ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Plant remains from an early Neolithic settlement at Moravany(eastern Slovakia)
Maria Litynska-Zajac Æ Magdalena Moskal-Del Hoyo ÆMarek Nowak
Received: 7 November 2007 / Accepted: 23 June 2008 / Published online: 12 September 2008
� Springer-Verlag 2008
Abstract This paper presents the results of the investi-
gation of macroscopic plant remains from the early
Neolithic site of Moravany, Slovakia, dated to the third
quarter of the 6th millennium cal B.C., from which 141
samples of burnt clay were examined. The most abundant
remains belonged to Triticum dicoccon. Two other cereals
were found, T. monococcum and Hordeum vulgare. Fifty-
five soil samples contained a few specimens of charred
grains of T. dicoccon and diaspores of the wild plants
Chenopodium album, Saponaria officinalis, Solanum
nigrum and Bromus sp. Over 2,000 pieces of charcoal were
examined, among which 14 plant taxa belonging to gym-
nosperms and angiosperms have been recognized. The
most common were Quercus (oak), Fraxinus (ash) and
Ulmus (elm). Archaeobotanical and chronological data
demonstrate that a farming economy was practised in
eastern Slovakia as early as the mid 6th millennium B.C.
The trees identified from the charcoals reveal that typical
early Atlantic woodland communities with a predominance
of deciduous trees and shrubs constituted the environ-
mental context of the first Neolithic settlers there. Wood of
these taxa was used for construction and as fuel.
Keywords Early Neolithic � Eastern Slovakia �Archaeobotany � Cultivated plants � Charcoal analysis
Introduction
The first Neolithic in the north-eastern part of the Carpa-
thian Basin is reflected by an archaeological phenomenon
called either the Eastern Linear Pottery culture or the Al-
fold Linear Pottery culture (Alfoldi Vonaldiszes Keramia,
AVK) (Kalicz and Makkay 1977; Siska 1989; Kozłowski
1997). Its beginning is dated at 5600/5500 cal B.C. The
basic patterns of its material, socio-economic and ideo-
logical systems had their roots in the first Neolithic cultures
of the Balkan peninsula, defined by archaeologists as the
First Temperate Neolithic (FTN), that had existed between
ca. 6300 and 5300 cal B.C. The north-eastern branch of the
FTN, the so-called Koros-Cris culture, was the most
important factor in transmitting Neolithic patterns to the
north and northeast. On the other hand, the question of the
genetic pool of the AVK population, that is, the share either
of the local Mesolithic or of the allochtonous ‘‘Balkan’’
populations, remains still to be resolved (Kozłowski and
Nowak 2007). Similarly, there are broadly discussed,
analogous problems in the case of the Linearbandkeramik
(for example, Gronenborn 1999; Kaczanowska and
Kozłowski 2003).
The data on the economy and settlement system of the
AVK are very scarce. This situation is extremely disad-
vantageous as regards its earliest stage, which is actually a
starting point of the Neolithic in the area under discussion.
Communicated by M. Latałowa.
M. Litynska-Zajac (&)
Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology,
Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow Branch, Sławkowska 17,
31016 Krakow, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Moskal-Del Hoyo
Department of Prehistory and Archaeology,
University of Valencia, av. Blasco Ibanez 28,
46010 Valencia, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Nowak
Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Gołebia 11,
31007 Krakow, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
123
Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92
DOI 10.1007/s00334-008-0179-1
As a consequence, the first AVK is routinely connected
with the Neolithic mainly on the basis of the occurrence of
pottery. New palaeoeconomic and palaeogeographic data,
even very limited, would provide a better understanding of
other material aspects of the first Neolithic and would
possibly further arguments in the debate about the origins
of the AVK.
