The Neolithic settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece: Evidence from the Spondylus gaederopus...

Spondylus in Prehistory

New data and approaches

Contributions to the archaeology of shell technologies

Edited by

Fotis Ifantidis Marianna Nikolaidou

BAR International Series 2216 2011

Published by Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED England [email protected] www.archaeopress.com BAR S2216 Spondylus in Prehistory: New data and approaches. Contributions to the archaeology of shell technologies © Archaeopress and the individual authors 2011 ISBN 978 1 4073 0774 9 Printed in England by Blenheim Colour Ltd All BAR titles are available from: Hadrian Books Ltd 122 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7BP England www.hadrianbooks.co.uk The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com

F. IFantIdIs & M. nIkolaIdou (eds.), SpondyluS In PrehIstory: new data & aPProaches – contrIbutIons to the archaeology oF shell technologIes

ThE NEOLIThIc SETTLEMENT AT MAkRIyALOS, NORThERN gREEcE: EVIdENcE FROM ThE SpondyluS gaederopuS ARTIFAcTS

marIa pappa & rena VeropoulIdou

This paper discusses the Spondylus gaederopus artifacts from the Neolithic settlement at Makriyalos in Northern Greece, a site situated 2km from the coast. The Spondylus artifacts recovered at Makriyalos include annulets, beads, buckles, buttons and pendants, forms well known to the Greek Neolithic, but in a considerably larger scale than any other thus far excavated assemblage. The unique amount of Spondylus artifacts from Makriyalos has provided plausible evidence for on-site procurement, manufacture, consumption and dis-carding at Makriyalos. The analysis of temporal and spatial distribution of the material suggests fruitful avenues for investigation as regards the context of Spondylus consumption at the site.

InTroduCTIon

Among the most prestigious aspects of Neolithic material culture are the artifacts of Spondylus gaederopus (Clark 1986), as they represent one of the earliest evidence of long-distance exchange (Renfrew 1973; Séfériadès 1995a) from the coasts of the Mediterranean across central Europe (Shackleton & Elderfield 1990). Although Spondylus artifacts appear by the Early Neolithic in the Greek peninsula (Miller 1997: app. C: 96-102), it is during the later phases of the Late Neolithic that a boost in ornament manufacture and consumption is reported (Chiraldi et al. 2005; Ifantidis 2006, this volume; Karali-Yannakopoulou 1997, 1992, 1991-2; Kyparissi-Apostolika 2001; Miller 1997; Nikolaidou 2003; Reese 1987; Tsuneki 1989). The abundance of Spondylus, mainly annulets/bracelets, in Northern Greek sites and the evidence for on-site production are considered as indications that Spondylus ornaments were exported from these sites to the Chalcolithic (e.g. Vinča, Gumelniţa) groups of the Balkans and the Linearbandkeramik agricultural communities of Central Europe (Borrello & Micheli 2005; Comşa 1973; Müller 1995; Séfériadès 1995b; Siklósi 2004: 12-14, 21; Todorova 2000; see also Hladilová, John, and Siklósi & Csengeri, in this volume). Spondylus may have been a valued item, a “prestige good” for people in that region (Shackleton & Renfrew 1970), where it was mainly deposited in burial contexts. It is also possible that, although it was deposited in habitation contexts, it held the same status in Greece, where it may have been involved in regional-scale exchange and/or used as a transferable token among individual domestic groups (Halstead 1993; Miller 1997; Nikolaidou 2003).

This paper presents the Spondylus artifacts recovered at the Neolithic settlement at Makriyalos in Northern Greece. The unique amount of the assemblage has provided plausible evi-dence for on-site procurement, manufacture, consumption,

discarding and/or distribution of Spondylus gaederopus at Makriyalos. It also suggests fruitful avenues for investigation as regards the context of Spondylus consumption in space and time.

The neolIThIC seTTlemenT of makrIyalos

From 1993-1998, the Greek Archaeological Service investi-gated a flat extended Neolithic settlement, situated near the coastal village of Makriyalos in Pieria, Northern Greece (Fig. 1) (Pappa 2007, 2008; Pappa & Besios 1999). The excava-tion revealed part of two successive habitation phases of the settlement (Fig. 2), which both date to the Late Neolithic pe-riod (5500–4500 BC). The estimation of the settlement dura-tion is based on the results of radiocarbon dates (Pappa 2008: 108-109, table 5-2). Today, the site lies almost 2km from the coast; a setting which has not changed considerably since the prehistoric period.

The oldest phase of the site is Makriyalos I (MKI). Phase MKI is defined by a system of ditches, earth removals (borrow pits) and natural boundaries. These constructions are dominant dur-ing MKI, defining the communal space, while the participa-tion of the inhabitants in their construction process forms the communal identity. Furthermore, earth removals and ditches accept the bulk of the settlement deposits. The ditch system, according to the radiocarbon dates, is active during the second half of the 6th millennium BC. Earth removals (borrow pits) of considerable size are regularly situated on the route of Ditch Alpha, forming a rough guide for its construction. As a result, these pits form concentrations of finds and correspondingly include a great percentage of the total number of finds during phase MKI.

