Rock Art and the Rock Surface: Neolithic Rock Art Traditions of Britain, Ireland, and Northernmost...
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Rock Art and the Rock Surface Page 1 of 18 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy ). Subscriber: Oxford University Press - Master Gratis Access; date: 08 September 2014 Subject: Archaeology, Archaeology of Europe Online Publication Date: Sep 2014 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199545841.013.047 Rock Art and the Rock Surface: Neolithic Rock Art Traditions of Britain, Ireland, and Northernmost Europe Andrew Cochrane, Andrew Meirion Jones, and Kalle Sognnes The Oxford Handbook of Neolithic Europe (Forthcoming) Edited by Chris Fowler, Jan Harding, and Daniela Hofmann Oxford Handbooks Online Abstract and Keywords This chapter explores the rock art of the British Isles and northernmost Europe, highlighting contrasts between the regional patterns and considering some points of similarity in the effects of producing rock art. Acknowledging the difficulty with identifying a Neolithic period in northern Scandinavia, the range of Scandinavian rock art that is likely to have been made in the period c. 4000–1800 BC is discussed. The figurative imagery used in the art is described and interpretations considered, and the potential impact on art production of interaction with Neolithic communities is considered. By contrast, the Neolithic rock art of Britain and Ireland is overwhelmingly abstract, leading to different interpretative approaches: this art, its locations, and the interpretations posited in making sense of it, are explored. The abstract nature of the art is brought to the fore, and attention is paid to the practice of art production and the potential for future engagements and transformations to decorated surfaces provided by rock art. While the art of the two regions is clearly distinct, and the form and meanings of motifs differed considerably, the practice of image production may have been similarly important in producing connections with the past, and in producing experiences and identities extended towards the future. Keywords: Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, rock art, figurative or representational art, non-figurative or abstract art, landscape, monuments Introduction The Neolithic engraved and incised rock art of Britain and Ireland is a feature of both open-air rock surfaces and upstanding monuments like passage tombs and stone circles. In this respect it is similar to the rock art of parts of Iberia (Fairen-Jimenez, this volume) and northern France. A key feature that marks out this art as different to other areas of northern Europe is the emphasis on the carving of abstract images. For instance, rock art in northern Fennoscandia and Russia, like elsewhere on the Eurasian Taiga (cf. Martynov 1991) is dominated by representational images depicting elks, but red deer and reindeer are depicted too. Great variations are, however, found and several regional traditions can be identified (Lindqvist 1994; Simonsen 1974). Boat images are frequent in some of these traditions and at the Atlantic coast of Norway the boats are followed by images rendering whales, fish, and waterfowl (Sognnes 2001), which together form a maritime complex partly contrasting the elk-dominated Taiga complex. Yet, maritime motifs are surprisingly few considering the many coastal and lake-side rock art sites. These traditions originated in the Mesolithic but lasted through the Neolithic (c. 4000–1800 BC), which in most of Norway (for instance) is largely characterized by hunting, fishing, and gathering until at least the third millennium (Prescott 1996), complicating the use of period terminology. As evidenced by the distribution of artefacts of respectively southern and northern origins, some contact, however, existed between these groups and Neolithic farming communities elsewhere in northern Europe. In Finland rock paintings only are known; virtually all are found at the large lakes in the southeast (Kivikäs 1995; Lahelma 2008). In north-western Russia rock carvings dominate, with foci at Lake Onega and the White Sea (Savvatejev 1977; 1982), while paintings and carvings are found at the
Transcript of Rock Art and the Rock Surface: Neolithic Rock Art Traditions of Britain, Ireland, and Northernmost...
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Subject: Archaeology,ArchaeologyofEuropeOnlinePublicationDate: Sep2014
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199545841.013.047
RockArtandtheRockSurface:NeolithicRockArtTraditionsofBritain,Ireland,andNorthernmostEuropeAndrewCochrane,AndrewMeirionJones,andKalleSognnesTheOxfordHandbookofNeolithicEurope(Forthcoming)EditedbyChrisFowler,JanHarding,andDanielaHofmann
OxfordHandbooksOnline
AbstractandKeywords
ThischapterexplorestherockartoftheBritishIslesandnorthernmostEurope,highlightingcontrastsbetweentheregionalpatternsandconsideringsomepointsofsimilarityintheeffectsofproducingrockart.AcknowledgingthedifficultywithidentifyingaNeolithicperiodinnorthernScandinavia,therangeofScandinavianrockartthatislikelytohavebeenmadeintheperiodc.4000–1800BCisdiscussed.Thefigurativeimageryusedintheartisdescribedandinterpretationsconsidered,andthepotentialimpactonartproductionofinteractionwithNeolithiccommunitiesisconsidered.Bycontrast,theNeolithicrockartofBritainandIrelandisoverwhelminglyabstract,leadingtodifferentinterpretativeapproaches:thisart,itslocations,andtheinterpretationspositedinmakingsenseofit,areexplored.Theabstractnatureoftheartisbroughttothefore,andattentionispaidtothepracticeofartproductionandthepotentialforfutureengagementsandtransformationstodecoratedsurfacesprovidedbyrockart.Whiletheartofthetworegionsisclearlydistinct,andtheformandmeaningsofmotifsdifferedconsiderably,thepracticeofimageproductionmayhavebeensimilarlyimportantinproducingconnectionswiththepast,andinproducingexperiencesandidentitiesextendedtowardsthefuture.
Keywords:Britain,Ireland,Scandinavia,rockart, figurativeorrepresentationalart, non-figurativeorabstractart, landscape,monuments
Introduction
TheNeolithicengravedandincisedrockartofBritainandIrelandisafeatureofbothopen-airrocksurfacesandupstandingmonumentslikepassagetombsandstonecircles.InthisrespectitissimilartotherockartofpartsofIberia(Fairen-Jimenez,thisvolume)andnorthernFrance.AkeyfeaturethatmarksoutthisartasdifferenttootherareasofnorthernEuropeistheemphasisonthecarvingofabstractimages.Forinstance,rockartinnorthernFennoscandiaandRussia,likeelsewhereontheEurasianTaiga(cf.Martynov1991)isdominatedbyrepresentationalimagesdepictingelks,butreddeerandreindeeraredepictedtoo.Greatvariationsare,however,foundandseveralregionaltraditionscanbeidentified(Lindqvist1994;Simonsen1974).BoatimagesarefrequentinsomeofthesetraditionsandattheAtlanticcoastofNorwaytheboatsarefollowedbyimagesrenderingwhales,fish,andwaterfowl(Sognnes2001),whichtogetherformamaritimecomplexpartlycontrastingtheelk-dominatedTaigacomplex.Yet,maritimemotifsaresurprisinglyfewconsideringthemanycoastalandlake-siderockartsites.ThesetraditionsoriginatedintheMesolithicbutlastedthroughtheNeolithic(c.4000–1800BC),whichinmostofNorway(forinstance)islargelycharacterizedbyhunting,fishing,andgatheringuntilatleastthethirdmillennium(Prescott1996),complicatingtheuseofperiodterminology.Asevidencedbythedistributionofartefactsofrespectivelysouthernandnorthernorigins,somecontact,however,existedbetweenthesegroupsandNeolithicfarmingcommunitieselsewhereinnorthernEurope.InFinlandrockpaintingsonlyareknown;virtuallyallarefoundatthelargelakesinthesoutheast(Kivikäs1995;Lahelma2008).Innorth-westernRussiarockcarvingsdominate,withfociatLakeOnegaandtheWhiteSea(Savvatejev1977;1982),whilepaintingsandcarvingsarefoundatthe
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KolaPeninsula(Shumkin1990).ThisisalsothecaseinthenorthernregionsofNorwayandSweden(Bøe1932,Engelstad1934;Gjessing1932,1936;Hagen1970,1976;Hallström1938,1960;Helskog1988;Simonsen1958).