In such circumstances, the discovery of a new AVK
settlement at Moravany in 1998 gave the opportunity to
increase our knowledge about the early Neolithic of the
upper Tisza basin. The field investigations have been
conducted since the year 2000 within the framework of an
agreement between the Institute of Archaeology of the
Jagiellonian University in Krakow, the Philosophical Fac-
ulty of Presov University and the Institute of Archaeology
of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Nitra. Moreover,
a number of archaeological, palaeoenvironmental and
archaeobotanical analyses have been also conducted
(Kozłowski et al. 2003; Kalicki et al. 2005).
The site
The site is situated in the Eastern Slovakian Lowland, on
the western slope of the tectonic horst called Pozdisovsky
chrbat (170 m a.s.l.), about 60 m above the Ondava
floodplain (Fig. 1). Pozdisovsky chrbat is an elevation
between two depressions, the Ondava plain to the west and
the Laborec plain eastwards. It is formed of Tertiary clay
formations and covered with irregular and very thin slope
deposits of Quaternary age. Radiocarbon dates from the
deluvia (19,980 ± 460 B.P.) and buried soil (19,890 ±
120 B.P.) indicate that intensive slope movements occurred
here during the maximum of the last glaciation (Kalicki
et al. 2005). The deposits are very homogeneous silts,
badly sorted. Only the southern part of the Pozdisovski
chrbat, 5 km south of the site, is covered with loess. The
Quaternary alluvia of the rivers Ondava, Topl’a and Lab-
orec fill the depressions (Banacky et al. 1987).
The climate of the region is warm, with a mean
annual temperature of 8–9�C; 50 or more days with a
daily maximum air temperature above 25�C occur, and
moderately dry, with a mean annual precipitation of
about 600 mm. Winter is usually cool with a mean
temperature in January of about -3�C. The rivers Ond-
ava and Topl’a have a rain-snow combined type of run-
off regime with flooding during March and minimum
discharges during September. Eutric to dystric planosols
and (luvic-, albic-) stagnosols from colluvial deposits
with a very low humus content in the topsoils occur on
the Pozdisovsky chrbat, whereas eutric fluvisols, rich in
humus, associated with gleyic and arenic eutric fluvisols
from non-carbonate fluvial sediments dominate on the
surrounding plains. As to potential vegetation, the
highest areas of the Pozdisovsky chrbat would be cov-
ered with oak woods (Potentillo albae-Quercion, Carici
pilosae-Carpinetum) whereas on the lowest slopes good
conditions for lowland hygrophilous oak-hornbeam
woods occur (Querco robori-Carpinetum). Elm (Ulme-
nion) and willow-poplar floodplain woods (Salicion
albae) would occur in the valley bottoms (Miklos 2002).
The site has an atypical topographical position, since
early Neolithic sites in the Tisza basin are usually con-
centrated in the lower part of the landscape (Chapman
1997; Shiel 1997). It seems that the high location of the
early Neolithic settlement at Moravany must have caused
difficulties with the water supply. However, palaeogeo-
graphical research done in the small valley of the Sarkan,
which at present is an episodic stream in the immediate
vicinity of the settlement, proves that after a late Pleni-
glacial/Late-glacial incision, during almost the whole
Holocene the valley had a V-shaped erosional cross-section
with a perennial stream (Fig. 2). Therefore, it would have
provided a sufficient source of water for early Neolithic
people there. The alluvia of the valley are later than the
early Neolithic (Kalicki et al. 2005). The high position of
the settlement is climatically favourable, due to a smaller
number of inversions and good thermal and moisture
conditions.
Nearly 2,000 m2 of the site’s area have been excavated
to date (Fig. 3). Erosional processes have removed the
occupation layer associated with the Neolithic settlement
and for this reason finds were preserved only in the filling
of the sunken features. Almost 50 such structures, sunk into
the ground usually to 100–120 cm below ground level,
have been discovered. The clayey filling of most features is
a uniform, grey-black; only in several cases thin layers of
dark yellow clays were found.
