Bacalar Chico: Belize Barrier Reef's Northernmost Marine Reserve

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TOO PRECIOUS TO DRILL THE MARINE BIODIVERSITY OF BELIZE edited by Maria Lourdes D Palomares and Daniel Pauly Fisheries Centre Research Reports 19(6) 175 pages copy published 2011 by The Fisheries Centre University of British Columbia 2202 Main Mall Vancouver BC Canada V6T 1Z4 ISSN 1198shy6727

Too Precious to Drill The Marine Biodiversity of Belize Palomares and Pauly

1

DIRECTORrsquoS FOREWORD

The April 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil rig blowout in the Gulf of Mexico has sharpened attention on the oil spills occurring in many parts of the world ocean and their potential damaging effects on marine ecosystems and the living organisms they sustain This report focuses on the sustainability of marine fisheries of Belize in the face of potential impacts of ocean threats ndash in particular oil spills The report is timely and important in at least two ways First it addresses oil spills in the ocean which occur frequently worldwide and can have significant effects on life in the ocean and the wellbeing of the people dependent on it Second the report focuses on a small developing country Belize ndash an example of a country that does not usually receive the attention it deserves by researchers even though the ocean and the resources it contains is the main source of existence for its citizens Thirdly this work is a collaboration between academic researchers NGOs and management partners thereby making the research output more relevant to real life problems

This report consists of several chapters that tackle issues ranging from the ecology of the marine ecosystem of Belize right through to the economic benefits currently derived from activities dependent on the ecosystem These include fishing angling and whale(shark) watching A crucial point made in the report is that while oil is a nonshyrenewable resource fish is renewable This means that in comparing the benefits from drilling the marine ecosystem of Belize it is important that in the short term possibly larger benefits from oil drilling should not be allowed to trump benefits that if wellshymanaged and protected are capable of continuing to flow through time benefiting all generations

The result of the work reported in this contribution which is based on a broad collaboration between scientists civil society members and managers serves as a good example of how to produce policy relevant research that serves societal goals and objectives

I commend the authors of the report for producing a significant piece of research that has a strong potential to contribute positively to policy making in Belize

U RASHID SUMAILA Director and Professor The Fisheries Centre UBC


2

EDITORSrsquo PREFACE

There is a huge amount of zoological and botanical publications on the marine biodiversity of Belize notably because the American Museum of Natural History in New York and the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC established marine stations many years ago in Belize and used these for continuous monitoring and for generations of graduate students to complete their theses All these and similar materials were however published mainly in US and British scientific journals with only sporadic efforts to make it accessible to the Belizean students and members of the public Thus those Belizeans who live with their back to the sea do not get the information that they need to turn around and fully appreciate the beauty and wealth of the biodiversity along their shores and its role in attracting tourists and producing seafood This also leads to the Belizean public not fully appreciating the risk to marine biodiversity of an oil spill and the potential cost to their economy

In view of the debate and the possibility of a national referendum on offshore oil drilling in Belize a conference entitled lsquoToo Precious to Drill the Marine Biodiversity of Belizersquo was organized jointly by Oceana Belize and the Sea Around Us project with major funding from the Oak Foundation This report assembles the contributions presented at this conference and is complemented by a conference website (lsquoToo Precious to Drill the Marine Biodiversity of Belizersquo at wwwseaaroundusorg under lsquoHot Topicrsquo) which assembles all the published material that was used in enhancing the content of SeaLifeBase (wwwsealifebaseorg) and FishBase (wwwfishbaseorg) for Belize two global information systems documenting nomenclature geography ecology and biology of marine organisms of the world and which hopefully will become tools for familiarizing Belizean students with their marine biodiversity Also we hope that this report and the conference website will contribute to informing the national debate on oil drilling in Belizean waters

We thank Ms Audrey MaturashyShepherd and her staff at Oceana Belize for their enthusiastic assistance with the preparation of this material and the event at which it was released and the Oak Foundation for funding the event and the preparation of this report The Sea Around Us project of which this report is a product is a scientific collaboration between the University of British Columbia and the Pew Environment Group

