Plant remains from an early Neolithic settlement at Moravany (eastern Slovakia)

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Plant remains from an early Neolithic settlement at Moravany(eastern Slovakia)

Maria Litynska-Zajac Æ Magdalena Moskal-Del Hoyo ÆMarek Nowak

Received: 7 November 2007 / Accepted: 23 June 2008 / Published online: 12 September 2008

� Springer-Verlag 2008

Abstract This paper presents the results of the investi-

gation of macroscopic plant remains from the early

Neolithic site of Moravany, Slovakia, dated to the third

quarter of the 6th millennium cal B.C., from which 141

samples of burnt clay were examined. The most abundant

remains belonged to Triticum dicoccon. Two other cereals

were found, T. monococcum and Hordeum vulgare. Fifty-

five soil samples contained a few specimens of charred

grains of T. dicoccon and diaspores of the wild plants

Chenopodium album, Saponaria officinalis, Solanum

nigrum and Bromus sp. Over 2,000 pieces of charcoal were

examined, among which 14 plant taxa belonging to gym-

nosperms and angiosperms have been recognized. The

most common were Quercus (oak), Fraxinus (ash) and

Ulmus (elm). Archaeobotanical and chronological data

demonstrate that a farming economy was practised in

eastern Slovakia as early as the mid 6th millennium B.C.

The trees identified from the charcoals reveal that typical

early Atlantic woodland communities with a predominance

of deciduous trees and shrubs constituted the environ-

mental context of the first Neolithic settlers there. Wood of

these taxa was used for construction and as fuel.

Keywords Early Neolithic � Eastern Slovakia �Archaeobotany � Cultivated plants � Charcoal analysis

Introduction

The first Neolithic in the north-eastern part of the Carpa-

thian Basin is reflected by an archaeological phenomenon

called either the Eastern Linear Pottery culture or the Al-

fold Linear Pottery culture (Alfoldi Vonaldiszes Keramia,

AVK) (Kalicz and Makkay 1977; Siska 1989; Kozłowski

1997). Its beginning is dated at 5600/5500 cal B.C. The

basic patterns of its material, socio-economic and ideo-

logical systems had their roots in the first Neolithic cultures

of the Balkan peninsula, defined by archaeologists as the

First Temperate Neolithic (FTN), that had existed between

ca. 6300 and 5300 cal B.C. The north-eastern branch of the

FTN, the so-called Koros-Cris culture, was the most

important factor in transmitting Neolithic patterns to the

north and northeast. On the other hand, the question of the

genetic pool of the AVK population, that is, the share either

of the local Mesolithic or of the allochtonous ‘‘Balkan’’

populations, remains still to be resolved (Kozłowski and

Nowak 2007). Similarly, there are broadly discussed,

analogous problems in the case of the Linearbandkeramik

(for example, Gronenborn 1999; Kaczanowska and

Kozłowski 2003).

The data on the economy and settlement system of the

AVK are very scarce. This situation is extremely disad-

vantageous as regards its earliest stage, which is actually a

starting point of the Neolithic in the area under discussion.

Communicated by M. Latałowa.

M. Litynska-Zajac (&)

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology,

Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow Branch, Sławkowska 17,

31016 Krakow, Poland

e-mail: [email protected]

M. Moskal-Del Hoyo

Department of Prehistory and Archaeology,

University of Valencia, av. Blasco Ibanez 28,

46010 Valencia, Spain


M. Nowak

Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Gołebia 11,

31007 Krakow, Poland


123

Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92

DOI 10.1007/s00334-008-0179-1

As a consequence, the first AVK is routinely connected

with the Neolithic mainly on the basis of the occurrence of

pottery. New palaeoeconomic and palaeogeographic data,

even very limited, would provide a better understanding of

other material aspects of the first Neolithic and would

possibly further arguments in the debate about the origins

of the AVK.

In such circumstances, the discovery of a new AVK

settlement at Moravany in 1998 gave the opportunity to

increase our knowledge about the early Neolithic of the

upper Tisza basin. The field investigations have been

conducted since the year 2000 within the framework of an

agreement between the Institute of Archaeology of the

Jagiellonian University in Krakow, the Philosophical Fac-

ulty of Presov University and the Institute of Archaeology

of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Nitra. Moreover,

a number of archaeological, palaeoenvironmental and

archaeobotanical analyses have been also conducted

(Kozłowski et al. 2003; Kalicki et al. 2005).

The site

The site is situated in the Eastern Slovakian Lowland, on

the western slope of the tectonic horst called Pozdisovsky

chrbat (170 m a.s.l.), about 60 m above the Ondava

floodplain (Fig. 1). Pozdisovsky chrbat is an elevation

between two depressions, the Ondava plain to the west and

the Laborec plain eastwards. It is formed of Tertiary clay

formations and covered with irregular and very thin slope

deposits of Quaternary age. Radiocarbon dates from the

deluvia (19,980 ± 460 B.P.) and buried soil (19,890 ±

120 B.P.) indicate that intensive slope movements occurred

here during the maximum of the last glaciation (Kalicki

et al. 2005). The deposits are very homogeneous silts,

badly sorted. Only the southern part of the Pozdisovski

chrbat, 5 km south of the site, is covered with loess. The

Quaternary alluvia of the rivers Ondava, Topl’a and Lab-

orec fill the depressions (Banacky et al. 1987).