Basically four types of features have been distinguished:
1. The relatively large (about 1.5–5 m in diameter)
trough-like features, circular or oval in outline, inter-
preted as refuse or storage pits
2. Small features with a large number of daub pieces and
distinct traces of fire, interpreted as remains of hearths
or/and ovens
3. Post-holes (regrettably their layout does not form any
regular pattern)
4. Big structures (3/01, 10/01, 1/06), that can be
interpreted either as remains of semi-dugout dwellings
or as clay extraction pits.
So far, we have not been able to determine precisely the
boundaries of the settlement. For this reason we are able
only to estimate its real size at ca. 2–3 ha. However, the
results of the investigation indicate that the site was not a
seasonal camp or a short-term settlement. We have the
following evidence:
S82 Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92
123
1. Remains of the whole process of lithic (mainly
obsidian) tool production
2. Large features, some of which were ‘‘saturated’’ with
archaeological material
3. Post-holes
4. Contacts with the territories situated both to the north
and south of the Pozdisovsky chrbat, including north-
ern Hungary and southeastern Poland.
The attributes of the pottery and chipped stone indus-
tries as well as results of radiocarbon dating indicate that
the site should be ascribed to the early phase of the
Eastern Linear Pottery culture (Kalicz and Makkay 1977;
Siska 1989) and dated at 5600/5500-5300/5200 cal B.C.
(Kozłowski et al. 2003; Kalicki et al. 2005; Nowak et al.
2006). The chronological position of the settlement
demonstrates that its inhabitants belonged to the first
Fig. 1 Location of the site at
Moravany (black rectangle) and
trial trenches (small blackrectangles)
Fig. 2 The Sarkan valley cross-
section (after Kalicki et al.
2005, slightly modified). 1Tertiary clay; 2 slope deposits
(deluvia); 3 gravel; 4 sandy
gravel with silt; 5 silty gravel;
6 sandy silt; 7 silt; 8 organic silt;
9 buried soil; 10 detritus; 11radiocarbon dating
Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92 S83
123
Neolithic farmers in the Eastern Slovakian Lowland.
Because there are no unquestionable traces of the late
Mesolithic occupation in eastern Slovakia, we could
hardly talk about local Neolithisation. Neither does the
technology of stone processing point to local Neolithisa-
tion, as it is related to the early Neolithic traditions of the
Great Hungarian Plain (Kozłowski 2001; Kozłowski and
Nowak 2007). It seems plausible that the settlement was
set up by a group of the late Koros culture people who
migrated to Moravany from outside the eastern Slovakian
plain about 5600/5500 cal B.C. The starting point of this
migration was either the middle part of the Alfold or the
present-day Transcarpathian Ukraine (Kozłowski et al.
2003).
Fig. 3 Distribution of
excavation blocks within the
central part of the site in
Moravany
S84 Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92
123
Material and methods
Three kinds of botanical samples were examined from the
Moravany site: soil samples, impressions in burnt clay and
charcoal pieces hand-picked in their concentration places.
In total, 55 soil samples (water sieved with mesh sizes of
0.2 and 0.5 mm and floated with mesh sizes of 0.5 and
1 mm), 140 charcoal samples, and 141 samples of burnt
clay were analyzed. Two groups of material were sorted
and picked out: grain, seeds, fruits and fragments of
charcoal. The concentration of plant material was rather
low. For example, 413 charcoal fragments and only one
fragment of unidentified cereal were recovered from 24
samples each of 10 l from pit 1/06. The sampling method
can influence the results, as the flotation samples demon-
strate somewhat greater diversity of taxa. Moreover, in
cases where manually recovered samples predominate,
there is also higher probability of over-representation of
some taxa (pit 2/00, 7/01, 10/01) (Litynska-Zajac and
Wasylikowa 2005).
Identification of seeds and fruits was based on
comparison with samples in a reference collection. A
preliminary selection of the material was done using a low
power microscope with magnification of 10–25x.
