The H Ndu at Home - Forgotten Books

SIVITE PRIE ST WITH SACRED MARKS .

( See page

T H E

H ND U AT HOME

B EING

SKETC H ES O F H IND U DA ILY L

T H E REV . J. E IPA D FIELD , B . D

FORMER LY C . M . S MISSIONARY MA SU LIP ATAM

SECON D EDITION

MAD RA S : s . P . c . K . D EP OSITORY

LOND ON : S IMPK IN ,MAR SH ALL

,HAMILTON

,KENT co . (LIM ITED )

GI FT OF

PROFESSOR C. A. KOFOID

A ncestor-worship , in some form or other, is the

beginning, the middle, and the end of what

is known as the H indu religion .

Professor Bhattacharja, in Tagore Law Lecture.

P R EF A C E

TO TH E S E C O N D E D I T I O N

TH E first edition m et with such a favourable reception that , at the r equest of th e Publishers , I have pr epared a second one . Th e p lan Of th e book i s th e same ,but

,in th e l ight of friendly criticisms, I have revi sed

and impr oved th e whole . I have om i tt ed a few pas

sages . On th e other hand , I have added an Append ix,

showing th e present attitude of th e more intel l igentH indus towards social r eform . I am indebted to th e

H onorary Secretary , S . P . C . K . Press , for a valuab leindex . A glossary of th e H indu terms used in the

.

book h as also been added .

LONDON , May 1 , 1908 .

P EHJEALHE

TO TH E F I R ST E D I T I O N

TH E SE sketches or iginal ly'

appeared , with th e exceptionOf two or three chapters , in th e

“ Madras Chr istianCollege Magazine .

”I am aware that ther e are stand

ard works which contain a good deal Of th e inform a

tion here given , but there are also many th ings now

M21 6975

6

1 PREFACE TO THE FIRST ED ITION

descr ibed , which wi l l , I trust , be found interesting . I

have seen no mention of some of these in any booksto which I have h ad access . Th e work represents th eresult of personal Observations dur ing a period Of

twenty-seven years spent in South India, when I wasin daily intercourse wi th th e people Of th e land .

Th e Sanskr it quotations have been given to m e bylearned pundits from whom I have received much help ,especial ly in th e tr anslation Of these statements . I havenot attempted a free m etrical translation into Engl ishverse ; but have tr ied to g ive th e original and th e translat ion s , as far as possible

,in corresponding l ines . Many

of th e quotations are not to be found in printed books ,but are taken from th e private palm-leaf manuscr iptsOf puroh i tas (priests) , which have been handed downfrom generation to generation . Thus , it was manifest ly desirable to g ive th e or i g inal text from these un

usual sou rces Of information .

Th e quotations fr om Manu are al l made fr om th e

Engl ish t ran slat ion '

by Si r William Jones . I used th eH aughton edition of 1825.

J . E . P .

MASUL IPATAM , October 25, 1895.

CONTENTS

PREFACE

CH APTER

TH E H INDU H OME

TH E H INDU D AILY ROUND

TH E H INDU WOMAN ’

S RELIGION

TH E H INDU SACRED TH READ

TH E H INDU SACRED MARKS

TH E H INDU TONSURE

H INDU MARR IAGES

UNORTH ODOX H INDU MARR IAGE S

H INDU D IET

H INDU FE STIVALS

H INDU MEND IC ITY

H INDU FUNERALSUNORTH ODOX H INDU FUNERALS

H INDU OMENS

H INDU ORNAMENTS

APPEND IX—ON SOC IAL REFORMS

GLOSSARY OF H INDU TERMS

. IND Ex

TH E H IN D U A T H OME .

CH A PTE R I .

TH E H INDU H OME.

m , (G ru h am )

“ Let h im not cease to per form day by day , accord ing to th e

pr eced ing rules th e five gr eat sacram en t s ; and h aving t aken a

lawful con sor t , let h im dwel l in h i s h ou se dur ing th e second

per iod of h i s l ife .

”

(Manu , v .

IN g iving some account Of matter s connected with th edai ly home l ife of th e H indu , it m ay be wel l to intr oduce th e subject by a description Of th e hom e i tsel f .In this , as in everyth ing else, th e H indu i s guided byrules an d regulations pr escribed by h i s rel igion . Therei s nothing that h as to do with th e whole l ife of a

H indu , an d every poss ib le detai l ther eof , from h i s cradleto h is grave ,

which i s not regulated by such r ules .

Many Of these d ir ections were or iginal ly th e outcome ofcir cum stances bear ing upon th e wel fare Of th e individualor comm unity , but they h ave gradual ly becom e ab sorbedin th e r eligious administration and

, at length , appearas sections Of a divine code th at must be Observed ,on pain Of severe ph ysical an d spir itual penal ties .

I do not intend to say anyth ing of th e h omes of th emodern Eur opeanized H indu ; for , in th e fir st place ,

THE H INDU AT H OME .

such are comparatively few in number , and are chieflyconfined to th e large towns and cities ; and on th e

other h and , they do not repr esent th e ordinary habitsand customs of th e people . Th e or th odox H indu lookswith disl ike upon th e m any depar tur es fr om customthat are beginning to manifest themselves , par ticular lyin th e Presidency cities and other seats of l ight an d

learning .

Th e subject of H indu h omes i s a very wide one,and

m ay include m any var ieties , fr om th e miserable b u t ofth e lowest outcaste up to th e l or dly dwel ling Of th eMaharajah . Th e extr em e poverty of th e very lowestclasses, th e complete absence of al l ideas Of comfor t

,

and th e simple r equir ements Of a tropical cl imate ,to

gether ser ve to perpetuate th e primitive character an d

th e miserable squalor of th e ordinary labour er ’s h u t .

A few jungle sticks an d th e leaves of any of th e var ietiesof th e palm , or a few bundles of grass or reeds , sufficeto m ake a cover ing into which th e poor m an and h i s

family can cr eep on cold nights , or dur ing th e heavyrains ; bu t such a place can scar cely be cal led a home .

Such people l ive mostly out of doors , both night and

day . Th e hut i s Simply a shelter fr om inclementweather, and a place for th e safe custody of their fewpots and cooking utensils . There are infinite gradations from this primitive dwel l ing to th e palaces Of th e

great chiefs and kings ; but , as far as I have been ableto judge, after a long and var ied experience, there i sone thing in common about them al l , and that is th eabsence of that comfort , th at indescr ibable somethingwhich i s th e charm of an English hom e , and whichcauses us to u se th e wor d as a synonym for th e eternalhappiness beyond . This m ay be only insular prejudiceand th e association Of ideas ; for , after al l , comfort andhappiness are but comparative terms .

Before descr ibing th e house itsel f, I wil l m entionsome Of th e regulations connected with th e building of

TH E H INDU H OME . 3

i t—regulat ions as to i t s Site and th e materials to beused

’

in i t s construction , and th e time for commencingth e work . All these things are minutely laid down inH indu books of greater or less antiquity . Th e

“N i rna

yasindh u ,

”

(th e ocean of ritual) , i s a kind of encyclo

paed ia of al l H indu customs ; and th e“ Kalam ru tam

”

( th e nectar of t im e) , contains th e sixteen rites or r e

gu lat ion s concerning th e sixteen chief events in a

man ’

s l ife , fr om h is bir th to h i s death . From these twobooks a smal ler one h as been compiled , cal led “

vastuShastra , (th e science of domestic ar chitecture) , whichtreats of al l matters connected with bui ldings , especi

al ly pr ivate dwel l ings and , though many of th e directionsare not now genera l ly com plied with , most of thosethat ar e here described ar e stil l observed by th e ordinaryor thodox H indu . There ar e regular professional persons cal led vastu Shastr is (doctors of building) , general lyof th e goldsmith caste , whose business it i s , for

'

a

consideration , to give al l th e correct measurements and

directions, in due accordance with th e r itual , to thoseabout to erect new dwel l ings . I heard Of a celebratedmember Of this profession an d sent for him , as Iwished to see h i s books and to m ake h is acquaintance .

At first h e decl ined to come, as h e feared Europeans .

H e thought h e might be beaten or not wel l-treated ,but , on being assured that h e wou ld meet with nothingbut kindness , h e consented to come . H e was a mostrespectable looking Ol d m an and , being of th e goldsmith caste , h e wore th e thr ead Of th e dvija, or twiceborn but

, as h e h ad not brought h is books, I did not

get m uch information from h im . H e promised to comeagain but failed to do so, th e reason being that h e washastily summoned to a distant village on th e south Ofth e Kistna river . It appear s that a cer tain m an,whowas building a new house, h ad fallen il l , and h e sentin haste for this doctor—not a doctor for h is body , buta doctor for th e house ! Something must have gone

V

4 TH E H INDU AT H OME .

wr ong in th e cal culations , or something or other Of th en ew building

, and h ence this blow from th e offendeddeity concern ed . Money was sent to defray th e ex

penses of this celebrated Shastr i , but h e would not gountil h e was assured that h i s advice would be fol lowed ,even if it in volved pulling down por tions of th e building already erected . H ow h e fared in this exped itionI have never hear d ; but it appear s th a t sometim e ago

this sam e per son was sent for to attend another case ,

th e r esu l t of wh ich brough t h im great fame . A cer tainhouse owner h ad r ecently enter ed a new h ouse whichh e h ad built

,but within a month h e fel l very il l . It

was thought that something must be wr ong wi th th eb ui lding , an d this h ouse-doct or was sent for . H avingcons idered th e case , th e doctor decided , by vir tue Of

h i s science , th at th ere was a snake in a certain beamof th e building . Th e reptile h ad enter ed th e hollowpar t Of th e beam which h ad been plugged up by the

carpenter , and was there languishing , and hence th e

calam ity . A snake charmer was summoned , th e beamwas sawn thr ough and a reptile

,which turned out td

be a cobra, was drawn ou t by th e snake charm er and

placed in an ear th en vessel . It was there fed withm i lk for som e ten days until i t r evived and recoveredi t s vigour , when it was taken away to a suitable placeand se t fr ee . Th e patient recovered in pr opor tion asth e cobra ’

s s tr ength r evived , and within a few daysh e was quite wel l . Th e wisdom and skil l displayedby ou r fr iend in t h is case was much praised an d h e

was suitably r ewarded . Th ese Simple stories ar e herenar rated for wh at they are wor th . Th e people ful lybelieve in th em , and they serve to Sh ow t h e super s t i

t ious notions th at are stil l enter tained in conn ectionwith H indu dwel l ings .

Th e fir s t quest ion that ar ises in connection with th e

building of a house is as to th e site , and m any d irect ions are given as to th e colour and taste and sm el l


of th e soil , together with th e various means Of testingwhether th e spot or i t s neighbourh ood i s lucky or un

lucky ; but much Of this i s consider ed obsolete now .

Builders are stil l , however , very par ticular as to th eposition of th e h ouse with refer ence to a temple

, and

also as to th e presence Of hum an bones in t h e soil .If

, on digging for th e foundations of a new dwel l ing,

any bit Of h um an bone Should be turned up,th e grea test

car e i s taken to discover and rem ove every par t iclethat can be found . Sometimes th e site i s altogetherabandoned . This idea m ay have or iginated from sanitary considerat ions . If, again , th e owner should fal l i l l

,

whilst th e building i s going on , and d ie before i t i sfinished , th e whole thing i s com pletely abandoned

, andno one would th ink Of taking over th e work with a

view to com pleting it . A house must not be buil t infr ont Of a Siva temple, as th e eye Of that god h as an

evil influence ; nor m ust it be built behind one to

Vishnu , b u t it m ay be built on either side of eitherone Of them . I wil l h ere relate a pecul iar case thatcam e under m y own Observation som etime ago , as ith as to do with th e question Of th e Site upon wh icha h ouse m ay be built . I passed thr ough a cer taindeser ted vil lage in wh ich many of th e houses weredism antled . It was a Sudra village Of prosper ous farmer s . It was getting late in th e for enoon and , as Ih ad not yet breakfasted , this appeared to be a goodoppor tunity to m ake a hal t . Th e vil lage munsiff (th eVi l lage executive Offi cer) , who came up , gave m e per

mission to pass th e heat Of th e day In th e shel ter edcour tyard Of one of th e houses that was st il l leftstanding . After breakfast , I began to

.

explor e and toseek for inform ation . I was inform ed that , for certainr eligious r easons

,th e wh ole vil lage h ad been abandoned

and that th e farm ers h ad settled on a Site , abouth alf a m ile distant fr om their old hom es . They h adpartly pulled down their houses and utili zed what they


coul d of th e Old materials for rebuilding . Th e r easongiven for this change was as follows . It appears thatfor some tim e there h ad been a g reat deal Of sicknessin th e vil lage and many deaths

,so i t was decided by

th e Brahmins that a curse rested upon th e place . Onlooking r ound for th e pr obable cau se Of th is , fromcer tain signs i t was discovered , or pretended to h avebeen discovered , that ther e must former ly h ave been a

temple near th e village tank an d , as th er e was no vest igeOf th e tem ple left , i t was concluded that it m ust havebeen destr oyed . For this or some other r eason , th e

anger of th e temple god h ad been ar ou sed an d h e h ad

cur sed th e village,hence th e number Of deaths . Th e

consternation this decision would cause am ongst thesepoor super stit ious people can be easi ly im agined . Th eydo not seem to have questioned th e decision , butsim ply decided that it was th e will of th e god thatthey Should r emove . A ccor dingly , for a pecuniaryconsideration , th e Brahm ins pointed ou t a n ew si te,and th e s im ple folks began at once to remove theirdwel l in gs . At th e t ime Of my visi t m ost of th e housesh ad been com pletely dism antled , and nothing was leftOf them but t h e substantial mud walls which pr esentedth e appear ance Of a sad , but by no means picturesqueruin . A few Of th e Ol d inh ab i tants , am ong whomwere th e barber and th e potter , stil l l inger ed on , pro

bably because they could not meet th e expense Of

rem oving . Th e site upon which th e Old village was

built was in every respect superior , from sanitary and

other points of view ,to th e low and i l l-drained place

to which th e removal h ad been m ade ; but no logic of

facts can overcome th e super stitious fear s Of theseSimple people . Pr obab ly th e r eal cause of th e un

healthiness Of th e place might have been found insome Of th e back-yar ds or other surroundings . D ame

N ature h ad been outraged by a systematic neglectOf th e attention due to h er fair daughter H ygeia ,


and punishment h ad resulted . Such Simple matter s as

th ese ,however , ar e beneath th e k en Of th e H indu

wise-m an , and everything must be decided in accor dance with rules form ulated by a dense super stition .

A s I sat ther e during th e heat Of th e day in th e

sh ade of th e Old door way , I could not but reflectupon th e scene before m e . H ow many generationsOf industrious H indu farmer s h ad been reared inth at place ! H er e wer e stil l th e peepul tree (ficu s

religiosa) an d th e neem (azad irachta Indica) , underwh ose shadow SO many h ad sat in days gone by for a

council or for gossip , now left standing alone am idstth e miserable ruins Of once loved homes . Whilst Iwas there , an old widow woman came up from th e

new village to th e hou se thu s temporarily occupied bym e , and seemed by no m eans pleased at my presence .

I cour teously explained that I h ad received permission ,

and th en it turned ou t that th e house d id not

bel ong to m y fr iend th e m unsi ff at a l l,

and henceper h aps h is r eadiness to l et m e rest there . H oweverI was not disturbed , and pr esently th e ol d lady beganto sweep up th e deser ted room s . There seemed noneed for it , as nobody came there and th e house was

only waiting to be pulled down . Perhaps h er Oldaffection for th e place brought h er there , and madeh er tr eat it as a sacred Sh r ine that sh e could notbear to see neglected . 1 took th e opportunity kindlyto point ou t ° to my vil lage fr iend th e munsiff th e

fol ly Of al l th is expense and tr ouble , this breaking upof comfor tab le hom es

,al l for a superstitious idea .

With true Indian politeness h e appeared to agree withwh at I said , but h e finished Off with th e Old H induexcuse ,

“ Wh at could we do ? Th e Brahmins Said itmust be done and we were obl iged to go . W e

som etim es h ear people talk as th ough superstitionwer e now dead in India ; but except with in a narrowcir cle ,

h appily widening by Sl ow degrees , composed of


those influenced by Western ideas , supers tition h as justas strong a hold upon th e masses as ever . H OW can

it be otherwise . If it took many many cen tur ies to doaway with Old heathen superstitions in th e West ,some of which ar e not yet completely eradicated ,

i tmust not be supposed that one or two generation s , or

very m any Of them , indeed , will effect m uch ch angein th e East wher e th e growth i s SO den se and so

deeply r ooted .

After th e Site h as been selected th e pos ition of th e

neighbour ing dwel l ings m ust be next taken in to con si

deration , as if, for instance , th e water from a houseflows towards a neighbour ’s there wil l ar ise evil and

quarrels . Also in or der to secure th e general welfare,

th e water fr om one ’

s own house sh ould be m ade to

flow in a certain dir ection— east , or nor th , or north-east .Th e t imber used must be wel l considered

,for cer tain

kinds ar e sure to bring m isfortune, if any one shouldbe rash enough to u se any of them . A list Of un

suitab le t im ber s i s given in th e books which deal withthese m atter s . Th e wel l must not be dug on th e souths ide of th e house , or evil wil l be sure to fol low ; andif bones ar e found in excavating it , th e fact wil l betaken as a portent of th e death Of th e owner .

Th e next question i s as to th e time Of th e yearat wh ich building operations Should be comm enced .

On this point most car eful dir ect ions ar e given . Inth e l ist , given below

,th e first column gives th e

Indian name Of th e m onth, and th e next th e cor re

spond ing English tim e ; wh ile th e th ird gives th e consequences that ar e l iable to ensue to th e h ouseh olderfrom commencing to build h i s dwel l ing at th e par tionlar tim e nam ed

1 . Ch a i t ram March,Apr i l B lessings generally.

2. Va ish ak h am Apr il, May Weal th .

3 Jyésh th am May , Jun e Deat h s .

4 . Ash ad h am June,July Evil to th e cat t le .

5. Sh ravanam July , Augus t Incr ease of cat t le .

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

TH E H INDU AT H OME .

of space ; but wher e it i s feasible, and especial ly incountry-places wher e space i s not so valuable , th is ruleof th e Shastra i s general ly attended to .

Th e aspect of th e new house, and th e pr oper time for

th e comm encement Of operations having been duly fixedupon

,th e next thing i s to prepare for th e excavations

for th e foundations, and th e per forming Of a ceremonysomewhat analogous to that Of laying th e foundationstone of a publ ic building in Europe . A good time ofth e day having been fixed upon by astrology , th e ownerOf th e house , together with h is wife who must be pr esent ,and th e pu r éh i ta , or family pr iest , an d perhaps others ,assemble for th e foundation-laying ceremony . Afterworshipping Ganesha, without propitiating whom nothingOf importance can ever be undertaken , a piec e of stickcal led Sh ank h u , about a foot long, which h as been cutinto a certain prescribed shape by th e carpenter

, i s

planted in th e north-east corner of th e foundation Of

th e main building . Into th e place where this is planted ,various kinds of grain and metals are thrown , togeth erwith flowers, leaves and colour ed r ice . Th e whole i s

then worshipped . This coloured rice (ak sh ata) enterslargely into al l rel igious ceremonies . In fact no worsh ip

,

other than tha t at funerals, or some way connectedwith th e dead , can be performed without this u se Ofcoloured rice . Th e idea appears to be that th e stickby this ceremony (prat i sh ta) becomes animated withth e spirit of th e god Vé stupurush a, who is thereafterth e good genius Of th e house . Th e following i s a Spe

cimen Of th e prayers addressed at this ceremony to thissh ank h u god

c‘cmart

’

Usenet firs t i afiifiié

a fa r qsfaai tfi a asiaci gfieggfa :

W SW wrfqa‘i fired fissila i faerie u

THE H INDU H OME. 11

Th ou ar t th e stay Of th e dwellingAr t by God appointed and givest prosper ity.

With out th ee th e build ing of a dwellin gSh ould not be done by th ose wh o desire h appiness.

D o thou , being estab lish ed in th is Sh anku ,Th e good of th is h ouse ever increase.

”

At th e putting up Of th e main doorway , and againwhen th e r idge-piece i s put up , rel igious ceremoniesare performed ; i t i s so a lso at the digging of th e wel l ,and When th e family fir st takes possession Of th e house .

These ceremonies will now be descr ibed in order .Th e principal entrance to th e house or front door

,

i s cal led sim h adwaram , or th e l ion entrance . Th e

woodwork Of this i s always more or less carved , sometimes most elaborate ly so . There are two pieces, laidacross th e top corners Of th e door frame, cal led th e

horse-stools, because th e cross pieces which support th ewal l above are laid on them . These horse-stools are

carved into a shape which represents l ions, elephants,horses or parrots, according to th e fancy Of th e owner .

Th e putting up Of this entr ance door frame i s a

ser ious business, and necessitates a rel igious ceremony . Th e woodwork i s smeared with saffron , and

adorned with red powder (k unk um a) and flowers, an d

with a garland made Of leaves of th e mango tree .

Kunk um a which i s much used in worship and in al l

kinds Of H indu ceremonies, in which women ar e

associated , i s a red powder made of turmeric, alum ,

and l ime juice . Worship i s then actual ly performedto th e wood by repeat ing certain prayers , and Sprinkling it with sandal paste and coloured rice . Th e

following ar e specimens Of Slok am s or prayers on suchoccasions

1 . mater: ef fect aiqar’

erfiiaiaa: l

g'

g‘sfiaq Prism 213

°

wa isted fiaéa u

12 THE H INDU AT H OME .

afa rsgfi: gfi z

'

fi rfnqj aar: l

fi lte rs? gi52i Rec

-on aimiwraaaifai i H

0 door fram e, with par t s fitted tigh t ly togeth erAccor d in g to Vastu Shast ra rule ,D O th ou being fixed in th is h ouse,Cause h appiness t o in crease.

”

“ With saffron , turm er ic, flower sAnd sandal being wel l adored ,

D o th ou for ever b e h appyAnd b e ou r support and stay .

Th e next rel igious ceremony takes place when th e

ridge-plate i s put into position . This , too,i s worshipped

in much th e same way as th e door frame . Whilstlying upon th e ground , across two pieces Of tim ber , iti s adorned with saffr on , flowers , and garlands , and thenworship i s paid to it . After this i t i s put into position .

Th e following i s a specimen Of th e prayers used

126mm: game r : cjfiiai : gsqeiqfi

‘;

{affirm aaqarefirfiq getme wart n

“O r idge-plate, support of th e h ouse,H aving been adored with flower s and sandal ,A nd fixed accord ing to vastu rule,D o th ou cause con t in ued prosper ity .

A S a wel l i s a very necessary adjunct to a house,and a ver y im portant one from a H indu point Of view

,

there is a rel igious ceremony connected with th e digg ing of it . Before th e work i s commenced , prayers ar e

repeated to th e ear th , which i s considered to be a

goddess (bhudevi) , an d also to Varuna, th e god Of al l

kinds of water . At th e completion of th e work, and

before th e water can be used , a dedicatory ceremonyis performed . Th e mouth Of th e wel l i s adorned withsaffron and th e colour ed powder k unk um a . A patchof ground near th e wel l is then prepared and purified

THE H INDU H OME . 13

by smearing it with cow-dung and by adorning it withl ines made of rice powder . Upon this patch Of ear tha lump Of saflron i s placed , which i s s upposed to r e

present Ganesha, under th e name of Vinayak a or th e

remover of Obstacles . Worship i s then per form ed tothis by th e master Of th e house , instructed by th e

attendant family pri est in th e usual manner . A sm al llamp fed with ghee (clarified butter ) i s l ighted , and

incense i s put upon some l ive coals of fire . While th e

lamp i s burning and th e incense r ising up,

flower s ,sandal paste and coloured r ice are dropped over th e

supposed god whose var ious names are r epeated byth e worshipper . Tam bulam i s placed near th e god ,

together with one or two coins (dak sh ina) which become

“

th e fee Of th e priest , and th e worship i s concludedby th e waving Of burning camphor and makingObeisance with closed hands (nam askaram ) . Tambulam

i s betel-leaf and areca nut made up into a sm al lparcel , ready to put into th e mouth . A little slakedlime is added before u se . Th e masticatin g of thiscompound seems to be much enjoyed , but th e r ed

colour it imparts to th e mouth an d l ips i s far fr ompleasant from an Eur opean point of view . Th is l ittleluxury , however , i s par taken Of at th e termination of

every meal , and no impor tant transaction or anyrel igious rite can be complete without it . Th e god

Varuna i s then wor shipped in much th e same m an

ner . Th e tam bulam and th e coins are placed inth e hands of th e priest , and th e whole ceremony i s

concluded with th e usual Obeisance . D ur ing th e dropping Of flowers , sandal paste and coloured rice intoth e wel l , th e priest , th e householder fol lowing him ao

cor ding to h is ability , repeats th e following prayer

aerfims GNU] afijisfiaeef-‘

afsi $6 I

ameraraiemm gfiaauam aria n


0 Varuna, th ou ruler of th e water s,In th is wel l gran t th y presence.

By thy favour 0 gr eat beingMay we ever be prosperou s.

I now proceed to give some general idea of th e

arch itecture and general arrangements Of a H indudwel l ing . I describe an ordinary H indu house as it i sin th e Cir cars , a district in th e northern part Of th eMadras Presidency . Th e style of th e building m ay

differ very much in th e widely distant par ts Of India,

an d am ongst i ts different races and rel igions . A s, h ow

ever , som e main pr inciples pervade al l H indu domesticar ch itecture, some general idea m ay be gathe red fr omth is descr iption Of a H indu home. Th e chief featurein th e building i s that it must be in th e form of a

square , with an opening to th e sk y in th e centre .

Th e roof slopes outward and inward , and th e innerSides al l converge around a rectangular open space,larger or smal ler as th e case m ay be . In large wel lbui lt houses this central open space will form a regularcourtyar d , whilst in smal ler buildings it wil l be so

smal l that th e vacant space where th e roof converges,i s only a few inches square, and th e floor underneathit a mere depression in th e ear th large enough to catchth e rainfal l fr om th e r oof . In very large h ouses therem ay be two of these courts , but in al l of them th e

principle i s th e same . Th e origin Of this arrangementis not very clear , and different reasons are given forit . Some say it is in order that th e sun ’

s rays m ay

Shine into th e house ; or, as it was put to m e by a

Brahmin friend , just as it is necessary that thereshould be some gold

,if even a speck , worn on th e

body , so it i s necessary for some few rays , at least , ofth e sun to fal l into th e dwel l ing . O thers say it i sbecause it i s necessary for th e rain to fal l intoth e house in order to secure i ts happiness . H oweverthis m ay be, this arrangement is a source Of much

THE H INDU H OME . 15

discomfort i f not of posit ive evil . The heavy monsoonrain pouring in from th e roof into th e very centre of

th e l iving place makes everything very damp and u n

com for table . I t i s true ther e is a kind Of drain madefor th e water to pass thr ough under th e wal ls toth e outside, but th e arrangement i s certainly a sour ceOf some Of th e m any forms Of fever and other d iseases to which Indian s are SO l iable . H ere again wesee th e effects of custom hardened into a rel igiouslaw . Probably th e or igin of it was for pr otection inth e former unsett led times from foes and wild animals .

Now al l dwel l ings er ected in accor dance with th e

Shastra must have this characterist ic form .

Windows,as a rule , do not look ou t upon th e street ,

and when ther e are any they are placed high up inth e wal l , out Of al l reach Of passers by . On th e

pub l ic r oad nothing but a blank wal l with a moreor less im posing doorway i s seen . This door i s general ly Of a m assive ch aracter , Often studded with bossesof ir on, an d both it and th e door posts are frequentlyornam ented with elaborate carving . It i s very peculiarthat this front door should always be of so massivea character , seeing that th e back and side wal lsand other doors are relatively SO much slighter and

weaker . An Indian thief would never think Of at

tempting to break through th e front door of a dwel l ing .

H i s efforts are directed to digging through th e houseor th e compound wal l , especial ly if it i s made of mud ;or to breaking in through th e back-yard door , whichlacks th e strength Of th e fr ont one . Probably th e

reason is that th e spending of t ime and money on thisimposing front entrance i s simply in accord with th e

tendency of human nature ever to put th e best on

th e outside . Th e front wal l next th e street is sometimes not th e r eal wal l of th e house at al l . O ften

,

perhaps for reasons already al luded to in speaking of

th e site, or perhaps for th e sake Of space and secur ity


or pr ivacy , th e front wal l , with i ts elaborate doorway ,i s bu t th e outer side of th e yard or enclosure insidewhich th e house itself i s built . When this is th e case,th e ceremony alr eady al luded to ,1 r elative to puttingup th e ch ief door frame Of a new house, is per formed ,not in connection with this entrance, but in connectionwith that of th e dwell ing proper .

In good houses th e open space, into which visi torsfir st en ter , i s paved with brick , or laid over Withsmooth polished plaster , or th e earth i s left just as iti s . Ar ound it i s a verandah upon which th e roomsof th e dwel l ing open ou t . Th e four points Of th ecompass are strictly considered in arranging th e rooms .

Th e kitchen should always be on th e south Side an d

sh ould r un th e whole width Of th e building . Th is i sth e most sacr ed par t Of th e whole house, and personsof a l ower caste than th e household are never al lowedto enter i t . This rule i s Obser ved , even in th e case of

th e poor es t and m eanest dwel l ing , if i t sh ould be thatof a h igh caste m an . Th e kitchen i s par tly a cookingplace, partly ch apel , and partly dining r oom . I haveseen th e inside Of m any native houses , but I havenever been al lowed to cast even a glance into thissacred r oom . If a house h as an upper stor ey

,i t

i s ' pr obably bui lt over th e front portion , never overth e kitchen . But except in th e Presidency cities and

other large towns , houses have , as a rule, no upperstorey at al l . In an or dinary house, no part Of th eroof must be higher than that of th e kitchen , for tothus throw that sacr ed chamber into th e shade wouldbe decidedly irregular . Where , however , ther e i s an

upper storey to any por tion of th e house , it must behigher than th e kitchen . In th is connection a case m ay

be mentioned which i l lustrates this point . A wel lto-do nat ive gentlem an Of my acquaintance built a

1 Anw, p . 1L


a luxurious home in Eur ope . Good timber, wel l-madewooden ceil ings, and elaborate carvings ar e her e th e

things most admired . Th e roof i s , most frequently ,open to th e tiles or thatch , and hence much d iscom

fort must arise fr om th e fal l ing Of dust or insectsand th e l ike ; but where it can be pr ocured simplematting or a wooden ceil ing i s put up . A wealthym an will h ave cei led rooms

,an d th e beams

,posts and

al l other wood work wil l be most elabor ately an d ,in

some cases, very beautifully carved . These ar e th e

signs Of wealth . Th e usual m u d wal ls are her e re

placed by wal ls Of brick and plaster—perhaps th e

marble-l ike polished plaster peculiar to th e country .

Th e flooring is Of brick an d polished plaster,and th e

r ooms , verandah an d cour ts ar e spacious and lofty,instead of th e usual dark , dingy and miserably smal lapar tmen ts . Th e r oof also i s made . Of good wel lwrought timber with tiles, and not Of common junglewood and thatch ; but , in al l cases, th e general featuresof th e wh ole ar e th e same as r egards th e ar chitectureand arrangements . Th e furniture of a H indu house i svery l i ttle indeed as regards quantity

, and very pr imitive in i t s nature . In th e houses Of a few Of th e

modern and more advanced , a few chairs and a tableor two m ay be found ; but , as a rule, even amongstth e better classes , th er e i s a complete absence of mostOf th e domestic conveniences which th e poorest Europeans consider i ndispensable . In th e kitchen-diningroom there are no tables, chairs , knives , forks , spoons,plates or dishes ; nor are there any of th e numerou s ar ticles that com pose th e ba t ter i e dc cu i sine Of awel l-to-do Eur opean home . A few metal or ear thenware pots and pans and a simple clay fi re-place Sufficefor th e culinary operations ; whilst th e dinner plate i sform ed from th e large leaf Of th e l otus or plantain , or

fr om a few sm al ler leaves c leverly stitched togeth er .

N ature hersel f supplies most Of th e other requisites .


One needs to l ive amongst such people t o learn howvery few, af ter al l , are th e r eal necessities Of l ife , i fwe only r id ourselves of notions formed by habit and

custom . In th e Office place, there m ay be a low kindOf table wh ich serves as a seat by day and a couch bynight . A rug or two m ay be Spread on th e floorwith a few cushions to lean against , whilst th e wall sm ay be adorned with a few pictures representingscenes in th e l ife of Kr ishna . These pictur es are

gorgeous and grotesque native productions . They are

painted on g lass an d can be bought in almost everyfair ly large bazaar . Occasional ly a print or two m ay

be seen , or a cutting from some English illustratedpaper ; but they appear very much ou t Of keeping withth e rest of th e surroundings .

Th e bed-room furnitur e would not strike an Eng l ishlady as having that air Of snugness and com fort whichi s th e charm of th e European bed-cham ber . It consistsof a native cot , a box or cupboard for th e safe custody ofth e more expensive cloths and jewels . On one side Of th ewal l i s a shelf and in th e wal l are a few niches for th enative lamps . Th e lamp i s usual ly a very pr im i tiveaffair, being composed of a cotton wick lying in a saucerof oi l . It i s general ly placed in some niche in th e

wal l or on a simple wooden stand . A few nat ive pictures on th e wal ls r epr esent scenes from th e

“Rama

yana, or , Some other on e Of th e Indian epics . Abrass mug-shaped vessel serves for al l th e purposesof a wash-stand , and a few square inches Of lookingglass suffice for th e finer touches of th e toilet . Th e

water from th e brass vessel i s pour ed fr om th e lefthand into th e right , or i s poured by an attendant .This applied to th e face serves for ordinary ablutions .

Th e complete bath , in th e absence Of a r iver or tank,

or other m eans of immersion , i s taken by pouringwater over th e per son fr om th e same brass vessel .This i s th e usual mode Of per forming th e toilet for


both m en and women . It i s general ly done in th e

back-yar d or som e such suitable place, as m ay be

convenient . In th e ear ly m orning, th e ordinary citizen

i s Often seen , brass pot in h and , per form ing h is morningablutions, seated on th e edge of h i s front verandahand with h i s head hanging over th e street gutter .In nothing , perhaps , ar e th e pr imit ive h abits Of th e

H indu m ore conspicuous than in h is ordinary sleepingarrangem ents . Th ere i s no “ going to bed , in th e

sense under stood by th e European . Th e climate i s

th e chief reason for th is . Th e m en , especial ly , seem

to l ie down anywh ere , in th e inner verandah or alongth e narrow verandah seat that runs along th e fr ontwal l next to th e street . In th e vil lages par ticularly ,they seem to l ie about just wherever fancy dictates .

N O place seems too har d , or , to ou r ideas , too uncom

for tab le . Th e l ong sheet-l ike cloth i s unwound from th e

body,or some sheet or b lanket which i s kept for th e

purpose i s used ; and with this th e person i s covered , headand al l . There i s no doubt th at this custom of lyingdown to sleep anywhere and everywhere must be th e

reverse of healthy , and probably it i s th e cause of muchof th e rheumatism and kindred affections of th e musclesand j oints which ar e mor e or less prevalent . Th e richerclasses , th e aged and general ly th e master Of th e hou se,u se a low light cot for sleeping upon , but it seem s to beshifted about from place to place to suit convenience .

In th e h ot weather i t wil l be put wher e there i s somecool air , whilst in th e cold or wet season it will standin th e bed-r oom which i s perhaps shared by th e

master of th e house and some Of h is bigger sons .

Th e wife occupies h er own room together with th e

younger children . This seems to be th e usual arrangement in H indu households , especial ly when th e marriedcouple are verging on towar ds middle l ife .

When a son Of th e family marries , h e does nottake h is bride and set up house for himself, but a


r oom in th e paternal dwel l ing i s set apart for h isu se , or an annex i s bui lt to accommodate th e youngcouple, and th ey join th e family as a part Of it . It i seasy to see h ow l ittle diffi culty there is in pr ovidingfor visitors , as there i s no anxiety as to which suiteof apartments must be set aside for this or th atpar ticular party . There i s always plenty Of r oom forth e m en to l ie down for their siesta dur ing th e h eatOf th e day , or for their Sleep at night , and th e fem alessimply l ie down with those Of th e househ old .

Th e H indu does not usual ly attempt much by wayof a flower garden , nor i s there general ly muchattention paid to th e sur roundings Of a house to givei t that pretty appearance which tend so much , inour eyes, to m ake a place look homel ike and happy .

If there i s a plot Of ground around th e house , i tm ay be that a few pumpkin plants straggle here and

there ,and a few egg plants , or a clump of plantain

tr ees ar e grown ; but everything h as an unkem ptappearance as though or der and prettiness wer e un

known quantities in th e H indu mind . If th e house i sa large one, an or chard m ay be attached to it , containing some of th e principal Indian fruit trees, suchas th e mango , jack , cocoanut , betel , custar d-apple, or

wood-apple ; but here again th e same sl ovenliness i spainfully conspicuous, though so much might be madeof such surroundings . F lowers ar e grown to a certainextent , such as th e marigold and Oleander and jasmineto be used in worship , or to be worn in th e hair byth e females for personal adornment . A plant Of th etulasi or sacred basil , always occupies th e place Ofhonour in th e masonry urn , which i s placed somewher ein th e inner court or in th e yard at

'

th e back of th e

house .

H aving described th e most conspicuous ar chitecturalfeatures of th e ordinar y H indu dwel l ing and also i tsgeneral arrangements and surroundings

,I shal l now


proceed to state th e considerat ions necessary , from a

rel ig ious point Of view , before th e householder can

venture to occupy th e h ouse which h e i s supposed tohave built . Th e fir s t thing that h as to be consideredi s th e proper tim e Of year for taking up residence inth e new abode . On this point there i s a l ittle difference Of opinion amongst H indu authorities . Accor ding to some per sons, if a house i s newly occupied inVaishak h am ,

th e owner wil l be blessed with m anysons ; if in Jyésh tam ,

h e will have abundance Ofj oyous festivities , such as mar r iages and th e l ike ; i fth e h ouse i s newly occupied in P halgun am , th e ownerwill be blessed with weal th ; if in Magham h e wil lhave good crops and much happiness . On th e oth erh and , th ere ar e those who maintain that , a lthough al l

th e other m onth s in t h e vernal equinox (U t tarayanam )dur ing which th e sun is nor th of th e equator, are

good for newly enter ing into a house, Magham i s not

a propitious m onth . This differ ence Of Opinion i s

ch iefly between th e Tamils , wh o reckon by th e solarsystem , and th e Telugus , wh o go according to th e

lunar . All , however , are agreed that it i s most nu

propitious to enter a new abode for th e first t ime

dur ing any month Of th e second h al f Of th e year .A suitable day for enter ing having been duly fixedupon

, th e house i s adorned in var ious ways , chiefly bysmearing saffron an d k unk um a on th e l intel s and doorposts of al l th e doors in th e house , an d tying overthem a garland of flowers and leaves Of th e mango or

of th e nér édu tree (eugenia jambos) . A companyassemb les consisting Of th e members of th e fam ily ,relat ives, fr iends and a number Of Brahmin pundits .

A band Of nat ive m usicians and a gr oup Of dancinggir ls m ay also be in attendance , al l of cour se in proportion to th e means Of th e householder . A pr ocession

is formed fr om th e house then inh abited by th e owner

to h i s new abode . As th e company passes along , th e


hand plays and ever y now and then th e company wil lstop before th e house of a friend or that Of som e greatper son , wh en th e dancing women wil l go through theirperformance Of dancing an d singing to th e sound of a

kind Of harp and cym bals , and to th e gentle beating Ofth e tom-tom . Th e thing i s SO ar ranged that th e procession ar rives at th e h ouse at th e pr op itious m oment

,

before fixed upon , when they al l enter , walking overgrain that h as been spread in th e door way and al l

along to th e western side Of th e central por tion Of th e

house . Wor sh ip i s then performed to Ganesha , vastupurusha

, Venk atéshvar a and other gods, after whichth e family priest makes th e following declaration in th ename Of th e house-owner , concluding with a prayer .

Th e declaration is

x

Pi tas i mage gleam{Imam

F555? H ire

:

gfiqqgaufséi n

nfadg’

gfafia area: qfiarfia:

fafi’

e‘

i BETTE H ftaaiaaqj ari n

On an auspicious day , under a lucky star ,

A t a for tunate m om en t of t im e,

(H e m ust enter ) h i s n ew and beaut iful h om e,

(It being) decor at ed with flower s and tender leaves .

H e m ust en ter accom pan ied by relat ives ,Brahm in s and oth er s ,

(And wor sh ip) Vignésh vara and al l oth er gods ,With h ym n s of praise .

Th e prayer i s

was asiaa Relic cri tter I

lava sin-Em Haiawfi ifat

K ENT Hiram maria W IFEu


0 God of god s l 0 great God !B e gracious unto u s , 0 supr em e God I

P r eserve u s , 0 preserve u s , L ord of th e un iver se IYea everm ore pr eserve u s

H om e h appiness and dom est ic joys ,D o thou ever in crease un to u s .

After this i s over , presents of cloths and jewels, ao

cor ding to th e abi l ity Of th e house-owner , are givento th e chief workmen who have been engaged in th e

erection of th e building . It i s now quite a custom inIndia for chief workmen to be thus rewarded , and

even some Europeans follow th e ideas Of th e country ,so far as to g ive a jewel or two to th e chief workm enafter any impor tant building wor k i s finished . Th e

ceremonies Of th e day are concluded with a blessingafter th e following manner . A metal dish with colouredr ice i s produced , and some Of th e attendant Brahminstake a handful Of this, and having repeated mantrams ,cast th e rice into th e cloth Of th e house-owner whoholds up a corner of i t for th e , pu rpose . This blessingconsisting Of quotations from th e Vedas i s a very longone . Th e concluding portion only is here given . Th e

translation , in this case, i s a rather free one .

