PREFACE

INTRODUCTION: WEAVING, DRESS AND TE CH NICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN ROMAN-ERA GREECE Iris Tzachili

Exceptional Textiles

AN EXAMPLE OF A GOLD-WOVEN SILK TEXTILE IN THE ARCHAELOGICAL MUSEUM OF THESSALONIKIKaterina Tzanavari

LES TISSUS À BANDES D’OR DU BAS-EMPIRE: L’EXEMPLE DE THESSALONIKIChristophe Moulhérat - Stella Spantidaki

TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF TEXTILES FROM A 5th CENTURY B.C. BURIAL FROM GRAVE 35 HTR73, KERAMEIKOS CEMETERY, ATHENS, GREECEChristina Margariti - Maria Kinti

METAL THREADS: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTAnna Karatzani

Looms and Loomweights

THE CLAY LOOMWEIGHTS OF ANCIENT MESSENE: TYPES, DECORATION, DISTRIBUTIONGlykeria Gkika

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11

25

35

49

55

69

CONTENTS

THE LOOMWEIGHTS OF THE HELLENISTIC SETTLEMENT AT TRYPITOS, SITEIAChrysa Sofianou

Literary testimonies and inscripions

DRESS IN ROMAN GRAVE STELAI FROM GREECE AND ASIA MINOR AND ASPECTS OF ITS SOCIAL INTERPRETATIONMaria Spathi

SOME THOUGHTS ON THE UNRAVELLING OF CHINESE SILKS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. A REASSESSMENT OF LUCAN, BELLUM CIVILE 10.141-143Berit Hildebrandt

PROBLÈMES DE LA TERMINOLOGIE GRECQUE DE LA BRODERIE: RECHERCHE SUR UNE APORIEMaria Patera

THE MYTH OF ARACHNE AND WEAVING IN LYDIAIris Tzachili

PURPLE DYE IN THE ROMAN PROVINCE OF MACEDONIA. THE EVIDENCE FROM NORTHERN GREECEEleni Zimi

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

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131

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162

77

The excava ons undertaken by the 24th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical An qui es, under the di-rec on of N. Papadakis, on the peninsula of Trypitos near Si a have revealed a small for fi ed town of the 3rd and 2nd c. B.C. During the two phases of excava- on, from 1987 to 1989 and 1994 to 1998, building

blocks of two or three houses delimited by streets came to light1. A residen al quarter, a street, rooms of another quarter and part of the for fi ca on wall were excavated during the fi rst phase (1987-1989). Among the fi nds were 307 loomweights.

LoomweightsThe “agnythes” (αγνύθες) or “leiai” (λεῖαι) and “laiai” (λαιαί),2 men oned in ancient texts, have now been iden fi ed as the clay weights found at almost all excava ons and considered to be loomweights, although other uses cannot be ruled out, depend-

ing on the context in which they have been found.3 Those collected in cult areas are defi ned as vo ve of-ferings (Tzouvara-Souli 1983, 16; Di Giuseppe 1995, 147; Chanio s 2005, 96), while those found at coast-al sites could be weights for fi shing nets (Levi 1967-66, 580). Nevertheless loomweights usually mark fe-male presence and accompany women throughout their lives and o en even into the grave, in the form of grave goods. Loomweights were accessories of the upright loom, used to keep the warp threads taut by their weight. The upright, warp-weighted loom was used from Neolithic to Roman mes (Tzachili 1997; Barber 1990, 93). It is the oldest and longest-lived type of loom in Europe; in some parts of Scandinavia it even remained in use into the previous century. Today, ex-amples are displayed in museums in Denmark and Ireland, where they are o en used for reference pur-poses by scholars studying the ancient Greek upright loom; ancient looms have not been preserved, ow-

THE LOOMWEIGHTS OF THE HELLENISTIC

SETTLEMENT AT TRYPITOS, SITEIA

Chrysa Sofianou

In the residential quarters of a small fortified town in the peninsula of Trypitos near Siteia (3rd and 2nd c. B.C.), a considerable number of loomweights (more than 300) was found. They are pyramidal and discoid in shape with one or two attachment holes. Their weight vary. The most common group is that of the pyramidal loomweights weight between 50-55 gr. They were used to weave all kinds of material and cloth. Some of them bear incisions and seal impressions and one of them a letter. Among the finds there is a clay mould offering evidence for the manufacture of the loomweights.