The climate of the region is warm, with a mean

annual temperature of 8–9�C; 50 or more days with a

daily maximum air temperature above 25�C occur, and

moderately dry, with a mean annual precipitation of

about 600 mm. Winter is usually cool with a mean

temperature in January of about -3�C. The rivers Ond-

ava and Topl’a have a rain-snow combined type of run-

off regime with flooding during March and minimum

discharges during September. Eutric to dystric planosols

and (luvic-, albic-) stagnosols from colluvial deposits

with a very low humus content in the topsoils occur on

the Pozdisovsky chrbat, whereas eutric fluvisols, rich in

humus, associated with gleyic and arenic eutric fluvisols

from non-carbonate fluvial sediments dominate on the

surrounding plains. As to potential vegetation, the

highest areas of the Pozdisovsky chrbat would be cov-

ered with oak woods (Potentillo albae-Quercion, Carici

pilosae-Carpinetum) whereas on the lowest slopes good

conditions for lowland hygrophilous oak-hornbeam

woods occur (Querco robori-Carpinetum). Elm (Ulme-

nion) and willow-poplar floodplain woods (Salicion

albae) would occur in the valley bottoms (Miklos 2002).

The site has an atypical topographical position, since

early Neolithic sites in the Tisza basin are usually con-

centrated in the lower part of the landscape (Chapman

1997; Shiel 1997). It seems that the high location of the

early Neolithic settlement at Moravany must have caused

difficulties with the water supply. However, palaeogeo-

graphical research done in the small valley of the Sarkan,

which at present is an episodic stream in the immediate

vicinity of the settlement, proves that after a late Pleni-

glacial/Late-glacial incision, during almost the whole

Holocene the valley had a V-shaped erosional cross-section

with a perennial stream (Fig. 2). Therefore, it would have

provided a sufficient source of water for early Neolithic

people there. The alluvia of the valley are later than the

early Neolithic (Kalicki et al. 2005). The high position of

the settlement is climatically favourable, due to a smaller

number of inversions and good thermal and moisture

conditions.

Nearly 2,000 m2 of the site’s area have been excavated

to date (Fig. 3). Erosional processes have removed the

occupation layer associated with the Neolithic settlement

and for this reason finds were preserved only in the filling

of the sunken features. Almost 50 such structures, sunk into

the ground usually to 100–120 cm below ground level,

have been discovered. The clayey filling of most features is

a uniform, grey-black; only in several cases thin layers of

dark yellow clays were found.

Basically four types of features have been distinguished:

1. The relatively large (about 1.5–5 m in diameter)

trough-like features, circular or oval in outline, inter-

preted as refuse or storage pits

2. Small features with a large number of daub pieces and

distinct traces of fire, interpreted as remains of hearths

or/and ovens

3. Post-holes (regrettably their layout does not form any

regular pattern)

4. Big structures (3/01, 10/01, 1/06), that can be

interpreted either as remains of semi-dugout dwellings

or as clay extraction pits.

So far, we have not been able to determine precisely the

boundaries of the settlement. For this reason we are able

only to estimate its real size at ca. 2–3 ha. However, the

results of the investigation indicate that the site was not a

seasonal camp or a short-term settlement. We have the

following evidence:

S82 Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92

123

1. Remains of the whole process of lithic (mainly

obsidian) tool production

2. Large features, some of which were ‘‘saturated’’ with

archaeological material

3. Post-holes

4. Contacts with the territories situated both to the north

and south of the Pozdisovsky chrbat, including north-

ern Hungary and southeastern Poland.

The attributes of the pottery and chipped stone indus-

tries as well as results of radiocarbon dating indicate that

the site should be ascribed to the early phase of the

Eastern Linear Pottery culture (Kalicz and Makkay 1977;

Siska 1989) and dated at 5600/5500-5300/5200 cal B.C.

(Kozłowski et al. 2003; Kalicki et al. 2005; Nowak et al.

2006). The chronological position of the settlement

demonstrates that its inhabitants belonged to the first

Fig. 1 Location of the site at

Moravany (black rectangle) and

trial trenches (small blackrectangles)

Fig. 2 The Sarkan valley cross-

section (after Kalicki et al.

2005, slightly modified). 1Tertiary clay; 2 slope deposits

(deluvia); 3 gravel; 4 sandy

gravel with silt; 5 silty gravel;

6 sandy silt; 7 silt; 8 organic silt;

9 buried soil; 10 detritus; 11radiocarbon dating

Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92 S83

123

Neolithic farmers in the Eastern Slovakian Lowland.

Because there are no unquestionable traces of the late

Mesolithic occupation in eastern Slovakia, we could

hardly talk about local Neolithisation. Neither does the

technology of stone processing point to local Neolithisa-

tion, as it is related to the early Neolithic traditions of the

Great Hungarian Plain (Kozłowski 2001; Kozłowski and

Nowak 2007). It seems plausible that the settlement was

set up by a group of the late Koros culture people who

migrated to Moravany from outside the eastern Slovakian

plain about 5600/5500 cal B.C. The starting point of this

migration was either the middle part of the Alfold or the

present-day Transcarpathian Ukraine (Kozłowski et al.

2003).

Fig. 3 Distribution of

excavation blocks within the

central part of the site in

Moravany


123

Material and methods

Three kinds of botanical samples were examined from the

Moravany site: soil samples, impressions in burnt clay and

charcoal pieces hand-picked in their concentration places.

In total, 55 soil samples (water sieved with mesh sizes of

0.2 and 0.5 mm and floated with mesh sizes of 0.5 and

1 mm), 140 charcoal samples, and 141 samples of burnt

clay were analyzed. Two groups of material were sorted

and picked out: grain, seeds, fruits and fragments of

charcoal. The concentration of plant material was rather

low. For example, 413 charcoal fragments and only one

fragment of unidentified cereal were recovered from 24

samples each of 10 l from pit 1/06. The sampling method

can influence the results, as the flotation samples demon-

strate somewhat greater diversity of taxa. Moreover, in

cases where manually recovered samples predominate,

there is also higher probability of over-representation of

some taxa (pit 2/00, 7/01, 10/01) (Litynska-Zajac and

Wasylikowa 2005).