{Ham-TI Haifa sang: I 51313331 s uita

Sfiaai garag e u

May thy life cont inue for a h undred year s , and m ay thy m entaland ph y sical power s rem ain per fect for a h und red year s .

Th e family priest then takes th e rice, by handfuls ,and pour s it on th e heads of th e house-owner , h is wife,h i s children and any r elatives who m ay be present .On th e fol lowing day there i s a feast in th e new houseand ,

if th e guests are numerous , an awning m ay be

put up in th e yard to accommodate them . When th eowner i s not a Brahmin , h i s Brahmin gu ests will receivetheir portion Of th e feast in an uncooked form , and

26 TH E H INDU AT H OME

After any defi lem en t th e h ouse is purified in th e following m anner , portions of th e ceremony or th e wholebeing per form ed according to i t s relative impor tance .

Th e most impor tant pur ification is when , after tempor ary abandonm ent , th e fam ily again com es into residence .

Th e h ouse i s th or oughly c leaned up an d probab ly whitewash ed . Th e fam i ly assem ble, with their family pr iestan d several oth er Brahmins or fr iends . Ganesha, underth e nam e of Vigh n ésh a,

i s worsh ipped . Water i s pouredin to a vessel (k alasam ) , which i s adorned with flower s ,sandal , an d th e l ike , and this having been wor shippedand al l th e gods having been invoked , th e water i ssprinkled by th e priest over th e various parts Of th e

house and over th e people present . Food i s then cookedand par taken Of by th e company . Th e following are

specim ens Of th e Slokas or ver ses repeated by th e priestin th e worship of th e k alasam ; they are a declarationan d a prayer .Th e declaration is :

guq igaraa

’

afifi qq i qrqai i raq

1259;n sleqeiq manifest HER

finrti gvaé

’

m‘ifi 556mHall i fill i fn

arena m ama aim Rana fi l ifi‘rfi li u

fiagflqreata siege: saga a l

nmq em raaia Hatfi eme iaq n

Th is punyéh avach anam r it eI s h oly and dest roys Sin .

I t i s for th e pur ification of a h ouse, th e body and oth er

th ings ,And also for th at of th e m ind .

Th e Ganges with al l oth er h oly r iver s ,An d al l th e god s , r ish is , and ancients ,Also th e Vedas and sacr ifices,H aving been invoked into th ese vessels (now before u s) ,

TH E H INDU H OME 27

Wh ich h aving adorned and wor sh ippedWith san dal , flower s an d coloured r ice,H e (th e h ouseh older ) m ust pray to th e suprem e God

Th at al l h i s desires m ay be fulfilled .

Th e prayer i s :

wi tsé qrm is’

smear Erastus : I

erfs 9Twar ummaaeae u

Hess : mamarfia steamarfta HIRE : l

qrfi éi at Her sitar ziw am are u

I am a sinner ; al l m y deed s are Sinful .I am of a Sin ful m ind ; I am born in sin .

0 God in m ercy save m e 1

Th ou wh o ar t m erciful to th ose wh o flee to th ee.

Th ere i s no Sinner equal to m e

Th ere i s no deliverer like un to th ee.

Ever knowing m e to be a Sinner ,

A S i s th y pleasur e, so do.

A purification ceremony i s gone thr ough if th e wel lbecom es cer emonial ly contaminated . I know Of a casein which a wel l Of good water became impur e througha non-caste servant of a European , who h ad access toit

,having ventured to draw water fr om th e wel l himsel f

instead of getting some caste m an to draw it for him .

Some stir was caused by this , and th e Eur opean masterwas pet it ioned to pay th e expenses of th e purificationrendered necessary by th e act of h is servant . TO thisdemand h e gave a firm refusal , h i s right to th e u se

of th e wel l not being disputed . It ended by th e

abandonment of th e wel l , as far as al l caste peoplewere concerned , and it was left for th e u se of th e

non-castes only and for Europeans .

There are various other occasions cal l ing for purificat ion . A robber might break into a house and gointo th e kitchen , and as h e would probably be a low

caste m an , th e ful l pur ification ceremony would be


necessary . If a dog or any other unclean animal wereto d ie in or near th e house

, th e place must be purifiedby spr inkl ing water mixed with cow dung

,or with cow ’

s

urine . This is a minor purificat ion which is Oftenr esorted to for lesser defi lem en ts . Enough , however ,h as been said to give a general idea Of defilem en t s

and pu r ificat ions connected with th e H indu H ome .

Th e description given h as been Of th e material homei tsel f, rather than of th e home l ife of th e people .

D oubtless home l ife, true domest ic happiness , i s muchinfluenced by th e immediate surroundings ; but , afteral l , habit and custom are much if not everything insuch matters , and certainly many an Indian home i shappy in spite Of what m ay seem to u s i t s dulnessand monotony . Th e Ol d English proverb which saysthat H ome i s home be i t ever so homely expressesa truth that can be applied in many ways ; it i s th ehearts that make th e home . What must be deplored ,however, i s th e hard bondage to superstition that is SO

eviden t in every page Of this description . It i s a

thraldom,emancipation from which seems remote and ,

viewed by i tself , wel l nigh hopeless . It i s but a meretruism to say that r eal progress in a nation cannot be saidto have begun until it affects th e home l ife . A S regardsIndia, i t i s th e home th at seems th e last place to beaffected by progress and enlightenment . Supersti tionsand kindred evils that would seem to be effete, if considered in th e l ight of th e platform and th e press, are

seen in th e home l ife to be as deeply rooted and as

powerful ly binding as ever .

CH A PTE R I I .

TH E H INDU DA ILY ROUN D .

W , (N it ya k a rm a . )

Eager desire to act h as i t s root in expectat ion of som e ad

vantage, and with such expectat ion are sacr ifices per form ed ; th e

rules of r eligious auster ity and abst inence from Sin s are al l knownto arise from h ope of rem unerat ion . Not a single act h ere belowappear s ever to be done by a m an free from self-love ; wh ateverh e per form s , i t i s wrough t from h i s desire Of reward .

”(Manu , ii .

3 ,

TH IS quotation from th e ancient law-giver might servewel l as a text upon which to found a homily , showingth e distinctive principle that underlies al l H indu rel igion , and comparing i t wi th that Of th e rel igion Of

Christ . All H indu rel igious Observances and goodworks proceed fr om a desir e to propitiate a m alevolentpower and thus ward Off evil ; or from an equal ly lowand selfish motive to Obtain personal advantage , someworldly good , or to lay up a store Of personal meritwhich wil l shorten th e wear y r ound of transmigration ,and enable th e person to more rapidly attain th e goal Ofh is aspirations, namely , absorption into th e divineessence. It i s true, th e great sage does , in a versefollowing th e one quoted above, say th at should any

one persist in discharging h is du ties without any viewto their fruits , h e would attain hereafter th e state Ofth e immor tals ; but h e says this with what soundsl ike a saddened tone , and as though it were a for egone


conclusion that such disinter ested motives could neverbe found .

I am now deal ing especial ly with th e daily life of aBrahmin . O ther castes an d non-castes ar e less par

t icu lar in their rel igious Observances , in propor tion as

they descend in th e social scale ; but al l ar e more or

less careful in their perform ance Of some part s of th e

H indu ritual , and from a descr iption of th e l ife Of th ehighest a fai r idea can be gathered Of th e whole .

Theoretical ly th e l ife Of a Brahmin i s divided intofour stages . Th e first , th at Of being a Brahmachar ior unmar ried student , i s entered upon when h e undergoes th e ceremony Of upanayanam or institution intoth e state Of th e twice-born .

1 Up to that time h e h as

not been a Brahmin at al l . Th e next stage i s that Ofbeing a Gr uh asth a or mar ried householder ; th e thir dthat of a Vanapr astha or anchor ite ; th e fourth that Ofa Sanyasi or hermit . Th e daily cour se Of l ife laiddown for each Of these stages i s widely differen t , butwithout going into that Of th e other thr ee, I shallattem pt to give as clear an idea as I can Of th e var iousrites and cer em onies to be gone thr ough ever y day byth e strict H indu during th e second per iod , that Of th eordinary m ar ried m an . It i s not to b e supposed th atevery Brahmi n in these days goes through th e wholeOf th e prescribed r itual ; but there are som e cer emonialObser vances that must be gone through by al l . Thosewho ar e anxious for th e merit and good name Of

being strictly rel igious do actual ly go through th e

daily cour se of life here described .

Th e pious Brahmin rises befor e daybreak or, if h eWould act strictly according to D harma Shastr a rule,two hour s befor e th e sun rises . D harma Shastra is a

wr itten code minutely regulating th e dai ly l ife of a goodH indu . H is fir st though ts , on awaking fr om slumber ,

1 Th is will be fully descr ibed in Ch apter iv .

TH E H INDU DAILY ROUND 31

are directed to th e dei ty whom h e particular ly wor

ships . H e will Si t quietly for som e t im e in silentcontem plation ,

occasional ly repeating a ver se or twoin praise Of Kr ish na, Ram a , or Siva , as t h e case m ay

be, and perh aps a prayer for divine h elp . H e does notr epeat these verses fr om th e Vedas , as h e h as not yetbathed , and no words fr om th ose sacr ed writings mustbe taken within l ips whilst thus unpu r ified . They are

from th e Puranas or sacr ed books which occupy a lowerposition than th e Vedas . Th e fol lowing are specim ensand i t wil l be seen th at th e fir st two of th e thr ee quotedare addressed to Krish na and Rama respectively , whilstth e th ird i s in praise of Siva . Vaishnavas, or worshipper s Of Vishnu and h is var ious incarnations, wouldu se th e fir st two , but they would not u se th e third .

Smar th as would u se either or al l of th e thr ee,as , whilst

they chiefly wor ship Siva, they are at l iber ty to adoreany other god of th e H indu pantheon .

anew fr7n aafm’

féfivfim H ierfimaaaam Emm a I

Eri efasaae ngvnj fiiam HRTRFHTZI aafiiagé ante? n

O th ou in fant , th ou dark b lue bod ied one with t inkling bel lsIn rows upon thy loin s th ou n aked on e ,

Adorned with jewels set with t iger ’

s claws ,Th ou son of Nan da , th ou stealer of but ter , I ador e th ee .

atrqamqeai r'

Elal f Haeqai I

Emm a afiml imam? Harms

O th ou deliverer from al l evil ,Th ou giver of al l good th ings ,0 Ram a, th ou adm ired of th e wh ole wor ld ,Again and again I adore th ee.

”

ge m arrest-Ag

eie ttr %HHIHI&W:

Nahuatl Rama E’

Ie rarvsaqtfiea: u


May h e wh ose h ead i s ador n ed with th e m oon .

Wh o wear s as an ornam en t th e serpen t Vasu k ih i ;May Siva b e propit iousH e wh o i s exper t in dancin g .

After th is divine contemplation , h e will pr oceed fora short walk to some secluded place outside th e townor vil lage and upon h is return , before enter ing th e

house ,h e will careful ly wash h is feet and legs and

r inse ou t h i s mouth many times with water . All thisi s necessary before h e can touch any thing or evenspeak to any one . Th e next operat ion i s to clean th e

teeth . This i s always a very important item of th e

toilet , and ,if any one m ay j udge by th e evident air

of Satisfaction with which it i s done, it must be a

very enjoyable one. Th e H indu does not u se a brushfor thi s purpose , as h e never can again put into h i smouth that which h as once been SO used . H e lookswith abhorrence upon th e Eur opean way of againputting into th e mouth that which h as over and overagain been defiled by contact with th e sal iva . H e

always uses a bit ' Of green twig or th e root Of someplant , and when once a piece i s used it i s thrownaway . A favourite twig for this purpose i s a green bitof th e margosa tree (mel ia azadirachta) , or th e r ootof a plant cal led apam argam or u t taran i (achyranthesaspera) , prefer ence being given to that which i s bit teran d astringent . If a suitable twig cannot be found ,th e finger i s used with powdered charcoal or ashes byway Of tooth powder . Women are not al lowed to u se

th e twig or root for this part of their ablutions . Theyonly u se th e finger .Our friend next pr oceeds to perform h i s morning

ablutions and h is worship . If ther e i s a river near, h ewill proceed thither , or failing that to a tank . If ther ei s nei ther r iver nor tank , h e goes to some wel l , probably th e wel l in h i s own gar den or yard . H e thentakes h is bath . If h e does so in th e river or tank,


is cal led ach am anam and it is done before every religious cerem ony an d imm ediately after meals . Th e nextthing i s th e mentioning Of th e t ime and place. Threeoblations ar e again made to th e sun , dur ing which th egayatri prayer i s again r epeated three times . Thr eemor e sips of water are taken , when , taking hold Of h is

sacred thread , th e worshipper again r epeats th e gayatr iat least ten times—marking Ofl th e t imes on th e fingersor on th e j oints Of th e fingers . After this with claspedhands, h e addresses a special prayer to th e sun , comm encing as follows

“

:

o o

firsts HEIUTT as : aah Tatar crate . as: fess

afar-t

“Th e r enown of th e good Surya (th e sun) , wh o i s th e supporterof m ankind and wh o i s wor th y to be adored . It i s imper ishab le and i t gives h ealth and prosperity to t h ose wh o h ear and

h onour i t .”

This done, th e worshipper turns to th e four quar tersOf th e compass in th e order Of east , south

,west and

north , r epeating at each quarter a prayer . In al l ceremonies and processions Of every kind , th e turning mustalways be to th e right

, and never to th e left ; hence th eorder, east , south , &c . Th e prayer is as follows

at? as : sits-3 fail HTHEEIHI qae fi nfi aefaa Qat

rt i’a aa‘raa: u

“ Om . I bow to th e east (or oth er quar ter , as th e case m ay

b e) ; wh atever god s are in th is quarter I adore.

Th e prayer s conclude by th e worshipper mentioningh is own name, tr ibe, and family (pravara) . If h e

should be th e head of th e household , h e then proceedsto pour out oblat ions to th e manes of h is ancestor s ,three each to h i s fath er , grandfather and great-grandfather, mentioning their names and preceding th e


whole by sank alpam and pravara . This ceremony i scal led pi trutarpanam .

Th e gayatri prayer enters so largely into th e dailyritual , that it m ay be wel l to describe, at more length ,i ts great importance . This prayer, as indeed is th e

case with most mantrams, i s always pr eceded by repeating th e mystical monosyl lable O M , or A U M , as it shouldbe wr itten . This tril iteral syllable typifies th e Tr imurtior H indu Trinity

,Brahma,

Vishnu and Mah ésh vara or

Siva . Th e sacr edness in which this word i s held m ay

be j udged of from th e fol lowing quotations :“ Brahm a m ilked ou t , as i t wer e th e th r ee Vedas , th e let ter A ,

the let ter U , and th e let ter M , wh ich form by th eir coalit ion t h e

t r ilitera l m onosyllable, togeth er with th ree m yster ious word s , bh ur ,bh uvah , Sever , or earth , sk y , h eaven .

All r ites ordained in th e Veda, oblat ion s to fire, and solem n

sacr ifices pass away ; but th at wh ich passes not away i s declar edto be th e syllab le Om , th en ce called Ach sh ara : Since i t i s a sym bolOf God th e Lord of cr eated beings. (Manu , 11. 76,

Th e gayatri is th e most sacred of al l H indu prayersand it must be repeated at least thirty times everyday ; that is , ten each for morning , noon and eveningprayers, being preceded each time by th e sacred wordO M , and the wor ds bhur , buvah a, swah a . Greatadvantage i s supposed to accrue in proportion to thenumber of times this prayer i s r epeated , and many areth e injunctions laid down with reference to i t . I t s

origin is thus described by Manu“From th e th ree Vedas , also, th e Lord of creatures, in com

preh ensib ly exalted , successively m ilked ou t th e th ree m easur esof th at inefl

’

abl e text , beginn in g with th e word tad , and en t it ledsavitri or géyatri . ( ii . 7.

Instructions for i ts repetition morning and eveningand the benefits Obtained thereby ar e thus particularized .

“ A t the m orn ing twili gh t let h im stand repeat ing th e géyat r i

un t il h e see th e sun ; and at even ing twiligh t l et h im repea t i t

s itt ing, unt il th e star s d istinctly appear . (Manu , ii .


By con tinued r epet it ion of th e gayat ri at th e twiligh t s , th eh oly sages acquire length of days , per fect knowledge, r eputationdur ing l ife, fam e after death an d celest ia l glory .

”

(Manu , iv .

One more quotation m ay be given to Show th e gr eatbenefits suppose to be conferred by th e u se of thisprayer , which wil l serve to account for i ts constant u sein th e daily r itual .

For , as th e d ross and im pur it ies of m etal lic ores are con sum ed

by fir e, t h us are th e sinful acts O f th e h um an Organ s con sum ed bysuppression s of th e breath , wh ilst th e m yst ic word s and th e

m easures of th e gayatr i are revolved in th e m ind .

”(Manu , vi .

SO sacred i s this mantram held by H indus, that a

pious Brahmin would close h i s ear s with hor ror if h ehear d it uttered by impure l ips . It is one Of th e mostancient of al l Ar yan prayer s and i t s interest i s increasedwhen we consider that even now , after being in u se

for centur ies before th e Chr istian era, it stil l dai ly risesup to h eaven as th e aspiration Of untold mult itudes ofp ious H indus . I give a transl iteration as wel l as a

translation of it :

si t {132645T“ aft aeefiqaitod

R iffTartar shuts faa‘t lit a: Hamid u

Om , bhur buvah suvah

Om , tat savi tu r var ényam

B argé dévasya dh fm ah i

D h iyOyénah prachOdayét .

Th e firs t l ine i s an introduction to th e prayer proper,

being an invocation to th e gods!

dwel l ing in th e threeworlds , earth , sk y , heaven . Th e prayer i s again introduced by th e sacred word Om which , I am assured bya Pandit friend , i s th e true form now in use . Th e

translation i s as fol lows

Om , ear th , sk y , h eaven IOm , th at excel len t vi vifier ,Th e ligh t d ivine, let u s m ed itate upon .

Wh ich (ligh t ) enligh ten s our understand ing .


That i s, L et u s meditate upon that excel lent vivifier ,th e l ight divine ,

which enligh tens ou r understanding .

”

Many who are car eless will not per form morningprayers ; they wil l say them together with those formidday , or perhaps not at al l .

“ Any One , however ,who wishes to be respected as a good H indu

,will

not fail to per form them in th e way'

we have described .

B e this as i t m ay , th e midday cer em onies, befor e food ,cannot be omitted by any one on pain Of l iabi lity toexcomm unication .

It must be borne in mind that no food of any kindcan be taken by th e Brahm in before th e noontide bathand cerem onies are over . If occasion should necessita teh is setting out for business before midday , things inth e h ousehold would be hastened to suit circumstances .

Th e first proceeding in these , as in every o thercer emony , i s a bath . On going indoors, from th e bath ,th e wet cloth i s laid aside, and a pur e 1 cloth i s woundround th e waist . Th e cloth thus used i s one generallykept for th e purpose

,and , even if it h as come home

clean from th e washerman , it must be at least rinsedout by th e person himself or som e on e Of h i s family .

Sometimes a silk cloth i s used , as th at i s supposedto be less l iable to pollution than cotton , and th isdistinction i s also conferred upon linen cloths . Afterputting on th e pure wai st cloth , th e next thing i s toput on th e pundram s or sacr ed marks , after whichth e

"

noontide prayers are said . Th ese prayers are

exactly th e same as those already described for th e

morning, except that th e special prayer to th e sun i s

a different one . This one commences thus

ei resia ( HG! admi t fai uaflgd Ref 51 n facade

Hfi ar {9m QM ariagear fat ten u

1 Wh en th e word pure i s used in th is connect ion i t m eans cerem on ially

pu re .


Th e circling sun , wh ich h as a lum inous d isc th at sh ines everywh ere with a t rue ligh t , and wh ich revives both m en and th e

imm or tals , i s com ing on h i s golden car viewing th e wor ld .

”

Th e oblations to th e manes Of ancestors are alsorepeated , as in th e morning

, after which comes th e

daily wor ship of th e household gods . This , in th e

case Of L ingai t s , i s wor shipping th e l ingam ,which i s

done by al l males an d fem ales ; but , in th e case Of th eworshippers Of Vishnu , it i s only performed by th e headOf th e household . Should , however, th e h ead of th ehouse be unable, through pressure Of business, or fromany other cause, to go through this par t Of th e dai lyObservances , h e will appoint some other Of th e householdor th e pu rOh i ta to do it for h im by proxy .

This dévatarch ana , or wor ship of th e gods , i s performed in what m ay be cal led th e kitchen . Th e

kitchen Of a Brahmin house i s a very sacred place .

It answers in some respects to a pr ivate chapel . Thisroom i s separated by a low partition into two parts .

Th e smal ler one i s for th e fire-places and cookingoperat ions , and it al so serves as a pantry for th e

pickles and cur ry-stuffs, al l Of which must be keptfree from ceremonial contamination . Th e larger hal fOf th e kitchen serves for th e dining room . In an

alcove, th e household gods and th e var ious instrumentsu sed in their worship are kept . Amongst th e followersOf Vishnu

,th e one who officiates at this dai ly wor

Ship of th e gods proceeds to th e kitchen and takesth e images fr om their receptacle, usual ly a smal lbasket of wicker work covered with antelope skin .

Amongst Sr i Vish navas th e images are only thosethat represent Vishnu ; th e Smar tas, however , as theyreverence both Vishnu and Siva , have in addition tothese a l ingam . Th e Madvas have, as th eir additionalfigur e, an image of H anuman th e monkey god . Th e

worshipper then proceeds to bath e th e images and rubthem with sandalwood paste .

'

H e also puts on them


th e pundram s, after which h e places them on a lowstool . Sm al l l igh ts fed wit-h ghee ar e th en l it befor ethem ,

an d as an act of wor sh ip th e leaves of th e

tulasi plant an d cer tain kinds Of flowers , ar e Spr inkledover th em . This i s fol lowed by th e waving beforethem Of a sm al l piece Of burning cam phor , and th e

sounding Of a smal l hel l or gong . Whilst this i s

going on a m antram i s said , th e fir st few words of

which are as follows

Gemini gm : seam: seam

H Ef f fa’aa‘i ga r W faszfi gé n

Th e great suprem e h as countless h ead s ,Count less eyes and feet .

H e encir cles th e wh ole earth ,

H e i s larger th an th e earth by t en inch es .

After this wor ship is over , there i s n ivédanam or

Offering Of th e food to th e gods . Th e food about tobe con sumed i s placed near th e idols . It consist s Ofrice , dhol l and such l ike things and water . All are

sanct ified by being Offered to th e gods . Th e per sonwh o Officiates waves h i s hands over th ese th ings to

war ds th e im ages, repeating th e following mantram ,

which i s m erely a r epetition Of th e names of th e

five vital air s Of which life i s supposed to consist ,requesting that th e food partaken of m ay benefiteach respectively

“ Om , m ay th is becom e food for prana .

Om , m ay th is becom e food for apéna.

Om , m ay th is becom e food for vyéna .

Om , m ay th is becom e food for udana .

Om , m ay th is becom e food for samana .

After several minor ceremonies , th e wh ole i s concludedby th e per son wh o Officiates taking three sips of th e

water in which th e im ages have been bathed , and

giving th e rest Of it to be drunk by t h e fam ilypresent.


I have already said that this part of th e dai ly ceremonies i s different with th e L ingai t s . With them ,

each individual takes h is l ingam , and ,holding it in

h is left hand , bathes it an d worships it in ver y mucht h e sam e manner as h as been alr eady described .

Th e food i s Offered in th e same way , except th at thisi s done after it is served ou t to each person

,when

each one waves h i s right hand from h i s own messtowar ds th e l ingam which i s in h is left . Th e chiefdifference in th e ceremony i s that th e mantram repeatedi s different from th e one quoted above as used by th efol lowers of Vishnu . Instead Of th e mantram comm encing,

“Th e great supreme h as countless heads,

”

th e L ingai t s repeat one commencing as follows

as? q areéfiarrfi fas t a craft aa‘r as : u

I adore th ee (Siva) wh ose arm s are wisdom and wh o ar t

comm ander of th e h ost s ; th ou wh o ar t th e lord Of th e ends of

th e ear th I adore th ee.

After al l this cerem ony i s over an d th e doors havebeen secur ely barred to prevent any interruptions or

impure intrusions , th e family si t down to par take of

food . This precaution i s necessary as , if any one werefor any cause to get up from h i s food , h e could not

si t down to it again , and if any im pure thing , a dogfor instance, were to str ol l in whilst th e meal wasgoing on , or if any lower caste person were to gonear them whilst thus engaged (an event difficult toimagine) , th e whole m eal would have to be at onceabandoned . Th e order of si tting at meals i s this :

al l si t upon low stools or upon th e ground , th e placeOf honour being th e r ight end of th e l ine

,th e rest

sitting in a row towar ds th e left in order of age, th el ittle boys and gir ls sitting somewhat apar t . Th e

females do not si t down to eat with th e males , butit i s customary for th e l it tle gir ls together with th e

l ittle boys to j oin th e family group . After th e food


ceremonially pure, though not necessarily chemical lypure . In order to ensure i ts purity, it must be verycarefully fetched and always kept in th e kitch en whereit cannot be touched . If a m an or woman , in car ryingth e pots Of drinking water from th e river , tank , or wel lto th e house, were to come near an outcaste or tocome in contact with any impure person or thing , th ewater would h ave to be thrown away and fresh waterbr ough t . Th e per son carrying it must also againbathe

, and again carefully wash out th e vessels .

Indeed,many Brahmins are SO particular in this r e

spect , that if, on carrying th e water, they were evento see a Par iah , they would throw it away and

r eturn for more .

Th e meal i s concluded by each one taking a singlesip of water, saying :

Oh ! water th ou ar t becom e m y protector .

I n th e h el l cal led rou rava, th e abode of th e wicked ,To th ose wh o for b illion s Of year s h ave suffered th ere,And beg for water , i t i s givenMay i t never ,

b e exh austed .

”

Evening prayer , which should be performed at sun

set , i s th e same as that Of th e morning and noonsandh yavandanam , except that instead of th e specialpr ayer to th e sun there is inserted one to Varuna, th eH indu Neptune,— th e god of th e waters .

aSWOT as as ! a 551 a rse (MEIR I

O Varuna ! h ear m y cry ,

Now fil l m e with h appiness.

I wh o am h elpless com e to th ee .

Th e household gods are not again worshipped , as at

noon , except that at th e evening meal th e food tobe consumed i s offered to them by what m ay be calledth e wave Offering ,

’

accompanied by th e ringing of th ebel l , or th e beating of th e gong and th e burning Ofth e l ights . Th e evening meal , or supper , is conducted

THE H INDU DAILY ROUND 43

with much th e same ceremonies as those described forth e noon-day repast . It i s usual ly taken late in th eevening, say about eight or nine O

’clock, as m ay be

most convenient .If on a j ourney and unable to reach th e shelter Of

a suitable house or choultry (public rest-house) , th eBrahmin m ay cook and partake Of h i s food in a groveor under a single tree, or in some other such place,al though h e m ay not be able to secure th e privacydesirable . Stil l al l th e ritual must, as far as possible,be followed just th e same as if h e were in th e sanctity of h i s own home. Th is way of taking food i scal led vanabhojanam ,

from vanam a forest or grove or

garden and bh ojanam food . If no suitable place can be

found , or if there i s no privacy , then a meal cannot betaken at al l and th e travel ler must fast . Th e H indu ,however

,is from habit and const itution better able to

endure such personal privation than a European can .

Another kind Of compromise i s made when a personis too il l to bathe at al l . In such an event , th e

inval id before partaking of food i s , if a Vaishnava,sprinkled with pure water by some on e pr esent , whorepeats three times th e word pundar ikak sh a (th e whitel otus-eyed one,

-One Of th e names Of Vish nu ) or, if

sufficiently learned , h e m ay say th e following mantram :

eiqfaa: sfiiaai saiami na‘rsfqar I

w at tl efiara'

H aiewfiat ztj fa : u

Man , wh eth er pure or im pure,Or in wh atsoever pligh t h e m ay be,

If h e bu t r epeat th e nam e pundar ik ék sh a

H e Obtain s both outward and inward pur ity .

If th e sick person i s a Saiva, th e ceremony i sdifferent . H e is rubbed with vit

'I t i ,

lor white clay ,

1 See ch apter v. on th e Sacred Marks .


with which th e sacred marks are daubed on , and

another kind Of mantram i s said which i s as follows

fassf .’

ERNIEqu’

fii gfeafié

sariw fiiaa’

raaenatfie'

mwgaia u

“ Siva th e th r ee-eyed on e we adore ; h e i s fragran t , an d h e

in creases strength . May h e deliver m e from death as th e gourdi s par ted from i t s stem .

Before r etiring for th e night , th e pious H indu wil lr epeat a few prayers in very much th e same way as

h e does on rising in th e morning . A usual one for

Smar tas to u se on this occasion i s as fol lows :

geagmfgagfifiia

’

ifiaw gfuagsfiaaatsegq iai fe

sniaarqfas zfrfaasgei ffi mafia airingaenemas : 1!“ B ad dream s , evil om ens , m isfortune, evil th ough t s ,Fam in e, evil desir es, im pat ience, d ish onour ,Acciden t s , gr ief , poison s, fear s , evil star s ,D iseases , from al l th ese m ay th e lord of th e wor ld s protectm e.

”

All th e r ites and ceremonies now described are per

formed by males ; th e female real ly h as noth ing to dowith rites and ceremonies . A s an Old Shastr i put it

,

h er vratam (rel igiou s Observance) is pat ivratam . Th e

word pati means husband or lord ; but th e religiousinstinct of women cannot be entirely suppressed

, and

they do perform some worship .

Though th e temples are very numerous there i s noregular going to service as with Christians . Each househ as i ts own private chapel , where th e daily worshipis held . Th e pr iests in th e temple bathe th e god everyday , and duly wor ship it there ; th e idea being that thisi s done vicariously for th e follower s of that particulargod . On certain festivals and h igh-days , of which thereare many , th e people, both males and females , go to th etemples to do pI

'Ija to th e god . They bow to th e image


and make Offerings Of flowers or fruit and th e l ike , and

perhaps a few coins of money ; but of church-going, inth e ordinary sense Of th e word , there i s none . Thereis no public rel igious teaching of any kind , and henceth e dense ignorance of th e bulk of th e people

,even as

regar ds th e s implest m atters of their own religion.

Th e H indu i s by natur e intensely rel igious for

nothing but an inherent craving after th e spiritual couldcause a nation to subm it to so bur densome a ritu al .Religion i s with h im a th ing Of ever y-day l i fe, and itpervades everything from th e cradle to th e grave .

Th is rel igious inst inct of th e H indus gives br ight hopesof th e future to those who ar e willing to patiently toi lon ,

sowing th e good seed Of eternal l ife , and waitingGod ’s own good time for th e harvest . Then , perhaps , anation m ay be born in a day and a whole people turnfrom dead works to serve th e l iving God .

CH A PTE R I I I .

TH E H IN DU WOMAN’S REL IG ION .

W 2. (St ree Dh a rma h . )

No sacr ifice i s allowed to wom en apar t from th eir h usband s ,n o r eligious r ite , n o fast ing : as far on ly as a wife h onour s h erlord , so far sh e i s exalted in h eaven .

”

(Mann , v .

TH OSE wh o defend H induism , and th e low positionocc upied by H indu women

,say that this i s th e Kali

yuga, th e ir on age , or age Of univer sal degeneracy ,th at in primit ive times things were differ ent , and thatth e status of woman was then higher than it i s nowThere m ay be, and doubtless there i s, some truth in thisstatement . A text Of Manu

,fr equently quoted , shows

that in those t im es a man might per form rel igious r itestogether with h is wife . Th e Verse runs as follows

To be m oth er s were wom en created , an d to be fath er s , m en ;

religious r ites, th erefor e, are ordained in th e Veda to be per formed

by th e h usband togeth er with th e wi fe.

”

(ix .

Stil l th e woman i s nothing without th e m an . Th e

laws Of Manu show most unmistakably that they weremade by m en and that their whole aim was to keepth e other sex in complete submission , not only inmatters Of general behaviour but also in th e sacr edmatter of religion . Th e woman must never dare tohave a will Of h er own , or at any period of h er l ifedecide for her self in any thing

“ By a gir l or by a youn g wom an , or by a wom an advanced inyear s , noth in g m ust be done, even in h er own dwelling place,according to h er m ere pleasure.

”(v.


S RELIGION 47

Sh e must always be distrusted and looked upon withsuspicion as capable of doing any wrong , or , as perhapsit would be more corr ect to say ,

as incapable of doinganything r ight . A king i s directed to let h is femalesbe wel l tr ied an d attentive, but their dress and ornam ents are to be exam ined , lest some weapon shouldbe concealed in them . They are to do h im humbleservice with fans , water and perfume. (vii . Th e

husband i s dir ected never to eat with h i s wife nor to

l ook at h er when eating (iv . Sh e must never evenmention h is name , and sh e must be in such absolutesubjection that no am ount of outrage upon h er senseOf propriety or affections i s to be resented or to causeestrangement .

Th ough unobser vant Of approved usages,

or enamoured ofanoth er wom an , or devoid of good quali t ies , yet a h usband m ustconstantly b e revered as a god by a virtuous wife. ( v

A wife is to be considered as a mere maternal m a

chine and domestic drudge . There ar e, no doubt , manyinstances where m an is better than h is creed and

where woman rises to higher influence and status th anth e law lays down for them ; bu t th e fact r emains thatit i s thus decreed

“ Let th e husband keep h is wife em ployed in th e collect ion and

expend iture Of wealth , in pur ificat ion and fem ale duty , in th e

preparat ion of daily food , and th e super intendence Of h ouseh oldutensils .

Th e product ion Of ch ildren , th e nur ture of th em wh en produced ,and th e daily super intendence of dom est ic affairs ar e peculiar toth e wife. (ix . 11 ,

Such was th e social status of woman even in th e

former and better ages, and , as if this were notenough , h er very soul was also to be in subjection ,and that rel igious instinct which is a glory to womanh ood was to be denied free expression

, and was boundin th e chains Of a cruel servitude . There i s no actualimprovement in this Kal iyuga, or degenerate age .


“Wom en h ave no business with th e text s of th e Veda ; thusi s th e law fully settled . H aving th erefore no evidence of l aw

an d no knowledge of expiatory texts , sinful wom en m ust be as

foul as falseh ood it self ; and th is i s a fixed rule.

”

(ix.

Th e better side Of human nature, cramped and confined th ough i t be, wil l sometimes Show itsel f ; for nocode devised of m an can entir ely eradicate th e betterpromptings Of th e hum an heart . In H indu storyth ere ar e not wanting instances of a better apprecia

t ion O f woman ’

s qual i ties than i s ever adm itted in th ecast-iron codes Of th is ancient system . Sir MonierWilliams gives th e following translation Of th e defin i

tion Of a wife as found in th e Mahabharata

A wi fe i s h alf th e man , h is truest fr iend ;A loving wife i s a perpetual spr in gOf vir tue, pleasure, wealth ; a faith ful wifeI s h i s best aid in seekin g h eaven ly b liss ;A sweet ly-speaking wi fe i s a compan ionIn solitude, a fath er in ad vice,A r est in passing th rough li fe ’

s wilderness .

” 1

There i s also a most touchingly beautiful piece in th e

Ramayana to be found translated into Engl ish byWard .

2 It purports to be th e address of Sita to h erhusband Rama . Rama was banished by th e king

, h is

father D asarath a, at th e instigat ion of h is third wifeKaik éya ,

who wished th e succession for h er own son .

H e was doomed to perpetual exile in th e forest, and

h is wife expresses h er determination to go with him .

AS a beautiful expression Of tender affection I cannotrefrain from quoting th e piece at length . It servesto Sh ow that th e affectionate nature of a true womanis ever th e same , despite i ts surroundings .

“ Son of th e venerable parent ! h ear ,’

Ti s Seeta Speaks. Say ar t not thou assur ’d

1 “ B rahm an ism and H induism,p . 389 .

9 Ward , H istory of th e Literature and Myth ology of th e H indus ,vol . ii , p . 408.


Th ose Sh eet s of water , fi l l ’d with nymph oeas,

Cover’

d with ducks , and swans , and Silvan fowl ,And studded with each wild and beauteous flow’

r .

In th ese secluded pools I ’l l often bath e,And Sh are with thee, O Ram a, bound less j oy .

Thus could I sweet ly pass a th ousand year s ;B u t with out th ee e

’

en h eav’

n would lose i t s ch arm s .

A residence in h eaven , O Ragh u vu ,

With out thy pr esence, would no joy afford .

Th erefore, th ough rough th e path , I m ust , I will ,Th e for est penetrate, th e wild abodeOf m onkeys , eleph ant s , and playful fawn .

P leas’

d to embrace th y feet , I will resideIn th e rough forest as m y fath er

’

s h ouse.

Void of al l oth er wish , suprem ely th ine,P erm it m e th is request—I will not gr ieveI will not burden th ee—refuse m e not .

But sh ould st th ou , Raghuvu , th is prayer deny ,Know, I resolve on death— i f torn from th ee.

”

There is great difficulty in ar riving at anything likea clear knowledge Of th e H indu woman’

s rel igion .

L ittle help can be gained from books and th e H industhemselves have very confused and conflicting ideas on

th e subject . I have consulted with learned Indianfriends and others l ikely to have th e best inform ation

,

and I give it in as clear a way as i t seems to m e

possible in anything so conflicting and confusing as

H induism .

Th e main quest ion i s whether a woman can haveany worsh ip at al l apart from h er husband ; and th e

answer i s that sh e m ay and sh e m ay not . From th e

passage at th e head of this chapter it wil l be seen

th at , as a rule , th e woman h as no r el igious statusapart from h er husband , and yet , as will be seenfur ther on ,

sh e h as a kind of daily worship Of h erown . This m ay be merely an unauthorized form of

concession to th e religious instincts of woman— a sortOf thing al lowed on sufferance as doing no harm toany one, though it m ay perhaps be of l ittle good .


S REL IG i oN 51

At th e time of h er marriage , at th e marr iage of h er

children , and at cer tain other periods and at somefestivals , th e wife mu st si t with h er husband dur ingth e tim e h e i s engaged in th e performance of cer tainacts Of worship , though sh e seems to be there only as

a kind Of com plement Of h er h usband and takes noactive part in th e ceremonies . If a m an h as lost h iswife

,h e cannot perform any sacrifices by fire (oupasana) ,

which shows that th e wife h as som e indirect connection with th e cer emony , and also in part accounts forth e anxiety of a widower to remarry . Th e wom an is a

part Of h er husband and SO sh e wor ships thr ough him ;

wh at h e does, sh e does . Th e“ Yajur Veda ”

says :

Bi t-fi e”gs ai rma‘iaeqéi n

Th e wife i s h alf th e sel f of h er h usban d .

Upon this there i s a comment by Brihaspati , somewh at as fol lows :

It h as been said th at th e wi fe i s h alf th e self of h er h usband ,and in con sequen ce sh e sh ares equally with h im al l th e good and

evil done by h im .

”

But th e question stil l remains whether th e womancan ordinar ily join h er husband in h i s prayers and

sacr ifices ; and to this th e answer must be in th e

negative. At th e midday service when th e m an per

forms t he ceremonies before taking food , th e wife m ay

attend upon h im and hand him th e things used byhim , but sh e can take nO real par t with him . Th e

woman i s not a twice-born (dvija) ; nor does sh e wearth e sacred thread (yagnOpavi ta) which i s th e mark of

th e second birth (upanayana) . Sh e cannot read th e

Vedas , or even hear them read , nor can Sh e take par tin h er husband ’s sacr ed services (dévatar ch ana) : sh e is

outside it al l . In real ity Sh e h as no religious l ife incommon with h er husband .

In m ay be wel l just to go through th e ordinary daywith a woman and see what sh e real ly does , as far as


i t bears upon this subject . Th e women of th e household are always th e fir st to r ise in th e morning , and

this i s usual ly long befor e daybreak . Th e ear ly morningduties

, after th e performance Of personal ablutions,consist of cleaning up those par ts Of th e house thatcannot be entered by people Of lower castes, and cleaning th e drinking pots and th e num erous vessels thatare used in a m ore or less ceremonious manner in a

H indu household . D uring th e performance Of theseduties, which must be entirely done by or Sh ar ed inby every good housewife , Sh e general ly Sings in a lowtone some song which i s intended to r ouse up th e godKrishna, or Siva, as th e case m ay be . A specimenOf th e songs thus sung i s here given . It is a translationfrom one in t h e Telugu language, and is cal led m él u

k olupu , or th e waking up

AWAKE AWAKE

1 . Awake ! Awake ! Kr ish na d ivine,Awake to save th ine own .

Th ou lord of a l l , th ou per fect one,

G ran t u s each h eaven ly boon .

Awake Awake

2. Awake ! Awake ! for Kings h ave com e,

And Queen s to th ee adore.

Th ey com e to wave th eir ruby h and s ,And praise th ee ever m ore .

Awake Awake

3 . Awake ! Awake ! th ou loveliest one,

Th at ear th or h eaven e’

er knewThy faith ful with pet it ion s com e,

Full grace t o th em r enew .

Awake Awake

4 . Awake ! Awake ! H ari d ivine,Th ou god adored by al l .

Th ou fr ee’

st th in e own from every foe,An d l iftest t h ose who fall .

Awake Awake


S REL IGION 53

5. Awake ! Awake ! both Old and young,Th eir sor rows to rem ove,H ave sough t th y h oly presence now ;

Oh ! grant th em every good .