1. For the Trypitos excava ons, see: Αρχαιολογικόν Δελτίον 43 (1988), Χρονικά, 561.- 49 (1994), Χρονικά, 746-50 (1995), Χρονικά, 749 -51 (1996), Χρονικά, 651 -52 (1997), Χρονικά, 1044.2. Arist., De genera one animalium, 1,4,36. Plutarch, Moralia, 156, Β. Pollux, VII, 27. According to these texts loomweights were made of stone.

3. Some discoid examples from Tarentum are thought to be proof of payment of customs taxes on merchandise: Ferrandini Troisi 1992, 94.

78

CHRYSA SOFIANOU

ing to their perishable materials (Wilson 1938; Craw-foot 1936-1937). This upright warp-weighted loom was gradually replaced by another type of upright loom with a low warp beam, making loomweights unnecessary. The warps were stretched between an upper beam and a lower one (ἀντία). The transi on from one type of loom to the other did not occur everywhere simultaneously. The loom-weights from the Corinth and Athens excava ons are dated up to the 1st c. AD, while loomweights of the Early Chris an period have been found in certain parts of Crete, indica ng that the upright loom on a base con nued to be in use on the island for several centuries more (Tsigonaki 1994, 158-159). In the Ro-man period, the rectum stamen was only used for weaving certain ceremonial garments.4

Ways of a aching loomweights to the warps in or-der to keep them straight and stretched vary and are be er known from vase pain ngs than archaeo-logical excava ons.5 The ar s c representa on of looms on vases usually depicts each loomweight ed to one or two warps. This, of course, presuppos-

es a large a achment hole, strong yarn and a well controlled weight. It is more likely that many warp threads were ed to a single loomweight. In order to weave long pieces of cloth, the warps had to be wound together and ed near the loomweight. As the work progressed, the threads were un ed every so o en, to lengthen the warps, and re ed. The use of a metal ring6 or cord passed through the a ach-ment hole released weavers from this me-consum-ing process, as they could e the threads to the ring

or cord more easily. Two loomweights with remains of wood in the a achment holes have been found at Nemea (McLauchlin 1981, 79). Obviously, a thin metal rod could be used instead of wood (Davidson 1952, fi g. 25, no. 1145, fi g. 27, no. 1164). In that case, the warps could be divided into two bunches and ed to the ends of the metal or wooden rod, as with the loomweights with two a achment holes.

Typology and WeightMost of the loomweights from Trypitos have small a achment holes. Given that no traces of metal were found in any of the holes, they may have been a ached to the warps either directly, or indirectly through the use of small wooden rods or cords. The basic types of loomweight are pyramidal, discoid and biconical. Remarkably, their typology presents al-most every geometrical shape and varia on: cubes, pyramids, cones, rhombs (biconical) and cylinders (discoid). Thus the ques on arises whether these dif-feren a ons in form and the precise outline of the loomweights, which would o en have require the use of a mould, served a prac cal purpose, or whether the users simply considered them aesthe cally pleasing. The studies carried out have demonstrated that there is no chronological development of the shapes, nor does shape appear to play a part in the weav-ing process. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that a pyramidal or conical loomweight does not off er anything more than a simple ball of clay with a hole in it. The preference for symmetrical geometrical shapes probably has to do with the centre of gravity and therefore a be er balance of the loomweights, maintaining an even tension on the warps, a basic requirement for even weaving. It has been noted that in some urban centres, for un-known reasons, one of the three basic types predom-inated, without however to the exclusion of the other

4. Roman ceremonial garments included the toga virilis, fi rst worn by adolescent boys on a aining maturity, and the bride’s yellow palla. Reference to the rectum stamen is to be found in Seneca Epistulae 90. 5. On Kabeiric skyphoi, see: Corpus Vasorum An quorum, Robinson Collec on, fasc.1 III G, pl. XVIII, 2a-b, 38.6. On the loomweights with a metal ring, see: Davidson & Thompson 1943, 68; Richter 1931, 291.

