Van Hoek

105

American Indian Rock Art, Volume 33. Don D. Christensen and Peggy Whitehead, Editors. American Rock Art Research Association, 2007, pp. 105–116.

W

ithin the United States of America, some of the largest

concentrations of rock art are found in the Southwest.

The Colorado Plateau is home to thousands of prehis-

toric Indian rock art sites, comprising impressive pictographs

(rock paintings) and intriguing petroglyphs (images created by

removing a portion of the rock surface). Despite its visual simplic-

ity, one of the most enigmatic petroglyph manifestations is the

cupule—a small, anthropic (human-made), hemispherical depres-

sion pounded, pecked, or ground into the rock. Unfortunately,

cupules are often neglected in rock art studies, especially when

they are found combined with seemingly more interesting figura-

tive art. If indeed the survey of a rock art panel featuring both

cupules and figurative imagery completely shifts towards describing

and interpreting the figurative components, one ignores the fact

that it is necessary to include every anthropic mark on the panel

(even graffiti) in order to create as complete a picture as possible.

This negligence seems to occur in rock art studies of the Colorado

Plateau. If cupules are mentioned in these surveys, they usually

form an integral part of a figurative image, indicating for instance

the vulva of a female figure or the toes of a paw. Such cupules

Atypical Cupules at Two Rock Art Sites in

Southeastern Utah

Maarten van Hoek

Maarten van Hoek

Cupules are important rock art manifestations, yet often underestimated. A true cupule may be defined as

“a more or less cup-shaped, non-utilitarian and definitely anthropic mark of fixed maximum-minimum

dimensions that has been pecked, ground, or pounded into a natural rock surface.” Cupules having deviant

shapes and/or sizes are “atypical” cupules. This paper describes, and attempts to explain, anthropic

depressions occurring at two rock art sites in southeastern Utah that clearly are “atypical” cupules. These

atypical cupules are found together with smooth lancet-shaped depressions, both features probably more

expressing an intimate relation with the rock and/or the site than with the figurative imagery.

High School

Geography Teacher,

Oisterwijk, the Netherlands

Atypical Cupules at Two Rock Art Sites in Southeastern Utah

106

may be defined as “integrated,” “associated,”

or “related” cupules, in contrast to the “unre-

lated,” “isolated,” or “random” cupules on

which this paper focuses.

In southeastern Utah there are numerous

rock art sites that are ascribed to the Ancestral

Puebloans (Anasazi), a prehistoric Native

American people that inhabited the Colorado

Plateau from approximately A.D. 1 until 1300

(Cordell 1997). Their rock art includes anthro-

pomorphs and zoomorphs, as well as phyto-

morphs (plant-like) and geometrics. Although

several sites occasionally feature cupules of

probably Anasazi origin, they are rarely men-

tioned, let alone described, in rock art litera-

ture. That is unfortunate because in this way

these unusual traits remain unnoticed and

thus a more complete picture of Puebloan cul-

ture may escape us. Two rock art sites near

the town of Bluff in southeastern Utah, will

demonstrate this, as both sites prove to have a

very different type of cupule which is not

mentioned in most literature.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TWO SITES

Butler Wash

The first site is Butler Wash (see color

images at http://mc2.vicnet.net.au/home/

vhra/web/butler.html), located west of Bluff,

Utah. The site is well known for its imposing

row of large petroglyphs depicting heroic

anthropomorphs that are characterized by

drooping hands and feet and strange exten-

sions from the ears and heads. The site is also

known locally as Lower Butler Wash and as

Butler Wash-San Juan Confluence by Castle-

ton (1987:221), a more appropriate name, as

the site is not located in Butler Wash Canyon

itself, but a little east of the confluence of the

stream running south through Butler Wash

Canyon and the west-flowing San Juan River

(Figure 1). As access overland is very difficult,

the site can best be reached by a guided boat

trip from Sand Island near Bluff. For that

reason there is little vandalism at this site,

although some damage has already been re-

ported (Slifer 2000:123). The petroglyphs are

mainly found on an extensive, deeply

patinated part of an almost vertical sandstone

cliff face, the base of which is an elevation of

approximately 1,300 m above sea level. The

cliff itself is estimated to be about 70 m high.