Studiesofopen-airrockartinBritainhavetendedtofocusonlandscapelocationtoprovideacontextforinterpretation(e.g.Bradley1997).Studiesofpassagetombimageryhavefocusedonstructuralsymbolicanalyses(e.g.Thomas1990;Tilley1991;Bradley1998),‘hermeneutic’interpretations(e.g.Thomas1992;1993),orcomparedmotifswithimagesgeneratedduringalteredstatesofconsciousness(e.g.Lewis-WilliamsandDowson1993;Dronfield1995,1996)Inrecentyears,however,newapproacheshavebeendevelopedwhichblendimagepositionwithinrockartpanels,passagetombs,andtheenvironment(e.g.SheeTwohig1996;Thomas2001).Inpursuingtheserecentapproaches,weherefocusupontherelationshipbetweenmotifsandrocksurfacesthroughtime.WearguethataconsiderationofthedynamicbetweenimageandsurfaceoffersarouteintoconsideringwhyrockarttraditionsdiffersostarklyinBritainandIrelandfromtherestofcontinentalEurope.
StudiesofScandinavian‘Neolithic’rockarttoalargeextenthavefocusedonchronology;whenthisartwasmade,andhowitrelatestotherockartoftheBronzeAge.DuringrecentyearsmuchefforthasconcentratedondatingbymeansofHolocenelandupliftincoastalNorwayandSweden(e.g.Hesjedal1994;Lindqvist1994;Ramstad2000)andinthelakedistrictsofFinland(Kivikäsetal.1999).Interpretationsofthesymbolismandculturalcontextofthearthavewidenedfromatotaldominanceofhuntingmagicinterpretationstolandscapestudies(Gjerde2002;Sognnes2001),detailedreadingsofindividualpanels(Sognnes2008a),structuraliststudies(Hesjedal1994),andanalysesthatsuggesttheartwasassociatedwithshamanism(Gjessing1936;Grønnesby1998)andtotemism(Hesjedal1994).WhiletherockartofnorthernmostEurope,withitsemphasisonanon-domesticatedworld,maylookstrangeandalienfromaEuropeanNeolithicperspective,wewillarguethatcontactsbetweenthehunter-gatherer-fishersofthenorthandfarmersincentralandwesternEuropewereimportantinthedevelopmentoftheimageryduringthisperiod.
TheOpen-airRockArtofBritainandIreland
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Figure1 .Carvedrocksurface,Ormaig,Kilmartin,Scotland,photographedatnight.
Photograph:AaronWatsonandAndrewCochrane.
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Figure2 .MainareasofdistributionofrockartintheBritishIsles(Bradley1997).
ReproducedbykindpermissionofRichardBradley.
Asnoted,oneofthemajorcharacteristicsofopen-airrockartinBritainandIrelandistheemphasisonabstractimages,includingsimplecupmarks,cupswithoneormorerings,cupmarkswithtails/radiallines(orcupandringswithtails/radiallines),spirals,androsettes(seeFig.1).Mostly,theseparticularimagesarerelativelysimple,althoughtheycanbecombinedintopatternsofstrikingcomplexity.ThesetraditionsbearsimilaritieswithotherregionsofEurope,inparticularGaliciainAtlanticIberia(Bradley1997;cf.Fairen-Jimenezthisvolume),whilecupmarksareacomponentoftheBronzeAgerockarttraditionsofsouthernScandinaviadatingafter1800BC.Whilethesetworegions—GaliciaandsouthernScandinavia—incorporateabstractimageswithinawiderrepresentationalrepertoire,representationalimagesareextremelyrareinBritainandIreland.
Representationalimagesareconfinedtoafewinstances:thecarvingofearlyBronzeAgedaggerandflataxemotifsontheinnerringoftheuprightstandingstonesatStonehenge,Wiltshire(Bradley2000;Clealetal.1995)andthecarvingofflataxemotifsonburialcairnsatRiCruinandNetherLargieMidandNorth,Kilmartin,Argyll,westScotland(SimpsonandThawley1972;Jones2001).Inaddition,representationalmotifsarefoundontheouterkerbofearlyBronzeAgeburialmonumentsatafewsitesinsouthernEngland,includingtwodaggermotifs,twoflataxes,andfivecupmarksatBadburybarrow,Dorset(Piggott1939),andaseriesofimagesofunshodhumanfootprintsandcupmarksonacistslabincorporatedintoabarrowatPoolFarm,Somerset(Beckensall1999,70).ThenatureandcontextoftheserepresentationalimagessuggeststhatrepresentationisalaterelementofrockarttraditionsinBritainandIreland,associatedinparticularwiththeearlyBronzeAge(c.2300–1500BC),andwillnotbeconsideredfurtherhere.
Themajorconcentrationsofopen-airrockartareinnorthernIrelandandinBritainfromDerbyshiretoPerthshire,withmajorconcentrationsinNorthumberland,Argyll,westernScotland,Galloway,southernScotland,andtheNorthYorkMoors(Fig.2).InIrelandthemajorconcentrationsareinsouth-westIrelandinCo.Kerry,withfurthersmallergroupsofrockartinCo.DonegalandCo.LouthandMonaghan(Bradley1997,70;Beckensall1999;Purcell1994;2002).Bradley’s(1997)analysisofthelandscapelocationofrockartpanelsinBritainandIrelandsuggestsanimportantrelationshipbetweenrockartandroutewaysandviewpoints;insomeregionsrockartappearstobemarkingsignificantroutesthroughthelandscape,ordefiningtheedgesofmonumentcomplexes.