79

THE LOOMWEIGHTS OF THE HELLENISTIC SETTLEMENT AT TRYPITOS, SITEIA

two.7 At Trypitos there is a clear preference for pyra-midal loomweights. Among the 307 loomweights in this study only 10 discoid, one lentoid and one biconi-cal example were included. The rest are in the shape of a four-sided pyramid; three of these have two at-

tachment holes, while all the rest have one.Τheir weight was the main characteris c of loom-weights and their raison d’ être. The 280 intact and three only slightly incomplete loomweights were weighed and placed in the following categories:

7. See exemples from Corinth: Davidson 1952; the Pnyx: Davidson–Thompson 1943; Lato: Hadjimichali 1971; Chalara Phaistos: Levi 1965-66, Thera: Tzachili 1992; Olynthus: Wilson 1930; Eleutherna: Tsigonaki 1994; Kolonna & Donadhes, sites on the Lassithi Plateau: Watrous 1980, etc.

20 grammes 3 pyramidal25 grammes 2 pyramidal30 grammes 6 pyramidal35 grammes 11 pyramidal40 grammes 16 pyramida45 grammes 28 pyramidal50 grammes 52 pyramidal55 grammes 71 pyramidal60 grammes 32 pyramidal65 grammes 12 pyramidal70 grammes 23 pyramidal, 1 lentoid with two a achment holes75 grammes 7 pyramidal80 grammes 5 pyramidal85 grammes 1 pyramidal90 grammes 1 pyramidal100 grammes 2 pyramidal125 grammes 1 pyramidal135 grammes 1 discoid with two a achment holes, incomplete155 grammes 1 discoid with two a achment holes, fl ower seal, incomplete160 grammes 1 pyramidal with two a achment holes180 grammes 1 discoid with one a achment hole and Δ, incomplete195 grammes 1 discoid with one a achment hole and Δ200 grammes 1 discoid with two a achment holes330 grammes 1 discoid with two a achment holes450 grammes 1 discoid with two a achment holes

80

CHRYSA SOFIANOU

The most frequent type was the pyramidal loom-weight weighing 40-70 gr.; the most prevalent of these weighed 50-55 gr. The heaviest examples are the pyramidal loomweights with two a achment holes, and the discoid ones, which weigh between 135-450 gr.; however, there are too few of these to equip even a single loom. Consequently, according to their numbers pyramidal loomweights were used to weave almost all types of cloth. One loomweight would have been a ached to each thread to weave heavy cloth, while many threads would have been a ached to the same loomweight for light cloth. The heavy discoid loomweights were ed to the fi rst and last warp, which were heavier in order to reinforce the selvages (Barber 1990, 96). This would explain the rela vely small number of discoid weights; one was even found together with two groups of 10 and 16 pyramidal examples of similar weight.A similar grouping of various types of loomweight from Hellenis c House A at Eleutherna has shown that the commonest are the pyramidal examples weighing 40-60 gr. (Tsigonaki 1994, 164). At Panor-mo, 106 pyramidal loomweights weighing approxi-mately 20 gr. were found, which probably implying the existence of two or three looms in situ (Tzachili 2006, 226). At Argyroupoli (ancient Lappa), on the other hand, discoid loomweights of 250-400 gr. pre-vailed (Chanio s 1992, 321).

Seal impressions, Le ers and Marks A considerable number of loomweights from dif-ferent excava ons bear le ers, names and seal im-pressions made by the cra sman before fi ring, or incisions made by the owner a er fi ring. The use of these monograms and symbols has not been de-fi ned with certainty, but several specula ons on this issue have been made by scholars. The le ers and monograms on loomweights cer-

tainly did not represent their specifi c weight, since many similar seal impressions have been found on loomweights of diff erent sizes. According to some theories, they were useful to the ar san during their produc on, func oned as an emblem of his work-shop or served to classify the loomweights in various groups (Chanio s 1992, 321). According to others, they were the owners’ ini als or aided the weav-ers in numbering diff erent-coloured threads (Di Gi-useppe 1995, 142). It has also been noted that there is no diff erence in clay quality between plain loom-weights and those with seal impressions (Davidson 1952, 156).The pyramidal loomweights of Trypitos do not bear seal impressions or incised le ers, but they do pres-ent some indeterminate incisions and shallow cavi- es. Only one bears an impressed, Y-shaped pa ern