Awake Awake

6. Awake ! Awake ! with favour see

Th e faith ful at th y feet .

Adored of Sanaka beh oldWith grace each supplian t m eet .

Awake Awake

7. Awake ! Awake ! e’

en Par vat iD oth wor sh ip at thy Sh r in e.

Oh ! gran t to u s ou r every n eed ,

Th ine h eart to u s incl ine.

Awake Awake

8 . Awake ! Awake ! I wait to br ingSweet jasm ine flower s to wave .

Th yself rouse quickly , Madh ava !

Sh rih ar i ! com e an d save.

Awake Awake

After h er ab lutions are over , th e wom an places uponh er forehead th e univer sal ly worn t i lak am or m arkwith red powder made of saffr on and other ingr edients .

Th e shape Of th e m ark differs according to th e deitywor shipped by th e wearer . Those ,

for instance , wh o

wor ship Lakshmi (th e wife Of V ishnu ) have merely a

cir cular spot in th e centre of th e forehead ; whilst th efollower s Of Gaur i (th e Wife of Siva) have a hor izontalmark . This mark i s always worn except dur ing daysof m ourning and other times of cerem onial uncleanness . Th e absence Of it i s a Sign of widowhood ; andthus , whenever a woman washes h er face, sh e mustagain renew t h e mark . Th e greater part Of th e for enoon i s devoted to prepar ing th e m idday meal ; and nofood can be taken unti l this cooking i s done. Th e

partaking of food render s any one cer em oniously unfitei ther for cooking or for worship .

54 TH E H INDU AT HOME

In a previous ch apter I have descr ibed th e ceremonies per form ed by th e H indu m an before par takingof h i s first midday m eal . Th e woman

,too,

h as a kindof worship of h er own before h er m idday m eal ,though it i s of a comparatively sim ple character and

occupies only a very shor t tim e . Sh e h as a metal boxcontaining several images of brass or copper , repr esenting var ious goddesses, usual ly Gaur i or Lakshmi , or

sometim es bo th of these , and perhaps an image of

Sub rahm anyan , th e snake god , who i s wor shipped onlyby wom en . N one of th ese im ages ar e consecr ated , fora wom an must not even touch any im age that h asbeen consecrated . Sh e m ay take th e im ages ou t and

place th em on a l ow stool underneath th e sacredcanopy (vi tanam ) , which i s in th e sacred r oom or

sanctuary of every house ; or keep them in th e boxand wor ship them there , stil l being under or near th ecanopy . A little lamp i s l it and placed near, an d th e

worshipper says th e sank alpam ,which m ust always

pr eface wor ship . It consists of mentioning th e tim e

and repeating th e name of th e place, and th at of th efamily and th e tr ibe , as wel l as th e personal nam e of th e

wor sh ipper . After th is sh e goes on to say som e sim pleprayer s , asking for ai d in any per sonal needs that m ay

be pr essing,or for divine h elp general ly , and also a few

words of praise . All th is is accompanied by var iousbowings with clasped hands. Th e wor shipper then procoeds to offer a b it of fruit , or sweetm eat , or betel andto spr inkle th e images with pinches of sandal paste and

coloured r ice , and a few flowers . Sometimes sh e alsowaves before them a bit of l ighted camphor , at th e

sam e time r inging a l ittle hel l or str iking a smal l gong .

Th e wh ole i s concluded by walking round th e spot(pradak sh anam ) th r ee times and by pros tration (sashtanga n am askaram ) . Th e whole ceremony does not

occupy as long in th e doing as in th e tel l ing ,and

wh en it i s over th e things are replaced in th e box,


S REL IGION 55

which is then put away in i t s own proper nich e .

Am ong cer tain sections of H indus th is midday wor sh ipis som ewh at different . Th e l ingam wor shippers, for

instance , merely l ight a l ittle lam p , and taking in t h e

left hand th e l ingam fr om i t s Silver or copper box

which i s suspended fr om their neck, per form to itsome Slight worship and wave towar ds it th e lam pfrom th e direction of th e food wh ich i s about tobe consum ed . Th ese things differ s ligh t ly am ongstdiffer ent sections of th e people , but practically th isdescription m ay be taken as sufficiently r epresentative .

It m ay also be said th at this m idday worship i s al l

th e r egular worship that th e H indu woman ordinar ilyengages in fr om day to day . At night

,when sh e

l igh ts th e family lamp,th e good housewife will make

Obeisance to th e flame with closed h ands repeating th efollowing Sanskr it ver se

ai l GENE: CRETE! 339°

Wi fe: [Kiwi

EHCIFT status Search FETISH ?! n

Th e flam e of th is lam p i s th e Suprem e God .

Th e flam e of th is lam p i s th e abode of th e Suprem e .

B y th is flam e sin i s dest royed .

O th ou ligh t of th e even ing we pra ise t h ee.

Th e woman does not , l ike th e m en ,worship at th e tim e

of th e even ing m eal . Sh e simply says, as a kind of

grace before m eat , th e words Govinda ! Govinda ! (aname of Vishnu) , or Mahadeva ! Mahadéva ! (an appellation of Siva) , before putting th e fir st m orsel into h ermouth .

A S in Chr istian countr ies th e good mother takes h erl ittle ones and teaches them h er h oly Faith accordingto th eir capacity to under stand , and also teach es th emto pr ay at h er knee, so th e H indu mother tel l s h er

ch ild ren stor ies of th e gods sh e h as learned fr om th e

Ram ayanam and th e Mahabharatam and other


r el igious books , and at wor ship time, when th e l ittlehel l i s sounded , th e children are taught to assembleand

, solemnly placing their hands together,to make

Obeisance to th e gods .

A H indu wom an’

s wor ship is ordinarily confined toth e br ief midday service descr ibed above . Even thisSh e i s only supposed to do on sufferance

, after havingobtained th e consent of h er h usband . A passage on

th is subject i s quoted fr om th e“ Padm a Purana

stats fun: W T ESTIEII ZTTSE! Héifl : I

a renas H uai t fiasfcfsafirsai I

Hi t ler farm 3a affaefi sna fu n

Th e h usband i s th e beloved of th e wife .

H e i s m ore to h er th an al l th e god s.

H er self and h er h usbandB e i t known are one per son .

With out th e con sent of h er h usbandAny kin d of wor sh ip sh e m ust not per form .

With th e consent of h er husband a wife m ay go on a

shor t pilgr im age wi thout h im , wh en h e i s unable toaccompany h er , but th is i s ver y seldom . Str ictly withh is consen t , sh e may also per form and keep vows , as

for instance ,to do with out sal t in h er food for a

stated per iod or to abstain from milk or var ious kindsof eatables for a given tim e . All this i s done withth e object of obtaining for her self or some on e dearto h er som ething desir ed—wealth , or ch i ldren , or dcl iverance from disease . Apart from h er husband

,th e

woman h as no religious status whatever , and praetical ly very lit t le even with h im .

We now com e to th e impor tant quest ion as to h ow

al l th is affects h er state after death . D oes th e unionand interdependence of h usband and wife continueafter death ,

and how can th e one affect th e oth er ?There i s good auth or ity for th e monstr ous assertion,


qfae‘iafia er arfa angt ? fa

ils I

S

sea Hr tf’

i’

r {a t Hj fififlwmaI!

Hi s isIUiTgar s afe at Erick aa Haifa

33mm Hai fa chagrin! s adism fimrafi Haifa n

This i s a question put by P arasara, and h e himselfgives th e answer

“ Wh y , i t m ay b e asked , i s th e wife not benefited by the gooddeed s of h er h u sband j u st as th e h usband becom es h ell-doom ed

by th e evil deed s of h i s wife ? Th e idea t h at th e wife can be so

benefited m ust not for a m om ent be en ter tained .

”

In support of this h e gives a quotation from Yagna

valkya, a celebrated R ishi , to th e fol lowing effect“To h er h usband ’

s wor ld sh e will not go.

Wh atever brahm in wom an d r inks ferm en ted liquor,

Sh e will be born again in to th e wor ld a dog ;

And after th at sh e will born a pig.”

Upon this P arasara m akes th e following comment

\Vh atever brahm in wom an becom e bad , sh e will by th e godsbe kept ou t of th e an cest r al h eaven . Such a wom an , being withou t m erit , will b e born again on th is earth as a dem on with a

m outh em itt ing flam es of fi re .

”

Th e Pundits of th e present day appear to take thesequotations as a proof that a bad wom an cannot bebenefited by th e good deeds of h er husband . If th ewoman i s a dutiful wife sh e m ay obtain a share of th ecelestial bliss of h er husband and h er good deeds m ay

be r eckoned to h i s account , even though h e i s not a

good m an ; but if sh e be a bad wom an , nothing thath er husband , or any one else ,

can do wil l be for h erof any avai l .I new deal with th e H indu woman as a Widow,

forh er condition as regards r el igion becomes material lychanged after th e death of h er husband . Although th ewidow i s precluded from taking any par t whatever inth e ordinar y family r ites and ceremonies , and al though


S REL IGION 59

sh e m ay be reckoned as dead to al l social l ife, still sh ecan , accor ding to H induism ,

very material ly assist herhusband after h is death and by h er pr ayers and gooddeeds hasten h i s final beat itude . It i s laid down thatth e chief way in which sh e can do this i s by ascendingh is funeral pile and burning her self al ive wi th h i s

dead body . H appily th e Governm ent wil l no longeral low th ese r eligious mur der s and suicides , but thereis no doubt whatever that they were former ly car riedou t to an enormous extent , and

,if th e strong hand

of British law wer e rem oved , it is m ost probable th atthese monstrous cruelties would be again perpetrated .

l

Th ere are, i t i s stated , of h air s on th e h um an

body . Th e wom an wh o ascend s th e pile with h er h usband , willrem ai n so m any year s in h eaven . A s th e snake-catch er d raws th eserpent from i ts h ole, so sh e r escuing h er h usband (from h ell ) ,rejoices with h im . Th e wom an wh o expires on th e funer al pilewith h er h usband pur ifies th e fam ily of h er m oth er , h er fath er ,and h er h usband . If th e h usband h e a B rahm in icide, an u ngrate

ful per son , or a m urderer of h i s fr iend , th e wife by burn in g withh im purges away h is sins . Th er e i s no vir tue greater th an a

virtuous wom an’

s burn ing h er sel f with h er h usband . NO oth er

effectual duty i s known for vir tuous wom en , at any t im e after th edeath of th eir lord s, except cast ing th em selves into th e sam e fir e .

A s long as a wom an , in h er successive t ran sm igr at ion s, sh al ldecline burn in g h er self, like a faith ful wife, on th e sam e fi re withh er deceased lord , so long sh all sh e not be exem pted fr om spr inging again to l ife in th e body of som e fem ale an im al .

Th e same writer also quotes as follows from th e

Brahma Purana”

I f th e h usband be ou t of th e count ry wh en h e d ies , let th evir tuous wife take h i s slipper s (or any th ing else wh ich belongsto h i s d ress) , an d b ind ing th em (or i t ) on h er breast , after pu r ificat ion , enter a separate fi re.

2

l Ward takes from th e wr it ings of Angira , a saint of th e first and

m ost h oly age (Kru tayugam ) , a passage bear ing on th is subject . See

“ H istory of th e Literature and Myth ology Of t h e H indus , vol . iii,

p. 308 .

2 1hid ., p. 309 .


If sati or sel f-immolation is not performed , th e widowm ay effect h er husband ’s final good by a str ict foll owing out of th e rules and regulations laid down byauthority for such cases . I can find no author itat ivestatement on this point , but it i s a general ly enter tainedopinion amongst H indus . They say that th e generaldrift of th e following quotations from Manu , and sim ilar declarations by other authors

,is to that effect . Th e

tendency of al l th e legislation on th e subject appearsto be towards influencing or terrorizing th e woman intocom plete and abject submission to h er husband . Thisi s h er r el igion , and it i s only by following out theseinjunctions sh e can hope for m er it here or for happinesshereafter . Not only for l ife i s this subm ission to bemanifested , but even death does not dissolve th e bonds ,as far as sh e i s concerned . All h er h Opes for th e

future l ie in h er continual ly manifesting by a l ife ofth e most intense misery h er faithfulness to th e memor yof h er lor d and master .

A faith fu l wife wh o wish es to attain in h eaven th e m an sion

of h er h usband , m ust do noth ing unkin d to h im be h e living or

dead .

Let h er em aciate h er body , by living voluntar ily on pure flower s ,r oot s , and fruit s ; b ut let h er not , wh en h er lord i s deceased , evenpronounce th e nam e of anoth er m an .

Let h er cont inue till d eath for giving al l in jur ies , per form ingh ard duties , avoid in g every sen sual pleasure , and ch eer fully pract i sing th e incom parable rul es of virtue wh ich h ave been fol lowedby such wom en as were devoted to one h usband .

A vir tuous wife ascend s to h eaven , th ough sh e h as no ch ild , if,after th e decease of h er lord , sh e devotes h er self to pious austerity .

”

(Manu , v . 156-158 ,

This of th e woman . A little further on th e law is

thus laid down for th e m an

H aving thu s kind led sacred fires and per form ed funeral r itesfor h i s wi fe , wh o d ied before h im , h e m ay m ar ry again and againl igh t th e nuptial fi re .

”(Mann , v .


S RELIGION 61

I have now given some notion of th e nature of th e

r eligion and th e religious l ife of a H indu woman . Allthat h as been said h as to do with th e females of th eupper castes . A s regards th e r el igion of th e lower castesand of th e outcastes , there is very l i t tle to be noticed .

Their r el igion , as a rule , i s l itt le m ore than demonolatryor fetichism

,and th at ver y often of th e lowest kind . Th e

women are very par ti cular to put upon th eir foreh eadsth e r ed mark , but of ordinary worship th r oughout th eday ei ther by m en or wom en there i s practical ly noneat al l . Th ey ar e al l intensely super stitious , and thoseof them who m ay be Vaishnavas (wor sh ipper s of Vishnu)and who wear upon th e foreh ead th e mark of thatdeity , do , when they put on th e marks in th e ear lymorning, both m en an d wom en , make Obeisance to th er ising sun , but that seem s to be th e sum total Of th eor dinary daily wor ship . It i s a univer sal custom at

night,when th e fam i ly lamp i s l it , for th e women to

m ake Obeisance to th e flame, but there does not appearto be anything else in th e Shape of evening worship .

In any tim e of tr ouble or sickness , especial ly duringth e pr evalence of any epidemic like cholera or smal lpox , or at m arriages and other festal seasons, and on th e

occasion of any family event , wor ship of various kindsi s perform ed , chiefly by t h e women . Th e Sudras and

those of th e l ike class will go to th e village templewith offer ings of fruit , flowers and coloured powder forth e temple deity , which , after being presented , are d is

tributed to th e neighbours wh o m ay be present . Th e

non-caste women , who m ay not go to th e village templeat such seasons , adorn a bit of th e inner wal l of th ehouse with cowdung or saffr on , upon which white orr ed horizontal l ines are drawn , and to this Obeisancei s made and sim ple offer ings of cooked food and fruitor flowers are presented . Besides this there i s th e

sacred tree and th e simple village idol,Often a mer e

group of shapeless stones , and to these, at certain times,


th e vil lage women pay worship . Sometimes alsothey wil l go to festivals or on a pilgr image to somesh rine th at m ay be within their reach . Th ey are strongbel ievers in transmigrat i on and they think that theirfuture birth will be affected by their good or evil deeds ,but , practical ly , they m ay be said to h ave very littlerel igion at al l

, as distinct from intense super stition and

bel ief in demonolatry of th e most degrading kind .

This shows h ow low a posit ion i s assigned to womanin H indu th eology , and t h e only wonder i s that longer e this sh e h as not broken th e shackles that wouldbind h er very soul and h as asserted h er equal ity tom an in th e eyes of God . There i s , however, hopethat a change for th e better in this respect is real lybeing effected . India i s gradual ly waking up from h er

l ong lethargy and th e wom en of India also are beingaffected . It m ay be true that as yet of t h e vast m ass

comparatively few women are r eached by th e rays of

l igh t that are beginning to penetrate even into th e innerrecesses of Indian hom es ; but something h as been done ,and sufficient evidence i s m anifest to prove that th enew l ife h as begun . Th e whole future of India’

s greatness i s bound up in th e emancipation of h er women .

This can only be done effectual ly by th e spr ead of th atD ivine Faith which alone , of al l th e creeds of th eear th , gives woman h er true status as th e equal withand true com plement of m an , and which thus makesdeclaration on this matter :

Th e wom an i s th e glory of th e m an . For th e m an i s not of

th e wom an ; bu t th e wom an of th e m an . Neith er was th e m an

creat ed for th e wom an ; bu t th e wom an for th e m an

Neith er i s th e m an without th e wom an ; neither th e wom an

without th e m an , in th e Lord . For as th e wom an i s of th e m an ,

even so i s th e m an also by th e wom an ; but al l th ings of God .

”

(1 Cor . xi , 7-9 , 11 ,

CH A P TE R IV

TH E H INDU SACRED TH REA D .

Qimafifi (Yaj nOpav i t am ) .

“ In th e eigh th year from th e concept ion of a Brahm an , in th e

eleventh from th at of a Ksh atr iya , and in t h e twelfth from th at

of a Vaisya, let th e fath er in vest th e ch i ld with th e m ark of h i s

class . (Manu , ii .

ONE of ° the many peculiar ities that str ike a strangerin India is that many H indus have a cord or skein of

thread over'

th e left sh ou lder , hanging down under th eright arm . It i s worn as a sash would be. Probablyfew, except th e H indus themselves , could tel l wh y thiscord i s worn ; why certain per sons have it whilstothers have i t not ; or even h ow or of what it i s made .

This article of dress or adornm ent forms, however , a

very impor tant factor in the H indu cult . Th e yajnc'i

pavi tam , as it i s cal led , or th e sacred thread of th e

H indu,i s th e outward and visible mark that th e

wearer i s a D vija,or twice-born . It i s a very much

prized an d a very sacred badge and commands respectand even adoration .

If we enquir e who ar e pr ivileged to assume thisdistinction

, we find th e matter very clearly defined byth e ancient H indu law-g iver . In th e quotation at th e

head of this chapter , i t i s clear that th e Brahmans ,Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas must be thus invested . Inanother place it i s dist inc tly stated that none but th e


three twice-born classes are entitled to th e d is tinc

tion '

The th ree twice-born classes are th e sacerdotal , th e m ilitary ,and th e comm ercial ; bu t th e fourth , or ser vile, i s once-born , th at

i s , h as no second b ir th from th e gayatr i , and wear s n o th read .

”

(Manu , x .

This i s th e law ; but others besides these threepr ivileged classes assume th e distinction . It i s notsafe, ther efore , to conclude that every wearer of th e

sacred th read must necessar i ly be a Brahmin or one

of th e oth er two highest castes . Th e goldsmiths, th eweaver s , cer tain classes of fishermen and others wearit . Th e explanation i s that th e goldsmith caste, manyof whom are carpenter s and worker s in brass and

copper, are them selves a class of Brahmins ; at leastthey assume th e distinction . They have their ownprescr ibed share in th e Vedas and th eir own ritual .They have an upanayana

‘m or second-birth ceremony

,

and are considered dvijas, or twice-born ; hence thisprivilege in th e matter of th e thread , as wel l as

in many other s that are peculiar to Brahmins . Th e

goldsm ith caste ar e said to be th e descendants of

Brahmin women and Kshatr iya m en ; and this fact ,together with th e r ights above mentioned , appear sto be acknowledged by th e Brahmins themselves ;yet , they do not appear to command much respectas a caste . This m ay be on account of theirmixed orig in . Until r ecent year s, for instance, theywere not allowed to celebrate their marr iages withpublic processions , to u se a palanquin , or to ridea horse . It i s said that about thirty years ago

there was much disturbance in Masulipatam when ,in India through th e freedom r esulting from th e

B r itish r u le this cas te first began to have marriagepr ocessions and , in other ways , to assert themselves .

Now it i s quite an acknowledged thing , for it h asbecome what i s known as m a

‘m fi l (custom) and so no


To r eturn , h owever, to th e subjec t more immediatelyin hand , other s such as weavers and fishermen appearunlawfully to assum e th e pr ivilege of wearing th e sacredthread ; but , al though their custom is not inter feredwith , no value is set upon it by orthodox H indus .

Th ey cannot , for exam ple,read th e Vedas or even hear

them read . Author ity to do this,in th e case of lawful

th r ead-wear er s , i s conveyed by th e cer emony of upa

n ayanam , or second spiritual birth , of which th e threadi s th e outwar d sym bol . In these modern days , someoth er classes of Sudras have also adopted th e yajnOpavitam mer ely to add to their own impor tance ; but , inal l such cases, it i s of no true r el igious value . I h avehear d of a case in th e Or issa country where a certainRaja of th e Sudr a caste made h imsel f im portant byassuming authori ty to invest people of h i s own castewith th e thread . Som e of th em ,

to please him , appearto have submitted to th e investitur e, and adopted th eth r ead— thus adding to th e number of th e unlawfulwear ers of this coveted mark of distinction . It i s saidthat one unlucky Wight who

,on a visit to that countr y ,

was presented with this badge of h onour , was, on h isreturn h om e , depr ived of th e same and wel l beaten forh is presumption by h is indignant neighbour s .

H aving th us seen wh o are enti tled to wear th e sacredth read , I now pass on to m ention some particular s ofth e thread itself an d also of th e mode of investiture .

Or iginal ly ther e appears to h ave been some differencein th e kind of th read worn , according to th e class ofth e wearer . Thus

Th e sacr ificial th read of a Brahm in m ust be m ade of cotton ,

so as to b e put on over h is h ead in th ree str ings ; th at of a

Ksh at r iya of Sana t h read on ly ; th at of a Vaisya of woollent h read . (Manu , ii .

This i s th e law and probably in ancient timesth e m ater ial of which th e thread was m ade did thusdiffer, according to th e caste of th e wearer ; but in th e

TH E H INDU SACRED TH READ 67

present day no such differ ence i s seen . Th e cor d i suniversally made of cotton . A peculiar kind of veryfine cotton i s What ought to be employed , but or dinar i ly th e comm on cotton is used . Th e threads are

supposed to be prepared by Brahmins. Perhaps otherth an th e Brahm ins and Vaisyas ar e not so par ticularas to th e manufactur e , but th ese two castes are verycarefu l in this r espect . Th e thread s can general ly beob tained in any or dinary bazaar , but th e very orthodox ,in order to ensure th eir pur ity , wil l frequently procureth eir supply fr om th e house of th e Br ahm ins wh o

m ay happen to be engaged in th e m anufacture .

Th e yajn épavi tam consists of several skeins of cottonthread . Each th read consists of th ree strands

, eachskein h as three thr eads , and a m ar r ied m an ’

s bor dm ust consist of not less than th r ee skeins . Th e number thr ee enter s very largely into th e structure of th ecor d itself , and th e cerem ony of invest i tur e . This issaid to repr esent th e three gods , Brahm a

,V ishnu

,and

Siva ; th e thr ee sacr ificial fires ; th ree divisions of time

—morn , noon and night ; and th e three wor ldsheaven , earth and hel l . Each skein i s t ied with a

peculiar knot cal led Brahma’

s knot . It i s m ade bymaking th ree turns with th e threads and by so tyingth e knot that th e ends do not appear on th e outside .

In making each knot th e fol lowing incantation is

repeated by th e maker '

efi WW as age Greens arcti c

“

! I

fi gfeaaia‘r’

r‘

a adi aimmaa: u“ P ronoun cing th e word Om , th e Brahm a

Su t ram m ust b e t ied , and afterwar d s worn .

(Th e wearer ) will receive pur ity in a l l h i s r ites ,I t being th e per son ificat ion of al l t h e gods .

”

A youth,if a bachelor , when fir st invested with th e

cord,receives only a Single skein , and h e cannot wear


more than a single skein unti l h e i s married , when h em ust wear, at least

,three skeins . Th e Br ahmin youth

must be invested with h is cor d when h e i s about sevenor eigh t year s of age. H e cannot be marr ied until th usinvested , but h e m ay , and in fact often does , marr ya day or two after th e ceremony . Am ongst som e

of th e B anians or Vaisyas , it i s customary to defert h e upanayanam until imm ediately before mar r iage .

Th e cerem ony of investiture i s as follows . On th e

appointed day a fire i s lighted , r ound which th e r elat ives and friend s of th e novice are seated . Th is fire

i s a very im por tant feature of th e upanayanam . Th e

wh ole cer emony i s cal led th e agni karyam or fire

wor sh ip . It i s kept al ight dur ing th e whole four daysdur ing which th e cerem ony lasts , and it is th e properthing to feed it , as far as possible, with th e twigs ofcer tain kinds of trees , -p rincipal ly those of th e Indianfig tribe. At th e repeating of th e various mantramswhich form part of th e r itual , ghee i s poured on toth e fire as an Offering . Th e father of th e youth to beinvested takes a thread of nine strands and puts itupon h is son . Th is i s not th e tr ue yajnOpavItam ,

nor

h as i t th e Brahm a knot , nei ther are mantrams saidover it . After some t ime , during which various r itesar e per formed , and th e ears of th e boy ar e bor ed forear r ings and then adorned with thin r ings of gold

,

th e true cord i s produced— a sing le skein of threeth reads . To this i s attached a bit of th e skin of a

m ale deer , or , if procurable , a long strip of this skini s worn as a sash together with th e cor d . D eer skinis considered to be very pure , and also to be capableof imparting purity . For this reason untanned deerskin is much employed for cover ing th e boxes and

other receptacles, in which th e household gods, and

things per taining th ereto are kept . It i s also muchused as a m at to si t upon wh en per forming th e dai lyr ites . Mention i s made in th e Smritis (th e teaching of


th e Sages) of th e purity acquired by wear ing deerskin , and there are several in junctions on th e matterin th e laws of Manu .

o For exam ple :“ Let t h e studen t s in th eology wear for th eir m an t les th e

h ides of black an telopes , of comm on deer or of goat s , with lowervests of woven sana of csh uma and of wool , in t h e d irect order

of th eir classes .

”(Mann , ii .

Th e piece of deer Skin i s worn with th e thread forsever al m on th s , when i t i s taken Off, with some shor tceremony , at a temple . Wh en t h e father puts on th e

true cord,h e repeats th e yajnOpavi tam mantram

,

th e novice saying it after him . Th is m antram i s as

fol lows

asfi afi Cari sfasi mrqdzi fsssi 936W I

argfiasi zf nfag

’

a {gel HEIGHTS aestg den n

Th is m ost h allowed yajnOpavi tam ,

In form er t im es with Brahm a born ,

Auth or of longevity ; wear i t , i t i s pur e,May th is yajnépavi tam becom e m y st r en gth and glory .

A s th e new and true cor d i s put on ,th e imitation one

which was first used i s taken off . This completes theinvestiture, and th e father at once proceeds to teachth e novice th e gayatri prayer . This is done withgreat care and secr ecy . A cloth i s thr own over th eheads of both father and son , an d , th e sacred wordsare whisper ed into th e ears, in as low a whisper as

possible, so that th e holy words m ay not fal l uponth e ears of any uninitiated person . Th e upanayanam

i s now com plete, and th e lad i s now a true dvija ,

duly entit led to read th e Vedas , and to perform any

of th e rel igious r ites of h i s caste .

Immediately following th is investitur e th e youthproceeds to ask alms of those present , beginning wi thh i s m other and then h is father and afterwards th e

other relat ives or friends . This act is supposed . to


In timate a readiness on th e par t of th e supplicant topr ovide for himself and h is religious preceptor . Allth is takes place on th e first day ,

but for three moredays th e festival is kept up , dur ing which th e novicei s instructed in th e m orning , midday an d eveningprayer s and in other cerem onial Observances . Therei s always much feasting and rej oicing upon theseoccasions . Musicians are h ired to enliven th e companyand fr iends and relatives are enter tained according toth e ab il i ty of th e hos t .A n ew cord m ust be put on every yea r on th e

occasion of a cer tain festival . This fest ival i s calledsravan é lapau rnavam i

— th e fu l l moon in th e m onth of

Sravana (July-August) . Should th e cord be br okendur ing th e year , a new one must at once he put on .

If a m an h as a cor d of five skeins , a b roken thr eador two does not matter ; but a bachelor must have h isone skein perfect

,with out even a single th read being

br oken , an d a m ar r ied per son must h ave at least th reeper fect skeins

, every th r ead of which must be perfect .There are also certain kinds of defi lem en t , as for in

s tance touching a Par iah ,that necessitate th e putting

on a new thread and th e casting away th e ol d one .

In these days , th e or th odox are not always so verypar ticular as this , but this i s th e rule . Sh ould th e

cord becom e broken , or any defi lem en t contracted , nofood can be taken until th e ol d i s replaced by a new

one .

If a strict or thodox Br ahmin , in passing through th ebazaar , accidental ly comes into contact with a Par iah ,or in any other way becomes ceremonial ly defi led , h e

must get a new cord , which h e cannot touch until h eh as bathed , and thus purified himself from th e defile

ment . After bathing h e takes th e new cord and ,

dipping i t into water , spr eads it ou t on two brass or

copper vessels . H e then touch es it with som e of th epigment h e uses for putting th e sacred m ark on h is


foreh ead . A fter th at h e walks r ound th e vessels threetim es , fr om r ight to left, r epeating th e gayatr i prayer .

Th en h e takes th e cord , skein by skein,and puts i t

on saying th e m antr am, or consecration pr ayer , used

at th e first investiture, repeating th e sam e for eachskein .

When h e h as thus put on th e whole of th e skein s ,h e takes off th e ol d cord

,r epeating a mantram wh ich

says

May th is old yajn épavi tam becom e m y str en gth and glory .

Th e old thr ead i s disposed of by thr owing i t into a

r iver or some other water, if ther e should be any at

hand . Th e ancient lawgiver says :i

H i s gird le, h i s leath er m an t le, h i s staff, h i s sacr ificial cord ,

and h i s ewer , h e m ust th row into th e water , wh en th ey are wornou t or broken , and receive oth er s h al lowed by m yst ical text s .

”

(Mann , ii .

Should no r iver , or other suitable water he conven i

ently near , th e old thread i s r ol led up and thrown on

to th e top of th e h ouse . This i s to prevent i ts beingtr odden under foot , or in any other such way defi led .

Th is completes th e re-investiture . Th e defi led on e i s

now cer emonial ly pure, an d h e can pr oceed to per formth e daily r ites wh ich mu st be gone thr ough befor eh e can par take of food .

Th e sacred th read i s usual ly worn over th e left shoulder , h anging down acr oss th e body under th e right arm ,

and, as th e or thodox H indu i s not encumbered with

much by way of cover ing for th e upper par t of h is

per son , it form s a very noticeable object . On cer tainoccasions , h owever , th e posit ion of th e thr ead is ch anged .

At th e time of perform ing th e annual ceremony for

deceased ancestor s , th e position is exactly rever sed . Iti s then placed over th e r igh t shoulder and h angs downon th e left Side . On cer tain oth er occasions , it is wornas a garland round th e neck : whilst at oth ers i t i s


placed up over th e ears to preven t i t s being defiled .

Usual ly when saying th e gayatr i prayer, th e thread i staken hold of by th e th umb ; an d on reciting var iousmantram s it i s used somewh at as a r osary— th e worshipper winding i t roun d th e fingers to keep count oft h e number of t imes th e mantram i s repeated . Th e

ancient law-giver Manu , makes var ious al lusions to th e

sacred th read other th an those quoted above . H e

speaks of th e sinfulness of omitting th e sacr ed invest i tu re (xi . an d h e lays down th e rule that noone must u se a sacer dotal str ing that h as been beforeused by another (iv .

Th e yajnOpavi tam i s to th e H indu an al l importantth ing , being th e Sign of th e second or spir itual bir th .

Withou t h is cord th e Brahm in is not a Brahmin . H e

i s nothing better than an outcaste, h e cannot performany ceremony or partake of any food , nay ,

h e mustnot even swall ow h is own spittle . H e m ay breathe,and that i s about al l h e can do until th e lost or

defi led cord i s duly r eplaced with al l pr oper ceremony .

A Sanyasi does not wear this cord , for h e h as enteredth e four th or last stage of th e Brahm in ’

s l ife .


Siva,in their var ious forms and incarnat ions, are th e

real objects of H indu worship .

l

Th e sacred marks most easi ly seen are those wornupon th e forehead . They are of two kinds—th e tridentshaped mark called u rdh va pund ram or upright pundram ,

Worn by th e votaries of Vishnu , and th e threehor izontal l ines drawn across th e forehead , cal led tiryak

pundram or hor izontal pundram , worn by th e worshippers of Siva .

Besides these marks on th e forehead some are alsoworn on various parts of th e body , th e number differing according to caste. Th e strict B rahmins h ave noless than twelve, namely , one on each arm and shoulder,one on th e front and one on th e back of th e neck ,one on th e breast , one on th e middle of th e back , threeon different par ts of th e stomach and one on th e

forehead . A thir teenth i s sometimes worn on th e

crown of th e head . Th e Kshatriyas should have onlyfour

,th e Vaisyas two , an d th e Sudras one , th e one

on th e forehead ; but practically many other s besidesBr ahmins , if they wish to be very r el igious, wear al l

these marks on most of th e parts mentioned .

Th e forehead mark i s th e chi ef and most prominentone . That of th e wor shippers of Vishnu i s mostunmistakable and , when put on by th e very orthodox

1 Even m ore impor tan t th an t h e gods worsh ipped are th e th ree ch iefsch ools of ph ilosoph y , of som e on e of wh ich al l or th odox H indus are

followers . Th e fir st i s th at of Advaita or non-dualism .

“ Th e U n i

verse exist s, bu t m erely as a form of t h e one et ernal E ssence. A l l

an im ate and inan im at e th ings are bu t par t s of th e deity , and h ave no

r eal existence of th eir own .

”Th e secon d i s th e Dvaita or dualism

,

wh ich h old s th at “ God i s suprem e yet essent ially d ifferen t from t h e

h um an soul , and from th e m at er ial wor ld,both of wh ich h ave a real

and eternally d ist inct exist en ce .

”A th ird is t h e Vi si sh tadvai ta , or

doct r ine of un ity with at t r ibutes . Th is doct r ine like th at of Advaita ,h old s th at th e Deity and th e un iverse are one

, bu t i t goes fur th er inh old ing th at th e Deity i s not void of form or quality. I t r egard sh im as

“ being endowed with al l good qualit ies and a two-fold form—t h e suprem e spir it P aramatm a

, or cause, and th e gross one, th e

effect , th e universe or m at ter .

”

(Wilson .)

THE H INDU SACRED MARKS 75

in extra broad stripes , h as a most ferocious aspect .Th e ordinary Vaishnava uses a white clay cal ledtirumani , found in various parts of th e country , and

sold at a very cheap rate in th e ordinary bazaars. Inth e case of th e Madhvas, however, of whom par ticularmention wil l be made further on , th e clay used inmaking th e marks i s of a yel lowish colour , and i s

called gOpfch andanam , which , to be of th e purest kind ,should be brought from Dwaraka in Guzerat . Th e

ordinary Vaishnavas rub th e clay in th e palm of th e

left hand with a l ittle water, and then with a finger ofth e right hand or with a strip of metal kept for th epurpose , take it and draw a broad l ine from th e centreof one eyebrow to that of th e other ; then from th e

centre, or th e outer end of each eyebrow they drawa perpendicular streak right up th e forehead . Thismark is said to represent th e foot of V ishnu (Vishnu

pItdam ) . In th e centre of th e two perpendicular l ines ,and in a l ine with th e nose , a third but narrower per

pend icu lar streak is drawn . Th e colour chosen is red

or yel low according to fancy , but yel low i s said to beth e most orthodox . This central mark is in honour of

Lakshmi , th e wife of Vishnu , and i s cal led sr ich d rnam ,

th e whole forming a trident . Th e marks on th e otherparts of th e body are also made with three perpen

d icular streaks, two white and one red or yellow,but

they are not so carefully made as those on th e.

forehead , which are often drawn in quite an artistic manner .A s a rule these body marks are merely a broad smearof white with a coloured dab in th e middle, thoughth e one on th e chest i s sometimes more carefully made .

All th e wearers of this trident mark are worshippersof Vishnu , but they m ay be either worshippers of thatdeity al one, as th e Rdmanu jas ; or they m ay be votariesof Vishnu and at th e same time pay honour to Siva .

Th e followers of Rdmdnu ja are cal led amongst th eTelugus Acharyas and amongst th e Tamils they are


cal led Iyengar s . Some of th e Sm ar th a sect , that is ,those who professedly wor ship Siva in part icular , an d

yet pay reverence to Vishnu , also wear th e tridentm arks of Vishnu , instead of t he Siva mar k which i susual ly worn by th e Sm ar th as . Th e Ramanu jas , a

sect founded in th e twelfth century by Ramanu jeicharya, hold th e Vi sish tadvai ta doctr ine . They are veryhostile to th e wor shippers of Siva, wh o are of th eAdvaita School . They carr y their love for their sacredmark to an extraor dinary length . They imprint theirtrident on th e portals of their doors , on th e wal ls of

their houses , on their household utensi ls , and on theircarts and boats and books . In th e same way theyal low their disl ike for th e Saivas to run to extremes .

If they come across a stone in a mouthful of rice, theycal l it th e l ingam (th e emblem of Siva) and say , L et

u s bite wel l , we have at least killed one wretched l in

gam .

” It i s also a saying that, even if pursued by a

t iger , a Ramanu ja would not to save himself enter intoa Siva temple .

Vaishnavas are divided into two great sects, th e Vadagalais and th e Tengalais , th e doctrines of which differver y materially from each other . Th e members of thesesects m ay be distinguished by th e shape of th e markworn . Th e Tengalais carry th e white mark some waydown th e nose, Whilst th e Vadagalais do not .Whilst preparing th e clay with which to daub on

th e marks, th e devout are supposed to recite severalmantrams, such as

gffiafi ea fi qrtf

flffiafi armada madarfiififaai n

0 Ear th ! do th ou destroy m y sin ,

Wh atever s in h as been comm itted by m e.

0 Ear th ; th ou gift of Brahm a,

Th ou h ast been pur ified with m antr am s by Kasyapa.

” l

‘A fam ous Sage.

THE H INDU SACRED MARKS 77

These mantrams should be said by al l worshippersof Vishnu , that i s by al l those who wear th e trident ;but only th e very devout say them . Probably a verylarge number say nothing at al l . They Simply put onth e marks for appearance sake, as a matter of form ;

or perhaps with th e idea that th e mere marks themselves will have some rel igious effect upon their soul ,for th e H indu i s extremely super stitious .

Besides th e wearers of this trident , th ere are otherworshipper s of Vishnu who wear a different mark .

They are cal led Madhvas , and they hold th e D vaitadoctr ine (th e dual order of things) ; indeed they ar e

th e true D vai tas , and they take their origin from th e

sage Madhvacharya who taught in th e 18th century .

These worship Vishnu , but they also hold Siva ' inhonour . Their forehead mark i s a straight black linedrawn fr om th e nose to th e roots of th e hair , and

passing through a r ed round mark made with a

m ixture of turmeric and l ime . Th e black l ine is madewith charcoal , which , to be pure, should be takenfr om th e fire before th e god Vishnu . This blackline i s cal led angaram , fr om th e charcoal with whichit i s made. In some parts there are those who alsoput on th e two upr ight white facial marks with gopich andanam , only somewhat narrow : other s again makethese l ines in red . Usual ly however th e forehead i sonly adorned with th e upright black line and red

spot .Th e Madhvas also impress on various parts of th e

body and on th e forehead and temples symbols of

V ishnu , made with copper stamps, dipped in moistened

gOpich andanam ,to more clearly represent what th e

or dinary marks are supposed to signify . These are

of five kinds , th e conch (sankha) , th e wheel (chakra) ,th e club (gada) , and th e sword (k h adgam ) , which are

th e things in th e four hands of Vishnu , and th e lotus

(padma) .


Th e Madhvas, in putting on their marks, are sup

posed to repeat mantrams l ike th e others do , but theyhave one special one

are: dish an argatsaiqmsa I

rhtfifiaatiqafi’ia gaff H

art‘s HEEHUTH n

B e h e a m ur derer of a Brahm in , or of a cow,

A cruel tyran t , guilty of al l m anner of sin s ,By con tact with th is gOp

’

Ich andanam

H e imm ed iately becom es an h eir of h eaven .

Th e Siva mark i s three horizontal lines made withvibh i

'i t i

,or th e burnt ashes of cowdung. This, to be of

th e purest kind , sh ould be obtained from th e fir e ofa sacrificing Br ahmin . These ashes are made up intobal ls or tablets and sold in th e bazaar , but , if frompover ty or from any other cause these cannot be procured , a l ittle ash will be taken from th e ordinaryhousehold fir e-place and used for th e purpose . Th e

or dinary fuel is th e cowdung which h as been dried inth e sun . All th e worshipper s of Siva wear these thr eehor izontal marks on var ious par ts of th e body, as

th e Vaishnavas do their s, except that th e shape i s

different . They ar e always in horizontal l ines and

there are no coloured marks except on th e forehead .

Th e marks ar e made thus ; a l ittle of th e ashes i s rubbed in th e left hand with some water, and th e mixturei s applied with three fingers of th e right hand . Th ese

on th e various parts of th e body are, when worn , donesomewhat roughly ; but th e marks on th e forehead are

drawn with more care. Th e Sivas are divided intotwo main divisions, th e Smar th as, those who alsohonour Vishnu , and L ingadhar is , or wearers of th e

l ingam , who adhere solely to th e worship of Siva .