PassageTombsinIreland
PassagetombsarearguablythemostfamousmonumenttypeinIreland,withtheBoyneValleycomplex,Co.Meath,
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oftenattractingthemostattention.PassagetombsinIrelandoriginatedintheearlyfourthmillenniumBCandcontinuedtobeconstructeduntiltheearlythirdmillennium(Grogan1991;O’Sullivan2005;seeCummingsetal.thisvolume).Passagetombsconsistofalargesub-circularorovoidcairnrevettedbyacontinuouskerboflargestones;thiskerbisadistinctivefeatureofIrishexamples.Cairnsizesvarybutarenormallybetween10and80mindiameter.Thecairncoversamegalithicstructureconsistingofachamber,withanapertureleadingtotheexteriorviaapassage(seeCoffey1912,102;CollinsandWaterman1952,28;Collins1960;cf.Herity1974,22;SheeTwohig1981,204;Dronfield1994,75).Imageryonpassagetombsisnon-representationalandconsistsofgeometricabstractmotifs,occurringonthekerbstonesandtheinteriorstructuralstonesofthetombsintheBoyneValley,renderingittherichestareaofmegalithicmotifsinwesternEurope(SheeTwohig1981;Eogan1986;O’Sullivan1993).AninterestingfeatureofpassagetombsinIrelandisthegeneralpriorityof‘dexteroversinister’(Herity1974,123)reflectedinthesizeoftherighthandrecesses,themotifs,artefacts,andhumanremains.
Suchawealthofimagerysuggeststhat,contrarytoHerity’sarguments(1974,107),themotifswerenota‘by-product’orsurplusextra.Rathertheirimportancewasintegraltotheworldviewsthathelpedcreatethemonumentsandsubsequentencounterswiththem(Cochrane2006,254).Jones(2001,335;seealsoO’Sullivan1986)hasarguedthatmanyacademicstudiesdislocatepanelsandmotifsfromtheiroriginalcontextsandpresenttheminisolation,intwo-dimensionalform,predominantlyinblackandwhitelinedrawingonpaper—apracticethatprivilegesthestaticformofthemotifsovermorefluidsocialprocesses(cf.Jones2004).Suchconventionscreateasituationwherethespectator,instudyingmotifsinacorpus(e.g.O’Kelly1973;SheeTwohig1981),isundertheillusionthattheimageisa‘realistic’representationoftheoriginaldesign(Jones2001),andisalsogivenan‘observer-imposed’selectionof‘acceptable’visualimages(O’Sullivan1986,71).Thepresentationofmotifsinthisformatalsocanfacilitatetheselectiverepresentationofcarvedpanelstoreinforceapoint(SheeTwohig2000,91).Whenmodernspectatorsengagewithpassagetombmotifstodaymanyseethemascompletecompositions.Theseimagesdidnotalwaysappearasoneexhaustivedisplay;therewereepisodesandsequences,beitbysubstitutionorreplacementofexistingmotifsbyimposedmotifs(Eogan1997;Jones2004;Cochrane2006,2009a).O’Sullivan(1986,1996)detailedthesequencesfromthestandardgeometricstyle,throughtotheextremepick-dressingstyleasafinalandmaturephase(O’Kelly1971;SheeTwohig2000).Theycanbroadlybesummarizedas:
•Step1incorporatesthestandardstyleincludingspirals,circles,zigzags,serpenti-forms,lozenges,triangles,andradialmotifs,withtheplasticqualitiesofthestonemostlyignoredanddesignscreatedviapickingandoccasionallyincision.
•Step2applicationsstillincludethestandardstyle,yetaremore‘ambitious’withboldcarvingandacknowledgingthevariantsofthestonesurface.
•Step3imagesaremostlylineardesignsfollowingtheshapeofthestone,withappreciationtoitsthree-dimensionalform.
•Step4imagesabandonlineardesignsandadopta‘pickdressing’approach,whichsometimesmutilatesmanyearlierworks.Pickdressingisamorphousanddisplaysamarkedinterestingreaterexplorationofthestonessurface;itisgenerallylocatedonthestone’sfacenearesttothepassagetombentrance(O’Sullivan1996,87;seealsoSheeTwohig2000).
OnthekerbstonesatKnowthSite1,onecandocumenttwoandsometimesthreeepisodesofsuperimposition(Jones2004,204),butsuperimpositionisevenmoreapparentintheinteriorsofthepassagetombs.IntheinteriorofKnowthSite1,incisedangularmotifs(triangles,lozenges,andzigzags)aretheearliestimages(Eogan1997,222).Theyoccuron30stonesinthechamberandpassageoftheeasterntomb,andon11stonesinthewesterntomb.Someoftheseincisedmotifswerelatersuperimposedwithaninfillofpicking.Thislaterpickingoccursasangularinshapeandconfinedinspace,formlesslooseareapicking,broadpickedlinesinribbons,andformlesscloseareapicking(Eogan1997,221).Asnotalltheearlyincisedangularmotifswerefilledbylaterpicking,itisbelievedthatsomeincisedlineswerenotjustguidelinesbutmotifsintheirownright(Eogan1997,223).Othersdefinitelydidactasguidelines,asisseenonCorbel37/38ofthewesterntomb,KnowthSite1,wherepickedangularmotifsanddispersedareapickingoverlaytheangularincisedmotifs(Eogan1997,223andFig.8).Includingtheincisedmotifs,therearefiveepisodesofsuperimpositionontheinteriorsofthetwopassagetombsinKnowthSite1;therearefourprincipalformsofoverlayatNewgrangeSite1.
Thesesuccessiveepisodesdemonstratethepluralityofperformancesinvolvedinthefabricationofimages
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(Cochrane2006,266).Superimposedimagerymaythereforehaveconnectedpastandpresent,wherebythepracticeofcarvingmotifsmaybeassociatedwithrenegotiationorregeneration.Astheseactsinvolvedcontactwiththetracesofpastactions,revisingthesurfacesleftbythoseacts,theycanbeseenascontentious,contradictory,messy,problematic,andstimulating—includingforthearchaeologicalwriter(Cochrane2009a,167).Oncecreated,motifsonpassagetombsaresusceptibletodefacementandalteration,beitintentionalorotherwise—rockartallowsmanipulationratherthanprovidingfixity.Ambiguousabstractmotifscarvedinstonethereforeprovidedopportunitiesforrepetition,revision,andreinterpretation.
