0 in hom e (long) ,p oe tic (short)

Phonetic : [do, mo, to,foljo, fOIz , roxz , doxm ,

troxn, eko,z ero

,niv o, Sito, kuto,

treno,bestjo, fapo,

alto] .Ordinary dos, mot , tOt , folio, chose, rose , dOme

,trOne,

écho, z éro, niv eau,sitOt , couteau,

traineau, bestiaux,

chapeau, alto.

English rule (long) , good (Short)

Phonetic : [ru,mu, su,

rut, tut , pul, rukul, kurt, mus,

buk ,sup ,

rung, kuxr, duxz , rutin, dute, tupe, rulad.]Ordinary roue , mou, sou,

route , toute , poule , roucoule ,courte , mousse , bouc, soupe, rouge , cour, douz e, routine ,douter, toupet , roulade .

9 . Note that these v owels hav e b een arranged according tothe position of the tongue , mouth, and lips.

z z MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

(I ) The Tongue .-For [i] it willbe noticed that the tongue

is raised v ery high In front. It Is lower for [e] , lower still for[e] , and lowest of all for [a] and [a] , where it approaches theflat

.position as much as possible . It now begins to rise

again for the remaining v owels (this time at the back) , beinghigher for higher still for [O] , and highest of all for [u] .In pronouncing the eight v owels in the ordermentioned , onecan easily v erify these tongue-mov ements, especially withthe help of the fingerora pencil.The v owels [i , e , e] are consequently calledfront v owels,

and [a, O , u] back v o .wels

(2 ) The Mouth .

—For [i] , it will be Observ ed, the mouth issomewhat close . It opens more for [e] , more still for [e] ,andmost of allfor [a] and It then begins to close again ,

a little for more still for [O] , andmost for [u] . The open

ing or closing depends on the mov ement Of the lower jaw,

and may easily be noticed with a mirror.

Hence we distinguish two classes Of v owels, close and open.

It is ev ident that in generalthose at the top and bottom Of the

series are close , while those about the middle are open , but

looked at from anotherpoint of v iew ,the v owelsmaybe arranged

in pairs. Thus [e] is close e, while [8] is open e;[O] is close 0,

while [a] is open 0;[a] is close a, and [O] (which has the

mouth widest Of all) is open a. The v owels i and u are onlyfound close in French , as a rule , but the open sounds of theseoccurfrequently in English (e .g. i in bit, hinge u in pull,full) .This distinction between close and open is an essential

one in F rench, andshould be clearly understood . To giv e , for

example, a close e foran open one (in such words as pere, téte,etc. ) 15 common with beginners, especially in districts whereclose v owels predominate , but is incorrect .(3) The L ips.

—The shape Of the lips In the series is v eryimportant . For the front v owels, it will be noticed, the lipsare somewhat fiat, their ends b eing drawn back , while forthe back v owels the lips are d istinctly rounded and pushedout—a little for [O] , more still for [O] , and most for [u] .For the front v owels In this series there must on no accountbe any rounding and proj ection of the lips, as this wouldproduce v owels of a different kind, namely compound ones

but In the case Of the back v owels this particularqualityis absolutely necessary. As it is less frequently found inEnglish , the student Should practise it well. Special oppor

THE VOWELS 2 3

tunities willbe giv en for this later on, when we come to treatindiv idually of the back v owels.

10. For the reasons just enumerated , the French v owelsmay be disposed in the form Of a triangle, which shows moreclearly the relativ e positions of the tongue

Vowels

The curv ed line represents the roof of the mouth . The centreat the bottom (at [d] ) represents a neutralposition , where thetongue is lowest and the mouth widest . Beginning from [a]andgoingup to the left indicates agradualrising Of the tonguemore and more towards the front (the hard palate) , with a

corresponding closing of the mouth , while going up to the

right means a gradual rising of the tongue more and more

towards the back (the soft palate) , with a correspondingclosing Of the mouth by rounding and proj ecting the lips.

This last characteristic is indicated by curv ed brackets11 . Tenseness.

—The nature Of all v owels is considerablyaffected by the condition Of the tongue muscles. If thesemuscles are braced up and held firmly in position ,

the v owelis said to be tense . If they are loose and relaxed

,the v owel

is called slack .

1 A tense v owelhas a clear, firm sound , anda slack one a dull, weak sound . It is possible to pronounceall v owels either way.

2 In French , howev er, practically allthe v owels are tense , in the sense that they are pronouncedclearly and with a. distinct muscular tension . This is par

1 The terms narrowandwide are used bysome phoneticians instead.

3 In accurate phonetic script the grave accent is used to denote

slackness. Thus [e] is slack [e ] .


ticularly so with the close v owels, the closeness being partlydue to the tension . In this respect the French v owels differfrom many of the English v owels, especially the short ones,which are produced generally with the tongue relaxed . In

French there are exceptions, and these willbe referred to lateron , but the student Should understand that the fundamentalv owels in the preceding series are allpronounced tense ,the close ones especially so, the open ones not so much .

1 2 . Uniformity.—Many v owels in English , especially long

ones (6.g. in such words as case, note, day, etc. ) are pronouncedas if they were diphthongs—i .e. they become in reality a

combinatIon of two sounds in one syllable . This is not so

common , e.g. , in Scotland , where the v ocal organs are heldmore tensely and do not glide during the emission of a v owel,but in England andAmerica the diphthongal tendency is v eryrev alent . It cannot , howev er, be too strongly enforced that

In French all v owels, whether long or short,are uniform

thrjoughout their utterance . There are no diphthongs in

French ,except in rapid conv ersation, and ev en then in quite

exceptional cases. If two v owels are in contact , they are

pronounced as two distinct syllables, e .g. poéte [poet] , bahut[bay] , plier [plie] , or else one Of them becomes a semi-con

sonant , e .g. souhait [swe] , rien [rje] . F rench v owels are

practically all simple , uniform sounds, the organs of

speech be ing k ept quite still in the irorig inalpositionduring the production of them . They must be pronouncedexactly the same from beginning to end, without beingallowedto glide into another sound . Unless the beginner is exceedingly careful, he will find himself at fault here . He willprobably produce diphthongs a l

’

anglaise without beingaware of it . It is common , for instance , to hear a beginnerpronouncing me

‘

re as [mexa] or [mear] , instead of [mexr] withan unchanging v owelsound .

13. Clearness.—The French language is distinguished from

most others by the clearness or crispness of its v owels, whichstand well out from their surroundings. Only one v owel,the mute e, is v ague and tends to disappear. All the others,ev en though uttered lightly and briefly, must be giv en withdefiniteness and distinctness, more so than in English . The

adv ice , “Look after the consonants;the v owels will lookafter themselv es,

”is ruinous in French, where ev ery v owel.

CHAPTE R I I

CLOSE I [i]

15. We now take each v owel separately and in detail,beginning with [i] , at the top left corner Of the triangle I O) ,and ending with [u] . The French [i] (represented in ordinarySpelling by i ,

‘

z‘

, i , y) is close 9 be ing identical withthe English i in marine, police, clique, fatigue ea in eel, deep ,seen ea in bead, leak, leave. It maybe long, as in the Englishwords just quoted , or short , like e in below, delay, return.

Open i, on the other hand ,is not the Short Of the close one ,

as some beginners imagine : it is quite a different sound,found in such English words as ill, dip, sin, bid, lick , live.

It is formed with the mouth more open , and the tongue a

little lower in front . The two sounds hav e little in common

except the orthographic symbol.For the French [i] , the tongue (see diagram , 8) is pressed

strongly against the lower incisiv e teeth, while the front partbunchesup andpressesagainst the uppermolarsandthe frontpart of the hard palate ,

leav inga v ery narrow passage at the topfor the air current . On this account it is known in phoneticlanguage as a high-front v owel.

’

The mouth is not muchopen , being flat , and the com ers Of the lips being drawn back .

The muscles are held more orless tense I I ) .The chief fault of the beginner lies in substituting the

Open sound for the close one . The former rarely if ev er

occurs in French , and besides being strange to a Frenchman,is

often mistaken by him for the close [e] or the compoundv owel [y] . Another fault is to forget the tenseness and pronounce the sound lax as it is in English .

16. W hen [i] is in the last syllable of a stress group,i .e. when it receiv es the Tonic or Rhythmic Accent , 1 it is

1 In French ,unlike English ,

allsyllables are pronounced with almost

equal emphasis, so much 5 0 that the language might b e called

m onotonous,

”but at the same time a very slight stress falls upon

THE VOWELS 2 7

always long if followed by [v , z , 3, j ] , or final [r] . In thisrespect it follows the sev en-v owel rule [i , e, a,

O, u, y,

oe]1 05 (4 Thus, genci ve [365ixv ] , grise [grixz ] , vertigo [v er

tiI3] , bille [bi ] , dire [dixr] . Many people pronounce it longalso in those words in -i s (mostly classical) Where the s issounded , asDaphnis [dafniIS] , gratis [gratils] . In allothercasesit is short , ev en though circumflexed , as lit, ami , brique, myrte,asile, gite, Nimes, f imes, f ites. An exception is abime [ab i Im] .W hen unstressed, it is generally short and pronounced

with less muscular tension , frequently becoming half-OO .pen

Examples . ici, f ini , pigeon, midi , Rivoli , mi partie, it y va,

diligence, etc.

EXERCISES

Je dis,tu dis

,il dit

,nous 33 di , ty di

,il di

,nu v u

disons,vous dites

,ils dit

,il di zz

disent

Cire,m ise

,corrige , livre

,si zr

,m i zz

,kori z3,

anguille

Baucis,Paris

,Davis

,Osiris

,

b is,lis

,iris

,oasis

,m étis

Digne , guide , m iche , lisse ,libre

Nai f,haIr

,Jama ue

,Moise

,

S inai

D ime, dine , ile , épitre

Cycle , myrte , crypte , lyre ,analyse , lycée , synonyme

,

thyrse , scythe

Illit le livre parm i les myrtes .

La fille de Cyrille a S ix prix .

Il v it l’

éclipse d’

Ici en avril.Le guide dit que le tigre est assis .

Voici les archi ves de la ville .

bosi zs, pari zs, dav i zs, Oz iri zs

,b ixs

,

I I I IS,oazus

, meti zs

dip , gid, mi] , lis, libr

naif,aixr

, 3amaik , m oi zz,S inai

dim,din

,il,epitr

sikl,

1ise,sinonim

,tirs

,sit

illi la lixv r parmi le Inirt

la fi :'

da sirila S i pri .

il v i leklips disi (In avril.

lagid di kala tigr et asi .

vwasi lez arji IV da la v il.

the last syllable Of a word,or group Of words, containing a single

idea. Thi s stress is termed the Tonic or Rhythmic Accent (accentd

’

intensité) , and the word or group Of words is known as a stress

group . Allsyllables except the last one are said to b e unstressed.

CHAPTE R I I I

CLOSE E [e]

17 . The v owel e in ordinary spelling frequently representsthe so-called e mute , which is Often not sounded , as pensera[pdsara] or [pdsra] . Apart , howev er, from this indeterm inateform , the v owel e comprises at least two distinct classes

close , as in été, and open,as in pére.

18. Close [e ] (represented in current Spelling bye’

, e, ai , cc)is similar in pronunciation to the Northern English or Scotcha in such words as case

,ache, bathe, take, etc but pronounced

short . In the south of England and other parts Of the

English -speaking world these words, besides beIng soundedopen , are turned into a diphthong which is foreignto French , but the northern sound is close , monophthongal,and practically identical with the French one .

19 . Referring to the diagram in 8,it will be seen that the

tongue is a trifle lower than for [i] , but its tip still pressesagainst the lower incisiv e teeth and its front part against theuppermolars. The mouth is a little more open, and the lips

are not stretched so flatly . The muscles Of the tongue and

mouth are held tense,and it is here specially that English

students are at fault . Not being accustomed to a tense [e] ,they allow the sound either to glide into a diphthong or to

approach loosely to the open e (the sound in English dairy) .The correct pronunciation Of close [e] demands an effort Ofthe v ocalmuscles if this fault is to be av oided .

2 0. In correct French , close [e] occurs only in open

syllables, and is nearly always pronounced short . It is onlywhen Special emphasis is laid upon the syllable containing itthat it may b ecome long, as in de

’

jd / [de I3a] , gaieté [gexte] ,guéri [gexri] .

2 1 . It is generally found as follows in the ordinary spelling2 8

THE VOWELS 2 9

(I ) AS e v

i

'ith the acute accent : Thus, blé [ble] , dé [de ,] bébébebe .

(2 )As e followed by a finalmute consonant other than t :

Thus,cle/ [kle] , assez [ase] , porter [porte] , pied [pje] ,

vous parlez [v u parle] , 7'

e m’

assieds [39 masje] . Also in the

conjunction ci .

In ordinary familiar Speech , the monosyllables les,

des, mes,tes, ces, ses conform to this rule , being pro

nounced close;but in elev ated or emphatic speech theOpen sound [8] predominates, and generally becomes

long [ex] on the stage .

(3) As ai in certain v erbal terminations (futures and the pastdefinites of first conjugation) : Thus, 7

"aurai [3ore] ,

f’

allai [3ale] , 7'

e parlai [parle] , je niendrai [i dre] , j’

ai

[3e] . Also (in Paris, at least) , in gai , gaie, geai , je sais,

tu sais,il sait and frequently in quai , pays, abbaye

[pei, abej I] , je fais, tu fais, ilfait, 7'

e vais .

1

(4) AS Greek oe Thus, oecuménigue [ekymenik] ,[edexm] , oesophage [ez ofax3] .

(5) As finalin -oi,as Crusoe

'

[kryz oe] , F éroe [feroe] .

(edéme

1 The tendency, however, in allthese cases nowadays, except in j ’ai ,is to open the vowel.

EXERCISES

te,fe

,eme

,ane

,iyme

,same

, pre ,done

, jdte , b 5te , repetebonté , répétéDuprez , chez

,ne z

,vous ne

,v uz av e

,re

ave z,re z

B erger, derni er, clocher, ber3e , dernje , kloj

’

e,

v olOtje ,volontiers,rosier, parler,

Roger, Alger, TangerAssieds-toi

,tu t

’assieds

,il

s’

assied

Je portai , je porterai , jejouai

, je prendrai , je men

t irai, je serai

,

roz je , parle , rO3e , al3e , tc‘

i3e

asje -twa, ty tasje , ilsasje

3a p orte , 3a p ortre , 3a 3we , 3a

pradre , 3amdtire , 3a sare

3adone le kle O.bebe .

ila same 19 ble dd lapre .

CH AP TE R I v

OPEN E [e]

2 2 . This is a v owel-sound heard both in the south of Britainand in America. It is found long in such words as there, pair,bear, fairy, dairy, and Short in deaf , dead,

said,tread,

etc.

A lt

is the v owelof the sheep’

s bleat . Forcorrect articulation themouth requires to be more open than for close [e] . In otherwords, it is necessary to drop the lower jaw a little . The tipOf the tongue no longer presses against the lower incisiv eteeth , but against theIr base ,

while the front part does not

rise so high towards the palate . The tenseness is not so

great , the tongue muscles being fairly relaxed , and no special

effort being needed .

23. In the enunciation of the long Open e most Englishspeaking students are at fault . They generally pronounceit as a diphthong, allowing the sound to modify itselfduring its emission , SO that in place Of [text] (te

‘

te) one hearssomething like [teit] , or [tait] . For the correction of thisfault it is only necessary to watch that the tongue remainsexactly in the same position during the duration of the sound

In some parts again , such as Scotland ,there is really

no long open e, and the Vowel is turned into the Close one ,SO

that mere [mexr] , pere [pexr] become [mer] , [per] . This faultcan be largely remedied by exercising less tension in the

tongue muscles.

2 4. Open e is represented in the ordinary French Spellingby a great variety of symbols : e, é, é, ci , ai , ai , aie, ay,

aye,ey. In regard to length ,

it follows the sev en-v owel rule1 05

— that is, when it is in the last syllable of a stressgroup ,

it is always long if followed by [v ,z, 3, j ] or final [I ] . 1

In addition ,it is generally long

1 When it is followed by r, students should guard against the mi stakeof pronouncing it like e in the English word certain . I t should rather

30

THE VOWELS 31

(1 ) In the termination -és (mostly foreign words), where the s

is sounded, as Pericles [periklexs] Ramsés [ramsexs] , flore‘

s

[florets] , pategais [patakels] .(2 ) In closed circumflexed syllables, as riv e [raw] , file [felt] ,

enchaine [dfexn] .(3) In the terminations -aisse

,-e

'

me,-éne

, and sometimes in -eine,

-aine. Thus, baisse [bets] , crime [krexm] , scéne [Sam] , reine[rein] , gaine [gem].

W hen unstressed , it is usually Short , whethercircumflexedor not , as rester [reste] , faitage [fetax3] , aigreur [egroexr] , fraicheur [frefoexr] , lo meme homme [lo mem om] . When Short , itis hardly SO open as when long, unless followed by two

(sounded) consonants. But these rules must be regarded as

merely general, as open e has many v ariations,forwhich the

student is referred to the chapter on Duration .

2 5. As just stated , many symbols are used in ordinary Spelling to represent the open e. The following always denote it

(I ) The letters e e e (except as in 2 1 and the groups

e i, ai, as régle [regl] , exce

‘

s [ekse] , progre'

s rogre] , chine[fem] , Noe

'

l [noel] , neige [nex3] , maitre [melt(2 ) The letter e

In closed syllables, as tel[tel] , bref [bref] , bee ec] .Before a double consonant ,’asgemmer[38me terreur

[teroexr] .In the term inations -et and -ect, as projet [pr

aspect [aspe] , direct [direkt] . Also in il est

in es

(3) Close e falling in a closed syllable , as parlé-je [parlex3] ,dussé-y

’

e [dysexj] , aimai-ie [emex3] , dirai-je [direx3] , ai-je

[8x3] , que sais-je [ka The change from the close to

the Open is due to the fact that the French hav e a disinclination to the close sound in a Shut syllable . It isfor the same reason that t in v erbs becomes e

' when the

syllable closes as espérer but j’

espére.

(4) The group an except In the few cases where it isclose (see preceding chapter) , as vrai [v re] , paix [pe] ,laide [led] , ie chantais [39 [Cite] .

b e like the sound of e in herring. Thus fermer is [ferme] , not [fosrme ] .Practice in thi s matter Should b e made with such words as exercer

,

exerci ce,mercredi

,conversation

, permis, persuader, universel, etc .


(5) The groups ay, ey. B efore a consonant or in a finalsyllable they are pronounced [e] , as RaymondL eyde [led] , F ontenay bey [be] . B efore an audiblev owel they become [ej] ,

1 as rayon [rejO] , frayeur [frejoexr] ,seyant [Sejd] . B efore e mute theyare sounded [exj], 2 as lapaye [lapexj] , ilraye [ilrexj ] , ilsgrasseyent[ilgrast ] . But in

La Haye and a few other proper names they are sounded[e] as [la etc.

(6) The group aie , as baie [be] , futaie [tyte] , ils voudraient

[il v udre] . When,howev er, aie represents -aye (from

v erbs in -ayer) , there is a tendency to pronounce it

[ej] (or [exj] when final) in accordance w ith precedingrule , as it paie [il pexj] , ils essaient [ilz esexj] , bégaiement[begejmd] . S imilarly,

in the v erbalform etc, stilloccasion

ally seen from -eyer v erbs) , the sound [exj] is common,

as j’

asseie[3asexj] , ils asseient [ilz asexj] .2 6. When open e is final, many French speakers prefer to

sound it close, as mais [me] , jornais [3ame] , succes [sykse] ,

sujet [sy3e] , etc. In the finals Of conditionals, howev er, open e

ismaintained , to av oid confusion with futures in -ai .

1 Except in bayadere, mayonnaise, fayard, bayer aux corneilles, andsome proper names such as B ayard, B ayeux,

B ayonne, Cayenne, ete .

L

and their derivatives,where

3 Except in cipaye [sipazj] , cobaye B iscaye [b iskazj] , and

one or two otherproper names .

CHAPTE R V

U N S T RE S S E D E

2 7 . Normally, the v owel e, when unstressed , maintains itsclose or open sound as the case may be , although the close

sound is pronounced with rather less tension . This isSpecially the case in many isolated and independentwords.

Thus, it is close in égal, géant, flétrir, désir, étaler, de’

fense, etc.

and open in personne, merci , seigneur, domestique, Neptune,etc. The same is true of deriv ed words, which follow the stemin cases where they are not sub j ect to anymodifying influence .

Thus, the v owel is close in guéable (from gué) , gaieté or gaité

(from gai) , féerique (from fe’

e);and open in fraicheur (fromfrais) , aigreur (from aigre) , faitage (from

2 8. But v ery Often close e oropen e in unstressed syllables isreplaced by a sound intermediate b etween the two . For

instance , in révéler, only the finale is really Close , and in p i eton,

messieurs, etc. , the e is not quite close either. S imilarly , manyv owels that one might expect to be Open become half-close .

There is a distinct difference , for example , between the v owel[e] in the infinitiv e aimer and that in j

’

aime . Not only is theformer shorter, but also less Open than the latter. The same

may be said of trailer and traitent. The sound referred to isknown as middle e . It is less tense than the close [e] , b eingpronounced with mouth a little more open and the front Oftongue a little lower, but not so much as to produce [e] . The

sound may b e placed on the triangle 1 0 ) midway between[e] and although in some cases it seems to approach nearerto [e] and in others to b eing sometimes confused with one

or the other. In England it resembles the v owel in the

words men, net, ferry (first syllable) , though American speechmakes it open in such cases. In French it occurs onlyin unstressed syllables, where it is v ery frequent . The

phonetic symbol for it is [e] but after all, the difference insound is so slight that the ordinary symbol [e] maygenerally

34

THE VOWELS 35

be used instead, and the difference ignored, especially bybeginners.

2 9 . One of the principalcausesleading to middle e is v ocalicassimilation. The v owels contained in two consecutiv esyllables hav e a tendency to assimilate in timbre , the firsttaking almost the same timbre as the second . Thus in traitentthe v owelis open according to the general rule , but in traiter

it assimilates itself somewhat to the second v owel which isClose , thus becoming only half-open . The following tablecontains examples Of this tendency . It willb e Observ ed thatthe change is mostly from the open sound towards the close

one ,though cases of the opposite are not infrequent .

L ess open

Gréle

L ess close Close Close

30. Apart from v ocalicassimilation , the v owelé in ordinaryspelling when unstressed v ery frequently represents a

middle e, or a sound so open that'

it may not incorrectlybe written as [e] .

1 This is SO in the following and in othercases :

(1 ) Before r followed by another v owel, as féroce [feros] ,extérieur [ek sterjoexr] , preference [preferdxs] , espérance[esperdxs] , mystérieux [misterja] , sérieux [SerjO] , véreux

[v erp] . In many cases, howev er, there is hesitation .

1 Grammarians generally represent é (wi th an acute accent) as alwaysclose

,whether stressed or not , but as a fact it is only close for certain

when final,


Before a consonant followed by a silent e mute , as

médecin [metsé] , bequeter [bek te] , événementvénerie [v enri] , céleri [selri] , émeri [emri] . Properlyspeaking,

such words Should hav e the grav e accent owingto the syllable being practically closed (see 2 5but the grav e accent is rarely written in the middle Of

aword .

1

There are howev er exceptions, as élev erémeraude [emroxd] , échelon

represents e in the root word or stem . Thus,we hav e régler [regle] from re

'

gle, régner [rap e] from régne,sécher [sefe] from séche. Similarly , we hav e métrer,céder, écrémer, inquiéter, léguer, etc. , pronounced withfairly Open e.

When initial, howev er, t . is Often less Open than whenin the interiorOf aword .

31 . In many cases the unstressed e is variable , some

speakers pronouncing it Open, others intermediate , and othersclose in the same word . Thus

(I ) The symbolai is generally open ,as ma ez

’

5] , raison[rez5] , combinaison raisin But in a

few words of this category the middle or close e is also

common .

(2 ) The same is the case with the comb ination es, which v ariesbetween the Open sound and the close one , as esprit[espri] , [espri] , or [espri] . Thus also with such words asestimer, essentiel, essayer, respect, rester, restreindre, res

pif er, resplendir, ressusciter, desserv ir, dessécher, dessiner,descendre,

"pressentir, messeoir, message, domestique,

forestier, Robespierre, etc.

2

(3) The prefix ex before a v owel or h mute , ’ and the prefixef before i are Often pronounced with the sound intermediate orclose, asexercice [egzersis] , examiner [egz am ine] ,

1 In the Dictionnaire de l’Académie avénementwas altered to

avenement, but many other words, such as événement, were left nu

altered .

3 It should b e remembered that there are numerous cases Of es wherethe vowel represents e mute , as in dessous, dessus, ressembler, ressort,etc . These are the prefixes de and re before 5 , which is doubled topreserve the 3 sound 7 1

THE VOWELS 37

efiet [efe] , efiort [efoxr] , inexact [inegzakt] , inexigible

[inegz 13ibl] , ineflicace [inefikas] .

32 . It will be seen from this chapterand the two precedingones that the v owel e v aries greatly between the v ery open

sound and the v ery close one . In particular, unstressed e

has numerous indiv idual div ergencies and many delicateshades. But the beginner need not trouble too much ov er

these . He cannot go far wrong though he disregards v ocalic

assimilation, v ariability, and similar matters, and includesunder [8] all cases referred to in this chapter. He will notcommit a grav e fault if he opens the v owela little more or a

little less.

33. Unstressed e frequently becomes mute in rapid, carelesspronunciation . This Is particularly the case in monosyllables

,

such as les, des, cet, cette, est, etc and ev en in such a word asdéya. In popular print one finds such forms as l

’

s hommes

[lz om] , d’

s autres [dz oxtr] , cet enfant [stdfa] , cette histoire

[stistwaxr] , c e’

s -t d dire [stadixr], il est déyd venu [il 8 d3a vny] ,etc. Needless to say, this is a freedom Of language thatshould be av oided .

On the other hand there are sev eral words in which an

apparent e mute is sounded half—open e bufi‘leterie [byfletri] ,

marqueterie [mark etri] , parqueterie [park etri] , mousguelerie

[musk etri] . Properly speaking, these words Should hav edouble t. Similarly, we hav e senecon chevecier [fev sje] ,Genevois [38nvwa] , etc.

CHAPTER VI

CLOSE A [a]

34. There are two a sounds,close and open, as there are

two kinds of the other v owels. Close a [a] , is the S cottish orNorthern E nglish pronunciation of the v owel in such wordsas act, bat, pat, mat, where it is short , and bath,

past, mast,where it is long. In America the Short sound is not usual,

[m] being substituted for it as in the South Of England , but

the long sound is heard in such words as those just mentioned(bath, past, The open a [0 ] is quite a different sound ,much broader, found in the English words fathe r, psalm,

calm, etc. The difference between the two sounds is muchless apparent to the ear than between the two e

’

s, with the

result that many people confuse the two .

35. For [a] the mouth is not so open ,nor the tongue quite

so low down as for [a] , which is the widest of all v owels andhas the tongue lying as low as possible . In the case of [a]the lips are rather flat , with theircorners slightly drawn back ,

while for[O] the lips become ratherrounded ,with theircorners

drawn in . For [a] again,the tongue muscles are held rather

tense , with the point of the tongue slightly adv anced and

sensibly pressed against the lower incisiv e teeth ,while for [0 ]

there is only sufficient tenseness to maintain the sound .

36. It requires to be emphasiz ed that the close [a] referred to is that found in S cotland or Northern E ngland . The tendency of all Southern English and American

English is to substitute [ae] for the short sound . The [ae] isintermediate between [a] and [a] , and does not occur in

French , unless as a nasal The English speaker, forexamme , pronounces the words pat, rat, as [paet] , [raet] . Thissubstitution of [ac] is a fault to be av oided in French . The

close [a] is so frequent in French that any negligence in thismatter is ruinous to the pronunciation.

as

THE VOWELS 39

37 . Close [a] is represented orthographically by manysigns : a,

d, d, e, oi , oi , oie, oy, oue, etc. In regard to length ,

it follows the sev en-v owelrule , i .e . when stressed it is longbefore [v , z , 3, j ] , or final [I ] . The circumflexed oi , whenstressed , is also long, if in a closed syllable , as boite [bwaIt] .

1

When unstressed, close [a] is always short, and somewhat

ess tense .

38. In the ordinary Spelling, close [a] occurs in a v ariety Of

syllables and terminations. These may be reduced to the

following cases

(I ) The letter aAt the end of aword , as papa [papa], il tomba [t5ba] ,

ilfera [fora] . Exceptions are fa, la (musicalnotes),and béta [beta] .

Followed by a mute consonant or consonants, aschat [fa] , estomac [estoma] , drap [dra] , je combats

[kOba] . There are one or two exceptions, howev er,such as climat [klimd] , chocolat [[ok olol] (Spanishword) , gars [go] and in the term ination -as the

v owel is only close as a rule in bras [bra] and inv erbalendings, as tu auras [ora] , tu parlas [parla] .

In all closed term inations, except a few special

ones which are referred to under open a (seenext chapter) . Thus

,nappe

, sac, chaque, bague,chasse, mal, travail, etc.

And generally in all non-final syllables, except in-ation and a few other cases (see next chapter) .Thus, Canada, animal, madame

,papier, casserole, etc.

(2 ) The letter a, as lei , deal;and the letter a in v erbal

endings, as nous donndmes, vous donndtes, il donndt

[donam , donat , dona] .(3) The letter e in a few isolated words, and In the ad

v erbial term ination -emm ent , as femme [fam] , solennel[solanel] , nenni [nani] , prudemment [prydamd] . In manyof these words

,howev er, such as nenni , hennir, indemnité,

and solennité,the [a] sound is giv ing way to under

the influence of orthography . Compare (7) b elow. The

termination -emment, howev er, remains unchanged , on

account of its constant relationship with -ant,-ent.

(4) The groups oi , oi (except after r, and In a few isolatedwordsmentioned In next chapter) . In the sev enteenth


century 'they were pronounced [we] , and are still so

pronounced in many prov inces. In normal French,howev er, they now take the sound of [wa] , as moi [mwa] ,oiseau [waz o] , goitre [gwaItr] . We hav e also close a

,

though coming afterr, in miroir [mirwaIr] , tiroir [tirwaIr] ,terroir [terwaxr] , Bavarois [bav arwa] , and Hongrois

[sgrwai(5) The group oy, except after r. AS a rule , it only occurs

medially, before an audible v owel, being pronounced

[waj] : loyal[lwajal] , voyant jd] , nous noyonsIn the few final cases, it is as in Darboy,

F ontenoy,Troyes.

(6) The group Oie when v erbal, except after I . It issometimes sounded aj] (not as je noie [nWalj] ,que je voie [vwa , je ploierai [plwajre] , ploiement[plwajmd] . But thIs is generally regarded as a pro

v incialism 1

(7) The groups oue,oe . In sev eral words with these

groups, the normal pronunciation used to be [wa] , andthis is still retained in some

,as couenne [kwan] , rouen

nerie [rwanri] , moelle [mwal] , moelleux [mwaln] , moellonBut in others, under the influence of ortho

graphy , the pronunciation [we] is gaining ground fromyear to year. Thus, we hav e jouet [3we] , rarelyfouet [fwe] , rarely [fwa] , couette [kwet] , rarelyIn others again ,

the [we]sound alone is used, as girouette

[3irwet] , chouette Uwet mouette [mwet] , rouet [rwe] .In brouette the ou is a fullv owel[bruet] .2The same [wa] sound is occasionally heard in souhait

souhaiter, but the normalpronunciation is [swe] ,The group oé is pronounced [we] , as goélette welet

goémon [gwemS] , goéland [gweld] .

1 S ee footnote to 4 1 Footnote to 7 2 .

CH APTE R VI I

OPEN A [a]

39. Open a,as already stated , is essentially the same sound

as in the English words father, rather, psalm, calm,where it

is long. The short form is not found as a rule in SouthernEnglish except in diphthongs, as my [moi] , tie [td i] , etc. , but

it occurs frequently in Scotch and American English , as wellas in French . It is the widest of v owelsounds, requiring thegreatest opening of the mouth andalso the deepest , requiringthe lowest position of the tongue , which lies flat in the floorof the mouth and wholly cov ers it . The difference betweenClose and open a is seen in such French words as matin and

matin , chasse and chdsse, ma and mdt, patte and pdte, etc.

The beginner Should beware of pronouncing open a likeaw

, as in paw,which is really an Open 0 . In some parts of

the English-speaking world we hear such words as father,can

’

t, pronounced fawther, cawnt. This fault has a muchWorse effect in French than in English .

40. Open a is represented orthographically by a,d,oi

,oi , oé

[wa] . It conforms to the rule of the naturally long v owels 1

[a, o, a] , b eing short only when final, that is, when in the

last syllable of a word , without a consonantal sound after it,as dégat [dego] , mat [mo] . W hen non-final

,it is usually

long when stressed and half-long when unstressed, aspdte [pO It] , pate

'

41 . It occurs generally in the following cases in ordinaryspelling :

(I ) The letter a when circumflexed except in v erbal

endings. Thus, pale [pdxl] , apre pr] ,1 See page 90 ,

1 041 F or all pract ical p

urp oses, half-length may b e disregarded and

included under short .

42

THE VOWELS 43

Many of the unstressed cases represent an old -as nowcontracted to d, as tdcher, fdcher, rdler, bdter, bdtir, bldmer,pdmer, chdteau

, pa‘

guerette, etc. In bdbord,howev er, the

a is close , the circumflex being due to a false etymology.

(2 ) In the term ination -as,whether the s be silent or not,

as cas [ko] , tas [to] , matelas [matld] , atlas [atldxs] , hélas[elCllS] , Kansas [kdsaxs] . In bras and v erbal endings,howev er, the sound is close [a] .1

(3) In many cases in the term ination -asse , as classe [kldxs] ,échasse [efcus] , tasse [tats] , grasse [grcus] .

2 In Paris at least ,such pronunciation is pretty general, though it appearsuncouth to some French people who do not trouble to

open the mouth so much, and prefer [a] . There are ,

howev er, num erous instances, ev en in Paris, where -asse

has the v owelclose, as crasse (dirt) , chasse, masse, cuirasse,bécasse, crevasse, carcasse

,paillasse

,brasse, etc. I t is

close also in all those words where the suflix -asse takesa pej orativ e

’

or unfav ourable meaning,as savantasse,

bestiasse, fillasse, etc. Cultiv ated French speakers, indeed ,

are by no means in accord as to the sound of the v owela followed bys.

(4) In the group -aille, pronounced [cuj] . as bataille [batdxj] ,

Versailles [v erscuj] , taille [tdxj] , cisailles [SiSd ] . On the

otherhand,when thisgroup occursmedially ,

it is frequentlyclose

, as in ailleurs, bataillon ,maillot, assaillir, faillir,

gaillard, caillou, etc. It is also close in médaille, que f aille,que je vaille

, qu’

ilfaille. Note that the term ination -ail

is always close [a ] , as travail [trav axj] , detail [detaxj] ,as also are deriv ativ es from it

,as travailler [travaje] , dé

tailler [detaje] . An exception is rail [rdxj] .

(5) In the group roi, roi , pronounced [rwo] , as endroit [ddrwo],octroi [oktrwo] , croitre [krwaxtr] , froisser [frwase] .

1 There seems a tendency for it to become Close in many otherwordsIn -as

, Where s is silent , part icularly in the endings-las

,-nas,

-ras,-tas.

F or instance,even in Paris

, one often hears it close in matelas, chasselas,cerv elas

,v erglas, ananas, cadenas, embarras,

tafietas, galetas, etc .

1 Many of Such cases are derivatives from words in -as, where the

vowel is op en , as grasse from gras, basse from bas,lasse from las

,e tc .

The Open sound is also carried into the verbs, and hence we have it insuch words as amasser

, ramasser, passer, tre’

passer, sasser, ressasser,

tasser, entasser, compasser, damasser, prélasser, etc . S ee 43(I ) .


In a few isolated words, too, the symboloi , though not

preceded byr, isgiv en the open sound [wa] bysome speakers.

This is so in lo bois, hautbois, la boite, foi , mois, noix, pois,empois, poix, poids, contrepoids, toit, voix. In some of

these cases the Open sound serv es to distinguish homonyms.

but je bois [bwa] la boite [bwaxt] , butfoi but fois [fwa];mois [mwa] ,toit but toi [twa] voix [vwo], but

In the group roy, pronounced [two]‘when finaland

in other cases, as Geofiroy [3ofrw0 ] , Gode/roy [godf

royal[rwajal] , croyons [krwajo] .

In the group roie [rwo] , and in the term ination -oie

in nouns. Thus, proie [prwo] , soie [swa] , joie [3wc1] . Whenroie is v erbal(the oi representing oy), it is sometimes sounded

[fudrwanj] , ils croient [krwaxj] , broiement

(8) Before a final 2 sound (i.e .

-ase,-az ,

-az e) ,2 and in the

term inations -az on ,-ason . Thus, case [kG lZ] , gaz [gaxz ] ,

blason [bld zb] . An exception isdiapaso

(9) In the term inations -ation ,-assion ,

as nation [nd O] ,observation passion [pdsjfi] . In many suchcases, howev er, there isa tendency to close the v owel.

Frequently also in the following term inations, v iz .

-abre, -adre, -afre, -avre,—able (not the aflix), -racle. Thus,

sabre [saxbr] , ladre [ldxdr] , Ka/re [kdxfr] , Havre [OIv r] , sable[SO Ibl] , miracle [miraxkl]

In a few cases before final r, as rare [rdxr] , barre [ban] ,bar [baxr] , gare [gozr] . In most cases, howev er, the v owelis close.

1 This pronunciation [wo zj] or [wazj] 38 in the verbalterminations -oie,

-oient is regarded as a provincialism . The simple [we ] or[wa] is the correct pronunciation , but the [j ] is usually pronounced inthe case of -ayer and

-eyer verbs 2 5 esp ecially in cases wherethe y is retained j e paye, j e payerai , In verse the mute e

,which

does not count fora syllable in paierai , counts in payerai .1 But not -oise

,which is close (bourgeoise, courtoise, danoise,

THE VOWELS 45

(1 2 ) In sev eral isolated Words, as flamme, manne, j eanne,Anne, j acques, gars [go] , chocolat, climat, crabe, espace,eselave

, poéle [pwc1zl] ,1 damne [dam] , gagne [gulp] , dome,

and derivativ es from any of these.

42 . While the abov e rules are generally accepted, it shouldbe understood that French speech v aries considerably on

the sub j ect of the two a’

s. It is often a delicate question todecide whether such and such a word should be pronouncedwith [a] or [a] and this applies also to the symboloi . The

sound v aries from indiv idual to indiv idual, and dependslargely on the district . It may be said that [a] is morecommon in Brittany and in Prov ence , where such a word as

pate is often pronounced like patte [pat] , while [a] is more

general in Normandy and in Eastern France . In any case

where there is doub t or hesitation, the student is recommended to use [aj .

z

1 But poéle (frying-pan) is [pwal] .2 Many excellent teachersdo not recommend the use of [a] in ordinary

speech ,anddo not regard it as indispensable to French . It is certainly

Parisian , however, and adds beauty to the language .


EXERCISES

1 Open when denoting‘ breakage ,

’

or a printer’

s‘case ,

’

but some

t imes close when meaning cassia,’

or basm .

’

CH APTER V I I I

UNSTRESSED A

43. When unstressed, the v owel a,whether close or open ,

is generally pronounced with a little less tension of the

muscles The following points regarding it should also be

noted(I ) Derivativ es generally follow the root-word orstem,

unless some modifying influence arises to change the sound .

Thus, chasser [fase] from chasse Uas] , but passer [pose] frompasse [pdxs];travailler [trav aje] from travail [trav ail] , butbrailler [braje] from braille [braxj] soi-disant [swa—dizr

‘

i] fromsoi [swa] , but soierie [swari] from soie [swa] . We giv e hereSome examples in connexion with open a (see Footnote 2 ,

page 43)

Sable sablon AccableGaz e gaz eux NavreDiable endiabler Sasse

Flamme enfiammer Lasse

Gare garer Rase

Madre madré Extase

Délabre délabrer VaseCadre encadrer Case

(2 ) In some cases, howev er, difference of stress acts as a

modifying influence , and changes the quality .oi the v owelfrom [a] to [a] . The further the v owel is from the tonicstress, the greater is the tendency to this. Thus we hav e[a] in barricade, grasseyer, fabuliste, damnation , cadave

’

reax,

inflammation ,diabolique, cadran , etc. , in spite of [a] in

the root-words. The same tendency appears in compoundwords;thus the open [0 ] in passe becomes quite close in


passementerie, and ev en with some Speakers in passeport andpassepoil. Other examples are :

(3) There are many words more or less isolated or un

deriv ed which hav e [a] in the unstressed syllable . Amongthese maybe mentioned the following : Calais, mapon, limapon ,

colimaeon , magot, mafi é, maquis, y'

odis, brasier, cassis, pasteur,

praline, scabreux,anis. There are also many cases where the

v owel is open before a 2 sound , as basalte, basane, jaseran,

masnre, maz ette, j ason , etc. Compare 41

(4) In some unstressed syllables [a] or [a] is replaced by a

sound intermediate between the two . In other words,just

as there is a middle e, so there is a middle a. It is less tensethan the close sound , the mouth is a little more open , and the

tongue a trifle lower, but not so much as to sound [a] . Itgenerally occurs be fore r, in a pretonic syllable , i .e. in

an unstressed syllable immediatelypreceding the stressed

one . It is diffi cult sometimes to now whether to class it

with [a] or with [a] , as it seems to v ary between the two .

Some phoneticians write it as [a] . It approaches [a] in suchwords as carreau, carrosse, carré, carotte, baron , garenne, marron ,

parrain , marraine, sarrau, etc. , where the r is mostly doubled.

But it comes nearer to [a] in most words, especially whereanotherconsonant follows [r] , asmardi , partir, tarder, marcher,marmite, charpie, darder, artilleur, etc. With a few exceptions,therefore , it may be included under the phonetic symbol [a] ,1to sav e multiplicity of signs.

1 In English , on the otherhand, [a] predominates before [r] .

JeannetteJacobinpoisser

boiségracieux

cas de conscience

bas de soie .


naturally long v owels [a,O, O] , already referred to under [a]

It is generally found as follows in ordinary Spelling

(1 ) In allcases of finalO , that is, when no consonantalsoundfollows, as dos [do] , galop [galo] , numéro [nymero] . The

v owel of trop , howev er, becomes Open in liaison ,as trop

aimable [trapemabl] , and some people Open it always.

(2 ) Allcases of circumflexedO ,as tot [to] , drole [droil] , /anto

‘

me

[ffitoxm] , nétre [noxtr] , S aane [sozn] , o'

ter [ote] , cléture [klotyxr] .But it is frequently Open in auméne.

(3) In the term ination -otion ,as emotion [emosp ] , notion

[nos ] , potion (posj5] .(4) The v owel0 before asrose [roiz ] , poser [poz e] , explosif[eksploz if] , groseille [grozexj] , Buloz [byloxz ] . There are a

few exceptions : philosophe [filoz of] , myosotis [mjoz otixs] ,losange cosaque [k ozak] , hosanna [ozanna] , and

mozaé’

que [mozaik] , togetherwith words in -osition (especiallypreposition) and thosewhich commence with pros (prosazgue,proselite,

(5) In some cases in the terminations -Om e,-One . In Olden

times these terminations were always close . They t e

presented learned words, as distinct from the terminations-omme, -onne, which occurred in words in common use .