Th e latter of these m ay be distinguished by having th evibh i

'i t i marks drawn across th e eyes and by th e side

of th e ear s . A round spot i s made in th e centre ofth e forehead which is usual ly r ed , and which i s cal led

TH E H INDU SACRED MARKS 79

ak sh atam . Theoretical ly this spot Should be formedof a few grains of r ice stuck on with sandalwoodpaste . A division of th e L ingadhar i s , however , whoareSudras, and who are cal led Jangam s , always have th ismark white, made with th e vibh i

'I ti . Sometim es , h ow

ever, they make i t with sandalwood paste , but this i sagai nst rule, and i s not done by th e very strict . AllH indus , both th e worshipper s of V ishnu and those whoadore Siva ,

u se sandalwood paste for th e sake of i t s

sweet smel l . It i s put on after th e daily ceremoniesare over , and j ust befor e Sitting down to food .

In pu tting on th e m arks, th e Sm ar th a Saiva sh ou ldsay th e usual mantrams . This i s because h e holdsVishnu in honour . Th e L ingadhar i , however , whoholds no al legiance to Vishnu at al l , only repeats thisone :

faziaa'

CH INE gaffe?! ga me

satisfi es dearer QTSTQ agar?! HWe wor sh ip th at ( th e vibh i

’

It i ) wh ich apper tain s to th e

th r ee-eyed one Siva ;It i s fragran t and in creases physical strength .

A S a cucum ber i s separated from i t s stalk (wh en r ipe)May th is separate (or del iver ) m e from ever -pr esen t death .

At times, some varieties of these marks are seen .

For instance, some of th e modern Saivas wear,in pub

lic,only one horizontal mark of sandalwood paste,

drawn through th e centre spot across th e forehead .

This i s sometimes made with th e help of th e yajnO

pavi tam , but even this i s supposed to be three, and

at any rate, th e three l ines made with vibh i'It i ought

to be worn when taking m eals . Those Saivas whoworship Parvati , th e wife of Siva, wear a smal l markof vermilion under th e central spot between th e eye

brows .

All th e marks are supposed to be put on at leasttwice a day ; in th e morning on rising , and at midday


after bathing before food . Many in these moderndays do not put on th e marks in th e early morning .

It i s only th e real orthodox H indu who does this .

Before taking food , it i s imperative, and no one,even

th e most careless and irreligious , omits it then . N o

cer emony and no act of worship can be performedwithout these marks . In every H indu house therei s a receptacle of some kind , a basket or box , in whichth e ingredients for putting on th e marks are kept ,with any stamps or instruments that m ay be used ,and perhaps a l ittle bit of looking glass to assist inth e operation . This receptacle i s usual ly for th e general u se of th e household , though a guest or visitorwho m ay be staying in th e house wil l have access toth e same, if h e should not have br ought h is owndressing case ” with him . Just as i t i s necessary

for a European guest to comply with th e usages ofsociety as regards var ious details of dress and m an

ner s , so it i s incumbent on th e H indu guest toconform to th e hab its of h i s fel lows in such matters .

Indeed it i s not only a matter of conforming to th e

laws of good breeding , it is a vital matter of r el igion ,and a H indu dare not , at th e peril of h i s soul

, Si t

down to food without having first adorned himsel f withth e marks of h is rel igion . If i t were possible for any

il l-advised person so to forget himself, a thing difficulteven to imagine , h e would have to dine alone, for noone would dare to consort with so hold an Iconoclast .A S a mark of mourning th e r ed or yel low line in

th e centre of th e Vishnu mark (sr i ch i i rnam ) , and th e

red spot in th e centre of th e forehead of th e Smar th a

Saivas (ak sh ata) is changed to white for ten or moredays . Th e Madhvas simply omit th e r ed spot

,wear

ing only th e black streak . Th e Sm dr th a Saivas and

Madhvas also follow this custom on fast days .

N o woman who h as a husband h as need of sacredmarks, as sh e h as no ceremonies to perform requir ing

CH A PTE R V I .

TH E H INDU TONSURE .

finer ( S ik h a ) .

By th e comm and of th e Veda, th e cerem ony of ton suresh ould b e legally per form ed by th e th ree firs t classes in th e

fir st or th ir d year after b ir th .

”

(Mann , ii .

PERH APS nothing impresses a stranger in India so

much as th e peculiar manner in which th e H indutreats h i s hair . H e sees some with a clean shavenhead , except a top knot of greater or less Size and

length , whilst others have portions only of th e scalpshaven , leaving fantastic locks of varying size and

shape . On th e other hand , some few are to be seenwith th e head covered with long, thick, tang led hairthat seems as though it h ad not been interfered within any way , either from th e tonsorial or th e toiletpoint of view , since th e hour of bir th . If th e ordinar yH indu were accosted and questioned on h is own tonsor ialpeculiarity , h e would probably have no reason whateverto give for it , except th e universal answer to suchquestions that it i s th e custom of h i s caste . H e would ,perhaps, treat as ridiculous any catechizing on suchmatters—th e custom exists and therefore it i s followed .

Th e Sanskrit name of this top-knot i s Sikha , and bythat name it is known amongst th e upper classes of

al l H indus whatever their vernacular . In Tamil it i scal led cud im i , in Telugu z u t tu . It i s a cur ious cir cumstance, and one suggest ive of further study , that whilst

TH E H INDU TONSURE 83

th e tonsure of th e Roman Catholic Priest—th e firstceremony in dedicating a person to th e priesthoodconsists of shaving a circle on th e crown of th e head ,th e H indu tonsure— one of th e chief ceremonies in th eupanayanam , or investiture with sacred powers—eon

sists of rem oving al l th e hair except a circular p ortionsituated on th e sam e part of th e head .

Although th e sikha i s so important that without ita Brahmin i s not a Brahmin , th e tonsure and

‘

th e

investiture with th e yagnOpavi tam being th e chiefelements in th e upanayanam or spiritual birth of th e

twice born , there seems to be but ver y slight foundation for so complicated a superstructure. LearnedShastr i s seem t o be unable to give anything on th e

point from th e Vedas , except th e mantram to be

quoted later on , and th e al lusions to th e same inManava D harma Sastra . Th e ceremonies appear tohave gradual ly grown with th e growth of th e rest of

th e H indu ritual . Th e first notice of them thatappears in th e Laws of Manu i s th e fol lowing

“ By oblat ion s to fire dur in g th e m oth er’

s pregnancy , by h olyr ites on th e birt h of th e ch ild , by th e ton sure of h i s h ead with a

lock of h air left on i t , by th e ligat ion of th e sacr ificial cord are

th e bir th t ain ts of th e th ree classes wh olly r em oved .

”

(ii .

H air ceremonies commence before th e birth of a childas , for some six months before that event , th e fatherabstains al together from shaving until th e eleventh dayof th e child ’s birth . D oubtless this ceremony i s set

aside in many instances in th e present day of com

pr omises , especially in th e case of Government and otherofficials who would not think it respectful to appearbefore their superiors with a heard of such a growth .

By orthodox H indus , however , and especial ly by thosein rural part s , this custom i s stil l strictly fol lowed . Inth e laws of Mann it i s thus written

“ By th e comm and of th e Veda th e cer em ony of‘ton sur e

sh ould b e legall y per form ed by th e th ree fir st classes in th e fir stor th ird year after th e b irth . (ii .


This command , stil l stri ctly carried into effect , i snow usual ly observed at th e thir d year instead of th e

fir st . There are instances where, in th e event of eitherof th e parents making a vow to that effect , th e hairof a boy i s not cut at al l until th e upanayanam ceremony . Suppose th e infant wer e taken ill , or m isfor

tune were to happen to him , a vow migh t be made toa cer tain god that th e fir st hair-cutting Of th e childshould take place at th e Shrine of th e god invoked .

Th e cerem ony of th e first performance of th e tonsure

(ch au lam ) i s as fol lows . H ither to th e boy ’

s hair h asbeen al lowed to grow like that of a gir l , and th e fondm other h as been wont to cherish it and ornament it ,in th e same way , with plaitings and j ewels ; but now

th e uncut locks must be sacrificed to th e inexorablelaws of th e H indu r el igion . On a propitious day , pr eviou sly fixed upon by th e pu rOh i ta,

musicians are cal ledand a feast i s prepared for friends and relatives . Th e

first thr ee cuts with th e scissors must be made by th emother’s br other or , fail ing such a relative, by th e nextnearest of kin on th e mother’s s ide . After these firstthr ee cuts have been made, th e boy i s handed over toth e family barber , who clips off al l th e hair except a

smal l por tion on th e top of th e head . Some time afterthis clipping , perhaps a month after , th e head i s Shavedfor th e first t ime . When th e head i s thu s Shaved ,various fashions are adopted according to varying ideasof beauty . Sometimes separate l ocks are left over th etemples and at th e back of th e ears ; these are cal ledk ak apak sh am or crow ’

s wings . Sometimes, th e hair i sal lowed to grow al l round th e head , whilst th e wholeof th e top is clean shaven . Th e head i s shaven , as a

rule, about once a month .

If for any cause whatever , th e boy ’

s mother h asmade a vow to a certain god , it i s th e rule for thiscutting of th e hair to be made at th e shrine of th egod invoked . A pilgrimage i s arranged to th e place

THE H INDU TONSURE 85

and there th e Cer emony i s performed . If , for financial or other reasons , i t i s not convenient to makesuch a pilgrimage at th e time when it i s imperativeto perform th e ceremony , then th e shaving takes placeat home ; but a smal l tuft i s left near th e Sikha, tobe r emoved at th e shrine wh en Oppor tunity for a pilgr image occurs . Sometimes th e hair that h as beenclipped off i s preser ved , and tied up in a cloth toth e rafter s of th e h ouse until a pilgrimage can be

ar ranged . This i s th e only occasion upon which th e

hair i s al lowed to rem ain in th e house , for cut hair i salways considered impure . When oppor tunity offer s ,th e hair is then taken to th e Sh rine an d thrown intoth e sacred tank of th e temple , or del ivered to th e offi

ciat ing pr iest for disposal . Th e god Venk atesh var a at

Tirupati i s a favourite one in South India for suchvows . This god also h as a shr ine at D varak a Tirumala ,

near E l lore in th e Kistna D istr ict , which i s for al l

practical purposes held to be as holy as Tirupati .Th e real sacred tonsure i s not perform ed until what

m ay be cal led th e rel igious coming of age . This var iesaccording to caste. Th e following i s th e law laid downon th e subject

“ In th e eigh th year from th e concept ion of a Brahm in , in th e

eleventh from th at of a Ksh atr iya, and in th e twelfth from t h at

of a Vaisya. let th e fath er in vest th e ch il d with th e m arks of

h i s class .

”(Mann , 11 .

These marks of th e class consi t of th e yagnOpa

vi tam , th e mark on th e foreh ead , and th e sikha or sacredtop-knot . At this impor tant cer em ony th e head i s

shaven in th e presence of th e fam i ly , whilst th e familypriest chants m antrams , and musicians p lay on theirinstruments without . Th e top

-knot and four smal lspots surr ounding it ar e left unshaven ; th e five placesbeing cal led pancha sikha . Th e top-knot itsel f mustbe th e Size of th e foot-print of a cow (gOpadam ) ; but ,as there are cows and cows, this i s rather an uncertain

86 THE H INDU AT H OME

measurement . This i s th e r eason why such varioussizes in th e sik h as are seen ; some being com parativelyvery sm al l

,whilst others are suffi ciently large to cover

a great part of th e head , and,when untied , to flow

down in a sweeping tai l to bel ow th e waist .Th e whole of this shaving ceremony i s very in

ter est ing. Each fam ily priest h as a rubric tel l inghim exactly what to do on such occasions . Theserubr ics were originally drawn up by R ishis or Sages ,an d their directions are str ictly Car r ied ou t . Th e shavingrite i s adm in istered just before th e young m an i s in

vested with th e sacred thread . Th e priest acts forth e father who m ay be ignorant of th e mantrams and

r itual . Th e theory seems to be that th e father ad

minister s these rites in th e god ’s stead , and th e priestacts for th e father . Th e priest goes thr ough th e ceremony

,th e father fol lowing him ,

when h e i s ab le to

repeat th e words at al l . A s a kind of intr oductorysentence to th e shaving rite th e fol lowing sentence i s

repeated :

Haraqfi fii as are : Erase! states saferuj naqfa n

Th e meaning of this i s very difficult to make ou t ,

but it means somewhat as fol lows :“ H e (Jagat janak ah a—th e progen itor of th e wor ld) sh aves ,

r epeat ing th e four m an tram s comm en cing with th e one t h at

begins with th e word s yéna vapat—ut ter ing one at each of

th e four card inal point s , and m aking circum am bul ation (pradakSh inam ) .

Th e priest then instructs th e father of th e youth,

wh o i s being invested , to take stalks of th e sacredgrass (darbha) and to put one on each of th e four sidesof th e youth ’

s head , indicating th e four cardinal pointsof th e compass, and to ou t each stalk with a razor ,th us showing th e barber where to leave th e fourpatches in shaving th e head . Th e priest also dir ects

TH E H INDU TONSURE 87

th e youth to turn to th e four cardinal points, com

m encing from th e east , and at each h e r epeats th e

following mantram , from which th e whole of thisritual seems to have been elaborated :

daraves faar aim Pitas: as? ! WW I

33 seam‘ratrdrqmigmra arafsfiaiea n

Th e al l-wise progen itor of al l th ings , with wh at r azor h e

Sh aved th e Moon and Varuna with th e sam e h e sh aved B rahm a .

H e also sh aves th e h ead of th is youth . May h e h ave long lifeand m ay h i s ignor ance per ish .

A short time after th e upanayanam , another ceremony is per formed with reference to th e ha ir ; thistim e in a temple . Th e former one was done in th e

house . At th i s second ceremony , th e four spotsthat were left unshorn around th e sikha are now

shaven clean off, and no hair i s left on th e headexcept th e top-knot itself. I have enquired of learnedPandits as to what would happen if, thr ough baldness,or by th e efiects of any disease or accident , a m an wereto lose h is sikha . It appears that , in such a case , th eabsence of th e hair would not necessar ily disqual ifyhim from performing th e sacred offices .

A custom h as grown up that appears to be general lyfollowed, though it is said to be against th e str ictletter of th e law,

for boys to al low th e side patches

(k ak apak sh am ) , to grow again after th ey have beenshaven off. These beauty patches, however , can onlybe worn dur ing th e l ifetime of th e boy ’

s par ents ; Soupon th e death of either parent h e must remove al l

except th e sikha . When , however , for h i s own soul ’sbenefit h e adopts rel igious Observances , such as prayer sand sacr ifices to fire and th e sun (hemam and s1

'

1rya

nam ask éram ) , h e must shave off al l hair , except th esikha.

There is a passage in Manu which al ludes to a

custom now apparently extinct . I can find no trace of


it , though.

it m ay possibly be in vogue in some otherparts of India . Th e passage i s as fol lows

Th e cerem ony of cesanta, or cutt in g Off th e h air , i s ordainedfor th e pr iest i n th e sixteen th year from concept ion ; for th e

sold ier , in th e twen ty-second ; for a m erch an t , two year s laterth an th at .

”( 11.

Th e H indu , in South India at least , does not wear abear d , th ough it appear s as if it were worn by some

in other parts . Cu stoms m ay differ in such widelydistant places in this as in other r espects . Th e Kulinand some oth er Brahm ins of N or th India do not evenwear th e sikha . They cr op their h air after th e Eur opean fashion , but these must , by this fact alone, bedisqual ified fr om performing sacrificial and other ritesand cer emonies .

When it i s said that th e H indu does not wear a

hear d , we must except th e Yogis or hermits whosh ave neith er th e head nor th e face . In th e chapteron devotion , Manu lays down th e law as follows on

this point

Wh en t he fath er of a fam i ly perceives h i s m uscles becom e

flaccid and h i s h air gray , an d sees th e ch ild of h i s ch ild , let h imth en seek r efuge i n a for est .

Let h im wear a black an telope’

s h id e, or a vesture of bark ;l et h im bath e even ing and m orn ing ; l et h im suffer th e h air s of

h i s beard and h i s nails to grow con t inual ly .

”

(vi . 2,

When a H indu becomes a Sanyasi , that i s when h eenters th e four th and last stage of th e H indu spirituall ife, h e , having then done with al l sub lunary affairs an d

even with rel igious ri tes and ceremonies, cuts off h is

sikha and al l th e hair fr om h is face and head . H enceforth h e goes quite bare .

“ H aving thus per form ed religious act s in a forest dur ingth e t h ird por tion of h i s life, let h im becom e a Sanyasi for th efourth port ion of i t , abandon ing al l sen sual affect ions and wh ollyr eposing in th e Suprem e Spirit.


either a priest or a member of one of th e priestlyclasses .

Th ere i s, however , an exception to th is . Am ongstEuropeans th e Sign of mourning for deceased relativesi s to wear b lack cloth ing ; but amongst th e H indus ,besides th e absence of colour in th e face mark , l th eSign of mourning i s to sh ave off th e moustach e .

At cer tain holy river s there is a festival cal led pushkaram , held every twelve years, when those H induswho h ave lost th eir fathers make a pilgrim age to th e

river , in order to perform ceremonies for their deceasedancestors . There are said to be twelve rivers in Indiathat are thus honoured . Th e initial act in th i s

’

cere

mony i s to shave t h e head and face quite clean butto leave th e sikha untouched . Widows should attendthese festivals and undergo th e ordeal of shaving and

bathing for th e benefit of th e soul of their departedhusbands . Th e merit thus acquired i s for th e soulsOf th e depar ted forefathers, or husband , as th e casem ay be. At th e time of shaving , th e attendant priestr epeats th e fol lowing words of purification ; th e pilgrimrepeating them after him , if able to do so

fififiatgeq rfa IGiraffe faiféiaifaa I

o 0

afiaafasi t‘asfa atara Terri Elvira

-

e n

“ Sins as h uge as m ounts Meru or Man dara,

Sin s of var ious kind s ,Th ese Sins adh ere to th e h air of th e h ead ,

For th ese Sin s I undergo th is sh aving .”

Sacred bathing in these holy rivers, accompanied byrel igious shaving , is also sometimes resorted to by a

conscience-str icken sinner who seeks , by prayasch i t tamor expiator y rites, to be freed from th e burden or

penal ty of h is offences . If any one h as been so very

l Ante, p . 80 .

THE H INDU TONSURE 91

unfortunate as to kil l a cow, even accidental ly , or ifh e h as upon h is conscience some equal ly heavy burden ,h e must seek th e advice of h is spiritual director whom ay recommend a pilgrimage to some holy river . Th e

distance m ay be very long, and th e consequent troubleand inconvenience very great ; sti l l , under such circum stances, th e penitent would probably attempt th etask . On ar riving at th e place indicated , h e wi l l firstseek th e services of th e local barber , and then plungeinto th e pur ifying stream to come for th , as h e hopesand believes , with al l h i s guilt cleansed away . At thisrel igious shaving , th e incantation must be said byt h e pu sk h aram pilgrim . There is an anal ogy betweenthese pu r ificatory rites of Sh aving and bathing an d

those prescribed in th e O ld Testament for th e pur ifying of th e leper and for th e purifying of t h e Lev ites .

(L ev . xiv . 9 ; Num . viii . A s a rule, a wom annever parts with h er hair , for a wom an to be shorni s a Sign of widowhood ; but there are times when an

exceedingly rel igious or loving woman m ay ,in or der

to bring blessings upon h er husband , par t with a l ittleof h er cherished hair . When this i s done i t Should h eat th e confluence of certain rivers ; and there , withappropriate rites and ceremony , th e wife m ay submit toh er husband ’s cutting off a short length from h er longhair , th e severed portion being then offered to th e riverdeity . At times of s ickness , both m en and women m ay

vow to a certain god that , in th e event of recovery ,they wil l make a pilgrimage to i ts shrine and offer uptheir hair . When such a vow is upon a m an , h e willnot shave at al l but al low al l h i s hair to grow

,until

h e m ay be able to make th e pilgr image and carry intoeffect h is vow . In fulfi lment of such a vow th e m an

or woman wil l go to th e Shrine of th e god invokedand , with due ceremony , be clean shaven .

Th e rules connected with th e act of shaving ar e

strict and complicated . It is not right that any one


should shave himself . Th e law i s thus laid down byManu“ Th e sun in th e Sign of Ganya, th e sm oke of a burn ing corpse,

and a broken seat m ust be sh unned ; h e must never cu t hi s own

h ai r and nai ls , nor ever tear hi s nails with h i s teeth .

”(iv .

It i s easy to see h ow this restriction arose . Youngboys cannot shave th emselves and

, even if they could ,it would be a very clever boy indeed that could shaveh i s own head , especial ly th e back par t of it . H ereH induism steps in and stereotypes a custom , makingit a r el igious observance . Th e Sh aving and th e pairing of th e nails should not be carried on in a roomof a dwel ling house , as hair and nai l pairings are

considered to cause pollution . These operations are

always carried on in some open place, such as a

verandah or shed ; but more often in th e open street .They are not done more than once or twice a monthin th e case of th e commoner people, whilst once a

week i s perhaps th e rule amongst th e richer classes .

In th e towns , m en in th e higher ranks of society ,shave th e face even oftener than this, but not th e head .

In th e H indu vil lage divisions there i s a regular grantof land (in‘ai n ) for th e vil lage barber , and any infr ingement of this grant leads to law-suits by th e injuredpar ty . Cur ious to say ther e have been suits institutedby a village barber to restrain th e inhabitants of h i svil lage from being shaved by any other than himself .A m an cannot be Shaved every day even if h e wereso incl ined , as there are certain holy days and un

lucky days upon wh ich it must not be done. Forinstance, there can be no shaving on th e day of th enew moon (amavasya) and on th e eleventh day afterthat , or on th e day of full moon (pou rnam i ) and onth e eleventh day from that , as these are holy days ; oron Tuesdays and Saturdays , as these are unlucky days .

A s a m an can only be shaved when h e i s fasting , th eoperation i s general ly done in th e morning.

CH A P TE R V I I .

H INDU MARRI A G ES

firm (Vivé h a ) .

Th e nupt ial cerem ony i s consider ed as th e com plete in st itu

t ion of wom en , ordained for th em in th e Ved a, togeth er withr eference to th eir husband s .

”

(Mann , ii .

H INDU laws and regulations on th e marr iage quest i ontake i t for granted that al l m en and women mustmarr y . It i s only those who m ay be suffering fromd i squal ificat ion s of mind or body that do not mar ry .

There ar e no old bachelors or Old maids amongst th eH indus. Th e r egulations and directions are al l eon

fined to th e matter of h ow to choose, and h ow and

when th e marr iage i s to be performed .

It appears quite clear that in Vedic time there wassome l iberty of choice amongst both m en and women

,

as to their partners ; for it i s thus written '

Th r ee year s let a dam sel wait , th ough Sh e b e m arr iageable ;but, after th at term , let h er ch oose for h er sel f a br i degroom of

equal rank .

If, not being given in m arr iage, sh e ch oose h er br idegroom ,

n eith er Sh e nor th e youth ch osen comm i t any offence.

B u t a dam sel , thus electin g h er h usband , sh al l not carry wi thh er th e ornam en t s wh ich Sh e received from h er fath er , nor th ose

g iven by h er m oth er or b reth ren : if sh e car ry th em away , sh e

com m it s th eft .” (Manu , ix. 90

But whatever l iberty m ay have existed in this respectin ancient times , it is very certain that such is not

H INDU MARRIAGES 95

th e case now . Th e institution of child marriage h asentirely destroyed that l iberty . Am ongst Brahmins ,and Vaisyas a boy cannot be marr ied until h e h as

been invested with th e m arks of th e twice-born (upanayanam ) , though they ar e often mar ried immediatelyafter that event . Gir ls must be mar r ied before puber tyand usual ly it i s done wh ilst they ar e quite young .

Other castes an d non-castes m ay mar ry later on inlife ; still , even am ongst th em ,

th e vows of matrim onyar e taken at a very ear ly age. This necessity for

marriage i s often a gr eat burden , as th e choice is

more or less l imited . Marr iages can only take placebetween those of th e same caste and th e same sect .There are also pr ohibitive degrees of tribe and familywithin which marriages are not al lowed . Am ongst

‘th e

larger sects this does not act much as an obstacle ,

but amongst th e smal ler ones it often causes gr eatdifficulty . There ar e also natural l ikes and disl ikes ,som e of which are thus al luded ' to by Manu

, and

which evidently point to a period when mar riages wer esettled at a more natural age, and in a more naturalmanner

“ Let h im not m ar ry a gir l with redd ish h air , nor with any

deform ed limb , nor one t roubled with h abitual sickness, nor on e

eith er with no h air or with too m uch , nor one imm oderately talkat ive, nor one with inflam ed eyes.

Let h im ch oose for h i s wife a gir l wh ose form h as no defect ,wh o h as an agr eeab le nam e, wh o walks gracefully, like a ph en icopteros , or lik e a young eleph an t , wh ose h air and teeth are

m oder ate r espect ively in quality an d in Siz e, whose body h as

exquisite softness .

”

(iii . 8 ,

Th e two institutions of polyandr y and polygamyexist in India . Th e former cannot be said to be a

H indu institution ; indeed it i s utterly opposed and

abhorrent to th e very spirit of H induism . It i s praet ised by such non-H indus, or unorthodox H indus

, as

th e Todas of th e N i lgiris, and th e Nairs of th e


Western Coast , but it i s only a local and in no sensea universal custom . Polygamy , however , i s a trueH indu institution , and it i s duly legislated upon in th evarious codes . Mann lays down th e law as follows :

For th e fir st m arr iage of th e twice-born classes, a wom an of

th e sam e class i s recomm ended ; bu t for such as are im pelled byincl inat ion to m ar ry agai n wom en i n th e d irect order of th e

classes ar e to b e prefer red

A Sud ra wom an on ly m ust be th e wife of a Sud ra, sh e an d a

Vaisya of a Vaisya, th ese two an d a Csh at r iya of a Csh at r iyé ,

t h ese two an d a Brahm an i of a Brahm an . ( iii . 13 ,

This only al ludes to a state of things in those earlyVedic days ; in this Kal i Yuga or degenerate age ,

though a m an m ay have , and in som e cases shouldhave, more wives than one at th e same time

,it can

only be within strictly recognized caste l imits . One

of th e stories in th e“Vick r amark ach ar i t ra turns upon

th e fact of a Brahmin being al lowed to take to wifea woman from each of th e four castes . Now , however ,no one, especial ly a Brahmin , dares to marry outsideof h is own caste ; but , within these limits , there ar e

circumstances under which it i s rather incumbent upona H indu th an otherwise to take a second wife. Shouldh is wife prove barren , or shou ld al l th e male issued ie ,then , very often , th e husband will be pressed by

th e wife herself to r e-marry , so that there m ay be

surviving male issue, and thus th e reproach of th efamily be wiped away and th e future salvation of thoseconcerned fully assured . This concession i s , however ,guarded round with conditions , some of which are thusstated by Manu

A barr en wife m ay b e super seded by anoth er in th e eighthyear , sh e wh ose ch ild ren are al l dead in th e tenth , sh e wh o br ingsforth on ly daugh ter s in th e eleven th , Sh e wh o speaks unkind ly,with out delay .

”( ix .

Another condition , not absolutely binding in al l

cases , i s that th e first wife should consent to th e


one of th e parties thus el igible m ay be a Christian ,and th e other outside th e pale of th e church . Thereare, however , some sects of Brahmins who are opposedto this m enar ik am rule, th inking th e blood-relationsh iptoo close for marriage .

There i s another bar to marriages amongst H industhat does not exist amongst Europeans , and that i sthat a younger brother cannot marry until th e elderone is married . Neither can a younger Sister marrybefore th e elder one i s disposed of. This i s not a

mer e custom , it i s according to what i s strictly laiddown in th e code. Manu says

“ H e wh o m akes a m arr iage con tract with th e connubial fire,

wh ilst h i s elder broth er con t inues unm arr ied , i s called a par ivetru ;

and th e elder broth er a par ivi tt i . Th e par ivet ru , th e parivi tt i , th e

dam sel th us wedded , th e giver of h er in wed lock and fifth ly , th e

per form er of th e nupt ial sacrifice, al l sink to a region of torm ent.”

(Manu , iii . 171 ,

I am now chiefly describing th e customs of th e

Brahmins , who ar e more particular in ceremonies thanother castes except , perhaps, th e Vaisyas ; but at th e

same t ime, though th e inferior castes m ay leave outvarious items of th e ritual , th e mode of procedure i s

very much th e same amongst al l orthodox H indus .

Many marriages are arranged , especial ly betweennear relatives, when th e boy and girl are mere infants

,

perhaps within a few months of birth ; but when thati s not done, th e parents begin to look around for a

suitable person when th e proper time for marriage i s

drawing near . In such a case, if th e father of a

mar riageable boy hears or knows of a suitable match ,h e wil l select a fortunate day and then proceed to visitth e parents of th e gir l with a view to prel iminariesand to talk th e matter over . H e i s always careful totake with him h is son ’

s horoscope, as th e girl ’s friendswil l want to see whether th e youth was born undersuch a combination of th e planets as to augur wel l

H INDU MARRIAGES 99

for th e future of th e proposed pair . Th e horoscope is

a document drawn up by th e family priest at th e birthof every boy , and somet imes of a gir l , showing th e

date and even th e moment of th e birth , and th e stateof th e planetary system at th e time . This documenti s always carefully preserved for future reference . Ifth e horoscope i s favourable, preliminaries are talkedover and financial ar rangements made. Sometimes,particularly if th e expectant bridegroom should be un

promising or ol d and a comparative stranger, th e

fr iends of th e girl , on h i s sending a go-between , m ay

try to drive a bargain and squeeze money out of him .

N o wel l-to-do father would care to give h is daughterto such a m an with th e certainty of h er soon becominga widow ; but a poor m an might be tempted to do itfor th e sake of gain . Sometimes , when a rich oldm an loses h i s wife , th e parents of a young girl wil ltake means of intimat ing to him their will ingness togive him their daughter for a considerat ion . This,however, i s considered very improper, and is indeed

against th e let ter of th e law.

“Let no fath er wh o knows th e law, receive a gratuity , h oweversm all , for giving h i s daugh ter to m ar r iage ; S ince th e m an wh o,

th rough avar ice, takes a gratuity for th at purpose i s a seller of

h i s Offspring .” (Manu , iii .

Notwithstanding , it is not now uncommon for th ebride’

s parents to dem and a sum of money , sometimescompar atively large, from th e boy ’s friends before theywill consent to a match . This i s very like sel ling th egirl

, and i s th e thing guarded against in th e abovequotation . Th e dowry given by th e friends of th ebridegroom to th e bride, in th e shape of jewels, whichgoes with th e bride when Sh e goes to h er new home,is besides and over and above th e money in question .

Th e name given to th e arrangem ents for this moneygift to th e gir l ’s parent i s one which means bargaining ; and , when there are several applicants for h er


hand , it often becomes very much like an auction inwhich th e highest bid i s held out for . I quote a casethat i s said to have recently happened in South India,

which i s, I am inform ed , only one of many that are

of more or less fr equent occurrence in one par t or

another . A certain poor Brahm in agreed to give h i s

daughter , nine year s of age, to th e son of one of h is

own caste. Th e sum of money agreed upon in thiscase was R s . 700 which was handed over to th e gir l ’sfather, and th e prathanam , or betr oth al ceremony ,actual ly took place . Within a couple of months , a

more wealthy suitor appeared on th e scene, and offeredR s . which sum was duly paid over , and a

second prathanam was per formed . Th e matter cameto th e ear s of th e first party and h e took legal stepsto stay al l proceedings , and obtained an inj unct ionfr om th e L aw Court , pending th e hearing of a su i t .Th e case duly came before th e Court , and i t resultedin th e girl ’s father having to r efund th e Rs . 700 toth e fir st suitor for h i s daughter , besides paying th e

costs of th e pr oceedings . After this th e girl was final lymarried to th e son of th e one who gave th e largersum .

This unlawful custom of a father’s r eceiving moneyin return for thus giving h is daughter appear s toprevai l mostly amongst Brahmins . Or dinar i ly

, amongstother H indus , there i s an interchange of gifts by wayof dowry from th e bride’

s father to th e bridegroom,

and from h i s father to th e bride . These dowriesusual ly take th e shape of jewels , clothes , brass and

copper household vessels and th e l ike. Th e natureand value of these mutual gifts i s al l settled at th e

interview between th e parents and friends before th e

prathAnam . Jewels are also given to th e br ide byh er father to be h er sole proper ty ; and , in some cases ,if a young wife dies without issue, these jewels are

returned to h im . There appears to be no definite ru le

THE . HINDU AT HOME

that this idea took i ts rise from convenience, for, duringth e period in question , there i s l itt le agr iculturallabour to be done ; and

,as th e crops also have been

harvested , money i s in hand for th e expenses that mustbe incurred . At th e t ime fixed upon , th e bride’

s

father h as h is house cleaned up and decorated , and a

panda], or large open booth , i s erected in front and at

th e back of th e house to accommodate th e guests and

friends . Permission must be obtained fr om th e authorities to er ect these pandals, and a tax i s levied forth e permiss ion . Th e bridegroom ’

s father sets ou t fromh i s abode to go to that of th e bride . H e takes withhim th e br idegroom , a great part of h i s household , h isown pu rOh i ta and other friends . It i s made a greatholiday and th ese visitors always have a band of musician s wi th them to cheer them on th e j ourney . Onapproaching th e home of th e bride, th e party arraythemselves in their best finery

, th e band strikes upand al l await th e coming out to meet them of th ebride’

s parents and fr iends . Before going ou t tomeet th e party , th e bride

’

s father , if th e parties are

Brahmins , proceeds to th e north-east of th e vil lage insear ch of some earth from th e hillocks made by whiteants . This h e takes home an d , having prepared a

space in th e room where th e chief mar riage ceremonyi s to be perform ed , h e fil ls five earthen or metalvessels with it an d places them in a row . In thesevessels h e plants nine different kinds of grain , and

sprinkles them with milk and water , repeating a

mantram . Th e ’ grain thus treated quickly sproutsduring th e days of th e ceremonies .

\ F ive of th e godsare invoked and requested to be present as witnessesat th e ceremony ; namely Indra (th e god of storms) ,Varuna (th e god of th e waters) , Chandra (th e moon) ,Yama (th e god of death) , and Brahma. This cer emonyi s confined to Brahmins . Th e saying of th e mantrami s a necessary part of th e proceedings .

H INDU MARR IAGES 103

Th e mantram i s

w e

{flagstaff sham rfivi i I!

Th e ear th like th e cow bear s al l th ings and supplies al l th ings .

Th e bride’

s father and friends, with th e familypriest , go ou t in a body to meet th e bridegr oom and

h i s party . When they meet there i s a mutual ex

change Of civil ities, such as gifts of betel , spr inkl ingone another with rose-water , and then rubbing uponth e hands , neck and chest Of each other some sandalwood paste . F inal ly , th e guests ar e conducted to a

lodging,previously prepared for them . This lodging

must not be in th e bride’

s house, for that would beconsidered very impr oper . Th e marriage cerem ony m ay

commence on th e evening of th e arrival of th e bridegroom an d th e whole affair lasts for five days .

Th e hour for th e ceremony of th e actual marriageh as to be carefully fixed so as to be at th e mostpropitious time . It m ay fal l during th e day or th enight time . A little before th e t ime fixed upon , th eparty assembles in th e apartment near th e place wh er eth e grain is sprouting . Th e bridegroom is then dulybathed . This bathing i s cal led b lessed or fortunatebathing (m angalasnanam ) . After this, seated on a slightlyraised platform ,

previously prepared for th e occasion,

dressed in h is ceremonial ly pure clothes and facingth e east , h e prays to Ganesha ( th e god of obstacles)to be pr opitious . An image of Ganesha i s placedth er e , if one can be procur ed ; otherwise they place a

lump of saffron m ade into a paste to represent him .

After this h e per forms a ceremony of pur ificationcal led punyahavach anam . Meanwhile th e bride inanother part of th e h ouse , h as been going throughmuch th e same kind of thing . Sh e h as been bathing ,

and worshipping Ganesha, and also Gauri th e wife ofSiva, or Lakshm i th e wife of Vishnu . Which one iti s depends on th e religious sect of th e parties.


Th e bride’

s parents now come forward and , withnecessary ceremonies , invest th e br idegr oom with th e

two skeins necessary to form th e full sacr ed thr eadof a mar r ied m an . A cur tain i s then fixed up acrossth e platform ,

and th e br ide i s brought ou t seated ina kind of wicker-basket , and is then placed behind th ecur tain which separ ates th e young couple, so thatthey cannot actual ly see each other until later on inth e affair . Th e br ide’

s father or mother then proceedsto give to th e bridegroom a mixtur e of curds, milk ,ghee, sugar , cummin , honey and other ingredients .

This m ixture i s known as m ath upark am . A portion ofit i s placed in h i s hand and h e proceeds to eat it .This i s repeated three times . It i s supposed to refreshhim after th e fatigue h e h as already gone through and

also to prepare h im for th e further ceremonies . Th e

bride’

s parents then present th e br idegroom with a

beautiful cloth an d other l ike things, including a kindof yagnOpavl tam , made of one golden an d two silverthreads . Th e youth then proceeds to ar ray himself inth e gorgeous presents .

Th e important cerem ony cal led k anyadanam (givingof th e damsel) now takes place. Th is i s done as

follows . Th e bridegroom fir st makes th e followingdeclaration

I of such and such a nam e, fam ily and tr ibe, per form th istaking of h and s for t h e r em ission o f m y Sin s an d for th e sat isfact ion of th e suprem e God .

”

Th e bride ’

s family priest then asks th e bridegroomif h e i s willing to take so and so to wife . On h i s

answer ing in th e affirm ative , th e ends of th e uppergarm ents of th e pair are tied togeth er in wh at i scal led th e Brahma knot . l Th e priest in tying th iskno t says “

vish vé th tratet ,” that is , “

You both musttrust an d be a prop to each other . They si t thus

1 An te,p . 67.


stage of th e proceedings . An ex-yoke i s brought in ,and a cord made of darbha grass i s tied round th e

waist of th e bride by th e bridegroom . This cor d i s

supposed to r epr esent one of those used to place roundth e neck of th e ox when it i s yoked . It i s easy tosee th e origin and significance of th e act . Th e yokei s now held over th e br ide in such a manner that oneof th e holes in it shal l come right over h er h ead .

Th e m angalasd t r am , to be presently described , i s nowtaken and held under th e hole through which water i spoured by th e br idegr oom . Th e water tr ickles downth e m angalasfi tram on to th e br ide’

s head . D ur ingth is th e young couple ar e made to say to each other“n zi t i ch aram an i , or

“ I wil l never leave thee .

Th e next ceremony is th e impor tant one of tyingon th e m angalasutram . This i s a saffron colouredth read or cor d to which a smal l gold ornament i sattached . It i s fastened r ound th e neck and hangsdown in front , l ike a locket . This i s always wornby marr ied women , l ike th e wedding ring amongEuropeans , an d it i s never parted with , for any consider ation wh atever , until th e death of either party .

Thus , if a woman h as not on th e m angalaSIi tram ,i t

is a Sign of widowhood .

A beautiful cloth i s now given to th e bride by h erfather and sh e departs for a l ittle in or der to ar rayherself in it ; on h er return sh e i s accompanied by h erfemale relat ives . Th e br idegroom now takes th e

m angalasfi tram and , with an appropriate declaration ,ties it round th e neck of th e br ide . Whilst thisi s being done, th e musicians make loud noise with theirinstruments . Others who are present clap their hands .

This i s to prevent any sneezing fr om being heard .

Sneezing i s considered a very bad omen ; and for fearany one might be seized with an attack during thisimportant part of th e marriage ceremony , th e loud noisei s made to drown so unlucky a sound . Th e declaration

H INDU MARRIAGES 107

which th e bridegroom ,prompted by th e priest , gives

utterance to on tying th e cord i s as follows

aid ed Gi sela as shamti

ger I

$ 6 alarm{pad ci Steam Hair 1!

Th is m angalasutram

For th e length en ing of my life,Oh dam sel ! I t ie to th y neck ,D o th ou live for a h und red years .

Whilst th e m angalaSUtram i s being tied on ,

1th e

puréh itas and those present chant th e m angalésh tak am ,

or eight marriage blessings . When th e chanting i s

concluded , some of those present throw coloured riceupon th e couple, by way of blessing them . One of

th e eight marr iage blessings i s as fol lows

smear : Tm e is feg'

a’

q r: W lfllfqd l

m ar {m ai m eaj’aqaarfaan I

a taraqmeafiiqai famfea anérdre rfqai

g ue rril las mfg Harri afitm’

daifsar: ii

Th e pear ls in th e lotus-l ike h ands of Si ta wh ich sh one likerub ies

Wh en poured on th e h ead of Ram a appeared wh ite like j asm ine flowers ,

And fal ling over h is dark blue body sh one like sapph iresMay th ose pear ls thus used at th e m arr iage of RAm a giveh appiness un to you .

”

1 1n th e m ar r iages of Ind ian Ch r ist ian s , t h is custom of tying th em angal asut ram round th e neck i s retained . It i s used instead of t h e

m arr iage r ing ; and in th e Ch r ist ian m ar r iage service wh en ,accord ing

t o th e Engl ish r ite, th e br id egroom places th e r ing on th e finger of

th e br ide saying , “ With t h is r ing I th ee wed ,”

am ongst Ind ianCh r ist ian s h e h old s th e cord round h er neck saying , “ With th ism angal asut ram I th ee wed

”and th en ,

tying th e cord in a fi rm k n ot,

h e leaves i t th er e , never to be rem oved un t il th e deat h of eith erpar ty. If sh e becom es a widow, i t i s custom ary t o leave off wear in gth e m angal asfi t ram . Th is also i s th e custom amongst t h e H indusgenerally.