Ditch Alpha was constructed in two separate phases and sur-rounds the settlement. Originally, it constituted a chain of pits,

C H A P T E R 8

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SpondyluS In PrehIstory: new data & aPProaches – contrIbutIons to the archaeology oF shell technologIes

but during a second phase, it was transformed into a continu-ous V-shaped channel, reinforced by stone or mud-brick walls. Depositions in the latter phase contain a great number of finds. Ditch A and the earth removals, excluding Pit 212 situated in the middle of the enclosure, are the primary locations for the deposition of the dead (Triantaphyllou 2001: 49-50, fig. 5.3). A smaller Ditch Beta follows Ditch Alpha, while part of a third ditch, Ditch Gamma, is found in the center of the enclosure.

Habitation in the intrasite area during Phase MKI is sparse. It consists of uneven groups of semi-subterranean pits, while the intermediate space is eroded. The groups are uneven regard-ing their number, size and context, though they seem to be contemporary. The regularity of the MKI settlement plan sig-nifies the existence of an organized central planning. The dis-tribution of artifacts, in relation to the excavated bulk of earth, points to the highest concentration of finds in Pit 212 (Pappa 2008: tables 5.1-1 – 5.1-7). According to taphonomic process-

es, the preliminary results of the archaeozoological study and the study of pottery, it is obvious that a major episode of con-sumption took place there (Pappa et al. 2004). However, the deposits from Ditch A, the main burial place of Phase MKI, contain an exceptionally high concentration of Spondylus ar-tifacts in relation to other finds, indicating a close relation of these objects to burial practices. This is further supported by the location of a burial situated in the pits of Ditch A, which contains a large fragment of a Spondylus bracelet (Fig. 3).

The domination of communal works, the central organiza-tion of the settlement plan, the evidence for the existence of communal manifestations and the burial practices stress the communal character of the settlement during Phase MKI. The settlement was abandoned at the end of the 6th millennium and was re-inhabited after a short period of desertion.

Figure 1. Map of Greece showing the location of Makriyalos and other sites mentioned in the text

Figure 2. Plan of Makriyalos settlement indicating the location of main features mentioned in the text

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MarIa PaPPa & rena VeroPoulIdou – the neolIthIc settleMent at MakrIyalos, northern greece

Phase Makriyalos II (MKII) is situated farther north and avoids overlapping the MKI settlement area. It preserves many characteristics of the older settlement, including ditches, earth removals and subterranean structures, but major changes in settlement planning and arguably in social structure are also evident. The overall extent of the site during phase MKII is reduced to 1/5 the size of MKI. The intrasite area is densely inhabited, while the size of the structures becomes smaller on average, though their number quadruples. The ditches exist as scanty remnants of the older phase, but extended earth re-movals are again related to the demarcation of the settlement area. They also retain their role as deposition places. Earth removals and certain subterranean structures deliberately receive secondary depositions from various locations in the settlement. Fragmentation of the settlement area into smaller structures, which can hardly be divided into habitation units, signifies a gradual transition to a different spatial organization that seems to emphasize individuality rather than the commu-nal focus of Phase MKI.

The finds in the two phases are more or less evenly distrib-uted, with the exception of the secondary deposition of certain categories of decorated pottery (Hitsiou 2003; Pappa 2008: 300) and stone knapped tools (Skourtopoulou 2006: 69). In contrast to MKI, where the majority of the finds came from the communal areas, in MKII, the habitation area seems to hold the greatest concentration of artifacts (Pappa 2008: table 5.2-2), with the exclusion of earth removal in section Eta that

has provided a large number of finds which were placed there as a result of the aforementioned secondary depositions.

The shell assemblage of makrIyalos

The shell material of Makriyalos composes the largest assem-blage recovered1 thus far from a settlement in either the Greek or European Neolithic period. This important recovery may well be due, at least in part, to the extensive use of wet siev-ing in the excavation, as well as to the scale of the excava-tion itself. Its quantity can only be compared to the number of remains found in shell middens. Shells have been studied from zoological, archaeological, taphonomic and technologi-cal points of view2, whilst contextual analysis of the findings is still in process.

1 The study of the shell assemblage was initially begun in 1997 by Dr. J. Shackleton in collaboration with Dr. Paul Halstead. During this first stage, shells were classified into two major categories, cockles (Cerasto-derma glaucum) and non-cockles by students from the University of Sheffield, and each category weighed accordingly. Additionally, N. An-dreasen (1998) studied a sample of unworked Cerastoderma glaucum for his MA thesis at the University of Sheffield. From 2005 onwards, R. Veropoulidou was granted permission to study and publish the shell material as part of her doctoral dissertation.

2 Reference collections of shells from the coastal area of Makriyalos, as well as reference books were used for identifications (Abbott 1989; Dela-motte & Vardala-Theodorou 1994; Pfleger 1999; Poppe & Goto 1991, 1993); shell analysis followed the methodology set out by Claassen (1998) and Veropoulidou (2002).

Figure 3. Burial with a large fragment of Spondylus annulet. White arrow indicates annulet’s position.