on one side. A similar pa ern, found on a seal im-pression on a pyramidal loomweight from the Pnyx, is thought to be a bucranium (Davidson-Thompson 1943, 81, nos 32-33, fi g. 34). One 75-gr. loomweight has an S-shaped incision, another 40-gr. example has a hook-shaped incision, and a 55-gr. weight has two lines forming a cross on the base.8 There are horse-shoe-shaped incisions on two sides of a loomweight weighing 50 gr. On another example, a deep ver cal groove runs from the a achment hole to the base. A fragment of a large pyramidal weight with two at-tachment holes preserves an incised radia ng pat-tern of fi ve lines on its smaller face. Thirteen pyramidal loomweights have shallow cavi- es on the sides and base.9 Those with one cavity

weighed 40-50 gr., those with three or four cavi es weighed 60-75 gr., while two weighing 75 gr. had one cavity. It is noteworthy that the loomweights

8. For similar examples see: Τzouvara-Souli 1983, pl. 27; Davidson–Thompson 1943, 87.9. With a hole in the base see: Τzouvara-Souli 1983, no. 7270, 33.

81

THE LOOMWEIGHTS OF THE HELLENISTIC SETTLEMENT AT TRYPITOS, SITEIA

Fig. 1 Discoid loomweight with rose e. Trypitos, Siteia Fig. 2. Discoid loomweigt with palme e. Trypitos, Siteia

with the same number of cavi es weigh approxi-mately the same, a diff erence of 5 or 10 gr. is incon-siderable; however, those weighing 70 and 75 gr. may have one, three or four cavi es. Thus the cavi- es are not a safe indica on of weight, and their oc-

currence is diffi cult to be explained. Pyramidal and conical loomweights with cavi es have also been found on the Pnyx; there, the cavi es are thought to have served to support the loomweights in the kiln or to ensure quicker and be er fi ring (Davidson 1952, 156).Unlike the pyramidal examples, and despite their small number, almost all the discoid loomweights from Trypitos have some dis nc ve features. Two bear seal impressions in the form of a rose e (Fig. 1) and a palme e resembling those on Hellenis c black-glazed pots (Fig. 2). Another discoid weight has circular impressions resembling those of a seal

without any depic on. The le er Δ has been in-cised before fi ring into two discoid loomweights, apparently of the same weight: one weighs 195 gr. while the other, slightly incomplete, weighs 180 gr. Presumably the cra sman who made the inci-sions wanted to indicate a property fi xed before fi ring, perhaps their weight, if we accept the view that single le ers are numbers (Chanio s 1992, 321). The le er Δ is one of the commonest incisions found on loomweights of all types (Fig. 2) Discoid loomweights with Δ marks of Hellenis c date have been found at the Chalara site in Phaistos, but their weight is unknown (Levi, 1965-66, 18). A pyramidal loomweight with a Δ has also been discovered at Ar-mento, but it weighs 60 gr. (Di Giuseppe 1995, 146) unlike the Trypitos discoid examples. The Δ carved on vessels or sherds from the Athenian Agora has been interpreted as the number ten (δέκα) but

82

CHRYSA SOFIANOU

without specifying the numerical system used (Lang 1982, 22). Pyramidal lead balance weights with a Δ on the base have been also found on Delos (Deonna 1938, 158). Furthermore seven lead balance weights from Kea also bore the Δ mark, but each of diff erent weight (Caskey 1969, 95 ff .). However, although the comparison of weights of all kinds bearing a Δ has not provided a coherent explana on, I believe that the incision of the same single le ers, o en before fi ring, on objects whose basic characteris c is their weight, indicates a system of measurement as yet undeciphered. The loomweights of Trypitos present striking similar-i es in weight and decora on to those from “House A” at Eleutherna (Tsigonaki 1994). The pyramidal types from both sites bear no seal impressions but have similar incisions. The discoid loomweights from Eleutherna bear seal impressions of a rose e, a pal-me e and impressed circles as those of Trypitos.