ThepossiblesignificancesofcirclemotifsandthecircularnatureofthepassagetombmoundsthemselveshavebeendiscussedatlengthbyBradley(1998,104–9).Wefurthersuggestthatthecircledwellings,circularpalisades,circularstonesettings,circlemounds,andcircularmotifsaddressdifferentexpressionsoftemporalitywhichadhereineachstructure(seealsoEwart2003).Thecircleformmayhaveevoked(atsomelevel)acyclicalperceptionoftime,whichstemsfromacertaintypeofpracticality(Gell1992,91).Suchaviewoftimemayhavebeenlinkedtoasubsistencestrategythatheldacloserelationshipwiththeseasons.Thetransformationofthisworldviewintoanimportantstructure,suchasapassagetombandthesubsequentsuperimpositionofmotifs,mayhaveresultedfromadesiretohaveasenseoftemporalcontrolovercertainatemporalsituations;circlesinstonewerepermanentyetalterable,andthuscouldbeinflux.Certainly,theideaofalinearhistoricalperceptionoftimehasbeentrackedtometa-narrativesofwesternEnlightenmentanditisnotedthatEuropeanMedievalworldviewsmostlysawtheuniverseaschangelessandcyclical(Thomas2004,31;Cochrane2009b).ForsomepeopleintheNeolithic,timemayhaveflowedinasimilardirection.
Oneoftheauthors(Jones2004,207)hasproposedthatstoneisusedtoembodyasignificanceofplace.Theapplicationofmotifstostoneisseenasanongoingreiterationorreplenishmentofthissignificanceofplaceandidentity.Wemightfurtherarguethatitistheprocessofcreatinganimagethatismoreimportantthanthetypeofmotifitself.TheimagesontheexteriorsofthepassagetombsintheBoyneValleyweremostlycreatedinsituandasoneevent,whereastheinteriormotifsseemtohaveinvolvedvariousstagesandepisodesofsuperimposition.Joneshassuggestedthattheinternalimagesactedas‘technologiesofremembrance’(2004,209),andwereexecutedtomemorializethesignificanceofplaceandidentity;remembranceisactivatedthroughvisualengagementandrepetitiveimagemaking.Thedifferencesinstylesarethoughttobetheresultofdifferentpeopleemployingdistinctmnemonicpractices,whichmayalignthemselveswithdifferentwaysofseeingtheworld.Fromthisperspectiveonecanarguethatthemotifsarepartofa‘workinmotion’andofbringingaparticularworldviewrepeatedlyintoexistence(seeWhittle2003,25;Jones2007,86–90).
Open-airRockArtofHunter-gatherer-fishersinNorthernmostEurope
Themakingofrockartbynorthernhunter-gatherer-fishersstartedsometimeduringtheMesolithicbut,basedontheHolocenelanduplift,weknowthatmanysitescannotbeolderthantheNeolithicastheimagesinquestioncannothavebeenmadeuntilthoserocksurfacesemergedfromthesea(Sognnes2003).Infact,theMesolithic/Neolithicperioddivisionintheregionisbasedonartefactassemblagesandseemstohavelittlebearingonthemakingofrockart.ThelaterpartoftheScandinavianMesolithic,c.6300–4000BC,iscontemporarywiththecentralandwesternEuropeanNeolithic,whichmeansthatsomeScandinavianMesolithichunter-gatherer-fishersmighthavehadcontactswithNeolithicfarmerswhichmayhaveledtochangeswithinScandinavia.Habitationbecamemoresedentaryandpeoplestartedmakingrockart,bothrepresentinganewsenseofpermanency.Rockartandlargerdwellingsiteslikelyrepresentplacesthatwerevisitedmorefrequentlythanbefore.Theemphasisontraditionalsymbolsinrockart(elk,deer,reindeer,whales/porpoises,andwaterfowl)suggestsaresponsetoandasymbolicrejectionofnewtimesandnewcustoms.Thesymbolicsystemwasfocusedontheforestsandseas,particularlythelargerandstrongerpreyanimals.Thisanimalsymbolismisalsoevidentonartefacts:slatepointsandknivesweredecoratedwithgeometriclinepatternsandanimaldrawings.Theshaftendsofknivessometimeswereshapedlikeanimalheadsandmanykniveswereshapedlikeawhaleorfish(Sognnes2008b).
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Figure3 .TranscriptionofcarvingsonarocksurfaceatEvenhus,Trøndelag,Norway(Gjessing1936).
AtEvenhus,centralNorway,rockcarvingsarefoundatpanelsthatdidnotemergefromtheseauntiltheearlysecondmillenniumtransitionfromtheNeolithictoBronzeAge(Sognnes2003).AtthattimethesepanelswereattheeasterntipofanislandlocatedvirtuallyinthemiddleoftheTrondheimFjord.TheEvenhusrockcarvingsshowamixtureofterrestrialandmaritimemotifs;elksandreindeerrepresentingland,whalesandboatsrepresentingthesea(Fig.3).Wemayherewitnessexpressionsofcompetitionandclaimsforcontrolofthesiteandsurroundingseaandlandbydifferentgroups,possiblypresentingcommunityidentities,orperhapsrepresentedbytheirrespectivetotems.
Lessthan4kmaway,acrossanarrowpartofthefjord,thelargestclusterofwhatseemtobepre-BronzeAgeboatimagesmadebyfarmersarefoundatRøkke.Thesecarvingsarenotfacingthesea,butarelocatedonhillocksaround100mabovesealevel.Theyarewithdrawnfromthesea,whichapparentlystillwasthedomainofthehunter-gatherer-fisherswhostillmarkedseashorerockswiththeirtraditionalsymbols.Thismayrepresentcompetitionbetweengroupswithdifferentsubsistenceeconomies.Whetherthereactuallywereanyconfrontationsbetweengroupsisuncertain,butatthelargeBardalsitenearEvenhus‘southerntradition’rockcarvings(boatimages,footprints,anthropomorphs,concentricrings,etc.)weresuperimposedonsomeolderstratamostlycontainingelkimages(Sognnes2008a).ThisseemstopresentadeliberatedefacingofanoldandalienNeolithichunter-gatherer-fisherrockart.
AcrosstheborderinnorthernSweden,permanentfarmingwasestablishedmuchlaterthaninsouthernScandinaviaandcoastalNorway—largelyfromtheearlyIronAgeonwards,withsomeattemptsatsmall-scalefarmingintheBronzeAge(Baudou1989).InthenorthernSwedishforestsmanysmallsiteswithrockpaintingsofmainlyelkshavebeendiscoveredduringthelastdecades(Lindgren2004).Similarrockcarvingshavebeenknownsincethe18thcenturyAD,locatedalongmajorwatercoursesintheregionsofJämtlandandÅngermanland.OfspecialinterestisalargesiteatNämforsenwaterfallintheÅngermanRiver(Hallström1960).MostofthecarvingsherearefoundonsmallislandsinthemiddleofthelargeroaringwaterfallanddatedtotheNeolithic(Forsberg1993).Twomajorclassesofelkimages,eachshowingtheanimalinprofile,exist.IntheearlyNeolithic,theentiretrunkareaoftheanimalispeckedout,whileinthelateNeolithicapeckedlinetracestheelk’soutline.Nämforsenalsohasmanymaritimemotifs,mostlyboatimages.Liketheelks,thehulloftheboatimagesmaybefullypeckedoutoronlydelineatedbyapeckedexteriorline.Similarcarvingsarefoundatcertainheightsabovesealevel,showingthatthereisaspatialclusteringoftypesandstyles(Forsberg1993,227–228).Thedistributionsofthesedifferenttypesdonotdecisivelydemonstratethattheyweremadeatdifferenttimes;theymayrepresentatleasttwodifferentsocialgroups,eachusingparticularpanelsatdifferentheightsfortheirowncarvings.