In most cases they are now pronounced Open [om] , [on]But in a few isolated words one hears [oim] , [om] , as arome ,atome, axiome, brome, chrome, idiome, tome, z one, lazarone,cyclone, icon . In others again there is hesitation between[0] and [o] , as in gnome, hippodrome, amaz one

, atone,

polychrome.

(6) In some cases in the term ination -osse . In most cases

this is pronounced [OS] , but [0 15] is common in dosse [doxs] ,fosse [foxs] , grosse [grois] . Grosse (twelv e doz en) is generallygros] .

(7) The groups can , au, except before r and in a fewisolated words. Thus, maux [mo] , anneau [ano] , gaule0x1] , cause [koxz ] , heaume [oim] , auteur [otoexr] , nautik

otik] . Lausanne,howev er,is frequently [loz an] .

In the many cases of unstressed an the words includethose in which this symbol represents an Old Frenchdiphthong now contracted, as aucun , aussi , autant, chaufier,fausser, hauteur, sauter, etc. They also include a large

number of learned and recent Words, as auspices, austere,

THE VOWELS 51

austral, authentique, autographe, automobile, autriche, caution ,

etc.

1

(8) In a few isolated words, as obus [Obyis] , odieux [Odja] ,odeur [Odoexr] , momie [momi] and its deriv ativ es.

1 S ome Of these words, however, are frequently pronounced with[O] when the vowelis followed bytwo consonants, as [OSp iS ,

ostezr, astral] ,etc . , and even in several other cases (autoriser, autorité

,authentique,

auguste,

EXERCISES

F inal Alto ,folio

,mot,clos, gros, héros,

pot , dos, idiot , dévot , trot ,glgot

Ot , dépOt , aussitOt,il clOt

,

prevOt , cOte, hOte , rOde

,

diplOme, pOle , RhOne , con

trOler, geOlier, clOturer, tOt

fait

-Otion Commotion,lotion ,

dev otion,

motion

Chose , dose , prose , pose , close,

Gaidoz,Joseph ,

oser, positi on ,

positi f , roseau

sound

Chapeau ,étau

,défaut

,il vaut

,

il faut,faute

, paume,épaule ,

aube ,auge , badauderie , sau

mon,saulaie

,vautour

L e chateau est posé au haut des Vosges .

Claude a sauté dans l’

eau apresl’

agneau .

e pauvre idiot est sous le gros saule .

’

autre veau a sauté par-dessus nos

pots.

L es rosiers du chateau sont beaux .

alto,foljo

,mo

,klo

, gro ,erO

,

po , do, idjo ,devo

,tro ,

sigo

ro,depo ,

osito,ilklo

, pre

ko zt,

o zt,ro zd

,diplo zm ,

po zl, ro zn,k 5trole

, golje ,klotyre , to

k omosj 5,

mosj 5losj 5

,de v osj5,

j'

o zz,do zz

, pro zz , po zz , kloiz ,

gadoxz , goz ef , o z e , poz rsj o,

poz 1tif , roz o

Iapo , eto,de fo

,il v o

,il fo

,

fo zt, po zm ,

epo zl, o zb .

badodri,

sole ,v otuxr

lafoto e poz e O o de v o z3.

klo zd a sote dd 10 apre lapo .

lapov r idjo asu la gro so zl.

lotr V0 a sote par—desy no

pO .

le roz je dy [ato $5 bo .

CH A PTE R X

OPEN 0 [a]

48. Open 0 , as already mentioned, is practically the same

sound as in the words shawl, tortoise (long), and block , waddle

(short) . Attention should be paid to the clear, precise

enunciation Of the v owel. Some affected people Speak of

culleges,’

schullars,’

cunscience .

’

Such dev iations fromthe true sound are quite unintelligible when embodied inFrench words.

49. As to length , open 0 follows the sev en-v owelrule i .e .

when stressed , it is long before [v , z , or final [r] (itdoes not occur before as ooe [oxv ] , loge mort [moir] ,Badajoz , [badagoxz ] .

2 W hen unstressed , it is almost ln

Er

l

ariab

]yShort, as joli [goli] , solide [solid] , local [lokal] , logeur

ogoexr

50. The student Should hav e no difficulty in knowing whenthis v owel occurs in ordinary Spelling. If he remembers the

particular cases of close 0 referred to in the prev ious chapter,he will understand that in allother cases the symbols 0 , 6,au,

etc. , represent open 0 . The following cases of it, howev er,may be Specially mentioned 3 :

(1 ) The letter 0 (not 6) in closed syllables (except beforeand in some cases Of -ome, -one,

-osse) . Thus, postet] , alors [aloxr] , golje [golf] , nostalgic [nostalgi] .

In the termination -os, where the s is sounded (mostlyforeign words andnames), the v owelisgenerally pronounced

1 Except in oil [Ozj] , Old French for oui .3 The sound 0 before [2 ] is close 47 with the exception of one

or two propernames, as B adaj oz , B ooz [bootz ] , B erlioz [b erljozz ] .3 In addi tion to these cases,

the close 0 opens somewhat in liaison (asin pot

-a-l’eau, pot-au-lait

,mot-a-mot, croc-en-j ambe, trop aimable

,

coming really under

52

THE VOWELS 53

long, aspathos [patoxs] , rhinoceros [rinoseroxs] , Argos [argoxs] .In Caloados the o is close.

1

(2 ) The letter 0 (not 0 ) in open, non-final syllables, as

modeste [modest] , voler [v ole] , ooale [oval] , egoiste [egoist],paeme [posxm] , z oologie [z oologi] , morille [morixj] . But it is

close 1n boa [boa] , and oasis [oaz ixs] and a fewmore .

In the prefix co the v owel 1s ronounced close by some

people, especially before [a] or [e] , as coaguler [koagyle] ,coalition [koalisjo] , coexister [koegz ist

(3) The group au before [r] , as taure oit] , Maure [moxr] ,laurier [lorj e] , y

’

aurai [gore] , AurillacAlso in a few other words, as Paul, Paule (generally),

Auch [of] , augmenter (and derivativ es), Auxerre [osexr] ,and sometimes in sauf (preposition) and mauvais. In the

case of aumo‘

ne,when the ois pronounced Open , the an is

generally Open also, owing to v ocalic assimilation [omon]but in aumoni

,er though the a

”

may stillbe Open , the an is

pronounced close [omon] e](4) In the termination -um (mostly Latin words) , as decorum[dekorom] , album [albom] , opium [op] om] as well as

medially in some compound words (triumv iral, circum

nav igati ,on etc”)

(5)The group 0 0 in looch [lok] , andalcool[alkol] andderivativ es.

1 Many French Speakers pronounce the 0 close in numerous othercases of -os;but excep t where the words have an win Greek, it is betterto adopt the open sound.


EXERCISES

Robe,brioche

,roche

,ode , étofl e , rob , brioj , roI, od, etot

,

dogme, propre , époque , dogm , propr, epok,

octobre ok tobr

Soleil, violet , volatile , com1que , solexj , v jols, volatil, komik,cochon

,orateur

,hér0 1que , kojo, oratoe:r, eroik , lokal

local

co Coasser, coactif,

coéternel, koase , coak tif,k oetcrnsl,

coequation k oekwasj5

nu Centaure , saurc,Faure , Laure ,

épidaure , aurore, jc saurai

, orozr, 39 sore

,oreol,

auréole,auricule oriky]

um Rhum , pensum,laudanum

,rom

, pesom,lodanom,

muséum myz e om

Paul apporte des coqs e t des cigognes.

ll donne quatorz e pommes a notre

bonne .

Ce t hgmme adopte des dogmes ortho

doxcs .

En automne l’

orge est colorée comme

l’

or.

L’

album est dans notre coflre de bord.

polap ort de k ok e de sigop .

11 don katorz p om a notre

bon .

set om adopt de dogmoz

ortodoks .

an oton lor3 e k olore k omloxr.

lalb om e dd notre kofra dob o:r.

CH APTER X I

UN STRE S SED 0

51 . When unstressed , the v owel0 , like the other v owels, ispronounced with a little less tension of the muscles. Thefollowing points Should also b e noted(r) Derivativ es generally follow the root-word orstem,

unless they become altered through some outside influence .

Thus, dossier [dosje] , adosser, endosser from dosse [dos] , grossir[grosixr] , grosseur from grosse [gro is] , fosse

’

[fose] from fosse[foxs] ,

1z one

’

[z one] from z one [z oxn] , enjOZer from geole, enrélerfrom réle, Pauline [polin] from Paul[pol] .

(2 ) Vocalic assimilation 2 9) occurs in some words, especi

ally where the same syllable is repeated , as bobo (bobo] ,[koko] , rococo [rokoko] , dodo [dodo] , gogo [gogo] , lolo

O O] .(3) There is amiddle 0 , intermediate between the close

and the open sound . Phonetically, it is generally representedby The back Of the tongue is a little lower than for close

[O] , but not so low as for [o] and the mouth is a little more

open and the muscles Slightly relaxed . It frequently takesthe place Of [O] or [o] in unstressed syllables, and with onlythe two symbols it is sometimes difficult to know with whichto class it . Probably it is b etter to class it in most cases

with [o] . It occurs in some deriv ativ es from 6. Thus wehav e close [0 ] in the root-words céte, ro

‘

t, pale, diplome, but

middle [0] in coteau,cotelette, rati , hotelier, hopital, polaire,

diplomate. It also occurs frequently in ordinary Open syl

lables, as poteau,prononcer, comment, noter, rosace, roséole,

etc.

52 . The student Should not trouble himself much ov er

middle [e, a, o] . In nearly all cases they may be neglected,1 The 0

,however, is sometimes open in fossette, generally in fossoyer,

fossoyeur, and always in fossi le.


and their place taken bythe close or open sound, whichev eris the nearer, without injury to the pronunciation . If the

beginner will only set himself to surmount the diffi culties inthe wayof acorrect andclearenunciation of the ei ht standardv owels, he may i nore the discrimination required for themiddle sounds untillater.


circumflexed, as in mou, j'

oug, loup , cout, gout, mout, saoul[su] .W hen unstressed , it is short and less tense , becoming Oftenhalf-Open . Thus, bouton [but5] , coucou [kuku] , couleur[kuloe1r] ,ouragan [uragd] , oubli [ubli] , douter [dute] , troupeau [trupo] ,moucher [mu] e] , gouter [gute] .

57 . The word aout is correctly pronounced [u] , but thearchaic pronunciation [au] is again becoming frequent inconv ersation , and ev en [ut] and [aut] are sometimes heard .

Long

EXERCISES

Louvre , louve ,ouvre , couve ,

couse,épouse , douz e

,v en

touse,bouge , rouille , souille ,

grenou'

ille,four

,amour

,lourd

,

secours

Short Vous,joue

,choux ,

soul, caillou

goutte , bouc, poule , mouche,

lourde,

courbe,

courte,

fourche,journée ,

boucher,

boucler, gofiter

Illaboure pour nous tous les jours .

L es poules courent sur la route .

L e bouc broute sous la v ofi te .

Voule z -vous souper surla mousse PLa blouse de son épouse est rouge

lu zv r, luzv ,uzv r

,k uzv

,k u : z

,

epuzz , duzz , v dtu zz,bu z3,

ruzj , suzj , granuxj , fuzr,

amuzr,luxr

,sokuxr

v u, 3u, ju,

su,kaju

, gut , buk ,

pul, mu] , lurd,

kurb,kurt

,

ur] , 3urne , buje , buk le ,gute

illabuzrpur nu tu le 3u :r.

le ulk uzr syr la rut .

lo uk brut su la v ut .

vule v u supe syr la musla bluzz do s5n epuzz e ru z3.

CHAPTE R X I I I

THE MIXED VOWELS

58. We hav e now described the eight fundamental v owelsounds, and proceed to the three m ixed ones [y, to, oe] .They are so called because , although they make a simple

impression on the car, they are formed by the union Of two

of the fundamental sounds. The lips take the opening re

quired for the one,while the interior of the mouth assumes

the Shape belonging to the other, the result being a mixedsound not found in English . Thus, referring to the trianglein I O,

it is ev ident that we may put the lips in the roundedposition required for [u] (asas in English rude) , as if we wereactually going to sound this v owel, and while keeping themrounded sound the v owel [i] (as in English machine) , i .e. mov e

the tongue forward to the position required for the corre

sponding front v owel. We thus get the mixed sound [y] ,as in the French sur

,lune, tu,

etc Similarly, we hav e a

sound [o] , made up of the lip position Of [O] and the tongueposition Of [e] , as in deux, feu, etc. The third mixed v owel[oe] is formed from the lip posi tion of [o] and the tongue position of [a] , as in leur, neuf , sceur, etc. The triangle may thusbe more fully arranged as follows, the brackets round a v owe.

denoting rounding and pushing out Of the lips


THE VOWEL [y]59. This v owel, as abov e stated, is produced Simply by

rounding the lips as for [u], i .e. rounding them tightly asfor whistling, and then sounding [i]. The v owel sound inthe Scotch guid is somewhat Similar, but is open, whereas theFrench sound is close and tense . The sound is so frequentthat complete mastery ov er it is required , if one is to produceit easily and quickly . It Should be practised thoroughly,until the muscles of the mouth are accustomed to the combination . Constant and carefulrepetition Of the three sounds[i, u,

y] , backwards and forwards, will considerably help .

Care Should be taken (1 ) that the lips are sufficiently proj ectedand rounded , and (2 ) that the mov ements Of the lips and thoseof the tongue are made simultaneously and not in succession .

60. Some difficulty may be experienced at first in pro

ducing the sound clearly after [r] , [S] , or [t] (as in rue, su,

tu) , but persistent practice will succeed . In the case Of [t] ,the difficulty with beginners is largely due to their formingthe consonant in the English instead of the French way.

For the English t the tongue tip strikes the hard palate a

little behind the upper teeth , but forthe French t it must strikeit immediately behind Practice Should be made withsuch words as e’tuve, astuce, turc, tube, tuf , étude, laitue, tu,

1etc.

61 . When stressed , the v owel [y] , like the two from whichit is formed

,is long before [v , z , or final and generally

also in the termination -as (mostly in classical words) where[s] is sounded . Thus, cuve [kyxv ] , ruse [ryiz ] , juge [3y13] ,voiture [vwatyxr] , Ve

’

nus [v enyxs] , omnibus [omnibyxs] . In

allothercases, whetherstressed orunstressed, it is Short , ev enthough circumflexed, as on [vy] , juste [3yst] , flute [flyt] ,buche When unstressed, it is uttered with less tension,

becoming frequently half-open, as buoard [byvaxr] , musique[myz ik] , murmurer [myrmyre]

62 . The sound is generally represented in ordinaryby u. There are some cases denoted by u

‘

, as Esau

Danaus [danayxs] , and a few by ué (after g only). as cigué

1 In common sp eech, the ronoun tu sometimes loses its vowel, asT

’

as pas compris ? Que t’es éte l

THE VOWELS 61

[Sigy] , aigué [egy] .1 The symbol eu also takes the sound [y]in gageure [ga3yxr] ,

2vergeure [v sr3y1r] , mangeure [ma3y ir] ,

and in the past participle , past definite , and imperfect subjunctiv e of avoir, as eu [y] , j

’

eus [3y] , tu eus [ty y] , ileut [ily] ,nous eumes [muz vous eutes [v uz yt] , ils eurent [ilz yir] , etc.

In chat the u is Silent (fit) , unless necessary for rhyme,

orunless to designate the interj ection, as : On entenditplusieurschut

1 The dimresis over the e is merely to signify that the u is sounded.

1 Under the influence of orthography, the pronunciation [gagoezr] isbecoming frequent .

EXERCISES

Long Vésuv e,re fuse

,deluge , az ur

,

étuve,accuse , refuge , mur

Short Chute,culte

,nul

,luxe

,usurpe ,

brume,urne

,absurde

,cruche

,

brille,afffit

,cru

,tu

,dfi

Russe,rude

,trufl e

,ruche

Suc, massue , recu,

supposer

Tulipe , sculpture , tulle , tumulte

-us Crésus,

Bacchus,

F estus,

Taurus,crocus

,hiatus

,lotus

,

prospectus

Que j’

eusse, qu

’

il efi t, qu

’

ils

eussent

Jules eut une culbute sur la tribune .

j’

ai v u plus d’

une b fiche dans la cuve .

L e curé apercut 1a perruque du juge .

Le duc ne fume plus dans sa voiture .

I1 eut les muscles durs et tordus .

v e zyzv ,rofyzz , delyz3, azyzr,

etyzv ,akyzz , rofyi3, myzr

Irt , kylt. nyl, lyks, yzyrp ,

brym, yrn ,absyrd, kry] ,

bryl. affy.kry.

ty,dy

rys, ryd,tryf. ryl

syk , masy,rosy,

sypoz e

tylip ,skyltyzr, tyl, tymylt

kre zyzs, bakyxs, festyzs,toryzs, krokyzs, jatyzs,lotyzs, prospgk tyzs

k o 3ys, k ily, k ilz ys

3ylyyn kylbyt syrla tribyn .

3e v yplydyn by] dd la kyzv .

lo kyre apersy la peryk dy

3Y’3°

lo dyk no fym ply dd sa

ily le mysklo dyzr e tordy.

CH A PTE R X I V

THE VOWEL [o] (CLOSE ea)

63. This sound is ev en more difficult to a beginner than [y]It is sometimes stated in grammars to be like u in the Englishword fur, but this is a false analogy , only leading to confusion .

There is no corresponding sound in either English or Scotch .

The sound is formed bycomb ining the rounded lip positionof close [0 ] with the tongue position of close [e] , i .e.

pronounce [0 ] (as in English tone) , taking care to proj ect andround the lips, and then, without altering the position ofthem,

sound [e] (as in English case) . The result will be a

peculiar resonance coming from just inside the lips, and

form ing a perfect French [a] . The usual fault in the case of

English-speaking students is that they fail to adv ance and

round the lips suffi ciently, and they thus sound a kind of

close [e] . The only remedy is practice . Exercises with[e , 0

, o] in succession, backwards and forwards, Should bediligently employed until the sound is under perfect control.

64. This sound is short only when final in pronunciation ,

thus following the rule of the naturally long v owels [a,0, o] ,

referred to under [0 ] It is represented in ordinaryspelling by en , mi , one, can . It occurs as follows

, and maythus be distinguished from the open sound (as in heure, scour,etc. ) described in next chapter :

(1 ) When eu is final in pronunciation , as jeu deux

[do] , bleus [blg] , nceud [no] , monsieur [mosjo] and in deriv ativ es from such words

,asdeuxie

‘

me [doz jem] , bleudtre [bloc11tr],lieutenant [1]otnd] .The only exceptions are certain forms of avoir

,which

are pronounced [y](2 ) In the term inations -cuse ,

-eute , -cutt e , and derivativ es, as creuse [kroxz ] , creuser [kroz e] , Meuse [moxz ],

62

THE VOWELS 63

émeute [emgxt], émeuter [emote] , neutre [neixtr] , neutralité

[notralite] . Also in Greek names in -eus, as Zeus [zoxs] ,Orpheus [orfoxs] .In a few isolated words (including their derivativ es) ,such as feune, jeudi , meule, meunier, pentateuque (learned),pseudonyme, neume.

Déjeuner, howev er, is frequently pronounced open

[de3oene] , and ev en [de3oue] and [de3ne] are popular. In

the case of meule, most teachers recommend [a] when the

word means haystack,’ but [oe] where it means millstone,

’

as a distinction of some kind exists in most French dialects.

The prefix eu as eucalyptus [yokaliptyxs] , Eulalie [olali] .Exceptions are Europe

,and sometimes Eugene, Eugenie,

in which it is open,though it tends to be close in the last .

1 There are also a few other words of a learned nature,such as

feudiste, deute’

ronome,ichneumon

,teuton

,and derivat ives, togetherwith

some proper names (B ouchot, Ceuta, DeucalionhNeuilly,

e tc andwordsin -eutique,

-eumatique .

EXERCISES

Feu,feutier

,lieu

,lieutenant

,

queue , queuter, pneu , pneu

matique , gueux , gueuserie ,Dieu

,oeufs

,boeufs

-ense Creuse,

creuser,

Chartreuse,

berceusef eute Meute

,ameuter

,ameutement

,émeutier-eutre Feutre

,calfeutrer, feutrage ,

pleutre

Isolated Ameulonner,emmeuler, meu

meri e

Euphonie , eulogie , Euclide,

Euphrate

Adieu, monsieur Dieu le veut .

Ces yeux-ci sont plus bleus que ceux-la.

Je veux deux oeufs pour ces gueux .

Ceux qui s’

am eutent sont facheux .

L e meunier veut jenner jeudi .

to,fotje , ljo ,

ljotnd,k o

,kote, pna, pnomatik , go,

goz ri , djo, n,b e

kroxz,kroz e , jartrozz ,

b ersoxz

mozt,

amote,

amotmd,

emfl tjefoxtr, kalfotre

,fotra3,

p19 xtr

amolone,dmole

, monri

ofoni,o103i , oklid, ofrat

adje,mosjo djo lo v 0 .

se z josi S 5 ply blo k o sola.

39 v 0 doz a pur se go .

so ki samoxt sd fajo .

lo monje v o 3one godi .

CHA PTE R XV

THE VOWEL [oe] (OPEN en)

65. To produce this sound one must advance and roundthe lips as foropen 0 [o] , andwhile keeping them in this positionsound [a] , i .e. dispose the tongue for the corresponding frontv owel. The result is the m ixed v owel [oe] , as found in suchwords as heure, peur, sceur, etc. Care must be taken not

to round the lips as much as for close A v ery slightrounding will do, with the mouth fairly wide open and the

muscles Should not be held so tense , as both [o] and [a] aresomewhat relaxed sounds and require no great effort eitheralone or mixed . By attention to this, there will be no

confusion between this sound and the prev ious one [so] ,which has the lips more rounded and the muscles tense .

Beginners who are unable to make any distinction shouldpractise words containing both sounds, such as masculines

in -eur (which hav e and their feminines in -euse (whichhav e Thus, acheteur, acheteuse;danseur, danseuse;menteur, menteuse causeur, causeuse.

66. This sound is represented in ordinary spelling by on,

oeu,ue, ce . Forlength ,

it comes under the sev en-v 0welrule ,i .e . when stressed, it is long before [v , j ] , or final [r] , andshort in other cases, asfleuv e [floexv ] , feuilhe [foexj] , peur [poe1r] ,peuple [poepl] . W hen unstressed , it is always short anduttered with somewhat less tension, as jeunesse [30enes] ,fleurdelise

’

[floerdoliz e] .

67 . It is nev er found in open final syllables (these beingsounded but only in closed ones;but in non-final

syllables, there are sev eral Open cases. There need be no

difficulty, howev er, in knowing when the sound occurs.

I f the four classes of [a] , mentioned in the prev ious chapter,be remembered, it will be understood that in all other cases

84

CH APTE R XVI

E MUTE or‘

E CADUC’

69 . This is the indeterminate v owel occurring in suchwords as lo, me, te, se, que, etc. , and represented phoneticallyby [o] . It is somewhat S imilar in sound to the e in the Englishwords over, taken, and to the letter a in about, again,

sofa.

For the French sound , howev er, the lips must be a little

rounded and projecte d . It is thus a mixed sound , like[y, o,

oe] , and its correct place is on the triangle somewherenear [oe] . Some phoneticians place it between [15] and [oe] ,thus regarding it as a mixture of m iddle [e] andmiddlewhile others place it a little below [oe] , regarding it as [oe]relaxed [tie] . We hav e placed it in the latter position (see

but would draw attention to the main essential for itscorrect enunciation , v iz . a slight lip-rounding. The soundis SO common in French that it must be thoroughly masteredfrom the outset . The sound of e in over should be takenand practised with lips as described .

This indeterminate sound is Simply the decayed form of

earlier distinct v owel-sounds, which became graduallyneglected and were skipped ov er because they were nu

stressed . In numerous cases, it remains in the language as a

mere graphic surv iv al, no longerpronounced : (1 ) In thev erbal terminations -aient, -oient, -ient, etc. (2 ) In those of

futuresand conditionals -erai , -erais) aftera v owel, as jouerai ,plierais. nouns in -erie after a v owel, as flouerie,fe

’

erie. (4) In the ending where the diaeresis merelyindicates that the u is sounded, as aigue , cigue

’

. (5) Insuch words as Caen , Madame de S tael

, S aint-S ae‘

ns

[kd,stol, Sdsdxs] . (6) In all cases when it is final and

preceded by a v owel or [j ] -aie, -aye,-ée, -ie, etc) . In

such cases as these last , it is pronounced in Singing (see1 05

66

THE VOWELS 67

70. Apart from such cases as those just mentioned , it isgenerally sounded (always short) , though it has a habit ofbecoming almost silent or disappearing altogether, which hasled French phoneticians to callit e caduc deciduousThe cases of this Silence or disappearance (Elision) are con

sidered in Chapter XXX I . W hen sounded , it should bedistinctly heard, and when stressed in any way (undertonic accent or emphasis) it becomes [oe] , as prends-le [prdloe] ,fais-le entrer [feloe dtre] , oui , je viendrai [wi , 3oe v jifdre] .

1

In ordinary spellingit occurs generally as simple e in open

unstressed syllables , as relais [role] , petit [poti] , reste [rssto] ,armes [armo] , lo maitre [lo mextr] , de Paris [do pari] . The

following cases, where it occurs under some other form ,

should be noted

(1 ) Monsieur is sometimes pronounced with a slack or some

what indistinct [0] [moa] , but the form [mosjat] , or ev en[msjo] ismore frequentlyheard.

(2 ) Peut-etre, though sometimes [potextr] or [poetextr] , is generally [potextr] .

3) S oucoupe is often [sakup] in common Speech.

(4) The group ai is sounded [o] in faisable [fozabl] , faiseur[foz oexr] , and in the different forms of faire in which ai

is unstressed and followed by s,as faisant [fozd] , faisais

[foz e] , faisons [fozd] . The same is the case with the com

pounds bienfaisant, bienfaisance, malfaisant, .malfaisance.

Under the influence of orthography ,howev er

,the sound [8]

is becoming frequent in some of these forms,as [fezd] , [fez e] .

(5) The prefixes des -res are pronounced [do] , [ro] in thosecases where they represent de re (not dé, re) before s,

as dessous [dosu] , dessus [dosy] , ressaisir [rosez ixr] , ressortir[rosortixr] , ressentir [rosdtixr] .

2 Cresson is also [krosd] .

The student should guard against the tendency to turne mute into close [e] when in an initial syllable . This is an

1 In the seventeenth century the vowelof le , even when stressed,was

frequently elided before another vowel, as in Moliere’

s line :

Mais,mon peti tMonsieur, prenez -l(e) un peu moins haut.

This licence was f ollowed byVictor Hugo and others in later times.

VictorHugo has even elided e before a fullst0p in a line in Cromwell

Chassons-l(e) . Arriere, tousl1 See footnote 2 , page 36.


old tendency, which has already affected a large number of

words. For example , crécelle, prev o‘

t, pépie, se

’

jour, béni , de’

sert,péter, pe

'

tiller, etc. , were originally pronounced with mute e .

De’

sir used to b e desir [dosixr] with some writers and the

Comédie Francoise , but the Academy substituted the close [e]in 1 762 . S imilarly, rebellion has taken the accent , in Spite of

e mute in rebelle and se rebeller rétable tends to take the placeof retable, through a false analogy no doub t with rétablir;and céler is taking the place to some extent of celer, under theinfluence of recéler. Care Should , howev er, be taken to

preserv e the mute e in cases where it remains, such as refuge(in Spite of réfugier) , religion (in spite of irréligion) , etc. The

difference of meaning between such words as répartir and

repartir, re’

créer and recréer, reformer and reformer, etc. , shouldalso be remembered .

EXERCISES

Brebis,crevette

,frelon

, premier, brob i,krov st

,frold

, promje ,département

, gouvernement,

departomd, guv ernomd,

porteplume portoplym

] e faisais,tu faisai s

,il faisait

, 3o foz e,ty fore

,il foz e

,nu

nous faisions,vous faisie z

,ils foz jd, v u foz je , il foz e

faisaient

Ressaut,ressauter

,ressemblance , roso

,rosote

,rosdbldxs

,

resserrer,ressource

,ressouv emr rosere

,rosurS

,rosuv ni zr

Peut-étre monsieur veut-il une sou poteztrmosjo v otilyn sokup .

cou e .

_] e paiiSdemain ,

lo temps reste beau . 3o pair dome, lo td resto bo .

L e cour do justice rentrera mercredi . lo ku zr do 3ystis rdtrora

merkrodi .

Ilfaisait quelque fois des porte-plumes. il fe

l

oz e k elk ofwa de p orto

P ym .

Ventrebleu l Charles ressemble a un v dtroblo ! jarle rosdzbl a tie

gredin grade 1

CH A PTE R XV I I

THE SEMI-CONSONANTS

71 . We hav e already pointed out 7) that there are threesounds, represented phonetically by [w, j , which are not

merely v owels but consonants also,inasmuch as they are

partly produced by a distinct friction of the breath . Theyare therefore called semi-consonants. They are really thev owels [u,

i, y] (at the top of the triangle) , produced with still

narrower opening of the lips, and with tongue raised stillhigher towards the palate . Referring to the diagrams in8, it will be observ ed that for the v owels [u,

i, y] , the lip

opening is v ery small and the passage between the tongue.

and palate is quite narrow . Now,if one of them is produced

immediately before another vowel (as in oui,pied, nuit) so as

to make one syllable of both v owels, an extra tenseness isrequired which narrows the passages still more . The lipopening becomes smaller than for any pure v owel, and the

tongue rises so high as almost to touch the roof . The resultis audible friction , and the sound is really a semi-consonant .The v owel [11] b ecomes the semi-consonant [w] (pronouncedlike w in English win) the v owel [1] becomes [j] (pronouncedlike y in English yes) and the v owel [y] becomes [q] , a soundnot found in English but explained below . Thus we hav eoui [wi] , moi [mwa] , v ienne [v jen] , Dieu [djo] , suis [sqi] , muet[mqe] . It is ev ident that these semi-consonants may be

placed at the extreme top of the v owel-triangle

THE SEMI-CONSONANT [w]72 AS already stated , this is the same sound as the

Engli sh w (in win , with, weak, All one has to do forits clear enunciation is to dispose the lips and tongue exactlyas for [u] (as in French sou) , but to pass immediately to the

69


pronunciation of the second v owel. It occurs as follows inordinary spelling

(1 ) Where on is followed bya v owel,1as ouest [west] , ouate

[wat] , couenne [kwan] . The semi-consonantal sound is alsofound in rapid speech in cases where one word ends in [u]and the next word begins with a v owel. Thus, on est-il,in ordinary slow speech is [uetil], but uttered quickly itbecomes [wetil] .

(2 ) In the groups oi,oi

,oy, Oie , pronounced [wa] ,

38, as oiseau [waz o] , croitre [krwoxtr] , noyer [nwjoie [3wc1] .

(3) In the groups oe , 06, as moelle [mwal] , moellon [mwald] ,poéle [pwoxl] . See 38

(4) In the nasal-oin ,as loin [lwd] , moins [mwd] , poing [pwd] .

(5) As w or wh in words of English origin , as tramway

[tramwe] , whist [wist] , whig [wig] also in wallon [wald] .

1 Where on follows a group formed of a consonant+rorI, it remains afullvowel, as s

’

ébrouer, écrouelles, prouesse, floueur, clouage, e tc . Thesame is the case in such words as boueux [buo) , noueux [nuo] , wherea full vowel seems pre ferable . To these must b e added such verbalforms as j ouions [3uj 5] , j ouiez [3uje] , etc .

EXERCISES

ou Ouailles,

ouaige , ouais,

ouir,

on'

ie,douane

,fouace

,douai

riére,enfouir

,souhait

,jouer

,

dénoueroi Oisif

,boite

,voile

,foyer, soie

kw'

s, pwe, swe, grwe, pwzzt

w Sandwich ,railway,

warrant

] e vois lo roitelet dans le Wigwam . j3o vwa lo rwatle dd lo wigwam .

Antoine s’assoit surla ouate . dtwan soswa syr la wat .

Voici des oiseaux noirs pour toi . vwasi dez waz o nwazr pur

J’

a ercois trois voiles al’ouest . 3aperswa trwo vwala 1west .

Du is fait-illa moisson cc mois dybwa fat il la mwasd so

mwo P

CH A PTE R XV I I I

THE SEMI-CONSONANT [j ]73. This sound , generally named yod by phoneticians,

is Simply the English y in such words as yet, yes, lawyer, etc.

For its proper enunciation ,the tongue rises so high in the

front that the breath cannot pass without friction . It isthis friction , added to the v ocal effort , that constitutes thesound . It is always found in ordinary Spelling as i , t, or y,

and may occur initially, medially, or finally .

74. (1 ) W hen occurring initially, the pronunciation of

i or y is generally [j ] , as in ionique, iota,iule, etc. In a few

words, howev er, it hesitates between [i] and [j ] , and there isconsequent indecision in the number of syllables. Thus,hiatus is generally pronounced with [i] , and consists of threesyllables [i-a-tyxs] , but often it takes [j ] and has only two[ja-tyxs] . The same may be said of kyene, yeuse, and one

or two other words. Ev en such a common word as hier is

not always sounded with [j ] . Thus, one hears often la soirée

d’

hier [la sware di-exr] , with two syllables, and avant-hier

[avdtieir] with four, and this, indeed , has been regarded as

the proper pronunciation of hier Since the Sixteenth century .

The prefix hier howev er, takes [j ] , as hi erarchie [jerarj i] ,hieroglyphe [jeroglif] .75 . (2 ) W hen medial In old French the letter i afteran

r or lwas a semi-consonant U] or a v owel [1] according to theetymology of the word . Thus

,an sanglier, nu ouvrier, were

pronounced with [j ] , but marier, vous liez , with [i] . To-dayetymology is no longer a ruling factor, and the French use

[j ] when there is a v owel before r or 1, and [i] whenthere is a consonant. Thus

,they say with [j ] , marier

[marj e] , v ous liez [v u lje] , nous voulions [nu v uljd] , la liaison[laljezd] but with i , sanglier [Sdglie] , ouvrier [uvrie] , vous pliez[vu plie] , nous raclions [nu roklid] , une mauvaise liaison [liezd] .


In v erse , which is regulated in French principally by the

numberof syllables, this rule is not always adhered to . Prose ,e.g. makes no difference between nous passions and les

passions, while v erse puts [j ] in the first [posjd] , and [i] in thesecond [posid] . Similarly, prose puts [j ] in such words as

lion,ambition,

emotion, épié, odieux [lj‘

5, db isjd, emosjd, epje ,odjo] , while v erse puts [i] in them and thus lengthens thenumber of syllables For such v ariations fromprose rules, reference Should be made to treatises on

v ersification .

76. The comb ination -ill is common both in the body of

a word and at the end. When following a v owel, it is S implypronounced [j ] , as travailler [trav aje] , taillis [toj i] , baillon[bo jd] , paille [poxj] , feuille [foeij];1 but when following a

consonant it takes the sound [ij] , as pillage [pija13] . brillant[brijd] , bille [bixj] . In the latter case there are some exceptions, in which ll is pronounced [1] (see

77 . The letter y between two v owels becomes i i . The

first i comb ines with the preceding v owel, and the secondis pronounced [j ] . Thus, rayon becomes rai-ion , i .e. [rejd]royaume becomes roi-iaume [rwoj0 1m] and soyons becomessoi-ions [swajd] .

On the same principle [j ] tends to introduce itself betweeni and another v owel, as prier [pri-je] , nou

'

s prions [prijd] ,prieur [prijoexr] , triage [trija13] , crions [krijd] , etc.

78 . W hen final: The termination -il after a v owel ispronounced [j ] , as travail [trav axj] , pareil [parexj] , deuil[doexj] .The letter l in linceul takes the same sound as a rule [lasoexj] .In such words, instead of final [j ] , some people utter some

thing like [i] , short and rapid , or ev en nothing at all. Thus,soleil becomes [solexi] or [5018 1] instead of [solexj] . Others

,

again ,sound [jo] , adding an e mute to the yod and thus

putting another syllable to the word , which is the otherextreme . These are mistakes and care Should b e taken to

sound the [j ] correctly, without either neglecting it or

exaggerating it .

79 . The pronoun y, or i at the end of smallunstressed1 In those cases where -ill is followed by i and another vowel

,the

two yods unite into one,as bailliage [bajaz3] , j oaillier [3wo j e] ,

médailli er [medaje] .

CH A PTE R XIX

THE SEMI-CONSONANT [q]

80. This is the sound [y] when it comes before anotherv owel (it generally comes b efore i) . The lips and tongueare disposed exactly as for [y] , but the v ocalapparatus passesimmed iately and smartly to the v owel which follows, assuis [Sni] , nuage [nqax3] , muet [mqe] . The beginner findssome difliculty in producing this sound , being apt to dwelltoo much upon the [y] , thus making two syllables, insteadof comb ining them as one . Let him try to articulate the

[y] rapidly , shortening it as it were , and concentrating histhought on the next v owel from the beginning. In this wayhe will, with persistent practice ,

insure a good pronunciationof [q] , with both v owels linked into one syllable . The soundis Specially difficult after r, and constant repetition is needed ,as in ruisseau [rqiso] , bruit [brqi] , fruit [frqi] .

1

Referring to the triangle in 1 03,it will be seen that [q]

is really the mixed sound between [j ] and [w] , i .e . it is

[j ] pronounced with lips rounded and proj ected as for [w] .This idea may help the beginner towards its correct enunciation in some words at least

,where [q] can be SO pronounced

without much difficulty ,e .g. puis, nuit, suite, suivre, fuir, etc.

The main fault with E nglish speak ers is to pronounce[q] carelessly as [w] . Lui becomes [lwi] , identical withLouis

,thus confusing two distinct French sounds. The fault

is v ery common, and is due to making the first sound

instead Of [y] or rounded [j ] .

81 . In cases where the letter y comes between the two

sounds (as in appuyer) , it div ides as usual 78) into i-i ,1 In many cases where the u is preceded by two or more different

consonants, it remains a distinct vowel, as obstruer [Opstrye ] , concluant

[k dklyd] , fluide [fiyid] , druide [dryid] , etc . But it has become a semi

consonant in bruit, fruit, autrui , pluie, truie, truite, détruire, instruire,construire, and a few other cases. In duo it is a fullvowel [dyo] .

THE VOWELS 75

as appui-ier, which is thus pronounced [apqi je] . Otherexamples are : essuyer [esqije] , fuyard [fqijair] , tuyau [tqijo] .Some French people , howev er, are content with one i insome words of this kind, especially where the sound follows

Thus, bruyamment becomes simply bru-iamment, i .e.

[bryjamd] , so that instead of the difficult group [qij] we hav emerely [yj] . The same remark applies to bruyant [bryjd] ,bruye

‘

re [bryjexr] , gruye‘

re [gryjexr] , etc. Ev en tuyau, tuyereare frequently [tyjo] , [tyjexr] .82 . The combinations gu and ou which are pronounced[gu] and [ku] in some cases

, are referred to under the con

sonants 1 57 ,

EXERCISES

Buis, puits, puissant , tuile , muid

,bq i , pui , pqisd, tuil, mqi ,

nuirc,bruire

,juin

,aujourd’

hui nqixr, brqi zr, 3q§,1O3urdq i

Huitre, huile , huit , huissier qitr, q il, q i , qisje

Nuée , remuer, S itué, Suede , per nqe , romq e , sitqe , sqed,suader persqade

rqe , drqid, rqisld, trqi t

finqiie , ekq iie , strie , gri

L es ennuyés fuient lo bruit . le z dnq ije fqi lo brqi :I1 cuit la truite aujourd’

hui . ilk qi la trqit o3urdq i :113 no conduisent pas des truies. no k ddqiz pa de trqi .

Je suis aiguilleur depuis juin . 3o Sqi egq ijoe zrdopq i 3q§ .

L e bruit du ruisseau m’

ennuie . lo brqi dy rqiso mdnqi

1 The pronunciation [3wé] is frequently heard in Paris.

CH APTER XX

THE NASAL VOWELS

83. Nasal (or nasaliz ed) v owels are produced , as explainedbelow , by lowering the soft palate , and thus allowingpart of the sound to escape through the nose . In thisway the resonance of the nose is added to that of the mouth .

English has no such v owels, but in French the four v owels[a,

o, oe, 8] occur nasaliz ed , being represented phonetically

as [d,5, Ge ,

84 . In ordinary spelling they appear as v owels with n or

m attached, but care must be taken not to sound the n orm,

except where liaison is allowable . Thus, tante is [tdxt] , not[toxnt] . S imilarly , we hav e oncle [dxkl] , jardin [3ard5] , humble

un bon v in blanc [o’

é bd v 5 bld] . The pronunciationis exactly the same whether the next letter is n or m;thewords non and nom,

for example , are pronounced absolutelyalik e .

85 . In regard to length , they are only short when finalin pronunciation,

as gant [gd] . In all other cases theyare either long or half-long, being long when under stress,as réponse and half-long when unstressed , as

embaumer For most practical purposes, howev er,half-long may be regarded as short .

86. It Should be noted that there is no nasal sound in thefollowing cases

(1 ) If m or n is followed by a v owel (in the same

word) ,1 as amour [amuxr] , animer [anime] , colline [kolin] .Masculine adj ectiv es ending with a nasal sound thus loseit in the feminine , which takes a di fferent sound . For

example , un une [yn] gamin [game] , gamine [gamin]1 The reason for this is that

,owing to the division of syllables, the

m orn goes with the following vowel.

THE VOWELS 77

plein pleine [plein];Parisien [pariz je] , Parisienne[pariz jen] . Other examples :

F ollowed bya vowel : Ami,image, homogene, synonyme

, brume,

promener, plume, Nanine .

F eminines .

‘ Voisin, v oisine;fin,fine;brun, brune;sain,

saine;prochain , prochaine;Italien,Italienne;ancien,

ancienne doyen,doyenne .

(2 ) If there are two m’

s or two n’

S together (in the

same word) , as gemmation [3emosjd] , anne’

e [ane] , étrenne

[etren] , homme [om] , dilemme [dilem] . Other examples :

Nommer,comment , sav amment , pommier, flamme

,sonner,

donner, anneau, honneur, renne, colonne, annales, Cinna.

The prefix en or em (or rem is always nasal, howev er,whatev er letter follows. A v owel after it, or the doublingof the n orm, does not change it . Thus, enivrer, i .e . en-ivrer,b ecomes [dnivre] , the nasal sound being preserv ed and the

n being carried forward in liaison , as in s’

en aller (see 1 0 2 )and ennoblir, i .e . en-noblir, becomes [dnoblixr] . Similarly, .

we hav e enorgueillir [dnorgoejixr] , emmagasiner [dmagaz ine] ,ennui [anqi] , remmancher [rdmdje] , and many others.

1

The prefix im is nasal in the two words immangeable[Smd3abl] , immanquable [emdkabl] .

(3) If m is followed by n (in the same word) , as amnistie [amnisti] , somnambule [somndbyl] , automnal [otomnal] ,gymnase [3imnoxz ] . Other examples :

Omnibus, calomnie,hymne, omnipotence , amnésie, somnolent.