The petroglyph panels face southeast and

overlook the San Juan River. They are a few

meters above the valley floor and are acces-

sible via a low but steep talus. The main

petroglyph area extends for at least 200 m,

with smaller panels nearby. Many of the indi-

vidual petroglyphs are in inaccessible posi-

tions several meters above the ground level.

Their current position may indicate the ero-

sion of the prehistoric floor or that the higher

images were made with the aid of ladders,

scaffolding, or ropes.

Confusingly, parts of the same site have

also been labeled as San Juan River-Sand

Island to Butler Wash, Site #3 by Castleton

(1987:216), and also include, based on his

illustrations, portions of at least two other

Figure 1. Butler Wash site, looking west from the

vertical sandstone cliff at Butler Wash-San Juan

Confluence. The cupules described in the text are out

of sight to the right. Photograph by Maarten van

Hoek, July 2005.

Van Hoek

107

sites, Upper Butler Wash and Moki Steps.

This misunderstanding may be explained by

the fact that there are two main sections with

petroglyphs of the same cliff face, only sepa-

rated by a large crack in the same rock wall.

The west section, Lower Butler Wash, fea-

tures the well known row of impressive

anthropomorphs of the Basketmaker Period.

The east section (listed as San Juan River-

Sand Island to Butler Wash, Site # 3) has sev-

eral similar anthropomorphs, but also many

other images like zoomorphs, phytomorphs

(probably corn plants and yuccas), and a few

historic Navajo petroglyphs. It is on this east

part that we find a number of anthropic de-

pressions that are not mentioned in the lim-

ited references to the site in the general litera-

ture (e.g. Castleton 1987; Cole 1990; Malotki

and Weaver 2002; Schaafsma 1980; Slifer

2000).

The Sand Dune Site

The second site is locally known as the

Sand Dune (see color images at http://mc2.

vicnet.net.au/home/vhra/web/sdsut.html).

Further location details will not be given here

as the site is too easily accessible and the local

and national authorities prefer not to reveal

the precise location to avoid further damage

to the site. It is only briefly described by

Castleton (1987:209). The site is formed by a

complex of vertical sandstone cliffs that over-

look a drainage to the west and southwest.

The rock wall faces southwest and is just

northeast of an enormous sand dune that in

places obstructs the view from some of the

rock art panels (Figure 2). The base of the cliff

is at about 1,625 m in elevation and its aver-

age height is estimated to be about 60 m. Sev-

eral petroglyphs are in a typically inaccessible

position and probably were made with the

aid of ladders, scaffolding, or ropes or their

position is the result of dune erosion of the

former ground level.

The petroglyph area at the Sand Dune site

stretches about 500 meters and includes at

least ten different and well separated (groups

of) rock art panels. One large section (labeled

Panel 4 by the author) features many faint

petroglyphs, mainly of the Basketmaker

Period, including several anthropomorphs in

the San Juan Anthropomorphic style similar

to the examples at Butler Wash. More impor-

tantly, the panel is dominated by a large num-

ber of anthropic depressions that are not men-

tioned in Castleton (1987:209). Besides Panel

4, at least five other panels feature anthropic

depressions. The major panel at the southeast

end of the complex, Panel 1, faces south and is

densely packed with figurative images. It has

a group of 12 very superficial paired depres-

sions, a horizontal row of possibly up to 14

typical cupules very close to ground level,

and a closely packed cluster of at least 35

small anthropic depressions capped by a

groove. Panel 3 comprises a group of small

panels directly east of Panel 4 and has at least

six more atypical depressions and some fine

figurative petroglyphs. Panel 10, further west,

has possibly seven atypical cupules as well as

very faint figurative art.

Figure 2. Sand Dune site near Bluff, looking

northwest towards the sandstone cliffs. Panel 4 with

the majority of the cupules is just to the left of the

large whitish buttress in the center. Photograph by

Maarten van Hoek, July 2005.

Atypical Cupules at Two Rock Art Sites in Southeastern Utah

108

DEFINING CUPULES

In general, cupules are considered an

element of rock art, but there are exceptions.