Each charcoal fragment is the observation unit and was
usually broken manually along the three anatomical sec-
tions and then observed microscopically using a reflected
light microscope with light and dark fields. More detailed
information was obtained by studying the samples with a
scanning electron microscope. Identifications were made
by comparison with anatomical atlases (Jacquiot et al.
1973; Schweingruber 1990) and specimens in a modern
reference collection. Most of the taxa are determined to
genus level. Precise determination have been indicated
when only one species is present in the local vegetation.
Moreover, in case of Fraxinus excelsior the size of the
earlywood pores in the transverse section and their ring
uniformity enable us to attribute charcoal fragments to this
species (Jacquiot et al. 1973). On the basis of anatomical
studies, Carpinus betulus and C. orientalis cannot be easily
distinguished (Schweingruber 1990); nevertheless, on the
basis of the ecology and modern distribution our material
probably represents C. betulus (Tutin et al. 1964–1993).
The daub pieces collected for botanical research were
fine-grained, fragile, generally well fired or dried. They
were light-yellow, orange or black in colour. Part of the
lumps contained an organic admixture preserved as
impressions and charred and dried fragments of tissues,
which were irregularly arranged in the clay, inside and on
the surface of the lumps. In most clay pieces there were
numerous specimens which formed accumulations, making
counting impossible.
Calibration of the radiocarbon dates was done using
OxCal 4.0 (Bronk Ramsay 1995, 2001; Reimer et al. 2004).
Results
Remains of cereals
Among the plant impressions and charred remains, cereals
were the best represented group (Table 1; Fig. 4). The
most abundant remnants belonged to the unidentified
cereals Cerealia indet. They were preserved as impressions
of leaves and chaff fragments and small fragments of
broken caryopses. Among the identified taxa, remains of
Table 1 Cereals found in early Neolithic site at Moravany
Taxon name Daub Soil samples
Remains Imprint Charred Dried Charred Total
Triticum dicoccon c 12 0 0 2 14
T. dicoccon g 0 1 0 1 2
T. dicoccon s 5 1 7 0 13
T. monococcum c 2 1 0 0 3
T. monococcum s 1 0 0 0 1
T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum c 27 0 0 2 29
T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum g 16 4 76 1 97
T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum s 10 0 7 0 17
Hordeum vulgare s 3 0 0 0 3
Hordeum vulgare c 4 0 0 0 4
Cerealia indet. chaff ? ? ? 0 ?
Cerealia indet. c 1 1 1
Cerealia indet. vel Poaceae indet. chaff ? ? ? 0 ?
c caryopsis, g glume, s spikelet
Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92 S85
123
hulled wheat were represented, T. dicoccon Schrank.
(emmer) and T. monococcum L. (einkorn). Emmer was
preserved in the form of imprints of naked caryopses and
spikelet fragments. In the daub there were also charred and
dried remains of these species including fragments of
spikelets and their basal parts, as well as basal parts of
glumes. A few charred caryopses and fragments of glumes
in soil samples were also identified as emmer (Table 1).
The most frequent were remains determined as T. dicoccon
or T. monococcum.
There was also H. vulgare (barley) recorded as imprints
of a few caryopses and spikelet fragments. Remains of
unidentified cereals and/or wild grasses (Cerealia indet. or
Poaceae indet.) were also found.
Wild herbaceous plant remains
Wild herbaceous plant remains were preserved only in a
few samples (Table 2). On the basis of charred seeds and
fruits, three taxa, Chenopodium album L., Saponaria offi-
cinalis L. and Solanum nigrum L., were identified to
species level and one, Bromus sp., to that of genus
(Table 2). Uncharred seeds of C. album L., Stellaria
graminea L. and Viola sp. may be due to modern con-
tamination. In the burnt clay, grains and two chaff
fragments of Poaceae indet. were noticed. Two better
preserved charred grains, inside the imprints, were classi-
fied to Bromus sp. (brome grass).