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The assemblage consists of 795,585 intact and fragmented shells (NISp) of 55 mainly marine species (Fig. 4). The great variety in shell species is predictable as the site is located near the Thermaic gulf, one of the richest areas of Greek waters3 (Famellos, Krestenitis & Georgiadis 2007). 97.8% of the as-semblage (NISp: 775,898) belongs to one species, Cerasto-derma glaucum, which was exploited primarily for food con-sumption and only secondarily for adornment. The focus of shell gathering on Cerastoderma glaucum is a common prac-tice to all coastal neolithic sites of Northern Greece (Karali 1999; Theodoropoulou 2007; Veropoulidou, in prep.). Some of the remaining shells (2.2%, NISp: 19,687) were consumed

3 At present, the Thermaic Gulf is considered, after Maliakos Gulf and Eleusis Bay, an area of high productivity and suitable for the cultivation of mussels and oysters (Askew 1987).

as food (e.g. Ostrea edulis, Mactra corallina, Murex truncu-lus) or as ornaments (e.g. Spondylus gaederopus, Cyclope ne-ritea, Glycymeris sp.). There is also a small quantity of shells of unknown usage; some may have been brought accidentally from the coast to the site.

The contextual and spatial analysis of the material has not yet been completed; however, some remarks regarding the role of molluscan food in inhabitants’ diet can be made. The high quantity of remains (in absolute and relative terms –density of shells per 1m3 of earth) and the condition of findings (mainly specimens gathered alive), indicate that molluscs were gath-ered intensively for food consumption. It is not intended here to argue that molluscs had the role of a staple food; rather the molluscs did not serve as an opportunistic dietary supple-ment or as a critical emergency staple, as has been proposed

Figure 4. The shell assemblage of Makriyalos


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for farming societies (Deith & Shackleton 1988; Waselkov 1987). Probably molluscs were consumed on a regular basis and continuously throughout the life of the settlement, as is shown by their equal distribution in both habitation phases at Makriyalos.

Both worked and unworked shells were used as items of adornment. Shell is the raw material most frequently used in ornament manufacture at Makriyalos, where of a total number of 2,120 “ornaments”, 1,935 are made of shell (Fig. 5). Of the shell species which were used, the largest number are from Ce-rastoderma glaucum, 1,074 artifacts, mainly pendants, while Spondylus artifacts are second in number (n=403), followed by Glycymeris sp. (n=173) and Cyclope neritea (n=118). The remaining represented species are few. The relative frequency of unworked versus worked Cerastoderma glaucum and the minor occurrence of species regarded as food in the artifact inventory (e.g. O. edulis, M. corallina) indicate that some spe-cies were primarily collected as a food source, while others were used as a raw material for ornament manufacture.

SpondyluS gAederopuS aT makrIyalos

Spondylus gaederopus represent the sixth largest group in the Makriyalos shell assemblage (0.1%) (Table 1, Fig. 6-7). 856 specimens were found, of which only 22% (n=196) are pre-

served intact. 58% of the Spondylus assemblage consists of medium sized valves (width: ~7cm, height: ~8-9cm), while the percentage of large and small specimens is approximate. Even though most of the shells are preserved in moderate condition (42%), the quantity of shells with a highly eroded outer surface remains significant (34%). The latter is related to the original condition of the shells (gathered water- or beach-worn), rather than to post-depositional processes. Half of the assemblage (n=403, 47%) is worked, 19% is either partially worked or are wastes of production; the remaining consist mainly of intact valves.

The procurement of Spondylus shells, especially fresh, is considered to have taken considerable effort (cf. Malinowski 1922: 366-375; Miller 2003: 370). Spondylus lives with its right valve attached to rocky bottoms usually between 7 to 50m deep, and it is often hidden by sponges and algae (Poppe & Goto 1993: 72-73). Therefore, one needs to dive in order to gather fresh Spondylus, to spot the covered shell and then to detach it from the rock either with a knife or with a stone (Gina-Whewell 1992). Spondylus can also be collected during beach-combing, i.e. beach- or water-worn specimens.

At Makriyalos, the frequency of fresh versus beach-worn Spondylus (2:1) indicates that fresh specimens were gathered

Figure 5. The distribution of raw material for ornament manufacture (shell, clay, bone, stone, copper)


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more systematically than beach-worn ones4; also taking into account the size of the valves (basically medium to large), most of the fresh Spondylus must have been collected from consid-erable depths. Therefore, Spondylus collection at Makriyalos may have been a laborious and risky task. If the seascape of the Makriyalos area is also considered, where muddy and san-dy substrates prevail and rocky substrates are found farther and deeper, Spondylus may have been rare. These suggestions are further supported by the relatively small quantity of Spon-dylus, at least when compared to the other shell species of the assemblage. This low level of exploitation could also indicate a controlled access to the source, if Spondylus was indeed a valuable and highly esteemed material.