An ornament cal led bhash ikam is also worn by th ebride and bridegroom , when they ar e seated togetherat any time during th e five days for which th e ceremony lasts . This ornament i s usual ly made of twigsand coloured thread and is worn tied on to th e forehead by a str ing passing round th e head . After th etying of th e m angalasutram ,

th e priest places a few

grains of colour ed rice into th e hands of those present,

who in company chant as a blessing some ver ses fromth e Vedas . After this , al l present throw th e rice onto th e heads of th e married pair . It m ay be that th emodern English custom of throwing rice after a newlymarried couple arose fr om this Indian rite .

At this stage of th e pr oceedings th e bridegroom ,

duly prompted by th e family priest , pr oceeds to perform a homam or sacrifice of fire . This i s done inth e sacred fir e which i s made and kept up in th e

centre of a prepar ed place , during th e whole of th e

mar riage festival days . Th e homam i s performed bydropping into th e fir e cer tain kinds of twigs and r ice

and ghee . Mantrams are also repeated at th e sametime .

Th e next ceremony i s cal led saptapad i or seven steps .

This i s th e most important ceremony in th e wholemarriage rite, and in a court of justice this is th e testceremony by which it i s decided whether a disputedmarriage was com pletely performed or not . Manu alsomakes this th e irrevocable act , upon which th e ritei s complete

Th e nupt ial texts are a certain rule in regard t o wed lock , andth e br idal cont ract i s known by th e learned to be com plete and

i rr evocable on th e seventh step of th e m arr ied pair , h and in h an d ,after th ose text s h ave been pronounced .

”(viii .

Th e ceremony i s performed as follows . Th e couple,holding each other by th e hand , walk three t im es

round th e sacred fire, each circle being supposed to bedone in seven steps . Whilst they are thu s march ing


Made fragrant with sandal ,B ouged br igh t to beh old ,Resplendent with gar landsAnd bracelets of gold .

Wor sh ip and b lessin g, etc.

With n ecklace of tulasi ,An d ear s set with gem s ,

W ith per son in beautyTo ri val th e h eaven s .

Wor sh ip and blessin g, et c.

Born unto D évi k i ,Great in th e skies ,Own guru to Cupid ,To th ee our love flies .

Wor sh ip and blessing , etc.

With eyes l ike th e lotus ,And face like th e m oon ,

Th ine eagle-d rawn car

I s to th ee for a th rone.

Wor sh ip an d blessin g , etc.

Most glor ious thy beautyIn Védas we s ing .By faith ful and pureTh ou ar t ser ved as a king.

Wor sh ip and blessing , etc.

Th ou lord of m oun t Bh adra,Wh ose pr aise i s m ade known ,

By singer s like Ram das ,Th e lotus-souled one.

Wor sh ip and b lessing , etc.

Sometime after darkness h as set in , th e ceremonycal led sthal i pak am is performed . This is done as

follows . Th e company being assembled , a l ittle rice i scooked in a smal l vessel on th e sacred fire when, after

several suppressions of th e breath and repeating “ Om

bh uh ,Om bh uvah a , Om suvah a

”

(th e nam es of th ethree worlds of th e H indus) , th e bridegroom mentions

th e exact t ime that then is, naming th e age, year ,

H INDU MARR IAGES 111

day, and hour, and also th e place where they are at

th e time . H e then makes this declaration : “ I makethis sthal ipak am , on behal f of th is damsel , in orderto please th e supr eme God . After this i s done, h eSpr inkles gh ee over som e of th e cooked rice and ,

taking pinches of it up in h is two finger s and thumb ,per forms a homam by casting it upon th e fire . H e doesthis severa l tim es, repeating th e fol lowing mantram

emu e rst emu 385 a as and a far

aflfifagaa 325a as n

May th is becom e a sacrifice to Agn i (th e god of fi re ) . To h im

th is i s given ; i t i s not m ine. May th is becom e a sacr ifice t o h imwh o fulfils our desires . Th is belong s to h im ; i t i s not m ine.

Before th e bride and bridegroom can take any food ,th e last ceremony of this first day ’

s proceedings mustbe done . Th e pu roh i ta takes them outside th e houseand , pointing out a very sm al l star cal led arundh at i ,

bids them pay homage to it . This star is near th emiddle one in th e tail of Ursa Maj or and i s namedafter Arundh at i , th e wife of Vasi sh tah one of th e

seven R ishis . It i s not clear what is meant by thisceremony , but doubtless it h ad some meaning in oldentimes . This A rundh at i i s said to have been a patternwife, and probably th e ceremony i s meant to drawth e attention of th e bride to th at fact and to bid h erfollow so good an example .

After this th e bride and bridegroom take food together , eating from th e same leaf. This i s rather a

noteworthy act , as it i s th e only time during their l ifewhen th e husband and wife eat together . Ever afterthey wil l eat apar t . Th e duty of th e wife is to ser veh er husband whilst h e eats, an d when h e h as done,to partake of what i s left of th e food , using as a plateth e leaf from which h er husband h as just breakfasted ,or dined . This unsocial custom i s universal amongst


H indus of every rank and caste . At th e time whenth e br ide and bridegroom are partaking of their “ l ovefeast ,

”th e family and guests Si t down—th e males and

females apart—al l duly bathed an d prepared for foodand par take of th e marriage feast . General ly a verylarge num ber come together for this. Th e par ents of

th e br ide, however , do not si t down with their guests ,but wait for their meal unti l al l th e feasting i s over .On th e morning of th e second day th e bride i s dulydecorated and loaded with jewels, partly marriage gifts,but some pr obably borrowed for th e occasi on . Th enseated in a mar r iage palanquin , an d accompanied bydancing women and a band of m usic , sh e i s taken inpr ocession to th e h ouse where th e bridegroom ’

s fatherand friends lodge . Th e bridegroom then , al l gorgeouslyar rayed , j oins h er and Sits opposite to h er in th e

palanquin . Then they ar e carr ied round in a grandpr ocession back to th e br ide’

s h ouse . On their r eturnh om e fr om this pr ocession

,and al so when they return

fr om any of th e processions , as they al ight from th e

palanquin , their feet ar e washed by some attendants ,and they are made to speak each other ’s name. Th isalso i s noteworthy , as it i s not customary for husbandand wife ever to mention each other’s name , and it i sam using to see th e var ious shifts that are r esorted toin order to avoid doing so . Even in th e case of a

poor woman , if asked by one strange to th e custom s

of th e country what h er husband ’s name i s, instead of

replying sh e will , with a t itter , ask some one standingby

,perhaps h er own child , to mention it . Som etim es

for fun , romping gir ls will tease a l itt le wife to makeh er say h er husband

’

s name . They wil l shut h er upin a room

,or in some oth er way impr ison h er , and not

let h er ou t until sh e h as m entioned what i s usual lyso sacred and unmentionable.

This day i s passed in singing marriage songs and

feasting , with a few minor ceremonies. In th e evening


this ceremony presents ar e made of cloths and moneyto various people ,

and th e forenoon closes with a

grand feast . In th e evening a very elaborate procession i s made . Th e people first go to th e bank of a

river or som e nice shady place, where carpets ar e

spr ead . When al l are seated , betel i s served r ound and

rose-water sprinkled on them . Then various gamesar e played . All this being over, th e pr ocession againforms and , with much blazing of torches and burningof coloured lights , br aying of horns and beating ofdrums , singing of dancing gir ls , and letting off of fire

works , i t slowly makes a grand progress through th e

streets hom e again . It i s not a pleasant thing tomeet one of these marriage processions in th e narr owstreets of a village, or in th e crowded parts of a bazaar ,when returning home after dark from an evening ride .

Th e blar e of th e trumpets, th e din of th e drums, th eswishing r ush and pistol-l ike report of th e r ockets,together with th e glar e of th e torches and colour edlights , al l combined form a scene that is enough tomake any animal nervous that h as not received th e

education of a trained charger . For my own part , Iknow I have often been thankful to get clear of suchpr ocessions without accident to mysel f

, or without anyharm being done by th e timid hor se to any one of

th e surging , Shouting , parti-coloured crowd that goesto make a H indu holiday .

Th e four th day is passed in the same way, exceptthat one of th e proper things to be done is for th ebr idegroom to pr etend to be angry and sulky . H e

even goes so far as to star t off in h is palanquin torun away . Th e father of th e bride then goes ou t tofind him and tr ies to appease h is anger , promising togive him presents of various kinds . H e is supposedto take advantage of this to ask for various thingsas presents , a house for instance, or cattle

,or money ,

or lands . Th e father-in-law then promises to give so

H INDU MARRIAGE S 115

and so, upon which th e youth shakes Off h i s pretendedsulks and returns to th e festivities . This amusing and

somewhat r idiculous farce seems to be a peculiar cus

tom kept up as an oppor tunity for demanding and

giving additional presents, by way of dowry to th e

bride . In th e evening , after th e usual feast , th e mostelaborate and prolonged of th e var ious festal paradestake place, with i ts accompaniments of torches , l imel ights

,fireworks , singing of dancing girls and oth er

festivities. Whilst th e br ide’

s home i s par tly deserted ,th e inmates being ou t with th e pr ocession , th e fr iendsof th e br idegroom have some fun by going to th e

house and removing any useful thing they can lay

their hands on ; such as th e ropes for drawing waterand necessary culinary vessels . Th e consternation at

th e loss on th e r eturn of th e procession i s a source ofmuch amusement .Very early in th e m orning of th e fifth day , say aboutthree o ’clock

, th e last homam i s per form ed (shesh ahomam) . Th e gods , who have been invoked to be pr esent at th e pr oceedings , are then solem nly dismissedto their several worlds . A mant ram said upon thisoccasion is as follows :

flag i s”: w as 11

O ye gods depar t in peace.

In th e evening of this fifth and last day ,a final

ceremony is per formed , cal led nak abal i , or sacrifice toth e inhabitants of heaven . Th e prepared place is againadorned and smeared with th e dung of cows and a

number of smal l l ights , fed with ghee , are placed ina square formed of coloured pots . Several mantr ams

are r epeated by th e purOh i ta,in th e pr esence of th e

assem bled company,invoking th e presence of t h e whole

three hundred and thirty millions of gods of th e H indupantheon . These are duly honoured and worshipped


by prayers and offerings of cooked rice . Th e br ide and

bridegroom are then t ied,togeth er with th e Brahma

knot and marched three times round th e burningl ights by th e priest , who meanwhile repeats certainmantrams .

Sometime, after th e nak abal i , there i s more singingand music and betel i s again distributed . Var iousbits of romping and fun ar e then indulged in . Th e

bride and bridegroom are each seized upon by any

two present , and carried about at a run ; during this,white and coloured powders , and coloured water are

freely thrown about , and there i s a good deal of frolicand amusement .Th e appaginta , or final del ivering over , then takesplace . This i s always a most sorrowful proceeding ,and th e bride’

s mother , brother s , Sisters and otherrelat ives weep much , and in various ways express theirgrief as they give up their dear one into other hands .

Th e ceremony i s as follows . A dish of milk i s broughtin and th e br ide places h er right hand in th e milk ;over h er hand th e br idegroom’

s father and mother andsister place their right hands , when th e pr iest repeatssome verses, of which th e following i s one

eigaqi Eda m qa‘

q’

flrfium W I

sarffi as! cram Ear d ifa't ire

-

Rafa n

Th is dam sel h as at tained h er eigh th year ,Sh e h as been fostered by m e like a son ,

She i s now given to thy son ,

P rotect h er in love.

”

When this h as proceeded far enough , a bundle of r icei s tied to th e waist of th e bride, and sh e i s once moreseated in th e palanquin opposite h er husband . Theythen set ou t to go to th e village of th e bridegr oom ,

thus bringing th e prolonged and intricate ceremonialto a close.

TH E H INDU AT H OME

puts it on h er head . Sh e then takes some of i t and

puts it upon h is head . This i s done several times ,after which they both do it at th e same time, puttingsome of th e r ice upon each other ’s head .

In ancient days it was customary for th e bride’

s

father to pr esent to th e bridegroom a fatted calf,to

be used for food at th e marriage feast . In these days ,however , this custom h as given way and cloths and

other things are presented .

Wh i lst th e ch ief acts of ritual are th e same amongstal l H indus , m any minor cerem onies m ay differ muchin d ifferent parts of this vast country , and amongstth e differ ent races and nations who pr ofess th e Brahm in ical rel igion . Some account of unorthodox marriageswill be given in th e next chapter .It will easi ly be seen what an expensive affair suchmarriages are, and what large sums of m oney are thussquandered . There i s no more fruitful source of debt ,that cur se of India , than th e cost of these marriagecustoms and th e wastefu l expenditur e incurred at

funeral ceremonies. Th e presents of cloths , jewels and

money ; th e feasting and feeding ; th e elaborate pro

cessions , and th e necessary hiring of bearer s and

musicians and dancing gir ls ; together with th e fire

works and l ights , —al l these things swal low up largesums of money and often th e chief supply comes fromt h e bags of th e money-lenders . It i s no matter if th epar ties concerned are poor , th e laws of custom are so

inexorable that their demands must be complied with ,even though by so doing a millstone of debts is hungaround th e neck to be a drag and a burden al l thr oughlife . Many of th e wiser people groan under these and

similar bonds and occasional ly a feeble voice is raisedup in protes t ; but th e H indu i s so conservative and

so wanting in firm ness of m ind that there i s not muchhope of a radical change in such matters for manylong years to come .

BRID E AND B RIDEGROOM .


unorthodox marriages, I take something that stands, as

i t were, midway between th e Brahmanical or orthodoxceremonies

,and those which are almost if not entirely

foreign to them . As repr esenting those that standmidway between th e two we m ay take th e Malaweddings as fairly representative .

Th e name Mala i s a Telugu one for Par iahs . Th e

Malas of th e Telugu country do not appear to be so

low in th e scale of actual society as th e Pariahs of

th e more southern par ts of India, and they form a largepercentage of th e people . It i s true, they are outcasteswho cannot

, str ictly speaking , take a place in th e castesystem at al l ; but they worship , after their ownfashion , H indu deities , and seem to adopt H indu prejudices , more and more, as they rise in th e worldthr ough that industry for which they are noted . Mostof this class ar e connected with agriculture, either as

farm labourers or smal l farmer s . Many of them , es

pecial ly in th e irrigated section of th e country, own

fair ly large farms and ar e tolerably wel l OH. It wil lbe seen in th e fol lowing details of their mar r iage ritesand ceremonies, how many things ther e ar e which ar e

evidently in imitation of th e true Brahmanical rites ,and also wherein they essen tial ly differ .

When a marriage h as been agreed upon amongstth e Malas, th e father of th e youth , accompanied byseveral of th e head m en of th e village, proceeds to th emaiden ’

s abode . This m ay be in th e same hamlet , orin one at some greater or less distance . A consultation i s then held between th e friends of both partiesas to th e value of mutual presents , and , if al l is agreedupon

,th e youth ’

s father produces a rupee, to whichth e maiden ’

s father adds half a rupee . This moneyi s at once expended in drinks for th e friends at a

neighbouring drinking-shop , after which a feast is givenby th e br ide’

s people. At this time th e girl ’s peoplefix upon a day when they wil l visit th e young man

’

s

U NORTH ODox H INDU MARR IAGE S 121

home . At th e t ime agreed upon , th e young lady ’

s

father and fr iends proceed to th e youth ’

s home, wherethere i s more drinking and feasting . Upon this occasion , a for tunate period having been duly fixed upon ,th e day for th e wedding i s definitely settled .

Th e next thing i s th e pr athanam , or formal betroth al . This Often takes place on th e Same day as

th e wedding proper , especial ly if th e par ties al l belongto th e same vil lage . Th e youth does not appear uponthis occasion , and th e maiden Sits quiet ly in th e house ;th e prathanam takes place at th e br ide’

s house . Th e

elders and friends of both sides si t in opposite groups ,when th e young man ’

s father han ds over th e jewels ,cloths, and various other things which h e h as promisedas presents to th e br ide an d to h er people . Th e

fr iends‘

on both sides then formal ly express their will ingness to give and receive th e bride or bridegroom ,

as th e case m ay be . When this h as been done, a

skein of thread , adorned with saffron to represent th em angalasd tram cord , i s pr oduced , and r ound it i s eu

twined a cloth brought by th e bridegroom ’

s people, or

fail ing that, th e turban or head-cloth of th e head m an

of th e youth’

s village . This i s then taken hold of byth e elders from both Sides and i s carried to th e placewhere th e maiden i s seated in th e house . It i s thencarefully placed r ound h er neck . This constitutes th epr athanam .

Th e marriage itsel f takes place at th e young m an’

s

house . A s a rule, th e ceremony i s performed at n ight .Should it ,

tak e place in th e day-t ime, a young bull

must be given by th e youth ’

s people, which , afterbeing branded , i s set free to wander about at i ts own

sweet will , and to be ever after considered as a divinebeing . This , however, i s only done by comparativelywealthy people,

‘

as a bit of ostentatious display . Th e

dasari , or Mala priest , must be present on this occasion , and also a band of m usicians . There will always

16

122 TH E‘

H INDU AT H OME

be a large concourse of friends and r elatives . Probably in im itati on of th e Brahmanical ceremony described in th e pr evious chapter , a place i s prepared inth e house on th e western side near th e wal l , uponwhich a num ber of earthen pots duly adorned withvarious colou rs , and cal led in Telugu ar ivén i or air én i ,

ar e placed . Th ese usual ly num ber eleven or thirteen ,two of which Should be very large . Brahmins do notu se th e ar ivén i ° but they are always used at th e

marr iages of Sudras and in some cases of Vaisyasan d SO cal led Kshatriyas . A skein of yel low thread i swound round th e mouth or opening of th e pots . Infr ont of these var ious lamps are put , which must bekept alight for five days . In front of th e lamps earth

,

wh ich h as been fetched from th e tank and in whichnine kinds of grain have been mixed , i s scattered about .This earth i s cal led in Telugu panta bangaram ,

orgolden produce, and it is brought from th e tank , withmuch ceremony , by five women , accompanied by a bandof music . A cloth is held up over them as a canopy .

In fr ont of th e house door , a panda] or temporaryShed i s erected , underneath which a small star-shapedmound of earth i s prepared , and adorned with colouredpigm ents. This i s cal led in Telugu pendl i arugu ,

or th emarr iage mound , and it is kept adorned for some t imeuntil it i s washed away by th e rains , or in some otherway disappears . By th e side of this are placed fourlow stools , and th e br ide and bridegroom are broughtforward and seated upon two Of them , th e other twobeing occupied by a female relative of th e bride and a

boy relative of th e youth . All si t facing towards th e

east . Th e priest then proceeds to t ie on th e foreheadof each of th e pair th e ornament cal led basik am ,

already mentioned in th e previous chapter as beingmade of sticks and coloured thread .

l That on th e

youth i s triangular in shape, whilst that on th e maiden

1 An te, p . 108 .


Th ey alone are pand its (learned m en) wh o know h im wh o i s th e

eternal ligh t to t h e th ree wor ld s , wh o i s th e creator , preserver and

destroyer , th e Om n iscien t God .

Wor sh ip’

Rém ach endra wh o, born of th e dynasty of th e sun , i s

associated with Si ta and Lak shm anna ; wh o i s served by H anum an

and oth er s, wh ose wh ole nature i s love, yea wh o i s th e veryper son ificat ion of love .

We adore Ram a wh o Sit s on th e golden th rone, wh o i s wor sh ippedby Brahma and oth er s and wh o i s th e giver of al l good th ings .

0 suprem e God ! at wh at t im e any wor sh ip t hy lotus-like feetth at , to th em , i s an auspicious t im e, t h at i s a propit ious star ,

th at i s a favourable lunar day , th at i s a lucky con j unct ion of p lanet s .

(Th e pr iest) m ust r epeat th e eigh t nuptial blessings . H e m ustrepeat th e proper m an tram s at th e feet -wash ing cerem ony and

wh en th e m angalasfitram i s tied on , also wh en th e h an d s ar e

clasped and wh en th e r ice i s poured on each oth ers h ead s. Wh enth e B r ahm a knot i s t ied , th en we m ust vi sit arun dh ath i .

Ye h aving wor sh ipped th e gods n ear th e ari vén i and h avingm ade Obeisance un to th em , peace be un to you .

”

After th e tying of th e m angalasd tram ,which consti

tu tes th e binding rite of th e whole ceremony , th e

youth again takes up into h is hands th e rice whichh e h ad poured into th e cloth . Th e bride holds hersin h er hands al l this t ime . H e now pours h i s riceupon h er head and sh e pours hers upon h is . Th l S

rice i s supposed to represent pearls . Th e screen clothi s now taken quite away and th e cloths of th e coupleare again tied together in th e Brahma knot . Th e

fr iends who are present then scatter rice upon th e

heads of th e pair. Th e bride’

s father brings forwarda ring and a new loin cloth which th e priest takes ,proclaiming in a loud voice that th e father h as giventhese things to th e br idegroom ; th e latter then putsth e ring on h is finger . Th e fr iends on either Sidenow present to th e pair th e wedding presents theym ay have brought—money or cloths or ornaments orbrass and copper vessels . It i s considered th e pro

per thing that presents of equal value to those thus

U NORTH ODox H INDU MARRIAGES 125

received should be returned to those who thus presentthem , and much-i l l feel ing arises when this i s notdone . After this , th e father s of both parties walk roundth e sacred place three tim es , each carrying one ofth e pots . When this is al l over , th e priest 1 takes th ecouple and shows to them th e star arundh ath i , towhich they make Obeisance . Th e young Couple now

j oin hands , th e bride groom hooking h i s left l i ttlefinger into that of h er right hand . Thus j oined together they go to th e house and stand in th e doorwayof th e r oom in which ar e l ights and coloured pots .

Inside th e room there are some fem ale fr iends whosing for sometime . Th e newly-married pair give thema present of some money . They are then allowed toenter and stand before th e ar ivén i pots and l ights towhich they do Obeisance . I give two Specimen songstranslated from th e Telugu language . Th e first issupposed to be a dialogue between th e bridegroom ,

who i s standing outside th e hou se with h i s bride, and

h is sister who is inside . H e wishes to enter th e houseand sh e refuses admittance , in order to extract fromhim th e promise h e at length gives . Th e song i s sungantiphonal ly by two gr oups of th e women . Th e

shower of pear ls and diamonds spoken of i s an al lusion to th e pouring of rice by th e couple over th e headof each other after th e tying of th e m angalasfi tram .

U N B OL T TH E C L OSED D OOR .

Th e wh ite pear ly sh ower h as now fal len ;Your sister i s drench ed to th e skin .

D ear Sister unbolt th e closed door ,Why tarry , Oh ! please l et u s in .

Th e whi te pear ly sh ower h as not fal len ;Ou r s ister ’s not drench ed to th e skin .

H ow can we unbolt th e closed door ?’

Ti s now th at ou r quarrel begin s .

1 An te, p . 111 .


Th e Shower of great d iamond s h as fall en ,

Your Sister i s drench ed to th e Skin .

D ear sister unbolt th e closed door ,Wh y tar ry, oh ! please l et u s in .

NO sh ower of great d iam ond s h as fallen ,

Ou r si ster ’s not d rench ed to th e Skin .

H ow can we unbolt th e closed door ?’Ti s now th at ou r quar r el begin s.

The sh ower Of r ich gem s h as now fallen °

Your sister i s d rench ed to th e Skin .

D ear sister unbolt th e closed door ;Wh y tar ry, oh ! please let u s in .

No Sh ower of r ich gem s h as now fallen ,

Ou r sister ’s n ot d rench ed to th e skin .

H ow can we unbol t th e closed door ?’

Ti s now th at our quarr el begins .

I’

l l give you a sh eet and young h eifer ;My daugh ter I ’

l l give to your son .1

So Sister unbolt th e closed door ;Why tar ry, oh ! please let u s in .

Th e bridal pair are now admitted into th e housewhere they take up a position before th e ar ivén i .

Then al l th e women in concert s ing some such song as

following

TH E A R I VE’

N I SON G .

Oh pot ter ! Oh potter ! go m ake ar i vén i ,

We’ll h ave a fine wedd in g at h om e.

Make clay arivén i and sm al l ones of silver ,Th e time for th e m ar r iage h as com e.

Th e potter h as kneaded th e clay al l so deft ly,With legs al l so crooked th ey tell .On Tuesday h e chose i t , on Fr iday h e sh aped i t ,On Sunday h e fin ish ed i t wel l .

Th e potter ’s wife sm iled so to see ar ivén i

In h onour of Lakshm i thus m ad e .

Sh e took th em and placed th em with joy and with laugh ter ,To stand in th e h ouse in th e Sh ade.

1 Th is i s an allusion t o t h e custom by wh ich t h e br idegroom ’

s Sisterasks for h er son th e h and in mar r iage of th e br ide’

s future daugh ter .


bride’

s hands , when sh e , standing before h er husband ,says , “ In tr ouble and in joy I wil l always cleave tothee and will never leave thee .

”Sh e then places th e

rice in h is hands and h e says Similar wor ds .

Th e marriages of th e Madigas , or Skinners and

tanners, are performed in much th e same way ,only

there i s usual ly more spir it drinking than i s th e casewith th e Malas, and consequently there is morebrawling and noise .

F or th e nuptial ceremonies of th e non-orthodoxtribes, which will now be described , I am indebtedto th e Government Manuals of th e Nel lore, Madura,

and N i lgir i D istr icts , reference to which will affordmuch interesting information concerning th e varioustribes in quest ion .

Th e marriage ri te of th e Yeruk las i s said to beof a very simple character . These are a tribe of

wandering gypsy-kind of people, whose temporaryhuts m ay be seen on th e outskirts Of villages throughou t th e country . They ar e said to practise polygamy ,and th e marr iage cer emony usual ly takes place on a

Sunday . Various kinds of worship ar e performed on

th e previous day , but on th e Sunday fixed upon , ricemixed with turmeric is poured on th e heads of th e

couple and th e m angalasutram is tied round th e neckof th e bride. This simple ceremony completes th e

marriage.

Amongst th e Yanad ies, another migratory abor ig

inal tribe who gain their l ivel ihood chiefly by hunting ,and making and sell ing mats and leaf-plates , and

gathering and sel l ing firewood and other jungle produce ,th e marriage seems to be based on th e consent of th e

parties themselves . Th e m an and woman arrange th e

m atter between themselves, and afterwards at a gathering of friends bétel is distributed , th e m angalasutram

i s t ied on , and th e woman i s taken to h er husband ’shouse .

UNORTH ODox H INDU MARR IAGES 129

H itherto I have been speaking Of th ings’

as they are

in th e Telugu country . Farther south , in th e Tamilspeaking parts, there are many var ieties Of th e marriagerites amongst th e various aboriginal tribes .

Th e Karakat Vel lalan s , for instance, who live on and

near th e Palni Mountains in South India,have very

peculiar marriage customs . Th e cer emony i s performedin a booth , erected for t h e purpose before th e house doorof th e bride . Th e bride and br idegroom are seated on

th e floor with their faces towar ds th e east . A lampi s kept burn ing on a stool near where they Si t , whilsta measure of grain and a rude image of Ganeshamade Of cowdung, is placed near them . After bothhave prostrated themselves before th e symbol , th e bridegroom receives th e m angalasfitram from some of th erelatives present , which h e proceeds to t ie round th ebride’

s neck . At th e same t ime a bowl of milk is

brought,in which a few leaves of th e peepul tree

have been steeped . Th e relatives on both sides thensprinkle some of this milk upon th e heads of th e pair .Th e newly-married couple then prostrate themselvesbefore their several relatives , and th e day ’

s ceremonyi s concluded with a feast and a formal distribution of

betel . This concludes th e marriage ceremony . On th efollowing day th e b i idegroom gives a grand feast , whenvarious marriage presents are distributed to th e brideand h er relat ives .

Amongst th e Maravan s, a people dwel l ing most ly inth e extreme south-east of th e peninsula , th e marriageceremonies are very strange and unusual . After a

marriage h as been agreed upon by th e principal m em

bers of two families , a few of th e relat ives of th e

intended bridegroom go to th e house of th e bride, andthen , with or without h er consent an d , even perhapswithou t having sought th e consent of th e bridegroom

,

they t ie upon h er neck th e m angalasutram whilstconch shel ls are blown loudly outside. They then

17


escort th e bride to th e house of h er husband . A feasti s g iven which lasts for several days . Processions are

formed thr ough th e streets and a cocoanut i s brokenbefor e an image of Ganesha . These and a few othercerem onies conclude th e mar r iage rites. There i s one

curious custom which must be noted when these peoplehave not th e means to pay for th e feast and otherexpenses . They Simply t ie on th e m angalasutram ,

upon which th e par ties l ive together as m an and wife .

Th e other cer emonies, however , must be gone throughat some tim e or other , when means admit of it . Shouldth e husband happen to d ie befor e th e defect h as beensupplied , th e friends an d relat ives at once borrowmoney , i f they have none by them , and proceed tocomplete th e marriage ceremonies in th e presence an d

on behal f of th e corpse . The dead body supposed tobe th e bridegr oom i s placed on a seat with th e womanby it . After this gruesome ceremony , th e mangalasut ram i s taken off th e woman and sh e is free, as a

widow , to remarry .

Amongst th e Kal lan s, an important caste in th e south ,a marriage al l iance depends upon consanguinity

, and itis entirely irrespective of th e wishes of either parties toth e contract , or even of their parents . When a weddingh as been fixed upon , th e Sister of th e bridegroom

,with

a present in h er hand , goes to th e house of th e parentsof th e bride and ties some horse-hair round th e bride’

s

neck . Sh e then takes h er , accompanied by some of

h er r elatives , to th e house of th e bridegroom where a

feast i s prepared . After th e feast th e pair are conducted to th e house of th e bridegroom where a solemnexchange i s made of val lari th adi s or boomerangs .

Another feast i s then given in th e bride’

s house, and

th e bride i s presented by h er parents with some ricean d a h en . Th e bride and bridegroom , now husbandand wife , then repair to h is home and th e marriageceremony is complete .


Th e only ceremony i s that th e woman bows downbefore th e m an and h e places h is foot upon h er head .

This hum il iat ing acknowledgmen t of submission onth e part of t he woman i s not what one wou ld haveexpected in a tribe where polyandry is practised . Th e

wife i s instal led in h er position by proceeding to perform some household duties, such as cooking and drawing water .Th e Kotas, a tribe dwel l ing on th e Slopes Of th e

N ilgiri H i lls, perform their marriages in th e followingmanner . It i s usual for th e couple to be betrothedwhen they are quite young and , when th e girl becomesOf a marriageable age, sh e i s sent for to th e house Of

h er future father-in-law. Th e usual marriage feast i sgiven , followed by music and dancing , and th e ceremony i s concluded by th e bridegroom ’

s mother tyingth e m angalasutram round th e bride

’

s neck .

Amongst th e KI'I rambaS, wh o are also dwellers on

th e N i lgiri slopes, there seem to be no marriage riteswhatever. When a couple decide to come togeth er ,or even after they m ay have been living together forsome time, a feast is given to their friends and th e

marriage i s completeWith th e Ira las, another N i lgiri tribe, there is nomarriage ceremony , neither i s there any previousbetrothal . When a youth com es of age to choose a

wife, h e finds one for himself and th e matter is ended .

Th e Badagas, who ar e dwel lers on th e N i lgiri plateau ,are said to be th e descendants of Canarese colonists .

Amongst this people marriages are contracted withoutany special ri tes and th e marriage t ie i s held by themvery loosely . After a couple have agreed to cometogether, a t ime of probation is allowed during whicheither of th e parties m ay draw back and decline to goon further with th e connection . A m an m ay makeseveral of these temporary al liances before h e defin itelydecides upon a partner for. l ife. There is some feasting

U NORTH ODox H INDU MARRIAGES 138

when a definite all iance h as been agreed to , and thatis al l there i s by way of rites and ceremonies .

N othing h as been said in this chapter of th e polyandry and polygamy which exist as institutions amongstsome tr ibes and nations of India ; nor have I touchedupon th e quest ion of divorce which , though unknownamongst or thodox H indus , i s freely practised amongstsome castes and tribes .

CH A P TE R I ! .

H I N D U D I E T

311m . (Ah é ra) .

For t h e sustenance of th e vita l spir it , Brahm a created al l th isanim al and vegetab le system ; and al l th at i s m oveable and im

m oveab le, th at spir i t devour s.

”(Manu , v .

IN th e second chapter I gave a brief descriptionof a Brahmin fam i ly at dinner,1 but said nothingabout th e composit ion of th e various dishes whichusually form th e bil l of fare . Th e Institutes of Manu

,

clearly Show that , wi th various restrictions, therewas, practical ly , as much freedom in th e choice of

food to th e good H indu of those days as there i s tom en Of th e most civilized nat ions in these moderntimes . In th e fifth chapter of th e Institutes, th e

ancient law-giver mentions various kinds of vegetablesand animals that m ay not lawfully be eaten ; but thesed ietary ru les are very much on a l ine with those laiddown for th e Jewish nat ion in th e book of Leviticus,and th e wisdom of many of them , from a sanitary and

economic point Of view, is very apparent to th e dwel lerin Eastern lands . It is easy to see why “ mush roomsand al l vegetables raised in dung ”

are excluded fromth e dietary ; and why in a hot reeking climate “ garlic ,onions , and leeks ”

are not recommended . Again , toth e Eastern travel ler there is no quest ion as to th e

l Ante, pp .

1 36 TH E H INDU AT H OME

course Of time, these ideas have become so crystal l izedas to make i t an absolute matter of rel igion to rigorou sly abstain from th e sl ightest approach to eatinganything even containing th e germ of animal l ife .

I remember a simple thing that occur r ed many yearsago, soon after my arrival in India , wh ich very much

.

impressed this upon my mind . A Brahmin visitor intaking a cur sor y look round upon things in general ,was struck with th e nice appearance of some salt inth e sal t-cel lar on th e table. H e h ad only known sal tin i t s dark dirty appearance, as it i s seen exposed forsale in th e bazaar . H e seemed much interested whentold that our table salt was nothing but th e ordinarynative salt c larified , and h e expressed a great desireto know th e process . When h e was told that th e

white of egg was an ingredient in th e clarifyingOperat ion h i s countenance fell . N othing so closelyal l ied to animal l ife as that which h ad to do with a

fowl ’s egg could be eaten by a Brahmin . At th e

present day , al l th e higher classes abstain from animalfood in every form and are rigid vegetarians . Th e

lower classes are not so restricted in their diet ; indeed ,as we go lower down in th e scale of caste we find th erestrictions lessen , and th e dietary scale expand , unti lit comes to include th ings considered by even th e leastfastidious of Europeans . as altogether abominable.

Animal food i s largely consumed by th e lowest classes,when they can get it , in any shape or form ; but evenin their case, i t i s a question whether without it theycould not equal ly wel l endure th e physical strain of

labour, if they could afford to procure th e good vege

table food of their betters . It i s,perhaps, hardly

possible for th e European to at al l understand th e

loathing and disgust with whi ch a high caste H indulooks upon th e eating of animal food . Added to thisstate of feel ing in an intensified form , there is alsoth e rel igious element , which makes it a crime of th e

H INDU D IET 137

deepest dye, in some cases even an unpardonable Sin ,

to par take of such food . H abit , rel igion , nat ionaltraining which h as becom e an instinct , together withclim atic requir ements , al l point to th e wisdom of th e

vegetar ian diet of th e H indu ; an d anything ought tobe looked upon with disfavour which tends to alterth e same for what m ay perhaps be a necessity incolder climes . Ther e are, i t i s said , som e tribes ofBrahmins who m ay eat fish ; and I know that manyof th e manifold divisions Of th e four th caste eat fish ,

m utton or goat ’s flesh fr eely . There i s am ongst al l

classes , th e lowest outcasts excepted , th e greatestrepugnance to eating th e flesh of cows or oxen . No

doubt , what i s now a deeply rooted idea was original lya merely economic one, arising out of th e exigenciesof th e people ; but , in true accordance with H induthings general ly , what first arose as a necessary custombecame petrified into a rel igious law— a law , th e wisdomof which it i s not difficult to see, and for th e breachof which there does not seem in India any necessity .

Sir Monier Williams says“H appily for th e H indus , th e cow wh ich supplies th em with

th eir on ly an im al food—m ilk and butter—and th e ox wh ich h elpsto t il l th eir ground wer e declared sacred at an ear ly per iod .

H ad i t not been so , th is useful an im al m igh t h ave been exterm inated in t im es of fam ine. Wh at i s now a super st it ion h ad i t s

or igin , like som e oth er super stit ion s , in a wise for eth ough t .

” 1

At first sight it m ay seem to th e stranger that th edinner table of th e high caste H indu i s dr eadful lylacking in variety and qual ity . There ar e no steamingj oints, nor any of th e infinite variety of r oast an d boiledand stewed and fr ied that go to make up th e dail y fareof th e wel l-to-do Eur opean . To those, who have som e

intimate knowledge of th e daily l ife of th e H indugentleman , there seems l ittle room for pity ; for there

1 H in duism (ed . S . P . C . K. , London , p . 156.

18


is an infinite variety of pickles, ch atneys and Saucesth e sweet , th e sour, th e bit ter and th e pungent—whichgo to form th e chief variety of excel lent appetizer s

,

These ar e prepared by th e females, who set as muchstore on their recipes and take as much personal interestin th e actual preparation of them

,as ou r grandmother s

in England did before th e days of general provider s .

The secrets of th e stil l-room enter , as largely into th eeducation of th e H indu girl

, as they did in th e oldendays with ou r own forefathers . When females meetfor a chat , th e conversation i s largely taken up withthis al l-important subject . This i s natural , as th e

good Opinion of th e master of th e household can be

influenced by th e dinner table in India as in othercountries .

There are various kinds of dhal and also differentmodes of preparing it . This dish is a kind Of peasepudding made of var ious pulses, and it i s used verymuch in th e same way as rice i s to form th e mediumfor par taking of th e different del icacies . In otherparts, wheat and other kinds of grain ar e used insteadof rice as th e foun dation article . Vegetables of manykinds, including th e numerous gourds, go v ery largelyto form th e curr y ; and above al l and without whicheverything else is as nothing , there i s th e highly prizedghee

,or clarified butter . This article enter s , more or

less, into th e preparation Of almost every dish ; and i s

employed freely according to th e means of th e family .

After th e meal , curds are pour ed over th e rice and

eaten with suitable pickles or ch atneys just as puddingand sweets are in Europe . This dish i s always th e

last one of th e meal , and when cakes are eaten , ofwhi ch there ar e a great variety, they are taken justbefore th e dish of curds is introduced . In th e preparation of these cakes and sweets of many kinds

, th e

females pride themselves on their proficien cy , and at

festive seasons such things are largely in request .


H indus are water dr inkers, but milk and buttermilk are freely drunk when procurable . A simpledrink i s also made Of water sweetened with jaggery

(sugar in i t s unrefined state) and flavoured with pepper ;but this is more of a sacred drink and i s not or dinarilyused . Th e P anch am as or outcasts, an d also some of

th e l ower of th e numerous classes of Sudras , largelydrink intoxi cants , chiefly toddy and countr y arrack .

Amongst respectab le H indus th e dr inking of in toxi

cants of any kind i s considered m ost degrading . A l

though th ere ar e a few ,comparatively ver y few ,

and

these chiefly th e dwel ler s in towns and cities, wh oare becom ing addicted to drinking habits , i t m ay stil lbe said th at real H indus are a nat ion of water dr inker s . H ere i s a nation composed of m en who haveproved themsel ves capable of enduring great physicalfatigue, wh o are clever , hard-working mechanics and

labor ious cultivators Of th e soil, and numbers of whom

rank in th e first class as learned pundits , brave warr iors , and clever statesmen , an d these m en have forages been a nation of water drinkers .

Th e higher classes of H indus general ly h ave onlytwo meals a day , th e midday meal , which m ay be

taken earlier if circumstances necessitate it , as in th ecase Of business m en an d Officials who have to go tooffice, an d th e evening m eal or supper . Th e supperi s usual ly taken ver y late in th e evening , shortly beforer etir ing for th e night . A good orthodox H indu Shouldtake no food or dr ink of any kind before th e middaymeal ; but , as a matter of fact , i t i s becoming a customfor a l ight breakfast to be taken ear l ier in th e day .

This i s not , str ictly speaking , in accordance with th e

Shastras, but th e custom i s tolerated . With th e Sudrasan d th e P anch am as it i s an invariable rule to have a

light breakfast in th e ear ly morning , when povertydoes not prevent it . This meal usually consists of

cold rice which has been purposely left over from th e

H INDU DIET 141

supper Of th e previous evening . It i s eaten just as i tis , simply flavoured by a l ittle salt ; but , when it can beh ad , a m or sel Of br oiled Sal t-fish , or a br oiled chilly

,

or an onion or bi t of cocoanut m ay be taken by wayof r el ish . Th is cold rice is mixed up with a l i ttlebutter -milk

, or th e cold conjee of th e night before,

that is , th e water in which th e rice h as been boiledand which form s a kind Of thin gruel .When on a j ourney or otherwise away fr om home

,

th e high caste H indu h as to undergo many in

conveniences , and must often suffer much fr om th e

pangs of hunger ; but even travel ler s have var iousways and means of obtaining food . H ospital i ty i suniver sal , and th e travel ler i s always sure of ungrudg

ing enter tainment from those of h is own caste , whosehospital ity h e m ay lawfully accept . This duty of

entertaining guests i s laid down by Manu , as of pr imeimpor tance . In tr eating of th e duties an d obligationsof house-keepers h e Says :

No guest m us t b e d ism issed in th e even ing by th e h ousekeeper ; h e i s sent by th e ret ir ing sun ; and wh eth er h e com e in

fi t season or un seasonab ly, h e m ust n ot sojourn in th e h ousewith out en tertainm ent .

Let not h im self eat any d el icate food , with out asking h i s guestto par take of i t ; th e sat isfact ion of a guest will assured ly br ingth e h ouse-keeper wealth , reputat ion , lon g l ife, and a place in

h eaven .