Therefore, it is necessary to clearly define the

term “cupule” and simultaneously to limit

the subject matter, as not every human-made

depression in a rock surface should be re-

garded as rock art. In the discussion about

cupules from Jinmium in northern Austra-

lia, Taçon et al. (1997:943) offer useful infor-

mation to identify a cupule. A true cupule

can be defined as a cup-shaped non-utilitarian

and definitely cultural mark that has been

pecked or pounded into a rock surface. Most

true cupules typically are circular, cup-

shaped depressions that usually vary from 3

to 7 cm in diameter (Christensen 2005:74–75).

These are labeled as true cupules in this sur-

vey or, alternatively, as typical, standard, or

normal cupules. However, cupules that

have irregular shapes and unusual sizes

may be labeled as atypical cupules.

Cupules are not to be confused with

grinding hollows (bedrock mortars) that are

often much larger and deeper and may

range from 8 cm to over 30 cm in diameter.

Grinding hollows are abrasion-formed or al-

tered natural depressions that are used for

processing food, pigment, or other material.

The meaning of cupules is often completely

obscure but it is almost certain that the pro-

cessing, use, or presence of cupules probably

are deeply ritually charged. Another impor-

tant distinction is that cupules may appear on

horizontal, steeply sloping and on vertical sur-

faces, whereas mortars almost exclusively are

found on rock surfaces that are horizontal or

nearly so.

Both Butler Wash and the Sand Dune site

typically have cupules on vertical cliff faces, so

a function such as grinding hollows, or any

other utilitarian use, can definitely be ruled

out. Moreover, at both sites the atypical cupules

clearly show rather crude peck marks, which

indicates that they have not been used for

grinding.

THE BUTLER WASH CUPULES

When I noticed the atypical Butler Wash

cupules, my first reaction was that they

looked like prehistoric hand and foothold

steps as they are rather large and form a row

(Figure 3). Hand and footholds are indenta-

tions carved into the rock in order to facilitate

climbing a rock incline for whatever reason.

Just before reaching Butler Wash by raft we

noticed an excellent example of a series of

steps leading up to a rock art panel. Although

these Butler Wash cupules are positioned in a

row, they are at such a height that it is impos-

sible to reach them. Moreover, there are only

seven cupules in a row, far too few and far

too close together to have served as steps. It is

also implausible that the depressions were

meant to receive wooden beams for the build-

ing of a structure against the rock wall.

Figure 3. Row of atypical cupules and other

petroglyphs on a vertical sandstone cliff at Butler

Wash. Estimated width of the cupules is about 10 cm.

Photograph by Maarten van Hoek, July 2005.

Van Hoek

109

Also important is the way the seven Butler

Wash atypical cupules have been executed.

They are not circular and not symmetrical like

most typical cupules. They are elongated in

appearance and have an asymmetrical depth-

profile. In six cases the steepest slope and the

deepest point of the cupule is at the extreme

lower part, which probably would make them

suitable to use as steps to climb the rock. The

lowermost cupule, however, has the steep

slope and the deepest point at the extreme

upper part, rendering it impossible to use

as a step.

A few meters west of the row of seven

cupules are at least five more cupules. Three

typical cupules form a short vertical row, the

two upper examples are connected by a

pecked groove (Figure 4). This row is at a

lower level and is obscured by vegetation.

Just to the west of this row is an isolated

atypical cupule, and a short distance further

west and higher up is a standard cupule next

to a stylized “flute player” image. Still further

west are at least 29 possibly anthropic circu-

lar depressions; all apparently randomly dis-

tributed, except for a number of depressions

that are found in short rows. Eight of the de-

pressions could be true cupules. One of these

latter cupules forms the center of a tight spiral

petroglyph. It is not clear if the spiral was

executed around an existing cupule or not.

THE SAND DUNE CUPULES

The day before our visit to Butler Wash,

Vaughn Hadenfeldt of Bluff, knowing our

interest in cupules, informed us of a large

cupule panel. This knowledge, combined

with the experiences at Butler Wash, became

the main reason for our visit to this second

site. To our surprise, many of the anthropic

depressions turned out to be identical to the

Butler Wash atypical cupules. However, there

were some major differences.