Bacalar Chico Atewerbehan et al

112

BACALAR CHICO BELIZE BARRIER REEFrsquoS NORTHERNMOST MARINE RESERVE1

Mebrahtu Ateweberhan Jennifer Chapman Frances Humber Alasdair Harris and Nick Jones

Blue Ventures Conservation Aberdeen Centres 22shy24 Highbury Grove London N5 2EA researchblueventuresorg

ABSTRACT

Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve (lsquoBacalar Chicorsquo) is found on the northern section of Ambergris Caye bordering Mexico Established in 1996 as a Marine Protected Area (MPA) it is the only point along the MesoshyAmerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) where two Marine Reserves Bacalar Chico of Belize and Arrecife de Xcalak of Mexico are connected to each other The waters surrounding Bacalar Chico host a wide range of marine ecosystems including coral reefs seagrass beds mangroves and sand cays and a diverse array of terrestrial wildlife Generally the reefs of Bacalar Chico are similar to many degraded Caribbean reefs in their benthic coral and fish composition dominated by fleshy and turf algae and with low fish biomass and diversity Despite the higher coral cover and coral and fish diversity in fisheries closures the full benefit of management in attaining high biomass of key fish functional groups and diversity is not achieved yet and management effort should be intensified along with continued collection of baseline data to assess the effectiveness of the management of the marine reserve and monitor the health of the coral reef ecosystem Considering the fragile nature of the coastal ecosystems and the existing high stress levels any coastal development projects including prospecting for minerals and oil that may further pose a threat to the ecosystems and well being of the communities should be critically assessed

INTRODUCTION

Coral reefs of the Caribbean region have shown drastic declines in coral cover (by almost 80) increased shift in benthic and coral community structure from coral to turf and fleshy algal dominance during the last few decades (Hughes 1994 Szmant 1997 Gardner et al 2003 Aronson and Precht 2006) This shift occurred in conjunction with episodic events of coral disease and bleaching but also overfishing and destructive fishing excessive input of nutrients and other pollutants and coastal development (Gardner et al 2003 Aronson and Precht 2006 Rogers and Miller 2006 Schutte et al 2010)

This Caribbean wide decline in coral abundance is mostly associated with the white band disease outbreak of the late 1970s and successive bleaching events in 198283 1987 and 1998 (Aronson and Precht 2006 Schutte et al 2010) The 1998 event caused unprecedented damage to the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) with a 19 reduction in Scleractinian coral cover (Kramer and Kramer 2000) In October of the same year the category 5 Hurricane Mitch hit the region causing significant damage and exacerbating the effects of bleaching (Kramer and Kramer 2000) resulting in coral mortality of 50 or greater on some reefs (GarciashySalgado et al 2008) The region has again seen record thermal stresses and bleaching in 2005 and 2010 (GarciacuteashySalgado et al 2008 Eakin et al 2010) The decline in sea urchin biomass due to disease and herbivorous fish populations due to overfishing and increase in nutrient input has shifted the balance in competition in favour of turf and fleshy algae resulting in a lower coral recovery and overall low reef resilience (Hughes 1994 Bellwood et al 2004 Mumby et al 2006 HoeghshyGuldberg et al 2007)

THE MESOAMERICAN BARRIER REEF

The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) in the western Caribbean stretches over 1000 km and includes four countries ie Mexico Belize Guatemala and Honduras It is the second largest barrier reef in the world and the largest in the western hemisphere The MBRS provides income to over one million

1 Cite as Ateweberhan M Chapman J Humber F Harris A Jones N 2011 Bacalar Chico Belize Barrier Reefrsquos northernmost marine reserve In Palomares MLD Pauly D (eds) Too Precious to Drill the Marine Biodiversity of Belize pp 112shy118 Fisheries Centre Research Reports 19(6) Fisheries Centre University of British Columbia [ISSN 1198shy6727]