Identification of seeds and fruits was based on

comparison with samples in a reference collection. A

preliminary selection of the material was done using a low

power microscope with magnification of 10–25x.

Each charcoal fragment is the observation unit and was

usually broken manually along the three anatomical sec-

tions and then observed microscopically using a reflected

light microscope with light and dark fields. More detailed

information was obtained by studying the samples with a

scanning electron microscope. Identifications were made

by comparison with anatomical atlases (Jacquiot et al.

1973; Schweingruber 1990) and specimens in a modern

reference collection. Most of the taxa are determined to

genus level. Precise determination have been indicated

when only one species is present in the local vegetation.

Moreover, in case of Fraxinus excelsior the size of the

earlywood pores in the transverse section and their ring

uniformity enable us to attribute charcoal fragments to this

species (Jacquiot et al. 1973). On the basis of anatomical

studies, Carpinus betulus and C. orientalis cannot be easily

distinguished (Schweingruber 1990); nevertheless, on the

basis of the ecology and modern distribution our material

probably represents C. betulus (Tutin et al. 1964–1993).

The daub pieces collected for botanical research were

fine-grained, fragile, generally well fired or dried. They

were light-yellow, orange or black in colour. Part of the

lumps contained an organic admixture preserved as

impressions and charred and dried fragments of tissues,

which were irregularly arranged in the clay, inside and on

the surface of the lumps. In most clay pieces there were

numerous specimens which formed accumulations, making

counting impossible.

Calibration of the radiocarbon dates was done using

OxCal 4.0 (Bronk Ramsay 1995, 2001; Reimer et al. 2004).

Results

Remains of cereals

Among the plant impressions and charred remains, cereals

were the best represented group (Table 1; Fig. 4). The

most abundant remnants belonged to the unidentified

cereals Cerealia indet. They were preserved as impressions

of leaves and chaff fragments and small fragments of

broken caryopses. Among the identified taxa, remains of

Table 1 Cereals found in early Neolithic site at Moravany

Taxon name Daub Soil samples

Remains Imprint Charred Dried Charred Total

Triticum dicoccon c 12 0 0 2 14

T. dicoccon g 0 1 0 1 2

T. dicoccon s 5 1 7 0 13

T. monococcum c 2 1 0 0 3

T. monococcum s 1 0 0 0 1

T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum c 27 0 0 2 29

T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum g 16 4 76 1 97

T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum s 10 0 7 0 17

Hordeum vulgare s 3 0 0 0 3

Hordeum vulgare c 4 0 0 0 4

Cerealia indet. chaff ? ? ? 0 ?

Cerealia indet. c 1 1 1

Cerealia indet. vel Poaceae indet. chaff ? ? ? 0 ?

c caryopsis, g glume, s spikelet


123

hulled wheat were represented, T. dicoccon Schrank.

(emmer) and T. monococcum L. (einkorn). Emmer was

preserved in the form of imprints of naked caryopses and

spikelet fragments. In the daub there were also charred and

dried remains of these species including fragments of

spikelets and their basal parts, as well as basal parts of

glumes. A few charred caryopses and fragments of glumes

in soil samples were also identified as emmer (Table 1).

The most frequent were remains determined as T. dicoccon

or T. monococcum.

There was also H. vulgare (barley) recorded as imprints

of a few caryopses and spikelet fragments. Remains of

unidentified cereals and/or wild grasses (Cerealia indet. or

Poaceae indet.) were also found.

Wild herbaceous plant remains

Wild herbaceous plant remains were preserved only in a

few samples (Table 2). On the basis of charred seeds and

fruits, three taxa, Chenopodium album L., Saponaria offi-

cinalis L. and Solanum nigrum L., were identified to

species level and one, Bromus sp., to that of genus

(Table 2). Uncharred seeds of C. album L., Stellaria

graminea L. and Viola sp. may be due to modern con-

tamination. In the burnt clay, grains and two chaff

fragments of Poaceae indet. were noticed. Two better

preserved charred grains, inside the imprints, were classi-

fied to Bromus sp. (brome grass).

All these taxa are common in vegetation developing in

anthropogenic habitats. Species of Bromus are related to

cereal cultivation (for example B. secalinus L.), ruderal

habitats (B. sterilis L., B. tectorum L.) and meadows

(B. hordeaceus L.).

Chenopodium album commonly occurs in subfossil

materials (Litynska-Zajac 2005), probably because of its

great seed production (over 100,000 seeds per year, Tym-

rakiewicz 1962; Domanska 1982). At present C. album

mostly appears in ruderal habitats, and in various kinds of

crops including cereals. It is characterized by wide eco-

logical amplitude, but it grows better in rich soils.

Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) is an annual herb

occurring in ruderal habitats and in cultivated fields. It

prefers rich and wet habitats with either neutral or alkaline

soil reaction (Tymrakiewicz 1962).

Saponaria officinalis (soapwort) is a species of riverine

plant communities. Due to saponins, occurring in the whole

herb but especially in the roots, it is an important plant

used for various purposes but mainly in folk medicine

(Podbielkowski 1985).