All these taxa are common in vegetation developing in
anthropogenic habitats. Species of Bromus are related to
cereal cultivation (for example B. secalinus L.), ruderal
habitats (B. sterilis L., B. tectorum L.) and meadows
(B. hordeaceus L.).
Chenopodium album commonly occurs in subfossil
materials (Litynska-Zajac 2005), probably because of its
great seed production (over 100,000 seeds per year, Tym-
rakiewicz 1962; Domanska 1982). At present C. album
mostly appears in ruderal habitats, and in various kinds of
crops including cereals. It is characterized by wide eco-
logical amplitude, but it grows better in rich soils.
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) is an annual herb
occurring in ruderal habitats and in cultivated fields. It
prefers rich and wet habitats with either neutral or alkaline
soil reaction (Tymrakiewicz 1962).
Saponaria officinalis (soapwort) is a species of riverine
plant communities. Due to saponins, occurring in the whole
herb but especially in the roots, it is an important plant
used for various purposes but mainly in folk medicine
(Podbielkowski 1985).
Remains of trees
Fourteen tree taxa have been identified in the analysis of
the charcoal from the pits (Table 3; Fig. 5). Quercus sp.,
(deciduous oak), F. excelsior (ash) and Ulmus sp. (elm)
clearly dominate, while other taxa were represented in
small amounts. The diversity of taxa is directly related to
the number of fragments examined, and thus the more
reliable and representative results have been obtained from
pits 2/01, 3/01 and 1/06. Some fragments of charcoal are
also related to wooden constructions, such as some burnt
fragments of a post (2/03) that belong to Quercus sp.
Furthermore, some deciduous oak charcoals were found in
burnt clay (pit 1/01) and another undetermined wood
fragment was found in the same kind of material in pit
3/01. The imprint of a leaf (feature 1/01) probably belongs
to cf. Alnus sp. (alder).
Interesting findings are the charcoal fragments of Fagus
sylvatica and C. betulus. When studying pollen diagrams
Fig. 4 Triticum dicoccon (caryopsis). Photo by M. Moskal-Del Hoyo
Table 2 Wild herbaceous plant remains found in early Neolithic site
at Moravany
Taxon name State of preservation Number of specimens
Bromus sp. ch 1,2a
Chenopodium album ch 14
Saponaria officinalis ch 9
cf. Solanum nigrum ch 1
Poaceae indet. ch 4 g
Poaceae indet. unch 2 Chaffa
Stellaria graminea unch 2
Chenopodium album unch 1
Viola sp. unch 1
ch charred, unch uncharred, g glumea Charred remains preserved inside the imprint
S86 Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92
123
from the Carpathian basin, it can be seen that pollen of both
taxa appears discontinuously and in small numbers not
only throughout the Atlantic period but also in the early
Holocene and the Late-Glacial (Krippel 1971; Willis et al.
1995, 2000; Gardner 2002; Magyari 2002). Moreover,
some charcoal fragments of F. sylvatica were identified on
the sites of the later phase of the Linear Band Pottery
culture in southwest Slovakia (Hajnalova and Hajnalova
2005). However, radiocarbon dating of two samples gives a
much later age of 3,285 ± 30 B.P. for F. sylvatica
(Poz-22308) and 1,060 ± 30 B.P. for C. betulus
(Poz-22309), so we suspect that at least part of the beech
wood was deposited in later periods than the Neolithic.
Similarly, a later date for hornbeam should also most
probably refer to both specimens found at Moravany. On
the other hand, the only sample determined as larch or
spruce was dated at 26,950 ± 230 B.P. (Poz-22307). As a
result, these taxa are not included in the discussion.