Too Precious to Drill the Marine Biodiversity of Belize Palomares and Pauly

113

people (Wilkinson et al 2008) primarily through tourism and fishing (Gorrez and McPherson 2006) In 1996 the MBRS was declared a lsquoWorld Heritage Sitersquo as it contains important and significant habitats for threatened species areas of exceptional natural beauty and examples of unique ecological and biological processes

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has identified the MBRS as a global priority for conservation A collaborative effort between the four bordering countries resulted in the creation of the lsquoMBRS Synoptic Monitoring Programrsquo which used standardised surveying methodologies and describes in detail the health of the coastal and marine ecosystems of the Mesoamerican region

THE BELIZE BARRIER REEF

The core region of the MBRS is within Belize and is one of the worldrsquos biodiversity hotspotsmdashrecognised as one of the seven wonders of the underwater world (Conservation International 2003) The area is of great conservational importance with endangered marine and terrestrial species commercially important invertebrate species turtle nesting colonies and fish spawning aggregations (Graham et al 2008) However fish stocks are declining (Gibson et al 1998) and a large proportion of the coral reef is at risk of further large scale disturbances from coral bleaching and disease (Harvell et al 2007 GarciacuteashySalgado et al 2008)

Efforts are being made to try to relieve the pressure on the coral reefs A landmark ban on all trawling in Belizean waters went into effect on 31st December 2010 This is envisaged to limit the amount of habitat destruction and overexploitation of both target and nonshytarget species Fishing for conch and lobster is common throughout Belize and seasonal closures have been introduced to reduce their exploitation

Considering its global significance for biodiversity conservation and the benefits to local communities the collection of baseline data and establishment of long term monitoring programmes is of key importance to assess the health and sustainability of the coral reef ecosystem

THE BACALAR CHICO MARINE RESERVE

Location and Geography

Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve (lsquoBacalar Chicorsquo) is the most northern marine reserve found in Belize where the coral reef runs parallel through the entire 300 km coastline Bacalar Chico is found on the northern section of Ambergris Caye bordering Mexico and spans 15529 acres of coastal water Established in 1996 as a Marine Protected Area (MPA) it is the only point along the MBRS where two marine reserves Bacalar Chico of Belize and Arrecife de Xcalak of Mexico are connected to each other The waters surrounding Bacalar Chico host a diverse array of terrestrial and marine wildlife as well as a wide range of marine ecosystems including seagrass beds mangroves lagoons and sand cays

The Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve is divided into four sections (Figure 1) The Preservation Zone (PZ) is found furthest north adjacent to the Mexican border It has the greatest restrictions in place as no fishing or watershybased activities are allowed The fore reef is separated by a wide sandy channel which runs from Mexico down the length of the Preservation Zone creating a double reef system Either side of the valley are reef walls that extend upwards into rocky plateaus and reef flats On the western side reef flats extend from the reef crest into a steep wall leading into the valley The eastern edge rises from the valley to form a rocky plateau before sloping into deeper water forming spur and groove channels The back reef consists of shallow patch reef and seagrass beds

Conservation Zone 1 (CZ1) is adjacent to the Preservation Zone and while fishing is still banned SCUBA diving is permitted under permission of the Fisheries Department The reef is predominantly spur and groove with reef tops separated by narrow deep sandy channels which open up moving into deeper water Some deeper patch reefs can be found in the back reef as well as additional seagrass beds close to shore

In Conservation Zone 2 (CZ2) only nonshyextractive activities are permitted and sport fishing is regulated It is a unique area as it contains the only point along MBRS where the reef meets the land (Rocky Point) There are fossil limestone remains of the coral reef that once thrived here when sea levels were higher South of Rocky Point at the end of Conservation Zone 2 the spur and groove formations continue into the


114

area of highest coral cover in Bacalar Chico The back reef up until Rocky Point consists of patch reefs with large sandy patches separated by large coral colonies