Remains of trees

Fourteen tree taxa have been identified in the analysis of

the charcoal from the pits (Table 3; Fig. 5). Quercus sp.,

(deciduous oak), F. excelsior (ash) and Ulmus sp. (elm)

clearly dominate, while other taxa were represented in

small amounts. The diversity of taxa is directly related to

the number of fragments examined, and thus the more

reliable and representative results have been obtained from

pits 2/01, 3/01 and 1/06. Some fragments of charcoal are

also related to wooden constructions, such as some burnt

fragments of a post (2/03) that belong to Quercus sp.

Furthermore, some deciduous oak charcoals were found in

burnt clay (pit 1/01) and another undetermined wood

fragment was found in the same kind of material in pit

3/01. The imprint of a leaf (feature 1/01) probably belongs

to cf. Alnus sp. (alder).

Interesting findings are the charcoal fragments of Fagus

sylvatica and C. betulus. When studying pollen diagrams

Fig. 4 Triticum dicoccon (caryopsis). Photo by M. Moskal-Del Hoyo

Table 2 Wild herbaceous plant remains found in early Neolithic site

at Moravany

Taxon name State of preservation Number of specimens

Bromus sp. ch 1,2a

Chenopodium album ch 14

Saponaria officinalis ch 9

cf. Solanum nigrum ch 1

Poaceae indet. ch 4 g

Poaceae indet. unch 2 Chaffa

Stellaria graminea unch 2

Chenopodium album unch 1

Viola sp. unch 1

ch charred, unch uncharred, g glumea Charred remains preserved inside the imprint


123

from the Carpathian basin, it can be seen that pollen of both

taxa appears discontinuously and in small numbers not

only throughout the Atlantic period but also in the early

Holocene and the Late-Glacial (Krippel 1971; Willis et al.

1995, 2000; Gardner 2002; Magyari 2002). Moreover,

some charcoal fragments of F. sylvatica were identified on

the sites of the later phase of the Linear Band Pottery

culture in southwest Slovakia (Hajnalova and Hajnalova

2005). However, radiocarbon dating of two samples gives a

much later age of 3,285 ± 30 B.P. for F. sylvatica

(Poz-22308) and 1,060 ± 30 B.P. for C. betulus

(Poz-22309), so we suspect that at least part of the beech

wood was deposited in later periods than the Neolithic.

Similarly, a later date for hornbeam should also most

probably refer to both specimens found at Moravany. On

the other hand, the only sample determined as larch or

spruce was dated at 26,950 ± 230 B.P. (Poz-22307). As a

result, these taxa are not included in the discussion.

The data referring to chronologically mixed material

indicate some taphonomic problems, especially if the

studied features belong to one settlement phase from an

archaeological point of view. Certainly, contamination by

charcoal fragments or other material from different

contexts has been observed in many archaeological sites

(Bernabeu et al. 2001; Damblon and Haesaerts 2002). The

specimen determined as Picea sp. or Larix sp. was found in

the bottom of pit 3/01 as the only charcoal fragment in that

layer and as the only coniferous find within the whole pit

(Table 3). The presence of both taxa in the local Atlantic

woods is in contradiction with our knowledge of the dis-

tribution of Picea and Larix, and their climatic

requirements as well as the study of natural potential

vegetation (Miklos 2002). Furthermore, in the lowest part

of feature 2/99B, charcoal pieces of Pinus sylvestris,

undetermined coniferous wood and Betula sp. have been

found (Table 3). Two 14C dates from this assemblage

(Ki-9246: 11980 ± 160; Ki-9248: 8,090 ± 180 B.P.) and

from a charcoal concentration in deluvia covering the area

of the site (Ki-9250: 19,980 ± 460 B.P.) demonstrate the

late Pleistocene and early Holocene age (Kozłowski et al.

2003; Kalicki et al. 2005; Nowak et al. 2006). The relation

of the identified taxa and their stratigraphic appearance in

the features has indicated a possibility of contamination of

the bottom part of these pits with the underlying late

Pleistocene and early Holocene material. Besides, all of the

above-mentioned taxa occur commonly in Pleistocene

Table 3 Results of charcoal analysis from Moravany

Wood taxa 2/99B 2/00 3/00 1/01 2/01 3/01 7/01 10/01 1/01 2/01 3/01 1/06 2/06 3/06P

%

Neolithic

Corylus avellana 5 5 0.2

Fraxinus excelsior 2 279 130 2 144 1 11 569 27.3

Acer sp. 4 8 2 1 15 0.7

Alnus sp. 4 4 0.2

Betula sp. 1 5 6 0.3

Quercus sp. deciduous 4 102 313 12 167 11 9 8 169 21 6 822 39.4

Rosaceae/Maloideae 3 5 8 0.4

Salix sp./Populus sp. 2 2 0.1

Sambucus sp. 20 1 21 1

Ulmus sp. 41 1 24 66 17 149 7.13

Angiosperms 68 94 5 10 23 59 8 5 272 13

Indeterminable 2 12 4 45 41 41 1 1 147 7

Contaminated

Carpinus sp. cf. C. betulus 2 2 0.1

Fagus sylvatica 1 17 7 1 26 1.2

cf. F. sylvatica 3 1 4 0.2

Pinus sylvestris 7 1 8 0.4

Betula sp. 8 8 0.4

Picea sp./Larix sp. 1 1 0.04

Conifers 16 2 18 0.9

Total R 34 41 18 5 523 676 58 198 41 9 8 413 36 27 2,087 100

Minimum number of taxa 3 1 2 1 5 7 1 2 4 1 1 9 4 4

Recovery method applied Manually recovered (140) Water sieved (20 9 2 l.) Flotation (35 9 10 l.)