”

( iii . 105,

Connected with many of th e ch ou l tries, or publiclodging places, are means for providing meals for

travel lers according to their caste . In th e towns and

in most large villages there ar e houses of entertainment for difleren t classes where food i s given on pay

ment . Certain kinds of food m ay be taken with outundergoing th e usual ceremonies . A broad divisioni s made of things cooked in water, and those cookedd ry , or with ghee or oi l

“ It i s th e water that makesth e mischief , as a Brahmin friend said to m e when


talking on th e subject . Sweetmeats and cer tain kindsof cakes , and parched grain an d rice broiled and

cooked in ghee, and fruit m ay be eaten at any timeand in company with other castes , without changingth e dress , or bathing , or undergoing any other of th e

various cer emonies that have been already described .

Th e lowest classes or th e outcasts ar e not troubledby any Of th e dietary rules which are so rigid inth e case of t h e higher caste people . Th e member s ofth e Sudra caste par take of animal food . Indeed , someof th e l owest classes of that much-divided and sub

divided caste eat almost anything and ever ything thatcomes in their way . Th e Yer uk alas , for instance , a

gipsy tr ibe who l ive by making wicker baskets and

th e l ike, will eat rats , cats , th e vil lage pig and almostanything they can get ; and yet , strange to say ,

theyare not looked upon as unclean in th e same way as

th e Panch am as are considered to be. They are evenal lowed to draw water fr om th e caste wel ls, a pr ivilege that i s denied th e outcast , who must not evengo near or l ook into a wel l that i s used by castepeople . Th e broad l ine of division that marks Off th e

despised and hated Panch am as fr om other s, i s th e factthat they eat carrion . Th e car cases and Skins of al l

th e cat tle and other animals that d ie of disease or old

age are th e perquisite of th e P anch am as, who consumeth e flesh and tan th e skins into leather . Anythingmore disgusting than this practice of eating carcases iti s impossible to conceive ; and so i t i s no wonder thatthose who indulge in it are hated and despised as un

clean . Th e hamlets Of these people ar e surroundedwith bones , and th e carcase of some buffalo or bullockthat h as died , perhaps, of disease or of old age, m ay

often be seen lying near ready to be cooked and eatensoon . Anything more revolting it i s impossible toimagine than a group of these people squatting roundsom e such object , watching the skinning and cutting


and Muhammadans are al lowed this pr ivilege. Th e

answer i s that th ey employ low caste servants and

also have th eir food cooked by th em . Wh en th e

Muhamm adans cam e to India they were wise enoughonly to employ caste m en as servants and cooks ,hence they them selves have always been tr eated as

caste people . Th e English, on th e contrary , fr om th e

fir st , em ployed Par iah servants , and hence they alsoar e treated as outcast ; food cooked by such servantsbeing Of itself unclean and defi l ing. Ther e m ay havebeen r easons why th e first Engl ish settler s did notfollow th e example of th e Muh ammadans in thismatter ; perhaps necessity compel led them to adopt th ecour se they did , or it m ay have been merely a r esultof cynical indifference to th e fancies and superstitionsof others . It would certainly have been a great gain ifth e English h ad been r egarded as caste m en ,

in th esame way as th e Muhammadans ar e . Then those ofth e nat ives who embraced th e Chr istian rel igion mightpossibly have been elevated to th e same privilege ofposition . It i s not that caste, or anyth ing approachingto it should be encouraged amongst Indian Christiansstill it i s a most lam entable thing , whatever m ay haveg iven r ise to it , that, al though a Muhammadan m ay

draw water from any wel l an d in var ious other respectsi s treated as on an equal social footing with respectable H indus , an Engl ishman is not al lowed th e samepr ivilege . Th e lowest Panchama also on becom ing a

convert to Islam ,i s at on ce al lowed al l th e pr ivileges

of h i s co-r eligionists . Not only , however , i s th e Engl ishm an tr eated as on th e same r el igious level as th e

Panchama, but in th e event of a high caste Brahminbecoming a Ch r istian , even though h e m ay not departin th e least from h i s form er habits as regards diet , h e ,by th e very fact of h i s change of r el igion , i s made at

once to descend to th e l owest level in th e estimationof h is countrymen and is treated as an outcast .

H INDU DIET 145

In going over this subject it i s impossible not tohave been struck with th e difference, in this respect ,between H induism with i ts rigid rules and regulationsand th e r el igion of Chr ist with i t s broad holy freedom ,

and i t s care for th e weakness of other s . Th e P ro

phet of Nazareth , in contradistinction to th e laws ofMann , teaches“ H ear , and und er stand . Not th at wh ich goeth in to th e m outh

defi leth a m an : bu t th at wh ich com eth ou t of th e m outh , th isdefi leth a m an .

Th ose th in gs wh ich proceed ou t of th e m outh com e for th fromth e h ear t , and th ey defile th e m an .

”(Matt . xv . 11 ,

And St . Paul , whilst upholding th e broad freedomof th e laws of h is Master, in th e same Spirit of

charity and carefulness for other s which Christ so

eminently taught and pr actised , i s careful also toadmonish that this same freedom i s not to be employedto override al l t h e prejudices and weaknesses of others

,

but i s rather to be used for their good :“ I know and am per suaded by th e Lord Jesus , th at th ere i s

noth ing unclean of itsel f ; bu t toh im th at esteem et h any th ing tobe unclean , to h im i t i s unclean .

B u t if thy broth er be gr ieved with t hy m eat , now walkest th ounot ch ar i tably. D estroy not h im with thy m eat for wh om Ch r istd ied .

All th ings indeed are pure ; bu t i t i s evil for th at m an wh o

eateth with Offence.

It i s good neith er to eat flesh , nor to d r ink wine, nor anyth ingwh ereby th y broth er stum bleth , or i s offended , or i s m ade weak .

If m eat m ake m y broth er to offend , I will eat no flesh wh ileth e wor ld standeth , lest I m ake m y broth er to offend .

” 1

Rom . xiv. 14 , 15, 20 , 21 ; 1 Cor . viii . 13 .

19

C H A P TE R ! .

H INDU FESTIVALS.

qafiffir, ( Pa rvan i . )

Th e birth days of th e god s, and th e coronat ion days of th e

Manus (legislators and saint s) , m ust be punctually obser ved , withwor sh ip and fast ings. By th is pur ity of m ind an d h appiness willaccrue, and Sin will , to a large extent , be destroyed .

”

(Dh arm a

pannam .)

H e wh o Observes not approved custom s and h e wh o r egar dsnot prescr ibed dut ies i s to be avoided with great car e .

”

(Manu, i ii . 165,

IT does not need a very lengthened stay in India toenable a resident there to find ou t h ow devoted i t s peoplear e to th e keeping up th e numer ous and varied fest ivals , prescribed by custom or rel igion . It sometimesrequires much patience to quiet ly submit to th e inconven iences caused by demands for leave of absence to .

celebrate this or that feast . And yet these festivalsare not without their bright side . They ar e periodsof rest and enj oyment in th e l ives of many who havenot much brightness in their existence ; and in thisrespect , at least , they serve one of th e purposes forwhich th e Sabbath was appointed . It i s pleasant tothink of th e dull plodding round of toil being br oken ,now and then , in th e l ife of th e H indus by a l ittlerest and enjoymen t ; al though it might be desired thatth e events commemorated were often other than theyare ,both in or igin and in th e manner Of comm em o

ration .


on th e first two days ; th e cattle ar e specially mademuch of , given a rest, and supplied with extra food .

Ther e i s also a good deal of cock-figh t ing, a pastimeto which many of th e middle and lower classes are

particularly addicted . Alms are also freely distr ibuted ,and presents ar e given to dependants . It i s also one

of th e three great festivals when it i s th e custom toput on new clothes : th e other two being th e D asaraand Sam vatsarad i . D uring this season it i s customary for a wife, together with h er husband , to visith er own people , who are then feasted and presentedwith new clothes an d jewels .

Of th e three days during which th e festival laststh e first i s cal led bhogi (rej oicing) and i s th e eve to th efestival pr oper . On this day oil baths are universal lytaken . This does not mean that a bath i s taken in a

tub of oi l , but that th e body i s rubbed with oil . Th e

houses ar e cleaned and decorated , and a particular d ishi s eaten made of new rice and dhal , cooked together inmilk . Th e name Pongal for this feast i s said to havear isen from this custom . If th e pot boi ls wel l , it i sthought to be a good omen therefore when friends meetthey ask each other,

“H as it boiled hence

th e name Pongal . On this day and on th e next thoseclasses who usual ly consume animal food scrupu louslyabstain from it . Th e second day i s th e chief one,

when there i s special worship and th e gods ar e carr iedin pr ocession , with much beat ing of drums, blaring Of

trumpets, and other barbarous accompaniment s of suchprocessions . Th e third day i s devoted to very muchth e same kind Of things as th e second .

(2) MAH A SIVARATR I , or th e great night of Siva, i san important festival . Every month h as a Sivarat r i

on th e eve of th e new moon , when th e worshippers of

Siva fast al l day and perform special rites to theirgod

,but th e annual festival i s called th e great (maha)

night of Siva ; and it is held on th e eve of th e new

H INDU FESTIVALS 149

moon in Magha (January—February) and commem orates th e birth of Siva . Th e fest ival lasts one day

and is observed by al l classes , except those who strict lyadhere to th e worship of Vishnu . Th e whole day i s

kept as a strict fast until midnight , and th e l ingam is

Special ly worshipped . Pilgr images ar e also made tocertain rivers and to temples of Siva that m ay be

particularly sacred . On ar r iving at th e place of pilgrimage , th e devout will bathe in th e adjacent r iveror tank and then pr oceed to th e temple and performwhat i s called pradak sh inam . This consists of solemnlywalking round th e temple a greater or less number oftimes, according to th e devoutness Of th e worshippers .

Th e hands are then placed together in th e attitude of

prayer (nam askaram ) , th e right shoulder being towardsth e temple . D uring this circumambulation th e wor

shippers confess their sins and ask for pardon byrepeating various ver ses (SlOk am s) . These verses orprayers are quotations from th e Puranas, and so Sudrasas wel l as Brahmins are al lowed to repeat them .

Many repeat them like parr ots without knowing th e

meaning of th e words at al l , whilst some cannot evendo this . In this lat ter case, a smal l fee will procureth e assistance of an attendant priest , who wil l wal kround with th e worshippers and repeat th e verses , th epoor illiterate people j oining in here and there ao

cording to their abil ity . Th e following are specimensof th e verses thus repeated :

arfi wfa a W ife amiataarfa a I

arfa arfa mafi a Rafsrmffiqa n

Wh atever Sins (I m ay h ave comm it ted)In m y form er b ir th s ;Th ose very sin s are destr oyedBy each circum am bulation .

”


(We tin-Taste trate nmari ner:

Grfg at East at srmrnaaeses u

I am a Sinner , a m an of sin ful d eed s ,I am Of a corr upt m ind , a m an born in sin .

Save m e of th y m ercy O God !

Th ou th at ar t m erciful to th ose th at flee to th ee for r efuge.

arr-

um NIUi arfia a ri a mini as

amremq uraia tars Si ren: u“ I h ave no oth er refuge,Th ou alon e ar t m y r efuge ;Th erefore of thy m er cyO Siva ! save m e, save m e.

Th e worshippers then go into th e temple and pre

sent Offerings of fruit , flowers and camphor, and an

offering of money . Th e ofli ciat ing priest takes th e

offering and then waves it before th e l ingam , burningincense and also repeating , at th e same time, variousverses . One part of th e Offering is then returned toth e worshipper , and one par t i s retained by th e priest .In th e case of a cocoanut, it is broken into halvesby th e priest , and a portion is returned whilst a portion i s retained . Th e water in th e cocoanut is collected in a vessel and poured over th e l ingam . Th e

worshippers then stoop to receive th e priest ly blessing ,which i s given in th e fol lowing manner . Th e priesttakes a bel l-shaped vessel , usual ly made of brass or

copper (rudrapadam—th e foot of Siva) , and placingit on th e head of each worshipper, repeats , as th e re

presentative of th e worshipper , th e following prayer :

fem ai fagugm i fi fiaqrfmqfaufmifsd l

fi atm im eflamfi Rf rqi aiam fmufa n

“O Siva ! bless m y h ead with thy feet ,Wh ich are like unto th e lotus ,Adorn ed wi th jewels from th e crown s of

Brahma, and oth er god s an d dem i-god s .


worshippers , with which they adorn themselves . It i svery late by this time and th e devout m ay then goan d break their fast .I have described this ceremony somewhat at length

,

because it repr esents th e usual mode of wor sh ip 'on

such special occasions . Every day some worship i s

gone through on a smal l scale ; and every month, at

th e Sivarat r i , more than or dinar y worship i s perform ed .

Th e ful l ritual is, however , only employed at th e annualfestival .

(3) H OL I i s a fest ival that i s held in honour of th egod Manm adh a or Kama (th e H indu Cupid ) . It i sObserved in th e m onth of P halguna (Februar y—March) ,and lasts for about fifteen days, of which th e lastthree are th e most important . This m ay be cal ledth e festival of th e god of lust ; and th e parading of

dancing girls , and th e singing of lewd songs form someof th e items in it . Th e mere mention of these factsgives an indication of th e whole tone of th e festival .Indeed th e very word kama i s used to describe lustand lechery Of every kind . Th e time i s observed as a

kind of carnival . Th e crowds play practical j okes and

throw colour ed powder over each other . There i s notemple worship connected with this fest ival , as therear e no temples to this god . Siva i s supposed to haveslain this deity by a glance of h is third eye (th e one

in th e centre of th e forehead) , and in commemorationof this , th e festival ends with a midnight bonfire, inwhich an image of th e god Kama i s burned . Th e

ashes of th e fire are rubbed on th e body . Altogetherit i s a disgraceful time and staid sober-minded peopledo not join in it at al l . It is not Observed very muchin th e Telugu country , though in other parts it i s saidto be very popular .

(4) SRIRAMAJAYANTI OR SR I RAMANAVAMI (th e ninthday of Rama , th e seventh incarnation of Vishnu) is a

feast observed in honour of th e birth of Rama, which


i s said to have taken place on th e 9th day Of th e firsth al f of th e m onth Chaitra (March— Apr il) . It lastsfor one day . This festival i s observed by al l classes ,except th e wearer s Of th e l ingam

,who are strict

Saivites . On this day th e Ramayana (th e sacred epicpoem of th e H indus recording th e adventures of Rama)i s read in private houses and in th e temples . In th e

bazaars also, and in other pub l ic places,pandits read

and explain this favourite poem to surrounding crowds .

Even in smal l villages some one will be found and

asked to read aloud th e sacred text , as much meriti s supposed to be derived even from th e hearing of it .It is said that whoever studies this book i s therebyliberated from al l h i s sins and is exalted to th e highestheaven .

There i s an image of Rama in alm ost every vil lage.

Th e number in th e towns varies according to theirsize, for there is no god in India so universal ly worshipped as this one . Th e image is adorned and takenin procession through th e streets on this day , to th e

accompaniment of music and th e singing of hymns ofpraise . One great feature of th e fest ival i s a pilgrimage, by those who are able to make i t , to some celeb rated temple of Rama . Of such tem ples there appearto be very few. There is a famous one at Bhadrachalam on th e Upper Godavari river to which greatnumbers come, some fr om very long distances , to bepresent during th e festival . Those who can afford todo so r ide in th e bullock cart of th e country , whilst th emaj ority trudge al ong on foot , car rying their bundleof r ice or other food on their heads . Every now and

then a group of these pilgrims, as they j ourney on ,

will set up a Shout of GOvinda ! GOvinda! (a name

of Vishnu) , which h as a strange effect , especial lywhen heard for th e first time . Th e details of th e

temple worship on this occasion ar e very much l ikethose already described under Maha Sivaratr i . At

20


Bhadrachalam ,

‘

large quantities of food are distribu tedto th e poorer pilgr im s, both from th e temple stores and

also by wealthy pilgrims, who thus acquire much mer it

(punyam ) . Sometimes an epidemic wil l break ou t at

these annual gather ings, when numbers die, and th e

disease i s car ried far and wide by th e returning pilgrims. Much mer it i s gained from th e pilgrim age and

fr om seeing th e face of th e god , and so sanitary con

siderat ions are m ade to give way to supersti tion .

(5) NAGA SAVITI i s a festival in honour of th e Na

gas . It occurs on th e 4 th day of th e first par t of

th e month Kar tika (October—N ovember) . Th e Nagasare a race of serpents supposed to be half human ,th e head and body to th e waist being human and

th e rest serpent . They ar e said to inhabit th e regionsunder th e earth (nagalok um ) . This race of demi-godsi s supposed to be malevolent and , therefore, much of

th e worship i s for th e purpose of deprecating theirwrath . Th e Nagasavi t i festival is observed by al l

classes and lasts for one day . Th e real Object soughtfor by th e masses is to be preserved from beingbitten by snakes ; but there i s also some idea thatthese monsters ar e able to cure certain diseases ,chiefly those of th e skin .

Th e principal object of wor ship on this day i s th e

cobra,which i s considered to be th e chief of th e

snakes. Th e worship i s m ainly done by th e womenwho

,accompanied by a family priest , go to th e nearest

white an t heap , a favourite abode of th e cobra, takingwith them milk and flowers, and a dish prepared withgr ound rice, jaggery , and camphor . Th e wor shippers ,having previously bathed , let their hair hang downand then perform a service at the an t-hill, by repeating th e name of th e god , pouring milk down th e holeand scatter ing flowers over th e hillock . If a priest i spresent , h e repeats th e form cal led sank alpam , whichconsists chiefly of mentioning th e names Of th e place,


the morning of th e ninth . Th e real fun i s on th e

ninth . On this day there are th e usual processions ofth e images accompanied by dancing gir ls and th e

singing of h ym ns to th e prai se of Krishna, and repet i t ions of mantram s by attendant pandits . Muchamusement i s afforded by th ings got up in memory of

Krishna’

s steal ing th e cur ds and bu tter . Two u prigh tpoles are fixed in th e earth in publ ic places , usual lyacr oss th e s treet , and a cross pole i s attach ed to th etop which i s adorned with leaves, flowers and banner s .

A pulley is at tached to th e centre of th is cr oss bar ,through which a str ing i s r ove, suspending an earthenpot containing m i lk and a few coins . Th e pot i scovered over with a cocoanut . A person holds th e

oth er end of th e string and pulls th e pot U p and down .

You ths , usual ly of th e gol la or milkm en caste—Krish nawas reared in a golla house— leap and t ry to touchth e pot , which i s dexterou sly jerked out of reach byth e person holding th e string . Whoever succeeds intouching th e pot gets i ts contents as a prize . All thisaffords much fun , and th e competitors are drenchedwith colour ed water (vasan tam ) , which i s squirted orthr own over them by th e revel lers as they leap about .Gr easy poles are also set up , or posts smeared withtar : th e contents of a pot fixed at th e top being th e

prize of th e successful climber . Altogether it is a

day of fun and rej oicing , of a very innocent nature as

compared with th e abominat ions of th e H oli fest ival .(7) VINAYAKA CH ATU RTH I i s th e great festival of th e

birth day of Vinayak a or Ganesa . This deity i s said tohave been th e son of Siva and D urga or Kal i . H e is

supposed to ward off Obstacles and difficulties and i s ,

therefore , worshipped at th e commencement of al l

impor tant undertakings in order to avert th e interferenceof evil demons . Th e wor ship of Ganesa is very popularand so this festival i s observed by al l classes exceptth e strict Vaishnavas . H is image is that of a man ’

s


body with an elephant ’s head , and a ver y protuberantstomach to denote h is gluttony . Th e feast i s h eld on

th e fourth day Of th e l ight half of th e month Bhadrapada (August—September ) and i s observed for one day .

There i s no particular worship in th e temples, nor are

there any processions . All th e worship is done in

pr ivate houses . In that portion of th e house whereworship is wont to be performed , a smal l clay platformi s er ected and adorned with a powder made of groundrice mixed with colour ing matter , and upon th is a clayimage of Ganesa i s placed . These images ar e madeby th e potter s in immense numbers at this season ,

as each house, however poor , must h ave one . Theyare simply m ade of clay formed in a mould , and costabout one pie (half a far thing) each . When th e im agei s placed on th e platform , sever al lights are placedbefore it , and a mantram of consecration i s said uponwhich th e spirit of th e god i s said to enter into it .Worship i s performed to this im age by repeatingcertain prayer s and after that by dropping upon it ,one by one , twenty-one different kinds Of certain leavesand th e same number of certain flowers . D u ring thisOperation th e th ousand names of th e god ar e repeated .

Food i s also placed before th e image , especial ly hardbal ls made of ground rice with pounded Bengal gramand som e cocoanut . O f th e prayers that are said th efollowing is a specimen

flaiami farm; afsavi S quid l

m aria easier Haifatimmaq n

Med itate upon th e wh ite-robed omn ipresen t on e,

In colour like unto th e m oon , and h aving four arm s ,

Th e E leph an t -faced one (Ganesh ) ,For th e rem oval of al l ob stacles .

”

This worship takes place at mid-day and i s repeatedin th e evening after sunset , up to which time th e


lights must be kept burning before t h e image .

‘ H ow

ever poor th e people m ay be they will have , at least ,one smal l l ight burning . If in a house there are onlyone or two people and they are very poor, they wil lj oin with others for this worship .

It i s at this feast that th e ar tisans wor ship theirtools and th e students their books, which i s done byplacing them before th e image, and , when th e worshipi s finished , spr inkling them with r ice wh ich h as beencoloured red and with sandalwood paste . Th e ceremony i s concluded by cir cumam bulat ing th e platformand image , at th e same t ime r epeating prayer s . Someof th e flower s and leaves which have been used in th e

'

worship are taken by th e worshipper s to adorn theirown per sons . On th e thir d day ,

th e l itt le im age i s

taken and th rown into running water— a river orstream—or into a wel l or tank ; that is, anywherewhere it cannot be tr odden upon or otherwise defi led .

Th e sam e is done with th e flowers and leaves thathave been used in th e wor ship .

Those wh o are rowdy amongst th e people have muchfun dur ing th e darkness of th e night , throwing st oneson houses , or putting down thorny seeds in fron t of

th em , wh ich when trodden upon by th e bare foot pier cei t and cause pain . Th e idea is that th e blame and

cur ses evoked by this will be turned in to blessingsupon th e perpetrators of th e mischief .It is customary , sometime during th e evening beforedark , for groups of people to assemble in a neigh bour’shouse to hear a story called Sam an tak am .

” It is re

lated h ow th e sun , being pleased with a certain kingnamed Satraj it t , gave to him a mythological jewel cal ledsam an tak am , which h e h ad taken from h is own necklace . It is supposed that those who do not hear thisstory before seeing th e moon , wil l run th e risk of

having some false ch arge or other made against them ,

or in some way be subject to slander or calumny . Th e


a cup-l ike termination into which sweet smel ling powderis placed . This th e pupils shoot ou t upon those whomthey visit . Th ey also r ecite various things they havelearnt . Such recitations always begin with a verse inpraise of Ganesa. Th e pupils get presents of fruitand sweets , whilst th e master s get money or cloths .

In this way indigenous learning i s encouraged .

In 1884 there was a H indu revival . A Ram abh ajanaparty , carrying a k alasam , th e representation of D urga

,

went in procession from their vil lage to two adjoiningvillages . They were then joined by another party fr omeach of th e latter, which cal led itself Ram a D andu or

Rama’

s army . Th e triple party then went in turn toeach of th e three vil lages adjoining two Of th e or iginaltriplet . From each of these, a new triplet branchedou t and repeated th e process ; so that th e movement ,believed to have started from somewhere in Mysore,Spread in al l directions . A s Rama’

s army i s said tohave consisted of monkeys , it was considered th e pr operthing for i ts antitype to engage in al l kinds of m isch ievous pranks ; and so i ts members broke br anch esoff th e trees, pulled tiles and thatch Off roofs , knockedth e turbans off people they m et in th e way and insistedon their shouting GOvinda

'

s and disturbed Muh am

m adan s at worship by singing uproariously beforemosques . This produced il l-feeling and riots betweenth e H indus and Muhammadans . Unfortunately , beforeth e animus could subside, th e Muhar ram and D asarafestivals partly coincided for three years . D uring thattime

,th e H indus, in th e places where th e riots occurred ,

did not take any part in th e Muharram , although th ecar n ival portion of that commemoration of th e martyrdom of Muhammad ’s grandson H usain used in formeryear s to be largely Observed by th e H indus . H avingdeprived themselves of this fun , th e H indus appearto have attempted to compensate themselves by getting up dur ing th e next D asara a caricature of th e


Muh ar ram .

l H ad th e details been purely H indu adaptat ion s , th ey would , pr obably have passed unnoticed .

B u t they were considered by th e Mu salm an s , r ightlyor wrongly

,to be gross caricatur es and inten tionally

Offensive . Th e Muhamm adans objected especial ly to

th e introduction into th e D asara of th e tiger disguise .

Th e reason for this appears to be that this disguiseh as , in Southern India,

come to be looked upon as th e

most distinctive feature of th e Muharram . Th e way inwhich th is ’

comm em oration of a mournful event becameconver ted in to a carnival i s al leged to be this . Th e

Mogul Emperors and th e Musalman kings of th e D ec

can sometimes ch ose H indu consorts . One of these i sbelieved , wh en in trouble , to have endeavour ed to add

to th e efficacy Of h er invocation of H usain for h i s in

tercession ,by vowing that if h er prayer were ans

‘

weredsh e would exhibit some members of h er family in a

humi l iating disguise during th e Muharram . Th e objectof h er prayer being accomplished , sh e kept h er vow .

H er example was fol lowed by other devout and anxiou sparents

“

and other s . Th e fame of th e success of suchvows induced H indus also to m ake Similar vows . Toth e original humiliating disguises , was afterwar d s addedthat of th e tiger , an ind ication of readiness to fight forIslam like a tiger, a simile invariably employed to descr ibe th e fighting of th e faithful fol lower s of H u sainon th e occasion which i s commemorated by th e Muharram . This disguise, more than any other , caught th efancy of th e H indus, who did not trouble to becomeacquainted with i ts significance.

(9) D EEPAVAL I , or th e feast of lam ps, is observed on

th e last two days of th e dark fortnight of th e monthAshvayu ja (September—October ) and i s taken part inby al l classes of H indus . It i s held in memory of

1 For an accoun t of th e or igin of th e Muh ar ram , see Sel l ’s Faithof Islam ,

”

(3rd ed it ion ,pp . 352-9 ; also H erk l ot

’s

“Qanun-i

Islam ”(ed . Mad ras , pp. 98-148 .

21


Krishna’

s victory over N arakasu ra, th e wicked giant

(Raksh asa) . I t s chief features are th e l ighting up of

th e houses with num erous l ittle lam ps and th e lettingOH of fire-works . There ar e no special temple servicesor pr ocessions at th is season . It i s m erely a time of

popular r ej oicin g . Th e streets present a very gay

appearance at n ight on account of th e numer ous l ightsth at are placed in front of th e houses . Mimic combatstake place in th e streets between parties wh o hur ll ighted fire-works at each other , and these battlessometimes becom e very r eal , end ing in a good dealof rioting . Altogether th e str eets, particularly on th e

second night of th e festival , are not a very safe or

pleasant place for quietly disposed people .

(10) KARTIKAPURNIMA , or th e ful l moon of th e monthof Kartika (October—N ovember ) , is a fest ival Observedin c ommemoration of Siva’

s victor y over th e threegiants (tripu rasura) . These giants are said to h aveinhabi ted three celestial cities made respectively of

gold , si lver an d iron,which wer e adjacent to each

other and wer e capab le of being moved about incom pany at th e will of th e giants . These malevolentbeings wer e a constant sour ce of tr oub le to gods and

m en, wh o, at length , unable to bear it any l onger

prayed to Siva for deliveran ce from th e evil . This

god Slew th e tr oublesom e t r ipu rasura and u tterlydestroyed th eir cities . This festival i s observed on

th e ful l moon of Kar tika and i s kept by al l classesexcept str ict Vaishnavas . It lasts only for one day

and one nigh t .Th e day preced ing th e ful l m oon i s observed by th e

devout as a str ict fast . In th e early morning it i snecessary to bathe in th e sea if possible or , fail ingthat , in a r iver or pond or some other water . Afterth e moon h as r isen , special wor sh ip is per formed inth e tem ples of Siva . Th e image is then taken in pro

cession th rough th e streets with th e usual musical and


th e moon . Upon th e leaf is placed a l ittle heap ofrice upon which is put a betel leaf, and upon thisagain i s placed a l ittle sandalwood paste , and on th e

top of that th e l i t tle silver medal . Each separate groupwill have one of these temporary al tars . Worship isthen performed in th e usual way by p lacing befor e itl ittle l ights m ade of gh ee and a wick in brass saucers,and by dr opping upon it coloured r ice, leaves and

flowers , at th e same time mentioning some of th e

names of th e m oon . An attendant p l iest -in th e caseof wel l-to-do people their own f am ily pr iest— repeats a

prayer in th e name of th e wor shippers , and th e worshipis concluded by t h e wom en waving lighted cam phorbefor e th e Object of wor ship , Saying at th e sam e timesome kind of prayer , as an expression of their par ti cularneed or r equired boon . Th e l ittle h eap of th ings ’

on

th e leaf, th e m edal included , i s given to th e priest as

a fee .

Th e women who engage in - th l S worship do not

include young unmarried women or widows or th e

aged . Th e prayer rxpeated by th e priest , in th e

name of th ose for whom h e - i s officiating , will serve toShow th e Object with which th e worship is done . I tis as fol lows

Ufgviram Haifa Rfaaqfi ia‘r Rana

a rgufimii ’azi i ts fl gash ? n

O th ou Om n iscient h usband of Roh in i ,1Who ar t wor sh ipped in th is im age,Gran t m e long life, h eal th , prosperi ty,And m ale progeny .

”

(11 ) SAMVATSARAD I is th e festival of th e new year .Th e

'

Telugu N ew Year ’

s day is th e fir st day of th emonth C haitra (March—Apr il) and i s observed by al l

classes . It lasts for one day Only. This i s not , strictly

J Roh in i i s supposed to be th e wife of Ch and ra, th e moon .


speaking , a rel igious festival (vratam ) , and , therefore,ther e ar e no special temple services or pr ocessions . Th e

chief features of th e day are th e reading of th e new

almanac , and , hearing th e forecast of th e events oft h e New Year . N ew clothes also are worn , when procurable, and th e food par taken of during t he day is,

as far as possible, composed of new mater ials, i .e . ,

new grain , pulses and such like, for this i s a feast ofingathering . .One d ish , wh ich must be partaken of bya ll who wish for good luck dur ing th e year, i s a conserve composed of sugar, tam ar ind and th e flowers ofth e neem or margosa tr ee, wh ich i s then in ful l flower.Th e bitter taste of this i s not much r el ish ed . as a

r u le ; bu t it i s necessar y that at least a smal lportion of th e dish Should be eaten . This seems tobe analogous to th e English idea that i t i s necessaryto eat mince pie at Chr istmas or at th e N ew Year .(12) MAH ALAYA AMAVASYA , th e new moon of th e

great destruction , i s observed as a day for makingoHer ings to th e manes of th e dead , who , through dyingother than a natural death , m ay not have received th eusual death rites . It occurs on th e new moon ofth e month B hadrapada (September—October) and is

observed by al l classes . It only lasts for one day.

On this day th e head of a family must performprescribed ceremonies for th e p receding three generations . Even if there i s no knowledge of any ancestorshaving died other than a natural death in th e fullodour of sanctity , it is still necessary that th e ritesshould be performed , lest there m ay have been someaccident . Th e ceremonies are very similar to th e usualannual ceremonies for th e dead .

1

In addition to th e occasions already mentioned , thereare four seasons in th e year that are considered veryim portant , and when it i s necessary

,if possible

,to

1 An accoun t of th ese wil l be given in ch apter x11 .


bathe in th e sea. These seasons are th e day of theful l m oon of Magh a (February) , Vaisakam (Apr ilMay) , A shadh a (June—Ju ly) , an d Kar tika (OctoberN ovember ) . Those within r each of th e sea will thenmake an eHor t to go there in order to take this holybath . At al l n ew m oons it i s also beneficial to bathein th e sea , but at times oth er than these feast daysand n ew m oons it i s high ly im proper even to touchsea water . All r ivers flow into th e sea, so at

,

.theseseasons bathing in i t s water s is equal to bathing inal l th e sacred r iver s in th e wor ld . By this al l sins ,even of th e m ost heinous kind

, are completely washedaway . Failing th e sea ,

a bath must be taken in a

river or a tank or at a well , but, a bath in th e sea i s

considered th e most beneficial of al l . Long beforedaylight crowds of people wend their way to th e sea

shore, some on foot and other s in veh icles of var ious

kinds . It i s better to go on foot , as it i s a kind of

pilgrimage, and a pilgrimage i s more meritorious whendone on foot . Before ac tual ly setting ou t for th e sea

shore, th e devout bathe at home , an d also again upontheir return . Th e bath ing must also be done fasting .

Th e bath ing i s done as fol lows . Th e bather walksinto th e water accompanied by a Br ahmin , who repeatst h e sank alpam (the name of th e place , t ime, etc .) Th enth e bather d ips under th e water three times . Afterth is h e makes th ree oblations to th e sun by thr owingup water towards it and saying hail to th e sun (Suryaya

namaha) , after which h e again dips under three times .

H e then comes ashore and makes a l ittle heap of sandwhich h e proceeds to wor sh ip as though it were h is

particular deity . Th e wor ship is done in th e usualway by dropping over th e object flower s and colouredpowder . After th is wor ship i s over . th e worshippertakes up th e l ittle heap of sand and casts it into th esea . H e then gives a fee to th e Brahmin who blesseshim and i t is al l over . Those wh o ar e in a position


beyond , to a place where a z amm i l tree formerly grew .

Th is tree i s an em blem of victory . Th e great templecar i s also dragged ou t . In former days th e car i s

said to have been taken al l along th e route with th e

procession ; but since th e Kistna canal h as been dugi t pr esents an im passable barr ier to so cumbr ous a

machine . There is an ir on girder bridge over th e canal ,not str ong enough to be safe for th e car to cr oss SO i tis only br ought up a Short d istance to th e canal , and

i s then taken back to th e temple . Th e principal feature in th e procession is a large elephant bearing in a

howdah th e procession gods of th e temple, and havingupon i ts neck th e D h arm akar ta, or temple patron

,a

local Rajah of some position . It i s said that a formerRajah of this house endowed th e temple with landswhich bring in R S. per annum . H ow far

this amount represents th e real revenue I cannot say .

Th e pr ocession i s supposed to repr esent a hunt (paruveta or running prey) and i s probably in some way

connected with th e legend upon which th e festival i sfounded . It was late at night when I heard th e din of

th e approaching mu l titude, as I went to a place nearwhich th e procession would end . Th e huge elephant ,most gaily capr isoned , Oame solemnly along bearing i tsimposing bur den . Th e Rajah , upon this occasion , was

represented by h i s son . Th ere were hor ses and bul lockcarts , th e latter for th e musicians, wh o with theirbarbar ous instruments made a gr eat noise . A troup of

dancing girls marched along with their attendants, andan immense crowd of people crushed along on eitherSide of th e procession . Th e tor ches and lights li tup th e whole throng

, and , together with th e brightmoon , made i t as light as day . When a hal t wasmade , near I suppose to th e imaginary z amm i tree , Imade my way to th e centre of th e throng . A circle

J,Mimosa suma.


Was formed in th e midst of which, squatted down on

th e ground , were several Brahmin priests who per

formed th e ceremony . A naked sword was held up byone, th e hilt resting on th e ground and pointing up

wards. This sword was kept in th e temple as th e one,

or as representing th e one, with'

which D urga s lewth e demon and to it worship was performed . A priestsprinkled it with water, pinches of k unk am a

1 powderand other things . Th e celebrant meanwhile repeatedverses or mantrams in a rapid voice ; but th e noisemade h is voice almost inaudible . NO one seemed to

pay much attention to what h e said . Th e dancinggir ls then began their usual monotonous singing and

contortions . I could not bu t reflect, with much sadness,that such religion and worship are supposed to be an

acceptable service to God . Truly they worship theyknow not what . “ They have no knowledge that set

up th e wood of their graven image, and pray unto a godthat cannot save. (Isaiah xlv .

Th e following are th e words enjoined by th e Puranas to be said by th e priest at th e conclusion of th ehousehold worship performed at H indu festive seasons .

They will serve to indicate th e motive which actuatesthose who observe th e various festivals, and so m ay

fit ly conclude this chapter.

fr $515 I Ffaaareafiaar:‘Q C o

6 Gramma r : Huerta Statute

aw m rmfa I flew sierra: n“Wh osoever Observes th is r iteWith care and with a devout m ind ,Wil l be freed from al l h i s sin s ,And will inh er it h eaven .

H e will real i z e al l h i s desiresBy th e favour of th e great God .

1 An te, p . 11 .

CH A P TE R ! I .

H I N D U M E N D I C I T Y

HEW. ( Yach ana .)

By open con fession , by repentance, by devotion and by r ead

ing t h e Scr ipture, a sinner m ay be released from h i s guilt ; or byalm sgiving in case of h i s inabi lity to per form th e oth er acts of

r eligion .

”

(Manu , xi .

Both h e wh o r espect fu lly bestows a presen t , and h e wh o re

spectful ly accepts i t sh al l go to a seat of bliss ; bu t , if th ey act

oth erwise, to a r egion of h orror . (Manu , iv .

TH E virtue of almsgiving i s most fi tly enjoined uponth e adherents of most rel igious system ; but there are

many and very radical d ifferences in th e motives thatunderl ie th e exercise of this grace . That th e mereindiscriminate giving of our substance is not truechari ty is a fundamental truth , which finds expression in th e Old Jewish proverb quoted by St . Paul inone of h i s Epistles —“ If any would not work neithershould h e eat .

” 1 The sturdy mendicant i s stil l to bem et with , even in Eur opean countries , but publicOpinion decidedly protests against such imposit ions . Inth e East , however , and especially in India

'

, th e principles regulat ing almsgiving are widely d iHeren t fromthose of th e West . If a m an h appens to belong to a

certain section of th e community , or if h e chooses toabandon al l honest toil , and set himself up as a m en

dican t , then , according to th e H indu theory,it i s a

1 2 Th essalon ians, i ii . 10 .


Brahmins. In th e Inst itutes of Manu it is stated thatan oblat ion in th e mouth or hand of a Brahmi n i s

far better than oHer ings to holy fire, it never drops,i t never dries, i t is never consumed . A gift to one nota Brahmin produces fruit of a middle standard ; toone who cal ls himself a Brahmin ,

double ; to a wel lread Brahmin , a hundred thousand fold ; to °

one

who h as read al l th e Vedas, infin i te .

1 Manu alsosays : “

L et every m an , according to h is ability , g iveweal th to Brahmins, detached from th e world and

learned in Scr ipture ; such a giver shal l attain heavenafter this l ife .

” 2 Very early in th e statutes , a universal law i s pr oclaimed , th e spir it of which pervadesth e whole code . This law calmly lays down thatwhatever _exists in th e univer se i s al l

,in effect ,

though not in form , th e weal th of th e Brahmins ;since th e Brahmin is entitled to it al l by h i s primogeniture and eminence of birth . Th e Brahmin eatsbut h is own food

,wears but h is own apparel , and

bestows but h is own in alms ; thr ough th e benevolenceof th e Brahmin indeed other mortals enjoy life .

3 Thisis a broad principle to enunciate, so it i s easy tosee how there i s nothing derogatory in a Brahmin ’

s

receiving alms . H e takes but what i s h is own , and

leaves a blessing to th e g iver .4

According to religious enactment , a Brahmin’

s l ifei s divided into four great stages , th e first of which isthat of a student . After being invested with th e

sacred thread and initiated into th e Brahminical order 5

h e i s supposed to leave h is father ’s house and residefor some years with a religious teacher , as an unmarried

1 Manu , vi l . 84-5.9 Ibid , xi . 6.

3 Ibid , i . 100-l .

4 Th e Persian idea of savab , or m er it , by wh ich th e reward passesnot to th e doer , if a non-Musl im , bu t to th e Muslim recipien t h assom e affini ty t o th is idea. (Malcolm ’

s“ F ive Years in a Persian

Town ,

” p.

5Ante, p . 18 .

B RAHMIN MEND ICANT AND DISCIPLE .


faurfaaai fimq Blfi li i arsuq

uqafa mam : ! H at t e ras : u

Th ose wh o to th e h um b le sch olarGive food every day ,Regular ly and ungrud gingly ,With des ire for h eaven , (will obtain i t ) .

Th e laws an d customs of India ar e very kind toth e poor travel ler and many who have occas ion tom ove about fr om one place to another , though utter lydevoid of m eans , ar e able to do so with comparativecomfor t . Th e travel ler i s always sure of a meal whenh e ar rives at a Vi l lage ,

if h e wait-s until th e midday or

evening m eal is served . Th e laws of hospital ity inIndia are very real ; and i t i s imperatively binding uponthose

,who can do so, to give food to needy travel lers ,

regardless of caste or condition . A Brahmin mustgo to Brahm ins for caste reasons ; and a Sudra , or

Panchama wil l go,in th e first place , to h is own people

by preference ; but if h is own people cannot help him ,

h e is sure of something , even from th e Brahmin . Tosend a hungry suppliant em pty away i s not only un

kind , i t i s a positive Sin . There ar e many enactmentson this point , and these are al l held binding upon th ehearts and consciences of th e people. Th e followingare specimens taken from th e Mahabharata.

afafufuq Ram? garmfa Haas 1

that : are Hai fa await?”q’

fl i t u“ From wh osesoever h ouseTh e stranger goes em pty away ,H i s ancestor s wi l l per ishFor fi fteen generations .