The data referring to chronologically mixed material
indicate some taphonomic problems, especially if the
studied features belong to one settlement phase from an
archaeological point of view. Certainly, contamination by
charcoal fragments or other material from different
contexts has been observed in many archaeological sites
(Bernabeu et al. 2001; Damblon and Haesaerts 2002). The
specimen determined as Picea sp. or Larix sp. was found in
the bottom of pit 3/01 as the only charcoal fragment in that
layer and as the only coniferous find within the whole pit
(Table 3). The presence of both taxa in the local Atlantic
woods is in contradiction with our knowledge of the dis-
tribution of Picea and Larix, and their climatic
requirements as well as the study of natural potential
vegetation (Miklos 2002). Furthermore, in the lowest part
of feature 2/99B, charcoal pieces of Pinus sylvestris,
undetermined coniferous wood and Betula sp. have been
found (Table 3). Two 14C dates from this assemblage
(Ki-9246: 11980 ± 160; Ki-9248: 8,090 ± 180 B.P.) and
from a charcoal concentration in deluvia covering the area
of the site (Ki-9250: 19,980 ± 460 B.P.) demonstrate the
late Pleistocene and early Holocene age (Kozłowski et al.
2003; Kalicki et al. 2005; Nowak et al. 2006). The relation
of the identified taxa and their stratigraphic appearance in
the features has indicated a possibility of contamination of
the bottom part of these pits with the underlying late
Pleistocene and early Holocene material. Besides, all of the
above-mentioned taxa occur commonly in Pleistocene
Table 3 Results of charcoal analysis from Moravany
Wood taxa 2/99B 2/00 3/00 1/01 2/01 3/01 7/01 10/01 1/01 2/01 3/01 1/06 2/06 3/06P
%
Neolithic
Corylus avellana 5 5 0.2
Fraxinus excelsior 2 279 130 2 144 1 11 569 27.3
Acer sp. 4 8 2 1 15 0.7
Alnus sp. 4 4 0.2
Betula sp. 1 5 6 0.3
Quercus sp. deciduous 4 102 313 12 167 11 9 8 169 21 6 822 39.4
Rosaceae/Maloideae 3 5 8 0.4
Salix sp./Populus sp. 2 2 0.1
Sambucus sp. 20 1 21 1
Ulmus sp. 41 1 24 66 17 149 7.13
Angiosperms 68 94 5 10 23 59 8 5 272 13
Indeterminable 2 12 4 45 41 41 1 1 147 7
Contaminated
Carpinus sp. cf. C. betulus 2 2 0.1
Fagus sylvatica 1 17 7 1 26 1.2
cf. F. sylvatica 3 1 4 0.2
Pinus sylvestris 7 1 8 0.4
Betula sp. 8 8 0.4
Picea sp./Larix sp. 1 1 0.04
Conifers 16 2 18 0.9
Total R 34 41 18 5 523 676 58 198 41 9 8 413 36 27 2,087 100
Minimum number of taxa 3 1 2 1 5 7 1 2 4 1 1 9 4 4
Recovery method applied Manually recovered (140) Water sieved (20 9 2 l.) Flotation (35 9 10 l.)
Absolute number of charcoal fragments and relative frequency of the sum (%)
Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92 S87
123
charcoal assemblages in Slovakia (Hajnalova and Krippel
1984). As a result, charcoal fragments of coniferous wood
and birch found in the bottom of the features have been
omitted from the Neolithic assemblages.
Only a small number of F. sylvatica and C. betulus
charcoal fragments were present in the Neolithic pits.
However, this proves contamination of the Neolithic fea-
tures with more recent fossil material. Consequently,
Fig. 5 Selected taxa in charcoal assemblages. 1 Quercus sp.,
transverse section; 2 Fraxinus excelsior, transverse section; 3 Acersp., transverse section; 4 Acer sp., longitudinal tangential section; 5
Ulmus sp., transverse section; 6 Ulmus sp., longitudinal tangential
section. Scale bars equal 100 lm (1, 2, 5) and 25 lm (3, 4, 6), SEM
photos by E. Badal and M. Moskal-del Hoyo
S88 Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92
123
supposedly Neolithic material may contain a later admix-
ture. On the other hand, the majority of 14C dates obtained
from charcoal deposited in the anthropogenic features
agree with archaeological dating, except those from spruce/
larch, hornbeam and beech as well as an assemblage from
the bottom part of the pit 2/99B indicating a late Pleisto-
cene/Holocene age. In other words, a majority of them
refer to the Neolithic and delimit the period 5600/5500-
5300/5200 cal B.C. (Kozłowski et al. 2003; Kalicki et al.