Another matter for investigation is the use of Spondylus at the site. Given the vast majority of worked Spondylus remains found at Makriyalos, it is easy to infer that it was used as a

4 The identification of fresh and beach-worn shells is important in an ar-chaeological context, as apart from ornament manufacture, it shows the procurement strategies, discerns if shells were also consumed as food, etc. However, it is sometimes extremely difficult to distinguish between fresh and beach-worn specimens, especially if the latter do not bear the usual traces of wear, such as worn surface and edges, erosion, encrus-tation, natural perforations, abrasion or acid dissolution. This becomes even more difficult if shells have been modified, especially when their exterior surface has been ground down, an action that usually results in the disappearance of wear traces.

raw material for ornament manufacture. However, it is impos-sible to determine whether the succulent meat of the Spon-dylus was first eaten, a practice which has been detected in the ensuing periods of prehistory (Veropoulidou, this volume; see also Shackleton 1988: 45). The preference for gathering fresh instead of beach-worn specimens has basically been at-tributed to the properties of the material, i.e. fresh material is more suitable for processing, since beach-combed shells tend to break during manufacture (Miller 2003: 370). Neverthe-less, there is no reason to assume that the Spondylus flesh was discarded; rather, it is more probable that it was first eaten and then the shell was modified for ornaments. Considering the difficulty in procurement and the probable rarity of speci-mens, Spondylus flesh may have been highly valued or con-sidered a luxury food, as has been suggested for the Andean and Mesoamerican societies (Glowacki 2005; Hastorf 2003). This hypothesis is further supported by the higher density of fresh Spondylus, either worked or not, in areas related to food consumption, such as Pit 212 (Phase MKI) (Pappa et al. 2004; Veropoulidou, in prep.).

SpondyluS ornamenTs

Although the quantity of Spondylus recovered at Makriyalos is considered relatively small in contrast to the total number of molluscs, it still comprises the largest assemblage of Spon-dylus ever recovered in Neolithic Greece.

The inventory of Spondylus ornaments includes types5 com-mon in the Neolithic period of Northern Greece (cf. Sitagroi: Nikolaidou 2003; Dikili Tash: Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992; Dimitra: Karali-Yannakopoulou 1997; Paradeisos: Reese 1987; Servia: Mould et al. 2000; Dispilio: Ifantidis 2006; Di-mini: Tsuneki 1989 and Theodorpoulou, this volume). The list of Spondylus ornaments includes: “annulets”, beads6, “buck-les”/buttons, pendants, rings and “earrings” (Table 2, Fig. 6). The great majority of the ornaments are annulets; the remain-ing 24% is distributed rather equally among beads, buckles/buttons and pendants. There are only a few earrings and rings (4%). The Spondylus ornaments from Makriyalos were carefully manufactured, but probably with relatively uncomplicated techniques and rather simple tools. The ornaments are simple in form, but seem to follow standardized types and styles. Re-usage of destroyed artifacts is indicative of the high status and value of these artifacts. The occurrence of unfinished annulets and waste products testify to on-site production of these arti-facts.

5 The terms used to describe the different kinds of ornaments follow the standards set out by Miller (1997); Kyparissi-Apostolika (2001) and Nikolaidou (2003).

6 The term bead refers to any perforated object (worked) that has lost the natural characteristics of the original shell and is small in size. The term pendant-bead refers to any whole shell ornament with either a natural (i.e. Dentalium sp.) or worked perforation (i.e. C. rustica, C. neritea), which is small in size (less than 1cm in width and/or thickness). The term pendant refers to any whole perforated shell (worked or natural) which is large in size (e.g. Cerastoderma glaucum).

Table 1. The frequency of Spondylus in MKI and MKII

Table 2. The distribution of worked Spondylus between MKI and MKII


SpondyluS annuleTs mkI mkII ToTal

NISp 205 651 858Intact valves 62 134 196Right valves 74 209 283

Left valves 60 285 345Unidentified valves 21 1 22

Fragments 50 156 206Average erosion 2.4 2.3 2.35Fresh collected 144 418 562

Beach-worn 61 233 294Size M / L S / M

Unworked 64 228 292Partially worked 49 112 161

Worked 92 311 403

SpondyluS ornamenTs mkI mkII ToTal

“Annulets” 63 244 307Beads 12 22 34

“Buckles” / buttons 10 13 23“Earrings” 1 11 12

Other 6 21 27totAl 32 311 403

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Figure 6. Spondylus ornaments: a. beads, b. earrings, c. buttons, d. buckles, e. various, f. pendant, g. annulets

Spondylus annulets76% of the Spondylus artifacts are annulets7 (n=307) (Table 3, Fig. 6g & 7). The left valve of the Spondylus, which is smaller and lighter, was preferred for annulet manufacture (n=161), but the amount of right valves used was also high (n=105). The remaining artifacts (n=41) consist of very fragmented an-nulets8 that could not be ascribed either to right or left valves. Most of the Spondylus that were used in annulet production were fresh specimens, an additional indication that fresh spec-imens were more suitable for manufacture. Annulets were primarily made of medium to large sized valves; the median

7 The term annulet is used contractually referring to the artifact’s shape, not its function. The terms bracelet or ring have not been used, because they have functional connotations.