Absolute number of charcoal fragments and relative frequency of the sum (%)


123

charcoal assemblages in Slovakia (Hajnalova and Krippel

1984). As a result, charcoal fragments of coniferous wood

and birch found in the bottom of the features have been

omitted from the Neolithic assemblages.

Only a small number of F. sylvatica and C. betulus

charcoal fragments were present in the Neolithic pits.

However, this proves contamination of the Neolithic fea-

tures with more recent fossil material. Consequently,

Fig. 5 Selected taxa in charcoal assemblages. 1 Quercus sp.,

transverse section; 2 Fraxinus excelsior, transverse section; 3 Acersp., transverse section; 4 Acer sp., longitudinal tangential section; 5

Ulmus sp., transverse section; 6 Ulmus sp., longitudinal tangential

section. Scale bars equal 100 lm (1, 2, 5) and 25 lm (3, 4, 6), SEM

photos by E. Badal and M. Moskal-del Hoyo


123

supposedly Neolithic material may contain a later admix-

ture. On the other hand, the majority of 14C dates obtained

from charcoal deposited in the anthropogenic features

agree with archaeological dating, except those from spruce/

larch, hornbeam and beech as well as an assemblage from

the bottom part of the pit 2/99B indicating a late Pleisto-

cene/Holocene age. In other words, a majority of them

refer to the Neolithic and delimit the period 5600/5500-

5300/5200 cal B.C. (Kozłowski et al. 2003; Kalicki et al.

2005; Nowak et al. 2006). Besides, the archaeological

materials belong exclusively to the Eastern Linear Pottery

culture.

All things considered, we include all deciduous taxa in

the Neolithic assemblage with the exception of beech and

hornbeam. Nevertheless, any quantitative estimation

should be taken into consideration with great caution as the

basis for the broader interpretation of the assemblage.

Discussion

Archaeobotanical data indicates that hulled wheats were

certainly cultivated by early Neolithic settlers at Moravany.

There are two other sites from the early phase of the

Eastern Linear Pottery culture, Slavkovce and Zaluzice

where, although in very low number, the same cereals

occur (Table 4; Litynska-Zajac 1997). Triticum dicoccon

and T. monococcum (emmer and einkorn) dominate among

the cereals. Most of the remains belong to emmer, while

einkorn is the second category with high representation.

Hordeum vulgare (barley) appears in small numbers. These

records as well as the early Neolithic composition of cul-

tivated plants recorded in adjacent regions (Wasylikowa

et al. 1991; Hajnalova 1993, pp. 104–108; Berzsenyi and

Dalnoki 2005; Gyulai 2007; Hajnalova 2007) suggest that

hulled wheats were the main cereals cultivated by early

Eastern Linear Pottery people in the area under discussion.

Both wheat species were probably cultivated in the same

fields as they have similar edaphic requirements and sim-

ilar life cycles (Janusevic 1976; Jones and Halstead 1995;

Hajnalova 2007, p. 306; Kreuz 2007, pp. 273–274). Barley

was of minor importance, if any. Since its remains are very

scarce in many early Neolithic contexts in central Europe it

is considered as a weed which would have been present in

wheat fields (Kreuz et al. 2005). If barley had indeed been a

cultivated crop, it should have been sown separately.

Remains of wild plants found at Moravany are very

scarce and therefore no reconstruction of former plant

communities can be made. Nevertheless, all these taxa

could have been related to ruderal habitats as well as to

cultivated fields. Saponaria officinalis, which occurs in

natural riverine vegetation, indicates that this species was

purposely brought into the settlement, probably from the

Sarkan or the Ondava valleys.

A relatively small number of cereals and their weeds

found during flotation is not proof of a small share of

domesticated plants. First of all, there are no signs of

predominance of ‘‘wild’’ food in the diet of the Mor-

avany inhabitants. Secondly, palaeoeconomic data (and

their interpretations) from the Tisza basin suggest that

the agro-pastoral type of subsistence was of major

importance for the first Neolithic societies (Bogaard

2004a, b; Bartosiewicz 2005; Craig et al. 2005).

Reconstructions of the Holocene history of the Sarkan

valley (Kalicki et al. 2005; Nowak et al. 2006) demon-

strate that the activities of the first farmers did not

transform the local environment significantly and this is

quite a typical situation in the Carpathian Basin and the

Balkans (Willis and Bennet 1994; Howard et al. 2004).

Consequently, we are of the opinion that the spatial

extent of cereal farming was rather small; that is, emmer

and einkorn were cultivated in small fields situated in the

immediate vicinity of the village. In theory, such a sit-

uation would imply an intensive model of cereal

Table 4 Cereals from the early

Neolithic archaeological sites

near Moravany

c caryopsis, g glume, s spikelet

Taxon name Remains Moravany Slavkovce Zaluzice

Triticum dicoccon c ?

T. dicoccon g ?

T. dicoccon s ?

T. monococcum c ? ?

T. monococcum s ? ?

T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum c ? ?

T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum g ? ?

T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum s ?

Hordeum vulgare s ?

Hordeum vulgare c ? ?

Cerealia indet. Chaff ? ? ?

Cerealia indet. vel Poaceae indet. Chaff ? ? ?


123

husbandry (Bogaard 2002, 2004a, b). However, the set of

plant remains which have been found, especially weeds,

is too modest to evaluate a hypothesis of that kind. It

should also be remembered that understanding the term

‘‘intensive cultivation’’ within the Neolithic contexts and

the question of its attributes is still ambiguous (Kreuz

et al. 2005).