2005; Nowak et al. 2006). Besides, the archaeological
materials belong exclusively to the Eastern Linear Pottery
culture.
All things considered, we include all deciduous taxa in
the Neolithic assemblage with the exception of beech and
hornbeam. Nevertheless, any quantitative estimation
should be taken into consideration with great caution as the
basis for the broader interpretation of the assemblage.
Discussion
Archaeobotanical data indicates that hulled wheats were
certainly cultivated by early Neolithic settlers at Moravany.
There are two other sites from the early phase of the
Eastern Linear Pottery culture, Slavkovce and Zaluzice
where, although in very low number, the same cereals
occur (Table 4; Litynska-Zajac 1997). Triticum dicoccon
and T. monococcum (emmer and einkorn) dominate among
the cereals. Most of the remains belong to emmer, while
einkorn is the second category with high representation.
Hordeum vulgare (barley) appears in small numbers. These
records as well as the early Neolithic composition of cul-
tivated plants recorded in adjacent regions (Wasylikowa
et al. 1991; Hajnalova 1993, pp. 104–108; Berzsenyi and
Dalnoki 2005; Gyulai 2007; Hajnalova 2007) suggest that
hulled wheats were the main cereals cultivated by early
Eastern Linear Pottery people in the area under discussion.
Both wheat species were probably cultivated in the same
fields as they have similar edaphic requirements and sim-
ilar life cycles (Janusevic 1976; Jones and Halstead 1995;
Hajnalova 2007, p. 306; Kreuz 2007, pp. 273–274). Barley
was of minor importance, if any. Since its remains are very
scarce in many early Neolithic contexts in central Europe it
is considered as a weed which would have been present in
wheat fields (Kreuz et al. 2005). If barley had indeed been a
cultivated crop, it should have been sown separately.
Remains of wild plants found at Moravany are very
scarce and therefore no reconstruction of former plant
communities can be made. Nevertheless, all these taxa
could have been related to ruderal habitats as well as to
cultivated fields. Saponaria officinalis, which occurs in
natural riverine vegetation, indicates that this species was
purposely brought into the settlement, probably from the
Sarkan or the Ondava valleys.
A relatively small number of cereals and their weeds
found during flotation is not proof of a small share of
domesticated plants. First of all, there are no signs of
predominance of ‘‘wild’’ food in the diet of the Mor-
avany inhabitants. Secondly, palaeoeconomic data (and
their interpretations) from the Tisza basin suggest that
the agro-pastoral type of subsistence was of major
importance for the first Neolithic societies (Bogaard
2004a, b; Bartosiewicz 2005; Craig et al. 2005).
Reconstructions of the Holocene history of the Sarkan
valley (Kalicki et al. 2005; Nowak et al. 2006) demon-
strate that the activities of the first farmers did not
transform the local environment significantly and this is
quite a typical situation in the Carpathian Basin and the
Balkans (Willis and Bennet 1994; Howard et al. 2004).
Consequently, we are of the opinion that the spatial
extent of cereal farming was rather small; that is, emmer
and einkorn were cultivated in small fields situated in the
immediate vicinity of the village. In theory, such a sit-
uation would imply an intensive model of cereal
Table 4 Cereals from the early
Neolithic archaeological sites
near Moravany
c caryopsis, g glume, s spikelet
Taxon name Remains Moravany Slavkovce Zaluzice
Triticum dicoccon c ?
T. dicoccon g ?
T. dicoccon s ?
T. monococcum c ? ?
T. monococcum s ? ?
T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum c ? ?
T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum g ? ?
T. dicoccon vel T. monococcum s ?
Hordeum vulgare s ?