First, there is the number of cupules. But-

ler Wash features 12 atypical cupules,

whereas the Sand Dune site has more than

125 such cupules. The majority are concen-

trated on Panel 4, which has more than 110

examples. The “horizontal” axis on which the

petroglyphs are found on Panel 4 descends

about 20 degrees to the west. Several of the

atypical cupules at the center of Panel 4 are

found on a lower area of the vertical cliff that

apparently once was covered with talus de-

bris. The surface has a less patinated appear-

ance (Figure 5). It is possible that the talus

debris, especially at the eastern part of Panel

4, covers other cupules.

Second, there is the distribution of the cu-

pules across the panel. At Butler Wash linear

rows predominated, but at the Sand Dune site

most of the atypical cupules were distributed

randomly across the rock surface of the panel.

Although the atypical cupules are similar in

size and shape to the Butler Wash cupules,

some are less deep and more superficially

Figure 4. Cupules and other petroglyphs on a vertical

sandstone cliff at Butler Wash. Estimated width of

the cupules is about 7 cm. Photograph by Maarten

van Hoek, July 2005.

Atypical Cupules at Two Rock Art Sites in Southeastern Utah

110

executed, especially the larger examples (Fig-

ure 6), which often show deep peck marks.

Although many atypical cupules on Panel 4

clearly show peck marks, it is striking to see

that several examples do not show any (Fig-

ure 5). It seems that they have been abraded;

possibly at a later stage. The atypical cupules

at Sand Dune, like the ones at Butler Wash,

are definitely anthropic and non-utilitarian.

ASSOCIATED FEATURES—BUTLER

WASH

The Butler Wash cupules are found to-

gether with geometric designs, zoomorphs,

phytomorphs, and San Juan style anthropo-

morphs. Some of the zoomorphs have clearly

been repecked. There is a great deal of super-

imposition on the panel, pointing to intermit-

tent use of the site from prehistoric times up

to more recent times. In the direct neighbor-

hood of the row of the seven atypical cupules

are San Juan anthropomorphs. One anthro-

pomorph is clearly superimposed by a large

“snake” petroglyph that is less patinated.

There is a large spiral with a serpentine exten-

sion to one of the cupules and a straight line

from the serpentine groove running upslope,

connecting two atypical cupules and another

geometric figure. In almost every instance

the cupules have the same degree of patina-

tion as the surrounding natural rock surface

and most of the petroglyphs. Therefore, it

cannot be determined if any of the seven

atypical cupules superimpose the petro-

glyphs. Neither can it be established if there

is a direct association between a cupule and

any of the other petroglyphs except for the

cupule that forms the center of a large spi-

ral, further west.

The four cupules near the base of the cliff

are found together with geometric designs.

Some are clearly repecked zoomorphs and

some small anthropomorphs. Near the

“dumbbell” shaped cupules is a curved line

of more recent crude pecking, judging by the

low degree of patination.

Figure 5. Atypical cupules and other petroglyphs on a

vertical sandstone cliff, Panel 4, Sand Dune site. The

three cupules at the bottom (and some more examples

lower down) are found on a more recently exposed

part of the cliff. The right-hand cupule measures

approximately 9 cm in width. The largest cupule

measures approximately 11 by 18 cm. Photograph by

Duke Hayduk, November 2005.

Figure 6. Atypical cupules and other petroglyphs on a

vertical sandstone cliff, Panel 4, Sand Dune site. The

largest cupule measures approximately 20 by 30 cm.

Photograph by Duke Hayduk, October 2005.

Van Hoek

111

One of the isolated cupules is surrounded

by a simple San Juan anthropomorph, a styl-

ized “flute player,” and several zoomorphs,

some carefully re-pecked. Farther west are

many interesting figurative petroglyphs, but

also 29 anthropic depressions, some of which

possibly are true cupules. Characteristic for

both sections of the panel at Butler Wash, and

many other rock art panels in the southeast

of Utah, are the many, mainly horizontal

rows of very small cupules or dots that often

seem to superimpose older petroglyphs.

Rows of small cupules often prove to be later

additions to existing rock art panels (Van

Hoek 2000b:107).

Conspicuous at Butler Wash are two

groups of long, often lancet-shaped depres-

sions of varying depth that are definitely

anthropic (Figure 7). In general these depres-

sions are vertically executed although other

orientations occur. They are often placed very

close together although isolated examples

also exist. Such short grooves are extremely

smooth. Peck marks cannot be seen, except in

the few instances where later petroglyphs

have been superimposed on such depres-

sions. These probably were made by a con-

stant rubbing on the rock surface with an

object. One logical explanation would be that

these depressions are utilitarian marks, cre-

ated by sharpening stone tools. In this survey,

I will label such depressions polissoir (tool-

sharpening hollows) without claiming that

they are utilitarian per se. Between two of

these polissoir at Butler Wash is a finely in-

cised, geometric pattern of short straight lines

(see Figure 7), possibly made with one of the

objects “sharpened” at this spot.

ASSOCIATED FEATURES—SAND

DUNE SITE

The atypical cupules at the Sand Dune

site are found together with anthropomorphs,

zoomorphs, phytomorphs and geometric de-

signs (Figure 8), but in general, most of the

figurative art is faint. However, Panel 4 is not

only exceptional for its concentration of atypi-

cal cupules, but also for its large number of

polissoir. Unlike Butler Wash, where those

lancet-shaped depressions are found in two

Figure 7. Polissoir and some incised patterns on a

vertical sandstone cliff at Butler Wash. Photograph

by Maarten van Hoek, July 2005.

Figure 8. Atypical cupules and other petroglyphs at a

vertical sandstone cliff, Panel 4, Sand Dune site. The

atypical cupule in the lower left-hand corner mea-

sures approximately 10 by 10 cm. Photograph by

Duke Hayduk, November 2005.

Atypical Cupules at Two Rock Art Sites in Southeastern Utah

112

major concentrations outside the petroglyph

areas, the polissoir at Panel 4 are found

“randomly,” though mainly in vertical

groups, among cupules and other petroglyphs.

Although not so deep as the examples at But-

ler Wash, they are easily recognized. Some are

more than 10 cm wide. Near one of the atypi-

cal cupules are two small geometric figures

consisting of straight incised lines forming

star-like figures (Figure 9). Again, the cupules

and polissoir have the same degree of pati-

nation as the surrounding natural rock sur-

face and the figurative petroglyphs. It is hard

to determine whether the cupules or polissoir

superimpose those petroglyphs based on cur-

sory inspection. Some of the polissoir at this

site show peck marks, but it is doubtful that

these were caused by executing the polissoir.

Those peck marks almost certainly are later

features and often are part of figurative im-

ages or geometric designs that most likely are

not even specifically related to the polissoir.

However, at Panel 3 one of the atypical cu-

pules seems to be superimposed upon a

phytomorph. It cannot be established if there

is a direct association between the cupules

and any of the other petroglyphs. In most

cases any relationship seems to be lacking

completely.

There is another association of the Panel 4

cupules that may be significant. A short dis-

tance west of Panel 4 is a large cliff area that

features a dark colored, vertical patination

stain caused by runoff water of a waterfall

that pours down from the cliff during the wet

season. The large concentration of atypical

cupules may be explained by the location of

the panel close to that temporary waterfall.

CONCLUSIONS

Since they are found at vertical cliff faces

and clearly show large peck marks, it is cer-

tain that the atypical cupules at both Butler

Wash and the Sand Dune site are anthropic

and non-utilitarian. Importantly, because of

their size and shape, these depressions clearly

differ from the standard cupule (Burton and

Farrell 1989; Christensen 2005). Still, their ex-

ecution must have been important, although

it can only be guessed at what their function

and/or meaning has been. Yet, other rock art

scenes may offer a clue, especially when

anthropic depressions are found at specific

spots with figurative images. For instance, a

rock art site in southeastern Utah features five

anthropic depressions placed on a zoomor-

phic figure’s head, heart area and extremities,

thus possibly acquiring power from the ani-

mal image (Malotki and Weaver 2002:72).

However, the “random” and obviously unre-

lated positions of the Butler Wash and Sand

Dune site atypical cupules indicate that other

rationales must have been the incentive for

these cupules.

The presence of a large number of polissoir

might give a clue, especially at Panel 4 of the

Figure 9. Atypical cupules and other petroglyphs at a

vertical sandstone cliff, Panel 4, Sand Dune site. The

longest (horizontal) line at the upper star-like figure

measures approximately 10 cm. Photograph by Duke

Hayduk, November 2005.

Van Hoek

113

Sand Dune site, which has a large number of

such abraded depressions. On the other hand,

at the major panel at the site, where petro-

glyphs are particularly dense, these polissoir

are lacking. It appears the polissoir were not

used to sharpen tools when petroglyphs were

on the same panel, although this can never be

ruled out. If this were the case, more major

rock art panels would feature polissoir, or

there would have been more polissoir at Butler

Wash for example.

Interestingly, many other major rock art

panels on the Colorado Plateau (and beyond)

typically seem to lack these alleged polissoir.

I noticed only one normal cupule and one

simple polissoir close together on one of the

vertical faces of the Potash Road rock art com-

plex near Moab, Utah, but this site was not fully

inspected on this occasion. Yet, more rock art

panels may be associated with polissoir, but this

is rarely mentioned in the literature or

shown in illustrations. For example, I have

seen many photographs of the “Five Faces”

pictograph panel in the Needles District,

Utah, but only a few books show the row of

polissoir in front of the panel (Malotki and

Weaver 2002:Plate 83; Slifer 2000:Figure 125).

It is therefore proposed that the Butler

Wash and Sand Dune polissoir were not used

to sharpen tools to manufacture the figura-

tive and geometric imagery at these sites. It

is more likely that this specific rock surface

was regarded to be charged with a special

power and that rubbing an object (which may

have been a tool like a knife) released part of

that power. This power was then absorbed by

either the object or the person(s) who used the

object. There are no ethnographic records to

confirm this.

Therefore, even though the reason to ex-

ecute cupules and polissoir at specific panels

at Butler Wash and Sand Dune will remain

obscure, it is possible that the execution had

more to do with the site or the rock itself than

with the petroglyphs. This seems to be con-

firmed by rituals among the Zuni Indians,

who still live in western New Mexico

(Stevenson 1904:294; Plate 12).

Zuni women and men wishing to have a

female child visit a shrine called ‘Mother

Rock’ where pregnant women remove

grains of sandstone for an offering to be

left at the site. An illustration of Mother

Rock shows a surface that is densely pock-

marked with abstract imagery, including

small pits, larger holes or niches, and

grooves. Vulvalike symbols have been

formed by using pits and incised lines

[Cole 1990:41].

On the north coast of Rapa Nui (Easter

Island) is a low eminence of irregular lava

called ‘Ava ‘o Kiri. On this outcrop are three

petroglyph panels with six large petroglyphs:

a fish-within-fish; a tail-of-fish (not an unfin-

ished fish); and a fine tuna associated with

two fishhooks. They are executed in outline.

There are also some scattered cupules, as well

as a few faint and indeterminate markings.

Importantly, at the foot of the knoll and out of

sight of the fish petroglyphs is a horizontal

outcrop. It is covered with more than 30

polissoir, in this case they are flat and oblong

abraded depressions and some anthropic

cupules. (For a photo see: http://mc2.vicnet.

net.au/home/vhra/web/rapanorth.html.)

The execution of a small number of figurative

images on top of the eminence does not jus-

tify the presence of so many polissoir. There-

fore, I suggest that the lower outcrop was

specially selected by the islanders to sharpen

their tools because of the importance of the

place. This may also be acknowledged by the

execution of a special sequence of fish engrav-

ings (Van Hoek 2000a:14–16). Perhaps it was

thought that supernatural potency (called

mana in the Polynesian culture) could be de-

rived from the rock by sharpening their tools

and by executing cupules at this specific spot.

Atypical Cupules at Two Rock Art Sites in Southeastern Utah

114

The islanders possibly thought that, in gen-

eral, touching this spot in a specific way

would imbue their tools and themselves with

supernatural potency. Could this idea also

explain the execution of cupules at Butler

Wash and Sand Dune? Might the non-visual

explain many of the cupules and polissoir at

these two sites and elsewhere in the South-

west?