AttheinnerAltaFjordinnorthernmostNorwayanevenlargerconcentrationofrockcarvingsisfound,whichmayrepresentseveralphases,fromlateMesolithicthroughBronzeAge.TwoofthesephasesfallwithintheNeolithic.BoatsandothermaritimemotifswerefrequentintheearlyNeolithicbutwerehardlymadelater.Mostzoomorphicimagesweredrawnwithoutlinedbodiesalone,butmanyneartheboatimageshavetrunksfilledwithlinepatterns.Pecked-outanimalswerefrequentinthelateMesolithic(Helskog1988:32).Thereareseveralelaboratescenescontaininghumans,elks,bearsandbeardens,fences,boats,andfish(Helskog1988,1999).ScenicrepresentationsarealsofrequentintherockartoftheWhiteSeainKarelia,north-westernRussia,severalofwhichdepicthuntingofwhalesfromboatsorwinter-timehuntingofelksbyskiers(Savvateyev1977).MostofthezoomorphicimagesfoundhereandatLakeOnega(Savvateyev1982)arepeckedoutandarecomparabletothecarvingsatNämforsenandinAlta.DwellingsitesarefoundneartheKarelianrockartpanels,asinAltaandatNämforsen,andexcavationsdemonstratethatpeoplelivedattheshoreofLakeOnegaandtheRiverVyg,closetotherockartpanels,duringtheNeolithicandEneolithic(Savvateyev1988).UnlikecontemporarycommunitiesinScandinavia,thesepeopleusedceramics.
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DatingtheNeolithicRockArtofBritainandIreland
Amajorquestionishowtheopen-airandmonumentalrockarttraditionsinBritainandIrelandrelatetooneanother.ThepassagetombartofIrelandisdatedtothemiddleNeolithictolateNeolithic(c.3600–3100BC;Cooney2000),althoughthefinaluseofpassagetombsmaydatetolaterthanthis;therelatedpassagetombsofAngleseydatefromtheearlyNeolithic(c.4000–3000BC;Burrow2006).Orcadianpassagegravesemergeataslightlylaterdate,around3300BC,asdoestheartofthelateNeolithicsettlementsofOrkney(thoughseeSchultingandSheridan2010forslightlyearlierdatesforsomepassagegravesinOrkney).Thestonecirclesassociatedwithpassagetombart,suchastheCumbriangroup,arealsolikelytodatefromthelateNeolithic(Beckensall2001).
Thedatingofdecorationonopen-aircontexts,suchasstonecircles,offerssignificantchallenges:isthecarvingcontemporarywiththeuseofstonecircles,oralateraddition?Thebestchanceofdatingopen-airimagescomesfrommotifsindateablecontexts.RockarttraditionscontinueintotheearlyBronzeAgewiththecarvingofabstractandrepresentationalimagesoftenonslabsassociatedwithburialmonumentsinBritain(Bradley1995;Bradley1997;Jones2001).Theseprovideaterminusantequem,butdonotanswerwhenrockartbegantobeproduced.SomecupmarkscanbedatedtoearlyNeolithiccontexts,includingthecup-markedslabfromthelongbarrowatDalladies,Kincardineshire(Piggott1972).CupmarksarealsoassociatedwithearlyNeolithicportaldolmensfromBallyrennan,Co.Tyrone,Ireland,Bachwen,CanearvonshireandTrellyffiant,DyffrynArdudwy,Merionyddshire,Wales(DarvillandWainwright2003).Whiletheassociationbetweencupmarksandportaldolmensseemscompellingwehavetotreattheseassociationswithcautionastheymaybefortuitous.
EvidenceforrockartdatesinlateNeolithiccontextsismoreconvincing.ThedecoratedcistofaburialsitefromKnappers,Glasgow,Scotland,wasfreshlycarvedfortheburial,whichwasassociatedwithalateNeolithicSeameraxe,aformofpolishedstoneaxe(RitchieandAdamson1981).PitscontaininglateNeolithicGroovedWarepotterywerefoundassociatedwithrockartpanelsatBackstoneBeck,IlkleyMoor,WestYorkshire(EdwardsandBradley1999).
Inadditionaseriesofrecentexcavationshavebeenundertakenaroundopen-airrockartsitesinBritainandIreland.WhilesomeevidenceforNeolithicactivitywasfoundatDrumirril,Co.Monaghan,Ireland,activitiesassociatedwiththerockartsiteextendedintotheearlyChristianperiod(O’Connor2007).AtBenLawersandTorbhlareninScotland,findsofArranpitchstone,alithicsourceusedduringtheNeolithic,issuggestiveofaNeolithicdate;whileatTorbhlarenactivitiesaroundtherockartsitesdatefromtheNeolithictotheMedievalperiod.Activitycommencedwiththeconstructionofapostcircle1.5mindiameternexttotherockartsite.Thiswasburntdownaround2500–2300BC,duringthelateNeolithic.Immediatelyafter,astoneplatformwasconstructedaroundthesite,associatedwithquartzartefacts(11definiteand25probablehammerstones).Astheplatformrespectedthesiteofthepostcircleitseemslikelythatitsconstructionalsodatestotheperiod2500–2300cal.BC.InadditionaclusterofhammerstonesandknappingdebrisassociatedwithoneoftheTorbhlarenrockartsiteswasdatedtoc.2900–2800cal.BC(Joneset.al.2011).Whiletheseactivitiesdonotabsolutelydatetheassociatedrockart,theyprovideaproxydateforitsexecution,asthemajorclassofstonetoolsrecoveredfromthesefeaturesarequartzhammerstones,likelytobeemployedinrockartproduction.
Muchhasbeenwrittenontheconnectionsbetweenpassagetombmotifsandthosefoundonnaturalrocksurfaces.Previouslyitwassuggestedthatpassagetombimagespre-datedrockart,withtherebeingcontinuityintotheearlyBronzeAge(SheeTwohig1981;Johnston1993;Jackson1995;Bradley1997;Cooney2000).Recently,however,Waddington(1998)hasarguedthatcupandringmarks(normallyassociatedwithopen-airrockart)onorthostatsfromNewgrangeSite1wereincisedbeforeinclusion,suggestingthattherockarttraditionisolderthantheactofcarvingpassagetombimages(seealsoVanHoek1988;EdwardsandBradley1999;Coyne2001;Purcell2002;O’Connor2003).Waddington(1998)does,however,concedethatcupandringmarksdooccurinlaterperiods,withexamplesfromthestonecircleatNewgrange,andtheearlyBronzeAge.