The General Use Zone (GUZ) located either side of Conservation Zone 2 is the only area in the reserve where fishing is permitted Strombus gigas (queen conch) and Panularis argus (spiny lobster) are the main target species but line fishing and beach traps are also used The lagoon is shallow with an average depth of 2shy3 m whilst the fore reef continues with spur and groove reef formations until it runs into relatively barren reef flats

HISTORY AND CONTEXT OF BACALAR CHICO MARINE RESERVE

Bacalar Chico is a marine protected area (MPA) and UNESCO World Heritage site that was set up in 1996 under the National Park Systems Act (Laws of Belize Chapter 215 Revised 2000) as a result of lobbying from local fishers from the village of Sarteneja The marine reserve together with the National Park the terrestrial area of Bacalar Chico encompasses 60 km2 and includes mangroves lagoons sublittoral forests and coral reef habitats

The aims of establishing Bacalar Chico as an MPA were to ensure fish stocks remained sustainable regulate watershybased sports prohibit illegal fishing and conduct monitoring and research The reserve is managed by the Belize Fisheries Department which has a ranger station on the western side of Ambergris Caye facing the Corozal Bay Wildlife Sanctuary at San Juan Despite Fisheries Officers being present year round and conducting regular patrols fishing incursions still occur The fishers are predominantly from San Pedro on Southern Ambergris Caye and Xcalak Mexico At present the Bacalar Chico Fisheries Department carries out coral reef mangrove seagrass bird nesting turtle nesting invertebrate and spawning aggregation monitoring

Threats to the Reef

Natural disturbances have had devastating effects on the coral reefs of Belize in the last three decades including hurricanes bleaching events and disease epidemics (GarciacuteashySalgado et al 2008) The increasing sea surface temperatures have resulted in an increase in both the number and severity of mass bleaching events (Aronson et al 2000)

Direct anthropogenic threats include overfishing particularly that of key herbivorous fishes The decline in these species has been linked to the observed large increases in macroalgae growth (Lewis and Wainwright 1985 Lewis 1986 Carpenter 1990b) Increases in macroalgae coverage could have a severe impact on the coral reef as macroalgae compete with scleractinian corals directly for space and sunlight (Box and Mumby 2007 Vu et al 2009) Therefore herbivorous fish are vital in maintaining the health of the reef environment (Lewis 1986 Carpenter 1990a Bellwood et al 2004 Bellwood et al 2006) In the absence of large biomass of herbivorous fish mass mortality of Diadema antillarum urchins due to a disease epidemic in the 1980rsquos and 1990rsquos throughout the Caribbean is thought also to have played a large role in increases in macroalgal biomass (Carpenter 1990a Lessios 1995 Edmunds and Carpenter 2001)

Figure 1 The four management zones of the Bacalar Chico marine reserve


115

The increase in development along the Belize coastline is another major anthropogenic threat Roberts et al (2002) identified the Belize Barrier Reef as one of the reef systems most threatened by human impact Recent studies have shown that over twoshythirds of the coral reefs in the Caribbean are threatened by human activity (Burke and Maidens 2004 Burke et al 2011) The removal of mangrove habitats is of particular concern as they are vital to the success of coral reef ecosystems they provide vital habitat for juvenile reef fish filter runshyoff from the land and prevent erosion of the land (Ronnback 1999 Mumby et al 2004 Harborne et al 2006) At present there is very limited development in Bacalar Chico with the closest settlement in the north the village of Xcalak in Mexico which is outside the reserve and the nearest settlement is approximately 25 km south the Tranquillity Bay Hotel However with much of the coastline privately owned land an increasing number of hotel complexes have been built in the southern part of the reserve and land has been cleared for development Therefore coastal development seems likely to become a greater threat to Bacalar Chico

Previous Assessment of Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve

The Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve management plan was prepared in 1995 (Dotherow et al 1995) making it amongst the first of seven Marine Reserves to come under the direct management of the Belizean Fisheries Department