Ouzman (2001:245) postulated a similar

idea. He describes some animal engravings

from southern Africa that were carefully and

repeatedly rubbed with the fingers or pieces

of hide at specific spots. Importantly, Ouzman

argues that “rubbing them [those spots] allowed

people to access the potency they embodied”

(Ouzman 2001:247). The manufacturing of

cupules does not actually represent instances

of rubbing, though tool sharpening activities

do. The execution of cupules may still have

had the same purpose. “Such cutting and ham-

mering of the rock also functioned more generally

as a means of piercing the rock so that potency

could flow from the Spirit World into the Ordi-

nary World” (Ouzman 2001:248) and into the

person or even the group that manufactured

those openings. This idea would explain the

random placement of such cupules on the

rock. If the purpose of those rituals were to

release potency from the Spirit World, it

would not really matter where those cupules

were placed. The execution of those cupules

could fulfill the desire to possess pieces of such

potent places (Ouzman 2001:248). When rock

art panels prove to have been flaked cultur-

ally, this could point to the desire to possess a

part of a potent site (Ouzman 2001:250). But

the execution of cupules hardly ever produces

flakes suitable enough to take away. There-

fore, to overcome this problem, another

method might have been invented. The manu-

facturing of cupules often produces a fine

stone powder that can easily be swallowed by

a person without causing harm. It is known

that animals, like elephants and giraffes, and

even groups of people occasionally consume

certain types of clay during severe shortages

of food. Consuming stone powder from cu-

pule rocks for several reasons has also been

reported from other areas. It is suggested that

the willfully executed holes at the aforemen-

tioned zoomorph in southeastern Utah may

have been motivated by the idea of utilizing

the power inherent in the animal fragments

to obtain favorable outcomes for hunting or

ritual related activities similar to those de-

picted on the rock art panel. In fact, rock flour

from the petroglyphs may actually have been

ingested by the ritual participants. This act is

referred to as geophagy, the “consumption

of earth” (Malotki and Weaver 2002:72). Also

in Europe, cupule-powder is said to have

been used as or in medicine (Evers 1996:83;

Schwegler 1992:29; see also Callahan 2000 for

a full report). In this respect it is worth men-

tioning that Ouzman (2001:251) tentatively

suggests that the ingestion of rock powder

might also have been a possible way for se-

lected people in southern Africa to inhere the

potency of a rock or rock art site.

Thus the execution of cupules and polissoir

at certain panels at Butler Wash and the Sand

Dune site may have been intended to create

visible passages to the Spirit World and possi-

bly simultaneously to produce a powder that

could be ingested, or flakes that could be

taken, in order to absorb metaphorically and

literally the potency of the place. Also the

execution itself may have had ritual signifi-

cance.

It may therefore be argued that the major-

ity of the cupules and polissoir at Butler Wash

and the Sand Dune site that are found to-

gether with figurative petroglyphs probably

express a more intimate relation with the rock

and/or the place where they are found than

with the figurative imagery itself. Such place-

related cupules and polissoir may represent a

means of contacting and accessing the Spiri-

tual World hidden “behind” the rock surface.

Van Hoek

115

An additional reason to produce cupules and

polissoir might have been the desire to acquire,

or even ingest, powder or pieces of those sa-

cred places or as mnemonic devices.

Acknowledgments. I am most grateful to

Duke and Sarah Hayduk of Bluff, Utah, for

their great hospitality and for the help Duke

offered by going out into the field and taking

a large number of extra photographs of the

Sand Dune site for me. I am also indebted to

Vaughn Hadenfeldt of Bluff, for informing me

about the cupules at those sites. Carol

Georgopoulos was helpful with general infor-

mation about Utah rock art during the prepa-

ration of this paper. I am also grateful to my

wife, Elles, for her invaluable assistance dur-

ing all the surveys in Utah. Last but not least,

I was very pleased that Mavis Greer was so

kind to present this paper at the ARARA Con-

ference at Bluff, Utah in 2006.

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