Exceptions are automne [oton] , and damner [done] with itsderivatives.

On the other hand , if n is followed by m, the nasal soundis retained, as in ne

’

anmoins [nedmwd] , tinmes [teim] , v inmes

[v eim] .

(4) In many foreign, classical, and unfamiliar words,21 The em is not nasal

, however, in such words as Emmanuel,Emmau

‘

s,

ennéagone, e tc . ,where it is not the prefix .

1 This is Specially the case with final m . Only a small number ofsuch words have the n isalsound (darn, Adam ,

claim, faim ,

essaim,étaim

,

thym, nom (and compounds) , dom, parfum) , the rest having lost it sincethe seventeenth century. On the otherhand,

finaln -an ,-en

,-in -ain

,

-ein,

-oin ) , -ou,

-un) generally means a nasal sound,except in the

terminations -eu after a consonant (mostly foreign words or prOper


as Amsterdam [Amsterdam ] , intérim [Eterim] , muséum

[myz eom] , specimen [spesimen] , décemv irat [desemv ira] . Otherexamples

Abraham , harem , item,Jerusalem

,Kremlin maximum,

opium , Eden,lichen [liken] , gluten, dolrnen, Siam , Bethleem ,

abdomen,Potsdam, macadam ,

rams [rams] .

THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE NASAL S

87 . This matter is important , as nasals occur SO frequentlyin French , and there is nothing to correspond to them in

English . Sometimes there are sentences in which almostev ery v owel is a nasal, as L

’

enfant mange son pain sans

me’

contentement. So many false and absurd directions, too,

on the sub j ect are giv en in some books, that much misunderstanding exists. Some learners are taught to pronounce thesev owels incorrectly as ordinary oral ones with the English -ngadded to them . The pronunciation will be found to be Sim

plicityitself, if the following explanation be grasped .

Looking at the adjoining diagram , i t will be noticed thatthe expiratory breath , on leav ing the throat , has a doublepassage before it : it may pass either through the nose or

the mouth . These two chambers are separated by a horiz ontal partition ,

called the palate , which forms the floorof the one and the roof of the other. The front portion of

this partition is a bony , rigid structure ,known as the hard

nouns) , -man (particularly in English words) , -in (in several foreignwords or nam es) , German names in -ein (excep t M ein ) , a few learned andforeign words i n -on

,and most English prOper names in -son and—ton .

Thus the sound is not nasal in the following and many others,in

additi on to examples given above :

Amen,albumen

,cérumen

,cyclamen

, gramen,rumen

, pollen ,

hym en (except in rhyme sometimes) , Aden ,Baden

,Carmen

,Baylen ,

Dryden ,I bsen

,Niémen

,Yémen;alderman ,

clubman, gentleman ,

recordman , yeoman , policeman ,Sportsman ,

Ahriman,Flaxman ,Wiseman

,Wouv erman;dj inn ,

Khamsin, mue z in ,

Lohengrin (inmusic at least) , gin (sometimes) , Darwin ,

Erin,Elgin ,

Erwin , Stettin ,

Emin -Pacha,Robin Hood;H olbein

,Gerolstein

,Rubinstein

,Zoll

verei n;epsilon ,ornicron

,S i ne qua non

,megaron ,

baralipton ,

S ingleton ,Byron ,

Lang-son

,Satyricon;Addison ,

Emerson,Hudson

,

Nelson,Tennyson,

Fulton,Hamilton ,

Palmerston,Washington ,Wellington ,

etc .

Of allthe words in -en aftera consonant,of French or foreign origin,

examen is practically the only one that has the nasalsound [egz ame] .

THE VOWELS 7g

palate (H) . The back portion is composed of muscular

W flexible , and is known as the soft alate“114111 1 1511 1 eThlS soft palateterminates in a conic body,

PALATE

F IG . 1

called the uv ula, which hangs suspended from it . Now,it

is ev ident from the diagram that the soft palate ,with its

attached uv ula,forms a kind of curtain between the mouth

and nose . Being v ery flexible ,it can b e raised or lowered

at will, and the passage into the nose can b e closed or openedaccordingly . There are three possibilities indeed .

(I ) The v elum maybe lowered right down towards thetongue . In this case the air is prev ented from entering themouth and is sent through the nasal passage . This is theway taken by the breath in ordinary respiration when weShut the mouth and breathe through the nose : the v elumdescends of its own accord , and the air passes to the backof it . It is also the way taken in the pronunciation of m, n ,

and English -ng, for in m the air is stopped by the closingof the lips from passing out of the mouth , in n by the tip of

the tongue on the hard palate , and in -ng by the back of the


tongue rising up to meet the soft palate , the air in each case

being directed into the nose . It is thus possible to produces

qund in this way, but in such cases we hav e a nasal one

a one .

(2 ) The v elum maybe raised and pressed back againstthe pharynx wall (PP) . In this way the passage into thenose is closed

,and the air is forced to pass through the month .

This is the position of the soft palate duringmouth breathing,

and also during the articulation of all English v owels andall consonants except the three just mentioned . This mayeasily be v erified . Let the student hold a mirror before hismouth in a good light , so as to see well into the inside . Let

him take in breath through the nose with the mouth Open,

and then let it out forcibly through the mouth . When takingthe breath in ,

it will be noticed that the v elum descendstowards the tongue , while in giv ing the breath out, if doneSharply , the v elum willbe seen to rise .

(3) The v elum may be lowered sufi‘

i ciently to allowboth passages to be utiliz ed at the same time . In thiscase the way into the nose and that into the mouth are bothfree

,some of the airbeing deflected into each . The resonance

of the nose is thus added to that of the month ,so that we hav e

nasal resonance together with the ordinary sound , and th isis what tak es place in the production of the F renchnasal v owels. The v elum is not completely lowered , but

sufficiently to allow part of the sound into the nasal cav itIt is ev ident that any v owel can thus be nasaliz ed , but in

French only the four already mentioned are thus affected .

The sounds [d] and [5] require good nasal resonance , while[053] and [5] require less. In the case of purely oral sounds,the v elum may sometimes fall a trifle , and a little air passesinto the nose . This iswhat frequently happens in Portugueseand in American English . Some Americans indeed producea defin ite nasal twang which does not belong to pure English .

A slight increase of ordinary nasal resonance is all that isrequired for the two latter sounds.

88 . There are some methods of dev eloping the nasal v owelSound in the case of those learners who find it difficult(1 ) Humming should be tried , for here the v elum is

lowered and the air passes through the nose . Sustain a

humming tone foracouple of seconds then allat once , without


understood that the French nasals cannot be properly producedin this way they require nasality throughout the irwholeduration, and not added at the end. The nasality commencos with the first v ibration of the v owel and finisheswith the last .

90. Another fault , ev en with some Frenchmen,is to sound

the n orm which follows in the ordinary Spelling. This wasthe correct pronunciation in olden times, and it still lurksin certain dialects, especially in the south of France but not

the slightest trace of these consonants Should now appear

in the pronunciation SO far as correct Parisian or northernFrench is concerned . The fault is Specially noticeable in thefollowing cases :

(1 ) W hen 11 comes before (1 ort, as in tante, plante, v iande.

The tendency to sound the n here is due to the fact that ntakes approximately the same tongue position as d or t (v iz .

tip of tongue against front of palate) , the only differencebeing that n requires the v elum down . In getting ready ,

therefore , to sound the d or t while the v elum is stillloweredfor the nasal v owel, there is an easy tendency to sound the n .

(2 ) W hen m comes before b or p, as in lampe, ombre,

jambon . Here the same cause operates, for m requires the

Closing of the lips, and this is precisely the position for b or p ,

the only difference being that in m the v elum is lowered . In

thinking,therefore

,of b or p too soon ,

while the v elum is stilldown for the nasal v owel, there is a tendency to sound the m .

(3) W hen 11 comes b e fore c (k ) org ,as in encore

,enclos,

anglais. Here the n is apt to become -ng, as this takes thesame tongue position as k or g, with the difference that it hasthe v elum down .

The remedy in all these cases is to finish the nasal v owelbefore beginning to pronounce the following consonant , i .e .

the v elum must be raised before the consonant is sounded .

As a help such words should b e practised in separate syllablesas van-ter, sen

-tir, jam-bon, en

-core.

THE NASAL [d]91 . This v owel is the nasaliz ed form of [o] , i .e. the mouth

is wide open as for the ordinary v owel, but the v elum hangsdown to permit the entrance of sound into the nose . Many

THE VOWELS 83

French Speakers put a touch of [0] into the sound bymakingthe point of articulation intermediate between [o] and [o] .In emphatic oraffected speech ,

indeed , and frequently amongchildren , [5] may tend to become full

It is represented in ordinary spelling by an , am, en,em,

aon, aen (or aén) , as plan [pld] , plante [pldxt] , champ [Id] ,gens temps [td] , faon [fd] , Caen [kd] . In one or two cases,

howev er, aon is pronounced [a5] , as Lycaon [lika5] , Pharaon[fara5];and before [11] it becomes [a] , as faonner [fane] ,paonne [pan] , paonneau [pano] , Laonnais [lane] , Craonne[kran] . In j ean the e is mute

92 . Owing to the variety of spelling referred to, many wordswith [d] are pronounced the same , though written differently(Homonyms) . Thus we hav e :Sang, sans, sens, sent , cent , c

’

en, S’

en (allpronouncedTan

,tant, taon,

tend,tends, temps, t

’

en (allpronounced

THE NASAL [5]93 This is not exactly the nasaliz ed form of but rather

of middle that is, a v owel intermediate between [o] and[0 ] (see 51 Indeed , some phoneticians would preferto write it But all that is needed is to round and project the lips a little more than for [o] , while at the same

time lowering the v elum . Careful practice of this will soongiv e the correct sound .

94 . The two v owels [d] and [5] Should be clearly dis

tinguished from each other. Many beginners fail to do thisthey pronounce both of them incorrectly

,replacing them by

a fully open [0] nasaliz ed . For [61] the tongue lies flat , andthe mouth is wide open , while for [5] the tongue rises a littleto the back , and the lips are closer and rounded . If thesecharacteristics are remembered

,there Should be no confusion .

95. The nasal [5] is represented in the current Spelling byon, om;and also by un

,um in foreign or borrowed words,

as conte [k51t] , nom [md] , lumbago [ldbago] , jungle [351gl] ,7'

unte [351t] .

THE NASAL [e’

]96. The sound [5] is really [ae] nasaliz ed, and ought to hav e

a Special symbol (not but as there is no advantage in


hav ing too many symbols, [5] is used by phoneticians. The

[ac] is the S outhern E nglish or American (not S cotch)sound of a in such words as man , mad,

rat,etc . Those who

hav e heard the query , Cab ,S ir in an English town will

rem ember the sound of the a. It is neither [8] nor [a] , butintermediate between . It is almost unknown in Scotland ,

but is the common sound of close [a] in most parts of southEngland andof America. The sound [5] is exactly the nasaliz edform of this English [ac] . Some students find it difficultto produce it , and are inclined to sound either pure [5] or

go to the other extreme and sound [a] , but if they will takeadv antage of the many opportunities of picking up the soundof the English orAmerican [ae] , allthey hav e to do is to giv eit a little tenseness and nasaliz e it .

97 . It occurs in spelling in a great v ariety of forms

wherev er there is an i ory followed byn orm . Therefore in ,

im , yn, ym , ain , aim, ein ,eim, are all pronounced as fin

[fE] , impét [épo] , synthese [Sdtexz ] nymphe [ndzf] , main [m5] ,faim [fd] , plein [p15] , Rheims Similarly ,

the syllable-oin becomes [wt] , as loin [lwé] , poing [pwfi] , coin [kwd] ,pointe [pwdzt] .

98. The v ariety of Spellings, as in the case of giv es rise

to numerous homonyms,as

Sain,saint

,sein

,seing,

ceins,ceint

,cinq (allpronounced

Vin,v ins

,v int

,v ingt , v ain ,

v ainc,v aincs (allpronounced

Tin,tins

,tint

,tain

,teins

,teint

,thym (allpronounced

99 . The nasal sound -en at the end of a syllable is pronounced [5] (not [d]) in the following cases

(1 ) In the term inations -ien,-yen ,

-éen,as bien [bje] , chien

[fjd] , paien [pajd] , citoyen [sitwajé] , chaldéen [kalded] .Deriv ativ es follow the same rule , as bienfaisantbz

'

entét etc.

(2 ) In certain tenses of v enir and tenir, with their deriv ativ es

,as v iens [v jd] , v iendrai [v jédre] , tiens [tjé] , maintien

[mdtjE] .(3) In many foreign words,1 as appendice [apddis] , benz ine[bdz in] , examen menthol [mdtol] , pentateuque

1 The reason forthis is that the syllable—en ,in becoming Frenchifi ed

,

’

can only do so directly by [e] , the sole nasalcorrespondi ng to e.

THE VOWELS 85

[p5tatoxk] , and all other words from Greek n évre (exceptperi tecéte [pdtkoxt] Also in S aint-Ouen [S5tw5] , and manyproper names

,especially in

-ens where the s is sounded,as

Martens, Camoens, S aint-Gaudens, etc.

In all other cases the syllable -en preserv es the [5] sound ,as client [klid] , orient [orjd] , expedient [ekspedjd] , audience

[odjdxs] .

THE NASAL [05 ]100. The oral v owel [oe] is [e] with the lips rounded , but

the nasal is a little more open : it is really the nasal

[ac] , i .e. with the lips rounded , and may thus be placedin the middle of the triangle opposite [m] (see triangle ,

Properly Speaking,it should not be represented phonetically

by the S ign [Oe] , but phoneticians hav e adopted this Sign

as representing the nearest French sound . To produce it

correctly ,all that is needed is either to nasaliz e [oe] , making

it at the same time a little more open , or to sound the

nasal [5] with lips a little rounded and pushed out . It is nota sound of frequent occurrence in French , apart from the

article nu. In ordinary spelling it is represented by un or

um, as brun [brde] , parfum It also occurs as eun

in ajeun [a and in Meung

101 . L iaison.

—Sometimes a final n (nev er m) , indicatingnasality, is carried forward in liaison ,

i .e . it is pronouncedb efore the next word if this begins with a v owel or h mute(see Chapter XXXIII) . But it is so sounded only in ad

jectiv es followed by a noun (e .g. commun accord) in mon ,

ton,son and in en

,on ,

un , rien , bien (and sometimes combien),when there is a direct connection between these wordsand the next, as in ilon a, on I talie, on apprend [ildna, dnitali ,5naprd] .

1 In such cases the v owel occasionally loses a littleof its nasality . The v owel -ain [5] in adj ectiv es is the mostsub j ect to this phenomenon , and frequently loses all the

nasality , the sound heard b eing that of the feminine

as certain auteur [serten otoexr] , un mien ami [05 mj en ami] .Similarly, we hav e an vain espoir, un ancien usage, un v ilain

enfant, en-plein air, le

- moyen age, au prochain avertissement,1 There is no liaison

,there fore

,in such expressions as vain et faux ,

ancien et de’

modé,bon arien ,

ban atirer,un ou deux

,nu et un font deux ,

l’

un est v enu, parlez

-en avotre pere, a-t-ou été, rien ou peu de chose, noussommes bi en i ci , bi en et v i te

,etc .


etc. The v owel [5] loses all its nasality in bon, as un bon

éleve [oe bon elexv ] . Compare bonheur, bonhomme. In the

case of words ending in -in , denasaliz ation only occurs withdiv in

, particularly in the expression div in enfant, the soundhere being also that of the feminine [div in dfd] . It is foundfrequently, too,

in such phrases as div in Achille, div in Ulysse,div in Homero etc. But in all other cases the nasal sound i s

retained in the liaison , as malin esprit [mal5n espri] , fin esprit[f5n espri] , etc. In the case of words in -nu, denasaliz ation ,

once common ,is now unknown , and we consequently hav e nu

homme [o’

én om] , un ami [Gen ami] , un nu [den nu d un

[Gen a l’

un et l’

autre [lo‘

én e loxtr] , aucun homme [ok o‘

én om] ,chacun un [[akO

‘

en do] . The words en,on

, rien , bien, combien

are nev er denasaliz ed , doub tless owing to the fact that theycannot hav e a feminine ,

as ye n’

en ai pas [3o ndn e po] , on a

dit [5n a di] , rien a dire [rj5n a di ir] , bien aimable [bj5n emabl] ,combien avez vous de [k5bj5n av ev u do

The modern tendency is to denasaliz e as little as possible ,

owing no doub t to the perpetual confusions that would resultbetween the masculine and feminine forms

,although many

outstanding teachers preferdenasaliz ation as more in line withthe dev elopment of the language . Such words as ah -née,solen-nel, ardem-ment, etc were once nasal.

102 . The v owel triangle maynow be fully constructed as

follows. Sounds not occurring in English are marked with anasterisk .

wm'

aufwnmt'?

em

_ nC

-ng

um1111

THE VOWELS

EXERCISES

Emmailloter, emmancher, emm énager

Enamourer,ennuyer, enhardir

Chanter,conte

,denté

,lenteur

,

aimanté,

teinte,

sainteté,

fonte

Grandeur,ronde

, peindre , con

traindre

Embleme,

nombreux,

beux,ombre

Impossible , empreindre , lam

piste , umpeu

plom

Bancal,encre

,vaincre

,encourir

Songiot , anglican ,engloutir,

engager

Bane, quand, blanche , change ,

rendre

Tambour,camp , rampe , Gambetta

,Adam

Henri,Rouen

,mentir, parent ,

tente

Temps, temple , empire , LuxembourgPaon

,taon

,Laon

,Craon

, Saint

Saéns, Jordaéns

Ton,vont

,long, onction,

bontéNom

, plomb , pompe , combler,prom t

Cumberand,Humboldt

, punch ,

secundo

Vin,v inmes

, grincer, instinct ,Sphinx

Impur, timbre , simple , EdimbourgLynx ,

syntaxe , syndic, syncope

Cymbale , Olympe , thym,sym

pathie

Bain,maint

,vaincs

,contraindre

Daim,essaim

,Paimboeuf

Sein, peintre , fe inte , rein ,

teint

dmajote , dmdje , dmena3e

dnamure,dnq ije , dardi zr

jdte , k 5:t,ddtc

,ldtoe zr

,

emdte,t5zt

,S 5tte

,fdxt

grddoexr, r51d, p5xdr, k dtr5zdr

dblezm,n5bro

, p15bo,5 :br

5posibl, dpr5xdr, ldpist , 0°

e po

bdkal,dzkr

,v 5zkr

,dkuri zr

Sdglo , dglikd, dgluti zr, dga3e

bd,kd

,bldzj , jdz3, rdzdr

tdbuxr,kd

,rdxp , gdb eta, add

dri,rwd

,mdti zr

, pard, tdxt

td,tdxpl, dpixr, lyksdbuzr

pd, td, 1d, krd, S 5sdxs, 3orddxs

t5,v 5

,15

,5k sj5 , b 5te

115, p15, pdzp ,

k dble, p 1 5

k 5berldzd, 5bol, p51] , sog5do

v 5,v 5zm

, gr5se , 5st5, sf5zk s

5pyzr, t5zbr, n pl, edébugr

l5zks,s5tak s

,S 5dik

,s5kop

s5bal, ol5zp ,t5

,S 5pati

b 5,m 5

,v 5

,k 5tr5zdr

d5,as5

, p 5boef

S 5, p5xtr, f5xt , 1 5, t5

3w5zdr, pw51t , pw5zdr, lw5t5

88

L ien,vaurien

,Julien

,bohémien,

paien ,moyen ,

doyen ,europeen

ien

etc .

For

e ign

B enjoin,vendetta

,crescendo

,

blende,

Spencer, agenda,mémento

, pensum ,B en jamin

,

benz ine,mentor

,Rubens

,

B engale

Lundi,

aucun,

alun ,tribun

,

défuntHumble

,Humbert

,

emprunteremprunt ,

L e commandant entre dans le camp .

Jean plante sa tente devant lo banc.

Ton oncle chante la seconde Chanson.

Nous allons comp ter nos compagnons.

Cinq amins vinrent joindre lessaim .

L e nain a besoin de pain 11 a faim .

Chacun emprunte humblement aquel

qu’

un.

Quelques-uns des tribuns sont ajeun.

Quandlo Hun en entend lo son,1] crai nt .

L e garcon est tombé jusqu’

au fond.

Ton enfant a bon nombre de dents.

L e parent vient d’

entrerdans lamaison.

Jean de Meung, écrivain francais, est

défunt .

Ma tante lave son linge dans la fontaine .

Elle emmene un enfant de quinz e ans.

Pendant longtemps nous manquons desavon .

L e chi en mange entiérement la viande .

L es olympiens sont importuns.

MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

lj5, v orj5, 3ylj5, b oemj5,paj5, mwaj5, dwaj5, oerope5

b53w5, V 5deta,k res5do ,

bl5xd,

sp5sezr, a35da,

mem5t0, p5som ,

b 53am5,b5z in

,m5to1r

,ryb 5zs, b 5gal

ldedi,okde

,alde

,tribde, defo

’

e

dezbl,deb exr

,dprd

z

,dprdcte

lo k omddd dztro dd lo kd.

3d pldzt sa tdzt dov d lo bd.

t5n 5 1k lo jdzt la sogdzd jdsd.

nuz a15 k 5te no k dpapd.

55 gam5 v 5zr3w5zdro lesé.

lo 115 a bozw5 do p 5 : 11 a fi .

jahdedpro’

Ent dablomdak elk d’

e .

k elk oz de de tribd’

e sdt a 3663.

kd lo de dn dtd lo S 5,ilkr5.

lo garsd e t5b e 3ysk o f5.

t5u did a b 5 n5 :bro do dd.

lo pard v j5 d dtrc dd la m ez 5.

3d do mde,ekriv 5 frdse

,e

defde.

ma tdxt lazv 5 5 1513dd la f5ten.

eldmen den did do k 5: z d.

pddd 15td nu mdk 5 do sav 5.

lo jjé md:3dtjermd la v jdzd.

le z ol5pj5 S 5t 5p ort6e.


terminates the pronunciation of a word . There may be a

written consonant after it , but if this is not sounded, thev owel is Spoken of as final, and is short . Thus the v owelis short in lit tre

‘

s [tre] , bas [bo] , trop [tro] , tot [to] , bout[bu] , genet [3one] , mdt [mo];in circumflexed v erbal endings, as aimdt [ema] , ~f it [fi] , repu

'

t [rosy];and similarlyin the final syllables of the following : beaucoup [boku] ,objet [ob3e] , frangais [frdse] , re

’

solu chapeau [j apo] ,profond [profd] .As English final v owels are generally long and thus differ

from French ones,the student Should be on his guard . The

English words lea and toe, for example , are by no means the

same as the French lit and to‘ t, howev ermuch the lattermaybe stressed .

If the v owel is followed by e mute , to signify the feminine ,sometimes it is giv en a slight lengthening (denoted phonetically by one dot) , as venue forme

’

e amie

This is done in certain districts, such as Switz erland , and a

little ev erywhere in emphatic declamation or sentimentalutterance (e .g. ma bien but beyond this the additionof e mute makes practically no difference in the length of

final v owels. Thus, venu and v enue, allé and allée, donné

and donnée are pronounced the same . There may be a slightShade of difference in stress, the feminines hav ing the accentmore firmly on the final syllable , but in regard to Durationthere is practically no distinction in ordinary speech . If

the French desire to draw Special attention to the feminine

form of the word ,they prefer to sound the e mute , as is

generally done in poetry, rather than lengthen the finalv owel.Thus, v enue in such a case becomes [v onyo] or ev en [v onyoe] ,rather than

(3) The v owels [a, o, and the fournasals are natur

ally long . It is only when final that they are pronouncedshort (in accordance with the rule just mentioned) , as dégcit[dego] , rét [ro] , bleu [blo] , gargon [garsd] . W henev er theyare non-final, that is, whenev er they do not terminate thepronunciation of the word , they are as a rule either long or

half-long, being long when stressed (eitherunder the tonicaccent orunderemphasis) , and half-long when unstressed .

1

1 The vowel [o] perhaps conforms less to this rule than [o] , andthe nasals.

THE VOWELS 91

This is the case whether they are circumflexed ornot . Hence

these v owels are long (assuming them to be stressed) in plate[po it] , tome [toxin] , meute [moxt] , jeilne [31em] , danse [ddis] ,feinte [f5it] , humble blonde [b151d];while they are

half-long (assuming them to be unstressed) in pdtéroser y

'

e iiner danseur peinturelundi longueur

There are exceptions in words containing the group -rwdSome of these hav e the v owel [o] Short , ev en though it isnon-final. Thus, droite, adroite, étroite, froisse, froide, roide

,

paroisse hav e all Short But apart from these exceptions,the group

-rwd maintains the [o] long, as croire [krwoxr] ,croise [krwoxz ] , croitre [krwoxtr] , etc.

EXERCISE — In the following table the v owels [a, o, o] ,and the nasals are arranged in groups of short , long, and

half-long. They should be read from left to right alongthe lines

, and practised carefully till the right length is

acquired .

Short H alf -long

1 Half-length is not marked as a rule in this manual, but is includedin short .

’


(4) In regard to the remaining sev en v owels [i , e, a, o,

u, y, .oe] , note the following rules

1 . W hen theyreceiv e the Tonic Accent, that is, whenthey are in the final syllable of a stress group ,

they are longif followed bya lengthening consonant . The lengtheningconsonants are the v oiced fricativ es 1 [v ,

z, 3, j ] and final [1 ]

(which meansan rthat terminates the pronunciation of aword) .Thus, these v owels are long in cave [kaxv ] , pensive [pdsixv ] ,cerise [sori iz ] , trapez e [trapexz ] , plage [pla13] , colle

‘

ge [kole13] ,soleil [solexj] , feuille [foexj] , gloire [glwaxr] , vert [v exr] , aime-ye[emex3] .Under this section

,howev er

,the following qualifications

require to b e added(a) These v owels are not only long be fore final [r] , but

som etim es also (especially in poetry) 2 when the [r] is preceded by a v oiced plosiv e [b , d , g] , as in ne

‘

gre, aigre,v inaigre, maigre , pegre , ce

‘

dre,Phe

‘

dre,etc . They are almost

always long in the termination -evre , as le‘

vre, orfevre, plevre,S evres, L efevre, etc . But if the r is followed by anothersounded consonant , ev en a lengthening one ,

the v owelbecomes

short , as in cirque , myrte, terne, alerte,meurtre

, absurde,

marge, carte ,charge, larve, serve , marbre, porte, lourde, ours

[urs] , etc.

(b) In Paris at least , if the v owel is followed by [b , d ,or g] alone , w ithout [r] , it is frequently sounded a littlelong, as glebe [glexb ] , plebe [plexb] , robe [roxb] , dogue [doig] ,aide [exd] , il plaide [plaid] . The reason is that the resonance

which precedes the sound of a v oiced consonant retards theexplosion of it and renders the v owela little long. Perhapshalf-length

’

best describes these cases.

(c) The v owel is long in tons [tuxs] , and v eule [v oezl] ,these two words being distinguished in pronunciation from

tousse [tus] , and veulent [v oel] . The words coule, roule, c’

oronle

1 S ee 1 0 7 .

1 There Should,of course , b e only one pronunciation both in prose

and poetry, but the difi culty sometimes o f finding rhymes leads to a

poetic licence;e .g. finals with a grave accent are frequently rhymed

wi th those having a circumflex ,as cre

‘

che with preche, centieme with

B ohe‘

me, penetre with fenetre, etc . This is largely due to the foot that

long or circumflexed finals are not so numerous as the others. In

ordinary conversation most people would pronounce -e‘

bre,

-edre,

-egre,etc.

,fairly short .

THE VOWELS 93

are also regarded as hav ing a long [11] in careful Speech ,

but in a familiar phrase like 9a roule bien , where the tonicaccent is on bien,

the v owel [u] is not any longer than inroute .

2 . W hen these v owels rece iv e the Tonic Accent,but

are followed by a consonant other than a lengtheningone , they are generally short, as time [lim] , sale [sol] , renne

[ren] , sotte [sot] , bouche [buj] , minute [m inyt] , neuf [noef] .

But the following exceptions of importance Should b e

noted

(a) These v owels, if circumflexed, are , generally speak ing,long, as téte, béte, chaine

,maitre

,cloitre , abime

,etc .

1 At

the same time this is by no means a fixed rule , as thereare numerous examples of the opposite . Thus, the circum

flexed v owel is generally short in etes (especially when un

stressed) , arréte, pele-mele , gite, ile, épitre, dime, dine, flute,buche, croute, voute, as well as in nous eumes, vous eutes, and

v erbalendings ames, -ates, —imes, - ites,

(b) When one of these v owels precedes a sounded S

in the ordinary spelling (mostly Greek and Latin words) ,it is generally pronounced long, as Cortes [korfais] , iris[irixs] , Minos [minois] , Brutus [brytyxs] . At the same time

,

many educated people pronounce it short in such cases;and it is generally short in jadis, cassis

,mats

, v is (a screw) ,sus, detritus, plus (in those cases where s is sounded) , burnous,os, (23, etc.

(0) The v owel [e] is nearly always long in the term inations -aisse , -aime

,-ém e

,-ene

,and sometimes in the

term inations -aine,e ine , as baisse [bexs] , graisse [grexs] ,

f aime [3azm] , the‘

me [te im] , sce‘

ne [sexn] , haine [em] , reine

[rein] . But exceptions are common ,especially in the -aine

group and altogether the v owel [8] b efore a non-lengtheningconsonant shows such considerable v ariation that few definiterules can be laid down . Some speakers make it long,

othersshort in the same words. The principal thing is the timbreor essential quality, which remains inv ariably open .

1 This is due to the fact that the circumflex accent almost alwaystakes the place of a letter now discarded

, generally an s,the presence

o f which lengthened the vowel. Thus,téte used to b e Spelt teste

,

fete was feste, etc .


In some cases of [e] , the Quantity is ameans of distinguishing words from each other, as, for example

S hort S hort

Ils S’

aident ils cedent

Ils paraissent la paresse

Scene,Seine saine (also long)Veine vaine

L’

aine laine

EXERCI SE—The tables below contain the sev en v owels re

ferred to , arranged as longand Short . They should be practisedboth down the columns and along the lines, until the properduration is acquired . Such practical v owel-exercises willnotonly ensure ease of production ,

but will enrich and amplifythe tone

LONG VOWELS

encore

THE VOWELS 95

SHORT VOWEL S

gueule

av eugle

boeuf

-eme Seme , sement, deuxieme,troisieme

, quatrieme, etc.

Mene , menent, égréne , asséne ,etc. (and generallyallv erbalforms in -eneror-éner) ,

Hellenes, Helene, etc.

-aine S emaine , fon taine , plaine , chfitelaine , douzaine , laine, b edaine , S edaine , etc.

-eine Peine, haleine , Madeleine , v erv eine , baleine , etc.

3. W hen these sev en v owels are unstressed , they aregenerally S hort, the pronunciation gliding easily and to

some extent rapidly ov er them ,as e .g. philosophique, muni

cipalite'

, politiquement, protectorat. This is particularly S O

in closed syllables, whether the v owel be followed by a

lengthening consonant or not , as corset,expulser

, amnistie,colporteur, parfaitement. Hence we hav e fort [foxr] , but forcer[forse];dur [dyxr] , but durcir [dyrsixr] f euille [foelj] . butfeuilleton [foejt5];it so lév e [law] , but leve-toi [lev twa] poivre[pwaxvr] , but poivrier [pwav rie] caréme [karaim] , butcareme-prenant [karem proud] . This rule of course applies to

all the closed syllables in a stress-group apart from the ao

cented one ,inasmuch as a stress-group is one idea, and

thus equiv alent to one word , as la v ieille femme [lav jejfam] ,tous leurs journaux [tuloer3urno] , cc nerf de bceuf [sonerdoboef] ,l’

amour propre [lamurpropr] . Such words as meme, brave,treiz e, honne

‘

te, naturally preserv e their long v owel when at

the end of a stress-group , as lo bruit meme [mexm] , nu hommebrave [braxv ] , nous sommes treize [treiz ] , une fille honnete


[onezt] but this v owel becomes sensibly short if the orderof the words is changed , as le meme bruit [mem] , un brave

soldat [brav ] , les treiz e garcons [trez ] , une honnetefille [onet] .In open pretonic syllables

,on the other hand , especially

if in itial, these v owels incline to be half-long before thelengthening consonants [v ,

z,r] . Thus Paris raison

saisir bureau pourrir[pu 'rixr] , ironssoufi

’

rira armoirie plaidoirieetc. In héros the v owel is fully half-long while inhe

’

raut it is short [ero] . But ev en in these cases manyspeakers would regard the v owel as ‘

Short , ’ and the studentmust beware against giv ing it too much length .

In Open syllables also (only in a few cases in closedones) these v owels are generally half-long in those cases

where they are long in the root-word or stem ,i .e . where

they are long when the same syllable is final. In such cases

it is ev ident that the v owel, being long by nature , may lose

its stress but cannot lose all its length . For example , the

root-words v ive and sur both hav e a long v owel according torule . Consequently this v owel preserv es some of its lengthin the deriv ativ es, as v ivant, v ivacité , av iv er, assuré , surement,etc. Similarly , the v owel is long in the stem -words aime

,

naisse, pleur, clair, and so it mai ntains half-length in deriv ativ es

,as aimable naissant pleurer

clairement It Should be noted ,howev er, that the

half-length disappears if the root-word ends in [3] or [j ](though these are lengthening consonants) , as orage [ora13] ,but orageux [ora3e] courage [kura13] , but courageux [kura3o]fouille [fuij] , but fouiller [fuj e] .The abov e cases of half-length in unstressed syllables do

not form a large class comparativ ely, and many of themonly occur in careful or impressiv e speech . It Should b e

understood that in the case of these sev en v owels the greatmajority of them

,when unstressed

,are pronounced short .

Indeed ,in the case of all v owels, the sound b ecomes the

1 Examples o f this rule are very common . Thus,from the root

words pi erre, serre,terre

,brev e

,we have half-long vowels in pierreux ,

empi errer, serrer,serrure

,terreau

,terrer

,enterrer

,briev ement

,brie

‘

v eté,

e tc . W e may add adverbs in —e‘rement (as fi érement, amerement,

many verbs in —iser, -ouser,e tc .

, many in-rer (as murer, bourrer, fourrer,

lourer,empirer, and most verbs in -eurer or -currer (as beurrer,

désheurer,écceurer

, pleurer, leurrer, In verbs in -eurer or -eurrer

the vowel i s fai rly long, except in demeurer, fleurer, efi‘leurer.


pasala toucher, c’

est que je n’

avaispas d’

assez bonnes

Au reste, je me figurais, ala vue des étoiles, que lo cielétait

percé d’

une infinité de petits trouS par 011 la pluie tombait surla terre

,comme par un crible, et que les étoiles n

’

étaient que

la lumiere de Dieu, qui sortait , la nuit , par ces petits trous.

Cette derniere idée n’

était pas si enfantine .

”—BERNARDIN DE

SAINT-PIERRE .

PHONETIC SPELL iNG 1

3am suv ]e k etd dfd, 3o mete forme dez ide ase S5gyljexr dysolexj e dy sjel. 3o krwoje ko l Solexj so lv e derjexryn m5tape s kufe dd lameir, ko lsjel etet yn v ut k i sabese v eir lorizd

,

do sorto k o 3pdsa ko,Si 3parv one 3yskola, 3o srez obli3o d

marje kurbe, sd kwa 3o 11 1 kosre la text k51tro lo firmamd.

3dtropri O'

e 3uxr dat51dr a lekstremite d la vut selest;oprezavwarmar] e yn oexr, vwajd kelete tu3u1ra lamem distdxs do

mwa, 3d k5k1y k ilj av e tro lw5, me3ndreste po mw5 persuadekel egz iste, e ko Si 3o 11 parv one p0 2 a la to] e, Se ko 3nav e

po dase bon 3dib . o rest , 39 m figyre, a la vy dez otwal,ko

lo sjel ete perse dyn 5finite do pti tru par u la plqi t5be syr

la te ir, kom par 07: kribl, e k lez otwal nete k la lymjexr do

djo,k i sorte, la nqi , par se pti tru. set dernjexr ide nete po

Si dfdtin .

—bernard5 do 55 pjexr.

1 Half-length is not marked in the phonetic spelling, but is regardedas Short .

PART II : THE CONSONANTS

CH A PTE R XX I I

INTRODUCTORY

105 . A Consonant, as already defined is a soundcaused by friction or stoppage of the breath somewhere inthe mouth ,

” that is to say,it results essentially from some

obstacle , and is thus distinguished from a v owel, which isa sound modified in the resonance chambers of the mouth ,

but hav ing a free unobstructed passage . Thus, [S] and [f]are examples of consonants produced by friction (owing to

the narrowing of the passage) , while [k] and [t] are examples

of stoppage .

106. Consonants are div ided into v oiced and unv oiced,

and it is essential that the student should Clearly understandthe difference . When the expiratory current is aecom anied

‘byg zibrationo f ,the v ocal chords, the consonant is

‘

Sai to’

be

v oiced;otherwise, it is called unv oiced . Thus, [v ] is

'

Voiced, the air being set in v ibration in passing through thev ocalchords, while [f]

'

is unv oiced , the airb eing non-v ibrating.

Indeed, it may be said that [v ] and [f] are v oiced and un

v oiced forms of the same consonant . A Similar remarkapplies to [z ] and [S] , [b] and [p] , [d] and [t] , [g] and [k] , [3]and [I] . It is thus ev ident that consonants go in pairs, eachv oiced consonant hav ing an unv oiced one . The consonants[1, m , n ,

r] are only found v oiced as a rule in French , but theirunv oiced forms

,denoted phonetically by [l, m, n, 1 ] occur

occasionally after v oiceless consonants owing to assimilation,

as in peuple [poepl] , quatre [katr] , etc. , and aregfound freelyin other langudges. Voiced consonants are sometimes calledsoft, and unv oiced hard . This is due to the fact that in theformer case part of the force is spent in the v ibration of the

v ocal chords, and the resulting sound has a soft , musicalquality, while in the latter case the force of the breath isunweakened and strikes the earmore forcibly .


The distinction between v oiced and unv oiced consonantsplays an important part in French pronunciation, and cannotbe too strongly marked . Students who hav e difficulty inthe matter Should practise the two forms between v owels.

Thus, [afa] and [av a] , [asa] and [az a] , [apa] and [aba] , etc.

They should then pass on to words, such as the following,

between which there exists no other difference than betweentheir v oiced and unv oiced consonants

poisson, poison les soeurs, les heureschoix ,

j oie sans sav oir, sansav oir

pelle , belle trois cents,trois ans

coup, gofit iltance,ildanse

107 . In a book of this kind , based on phonetics, the orderof the usual alphabet is meaningless. The consonants musthere be grouped according to the manner of their formationand the place of their articulation . The following tablerepresents this grouping, with the unv oiced consonant placedimmediately after its corresponding Voiced one . The threesemi-consonants [w,

j , q] are included ,to Show their exact

position from the consonantalpoint of v iew .

Dental Palatal Velar Uvular

E xplosives b, p

Nasals

Fricatives (w,vy) z

,s 3, j (j , j) (w v )

(11. I1) (11. q)

Trills

Laterals

108 . The horiz ontal div isions, fiv e in number, representthe fiv e different ways in which the consonants are formed

(1 ) Explosiv es These are produced by the air passagesbeing completely closed, and then suddenly opened, resultingin a kind of explosion .

1 0 2 MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

consonants are mute , as galop [galo] , progres [progre] , lent[1d] and if a word ends in three consecutiv e consonants,the last two are generally mute , as corps [koxr] , temps [td] ,rompt 7

'

e perds [peir] . Under this rule is included thev erbal ending -nt (in -ent) , as ils ouvrent [uxvr] , ils allaient

[ale] ils parlent [parl] . In most cases the final consonantsf , l, and in many cases c

, r, are pronounced , howev er, as

tarif [tarif] , industriel [5dystriel] , parc [park] , hiver [iv exr] .There are , of course ,

exceptions to these rules;and as a

general principle it may be laid down that final consonantstend to b e mute in words that are popular and in ev erydayuse . The more learned or rare a word is

,the greater

likelihood is there that its final consonant is pronounced .

CH APT E R XXI I I

THE LATERAL CONSONANT [11

111 . For the English [1] the fore—tongue frequently touchesthe hard palate too far behind , and in some cases ev en curls

backwards as in the accompanying diagram . This habitlessens the clearness of the [l] and of the v owel following.

For the French sound , the tongue Should touch the gums

immediately behind the teeth ,as in the case of the other

dentals [t , d , etc.

Frequent position of tongue Position required for

forEnglish [1] F rench [1]

F IG . 2

11 2 . Reference has already been made 78) to the ter

mination -il after a v owel being pronounced with the soundll] . as corail [koraxl] , conseil [kdsexj] , fenouil [fonuxl] , ceil

[oexj] .

1 Three other words must be included under thisrule , v iz . gentilhomme [3dtijom] , grésil [grez ixj] , mil

2[mixj] .

S imilarly, we hav e referred 77) to the combination -ill

aS being also pronounced [j ] after a v owel and [ij] after a

consonant . Thus, grenouille [gronuxj] , fouiller [fuje] , que

7"aille [all] , de

’

tailler [detaje] , abeille [abel , veiller [v ej e] ,fille [fixj] , griller [grij o] .

113. In the case of -ill, the sound formerly used waslmouille

’

(represented phonetically by Some Speakers,1 The termination -oil

, however, is pronounced [wal] , as in poilwal] .2 English : millet.


who try to use this old sound still, pronounce it [lj] , as

souiller [sulje] , piller [pilj e] and this pronunciation is v eryprev alent in some districts of B elgium and v ery common

throughout France in the fourwords meilleur, ailleurs, cuillere,juillet. But this is an incorrect imitation of

‘

lmouillé,’

and

confuses such words as souiller and soulier, piller and pilier,railler and rallier, fusiller and fusilier, etc. The true soundof [K] , which is a palatal-lateral (see table , may be

produced by sounding [l] with the tip of the tongue

pressed against the lower teeth . If the tongue be keptin this position , and the forepart of the blade be raised againstthe front ridge of the hard palate , a true sound of [A] is

produced . The consonant is identical with the Italian gli

(Broglie) the Spanish ll(Llerena) , andthe Prov encallh (Milhau)It is stillcommon in Switz erland and Southern France ,

whereit surv iv es as a prov incialism ,

but it has completely dis

appeared from normalFrench in Spite of the effortsof orthoepiststo retain it , and the sound used now, as already stated, is theliquid one [j] , heard also for llin Spanish America.

114. There are a few exceptions in which -ill after a con

sonant is pronounced [il] instead of [ij] . These are chieflyamong the cases where the l in Latin was not followed byan i , as v ille [v il] , from v illa,

tranquille [trdk il] from tranquilla.

But wherev er there was an i following,the sound [ij] occurs,

asfille [hij] from filia, famille [fam ij] from familia,etc. The

[il] sound is the proper one etymologically for the former

group , but [ij] has largely inv aded this domain .

Among the cases of the sound [11] may be mentioned thefollowing : bacille, billevesée, billion

, calv ille, capillaire,codicille, distiller, instiller

,lilliputien , mille , maxillaire,

myrtille, pupille, pusillanime, scille, tranquille, vaudev ille,v erticille, v ille, with their deriv ativ es. To these must beadded allwords commencingwith ill (e .g. illustre, Thereare also sev eral proper names preserv ing the [il] sound ,

suchas Achille, Cyrille, Gille, L ille, Mabille, S illery,

etc. , and thosebeginning with Vill or Mill (Villele, Villemain ,

Millet,Millerand, For some words there is hesitation between[il] and [ij] . Thus, scintiller, vaciller, osciller, titiller, are

heard with both sounds, but [ij] seems to prev ail in the two

former [S5tije] , [vasije] , and the [il] sound in the two latter[oSile , titile] .

1 06

words,


celui-ci ? [keskimvo suisi] . The tendency to contract suchhowev er, becomes a careless habit , and Should be

strictly confined to colloquial conv ersation .

1

1 Another popular tendency,but much worse

,consists in doubling

l after a pronoun ,as :

to tl’

ai dit [3tol lo di] .j e ll

’

ai ou [3ol le vy] , tu ll’

as dit [tyl la di] , j eThi s is doubtless after the analogy of ill

’

a vu,

ill’

a dit,etc . , but is not more excusable on that account .

EXERCISES

Louis leur lit la le ttre de Lucie .

L ili a In le livre de Jules .

Voila, la lune et les étoiles luisent lLa lumiere de la lampe luit loin .

Le lilas

l

est joli lo long de l’

allee .

Apresl’Attila

,

Mute

Familiar

’

Ag{ésilas

,H élas l Mais apres

olal (B OILEAU)L

’

anguille était tranquille .

Il entra dans la ville avec sa

béquilleElle perca sa pupille avec unc

ai guille .

J ’ai v u lo pillage do village .

Sa fam ille demeurait aS év ilL es filles de Guillaume sont

gentilles .

Fournil,fraisil

, gentil, outil,

11yadesaulnesaChatellerault .

Mon fils s’amo so tout son 50 111.

Le cul-de-jatt e m ’

a donné deSaulx .

Quinault étai tun poete francais .

Il se tate lo pouls avant de

11 me semble qu’

ils n’

ont rien .

Ilme sait pas cc qu’ildit .

Ilfaut qu’

ilvienne quelque fois .

Celui—Ci peut tuer quelqu’

un .

Quelques-uns parlent comme

celui -la.

furni,frez i

, 3dti , uti , foni

11 j a de z o :n a jotelro .

m 5 fis samyzz tu 35 su .

lo kyd3at ma done dez o .

kino ete oe p oe :.t frdse .

il so to :t lo pu av d do

parti :r.

imsdzblki 11 5 rj e .

insepo skidi .

ifo k i V ] en k ek fwa

sqisi po tq e k ak ée.

k ek z oe parlk om sqila.

lwi loer li la letro do lysi .

1111 a ly lo li :v ra do 3yl

vwa ,la la lyn e lez e twal

lqi :z 1

la lymje :1 do la ldxp lq i 1w5.

lo lilo e 3011 lo 15 d lale .

apre la3e z ilo zs, elo :s l m ez

apre latila, ola l (bwalo)ldgi :j e te trdkil.

il dtra dd la v il av ek sa

beki zj .

cl p ersa sa pypil aysk yn68111

'

13e vy 19

0131121 13dy vila:3.

sa fami :j domoere a se v il.

lo fi :j do gi jo : in S 5 3dti :j .

CH A PTE R XX I V

THE TRILLS [r] and [R]

117 . This consonant is pronounced more strongly than inEnglish , being always rolled .

’

In the South of England andalso in America it is generally ignored altogether, unless itbegins a syllable . For example , farm is pronounced v erymuch like [form] , fairlike [fexo] , and so on . In the North of

England and in Scotland it is different , the [1 ] being usuallywell ‘

rolled ,

’

but in otherEnglish-speaking parts the‘

roll

is nev er heard except in excited or emphatic speech . The

student who wishes to Speak French properly, must therefore acquire the French [r] , either the palatal one (phoneticsymbol

n[r]) or the uvular one (phonetic both of Which

are 1 0 ed.

’

118. In the palatal [r] , the air is stopped by raising the

point of the tongue to the palate , but the tongue is

continually giv ing way and reinstating itself in the sam e

place , S O that there is practically a continuous flow of

air,with a k ind of trill or trembling. The diagram in

§ 1 1 2 ,for the French illustrates also the tongue position

for It is the old Roman , as well as the Italian and the

Spanish sound of the consonant , and being much clearer

than the uvular one ,is generally the one used in Singing,

in

oratorical declamations, and in the French theatres, and isv ery acceptable in ordinary conv ersation . If the learner has

any difficulty in its production , he Should practise [tr] , as

the tongue position of [t] is somewhat Similar to that of [r] .Continuous practice willproduce a good palatal [r] .1 19 . The uvular sound [R] is known as the Parisian r,

’

or‘

r grasseyé .

’ 1 It is common in Paris and in the large

1 The term grasseyer, however, strictly means‘

to speak thick , ’ tob e unable to pronounce well certain letters, r among others, and con

sequently it i s applied in certain districts to designate unpleasant,muffled varieties of [R] .


towns of the north and west , and is regarded as more

aristocratic perhaps than the palatalsound , andas belongingmore to cultiv ated society . The rolling

’

is produced bythe uv ula v ibrating on the back of the tongue , as in the

accompanying diagram , and the tongue -

point , instead of

being raised against the hard palate ,is kept down and pressed

against the lower teeth . This r is frequent in the north of

England and in Scotland, giv ing rise to the Northumbrian

and Scotch burr, and is not difficult to acquire . When one

fl m f<'

gargles, for example ,a series of uvular r

’

S is produced , andthey are uttered ev en more energetically, although innocently,by those who snore . It only remains to sound them withoutthese accompaniments. Let the learner pronounce [Ro] , asif he were going to gargle , and the result will be a Parisian

[R] , with the uv ula trembling on the tongue .

1

1 2 0. One or other of these sounds is absolutely necessaryto good French Speech , and a choice Should be made betweenthem . Many excellent teachers insist on the palatal formand condemn the uv ular. The former certainly is the more

widely used , apart from the large towns, andhas the adv antage1 The uvular r is largely a modern substitute for the palatal one ,

although it is difficult to determ ine the approximate date when it

becam e popular. In Moliere’

s time the palatal form was general inPari sian speech ,

as is evident from L e B ourgeois Gentilhomme (I I . Sc . 4)L e r se forme en portant lo bout de la langue jusqu’

au haut do palais,de Sorte qu

’

étant frdlée par l’

air qui sort avec force ,elle lui cede et

rev i ent toujours ou meme endroit , faisant une maniere de tremblement

Rra.

”The some description is found in Cordemoy

’

s D iscours physiquede la parole The theory that the uvular r was introduced byL es P récieuses has little or no historical support . It is more likelyto have spread as a careless pronunciation of the palatal one ,

whichrequires more energy of tongue , and is not easily learned by children

especially.

I I o MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

added the adv erb volontiers [v oldtje] , monsieur [mosjo] ,gars [go] , déjeuner (breakfast) , gouter (lunch) , diner (dinner) ,souper (supper) , parlor (Speech) , poulailler, oreiller, and one

or two others.

EXERCISES

René tarde alire leurlettre .

Robert regarde les roses rouges .

Rira bien qui rira lo dernier.

Richard arrose les arbres fruitiers .

Pierre reviendra mercredi aParis .

Sacroupe se recourbe en replis tortueux .

(RAC IN E)e ars

"erre en ces rocs on artout seP r ] P

héri sse . (L EM IERRE )[ezr] Cher, enfer, for, v er

,fier

,hier

,

hiver, mer,t i ers

,acquiers

Aster,tender, revolver, pater

Jupiter, Quimper, Esther,

Auber

-ier Premier,dernier, rosier, S ingulier,armurier

,barbi er, Chandeher,

pommi er

-yer Ecuyer, foyer, voyer, noyer,

Clayer

L eger, m énager, Alger, Roger,Tanger

-cher Cocher, rocher, toucher, vacher,Larcher

rone tard a li :rloorletr.

rob ezrrogardo lo ro zz ru13.

ri :ra bj5 k i ri :ra lo dernje .

rij'

a:r aro : z le z arbro frqitje .

pjezr.

rov jedra m erkrodi a

pan .

sa krup so rokurb d rapli

tortqo . (rasin)3o pa:r, 3azrd se rok u parto

so eris . (lomje zr)

Jezr, die :r, fe :r,

v ezr,f j e:r

,

jezr, ive :r, mezr

,tjezr,

ak je :r

astexr,tddezr

,revolve :r

,

pate :r

3ypitexr, k epezr, estezr, obe:r

prom je , dernje , roz je ,S égylje , armyrje , barbje ,jddolje , p om je

ek qije , fwaje , vwaje , nwaje ,kleje

le3e , mena3e , al3e , rO3e ,td3e

koje , roje , tuje , vaje , larje

CHAPTER XXV

THE FR ICAT IVES

1 2 4. [f ] . This isanunv oiced consonant , represented generallyby f , but sometimes by ph, especially in Greek words. For

its production , the lower lip is brought into contact with theupper teeth , but the contact does not intercept the breathentirely : it only causes sufficient obstruction to produce a

kind of explosiv eness when they are separated .

12 5. Final f is usually sounded . But it is mute in thefollowing cases :

(1 ) In clef [kle], andgenerally in the plurals ceufs [o] ,1 boeufs [bo],nerfs

2[men] , and sometimes in cerfs, serfs

(2 ) In the combinations bceuf gras, cerf-volant, cerf-dix-cors,nerf-de-boeuf, chef—d

’

ceuvre.

(3) In the place-names Neufchciteau, Neufchcitel, Neu/bourg,

Neuf-Brisach.

EXERCISES

Frangois fait une farce au philosophe .

La fille de Frederic est faible .

La foudre frappe la fonderie de fer.

F élix a fusillé le fils do forgeron .

La foule eflrayée fuit dans lo café .Un frais parfum sortant des toufi

’

es

d’asphodeles. (VICTOR HUGO)

jef , bref , boroljef , kanif ,swaf

,rosbif

, oef , boef, nerf,serf

1 Many people pronounce ceufs as [9 ] only aftera [z ] , as in trois teufs,douz e oeufs, quinz e oeufs, but they sound the f in othercases

,as in quatre

ceufs, combien d’

ceufs, un cen t d’

aeufs, etc . There is a growing tendencyfor finalf to establish itself everywhere in pronunciation .

1 In the S ingular nerf also ,the f is mute as a rule when the word is

used figuratively, as in cc style a du nerf [nexr] .

frdswa fe yn fars o filoz of.la fi :j do Frederik e fe :bl.la fudr frap la f5dri do fexr.

feliks a fyz ije lo fis dyfor3o1 5.

la ful e freje fq i dd lo kafe .

o”

e fre parfd’

e sortd de tuf

dasfodel. (viktorygo)


Mute Ce boeuf grasest deNeufchatel. so bogro e do noejatel.

L e Cid est lo che f-d’

oeuvre de lo S id e lo jedoewro doCorneille . korne : j

L es cerfs effrayent v os boeufs . le se :r e frezj v 0 bo .

L es nerfs sont sensitifs ou lo ne :r 5 5 Sdsitif u motoe zr.

moteurs.

I I a mis la cle f sous la porte . ila mi la k le su la p ort .

L e cerf-volant est nu jouet lo serv old et de 3we ddfd .

d’

enfant .

L e nerf-de -boeuf est nu liga lo nerdoboef et de ligamd.

ment .

L es oeufs sont tres nourrissants . le z o 5 5 tre nurisd .

1 2 6. [v ] . Forthis consonant the lip is not pressed so tightlyagainst the upper teeth , but otherwise the formation is

precisely the same as for f , with the addition of v oice fromthe v ocal chords. In English the amount of v oice giv en isfrequently insuffi cient , so that there is little difference between the two consonants, but in French care must be takento produce as much v oice as possible . Practice should bemade with words b eginning with v ,

the consonant beinglengthened and dwelt upon ,

so as to ensure fullv ocal quality .

Thus, v -oulez -v -ous v -enir v -oir v -otre v -oisin P

Note that w in words of German or Flemish origin is pronounced v , as Waterloo [v aterlo] , Wéser [v ez exr] , Wurtemberg[vyrt5bexr] . Wagon is also [v agd] .

EXERCISES

Voule z -vous venir vivre a Ver v ulev u v ni zr v i :v r a v erso :jsai lles

Voici votre neveu v is-a-v is de vous . vwasi v otro novo v i z av i d v u .Viv ien veut vendre la vieille voiture . v iv j5 v 2 v d:dro la v jexjv watyzr.

Votre voisin vient voir la ville . votra vwaz 5 v j5 vwaxr la v il.

Votre vaisseau arrive vendredi a v otro veso ari :v v ddrodi a

Venise . v oni zz .

12 7 . [S ] . For this consonant , the fore-tongue touches theupper gums

, but a narrow passage is left ov er the middle ofit

,through which the breath is sent with a clearhissing sound .

The articulation ends with an abrupt explosiv e withdrawal ofthe tongue from this position . In French

,the s is pronounced

more energetically than in English, the organs b eing held wellin position during the emission of the breath .


(as in sou parisis), pataques [patakexs] . In this connexion,

note the following v ariations

B is (the adv erb ) is pronounced [bixs] , as crier bis but bis

(adj ectiv e) is [bi] , as da pain bis.

Gens is usually pronounced [3d] , but one often hears thepronunciation [3d1s] in the south . Gens, a Roman

family ,is as in la gens Fabia.

L is is now [his] , but the old pronunciation [li] remains

(according to the Academy , at least) in the compoundfleurde lis, and is found in v erse .

Moeurs is [moers] now, but the Old form [moeir] surv iv esin v erse and solemn Speech .

0 5 is correctly pronounced [os] in the singular, and [o] inthe plural. The pronunciation [os] or [015] in the pluralis

,howev er, frequentlyused bymedicalmen in referring

to the bones of the human body .

Plus is [ply] before a consonant , as plus grand, and [plyz ]in liaison before a v owel, as plus aimable. But it is

pronounced [plys] when final or emphatic, so long as

it is not part of a negation thus,mettez deux en plus

[plys] , j’

en ai plus [plys] , but 7'

e n’

en ai plus [ply] . I t is

also [plys] in mathematicallanguage , as 2 plus 2 font

4 and in the grammaticalterm lo plus-que-parfait.Sens is generally [d s] , as in les cinq sens, contre

—sens,non

sens,en tous sens

,il n

’

a pas de sens,etc. But the s is

sometimesmute in bon sens,always in sensdessusdessous,

sens devant derriere,and generally in le sens commun .

Vis (a screw) is [v is] , as is also the compound tournev is;but v is

,the indicativ e of v ivre and the past definite

of voir,is pronounced [v i] .

It is sounded in the foreign term inations (mostlyGreek and Latin ) -as

, a ,

-is,-os

,

-us,the preceding v owel

being generally long,as atlas [atloxs] , flore

'

s [florexs] , gratis

[gratixs] , pathos [patoxs] , blocus [blokyxs] also in the Latin

words biceps, triceps, forceps, etc. Chaos

,howev er, is

[kao] and the s is not pronounced in the names of certain

cloths jaconas, lampas, gingas, anddamas, norin balandros,sassafras, matras, or tétras.

Sim ilarly in proper names, the preceding v owel beinggenerally long,

asArras [arais] , GilBlas [311 bloxs] , Leonidas

[leonidoxs] , Médicis [medisixs] , Lesseps [leseps] , Paris (name

THE CONSONANTS 1 1 5

of person)1[porixs] , Mons [m s] , Rheims La Lys

[lixs] (riv er). But when names are prenomens or familiar,the s remains mute

,as in Lucas, Denis, Louis, Alexis,

Nicolas,Thomas

, j esus,2j udas, Dumas, etc.

130. The letter 3 is not the only one in ordinary spellingthat represents the sound The letter c does so beforee, i , y, and g before a, o u, as cela,

ciel, cycle, force, glaeant,glacon,

reen . The comb ination sc is pronounced [3] before6, i , y, as scene [sexn] , sceau [so] , sce

’

le’

rat [selera] , irascible

[irasibl] , sceptique [septik ] . The letter x is sounded [s] ina few cases, such as six, clix [sis, dis] when used as nouns,

3

soixante Auxerre [osexr] , Auxois [oswa] , Auxonne

[oson] , Buxy [bysi] , Bruxelles [brysel] ,4 Beatrix [beatris] ,

Aix-les-Bains Aix-la-Chapelle [eslafapel] . In the lasttwo , howev er, the pronunciation [aks] is becoming frequent .The name of the historical French banker, Law, has gener

ally been pronounced [lcus] .51 The s is generallymute , however, in those proper names in -ans or

-ens which are pronounced with the nasal [61] (Orle’

ans, Conflans, L eMans, in proper names in -ins (Salins, Verv ins, N orv ins, in

Arniens [amjé] and Damiens [damje] , in proper names in -rs (Tours,F lers

,Marners

,Vercors

,and in a few others (S oissons, Nyons,

M etz is [mszs] , and Retz is2 Many Protestants, however, prefer to sound the s of Jesus, so as to

show respect for the name,and erhaps also to make themselves

distinct from the Catholics. Some Learned men also sound it in order

to make the name like those of otherhistoricalpersons.

3 See chapter on numerals .

4 The pronunciation [bryksel] , sometimes heard,sounds vulgar.

5 This is not due,as some think

,to the fact that L aws is a second

form of the name in Scotland,but to the expression Law’

s Bank, ’which was common among the people (cf . chez Maxirn

’

s) .

EXERCISES

Ces serpents de Perse sifii ent souvent . se serpado pars sifla suv c‘

i .

Il faisait sonner sa sonnette . il faz s sone sa sonet .

Sa soeur Cecile est sans souci . sa soexr sesil e sd susi .

Ces scies, monsieur

,ce sont soixante se si

,masjg , $3 5 5 swasdzt su .

sous.

L es cinq soeurs de Simon sont douces . 1e 5 5 soexr do sim5 S 5 dus.

Voici ces six cent six saucisses-ci . vwasi se si 561 si sosis—si .

mes Mesdemoiselles,messieurs

,Medmwaz el

, mesjfl ,etc. messeigneurs mesep oezr


ezn,kenel, anjem,

b enazr,ko zu,av szn

,v o z3, [am ele

L e pain b is est de couleur grise .

La cantatrice a les honneurs du bis.

SOphie s’

orne de fleurs de lis .

La France est la royaume des lis .

On étudie les m oeurs des abeilles .

Illui a donné un 0 5 aronger.

Iln’

a que les 0 5 e t la peau .

C’

est le plus que je puisse faire .

Un lit, une table , plus deux chaises .

Plus on est de fous, plus on rit .

j e v is aSaint-Servan un escalierav is .

Ces gens n’out pas le sens commun se 361 n 5 pa 19 561 komde .

Cet homme perd le sens du vrai . set om p e zr 19 dy v re .

Aloes,cortes

,express, vasistas, aloezs, k ortezs, ekspres,

sounded stras,iris

,oasis

,rachitis

, vasistazs, strazs,iri zs

,

cassis,

1 albatros,rhinoceros

, oaz i zs,rajiti zs, kasis,burnous

,omnibus

, pros albatrozs,

rinoseroxs,

pectus, hiatus, rébus byrnus, omnibyzs,

prospek tyzs, jatyzs,rebyzs

Agnes, Bernis, Clovis, Jonas, ap exs, b erni zs , k lov i zs,

Rubens gonazs, rybezs

1 A black currant,

’

but cassis, cross drain,

’

has the final s mute .

131 . This is the v oiced consonant corresponding to [s] ,as in zele, z one, bronz e

’

,etc. It requires the same mov ement

of the organs as [s] , but before and during the articulation the v ocal chords v ibrate, making the consonant softand sonorous. In French this v ocal quality must be fullyproduced .

132 . A simple 3 between two v owels (the first not being a

nasal) is generally pronounced [z ] , as aise’

[ez e] , miserable

[miz erabl] , rose [roxz ] , paisible [psz ibl] .1 It is not always so,

howev er, in compound words, whose second element beginswith 3. If the first element be any of the prefixes dés ré

1 English to some extent follows the same rule,as in the words easy,

miserable, rose .

lo pEb i ado kuloe zr gri zz .

la kdtratris a le z onoe zr dybi zs .

sofi sorno do floe zr do li .

la frazs ala rwajo zm de li zs .

5n etydi le moers de z ab ezj .

illqi a done Gen os a r53e .

ilna k o le z o e la po .

5 8 lo plys k o jo pq is fezr.

Ge li, yn tabl, plys do jazz

plyz 511 e do fu , plyz 5 ri .

3a v i a sé-serv d den eskalje


134. U] (Ch) . This is the unv oiced consonant correspondingto In ordinary French spelling it is represented by thetwo letters ch (as in chat, chez , roche) and in many foreignwords by sch (as in scottisch, Herschel, etc) , but it is reallya single sound , identicalwith sh in English (e .g. sheep , shilling,fashion) . It has no relation to the English ch,

which is

generally pronounced [tf] , as in church, change, etc and thissound must be av oided .

135. The proper enunciation of the consonant in Frenchrequires the formation of three smallresonators in the mouth ,

—the first in the middle of the tongue , the second betweenthe under part of the tongue and the teeth

, and the thirdbetween the teeth and the lips.

Position of organs for [I] . The resonators are marked 1,2, 3

F IG . 4

The chief fault of English students is that they do not

proj ect the lips sufficiently , and they thus suppress an ln

dispensable resonator, the result bemg that the sound is too

thin and harsh . Practice should b e made wi th chut (Silence l) ,

pronounced [ft] , taking care that the lips and other organs

are in position b efore the breath passes through the mouth .

136.Note that the group ch is not always pronounced [I] ,

but frequently takes the sound of [k] . This IS so in the

following cases

(1 ) Always before a consonant , as chrétien [kretjé] , chronique[kronik ,] Christophe [kristof] .

(2 ) Almost always when final, as varech [v arek] , cromlech

[kromlek] , Enoch [enok] . In almanach, howev er, It is

generally mute [almana] , and in farouche, punch, F och, and

Auch (as wellas sev eral other proper names of the south)it is [j] [faru[ , p51] , foj , of] .


(3) Frequently in borrowed words, especially before a, 0 ,

oru,as archange archaique [arkaik] , choriste [korist] ,

écho [eko] , chceur [koexr] , Antiochus [Citjokyxs] . Only in a

few instances does the k sound occur before e,i,as in

orchestre, orchis, lichen ,Michel-Ange, Machiaoel

,etc.

Most words in these three classes are from Greek orHebrew,

and are easily identified, as there is generally a corre

sponding English word in which ch has the sound of k (thuschrétien, Christian ,

archange, archangel) . In all other cases

(these being of the more fam iliar type) the symbol ch

takes the [J] sound , as chanter, chapeau,chose, archiduc (and

allwords compounded with archi except archie'piscopalsome

times) , archev égue, Michel, etc.

EXERCISES

I I charge les choux surle cheval. il [arg le [ 11 syr lo oval.

Charlotte chante dans sa chambre . [arlot [dzt dd sa [fi xbnCe chasseur chasse sans chi ens . so [asoexr as 561 [ jaL es chameaux da marchand sont le [amo dymarjaS 5 Iwaje .

choyés .

Charles fait la mouche da coche . [arl fala muj'

dy k oj'

.

k] Technique , Christ , chromatique , tek nik,krist

,k romatik

,kloe

,

Chloe,chaos, chorus, Chaldee , kao

,keryxs, kalde

,kate

catéchumene , eucharistie , kym exn,akaristi

, psik ologi ,

psychologie , gutta-

percha, loch , gytap erka, lok,

sé rok,

St Roch,Lamech

,Munich

,lamek

,mynik, zyrik , bak ,

Zurich,Bach ,

Moloch molokChimere , chérubin ,

fétichi sme,

trochée , hi érarch1 e , monarch i e

Christophe cherche du varech .

Saint Roch fut sauvé par nu chien .

Racheltrouve du lichen surles rochersCharles a cach é la table de loch .

L’

eucharistie est um sacrament

chrétien .

137 . [3] (J ). This consonant , which is the, v oiced form of

[f] , requires the same position of the organs, but with the

addition of v ocality . It is indicated in some phonetic systems

by the two letters z h ,but it is one sound only

, and is betterrepresented by the single sign It occurs in ordinary

[ im e:r, [eryb f—f, fetijism ,troje ,

jerarji , m onarj i

kristof [ er] dy v arek .

SErok fy sove par Ge ] 8 .

rajaltruxv dyliken syrle roj‘

e .

[arla kafe la tablo do lok .

lz karisti at be sakromc’

i kretj e.


French Spelling as oras gb efore e, i , y, and ispronounced likethe s in the English words

‘

leisure,’ ‘

measure ,’

etc . ,as four

[3uxr] , juste [3yst] , George [gorg] , sage [saxg] . The sound mustnot b e confused with that of j in English , which is really [dz] ,as in John [dgon] .

138. Note that in some words the comb ination ge is pronounced the e mute being simply introduced to softenthe g into since g is always hard before a

,o, i t, Thus,

we hav e geole p igeon [pi35] , gageure [gagyxr] , mangeure[mdgyzr] , v ergeure [v ergyxr] , mangeons [mags] . S imilarly, wehav e nous jugeons [jy35] , iljugea [jyga] , etc.

EXERCISES

L es gens sages sont toujours justes . le 361 sazg 35 tu3u zr3yst .

Je jouis des longues journées de juin . 3a gwi de 15zg gurne do 311201.

Je n’

aime pas la neige ui les gelées . 39 nezm pa la nez3mi le gole .

Ils me mangent pas de jam bon . il no md :3pa do 36i b 5 .

Jules joue avec Jacques tous les 3yl3u avak 3azk tu le gu :r.

JOU I‘

S .

Ci -git le jeune gendre du geolier. si3i lo goen 36udro dy golje .

A déjeuner le juge mangea des a de3cene lo 3y:3mdga de pi35 .

pigeons .

1 2 2

Ni Nicolas ni Nanine n’

est innocent .

Prenons maintenant notre diner.

Notre niece n’

aime pas notre voisin .

Notre journal a des annonces

nombreuses .

L e neveu de Nannette est de noblem ine .

Non,il n

’est rien que Nanine

n’

honore .

Cette machine dépense le minimumde charbon .

Comment fume -t -on 1’

0p iumMon m édecin m ’

a condamné .

Marie demeure a Menton depuis

l’

automne .


mi nikola ni nanin net in 0561 .

pron5 m étn61 notra dine .

notro njss ne :m pa notro vwaz fi.

notro 3urnaladez an5 :s n5broxz .

lo novado nanet e do n oblo min .

n5,ilne rj§ k o nanin nonozr.

set majin dep61 :s lo minimom do

Jarb5 .

k om61 fym t5 10pjom ?m 5 m etsé ma k 5dune .

mari domoe zr a m6it5 dopqi

lotou .

il ja é’

e Spesimsn do”

e dolmen doI ] ya un Specimen d’

un dolmen dans

lo myz e om .le museum .

141 . [p] (GN This sound isgenerally known as‘

n mouille.

It is represented in ordinary French orthography by the

letters gn , as in v igne, agneau,etc. , and nev er occurs initially

in normal speech . As it has no equiv alent in English ,

beginners are in the hab it of turning it into [nj] . Thus, theypronounce saignait as if it were c

’

est niais [senj e] , soigné as

if it were soit nié [swanje] , and pignon as if it were part ofthe word opinion [apinjfi] . Ev en many French people hav eadopted this pronunciation , as being simplerand easier. But

it is incorrect allthe same, and a practised ear at once detects

the fault . For [n] the point of the tongue has to be raised tothe uppergums

,whereas for [p ] it must be kept down . More

ov er, the sound referred to is a double one [n+ j ] , Whereas itshould be a single nasal consonant, although representedby the two letters gn .

The b eginner will hav e little or no difficulty in acquiringthe true pronunciation ,

if he will sound the English -ng (asin sing, ring, etc . ) with the point of the tongue kept downagainst the lower teeth , and the middle of the tongue raisedand pressed lightly against the hard palate , as in the diagramon opposite page .

The‘

bunching up’

of the tongue completely obstructsthe mouth passage ,

the result being that the v elum descendsand the v ibrating breath passes through the nose . For the


English -ng, it is the back part of the tongue that rises andcomes into contact with the soft palate , but note that forgn it is the m iddle that rises and touches the hard palate .

The French sound, while v ery like the English -ng, thus differsfrom it by being articulated farther forward .

Position of tongue for [11 ]

For the correct enunciation of -

gn, therefore , all that isneeded is to pronounce it as if it were the English -ng, but see

that the point of the tongue is kept down , and that the m iddle(not back) portion is mov ed upward till it touches the hardpalate . The English word sing, pronounced in this way(but with close i) will giv e the French word signe. Similarly,bang will giv e bagne;pang, pagne wrong, rogne and so on .

Beginners will find the consonant to be most easily pronounced when preceded by the v owel [i] , because with [i](andstillmore with [j]) the front of the tongue is raised towardsthe hard palate (see though not sufficiently to close the

mouth passage . If it be raised a little more than for [j ] , itwillpress against the hard palate , thus causing stoppage thereand sending the breath through the nose . A little more

practice with words in -igne (signe, v igne, digne, etc.) willleadto the correct pronunciation , andwords can then be practisedin which the consonant is preceded by other v owels, such as

eloigner [dep e] , poignarcl [pwapaxr] , cogner [kope] , Agnes[ap exs] . When the consonant finishes and the tongue descends,the sound glides easily into the following v owel. To thosewho hav e no phonetic training,

this brief glide seems some

thing like a [j ] , and hence they introduce the semi-consonant ,pronouncing mignon as etc. , as they also do withlmouille

'

,making it [lj] . But this is not the right sound, as

the detachment itself of the tongue from the palate makes theonly correct glide .


142 . The following table shows the formation of the threenasal consonants [m , n , together with that of the English-ng (phonetic sign In all four, the air is stopped in themouth by means of some obstruction and sent through thenose .

Consonant S toppage caused by Part of palate touched

Closing of lips None

Point of tongue Just behind upper teethBack of tongue So ft alate

Middle of tongue Har palate , except front part

Note that English has three nasal consonants [m , n , g] ,and French has three also [m ,

n , p] .

143. In a few words, after 0 or a, the combination -ign

used to be pronounced [p ] , the i being silent . These are wordsin which the ancient spelling of -ign for

-

gn is still retained,

such as poigne [pop] , poignée [pope] , poignard [papaxr] ,poignant [popd] , empoigner [dpop e] , encoignure [dkopyxr] ,oignon moignon [mond] , Philippe de Champaigne [[dpap ](being the name of the prov ince called Champagne), Montaigne

[mdtap ] (being the common noun une montagne) , Cavaignac[kav anak] . Under the influence of the ordinary spelling,

howev er, practically ev ery one of these words is almost alwayspronounced now the other way, as poigne [pwap ] , empoigner[dpwap e] , Montaigne [mdtep] . Only oignon seems still toretain the old sound alone , and would shock good taste if itwere pronounced with [wa] .

144. It should be remembered that gn does not alwaysrepresent the sound W hen initial (except in gnaf ,gnon , gnangan , and gnognotte, which are words of slang)and in a few learned words (including their derivativ es) ,it is pronounced as Thus, gnou [gnu] , agnostique

[agnostik ] , cognition [kognisjd] , stagnation [stagnosjd] . Thispronunciation , howev er, which only introduced itself in the

sev enteenth century , shows a tendency to giv e way in some

cases to [p ] .

CH A PTE R XXV I I

THE EXPLOS IVES

145 . [p] , [b ] . For [p] , the lips are closed (in natural shape)and then opened abruptly ,

the compressed breath beingemitted with distinct explosiv eness. For [b] , the formationis the same

,except that the v oiced quality is added .

The fault of English students is that they do not giv e

sufficient v oice to [b] , so that one frequently hears somethinglike [p] . To correct this fault , practice should be made withthe phonetic syllable [ceb] , slowly and repeatedly uttered

,

taking care that the chords continue to v ibrate till the con

sonant has actually exploded . When this habit of glottalv ibration has been acquired , the v owel [oe] should be sup

pressed , so that the consonant may be articulated correctlyof its own accord .

146 Note that p is not pronounced in the interior of the

followmg words 1 bapteme [batexm] , cheptel [Jotel] , compte[koit] , prompt [pro] , dompter [ddte] , sculpter [skylte] , temps[td] , exempt [egzd] , and deriv ativ es from these z;nor incorps [koxr] , ye ramps, tu romps, il rompt [ro] , sept, septieme,septiemement.

3 In all other cases i t is clearly sounded , as

symptome [septoxm] , adopter [adopte] , assomption [asopsjo] .4

147 . Like most consonants, p and b are usually muteat the end of words. But the final b is sounded in proper

names, as j ob [gob] , nabab [nabab] , and in two or threeother words, such as club, rob, rumb [rdzb] . Final p is

1 Th e consonant p used to b e mute in many words in popular use ,especially before t, but only a few cases now remain .

2 The p is pronounced,however

,in baptismal, exemption, impromptu,

and sometimes in indomptable .

3 The p is pronounced i n all other derivatives of sept, as septembre

[septdxbr] , etc . ,

which are taken directly from the Latin .

Sometimes when initial,it falls 1n very familiar expressions, such as

nu (p)’

tit garcon,etc.

1 2 6


sounded in a few monosyllables, mostly foreign ,as cap,

Gap (town) , cep (generally before a v owel) , croup , group ,houp hop and in handicap , hanap , jalap , julep , salep .

EXERCISES

L e bon baron a la barbe blanche . lo bd bard a lo barb bldzj .

La robe de la bonne est bleue . la rob do la b on e blo .

L e boeuf est tombé dans l’abime . lo beef 8 tdb e dd lab ixm .

L es bottes de B en jamin sont brunes . le b ot do b fégamé sd bryn .

La cabane est batie de briques . la kaban s bc1ti do brik .

Papa part pour la Peloponnese . papa pazr pur la peloponexz .

Paulse promene pres du parapet . polso prom en pre dy parap e .

Pierre ne prend pas son parapluie p jezr no prd pd sd paraplq i .

L e paysan a perdu ses pommes . lo peiz d a p erdy se p om .

Philippe ne comprend pas ce passage . filip no k dprd pc1 so pdsazg.

Il fait beau temps pour le baptéme . 11 fs bo td pur lo batexm .

L e sculpteur est au septieme ciel. lo skyltoe zr at o sat j em sjel.

L e dompteur est exempt de blame . lo ddtoexr at egzddo bld zm .

Au bout de compte il rompt ses fers . o bu do k dxt 11 rd se fezr.

Il s’

y donne promptement corps et 11 si don prdtmd k ozr e (11m .

ame .

Elle prend nu julep pour le croup . elprd de 3ylep pur lo krup .

11 y a un club littéraire aGap . ilya Ge klyb literexr a GapL es nababs expedient uh group . le nabab sk sPedi Ge grup .

Il est arm é de pied en cap . 11 at arme do p jet d kap .

L es ortolans ni chent dans les ceps. le z ortold niJdd le sap .

148. [t] . This consonant is represented in ordinary spellingby th as well as t. Thus, the

‘

me [texm] , athe’

e [ate] , luth [lyt] ,gothique [gotik] , etc. For its enunciation , the air passage is

stopped by the fore-tongue being raised to the upper gums,and as soon as the stoppage ceases, the compressed breathescapes with a kind of explosiv eness:

149 . There is a difference b etween English [t] and French[t] . For the English articulation the point of the tonguetouches the hard palate a little behind the teeth (this is particularly so in the case of whereas for the French thepoint must touch the gums immediately behind the teeth ,

as

in the accompanying diagram . The pronunciation of the

English word toe is thus appreciably different from that of

the French word tdt,while the English pronunciation of such

a combination as [tr] is so different from the French as to be


particularly displeasing to the French ear. All that theEnglish speaker needs is to adv ance the tongue-point a littlemore towards the teeth ,

till it practically comes into contactwith them (compare 60

,and l

,If he has any

E nglish t French t

F IG . 6

difficulty, let him imagine that he is going to pronounce a

d, which has the tongue-point nearer the teeth than the

English t, and he will thus come pretty near to the correctposition .

150. Note that the comb ination -ti (not -ty) followed bya v owel is usually pronounced [si] 0 1 [sj] . It retains the [t]sound in the following cases

(1 ) When initial. Thus, tient (and in compounds, as contient,retiendra, maintien , tiede, tiare, etc.

(2 ) After 3 or x,as question [kestjd] , combustion [kdbystjo],

mixtion [mlkstjo] .(3) In those words which hav e lost 5 be fore the t , as chrétien[kretjé] , old French chrestien;chdtier [Jdtje] , old Frenchbhastier;Etienne [etjen] , oldFrenchEstienne;étiage [etja13] ,Old French estiage.

(4) In substantiv es or adj ectiv es in -tie,

-tier, -t1ere ,-tiem e

, as amitié [amitje] , pitié [pitje] , portier [portje] , litie'

re

[litjexr] , septie'

me [setjsm] , Poitiers [pwatje] , alongwith theadv erb volontiers [v oldtje] .

(5) In the v erbal term inations -tions, -tiez , and fem inine

participles in -tie , if the other forms of the v erb hav ethe [t] sound. Thus, nous sortions [sortjd] , vous sortiez

[sortje] , nous hdtions [dtjo] , vous hdtiez [atje] , partie [parti] .(6) In a few isolated words : antienne, centiare, corinthien ,

étioler, épiz ootie, garantie, galimatias, ortier, ortie, partie,repartie, rdtie, sortie, sotie, sympathie, tutie, Claretie, Sarmatie,Hypatie, Pythie, and allothernameswith the Greek th.

In all other cases ti is pronounced [si , sj] , as supre’matie[sypremasi] , nuptial [nypsjal] , patient [pasjd] , initier [inisje] ,


and sometimes sounded. In aspect, respect, instinct, amict,the -ct is always mute, as also in les fre

'

res Parfaict. The

technicalword anspect is [dspek] , the t being here an orthographic error.

152 . The student willunderstand that t is not pronouncedin proper names commencing with the prefix Mont beforea consonant , as Montpellier [mdpelje] , Montparnasse, Mont

rouge, Montpensier. Nor is th pronounced in asthme [asm] ,isthme [ism] , nor the t in post-scriptum [poskriptom] or

postdater [posdate] .

EXERCISES

THE CONSONANTS 131

H é bien,soit 1 La fortune est e bja, swat ! 1a fortyn 8md

sounded mon but .

Zut lildira son fait au fat . zyt ildira S6) fat 0 fat .

Une abstraction n’

est qu’

un yn apstraksj'

o’

nek de k dsept .

concept .

Il est abrupt mais strict en 11 at abrypt m e strikt 61nafi aires . afexr.

C’

est le chemin direct de Brest . 5 8 lo Jame direkt do brest .

153. [d] . For the enunciation of this consonant in French,

the formation of the organs is practically the same as for t,except that cl is v oiced, i .e. while the compressed breath isgathering in the mouth ,

the v ocal chords v ibrate,so that

v oice is uttered . As in the case of b, this v ocal quality isan important adjunct , and students must see that it is produced. If they hav e difficulty , practice should be madewith [oed] , until the consonant acquires plenty of v oice , whenthe v owel can be dispensed with .

154 . Final d is pronounced in sud [syd] , and in manyforeign words and proper names

, particularly those in whichd is immediately preceded by a v owel, as yod, talmud, z end

[z exd] , e’phod, Alfred, Dav id, Madrid, Le Cid, Bagdad, Porte

Sa’

i’

d, S ind [sdxd] , etc.

1

EXERCISES

Didon dina,dit-on

,des 0 5 d

’

un didd dina,ditd

,de z o do

"

e dedd.

dindon .

Voici la demeure de Madame Didot . v wasi la domoe zr do madamdido .

Adele devient décidément malade . adeldovje‘ desidemd malad.

Cet endroit est commode pour la set ddrwa s komadpur1adwan .

douane .

Daniela décidé de m’en donnerdeux . danjela deside dmd done do .

Carlsbad,Conrad

,Manfred, Sand

,karlsbad

,k drad

, mdfred,sdzd

,

L eopold,Rothschild

,le Sund. le opold, rotj

’

ild,lo sd

’

ezd.

155 . [k ] . For the articulation of this consonant the backof the tongue is raised against the soft palate , causing com

plete obstruction of the breathing, and the explosiv eness

is produced when this obstruction is relaxed . The part of

1 In mademoiselle, the d easily becomes mute in quick Speech ,but

the omission of it is hardly correct . As for the pronunciation [mamz sl] ,it is onlyused in a familiar oreven impertinent sense .


the soft palate touched , or point of articulation , v aries

according to the nature of the v owelfollowing. It is farthestforward for [ki] , and recedes gradually for [ke] , [ka] , [ko] ,[ku] , but is nev er so far back in French as in English . In

French , the tongue must keep near the front of the softalate . Beginners may hav e some difficulty in doing this,ut if they will think of [g] , which is formed farther forwardin English than [k] , they will probably come nearer to the

correct French articulat1on .

156. As a rule, the letter k occurs in French only in foreignwords (as yak, bock, horan,

but the sound occurs v eryfrequently, being represented by c (raconter) , gu (quatre) ,q (cog), x ch (chrétien) The letter c occursmost often . Before e, i , y,

it takes the soft sound [S] , butit is pronounced

‘ hard ’

[k] before a, o, u, on, as (as car,

cordeau, cure, cou, cceur) , immediately before another con

sonant (as clef , croix, tocsin, accident) , and at the end of words(as bloc, due, parc) .When 0 comes at the end of aword ,

it is generally sounded ,as in the words just mentioned (other examples are are, bee,chic, lac, muse, cognac, cric-crac) , but it is mute at the end

of the following words : broc,1croc, accroc, escroc, raccroc,

estomac, cotignac, cric (jack-screw) , lacs, tabac, caoutchouc;clerc, mare, arc-boutant,

2 arc-doubleau,

2 Leclerc, Mauclerc;Saint-Brieuc, bec-d

’

a‘

ne (bedan);and words ending in -no

(bane, blanc, franc, flanc, jonc, tronc, vainc, except z inc,which is pronounced [2 61g] . and some proper names such as

Ranc [rdxk ] . Note also the following v ariationsDonc has the c pronounced at the commencement of a sentence,

introducing a conclusion therefore or when emphatic,as donc [ddxk] nous nous sommes trompés. But otherwiseit is pronounced [dd] so

,

’now,

’ then ev en before a

v owelor at the end of a sentence,as il est donc [dd] parti

allez donc [dd] épargner ces gens-Id taisez -vous donc [dd] .Echec has the c pronounced, as subir un échec [efek] , des échecs

[efek] inattendus. But many people do not pronounce the

cwhen the word is plural, in referring to the game of chess,as fouer aux échecs [eje] , although the suppression of it is

quite out of date .

1 The e is pronounced, however, in de bric et de broc.

2 Archi tects, howev er, generallypronounce the c.

134 MANUAL or FRENCH PRONUNCIATION

has traditional usage in its fav our (the Latin ex hav ing inmany instances first become es and then (5, as in étrange,écluse) , but it is a pronunciation that is confusing and strangeto many people , and hardly to be recommended .

When the prefix comes before 3 or‘

soft c, it is simplypronounced [ck ] , as in exsuder, excellence, exciter, etc. and

when it comes before a v owel 0 1 h mute , ’ it takes the sound[egz ] or [egz ] (see 31 (3 as in exiler, exercice, exhausser,exhorter [egz ile , egz ersis, egzose , egzorte] .

1

159 . When x is final, it is sounded (beingpronounced [ks]) innouns when it is preceded by a single v owelin the ordinaryspelling, or a nasal sound , as index [ddeks] , borax [boraks] ,codex [kodeks] , larynx [lardxks] , sphinx [sfdxks] . But it is

not sounded aftera diphthong ,as choix choux [Ju] , paix

[pa] , ye peux [gopo] , Bordeaux [bordo] , nor in crucifix, perdrix,

prix, flux, afilux, reflux. It is sounded , howev er, ln Aix

[aks] and Dupleix [dyplsks] .

1 Also when initial in proper names,x generally takes the [gz ] sound,

as in Xav ier, Xenophon ,etc . although i n Ximénes and Xéres it is

sounded [k] , [kimcnezs, kere:s] .

EXERCISES

Claude coupe le crayon avec son klo zd kup lo krejdav ek sdkuto .

couteau .

Claire écoute le caquet du coq . klezr ekut lo kake dy k ok .

L’

ecole technique a quatre classes . 1 ekol tsknik a katra klcns.

Quand compte z-vous écrire a kd k dtevu ekri zr a k lemd

Clément

Combien ces quinz e boucles cofitent k db jé se k dzz buklo kuttelelles

Mute Cet escroc a beaucoup de set askro a boku do taba.

tabac .

L e clerc a fai t des lacs lo kle:r a fade 10 d amuzr.

d’

amour.

L e marc de raisin est dans lo mazrdo rez é e dd lo bro .

le broc .

Ces bancs de coraux sont se bd do koro sd bld .

blancs .

Allez donc jouer aux ale dd gwe oz ej'

e .

échecs.

THE CONSONANTS 135

qu= [k ] k e,kadri z

'

k sstjd, akeri :r,

acquérir, inquiet , li dk je, lik id, klak , p<1 1.kquide , claque , Paques

qu= [kw] Equation , quatuor, squale , ekwosjd, kwatq 0 11 , skwal,

squam eux , quadruple , skwamo,kwadrypl, kwadrd,

quadrant , adéquat adekwa

qu [kq ] Quinquagénaire ,ubiquiste , k q dk wa3e n e 11 , yb i kui s t ,q u i é t ude , Qu i ri n al, k qetyd, kq irinal, k t kyrs,

Quinte Curco, quin kyq snal

quennal

ex= [eks] Explication ,excuse , ex eksplikasjd, ekskyxz , ek spatrie ,

patrier, extra,extant

,akstra

,ekstd

, ekspoz e , aks

exp oser, expulser, ex pylse , ek spdsif

pansif

ex= [ck ] Excentrique , excepté , ex sk sdtrik,

eksepte , ak sdzg,sangue , excéder, excise , eksede

,ek si zz

,sk se

,ck sipe

excés,exciper

ex [egz ] Examen,exister

,inexo egz amd, egz iste , inegz orabl,

rable,exact

,exil

,exo e g z ak t , e g z i l, e g z ot i k ,

tique , exhumer egzyme

Sounded Anthrax,

lynx ,onyx ,

dtraks,ldxks

,oni ks

,feniks

,

phénix , Styx ,Ajax

,stik s

,agak s, feliks, p olyks

F élix,Pollux

Mute H eureux,faix

,taux

, je oero, fe, to , go v o,bajo

, mo,

veux,B ayeux ,

Meaux,

m orle,trev u

Morla1x,Trevoux

160. [g] . This consonant is the v oiced form correspondingto the unv oiced [k] , and care should be taken that the v ocal

chords v ibrate fully during its emission .

It Should be remembered that the phonetic symbol [g]does not represent the

‘

soft ’

sound of g (before e, i , y) , thisbeing denoted by but represents only the ‘ hard ’

sound,which occurs before a, o, u (as galop , fagot, goulu,

aigu) ,before e or i in foreign names (Hegel Gibbon, etc.) immediatelybefore anotherconsonant except i t (as grand, suggerer, Bagdad) ,and at the end of words (as grog, whig, Zadig) .

161 . The comb ination gu followed by i ore isnot alwayspronounced [gq] . As a rule , it is simply [g] , the letter u


being interpolated to harden the sound , as gué [ge] , guise[gixz ] , anguille [dgixj] , longue [ldxg] , bégue [beg] . But it is

pronounced [gw] before a in a few learned orforeign words,as guano [gwano] , la Guadeloupe [gwadlup] , lingual [ldgwal]and [gq ] in the v erb arguer, and before i in all deriv ativ esfrom the stem aigu as well as before i in a few learned

or fore ign words, as arguer [argue] , aiguille [egqi1j] , ambiguité[dbigqite] , linguiste [ldgqist] , Guyana [gqijan] , Guyon [gqijo] .But in aiguiser there IS hesitation between [gq] and [g] , asthere is also in Guise (propernoun) .

162 . The letter g is not pronounced in the interiorofsome words, such as sangsue [sdsy] , Signet [Sine] , v ingt [v d] ,v ingtieme [v dtjem] , doigt [dwa] , doigter [dwate] , Longzvy

[ldwi] . Legs (a legacy) is generally but many Frenchspeakers now pronounce the g [leg] , which howev er is a mere

adv entitious letter due to a false etymology (the word isfrom laisser, not from the Latin legatum) . But as the wordis a technical and juridical one , perhaps the pronunciation[leg] , which respects the orthography, is the better of the

two .

163. At the endof aword g only occurs as a rule after

a nasal v owel, or in bourg and its compounds. It is

generally mute , as long rang [rd] , haren [ard] , bourg[buir] , faubourg [fobuxr] , Cherbourg [Jerbuxr] . But it is

pronounced in a few fore ign words, as grog, whig, z ig-zag,gong [gd1g] , L iebig, lasting [lastdxg] , pouding [pudd1g] . The

word joug is correctly pronounced [3ug] , although the pronunciation [3u] and [guk] are also widespread .

164. Note that c is pronounced [g] in secondandderivativ es(seconder, secondaire, in z inc, and enerally in the com

pound word reine-claude [ren-

gloxd] , though in this lastcase the c ismore andmore asserting itself under the influenceof orthography .

1 But bourgmestre is [burgmestr] , and B ourg (name of place) is [burk] .

CH A P TE R XXV I I I

THE LETTER H

165 . This letter, when sounded,is a glottal fricativ e ,

i .e. it is the sound of the air passing out through the

glottis before the v ocal chords begin to v ibrate for thefollowing v owel. But it is not pronounced in France ,except in a few prov inces, such as Normandy

, Lorraine , and

Gascony . In these parts la halle, une haute montagne are

pronounced [lahal] , [yno hoxt mdtap] . Sometimes also

Parisians unconsciously sound the h to av oid a hiatus, as

lei-haut [laho] , and ev en insert it for the same purpose whereit does not occur in writing, as fle

’

au [fieho] , cent nuNormal speakers sound it in the interj ections aha l oho /

etc and usually in certain words which require to be utteredenergetically, as ia hais, c

’

est une honte,il est tout haletant

(compare hattention .’

But apart from the abov e instances, h is nev er pro

nounced now in good F rench. It has disappeared fromcultured Speaking since the middle of the sev enteenth century ,and only the Sign h surv iv es in the Spelling.

166. In spite of this fact , there are two v arieties of h.

These are generally called ‘ h ut and‘ h aspirate ,

’ but

these names are misleading, as t eyirnpl that h is sometimessounded . Better terms would be

‘hl

conjunctiv e and

h disjunctiv e,

’

for the sole difference between the two is

that the former is treated as if it were non-existent and thusdoes not prev ent elision and liaison ,

while e a er is treatedas a regn W gs. For

instance , m nei ther of the words omme an héros is the h

sounded, but the former is mute or conjunctiv e ,and hence

we say l’

homme, les hommes [lez om] , d l

’

homme, while thelatter is aspirate or disjunctiv e , and so we say la héros [loero] , les héros [lo ero] , au héros. Similarly, we hav e nu habit

138

THE CONSONANTS 139

[6611 abi] , but un hameau [o‘

é amo] en Hispanic [dn ispani] ,but en Hollande [d oldxd] en eau [dn but en haut [d o] .The same remark applies to h in the interior of words. Thus,we hav e enherber [dnerbe] , with the h

‘mute ,’

but enhardir

[dardixr] , ahuri [ayri] , dehors [dooxr] , with the h‘

aspirate .

’

167 . To the ordinary student,there is little means of

knowing when an h is aspirate .

’ There are nearly fourhundred words of the kind in French , which allow neitherelision nor liaison before them . As a rule , if a wordbeginning with h b e from the Latin or Greek (thisincludes all in hy as hyperbole, the h is mute ,

’

but

otherwise it is aspirate .

’

Hence we hav e l’homme , l’

herbe,l’

habilete’

,which are from Latin roots

, but laharpe, la honte, lahaine

,which are of Teutonic origin . The principal exception

to this rule is he’

ros,in which the h is aspirate ,

’

but all its

deriv ativ es hav e h mute .

’ Thus, lahéros, du he

’

ros, un he’

ros

[0”

e ero] , but l’

héro’

tne,de un héro

’

ique exemple [d6meroik egzdxpl] . The following list of words with h aspiratemay be useful. To this must be added all deriv ativ es fromthese andmost foreign names beginning with h .

hanap haridelle hélerhanche harnais hem

handicap haro hennirhangar harpe Henri

hanneton harpie Henriade

hanse harpon hérauthanter hart herehapper hasard hérisserhaquenée hase herniehaquet hate héronharangue haubans héros(not deharas haubert riv ativ es)harasser hausse herseharceler haut hetrehardes hav e heurthardi hav re hibouharem Hav re (Le) hic

hareng Haye (La) hideurHarfleur hé l hiérarchiehargneux heaume hisserharicot hein ho l


hobereauhocherhochetholalhomardhongrehonnirhontehoquethoqueton

EXERCI SE S

H AS P I RATE


The word neuf , howev er, when used as an adj ectiv ebefore a

,v owel, does not always change f into [v ] . It does

so in neuf ans, neuf heures, and frequently neuf hommes,but there is a tendency in all other combinations to preserv eit as [noef] , as in neuf amis, neuf enfants, etc. The wordsept Shows the same tendency when used as an adj ectiv ebefore a consonant . In this case , instead of [se] , many goodSpeakers pronounce it [set] , so as to av oid confusion withces, ses, as sept chaises [set [an] .169 . The numeralv ingt follows the same rules as the abov e

Six,except that when used as a noun its final consonants

are generally mute , so that we hav e it y en a v ingt [v6] , lev ingt [v ext] mai , v ingt [v 5] femmes, v ingt [v d1t] abricots. Notealso that , contrary to rule , the t is sounded in the numbers

twenty-one to twenty-nine , although not in compounds, asv ingt

-deux [vdtdo] , v ingt-cinq [v dt361k] , but quatre-v ingt-deux

[vddo] , quatre-v ingt-cinq [v esdxk ] .1

170. The numerals deux, trois, cent hav e their final con

sonants mute in all conditions except when coming as

adj ectiv es before a v owel0 1 h mute .

’

In the lattercase liaisontakes place , and the final consonant is carried forward , asdeux heures [doz

“0e1r] , trois amis [trwoz ami] , cent hommes

[Sdt om] , deux cents étoiles [do Sdz etwal] . It Should be

remembered , howev er, that while liaison and elision thustake place after numerals

, none can take place be fore them ,

so that we must say les deux onz e [do dxz ] , les trois huits

[trwa qit] , cent nu [Sd cent unieme [Sd ynjem] , etc.

2

As the remaining numerals,except un

, end in e mute,their final consonants occasion no difficulty.

3

1 The reason for this is that if the t were Sounded, e .g. in quatre

v ingt-deux, this would mean four times twenty

-two,instead of four

times twenty, plus two .

1 But liaison takes place in dix-huit and in the combination mesured six-huit [siz qit] .

3 In olden times,when the final consonant was pronounced in all

nouns of number (including v ingt, deux,trois, un was pronounced

[oen] . Even yet musicians beat t ime by un e, deux [yn , do] , time is

marked at drill by une, deux [yn , dozs] , and we have such expressions

as no faire ui une ui deux,en donner une aquelqu

’

un ,etc. , which are

survivals of the old pronunciation .

The numeral nu should b e distinguished from the article nu . The

former, as indicated above , allows no elision or liaison before it, asle nu etputs te cinq [lo Ge] , quatre

-v ingt-nu [katrov eGe] .

THE NUMERALS 1 43

EXERCISES

L e cinq mai j’

ai gagné six francs .

Voule z -vous neuf livres Je n’

en ai

que six .

L e huit mars nous étions neuf .

Ces cinq épingles valent dix centimes .

L e six aofit dix ou douz e sont arrivés.

Ote z cinq de huit , reste trois.

J’

ai cinq cigares et dix allumettes .

L e neuf mai , elle aura neuf ans .

Voici sept jouets pour les sept en

fants .

Il est mort le dix avril,asix heures . 11 e mazr lo dis avril

,a siz oe zr.

J’ai huit poires et huit abricots . ui pwazr e q it abriko .

L e sept janvier nous en avons vendu lo set 3dv je nuz dn av d v ddysept . set .

Voici neuf oeufs pourles neuf hommes . vwasi noef o pur le noev om .

Exercises on v ing t

Vingt soldats ont été blessés . v e solda dt ete blese .

Maurice m ’

a donné vingt écus . m oris ma done v et eky.

Vous ave z quatre-vingt francs, don v uz av e katrov e frd,donemd

nez -m’

en vingt .

J’

ai compté vingt—huit oiseaux . 3c k dte v dtqit waz o .

Exercises on deux , trois , cen t

L es trois hussards ont piqué des deux . le trwa ysaxr d pike de do .

11 y a cent soldats dans la caserne . il j a sd solda dd la kaz ern .

Mes deux ami s partent atrois heures . me doz ami part a trwoz oezr.

L es trois hommes ont planté cent le trwaz om d pldte sdt arbr.

arbres .

II a preteacinq pour cent . 11 a prete a SS pur sd.

No Liaison

lo 361k me 3e gap e S i ird.

vule v u noe li zv r 3o ndu

e k sis .

lo qit mars muz etjd noef .

se Se'

k epexglo v aldi sdtim .

lo sis u dis u duzz sdt arive .

ote sezk do qit , resto trwo .

3e SEsigazr e diz alymet .

lo noef me,sl ora noev 61 .

vwasi se 3we pur le set dfd.

CHAPTE R XXX

DOUBLE CONSONANTS

171 . As a rule , the double consonants of common spellingare S imply pronounced as a single one .

1 Thus, grammaire

[gramexr] , abbe’

[abe] , afiaire [afexr] , nommer [nome] . Otherexamples are

Accroc, allée , arrét , année , abbaye,accabler, addition,

aggrav er, appas, commerce, comm1s,casser, fourrure, prudem

ment, sommet, soufinr.

The doubling of [j ] in such forms as nous croyions [krwoj-jd] ,vous voyiez [vwaj-je] is held by some teachers to be artificialand pedantic. But the best Speakers undoubtedly doubleit , ev en in rapid speech , pronouncing croyions [krwoj-jd]as distinct from croyons [krwojd] .

172 . At the same time, double consonants occur

frequently in French , although not so often as in Norwegianor Italian . They are not really double, howev er, in the sense

of being uttered twice , but are merely a lengthening or

prolongation of the sound . That is, the commencement ofthe consonant , instead of being immediately followed bythe explosiv e finish ,

is separated from it by an interv almore orless long, during which the airpresses with increasingforce against the obstruction . Compare the English wordswholly,

meanness, oneness, missend, etc. Such double con

sonants in French fall under four categories

(1 ) Certain grammatical forms, as ye courrai [kurxe] , 2

nous mourrons [murxd] , ia requerrai [rok erxe] . Under thisclass are included the futures and conditionals of courir

1 The same rule applies in English ,as efi

‘ort, abbey,

litter, etc .

2 I t is not usual in phonetic transcri t to indicate lengthening of

consonants, but the S ign (1) may b e use for this purpose , or the con

sonantal symbol doubled.

1 44


connexe,conniv ence

,cannibale , Cinna,

innocuité, innomé,L inné , Porsenna.

[1 1] Irrespectueux,horreur

,terreur, narrer, errata,

corregidor,Pyrrhus, Urraque.

[s L’Assyrie(distinguished from LaSyrie) , assoupir, assouplir,

asserv ir, assomption,

classique, dissemblable, Nessus.

1

[t Attitude, atticisme, battologie , dilettante, guttural, v endetta.

[p [d z] Appius, adduction,Adda,

Eddas, quiddité , appendice,

appétence , appogiature.

173. In the first three categories abov e , the doublingor lengthening of the consonant is obligatory, and Should bequite marked . In the last category, howev er, there ishesitation. Indeed , many of the words there mentionedare pronounced with a single consonant bya large number ofSpeakers. The doubling of a consonant in the interior of a

word , unless to av oid confusion ,is contrary to the tradition

of the French language ,which has S implified all double

consonants in words of nativ e origin . The lengtheningShould be strictly confined to learned , rare , or specialwords it is distastefuland pedantic when employed in wordswhich are in ev e1yday use and hav e become familiar. Hence

many good speakers pronounce the consonants as S ingle ,not only in many of the cases abov e , but especially in suchwords as

Immense, immeuble 1mmoler, illustre, innovation, illogique,mué , 1mpeccable , alleguer, annales

,college , commenta1re

,

comm1sérat1on,effraction, h1ppodrome, etc.

If any rule of guidance is needed,it may be said that the

doubling of the consonant should be employed in particularwhen one wishes to express emphasis, or some emotionsuch as disgust , fear, admiration ,

irony, anger, etc. Thus, wemay express emphasis in lit-térature;disgust in ilme faithor-reur;fear in 0 ter—reurl;adm iration in cet il-lustre

savant elegance in as-soupli;etc. But otherwise the

doubling of the consonants under the last category is not

frequent in good French ,except among rather illiterate people

1 Cases where s is pronounced double should not b e confused withordi nary double s in such words as mission, richissime, massacre, wherethe -ss is merely the orthographlc s1gn of unv o1ced s.

THE CONSONANTS 1 47

who affect to Speak well, and upon whom the ordinaryorthography has a growing influence in this matter as in

many others (such as final consonants,

EXERCISES

Je mourrai , tu mourras,ilmourra.

Le chevalne courra pas aujourd’

hui .

Il encourrait mon indignation,s’

il

faisai t cela.

Ils’

enquerra de la vérité du fait .

Nous nous entre-secourrons toujours .

L e général reconquerra cette province .

Nous recourrons ala clémence du roi .

11mourrait , Si vous me le soigniez pas .

Je vous requerrai d’

insérer toute maréponse .

Il acquerrait des talents,S’

il étaitdiligent .

Il vous requerra de partir, Si vousl’

insultez .

Vous tirerez satisfaction de cette

injure .

Il barrerait cette route,

S i

l’

ofl ensie z .

La verrerie est l’art de faire le verre .

L’embaumement était pratiqué parles Egyptiens .

Ilserrerait la récolte , S ’

ilfaisait beautemps.

VOUS

Cet Arabe basané a une haute taille .

Il faisait du soleilhier.

Voilades moeurs Singulieres.

J ’aime mieux une lame mince .

Donne-nous l’

histoire romaine .

Tu faches Charles, dte-toi d’

ici .Remarque que tu te trompes.

Ilpasse son temps alire .

Jeanne ne coupe pas dedans .

3amurxe , ty murxa, ilmurxa.

lo [ovalno kurza pa ogurdqi .

il dkurxe mdn édiposjd, Sil

faz e sola.

il Sdk erxa do la verite dy fet .

nu nuz dtrosokun d tu3u11 .

lo 3eneralrok dk erza set prov ezs.

nu rokurzda la k lemdzs dy rwo .

ilmurze,S i vu no lo swap je pa.

3a v u rok erze d esere tut marepdzs .

ilak erze de tald,Silete diligd.

il vu rok erxa do partixr, S i v u

ldsylte .

vu tirxe satisfaksjd do set

dgyzr.

ilbarxe set rut, Si vu lofdsje .

1a v erxi e lazrdo fexrlo v ezr.

ldbomzd ete pratik e par lez

e3iptjd.

ilserze la rekelt , Sil foz e bo td.

set arab bo zane a yno oxt to zj .il foz ady solezj jezr.

vwala de moers segyljeir.

35 1m mjo yn lam md:3.

don zu listwazrromen .

ty fd zj'

Iarl, oztxwa disi .ramark k o ty to trdzp11 pan son td a 1111 .

30m no kup pa dodd.


flow of conv ersation, as dans le jardin [dd 1 gardd] , apresdemain [apre tout de pres [tn (1 pre] . In some cases

the elision is apparent in the ordinary spelling, the letteritself being omitted (e .g. l

’

homme, qu’

avez -vous, but in a

much largernumberof cases the letterremainswhile the soundis elided . The fact is that the e mute , which only occurs in

open unstressed syllables, is of such little consequence that itis suppressed as often as conv enient . The question of whento suppress it is one of the greatest difficulties that beginnershav e . Frequently they suppress an e mute which the Frenchpronounce , and this is a much worse fault than pronounc

mg one which is generally suppressed . At all ev ents, thebeginner

’

s choice in the ’

matter is rarely a happy one , and he

would be well adv ised to study this Sub j ect thoroughly . Itis impossible to lay down precise rules

,as the elision of the

sound often depends on taste , on the degree of emotion, or

on the rate of utterance , and v aries not only in the speechof different people , but frequently in that of the same in

div idual. There are certain definite principles, howev er,which we propose to mention for the student’s guidance . Itrequires to be emphasiz ed that these principles apply onlyto familiar and current conv ersation,

inasmuch as the

Slower or more emphatic or more elev ated the speech is, theless does elision take place . Learners would do well toelide little untilrapidity of speech mak es elision natural.

V 176. The general principle is that the e mute sound iselided in all cases, except where its elision would bringthree ormore consonants together. This is known as the

L aw of the Three Consonants. The name thus giv en isperhaps too strict , as the principle is hardly a

‘

law,

’

but

1t at least amounts to a v ery general tendency mani festingitself in the great majority of cases. Thus, we hav e lesch(e)vaux [lo [ v 0 ] , la cite

’

d(e) Paris [la site d Pari] , but plusieurschevaux [plyz joexr]ov o] , la v ille de Paris [la v ildo Pari] . Notethat , as we are dealing with the language phonetically, thestudent must understand by consonants ’

pronounced

ones.

177 . The principle may be more clearly stated under tworules :

(1 ) W hen an e mute is separated from the pre

WORDS IN COMB INATION 1 51

ceding v owel by one consonant only, it is alwayselided, asLa p(e)tite [la ptit] . Tous mes r(e)grets [tu me 1gre] .Le ch(e)v al[loIval] . Iln

’a pas d

Se) scrupules [ilnapd

Tout l(e) monde [tu lmdxd] . d skrypylRach(e)ter [rajte] . Point d(e) v iande [pwdd v jd1d] .J

’aim(e)rai [gemre] . C

’

est c(e) qui fait mal [58 sk i is

Tu d(e)mandes [tydmdxd] . mal] .Au r(e)v oir [o rvwaxr] . Va t(e) coucher [v a t kufe] .C

’

est lui qui l(e) dit [Se lui k i l C’

est c(e)pendant droit [Se spddddi] . drwa] .

It is in v irtue of this rule that the e mute sound is elidedat the end of certain words, as un(e) , dam(e) , homm(e) , fair(e) ,collin(e) , etc. Further examples of the rule are here giv en

Brac(e)let, pel(e)rin, la p(e)louse, sfir(e)té, mull(e)t ier,bonn(e)tier, souv (e)nir, v iv (e)ment, év én(e)ment, chaud(e)ment

,om(e)lette, bull(e)tin, él(e)v er, pal(e)tot , mad(e)moiselle,

a d(e)mi, je donn(e)rai, tu r(e)tournes, le bouquet d(e)prim(e)v éres, le mari d(e) madame, est-c(e) vrai, v ous m(e )permettez

,rue d(e) la Paix, le roi d(e) Gréce, on n(e) v eut

pas, dans l(e) bois, donnez -moi l(e) spécimen .

(2 ) W hen e mute is separated from the precedingv owel by two or more consonants (t.e. two or more

different ones), it is generally sounded ,1 as

Quelquefois [kelkofwa] . La riv iere de diamants [laVentrebleu [v dtroblo] . riv jexrdo djamd] .Je rentrerai [go rdtrore] . Un 0 5 de poulet [Gen os do pule] .Entreprise [dtroprixz ] . Une chaise de salon [yn feiz doTristement [tristomd] . sald] .Arbre v ert [arbro v exr] . Un soleillevant [o

'

e solexj lov d] .La femme de chambre [la fam Ordre du jour [ordro dygu1r] .dofdxbr] .

An e which is elided underrule (1 ) is of course regarded as

non-existent , SO that we hav e two consonants together in suchcases as un(e) demoiselle, un(e) fenetre, on n(e) te voit pas, ilmang(e) le pain,

etc.

1 I n careless or rapid Speech there are divergencies from this rule,

especially in the case of final e mute see 1 86,


Further examples of rule (2 ) are here giv en for practice

Premier,apreté, justement, exactement, porte-croix, porte

plume, sobrement, parlement

, gouv ernement, puisque tu

v eux, presque tous

, quelque chose,cett(e) fenetre, chér(e)

petite, Paul refuse, un v err(e) de v in,une longu(e) semaine,

un porte-bonheur,table d

’

hOte,nu artiste-peintre .

178. As a sounded e mute is equal in v alue to an ordinaryv owel, it is ev ident that the abov e rules may be applied tosev eral syllables in succession, and thus extended indefinitely.

For example :

Qu’

est-c(c) que j(e) te disais P kes ko3to diz e ?Nous n(e) te l(e) demandons pas. nu n to ldomdddpd .

Ca n(e) te r(e)garde pas. sa n to rgardo po .

11 se.

r(e)pose pres d(e) la ch(e) 11 so rpoxz pre d lafmine.

mm e .

Vous n(e) le d(e)v enez pas. vu 11 lo dyane pd .

The Law of the Three Consonants, howev er, as we hav estated ,

is not absolute under all conditions. It has ex

ceptions, and there are also cases where it is inapplicable ,and where other treatment is required . We proceed in the

rest of this chapter to explain these special cases.

1 . INITIAL SYLLABLES

179 . If e mute occurs in the first, or first and second

syllables of a phrase (as in je m’

en vais, je no sais pas) ,

its elision depends on the nature of the consonants aecom

panying it

(1 ) W hen it occurs in the first syllable only , it isgenerally elided if the preceding consonant is a non

explosiv e , but it is sounded if it is an explosiv e (p , b, t, d,

k , g) , as j(e) vous remercie, c(c) n’

est pas ya;but , te v isite-t—il?que pensez -vous The reason is that non-explosiv e consonantscan b e uttered without a pause (hence called continues bythe French) , while explosiv es stop suddenly (hence calledmomantanées) and require a v owel to sustain them . Furtherexamples :


2 . FIXED GROUPSV 180. It happens that when some groups of two syllables,each containmg an e mute (e .g. je na) are pronounced in a

certain form initially, they retain this form in the interior

of sentences, where the strict application of the rules wouldact otherwise . Thus, as already seen

, the group je ne, whenoccurring initially, is pronounced je n(a) , and hence it preserv es this form of pronunciation,

if at all possible, in all

otherpositions, as

C(e) que je m(e) v eux pas. sko3on vopa.

Est-c(c) que j e n (e) le connais es ko3on lo kone pc1pas

Si je n (e) peux partir, c’

est si3on popartixr, Se doma13.

dommage .

The same is true of at least two other groups, je m(e) , andje l(e) , as :

Si j e m (e) déplais ici, je partirai. S i 3om deple isi, 3o partire .

Quand je m (e) facherai, je l(e ) kd3am fa]re, 3olgrddre .

gronderai.J ’irai chez lui, et je l(e) pro 3ire [e lui, e 3olpropozre .

poserai.

These three groups referred to are largely fixed ones, forwhich a form with [o] in the second syllable is not normal.

When we reflect that the pronoun je, though occurring in

the interior of a sentence , generally commences a new pro

position or statement , and is thus practically equivalentto an initial word , we can understand the fixity of the com

b inations. The group je ne, which is the commonest of all,is so definitely fixed that the form i(a) ne would hardly beregarded as French . The groups je me and ye lo occasionallytake the other form in ob edience to the generalrule , althoughthe fixed form is the more frequent . We might say,

e .g. etj(e)lo proposerai , si j(e) me déplais ici , etc but the otherformsare more usual.M

181 .There are sev eral other groups of two syllables which

hav e the ir origin in the interior of sentences, but which

are nev ertheless fairly well fixed, such .as que j(e) , quel(e) , de l(e) , de n(e) , te l(a) . They owe this form to the fact


that in the large majority of cases they follow a consonant ,being frequent in such phrases as est que y

°

(e) parceque y

°

(e) puisque y'

(e) tout c(e) que y'

(e)est-cc que t(e) etc. The group que y

'

(e) In particular iswell fixed, but the rest often succumb to the general rulewhen they come into conflict with it . Examples

Voulez -v ous que j(e) parte P v ulev u ko3part11a décidé de n(e) pas sort ir. 11 a deside don pd sortixr.

II a été forcé de l(e) punir. ila ete forse dolpynixr.

Il croit que l(e) combat est ilkrwa kolkdba e nesesexr.

nécessaire .

Je v eux te l(e ) demander.

Voulez -v ous que j(e ) lui écriv e ?Je v eux que l(o) garcon v ienne .

11a taché de l(e ) sauv er.

Ils ont choisi de m(e ) pas rester.

A-t-on osé te l(e ) dire P

182 . A few other groups, such as que d(e) , de m(e) , etc

hav e a tendency to appear fixed, but are much less so than

those already mentioned . Thus, we may say il a env ie dc

m(e) plaire, or il a envie d(e) me plaire, either form beingequally good .

183. Note that when two groups come into conflict , themore stable of the two maintains itself . In this respectye n(e) is the strongest of all, as

Voulez -v ous qu(e) je n(e ) le dise v ulevu k 3oh lo dixz pd ?pas

Tu v ois qu(e) je n(e ) te l(e) ty vwak 3on toldomdxd pcl.demande pas.

II croit qu(e) j e n(e) te l(e) ilkrwo k3on tolrodmddre pcl.pas.

3. THE PREFIX RE

184. When this prefix is preceded by a monosyllable.containing e mute (such as ye, te, me, le, the mono

lsyllable generally retains its e, and the one in re 15 ehded, as

3o vo toldomdde .

vulevu ko3lui ekrixv P

3o vo kolgarsd v jen .

11 a to]e dolsov e .

ilz d[waz i don pd reste .

atdoz e toldixrP


Cette eau se r(e) froidit . set 0 so rfrwadi.

Jean se r(e )pose surses lauriers. 3d so rpo1z syrse lorje.

Cet écolier se r(e )lache . set okolje so rloxf.J

’ai tentede r(e)commencer. 3e tdte do rkomdse .

L’afiaire ne te r(e )garde pas. lafexrno to rgard pct.

C’est le r(e )v enu foncier. Se lo rv ony fdsje .

J e r(e) tourne cc matin . 3o rturn so mati-f.

If, howev er, a fixed group of a fairly strong type , such as

e ne, etc immediately precedes re the group retains its0 1 111 , with the result that the e of re remains, as

Tu croyais qu(e) Je m(e ) rev ien tykrwoje k3ou rov jddre pd .

drais as.

J’ai dit qu(e) je n(e ) retour 3e di k 3ou roturnore pclnere is pas.

Il choisit de n(e ) ret(e)nir h i 1] fwaz i don 1otni1rui IGe ui

l’

un ni l’

autre . 10 1tr.

But where the group is less stable , it giv es way before re

as y(ee) me r(ee ,)pose y(ee) lo r e( )tiendrai , etc.

4. THE [S] SOUND FOLLOWED BY E ‘MUTE ’

185 . It happens that three consonants, or four if the lastbe r orl, can easily be pronounced together if the second one

is s (or c as in abstinence, abstrait, expirer (k sp) ,l’

air stupide, etc. This being so ,there is no need for an

e mute after the 3 sound , and it is consequently elided, asArthur s(e) moque de moi , y

'

e l’

ai dit parc(e) quec’

était vrai , ils comprennent c(c) que c’

est, ils(e) trouve bien .

If there be an e mute after the first of the three consonants,it is elided also, under rule (1 ) of the general

‘

law,

’

so thatin this case too we hav e [s] standing between two or threeconsonants, as it n

’

y a pas d(e) s ,(e)cours ye n’

ai_ pas_ d(e)

Henri n(o s e( lamente pas. In ordinary conv ersa

tion ,indeed , the e of se 0 1 cc is nev er retained except before

the prefix re Further examples :

Ces deux amis n(e) s(e) con se doz ami n s konexs pd .

naissent pas.

Nous trav aillons mieux qu(e) nu trav ajo mjok sla.

c(e)la.


Ils ont la fiév r(e) politique . ilz 5 la fjexvrpolitik .

Cela peut lui etr(e ) bien utile . sla po lui extrbjdn ytil.Ilmontr(e) du courage . ilmdxtrdykura13.

La pluie gonfl(e) ces torrents. la plqi gdfl se tord.

This pronunciation may be easy when the word is final,or b efore a pause (such as the end of a stress-group) ,and is adopted frequently in such cases, but it is ratherdifficult when followed at once by a consonant , and henceit is generally av oided in such connexions.

(3) Most people , therefore , at least in their ordinarycareless speech , simplify the pronunciation im

mediately before a consonant by totally suppressingboth the liquid and the e mute , as aut(re)

'

chose

[oxt ]oxz ] , le pauv(re) garcon [lo poxv garsd] , rend(re)serv ice [rd1d serv is] , un meub(le) d

’

occasion [Ge moch

dokdz jd] , une tab(le) d’

acay’

ou [yn tab daka3u] , impossib(le) de te faire [dposib dolfexr] . The [r] in suchcases disappears more easily than Indeed , it

disappears sometimes when the word is final, as ilssont quat(re) . Ev en careful Speakers, when talkingrapidly, suppress it in the familiar words notre, votre,

quatre, as not(re) ami , not(re) table, quat(re) personnes 1and it is always dropped in compound expressions likeun mait(re) d

’

ho‘

tel [met datel] . But the liquidsreappearbefore a v owel, at least in correct French as an autreafiaire, nu meuble utile, impossible auy

'

ourdhui .

These Simplifications are regarded as excessiv e and ev en

slov enly by many excellent teachers, and certainly theyshould only be indulged in when talking with a kind of care

less freedom . Further examples

Um mait(re) d ecole,v ot(re) lecon, prend(re) l

’express,

arb(re) fruitier, une lett(re) de recommandation,ildoit et(re)

puni, apres m’

ét(re) rasé, ilv eut et(re) compris, nu triang(le)rectang(le), l

’

art ic(le) du Temps, un obstac(le) formidable .

187 . If the last consonant is not a liquid (e .g. reste,

paste, force, it cannot be suppressed . Before a con

sonant , the group must either be pronounced entire,along

with the e mute (see 1 77 or the e mute may be elided1 Exception must b e made in Notre P e

‘

re, Notre-Dame,etc . ,where

reverence maintains the fullsound,and also in quatre

-vingts.


in those cases where it does not bring a difficult combination of consonants together. The former method isgenerally adopted in careful speech ,

and the latter in quick,familiar conv ersation .

In the latter, the bringing together of two explosiv eswouldform a difficult comb ination , and in such cases the e mustbe retained , as nu artiste un porte -bonheur, un triste

deuil, ilreste debout. Ev en where only the first of the two con

sonants is an explosiv e , the e is often retained , as is generallydone in the words presque ,

puisque , y'

usque , quehyue . Thus,we say y

'

usque ld [3ysko la] , quelque chose [k elko foxz ] , presquey'

amais [presko 3ame] , etc.

But in all other cases the e may be elided in familiar con

v ersation , as tourn(e)-toi , divers(es) méthodes, assist(e)-le. Itmay also be elided before a pause , such as the end of a

well-defined stress-group , as tu es trist(e) cc soir,elle est

mort(e) sans soufirir, cette voyelle disparait presqu(e) dans leparler. In rapid speech it may ev en be elided in the m iddleof aword , prov ided the combination of consonants is an easyone, asye rest(e)rai , etc. Further examples

C’

est just(e) qu’ilmeure

,la post(e) s

’est trompée, le rest(e)

n’importe pas, cela port(e) bonheur, ilnargu(e) ses ennemis

,

une planete perc(e) 1a nue, nu art ist(e ) lyrique, appart(e)ment ,fourb(e)rie, étourd(e)rie, lampist(e)rie, etc.

6. FIXED WORDS

188. There are a few Words which contain two or more

e mute syllables in succession , and of which the interior formis fixed . Such ar

_e__ [dsov lixr] , échev(e)lé [efovle] ,ressem(e)ler [rosomle] , redev(e)nir [rodov nixr] . In all four

cases, it will be noticed , it is_

the last e that is elided , owingto the fact that it precedes the stressed syllable . The firsttwo words nev erchange theirform , but the other two lose theirsecond e when the third is replaced by an ordinary v owel, as

Ress(e)melle mes chaussures. rosmelme fosyxr.

Je n(e) ress(e)melle pas les 3ou resmelpd le fosyxr.

chaussures.

Ilred(e)v ient malade . ilrodv jdmalad .

Je n(e) red(e)v iens pas pauv re . 3ou rodi pd poxv r.


Under all other conditions they retain the form fixed inthe infinitiv e , as

Fait(es) ressem(e)lerles bottines. fet rosomle le botin .

Il fait ressem(e )ler les bottines. 11 is rosomle le botin .

Je n(e) redev(e)nais pas malade . 3on rodovne p(lmalad .

Que v oulez -v ous P ko vulev u rdovnixrP

Verbs in -eter (béqueter, caqueter, etc. ) suppress their twoe’

s in the future and conditional forms (except in I st andz ud plural conditional, for which see next section) , as

itbequ(e)t(e)ra,ilcaqu(ec t) (e)rait, ils coll(c)t(e)ront, etc.

7 . E MUTE PRONOUNCED

189 . There are sev eral conditions under which e muteis nev er elided, ev en in the most familiar Speech .

1 . B efore ri or li in those cases where the i is alwayspronounced as [j ] and regarded as a consonant . ThiS IS the

and in the first and second plural Of the conditional of v erbs, as enl noins_ _

de__rien [d mwddo rjd] , ilno vous

demande rien [il no vu dmdxdo rjd] , nous serions heureux [nusorjdz oero] , vous marcheriez avotre ruine [vu marforje a v otraruin] , nous causerions ici [nu kozorjd isi] . Sirnilarl we hav eappelions [apoljd] , appeliez [ apolje] , Richelieu [ri oljo] , andev en ce roi [so rwd] , ce rui sseau [so rqISO] The reason is

that a liquid (r orZ) cannot maintain itself In a group of threerealconsonants unless it is first orlast , not second .

2 . B efore the terminations -nier, -lier in nouns .

Thus, centenier [Sdtonje] , batelier [batolje] , chandelierUddolje]bagh_elier [ba]alje] , _

un denier [O‘

e donj e] .3. B efore h ‘

aspirate .

’

As h ‘

aspirate’

is no longer pronounced in French , but it prev ents liaisonor elision before i t

,exactly as if it were a consonant , as une

__

h_qlle [yno al] , dames de halles [dam do al] une hausse [ynooxs] , le hamac [la amak] , un triste here [oe tristo exr] , c

’

est

une honte d’

agir ainsi [set yno d1t da3ixr esi] , quels tristes he’

ros

que ces hussards ! [kel tristo ero ko se ysaxr Similarly,before nu (noun of number) huit, onz e, as le an, it ignore que

onz e et deuxfont treiz e (see4. In the pronoun le after an imperativ e,even1111511i

followed by a word beginning with a v owel, as dis le [diloe] ,"r '


spelling. It appears at the end of consonantal groups, or

In their interior. Thus, we hear nu ours blanc [o‘

en urso bld] ,l’

are de triomphe [larko d tridxf] , e’

est Max [se maksa] , F élixF aure [feliksofo1r] , l

’

est de la F rance [lesto (1 la frd1s] , ErnestBlane [ernesto bld] , lorsque [lorsoko] , expres [ek sopre] . Cultiv ated French Speakers av oid such insertions of e, regardingthem as due to Slov enliness orlack of education .

EXERCISESI . The following sentences should be studied and carefully

practised1 . Je n(e) peux m(e) souv (e)nir de c(e) nom . 2 . Je m(e) te

l(e) demand(e) pas. 3. Crois-tu que j(e) me r(e)pens P4 . Comment puis

-j(e) me rappelerl(e ) v isag(e) de c(e ) garcon P5. Qu’

est-c(e) que j(e ) te disais P 6. N(o) te fach(e ) pas d(e)c(c) que je n(e) te l(e) dis pas. 7 . Je s(e)rai Rustan, et jen(e ) le s(e)rai pas. 8. Qu’

est-c(e) que tout c(c) que j(e) v ois P9 . I1 s(e)ra bien forcé d(e) s(e) taire . I o . C(e) n

’

est rien d(e)c(e) que v ous pensez . 1 1 . De c(e) que je m(e) lepas, n(e) concluez pas que je m(e) le v eux pas. 1 2 . Tu t(e)lament(es) de C(c) que je n(e) te le r(e)mets pas.

I I . Read the following aloud, with special attention to the

elision of e mute

Je suis perdu, on m’a dérob é mon argent . Qui peut-ce

étre P Qu’

est-il dev enu P Oil se cache-t-ilP Que ferai-je

pour le trouv erP Oil ne pas courirP Qui est-ce P J’ignore

ce que je fais. H élas ! mon pauv re argent , on m’

a priv é

de toi Et puisque tu m’

es enlev é, je n

’ai plus que faire au

monde . C’

en est fait, je me meurs. Il faut

, qui que cc soitqui ait fait le coup, qu

’

av ec beaucoup de soin on ait épié

l’heure

,et on a choisi justement le temps que je parlais 11 mon

traitre de fils. Je v eux aller faire dormer la question atoutemamaison . Que de gens assemblés Je ne j ette mes regards

surpersonne qui ne me donne des soupcons, et tout me semble

mon v oleur. Eh ? De quoi est-cc qu

’

on parle 151 ? De celui

qui m’

a dérob é P Ils me regardent tous et se mettent arire .

Je v eux faire pendre tout le monde et S i je ne retrouv e mon

argent, je me pendrai moi—m éme apres.

MOLIERE, L ’

Avare,condensed

CH A P TE R XXX I I

TONIC OR RHYTHMIC ACCENT(ACCENT D

’

INTENS ITE)

193. By‘

accent ’

we here mean the Special stress that isgiv en to a particular syllable when it is uttered with more

energy or force than the others and sounds somewhat louder.

For example ,in the English word tendency,

the stress is on

the first syllable ,in ability on the second

,and in comprehend

on the third . There is alarge amount of such stress in Englishand other European languages, but in French there is a

remarkable absence of it . There are of course changes inpitch ,

and almost infinite Shades of v oice due to syllablesb eing strong orweak , clear-v owelled or dull, but these changesare not necessarily connected with stress. The fact is thatall syllables in French are almost equally stressed

,so

that there is a kind of monotonous uniformity in theirutterance . In listening to a French Speaker one cannot helpnoticing this ev en rhythm ,

caused by ev ery syllable beinguttered with almost equal force and distinctness. As longago as 1 567 , Plantin ,

in his Dialogues franqoys, stated thatthe French language did not recogniz e any accent , and threehundred years later, Nisard declared that “each syllablehas the same accent in French .

194. At the same time there is a slight stress, generally

termed the Tonic or Rhythmic Accent,which occurs as de

scrib ed in this chapter. Studentsmust beware of exaggeratingit it is byno means so strong as it is in English . Frequently,indeed

,it is so Slight that it is almost imperceptible .

(1 ) As a general rule , ev ery word when isolated hasthe accent on the last sounded syllable (unless this is an

e mute) , as bonté , frangais, colossal, bourgeoisie , e’

pee , articleand this is the case ev en with wordswhich hav e been borrowedfrom other languages where the stress has been generallyon a prev ious syllable , as revolv er, y

'

ock ey, gratis, cortés,


Luther, Eldorado . If aprev ious syllable contains along v owel(e .g. baron, beaucoup , fdché, héros) , this lessens the stresson the final syllable , making it almost imperceptible . ManyFrench words are thus in a state of almost perfect equilibrium .

This accent on the last syllable of isolated words is inmost cases a surv iv al of the Latin forms. In Latin

,words

generally had the stress ictus on the second last syllable ,

but as their last syllable has now disappeared in French , the

words end on the stressed one . Thus the Latin accentum,

with the stress on the second last syllable , has b ecome accentin French , mercatum has become marché , andfenestrafenétre .

Similarly in Spanish , Portuguese , Italian , and the otherRomance languages -(which are deriv ed from Latin) , theaccent still falls on the same syllable as in Latin

, but inthese languages the strong syllable is often followed byother syllables, as Italian amore (Fr. amour) , Spanish codo

(Fr. coude) , Portuguese hera (Fr. lierre) . In this respectthe Romance languages differ from the English and others inthe Teutonic group , which usually hav e the accent on the firstorroot syllable . The difference so faras French and Englishare concerned , willbe ev ident from the following comparison :

Latin French English

Gloriosum glorieux glorious

Adv ocatus av oué adv ocateBonitatem bonté bountyCastellum chateau castle

Peregrinum pelerin pilgrim

Cellarium cellier cellar

Angelum ange angel

195 . Where similar words are common to English and

French ,care Should therefore be taken that the stress is not

placed where it is in English . B eginners are apt to do this.

Such cases, e .g. , as the following should be noticed , as theyare v ery numerous

English F rench

H istory histoireL iterature litt érature

Gov ernment gouv ernementCompan ion compagnon

bachelor bacheliercushion coussin


d’

a’

ladier, the word aller being here a mere grammaticalcomplement . If, howev er, we were to say d

’

aller d l’

e’

cole,d l

’

eglise, on an muse’

um, the . expression d’

aller would forma group by itself, b ecause the idea of going b ecomes a

separate one, connecting itself with other Ob j ects than the

school.

The whole sentence has thus fiv e easily defined groups, thev arious syllables of which receiv e equal force and distinctness,except the last of each which is slightly stressed , as

11y avait Iune fois une jeune fille Iqui refusait d’

alleral’ecole .

198. It will thus be seen that though a word when isolatedhas an accent on the last syllable ,

it maylose that accent ina group , unless it is the last word in it for the accent belongsnot to the word but to the group . Hence we hav e

but av ant-coureur

lieutenant-colonel

sav oir-v iv re

nous av ons en

11 laissa tomber

les Champs-Elyseesle Jardin des Plantesaime-t-il

comment allez -v ous

pendant leur entretien

199. These groups, known as stress-groups, to which werefer in this Chapter, must not be confused with breathgroups, or clauses, which depend on the exigencies of breath ,

or on the requirements of expression . Sometimes, no doub t ,the one may coincide with the other, but as a rule , breathgroups are generally long enough to contain sev eral stressgroups. Thus, the phrase , bony

'

our, mon cher ami , forms a

single breath-

group , but it contains two stress-groups.

2 00. The following cases of non-accentuation Should benoted :(1 ) There are of course a large number of little words,

such as pronouns, prepositions, con junctions, etc. , whlch

grammarians call proclitics or enclitics, and t Ch by them

v ery nature are always unstressed . They may,either alone

WORDS IN COMBINATION 167

or in combination , express an idea, but they cannot constitutea stress-group . Thus, in the sentence

Dites-moi I cc que v ousme v oulez pasthere are only two accented or stressed syllables, moi andpas.

Theoretically, there should be an accent on cc que, whichcontains a well-defined thought (equiv alent to la chose que) ,but under ordinary circumstances the weak e mute v owelcannot take an accent , and indeed is not pronounced at all

except where necessary . All such words fall into the

adjoining group . I f they are . not final, or if there is no

pause after them,they fall into the group which follows,

nev er that which precedes;if final, they fall of course intothe preceding group . Thus

Qu’

est I -ce que le maitre Ia demandé I ases écoliers PCe n

’

est rien I de ce que v ous pensez .

L’homme , I qui est egoiste , abuse I du plus faible .

11y en avait qui, eu lieu de pain , I mangeaient I des pommes.

Un pe intre I qui, dés le matin , I travaille I ases tableaux .

Qu’

est-c(c) P I Que sais-j(e) P

In some of these examples it will be noticed that ev en the

comma does not always div ide one group from another.

Provided there be no pause after the relativ e , it becomes a

proclitic word , which cannot take the stress,and hence the

di v ision takes place before and not after it .

2 01 . (2 ) Many adj ectiv es, adv erbs, and Similar words,which are inserted within a stress-group to express shadesof meaning ,

do not usually receiv e the accent , althoughtheoretically they should hav e it . Thus, it a bien travaillé ,il a beaucoup travaillé

,il a parfaitement chanté , les plus

profonds mysteres, un grand tableau ,de beaux enfants, un

excellent am i, les moindres ofi

‘iciers,etc.

Such words,howev er, frequently receiv e the emphatic

accent or stress,especially in elev ated or sustained Speech ,

but this is a different matter, referred to in ChapterXXXIV

2 02 . (3) When a stress-group , complete in itself (e .g. il

parlait) , is followed by a final monosyllab ic word (as in il

parlait bien) , the group usually loses the accent (Disaccentuation) , while the monosyllable retains it . In other words,


the group extends itself to include the monosyllable,as il

parlait b ien . Hence we hav e nu garcon diligent , un gargonhab ile , but un gargon bon . Similarly , we hav e

Vous le v oyez P and Vous le v oyez donc PUn grand bruit , Umgrand bruit d

’

hommes.

D’

une v oix,

D’

une v oix Claire .

C’

est m oi, C

’

est moi-m éme .

L’am i d

’

Alfred, L’

ami d(e ) Pierre .

Le roi Guillaum e , Le roi George .

Une femme charrnante , Une femme bonne .

Lam isere terrible,

Lamisere noire .

If, howev er, the idea contained in the monosyllable be a

distinct one,requiring to be put as it were in relie f, the

group retains its accent , and the monosyllable also . In thiscase there are two groups, generally with a Slight pausebetween . Thus, elle chantait b ien (only one group) refers

solely to the action of good singing, and thus contains a

single idea, whereas elle chantait b ien (two groups) refersto the action of S inging, and in addition indicates that itwas welldone , and it thus contains two distinct ideas.

2 03. While the abov e rules on the rhythmic or tonic accentmay b e regarded as almost univ ersally observ ed

,there are

v ariations from them among different Speakers. Indeed ,

probably no two Frenchmen would Speak with the stresses at

exactly the same places in a sentence . It may be said that inelev ated and sustained speech, and abov e allin v erse ,

stress-groups are generally shorter than in familiar or rapidconv ersation ,

in the sense that adv erbs, adj ectiv es, etc. ,

which take an accent in the former,may not receiv e it in the

latter. Such expressions as de terribles combats, la patriesacrée, etc. , might take two accents in elev ated speech ,

but

only one in ordinary conv ersation . The rhythmic accentmay thus be suppressed or added according to the natureof the speech . But there is a limit to these v ariations, andthe student who wishes a correct accent Should practise thediv ision of sentences into idea-

groups,’

and aim at monotonous uniformity of all the syllables, with a v ery slight stresson the last one in each group . In other words, he Shouldgiv e exactly the same force to each syllable in a group ,

exceptthe last , which should be v ery slightly stronger. Those who


un bruit I S ingulier, I ala fois faible I et immense, I se faisaitentendre I derriere 1 les petites montagnes

2 I de sable Iauxquelles un sentier I conduisait . I Tout m ’

effrayait,3

bout I de sentier inconnu, I ce crépuscule I tombant 4 d

’

un

ciel ouv ert, I et aussi I la solitude I de cc coin I de v illage . I

Cependant, I arm é I d’une de ces grandes 5 resolutions Isub ites

,comme les b ébés I les plus timides I en prennent

quelquefois, I je partis I d’

un pas ferme . IPuis

, I tout a coup I je m’

arrétai I glacé, I frissonnant 6 Ide peur. I Dev ant moi I quelque chose apparaissait, Iquelque chose I de sombre I et de bruissant I av ait surgi Idetous les cOtés I en m éme temps, I et qui semblait ne pas

finir,

7 I une étendue en mouv ement I qui rne donnait le

v ert ige8 I mortel. I Ev idemment I c’

était ca I pas 9une minute I d’

hésitation, I mi meme I d etonnement I que cc

fiit ainsi, I non, I rien I que de l’épouv ante I je reconnaissais I

et je tremblais. I C’

était d’

un v ert I obscur, I presque noir Iea semblait instable ,

10 I perfide , I engloutissant I caremuait Iet ea se démenait I partout I a la fois

, I av ec un air I deméchanceté sinistre . I Au-dessus I s’étendait un ciel1 1 Itout d’

une piece , I d’

un gris I foncé, I comme ummanteau 1 2

lourd. I Tres 13 loin, I tres 13 loin I seulement, I ad’

inap

1 Derriere is an unaccented roclitic .

2 L es petites montagnes, sing e idea,equivalent to les collines.

3 Tout m’

efirayait, S ingle idea, almost equivalent to j’

etais eyffrayé .

Tout may take an emphatic accent , however.

4 Tombant is here a m ere rhetorical expression ,forming part of the

main idea,and is better le ft unaccented.

5 Grandes may take the emphatic accent .

6 F rissonant may take the emphatic accent (on first syllable) , aswellas the rhythmic one (on last syllable ) , thus becoming frissonant.I f a word of more than one syllable requires an emphatic accent

,this

is generally placed as here on the first syllable beginning with a

consonant (cha ter7Qui semblai t ne pas finir, single idea, almost equivalent to qui ne

finissait pas.

8Qui me donnait le vertige, S ingle idea, equivalent to qui m’

étourdissait.

9

.

P as may take the emphatic accent .

Ca semblait instable,

single idea,semblait being here a mere

copulative verb , unaccented.

1 1 S’

etendait is here a mere rhetorical expression,forming part of the

idea contai ned in ciel.1 2 Disaccentuation of manteau before lourd.

13 Tres may take the emphatic accent .


préciables I profondeurs I d’

horiz on, I on apercev ait I unedéchirure

, I um jour I entre le ciel I et les eaux I une longuefente 1 I v ide , I d’

une claire I paleur jaune .

2 IPourlareconnaitre I ainsi, Ilamer, I l’av ais-je dejav ue P I

Peut-étre, I inconsciemment, I lorsque v ers Page I de cinq I ou

six I mois, I on m

’

av ait emmené I dans l’ile , I chez une

grand’

tante, I soeur I de ma grand’

mere . I On bien I av aitelle été I si souv ent regardée I par mes ancétres I marins Ique j

’

etais né ayant déja3 I dans la tete I un reflet I confusI de son immensité P

Nous restamos I un moment I 1’un dev ant l’autre, I moi Ifasciné par elle . I Des 4 cette prem iere entrev ue, I sansdoute

, I j’av ais l’insaisissable Ipressentiment I qu’

elle finirait

un jour I parme prendre, I malgré toutes 5 mes hésitations, Imalgré toutes 5 les v olont és I qui essayeraient I de me

retenir. Ce que j’

éprouv ais en sa présence I était non

seulement I de la frayeur, I mais surtout I une tristesse I sansnom

,une impression I de solitude I désolée , I d’

abandon, Id

’

exil. I Et je repartis I en courant, I la figure I tres 6

boulev ersée, I je pense, I et les chev eux I tourmentés I par

le v ent, I av ec une hdte I extréme I d’

arriv er I auprés de mamere

, I de me serrer7 I contre elle, I de me faire consoler I

de mille angoisses I anticipées, inexpressibles, I qui m’av aient

étreint la coeur8 I a la v ue de ces grandes 9 étendues Iv ertes I et profondes. I PIERRE L0 1 1

1 There is no disaccentuation of fente before v ide,as the latter is

intended to express a distinct idea. The word longue may receive theemphatic accent

,in which case the three words tongue fente, v ide all

become accented.

2 Disaccentuation of pdleur be fore jaune .

3 This may b e regarded as one group ,containing only one concept

or picture , with no pause between neand ayant, and it is better to giveit only one accent .

4 Des may receive the emphatic accent .

5 Toutes may receive the emphatic accent .

3 Tres may receive the emphatic accent .

7 S errer may take the emphatic accent (on first syllable) , as well asthe rhythmic one (on last syllable) .

3Qui m

’

avaient étreint le coeur,single idea.

3 Grandes may take the emphatic accent .

CHAPTER XXXI I I

L IAI S ON OR L I NKI NG

2 04 . As already stated , the final consonant in the majorityof French words is not pronounced ,

so that the words as

uttered end with a v owel. When ,howev er, the next word

begins also with a v owelorh ‘

mute ,

’

orwith one of the threesemi-consonants [w,

j, q] , the final letter of the first word

is often sounded for the sake of euphony , and becomes the

initial of the next word . This is called liaison or link ing .

Thus the final consonant of the v erbal form était is mutein it etait grand [11 etcgrd] , but it is sounded in it étaitv immense[iletet imdxs] , where it becomes the initialof the syllable imSimilarly , we say tropv

aimable [trop emabl] , prenez J en

[pronezd] , disaitv -ou [diz etd] , ilfautv e’

crire [il fot ekrixr] , etc.

This linking prev ents hiatus, which generally makes the

utterance difficult and disagreeable . For the same reason ,

when the third person Singular of the interrogativ e of a

v erb ends with a v owel, the letter t is introduced betweenthe v erb and the pronouns il, elle, on (as a-t-il, parle-t-elle,dira-t-on) , the t being really the surv iv al of the Latin termination of the v erb . On the same principle , we hav e ne voild

t- ilpas, and the technical term va-et-v ient, frequently pronounced va-t—et-v ient by sailors.

2 05 . When thus linked to the following word ,3 and x

become f becomes [v ] , d becomes [t] , and g b ecomes [k] .That is to say, the v oiceless fricativ es (s andf) become v oiced ,

while the v oiced plosiv es (d and g) become unv oiced . For

example :

s Lesv aunes [lez ozn] (same as les zo‘

nes), vousv av ez [v uz av e],nos. . enfants [noz dfd], un grosj omme [as groz om], lotiersj tat [lo tjerz eta], leursv amis [loerz ami], les, ,yeux

[lez jo], des, huitres [dez qitr] .


of hiatus, it is clear that it Should not take place in cases

where it would produce a more disagreeable sound thanits absence would do .

1 But apart from this underlyingprinciple , the main difficulty with learners is to know whento use it , and when to av oid it . One common rule is thatit Should only take place between words that are closely

e i Another, which amountsto the same thing, is that it Should only take place when no

pause can be made between the words. Either of theserules is a good guiding principle , but the mattermay be putbetter and more scientifically as follows : L iaison as a ruletak es place within the interior of a stress-group, and

not between one stress-group and another. Thus

Nous av onsv écrit I a trois, am is I aujourd’hui [nuz avdz

ekrI a trwoz am i o3urdq1] .

Other examples are as follows11 a couru afrancu étrier [ila kury a frdk etrie], but 11 était

franc I autrefois.

Un profondv esprit [ch profdt espri], butson esprit est profond Iet lucide .

Un longv été [Geldk ete], but lo temps est long I aqui attend .

C’

est un secoa exm dre [set Ge sogdt Aleksdxdr], but ilest capitaine en second I aujourd’hui.C

’

est uh heureuxj iomme [set Gen oeroz om], but il est

heureux I et insouciant .2 08. This rule , as here stated , is almost absolute in reading,

in declamation , and indeed in all elev ated and sustainedspeech;but in familiar and current conv ersation ,

the

tendency is to av oid liaison as much as possible ,confining it

to grammatical cases, especially those which serv e to dis

tinguish the plural from the S ingular. The whole matterindeed is largely one of taste

, and speakers v ary greatlyaccording to whether theirconv ersation is elev ated 0 1 familiar,slow or rapid , educated or illiterate . It can be said withassurance , howev er, that in current conv ersation the linkingof words in the interior of a stress-group ,

ev en when it is

1 F or instance , tu as ote [ty az ote] , and tu les as [ty le z a] are bothcorrect and agreeable to the ear

,but tu les“as ote [ty lez az ote] , wi th

the close repetiti on of [z ] sounds more disagreeable than the absenceof liaison [ty le a ot e] , and would b e betteravoided.


unnecessary , does not strike the French ear as unnatural or

unpleasant (unless it be a pataqués1) , whereas the link ing

of one stress-

group to another is generally bad taste ,and denotes a pretentious, affected , or artificial mode of

Speech . For this reason ,the Swiss pronunciation , which

frequently links the stress-groups, is not regarded as attraetiv e by Parisians.

2 09 . From what we hav e just said , it will be understoodthat it is impossible to giv e rigid rules in regard to liaison .

But on the main principle that it should take place principallywithin stress-groups and not between them ,

the followingmay be regarded as the chief cases where it should be em

ployed , ev en in current conv ersation

1 . Articles, pronouns, possessiv e and demonstrativ eadjectiv es, prepositions (except selon conjunctions,as wellas adv erbs (when fairly short), and similaraccessorywords are always linked to the following word when theygov ern orqualify it. Thus

Lesvoiseaux

,v ous

vécriv ez

,nousv aimons

,ils

voffrent

,elles,

env oient,on,

entre,momargent, cesv édifices, leursv enfants,

quels iots,tout

, homme,toutv est fini

,

3 d’

autresvenfants

,

pendantv un jour,

sansvam is

,dansv une heure , chez v

eux,

sousv une lampe, emabondance

,en

vécoutant

,emy allant

,

bien, ,aimable

,moins

vagréable, plusv honn éte, dontv

il est,

1 A pataque‘

s is a wrong linking, as cc n’

est point-z -c‘

i moi;ce n’

est

pas-t-c‘

t lui . Uneducated people , who are familiar wi th only the sound

o f a word,do not always know what consonant

,if any,

should b e

carried forward,and hence they frequently substitute [2 ] for [t] , or v ice

v ersa,or even insert [2 ] or [t] where no consonant occurs . This is a

pataque‘

s,originating in the expression j e ne saispas-t-c

‘

i qu’

est—ce . Some

times the term cuir or v elours is used instead,although cuir is confined

rather to the addition of [t] (as in va-t-en v ille) , and v elours is applied

more particularly to the insertion of [2 ] (as j’

ai eu, pronounced like

] ésus) . Examples of such wrong liaisons are very common,as j

’

etais

t-c‘

t la maison,tu es—t-une be‘te

,i l e

’

tait-z -c‘

t Rome, avant

-z -hier, j

’

ai -z -e’

té,

moi -z -aussi,il s

’

en va-t-en guerre , il v iendra-z -c‘

i q ues,etc . In the

case o f entre quatre yeux ,the French Academy has authori z ed the

pronunciation [dtrokatroz jo] , more popularly-katz jo] .

3 And occasionally also apre‘

s and depuis .

3 Tout is here an indefini te pronoun ,but there is no liaison in such

expressions as le tout et la partie, le tout est de savoir, etc . where tout is asubstantive .


je m’

emallais, j

’emai

,om ema tant

,mais

, en disant,

1

quand, ,elle chante

,

2v raimentv

aimable,tendrementv aim é,

touL -a-faiL extraordinaire,

commentv allez -v ous P b ientdtwapres, je ne t

’

ai pomu nn é.

But if they do not gov ern or qualify the following word ,they are not linked to it . Thus, we say Allez

-vousJ en, but

Allez -vous I en v oiture Similarly, there is no linking in suchphrases as the following

Av ez -v ous I av erti ses amis I P donnez m ’en I um;v a-t-em I

acheval;est-on I allé 1 Rome;a-t-on I entendu;eux I ontété aParis.

2 . The aux iliary v erbs (such as etre, avoir, devoir, vouloir,falloir, etc. ) are link ed to the past part iciple or infinitiv ewhich immed iately follows, as

Ilest, arriv é, ill’

av aiL occupé, dés qu’

il

euL appris, je dev aisv aller 11 faut, y aller,il fallaiL écrire,

ils’est faiu imer

, ea peuL etre juste,ilv eut, , y aller.

At the same time ,liaisons of this kind do not occur in v ery

familiartalk ,in which it is quite common to hearilest I arriv é,

tu as Ieu, nous avons Ieu, tu dois I écrire, etc. The use of

the second person S ingular especially (tutoiement), which inconv ersation almost always denotes familiarity or contempt ,does not suit an elev ated tone ,

and consequently does not

accord with frequent liaison . An exception must be made ,

howev er, in the case of tu cs, after which liaison is quite

common .

3. The v erb is always link ed to the pronouns (il, ils,en , y, wh ich follow it, as prend,

-il, prennentv - ils, ontv -ils

vu,prends,

-eii , donneSJ en,menesv

-

y—moi

, allez ,

-

y, vasJ y. It isfor this purpose that the imperativ e singular takes s after e,

when the pronoun en 0 1 y is to follow .

4. An adjectiv e , ev en though polysyllab ic, takes liaisonwhen it precedes the substantiv e which it qualifies, for inthis case the two words are closely united , making a kindof compound phrase or indissoluble group;ev en two or

1 L iaison is not indispensable in the case of mais, and in mais oui itnever occurs 2 1 1

2 But when quandis used Interrogati vely,kaI Son IS not usual

,although

permissible , as : Quandates-vous v enu P [kd et v u v ny P] .


learned foreigner) , but un savant I e’

tranger (a foreign scholar) .In the first case savant is the adj ectiv e , and étranger the

substantiv e in the second case it is the opposite . We hav ealso nu sot

, av eugle (a foolish blind-man) , and un sot Iaveugle

(a blind fool) . Similarly ,in the plural, we may say un

marchand de drapsv anglais, where anglais is an adj ectiv equalifying draps, but un marchand de draps Ianglais, whereanglais qualifies marchand.

5 . Numerals are link ed to the words which theymultiply. In this connexion ,

they are adj ectiv es, and come

under the preceding category . Thus, unvanimal, deuxJ

’

ines,troisx nfants, cinqfl mis, sixfl eures, sept, oiseaux, huit, ,histoires,neuf , ans, v ingtv e

’

toiles, quatre-v ingtsj lev es, cent,

écus, trois cents, hommes, deux, x et trois,m

[doz iks e trwoz em] .1

6. L iaison tak es place in certain phrases in fre

quent use which hav e practically become compoundexpressions, as :

Bout) . bout,chaL échaudé, chacuma chacun

,chatv

en

poche, -em-jambe, de tempsv en temps, de plusv

en plus,de moins

v en moins, de mieuL en mieux

,de butv en blanc

,

de fondv en comble, du hauL en bas

,d

’

un boutv a l’

autre,

dosv ados, <1q deux

,froid, , aux pieds, guetv -apens, motv a

mot,nuitv et jour, pasv apas, poL

-au-feu, potv au lait, potv au

roses, potv aeau

,de piedv

en cap, pied, ,

-a-terre,

2petitv apetit,

toutv acoup, toutv av ous

,toutv al

’heure,tdtv ou tard

,va,

-aVIS

,etc.

And ev en accentv aigu,nu droitv acquis, etc.

But there is no longer liaison in the following phrases :Nez d nez , du riz au lait, un chaud etfroid,

au doigt et d l’

ceil,de longen large, un potdtabac (thislast forthe sake of euphony) .

2 10. The abov e S ix categories contain all the cases wherelIaison is considered correct at the present day. But sev eral

other instances of liaison occur whenev er the tone of Speech1 The common people even use liai son in the case of quatre by

inserting z between it and a word beginning with a vowel (see 2 0 8,

footnote ) , as le bal des Quatre Arts [katzazr] , quatre officiers [katrozofisje] .

2 But there is no liaison in such an expression as avoir pied I aterre,where the words are not a compound.


becomes more elev ated or careful. Thus, the v erb and its

complement may be link ed , as ilestv en v ille, cela m’

estv e’

gal,

ils ont fait, une machine, dites, ,un mot, faitesv

un beau travail,

and there may be other cases difficult to classify , such as

prétJ lsortir, ceuxv et elles, des chats.. et des chiens, etc.

1

2 11 . Note that liaison does not occur

W 3. mute consonant which follows

an 1 : Thus, e ar enw

pdri'

[ do paxr d"

‘

fikkuirdkoxr] , borddbord [boxra boxr] , corps et dme [kor e cum] ,lo nerd-est [lo norest] , te nord-ouest [lo norwest] , 2 v ers un but

[v er Ge byt] , mort ou v if [moxr u v if] . But liaison takes placewith s after r in compound words regarded as S ingle words,as tiersv

e'

tat, or when the s denotes the plural, as leursvamis

,

diversv auteurs, plusieursfl istoires;with t in v erbal forms

in the interrogativ e , as d quoi ca sertv il generally with t inthe adv erb fort, as fort, excellent;and sometimes with s in

touy'

ours, as touy’

oursv est-il gentil. It may also take place

with t in such expressions as mortv aux rats, cela ne sert, d

rien , etc. ,to av oid a discordant sound .

(2 ) G enerally in the case of the plurals in compoundnouns . In such nouns the pronunciation is therefore the

same in the pluralas in the Singular, as

S ingular

Un arc-en—cielUn char-a-bancsUn v er-a-soieUn croc-en-jambeUn cuilleracaféUn guet-apensUn pot

-au-feu

Un porc-épic

Une salle amangerUn ferarepasser

1 L iaison is usualwhen one of the conjunctions cl or on uni tes twosubstantives in the plural, the second o f which or both of whi ch haveno article , as les pontsv

et chaussees,les voi es

vet moyens, vertusv

et v ices,v ins

vet liqueurs, femmes

vou enfants. But there is no liaison of course in

such an expression as deux heures et demie .

2 Many people , however, carry the d forward in nerd-est [nordest]and nord-ouest [nordwest] , doubtless byanalogy with sud-est, sud

-ouest.

Plural

des arc(s)-en-ciel

des char(s)-a-bancsdes v er(s)—a-soiedes croc(s)-en-jambedes cuiller(s) acafédes guet(s)-apensdes pot(s)-au-feu

des porc(s) épicsdes salle(s) amangerdes fer(s) arepasser


(3) Before h aspirate ,’

as les héros [le ero] , nuhéros [Geero] ,en Hollande [d old1d] .(4) B e fore a numeral (see § 1 7o) , as mes huit oncles [me

qit dxkl] , les onz e animaux [le d1z animo] , son onz ieme your[Sd dz jem 3u11 ] , Louis onz e [lwi d1z ] ,

1cent un [Sd Ge] , cent

unieme [Sd ynjem] , quatre-v ingt-nu [katrov dGe] . Notice thatwhen un is used as a numeral, and not as an article or sub

stantiv e,there is no liaison or elision b efore it : sur les une

heure [syrle yn oexr] , écrivez le nu [ekriv e lo o'

e] .z

(5) B efore the [w] of out and ouate , and the y of manywords when it precedes a v owel (yacht, yatagan ,

as un

oui [Gewi] , mais oui [me wi] , la ouate [lawat] , deux yachts [dojak ] , un bon yankee [Ge bd jdki];also before uhlan, as les

uhlans [le yld] . In the case of ouate ,howev er, although the

French Academy recommends that there be no liaison before

it,some well-known writers take the opposite v iew , and

at all ev ents an e mute is often elided before it , such ex

pressions as une ouate bin wat] , plein d’

ouate [pld dwat] ,being common. The word took liaison up to the Sixteenthcentury at least , and the medical profession Speaks of l

’

ouate.

(6) After the conjunction ct, as y'

enne cl aimable [3oene emabl] .

2 1 2 . As already stated , liaison v aries according to the

tone of speech . Just as e mute v owels are pronounced more

frequently according as the tone is more elev ated , until wecome to v erse where they are all pronounced ,

so the number

of liaisons increases as the tone becomes less familiar, and in

v erse as many as possible take place ,not only in the interior

of a stress-group , but ev en b etween one group and another,so as to av oid hiatus, which is forb idden there . Thus, inv erse we hav e les murs pesentv en vain,

il faut v engcruun

pere, puisvil s

’

interrompitj t ditj ses disciples. The fact isthat liai son,

which is really the reappearance'

under certainconditions of a letter not now pronounced , a

‘ dead letter, ’ isa result of conserv ativ e methods of Speech ,

and this explainswhy it is more frequent in reading aloud , in recitations, in

1 But liaison may take place between the t of the verb etre and onz e,

as il est onz e heures [il et diz oe zr] , and always takes lace in such

expressions as pag(e) onz e, pag(e) nu, quarant(e) -huit, dix uit,etc .

2 But if used,e .g. as a substantive

,as in troi s nu (meaning

‘

three

ones or in cent nu one hundred ones liaison takes place [trwaz Ge,


av ait v u I Paul Trois I et Charles-Quint I causer.ensemble

I surune terrasse, I et pendant leur entretien I la v ille entiere Ise taisait . I

’

Au bout d’

une heure I tout, était décidé I ungrand bruit d

’

hOmmes I e t de chev aux I av ait succédé I ausilence . I Omjgnorait Ice qui allaiL arriv er, I et on s

’agi

tait I pourle sav oir I mais le plus profondmystere I av aiL étéordonn é I lesv hab itants I regardaient passer I av ec curiosit é Iet av ec terreur I les moindresv

ofliciers I des deux cours I onparlait I d’

un démembrement I de l’

Italie, I d’

exils, I et de

principautés I nouv elles. I Mon pere I trav aillait I anu grandtableau

, I et il étaitvau haut de l’échelle I qui lui serv ait, a

peindre, I lorsque des hallebardiers, I leur pique I ala main, Iouv rirent la porte I et se rangérent I contre le mur. I Un

page I entra I et cria I ahaute v oix, I César I Quelques

m inutesvaprés, I l’empereur I parut , I roide [red] I dans son

pourpoint, I et souriant I dans sa barbe rousse . I Mon pére, Isurprisv

et charmé I de cette v isite I inattendue , I descendait Iaussi v ite qu

’ilpouv ait I de som échelle I 11 était v ieux I en

s’appuyant I a la rampe , I il laissa tomber I son pinceau. ITout le monde I restaitv immobile

, I car la présence I del’

empereur I nousvav ait changés I en statues. I Mon pere I

était confus I de sa lenteur I et de sa maladresse, I maisv

il

craignait , I en se hatant, I de se blesser;I Charles-Quint I fit

quelques pasv env av ant, I se courba I lentement , I et ramassa Ile pinceau. I “Le Titien, I dit, -il

, I d’

une v oix claire I etimpérieuse , I le Titien I mérite bien I d’

étre serv i I parCésar.

”

I Et av ec une maj esté I v raiment I sansv égale, I il rendit I lepinceau I amon pere, qui m itv un genou en terre I pour lerecev oir. A. DE MUSSET

,L e F ils da Titien

(3) The student is inv ited to div ide the following passagesinto stress-groups for himself and note the liaisons. Eachpassage , after being thus

' treated , Should be read aloudcarefully .

(1 ) Il n’

y a rien au monde qui se fasse tant admirer qu’

un

homme qui sait étre malheureux av ec courage .

—SENEQUE .

(2 ) Les peuples j eunes ne v oient que ce qu’

ils ont agagner, lesv ieilles nations songent ace qu

’

elles ont aperdre .

3) La fav eur qu’

on m érite est toujours achet ée .

—CORNE ILLE .

(4) La délicatesse est pour les ames élev ées un dev oir plusirnpérieux que la justice .

-MME DE STAEL .


(5) Il est plus honteux de se défier de ses amis que d’en étre

trompé .

-LA ROCHEFOUCAULD .

(6) Il est plus aisé de juger quelqu’un apres une heure de

conv ersation dansun salon qu’

aprésdix ansde v ie commune .

(7) La politesse, c’

est l’art de faire cc qui v ous ennuie comme

S i cela v ous amusait .

(8) Quand on rit d’

un obstacle,il est presque v aincu.

C. BONJOUR .

(9) Toutes les passions sont exagérées elles ne sont des

passions que parce qu’

elles exagérent .

—CHAMFORT.

(I o) Affecter de sav oir cc qu’

on ignore, c’est tendre un piége

dans lequelle plus léger incident peut v ous -faire tomber.

(1 1 ) Si v ous v oulez étre riche,n

’apprenez pas seulement

comment on gagne, sachez aussi comment on ménage .

—FRANKLIN .

(1 2 ) Aux yeux des partis, qui cesse d etre uh esclav e dev ientun déserteur.

—J. SIMON .

(13) C’

est jouir du bonheur que de v oir sans env ie le bonheurdes autres et av ec satisfaction le bonheur commun .

BOSSUET.

(1 4) Ilya de v iolents outrages que l’

on oublie,et des paroles

maladroites que l’

on ne pardonne jamais.

(1 5) L’ame qui n

’

a pas de but établi s’

égare et se perd;c’

estn

’

étre en aucun lieu que d’

étre partout .

—MONTAIGNE .

(16) La dignité de notre espece n’

est pas moins attestée

par les oeuv res du coeur que par celles du gén ie .

(1 7) Les passions, qui sont de bons auxiliaires, sont de mauv aisconseillers.

—BALMES .

(1 8) Ilest impossible de porterle flambeau de la v érit é dans unefoule sans brfiler la barbe aquelqu

’

un .

CH A P TE R XXX I V

EMPHATIC OR SUPPLEMENTARY ACCENT(ACCENT D

’

INS ISTANCE )

2 14 . Emphasis is the special stress giv en to any partof a sentence to which the Speaker wishes to call particularattention . It is

_of ev ery degree , from the most forceful to

where it ceases to be emphasis. Its place in a sentence isnot fixed

,as that of the rhythmic accent is. It falls wherev er

the meaning requires it , occasionally on phrases or on statements of some length ,

but generally on single words. Itthrows the syllable on which it falls, and consequently theword ,

into greater prominence than what precedes or follows,and in this way sometimes changes the meaning considerably .

Thus, the English sentence , Didyoumotorthere yesterday ?may hav e fiv e different meanings according as the emphasisis placed on one or the other of the fiv e words. Did you

motor there yesterday P has quite a different meaning from

Did you motor there yesterday ? It is this emphasis on

indiv idual words that we deal with in this chapter. It isextremely frequent in ordinary French conv ersation or

oratory , b ecause the French tend to be emotional, animated ,

or emphatic in their Speech;and the student will thussee the necessity of practising it carefully and persev eringly ,until he acquires facility in it

, as no French pronunciationcan b e really good without it .

2 15. How is such emphatic accent expressed in French ?I t depends upon circumstances. There are different cases toconsider :

1 . WHEN THE WORD HAS MORE THAN ONE SYLLABLE

In such cases the emphasis is scarcely ev er expressed byreinforcing the rhythmic accent , if the word has one

, as an

English student would imagine Should be done . This would1 84


[bxarbari] . While the rhythmic accent does not permit of

any consonantal lengthening,the emphatic accent finds

its peculiar characteristic in the fact that the consonant isv igorously seiz ed upon and prolonged (hence the Frenchname

, accent d’

insistance), and this Should be remembered bystudents, as English emphasis does not generally put stresson the consonant .In addition , the v owel of the emphasiz ed syllable is in

creased in height and intensity;but it is not increased induration ,

i . .e lengthened , except in cases where it is alreadylong orlialf-long (see 1 04 (4) Thus, in the expression

it y on a beaucoup ,the b is v ery sensibly prolonged;and

the v owel following,being already half-long, takes on full

length or ev en more [boxku] , as it does likewise in ilpleurait,il est v ivant, etc. If the v owel be short , it cannot b elengthened , although the other changes referred to occur,

as parfaitement.1

2 17 . (2 ) If the word forms a rhythmic element byitself, i .e . if it is isolated , it takes the Emphatic Accent onthe first syllable , whatev er it be , asCet homme est fou.

—Absolument.

Je crois qu’ilmentit .

—Abom inablement .

Il est tres gentil.—Extréme

ment .

Attention , s’

ilv ous plait .

Auj ourd’hui, je me moque de

ces choses.

Cette femme est stupide .

—Complétement .

Voulez -v ous le v oirP—Certainement .

Mais ill’a dit .

—Précisément .

C’

est un immense obstacle .

Form idableMiséricorde 1

Compare the following examples, which Show clearly thedi fference between such cases and the prev ious ones

C’

est incroyable .

—Incroyable,mon cher monsieur

,incroy

able .

Cc discours est assommant .

—Assomman t.Le bruit était épouv antable .

—Epouv antable .

The emphatic stress must not b e placed on any othersyllable , except under exceptional circumstances. The forms

e’

pouvantable and épouvantable are both correct,each in its

1 An exception is [e ] , whi ch may take on extra length


place , but épouv antable would not be so under normal

circumstances.

Where the initial syllable commences with a v owel, theconsonantal lengthening,

which is such a feature of the

emphatic accent , is not wanting. In such cases the consonantor group of consonants following the v owel is prolonged ,although not quite so much as when a consonant commences

the word .

II . WHEN THE WORD Is MONOSYLLABIC

2 18. In such cases, if the word has no rhythmic accent , theemphasis is of the same nature as that already describ ed,consisting in the lengthening of the consonant , and an in

crease of height , intensity, and (in allowable cases) of durationin the v owel. But if the word has the rhythmic accent , thereis no increase as a rule in the height or intensity of the v owel.Sometimes the word is quite small and indeed insignifi

cant apart from the emphasis, as

C’est laméme personne, ce n

’

est pas vrai, ce n’

est rien ,

v oilatrois jours que nous ne parlons que d(e) cette affaire .

In this last example , the word trois would otherwise be

unaccented , being an adj ectiv e of number, and coming more

ov er before an accented monosyllable but it herereceiv es the emphatic accent b ecause the speaker wishesto draw attention to the time occupied . The word que, too ,

is not only an unaccented word naturally, but has an e mutev owel which might be elided in ordinary circumstances, asnous n(e) parlons qu(e) de cette afiaire;but here the e mutereasserts itself and the word is forcibly stressed in order tomake prominent the fact that a certain affairhas been talkedof to the exclusion of allothers. Further examples are

Vous étes le selde la terre ilfaut faire juste regardezbien v ous, maintenant c

’

est b ien fait iln’

ya que deuxsortes de gens au monde c

’

est si amusant;v oila tout ccque je te permets. L

’Ecosse est le plus beau pays que j

’aie

v u. Fais ton pain, e n(e ) te nourris plus. Vous l’

av ez dit PNon

, je ne l’

ai pas dit .

2 19 . We hav e stated that the emphatic accent does not

destroy the rhythmic or tonic one on the last syllable of a


stress-

group : it is merely supplementary to it . Thus inc’

est épouvantable, cette afiaire, uttered with emotion , thereare two accents on épouvantable—the emphatic on -pou and

the usual one on -ta'

ble. Similarly in je reste, tu t’

en vas,

y'

e and tu hav e the emphatic accent , but this does not prev entthe usual one on reste and vas. The two accents each serv e a

different purpose . The rhythmic one is to be expected : itis normal and regular, and can produce no effect beyondits rhythmic function . The emphatic accent , on the otherhand ,

is unexpected : it comes forcibly,sometimes indeed

v iolently, and serv es to draw immediate attention to the

word on which it falls. It acts so suddenly and strongly thatone would sometimes fancy that the rhythmic accent hasdisappeared . But the latter is still there

, and only undercertain conditions of weakness is it diminished . One of

these conditions is the end of a sentence . If the em

phatic syllable be near the end—say the last but two— thetonic stress at the end is apt to suffer. This is due to the

hab it of letting the v oice drop ,comb ined with the Special

energy just expended on the emphasis. But the diminutionof stress is only Slight , for the Speaker

’

s ob j ect is to makethe word prominent , and he consequently does his b est tosustain all its syllables. Again ,

in those cases where the

emphatic stress falls on a syllable immediately precedingthe tonic stress, there is usually some diminution of the latter,arising from the difficulty that always exists in making an

effort twice immediately in succession . If the word happensalso to be the last one in the sentence ,

the diminution is

sometimes considerable , although nev er SO great as to cause

the disappearance of the rhythmic or tonic accent . The

final syllable always remains clear and distinct , and more

intense than an unaccented one .

2 2 0. Another method of emphasis remains to be referredto . Sometimes words or groups of words occur in series.

They mayfor instance form an enumeration, or agradation,or be placed in opposition to each other. In such a case

the emphatic accent , instead of being placed on the reallyimportant words, may be placed on the initial syllable ,whatev er it may be , of the v arious groups which correspond to each other, and consequently sometimes on a wordquite insignificant in itself. The effect produced is the same ,


From the last example it will be noticed that when once

the emphatic stress has fallen on the first syllable of one of

the words in a series,it falls on the first syllable of all those

which follow,ev en though beginning with a v owel, and

i n this case any consonant carried ov er in liaison takesits part in the emphasis and prov ides the consonantallengthening.

EXERCISEThe following extract will afford abundant illustrations

of the rules in this Chapter. Obv iously ,the emphasis might

be differently placed according to the indiv idual peculiaritiesof the speaker, but apart from such v ariations the stressesrepresent the pronunciation of a carefulreader or speaker.

Le plus souv ent, I je partais I pour le college I a j eun, I

l’

estomac I et la t éte I v ides. I Quand magrand’mere I v enait

nous v oir, I c’

était le bon jour I elle m’

enrichissait I dequelque pet ite monnaie . I Je calculais I alors I sur la route Ice que je pourrais bien acheter I pour tromper I ma faim . ILe plus sage I eiit été I d’

entrer I chez le boulanger I maiscomment I trahir I mapauv reté en mangeant mon pain see Idev ant mes camarades P I D’

av ance, I] e me v oyais I exposé I

aleurrire, I et j

’en frémissais. I Cet age I est sans pitié . I

Aujourd’

hui, I cette indigence I née I de la persé cution, I

fi erement, I noblement I supportée I par les miens, I fait magloire . I Alors, I elle me semblait I une honte, I et je la

cachais I de mon m ieux . I Terrible respect I humain . IPour échapper I aux railleries

, I j ’imaginais I d’

acheter Iquelque chose I d’

assez substant iel I pour me soutenir, I et

qui ressemblat I pourtant I a une friandise . I Le plus sou

v ent, I c’

était le pain d’

épice I qui faisait les frais I de mon

déj euner. I llne manquait pas I de boutiques I en ce genre Isur mon chemin . I Pour deux sous I on av ait nu morceau Imagnifique , I um homme superbe , I un géant I par la hau

tour I de la taille I en rev anche , I 11 était si plat , I que jele glissais I dans mon carton

, I et 11me le gonflait guere . IPendant la classe

, I quand je sentais I le v ertige I me saisir, Iet que mes yeux I v oyaient trouble I par l’edet I de l

’

inani

tion, I je lui cassais I un bras

, I une jambe, I que je grignotais I a la dérob ée . I Mes v oisins Ine tardaient guere I asurprendre Imon petit manége . I Que manges

-tu la? I

WORDS IN COMB INATION 1191

me disaient-ils. I Je répondais, I non sans rougir, I Mondessert .

” IOn dit I que les souflrances I physiques I sont bonnes

l’ame . I On v oit I que j’étais dans l’etat I le plus propredév elopper I la mienne . I Mais le corps, I lui, a été dé

prirné . I Malgré I les adoucissements I qui sont v enus I plustard

, I je porte I toujours I ce temps I en moi. I Mes priv ations I peuv ent se résumer I en trois mots I jusqu’aquinz eans

, I point de v iande, I point de v in

, I point de feu . I Dupain, I des légumes I le plus souv ent cuitsal’eau I et au sel. ISi j

’

ai surv écu, I c’

est que malgré les souflrances I et la santé Iruinée I de ma m ére, I la saine constitution I de mon p ére Iprév alut I en moi. I Le trav ail

, I les habitudes de la v ie Isolitaire I que je menais av ec mes parents, I me soutinrent Iaussi

, I me rendirent I actif, I mais sans me fortifier I jamais, Ide sorte I que ma chétiv e figure I reste I comme un m onu

ment I de ces temps de deuil. Les cicatrices que garde Ima main droite I t émoignent I des temps d’

hiv er I passés sans

feu. I E t cependant , I parmi les coups I et contre-coups Iqu

’un enfant semblait ne pas pouv oir I supporter, I je

restai I pour les v oir, I e t Viv ant I pour les racon ter.

”

JULE S MICHELET

931

go

CHAPTE R XXXV

ASSIMILATION

2 2 1 . Frequently , when two sounds (either v owels or con

sonants) come together, one of them tends to become as

similated to the other, borrowing part of its characteristics,

so as to av oid a sudden change in the position of the v ocal

organs. Vocalic assimilation has already been referred to

We hav e it in such words as étais, e’

le’

ve, ébene, wherethe first v owel (é) is Often pronounced half-open or open

owing to the tongue anticipating the position of the secondv owel by descending. But further reference need not be

made to such cases, as assimilation between v owels is not

nearly so frequent as between consonants. Instances of

assimilation between consonants are common both in Englishand French . Thus, in English ,

the plural s, while it retains

its propersound in such words as ropes, docks, butts, practicallybecomes [2 ] in robes, dogs, buds, i .a. it is v oiced throughassimilation to the v oiced consonant preceding. In the same

way,in French ,

two adj oining consonants frequently hav ean activ e influence on each other. The Characteristics of

the one pass in part or ev en completely to the other, withthe result that considerable modifications of sound may beproduced . In some cases where the assimilativ e process

is v ery Old,it shows itself in the ordinary Spelling, as in

chercher, which has taken the place of the ancient formcerchier. But there are numerous cases where the assimila

tiv e influence exists without any change in the Spelling.

Thus, we hav e anecdote [anegdot] , S trasbourg [straz buxr] ,transvaser [trdz v oz e] , in all of which the first of the two

consonants is v oiced to make it agree with the second;andabees [apse] , médecin [metse] , sav etier [saftje] , chemin de fer

[Iomdtfexr] , in all of which the first is unv oiced for the same

reason .

2 2 2 . It is this kind of consonantal assimilation to which192


t practically the same as a d,for the same reasons

!,

But ,as just stated , when assimilation occurs in the interior of a

word or group of words closely connected , it is not alwaysrestricted to the mere v oicing or unv oicing of the first consonant (although this is the most frequent mode of assimila

tion in othercases) , but is often of amore complete Character.

This is particularly the case in rapid conv ersation , wheredirect orsudden changes in the organs of Speech are frequentlyneglected . In Slow or elev ated Speech , on the other hand ,

complete assimilation would shock the ear, and would b econdemned by all masters of diction;and this Should beremembered by the student in his desire to acquire a goodpronunciation . Examples :

Gibeciére [31psje11 ] De temps en temps [txdzdtd]Jeter [Ite] Rez -de-chaussée [retjose]

Valet de chambre [v aletjd1br]Clav ecin Chauv e-souris [Iofsuri]Oisiv eté Garde Champétre [gartIdpe1tr]Rej eton Haut de forme [otform]Ecz éma Haut-de-chausses [0Second [zgd] Au-dessus

,la-dessus tsy, latsy]

Afghan [av gd] Coup de pied [kutpjSusdit [syzdi] Sauv e-toi [softwa]

2 2 4 . Note the following Special cases in the interior of

words(1 ) The prefixes ab ob sub- z Here the b practically

becomes p before a v oiceless consonant , as abstenir [apstonixr] ,obtenir [optonixr] , subterfuge [sypterfy13] . Other examples :

absent, absinthe, absolu, abstrait,

observer, obscur, obse’

der,substance, subtil, substituer, etc. The word subsister, how

ev er, is frequently pronounced [Syb z iste] , with progressiv eassimilation .

S imilarly, in the prefixes dis trans the 3 becomes

[z ] before a v oiced consonant , as disgrdce [dizgroxs] , disy’

oindre

transgresser [trdz grese] , transborder [trdz borde] .Other examples : disgrégation, disy

'

onctif , transvaser.

(2 ) W hen 8 precedes b orm Here the assimilation may1 In phonetic transcript , mere unvoicing may b e denoted by 0 under

or over the consonant , as [gl] , etc .,and mere voicing by v

,as [t] ,

[p] , etc .


either be regressiv e or progressiv e , but the regressiv e is the

more usual with b , and the progressiv e with m , as sbire

[z bi ir] , presbyte‘

re [prez b iteir] , asthmatique [asmatik ] , en

thousiasme [dtuz jasm] .1 Other examples : asbeste, L isbonne,Ratisbonne, S trasbourg, y

'

asmin, prisme, lyrisme, rhumatisme,cataplasme, mutisme, heroisme, Christianisme, etc. Whenthus unv oiced, the final m is so faint that it frequently disappears in popular speech (compare r, l, 1 86 Thisis Specially so in long words, where the [S ip] becomes merelya more or less prolonged [S] . Hence a common wordlike rhumatisme has three pronunciations, [rymatisrp] , or

[rymatizm] , which are equally good, and [rymatis] , which isonly used by the people .

’

When sm is initial (which occurs only in foreign words) ,it is always pronounced as in smalah, smilax, Smyrne,etc.

(3) W hen m is initial: Here, as in the preceding cases,

it frequently loses its normal v oiced form , and becomes [1p] .The word monsieur, e .g. ,

is usually pronounced [mosjo] , withthe m v oiced , but frequently in hurried speech the e mute iselided , and the m, coming under the influence of the s, loses

its v oice ,the word becoming [msjo] . In such cases the

unv oiced m in careless speech sometimes loses its nasal soundand becomes a p , as [psjo] .(4) W hen s follows 1 : Here there is a progressiv e as

similation , the s being v oiced , as Alsace [alzas] , alsatique

[alz atik] , balsamier [balzamje] , balsamine [balzamin] , B elsunce[belz ob xs] .

2 2 5 . 2 . Between words : In this case the assimilation isonly partial, not complete . It is restricted to the mere

v oicing or unv oicmg of the first consonant, as une grande

tasse [yn grdttd is] , une pauvre femme [yn poffam] , une robe

sombre [yn ropsd1br] . In such cases the first consonant doesnot exactly become the same as the second

, although it maybe written so phoneti cally . In such a sentence as ye v iens

1 I t is in Switz erland and B elgium that the regressive assimilation ismostly found with In [azmatik ] , etc .

2 The same phenomenon appears, in popular Speech ,in words in

-iste (artiste , anarchiste, which tend to b e pronounced as if the

finalwas -isse [artis] , [anarjis] . Even such words as pretexte, insecte,etc . ,

become [preteks] , [dsek ] , etc . This is a freedom of language ,however, that Should b e avoided.


d(e) servir, the d does not become a t, but only amore orless

unv oiced d [g] otherwise it would be identical with ya v ienst(e) serv ir. Any Speaker who would make the assimilationbetween words more than partial would utterly Spoil bothhis meaning and pronunciation , and would be put down at

once as a foreigner. Examples

Consonants of same order Consonants of difierent orderI1 frappe b ien [frabbjd] Je te crois [Itokrwo]Un esclav e fugitiv e [esklaffy itif] Eglise protestante [eglisprotesUne t éte d’homme [teddom] td1t]Tu fetches Georges [fd33or3] Grog chaud [grokfo]Ilnav igue constamment [nav ik Un brav e coeur [brafkoezr]kdstamd] Ils sav ent tout [saftu]

Ne tombe pas [no tdppo] Chaque jour [Iag3uxr]Une route droite [ruddrwot] Est-ce b ien [ez bjd]Une pipe blanche [pibbld1I] Un bec d’

aigle [begdeglUne v ache jaune [v a330 1n] L

’archev éque de Paris larIov eg

Unepage charmante [paIIarmd1t] dopari]Umv ase sacré [v ossakre] Quinz e francs [kdsfrd]Uh singe superbe [sdfsyperb] Cap Vert [kabv exr]

Et ainsi de suite [edsit SLIIt]Care must be taken , as we hav e said , to make the assimila

tion only partial, consisting of the mere v oicing or unv oicing.

The difference thus produced is ev ident by comparing suchexpressions as téte carrée, téte dure;un Arabe déguenillé,un Arabe cruel;il se repose beaucoup , il se repose toujours,etc.

2 2 6. The abov e two classes do not entirely exhaust thesub j ect . In addition to v oicing or unv oicing, we sometimes

hav e sounds b ecoming nasaliz ed or denasaliz ed throughassimilation . Any v owel or consonant , for example , placedb etween nasals, tends to become more or less nasaliz ed itself

,

as moi-méme [mwdmdxm] , maman [mdmd] , rongeant

en v enant [difnd] . The Americans in particular are inclinedto nasaliz e all v owels in contact with nasal consonants, as[dm] , [yn] , [kdn] , etc. Sometimes

, when aplosiv e is nasaliz edin this way,

it is turned into its corresponding consonant(see §9o) . Thus, d b ecomes n , b b ecomes m, and g becomes

the English as pendant [pdnd] , lendemain [ldnme,une

tombe neuve [tdmnoe1v ] , une longue main [ldgmd] . The reason

CH A PT E R XXXV I

INTONATION

2 2 7 . By Intonation is meant the rising and falling of the

v oice,in other words, its musical mov ement. In solemn

reading there is usually not much of this : the v oice merelyrises to denote an interrogation or exclamation,

and falls

at the end of sentences. But in ordinary Speaking the v oice

rarely maintains itself on the same musical note : it is con

stantly mov ing upward and downward through a certainnumber of notes. This is the case more or less in all

languages, ev ery word-group hav ing a melody of its own .

It follows that if the intonation is not good, the utteranceis unmelodious and unattractiv e . It is almost impossibleto lay down Specific laws in the matter, as the risings and

fallings are sometimes v ery delicate . All that we proposeto do in this chapter is to giv e some general indications of

the mov ements in simple declarativ e sentences, excludinginterrogativ e and exclamativ e ones, which are dealt with later.

2 2 8. Ev ery declarativ e sentence consists of two parts,_

t_

he firefihawng an upward inflexion , dehOting incompletenessof statement , and the second a downward one ,

denotingcompleteness. This is Specially noticeable if we take Simplesentences containing only two stress-groups, such as the

following :

Si v ous v oulez, I I je v iendrai. Je l

’

ai entendu, I I mais je me le

Cette table I I est lourde . crois pas.

On sonnait I I le couv re-feu. Je me promenais I I dansle jardin .

Ildemande I I de l’argent .

In each of these the v oice rises to the end of the first group ,

suggesting that the statement is still in suspense , and thenfalls to the end of the second

,implying that the statement

is now being concluded . The mov ement in such simple

198


cases might be roughly expressed by two oblique lines,thus

Usually, howev er, sentences are longer than these , and

each of the two parts may contain any number of stressgroups. Sometimes each part has an equal number. In

Alexandrine v erse , for example ,when a line embodies a

complete statement in itself,the hemistichs contain two

stress-groups each , the first hemistich taking the upwardinflexion and the second the downward one , as

Son ombre I v ersmon lit I I a paru I se baisser.

In prose too there is frequently an equality of groups, and

occasionally this may mount up to a doz en or more groups

in each part of a sentence . Bossuet’

s writings contain a

large number of such , as

Amesure I qu’ilapprochait, I I je lo v oyais I disparaitre .

Il n’

y a point I de puissance I humaine I qui ne serv e ad

’autres desseins I que les siens.

Celui I qui insultait I al’av euglement I des autres tombe Ilui-m éme I dans des tenebres I plus épaisses.

Generally, howev er, each sentence has an inequality of

groups, as in the following examples, where the last groupalone forms the downward part

Tout bonheur que lamain n’atteint pas I I est un rév e .

Il n’

y a n on que les hommes aiment m ieux conserv er et

qu’ils m énagent moms I I que leur propre v ie .

2 2 9 . As stated abov e,in allsuch cases of simple declaration ,

the first part of the sentence, v iz . that which leav es the

meaning in suspense ,is spoken with the upward inflexion so

as to sustain the attention,while the second part , which

satisfies or remov es the suspense , is uttered with the downward inflexion ,

which makes the b earer feel that the sentenceis being concluded . If we intended to say I l n

’

y a pas I I debonheur, the expression iln

’

y a pas would of itself leav e the

I


meaning incomplete and in suspense it must therefore takethe upward inflexion . The expression de bonheur adds thecompleteness intended and remov es the suspense : it musttherefore take the downward inflexion . If we wished to

lengthen the statement and say I l n’

y a pas de bonheurMansein de l

’

insincérité,the expression il n

’

y a pas de bonheurwould be incomplete ,

still leav ing the meaning in suspense

it must therefore take the upward inflexion , while the re

mainder of the sentence takes the downward one . I f we

wished to say still further, I ln’

y a pas de bonheur au sein de

l’

insincérité, I I parce qu’

on n’

y trouve pas de repos,the whole

sentence up to the final syllable of insince’

rité now takes theupward inflexion for the same reason , and the rest takes thedownward one . Similarly, we might hav e the followingsentences

,each complete in itself

La joie I I se trouv e .

La joie se trouv e I I au fond de toutes choses.

La joie se trouv e au fond de toutes choses, I I mais ilappartient

achacun de l’en extraire .

230. Such examples as we hav e giv en are sufficient toillustrate the intonation or musical mov ement of ordinarydeclarativ e sentences. The punctuation marks of common

orthography correspond to some extent to this mov ement .Generally Speaking,

a comma orsemi-colon denotes an upwardinflexion

,and a full stop indicates a downward one

,while

the clauses between commas take a dependent place in the

general mov ement . Such rules,howev er, are by no means

absolute , as punctuation marks are meant for otherpurposes.

In long sentences,the mov ements can nev er be fixed and

determinate,as speakers differ from each other in sub

ordinate clauses, and it would be absurd to prescribe definiterules in such a case . But with all good Speakers the maincharacteristics of the mov ement remain ,

howev er long or

inv olv ed the sentence is. What these characteristics are

willbe stillmore ev ident from a separate examination of eachof the parts

231 . I . The Upward Part : In this part the firststress-group rises gradually to a certain height , sometimes

amounting to four or fiv e notes. The second group , and the

following ones, whatev er their nature , maintain this height


high notes do not rise so high (see Fig. 8 below) . There isthus a gradual fall from group to group ,

the fall amountingto one note at least in each group . The last group reachesits end frequently by a gradual descent rather than an un

dulation , and finishes on a much lower note than the upwardpart commenced on . The fall from the highest note of the

whole sentence to the concluding one is generally Six or

sev en notes, but may sometimes be more than an octav e .

In the case of many excellent French Speakers, indeed , thelast note often Sinks so much that it practically loses itssonority, and becomes breathed or whispered . This is

particularly the case with the high v owels, i , y,u

and sometimes happens ev en in Short expressions (ilest parti ,ily en a beaucoup , The whole sentence ,

including bothparts, has thus a mov ement resembling the following

F IG . 8

Though it may sometimes happen that sev eral successiv e

sentences in a paragraph are declarativ e ones, terminatingwith the downward inflexion , yet this inflexion need not

b ecome monotonous;because , as ev ery sentence may v aryin the commencing note ,

it may likewise v ary in the con

cluding one . Due attention to this will prev ent the re

currence of any wearisome sameness of tone at the end of

ev ery sentence .

233. A parenthetical or incidental clause does not affectthe construction of the sentence within which it is inserted ,and consequently only takes a subordinate part in the musicalmov ement referred to . It requires a pause before and afterit , so as to giv e it an isolated and independent character,and is pronounced with a depression of v oice and somewhatfaster than the rest of the sentence;but it generally rises

a little towards the end,in conformity with the general

intonation . Examples :

Je l’

av ais attrapé, continua le bandit,et cela me faisait

plaisir.

WORDS IN COMBINATION 2 03

ll lui donnera,répondirent les ambassadeurs

,sa fille et la

moitié de son royaume .

ces mots l’

animalperv ers

(C’

est le serpent que ye v eux direEt non l

’

Homme on pourrait aisément s’y tromper),Aces mots

,etc.

234 . The taking of breath does not in any way modifythe intonation . Breath Should be taken, as a rule , at the

end of ev ery sentence . If the sentence is rather long,it

may b e taken between the two parts, or if necessary betweenany two stress- ;groups but on no account should i t be takenin the middle of a stress-group . The breathing should not beclav icular

, but rather by depression of the diaphragm and

the student Should practise the power of holding the breath ,

and expending it slowlyand equallyas the sentence is uttered .

EXERCISESI . Read the following sentences aloud with the proper

intonation

(1 ) L eloquence du coeur I I persuade aisément .

(2 ) La cause du faible I I est umobjet sacré.

(3) 11ya dans ce monde I I si peu de v oix et tant d’échos.

(4) Celui qui fait le bien en 5011 temps I I a trav aillé pour les

siecles.

5) Pour v iv re en paix av ec les hommes, I I il faut leur passerbien des inégalités de caractere .

—MONTESQUIEU .

(6) Pourv u qu’

on sache la passion dominante de quelqu’

un, I I

on est assurede lui plaire .

—PASCAL .

(7) Les plaisirsde la j eunesse reproduits par la mémoire I I sontdes ruines v ues aux flambeaux .

—CHATEAUBRIAND .

(8) Les gens d’esprit font beaucoup de fautes parce qu

’ils no

croient jamais le monde aussi b éte qu’

ilest .

(9) Ceux av ec qui v ous perdez v otre temps, et qui v ous le

dérobent, I I ne sont pas v os amis.

(I o) Pour les ames de bonne v olonté, I I il 11 ’est pas une minute

dans la v ie qui n’

ait son dev oir.

(1 1 ) Lamort 11’est que le plus puissant acte de la v ie

, I I car elleenfante une v ie supérieure .

—VERGNIAUD .


(1 2 ) Plus on est honn éte homme, I I plus on a de la peine a

soupeonner les autres de ne l’

etre pas.

—CICERON .

(13) Quand on jette les honneurs apleines mains, I I beaucoupd

’

indigen ts les ramassent et le m érite se retire .

(1 4) Si v ous v oulez v ous consoler, I I pensez atous lesmaux dontv ous étes exempts.

(1 5) La pauv reté cofi te plus cher que toutes les richesses, I I caron me peut y arriv er qu

’en donnant tout co qu

’

on a.

VAUVENARGUE S .

(16) L’

enfant dev ient pour ses parents, suiv ant l’éducation, I Iune recompense ou un chatiment .

(1 7) Parmi tant de gens aqui nous prodiguons le titre d’

amis, I I

la plupart le sont juste assez pournous dire bonjour.

(1 8) La simplicité de l’

esprit et du coeur I I est le meilleurmoyende comprendre le v rai.

(1 9) L’homme qui combat pour la raison

, pour la patrie, I I nese tient pas S i aisément pour v aincu.

—MIRABEAU .

(2 0 ) La masse de génie humain, par des alternativ es de calme

et d’agitation, I I marche toujours, quoique apas lents, v ers

une perfection plus grande .—TURGOT.

I I . The following sentence from Guy de Maupassant , inLe B onheur, is more complicated, but is an excellent Specimen

of intonationL

’

Italie, I 0 11 chaque palais, I plein de chefs-d’

oeuv re, I

est um chef-d’

oeuv re I lui-m éme , I on le marbre, I le bois, I lebronz e

, I le fer, I lesmétaux, I et les pierres I attestent I le géniede l

’homme, I onles plus petits obj ets I anciens I qui trainent I

dans les v ieilles maisons I rév élent ce div in souci I de la

grace, I I est pour nous tous I la patrie sacrée I que l’on aime, I

parce qu’

elle nous montre I et nous prouv e I l’effort , I lagrandeur Ila puissance, I et le triomphe I de l

’

intelligence

créatrice .


kind to the interrogation, using identical 0 1 correspondingwords. Thus :

Interrogativc1 CorrespondingDeclaration

Allez -v ous al’etrangerP/ Ou1 c’

est al’etranger I I que je

Est-ilsans argent P

Quelchemin a-t-ilpris P

Pourquoi m’en v oulez -v ous P

Pourquoi l’

av ez -v ous puni P

237 . These explanations will enable the student to understand the intonation of interrogativ e sentences. We now

giv e some practical rules, based on these explanations, butsub j ect to qualifications referred to afterwards

(I ) If there is a specially interrogat iv e word in the

sentence , the rising inflex ion is usually put on thatword , while the rest of the sentence ,

containing merelycomplementary or subordinate ideas, is uttered on a lowertone ,

eitherlev elor falling. Thus

Comment l’

av ez -v ous trouv é P Pourquoi donc / est-ce

qu’

il a dit ea ? Jusqu’aquand restera-t-il ici ? A quoi /

serv ent ces choses P Sur quoi donne v otre fenétre P

Qu’

est -ce que ce monde-laP

(2 ) S imilarly, when the interrogativ e clause is con

tained in one part of the sentence only, the risinginflex ion comes at the end of that clause , as

M’

as -tu entendu quand je t’

ai appelé ? Etiez -v ous

fatigué P/ dit le maitre . Que v oulez -v ous dire / av ec ces

dem i-mots P Est -ce qu’

il est arriv é,mon cher Henri P

Est-ce clairmaintenant , monsieurP Et elle est sans fortunel,v ous dites P Av ez -v ous oublié v otre commission

,mon

ami ? As—tu dit cela, / malheureux P On a frappé : est-cc

toi,Perrette P

1 The S ign denoting a rising inflexion ,is placed immediatelyafter

the tonic word orsyllable .

Non,iln

’

est pas sans argent, l]mais sans amis.

II a pris le chemin qui mene aDinard .

Voicipourquoi I ] Je v ous en v eux .

] e l’

ai puni parce qu’il a

menti.


(3) In all other cases, the rising inflex ion usuallyoccurs at the end of the sentence , as

°

Partirez -v ous P Trav aillerez -v ous P Est-il dans la

chambre P/ Désirez -v ous que je sorte d’ici P/ Vous ne le

sav iez pas P Voulez -v ousme rendre justice P Viendra-t-ilaujourd’hui P Tu v eux me donner tant de malP

In such cases there is sometimes a struggle between two

forces—the interrogation which requires the raising of the

note , and the end of the sentence which tends to lower itas in ordinary declarativ e statements. Sometimes the latterforce succeeds, so that we may hav e ,

e .g. , portz'

roz -vous, withvous somewhat lower than -rez , although not so low as it

would hav e been without the influence of the interrogation .

The question, as so put, is much less pressing than partr'

roz

v ous

238. The abov e three rules are sub j ect to qualification .

Instead of the rising note being placed as mentioned ,it may

be placed on some other word in the sentence , but in thiscase the meaning of the interrogation becomes changed . The

tone being shifted , as it were , to this otherword , the attentionis specially drawn to it . It becomes, the main word in the

sentence , expressing the principal thing regarding which information is desired . It still corresponds to the word of

highest note in the declarativ e sentence , but the form of thissentence b ecomes correspondingly altered . For example ,instead of the rising note being placed on the Specificallyinterrogativ e word (as in pourquoi a-t-z

'

l dit ca it may be

placed at the end of the sentence (as pourquoi a-t-z’

ldit 9a

but in the former case , where the tone is on pourquoi , it isunderstood that some reason exists for the utterance , andthe questionerwishes to know what this reason was, whereasin the latter case , where the tone is on go ,

weight is ratherlaid on what was uttered (why did he say that, and not some

thing else P) . The former question would correspond to thedeclarativ e statement voila pourquoi il a dit ca, while thelatter would suggest il a dit pa, parce gu

’

z

’

ln’

a pas pu direautre chose .

The meaning of an interrogation may thus be completelychanged by a change in the ordinary intonation . The

following are further examples of this


Alors pourquoi te donner tant de peine P Pourquoin

’av ez -v ous pas de témoins P De quoi s

’

occupent v os

v oisins P Comment appelles—tu ca .

P Est-ce que v ous

v oulez le faire P Que faites-v ous cet hiv erP Vous a-t il

dit qu’

i1 était mon pere P

239 . When in an interrogation there are two or more

parallel sentences, the last one takes the downward inflexion

Apprenez-v ous la géographie , / ou l

’

histoire naturelle PEst-ce pourca qu

’

ilest part i, ou pourune autre chose PApporte

-t-on la lampe pour la mettre sous le boisseau,

ou

sous le lit P N’

est-ce pas pour la mettre surle chandelierP\Quel est

, parmi les animaux,celui qui marche a quatre

patt

gs le matin

, / adeux pattes amidi, / et atrois pattes lesoir

The upward inflexion ,howev er

,is required on the last of the

parallel sentences, if it is merely in apposition to the pre

ceding one—that is,if it has the same relativ e meaning, as,

cueille-t-on dos raisins sur dos épinos, ou dos figuos sur dos

chardons P The reason for this is, that in the other cases,

the last clause represents the downward part of the sentencewhen turned into a declarativ e form ,

whereas in this case thedownward part is wanting.

2 40. Although an interrogativ e sentence corresponds to

the first part of a declarativ e one ,the two are not identical

in intonation . As a rule,an interrogativ e sentence com

mences three or four notes higher, and in cases of excitementor passion its highest note is sometimes as much as an octav eabov e the highest note of a declarativ e sentence . The rise

too is more sudden and rapid , much of it taking place on the

tonic syllable itself .


a word commencing with a v owel may take the emphaticstress on the first syllable , prov ided the word is isolated ,

as it were . In exclamations, howev er, an initial v owelnev er rece iv es the full stress, the reason being that itdoes not afford sufficient support for an intense effort of

v oice . The main exclamativ e stress inv ariably falls on the

next syllable , the initial consonant of which serv es to giv e

the support needed . This consonant is lengthened , and itis the v owel following it which receiv es the increased heightand the fullintensity . The contrast between the first syllableand the second serv es to enhance the effect . Examples

Imposteur que tu es ! Intriguant qu’il est ! Imbéciles

que nous sommes Abruti ! Iv rogne Assassin !

2 43. Where there are interj ections (oh ! oh ! bah !

or specially exclamativ e words (que, combien,comme, quol,

these usually receiv e the main effect of the v oice , and

the rest of the sentence is pronounced as usual with progressiv e descent , as

Oh ! monsieur, que c

’

est joli ! Quels chameaux !Comme j e v ous remercie

The stress in such cases consists in a lengthening of all

the consonants in the word (or of its v owel, if there be no

consonant) , and a considerable increase in height and in

tensity . The first consonant or group of consonants of the

word following (unless this word be merely parenthetical) alsoshares in the lengthening. Thus

,in the examples just giv en ,

the c’ which follows guo, the ch which follows quels, and the

j which follows comme are lengthened . The reason for thisis that the word or expression following quo, quoi, etc . ,

is

really as regards signification the most important in the

sentence;and though robbed of its emphasis through the

shifting of the stress away from it,it naturally retains its

consonantallengthening almost intact . Further examples

Oh dit-il, que j

’

étais sot Ah v ous v ous etes trompéQue d(e) crimes ils ont commis Que d(e) fois je suis v enu

ici ! Que d(e) serv ices il m’

a rendus ! Que c(e) souv enirv ous est agréable Quelle perfidie Quels fripons

Quelle mauv aise affaire Quel beau jardin ! CombienNeyétait brav e

WORDS IN COMB INATION 2 I I

Frequently, howev er, the stress, instead of falling thus on

the interj ections and specially exclamativ e words, falls on

the really important or emphatic word . This is particularly the case if the speaker wishes to draw Special attentionto this word , or set it in relief. Instead , therefore , of saying,

quelembétomont with the exclamativ e stress on quol, we maysay, quol ombétemont, with the full effort of v oice on the

syllable -béto Other examples

Queloutrage , cette affaire O ciel Quelle impatienceQuelle effronterie Oh le m iserable Oh 1a canaille

2 44. In those cases where the exclamativ e word is reducedto its mere consonantal element through the elision of

,

the

o mute ,this elem ent still takes the usual lengthening and

intensity, but instead of the v owel following the elision b eingstressed , the fulleffort of the v oice falls on the first syllablehav ing a rhythmic accent . The following are examples ofthis kind of exclamation , which is v ery common

O ciel ! dit mon oncle, qu

’

il est absurde de parler desgrosses dents

Oh mademoiselle, qu

’

il est difi‘icile de faire ce que v ous

ditesImbécile qu

’

ilest dangereux d’agirainsi

Qu’

ilétait nigaud dc croire toutes ces baliv ernesQu’

on est aplaindre quand on est pauv re

There are many other v arieties of exclamations or exclamativ e sentences besides those to which reference has b een madein this chapter, but sufficient has been said to enable the

student to understand how to pronounce them .

CH A P TE R XXX IX

EXPRESSION

2 45 . Clearness of articulation,correct accent , right em

phasis, proper grouping and intonation ,suitable inflexion

,

and all the other qualities already mentioned are necessaryfor good French . But assuming that all these hav e beenacquired , something more is still needed , v iz . Expression or

S ound-shading . As a rule,ev en fluent conv ersationalists or

public speakers, unless they hav e this soul-quality ,will fail

to influence or please . The most finished speaker is the one

who has so mastered ev ery shade of expression that he can

adapt his tone to the special sub j ect . After all,words and

sentences are mere abstract and neutral symbols of humanthought , and it is the particular shading giv en to them whichrev eals the soul of the Speaker and giv es life and interestto what he says. Appropriate shading may completelychange the signification of a sentence it may impart to suchphrases as on W bien , vous l

’

avoz dit, jo devrais, etc an ironical

or doubtful meaning, the opposite of the literal one . Itis not a case merely of indiv idualwords, but also of clauses,sentences, and ev en paragraphs. This being so , a goodspeaker, by enlisting the power of expression , materiallyassists his hearers to understand his sub j ect , while a speakerwho neglects this makes intelligent hearing laborious and

unpleasant . Two v iolin players may perform the same piece ,

both displaying equal command ov er the technicaldifficultiesyet the playing of the one may hold a listener spell

-bound ,

whilst the other performance scarcely serv es to awakeninterest . In the one case the v iolinist enters into the playing,

infuses his spirit into it , and giv es it life , while the othermerely produces dead sound . So with Speaking,

and par

ticularly with French ,which can assume the most v aried

shades, there must be a union b etween the speaker and thematter of his speech . He must realiz e what he says, and

2 1 2


low tone , while a summary req al, on the otherhand , takes ahigh tone , as

IVoulez-v ous bien me tirerd’

embarras P ICertainement non

2 47 . The simple words oni and non , according as they areuttered , may express the most v aried ideas. For example ,in the case of oni , the ordinary falling inflexion (oni denotesaffirmation , pure and simple Yes, that is while a

stronger falling one (oui denotes irony , indifference , doub t .The ordinary rising inflexion (oni /P) expresses simple interrogation , while a strongerrising one (oni P) corresponds togreat surprise or astonishment . Indeed , the shades impartedby the v oice are so expressiv e that oni may become equiv a

lent to a negativ e , and non to an affirmativ e .

CH AP TE R XL

RHYTHM AND EURHYTHMY

2 48 . The rhythm of a sentence depends, among otherthings, upon the recurrence of stressed syllables at regular or

fairly regular interv als. In this sense it b elongs peculiarly topoetry, where it reaches its maximum , but it is found more

or less in well-constructed prose . A person of rhythmic ear,

though using only the plainest phraseology, maymake it flowwith poetic smoothness.

In French these stressed syllablesare the finalones of stressgroups, i . e . those which hav e the Tonic Accent . If the wordsin a sentence are selected and arranged in such a way thatthese tonic stresses occurwith ameasured or timed mov ement

,

the sentence is rhythmicalin the sense just mentioned . ManyFrench speakers do this instinctiv ely to some extent

, not

only in elev ated stye and public speaking, but ev en in

ordinary conv ersation , and their sentences thus become more

effectiv e and more pleasant to the ear. Though the stressgroupsmay v ary considerably in the numberof theirsyllables,a Speaker can equaliz e them to a large extent by dwellinglonger on the shortergroups— in other words, bylengtheningout their syllables. But as this draws attention to themsomewhat by putting them in relief

,it is necessary that the

meaning should admit of this being done .

2 49 . The good rhythm of a sentence , howev er—what isknown as Eurhythmy —depends on more than mere regularityof accent . In the fine arts, such as sculpture , architecture ,and painting,

eurhythmy is the harmonious comb ination of

the v arious lines and parts, and the term when applied todiction has a similar meaning. It has already been pointedout in the chapter on Intonation that the ordinary Frenchsentence may be div ided into two parts, the first hav ing an

upward infiexion, and the second a downward one . Each2 15


of these parts may consist of sev eral stress-groups, twoor more of which may be combined syntactically . It isonly when these groups and comb inations of groups are

so arranged that those in the second part correspondharm on iously to those in the first

,that a sentence pos

sesses eurhythmy . In otherwords, the whole mov ement ofthe sentence from first to last must be strictly harmon ious

in its v arious sections, modelled according to the ideas ex

pressed , and producing the effect intended . As it is ev identthat in uttering a sentence these groups and comb inationsrequire to be correctly grasped by the speaker before

they can receiv e the proper intonation , or duration, the

necessity arises for dealing with the subj ect in a manual of

pronunciation .

2 50. To explain the matter more particularly, we cannotdo better than here giv e the famous introductory sentencefrom Bossuet

’

s oration on Henriette-Marie de France . Thissentence has frequently b een quoted as a specimen of perfecteurhythmy

, and one feels on reading it that it possesseswonderful equilibrium and harmony

Celui qui regne I dans les cieux, I et de qui relev ent I tousles empires, I aqui seul I app artient I la gloire , I la majesté, Ie t l

’

indépendance , I est aussi le seul I qui se glorifie I de fairela loi I aux rois

, I et de leur donner, I quand i! lui plait, I degrandes I et de terribles I lecons.

” 1

It will be noticed that the sentence , which div ides itselfafter l’indépendance, has perfect equilibrium,

there beingexactly the same number of stress-groups, v iz . nine , in eachof the two parts. But what is really of consequence , the

sentence is perfectly harmonious throughout , for the com

binations of groups which are Specially j oined by syntaxcorrespond in the two parts. Thus, the first part containsgroup

—combinations of and the second Ev en

the important words in the one part correspond by positionto similar or opposite words in the other. Thus, the wordrois occurs in the second part in the place where empires

1 In familiar Speech ,do grandes et terribles locons would form only one

stress-group ,but Bossuet

’

s elevated style , like that of verse,requires

an accent on grandes and on terribles. (See 2 0


Soit qu’i] elev e I les trones, I soit qu’

il les abaisse, I soit

qu’

i1 communique I sa puissance I aux princes, I soit qu’

i1 la

retire I a lui-m eme, I et ne leur laisse I que leur propre faib

lesse, I| il leur apprend I leurs dev oirs I d’

une maniere Isouv eraine I et digne de lui. I (3, 3, 2 , 2 I 2 ,Car

,en leur dormant I sa puissance, I I il leur commande I

d’

en user I comme ilfait I lui-m eme I pourle bien I dumonde . I(z uz z 2 )Et illeur fait v oir

, I en laretirant, que toute leurmaj esté Iest empruntée , I et que, pour etre assis sur le trone

, I ilsn

’

en sont pas moins I sous sa main I et sous son autorité Isupreme I (2 I I 2 , 2 , 2 ,C

’

est ainsi I qu’

il instruit I les princes, I I non seulement Ipar des discours I et par des paroles, Imais encore I par deseffets I et pardes exemples. I (3 I I 3, 3.

In the first sentence , the upward part , which has ten stressgroups, commences with two combinations of 3and ends withtwo of 2 ,

while the downward part , which has exactly halfthe number of groups, commences with one comb inationof 2 and ends with one of 3, without hav ing any other combination to cause disharmony . In the second and thirds entences, the upward parts contain each a comb ination of 2 ,

while the downward parts hav e the same combinations ina series, without there being anywhere a combination of 3

‘

to spoil the harmony . In the fourth sentence , the upwardpart , containing a comb ination of 3,

is followed by a downward part containing two of the same

, but nowhere is therea comb ination of 2 to disturb the rhythm .

We giv e below some further examples, constructed on

different types, but each presenting a specimen of excellentrhythm . Some of these examples no doubt might be div idedup differently, as no two Frenchmen might utter a sentenceexactly the same way. The tonic stress might be suppressedoradded at some points, and ev en the separation line betweenthe two parts might be otherwise placed;but it will b efound that the di v isions here giv en are in consonance withthe ideas conv eyed , and that , ev en if these div isions werealtered , the harmony as a rule would not be affected

Si nous n’av ions pas I de défauts, I I nous ne prendrions

pas I tant de plaisir I a les remarquer I chez les autres. I-LA ROCHEFOUCAULD . (2 I I

WORDS IN COMB INATION 2 1 9

Paraitre I un moment, I jeter un éclat I doux et profond, Imourir tres jeune

, I I v oilala v ie I d’

un Dieu. I —RENAN .

(2 , 2 , 2 I ISon nom I qu’

il a toujours La la bouche, I ses mysteres Iqu

’il traite I si div inement

, I I rendront I sa sirnplicité I toutepuissante . I -BOSSUET. (3, 3Cette superbe puissance, I ennemie de la raison

, I qui se

plait I ala controler I et ala dominer, I pour montrer I combien elle peut I en toutes choses

, I I a établi I dans l’homme

une seconde nature . I —PASCAL . (3, 3, 3 I IUn enfant I de six I asept ans, I beau I comme un ange , I

et les épaules I couv ertes, I sur la blouse, I d’

une peau

d’agneau, I I marchait I dans le sillon I parallele I ala charrue

, Iet piquait I les flancs I des boeufs I av ec une gaule I longue Iet legere, I arm ée I d’

un aiguillon . I —GEORGE SAND . (3, 2 , 4 I I4, 3, 3, 2

En somme, I malgré les exactions I des gouv em eurs I et

les v iolences I inséparables I d’

un gouv ernement I absolu, I I lemonde

, I sous bien I des rapports, I n’

av ait pas encore été Iaussi heureux . I —RENAN . (I , 2 , 4 I I I , 2 ,

2 52 . Whenev er the harmony referred to is lacking,there

is no eurhythmy in the proper sense of the term . In suchcases the rhythm is said to be discordant. It may not

necessarily,howev er, on this account be bad rhythm . It is

a departure from the normal, a contrast to what should be

expected , but for that v ery reason the speaker may producean effect with it which otherwise would be unfelt for it is

by departing from the usual rule and presenting some un

expected combination oi groups that he can generally arrestattention and produce effect . Pascal

’

s sentence,L e silence I

éternel I do cos espaces I infinis I I m’

eflraio, I (2 , 2 I I shows acomplete break of harmony , but he thereby puts the lastgroup into special prominence and makes it speak more

forcibly . Without a frequent break of rhythmicalharmony,important ideas would not b e set in relief

, and sentenceswould tend to become weak andmonotonous. The rhythm ,

though broken ,is not faulty so long as it accords with the

ideas meant to be conv eyed . We giv e two or three examplesof discordant rhythm

,intended to produce effect

Seul I il est assis I a la droite I de Dieu le Pére I I pourl’

étem ité . I —RENAN . (4 I I


Que S i v ous me demandez I comment tant de factions ]opposées, I et tant de sectes I incompatibles, I qui se dev aientapparemment détruire I les unes les autres

,out pu si

opiniatrement I conspirer ensemble I contre le trone royal, I Iv ous l

’

allez apprendre . I —BOS SUET. (5, 2 , 3 I ILorsqu

’

en v oyageant Idans la presqu’

ile I armoricaine, I on

dépasse I la région , I plus rapprochée I du continent, I on se

prolonge I la physionomie gaie , I mais commune, I de la

Normandie I et du Maine, I et qu’

on entre I dans la v eritable IBretagne , I dans celle qui m érite I ce nom I par la langue Iet la race

, I I le plus brusque changement I se fait sentir Itout é COUP I (3, 4, 5, 3, 4 I I 3

2 53. As the ob j ect of discordant rhythm is to producee ffect , the speaker orwriter should guard against the hab it ofdrifting into it in almost ev ery sentence . The indiscriminate orexcessiv e use of it not only defeats its ob j ect , but keeps them ind of the b earer or reader always tense ,

expectant , and

on the alert , and thereby produces mental fatigue . Some

writers seem to be so constituted that they can only thinkby contrast or disproportion , with the result that their pages,though beautifulotherwise , are filled with discordant sentencesof which the reader soon tires. To av oid such results, a

frequent return should be made to harmonious rhythm,

which is pleasant to the earand affords rest to the m ind .

Great pains should be taken to secure the art of goodrhythm

, as the power possessed by it to make speakingpleasant and effectiv e is v ery great . Perhaps nowhere ov er

the range of elocutionary effects can the taste and Skill of

the speaker be more fully displayed than here . No one , of

course , can Speak by rule , but one can so master an art as to

exercise it unconscious of its rules.

2 54 . We referred at the commencement to regularity of

stress. In French v ersification this regularity reaches itsmaximum . The lines, according to traditional rule , usuallyconsist of an equal number of written syllables

, but the

important point is that they hav e a fixed numb er of stressgroups, equal or almost equal in length . It is not so muchthe numb er of syllables as this regular distribution of accentsthat is the fundamental principle in French poetry, as inall poetry and to pronounce the lines correctly

, one should

INDEX OF WORD-ENDING S

Norm—The figures refer to the sect ions. n footnote

-ab e, 38 (I )

”able: 38 4I

1 86

abre, 41 1 86

-ache, 38 (I )

ache, 41 (1 )

achme, 38 (I )

-acle, 38 (I ) , 1 86

-acre, 38 1 86

1 5 1 (4)acte

, 38 (1 )ad

,-ade

, 38 (1 )adre

, 41 1 86-aen

, 9 1

af,-afe

, 38 (1 )afle

, 38 1 86

afre, 4 1 1 86

a s-age , 38 (I )

“agney 38 (I )-ague , 38 (I )“331;2 1 2 5 (4)

-a1ble,2 5 1 86

-aiche,2 5 (4)

-aide,2 5 (4)

"aie,2 1 2 5

69-aient

,2 5 69

-aigle , 2 5 1 86

aigue , 2 5 (4)w ere , 2 5 I O4 (4) a,

1 86-all

, 38 (I ) , 41 78,1 1 2

aile.2 5 (4)

aille, 41 76, 1 1 2

aim 97

-aime,1 0 4 (4) 2 c

,2 5

-a1n,86 (4) n .

, 9 7-am e

,2 5 2 4

1 0 4 (4) 2 0 .

air,2 5 (4)

-alse,2 5 (4)

-aisen,2 5 31 (I )

-alsse,2 5 2 4

1 0 4 (4) 2 C

-aive,2 5 (4)

“al, 38 (I )

-albe, 38 (I )

-ald,-alde

, 38 (1 )-ale

, 38 (1 )-ale

, 41 (1 )-algue , 38 (1 )"alme

, 38 (I )' a1pe ) 38 (I )-alque , 38 (1 )-alte

, 38 (1 )-alve

, 38 (1 )“am

, 38 (I );86 9 I-ambe

, 9 1-amble

, 9 1 , 1 86-ambre

, 9 1 , 1 86"ame

s 38 (I )41 (I )

-ames, 38 1 0 4

2 a

-amp ,-ampe , 9 1

-ample , -ampre ,1 86

”an, 38 (I ) , 86 9 1

-ance,-anche

, 9 1-ancre

, 9 1 , 1 86-ande

, 9 1-andre

, 9 1 , 1 86-ane

, 38 (1 )“angy 9 1-ange , 91

9 1 ,

-angle , 9 1 , 1 86-anque , 9 1-ans

,1 2 9 (3) n .

-anse, 9 1

-ant,-ante

, 9 1-antre

, 9 1 , 1 86-aon

, 9 1-ap ,

-appe , 38 (I )-apre , 4 1 (I ) , 1 86"aptey 38 (I )

-ar, 41 (I )

-arbre, 38 (I ) , 1 86

-arc,-arche

, 38 (1 )-ard

,-arde

, 38 (1 )-are

, 41 (I I ) , 38 (I )-arge , 38 (I )-argue , 38 (I )-arle

, 38 (I )-arme

, 38 (I )-arne

, 38 (1 )-arpe , 38 (I )-arque , 38 (1 )-arre

, 38 (m. 4x (u )-arse

, 38 (1 )-artre

, 38 1 86-arve

, 38 (1 )-as

, 38 41 1 2 92

-ase, 41 (8

-asme. 38 (I ) , 2 2 4 (2 )

-asque , 38 (1 )-asse

, 38 (I ) , 4 I (3)-assion

, 41 (9)-aste

, 38 (I )-astre

, 38 1 86-at

, 38 (I ) , 1 5 1 (z ) (3)-fit

, 38 (2 )—ate, 38 (1 )

ates, 38 1 04 (4)2 a

2 2 4

ation, 41 (9)

-atre, 38 (I ) , 1 86

atre, 4 1 1 86

”au, 47 (7)

aube, 47 (7)

auche, 47 (7)

-aufi e, 47 (7)

a uge , 47 (7)4 11116

, 47 (7)-au1d

,1 1 5 (3)

-ault,1 1 5 (3)

-aume,-aune

, 47 (7)-aupe , 47 (7)-anque , 47 (7)—aur

,aure

, 50 (3)-ause

,4 1 11556

, 47 (7)-aut

,aute

, 47 (7)m m

. 47 (7)-aux

, 47 I 59-av e

, 38 (I )‘ a e

, 4 1 1 86-ax

, 38 (I ) , 1 59-axe

, 38 (I )fl y,

2 5 (5)-aye , 2 5 4 1 (7) ”w69

-a2, 4 1 I 33

-az e, 41 (8)

“b,1 47

-b 1e,-bre

,1 86

-ceps, 1 2 9 (2 )-ch

,1 36 1 56

-cher,1 2 3

-ck,1 56

-cle,-cre

,1 86

“Ct,1 51 (4)

-cuei1,67 n .

-é,2 1 (1 )

-eau,-eaux

, 47 (7)“eh

:2 5 (2 )

“éb e’2 5 (I )

-eble,2 5 I 86

-ébre,2 5 (I );1 0 4 (4) a,

1 86

‘ eC,2 5 (2 )

-éce,2 5 (I ) , 1 0 4 (4) 2 C

-eche,2 5 (I )

-ect,2 5 I S I (4)

-ecte,2 5 (2 )

-ectre,2 5 1 86

-cd,2 5 1 54

“éde,2 5 (I )

-edre,2 5 (I ) , 1 0 4 (4) a:

1 86-ée

,2 1

(2 )-een

, 99“e i

y2 5 (2 )

‘ éfe:2 5 (I )

-éfie,2 5 1 86

” ége r 2 5 (I )-eg1e , 2 5 1 86~ egme

,2 5 (2 )

-égne , 2 5 (I )-égre ’

2 5 (I ) , 1 86-égue ) 2 5 (I )-e le

,2 5 (6)

-e ige , 2 5 (2 )-e il

,2 5 78) 1 1 2

-e ille,2 5 76,“2

-e i rn, 97

-ein,86 (4) 7L , 9 7

-cindre, 97 , 1 86

-e ine,2 5 2 4

1 0 4 (4) 2 C

” eiz e)2 5 (2 )

‘ eli2 5 (2 )

-ele,2 5 (r) , 31 0 4 (4)

2 c

-elions,-elie z

,1 89 (I )

-elle,2 5 (2 )

-em ,2 5 86 9 I

-emble , embre , 9 I , 1 86-éme

,2 5 (I );2 4

1 0 4 (4) 2 C

-emm ent, 38 (3)—empe , 9 I

-en,86 9 1 : 99

-ence, 9 1

-ene,2 5 (I ) , 2 4 I 0 4

(4) 2 C

-enfle, 9 1 , 1 86

-ens, 99 , 1 2 9 (3) 72 °

-ent’ 9 1 , 1 1 0

-ente, 9 1

-entre, 9 1 , 1 86

(I ) , 69 ) 1 0 4

MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION‘ épe’

2 5 (I )-épre , 2 5 1 86-epte , 2 5 (2 )r éque , 2 5 (I )-er

,2 5 1 2 3, 2 0 9

(4) 2-era1

,69

-erai s,69

-m e,2 5 (2 )

-erce,-erche

,2 5 (2 )

-ercle,2 5 1 86

-erde,2 5 (2 )

-erdre,2 5 1 86

“ére,2 5 (I )

-erement,2 5 I O4

(4) 3 2

-érent,2 5 (I )

-erf,2 5 (2 )

rg,-erge , 2 5 (2 )

rgue , 2 5 (2 )rie

,69

-orions,

-erie z,1 89 (I )

-erme,

. erne,2 5 (2 )

-erte,2 5 (2 )

-erve,2 5 (2 )

-erre,2 5 (2 )—erse

,2 5 (2 )

és ,2 5 (I ) , 2 4 (I ) ’ 1 0 4(4) 2 b , 1 2 9 (2 )

-ése,2 5 (I )

-esme,2 5 2 2 4 (2 )

-esque , 2 5 (2 )-e sse

,2 5 1 0 4 (4)

2 c

-est,-este

,2 5 (2 )

-estre,2 5 1 86

-e t,2 5 1 5 1 (2 ) (3)

-éte , 2 5 (I ) , 1 0 4 (4)2 c

-ete,2 5 (I ) , 1 0 4 (4)

2 a

-eter,1 88

-etre,2 5 (I ) , 1 0 4 (4)

2 a,1 6

-e tte,2 5 (2 )

-eu,64 (I )

-guble , 65, 1 86-eue

,64 (I )

-euf,65

-engle , 65-euil

, 66, 78, ” 2

_ eujlle , 66, 76, 1 1 2

2 2 6

-olte , 50 (1 )-olve

, 50 (I )-om , 50 (I ) , 8695

-0mbe, 93

-omble , -0mbre , 93,1 86

! mo 50 (I ) , 47 (5)-ome , 47 (2 )-omme

, 47 (5)-ompe , 93ompre , 93, 1 86on

,86 95,

(I )

-once,-onche

, 93-onde

, 93-ondre

, 93, 1 86-one , 50 (I ) ! 47 (5)-onfle

, 93, 1 86-onge , 93m ale. 93. 1 86o nne

, 47 (5)-onque , 93-ont

,-onte , 93

-ontre, 93, 1 86

-onz e, 93

-o -o e, 50 1 )

wgle , gpre , 50 1 86

o n e. so (1 )

~or,-ore

, 50 (1 )-orbe

, 50 (1 )-orche

, 50 (1 )-orde

, 50 (1 )-ordre , 50 1 86-orge , 50 (1 )~orgue , 50 (

1 )-orgue , 50 1 )-orme

,-orne , 50 (1 )

-orque , 50 (1 )-orse

,-orte

, 50 (1 )-os, 50 m s(4) 2 b ,

1 2 9 (2 )-ose, 47 (4m en -0 81 47 (4)-osion , osité , 47 (4)-osition. 47 (4)-osse , 50 (I . 47-oste , 50 (1-ot

, 47 (I )-ote

, 50 (1 )“étey 47 (2 )

50

MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION~ l

‘

0l, 4I (5)-otion, 47

-I 0 1e, 4I (7)-6tre , 47 1 86

-0 11 , 56 41 (6)-ouble

,-oucle

, 56, 1 86 -rs,1 2 9 (3) n .

-ouche, 56

-oude, 56

-oudre , 56, 1 86“S

’1 2 9’

2 0 9 (4) n .

-oue , 56~ sme

,2 2 4 (2 )

-oufi e , 56’ S t

)1 51 (3)

-oude,-oufre , 56, 1 86

-ouge , 56-ougre , 56, 1 86-ou1l, 56, 78, 1 1 2-ouille

, 56, 76, 1 1 2-0uin , 9 7-0 111d, 56;1 1 5 (3)-oule

, 5-oult

, 56) I I 5 (3)-oupe , 56-ouple , 56, 1 86-our

, 56-ourbe

,-ourde , 56

~ 0 urse ,-ourte , 56

-ous, 56, 1 0 4 (4) 2 b

-0use, 56

-ouser,1 0 4 (4) 3n .

-0usse, 56

-0uste,-0 ute , 56

-outre, 56, 1 86

-0 uv e, 56

-0uvre, 56, 1 86

-oux, 56

-0uz e , 56-ov e

, 50

(I )

~OVC, 47 2 )

-ovre, 50 1 86

-oxe, 50 (1

-0y, 38 (5)-Ol

, 56) 133

“p i

I 47-ple , pre , 1 86-pt, I sI (4)

“q :

1 56

-r, 1 2 3-racle

, 41 (1 0 )-ras

, 41 (2 ) n .

-rer,1 0 4 (4) 3n .

-r e . 1 86

-t,1 5 1

-th ,1 48

-tas, 41 (2 ) n .

” tie;1 50 (5)” tié a 1 50 (4)-tier

,~ tiere , 1 50 (4)

-tieme,1 50 (4)

-tions,-tiez

,1 50 (5)

-tre,1 86

-u,61

-ube , 61-uble

,-ubre , 61 , 1 86

-uc, 61-uce

,-uche , 61

-ucre,61

,1 86

-ud,-ude , 61

-ue,61

, 69 , 1 04 (2 )e 62u

ueil, 66, 78, 67 n .

neille , 66, 76, 67 n .

-ufie, 61 ,

1 86-uge , 61-ugle , 61 , 1 86-u ne

, 61-u -ule

,61

-ulte,61

mm. 50 86 95,1 0 0

-umble , 1 0 0-ume

,61

-nu, 95, 1 00 ,1 0 1

-une , 61-unte , 1 0 0-upe , 61-uple , 61 , 1 86-uque , 61-urent , 61-urge , 61-urne , 61-urque , 61

INDEX OF WORD-ENDINGS 2 2 7

ur,-ure

,61 -ut , 61 , 1 51 (3)

us,61

,1 0 4 (4) 2 b

,-ute , 61

1 2 9 (2 ) -uv e , 61-use

,61 -ux

,61

,1 59

-usque , 61-uz 61

,1 33

-usse,61

-uste , 61-ustre

,61

,1 86 -z

,1 33

INDEX OF

PRINCIPAL WORDS CITED

Nore—The numbers refer to the sections. n .=footnote .

Where a word is not given here , students are recommended to looki n the index of word-endings .

ab 2 2 4 (I )abbaye , 2 1abces

,2 2 1

abime,1 6

abreuve,68

abreuver,63

Achille , 1 1 4Adam

,86 (4) n .

adroite,1 0 4 (3)

afilux,1 59

Afghan ,2 2 3

aigu 1 61

aigue, 62

aiguille , 1 61

aiguiser, 1 61

Aix,1 59

Aix-les-Bains,1 30

Aix-la-Chapelle , 130

Alfred,1 54

almanach,136 (2 )

A15“,2 2 4 (4)

amb esas,1 2 9 (1 )

amb iguité , 1 61

amict,1 51 (4)

Ami ens,1 2 9 (3) n.

anecdote,2 2 1

Anne, 4 1 (1 2 )

an5pect , 1 51 (4)antienne

,1 50 (6)

aout, 57

appendice , 99apres, 2 0 9 (1 )aquarelle , 1 57aquarium ,

1 57aquatique , 1 57are-boutant

,1 56

babil,1 1 5 (1 )

babord, 41 (1 )

bacille,1 1 4

Bagdad,1 54

balandras,1 2 9 (2 )

bals 2 2 4 (4)banc

,1 56

baptéme,1 46

baptismal, 1 46 n .

Bavarois, 38 (4)

bayadere , 2 5 (5) n .

Bayard, 2 5 (5) n .

bayer, 2 5 (5) n .

arc-doubleau,1 56

archi 1 36

as,I,1 2 9 (I )

aspect , 1 51

(4)assIeds

,2 1

asthme,1 52

Auch, 50 I 36

au-dessus,2 2 3

augmenter, 50 (3)

aulnaie,1 1 5 (2 )

aulne,1 1 5 (2 )

aulx,1 1 5 (2 )

auméne, 47 50

aum6nier, 50 (3)automne

,86 (3)

autrui,80 n .

Auxerre, 50 1 30

Auxois, 50 130

Auxonne , 50 130

avant—hier, 74av enement

, 30 (2 ) n .

2 0 9

Bayeux,2 5 (5) n .

Bayonne , 2 5 (5) n .

B eatrix,1 30

beaucoup ,2 0 5

b ec-d’

ane , 1 56Belsunce , 99 , 2 2 4 (4)benz ine

, 99B erlioz , 1 33beta

, 38 (1 )beugle , beugler, 68bienfaisance

, 70 (4)bienfaisant , 70 (4)billevesée

,1 1 4

billion,1 1 4

b is,1 2 9 (1 )

B iscaye , 2 5 (5) n .

blanc,1 56

blason, 41 (8)

boa, 50 (2 )

bobo, 5 1 (2 )

boeuf,68, 1 2 5

boeuf-gras, 1 2 5boeufs, 68, 1 2 5ha s

, 4I (5)bo ite

, 41 (5)boueux , 7 2 n .

B ourg, 1 63n .

bourg, 1 63bourgmestre , 1 63nbras, 38 (1 )

Brest,1 5 1 (1 )

broc,1 56

bruit , 80 n .

brut,1 51 (1 )

Bruxelles, 1 30

bruyamment , 81

2 30 MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATIONévénement , 30 (2 ) n .

ex 3I I 58

exact , 1 51 (4)examen , 86 (4) n . , 99exempt , 1 46

exemption ,1 46 n.

fa, 38 (1 )

faim ,86 (4) n .

fais,2 1

faisable , 70 (4)faisant , 70 (4)faiseur

, 70 (4)faisons, 70 (4)fait , 1 51 (1 )faon

, 9 1

faonner, 9 1

farouche , 136

fat,1 51 (1 )

faubourg, 1 63fayard, 2 5 (5) n .

femme, 38 (3)

F éroé , 2 1

feudiste,64 (3) n .

fez , 133fils, 1 , 1 1 5 1 2 9 (1 )fimes, 1 6fites, 1 6

flamme, 41 (1 2 )

flanc,1 56

fleur-de -lis,1 2 9 (1 )

fiux ,1 59

Foch , 1 36 (2 )foi

, 4 1 (5)fort , 2 1 1

fosse , 47 (6)fossette , 51 (1 ) n .

fossile , 5 1 (1 ) n .

fossoyer, 5 1 (1 ) n .

fossoyeur, 51 (1 ) n .

fouet, 38 (7)

franc, 1 56

froide , 1 0 4 (3)froisse , 1 0 4 (3)fruit , 80 n .

gageure , 62 , 138

gagne , 41 (1 2 )ai

,2 1

galimatias, 1 50 (6)garantie , 1 50 (6)gars, 41 (I 2 ) , I 2 3

il, 1 1 6

ill 1 1 41 I 72 (4)ils

,1 1 6

imm "

)I 72 (4)

immangeable , 86 (2 )Immanquable , 86 (2 )impromptu,

1 46 n .

inn ”

)I 7 2 (4)

instinct,1 5 1 (4)

instruire , 80 n .

indemnité, 38 (2 )

indomptable , 1 46 n .

instiller,1 1 4

iris,

. 1 6

ll’

f I 7 2 (4)isthme

,1 52

k" 1 55

832 3133

geai , 2 1

Genevois, 33

gens, 1 2 9 (I )gentilhomme

,1 1 2

gibeciere , 2 2 3G ille

,1 1 4

gingas, I 2 9 (2 )girouette , 38 (7)gite , I

811-2 1 44

goeland, 38 (7)goélette , 38 (7)goémon , 38 (7)gogo, s: (2 )goug, I 63Goths, 1 5 1 (3) ngofiter, 1 2 3

granit , 1 51 (3)gratis, 1 6

grésil, 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 (1 )gril, I 1 5 (I )grog, 1 63

grosse , 47 (6)grou I 47

gruy re,81

gu 1 61

Guadeloupe , 1 61

guano ,1 61

Guise,1 61

Ouyane , 1 61

Guyon,1 61

h 1 65hanap, 1 47handicap ,

1 47haren 1 63haut

n

tie -chausses,2 2 3

hélas,1 2 9 (1 )

hennir, 38 (2 )

héros, 1 67Herschel

,134

hiatus, 74

hi er, 74

hiér"

) 74Hongrois, 38 (4)hosanno

, 47 (4)houP,

I 47huit

,1 68

hyéne , 74Hypatie , 1 50 (6)ichneumon,

64 (3) n .

jaconas,1 2 9 (2 )Jacques, 41 (1 2 )

jadis,1 2 9 (1 )

ialap ,I 47

Jamaique , 1 6Jean, 9 1Jeanne

, 41 (1 2 )je le , 1 80

je me,1 80

je ne , 1 80

Jesus, 1 2 9 (3) n .

Jesus Christ , 1 51 (2 )j eter

,2 2 3

Ieudl. 64 (3)jeun (a) , 1 0 0

jefine 64 (3)jonc,

1 56

joui ons,

jouie z, 72 n .

jouet 38 (7)jone, l6sjulep ,

1 47jungle , 95junte

, 95

la, 38 (I )

lacs,1,1 56

ladessus,2 2 3

lampas ,i 2 9 (2 )

Laonnais, 9 1

laps,larynx ,

1 59lasting, 1 63Lausanne

, 47 (7)

INDEX OF PRINCIPAL WORDS CITEDLaw

,1 30

le,I S9 (4)

L eclerc,1 56

legs, 1 62

les 1 2 8

lichen,1 36 (3)

Liebig, 1 63L ille

,1 1 4

lilliputien ,1 1 4

linceul, 78

lingual, 1 61

linguiste , 1 61

lis,1 2 9 (1 )

1010, 51 (2 )

long, 2 0 5Longwy,

1 62

loquace , 1 57losange , 47 (4)lumbago , 95Int

,luth ,

1 51 (1 )Lycaon , 9 1

Mabille,1 1 4

Machiavel,1 36 (3)

mais, 2 0 9 (I )maison, 31 (I )mademoiselle

,1 54 n .

malfaisant, 70 (4)

malfaisance, 70 (4)

mangeure , 62 , 1 38marine , 4 1 (1 2 )marc

,1 56

Marc, 1 56marqueterie , 33Mars, 1 2 9 (1 )mat , 1 51 (1 )mat

,1 51 (I )

matras,1 2 9 (2 )

Mauclerc,1 56

mauvais, 50 (3)

mayonnaise , 2 5 (5) n .

maxillaire,1 1 4

médecin,2 2 1

menthol, 99

mes 31 1 2 8

mes 131

métis , 1 2 9 (1 )Metz

,1 2 9 (3) n .

meule,64 (3)

Meung, 1 0 0

meunier,64 (3)

Michel-Ange , 136 (3)

2 31

mil, 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 (1 )mill 1 1 4mille

,1 1 4

Millet,1 1 4

miroir, 38 (4)moelle

, 38 (7)moelleux

, 38 (7)moellon

, 38 (7)moeurs

,1 2 9 (1 )

moignon ,1 43

mois, 4I (5)

momie , 47 (8)monsieur

,64

(I ) , 1 2 3, 2 2 4 (3)Mont 1 52

Montaigne , 1 43mosaique , 47 (4)mouett e

, 38 (7)mousqueterie , 33myosotis, 47 (4)myrtille , 1 1 4

na'

if,1 6

nenni, 38 (2 )

nerf,1 2 5

nerf-de-boeuf,1 2 5

net,1 51 (1 )

neuf,1 68

,2 0 5

Neufchateau,1 2 5

Neufchatel, 1 2 5mem e

.64 (3)

Nimes, 1 6N06]

,2 5 (1 )

noix, 41 (5)

nom,86 (4) n .

non,2 47

nord-est,2 1 1

nord-ouest,2 1 1

noueux, 7 2 n .

Nyons, 1 2 9 (3) n .

oasis, 50 (2 )

ob 2 2 4 (I )obus

, 47 (8)odeur

, 47 (8)odieux

, 47 (8)0e 2 1

oeil, 1 1 2

oeuf , oeufs, 68, 1 2 5oignon ,

1 43Oisiveté

,2 2 3

orchestre,136 (3)

orchis,136 (3)

ore iller,1 2 3

ortie,1 50 (6)

ortier,1 50 (6)

03, 1 2 9 (1 )osciller

,1 1 4

Osiris,1 6

ouate,2 1 1 (5)

ouest,1 51 (1 )

oui,M I 2 47

ours, 1 2 9 (1 )

paon , 9 1

paonneau, 9 1

aonner, 9 1

arfaict,1 51 (4)

parfum ,86 (4) n

parisis, 1 2 9 (1 )paroisse , 1 0 4 (3)arler

,1 2 3

arqueterie , 33artie

,1 50 (6)

pat , 1 51 (I )pataques, 2 4Paul

, 50 (3)Paule

, 50 (3)pays, 2 1 , 77

pentateuque , 64

99

pente"99pentecote , 99

perdrix ,1 59

peu,68

pent -etre

, 70 (2 )haraon

, 9 1

philoso he , 47 (4)pluie , o n .

plus, 1 2 9 (1 )poids, 4I (5)oignant , 1 43oignard, 1 43oigne , poignée , 1 43ois

, 4I (5)oitiers

,1 50 (4)

pOIx , 4I (5)pore , 1 56

post-dater, 1 52

post-scriptum,

1 52

pouding, 1 63

poulailler, 1 2 3

pouls, 1 1 5 (2 )pré 131


proposition , 47 (4)m o

, 3: (2 )présanctifier, 131 n .

préséance , 1 31 n .

présupposer, 1 31 n .

poele , 4 1 (1 2 )prix ,

I 59

prompt , 1 46

Pros“, 47 (4)

pseudonyme,64 3)

punch ,136

pup ille , 1 1 4usillanime , 1 1 4thie , 1 50 (6)

qu"

r I 57

quad" 1 57

quadrille , 1 57 n .

quai , 2 1

quaker, 1 57quand, 2 0 9 (1 )quart z , I 33, I S7

quasimodo,1 57

quatre , 2 0 9 (5)que je , 1 81

que le , 1 81

quelque , 1 1 6

questure , 1 57

quiétisme,1 57

Quintilien ,1 57

quintuple , 1 57

quorum ,1 57

raccroc, 1 56

rail, 41 (4)

raisin,raison

, 31 (I )rang, 2 0 5, 2 0 9 (4) 71 .

t e 1 84ré 1 31

‘

redevenir, 1 88reflux ,

1 59reine -Claude , 1 64re jeton ,

2 2 3rem 86 (2 )repartie , 1 50 (6)reps, 1 2 9 (1 )requiem,

1 57res 70 (5)resecti on,

1 32 n .

réséquer, 132 n .

res ect,1 51 2 0 9

4) n .

ressemeler,1 88

Retz,1 2 9 (3) n .

re z -de -chaussée , 2 2 3rhumatisme

,2 2 4 (2 )

Richelieu,1 89

rien,1 89

rit,1 5 1 (1 )

rob,1 47

rococo, 5 1 (2 )

Rode z,1 33

roide,1 0 4 (3)

romps, rompt , 1 46ré tie

,1 50 (6)

rouennerie , 38 (7)rouet

, 38 (7)rouler, 56, 1 0 4 (4) crumb

,1 47

ruolz,133

Sind,1 54

six,1 30 , 1 68

six-huit , 1 70 n .

sm 2 2 4 (2 )Soissons, 1 2 9 (3) n .

soit,1 51 (1 )

soixante , 1 30

solennel, 38 (3)

solennité, 38 (3)

ortie,1 50 (6)

otie,1 50 (6)

oucoupe , go (3)

ouhaite, 3 (7)

sofil, 56, 1 1 5 (2 )souper, 1 2 3Sphlnx,

1 59square , 1 57S tael, 69Strasbour 2 2 1

sub 2 2 4 1 )subsister

,2 2 4 (1 )

sud,1 54

Sue z , 1 33sur

,1 2 1

sus,1 2 9 (1 )

susdit,2 2 3

uspeot , I s: (4)ympathi e , 1 50 (6)

Saens, 69sai s, 2 1

Saint-Brieuc, 1 56

Saint-Onen, 99Sai nt-Marc, 1 56

I 47sang, 2 0 5 , 2 0 9 (4) n .

sangsue , 1 62

Saone , 4 1 (2 )saoul, 56, 1 1 5 (2 )Sarmatic, 1 50 (6) tabac

,1 56

sassafras, 1 2 9 (2 ) talmud,1 54

sauf, 50 (3) te le

,1 81

sauvetage , 2 2 3 temps, 1 , 1 46av etier

,2 2 1 tenir

, 99sc 1 30 terroir

, 38 (4)ce

ptique , 1 30 tétras

,1 2 9 (2 )

oil e, _1 1 4 teuton, 64 (3) n .

cintiller,1 1 4 th 1 48

scottisch ,134 thym ,

86 (4) n .

50 11! ter, 1 46 ti 1 50 (1sc e

,1 6 tiers-état

,2 1 1

se,1 85 tiroir, 38 (4)

second, 1 64, 2 2 2 titiller,1 1 4

Seidlitz , 1 33 toit , 41 (5)selon

,2 0 9 (1 ) tournevis

,1 2 9 (1 )

seneson, 33 tons, 56. I 0 4 (4) 0

,

sens,1 2 9 (1 ) 1 2 9 (1 )

sept , 1 46, 1 68 tranquille , 1 1 4serfs

,1 2 5 trans 1 31 , 2 2 4 (1 )

S ignet , 1 62 transept, 1 31 n .

S illery, 1 1 4 transvaser,2 2 1

Sinai , 1 6 Transylv anie , 131 n .

INDEX OF SUBJECTSNora—The figures re fer to the sections.

Phone tic symbols are enclosed in square brackets.

Prefixes willb e found in L ist of Words .

n . footnote .

a)Close

,Open :

and open , 34, 35, 42 ;un

stressed, 37 , 43; final

,

38 (1 ) in derivatives, 43(1 )be fore mute consonant

,

(I );in closed terminations

, 38 in non -final

syllables, 38 be fore 8,

4 1 (2 ) be fore z -sound,

close

4 1 43 be fore final1, 4 1 be fore medial

r, 43 middle or inter

mediate, 43 (4)

[a] , how pronounced, 4,in ordinary Spelling, 38 ,

duration, 37 , I 0 4 (4)

how pronounced, 4 , 34,

35, long and short , 40;in ordinary spelling, 4 1 ;becoming [a] , 43 (2 duration

,

I 0 4 (3)[a] how pronounced, 4 , 9 1;i n

ordinary spelling, 9 1;dis

tinguished from 5, 942 37 , 38 (2 )8 37 , 38 40 4 I

accent,toni c

,1 6 n . ,

1 93 to in,

1 0 4 influence on length

o f vowel, 1 0 4 (3) (4) in

isolated words, 1 94 in stress

groups, 1 96;in elevatedspeech ,

2 03;preceded byemphatic accent

,2 1 9

accent,emphatic, 2 1 4, 2 41

88, 36, 96

2 1,2 : 2 4, 2 5 5 : (I ) , 7o (4)

2 1,2 4, 2 5 I )

aie,2 4, 2 5 (o)234

American English ,87 2 2 6

apres, in liaison ,2 0 9 n .

alphabe t , phonetic, 3aon

, 9 1

aspect, in liaison ,2 0 9 (4) n

aspirate , h ,list of words

,1 67;

elision be fore,1 89 (3)

assimilation,vocalic

,2 9 , 51

11 0

68;coii sonantal,au

, 44;unstressed, 47 be foreI, 50 (3)

ar, 2 4 , 2 5 (5)aye , 2 4

b,final

,1 47

[b] , howpronounced,1 45 changed

to m,88 (2 ) lengthening

consonant,1 0 4 (4)

Bibliography,2 40

b i-labial consonants,1 0 7

breath , how to take,2 34breath-

groups, 1 99

c,final

,1 1 0

,1 56;for [s] , 1 30

for [k] , 1 56

9, 1 30

caduc, o, 69ch ,

sounded 134 sounded [k] ,61 3

circumflex,influence on length ,

1 0 4classicalwords

,86 1 0 4 (4) 2 (b) ,

1 2 9 (2 )clearness in vowel sounds

,13

compound words, 1 32

conditionals and futures, o mute

in,1 88

,1 89

INDEX or SUBJECTSconsonants

,defined

, 7 , 1 0 5lengthening, 1 0 4 (4) voiced,

1 0 6 unvoi ced,1 0 6 division

of, 1 0 7;final, 1 1 0,1 70 n . ,

2 0 4;mute following r in

liaison,

2 1 1 (1 ) phonetic,

3 nasal,1 0 7 double

,1 7 1

Law o f Three,

1 76, exceptions to

,1 78

consonantal group ,followed by

e mute,1 86

continues,1 79 (I )

cuir,2 0 8 n .

d, how pronounced, 1 53 final,

1 54 in liaison ,2 0 5

Id! , lengthening consonant , 1 0 4

(4) changed into 11 , 88 (2 )doubled

,1 7 2 (4)

dates,1 68

dental consonants, 1 0 7depuis, in liaison ,

2 0 9 n .

derivatives,how pronounced, 2 7 ,

4 1 43(I ) , 5 I (I )diphthongs, 1 2

disaccentuation ,2 0 2

division of syllables, 5 in verse,

75, 86 n .

double consonants, 1 7 1

downward part o f sentences, 2 32

duration of sounds, 1 03

e,close or open , 4, 8

,1 7;in

closed syllables, 2 5before a double consonant ,2 5 sounded [a] , 37 ,

38 unstressed, 2 7becoming mute

, 33;mi ddle ,2 8 in derivatives, 2 7

e mute,1 7, 31 (2 ) n becoming

[a] , 33;becoming [oe] , 70;when not pronounced, 69;in ordinary spelling, 69;ininitialsyllables, 1 79 in fixedgroups, 1 80 before re 1 84after s-sound

,1 85;final,

after consonantalgroup ,1 86

cases where never elided,

1 89;in verse , 1 9 1 insertedwrongly,

1 9 2

[e] , how pronounced, 4 , 8, 1 8, 1 9;duration, 1 0 4 (1 ) short

2 35

f,final

,1 1 0

,1 2 5;in liaison ,

2 0 5

[f] , how pronounced, 1 2 4final vowels,1 0 4 followed by

e mute , 1 0 4 (2 )

usually,1 8

,2 0;tense , 1 9;

in ordinary spelling, 2 1 sub

stituted for o mute, 70

how pronounced, 4 , 8,

2 2

2 3;followed by r,2 4 n

duration,

2 4 , 1 0 4 in

ordinary spelling, 2 5;final,2 6

how pronounced, 4 , 96;inordinary Spelling, 97

[a] , how pronounced, 4, 69;duration

,1 0 4 (1 ) final

,

after vowel,1 0 4 elision

o f,1 75

how pronounced, 4, 63 longand short , 64;in ordinarySpelling, 64 duration

,1 0 4 (3)

e,unstressed

,followed by r

, 30

(1 ) be fore a consonant

followed by silent e mute,

30 (2 ) when representinge in stem

, 30 (3) when initial,30 (3)

é,2 4, 2 5 (I )

6,2 4, 2 5 (I )

e,2 5 (I ) , 62 n .

eau, 47 (7)

61,2 41 2 5 (I ) i 618

,2 5 (6)

elision,1 75 in pronoun le, 70 n .

none before numerals,

1 70 ,1 89 (3)

emoti onal words,

emphasis in,

31 5emphasis, [e] and [a] in ,

1 0 4 (1 )emphatic accent

,see accent

enumeration,emphasis in ,

2 2 0

equilibrium in speech ,2 50

~ er, in liaison,2 0 9 (4)

48. 3I (2 )

et, no liaison with ,

2 1 1 (6)en

,close

,63

eu,Open ,

65Eurhythmy,

2 48

exclamations,2 41

explosives, 1 0 7 ,1 45

expressions, 2 45oy,

2 4, 2 5 (5)

2 36 MANUAL OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATIONfinal consonants

,1 1 0

,1 70 n . ,

2 0 4fixed groups, 1 80 , 1 85fixed words

,1 88

foreign words, so 99 x47,1 5 1 I S4, 1 56, I 57, 1 60

,

fort, in liaison,2 1 1 (I )

fricatives,1 0 7 , 1 2 4

fundamental vowel-sounds, 4futures and conditionals, emute in ,

g, medial,1 62

,1 64;final, 1 63,

1 64 in liaison,2 0 5

I8] , 3 : how pronounced, 1 60;lengthening consonant , 1 0 4

4

ge , be fore a, o , u ,1 38

glottalconsonant (h) , 1 0 7, 1 65an [II ] , I 4I

en [en] , I 4Sgradati on,

emphasis in,2 2 0

grasseyer, 1 1 9Greek and Latin words, 86

92

m 4 (4) 2 (b ) , I 2 91 7

Greek to, 50 (1 ) n .

grou

p),final consonantal, followed

y e mute,1 86

group ,stress

,1 6

,1 0 4 (4) 3 in

elevated Speech, 2 03 liaison

in,2 0 7

group ,breath, 1 99

gu 1 61

h, 1 65 aspirate , list of words,

1 67 no elision be fore , 1 89 (3)no liaison be fore , 2 1 1 (3)

half-long sounds, 40 n . 1 0 4 (3)

hard consonants, 1 0 6

harmony in Speech, 2 50

high tone , 2 46 (I )homonyms

,1) 41 9 2 ) 98

humming, 88 1 )

i,at end of smallunstressedwords

, m,sounded falsely, 90 followed

79 by vowel, 86 (1 ) final,

[i] how pronounced, 4, 8,

1 5 sounded,86 (4)

durati on ,1 6

,1 04 (4) [m] , 7 voiced,

1 06 doubled,

[il(Open) , I 5 I 72 (4) initial, 2 2 4243)

[j] ) 31 7 1 73;initial, 74;medial,

75 : final, 78;sometimes

inserted, 77;lengthening

consonant,1 0 4 (4)

-ign I 43-il

,how pronounced, 78, 1 1 2

,

I I 4 (I )-ill

, how pronounced, 76, 1 1 2 , 1 1 3,1 1 4

indeterminate vowelsound, 4, 69

inflection,2 37

initialsyllable , omute in ,1 79

intermediate e,2 8

intermediate 0, 51 (3)

intermediate a, 43 (4)

interro ations,2 35

intonation,2 2 7

Ik ] , how pronounced, 3, 1 55

l,disappearance of

,1 86 (3)

final,

1 1 0,

1 1 5; Often

dropped in il, ils, etc . ,1 1 6

how pronounced, 1 1 1 voiced,1 06 doubled

,1 7 2 often

doubledafterapronoun, 1 1 6n .

l-mouillé , 1 0 7 , 1 13labio-dental consonants

,1 0 7

laterals,1 0 7

Latin words, 86 1 2 9 1 51 0 4 (4) 2 (b ) , 1 57, 1 67 ,

,

I 7 2 (4)Lati n accent

,1 94

Law of Three Consonants, 1 76

exceptions to,1 78

lo, understress, 1 0 4 (1 )lengthening consonants, 1 04 (4)liai son,

2 0 4 o in, 50 n .;in

nasal vowels,

1 0 1 none

be fore numerals,1 70;after

numerals,1 70

liP‘

nlnd

é

ings 4 1 9 45) 559 59 :

low torie,2 46 (3)

2 38

plural s in liaison,2 1 1 (1 )

compound nouns,2 1 1 (2 )

prefix re 1 84

prepalatal consonants, 1 0 7

pretonic syllables, 1 0 4 (4) 3poetry,

see verse

(1. for [k ] , 1 56qu,

1 57.

quand,in liai son

,2 0 9 (1 ) n .

quantity,1 0 3

quatre, in liaison ,2 0 9 (5) n .

r,disappearance of , 1 86 (3) final,

1 1 0,1 2 3;followed by mute

consonant,in liaison

,2 1 1 (1 )

r-grasseyé , 1 1 9[r] , how ronounced

,1 1 7 , 1 1 8

voice 1 0 6 lengtheningconsonant

,1 0 4 (4) doubled,

I 7 2 (4)[R] , how pronounced,

1 1 9 , 1 2 0 n .

rang, in liaison ,2 0 9 (4) n .

respect, in liaison ,2 0 9 (4) n .

rhythm ,2 48 discordant

,2 52

rhythmic accen t, see accen tm 1

,roi

, 4 I (5)roie

, 4 I (7)roo t-words, 1 0 4 (4) 3rounding of lips, 4, 9 45, 55,

my. 4 1 (o)I-rwa-I, m s(5)

3,before b orm ,

2 2 4 (2 ) after 1,

2 2 4 (4) final mute , in

liaison ,2 0 9 (4) n .

3;how pronounced, 1 2 7;final

,1 2 8;final, sounded

,

1 2 9;final, in liaison,2 0 5

media],

1 2 8;between twovowels

,1 32 ;be fore another

consonant , 1 2 8 followedby e mute

,1 85;plural, in

liaison,2 1 1 (1 ) doubled

,

I 72 (4)[I] , 3;how pronounced, 1 34, 1 35sang, in liaison ,

2 0 9 (4) n .

so, 130

Scotch sounds, 4, 2 3, 34, 36, 39 ,

44

[S ] ,


t,medial

,1 52 final

,1 51

[t] , how ronounced,60

,1 48, 1 49;

Eng ish , 1 49 : doubled, 1 7 2

4tenir

,-ien in

, 99tenseness in vowel-sounds, 1 1

,1 9 ,

35, 46

th,1 48, 1 52

ti be fore vowel, 1 50tone

, high orlow,2 46

tongue , in vowel sounds, 1 1,1 9 ,

35, 4tomo words, 2 36tonic accent

,see accent

touj ours, in liaison, 2 1 1 (1 )tout

,in liaison

,2 0 9 n .

triangle of vowels, 1 0 , 58, 1 0 2trills

,1 0 7

u,62

,80 n .

[u] , how pronounced, 4, 8, 53,

54 : duration, 56, I 0 4

unstressed, 56

In] (Open) , 53ue ,

semi-consonan ts, 3, 7 1;[w] , 7 2

[I] , 73 : [II] , 80seven-vowel rule

,1 6

,2 4, 37 , 49 ,

slack vowels,1 1

soft consonants, 1 0 6

sound-shading, 2 45sounds

,duration of

,1 03

Spelling, ordinary, 1

stem,m 4 (4) 3

stress,influence on length of

vowel,1 0 4 1 0 4 to

under, 1 0 4 difference of

in derivatives, 43 (2 )

stress, emphatic, [e] and [a] in,

1 0 4 2 1 4 see under

accent

stress-group ,1 6

,1 0 4 (4) 3, 1 96

liaison in,2 0 7;in elevated

Speech ,2 0 3

stress-grou s,in eurhythmy,

2 48

syllables, iv ision of, 5, in verse ,

75, 86 a : Open 5, I 0 4 (4) _3;

closed, 5 , pronunciati on i n

,

I 0 4 (4) 3 : pre tonic , I 0 4 (4)3 o mute in initial

,1 79

INDEX OF SUBJECTSuhlan ,

no liaison be fore , 2 1 1 (5)an (the numeral) i n liaison

,2 1 1

4unfamiliar words

,86 (4)

uniformity in vowel sounds, 1 2unstressed syllables, ‘

1 6 n .

unstr

(es

)sed vowels

,1 0 4 1 0 4

4 3unvoiced consonants

,1 06

upward part of sentences, 2 31uvula

,87

uvular consonants,1 0 7

uvular [R] , 1 1 9 , 1 2 0

[v] , lengthening consonant , 1 0 4

(4) how pronounced, 1 2 6velar consonants,1 0 7

v elours,2 0 8 n .

velum,87

v enir,-ien in

, 99verse

,rhythm in

,2 54;[j ] and

[i] in , 75 licence in rhymes,

1 0 4 (a) n o mute in,1 9 1;

liaison in,2 1 2

vocalic assimilation,2 9 , 51 68

voiced consonants,1 0 6

vowel, indeterminate , 69vowel-sounds

,French

, 4vowels

,defined

, 7;fundamental,

7 front, 9 1 0;back,

9 1 0;close , 9 (2 ) Open ,

9 tense and slack,1 1;

clearness of,in French

,1 3;

the naturally long, 40 , 47 ,64, 1 0 4 half-long, 40;mixed, 4, 58;triangle of

,

1 0, 58, 1 0 2 ;when final,

2 39

1 0 4 circumflexed,

1 0 4(4) 2 (a)

vowels, nasal, how pronounced,

83, 87 in ordinary spelling,84;duration ,

85

x,for [s] , 1 30;for [k] , 1 56;forDIS ] , 1 58;final, I 59;in

liaison,2 0 5 initial, 1 58 n .

[z ] , 3;lengthening consonant,1 0 4 (4) how pronounced,1 31;final, 1 33

3;lengthening consonant,

1 0 4 (4) how pronounced,I 37

z h,137 , 1 6o

w,in English words, 7 2 in

G erman and Flemish words,

1 2 6

[W ] , 3, 7 , 7 2,words, toni c

,2 36;compound,

1 32 in combination ,1 74fixed

,1 88

y,between two vowels

, 77 , 81;initial

,in liaison

,2 1 1 (5)

y (the pronoun) , 79[y] , how pronounced, 4, 58, 59

°

after [s] , and [t] , 60

unstressed,60 duration ,

61,

1 0 4 (4) in ordinary Spelling,62

[q] , 3, 7 how pronounced, 80

yodi 73

BIBL IOGRAPHY

FOR THE FURTHER STUDY OF THE

SOUNDS OF FRENCH 1

(As rev isedfor thisManualbyM . PaulPassy,D .

-és-L Paris)

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VI

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pronu nc i at i on and di ct i onC op . 2

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVESLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

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