The MBRS Synoptic Monitoring Programme identified areas for monitoring in Mexico Belize Honduras and Guatemala (GarciashySalgado et al 2008) Eight MPAs in Belize were selected for monitoring including the Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve Within Bacalar Chico five sites were chosen for monitoring purposes During baseline surveys of the selected MPAs in 2004 Bacalar Chico was found to have the largest populations of herbivorous fish species (Acanthuridae and Scaridae GarciacuteashySalgado et al 2008) However overall fish abundance dropped from an average of about 40100 m2 in 2004shy2006 to below 22100 m2 in 2007 (GarciacuteashySalgado et al 2008) Initial analysis of the 2004 data indicated that Bacalar Chico was in lsquoalert statusrsquo with less than 19 of Scleractinian coral cover though by 2008 it was reported to be in good condition as the data showed that hard coral cover had increased by 15 (18 in 2004 to 33 in 2008 GarciacuteashySalgado et al 2008)

2010 ASSESSMENT

In 2010 Blue Ventures Conservation initiated a coral reef monitoring programme in Bacalar Chico Benthic and coral community composition and reef health fish abundance and biomass density and sighting frequency of invasive commercially important and endangered fish species and megafauna were surveyed using the MBRS Network survey model (AlmadashyVillela et al 2003)

The majority of sites surveyed had low scleractinian coral cover (average cover 105) high cover of turf and fleshy algae Dictyota and Lobophora were the fleshy macroalgal species with high abundance form dense mats which prevent coral settlement This low coral cover is typical of the Caribbean and MBRS that have seen a dramatic decline in coral cover over the last few decades (Gardner et al 2003) Associated with the decline in herbivorous fish and sea urchin biomass and increase in nutrient levels sedimentation hurricane activity and coastal development overtime the reefs have become less resilient (Lessios et al 1984 Hughes 1994 Edmunds and Carpenter 2001 Gardner et al 2005 VargasshyAacutengel et al 2007 Wilkinson et al 2008) The healthiest reef sites were found on the fore reef in PZ and CZ2 where high coral cover (gt20) and species richness and diversity were observed These 2 zones are also two of the few places to have relatively high abundances of the IUCN lsquocritically endangeredrsquo coral species Acropora palmata (PZ) and Acropora cervicornis (CZ2) The coral community composition reflects the disturbance history of the region and the influence of the hydrological systems in the study area The most abundant coral species belong to species with opportunistic life history strategy with encrusting growth form eg Porites astreoides and Agaricia agaricites

Total abundance and abundance of major fish families and species diversity were higher on the fore reef and fringing reef than the back reef and on the conservationpreservation zones than the general use zone Haemulids were an exception having highest abundance on the GUZ Patterns in total fish biomass and biomass of economically and commercially important fish species was less clear as there were high and low biomass sites within the different reef habitats and conservation zones Sites with highest coral cover did not have a particularly high abundance or biomass of key fish functional groups They tend to have specific topographical features which influence abundance rather than the health of the reef itself In many cases large biomass values were due to the large haemulid biomass in specific areas as reported by


116

Hawkins and Roberts (2004) The mismatch in the patterns between total fish abundance and biomass is probably caused by the difference in fish size Sites with low fish abundance could have large biomasses due to the presence of a few but large individuals

Large spawning aggregations were observed in Bacalar Chico off Rocky Point where large abundances of Serranidae Lutjanidae and Carangidae species can be seen leading up to the full moon The specific geomorphology of the reef with a gently sloping contour and the environmental conditions with variable currents provide ideal habitat for spawning aggregations (Heyman and Kjerfve 2008) Spawning probably occurs throughout the year with different species forming spawning during a particular season of a year as observed southern in Belize (Heyman and Kjerfve 2008) Thus any fishing targeting this area is expected to have significant effects on the fish populations involved Shark species were less frequently encountered with Ginglymostoma cirratum (nurse shark) having the highest number of sightings A single sighting of Rhincodon typus (whale shark) was recorded on 8th May 2010 Ray fish abundance was relatively high with 144 Dasyatis americana (southern stingray) and 37 Aetobatus narinari (spotted eagle ray) individuals sighted The majority of D americana and A narinari were sighted on the back reef with a few but larger individuals seen on the fore reef