Da ng the loomweightsThe precise da ng of the loomweights is not aided by their typological classifi ca on, since the same types of loomweight are found in excava ons of diff erent perods, while diff erent shapes are found in the same excava on layers. Generally speaking, loomweights are diachronic; even if their use in a par cular pe-riod is confi rmed, we do not know when they were made, nor can we precisely calculate how many years they remained in use, since they may have been handed down from one genera on to the next as useful tools. In Crete, discoid loomweights were known from Minoan mes and were s ll very widespread in the Hellenis c period, par cularly those with seal im-pressions (Sacke & Cocking 1992, 401; Hadjimich-ali 1971, 167). The use of seal impressions covers a wide period of me, from the Minoan to the Roman era, and cannot be considered an exact chronologi-cal criterion. As regards the pyramidal loomweights, the form is known from the 7th century B.C. on-wards, and they con nued in use un l the end of the upright loom. The large pyramidal loomweights with two a achment holes are dated to the Hellenis c period (Davidson & Thomson 1943, 73). The biconi-cal examples found at Chalara are also Hellenis c in date, while those from Knossos are dated from Ar-chaic to Roman mes, and the examples from the Lassithi Plateau were discovered in a house of the Archaic period (Levi 1965-66, 580; Watrous 1980, 278; Sacke & Cocking 1992, 401). Lentoid loom-weights are rare and their da ng is also uncertain.10 A lentoid loomweight and three small cubic weights with seal impressions, da ng from the Minoan pe-riod, were collected at Palaikastro in Siteia (Davaras

10. The lentoid loomweights of Delos have been dated to the Hel-lenis c period. See: Deonna 1938, 161.

Fig. 3. Discoid loomweight with an incised le er Δ. Try-pitos, Siteia

83

THE LOOMWEIGHTS OF THE HELLENISTIC SETTLEMENT AT TRYPITOS, SITEIA

1977, 493). Consequently, in order to be dated se-curely, loomweights must come from excava ons and be dated according to their context. The town of Trypitos, as suggested by the excavated po ery and coins, was inhabited during the 3rd and 2nd century B.C. and had only a brief period of life, las ng one or two centuries at the most. It is, there-fore, extremely unlikely that its loomweights belong to a diff erent period.

Manufacturing TechniquesThe inviolable rule of similarity of weight, indispens-able for weaving, and the form of the pyramidal loomweights, both require them the use of a mould.

An egg-shaped mass of clay forms the core, which is covered with a layer of clay and is then placed in the mould in order to acquire its fi nal shape. The core and the fi ngerprints of the cra sman are visible on broken loomweights from Trypitos, while others have a sunken base, produced when the raw clay was pressed in the mould (Davidson & Thompson 1943, 72). The pyramidal loomweights from Trypitos were defi nitely made in this way, and actually on the spot (Fig. 4). This is confi rmed by the clay mould dis-covered during the excava on of the same building block, next to masses of local ochre-coloured clay. The mould is a hollow, four-sided pyramid 9.5 cm high, without a base (Sofi anou 2011).

Fig. 4. Ceramic mould. Trypitos, Siteia

84

CHRYSA SOFIANOU

Two discoid loomweights bear the clear fi ngerprints of the cra sman who produced them, and were cer-tainly handmade. Those with the seal impressions have a very smooth surface and were mould-made. ConclusionsThe predominance of a certain type and weight of loomweight seems to be a purely regional trait. In the Hellenis c town of Trypitos, small pyramidal loomweights were used to weave all sorts of materi-al. Given that fl ax needs a heavier weight than wool to stretch it on the loom, the inhabitants must have woven mainly woollen cloth, not par cularly heavy. It would appear that the local climate condi ons al-lowed them to do so.

The large number of loomweights demonstrates the importance of weaving to the domes c economy. It may have not simply met the family’s needs but be-ing an everyday ac vity in the house, supplemented the household income. Studies have shown that equally high numbers of loomweights have been found at other Cretan sites, such as Eleutherna, Ar-gyroupoli and Panormo. Common elements have also been iden fi ed in the decora on of the loom-weights studied to date. The fact that this material comes from Hellenis c houses in diff erent towns within the limited geographical area of Crete re-quires further analysis in order to draw accurate conclusions on weaving and its impact on the Hel-lenis c Cretan economy.

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THE LOOMWEIGHTS OF THE HELLENISTIC SETTLEMENT AT TRYPITOS, SITEIA

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