Charcoal fragments were found dispersed in the pits and

were also associated with post-holes. Charcoals from the

pits mostly come from domestic fuel and reflect wood

burning activities within a long-term span and thus can

provide a specific sample of local woody vegetation. On

the other hand, charcoals from post-holes usually offer a

low diversity of species related to short-term or punctual

usage. This kind of fossil assemblage affords mainly pal-

aeoethnographic information and depends on stronger

wood selection (Badal Garcıa 1992; Chabal 1997; Heinz

and Thiebault 1998; Ntinou 2002).

The taxonomic composition and quantitative propor-

tions of the charcoal assemblage from Moravany

probably reflect the importance of oak, ash and elm in

woodland neighbouring the site; such a suggestion is

based on the assumption that the most frequent taxa tend

to be found in the charcoal samples (Ntinou 2002).

Furthermore, the significance of mixed deciduous woods

dominated by oaks was also shown in southwestern

Slovakia and northeastern Hungary during the Atlantic

period (Krippel 1971; Willis et al. 1995; Gardner 2002;

Hajnalova and Hajnalova 2005).

This charcoal assemblage may represent two groups of

plant communities, oak woods and riverine woods. In rich

soils throughout the entire hilly area surrounding the site,

oaks accompanied by hazel could have predominated.

Various light-demanding taxa within the Rosaceae family

could have also appeared as undergrowth or at the wood-

land edges. Elm, ash and maple could have occurred

mostly in wet and shady places with a permanently good

water supply. Light-demanding birch could have also

appeared within this vegetation type. In the riverine woods,

which probably developed in the nearby valleys of the

rivers Sarkan and Ondava, various species of alder, willow

and poplar together with ash and elm were probably

present.

The Eastern Slovakian Lowland lacks of any published

palynological data and no charcoal analysis is known

(Rybnıckova and Rybnıcek 1996). The closest data based

on charcoal analyses are from southwestern Slovakia

(Blatne, Strky) and reflect the situation in the earlier phase

of the Linearbandkeramik. Quercus sp., Fraxinus sp. and

Acer sp. were found among the taxa (Hajnalova and Ha-

jnalova 2005). Remains of these trees were also present in

Moravany together with those of other taxa characteristic

of a temperate climate.

Conclusions

The archaeobotanical investigation in the site of Moravany

provides new data on early agriculture in the Eastern Slo-

vakian Lowland. The most important conclusions are as

follows:

Triticum dicoccon (emmer), the most important cereal,

T. monococcum and H. vulgare were cultivated at the site.

The charcoal assemblages reflect the presence of temperate

deciduous oak and riverine woods. Oak wood was used for

construction and various wood taxa were utilized as fuel.

Plant material (remains of threshing?) was added

intentionally to clay used as construction material.

Acknowledgments We are deeply grateful to Ernestina Badal from

Universitat de Valencia and to personnel from Laboratorio de Mi-

croscopia Electronica from Universitat de Valencia. The project has

been financed by the Polish Committee of Scientific Research (Grant

0761/H01/2000/19) and the Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian

University. The authors would like to express their appreciation to

these institutions. We are greatly indebted to Julio M. del Hoyo

Melendez for language correction. We would also like to thank

El _zbieta Pohorska-Kleja M.A. and Urszula Bak M.A. for preparing

the illustrations.

References

Badal Garcıa E (1992) L0anthracologie prehistorique: a propos de

certains problemes methodologiques. In: Vernet JL (ed) Les

charbons de bois. Les anciens ecosystems et le role de l0homme.

Bulletin de la Societe botanique de France 139:67–189

Banacky V, Vass D, Kaliciak M, Remsik A, Pospisil L (1987)

Vysvetlivky ku geologickej mape severnej casti Vychos-

lovenskej nıziny v mierke 1:50,000 (Explanation for the

50,000 scale geological map of the northern part of the Eastern

Slovakian Lowland). Bratislava

Bartosiewicz L (2005) Plain talk: animals, environment and culture in

the Neolithic of the Carpathian Basin and adjacent areas. In:

Bailey D, Whittle A, Cummings V (eds) (Un)settling the

Neolithic. Oxbow, Oxford, pp 51–63

Bernabeu J, Barton M, Perez M (2001) A taphonomic perspective on

Neolithic beginnings: theory, interpretation, and empirical data

in Western Mediterranean. J Archaeol Sci 28:597–612

Berzsenyi BK, Dalnoki O (2005) Plant cultivation and crop processing

at the formative LBK settlement of Szentgyorgyvolgy-Pityerdomb

in Transdanubia (6th Millennium BC). Antaeus 28:261–270

Bogaard A (2002) Questioning the relevance of shifting cultivation to

Neolithic farming in the loess belt of Europe: evidence from the

Hambach Forest experiment. Veget Hist Archaeobot 11:155–168

Bogaard A (2004a) Neolithic farming in central Europe. An

archaeobotanical study of crop husbandry practices. Routledge,

London

Bogaard A (2004b) The nature of early farming in Central and South-

East Europe. Doc Praehist 31:49–58

Bronk Ramsay C (1995) Radiocarbon calibration and analysis of

stratigraphy: The OxCal program. Radiocarbon 37:425–430

Bronk Ramsay C (2001) Development of the radiocarbon calibration

program OxCal. Radiocarbon 43:355–363

Chabal L (1997) Forets et societes en Languedoc (Neolithic final,

Antiquite tardive). L0anthracologie, methode et paleoecologie.