”

989 an Hf? TR ISH fame : q argat : I

Q

w ade], Sara: drfafata rieiam: n

H INDU MEND ICITY 175

“Were h e a sinner or an outcast ,Or even a B rahm in icide, or par r icide,Wh oever i s en ter tained at m eal t im e,

Th at stran ger will cau se th e h ost to attain h eaven .

(Svargam .)

I do not quarrel with such casual mendicity ; I commend such almsgiving, though it is easy to see h ow

th e thing m ay be abused by th e lazy loafing tramp .

I cannot , however, View with any such complacenceth e regular systematic mendicity that abounds on al l

hands , and that must be a great drain upon th e

resour ces Of th e people . I al lude to th e professionalrel igious beggars, a fraternity answering in some r e

spects to th e begging Fr iars of th e Middle Ages ,al though they are under no vows and do not l ive ‘incommunities . This pr ofession i s not confined to any

particular caste or section of th e community, and thereare many varieties of i t . It i s impossible to give herea ful l and complete catalogue of th e brotherhood . Ican only take a few specimens, from which a fairlyaccurate notion m ay be formed of th e whole .

F irst , I wil l give a description of th e mendicantBrahmin . In inculcating th e mer it of almsgiving , i t isalways enunciated that th e highest form of charity i sto give to th e Brahmin . Manu , after mentioning various conditions in which one m ay be placed , goes on tosay

“ To th ese m ost excellen t Brahm ins m ust r ice also b e givenwith h oly pr esen ts at ob lat ion s to fire and with in th e cousecrated circle ; bu t th e d ressed r ice, wh ich oth er s are to r eceive,m ust not b e del ivered on th e outside of th e sacred h ear th : goldand th e like m ay be given anywh ere.

Let every m an , accord ing to h i s ab ility, give wealth to

Brahm in s detach ed from th e wor ld and learned in Scr ipture :such giver sh al l attain h eaven after th is l ife” (xi . 3 ,

Whatever th e original theory m ay have been , it i s farfrom being th e case that al l Brahmins l ive in these


modern days by gifts and alms. Th e learned pr ofessionsand other walks of l ife are cr owded with Brahmins, wholabour for their subsistence as do other s . Probably iti s only th e principle of th e thing , as stated by Manu ,that now survives ; though it i s a principle that invarious parts and in manifold ways is stil l acted upon .

There i s , however, even now, a section of Brahminswho ar e professional mendicants , who depend for theirdaily sustenance upon th e alms of th e faithful . Theseare pr incipal ly th e Panchangam Brahmins . A panchangam i s an almanack , th e word being compounded ofpancha, five and au gam , a number or division . Thisal ludes to th e five specific things taken into considerat ion in . com puting by astrology , vi z .

, th e lunar day , the

day Of th e week , th e Sign in which th e moon happensto be, th e conjunction of th e planets an d th e combinations . Th e Panchangam Brahmin i s one who

,by

studying th e alm anack , i s able to state propitious or

unpropitious t imes . H e gets h is livel ihood by goingcertain rounds, day by day , from house to house ,

de

clar ing th e condition of things according to th e almanack , and receiving in return a dole usually consistingof grain . H e i s not hel d in much respect by h is own

caste people, but h e i s looked up to by th e othercastes . H e is consulted by h is constituents, from timeto time, when they wish to know th e propitious periodfor any undertaking , such as star ting on a j ourney ,making an important purchase, putting on new clothesor new jewel s, or when about to take up a new appointment , or when any

.

other important event i s contemplated . H e i s a Sm ar th a by sect , a worshipper of

Siva and wear s th e marks of that god ; but at th e

same t ime h e respects and worships Vishnu . H e

dresses very plainly , or rather h e dresses very little .

H e h as on th e loin cloth and an upper cloth is wornover h is shou lder . H is head i s bare, but , as a Sm ar th a

shoul d be, h e is plentiful ly marked with th e three


some such verses as th e one quoted above, showingth e benefits to be derived fr om hearing th e almanack .

H e th en goes on , in a more del iberate manner , to stateth e detai ls of th e day . Those for th e day I am

now wr iting about would be as follows ; m anm adh a

nama sam vatsara ; ch ai t rabah u la ; dash am i ; sh an ivaram

45, 56 ; Sh ravanam nak sh at ram 40, 44 ; vish k ambh a

yOgam 20,18 ; k aranam k im stughnam 14 , 15 ; var

jam d ivi 23,1 ; tyajyam 3 , 80 ; d inapramanam 31 , 20 ;

ash van i 1 ; ark h abh u k t i 1 , 15 ; chandu 20 ; April 20.

B ear ing in min d that a H indu hour i s equal totwenty-four English minutes and that thus th e hourforms th e sixtieth part of a day ,

th e meaning of th ewords recited would be, th e year Manmatha ; th emonth Chaitra ; th e dark for tnight ; th e tenth day of

that fortnight ; th e name of th e day , Saturday ; th elength of th e day , forty-five hours and fifty

-Six minutes ;th e star in th e ascendant being Sh ravanam , last ingfor forty hours and for ty-four minutes ; th e conflux ofvish k amba,

lasting for twenty hours and eighteenminutes ; th e combination k im stugh nam , lasting forfourteen hours and fifteen minutes ; th e unpropitioust ime commencing th e first minute of th e twenty-thirdhour of th e day, lasting until th e thirtieth minute ofth e third hour ; th e length of th e daytime thirty-onehours and twenty minutes ; th e sun being in th e firstquarter of A sh van i ; th e sun having passed one hourand fifteen minutes of i ts present Sign (Aries) ; th etwentieth day of th e moon , English time, April 20th .

It is th e custom in many houses to set apart a

certain portion of grain each morning , to be distributedto th e beggars who m ay come that day . Th e grainis put into a smal l basket and is given into th e chargeof an elderly woman , or of one of th e children , or of

some person who m ay not be engaged in householdduties . When th e mendicant comes before th e doorand cr ies out for alms, th e one in ch arge of th e bask et


wil l give a handful or two of grain , according to th equantity set aside for charity . Should th e supplybecome exhausted through th e multitude of cal lers, a

further supply m ay be given ou t , if th e household can

aHord i t ; otherwise th e late comers must depart without receiving anything . Sunday appears to be a special lygood and most propitious day for beggars . More almsare distributed on Sunday th an on other days . Whenth e panchangam gentleman appears h e is received bysome of th e el der s who m ay happen to be at home

,

as h is daily message is of importance .

Another class of professional mendicants is th e

Jangam mendicant . Th e Jangam as are a sect ofSaivas who wear th e l ingam on their person , ei therin a box suspended from th e neck , or else tied in a

cloth round th e arm . They are a class of Sudras ,wh o, theoret icall y , do not hold caste distinctions and

in various other ways repudiate Brahminical rites .

Many of this sect follow th e profession of tailors and

dress-makers , whilst many ar e native musicians and

some are pr ofessional beggars . Th e Jangam beggarh as th e upper part of h is face and eyes plentiful lycovered with th e white horizontal marks of Siva . H e

i s also clean shaven , and does not even wear th e universal top-knot . H e is more plentifully clothed thanth e ordinary mendicant , h i s chief garment being a

long reddish-coloured coat . H e also wear s a cap . H e

carries in h is hand a long staH with a steel triden t at

th e end of it ; while slung from one shoulder i s a

bel l and a conch shel l , and from th e other th e almsbag. Round h i s neck is a rosary , composed of th e

rough spherical seeds of th e r udrak sh a tree ; and al together h e is a person not easily to be mistaken . H e

h as h i s constituents in various quarters , whom h e

visits in turn , according to their number and h is own

particular need or fancy . On coming to a house,

h e stands and rings h is bel l to cal l attention to h is


presence, at th e same time shouting out th e wordsMahadeva shembo (names of Siva) . Then standingwith h is trident staH planted upright by h is side, h ebegins to sing a snatch of some song , according toth e attention that m ay be paid to him . On receiv

ing a dole , h e blows a long b last on h i s conch Shel land then takes h is departure . Th e conch i s held sacredto Siva, who is supposed to enjoy th e peculiar soundmade by blowing thr ough it . I give some specimensof th e songs thus sung. They are taken from th e

Telugu language . I have attempted to preserve th e

ideas , though I have somewhat altered their form .

There is a pessimistic ring about them . Th e Jangam s

ar e pure pessimists . Th e words Siva, Siva, appearto be used as mere expletives . Th e songs are as

follows

A SON G OF D E SP A IR .

Th is body with al l i ts poor deeds i s but vain ,

I t bu t linger s a t im e h ere aloneA m ere act ing puppet ’

t i s seen for a day ;

B u t at n igh t it h as peri sh ed and gone.

R efr ai n .—Trust not in th e flesh .

D o not t rust it.Oh Siva ! Siva !D o not tru st i t .

Th eir h opes are al l vain ,

’

t is al l fru i tless I know,

Wh o contentm ent and joy ever crave.

Th ough wealth wi th out m easure one h as to h is store,

H e m ust leave i t and Sink in th e grave.

Tru st not in th e flesh , etc.

We live in th e m idst of our lov’

d ones wh o may

P erch ance linger around us for year s ;Yet wh en th e dread m essen ger calls u s away,Th en alone we m ust leave th em with tear s .

Trust not in th e flesh , etc.

182 THE H INDU AT HOME

Jangamas are am ong th e Saivas. This sect was founded by Chaitanya in th e 15th century, and original lyi ts adherents were of al l castes. Now, however , in th enorthern parts of th e Madras Presidency , at least ,Satan is are al l Sudras . They wor ship Krishna, whomthey hold to be th e supreme God . A large numberof this sect ar e minstrels , or mendicants . L ike th e

Jangam th e Satani should be clean shaven . On h is faceand on various por t ions of h is person h e i s adornedwith th e trident-shaped mark of Vishnu . On h is

shoulder h e carr ies a guitar-shaped instrument , havingfour wire strings . On this h e strums as h e goes alongand with it also h e accompanies h is songs . H e h as a

pumkin-shaped vessel to receive h is doles, which h e

transfers to a cloth when th e vessel i s full . Th isvessel i s adorned with th e religious marks of Vishnu .

H e begs from al l conditions of people and from al l

castes except th e P anch amas. When ' h e arrives infront of a house where he expects alms h e Shouts out“adoration to th e most excellent Ramanuja (Shrimaté Ramanujaya namah) , and then begins to singone of h is songs of which I give a translation of a few

specimens . In th e first of these, Vishnu i s cal led th esaviour of th e elephant in al lusion to a story in th e

eighth book of th e“ B hagavatam .

” An elephant wasbathing in a tank , when it was attacked by a crocodile which would have kil led it h ad not Vishnu orH ari come to i ts relief .

A MED ITA TION ON VI SH N U .

My soul , full sat isfaction seek,Engage th yself in th is ;

Go, m editate on H ari’s feet,

Make t h is thy ch iefest b li ss.

R ef rain :—My soul , why settest th ou th yselfOn th ings th at are bu t vain ;Th e saviour of th e elephan tThy h igh est love doth claim .

H INDU MENDICITY 183

On h im , th e gr eat in excellence,Thy h ear t and m ind em ploy .

My soul , wh y set test , etc.

My soul , ,wh y Spendest thou th ysel f,On ch ildren , wife, or wealthSh r i Vish nu serve and thu s attainTo joy of soul and h ealt h .

My soul , why settest , etc.

My soul , con sider h im wh o reign s ,A t Kanch i ’s m ountain h om e,

Wh ose wives Bhudevi , Sh r i devi ,Sh are h i s great golden th rone.

My soul , why settest , etc.

Th e next is a hymn in praise of Rama .

followsP RA I SE TO RA M A .

Th ou parent of Brahm a,

Th ou glor ious Sri Ram a ,

Th y greatn ess wh at m or tal can tell .

At tend and be gracious ,I’

l l tell forth th y praises,Thy glory wh at m ortal can tell .

Wh o Slew foul Mar ich a,And saved Vi shvém it ra,

Thy prowess wh at m ortal can tel l .

Wh o brake th e bow h ara,

And th us gained Sweet Sita,Th y vigour wh at m ort al can tell .

Wh o spared Kak asu ra,Wh en plead ing for m ercy,

Th y kindness wh at m ortal can tell .

Wh o e’

er bestows bounty ,On th ose wh o seek from th ee,

Th y goodness what m ortal can tell.

Th ou fr iend of th e fr iend less ,Grant h elp to m e h elpless,

Thy pity wh at m ortal can tel l .


Th e various al lusions in it m ay be briefly explained .

They are stor ies to be found in th e“Ramayana.

Mari cha was a malevolent being (Rakshasa) , son ofTataka. H e and h is brother Subahu impishly interfered with a R ishi named Vish vam i tra and preventedh is performance of a Sacrifice . Being unable to endurethis interference, and , at th e same t ime, powerlessto prevent it , th e R ishi appealed to Rama for assistance . Rama came and destr oyed th e two brotherswith two arrows . Subah u was Slain with a fire ar row ;and Maricha being struck with a wind ar r ow fel l intoth e sea . In or der to express h i s gratitude for thisdel iverance, Vish vam itra told Rama of a certain kingnamed Janaka, who h ad promised to give h is daughterSita to wife to anyone strong enough to break a certainbow named hara or h arath anassu . Rama accompaniedby Vishvam i tra went to th e king and succeeded in performing th e required test and thus won h i s wife Sita.

When Rama was banished from h is father ’s homeinto th e eternal forest, h e was accompanied by h is wifeSita and h i s brother L ak shmana. One day whilst th ethree were thus l iving in th e forest , near a mountaincalled Ch i trakuta (a mountain in Bundelkhand) , Ramalay Sleeping with h i s head in Sita’

s lap . A demon crow

(rakshasa) , named Kakasura, seeing th e bare foot ofSita, and thinking fr om i t s r ed colour that it wasmeat , came near and bit th e foot so that the bloodbegan to flow.

1 At th e cries of Sita, Rama awokeand , on seeing th e bleeding wound , h e ascertained whath ad been done . Th e enraged husband then made an

arrow of a blade of grass , and shot it from h is bowat th e demon crow which was sitting on a tree nearby . This blade of grass became an ar row of fire

and followed th e crow wherever it flew, no matter inwhat direction i t went . At length Kakasu ra, being

1 Red is th e beauty colour am ongst H indus .


song , and also at th e end of each verse . Th e wholeSong of which one Sr inavas is said to be th e author,i s supposed to be a divine meditation of th e authorupon h is god Krishna

D I VIN E M E D I TA T ION .

O th ou in wh om al l th ings do m ove,Th ou beauteou s b ein g d ivine,Th ou refuge of al l in d ist ress ,Th ine ear to m y sor rows in cline.

Ref r a i n :—Th ou lord of th e Sages al l h ail !Th ou dweller on Yedu s vast h eigh t .Th ou great pu r ifier al l h ail !To th ee goodness i s e

’

er a deligh t .

Th ou lovest m e i s i t not so ?

Th y m ercy I ’

l l everm or e craveI love th ee, too, th at th ou dost know,

Stretch for th t hy r igh t h and and now save.

Th ou lord of th e Sages , etc.

Th ou fr iend of th e one great suprem e,

Th in e anger I ever would flee

I call to th ee, deaf th ou dost seem ,

In love do th ou turn un to m e.

Th ou lord of th e Sages, etc.

In greatness th y nam e doth excel ,Thy speech i s as n ectar to m e

Oh stay of thy slave Sr in ivas,To th ee, favoured O f Vishnu , I flee.

Th ou lord of th e Sages , etc.

On coming in front of a dwel l ing where h e expectsto receive alms, th e Dasari wil l strike up a song inpraise of Vishnu , who is also known as Narayana .

This term i s also sometimes used as an appel lationof th e great supreme (Param éshvara) . Th e auth or of

this hymn is supposed to be one Venkatadas

“Much fast ing I cannot sustain .

Med itat ion and pr ayer I neglect ,I feeb le and wor th y of b lam e,

Would Sh are in thy boun ty and grace.

Ref r a in :—Narayana ! Narayana ! th e nectar of th y nam e,

To m e i s life, to m e i s h ealth , to m e i s m ore th an al l

Th ou lotus-eyed , creat or th ou , th ou m ost beneficen t ,

B e gracious now, attend m y prayer , yea h ear m e wh enI call .

I pract ise not giving of alm s ,

Know noth ing of thy d ivine waysOh ! look upon m e, t hy poor slave,And a id m e to bask in th y r ays .

Narayana Nara) ana etc .

Oh refuge of Venk atadas ,

Gr eat spir it of wisdom and grace,En th roned on thy lotus attend ,

Gr an t m e to beh old th y lov’

d face.

Narayana ! Narayana ! etc.

On receiving h is dole, th e Dasari wil l pronounce a

blessing upon th e g iver in some such words as th e

fol lowing“Wealth , gold , and oth er r ich es in abundan ce ; abundance of

ch ildren and grandch ildren ; lon g life , h ealth , and p rosper ity be

to th ee . My blessing i s Brahm a’

s blessing, by th e m er cy of th e

al l-bountiful m ay you h ave prosper ity in abundance.

”

Th e Dasari , and th e Panchangam Brahmin are muchsought after, on account of their skil l in settl ing whichare good or bad t imes for any particular event , such as

a m arriage or a j ourney , to take place.

Th e cal culation seems to be m ade in th e fol lowingmanner . There ar e twenty-seven stars which ar e sup

posed to guide th e aHair s of mankind . Ther e i s a ruleby which certain letter s of th e alphabet and combina


tions thereof are attached to certain star s, and this isth e star ting point in these predictions . Suppose a m an

is about to start on an important j ourney and wishesto know when h e Should set out . On going to a

Dasar i , h e will be asked h is name. Suppose th e nameto be Venk ayya, th e fir st com bination of this nam e beingve , and , that being attached to th e star Mrugash ir a,

cal

cu lat ions are made with th e h elp of th e almanack , as toth e position of that star with reference to th e planetar ysystem general ly, and in this way a conclusion i s ar

rived at as to a cer tain par ticular period of time— an

hour , or a day , or a week, or a year, as th e case m ay

be— being favourable or otherwise . Th e amount of th efee to be paid depends , to a certain extent , upon th enatu re and im por tance of th e event contemplated .

Th e four th stage of a Br ahm in ’

s l ife i s that of th e

San iyasi , during which h e i s supposed to leave h i s

h ome and fam i ly and l ive entirely by alms . H e

should sh ave OH h is sikha or topknot , and discard h issacred thread ; and , going forth as an empty-handedm endicant , l ive a l ife of hardship and self-denial forth e remainder of h i s days .

On ly once a day let h im dem and food , let h im not h abituate h im self to eat m uch at a t im e ; for an anch or ite h ab ituated to eat m uch becom es in cl ined to sen sual grat ificat ion s .

A t th e t im e wh en th e sm oke of th e kitch en fires h as ceased ,

wh en th e pest le lies m ot ion less , wh en th e burn ing ch ar coal i sext inguish ed , wh en people h ave eaten , an d wh en d ish es are re

m oved , th at i s , late i n th e day , let th e San iyasi always b eg food .

”

(Manu , vi . 55

Very few new adopt this mode of l ife ; and thosewh o do ar e mostly to be found at Benares and otherH indu h oly places . Th e chief Gurus (Super iors) of th ethr ee great sects , who fol low respectively th e D vaita,Advaita and Visish tadvaita schools of philosophy

,must

be San iyasis ; only instead of leading a wandering l ife,they reside at th e chief seats of theological power.


N umberless , indeed , are th e devices of th e lazy roguesto get a comfortable l ivel ihood without hard labour .Th e indiscr iminate g iving of alms i s an outgrowth ofth e rel igious system which enjoins giving for th e mereasking , and that to one and al l whether orthodox or

heterodox . This i s car r ied to such an extr eme that iti s mer itorious to feed anim als of var ious kinds and

even to cast a h andful of broken grain to th e ants .

“Gi ft s m u st be m ade by each h ou sekeeper , as far as h e h as

abil ity , to r el igious m end ican t s , th ough h eterodox ; and a j ust port ion m ust be reserved , with out in con ven ience to h i s fam ily , foral l sen t ien t bein g s , an im al an d vegetable .

”(Manu , iv .

Connected with th e subject of mendici ty is that ofsat ram s or choul tr ies and of sheds erected in th e hotseason for th e giving of water or butter-milk to th e

poor and thirsty wayfarer . There i s no town an d

scar cely any large village , which h as not some kind of

satr am , er ected by char i ty . Th i s i s somet im es done byan individual , an d sometimes by a gr oup of persons, or

perhaps by a whole village, in order to accom m odatetravel lers . In a country wher e there ar e no inns or

hotels , these form excellent substitutes ; and , considering th e h ab its of th e natives , they are m ore suitablethan anything European could be . So useful indeedare these places , that Government and public bodiesl ike Municipal i t ies som etimes ei ther build them themselves , or assist by grants in th e building of them .

These satram s are of two kinds , those which ar e merelyfor lodging , leaving th e visitors to provide for themselves ; and those which , in addition to lodging , providefood gratis to th e needy tr avel ler . It i s this whichbrings th e satram s within th e subject of mendicity .

Many of these institutions have endowments of landsattached to them ,

which often yield a large incomeA large choultry m ay have d iHer en t d ivisions for d iHeren t cas tes, whilst others m ay be only for one particularcaste . It i s only poor travel ler s wh o receive their food


gratis ; th e wel l-to-do provide for themselves, thoughthey gladly make u se of th e accommodation provided .

It i s considered very mer i tor ious to build or endow a

ch oultry .

On th e occasion of marriages, funerals , ceremonies forth e dead an d var ious other occasions , food i s distributedto Brahmins an d to th e poor , according to th e abilityof th e giver . It i s th ese things which cause suchoccasions as mar riages and funerals to be so great a

source of debt , with al l i t s kindred tr oubles ; butcustom and th e rules of rel igion ar e so str ong thatfew,

if any , dare to disregard them .

It would be impossible to legislate against mendicityin India ,

in th e present condition of th e country ; nor

would it be wise, or beneficial to at tem pt to do so,

unti l something could be devised to better meet th e

wants of th e truly indigent and helpless, of whomthere ar e large numbers . It is th e abuse of char itythat I deprecate and not charity itsel f .If a pr oper computation could be made , i t would ,I bel ieve , Show that a very large section of th e peoplel ive directly or indirectly upon so-called charity ; and

consider ing that th e H indus ar e, as a people comparat ively poor , this must be a heavy tax upon th e industr iou s portion of th e community . This i s not th e onlyevil caused by such widespread mendicity, for i t s eHect S

upon th e morals of th e mendicants themselves, as wel las public manners generally , cannot but be most deplorab le.

1 Charity in itself is a grace that , in i ts true and

r ighteous exercise, not only confers benefits but bringsa reflex good . This cannot , however, be said of mere

1 “ Th e Fakir gr oup i s in a great m easure free from th e bonds of

caste, i t offer s a refuge to th e lazy and imm oral m em ber s of th e com

m un ity, wh o h ave been expel led from t h eir own cast e, or d esire to

Sh irk th e rules wh ich t h e br eth ren en force . Th e m end icant Vaish navasof B engal supply an example of a so-called religious profession degradedby debauch ery and sel f-indulgence .

”—Crooke,

“ N at ives of N or th ern

India ,” p. 123 .


giving , as su ch , apart fr om th e wor thiness either of

th e object or th e motives impel ling th e giver. If it i sdone merely with a desire to obtain m erit for onesel f,or to r eceive a qu i d p ro quo in th e shape of par donfor sin

, or a better position in a futu re birth , i t lacksth e ver y essence of true char ity . H owever

,m any

H indus ar e truly char itable,

1 in th e best sense of th e

word ; for true benevolence i s not confined withinany bounds , national or r el igious ; bu t so far as myreading and observation enable m e to form an opinionon th e matter , th e general teaching and practice of

H induism , as regards char ity , do not seem to be in ao

cordance with t h e spirit of true beneficence . H ow

d iHer en t i t i s fr om th e teaching of Christianity , th efollowing quotations Show :

As we h ave oppor tun ity , let u s do good un to al l m en , especial ly un t o th em wh o are of th e h ouseh old of faith .

”(Ga l . Vi .

For we h ear th ere are som e wh ich walk am ongst you d i s

order ly , working not at al l , bu t are busy bod ies . Now th em th at

are such we comm and and exh or t by our Lord Jesus Ch r ist th atwith quietness th ey work and eat t h eir own bread .

”(2 Th ess . i ii .

11

“ Let h im labour working with h i s h and s th e th ing wh ich i s

good , th at h e m ay h ave to give to h im th at needeth .

”

(Eph . vi .

1 “ N o peasan t ry in t h e wor ld with equally scan ty resources are

m ore ch ar itable t h an t h e H indus , and oven at th e m eanes t b u t th e

beggar ’s dem an d for a lit t le cake or a h an d ful of grain i s n ever d i sregarded .

”C rooke, “ N at ives of N or th ern Ind ia ,

” p . 123 .

C H A P TE R ! I I .

H I N D U F U N E R A L S .

SW , ( U t t a ra Kr iya ) .

Single i s each m an born ; single h e d ies ; s ingle h e r eceivesth e r eward of h i s good , and single th e pun ishm en t of h i s evildeed s .

Wh en h e leaves h i s corpse, like a log or a lum p of clay , on th e

ground , h i s kind red ret ire with aver ted faces ; bu t h i s vir tueaccom pan ies h i s soul . (Manu , iv . 240

A m an sion with bones for i t s rafter s and beam s ; with ner vesand tendon s for cor d s ; with m uscles and b lood for m or tar ; withskin for it s outward cover ing .

A m an sion in fested by age and by sorrow , th e seat of m alady ,and h arassed by pain s , h aunted with th e quality of darkness , andincapab le of stand ing long ; such a m ansion of th e vital soul l eti t s occupier always ch eer fully quit .

A s a t ree leaves th e bank of a r iver , wh en i t falls in , or as

a b ird leaves th e bran ch of a t r ee at h i s pleasur e, thus h e, wh oleaves h i s body by n ecessity or by legal ch oice, i s deliveredfrom th e raven ing Sh ark , or crocod ile , of t h e wor ld . (Manu ,vi . 76

TH ERE is a curious passage in Manu where th e question seems to be r aised as to h ow death can h ave any

power over such holy beings as Brahm ins, especiallythose learned in th e Vedas , and who undeviating lyper form th e duties laid down for their guidance . Areason i s g iven for th e mortality of a twice-bor n whom ay have been remiss in per forming r el igious rites

, or

h as oHended in th e matter of diet . Th ere i s nothing25


said as to th e possible immortal ity of one who doesnot dev iate from th e rules and th e regulations laiddown for h i s guidance . Th e fifth ch apter of

“ ManavaD harm a Sastra,

” which opens with th e passage r e

ferred to,i s largely com posed of th e most minute rules

and r egulations as to diet . It i s difficult to conceiveth e possibili ty of a m or tal m an ’

s avoiding som e oHence

named and thus rendering him self amenable to death .

Th e passage i s as followsTh e sages , h aving h ear d th ose laws del ivered for th e con

duct of h ouse-keeper s , th u s addressed th e h igh -m in ded B h r igu ,

wh o proceeded in a form er bir th from th e gen ius of fi re,

‘H ow, Lord , can death prevail over Brahm in s , wh o know th e

scr iptural ord inan ces , and per form th eir dut ies as th ey h avebeen declar ed ? ’

Th en h e. wh ose d isposit ion was per fect vir tue, even Bh rigu ,

th e son of Manu , thus an swered th e great R ish is H ear , fromwh at sin proceed s th e inclinat ion of death to destr oy th e ch iefof th e twice-born ,

’

Th rough a n eglect of r ead ing th e Véda, th rough a deser t ionof approved usages , th rough supine r em issness in per form in gh oly r ites , and th rough var ious offences in d iet , th e gen ius of

death becom es eager to destroy th em .

”

(Manu , v . 1

Amongst H indus of al l castes and of both sexes,when a per son i s at th e point of death , th e familypr iest i s summoned to administer th e last sacrament

(j ivanam askaram ) which i s administered in th e following manner . Th e sick person i s l ifted from th e couchupon which h e m ay be ly ing , and is made to recl ineupon th e gr ound , supported by a low stool . A couch i snot consider ed a pure place (madi) , and th e friends of a

sick m an will not even feed him whilst lying on it , unlessh e is too il l to be moved . For th e purpose of takingfood h e must be l ifted from off th e couch and made toSi t on th e gr ound . Th e pr iest then approaches with th e

panch agavyam , which m ay be cal led th e sacram entalelements . This consists of a mixture composed ofth e five products of th e cow—milk , curds , butter,


to d ie inside th e house .

1 Should death draw near at

such a per iod , th e patient i s carefully car r ied outsideto d ie in some outer verandah ? If , through any m is

for tune, h e should d ie inside th e house during sucha period , th e whole dwel l ing i s considered polluted .

It m ust be entirely vacated for some t ime, after whicha cer emony cal led punyach avach anam is per formed inth e place to pur ify it before it can be re-occupied .

Som et imes when such a calam ity does befal l a household

,in order to avoid th e trouble and cost of moving

out entirely , a hole i s made in th e side-wal l of th e

house , near th e room where th e death took place, and

th e body i s passed outside thr ough t h e hole . In su cha case , only that Side of th e house will be impure and

need purification ; th e other par t can be inhabited as

usual . This m ode of action , however , i s not consi

dered proper or respectable and i t i s thought to reflectdishonour upon th e dead .

Th e wail ing of eastern women is proverbial , but itm ust be witnessed or heard to be fully understood .

Th e m en are quiet in their grief , for it is not considered seem ly for a m an to weep and wai l ; but th efem ales abandon them selves completely to th eir sor rowan d their lam entations are both loud and long . Theytear their hair , beat their for eheads and r ol l theirbodies about as if in great agony , when they giveutterance to th eir sor r ow for th e dead . I know of

1 A n te , p . 25.

2 “Wh en an o r th odox H indu i s a t th e poin t of deat h , a B rahm an

b r ings a cow , m arks i t s foreh ead w i th verm ilion and salut es i t . A

lit t l e Ganges wat er i s poured in to th e m out h of th e dy ing m an ; alm s

are given t o B rahm ans and to beggars ; and ju s t at th e m om en t of

d issolu t ion h e i s r em oved in to th e open a i r or conveyed to th e r iverbank . Th e object i s , fi r s t , th at th e h ouse m ay be free from pol lut ion ;second ly , t h a t in th e open a i r th e soul m ay h ave free exit from t h e

body ; and t h i rd ly , th at res t in g on th e ground or in a h oly place , i t

m ay be safe from th e at tacks of evil spi r its . Such spi r i ts cannot rest

Upon th e ground .

”—C rooke , N at ives of N or th ern Ind ia ,” p . 216.

H INDU FUNERALS 197

nothing more hear t-rending than to witness such a

giving way to grief .A S soon as death h as taken place ,

a l ight i s put atth e head of th e body and prepar ations are at oncemade for th e funeral . Th e chief per son pr esent at i ti s th e near relative, who h as to per form th e n eces

sary rites, an d wh o is cal led th e karm a kar ta or th e

one who acts . This i s th e eldest son , if there i s one

who i s old enough to have received upanayanam .

Fail ing such a son , th e cer em onies are per form ed byth e following persons : if th e dead person i s a woman

,

h er husband ; if a m an ,h i s father ; if th e father i s

dead , th e next b rother and so on in order of nearestrelationship .

H ither to , al l I have written applies both to thosewho burn and to those who bury their dead . Bothmodes ar e in u se amongst H indus . I shal l now de

scr ibe in fuller detail , fir st , th e case of those who burnand , secondly, that of those who bury th e dead .

Usual ly only a few hours elapse after death beforeth e funeral takes place ; but there i s no fixed rule on thispoint ; i t seems to depend on circum stances . Th e deadbody i s now washed and adorned with th e pundram s

,

sacred marks , and then , clothed in one long cloth only,it i s put in a Sitting posture , lean ing against th e wal l ,th e head alone being uncovered . Th e karta now per

form s a hOm am sacr ifice in front of th e dead . Th e

fir e for th e hOm am i s br ough t from th e house fir e, andth e sacr ifice consists of dropping into it ghee, r ice, andth e green twigs of th e ravi or peepul tree . Mantram s

l ike this are r epeated th e while :

arega rd 1 as ast ra l as ! agd t Ha l

gnaw Ha I ashes fs g ar sfatjsm H

“ 0 fi r e d o thou tu rn toward s m e ; look kin d ly toward s m e ;

h ave favour upon m e ; with thy seven tongues (spoken of in

th e Védas ) , graciously partake of m y offer ing .”


After th e homam , th e body , enveloped in a new whitecloth ,

i s placed upon th e bier . Th e bier i s a hastilyformed construction of two l ong poles , usual ly bamboos , with seven pieces of wood tied across . It i s saidthat seven cr oss pieces ar e used to r epr esent th e sevenupper worlds . Som e of th e fir e from th e hOm am i s

placed in a new ear th en pot , to be car r ied in th e procession by th e ch ief m ourner . Th e body , wrapped inth e new cloth an d fastened to th e bier , h as th e two

thum bs , an d th e two gr eat toes also tied together withcords . Th e bier is car r ied by several of th e relatives ,or at least by persons of th e same caste. It would beconsider ed pol lution for a per son of any other caste toassist in th is office, for it is said

Let no kin sm an , wh il st any of h i s own class are at h and ,

cause a deceased Br ahm in to b e car r ied ou t by a Sud ra ; sinceth e fun eral r ite, pol luted by th e touch of a ser vile m an , oh

stru ct s h i s passage to h eaven . (Manu v .

Ther e i s an expression used to one another am ongs tH indus— “

You wil l soon ascend a palanquin car ried bybear ers of your own caste , m eaning “ you will soond ie .

” “Th e corpse i s car r ied away feet forem ost so

that th e gh ost m ay find i ts way back to th e h ouse .

’’ 1

Th e pr ocession con si sts of a few of th e fr iend s ,sometim es even fem ales , with th e m en car rying th e

b ier an d th e chief m ourner , or karta ,car rying th e pot

of fire . Where m usic i s employed , th e musicians playing their wild music also form part of th e procession .

Those wh o bury th eir dead always have m usic ; thosewho cremate have it som etim es , th ough it appears insuch cases to be unlawful , or at least ir regular . On

th e way to th e cemetery th e procession is stoppedthree times , and th e bier i s placed on th e ground . Th e

face i s then uncovered and a mantram i s said . Thisi s done fr om th e fear that , owing to th e speedy funeral ,

l Crook e, N at ives of N or th ern Ind ia, p . 217.


Th e kar ta now performs th e pradak sh ina ceremony .

H e takes an earthen pot ful l of water and makes a

smal l hole in th e bottom of it from wh ich th e waterslowly trickles out . With h is hair al l hanging downh is back h e takes th e pot of water on to h i s shoulderand , as th e water Slowly runs ou t , h e walks roundth e pile , having h is r igh t sh oulder towards i t . Thisi s done th ree times . Before t h e second round , a

second hole i s made in th e pot ; and in like mannera third hole i s made before th e third r ound . Afterth e th r ee circumambulations , h e thr ows th e pot overh is head behind him an d dashes it to pieces . This i ssupposed to assuage th e th irst of th e prata (d isem

bodied spirit) during th e fiery ordeal .Th e karta now performs a homam sacrifice and

then , taking some of th e sacred fire, applies i t to th eright Side ,

breasts and shoulders of th e body as it l ieson th e pile . Then th e supreme moment ar r ives when ,taking some of th e sanctified fire, h e applies it to th epile, near th e head of th e body and sets it al l alight ,during which time th e priest repeats mantrams of

which th e following are specimens

fia‘tqrema segararam fadfs 11am afafll li

ag_

13W flaw affine-

refs ( as thmfi m easure n

After per form ing th e pr éta hOm am , h e (th e kar ta ) , takes brands

(from th e hom am ) , an d st an d ing with h i s face toward s th e sou th ,

places a brand on th e r igh t side, breast s , and sh oulder s (of th ecorp se) .

fi arafafaar gra tui ti es) Swami tarafa li terat i n

O fi re do not regret th at th ou ar t consum ing th is dead one.

D o not sorrow wh ilst th ou ar t consum ing h is skin and h i s

wh ole body .

”

After setting fire to th e pile th e mourner s si t somewhat apart , whilst those wh o carried th e bier staynear to adjust th e fire , until th e skull i s heard to burst .

H INDU FU NERALS 201

Th e mourner th en pour s water upon i t to coolth e gh ost .” 1 Th e kar ta i s then shaved by th e barber .

After this h e bathes . H i s h ead and face m ust b e

completely sh aved , except th e sacred tOp-knot ; bu t

should th e deceased be younger than h e i s , this shavingi s put OH until th e tenth day .

Th e chief mourner now returns to th e h ou se wi thh is fr iends , but they do not enter it . Th ey simply goth ere to get th e mater ials for th e n i tya karm a sacrifice, which m ust now take place , and befor e doing of

which th e kar ta sh ould not r e-enter th e dwel l ing . Ifi t should be dark before th e kar ta ar r ives , th e n i tya

karma cerem ony does not take place until th e following m orning . This ceremony can never be done afterdarkness h as set in . Th e kar ta, accompanied by th e

purOh i ta and any relatives or friends,now takes

some fire an d fuel , rice, ghee, cur ds and pulse for a

sacr ifice . H e also receives fr om th e purOh i ta, a smal lround stone cal led préta shila, which , when th e con se

cration ceremony i s per formed with r eference to it,i s

supposed to become th e personification of th e d i s

embodied spirit of th e deceased .

2 This stone th e kartaties up in a strip of cloth previously torn fr om th e

winding sh eet of th e deceased . This str ip of cloth h ewears over th e r ight shoulder , dur ing th e performanceof th e n i tya karma cerem onies for th e ensuing ten days .

D ur ing al l these ceremonies this stone i s honoured and

tr eated as though it wer e r eal ly th e spir it of th e dead .

1 Cr ooke , N at ives of N or th ern Ind ia , p . 218 .

2 “ Th e H indu believes t h at wh en th e sou l leaves t h e body i t as

sum es th e sh ape of a lit t le ‘feeble m ann ikin ,

’

exposed to in jur ies of al l

kind s . In order t o protect i t , i t i s necessary t o furn ish i t with a sor t

of in t erm ed iate body ,in terposed , as i t were , between th e gr oss body

wh ich h as been dest r oyed by fi r e and t h e new body wh ich un der th e

law of m etempsych osis i t will by and by assum e . If i t be not fu rnish edwi th th is in term ed iate body i t will wan der about in th e form of a

prata or evil spi rit . Th e r i tes by wh ich t h e body i s prepared are

known as sraddh a . Th ey usually last t en d ays .

”Crooke, “ N at ives

of N or th ern Ind ia, p . 218 .

26


Th e par ty then proceed to a special place , outsideth e town or Village ,

wh ere such funeral rites are per

form ed . Th is p lace i s usual ly a wel l , or i s near a tank ,or r iver

,and i s used on ly for th is par ticular pur pose .

On ar riving at th e place in question , th e kar ta pro

ceed s to bath e and th en to cook th e food which h e

h as brough t . Th e preta sh ila i s th en placed into a

l i ttle receptacle form ed for i t of leaves and i s th enconsec rated by t h e r epeti tion of m antram s . A sm al lpor tion of th e cooked food i s now waved before th e

stone as an Offer ing . This i s to appease th e hungerof th e pré ta , just as water , wh ich i s poured over it , i ssupposed to appease i t s th ir st . After this th e remainderof th e cooked food i s scatter ed to d iHer en t sides

, and

thir ty-two d iHer en t mantram s are repeated , cal ling uponth e crows and kites to com e an d devour what i s th usscattered . Th e m antram s ar e appeals to th e disem

bodied spir i t , in th e Shape of th e various kinds of

birds, to com e and partake of th e food thus provided .

A l l this i s repeated every morning for ten days . Th e

following i s a specimen of th e texts th u s sai d

guaraegea as) 11mm n

May t h is preta en joy th is food by m ean s of th e m outh s of

th ese kites and crows .

”

When th is ceremony i s over, th e scattered food i seaten by th e kites an d cr ows which fly ar ound in ex

pectat ion of th e feast .After al l this i s finished th e par ty r eturn home . On

enter ing th e h ouse , th e karta must pur ify h i s eyes before l ooking upon any of th e household,by fixing themupon th e l igh t which h as been placed on th e spotwh er e th e deceased last lay . H e then gets a pot ofwater which h e suspends fr om a beam over t he sam e

place , th at i s , wh ere th e dead breathed h is last . Asmal l hole i s made in th e bottom of this pot

, and th e

water i s al lowed slowly to dr ip on to th e gr ound near


benefit which will be derived from th e bones beingthus cast into th e waters of th e r iver Ganges :

m afia: 3116511011 finra

’

tcig taste

araaaasa rfw 51616386 ti di ed nH ow longsoever th e bon es of a m an

A r e i n t h e water s of th e Ganges ;For SO m any thousand s Of year sTh ey will b e respected in Brahm a lOk am .

Th e rest of th e ashes are carefully gathered together , and put aside or bur ied . Th e karta now proceeds to prepare a place for cooking t h e mater ials h eh as brought for th e purpose . Th is i s done by sprinkling a spot of g round with water and smear ing it withth e dung of a cow. H e then bathes an d cooks th e

food , after which h e performs a hom am sacr ifice. Thisbeing done h e ,

with suitab le mantr am s, of which a

specim en h as been g iven in connection with th e n i tya

karma r ites,

l casts food to th e crows and kites whichhave come there for th e m eal . This food is cal led

pré taharam or food for th e sp i r i t .On th e tenth and final day of th e m ourning , th e

near r elatives ,with th e fam ily pr iest and th e karta ,

assem ble at th e place wher e th e n i tya karma rites are

perform ed for th e las t im por tant ceremony . Th e foodis cooked and scat tered to th e birds , with the repeating of m antrams for th e last time ; after which th e

chief mourners shave and bathe, so as to be renderedfree from defi lem en t . Th e brass pot in which this foodh as been cooked for th e past t en days , and th e préta

shila (th e smal l stone) . ar e now thrown into th e waterby th e karta ,

for they are now done with . This i s cal ledSh i ladh ivasam , or placing th e Stone . Th e pot is afterwards secured by th e pu rOh i ta as a fee . Af ter this a

hom am i s perform ed by t h e karta, alms ar e distributedto attendant Brahmins and al l proceed to their homes .