Hordeum vulgare c ? ?
Cerealia indet. Chaff ? ? ?
Cerealia indet. vel Poaceae indet. Chaff ? ? ?
Veget Hist Archaeobot (2008) 17 (Suppl 1):S81–S92 S89
123
husbandry (Bogaard 2002, 2004a, b). However, the set of
plant remains which have been found, especially weeds,
is too modest to evaluate a hypothesis of that kind. It
should also be remembered that understanding the term
‘‘intensive cultivation’’ within the Neolithic contexts and
the question of its attributes is still ambiguous (Kreuz
et al. 2005).
Charcoal fragments were found dispersed in the pits and
were also associated with post-holes. Charcoals from the
pits mostly come from domestic fuel and reflect wood
burning activities within a long-term span and thus can
provide a specific sample of local woody vegetation. On
the other hand, charcoals from post-holes usually offer a
low diversity of species related to short-term or punctual
usage. This kind of fossil assemblage affords mainly pal-
aeoethnographic information and depends on stronger
wood selection (Badal Garcıa 1992; Chabal 1997; Heinz
and Thiebault 1998; Ntinou 2002).
The taxonomic composition and quantitative propor-
tions of the charcoal assemblage from Moravany
probably reflect the importance of oak, ash and elm in
woodland neighbouring the site; such a suggestion is
based on the assumption that the most frequent taxa tend
to be found in the charcoal samples (Ntinou 2002).
Furthermore, the significance of mixed deciduous woods
dominated by oaks was also shown in southwestern
Slovakia and northeastern Hungary during the Atlantic
period (Krippel 1971; Willis et al. 1995; Gardner 2002;
Hajnalova and Hajnalova 2005).
This charcoal assemblage may represent two groups of
plant communities, oak woods and riverine woods. In rich
soils throughout the entire hilly area surrounding the site,
oaks accompanied by hazel could have predominated.
Various light-demanding taxa within the Rosaceae family
could have also appeared as undergrowth or at the wood-
land edges. Elm, ash and maple could have occurred
mostly in wet and shady places with a permanently good
water supply. Light-demanding birch could have also
appeared within this vegetation type. In the riverine woods,
which probably developed in the nearby valleys of the
rivers Sarkan and Ondava, various species of alder, willow
and poplar together with ash and elm were probably
present.
The Eastern Slovakian Lowland lacks of any published
palynological data and no charcoal analysis is known
(Rybnıckova and Rybnıcek 1996). The closest data based
on charcoal analyses are from southwestern Slovakia
(Blatne, Strky) and reflect the situation in the earlier phase
of the Linearbandkeramik. Quercus sp., Fraxinus sp. and
Acer sp. were found among the taxa (Hajnalova and Ha-
jnalova 2005). Remains of these trees were also present in
Moravany together with those of other taxa characteristic
of a temperate climate.
Conclusions
The archaeobotanical investigation in the site of Moravany
provides new data on early agriculture in the Eastern Slo-
vakian Lowland. The most important conclusions are as
follows:
Triticum dicoccon (emmer), the most important cereal,
T. monococcum and H. vulgare were cultivated at the site.
The charcoal assemblages reflect the presence of temperate
deciduous oak and riverine woods. Oak wood was used for
construction and various wood taxa were utilized as fuel.
Plant material (remains of threshing?) was added
intentionally to clay used as construction material.
Acknowledgments We are deeply grateful to Ernestina Badal from
Universitat de Valencia and to personnel from Laboratorio de Mi-
croscopia Electronica from Universitat de Valencia. The project has
been financed by the Polish Committee of Scientific Research (Grant
0761/H01/2000/19) and the Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian
University. The authors would like to express their appreciation to
these institutions. We are greatly indebted to Julio M. del Hoyo
Melendez for language correction. We would also like to thank
El _zbieta Pohorska-Kleja M.A. and Urszula Bak M.A. for preparing
the illustrations.
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