InsummaryitseemslikelythattherockarttraditionsinBritainandIrelandcommencedintheearlyNeolithicandcontinueduntiltheearlyBronzeAge,withapeakofactivityduringthelateNeolithic.ThisisconfirmedbythedatingofpassagetombsinIreland,andthefactthatopen-airrockartmotifsarecomponentsofawiderrepertoireofmotifsassociatedwithlateNeolithicartefacts,suchasGroovedWarepottery(Bradley1997;Jones2000),decoratedmaceheads,suchasthatfromGarboldisham,Norfolk(Edwardson1965)orKnowthSite1,Co.Meath(Eogan1986),andobjectssuchasthecarvedchalkartefactsknownastheFolktonDrums(Longworth1999).
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DatingtheNeolithicRockArtofNorthernmostEurope
ItisclearthatinnorthernmostEuropetheNeolithicrockartcannotbeunderstoodinisolationfromMesolithicartisticpractices;continuityisevidentherethatisnotpresentinBritainorIreland.Indeed,onlysomeoftherockartinnorthernmostEuropeseemstohaveanyrelationwithsocietiesnormallycoveredbythetermNeolithic.Vastareasinthisregionhaveneverbeencultivated:hunting-gathering-fishinghasprevailedformillennia,evenaftermostofEuropeenteredtheBronzeandIronAges.
InKarelia,rockartanddwellingoccurtogetheronancientshores.AnumberofdwellingsiteshavebeenexcavatedatLakeOnegaandattheriverVygbytheWhiteSea(Savvateyev1988).AttheVyg,dwellingsitesweredatedtotheNeolithicbyartefacts,withradiocarbondatesaround5000BP.Somerockcarvingswerecoveredbydepositsdatedto1500–1300BC.AtLakeOnega,Mesolithicsiteswerebelievedtobemucholderthantherockcarvings;however,Eneolithicdwellingswereexcavatedtoo.InwesternNorwayexcavationsatVingenandAusevik(Lødøen2007)yieldedfireplacesanddwellingstructures.MostartefactsbelongtothelateMesolithic,asdoaseriesofradiocarbondates.AtAusevik(Fig.4),therewerefewartefacts,butthebottomsamplefromaseriesofradiocarbondatesfromacharcoalsequencedatedtotheearlyNeolithic,theothersampleswereBronzeAgeandearlyIronAge.ThebottomsamplefromarockshelterwithrockpaintingsatVasstrand,Sør-Trøndelag,wasdatedtothetransitionbetweenlateNeolithicandBronzeAge.Similardateswereobtainedfromtwodecoratedcaves(Sognnes2009).MostrockpaintingsinFinlandarelocatedonverticalcliffsemergingfromthelakes.Areasimmediatelybelowsomeofthesesiteshavebeenexcavated.AtAstuvansalmi,Ristiina,twoarrowheadswerefound,onefromthelateNeolithic(Sarvas1969).Underwaterinvestigationsinfrontofsomeofthesepaintingsyieldedapieceofambershapedlikeahumanface(Taskinen2000).
Clicktoviewlarger
Figure4 .Carvedrocksurface,Ausevik,Sunnfjord,Norway(Hagen1970).
Clicktoviewlarger
Figure5 .Decoratedcistslab,Mjeltehaugen,Sunnmøre,Norway(Linge2007).
ReproducedbykindpermissionofTrondEilevLinge.
AcomplicatingfactorfordatingisthatnorthernmostEuropeanNeolithicarthassimilaritieswithsouthernScandinavianearlyBronzeAgerockart—similaritiesthatcanleadtoconfusionaboutwhethermotifsareNeolithicorBronzeAgeindate.AfairlyacceptablechronologyforboatimagesofthesouthScandinaviantraditionhasbeenestablished,basedmainlyonsimilarimagesengravedonbronzerazors(Kaul1998).FewrazorsaredatedtothelateBronzeAge,andnonetotheperiodsbeforeandaftertheBronzeAge.Thebronzerazorshavethusbeen
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usedtosuggestachronologicalstraightjacketfortherockarttraditionthatmaynotcorrespondwithreality:boattypes(contemporary,older,andlater)notrepresentedonrazorsarenotincludedinthesequence.WhetherboatimagesweremadeonrocksintheNeolithicisdifficulttoprove,butatleastonetypemaybelongtothisperiod(FettandFett1941,137;Marstrander1978,65;Sognnes2001,54).
IncentralNorway,wheremostoftheseimagesarefound,theyweremadeonthesamepanelsassouthScandinavianBronzeAgeimagesandseemtorepresenttheearliestphaseontheserocks,sometimesassociatedwithcupsandrings.Inthesameregion,boatimagesfromtheScandinavianBronzeAgeperiod1(1800–1500BC)arefoundtoo;anearlierphase,then,maydatetothelateNeolithic(2200–1800BC).Theseearlierboatimageswerealsomadeinadifferenttechnique,withnarrowerandshallowerlines.AtLeirfallinStjørdal,centralNorway,aframedzigzagpatternadjacenttosomeoftheseboatimageswasmadeinthesametechniqueandanotherpanelhassimilardesigns.ThesegeometricaldesignsarereminiscentofaBellBeakerdecorationschemewithbandsofhorizontalchevronsandzigzagsandstrengthenthesuspicionthatwemaybedealingwithlateNeolithicrockart.Beakersarevirtuallynon-existentinNorwaybutwerefoundatadwellingatOgna,south-westernNorway(Skjølsvold1972),whileatHitra,centralNorway,anarcher’swristguardofpossibleBeakeroriginhasbeenfound(Marstrander1954).
Similardesignsaredepictedondecoratedslabsfromstonecistsincentralandsouth-westernNorway,whichprobablydatetotheearlyBronzeAge(deLange1912,Marstrander1978,Syvertsen2002).Unfortunately,allofthegravesinquestionweredisturbedwhentheseslabswerefound.ThenearestEuropeanparallelstothesedesigns,particularlychevronsandherringbones,butalsocirclesandtassel-likeparallellines,arefoundintheGöhlitzchgravenearHalle,Germany,whichbelongstoagroupoftombswithdecoratedslabsfromcentralGermany(Marstrander1978:51–52).HorizontalbandswithzigzagsarealsofoundattheKivikgraveinScania,Sweden(KristiansenandLarssson2005,Randsborg1993),butotherwisenoparallelsexistbetweentheNorwegianandtheKivikslabs.