Maison des Sciences de l0Homme, Paris


123

Chapman J (1997) Places as timemarks—the social constructions of

prehistoric landscapes in Eastern Hungary. In: Chapman J,

Dolukhanov P (eds) Landscapes in flux. Central and eastern

Europe in antiquity. Oxbow, Oxford, pp 137–162

Craig OE, Chapman J, Heron C, Willis LH, Bartosiewicz L, Taylor G,

Whittle A, Collins M (2005) Did the first farmers of central and

eastern Europe produce dairy foods? Antiquity 79:882–894

Damblon F, Haesaerts P (2002) Anthracology and radiochronology of

Upper Pleistocene in the loessic areas of Eurasia. In: Thiebault S

(ed) Charcoal analysis. Methodological approaches, palaeoeco-

logical results and wood uses. British Archaeological Reports

(International Series 1063). Archaeopress, Oxford, pp 65–71

Domanska H (1982) Chwasty. Weeds. In: Domanska H, Droese H,

Gawronska-Kulesz A, Kowalski S, Roszak W, Smierzchalski L,

Trzecki S Ogolna uprawa roli i roslin (Tillage and plant

cultivation, in Polish). PWN, Warszawa, pp 119–190

Gardner AR (2002) Neolithic to Copper Age woodland impacts in

northeast Hungary? Evidence from the pollen and sediment

chemistry records. Holocene 12:541–553

Gronenborn D (1999) A variation on a basic theme: the transition to

farming in southern Central Europe. J World Prehist 13:123–210

Gyulai F (2007) Seed and fruit remains associated with Neolithic

origins in the Carpathian Basin. In: Colledge S, Conolly J (eds)

The origins and spread of domestic plants in southwest Asia and

Europe. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, pp 125–140

Hajnalova E (1993) Obilie v archeobotanickych nalezach na Sloven-

sku (Cereals in archaeolbtanical finds in Slovakia, in Slovak with

German summary). Acta Interdiscip Archaeol 8:1–147

Hajnalova M (2007) Early farming in Slovakia: an archaeobotanical

perspective. In: Colledge S, Conolly J (eds) The origins and

spread of domestic plants in southwest Asia and Europe. Left

Coast Press, Walnut Creek, pp 295–314

Hajnalova M, Hajnalova E (2005) Lesne dreviny na pahorkatinach

juhozapadeho Slovenska pocas klimatickych faz atlantik, epiat-

lantik a subboreal (Trees and forest at the upland zone of south-

west Slovakia during climate phases of Atlanticum, Epiatlant-

icum and Subboreal, in Slovak with English summary). Studijne

Zvesti Archeologichego Ustavu SAV 37:1–30

Hajnalova M, Krippel E (1984) Katalog paleobotanickych nalezov z

paleolitu Slovenska (Catalogue of archaeobotanical finds in the

Palaeolithic of Slovakia, in Slovak). Acta Interdiscip Archaeol

3:304–317

Heinz C, Thiebault S (1998) Characterization and palaeoecological

significance of archaeological assemblages during Late and Post-

Glacial phases in Southern France. Q Res 50:56–68

Howard AJ, Macklin MG, Bailey DW, Mills S, Andreescu R (2004)

Late-glacial and Holocene river development in the Teleorman

Valley on the southern Romanian Plain. J Q Sci 19:271–280

Jacquiot C, Trenard Y, Dirol D (1973) Atlas d0Anatomie des bois des

Angiospermes, vol 1. Centre techniques de bois, Paris

Janusevic ZV (1976) Kulturnye rastenija jugo-zapada SSSR po

paleoetnobotaniceskim issledovanijam (Cultivated plants of the

south-west of the Soviet Union, in Russian, with English

summary) Izd. Stiinca, Kisinev

Jones G, Halstead P (1995) Maslins, mixtures and monocrops. On the

interpretation of archaeobotanical crop samples of heterogenous

composition. J Archaeol Sci 22:103–114

Kaczanowska M, Kozłowski JK (2003) Origins of the linear pottery

complex and the Neolithic transition in Central Europe. In:

Ammerman AJ, Biagi P (eds) The widening harvest: the

Neolithic transition in Europe. Looking back, looking forward.

Archaeological Institute of America, Boston, pp 227–248

Kalicki T, Kozłowski JK, Nowak M, Vizdal M (2005) A settlement of

the Early Eastern linear pottery culture at Moravany (Eastern

Slovakia): palaeogeographical and archaeological perspective.

In: Gal E, Juhasz I, Sumegi P (eds) Environmental archaeology

in north-eastern Hungary. Archaeological Institute of the Hun-

garian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, pp 179–198

Kalicz N, Makkay J (1977) Die Linienbandkeramik in der Grossen

Ungarischen Tiefebene. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest

Kozłowski JK (2001) Evolution of the lithic industries of the Eastern

linear pottery culture. In: Kertesz R, Makkay J (eds) From the

Mesolithic to the Neolithic. In: Proceedings of the international

archaeol conference, Szolnok, 22–27 September 1996. Archae-

olingua, Budapest, pp 247–260

Kozłowski JK (ed) (1997) The Early Linear Pottery culture in Eastern

Slovakia. Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci, Krakow

Kozłowski JK, Nowak M, Vizdal M (2003) A settlement of the early

Eastern linear pottery culture at Moravany (Eastern Slovakia)

within the context of the Neolithisation of the Upper Tisza Basin.

In: Jerem E, Raczky P (eds) Morgenrot der Kulturen. Fruhe

Etappen der Menschheitsgeschichte in Mittel- und Sudosteuropa.

Archaeolingua, Budapest, pp 127–145

Kozłowski JK, Nowak M (2007) Neolithisation of the Upper Tisza

Basin. In: Kozłowski JK, Nowak M (eds) Mesolithic/Neolithic

interactions in the Balkans and in the middle Danube basin.