8 A polar system to set the location of preserved bracelet parts was used (cf. Claassen 1998: 203; Lammers 2007: 25). This system was also used to calculate the degree of the annulets’ preservation.

internal diameter (Ø) is 5cm, the median width is 0.90cm, and the median thickness is 0.35cm. Only one Spondylus annulet at Makriyalos is preserved intact (Ø 4cm). The others are preserved in varying states and half of them are highly fragmented (in most cases, only 25% of the artifact is preserved). Fragmentation patterns (Fig. 8) were studied according to the polar coordinates (Veropoulidou, this volume: Fig. 5), thus giving the opportunity to check whether the fragments belonged to the same annulet or not: half of the assemblage (n=150) consists of annulets that cannot be matched to others. Therefore, the possibility that the number of fragmented annulets corresponds to the original number of annulets is high. Microscopic study of the edges showed that the annulets were deposited already in a fragmented state. Many of the annulets seem significantly fragile (thin left valve, thin profile) and their destruction could have resulted either


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Table 3. The distribution of Spondylus annulets between MKI and MKII

from continuous use or by chance. Other annulets, which are heavier and thicker, could not have been destroyed as easily.

The average diameter of the Spondylus bracelets recovered at Makriyalos reveals many common characteristics with other Neolithic sites in Greece, such as Dikili Tash (Miller 1997: 172), Ayia Sofia (Miller 1997: 215), Dimitra (Karali-Yanna-kopoulou 1997: 209), and Ayio Gala (Hood 1982: 652). Sev-eral scholars have argued that Aegean shell annulets are too small to have been worn on the wrist (e.g. Shackleton 2003: 363); while others have concluded that it seems quite pos-sible that these annulets were worn as bangle bracelets (e.g. Miller 1997: 215). The estimation of an average value for the diameter of annulets is sometimes misleading, as the discus-sion involves single artifacts that have probably been used by different individuals and/or in different periods throughout their lives. Thus, upon examining the percentage of different diameters (Fig. 9), we conclude that only a minimal percent-age (n=8, 3%) could have been used as rings and a few could definitely have functioned as bangle bracelets (n=55, 18%). The overwhelming amount of the annulets share internal di-ameters of 5 and 6cm respectively. Therefore, people of young age and/or small size may have worn the annulets as bracelets.In order to confirm or reject the above hypothesis, Spondylus annulets were also examined for use-wear traces, even though it is known that the detection of wear patterns is difficult in Aegean shell bracelets (Miller 1997: 217), if they exist at all. In fact, only a few of the annulets seem to have an extra pol-ish, a trace of wear which probably resulted from use. The lack of a visible wear pattern could be interpreted multifold: a) annulets were not worn on the wrist, but rather suspended as pendants, b) annulets were worn on the wrist only for small periods of time, thus bearing no wear traces, c) annulets were not worn at all; they were just unused possessions or manufac-tured solely for export trade (cf. Miller 1997: 217). The dimensions of the annulets are primarily related to the original dimensions of the unmodified shell, whilst the form or the profile of the annulets is related to which of the valves

was used. At most Neolithic sites (e.g. Sitagroi: Miller 2003: 373; Dimitra: Karali-Yannakopoulou 1997: 209; Dikili Tash: Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992: 163; Dimini: Tsuneki 1989), the left valve is preferred for annulet manufacture, while the right has predominantly been used for the production of beads and buckles/buttons. Multiple explanations have been presented for this, such as maker’s skill and/or taste (Nikolaidou 2003: 339), technological decisions during manufacture (Tsuneki 1987, 1989), as well as this preference being a key element of standardization (Miller 2003: 373). At Makriyalos, the dif-ference between right and left valves in annulet manufacture is not highly significant (n=56), whilst the other Spondylus artifacts (cf. below) are made of both valves. Regardless of the size and shape of the raw material, there is a degree of standardization in the final forms, which can be explained either as an indication of specialized ornament pro-duction at Makriyalos or as a reflection of fashion and taste. For example, according to N. Shackleton (2003: 363) the thickness of the band at the area 04a-06a (see Veropoulidou, this volume: Fig. 5) is “the dimension most in the control of the maker (or least controlled by the shell itself)” and there-fore an indication for craft specialization. Another probable indication for standardization is the rectangular shape of the hinge, a choice observed at many other sites (Karali-Yannako-poulou 1997: 209, 1992: 163; Nikolaidou 2003: 339; Tsuneki 1989). At Makriyalos, the thickness of this band is 0.36cm on average; some are as thin as 0.2cm and a few are as thick as 0.6cm; there are also three pieces with bands as thick as 1cm. It is interesting to note that there exists a difference between the MKI and MKII phases: 38% of the artifacts in MKI are as thick as 0.5-0.6cm, while 57% in MKII are as thin as 0.2-0.3cm. The thickness of the bracelet is relatively standardized; however, the hinge shape varies considerably and only a few examples with the distinctive rectangular shape occur9. Other aspects of annulet manufacture to be taken into ac-count include the final finish of the surface of the artifact. At Makriyalos, 56% are polished and 21% are both polished and ground; the remaining artifacts have only ground surfaces. The profile of each annulet is basically related to the shape of valve used, but it could also relate to aesthetic preferences: the majority of the artifacts have a square profile (n=205), while the others have a biconical one. The natural characteristics of the shell (color, incremental growth lines, part of the hinge) are preserved in 156 annulets. This indicates that the original decoration of the shell, especially the color (Campbell 1983), was deliberately preserved. Apart from this natural decoration of the annulets, there are also two examples with incisions, as well as 11 burnt annulets. Whether the purpose of this burning was just a change in color or a deliberate action to remove the artifacts out of circulation, as proposed for the site of Dimini (Halstead 1993), is unknown. However, the number is too low to definitively suggest a conscious destruction of these arti-facts.