ThelargestdecoratedgravecistinNorwaywasfoundintheMjeltehaugenbarrowintheSunnmøreregion,westernNorway,intheearly-19th-centuryAD.Unfortunatelyallslabswerebrokenintonumerouspiecesshortlyafterdiscovery(Linge2007;Mandt1983).Theexistingfragmentsmostlikelybelongtoseveraldifferentslabs,somedecoratedonbothsites.Onmost,thedecorationfollowsthesameschemewithalternatinghorizontalbandsofchevrons/zigzagsandparallellinesandatthebottomarowofboatimagessimilartotheopen-aironesclaimedtobeNeolithic(Fig.5).Ifwetrytoloosenthegripheldbytheconventionalchronology,wemayfindthatalateNeolithicdatefortheMjeltehaugenslabsisfeasible.
Theprovenienceoftheseslabsisaninterestingquestion.Therockisgreenish-grey,fine-grainedschistosemeta-greywackewithrustyweatheredlayersrichincarbonate.ItsnearestsourcesareintheSunnfjordregion,westernNorway,andintheTrondheimFjordarea,centralNorway(Askvik1983).Inbothcasestheslabswouldhavebeentransportedoverlongdistances,includingroughstretchesofopenseaorportagingacrossoneormoreisthmusesbetweenneighbouringfjords.DistributionstudiesformanyNeolithicartefacttypes,whetherofsouthScandinavianoriginormadefromlocalslatesandschists,indicatethatSunnmørebelongedtoasocio-economicspheredifferentfromneighbouringregionstothesouth(Bergsvik2006).Mostlikely,theMjeltehaugenslabscamefromtheTrondheimFjordarea,wheretherearedecoratedslabfragmentsfromseveralgraves(Mandt1983,MarstranderandSognnes1999)andamajorclusterofsimilarboatimagesfromopen-airsites,particularlyatRøkke(Sognnes2001).
TheageoftheAuseviksiteinwesternNorwayhasbeenmuchdebated.AtthissiteseveralhundredzoomorphiccarvingsarefoundtogetherwithconcentricringsandspiralsfrequentintheBronzeAgetradition(Fig.4).Zoomorphsandringsappeartorepresentanentity,datedtoeithertheBronzeAge(Hagen1970)ortotheNeolithic,showinginfluencefromthecupandringtraditionintheBritishIsles(FettandFett1979,Walderhaug1998).GøranBurenhult(1980)arguedinfavourofaNeolithicbeginningfortheringimagesinScandinavia.ThecupandringtraditioncanbeidentifiedasfarnorthastheinnerendoftheTrondheimFjordaround64°N.
Otherfindsfromsouth-westernandcentralNorwayindicateNeolithicandearlyBronzeAgecontactswithwesternEurope,amongthemaspatula-shapedbronzeaxefromVevang,Nordmøre.ThisaxewasproducedintheareabetweentheriversRhine,Rhone,andSeine(Rønne2009).AtLindås,inthesameregion,acarvedstoneballfromScotland,probablyNeolithic,wasfound(Marstrander1979).Mostlikely,centralandwestEuropeanimpulses
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reachedsouth-westernandcentralNorwayduringtheNeolithic.TheseimpulseswerenotmediatedviasouthScandinavia.Theymergedwithexistinglocalrockarttraditions,inwhichboatimagesplayedanimportantrole.AtthebeginningoftheBronzeAge,localrockarttraditionswerereplacedbyanewsymbolicsystemtransmittedfromsouthScandinavia(cf.KristiansenandLarsson2005).Whileboatimagesenduredthroughthisnewtradition,thestyleofboatdepictionschangedasdidmuchelseabouttheart,includingashiftfromanimalstohumansasthemostcommonbeingsshown,andanewemphasisondepictinghuman-madematerialculturealongsidesignificantnumbersofcupmarks,rings,andgeometricimages.
Discussion:SurfaceTensions
RockartinScandinaviawasmadefromthelate(orperhapseventheearly)MesolithictotheRomanIronAge,presentingtwodifferentsymbolicsystemsandtraditions,onemadebyhunter-gatherers-fishersandonebyearlyfarmers.Some,andpossiblymost,hunter-gatherer-fisherrockartwasmadeduringtheNeolithic,contemporarywiththeexpansionoffarming.Bothtraditionsseemrelatedtosocialchanges,therockartbeingusedtocreateandmediatecohesionalongsideculturaldistinction.
Gjessing(1936)suggestedthatthelaterNeolithicrockartinNorwaywasmadebyshamansaspartofritualsperformedbeforeandduringthehunt.Recently,shamanismhasbeenbroughtbackintothediscourse.InNorway,GeirGrønnesby(1998)hasidentifiedaseriesofgeometricimageswhichmaybecorrelatedwiththethreestagemodelforshamanicentopticimages(Lewis-WilliamsandPearce2005).ShamanismhasalsobeenstronglyarguedforSwedishrockart(Fandén2002)andfortheFinnishrockpaintings(Lahelma2008).Thishas,however,beenstronglycriticizedbyHelenaGünther(2009),whofindsthatSwedishscholarsinparticularseldomdemonstratehowandinwhatwayshamanismmaybepresentinthearchaeologicalmaterial.
ThetotaldominanceofelkimageshasmadeitdifficulttoargueinfavourofScandinavianrockartrepresentingtotemism;alternativetotemsarehardlyeverfound.Thereare,however,someexceptionsinregionswheremorethanonerepresentationalmotifispresent,forinstanceinAlta,Finnmark(Olsen1994).AndersHesjedalarguedinfavouroftotemisminhisstudyofrockartintheprovincesofNordlandandTroms,Norway,whereimagesrepresentreindeer,bear,birds,seals,andwhales.Themajorityofmarineanimalsare,however,foundincentralNorway,wherepanelsmaycontainfish,birds,orwhalesonly.SitesatHammerandEvenhus,Nord-Trøndelag,containmostofthesemotifs.Hereclanswithdifferenttotemanimalsmayhavemet,atHammerduringthelateMesolithicandearlyNeolithic,atEvenhusattheendoftheNeolithic.Forsouth-easternNorway,whererockartisdominatedbyelkimages,IngridFuglestvedt(2008)arguesthatwemightidentifydifferenttotemicgroupsbymeansofhowtheimagesweredrawn.ShesuggesttheexistenceofanearlyMesolithicphasewithanimisticrockartrepresentedbyanimalsdrawnbycontourlinesonlyandalatertotemicphaseduringthelateMesolithicandearlyNeolithic,whentheimageshadcertaintypesofinfill,whichshesuggestsrepresentthreepossibletotemicgroups.
Differentanimalsorinfillmotifsmaysymbolizeclanswithdifferenttotems,then,whiletheemphasisonthelargerundomesticatedanimalssymbolizestraditionalvaluesandwaysoflifeinachangingworld.Butthisartcannotbeconsideredinisolationfromtherepresentationalmaterialcultureoftheperiod:bothdemonstrateambiguousimageswhichcouldbereadinseveraldifferentways.Somekniveswereshapedlikewhales,buthavetalesshapedlikeabearorabirdhead.Abirdimageturnedupsidedownresemblesawhale.Anelkmayhavetheantlerofareindeer.Elksanddeer,predominantlyshownwithoutantlers,mightbefemale,ormaleelksduringwintertime.Someelksaredepictedwiththeirlegsdetached,andtheirheadsandbodieslooklikeboats.Thus,themeaningoftheseimagesmighthavebeenpolyvalent.
ThemotifsontheBoynepassagetombsinIrelandindicaterelationshipsmediatedbyimages(Cochrane2006,267).Askingwhattheseabstractimages‘meant’maybethewrongquestion(cf.Bloch1995;Cochrane2005;2009a;Jones2006;CochraneandJones2012).Wemaydobettertofocusontheeffectandtheprocessofrepeatedlycarvingimagesintothesamestonesandleavingthepotentialforsimilarpracticesinthefuture(cf.Gell1998;Cochrane2008;2009a).Manypreviousaccountsinterprettheseimagesassignsandtokensthatresideinthe‘real’world,alludingtoahiddencosmologicalworld(e.g.Tilley1991;1999;LewisWilliamsandDowson1993;LewisWilliamsandPearce2005).Yettheseimagesmayexpressratherthanrepresent—significanceisthusbasedoncontextualcontingenciesofuse,itisnotapre-constructedgiven.SoratherthandecodethepossiblemeaningsoftherockartinBritainandIreland,wesuggesttheutilizationofnon-textualanalogiessuchasthosebasedin
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appreciationsofperformanceorartisticproduction.Unfinishedworks—suchasMichelangelo’snonfinitos(three-fifthsofhissculptureswereunfinished:Schulz1975)ormuchrockartinBritainandIreland—effectivelycreateaneurologicaltrick.Theycreatecognitiveindecipherabilityandactivateimaginativeprocesses—thespectatorisstimulatedbytheambiguityofthesculptureandisenticedtotryandinterpretwhatismissingorwhatishappening.Theseeffectsworkwhetheroneimaginestheimagesascarvedinto,drawnoutof,orpassedalongthestone.Itisplausibleforrocksurfacestobethoughtofassemi-permeableandmulti-directional.Imagesonpassagetombsandopen-airrockartaresimulationsofinterpretationsofreality(Cochrane2006;2009a).Whenengagingwithanyunfinisheddecoratedstone,theviewerwilltryanddeterminewhatishappening:Wheredotheimagesstartandthestonestop?Whyarepartsofthestoneleftunfinishedandundressed?Isthereanothertraceimagebelow?Assuch,rockartinvitesquestionsthatthespectatorwilloftennotbeabletoanswer.Withrockartambiguityandhesitationaretriggeredbythevisualpuzzlesleftbythecreatorsoftheart.
Acrosstwotothreegenerations,memoriesofthecarvingofmotifsatopen-airpanelsoratpassagetombsmaybeattributedtoparticularpersonsorgroupswithinsociety,withmemoriesofwhytheywereengravedpersisting.Overlongerperiodsoftime,suchasfromtheearlierNeolithictothelaterNeolithic,personalnarrativesorstoriesofmotifapplicationmayhavetransformedintomythsorsagas.Theseoral‘histories’ormythsmayhavebeencomplexandopentocreativeandselectivere-workings,producingmanymemories,somerealandsomeimaged,oftensimultaneously.Bradley(2002a,8)notesthatoraltraditionscaninsomeinstancesbecomeunstableorevencorruptwithin200years.Whittlesuggeststhatthese‘longconversations’mayhaveincorporated‘powerfulgeneralnotionsofpartiality,fragmentation,contrastandoverlap’(2003,132).Toexpanduponthispoint,wedrawupontherecentworkofCummings(2002),whohascommentedonthesimilaritiesbetweensomechamberedtombsandnaturalgeologicalfeaturesinsouth-westWalesandsouth-westScotland.Sheremarksthatoversuccessivegenerations,peoplemaynothavedistinguishedbetweenstructuresthatwere‘original’andonescreatedbypastgenerationsormythicentities.Likewise,earlierrockartmotifsmightnothavebeen‘remembered’orconsideredinthesamemannerbysuccessivegroups.Relationshipsbetweenpeopleandmotifsmayhavebeenambiguous,needingtobeconstantlyworkedatorrenegotiated,forinstancebysuperimposition.Ifthesuperimpositionsofmotifswerepartofprocessesofremembranceorcitation,theycreateaparadoxwheretheimagesrefertoapossiblepastbutaredirectedtoafutureinwhichitisanticipatedthatinterpretationwillberetrospective(seeBradley2002b,122).Itisalsopossibleforinterpretationtobeadhocandprospectiveinothercircumstances.
Conclusion
TherockartofBritainandIrelandwasexecutedoverabroadtimespanfromtheearlyNeolithictoearlyBronzeAge.Whilethetraditionchangedoverthisperiodoneofitscuriousaspectsisthesingularlackofrepresentationalimages.InthissensethispracticecontrastsstronglywithotherregionsofEurope,includingnorthernmostEurope.Wehavearguedthatmotifsareambiguous,andthat,comparedwithelsewhereinnorthernEurope,BritishandIrishrockarttraditionsaremorecloselydirectedtowardsactivitiesofmakingratherthansignification.Byfocusingontherelationshipbetweenrocksurfaceandimage,ontheunfinishedandtheuncertain,thistraditionmightbemoreconcernedwithwhatcarvingdoesthanwhatitmeans.Thesecouldbe‘imagesaboutimagemaking’.Rockartappealstosensesbeyondvision(e.g.touch,sound)andsensuousengagementswithrockpanels(decoratedandotherwise)canbefurtherstimulatedbytheapplicationsofliquids,pigments,andsounds(Jones2006;Cochrane2008;Watson2009).Becauseoftheirabstractandengravednature,therockarttraditionsofBritainandIrelandstanddistinctfromotherEuropeanNeolithicrockarttraditionsastheyarenotattemptingtocarvepersonsintheworld,beitanimals,humans,orobjects:rathertheyaremakingpresenttheactofcarvingitself.Incontrast,therepresentationalartofnorthernmostEuropehasbeenusedtotracktheidentity-makingpracticesofhunter-fisher-gatherergroupsinthecontextofchanginglong-rangenetworks.Theelkwasthedominantmotifofthesecommunities,stressingtheimportanceofwildanimalsforthem.Nonetheless,amongthesetraditionstoowecansupposethatthemakingofmotifswasatleastasimportantasthemeaningofthemotifsthemselvesand,followingtheendoftheNeolithicinScandinavia,non-figurativeartplayedanincreasinglyimportantrolealongsidefigurativemotifs.
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