Four species of marine turtles were seen the most frequently encountered was Eretmochelys imbricata (hawksbill sea turtle) with 36 sightings over 6 months Caretta caretta (loggerhead sea turtle) was encountered 14 times with most sightings around the breeding season in May and June Chelonia mydas (green sea turtle) was less frequently encountered There was also one sighting of Dermochelys coriacea (leatherback sea turtle)

Two species of dolphins were encountered Stenella frontalis (Atlantic spotted dolphin) and Tursiops truncatus (bottlenose dolphin) From October to November large pods of T truncatus were commonly encountered both on the fore reef and the back reef The Trichecus manatus (manatee) population in Bacalar Chico appeared to be relatively small with 15 sightings in both the mangroves and the back reef Sightings in the mangroves were most common from March to May with subsequent sightings only on the back reef when animals were observed feeding in seagrass beds

A major problem faced on the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef is the growing threat of invasive species primarily Pterois volitans (lionfish) which feeds voraciously on recruits and juveniles of reef fishes and has no evident predators in the Caribbean An increasing number of invasive lionfish Pterois miles and Pterois volitans have been found in Belize including Bacalar Chico In March 2010 lionfish sightings in Bacalar Chico were considered rare There were 78 sightings between 10th September and 5th October 2010 and 109 between 29th October and 22nd November 2010 The vast majority of sightings were on the fore reef and at depths below 10 m Most sightings were in areas where there were large numbers of recruits and juvenile fish the prime prey of lionfish The increase in lionfish sightings during the study period is in agreement with other observations in other areas of the Caribbean (Schofield 2009) with expected negative effects on indigenous fish populations and reef ecology in general (Albins and Hixon 2008)

CONCLUSIONS

Patterns in benthic and coral composition fish abundance biomass and diversity on the coral reefs of Bacalar Chico are typical of degraded Caribbean reefs dominated by fleshy and turf algae Considering the age of the marine reserve full benefit of management has not been achieved yet The absence of particularly high biomass of key fish families in the conservation zones suggests that management is not strongly enforced Continued collection of baseline data should be ensured in order to assess the effectiveness of the management of the marine reserve and monitoring reef health of the coral reef ecosystem Any coastal development projects in this already stressed ecosystem should be critically assessed so that they donrsquot interfere with the longshyterm management of the marine resources

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks go to and Deng Palomares and Daniel Pauly for organising the conference and to the Belize Department of Fisheries for their support Thanks also to Rajah Roy Nikkita Lawton Sarah Adams Alasdair CoyleshyGilchrist Jon Slayer Jerrod Jones and Blue Venturesrsquo volunteers


117

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Bellwood DR Hughes RH Hoey AS 2006 Sleeping functional group drives coralshyreef recovery Current Biology 16 2434shy2439

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Burke L Reytar K Spalding M Perry A 2011 Reefs at risk revisited Washington DC World Resources Institute

Carpenter RC 1990a Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum I Longshyterm effects on sea urchin populationshydynamics and coral reef algal communities Marine Biology 104 67shy77

Carpenter RC 1990b Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum II Effects on population densities and grazing intensities of parrotfishes and surgeonfishes Marine Biology 104 79shy86

Dotherow M Wells S Young E 1995 Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary Preliminary Draft Management Plan Fisheries Department and Forest Department Government of Belize Unpublished

Eakin CM Morgan JA Heron SF Smith TB Liu G AlvarezshyFilip L Baca B Bartels E Bastidas C Bouchon C 2010 Caribbean corals in crisis record thermal stress bleaching and mortality in 2005 PLoS ONE 5 e13969

Edmunds PJ Carpenter RC 2001 Recovery of Diadema antillarum reduces macroalgal cover and increases abundance of juvenile corals on a Caribbean reef Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 98 5067

GarciacuteashySalgado MA NavashyMartiacutenez GG Vasquez M Jacobs ND Majil I MolinashyRamiacuterez A YantildeezshyRivera B Cubas A DominguezshyCalderon JJ Hadaad W 2008 Declining Trend on the Mesoamerican Reef System Marine Protected Areas Proceedings of the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium Ft Lauderdale Florida 7shy11 July 2008 Vol 2 888shy894

Gardner TA Cote I Gill JA Grant A Watkinson AR 2005 Hurricanes and Caribbean coral reefs impacts recovery patterns and role in longshyterm decline Ecology 86 174shy184

Gardner TA Cote IM Gill JA Grant A Watkinson AR 2003 Longshyterm regionshywide declines in Caribbean corals Science 301 958shy960

Gibson J Mcfield M Wells S 1998 Coral reef management in Belize an approach through Integrated Coastal Zone Management Ocean and Coastal Management 39 229shy244

Gorrez M McPherson M 2006 Calculation of number of people directly dependent on marine resources of the MAR Available at wwwhealthyreefsorg

Graham RT Carcamo R Rhodes KL Roberts CM Requena N 2008 Historical and contemporary evidence of a mutton snapper (Lutjanus analis Cuvier 1828) spawning aggregation fishery in decline Coral Reefs 27 311shy319

Harborne AR Mumby PJ Micheli F Perry CT Dahlgren CP Holmes KE Brumbaugh DR 2006 The functional value of Caribbean coral reef seagrass and mangrove habitats to ecosystem processes Advances in Marine Biology 50 57shy189

Harvell D JordaacutenshyDahlgren E Merkel S Rosenberg E Raymundo L Smith G Weil E Willis B 2007 Coral disease environmental drivers and the balance between coral and microbial associates Oceanography 20 172shy195

Hawkins JP Roberts CM 2004 Effects of artisanal fishing on Caribbean coral reefs Conservation Biology 18 215shy226

Heyman WD Kjerfve B 2008 Characterization of transient multishyspecies reef fish spawning aggregations at Gladden Spit Belize Bulletin of Marine Science 83 531shy551

HoeghshyGuldberg O Mumby PJ Hooten AJ Steneck RS Greenfield P Gomez E Harvell CD Sale PF Edwards AJ Caldeira K 2007 Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification Science 318 1737

Hughes TP 1994 Catastrophes phase shifts and largeshyscale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef Science 265 1547shy1551

Hughes TP Rodrigues MJ Bellwood DR Ceccarelli D HoeghshyGuldberg O Mccook L Moltschaniwskyj N Pratchett MS Steneck RS Willis B 2007 Phase shift herbivory and the resilience of coral reefs to climate change Current Biology 17 1shy6

Kramer PA Kramer PR 2000 Ecological status of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) Effects of Hurricane Mitch and 1998 bleaching Final Report 73 pp

Lessios HA 1995 Diadema antillarum 10 years after mass mortality still rare despite help from a competitor Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Science 259 331shy337

Lessios HA Robertson DR Cubit JD 1984 Spread of Diadema mass mortality through the Caribbean Science 226 335


118

Lewis SA 1986 The role of herbivorous fishes in the organization of a Caribbean reef community Ecological Monographs 56 183shy200

Lewis SM Wainwright PC 1985 Herbivore abundance and grazing intensity on a Caribbean coral reef Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 216shy228

Mumby PJ Dahlgren CP Harborne AR Kappel CV Micheli F Brumbaugh DR Holmes KE Mendes J Broad K Sanchirico JN Buch K Box S Stoffle RW Gill AB 2006 Fishing trophic cascades and the process of grazing on coral reefs Science 311 98shy101

Mumby PJ Edwards AJ AriasshyGonzaacutelez JE Lindeman KC Blackwell PG Gall A Gorczynska MI Harborne AR Pescod CL Renken H 2004 Mangroves enhance the biomass of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean Nature 427 533shy536

Roberts CM McClean CJ Veron JEN Hawkins JP Allen GR McAllister DE Mittermeier CG Schueler FW Spalding M Wells F Vynne C Werner TB 2002 Marine biodiversity hotspots and conservation priorities for tropical reefs Science 295 1280shy1284