9 At Makriyalos, Glycymeris annulets preserve this distinctive rectangular shape of the hinge.


SpondyluS annuleTs mkI MkII ToTal medIan

Worked 63 244 307Right vavles 34 71 105

Left valves 23 138 161Unidentified part 6 35 41

Beach-worn 21 63 84average Ø 5.40 5.67 5.00

average width 1.81 0.54 0.90average thickness 0.97 0.34 0.35

Semi-worked 13 43 56Pre-forms 14 40 54

Waste products 22 29 51Second use 9 13 22

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Figure 7. Spondylus annuletsa. raw material, b. steps of annulet manufacture, c. waste products, d. annulets, e. second use of annulets

Figure 8. The degree of preservation of Spondylus annulets


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A few annulet fragments (n=22) have one or more perforations usually near their broken edges (n=19), while others have inci-sions (n=1) or polished edges (n=2). It has been suggested that drillings have been used to tie together two or more destroyed annulets (Miller 1997: 217); at Makriyalos, there is only one example with drillings at both edges of the fragment. The re-maining, perforated only at one edge, must have been reused as pendants (either strung singly, in multiples, or sewn onto clothing) after the destruction of the annulet. “Repairs” or “re-modification” of some of the artifacts for re-usage rather than simply discarding them are actions that, at least, indicate the strong links between the people and these artifacts and also that these artifacts accumulated and/or transformed meanings and values throughout their use (Chapman 2000; Gosden & Kopytoff 1986; Marshall 1999). All the steps of the chaîne opératoire of annulet manufac-ture (Miller 1997: 115; Tsuneki 1987, 1989) are present at Makriyalos (Fig. 7b). As previously mentioned, a consider-able amount of raw material (n=292) was found, consisting of both right and left valves, as well as fragments, both fresh and beach-worn. The amount of unfinished products (n=54) and of partially worked artifacts or waste products (n=107) are adequate enough to suggest that, at Makriyalos, Spondylus ornaments were manufactured on site. There are at least 12 artifact examples that match specific steps of annulet manu-facture and at least 21 pre-forms that were probably destroyed during the working process. The exterior surface of some of the examples has been ground down on a grinding stone (di-agonal striations resulting from a transverse motion have been observed); some specimens have been considerably reduced in thickness, while other examples bear chipping on the edges of the hole in the center of the valve. Additionally, there are at least 51 waste products that represent the final stage of annu-let manufacture; these have been probably broken during the enlargement of the hole and the overall thinning of the shell. The distribution of finished artifacts reflects the discovery lo-cation of consumption and/or discarding, while the recovery of unworked and especially partially worked and/or waste material indicates the loci of production. According to the density of findings per 1m3 of earth, both finished objects and manufacturing waste seem to be widely and evenly dispersed. However, a more detailed analysis shows that there are some notable differences. For example, waste products are evenly distributed in both the MKI and MKII phases, but unfinished products and pre-forms are mainly concentrated in MKII. Ad-ditionally, during MKI phase most of the finished products were found inside Pit 212, while most of the partially worked and a high quantity of the unworked material were concen-trated in Pit 214.

Spondylus beadsA small amount of Spondylus beads (n=34, 8.4% of worked Spondylus artifacts, 24% of shell beads) (Fig. 6a) were re-covered at Makriyalos. These include a variety of sizes and shapes: cylindrical, spherical, tabular, discoid, barreled and ir-

regular10, but the largest concentrations are formed from two of these types: narrow cylinder and short barrel. Since all of the beads are intact (apart from two examples), measurement of their dimensions was easily performed. The median diam-eter of perforation is 0.29cm, the median width is 0.50cm and the median thickness is 0.32cm. Most of the beads share a diameter of perforation between 0.2-0.3cm; there is only one bead with 1.75cm (shape: disc) and one with 0.1cm (shape: long barrel). All beads have been perforated by drilling, while the outer surface has been ground down and in many cases finely polished. In only a few cases, the natural characteristics of the shell have been left (growth lines and color), probably as a decoration. The identification of right or left valves was complicated by the small size of the beads. However, there are three examples of valves that have been identified with certainty (2 right, 1 left); in addition, judging from the thickness of the bead and other natural characteristics, there are at least 12 beads made from right valves and 15 beads made from left valves. How-ever, this observation contrasts with the widely accepted view that right valves were mainly used for the manufacture of beads and other artifacts (Miller 2003; Tsuneki 1989). Evi-dence relevant to the on-site manufacture of beads is actually missing; there is only one partially worked bead, whilst other waste of production or unfinished beads, as in the case of an-nulets, are absent from the inventory of the findings. Even though a degree of standardization is apparent in the Spondylus beads at Makriyalos (control of size, shape and di-ameter of perforation), there are examples which exhibit vari-ation in their dimensions and form, though these variations occur only in Phase MKII.