1 An te, p . 202.

H INDU FUNERALS 205

If th e deceased was a married m an ,i t i s at this last

cerem ony that th e poor widow i s degraded into h er

state of widowhood . This ri te is cal led S i'i trach édam

Or cutting of th e cord . I know of nothing in th e

whole range of H indu r ites an d ceremonies that i sm ore saddening than this rel ic of bar bar ism ; an d yet

it i s stil l in ful l active for ce . A S th ough it were forsom e fault of her s that death h as taken away h er

husband , Sh e is n ow to be initiated into that state of

degradation and m isery which i s th e lot of th e poorIndian widow . No thought of youth or beauty , n o

bonds of natur e or ties of aHect ion can ward OH thisinevitable cur se . Th e br ight and happy l ife i s visitedwith th is dire anath em a and th e iron rule m ust beenfor ced . Th e relat ives and fr iends of th e poor for lorncreature assem ble at th e house and th e Victim i s

adorned for th e sacr ifice . H er festive r aimen t i s pu ton ,

and sh e i s beau t ified with h er jewels , flower s an d

sweet-smel l ing sandal paste . Th e beauty i s in ten sifiedwith r ouge an d br igh t pigm ents , and al l i s arr anged as

for a festive day . For a time h er l oving fr iends weepwith h er and em brace h er

, condoling with h er on h er

fate . After th is i s over sh e i s taken i n a palanquin of

som e sort an d conveyed to th e scene of h er degrading .

When sh e arrives , h er br igh t cloth ing and j ewels are

taken OH. H encefor th Sh e must h ave only one coarsecover ing ; h er beautifu l long hair , th e glory of h er

womanhood , i s cut OH and h er h ead i s close shaven ,

as i t must everm ore ther eafter be . Th e m angalasu

tram , or marr iage token , i s cut off and Sh e i s now a

widow indeed . Th is cutting OH of th e marr iage cord i salways done by a wom an ,

as if to m ake th e cerem ony ,if possible , th e more deg rading to h er sex . Th e poorwidow i s th en taken back to h er home, ever after to bea drudge and a thing for contempt until th e hand of

death rel ieves h er of h er m isery . What wonder i s itthat so m any in contemplation of th e l ifelong misery


preferred th e death of a suttee, and to escape th e evilto come gladly ascended th e funeral pile . Th e positionof th e H indu widow i s one th at , for i ts attendantmiseries , and also i ts tem ptat ions to evil , h as not perhaps i t s equal in th e wor l d . Wh at wonder i s i t that ,to escape h er wr etch edness , or to conceal h er sh am e ,

SO many a poor cr ea ture i s dr iven to comm i t su icide.

A b itter cry on a p itch -dark n igh t,followed by a heavy

Splash , as a leap i s taken into t h e clammy depths ofsome Indian wel l , a hasty enquiry t h e next morningfollowed by a speedy funeral an d there i s anothervictim to t h e wr i t ten an d unwrit ten m an-m ade codes ,which selfish ly an d coward ly h eap th e m iser ies of l ifeupon th e trai ler be ing, leaving th e stronger one , s implybecause h e is th e s tronger , to en j oy th e kernel and

swee ts of life wh i ls t h er por t ion i s th e h usks and th e

bitter ness . It m ust be rem em bered to th e credit of

th e Tengalai Vaish navas , unor th odox th ough t hey m ay

be, that they refrain fr om infl ict ing on their widowsth e dish onour of sh aving th e h ead .

When th e widow i s a ch ild , not yet ar r ived at th e

age to join h er h usband , t h e only cer em ony i s th e

breaking OH of th e m angalasutram . Th e other cerem onies and deg radation s a re r eserved to t h e tim e whenSh e a rr ives a t ful l age, and th en th e whole cerem ony i sgone through , very m uch as I have descr ibed above .

Can anything be m ore path etic th an t h e th ought of a

bright little th ing growing up free and h appy in h er

hom e, unconscious of t h e fate th at l ies before h er

and ye t with th at dest iny fixed , as though engravenwith a pen of ir on , immu table , cer tain as death .

1

1 Som e of th e m ore cul tur ed and en l i gh tened H indus,t h ough few

in num ber , feel ash am ed of th e presen t barbarous custom s . Th e fol

l owm g s t ri k ing let ter appeared in t h e Ma dra s Ma i l , Augus t 30 , 1907.

IN D IAN WIDOW RBI-MARR IAGE .

SI R ,—A l l m en a re a l lowed to m ar ry any n um ber O f t im es t h ey

please ; th e m an wh o h as n ot go t any reasonable p robab i lity Of l i vm g


Brahmin ,for a sufficient consideration , took upon

him self th e sin s of th e deceased and expiated th e

sam e by twenty-one days ’

seclusion an d by r epeating num ber less tim es th e gayat r i’, with var ious ceremonies . Th is now appear s to b e an obsolete r i te ;at least it seem s never to be per form ed in th e par tof India known to m e. In stead of it

,th ir ty-two

lumps of r ice an d gh ee m ixed togeth er are takenand thrown into a pit near to wh ich a hOm am sacr ifice i s m ade . Th is 18 a singular cerem ony and r e

m inds u s of Jewish r ites as pr escr ibed in th e Levitical law . Th is th ought i s , however , m ore pr ominentlysuggested by an oth er cerem ony that i s sometimes

per formed on this day , a cer emony strong ly suggest iveof th e expiator y r i te of th e scape-goat . A young bul li s dedicated by being stam ped with th e mark of

Vish nu ’

s wheel , or th e tr ident of Siva . By this th e

sins of th e deceased are supposed to be transferredto th e anim al

,an d it i s set free to wander for ever

at i t s own will , as a sacred animal which it i s meritor iou s to feed and car e for . Even if su ch a bullget s into th e fields and eats th e growing corn , itmust not be d r iven ou t . One of these huge pam per edcreatures m ay often be seen in th e bazaars helpingitsel f in a lor dly manner from th e grain baskets of

th e m erch ants . Sometimes a cow-calf i s also de

vo ted , an d a kind of m ar r iage i s per formed betweenth e two . Those wh o cannot aHor d to give such costlyoHer ings will , on this day , give one or two cloth sto th e B rahmins . This cer em ony of dedicating an

anim al as a sinbearer i s also observed amongst su ch

presen t n eed of Ind ia . Un less ou r en ligh tened coun t rym en pu t a stopt o t h e m ost h einous cr im es , aforesaid , Ind ia wil l never boast of

i t s social r eform . Dut iful son s of Ind ia , I appeal to you h um bly t o

t ake up th e cause of social reform and especially t o th e above-saidInd ia’

s need .

K . RANGA SAWMY IYENGAR .

CONJEEVERAM , 25ih August .

H INDU FUNERALS 209

a prim itive tribe as th e Todas of th e N i lgiri H ills inSouthern India, and amongst such an unor thodoxpeople as th e , B adagaS of th e same range of hil ls .

l

On th e twel fth day , th e last of th e var ious funeral cerem onies i s per formed . It i s cal led th e sapindik aranam ; but this r ite will be descr ibed later on

when I come to speak of shraddhas .

A few words should be said about mourning, for th eH indu idea of mourning i s not conveyed by th e

English term . To th e H indu it means uncleanness ,ceremonial defi lem en t and it is quite apart from th e

natural sorrow caused to survivors by death . Th e

wor d used for mourning , in th e true H indu sense, i sash i

'i sh i or Si

’

i tak am , both which words mean cerem o

nial defi lem en t . Th e duration of this mourning var iesaccording to th e condition of th e deceased . In th e

case of mere infants th e time is abou t on e day . Inth e case of a boy who h as not yet been investedwith th e sacred thr ead , or of a girl not yet married ,th e t ime i s three days ; and after that , in either case,th e proper time i s ten days . In th e case of a m ar

ried female, whether sh e h as j oined h er husband or

not , h er own parents and brother s and sisters Observethis ceremonial mourning for three days . D uringthese periods, th e near relatives of th e deceased are

considered unclean , and their touch wou ld cerem on i

al ly defile any person or thing . They must not entertheir own kitchen or touch any cooking u tensil . Th e

food,during th e days of m ourning

,must be prepared

by some one not personal ly connected with th e de

ceased , al though of equal caste . Should they findit impossible , on account of being at a long distancefrom their own caste people or other reasons , t o obtainth e services of a pr oper per son to cook for them ,

they m ay procure pr ovisions , and temporary cooking

See Ch apter XI I I un der TOdas and B adagas .

27


utensils , and prepare food for themselves in some placeoth er th an th e usual kitchen . To enter this sacredplace in an impure state would r ender th e stored provisions and everything th erein unclean and h encewor thless . Th e m ourners do not l ie down upon a

mattress , as i t would be r endered unclean and cal l formuch trouble in pur ification ; th ey do not put on th e

coloured por tions of th e ordinary sacred marks ; theyr efrain from wear ing gay

-coloured garments and , invarious other outwar d ways , they manifest their defi lement . D ur ing these days , it i s customary to abstainfr om al l kind s of indulgences , as , for instance, tastyfood , th e use of betel and tobacco or snuH, or any

such personal grat ificat ion s . When th e days of mourning come to an end and th e pu r ificatory ceremoniali s over, things then go on as usual .I have now given an account of th e ceremonies performed at th e funer al s of those H indus who practisecremat ion , and also of th e n i tya karma rites performedduring th e ten days succeeding th e death . I proceedto descr ibe some of th e chief r ites and ceremoniesperformed in th e case of those wh o bury their dead ,and to give some account of th e shraddhas , or H inducer emonies for deceased ancestors .

Th e great mass of H indus are worshippers of fire,in some form or other ; indeed , fire worship i s one ofth e ear l iest cults of India , it being one of th e Vedicforms of N ature wor ship , a deificat ion of th e phenom ena of nature, which h as ever been one of th e firstforms of depar tur e from th e worship of th e one trueGod . AS fire wor shippers , therefore , th e H indus burntheir dead , making that sacred element th e vehicle forth e destruction of th e gr oss and m ater ial form in whichth e divine element no longer dwel ls . There are someH indus , however, who depart from th e ordinary orthodox faith , and pay al legiance to earth (prudh ivi ) as a

deity ; and wh o therefore bury their dead instead of


Let no cerem ony with fi re b e per form ed for h im , nor th atof Spr inklin g water ; bu t h i s kind r ed , h avin g left h im l ike a

piece of wood in th e forest shall b e unclean for th ree days .

”

( v. 68

In th e case of Sudras , boys and girl s are not , as a

rule, mar r ied SO young as in th e three upper castes ;and th e practice amongst them seems to be thatunmarr ied boys and girls, under th e age of eight orten , are buried . There i s no exact ru le as to th e age .

All those who d ie of smal l-pox , of whatever sector caste , are buried at once without any cer emonywhatever . This pract ice probably ar ose fr om sanitaryr easons, although th e common people give a r el igiousreason for it . Some say it is because this disease i s

caused by Lakshmi , th e wife of Vishnu , and , as nosacr ifices by fir e are made to h er

,sh e would be d is

pleased i i they burned h er V ict ims .

In th e case of those who practise cremation , whenthey lose one of their infant children , i t is taken awayand bur ied without any cer emony whatever . Theyleave i t “ l ike a piece of wood in th e forest ” and i ti s al l over . There are no ceremonies at th e tim e,

except that , in som e cases , food i s cooked near th egrave and thr own to th e birds for three days ; but no

mantrams are said and no shraddhas , or periodicalObservances for th e dead ar e performed . This i s th e

rule , but human nature cannot always be entirelyrepressed , and it appears to be a common practice fora mother who m ay have lost a child to give food or

presents , once a year , to some l ittle boy or gir l ofabout th e same age and condition as h er own lostboy or gir l .There i s much less ceremony connected with bur ialthan with crem ation . Up to th e time when th e pro

cession leaves th e house for th e cemetery , th e rites are

practical ly th e same in both cases, except that th ere isno homam or sacrifice by fire . It i s here that th e

H INDU FUNERALS 213

chief d iHerenceS begin . Th e body i s decked ou t withflowers and fine clothes ; th e face i s exposed and

th e sacred marks are daubed on ; and , in th e case of

females , th e jewels are also put on . A S th e body i s

buried in a sitting posture, th e bier h as to be madein a peculiar form . Th e body i s placed as thoughsitting in a kind of open sedan chair

, th e bierbeing cal led anan tash ayanam or th e everlasting couch .

Amongst th e L ingadh ar i s th e bier is borne by any Ofth e sect , regardless Of caste distinction . Often th e

bearers ar e a mixed number fr om various castes.

Ther e i s always music with th e pr ocession , and on th e

way th e bier is pu t down three t imes and th e plaint ive question “ O spir it hast thou returned ”

i s put toth e deceased by th e purOh i ta j ust as in th e case of

those who cremate .

On ar riving at th e cemetery , th e grave, usual ly a

very shal low one ,i s found r eady prepar ed and th e

cer emonies at once begin . Th e fir st thing i s to pur ifyth e place . This i s done by sprinkling th e grave and

i t s sur r oundings with water in which vibu th i 1 h as beenmixed ; at th e sam e tim e a mantram i s repeated byth e pu rOh i ta . This mantram i s one of those quoted inth e chapter on Sacred Marks ? and i s an appeal to earthas a deity . Th e body i s then placed in th e grave ;but before it i s put in th e clothes and jewels ar e al l

taken OH, and it i s str ipped quite bare .

When th e body h as been placed in th e grave , earthis put in about as high as i t s waist . Th e kar ta, or

chief mourner , then takes th e l ingam of th e deceasedout of i t s receptacle, which i s usual ly a kind of Si lversar cophagus, suspended fr om th e neck , and havingbathed and worshipped it , h e places it in th e lefthand of th e dead person , where i t is al lowed to r e

m ain, to be buried with th e body. Th e priest then

1 An te, p . 78 .2 An te, p . 79 .


repeats a mantram , th e kar ta j oining in with him,

during which h e , th e karta, takes up a handful of

earth and throws it into th e grave . This answers toth e setting fire to th e pile in th e case of those whopractise cremation . Th e mantram thus repeated is as

follows :

faaergs zi me u

Becom e un ited with Siva .

It is commonly said that th e Sku l l of th e deceasedperson i s now br oken by a b low given with a cocoanut ,in order to facil itate th e escape of th e soul fr om th e

body through th e aper ture . I am assured , however,by those who bury that this is not t h e case . In th e

case of Sanyasis, however , this i s actually done, butwhy I do not know . After th e mantram , th e fr iendspresent also thr ow in handfuls of earth , and final lythey fi l l up th e grave, and raise a l ow mound over it .In th e middle of this mound they form with mud th eShape of a l ingam , and at each of th e four corners a

rough model of a bull . Th e bu l l i s sacred to Siva, as

th e animal on which h e rides . They wor ship th e

l ingam and th e bull and then proceed home , afterbathing in a tank or r iver .Th e L ingadh ar i s who wear th e sacred thread , beforethey leave th e g rave cook some ri ce, and g ive i t to th ecows to eat , if any are near ; if not they then throw itinto a r iver or tank . On reaching home they place a

l ighted lamp on th e spot where th e deceased breathedh is last , and then th e chief mourner and th e purOh ita

with several fr iends, partake of a meal in company .

For th e ten days succeeding th e funeral , th e karta wi thth e pu rOh i ta and fr iends proceed daily to th e grave forwor ship . They worship th e l ingam and th e bulls whichhave been m ade on th e grave, by sprinkling themwith vibu th i mixed with water , and by scattering Overthem flowers and coloured rice , as wel l as bits of


have been h ad it been cremated . It i s bathed and

burnt , water and food are oHered to th e preta (spir it) ,and al l th e cerem onies for ten days ar e gone through

,

just as would have been th e case h ad th e deceaseddied an d been burn t in th e ordinar y way .

It m ay be asked what i s done in th e case of th e verypoor , or of a stranger who dies . Who then per form s

t h e funer al cer em onies , and th e burning or bur ying ?This i s not done by th e publ ic auth or ities as in Europe .

H induism h as pr ovided for th e emergency in anoth erway . On th e occasion of a death , not only i s th e

whole household cer emonial ly im pure,but th e imme

diate neighbours, also , are unclean until th e dead bodyi s removed . Under such circumstances, as no food can

be cooked or eaten , th e neighbours are for ced toattend to th e matter , though perhaps th e ceremoniesar e not performed as minutely or carefully as usual .Th e ancient lawg ivers have also provided for various

emergencies that m ay arise ; for instance, in th e caseof a soldier ’s dying in battle it woul d be impossiblefor al l th e ceremonies to be gone thr ough , and so therei s a special rule to pr ovide for such a contingency

By a sold ier d isch argin g th e dut ies of h i s class , and slain in

th e field with br and ish ed weapon s , t h e h igh est sacr ifice i s , in

th at in stan t , com plete ; and so i s h i s pur ificat ion . Th is law i s

fi xed .

”

(Manu , v .

I have described how those who pract ise cremationdevote a young bull as a scape-goat those wh o bur ytheir dead never do this , but they sometim es g ivea cow with i t s cal f to th e priest , just as those whocremate do . This gift i s cal led gOdanam , or th e cow

Offering .

I now com e to deal with th e most important subjectof shraddhas , or per iodical cer emonies for deceasedancestors. Those wh o practise crem ation ar e th e moreminute in their ancestral worship rites ; but th o sewho bury have some ceremonies of th e kind , th ou gh

H INDU FUNERALS 217

d iHer ing in detail and in degr ee. A learned H induprofessor h as said that : Ancestor wor ship , in someform or other , i s th e beginning , th e m iddle , and th e

end of wh at i s known as th e H indu r el ig ion .

” 1 Th e

object of th e H indu shraddhas i s to assist th e departedspirit in th e var ious experiences i t wil l have to passth rough . At th e same t im e

, th e one wh o duly per form s

these rites and ceremonies ther eby lays up m er it forhimself and h i s family , which m er it wi l l be duly carr iedto th e credit of h is account hereafter .

Th e fir st of these cer emonies is th e n i tya karma ,

th e object of which is to pr ovide th e depar ted spir itwith an interm ediate body . Th e spir i t at death leavesi t s form er dwel l ing place in an am orphous , invisibleform

,about th e size of one’

s thum b . This i s cal led a

preta , and were i t not for th e prescr ibed cerem onies,this spirit would sim ply wander about for ever as an

im pur e ghost or goblin amongst kindred demons and

departed evil spir its . By means of th e n i tya karmarites t h e préta is furnished with an intermediate kindof body which enables it to feel th e sensat ions of

happiness or m isery , and thus be in a position toundergo th e punishment , or enj oy th e good th at m ay

be it s due .

2

On th e twelfth day after th e death there mustbe th e ceremony cal led sapindi k aranam . In some

places , this cer emony i s performed on th e eleventhday ; but , as far as I can gath er , it i s always done on

th e twelfth day in South India . On th e m orningof th e day in quest ion , there i s a large gather ing of

Brahmin s and fr iends and relatives at th e h ouse of th e

deceased . It i s supposed th at whatever nour ish es th e

B rahm ins fed on these occasions , wh o r epr esent th edeparted sp i r its , also nour ish es and h elps th e spir its

1 Professor Bh at tach ar iya in th e Tagore Law Lectur es .

9 See An te, p . 201 .

28

218 TH E H INDU AT HOME

themselves . Thus th e Brahmins are then fed and wel ltreated vicar iously . There m ust be seven Brahminsspecial ly cal led for this ceremony . In th e case ofth e ordinary sh raddh as, to be descr ibed later on , thereneed be only two or three such . Th ey ar e nam edbhOk tas or those who eat or enjoy . Th e seven calledfor th e sapind i rite ar e said to be — one to representVishnu , two th e Vi sh vadévas (deities that presidesover shraddh

’

as) , three th e deceased ’

s imm ediate th r eeancestors, and one to represent th e préta . Th e twocal led for ordinary shraddha r ites ar e said to be — one

to represent th e Vish vadévas and one th e spir it of th edeceased . It i s not always easy to get fi t and pr operBrahm ins for these r ites an d they must be rewar dedfor coming . Th e food they vicar ious ly eat on theseoccasions i s supposed to defi le , and i t necessitates

pu r ificatory ceremonies of rather a sever e nature . An

old pundit fr iend assured m e that , though h e usedoften to go to such ceremonies, it was always againsth is desire ; but that it would be Sinful not to r espondto th e appeal of th e karta for h elp . A Brahm in to befit for this duty should be over sixteen years of age ,

and both h is parents must be st il l l iving . Accor dingto Manu , h e should also be a m an of light and

learning“ Food , con secrated to th e god s and th e m anes , m ust b e pre

sen ted to a th eolog ian of em inen t learn ing ; for cer tain ly , wh enh and s are sm eared with blood , t hey cannot be cleaned with bloodon ly , nor can sin be r em oved by th e com pany of sinn er s .

A s m any m outh fuls as an un learn ed m an sh al l swallow at an

ob lat ion to th e god s and to ancestor s , so m any r ed -h ot iron ballsm ust th e giver o f th e sh raddha swallow in th e nex t wor ld .

”

( iii . 182,

Th e sapindi r ite m ay be thus br iefly descr ibed .

When th e b hOk tas are seated near th e Spot where th edeceased breathed h is last , and befor e th e food for th emeal i s served , four vessels made of leaves are placed

,


become absorbed into th e divine essence. That is tosay , by th e cerem onies of th e sur vivors rightly per

formed , not only wil l there be no punishm ent in hel l ,but there wil l also be no r ebir ths . According to thisnotion

, a m an ’

s future condition i s not m ade to depend so m uch upon h is own good or evil deeds , as

upon th e fai thfulness with which th e survivors performstated cerem onies . Other s again ,

in accordance withth e Vedan ta ph ilosophy

,maintain what m ay be cal led

t h e or th odox doctr ine , which with various m odificationsi s t h e bel ief of th e mass of H indus . This bel ief i s th atupon at taining th e pita state of existence, th e spir itdepar ts on i t s j ourney to Yama to receive i ts doom ao

cording to i ts deeds done in th e body . Th e temporaryh el l (papa lOk am or yam alOk am ) , or th e tem porary heaven

(punya lOk am or svargam ) to which it m ay be consigned wil l be i t s abode , until i t h as received in eitherstate th e rewar d that i s i ts due . At th e end of th i sper iod , whether long or short , th e spirit will be r eborninto som e other state , again to commence th e wearyround of existen ce fr om which i t would fain be released .

Th ose pious souls, however , who have in their passageth rough their various states of existence attained into

gnanam (true wisdom) wil l pass straight to BrahmalOk am (th e h eaven Of Brahma) , there to remain in th een j oym ent of heavenly b liss until th e end of th e age

(pralayam ) , when they wil l be elevated to N irvana

(mOk sh am ) , that i s , absorption into th e supreme essence .

This consum m ation i s th e end and aim of every piousH indu . It seem s to be th e Object of th e shraddhas toassist th e spir its of th ose on whose behal f th e cer em onies ar e observed in their cour se to other wor lds ,and at their d readful tr ial before Yama . They are alsointended to suppor t th em and to fur ther their developm ent in th e state of being in which th ey m ay be doom edto exis t , and to h asten their passage thr ough it . F or

Sanyasis or H oly H ermits no n i tya karm as or any

H INDU FUNERALS 221

other rites ar e required ; th e souls of such do not be

come prétas , but pass at once on leaving th e body intoth e pita stage and proceed st raigh t to B rahm alOk am

,

For these, therefor e ,no ceremonies or shraddhas are

necessary and to them worsh ip i s paid as though theywere divine. There i s much th at i s ver y complex and

confl icting in th e var ious schools of thought with re

gard to th e fu ture state, and th e benefit of ancestralcerem onies ; but this descr iption wil l g ive a gener alidea of th e subject .Although th e sapindi k aranam and th e n itya karma

are shraddhas of a kind,th e fir st shraddha pr oper i s

performed on th e twe lfth day , th at i s, sometim e dur ingth e day on th e morning of which th e sapindi r ite h as

been observed . This i s cal led masika , or monthly sh rad

dh a, and i t i s th e commencem ent of those which are

perform ed every month for th e fir st year , on th e

thir tieth day after th e death . These monthly cer emonies are very much like th e sapindi r ite , except th atthere will be only two or thr ee bhOk tas , and onlythree lumps of r ice and condim ents without th e longcyl indr ical r ol l . Very minute d irections ar e given inManu about th e per form ance of these r ites . Theymust never be done at nigh t , bu t always in th e day

time

Obsequi es m u st not be per form ed by n igh t ; since th e n igh t i scal led racsh asi or in fested by dem on s ; nor wh ilst th e sun i s

r isin g or sett in g , nor wh en i t h as j us t r isen ”(iii .

Th e kar ta must treat th e bhOk tas respectful ly , and h e

must ur ge them to eat th e var ious dishes pr ovided :

Th en bein g duly pur ified and with per fect pr esen ce of m indlet h im take up al l th e d ish es , one by one, and presen t th em in

order to th e Brahm in s , proclaim ing th eir qualit ies (iii .

H e must be ver y cautious how h e moves about andalso be careful of h i s feel ings . H e must repress any

em otion or h e m ay by carelessness , or by h is tears


cause disaster instead of benefit to those for whom h e

i s performing th e ceremony :“ Let h im at no t im e d rop a tear , let h im on no accoun t be

angr y , let h im say noth ing false, let h im not touch th e eatab leswith h i s foot , let h im not even sh ake th e d ish es

A tear send s th e m esses to r est less gh ost s ; anger , to foes ;fal seh ood , t o dogs ; con tact with h i s foot , to dem ons ; agi tat ion , to

Sinner s”(iii . 229

H e must be carefu l h ow h e disposes of food thatm ay be left from this ceremonial meal . It is said

Th us h aving ended th e sh raddh a , l et h im cause a cow, a

pr iest , a k id , or th e fi re to devour wh at r em ain s of th e cakes ;or let h im cast th em into th e water s ”

(iii .

Th e punishment of those who,instead of disposing

of th e remains of th e feast in th is manner, give themto a low caste m an to eat will be very severe

Th at fool , wh o h aving eaten of th e sh raddh a , gives th e

residue of i t to a m an of th e servile class , falls h ead long downto th e h el l nam ed Calasfitr a (iii .

Th e ord i nary shraddha cerem ony m ay be thus de

scribed . Two or three bhOk taS with th e purOh i ta cometo th e house by invi tat ion , and they ar e duly seatedin t h e usual place for such pr oceedings . At theseshraddhas, th e bhOk tas and pu rOh i ta si t in th e sacredkitchen-dining r oom . If there are two guests , on

'

e si tsfacing th e nor th , and th e other facing th e east . Ifther e is a third , h e sits looking towar ds th e south .

Th e karta having duly bathed performs a homamsacrifice in presence of th e guests , and then , seatinghimself opposite to them , recites th e names of th e

century , th e year , th e month,th e day and th e two

sacr ed r iver s between which th e place i s Situated inwhich they then happen to be . H e then proceeds towash their feet and to wipe them, after sp rinklingsome Of th e water on h is own head with darbha grass .

After this h e wor ships th e guests , scattering over them


around th e leaf-plate of one of th e bhOk tas saying, at

th e sam e time, th e fol lowing SlOk am °

see-

gsa near 5 s t rai ns : aircrew:0 0

arres ts are) raters as arm’s agar. n

Wh oever h as d ied with out th e sacram en t s ,

Wh eth er m an , virgin or wom an , of m y tr ibe,For th em th is food I g ive ;F or th em th is i s a sh raddh a .

After th is , th e kar ta takes a sm al l portion of th e

rice and placing i t befor e each of th e bhOk tas says a

mantr am for th e benefit of any ancestors who m ay havebeen accidental ly kil led by fi re or water , and who m ay

not have h ad th e necessary cer emonies duly perform ed .

Th e ceremony being now com plete, th e bhOk tas are

pr esented with betel and th e fee for their services , afterwhich they take thei r departure. It i s th e rule thatthese guests take no more food on that day , nor mustthey do anything or touch anything th at would causecerem onial defi lem en t . Before leaving th e house , th eguests , or th e kar ta, pronounce th e following blessing

“May generous g iver s abound in ou r h ouse. May th e scr iptures be stud ied , and progeny increase in i t . May faith neverdepart from u s , and m ay we h ave m uch to bestow on th e needy .

”

(Mann , iii .

A feast i s then given by th e kar ta to h i s friendsand relat ives as wel l as to m any B rahmins . Presentsare distr ibuted to them of m oney , cloths , or copperand brass vessels . On th e fol lowing day a sim ilar feasti s given to th e low caste neighbour s and th e poor ,who also expect p resent s from their host .This con cludes th e fir st monthly shraddha. Upon

i ts repeti tion on ever y thir tieth d ay ,th ere i s only th e

cer emonial feast for th e bhOk tas and not any generalfeas t ing .

At th e end of th e year there i s a good deal of feasting

,according to th e means of th e family , just as at

H INDU FUNERALS 225

th e first monthly shraddha . This i s to mark th e ter

mination of th e month ly cer em onies Afterwar ds th eannual ceremony i s performed on t h e anniversary of

th e death .

Th e cer em onies al ready descr ibed apply to Brahm ins .

Th e Sudras follow t h e sam e r itual to a cer tain extent ,but th ere are th ese exceptions . Th e th r ee chief guestsare B rahmin s , one of wh om i s th e pu rOh i ta . Th e feeding of these i s not done on th e spot , as they couldnot eat food cooked by Sudras , so provisions are g ivento them which they take away and cook and eat bythemselves . It i s imperative that th e very articlesthus given be actual ly cooked and eaten by them .

Af ter th e ceremonies have been '

du ly perform ed in pr esence of th e B rahmins , and wh en th ey have takentheir depar ture, th e Sud ra kar ta Sits down with th e

near relatives , who h ave been previously invited , topar take of a meal in h onour of t h e dead . Alth oughSudras usual ly eat meat and fish at this meal , i t i sonly th e Vaishnavas who partake of flesh ; th e other smake a point of having no m eat whatever at this part icu lar time .

Th ese annual ceremonies , d iHer ing somewhat in form,

are per formed for both sexes by H indus of every casteand sect . It i s for th e due per form ance of th e funeraland annual ceremonies , that a H indu longs so earnest ly for a son . If a m an dies having no male issue,h i s soul must suffer accordingly . If a m an ’

s wife bear shim no son , h e must eith er mar ry anoth er wife or adopta boy . Th e latter i s usually done , and adoption h as

thus become an im por tan t insti tut ion am ongst H indus .

In addit ion to th e or dinary shraddhas , when oppor tu

n i ty offer s and there i s th e ab il ity to'

take advantage of

them , extra shraddh as are per form ed at sacr ed river s andat such holy places as Ram ésh var am , Sr irangam , Kumbak onam and other places in th e south ; and at Benares

,

Allah abad , Gaya and oth er places in t h e nor th ; but for29


these cer emonies no places appear to be so beneficial asGaya and i t s neigh bourhood . Gr eat mer it i s attachedto th e perform ance of th e ceremonies at any such places ,but th e efficacy Of those at Gaya i s such that , whenfully and pr oper ly per formed

,th e spir its of th e depar ted

re latives for whom th e Observances are made ,no matter

at wh at stage of existence they m ay be, ar e a t onceadm itted to th e heaven of Vishnu , th e highest heaven

(Vaik un th a) .

Besides these ceremonies , th ere ar e also daily observ

ances par taking of th e same nature . Each day th e

kar ta or h ead of th e household , at th e time of goingth r ough h i s daily devotions , pours out water to th e

manes of h i s ancestors mentioning them as h e does so .

This i s cal led tarpanam , or a drink oHer ing. H e al sodoes th e same j ust before partaking of h i s food. Itwill thus be seen h ow large a sh are ancestral worshiph as in th e rel igion of th e H indu .

Ther e m ay be very much d iHer ence in detai l in differen t parts of th e country and I m ay have omitted some

detail of a ceremony . Enough , however , h as been ex

plained to give a fair idea of what i s done, and to Showth e truth of th e saying that th e H indus are a very r el igiou s people . Th er e i s no greater cause of financial miseryin H indu fam il ies than t h e expenses at marriages and

funerals . In th e case of weal thy m en th e burden is a

great one ; but in ordinary cases th e funds have to beobtained from th e money lender at an exorbitant rateof interest , loading th e poor victims with a l ife-longburden of debt . Th e custom i s , h owever, so deeplyrooted and th e H indus are so thoroughly conservative ,

th at it seems barely possible for any eHectual impr ovem ent to be made . Th e amel iorati on of matters of thiskind amongst such a people can only be effected byt h e gradual gr owth of public opin ion in th e r ight d irect ion ; and any change of opinion , sufficient to be felt ,must occupy a very long time in i t s format ion .

CH A PTE R ! I I I .

UNORT H O DO ! H INDU FUNERA L S .

W W II, ( A d h a rm ot t a ra Kr iya . )

Th e A yégava , th e Csh at t r i and th e Ch andala , th e lowest of

m en , spr ing from a Sud ra in an in ver se or der of th e classes ,and are th erefore, a ll th ree excluded from t h e per form an ce of

ob sequies to th eir ancestor s .

”(Manu , x .

MANU gives as th e origin of th e debased classes irregularinter cour se between m em bers of th e four castes, and

th e in termingling of th e despicable oHspr ing resultingfrom such irregular ities .

1 D uring their l ifetime theymust exist in a m ost abject condition , l iving apart fromth e upper castes in mountains, groves , or places for

burning th e dead , anywher e outside of th e townsinhabited by th eir superiors ? Their clothing

,food and

general surroundings must be of th e most miserab lenature, and their occupat ion of th e most degradingcharacter .

3 This i s not only so , but even after deatht h e cur se of their bir th must follow th em . Th e quotation at th e head of this chapter Shows that these poorunfortunates are not to have even th e consolation of

funeral r i tes for their dead .

All that h as been said in th e pr eceding chapter sabou t funeral r ites an d periodical sh raddhas h as onlyto do with th e four castes , and particular ly with th e

I MA h u ,x . 5, 40.

Q Ib id , x . 50—1 .3 Ibid , x . 50—6.

U noRTH ODox H INDU FUNERALS 229

three h igh er ones . Th e non-castes or ou t-castes ar e

not supposed to h ave anything to do with such things .

These non-caste people do , h owever , per form certainfuneral r i tes and h ave shraddha cerem onies of a kind .

It i s not very clear with what Object they per form th e

var ious ceremon ies . Pr obably they h ave in view , th e

Spiritual good of th e depar ted ; but th eir ideas on th ishead appear to b e very con fused and un cer tain . Th e

mo t ive th at seem s to actuate th em i s fear . It i sthought wel l to trea t th e depar ted spir i t kind ly and to

diver t i ts a ttention ,so as t o pr even t i t s inflicting any

injury on th e l iving . In fac t , th ese Observan ces seemt o be a survival of ancient D ravid ian rites tinged w ithan admixtur e of H induism .

Th e Malas , or Te lugu Pariahs, ar e r epr esentatives

Of th e m iddle l ine between th e H indus pr oper and

th e lowest pagans . Th e funer al r ites of th e Malasrepr esent gener al ly th ose of t h e classes h ere intended .

Th e Malas , as a rule,burn th eir dead ; but th ough

this i s consider ed am ongs t th em as th e m ore respectable way , yet there are very m any exceptions to th e

rule . There ar e som e section s of this class wh o alwaysbury ; an d m any wh o would cr em ate i f th ey couldafford it , but wh o are dr iven by pover ty to th e lessexpensive m eth od of disposing of their dead . Ther eseems to be a gener al not i on am ongst these latter , thatth e soul of th e deceased som eh ow suHer s on accountof such a depar tur e fr om custom . Th ey bury ch ild r enand sm al l-pox victim s as th e caste people do . In tim es

of pesti lence , also when ch olera i s pr evalen t,th ey bury .

Th is i s m er ely fr om being gen eral ly panic str icken, or

from th e diffi cul ty of getting any help fr om th eir neighbours who fear contagion . At such tim es th e deadare often disposed of in a very summ ary way .

Wh en a per son i s at th e poin t of death,there do

not appear to be any r el igious r ites or cerem onieswhatever amongst these people . Th ey follow ou t th e

230 TH E H IND U AT H OME

customs, already al luded to 1 of taking th e dying personoutside th e house so as to pr event possib le pollution toth e dwel l ing place . Sh ould th e household ascertainfrom th e Par iah pr iest th at th e day i s a lucky one ,

th ey suffer t h e patient to d ie in th e h ouse ; otherwise ,they ar e as par ticular as t h e upper castes are in puttingth e suffer er outside to d ie . Amongst H indus , in th e

event of a per son ’

s dying inside t h e house during an

unlucky conjunction of th e star s , not only must thatpar ticular h ouseh old vacate t h e dwell ing for a periodof tim e, but th e neigh bour s also m ust do th e sam e .

H ence publ ic opinion i s very strong in th e m atter of

suffer ing any on e to d ie inside a h ouse . It must bevery trying , par ticular ly in th e rainy season , for th e

sick per son to h ave to turn ou t of h i s house and l ivein a tem porar y sh ed ; i t m ay be for some m onth s .

Th e dying per son is placed on t h e ground to d ie .

Sh ould th e poor suffer er seem to be a long time indying

,a cruel custom , wh ich seems to be practised by

th e upper castes also,i s carried out . It i s th ought

that from excessive l ove for som e on e , th e h usbandfor th e wife ,

or th e wife for t h e h usband, or th e

par ents for a ch i ld , as th e case m ay be, th e spir it i sloth to quit th e body . If th is i s th e case, a l ittlewater or som e other l iquid i s pour ed into th e mouthby th e one supposed to be thus excessively loved

, or

perh aps by several , one after th e other . If it should beth ough t th at th rough an avari cious disposition th e

spir it i s loth to depar t som e coins are taken and

wash ed in water , th e water being then poured intoth e m outh of th e dying per son . Such a practice m ayoften h asten death , even in cases where ,

perhaps, a

recovery might otherwise h ave been possible.

Bur ial or crem ation fol lows quickly upon death .

Th ree or four hour s after th e last breath,there m ay

be no th ing left of th e depar ted but a heap of ash es .

1 An te , p . 196.


After this th e body i s fastened to th e bier and

borne to t h e cem eter y . Th e Vaish navas have a peculiara r rangem ent attach ed to th e h ead of th e b ier

, th e

r eason for wh ich i s n ot easy to find ou t . Two sticksar e tied across each oth er , wh ich again have crossp i eces , th e wh ole form ing a kind of St . H elena cross .

At th r ee of t h e fou r en d s of t h e pr ojecting cr oss piecesa l im e is fastened . Th is wh ole ar rangem ent i s fixedto one en d of th e bier so as to form a canopy overth e head of th e corpse . Th is m ay h ave h ad i t s or iginin serpent wor ship , and th e idea m ay be that of th e

cobra with expanded hood swaying over th e head .

Vaish navas oth er than th e Mala ones appear also toadopt this device . Four m en car r y th e b ier

, and whent h e bear ers li ft up their burden they raise i t up a

l ittle and then lower it again , doing th is th ree timesan d each tim e crying ou t Narayana ! or Govinda l

nam es of Vish nu and Kr ishna respectively . Th e bieri s set down three tim es on th e way to th e cemetery

,

when on each en d of th e two m ain poles of th e biera coin i s placed . These coins are taken up by th e

dasar i as a perquisite . This cerem ony of placing coinsi s also done by th e upper castes . When th e b ier i s on

th e gr ound som e grain and saffr on are scattered roundit . Th e grain is afterwards eaten by th e birds . Eachtime th e bier i s lifted up , it i s with th e thr ee upliftingsand th e shouts of Narayana ! or Govinda ! Some ofth e Malas who bury th e dead place th e body in th e

grave in a sitting position , th us necessi tating a peculiarsh aped bier ; ordinarily , h owever , th e r ecumbent posturei s observed . Th e funeral pr ocession i s m uch th e sameas with t h e or th odox H indus . Th e kar ta car r ies th efir e and

,as a rule, no wom en fol low .

Th e Mala cem etery is always distinct , and often at

som e considerable distance , from that of th e castepeople ; for even in death there must be no contamination by too close proxim ity . Th e place i s, if possible,

UNORTH ODOX 'H INDU FUNERALS 233

a more dreary and miserable spot stil l than that ofth e orthodox . Th e idea of paying any attention toth e keeping of a cemetery tidy seems never to enterinto th e mind of a H indu .

Th e actual burning or burying detai ls are , to a

certain extent , th e same as those already describedin th e case of th e or thodox , except that there are nomantrams or homams. Th e body i s carefully strippedbefore being put into th e grave or on to th e pile .

In th e case of th e death of a pregnant woman , whenth e corpse i s placed on th e pile, or just before puttingit into th e grave, a kind of rough Caesarean operationi s performed by th e husband , th e details of which ar e

too revolting t o mention . This custom , which appearsto be prevalent amongst al l classes of H indus , seemsto be connected with th e same idea as that whichcauses th e body to be stripped quite naked .

‘We

brought nothing with u s in to this wor l d and we mustcarry nothing ou t .

”Each must depart as h e came.

Th e karta carries a pot of water r ound th e pilethree times before setting th e fire al ight , and th enthrows it over hi s shoulder ; in th e case of those whobury, th e water i s carried round th e grave . Thereis very little by way of ceremony of any kind , ex

cept that when th e body i s placed on th e pile or

into th e grave ