Philpotstown Neolithic House, Co. Meath, Ireland

PROJECT DETAILS

Project M3 Clonee–Kells Motorway

Site Name Philpotstown 1

Ministerial Direction Number A023/007

Registration Number E3099

Senior Archaeological Consultant Donald Murphy

Site director Kevin Martin

Excavated 29 March – 05 May 2006

Client Meath County Council, National Roads Design

Office, Navan Enterprise Centre, Navan, County

Meath

Townland Philpotstown

Parish Ardsallagh

County Meath

National Grid Reference 286602 264220

Chainage 975–1050 R161 Trim Road

Height 55.28m

Report Type Final

Report Status Submitted

Date of Report May 2009

Report by Kevin Martin

Philpotstown 1, A023/007 M3 Clonee–North of Kells Motorway Scheme

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report has been prepared by Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd on behalf of

Meath County Council National Roads Design Office (NRDO) and the National Roads

Authority (NRA). The excavation was carried out under Ministerial Direction Number issued

by the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government (DoEHLG) in

consultation with the National Museum of Ireland (NMI).

Consulting Engineers - N3 Meath Consult

Engineer – Peter Thorne and Thomas Meagher

Resident Engineer – Mary O’Rourke

Meath County Council, National Roads Design Office

Senior Engineer – John McGrath

Project Archaeologist – Mary Deevy

Project Liaison Officer – Ambrose Clarke

National Monuments, Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government

Archaeologist – Martin Reid

Irish Antiquities Division, National Museum of Ireland

Keeper – Nessa O’Connor


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NON-TECHNICAL SUMMARY

The site at Philpotstown 1 was excavated by Archaeological Consultancy Service Ltd (ACS)

as part of the M3 Clonee–North of Kells Motorway Scheme on behalf of Meath County

Council NRDO and the NRA. The excavation was carried out between 29 March and 5 May

2006 under Ministerial Direction Number A023/007 issued by DOEHLG in consultation with

the NMI. The site at Philpotstown 1 contained evidence for Middle to Late Bronze Age

activity in the form of a rectangular slot-trench structure, two charcoal and heat affected stone

rich troughs, a curvilinear ditch and a single cremated bone deposition uncovered at the

northern extent of the site. The features are interpreted as being roughly contemporary

although the cremation deposit was likely to be the latest activity on the site. Four artefacts

were recovered from the site and included three worked flints and a loom weight. Activity on

the site may relate to contemporary dated activity on the nearby site of Williamstown or

Bawn 2 located 300m south of the site. During the post medieval – modern period a number

of stone field drains were constructed across the site and truncated both the slot trench

structure and curvilinear ditch feature.


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CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Development 1 2 EXCAVATION 2 2.1 Results 2-3 2.2 Finds 3-4 3 DISCUSSION 4-10 3.1 Form and Function 4-7 3.1.2 Surrounding Environment 7 3.1.3 Cremated Bone 8 3.1.4 Animal Bone 8 3.2 Date and Sequence 8-9 3.2.1 Contemporary / Comparative Archaeological Activity 9-10 4 CONCLUSIONS 11 5 REFERENCES 12-13

APPENDIX 1 Context Details

APPENDIX 2 Finds List

APPENDIX 3 Sample List

APPENDIX 4 Faunal Remains: Rachel Sloane

APPENDIX 5 Radiocarbon Dates

APPENDIX 6 Stone Tool Analysis: Ann Carey

APPENDIX 7 Lithics Analysis: Dr Farina Sternke

APPENDIX 8 Environmental Analysis: Archaeological Services, University of Durham

APPENDIX 9 M3 Research Report on Bronze Age Houses: Neil Carlin, ACS.


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FIGURE LIST

Figure 1: Location of Philpotstown 1

Figure 2: Location of Philpotstown 1 on current OS background

Figure 3: Philpotstown 1, extract from 1st edition OS map, Meath sheet 31

Figure 4: Philpotstown 1, extract from 2nd edition OS map, Meath sheet 31

Figure 5: Philpotstown 1, extract from 3rd edition OS map, Meath sheet 31

Figure 6: Detailed location of Philpotstown 1

Figure 7: Post-excavation plan of Philpotstown 1

Figure 8: Sections of Philpotstown 1

Figure 9: Sections of Philpotstown 1

PLATE LIST

Plate 1: Elevated view of Philpotstown 1 site looking west

Plate 2: North-facing section of F17

Plate 3: Post-excavation view of slot-trench structure F10 looking south

Plate 4: Post-excavation view of pit/trough F8 looking west

Plate 5: Mid-excavation view of cremation pit F30 looking north

Plate 6: Post-excavation view of cremation pit F30 looking south-east

Plate 7: Post-excavation view of depression/water sump F31 looking north

ILLUSTRATION LIST

Illustration 1: Flint Find


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1 INTRODUCTION

The site at Philpotstown 1 (Figures 1–6) was identified during advanced testing carried out by

Aidan O’Connell during April 2004 under licence number 04E0576. Geophysical anomalies

in the form of three pit features were recorded during the geophysical survey carried out by

Bartlett-Clark Consultancy but were not assessed by test trenching (O’Connell 2004). Two

possible troughs of similar size were partially exposed (2.30m length x 0.25m depth and

2.30m x 0.25m x 0.22m). Both contained one fill of charcoal-enriched, silty clay with heat-

shattered stones. Full resolution of the site occurred in 2006 and re-located these pits, as well

as identifying an isolated cremation pit, a structure represented by three slot-trenches, a

curvilinear ditch, and two modern drains.

1.1 Development

Meath County Council is constructing 49km of two-lane, dual-carriageway motorway

between Clonee and Kells and 10km of single carriageway from Kells to just north of Kells

alongside additional road upgrades, realignments and associated ancillary works. The scheme

has been subdivided into five separate sections as follows: Clonee to Dunshaughlin (Contract

1), Dunshaughlin to Navan (Contract 2), the Navan Bypass (Contract 3), Navan to Kells and

the N52 Kells Bypass (Contract 4), and Kells to North of Kells (Contract 5). Navan to Kells

and the N52 Kells Bypass (Contract 4), and Kells to North of Kells (Contract 5). This section

of the scheme (Contract 3) represents the Navan By-pass.

The desk-based study and the field survey for the whole scheme, carried out in 2000–2001,

were divided into sections which were investigated by Valerie J Keeley Ltd and Margaret

Gowan and Company Ltd. The Record of Monuments and Places, the Sites and Monuments

Record, Topographical files, and literary sources were all consulted. This information was

augmented by geophysical testing conducted by Bartlett-Clark Consultancy who undertook a

magnetometer survey across sample transects which was then supplemented by magnetic

susceptibility, and also by GSB Prospection who undertook gradiometer scanning and a

detailed gradiometer survey. The Environmental Impact Survey (EIS) compiled this data set

to identify approximately 100 sites of interest either along the route or in its proximity (500m

of the landtake). Advance archaeological testing was completed in 2004 by ACS and Irish

Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd (IAC). Excavation of the sites identified during

testing was conducted by ACS and IAC on behalf of Meath County Council, and the NRA

under directions issued by the Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government

following consultation with the Director of the National Museum of Ireland.


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2 EXCAVATION

Excavation occurred between 29 March and 5 May 2006 under Ministerial Direction Number

A023/007 issued Meath County Council NRDO. The work was carried out by Kevin Martin

on behalf of ACS. The topsoil (F5) consisted of a moderately compact, mid-brown, clayey

silt with occasional stones and was removed by a machine equipped with a grading bucket. A

compact, brownish-yellow, silty clay with moderate stones comprised the subsoil (F6).

All archaeological features exposed were recorded and excavated by hand using the single

context method. Each feature was assigned a context number. Where appropriate, samples

were retrieved in an attempt to obtain evidence for the date and function of these features

(Appendix 3). Unless otherwise stated, the features have been measured length-width-depth.

All measurements are in metres. All finds were numbered according to the requirements of

the National Museum of Ireland from 1 onwards consistent with licence and feature number.

The artefacts recovered from the site underwent an initial archaeological assessment and

where deemed appropriate, further specialist analysis was carried out on each artefact type.

All radiocarbon dates are quoted in calibrated, two sigma form; their calibrated dates derived

from Oxcal are also given.

2.1 Results

Thirty four contexts were identified, all of which were of archaeological interest. Only the

principal archaeological features of Philpotstown 1 will be discussed within this report; full

details of all these, and further, contexts are located in Appendix 1.

Structure 1

A rectangular-shaped slot-trench feature with rounded corners (c. 4m length x c. 3m width,

internally) formed by a slot-trench (F10: 5.65m x 3.70m x 0.05–0.20m) was exposed in the

eastern area of the site (Figure 7, Plate 1). An internal, curvilinear slot-trench (F12: 2.20m x

1.10m x 0.35m) and an associated, external, east-west, linear slot-trench which extended from

F10, (F21: 1.35m x 0.32m x 0.08m) were also noted. Each of the three trenches contained one

fill (F9, F11 and F20) which consisted of silty clays with small stones and charcoal. Brown,

iron oxidised material was observed in F9 and F11. Soil samples derived from fills F9 and

F11 returned a small amount of charcoal flecks (alder, ash, maloideae, ring porous) and some

possible slag residue, which is considered intrusive (Appendix 3). The slot-trench F10 was

truncated by F22 a modern stone field drain.


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Pits

An isolated, sub-circular, cremation pit (F30: 0.54m x 0.45m x 0.12m; Figure 7, Plates 5–6)

contained two silty clay fills F28 and F29 which contained charcoal inclusions (ash, oak,

hazel, elm and ring porous) and cremated bone fragments identified as human (16g in F28

and 75g in F29 along with 13g charcoal from F29, Appendix 3,8). Pit F30 was located

approximately 28m north-west of the central area of the slot-trench feature F10.

A likely trough was revealed in the form of a sub-rectangular cut (F17: 1.00m x 1.48m x

0.28m; Figure 7, Plate 2) which contained a single fill, F16, comprising a dark grey silty clay

with charcoal flecks (alder, ash, maloideae and ring porous) and burnt stones.

The third pit and likely trough, F8 (2.19m x 0.83m x 0.25m; Figure 7, Plate 4) was associated

with a large, northeast–southwest, sub-oval pit / watering hole, F31 (7.00m x 2.70m x 0.39m;

Figure 7, Plate 7). F8 contained a single charcoal rich (hazel, ash, maloideae, cherries, elm

and ring porous) and burnt stone fill F7. It is likely that F31 represents a natural depression or

water sump, which over time gradually filled with material relating from the use of F8.

Charcoal flecks and burnt stones were also present in its three fills (F32–F34). A flint

fragment was identified in F32 (A023/007:32:1).

Linear features

A curvilinear, northeast–southwest ditch (F19: 26m x 0.48m x 0.58m) contained five fills

(F13, F18 and F23–F25) all containing various amounts of charcoal and some of which

contained stones. Charcoal from F18 was identified and included alder, hazel, ash, maloideae,

cherries, ring porous (Appendix 8). Animal bones and teeth were also recovered from F18

and F25; only four specimens were classified as countable and these all represented the partial

remains of mandibular pig (Sus sp.) incisors (Sloane, Appendix 4). Two fragments of

retouched / worked flint were discovered in F18 (A023/007:18:1–2) and a loom weight was

revealed in F25 (A023/007:25:1). Cut F19 was truncated by a modern stone drain F22.

Two stony post-medieval - modern field drains (F22: 40m x 0.25m x 0.40m, fill F14, and

F26: 12.00m x 0.30m x 0.13m, fill F15) were also recorded. F22 truncated the slot trench F10

and linear ditch F19.

2.2 Finds

Four artefacts were recovered from the site and included three worked flints (A023/007:18:1-

2), (A023/007:31:1) and a loom weight (A023/007:25:1). Following specialist examination of

the lithics (Appendix 7) they have been identified as representing worked artefacts. Flint

(A023/007:18:1) is described as a large classic convex end scraper. Flint (A023/007:18:2) is


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described as a burnt flake produced on a single platform core. Flint (A023/007:32:1) is

described as miscellaneous retouched flaked artefact which was produced on a rolled split

pebble half and may have been used as a convex end scraper (ibid). The flint assemblage is

considered typologically diagnostic and represents flint working of the Neolithic period.

Although no Neolithic dated features were identified on the site, the lithics assemblage

recovered demonstrates likely Neolithic activity within the area of the site outside the

landtake area. Their presence within the fills of features which have been dated to the Middle

Bronze Age period is considered residual. They likely represent artefacts which were

recovered during the Bronze Age period likely reused and were subsequently deposited into

the base of the curvilinear ditch and pit on Philpotstown 1. Evidence of Neolithic dated flint

artefacts which were reworked and reused in the Bronze Age period has been previously

identified in the archaeological record. At the nearby site of Williamstown or Bawn 2

(A023/006:18:2) a Neolithic bipolar blade was extensively retouched and reworked during the

Bronze Age period (Martin 2009).

The loom weight (A023/007: 25:1) comprised of a stone disc which was deliberately shaped

(rounded and smoothed) and exhibited little wear (Appendix 6). They have been in use since

the Neolithic period and are not considered good chronological indicators. Both the loom

weight and two of the lithics were recovered from the primary silting phase of the curvilinear

ditch F19. As the flints have been identified as Neolithic in date the likelihood is that the

loom weight is also Neolithic.

3 DISCUSSION

3.1 Form and function

The structure was orientated north-north-east – south-south-west and an entranceway was

identified in the north-eastern corner of its slot-trench, F10, where a break of 0.80m was

evident. The slot-trench construction method is particularly characteristic of structures from

Neolithic/Bronze Age dated sites, such as at excavated at Newtown, Co. Meath, where

Neolithic house foundations consisted of slot-trenches and evidence for post and plank

construction (Gowan & Halpin 1992, 25–27). No postholes were evident in the slot-trench at

Philpotstown 1 nor was there any evidence of burnt planking. Internally an L-shaped cut, F12,

was recorded facing the entranceway and this may have held a windbreak/screen in place. No

stakeholes, roof supports or hearth area was identified internally. The structure was also

stratigraphically isolated from the other archaeological features on Philpotstown 1, making it

difficult to associate them with each other. The structure is likely to have existed for only a

short duration, given its small size, the absence of associated artefacts and the lack of hearth


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remains in its interior. A radiocarbon date from maloideae charcoal recovered from the slot

trench of the structure has been dated to the Middle Bronze Age period 1386-1123 BC (Beta

247092) (Appendix 5). This date establishes that the structure was contemporary with the

surrounding archaeological features identified on Philpotstown 1 even though it was

stratigraphically isolated from them.

Doody’s survey of 78 Bronze Age structures identified five different categories of structures

built from wood or stone or a combination of both (Doody 2000). The Philpotstown 1

structure would fall into Doody’s category of structures built with a single wall slot.

O’Neill’s more recent survey suggested a different form of classification and the

Philpotstown 1 structure would fall into the category (iv) rectangular houses with no internal

roof supports (O’Neill 2005). Neil Carlin carried out a study of these structures in 2006 and

has classified the type of structure excavated at Philpotstown 1 as a Type C structure

(Appendix 9). His study has identified that there is a wide range of dates of this structure type

falling between 1700 – 830 BC and that these structures were usually circular or oval shaped

in plan and range in diameter from 3-12m. Carlin has identified that one of the main issues

with this type of structure design is in understanding the nature and make up of the roof

design and roof supports (ibid). The lack of internal post supports in these structures can

possibly be attributed to a number of things including later truncation and the use of stone

post pads. Carlin also suggests that various materials possibly skins, turfs and other organic

materials may have been used to cover these structures and so may not have required load

bearing support posts for their roofs as is the case with a number of the other types of Bronze

Age structures identified (ibid).

The two pit/trough features F17 and F8 containing burnt stones and charcoal in their fills are

likely to be evidence of burnt mound/fulacht fiadh type activity on Philpotstown 1 where

rocks heated in a fire are subsequently immersed in a water filled pit or trough to boil the

water. Given their similarity in size and fill inclusions and proximity both features F17 and F8

are considered to be contemporary. These sites are generally prehistoric in date and most are

dated to the Bronze Age period (Buckley 1990). A radiocarbon date from maloideae charcoal

from fill F7 of pit F8 has returned a Middle Bronze Age date of 1608-1417 BC (Beta 247091)

Appendix 5. The function of these troughs was ultimately to boil water using hot stones

previously heated in an open fire. The reasons for boiling water and the creation of troughs

specifically for this purpose is the subject of much debate within the archaeological

community. Experiments by O’Kelly in 1954 proved that a 4.5kg leg of lamb could be cooked

in a controlled manner using the hot stone and water filled trough technique (O’Kelly 1954).

Since then a number of additional theories regarding the use of these features have developed


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and been put forward ranging from cloth dying, sweat houses, steam bending timber, bathing

and even brewing beer (Buckley 1990), (O’ Neill 2000), (Quinn & Moore 2007). A useful

analogy may be to think of the troughs on these sites as representing the kitchen sinks of the

Bronze Age period which were employed and used boiled water for a myriad of uses. No

artefacts or animal bone fragments were found within the fills of the pits or in association

with them; this is quite typical of these site types. There was no evidence on the site for a

burnt mound spread which normally takes the form of a horseshoe-shaped mound of burnt

stone and charcoal located around a central trough/pit. It may be possible that the burnt

mound spread was located outside of the roadtake. Pit/trough F8 was located next to a large

well/watering hole, F31. It is likely that both features were contemporary and used in the

process of boiling water. Burnt stones and charcoal inclusions were noted in the upper fills of

F31. The lower fill of F31 (F34) consisted of a compact grey clay marl of up to 0.60m in

depth indicating that the feature had contained still water for long periods of time, which

eventually silted up.

The small cremation pit F30 was located approximately 28m north of pit/trough F8 and was

noticeably isolated from the main concentration of archaeology on Philpotstown 1. The

inclusion of cremated bone remains in its fills, F28 and F29, indicate that its likely function

was that of a ritual deposition. Specialist analysis has identified the cremated bone from the

lower fill F29 of the pit as being the remains of an adult or adolescent human. Sex

identification was not possible (Appendix 8). Based on this it is likely that the cremated bone

material recovered from the upper fill F28 is also human. The total weight of the cremated

bone from pit F30 was 160.6g. This amount falls well short of the c. 1000-2500g recorded

from modern cremations (ibid). Given the small overall amount and weight of the cremated

bone it is likely that it represents a token cremation deposition. A radiocarbon date of 1193-

922 BC (Beta 247094) (Appendix 5) from hazel charcoal recovered from the lower fill F29

evidences that this deposition of cremated human bone occurred during the Later Bronze Age

period. Interestingly the environmental charcoal analysis has identified a few charred false

oat-grass tubers, a charred ribwort plaintain seed and a charred barley grain in the lower fill

F29 of pit F30. The false oat-grass tubers potentially relate to the use of this grass species

previously as kindling for the original funeral pyre as it has been frequently identified in

association with cremation deposits such as at Derryvorrigan, Co. Laois, Lismullin 1

(A008/021), Co. Meath, Raynestown 1 (A017/016), Co. Meath, and Tyrrellstown, Co. Dublin

(Appendix 8). The charred ribwort may also have been used as pyre kindling. The charred

barley grain potentially indicates a food offering as part of the ritual deposition at

Philpotstown 1. Studies have shown that barley was the dominant crop used in Ireland during

the mid-late Bronze Age and Iron Age period (O’Donnell 2007). Barley may also have held a


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ritual significance during this period as a substantial amount of barley grains were noted

included in Bronze Age cremation burials excavated along the route of a recent gas pipeline

Scheme (ibid).

The curvilinear ditch F19 ran nearly the full width of the site and bisects the area between the

structure and the cremation pit. Hazel charcoal from its basal fill has returned a radiocarbon

date of 1413-1133 BC (Beta 247093) (Appendix 5). The flint artefacts recovered from this

feature have been identified as Neolithic in date and were likely reused during the Bronze

Age period. The ditch is potentially contemporary with the structure and the token cremation

deposit. Given its small size it is not interpreted as defensive but may have served as a

boundary demarcating the living area from the area containing the token cremation.

3.1.2 Surrounding Environment The analysis of the charcoal samples recovered from the various features revealed that a

number of species of trees were available locally during the Bronze Age period and were

specifically exploited for use as structural timbers and for fuel in domestic and funerary ritual

activities on Philpotstown 1. The results of the charcoal analysis suggest that mixed

deciduous woodland was growing near the site during the Middle – Late Bronze Age period.

Oak (Quercus) appears to have been the main fuel used in relation to the cremation deposit

and was likely used as a fuel in the funerary pyre along with the false oat grass tubers. Ash

(Fraxinus excelsior) was the most frequent species identified in the charcoal sample

recovered from the slot trench of the structure and so was likely favoured as the structural

timber. Ash, Hazel (Corylus avellana) and Alder (Alnus glutinosa) were the most frequent

species represented in the charcoal samples recovered from the pit/trough features. Elm

(Ulmus), Ring porous, Cherry (Prunus spp) and Maloideae (apple, pear, whitebeams and

hawthorns) were also all identified in varying amounts from the charcoal samples retrieved

from fills F7, F9, F16, F18, F28 and F29. (Appendix 8).

The results of the charcoal analysis suggests that alder, hazel and ash were the main fuels

used and were likely to be the dominant locally available species. The occurrence of alder,

hazel and ash as a fuel used in prehistoric burnt mound type activity is well established in the

archaeological record (O’Donnell et al 2007). It has been suggested that the use of these

species as fuels in burnt mounds reflects the sites general location in marginal settings i.e.

between dry and wetland areas (ibid).


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3.1.3 Cremated Bone

The total weight of cremated bone recovered from pit F30 was 160.6g with the majority of the

material (144.6g) contained in the lower fill F29 (Appendix 8). The cremated bone was

moderately to severely fragmented, however a couple of large fragments were recovered. The

bone colour was white to pale grey in colour indicating that it had been previously exposed to

temperatures in excess of c. 600ºC. A number of fragments of bone from context F29 the

lower fill of pit F30 were identified as human. Based on this fact it is likely that all the

cremated bone from F30 was human. The identified fragments recovered consisted of bone

pieces from the skull, rib shaft and phalanx (toe bone). Fragments of long bone were also

present but it could not be determined which long bones were represented (ibid). The MNI

count for the material was determined as representing the remains of one human. The sex of

the remains was not determinable though it was likely that they were the remains of an adult

or adolescent (ibid).

3.1.4 Animal Bone

A small quantity of animal bone was recovered from fill F18 and F25 of ditch F19. The

material from fill F18 was regarded as low grade by the specialist and so was not examined

further (Appendix 4). Four fragments of bone from F25 were examined and were identified as

the partial remains of mandibular pig (Sus sp.) incisors (ibid). The remains although small

indicate that during the Middle Bronze Age period pigs formed part of the diet of the people

who occupied the site at Philpotstown 1.

3.2 Date and sequence

Neolithic activity in the vicinity of the site maybe represented by the recovery of three

Neolithic flint artefacts from the base of a curvilinear ditch F19 and pit F31. The features

which the flints were recovered from have been dated to the Middle Bronze Age period and

therefore the flints are likely to have been Neolithic artefacts reused and deposited during the

Middle Bronze Age period.

The charcoal and burnt stone rich pit F8 was the oldest dated feature identified during the

excavation. A radiocarbon date from maloideae charcoal from fill F7 of pit F8 has returned a

Middle Bronze Age date of 1608-1417 BC (Beta 247091) Appendix 5. Trough F17 which

contained similar charcoal and burnt stone inclusions as F8 is considered contemporary with

it.

The slot-trench structure F10 represents the remains of a Middle Bronze Age structure. A

radiocarbon date from maloideae charcoal recovered from the slot trench of the structure has


9

been dated to the Middle Bronze Age period 1386-1123 BC (Beta 247092) (Appendix 5).

This date establishes that the structure was contemporary with a number of the surrounding

archaeological features identified on Philpotstown 1 such as the curvilinear ditch and the

token cremation deposit.. It is not thought that the structure was occupied over a long term

period.

The curvilinear ditch F19 was also radiocarbon dated to the Middle Bronze Age period by

hazel charcoal recovered from its basal fill F18 to 1413-1133 BC (Beta 247093) (Appendix

5).

The token cremation deposit in the northern part of the site, following radiocarbon dating of

hazel charcoal from its lower fill F29 was dated to 1193-922 BC (Beta 247094) (Appendix 5).

This feature was the latest of the Bronze Age features identified on the site and relates to

activity at the end of the Middle Bronze Age period and the beginning of the Late Bronze Age

period.

Based on the four radiocarbon dates returned from features excavated on Philpotstown 1 there

is an overlap in the radiocarbon dates from three of the features. Dates from the slot trench

structure, the curvilinear ditch and the cremation deposit all overlap from 1193 – 1123 BC.

This may indicate that all three of these features were contemporary with each other and date

to this period. Based on this interpretation the charcoal and burnt stone rich pits F8 and F17

predate this activity by approximately 220 years and likely represents an earlier phase of

activity on the site.

During the post medieval – modern period a number of stone filled field drains were

constructed on the Philpotstown 1 site and one of these drains F22 truncated two of the

prehistoric features identified - the slot trench structure and the curvilinear ditch.

3.2.1 Contemporary / Comparative Archaeological Activity

Sixty-one sites along the M3 Scheme have produced evidence for burnt mound type activity.

The closest of these sites to Philpotstown 1 was located 300m south at Williamstown or Bawn

2 (A023/006). A charcoal and heat affected stone rich trough was identified here similar to F8

and F17 on Philpotstown 1. A radiocarbon date from this trough on Williamstown or Bawn 2

produced a date of 1431-1216 BC (Beta 247088) (Martin 2009). Although not precisely

contemporary with the date returned from the trough on Philpotstown 1, the higher end of the

date range from the Williamstown or Bawn 2 trough does overlap slightly with the date from

trough F8.


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Comparing the dates recovered from the other three features on Philpotstown 1 with the

features dated on Williamstown or Bawn 2 (the trough mentioned above and a large well pit

dated to 1379-1117 BC (QUB 7058) provides a better overlap of the radiocarbon date results

and indicates that activity towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age period and the

beginning of the Late Bronze Age period was occurring on both sites and was likely to be

contemporary. Based on the radiocarbon results and each sites close proximity to each other it

is tempting to suggest that the same group of people were active on both sites during the latter

stages of the Middle Bronze Age period and were likely settled at the Philpotstown 1 site.

Charcoal analysis from Philpotstown 1 indicates that hazel and maloideae species among

others were exploited as fuels (Appendix 8). This compares quite well with the charcoal

results from Williamstown or Bawn 2 (Martin 2009).

With regard to the cremated bone deposition at Philpotstown 1 a number of other nearby sites

along the M3 Scheme have also uncovered evidence of similar burial practices from the

Bronze Age period. At Ardsallagh 2 (A008/034) located 2.8km southwest, ten cremation

burials which formed a Bronze Age flat cemetery were identified (Clarke 2008). Notably

three of the 10 depositions at Ardsallagh 2 were associated with the remnants of four funerary

vessels. The remainder were deposited in shallow earth cut pits as at Philpotstown 1. The

dates of the cremation depositions at Ardsallagh 2 predate the Philpotstown 1 burial by at

least 400 years so are from an earlier phase of the Middle Bronze Age period. Although not

contemporary both sites indicate that the practise of cremation depositions was occurring

across this area during the Middle-Late Bronze Age period. It is not interpreted that the

cremation burial at Philpotstown 1 represented part of a larger flat cemetery burial area. It is

likely that the remains at Philpotstown 1 were of an individual likely associated with the

people who occupied the site during this period.

Cremation depositions were also identified along the M3 Scheme at Macetown 1 (A023/008),

Kennestown 2 (A023/002) and Ardsallagh 1 (A008/034) all within 2.5km of the Philpotstown

1 site. However the burials on these sites were dated to the Iron Age period and are at least

400 years more recent than the Philpotstown 1 deposit. Their presence indicates though that

this practise of depositing cremated human bone as part of a burial ritual continued in the

local area beyond the Later Bronze Age period.


11

4 CONCLUSIONS

Philpotstown 1 (A023/007), excavated 29 March – 5 May 2006 by Kevin Martin (ACS) as

part of the M3 Clonee–North of Kells Motorway Scheme on behalf of Meath County Council

NRDO and the NRA represents the site of a prehistoric settlement, ritual burial and burnt

mound type activity. The site at Philpotstown 1 contained evidence for Middle to Late Bronze

Age activity in the form of a rectangular slot-trench structure, two charcoal and heat affected

stone rich troughs, a curvilinear ditch and a single cremated bone deposition uncovered at the

northern extent of the site. The features are interpreted as being roughly contemporary

although the cremation deposit was likely to be the latest activity on the site. Four artefacts

were recovered from the site and included three worked flints and a loom weight. Activity on

the site may relate to contemporary dated activity on the nearby site of Williamstown or

Bawn 2 located 300m south of the site. During the post medieval – modern period a number

of stone field drains were constructed across the site and truncated both the slot trench

structure and curvilinear ditch feature.


12

5 REFERENCES Buckley, V 1990 Burnt offerings: International Contributions to Burnt Mound Archaeology,

Dublin, Wordwell.

Doody, M 2000. ‘Bronze Age Houses in Ireland’, in A. Desmond et al (eds), New agendas in

Irish Prehistory. Bray, 135-60.

Clarke, L & Carlin, N 2006a Life and Death in County Meath, Archaeology Ireland, Winter

2006 Edition.

Clarke, L & Carlin, N 2006b Life and Death in Ardsallgh, Co. Meath, Seanda, Issue 1.

Clarke, L 2008 Final Report on the Archaeological Excavations of Ardsallagh 1, Co. Meath

(A008/034) E3088. Unpublished report prepared for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd

on behalf of Meath County Council.

Gowen, M and Halpin, E 1992 ‘A Neolithic House at Newtown’, Archaeology Ireland Vol. 6,

No.2, 25–7.

Martin, K 2009 Final Report on the Archaeological Excavations of Williamstown or Bawn 2,

Co. Meath (A023/006) E3098. Unpublished report prepared for Archaeological Consultancy

Services Ltd on behalf of Meath County Council.

O’Connell, A 2004 Report on Archaeological Assessment at Testing Area 3, Williamstown or

Bawn and Philpotstown, Co. Meath, Licence Number: 04E0576. Unpublished report prepared

for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd.

O’Donnell, L, Grogan, E & Johnston, P, 2007 The Bronze Age landscapes of the Pipeline to

the West, an integrated archaeological and environmental assessment, Wicklow

O’Neill, J 2005 Killoran 8, in Gowen, M., O’Neill, J & Phillips, M. (eds), The Lisheen Mine

Archaeological Project 1996-8, 288-290. Dublin: Wordwell

O’ Neill, J 2000 ‘Just another fulachta fiadha story’, Archaeology Ireland 52 19.

O’ Kelly MJ 1954 ‘Excavations and experiments in ancient Irish cooking-places’, Journal of

the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 84, 105-55.


13

Quinn, B & Moore, D 2007 ‘Ale, brewing and fulacht fiadh’, Archaeology Ireland Vol.21,

No.3, 8-11.

Signed:

_________________________

Kevin Martin

May 2009


1

APPENDIX 1 Context Details

Philpotstown 1: A023/007

No Type Fill of/ Filled with

Strat above

Strat below Description Interpretation Group Artefacts Animal

bone Cremated bone Samples

1-3 used previously during topsoil metal detecting

4 sod N/A 6 5 loose, mid-brown, clayey silt with occasional assorted stones. 0.13m depth sod

5 topsoil N/A 6 N/A moderately compact, mid-brown, clayey silt with occasional stones. topsoil

6 subsoil N/A N/A 4, 5 compact, brownish-yellow, silty clay with moderate stones subsoil

7 fill 8 8 5 loose, dark-grey, silty clay with frequent charcoal flecks and angular and sub-angular stones (0.05m). 0.25m depth

fill of pit 8 #1 soil, charcoal

8 cut 7 6 7

sub-rectangular, northeast-southwest cut (2.19m x 0.83m x 0.25m) with rounded corners, a gradual-sharp break of slope, concave sides and a gradual break of slope leading to a flat base. Cuts 31

pit/trough

9 fill 10 10 5

compact, mid-grey (mottled with orange clay and brown iron oxidisation) silty clay with moderate angular stones (0.01m-0.09m) and occasional charcoal flecks. 5.65m x 0.85m x 0.25m

fill of slot-trench 10 S1 #6 soil,

charcoal

10 cut 9 6 9

rectangular, north-south cut (5.65m x 0.85m x 0.20m) with rounded corners, a sharp break of slope, vertical sides and a sharp break of slope leading to a flat base. Cut by drain 22

slot-trench S1

11 fill 12 12 5

compact, mid-grey (mottled with orange clay and brown iron oxidisation) silty clay with moderate angular stones (0.01m-0.10m) and occasional charcoal flecks. 2.20m x 1.10m x 0.20m

fill of trench 12 S1 #5- soil, charcoal


2

12 cut 11 6 11

curvilinear cut (2.20m north-south, 1.10m east-west x 0.35m) with rounded corners, a sharp break of slope, vertical sides and a sharp break of slope leading to a flat base. Cut by drain 22

interior slot-trench S1

13 fill 19 18 5 compact, mid-brown, clayey silt with occasional small, sub-rounded stones and charcoal flecks. 0.31m depth

upper fill of ditch 19

14 fill 22 22 5 loose, mid-greyish-brown, sandy clay with angular, large stones. 0.25m width x 0.40m depth

fill of stony drain 22

15 fill 26 26 5 loose, mid-brown, sandy clay with varying stones. 12m length x 0.30m width fill of drain 26

16 fill 17 17 5 moderately compact, dark-grey, silty clay with frequent sub-angular stones (0.03m-0.28m) and charcoal flecks. 1.00m x 1.48m x 0.28m

fill of pit/trough 17

#2, #3 soil, charcoal

17 cut 16 6 16

sub-rectangular, northeast-southwest cut (1.00m x 1.48m x 0.28m) with sharp corners, a sharp break of slope, vertical sides and a sharp break of slope leading to a flat base. Similar to 08

burnt pit/ trough

18 fill 19 19 13 moderately compact, blackish-dark-brown, clayey silt with moderate amount of stones and occasional charcoal flecks. 0.22m depth

primary fill of ditch 19 flint yes #7 soil,

charcoal

19 cut

13, 18, 23, 24, 25

6 18, 25

curvilinear, northeast-southwest cut (26m x 0.48m x 0.58m) with sharp corners, a gradual break of slope, concave sides and a gradual break of slope leading to an uneven base

possible prehistoric boundary ditch

20 fill 21 21 5

compact, mid-grey (mottled with orange clay) silty clay with occasional small angular stones and charcoal. 1.35m x 0.30m x 0.08m. Similar to fill 09

fill of slot-trench 21 S1

21 cut 20 6 20

linear, west-east cut (1.35m x 0.30m x 0.08m) with partly rounded corners, a sharp break of slope, concave sides and a gradual break of slope leading to an irregular base

possible part of house slot-trench construction

S1


3

22 cut 14 6 14

linear, northeast-southwest cut (40m x 0.25m x 0.40m) with a sharp break of slope, vertical sides and a gradual break of slope leading to a flat base. Cut by 19. Cuts 10, 12

modern stone drain

23 fill 19 24 5

compact, dark-grey mixed with yellow-grey, silty clay with occasional sub-rounded stones and moderate charcoal flecks. 0.92m width x 0.21m depth

upper fill of ditch 19

24 fill 19 25 23 compact, greyish-yellow, silty clay with occasional charcoal flecks. 0.89m width x 0.30m depth

fill of ditch 19

25 fill 19 19 24 compact, bluish-grey clay with occasional sub-rounded stones and charcoal flecks. 0.62m width x 0.39m depth

primary fill of ditch 19 stone yes

26 cut 15 6 15 linear, east-west cut (12m x 0.30m x 0.13m) with a sharp break of slope, vertical sides and a gradual break of slope leading to a flat base

modern stone drain

27 spread N/A 32 5

moderately compact, mid-yellowish-grey, silty clay with moderate angular, sub-angular, small stones and occasional charcoal flecks. 2.55m x 1.95m x 0.16m. Similar to 07

spread

28 fill 30 29 5 loose, mottled, yellowish-brownish-grey, silty clay with charcoal flecks and cremated bone fragments. 0.30m width x 0.05m depth

upper fill of pit 30 yes

#8, #9 soil, charcoal

29 fill 30 30 28 loose, dark-greyish-black, silty clay with moderate charcoal inclusions and cremated bone fragments. 0.55m width x 0.6m depth

fill of pit 30 yes #10, #11, #12 soil, charcoal

30 cut 28, 29 6 29

sub-circular cut (0.54m x 0.45m x 0.12m) with a sharp break of slope, concave sides and a gradual break of slope leading to a flat base

possible prehistoric cremation pit

31 cut 32, 33, 34 6 34

sub-oval, northeast-southwest cut (7.00m x 2.70m x 0.39m) with an imperceptible-gradual break of slope, moderately sloping sides and a gradual break of slope leading to a flat base. Cut by 8

pit / watering hole associated with 8

32 fill 31 34 33, 27

loose, mid-brownish-grey, silty clay with occasional charcoal flecks and frequent amount of small stones. 1.60m x 1.40m x 0.21m

fill of cut 31 flint


4

33 fill 31 32, 34 5

compact, mid-greyish-brown, silty clay with frequent decayed stones and occasional charcoal flecks. 3.95m x 2.50m x 0.25m. Similar to 32

fill of cut 31

34 fill 31 31 32, 33

compact, dark-grey clay marl with occasional charcoal flecks and decayed stones fill of cut 31


1

APPENDIX 2 Finds List

Finds No Description A023/007:18:1 Convex end scraper (Appendix 7) A023/007:18:2 Burnt flake (Appendix 7) A023/007:25:1 Loom weight (Appendix 6) A023/007:32:1 Retouched flint fragment (Appendix

7)


1

APPENDIX 3 Sample List

Sample No Context No Results 1 7 5g charcoal 6 9 3g charcoal 5 11 Nothing 2 16 Nothing 7 18 4g charcoal 6 9 small charcoal flecks, slag in residue 8&9 28 16g cremated bone 12 29 29g cremated bone, 13g charcoal 10&11 29 46g cremated bone


1

APPENDIX 4 Faunal Remains: Rachel Sloane

04_01, M3 Clonee to North of Kells Road Scheme

Analysis of mammalian bone remains from Contract 3 Philpotstown 1, Co. Meath

(A023/007)

16th January 2008

Rachel Sloane

04_01, Contract 3 Philpotstown 1 (A023/007), results of mammal bone analysis: 1. Introduction

Resolution phase archaeological works took place at the site of Philpotstown 1, Co. Meath,

located within Contract 3 of the proposed M3 Clonee to North of Kells Road Scheme.

Excavation commenced on 29th March 2006 and was completed on 5th May 2006 (Ginn pers.

comm.). The archaeological features identified include two pits or troughs rich in charcoal, a

spread, a curvilinear feature interpreted as representing a boundary or some similar feature

and a rectangular shaped structure formed by a slot-trench (Ibid).

2. Findings

A very small quantity of faunal bone remains from F18 and F25 were presented for analysis.

This material was thoroughly inspected and four fragments of faunal teeth were classified as

‘recordable’. The other material was determined as ‘low-grade1 i.e. of insignificant

information value and therefore not recorded. The four ‘recordable’ specimens were retrieved

from F25, the largest fill of the curvilinear feature. This was a very well compacted bluish

grey clay containing occasional sub-rounded stones and some charcoal.

All four fragments were identified as the partial remains of mandibular pig (Sus sp.) incisors.

Although fragmented, they were observed as being in a good state of preservation. No further

zooarchaeological evidence was ascertained.

1 A detailed description of the applied methodology including definition of ‘low-grade’ specimens has been outlined by the current author in the analysis report for Roestown 2 mammalian bone remains, recovered from archaeological excavation carried out as part of the M3 Clonee-North of Kells Road Scheme.


2

3. Recommendations

This material is of extremely limited value in terms of zooarchaeological research. Analysis

beyond identification of species and element was not possible. As it forms part of a much

greater body of mammalian bone assemblages, it might be desirable to store it with the

significant collections retrieved from other archaeological excavations along the route of the

M3. In this context it could be included for permanent storage at National Museum of

Ireland. On its own however, the Philpotstown 1 material is not of any great significance.


1

APPENDIX 5 Radiocarbon Dates

Context Sample No Material Species

id/Weight Lab Lab Code Date Type Calibrated Date Conventional Date

(BP) Ox Cal Date 13C/12C

F7, fill of pit/trough F8 1 Charcoal Maloideae

(270mg) Beta 247091 AMS(Std)

1520-1440 BC one sigma 1600-1570 and 1540-1420 BC two sigma

3220±40 1608-1417 BC -25.9

F9, fill of slot trench F10 6 Charcoal

Maloideae (147mg)

Beta 247092 AMS(Std) 1310-1200 BC one sigma and 1380-1120 BC two sigma

3000±40 1386-1123 BC N/A

F18, fill of curvilinear ditch F19

7 Charcoal Hazel (140mg) Beta 247093 AMS(Std) 1380-1260 BC one sigma and 1410-1200 BC two sigma

3040±40 1413-1133 BC -24.2

F29, lower fill of cremation pit F30 10 Charcoal Hazel (445mg) Beta 247094 AMS(Std)

1120-1000 BC one sigma and 1190-1140 and 1140-920 BC two sigma

2870±40 1193-922 BC -25.3


1

APPENDIX 6 Stone Tool Analysis: Ann Carey

Stone tools, M3, Philpotstown 1

One stone from Philpotstown 1 was examined as part of stone tool specialist

analysis. It comprised a loom weight.

Loom Weights

Loom weights and spindle whorls provide the predominant evidence for

weaving and textile production in the archaeological record. Though some

examples are broadly similar, in that both loom weights and whorls can be flat

discs with a central perforation, they have different functions and can vary

widely in appearance. Loom weights are an essential part of a warp-weighted

loom, which is a vertical loom with an upper beam where the warp, or the

lengthwise yarn, is held taunt by weights. Loom weights can be formed from

stone or terracotta and they can range from finely made discs to misshapen

grooved lumps. There is consequently a low degree of uniformity and a lack of

smoothness. In contrast a spindle whorl is part of a drop spindle, where the

whorl, or disc, has a shaft inserted, and which was the earliest device used for

producing a continuous thread. This process was ultimately undertaken by the

later spinning wheel. Loom weights have been in use since the Neolithic and

are poor chronological indicators.

Table: Loom weight Philpotstown 1 A023/007:25:1 Loom weight. Stone disc, deliberately shaped though exhibiting little wear, though the edges are rounded and smooth. Dimensions: Diameter: 80.5mm, Th 20mm.

APPENDIX 7 Lithics Analysis: Dr Farina Sternke

Lithics Finds Report for E3099 Philpotstown 1, Co. Meath

M3 Road Scheme

Farina Sternke

MA, PhD

E3099 Philpotstown 1 Lithics Finds Report

2

Contents List of Tables 3 Introduction 4 Methodology 4 Quantification 4 Provenance 4 Condition 4 Technology/Morphology 4 Dating 5 Conservation 6 Conclusion 6

Recommendations for Illustration 6

Bibliography 6


3

List of Tables Table 1 Composition of the lithic assemblage from Philpotstown 1 (E3099) 6


4

Introduction Three lithic finds from the archaeological investigations of a prehistoric site at Philpotstown 1, Co. Meath were presented for analysis (Table 1). The finds are associated with the remains of a possible rectangular house, a ditch and a pit.

Methodology All lithic artefacts are examined visually and catalogued using Microsoft Excel. The following details are recorded for each artefact which measures at least 2 cm in length or width: context information, raw material type, artefact type, the presence of cortex, artefact condition, length, with and thickness measurements, fragmentation and the type of retouch (where applicable). The technological criteria recorded are based on the terminology and technology presented in Inizan et al. 1999. The general typological and morphological classifications are based on Woodman et al. 2006. Struck lithics smaller than 2 cm are classed as debitage and not analysed further. The same is done with natural chunks.

Quantification The lithics are three worked flints. All three artefacts are larger than 2 cm in length and width and were therefore recorded in detail. Provenance The lithics were recovered from a ditch fill (c. 18) and a pit fill (c. 32).

Condition: The lithics survive in patinated and complete (A023/007:18:1 and A023/007:32:1) and burnt and incomplete (A023/007:18:2) condition (Table 1). One artefact (A023/007:32:1) bears the remnants of cortex. Technology/Morphology: The assemblage comprises one flake and two retouched artefacts (Table 1).

FLAKE Artefact A023/007:18:2 is a burnt flake. It was produced on a single platform core and measures 24 mm long, 23 mm wide and 7 mm thick.

6

Find

No.

Cont

ext

Mat

eria

l

Type

Corte

x

Cond

ition

Leng

th (m

m)

Wid

th (m

m)

Thic

kn. (

mm

)

Com

plet

e

Reto

uch

A023/007:18:1 18 Flint Retouched Artefact No Patinated 44 24 7 Yes distal direct abrupt, left and right edge direct semiabruptA023/007:18:2 18 Flint Flake No Burnt 24 23 7 No NoA023/007:32:1 32 Flint Retouched Artefact Yes Patinated 27 21 15 Yes possibly distal and left edge direct abrupt

Table 1 Composition of the Lithic Assemblage from Philpotstown 1 (E3099)

RETOUCHED ARTEFACTS Artefact A023/007:18:1 is a large classic convex end scraper. It measures 44 mm in length, 24 mm in width and 7 mm in thickness. It displays use-wear on its retouched distal end.

Artefact A023/007:32:1 is a miscellaneous retouched flaked. It was produced on a rolled split pebble half and is retouched on its distal and left edge. This artefact measures 27 mm long, 21 mm wide and 15 mm thick and may have been used as a convex end scraper.

Dating: The assemblage from Philpotstown 1 is typologically diagnostic. The large classic convex end scraper dates to the Neolithic period, almost certainly to the first half of that period (Woodman et al. 2006). The single platform technology used for the production of this small assemblage supports this dating.

6

Conservation Lithics do not require specific conservation, but should be stored in a dry, stable environment. Preferably, each lithic should be bagged separately and contact with other lithics should be avoided, so as to prevent damage and breakage, in particular edge damage which could later be misinterpreted as retouch. Larger and heavier items are best kept in individual boxes to avoid crushing of smaller assemblage pieces. Conclusion The lithic finds from the archaeological investigations at Philpotstown 1, Co. Meath are a flint flake and two convex end scrapers. The assemblage is typologically and technologically diagnostic and dates to the first half of the Neolithic period. The finds represent waste from domestic activities carried out at the site. Since debitage is not represented in the assemblage, flintknapping may have taken place elsewhere at the site or the lithics were brought to the site from the coast, perhaps. This site makes a minor contribution to the evidence for Neolithic settlement in Co. Meath.

Recommendations for Illustration

• Convex End Scraper (A023/007:18:1)

Bibliography

Inizan, M.-L., M. Reduron-Ballinger, H. Roche and J. Tixier, 1999. Technology and Terminology of Knapped Stone 5. CREP, Nanterre.

Woodman, P. C., Finlay, N. and E. Anderson, 2006. The Archaeology of a Collection: The Keiller-Knowles Collection of the National Museum of Ireland. National Museum of Ireland Monograph Series 2. Wordwell, Bray.


1

APPENDIX 8 Environmental Analysis: Archaeological Services, University of Durham

Philpotstown 1, M3 Motorway Project, Co Meath, Ireland plant macrofossil, charcoal and cremated bone analysis on behalf of Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd

Report 2065 December 2008

Archaeological Services

Durham University South Road

Durham DH1 3LE Tel: 0191 334 1121 Fax: 0191 334 1126

[email protected] www.durham.ac.uk/archaeological.services


2

Philpotstown 1, M3 Motorway Project, Co Meath, Ireland

plant macrofossil, charcoal and cremated bone analysis

Report 2065 December 2008

Archaeological Services Durham University

on behalf of

Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd Unit 21 Boyne Business Park, Greenhills, Drogheda, Co. Louth, Ireland

Contents

1. Summary . . . . . 1

2. Project background . . . 2

3. Plant macrofossil analysis . . . 2

4. Charcoal analysis . . . . 4

5. Cremated bone analysis . . . 7

6. Sources . . . . . 8

Appendix 1 – cremated bone data . . 10

© Archaeological Services 2008

1

1. Summary The project

1.1 An excavation of a Bronze Age site was undertaken by Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd at Philpotstown 1, Co Meath, Ireland. This report presents the results of plant macrofossil, charcoal and cremated bone analysis of pit fills (contexts 7 and 16), the fill of a possible slot trench (context 9), the fill of a linear feature (context 18), and the fills of a cremation pit (contexts 28 and 29).

Results

1.2 Charred plant macrofossils were low in number, and were only present in the lower fill of the cremation pit. These included false oat-grass tubers and a ribwort plantain seed, which may reflect materials used for kindling on the funeral pyre. A charred barley grain was also recorded, which could represent the remains of a ritual food offering.

1.3 The results of the charcoal analysis suggest that mixed deciduous woodland

was growing near the site. Oak appears to have been the main fuel used on the cremation pyre, while ash may have been used as a structural timber. If the pits relate to burnt mound activities, the main fuels were ash, alder and hazel.

1.4 Around 160g of fully oxidised cremated bone was recovered from the

cremation pit. Despite the extent of fragmentation, a few fragments of human bone were identified amongst the bone from the lower fill. These remains were probably those of an adult or adolescent, but it was not possible to determine age or sex. This probably represents the remains of a token cremation burial.

2

2. Project background Location and background

2.1 An excavation of a possible burnt mound was undertaken by Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd at Philpotstown 1, Co Meath, Ireland (NGR 286602 264220). Features on the site included charcoal-rich pits or troughs, a spread, a curvilinear feature, a possible cremation pit and a rectangular-shaped structure which may represent a house-type dwelling. Radiocarbon analysis indicated a Bronze Age date for the site. This report presents the results of plant macrofossil, charcoal and cremated bone analysis of pit fills (contexts 7 and 16), the fill of a possible slot trench (context 9), the fill of a linear feature (context 18), and the fills of the possible cremation pit (contexts 28 and 29).

Objective

2.2 The objective was to analyse the plant macrofossils, charcoal, and cremated bone from the site, in order to provide information about the diet, land use and local environment.

Dates

2.3 Samples were received by Archaeological Services Durham University in April 2008. Analysis and report preparation was conducted between April – December 2008.

Personnel

2.4 Sample processing was undertaken by Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd. The residues were sorted by Mr Lorne Elliott. Plant macrofossil analysis, charcoal analysis and report preparation were carried out by Dr Charlotte O’Brien. Cremated bone analysis was by Dr Anwen Caffell.

Archive

2.5 The licence number is A023/007. The charcoal, flots and bone samples are currently held at the Environmental Laboratory at Archaeological Services Durham University awaiting collection or return.

3. Plant macrofossil analysis

Methods 3.1 The residues were examined for plant remains, shells, bones, pottery sherds

and metalworking debris. The dry flots were scanned at up to x60 magnification using a Leica MZ7.5 stereomicroscope for charred and waterlogged plant remains. Identification of these was undertaken by comparison with modern reference material held in the Environmental Laboratory at Archaeological Services Durham University. Plant taxonomic nomenclature follows Stace (1997).

Results 3.2 Varying quantities of charcoal were present in all of the contexts, and calcined

bone was recovered from the residues of the cremation pit fills (contexts 28 and 29). Burnt stones were recorded in contexts (7), (9), (16) and (18) and a

3

few small pieces of flint were present in context (18). Insect fragments and roots were occasionally recorded, but these are likely to be later intrusive material. Charred plant macrofossils were low in number and only occurred in the lower fill of the cremation pit (context 29). These included a barley grain, a ribwort plantain seed, 2 false oat-grass tubers, and 3 indeterminate tubers. The results of the plant macrofossil analysis are presented in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Plant macrofossils and charcoal from Philpotstown 1

Context 7 9 16 18 28 29

Sample 1 6 2 7 8, 9 10, 11, 12

Feature Pit Slot trench Pit/trough Linear Cremation pit Cremation pit

Material available for radiocarbon dating

Volume of flot (ml) 20 200 10 5 10 100

Residue matrix (relative abundance)

Bone (calcined) - - - - 2 3

Burnt stones 2 2 4 1 - -

Charcoal 2 1 3 1 2 4

Flint (total number) - - - 2 - -

Flot matrix (relative abundance)

Charcoal 1 2 2 2 2 4

Insect fragment - 1 - - - -

Roots (modern) 1 4 2 2 2 1

Charcoal (g/number of fragments)

Total charcoal (g) 2.846 5.409 12.701 6.885 10.152 62.593

Percentage of sample analysed 100 100 100 100 100 32

Total charcoal analysed >4mm (g) 2.846 4.198 12.701 6.885 10.152 20.043

Number of analysed charcoal fragments >4mm 32 22 130 45 56 136

Alnus glutinosa (Alder) - - 5.893 (59F) 1.304 (9F) - -

Corylus avellana (Hazel) 0.763 (11F) - - 0.140 (1F) - 0.445 (1F)

Corylus/Alnus (Hazel/Alder) - 0.094 (1F) - - - -

Fraxinus excelsior (Ash) 0.102 (2F) 3.346 (15F) 1.838 (20F) 2.186 (12F) 0.200 (1F) -

Maloideae (Hawthorn, whitebeams, apple, pear) 0.348 (2F) 0.147 (1F) 0.469 (2F) 0.838 (5F) - -

Prunus spp (Cherries) 0.370 (4F) - - 0.134 (1F) - -

Quercus sp (Oak) - - - - 6.659 (39F) 19.598 (135F)

Ulmus sp (Elm) 0.209 (2F) - - - 0.096 (1F) -

Ring porous 0.063 (1F) 0.474 (4F) 0.598 (8F) 0.098 (1F) 2.586 (14F) -

Unidentified >4mm fraction 0.991 (10F) 0.137 (1F) 3.903 (41F) 2.185 (16F) 0.611 (1F) -

Unidentified <4mm fraction - 1.211 - - - -

Charred remains (total number)

(c) Hordeum spp (Barley species) grain - - - - - 1 (g) Arrhenatherum elatius ssp bulbosum (False Oat-grass) tuber - - - - - 2

(g) Plantago lanceolata (Ribwort Plantain) seed - - - - - 1

(x) Tuber (indeterminate) tuber - - - - - 3

[c-cultivated plant; g-grassland; x-wide niche]. F = number of charcoal fragments. Relative abundance is based on a scale from 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest)

Discussion

3.3 A few charred false oat-grass tubers were recorded in the lower fill of the cremation pit (context 29) (Figure 3.1). The tubers of this grass are often recorded on prehistoric sites in Britain (Archaeological Services 2007, 2008a; Godwin 1975; Robinson 1988), and recent records in Ireland include Derryvorrigan, Co Laois (Archaeological Services 2008b), Lismullin 1 and Raynestown 1, Co Meath (Archaeological Services 2008cd), and Bay 1+2, Tyrrellstown, Co Dublin (Archaeological Services 2008ef). They occur

4

frequently in cremations, particularly those dating to the Bronze Age (Robinson 1988), where it has been suggested that this grass was used for kindling for the funeral pyre, as the dry, dead stems remain upstanding for much of the year (ibid.). It is believed that false oat-grass tubers also provided a source of food (Godwin 1975; Huntley 1994), and therefore, in the context of a cremation, the charred tubers may represent ritual food offerings placed on the pyre. A charred ribwort plantain seed was also recorded in this context. This weed grows in a variety of habitats, including meadows, pastures and upland grassland (Preston et al. 2002) and may have been collected with the false oat-grass, either incidentally or for use as kindling.

Figure 3.1: A charred false oat-grass tuber 3.4 A charred barley grain was also recorded in the lower fill of the cremation pit

(context 29), which may have been an additional component of a food offering. Studies indicate that barley became the dominant crop used in Ireland during the mid-late Bronze Age and Iron Age (Johnston 2007; Monk 1986). It has been suggested that barley may have held a ritual significance in prehistory, as a preponderance of barley grains was noted in recent studies of Bronze Age cremation burials along the route of the gas pipeline to the west of Ireland (ibid.).

4. Charcoal analysis Methods

4.1 Charcoal was collected from the residues and flots and added to pre-sorted material. Following Boardman (1995), identifications were made on fragments >4mm. At least 100 fragments were identified from each context, where available. The transverse, radial and tangential sections were examined at up to x600 magnification using a Leica DMLM microscope. Identifications

5

were assisted by the descriptions of Hather (2000) and Schweingruber (1978), and modern reference material held in the Environmental Laboratory at Archaeological Services Durham University. A single entity of charcoal from a short-lived tree species, was provided for radiocarbon dating from each of contexts (7), (9), (16), (18) and (29).

Results 4.2 A small amount of charcoal was present in pit fill (7), which comprised hazel,

ash, elm, cherries (blackthorn, wild cherry or bird cherry) and Maloideae (hawthorn, whitebeams, apple or pear). Ash was predominant in context (9), the fill of a slot trench, while ash and alder were the main charcoal species in context (16), a pit/trough fill, and context (18), the fill of a linear feature. The cremation pit fills (contexts 28 and 29) were dominated by oak charcoal, with small amounts of hazel, elm and ash also recorded. The results of the charcoal analysis are presented in Table 3.1 and Figure 4.1.

0

5

10

15

20

25

Pit (7) Slot trench(9)

Pit/trough(16)

Linear (18) CremationPit (28)

CremationPit (29)

Context

Cha

rcoa

l (g)

Indet. >4mmRing porousElmOakCherriesMaloideaeAshHazel/AlderHazelAlder

Figure 4.1: Proportions of identified charcoal from Philpotstown 1

6

Discussion 4.3 If the wood was collected locally, the results of the charcoal analysis suggest

that the landscape included mixed deciduous woodland. This comprised a high canopy of ash, oak and elm, with hazel, cherries and Maloideae either growing in the understorey or by the woodland margins. Alder would have favoured wetland areas, for example along riverbanks or in carr vegetation.

4.4 It has been suggested that the pits on the site may relate to burnt mound

activity, in which case the charcoal in the fills (context 7 and 16) may reflect the fuels used for this purpose. The abundance of alder, ash and hazel is broadly in line with a recent study of charcoal from Bronze Age sites in central and western Ireland, which has provided evidence that alder, ash, hazel and oak were the main trees selected for fuel on burnt mound sites (O’Donnell 2007). It has been suggested that this choice of fuel reflects the marginal situation of most burnt mounds, between wet and dryland areas (ibid.). This pattern of fuel selection has been noted at other burnt mound sites along the route of the M3 motorway, for example at Drumbaragh 3 and Gainstown 1 (Archaeological Services 2008gh). Maloideae was present in both pit fills, which may indicate that it was also used for fuel at Philpotstown 1. Alder, ash and Maloideae dominated the charcoal assemblage in context (18), which may indicate that the fill of the linear feature also contained fuel relating to burnt mound activity on the site.

4.5 The charcoal was generally in a poor condition, with many fragments being

orange-stained and partially mineralised. This prevented some of the >4mm fragments from being identified. This is a common phenomenon of features associated with burnt mounds, as the waterlogged conditions can result in the charcoal incorporating minerals such as calcium and iron, which hinders identification (Stuijts 2007).

4.6 The charcoal in the pit and linear fills was too small to be differentiated

between timber (stemwood) and branchwood (roundwood), however in the fill of the slot trench (context 9), the charcoal was dominated by ash timber fragments. This may represent the remains of a burnt structure, as ash provided an important source of structural timbers in prehistory (Stuijts 2007).

4.7 The cremation pit fills (contexts 28 and 29) were dominated by oak timber

fragments, and the presence of tyloses points to the use of oak heartwood. This indicates that mature oak trees were felled, and are likely to have formed the main component of the funeral pyre. This is unsurprising, as studies suggest that oak was the main wood used in prehistoric cremations, and was probably chosen for its ability to achieve the high temperatures required for the cremation process (O’Donnell 2007). A single fragment of hazel was present in context (29) and may have been used for kindling. Small quantities of elm and ash were recorded in context (28), which may also have been used for kindling or additional fuel on the pyre.

7

5. Cremated bone analysis Methods

5.1 Cremated bone was recovered from the upper and lower fills of a presumed cremation pit. The bone from each sample was passed through a nest of sieves, with mesh sizes of 10mm, 5mm, and 2mm (McKinley 2004). Each fraction was weighed and the largest fragment of bone was measured.

Results and interpretation

5.2 Summary data is presented in Table 5.1, and the fraction weights and fragment size data are given in Table 5.2.

5.3 The total weight of cremated bone from pit (30) was 160.6g, but the bulk of

this material (144.6g) was derived from the lower fill (context 29; Table 5.1). The amount of bone falls well short of the c. 1000-2500g recorded for modern cremations (McKinley 1993), but a token selection of remains from the pyre may have been collected for burial in archaeological contexts (McKinley 2000). It is possible that this deposit represents such a token cremation burial.

5.4 The bone from both the fills tended to be moderately to severely fragmented,

with the bulk of the material in the middle and smallest sieved fractions (Table 5.2). Less than 20% of the bone in both contexts was in the largest sieved fraction. However, a couple of large fragments were present, particularly in the lower fill where the largest fragment measured 70.8mm (Table 5.2).

Table 5.1: Summary of cremated remains

Context Context Detail Bone Colour Species Weight (g)

28 Upper fill of cremation pit (30) White Unknown 16.0 29 Lower fill of cremation pit (30) White/ pale grey Human 144.6

5.5 The bone was white to pale grey in colour suggesting exposure to

temperatures in excess of c. 600ºC with a plentiful supply of oxygen (McKinley 2004).

5.6 The fragments were examined with a view to identification, and a small

number of definite fragments of human bone were present in the lower fill. Unfortunately, none of the bone from the upper fill could be identified to species, but it seems likely that this bone was also human.

Table 5.2: Fraction weights and fragment size

Fraction Weights Total Weight >10mm 5-10mm 2-5mm

Max. Frag Size Context

g g % g % g % mm 28 16.0 2.5 15.6 8.6 53.8 4.9 30.6 33.4 29 144.6 25.0 17.3 48.4 33.5 71.2 49.2 70.8

8

The Human Bone 5.7 The weight of identified bone for context (29) is given in Table 5.3, with a full

catalogue provided in Appendix 1. Only a small proportion of bone (3.9%) from context (29) was identifiable, which reflects the generally small size of the fragments. The majority of the identifiable fragments were from the skull, and included part of the left zygoma (the area of the cheekbone bordering the orbit), and fragments of cranial vault. Since the cranial vault is very distinctive and easily recognisable even when severely fragmented it often forms a large proportion of identified bone fragments in cremated remains (McKinley 1994). A couple of small fragments of probable rib shaft were present, as well as the distal end of a proximal or intermediate phalanx, probably from the foot (toe bone). Fragments of long bone were also present, and weighed 19.2g; unfortunately it was not possible to determine from which bone(s) these came.

Table 5.3: Weight of identifiable bone fragments

Skull Axial Upper Limb Lower Limb Total Context g % g % g % g % g %

29 5.2 91.2 0.3 5.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 3.5 5.7 3.9 5.8 There was no duplication of bone elements or parts of bone elements, meaning

that the minimum number of individuals that could be identified was one. Given the size of the fragments, it seems likely that these remains were those of an adult or adolescent. Unfortunately, it was not possible to provide a more precise age estimation, or to determine the sex of the individual.

6. Sources

Archaeological Services 2007 Streethouse Farm, Loftus, Cleveland; plant macrofossil analyis, unpublished report 1613, for Mr Steve Sherlock, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2008a Wheatley Hill to Bowburn; full analysis, unpublished report 1861, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2008b Derryvorrigan 1, Co Laois, Ireland; environmental analysis, unpublished report 1888, for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2008c Lismullin 1, Co Meath, Ireland; plant macrofossil, charcoal and cremated bone analysis, unpublished report 1967, for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2008d Raynestown 1, Co Meath, Ireland; plant macrofossil, charcoal and bone analysis, unpublished report 1941, for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd, Archaeological Services Durham University

9

Archaeological Services 2008e Bay 1, Tyrrellstown, Co Dublin, Ireland; plant macrofossil, charcoal and cremated bone analysis, unpublished report 2103, for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2008f Bay 2, Tyrrellstown, Co Dublin, Ireland; plant macrofossil, charcoal and cremated bone analysis, unpublished report 2104, for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2008g Drumbaragh 3, Co Meath, Ireland; plant macrofossil, charcoal and faunal remains analysis, unpublished report 2093, for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2008h Gainstown 1, Co Meath, Ireland; charcoal analysis, unpublished report 2060, for Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd, Archaeological Services Durham University Boardman, S J, 1995 Charcoal and charred macrofossils, in K, Branigan & P, Foster (eds) Barra: archaeological research on Ben Tangaval, Sheffield: SEARCH Volume 1, 149-157 Godwin, H, 1975 The history of the British flora, 2nd Edition Hather, J G, 2000 The identification of the Northern European Woods: a guide for archaeologists and conservators, London Huntley, J P, 1994 A1 Walshford-Dishforth (WD93), The plant remains, Part II: Fields 88-105, Archive report to Northern Archaeological Associates, Barnard Castle, Durham Johnston, P, 2007 Analysis of carbonised plant remains, in Grogan, E, O’Donnell, L, & Johnston, P, The Bronze Age landscapes of the Pipeline to the West, an integrated archaeological and environmental assessment, Wicklow McKinley, J I, 1993 Bone Fragment Size and Weights of Bone from Modern British Cremations and the Implications for the Interpretation of Archaeological Cremations, Int J Osteoarchaeol 3, 283-287 McKinley, J I, 1994 The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Spong Hill, North Elmham. Part VIII: The Cremations, East Anglian Archaeology Report No 69, Dereham

McKinley, J I, 2000 Phoenix Rising: Aspects of Cremation in Roman Britain, in J Pearce, M Millett & M Struck (eds) Burial, Society and Context in the Roman World, 38-44, Oxford

10

McKinley, J I, 2004 Compiling a Skeletal Inventory: Cremated Human Bone, in M Brickley & J I McKinley (eds) Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains, 9-13, Southampton and Reading Monk, MA, 1986 Evidence from macroscopic plant remains for crop husbandry in prehistoric and early historic Ireland, Journal of Irish Archaeology, 3, 31-36 O’Donnell, L, 2007 Charcoal and wood, in Grogan, E, O’Donnell, L, & Johnston, P, The Bronze Age landscapes of the Pipeline to the West, an integrated archaeological and environmental assessment, Wicklow Preston, C D, Pearman, D A, & Dines, T D, 2002 New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora, Oxford Robinson, M, 1988 The significance of the tubers of Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. from Site 4, cremation 15/11, in: G Lambrick, (ed) The Rollright Stones: Megaliths, monuments and settlement in the prehistoric landscape, English Heritage Archaeological Report 6 Schweingruber, FH, 1978 Microscopic wood anatomy, Birmensdorf Stace, C, 1997 New Flora of the British Isles, 2nd Edition, Cambridge Stuijts, I, 2007 Wood and Charcoal Research in Ireland, in Murphy, EM & Whitehouse, NJ (eds), Environmental Archaeology in Ireland, Oxford

Appendix 1

Context 29 Skull Left zygoma (frontal process); vault fragments (x4)

Axial Rib shaft fragments? (x3)

Upper Limb -

Lower Limb Distal end of a proximal/ intermediate foot phalanx? (probably proximal)

Unidentified long bone shaft fragments (x16), 19.2g

APPENDIX 9 Bronze Age Houses: Neil Carlin

M3 Research Report on Bronze Age Houses in

Ireland

By Neil Carlin

Archaeological Consultancy Services

04/04/06

SUMMARY In this Research Report, I attempt to examine and detail the characteristics of Irish Bronze Age roundhouses. Much of this work is based upon the results of unpublished excavations and the findings have been limited by the restricted nature of information from these sites. The location and landscape setting of houses & settlements is discussed. The various forms of settlements on which these houses are found are outlined. An exposition of attempts to create a hierarchical model of these settlement types is given. Previous studies of Bronze Age structures are reviewed in order to outline what was known prior to commencing this study. The Main characteristics of Bronze Age roundhouse as revealed by my own brief survey are discussed. Aspects such as shape and size, entrances, internal features, associated artefacts, internal divisions, evidence of structural repairs and the construction of buildings in the same area are all examined. The issue of the occurrence of structured deposits in the form of foundation and closing deposits is discussed. Commonly occurring external features and sites that are often found in close proximity to structures are detailed. A review is undertaken of the evidence from recent excavations for the materials that formed the superstructure of these houses. Recurrent structural forms are identified and categorised into groups in order to create a typology of common house-types. The essential aspects of each of these types are outlined and where possible their date range is given and chronologically diagnostic features are highlighted.


2

Bronze Age houses are being found with an ever-increasing frequency, but this data

has not been converted into Knowledge. Until recently, Bronze Age houses and

settlements had been relatively scarce, in contrast to the numbers of metal objects that

have been found and thus, Irish Bronze Age studies have traditionally concentrated on

artefact typologies and metalwork. The upsurge in development led excavations of

Bronze Age habitations has provided the opportunity to achieve a much greater

understanding of settlement at this time. Attempts to synthesise this vast reserve of

new data have not been forthcoming and thus, our textbooks have become extremely

outdated and our knowledge of Bronze Age settlement has not advanced to the level

that it should have. (With the exception of the North Munster Project (Grogan 2006)),

Our understanding of the wider landscape setting and interrelationship of sites such as

hoards, barrows, burnt mounds and settlements has not been advanced.

In light of this, it has been necessary to undertake a small-scale study of primary

sources that synthesizes the results of recent excavations. The success of any such

project is hampered greatly by the paucity of published accounts of the findings from

relevant sites.

This paper undertakes a survey of the new data that has arisen from these recent

excavations in an attempt to decipher what is now known about Bronze Age round

houses in Ireland. The identification of the major characteristics of these structures

should facilitate the recognition of these in the course of excavating possible

roundhouses on the M3 project. It is hoped that the findings from these excavations

can be tailored to address questions raised by this study and serve to support or reject

suggested hypotheses.

In this research report, it is considered that the Early Bronze Age dates from 2500-

1700 BC, the Middle Bronze Age lasted from 1700-1200 BC and the Late Bronze

Age dates to 1200-650.


3

LOCATION, LANDSCAPE SETTING OF HOUSES & SETTLEMENTS

The locations of Bronze Age settlements are thought to be very diverse i.e. hillforts,

wetland sites, lowland sites, upland sites, temporary habitations (Waddell 1998, 205).

Both low-lying and upland areas seem to have been exploited to a greater degree than

had previously occurred during the Neolithic (Cooney & Grogan 1994, 105).

O’Sullivan (1998, 71) suggests that a combination of “high population pressure,

social instability, increasing growth of blanket bog and perhaps even climactic

deterioration caused new low-lying lands, particularly wetlands, to be taken in for

farming”. Despite this expansion expansion, a high degree of uniformity is detectable

in the location of settlements. Land quality, proximity to fresh water and timber for

building and for a heat source, appropriate stone resources and the suitability of the

local topography in terms of farmability and accessibility would all have been

important factors that influenced prehistoric peoples choices regarding location of

settlement Grogan (1996, 48).

Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age settlements are usually located on well-

drained thin soils that were suitable for arable agriculture (O’Sullivan 1998, 70).

Routeways (rivers, fording points, etc) are thought to have been popular areas for

settlement, as they would have facilitated trade and communication (Grogan 2006b,

27). The ridges along river valley sides were extensively exploited as prime locations

for settlement while the river valleys were often utilised for burial sites (Cooney &

Grogan 1999, 103; Grogan 2006). Areas of dryland in close proximity to lakes were

heavily exploited, this is demonstrated by sites such as Townparks, Co. Antrim

(Ballin Smith 2003, 16), which was located just east of Lough Neagh on a former

flood plain and Caltragh, Co. Sligo which was situated on the southern slopes of a

valley beside a lakeshore. A study of Early Bronze Age settlement in Leinster

revealed that the site setting for habitations in this period shares many similarities

with that of the Neolithic. There was a clear preference for coastal, riverine and

lacustrine locations and south-facing slopes with well-drained soils in proximity

(Carlin 2005). Sites appear to have been situated in order to exploit the maximum

number of biospheres possible. Grogan (1996, 48) stresses the importance of social

factors such as proximity to relatives and allies as well as access to sites of ceremonial


4

and religious importance. This latter point may be of particular relevance in

considering the location of settlements within the Tara landscape.

ENCLOSED SETTLEMENTS & SETTLEMENT TYPES

Bronze Age habitation sites may take various forms; they range from enclosed to

open settlements, and from isolated houses to aggregated and nucleated settlements. It

is important to note that isolated and unenclosed settlements on sites where the area of

excavation is restricted, may in fact be part of a greater settlement complex that exists

belong the limits of excavation.

Unenclosed settlement sites from the Early Bronze Age include the structures at Ross

Island, Co. Kerry, Meadowlands, Co. Down and Ahanagloch, Co. Waterford (O'Brien

2005; Pollock & Waterman 1964; Tierney forthcoming). Middle Bronze Age

unenclosed settlements include Kerlogue, Co. Wexford, Kilmurray, Co. Wicklow and

Lisheen, Co. Tipperary (McLoughlin 2002a; O Neill 2001, O Neill 2005). Unenclosed

Late Bronze Age settlement occurs at sites such as Curraghatoor, Co. Tipperary,

Donegore Hill, Co. Antrim and Laughanstown, Co. Dublin (Doody 1987; Doody

1990; Mallory & McNeill 1991; Seaver & Keeley forthcoming).

No clear-cut evidence was detected in this survey for enclosed Early Bronze Age

settlements. Both Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age enclosures consist of a

surrounding palisade, ditch, bank or wall or a combination of these. Examples of

Middle Bronze Age ditched enclosures include Chancellorsland, Co. Tipperary, where

five rectangular buildings, four oval buildings, and one U-shaped structure were

revealed by excavations (Doody 1999). Enclosure 1 at Ballybrowney, Co. Cork

represents an excellent example of a dryland-palisaded enclosure (Cotter 2005). It is

highly comparable to the lakeland-palisaded enclosures such as that at Cullyhanna

Lough, Co. Armagh (Hodges 1958). A Late Bronze Age settlement within a palisaded

enclosure was excavated at Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly (Moloney et al 1993). Late

Bronze Age settlements within ditched enclosures have been excavated at site 17,

Kilsharvan, Co Meath, Lagavoren, Co. Meath, Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, Ballyhenry


5

site 5, Co. Down, and Troopersland, Co. Antrim (Russell & Corcoran 2002, 33;

Murphy & Clarke 2001; Raftery 1976; MacManus 1997; McConway 2000).

Some Middle to Late Bronze Age sites are defined by drystone walls usually between

15 m and 36 m in diameter and the average is c 22 m (Grogan 2006b, 37). Examples

have been excavated at Lough Gur (O’Riordain 1954, Grogan & Eogan 1987; Cleary

1995) and Aughinish, Co. Limerick (Kelly 1974, Raftery 1994, 21 and Carrigillihy,

Co. Cork (O’Kelly 1951). These are usually located on rockland terraces (Grogan

2006b, 134). Cleary’s (2003) excavation of the enclosed Late Bronze Age settlement

at Lough Gur also fits into this category and bares much similarity to the enclosures at

Circles J, K and L and Sites 10-12 (O’Riordain 1954, Grogan & Eogan 1987).

Bruck (1997) found that 65% of 85 Middle Bronze Age sites in Britain were enclosed,

the shape of which varied greatly. Due to the unpublished and unsynthesised nature of

most recent excavations, it is difficult at present to ascertain if the same level of

enclosure was occurring in Ireland at this time. As demonstrated above, it is certain

that some settlements were being enclosed and that as in Britain, this does not appear

to have occurred widely until the end of the Early Bronze Age. In British Middle and

Late Bronze Age enclosed settlements, the houses are usually located to the rear and a

large area to the front is left open, it has been suggested by Parker Pearson (1994, 50-

52) that this may represent a symbolic division of space. The front of the enclosure is

open and accessible to the public, while the back of the enclosure where the house is

located is private. It is usually the case with such site types that most of the domestic

refuse from the excavation will be recovered from the ditch, which appears to have

been the preferred location for rubbish disposal (Bruck forthcoming). This may have

been carried out in order to assert a division between the inside and outside of the

settlement. This finding appears to apply to Irish Bronze Age enclosed settlements

such as Chancellorsland, Lagavoren, Kilsharvan and Ballyveelish 3.

Lakeshore settlements have been excavated at Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath (Bradley

1999, 2005), Ballinderry, 2, Co. Offaly (Hencken 1942; Newman 1997),

Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly (Moloney et al 1993), Cullyhanna, Co. Armagh (Hodges

1958). It has always been assumed that these represent a distinctive settlement form,

but it seems increasingly likely that settlements such as these are not restricted to a


6

lacustrine setting, but rather that the increased levels of preservation afforded to the

archaeology by such a setting has resulted in the existence of these sites being more

detectable in that context. This point is supported by the evidence of enclosure

obtained from recent excavations of sites such as Ballybrowney, Co. Cork (Cotter

2005). It may be suggested that the material culture of the lakeland sites is much

greater, but it must be considered that this may be related solely to the vagaries of

preservation and to the manner in which the site was abandoned.

Isolated houses continue to be constructed throughout the Bronze Age, as do

aggregations of a small number of structures such as Cloghers, Co. Kerry, Caltragh,

Co. Sligo and Ballybrowney, Co. Cork (Kiely Forthcoming; McCabe 2005; Cotter

2005).. More nucleated settlement is represented by the Middle Bronze Age village at

Corrstown, Co. Londonderry which may be paralleled albeit to a lesser extent by

Lough Gur, Co. Limerick and Whitepark Bay, Co. Antrim.

Hillforts were constructed in the Late Bronze Age from 1200 to 1000 BC and it can

be concluded that a much wider variety of settlement forms were in use in the Late

Bronze Age than in the Middle Bronze Age. This ties in well with studies of the

British evidence which have found that a noticeable diversification in the range of

identifiable types of settlement occurs in the Late Bronze Age such as hillforts and

hilltop enclosures (Bruck forthcoming (a)) Midden sites & wetland sites while present

in the Middle Bronze Age, become much more prevalent. This can be interpreted as

an attempt to differentiate between different types of activity and to express a social

distinction between different categories of people (Bruck forthcoming (a)). In the Late

Bronze Age, there is also a diversification in terms of material culture, and the range

of items found on sites increases greatly. Metalwork is much more likely to be found

on Late Bronze Age settlements than on Middle Bronze Age settlements (Bruck,pers

comm.). Certain sites have a very wide range of rare objects and thus the idea of

‘Rich’ sites emerges (see below, Bruck forthcoming (a)).


7

IS THERE A HIERARCHY OF SETTLEMENT FORMS?

In Britain, Middle Bronze Age settlements produce a small and uniform set of finds,

there is little evidence to distinguish one settlement from another and there is no

evidence for any “rich” sites (Bruck 1999b, 146-50). Based on the results of this

study, the same can be said of Irish Middle Bronze Age settlements.

A stratified hierarchical society that was based around tribal identity and warfare is

thought to have emerged in the Late Bronze Age (O’Sullivan 1998, 70). This theory is

thought to be supported by evidence of ranking detected in contemporary burial

practice, which indicates social ranking based on kin group, age, and gender. A

hierarchical scheme for Late Bronze Age settlements has been proposed by both

Eogan (1998) and Grogan (Grogan et al 1995, Grogan 2006) based on the idea that

differences in settlement form and their associated assemblages are reflective of social

ranking. According to this categorisation, solitary unenclosed sites such as Donegore

may represent a simple farmstead that accommodated a single family of low rank, a

cluster of houses may have been occupied by a nucleated family with their leader

living in the most prominent house, small enclosed domestic sites may represent a

higher rank, hilltop enclosures, hillforts and high status lakeshore settlements such as

Moynagh Lough, Ballinderry, and Knocknalappa, Co. Clare are considered to be the

homesteads of those of greatest rank.

These hierarchical schemes are largely based on the material assemblage recovered

from each site (see Grogan 2006, 87) and while it may be the case that such

hierarchical ranking did indeed exist, it should be noted that it is possible that the

presence of items such as swords, ornaments and metalworking moulds on a site may

relate closely to the cultural practices of deposition and to post-depositional factors.

BRONZE AGE ROUNDHOUSES

There has been a huge increase in the number of settlement sites excavated as a result

of major infrastructural developments, since Doody’s (2000) study of 78 Bronze Age

structures revealed the general range of house shapes from this period and their major

morphological aspects. A survey of a number of published and unpublished sources


8

reveals that the number of Bronze Age houses excavated since then has at least

doubled. Furthermore, the excavation of 77 contemporaneous Middle Bronze Age

structures at Corrstown, Co. Antrim adds to this number. The growth in the number of

excavated buildings has enabled the identification of a number of their recurrent

aspects through a brief survey. The majority of those structures included within

Doody’s study, dated to the Late Bronze Age and thus it was difficult to detect

chronological or regional changes in house styles. There has been a subsequent

increase in the numbers of house from every period of the Bronze Age.

Doody (2000, 137) detected the existence of three basic ground-plans; circular, oval

and rectilinear in the construction of Bronze Age houses. 87% of these were round

houses and the most common form of these was circular in plan (ibid, 139). The

details of eleven rectilinear shaped houses is summarised by Doody and most of these

utilise a footing trench (2000, 139). It should be noted that seven of these structures

were located at Chancellorsland, Tipperary and thus, this figure may be somewhat

over representative of the degree to which rectilinear structures are present within the

archaeological record of the Irish Bronze Age.

He classified these structures according to the number of rings present in the

perimeter wall, the presence of a footing trench and the use of internal roof supports.

Based on these classifications, Doody (2000, 137) suggested that all 78 structures

within his survey belonged to one of five different categories that may be built from

wood or stone or a combination of both. These are:

Structures with a single ring of posts,

Structures with a double ring of posts,

Structures with a single wall slot,

Structures with double wall slots

Structures with an external wall and internal posts for roof supports.

O’Neill (2005) has suggested a different form of classification for Bronze Age

houses, these are:

(i) circular houses with no internal roof supports;

(ii) circular houses with a central roof support;

(iii) circular houses with an inner ring of roof supports;


9

(iv) rectangular houses with no internal roof supports; and

(v) rectangular houses with internal roof supports.

O’Neill (2005) points out that variations in the treatment of the outer walling of all

structural types are identifiable in the form of bedding trenches and free-standing

uprights with both single or double walls. The use of stone footed walls as well as a

small number of stone-built houses is also detailed.

The majority of the roundhouses (10 in total) within Doody’s survey belonged to

Group 1, these consisted of an external wall formed by a single ring of posts.

Examples of these include Donegore, Co. Antrim; hut 1 at Curraghatoor, Co.

Tipperary and hut 3 at Clonfinlough, Co Offaly. A footing trench/wall slot was

incorporated into 17 of the roundhouses and over half of these structures were found

to possess an internal ring of roof supports (Doody 2000, 139). Examples include

Castleupton, Co. Antrim; Lisheen, Co. Tipperary; Cloghlucas South, Co. Cork. Those

without an internal ring of posts include hut 2 at Curraghatoor; Raffin, Co. Meath; and

Rathgall, Co. Wicklow.

Doody (2000, 139) found that roundhouses vary in diameter from 3m to 15m, but

68% (n=28) of those studied were between 5 and 9m in diameter. Doody (2000, 143)

claimed that LBA houses are generally bigger and more circular than their Early or

Middle Bronze Age counterparts.

I undertook my own brief survey of Bronze Age houses with the aim of updating that

of Doody’s (2000) study. The site of Corrstown where over 70 Bronze Age

roundhouses were excavated, will only be referred to briefly in this study, it has been

decided to omit many of the findings from this site due to the possibility that recurrent

aspects of the Corrstown structures may not represent island-wide trends and in light

of the high number of these, there is a strong likelihood that their inclusion would bias

the results of the survey.

Within my study, which included many, but not all of those structures from Doody’s

synthesis, there were at least 20 Early Bronze Age structures, 30 Middle Bronze Age

structures, and 33 Late Bronze Age structures. The Middle Bronze Age and Late

Bronze Age architecture was much more substantial than that dating from the Early


10

Bronze Age. A number of clear and recurrent architectural types emerged from this

study. These will be described and categorised below. This set of types is not

exhaustive as there are many structures, which do not conform to any highly definable

type, but such an attempt at categorisation does serve to demonstrate that there are

stereotypical aspects to these houses, the identification of which should serve to

increase our understanding of Bronze Age houses.

SHAPE & SIZE

In this survey, I found that 77 of 114 houses are circular, 20 are oval, and 12 are

rectangular (see appendix). The vast majority (52%, n=98) of roundhouses range from

5 to 7m in diameter and roundhouses with a diameter of 6 m occur at least twice as

frequently (27 examples) as those with any other diameter (see appendix).

ENTRANCES

The entrance was identifiable in a total of 59 structures, 32 % of these were

southeastern, 27 % were eastern, 15 % were northeastern, 11 % were northern, and 9

% were southern. Northwestern, western, and southwestern entrances all occurred

once, thereby representing 2 % each (see appendix). Entrances present themselves

either as posts on either side of a gap in the foundation trench, or as noticeably wider

spacing amongst a set of equally spaced postholes, or as parallel postholes and slot

trenches that represent the remains of an internally or externally porched entrance.

The remains of sill-beams represented by a shallow slot lying across the entrance of

some structures have been excavated at sites such as Knocksaggart, Co. Clare and

Laughanstown, Co. Dublin. The substantial nature of the postholes present at some

entrances suggests that they may in fact represent the remains of a doorframe. Mettled

surfaces are also commonly found at entrances, examples of this have been excavated

at Caltragh, Co. Sligo, Cappagh Beg, Co. Derry, and Rathmullan 15, Co. Meath. It is

likely that these stone layers were deposited to prevent the ground surface from being

worn away in wet conditions, as the entrance would have been an area of heavy foot

traffic (Reynolds 1982, 196). At the Bronze Age village at Corrstown, Co. Derry,

small mettled pathways led out onto a cobbled avenue that traversed the site (Conway

pers comm).


11

INTERNAL FEATURES

Out of a total number of 104 structures for which the requisite level of information

was available, 23 % had an internal hearth, while 87 % displayed no evidence for this.

This figure is supported by the findings from Corrstown where only three out of the

70 round houses excavated had definite hearths (Conway pers comm.) Where a hearth

was present, it was found to be located either centrally or slightly off-centre. This

paucity of hearths has previously been highlighted (Doody 2000, 145). Pits, postholes

and stakeholes are commonly found inside roundhouses and are commonly

interpreted as the remains of furniture, storage pits, refuse pits and internal divisions

(see appendix).

Stone paving was discovered within the house at Cloghlucas, Cork (Gowen 1988) and

within some structures at Corrstown and Ballyprior Beg (Conway pers comm.,

Suddaby 2003). These sites are exceptional in this regard as the vast majority of

structures excavated in Ireland have had no surviving floor or floor-deposits due to

truncation by later agricultural activity. This greatly hampers the identification of the

function of these structures and the recognition of activity areas.

Non-structural features containing burials have been found within a number of

houses. At Ballyveelish 3, Co. Cork, a Polygonal cist burial was located at the centre

of a roundhouse structure (Doody 1987, 18). Cleary (forthcoming has suggested that

this may have been a storage pit during the lifetime of the house that was latterly re-

used for burial. A centrally located pit within the Late Bronze Age structure at

Rathgall contained a cremation and a gold hair ring, which were deposited under a

large boulder. Raftery (1976, 342) suggested that this represented the remains of a

Foundation deposit that may have marked the beginning of the building’s life. At

Kerlogue, Co. Wexford, a sub rectangular pit containing much charcoal and burnt

bone was present near the centre of the house. A pit containing a cremation at was

excavated at the centre of one of the Knocksaggart structures (Hanley 2002).

The excavations at Ardsallagh, Co. Meath by Linda Clarke have revealed two

roundhouses both of which had a single internal feature containing cremated bone.


12

FINDS

At present there appears to be a great variety in the level and types of finds within

structures, and many houses exhibit evidence for little or no finds. The most common

finds include pottery, flint, quernstones and rubbing stones. Amongst those houses

where artefacts are associated with the house, these are usually present within

structural contexts, which raises questions about the extent to which they can be

considered to be associated with the use of the house, it may be useful to consider the

possibility that those finds are foundation or closing deposits.

It is not possible within the limited scope of this study to detect chronological

variation within the finds assemblage. It would seem likely that a greater degree of

exotic finds are found within structures in the Late Bronze Age, this hypothesis is

supported by the discovery of the amber bead at Moynagh and the hair ring at

Rathgall. Two broken halves of a Late Bronze Age socketed spearhead were

recovered from the slot trench of the structure at Kilsharvan 5, Co. Meath (Russell

2001). A palstave axe and a hair ring were found within the structure at Ballyprior

Beg (Suddaby 2003).

It may be possible to create a hierarchical model of settlement types based on the

level of artefactual remains; this is not possible here because the necessary level of

information regarding finds is not readily available within a short-term study such as

this. Furthermore, there is much difficulty in determining how truly representative an

assemblage may be, given the high levels of truncation that many of the structures

have suffered from. It is hoped that future work will resolve this issue.

INTERNAL DIVISIONS

Evidence for internal divisions have been noted during the excavation of some

structures. These often take the form of a line of stakeholes or a shallow slot. The

interpretation of these features as internal divisions can be problematic as it is often

difficult to demonstrate definitive comtemporaneity in the absence of stratigraphic

relationships, artefactual evidence and radiocarbon dates. The structure at

Troopersland, Co. Antrim had a central division formed by two linear slots, 2m and


13

1.4m long, with a central break in between them of 2.6m. Three equidistant stake-

holes spanned this gap. It may be possible that the stakeholes represent the remains of

a movable screen, which allowed entrance into the rear of the structure. Structure 1 at

Caltragh, Co. Sligo may have had a north-south internal division formed by

stakeholes. A north-south line of stakeholes represented an internal division of space

5 m long within the structure at Kerlogue, Co. Wexford. This was similar to that at

Caltragh and may represent the division of the front and back of the house. A possible

North- south line creating a division between east and west is visible within structure

B at Ballybrowney (Cotter 2005). The house at Cloghlucas, Co. Cork may have

possessed a similar east west division represented by a trench, though it is possible

that this feature is unassociated with the structure (Gowen 1988, 117).

EVIDENCE OF REPAIR & RE-USE.

Doody (2000, 147) found that the re-use of a site for successive construction of

buildings is common and he has interpreted this as the sequential replacement of a

single homestead. For example, the high number of structures within the enclosure at

Chancellorsland, Co. Tipperary is more likely to be the result of successive

construction by a single household group rather than that of a large population (Bruck

forthcoming). This view is supported by the fact that these structures intercut each

other. This is not to say that the occurrence of a number of structures on a site should

always be interpreted as the result of settlement drift. Clear comtemporaneity has

been demonstrated for a minimum of 70 Middle Bronze Age structures at Corrstown.

Irish archaeological remains do tend to exhibit the Irish characteristic of having a

strong attachment to place. This is demonstrated by the fact that excavation of

industrial, burial and settlement sites predominantly provide evidence for multiperiod

activity. Excavations at Caltragh, Co. Sligo revealed that one structure had been built

over the location of a previous one (McCabe 2005, 47). At Lisheen, Co. Tipperary,

houses A and B were built over a previous structure. This evidence for continuity can

cause problems in so far as the artefacts found in the structural contexts of

roundhouses often date to a previous phase of occupation. The excavation at

Corrstown may provide examples of this, where numerous Late Neolithic flint tools,

an Early Bronze Age macehead and Early Bronze Age metalworking moulds were

found in Middle Bronze Age contexts. A similar scenario may be detected at


14

Cloghers, Co. Kerry where a rich assemblage of Beaker pottery and associated

artefacts were recovered from the structural contexts of what may be Late Bronze Age

structures. Excavations at Townparks, Co. Antrim and Ballypriorbeg, Co. Antrim

have revealed similar findings (see Ballin Smith 2003, Suddaby 2003). In light of

these occurrences and the strong evidence for continuous settlement activity, it may

be prudent to treat both radiocarbon dates and the artefacts recovered with some

caution and to differentiate between structural and non-structural contexts.

STRUCTURED DEPOSITS

The archaeological record is patterned and structured as a result of the functional and

spatial organization of activity; the changes caused by post-depositional processes and

more importantly, the practices surrounding artefact deposition (Pollard 2002, 22, also

see Richards & Thomas 1984). Synthetic analysis of excavations in Britain has

revealed a recurrent pattern of strange deposits being used to mark out significant

points in space (See Bruck 1999 & Bruck 2001). These odd or structured deposits are

most frequently found in the corners or terminals of ditches or in the postholes at the

entrance to roundhouses (Bruck 1999, 152). These include the deliberate deposition of

spindle whorls, loom weights, animal bone, cereal grain, bronze objects and notably

saddle querns and hammerstones in unusual contexts (Brück 1999, 145-166).

Examples of this have been found to be associated with Irish Bronze Age

roundhouses. At Ballybrowney, Co. Cork, a fragment of a saddle quern was found in

an entrance-posthole to Structure E and a complete saddle quern and the fragment of

another were discovered in the northern entrance posthole to Structure B. No other

saddle querns were found on site. The opposing entrance-posthole of Structure B

yielded a possible anvil stone, which showed clear signs of being worked. The single

fragment of pottery recovered from Structure C came from an entrance posthole and

of the six sherds, five fragments and three crumbs of pottery recovered from Structure

D, all except one sherd, a fragment and a crumb came from two diagonally opposed

entrance-postholes (Cotter Forthcoming). At Knocksaggart, Co. Clare, three possible

token cremations were identified within three separate postholes at the entrance to the

structure (Hanley 2002). A loom weight was found within a posthole of the structure

at Grange Rath, Colp West, Co. Meath (O’Hara 2004). At Laughanstown, a number


15

of saddle querns and rubbing stones were deposited into a pit just north of a Late

Bronze Age structure (Seavers & Keeley forthcoming). At Charlesland, Co. Wicklow,

pottery and cremated bone was found within a number of the postholes, and it was

considered by the excavator that these might have been placed as foundation deposits

(Molloy 2003). A Rib fragment, and two long bones were found in a structural

posthole of a roundhouse at Cloghers, Co. Kerry (Kiely forthcoming).

It can be seen that a clear emphasis was placed on entranceways; Brück (1999, 153)

has suggested that material culture may have been deliberately manipulated by

depositing it in such strategic places in order to distinguish spatial boundaries such as

inside the structure and outside of it. This may also have served to add significance to

the act of moving from one sphere into another.

A very clear and close link between life and death can be observed in the findings

from the excavations of settlement sites (see Cleary forthcoming). There is recurrent

evidence for the deposition of human bone in pits and postholes of houses and in

cremation pits and ringditches in close proximity to structures. There appears to be a

clear symbolic significance attached to saddle querns and rubbing stones as these are

often found deposited in cremation pits or in significant locations. For example, a

saddle quern was used as the lid of cist in Ballyveelish and cremation pits at Caltragh

and Knocksaggart contained parts of saddle querns. It is possible to detect a

significant link between social, physical and material reproduction within the

settlement. Bruck (2001) suggests that the lifecycle of a settlement is connected to the

lifecycle of its occupants and their possessions. It may be the case that the activities

surrounding the death of a householder are intimately connected with their homestead.

This may serve to explain the deposition of cremated bone in the porches of some

structures (Bruck 1999). Bruck has suggested that the death of the house may be

brought about upon the death of a householder by dismantling or destroying the

structure. It is possible that pits containing sherds of pottery from a high number of

vessels may represent the deliberate destruction of a household’s assemblage at the

end of the use-life of that structure (Bruck forthcoming a). Bruck (1999b, 155)

suggests that closing deposits of tools and pots were deliberately damaged and placed

within a structure upon its abandonment.


16

EXTERNAL FEATURES & PROXIMAL SITES

Fencelines in the form of posthole alignments and boundary ditches were found to be

associated with many of the structures within the survey. At Caltragh, Co. Sligo, two

separate linear ditches marked off plots alongside structure one and structure two

(McCabe 2005). Similar boundaries were excavated at Mullagharlin, Co. Louth,

Cappagh Beg, Co. Derry, Charlesland, Co. Wicklow; Townparks, Co. Antrim;

Newtownbalregan, Co. Louth, Tullyallen, Co. Louth, Colp West, Co. Meath,

Curraghatoor, Tipperary, Laughanstown, Co. Dublin. All of these are Middle Bronze

Age or Late Bronze Age in date. In the Middle Bronze Age, an emphasis on defining

and bounding space develops. This is clearly illustrated by the Late Bronze Age linear

ditch excavated at Colp West which contained pottery and a piece of gold thread. All

the Bronze Age features on this site remained to the west of this boundary with the

exception of an enclosure, which was located at its terminus (Murphy & Clarke

2001).

Cooking pits and external hearths have been found outside structures at Castleupton,

Co. Antrim, Ballyvergan west, Co. Cork; Townparks, Co. Antrim; Tullyallen, Co.

Louth, and Cloghers, Co. Meath. Burnt mounds have been found to be spatially and

temporally associated with a number of recently excavated structures. These include

Caltragh, Co. Sligo; Ahanagloch, Co. Waterford, Cloghers, Co. Kerry;

Newtownbalregan, Co. Louth, Kildorragh, Co. Leitrim; Kilmurray, Co. Wicklow,

Cloghlucas South, Co. Cork; and Ballyhenry, Co. Down

Ringditches/ringbarrows are also found in close proximity to houses (see Cleary

forthcoming). These monuments are not always contemporary with the structures. It

has been suggested that the presence of these monuments can be taken to represent

territorial boundaries on edges of a settlement territory. A clear spatial association

between houses and barrows has been detected at Castleupton, Co. Antrim, Inch, Co.

Down, Ballyveelish 3, Co. Cork and Chancellorsland, Co. Tipperary. Cremation pits

have been found in close proximity to a substantial number of structures on sites such

as Cappagh Beg, Co. Derry, Ballynamuddagh, Co. Wicklow; Laughanstown, Co.

Dublin, Ballyhenry, Co. Down, and Caltragh, Co. Sligo, Kilmurray, Co. Wicklow.

Many British Bronze Age settlement sites have an associated small cemetery nearby


17

(Bradley 1981) and it is likely that these burials and monuments represent this in an

Irish context.

.

Grogan (2006b 185) concluded from his study of the North Munster Landscape that

this kind of distribution of archaeological sites and monuments is representative of a

clearly definable pattern of settlement clusters composed of groups of domestic

funerary and ceremonial sites. Grogan (2006b, 133) suggests that this close spatial

patterning (clustering) of settlement, ritual and funerary sites suggests a close social

structure, which reflects the importance of kin-groups at a social and economic level.

CHRONOLOGICAL CHANGES IN ARCHITECHTURE.

Doody (2000, 143) concedes that the sample sizes within his structure are too small to

enable any definitive conclusions to be reached regarding the occurrence of

diachronic morphological changes. Since then a much greater number of structures

have been excavated, yet it remains difficult to definitively identify many

chronologically diagnostic aspects. These are detailed in the structural types section of

this paper, and many are very tentatively proposed. One major guiding point in this

regard that can be stated is that towards the end of the Early Neolithic, architectural

technology appears to have changed with the decline of the rectilinear structures and

to have become much less substantial. The structural remains from this point onwards

(c 3600 BC) become very ephemeral until the Middle Bronze Age, at which stage;

domestic architecture regains a strongly recognisable character with a durable

footprint. Thus, it can be stated that Early Bronze Age structures are much more

flimsy looking and less recognisable than their Middle & Late Bronze Age

counterparts. After the Early Bronze Age, houses appear to be much more carefully

laid out, and many of them present evidence of axial symmetry and possibly shared

design (see Guilbert 1982, 67). Bruck (pers comm.) has pointed out that in Britain,

most structures have a south eastern entrance during the Middle Bronze Age, but this

changes to eastern in the Late Bronze Age, The exact same patterning can be

observed in Ireland (see appendix).


18

EVIDENCE FOR SUPERSTRUCTURE

The materials utilised in house construction vary in accordance with local availability,

and the size and type of structure (Doody 2000, 144). Lighter and less substantial

structures tend to be built of flexible timbers such as young ash, hazel, willow and

poplar. More substantial structures that may have supported heavy roofs made of

thatch tend to have used more robust timbers such as ash, oak or elm. Wattle screens

may have been formed using flexible rods of willow and hazel. Mud daub, animal

skins, reeds, thatch and sods have all been proposed as weatherproof coverings for the

superstructure. Evidence for wattling has been uncovered at Ballyveelish 3,

Clonfinlough, the Knockadoon caveside structures, Cappagh Beg. Daub was

recovered during excavations of structures at Townparks, Co. Antrim, and Lisheen,

Co. Tipperary (Ballin Smith 2003, 41; O’Neill 2005, 291). At Townparks, charcoal

analysis revealed that structure B was composed of large oak posts and walls made

from smaller posts of birch with interwoven wattle of willow & hazel, which was

covered with daub (Ballin Smith 2003, 42). The Carbonised wattle at Cappagh Beg

was a combination of willow and hazel and these were found within foundation trench

of structure (Linnanne 2003).

CATEGORIES OF STRUCTURES

Type A structures.

One of the most recognisable of these archetypes consists of an external penannular

wallslot and an internal ring of posts that is concentric with the external slot trench.

(Henceforth, this will be called type A). These have been found through out the

entirety of the country, there are 18 examples from fourteen different sites. These

structures are usually circular or oval shaped in plan and range in diameter from 6.5 m

to 14.5 m. These large structures display a very strong axial symmetry. The internal

posts tend to be equally spaced with a distance of 1.50 m to 2. 0 m between them and

tend to be 1.5 to 2.0 m from the wallslot. The number of post holes in the internal

post-ring ranges from 6-11. These posts would have functioned as load-bearing


19

internal roof supports and were likely to have been joined together by the placement

of a ringbeam on top of them. It is highly unusual to find a central posthole in

association with this type of structure. Ballybrowney in Co. Cork (Cotter 2005) is the

only site where this has occurred.

The exact function of the external wallslot remains a matter of debate. It has been

suggested that this would have provided a foundation for an external wicker wall

formed of wattle and daub (Ballin Smith 2003, 42), Cotter (2005) has suggested that a

palisade of upright wooden planks would have been positioned within the slot and

some have proposed that this penannular slot served only as an eaves drip gully

(Ladle & Woodward 2003, 275). Based on analogy with the wallslot present in Early

Neolithic rectilinear structures, which certainly contained planks and posts, it would

seem most likely that the two former suggestions are correct.

In rare situations such as Townparks, Co. Antrim (Ballin Smith 2003), postholes or

stakeholes are found to be present within the penannular slot trench, but in the

majority of cases these are absent. It is possible that such postholes represent a later

phase of repair works to the original structure. Burnt stone has been found within the

uppermost fill of the slot trench of these structures on a number of sites including

Cloghlucas, Co Cork and Kerlogue, Co. Wexford.

Where identifiable, the entrance to type A structures is usually to the east or south east

The structure at Kilmurray, Co. Wicklow (O’Neill 2001) is the only exception to this

rule. In most cases, this entrance is defined by a porch. A definite hearth has never

been found inside a type A structure.

Type A houses have been found both on open unenclosed settlements, and have been

found as isolated houses, and on aggregated and, nucleated settlement s. At

Ballybrowney, Co. Cork, a type A house was represented by three of a total four

structures and at Corrstown, there were seven of these structures out of a total of 77.

Radiocarbon dates returned for these houses range from 1775 BC to 1260 BC, most

dates clustering around 1600-1350 BC. Thus, it can be stated that Type A houses

represent a distinctive Middle Bronze Age architectural form. Identical structures to


20

these are known in Britain which also date to the Middle Bronze Age such as that

which was excavated at Bestwall, Dorset (Ladle & Woodward 2003).

Examples of these houses have been excavated at Corrstown, Co. Antrim, Caltragh,

Co. Sligo, Ballybrowney, Co. Cork, Kilmurray, Co. Wicklow, Lisheen, Co.

Tipperary, Inch, Co. Down, Castle Upton, Co. Antrim, Ballynabarney, Co. Wicklow,

Ballyrenan, Co. Down, Cloghlucas South, Co. Cork, Ballyhenry, Co. Down,

Rathmullan 15/16, Co. Meath, Kerlogue, Co. Wexford, and Cappagh Beg, Co. Derry

(Conway, McCabe 2005, Cotter 2005, O Neill 2001, O'Neill 2005, MacManus 1998,

Gahan 1996, Gahan 1997, Gahan 2004, McQuillan 1999, Gowen 1988, MacManus

1997, Stafford 1997, McLoughlin 2002, Linnane 2003).

Type B structures

Type B consists of an external circular arrangement of interrupted slot trenches & an

internal ring of posts that is concentric with the external slot trench postholes. These

structures are usually circular or oval and range in diameter from 9 to 11 m. They tend

to have southeastern porched entrances. Radiocarbon dates returned for these houses

range from 1678 BC to 1105 BC, most dates clustering around 1500-1350 BC. Thus,

it can be stated that these are a Middle Bronze Age house type.

Type B structures are very similar to Type A in terms of size, date and design, the

only major difference is that the external wall slot of type B is interrupted rather than

continuous. This type of structure is found on sites that also have type A structures

and this may serve to explain the similarity between the two. The reason for using an

interrupted slot trench as opposed to a continuous one is unknown. It may be

postulated that the creation of a continuous slot was deemed to be unnecessary.

This distinctive type of structure only appears to be found in North-eastern Ireland

and as such may be seen as an indicator of regionalism in the Irish Bronze Age. There

are four examples of this type on three different sites. Forty seven possible examples

of this type were excavated at Corrstown, Co. Antrim. These were also discovered at

Cappagh Beg, Co. Derry and Ballyhenry, Co. Down (Linane 2003, MacManus 1997).

The Ballyhenry example is lacking any internal postholes and thus may be considered


21

as being of a separate type, although the fact that it is an isolated example may mean

that it can be subsumed within this category.

Type C structures

Type C structures are composed of an external penannular wallslot without any

internal postholes or a single central posthole. It should be stated that on some sites

such as Curraghatoor, Type C structures had infrequent and unequally spaced posts

present within the slot itself (Doody 1987, Doody 2000). These buildings are usually

circular or oval shaped in plan and range in diameter from 3 m to 12 m. There are 11

examples of these from nine sites. A greater degree of variability is detected in the

positioning of entrances for Type C buildings, these range almost equally in

frequency from eastern to southeastern to southern, but there are two northeastern

examples. It may be significant that in direct contrast to Type A & B, no C-type

structures display any evidence for a porch (see appendix).

These structures have a wide date range which stretches from 1700 BC to 830 BC.

At Curraghatoor, three such buildings returned Late Bronze Age radiocarbon dates

that clustered around 1100 BC, radiocarbon dates from the Type C structure at

Townparks, Co. Antrim are in agreement with this timeframe, however; the date from

Structure E at Ballybrowney places this form in the Middle Bronze Age with a date of

1720-1530 BC (Cotter 2005). The corpus of examples of this type of architecture, for

which dates are easily available is limited and thus, one must wait for this situation to

change before stating with certainty that they are Late Bronze Age in date.

It is less than obvious how these structures would have supported the weight of a roof;

this is especially the case for those structures with a large diameter. The fundamental

principle that underlies the building and roofing of a circular structure is that the

weight of the roof must be transferred into circular form around and around the

building (Reynolds 1982, 178). Based on his experimental reconstructions, Reynolds

(1982, 181) has pointed out that in any roofed structure, the greatest weight thrust of

the rafter is exerted at that point which is one third of the way down the slant height of

the rafter from the apex of the structure. Attaching a ring beam around all the rafters

that braces them together and positioning the rafters within holes in the ground that


22

support some of their weight may relieve this problem (Reynolds 1982, 181). It has

been suggested that internal postholes would originally have been present within such

structures but that these have been truncated by later activity. Such a proposition

seems most unlikely given that the postholes for roof support would be expected to be

more substantial than the slot trench in order to support the roof’s weight. Thus, the

absence of any internal roof supports in association with a penannular slot trench

cannot be explained as resulting from truncation. It may similarly be suggested that

the roof supporting posts may have been placed upon stone post pads. In light of the

stress that such posts would have been under, it is difficult to envisage that this option

would be chosen before that of securing these posts within a posthole. It could be

suggested that the posts or planks contained within the slot trench would have been

capable of upholding the roof and while this may have been the case, a strong

argument against such a theory is provided by the fact that the Type A & Type B

structures also utilised a slot trench but that these required an inner ring of postholes

for the purpose of supporting the roof. It may be the case that different materials or

were utilised in order to cover these structures with a light roof compared to that of

structures A & B.

Type D structures

Type D structures are composed of a circular or oval ring of evenly spaced

freestanding postholes. There are 26 examples of this form of architecture on 19

different sites. The number of postholes present within each structure tends to vary. In

some cases such as at Colp West, a central posthole has been identified. The diameter

of D-type buildings ranges from 4 m to 10 m, but the majority of these are between 5

m and 7 m (see appendix). Some of these structures such as those at Cloghers, Co.

Kerry display clear axial symmetry, while others do not. The entrance to these

buildings is usually to the east, south and southeast, though some exceptions exist

which have western and southwestern entrances (see appendix). A minimum of three

of these houses has porches. Eight examples have hearths and these show a preference

for a central location within the structures. Charlesland & Clonfinlough are the only

sites with enclosed examples of type D structures.


23

The date range for these houses is unclear. Nine date to the Late Bronze Age, six to

the Middle Bronze Age and 6 to the Early Bronze Age (see appendix). It should be

stated that four of the Early Bronze Age structures are from a site in Cloghers in

Kerry. Nearly all the features from this site contained Beaker pottery, but no

definitively structural aspects of the four houses were radiocarbon dated. There is

some debate as to whether these houses should be regarded as Beaker houses because

the architectural remains are more typical of the Late Bronze Age. It may be possible

that the Beaker finds are residual or deliberately deposited. The only other Early

Bronze Age date is from Meadowlands, Co. Down. If one discounts the dates from

Cloghers, the evidence in favour of a Middle Bronze Age to Late Bronze Age date

becomes much stronger. Most of the dates cluster between 1400 and 1000 BC.

The construction of these houses is another issue of uncertainty. It is usually assumed

that the ring of posts that form the remains of type D structures would have formed

the only wall of the house (e.g Doody 2000); however, Drewett (1982, 327) suggested

that the postholes present at Black patch, Sussex were merely the remains of the

internal roof supports which would have had an external wall encircling them. Cleary

(2003, 137) also suggests that the ring of posts found at most house sites may be the

remains of the internal roof supports and the house may have extended beyond this to

a non load bearing perimeter wall which was made of materials such as wattle and

daub, wicker, mud, turfs that have not survived to leave any trace in the

archaeological record. The remains of Type A structures, which have an internal ring

of posts and an external slot trench, may support such a hypothesis. It is certainly the

case that some D-type structures bear great similarity to the post-rings of these

structures. Thus, it may be postulated that as the efficiency of architectural technology

developed, it was no longer necessary to dig a foundation trench to support the outer

wall. If this is the case then Type A structures can be seen as ancestral to those of

Type D and the actual size of these structures would have been greater than that

suggested by the ring of postholes and closer to the range exhibited by the type A

structures.

It should be stated that some of the structures within the category of type D are

slightly different to those described above, these have numerous very close set

postholes that do not appear to represent internal roof supports. It is most likely that


24

these postholes represent the outer walls of these structures. Examples of these have

been excavated at site G, Charlesland, Co. Wicklow, Ballynamuddagh, Co. Wicklow

and structure 2 at Moynagh Lough (Molloy 2003, Deevy 2002, Bradley 2005). This

form of structure appears to be Middle Bronze Age in date, but further examples are

necessary to confirm this hypothesis.

Type E Structures

This type of structure is composed of a mixture of freestanding posts and slot trenches

that combine to form an external wall. There are only five examples of these from

four sites within the study (see appendix). These are circular or oval in shape and

range in diameter from 3 m to 8 m. The slot trench is only present along one part of

the side of these buildings and the remainder of the perimeter wall is formed of

postholes. Postholes have been found within the trench and also in the very centre of

these types of structures. Examples of this group of structure have been excavated at

Caltragh, Co. Sligo, Laughanstown, Co. Dublin, at Chancellorsland, Co. Tipperary

(McCabe 2005, Seaver & Keeley forthcoming, Doody 2000).

Three of these structures have a northern entrance, one has a northeastern entrance

and another has a southern entrance. The fact that the majority of these houses do not

have a southern, southeastern or eastern entrance represents a clear departure from the

entrance location of all the previous houses. It is possible that a northern entrance is a

recurrent and central characteristic of these structures, but it can also be understood as

resulting from the smallness of the sample size being studied. Hearths were found to

be present within two of these structures.

The sample size of these structures is too small to allow for a clear date range for their

currency. Meadowlands, Co. Down provides an Early Bronze Age date, while

Caltragh and Chancellorsland returned Middle Bronze Age dates and Laughanstown

was dated to the Late Bronze Age (see appendix).


25

Type F Structures

Type F structures are composed of an external ring of postholes or stakeholes and an

internal ring of postholes that function as roof supports. They are all circular and

range in diameter from 6-9 m. Only three examples were identified by this study,

these were excavated at Cullyhanna, Co. Armagh, Carrigdirty, Co. Limerick and

Mullagharlin, Co. Louth (Hodges 1858, O’Sullivan 2001, McLoughlin 2000).

QUESTIONS THAT THE EXCAVATION OF A BRONZE AGE STRUCTURE

MAY TRY TO ANSWER

• What types of structure(s) are present?

• What is the date range for the use of the structure?

• What is the date range for the currency of various structural types? What

qualitative changes occur in structures from Early Bronze Age to Late Bronze

Age?

• Was the structure roofed, if so, how?

• Is there evidence for internal divisions that suggest differential organisation of

space?

• Is there any evidence to suggest the sort of activities that took place in and

around the houses?

• Is it likely that the house(s) exists in isolation, is it possible that it forms part

of a nucleated settlement? Are there any ancillary structures present?

• Is the site enclosed or unenclosed?

• Examine the structure in its wider landscape setting. Are there contemporary

burnt mounds nearby, have any metal objects been found in the locality?

• Are there any associated field systems/ associated boundaries present?

• Is there any burials or funerary monuments nearby? How does the structure

relate to these?

• Is there any evidence of in-situ rotting of posts in the form of post-pipes or

was the structure dismantled. Is there evidence for repairs?


26

• Was this the first structure built here or was there renewed use of same

location for consecutive structures

• Charcoal i.d to examine what timber was used for structures. If timber and

wattle was used, can we detect, what species were used for each.

• Is there evidence for foundation or closing deposits, structured deposits? It is

necessary to pay due attention to the complexity of depositional and post-

depositional processes when considering these matters.

• Record all findspots in terms of co-ordinates and levels to deal with this

problem, and enable spatial analysis to be carried out.

• Put particular emphasis upon achieving good highly contexted samples for

dating, i.e charred grain from a posthole or wall slot.

• HAND STRIP the area above and around one definite roundhouse in order to

investigate whether artefacts have been displaced into the ploughsoil from the

structure. Plot all the finds, see how they relate to the house.


27

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Transcript of Philpotstown Neolithic House, Co. Meath, Ireland