Rogers CS Miller J 2006 Permanent phase shifts or reversible declines in coral cover Lack of recovery of two coral reefs in St John US Virgin Islands Marine Ecology and Progress Series 306 103shy114

Ronnback P 1999 The ecological basis for economic value of seafood production supported by mangrove ecosystems Ecological Economics 29 235shy252

Schofield PJ 2009 Geographic extent and chronology of the invasion of nonshynative lionfish (Pterois volitans [Linnaeus 1758] and P miles [Bennett 1828]) in the Western North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea Aquatic Invasions 4 DOI 103391ai200943

Schutte V Selig ER Bruno JF 2010 Regional spatioshytemporal trends in Caribbean coral reef benthic communities Marine Ecology and Progress Series 402 115shy122

Szmant AM 1997 Nutrient effects on coral reefs a hypothesis on the importance of topographic and trophic complexity to reef nutrient dynamics Proceedings of 8th International Coral Reef Symposium 2 1527shy1532

VargasshyAacutengel B Peters EC KramarskyshyWinter E Gilliam DS Dodge RE 2007 Cellular reactions to sedimentation and temperature stress in the Caribbean coral Montastraea cavernosa Journal of Ivertebrate Pathology 95 140shy145

Vu I Smelick G Harris S Lee SC Weil E Whitehead RF Bruno JF 2009 Macroalgae has no effect on the severity and dynamics of Caribbean yellow band disease PLoS ONE 4 e4514

Wilkinson CR Souter D Network GCRM 2008 Status of Caribbean coral reefs after bleaching and hurricanes in 2005 Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network

Directorrsquos foreword

Preliminary estimate of total marine fisheries catches in Corsica France (1950-2008)

A brief history of fishing in the Kerguelen Islands France1

Reconstruction of total marine fisheries catches for Madagascar (1950-2008)1

Reconstruction of marine fisheries catches for Mauritius and its outer islands 1950-20081

Reconstruction of Naurursquos fisheries catches 1950-20081

Marine fisheries of Palau 1950-2008 total reconstructed catch1

Reconstruction of Sri Lankarsquos fisheries catches 1950-20081

Reconstruction of Fisheries Catches for Tokelau (1950-2009)1

Reconstructing marine fisheries catches for the Kingdom of Tonga 1950-20071

Reconstruction of marine fisheries catches for Tuvalu (1950-2009)1

TOO PRECIOUS TO DRILL THE MARINE BIODIVERSITY OF BELIZE edited by Maria Lourdes D Palomares and Daniel Pauly Fisheries Centre Research Reports 19(6) 175 pages copy published 2011 by The Fisheries Centre University of British Columbia 2202 Main Mall Vancouver BC Canada V6T 1Z4 ISSN 1198shy6727


1








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ABSTRACT


INTRODUCTION







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Threats to the Reef





115





2010 ASSESSMENT





116






CONCLUSIONS


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



117































118


























1








2






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ABSTRACT


INTRODUCTION







113














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Threats to the Reef





115





2010 ASSESSMENT





116






CONCLUSIONS


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



117































118


























2






112




ABSTRACT


INTRODUCTION







113














114






Threats to the Reef





115





2010 ASSESSMENT





116






CONCLUSIONS


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



117































118


























112




ABSTRACT


INTRODUCTION







113














114






Threats to the Reef





115





2010 ASSESSMENT





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CONCLUSIONS


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



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Threats to the Reef





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2010 ASSESSMENT





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CONCLUSIONS


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



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Threats to the Reef





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2010 ASSESSMENT





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CONCLUSIONS


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



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2010 ASSESSMENT





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CONCLUSIONS


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



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CONCLUSIONS


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



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Bacalar Chico: Belize Barrier Reef's Northernmost Marine Reserve

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Transcript of Bacalar Chico: Belize Barrier Reef's Northernmost Marine Reserve