British Archaeological Reports (International Series 1726)

Archaeopress, Oxford, pp 77–102

Kreuz A (2007) Archaeobotanical perspectives on the beginning of

agriculture north of the Alps. In: Colledge S, Conolly J (eds) The

origins and spread of domestic plants in southwest Asia and

Europe. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, pp 259–294

Kreuz A, Marinova E, Schafer E, Wiethold J (2005) A comparison of

early Neolithic crop and weed assemblages from the Linear-

bandkeramik and the Bulgarian Neolithic cultures: differences

and similarities. Veget Hist Archaeobot 14:237–258

Krippel E (1971) Postglacialny vyvoj vegetacie Vychodneho Slov-

enska (Postglacial development of the vegetation of Slovakia, in

Slovak). Geograficky Casopis 23:225–241

Litynska-Zajac M (1997) Plant impressions on daub—Slavkovce and

Zaluzice, Slovakia. In: Kozłowski JK (ed) The Early Linear

Pottery culture in eastern Slovakia, pp 255–258

Litynska-Zajac M (2005) Chwasty w uprawach roslinnych w

pradziejach i wczesnym sredniowieczu (Segetal weeds in

prehistoric and early medieval farming, in Polish, with English

summary). Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii PAN, Krakow

Litynska-Zajac M, Wasylikowa K (2005) Przewodnik do badan

archeobotanicznych (Manual of archaeobotany, in Polish).

Sorus, Poznan

Magyari E (2002) Holocene biogeography of Fagus sylvatica L. and

Carpinus betulus L. in the Carpathian-Alpine Region. Folia

Historico-Naturalia Musei Matraensis 26:15–35

Miklos L (ed) (2002) Atlas krajiny Slovenskej republiky (Atlas of the

Slovak Republic, in Slovak) Ministerstvo zivotneho prostredia

Slovenskej republiky, Bratislava

Nowak M, Kalicki T, Kozłowski JK, Kaczanowska M, Kaminska L’,

Litynska-Zajac M, Stobierska E, Vizdal M, Wyszomirski P

(2006) A settlement of the early eastern linear pottery culture at

Moravany (Eastern Slovakia). Recherches Archeologiques de

1999–2003. Institute of Archaeology Jagiellonian University,

Krakow, pp 307–335

Ntinou M (2002) La Paleovegetacion en el Norte de Grecia desde el

Tardiglaciar hasta el Atlantico. Formaciones Vegetales, Recur-

sos y Usos. British Archaeological Reports (International Series

1083) Archaeopress, Oxford

Podbielkowski Z (1985) Słownik roslin u _zytkowych (Dictionary of

useful plants, in Polish) Panstwowe Wydawnictwa Rolnicze i

Lesne, Warszawa

Reimer PJ, Baillie MGL, Bard E, Bazyliss A, Beck JW, Bertrand

CJH, Blackwell PH, Buck CE, Burr GS, Butler KB, Damon PE,

Edwards RL, Fairbanks RG, Friedrich M, Guilderson TP, Hogg

AG, Hughen KA, Kromer B, McCormac G, Manning S, Bronk


123

Ramsey C, Reimer RW, Remmele S, Southon JR, Stuiver M,

Talamo S, Taylor FW, Van der Plicht J, Weyhenmeyer CE

(2004) IntCal04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 0–26 cal

kyr BP. Radiocarbon 46:1029–1058

Rybnıckova E, Rybnıcek K (1996) Czech and Slovak Republics. In:

Berglund BE, Birks HJB, Ralska-Jasiewiczowa M, Wright HE

(eds) Palaeoecological events during the last 15000 years.

Regional syntheses of palaeoecological studies of lakes and

mires in Europe. Wiley, Chichester, pp 473–505

Shiel RS (1997) Surviving in the Tisza valley—plants’ and people’s

perspectives on the environment. In: Chapman J, Dolukhanov P

(eds) Landscapes in flux. Central and eastern Europe in

antiquity. Oxbow, Oxford, pp 181–192

Schweingruber FH (1990) Anatomie Europaischer Holzer. Haupt,

Bern

Siska S (1989) Kultura s vychodnou linearnou keramikou na

Slovensku (Die Kultur mit ostlicher Linearkeramik in der

Slovakei, in Slovak with German summary). Veda, Bratislava

Tutin TH, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH,

Walters SM, Webb DA (1964–1993) Flora Europaea, vols 1–5.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Tymrakiewicz W (1962) Atlas chwastow (Atlas of weeds, in Polish).

Panstwowe Wydawnictwa Rolnicze i Lesne, Warszawa

Wasylikowa K, Carciumaru M, Hajnalova E, Hartyanyi BP, Pashke-

vich GA, Yanushevich ZV (1991) East-Central Europe. In: van

Zeist W, Wasylikowa K, Behre KE (eds) Progress in Old World

palaeoethnobotany. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 207–240

Willis KJ, Bennet KD (1994) The Neolithic transition—fact or

fiction? Palaeoecological evidence from the Balkans. The

Holocene 4:326–330

Willis KJ, Rudner E, Sumegi P (2000) The full-Glacial forest of

central and southeastern Europe. Q Res 53:203–213

Willis KJ, Sumegi P, Braun M, Toth A (1995) The Late Quaternary

environmental history of Batorliget, N.E. Hungary Palaeogeogr

Palaeoclim Palaeoecol 118:25–47


123

Plant remains from an early Neolithic settlement at Moravany (eastern Slovakia)

Documents

Transcript of Plant remains from an early Neolithic settlement at Moravany (eastern Slovakia)