Spondylus buckles, buttons, pendants, ringsThere is considerable variation in the sizes and shapes under this category of ornaments, but the common characteristic of these artifacts is that they each have at least one hole, which in the case of Spondylus shell, has always been made by drill-ing. The exact use of these artifacts is unknown, but they were probably suspended as pendants or used for fastening/decorat-ing garments, as is suggested by ornamental motifs found on figurines (Fig. 10). One type that exhibits a degree of morphological standardiza-tion is a discoid/oval artifact with a pair of perforations at each side, which were conventionally registered as “buckles” (Fig. 6d). The second type, “buttons”, has a circular or oval body that becomes nearly conical at the upper part, where a V-shape hole is drilled (Fig. 6c). The third type, “pendants”, has one perforation (there is only three examples of these with two perforations, one next to the other) at the narrow side of the object (Fig. 6f).

10 In this typology, the terms referring to shape were adopted by Miller (1997); Moholy-Nagy (1989) and Nikolaidou (2003). Even though each bead has been registered according to size, shape, width and thickness, and diameter of perforation, each bead type will not be discussed sepa-rately, since most of the beads share common characteristics. Addition-ally, it is the opinion of the authors that the minor differences between the beads are not necessarily meaningful.


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Figure 10. Figurine with ornamental motifs from Makriyalos [drawing by M. Kargoglou]

Figure 9. The distribution of Spondylus annulets’ internal diameter

“Buckles” (n=23) are usually moderately thick (1-2cm) and of medium size (3-5cm width). They are perforated at the narrow side of the objects, usually with a pair or triple of biconical holes made by drilling. There is only one example with per-forations around the entirety of the object’s edge. One hole out of each pair or triple is broken in 50% of the examples, probably due to constant use. Almost half of the “buckles” were identified at the level of valve; as has been previously noted, right and left valves were used indiscriminately. “But-

tons” (n=4) are usually moderately thick and small, with the exception of one example (width: 6cm, thickness: 3cm). A few “pendants” (n=11) were also recovered in various shapes and modifications. All bear at least one drilled hole, usually near or at the hinge of the valve. Both left and right valves of all sizes have been used for “pendant” manufacture. Apart from drilling, the exterior surfaces of the artifacts have been ground down and in most cases, have been finely pol-ished. Only one artifact is thought to have represented a “ring” (Fig. 6e, middle), primarily due to its small diameter (2.5cm). Aside from its small size though, it is distinctively thick.

Spondylus earrings“Earrings” are artifacts defined by a particularly small size and extreme standardization in form (n=12) (Fig. 6b). They have a cylindrical shape (0.6cm diameter, 0.6cm width and 0.4cm thickness) with a line incised in the middle of the long side. None is pierced, while all bear a fine polish on their sur-face. These artifacts are known from the Neolithic findings inventory throughout Greece, but their usage is still a matter of controversy (Kyparissi-Apostolika 2001).

dIsTrIbuTIon of SpondyluS arTIfaCTs

The uneven distribution of Spondylus artifacts between the two habitation phases of Makriyalos is particularly notewor-thy. This inequality is not observed in the other categories of artifacts (Pappa 2008: tables 5.1-40, 41, 46). Of a total of 856 objects –worked, partially worked and raw material– 205 de-rive from Phase MKI and 651 from Phase MKII. Furthermore,


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92 worked objects belong to MKI and 311 to MKII, mainly annulets (Table 1-2, Fig. 11). The ratio of worked and par-tially worked objects remains more or less steady between the two phases, showing that the larger number of artifacts during phase MKII is not due to the presence of particular archaeo-logical contexts.

Spondylus artifacts of small size, such as beads, buckles and buttons, are found in small quantities during both phases. An-

Figure 11. The distribution of Spondylus material in MKI & MKII

Figure 12. The distribution of Spondylus artifacts in MKI & MKII

nulets are dominant; their number increases markedly in Phase MKII (Table 2, Fig. 12), reaching 244 objects, in comparison to 63 during Phase MKI. Therefore, throughout the duration of habitation at Makriyalos, annulets are the principal artifact constructed of Spondylus, while their presence multiplies in Phase MKII.

During Phase MKI, Spondylus artifacts are unevenly distributed spatially. They accumulate in various communal


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Figure 13. The spatial distribution of Spondylus artifacts in MKI & MKII

places, corresponding to the ditches and earth removals (Pits 212 and 214), in contrast to their small presence in habitation areas (Fig. 13). The distribution in communal places is more or less even (Pappa 2008: 204). However, notably Pit 212 provides a high percentage of finished products, while Pit 214 provides a high percentage of remains of products from before or after the manufacture of the artifact. Therefore, there is possibly a local variation in the manufacture and use of the artifacts.

The rather high presence of Spondylus artifacts in Ditch Alpha is in sharp contradiction to the distribution of other finds, as pottery, tools and bioarchaeological finds are few in Ditch Al-pha, while they are concentrated in large quantities in commu-nal structures such as Pits 212 and 214. Ditch A is also marked by a high percentage of human bones consisting of primary and secondary burials, which makes it the main burial place of Phase MKI, at the edge of the settlement area (Triantaphyl-lou 2001). The presence of a remarkable number of Spondylus artifacts in the Ditch Alpha depositions is probably related to this specific role. Correlation of Spondylus artifacts to burial

practices becomes obvious in an infant’s burial in one of the pits in Ditch Alpha, where part of a bracelet was found as a grave good (Fig. 3).

Distribution of Spondylus artifacts is diverse during Phase MKII. Most of these objects are found interspersed in the habitation area, while a very small number is found in Earth removals Eta and Xi (Pit 174). The quadruple number of an-nulets recovered during Phase MKII (Fig. 13) comes from the habitation units of that phase, in contrast to the very low pres-ence of these objects in the habitation units of Phase MKI. No specific uneven distribution is noticed that would show a par-ticular relation of certain habitation units to production or han-dling of these objects (Pappa 2008: 307). However, it should be mentioned that 14 artifacts were recovered in Pit A among a context that was also rich in other finds (Pappa 2008: table 5.2-33). Up to six artifacts were recovered in a small number of other pits, while the remaining do not comprise more than two artifacts each. The results of the study of all types of ar-tifacts (such as ground stone tools) and their distribution will


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stages of manufacture that might indicate local variations inside the MKI settlement.

• A significant change is noticed during Phase MKII, when the production becomes more standardized. Though waste products are pres-ent during both phases, it is only in Phase MKII that the presence of a considerable number of pre-forms and unfinished objects indicates a possible annulet manufacture center. It seems that production may have been restricted to an-nulets, as there is no evidence of on-site manu-facture of beads or other objects.

• Changes in the production of Spondylus an-nulets during Phase MKII are related to the changes in the social structure of the settle-ment. Transfer of the finds from communal places to habitation area corresponds to the claimed emphasis on the individual during that phase.

AcknowledgementS

We wish to thank the editors for including this paper in the present volume. We would also like to thank Professor Kostas Kotsakis for critical comments on a preliminary version of the manuscript, as well as Professor Paul Halstead for valuable comments and useful suggestions. We are grateful to Teresa Hancock Vitale for making the final revision of the English text. We are indebted to Nikos Valasiadis for taking the pho-tographs and for processing all the figures. The shell assem-blage of Makriyalos forms part of Veropoulidou’s PhD thesis (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, under the supervision of Professor K. Kotsakis and with a scholarship from the Greek State Scholarships Foundation). This is a preliminary presen-tation of the results of the shell assemblage analysis, which is still in progress. Rena Veropoulidou would like to thank An-astasia Vasileiadou for valuable help during the study of the shell assemblage. The study of the Makriyalos excavation has been generously sponsored in various stages by INSTAP.

verify whether this irregularity is indicative for tracking pos-sible workshops inside the MKII community.

Fragmentation of human skeleton remains during Phase MKII is considerably higher than Phase MKI; the bulk of the mate-rial was found in the habitation area and Earth removal Eta, while only a small percentage was encountered in Pit 174. This suggests that, apart from the places of primary burials and the taphonomic processes, the context containing the sparse rem-nants of human bones derives from the above areas, which are the same areas that provide high percentages of Spondylus artifacts. This analogy could be claimed for the MKI distribu-tion of human remains and Spondylus artifacts, still keeping in mind that there is no differentiation in the distribution of the rest of the categories of artifacts during Phase MKII.

ConCludIng remarks

The scale of the Makriyalos excavation and the sufficient de-marcation of the settlement area during each phase, besides the specification of communal and individual structures, pro-vide an ideal background for analyzing the rich depositional context. Among other artifacts, the large group of Spondylus gaederopus objects, worked, partially worked and unworked, can outline characteristics of this Neolithic manufacturing process. These characteristics may only refer to that specific settlement, but they can also set the frame for a new discus-sion. Although other specific studies of the Makriyalos context is still progressing, the following remarks can be concluded concerning the presence of Spondylus:

• While the total number of Spondylus is low in relation to the rest of the shell species, it is the second choice of the Neolithic inhabitants as a raw material for the manufacture of orna-ments.

• They were primarily collected fresh, though a remarkable number of beach-worn shells were also recovered. Collecting Spondylus was a rather difficult task and it was therefore, prob-ably regarded as a luxurious food and valuable raw material.

• Spondylus ornaments were manufactured on site, as evidence of all of the steps of the chaîne opératoire of annulet manufacture are present during both phases.

• The use of both valves (ratio 1.5 left: 1 right) for the manufacture of annulets might suggest a particular local feature.

• The number of Spondylus finds increases re-markably during Phase MKII, due to a dramat-ic rise in the number of annulets.

• Spondylus annulet manufacture during the MKI phase, found mainly in communal plac-es, indicates a non-standardized production in respect the shape and dimensions of objects. Remarkable differences have been noticed between specific contexts in the matter of the


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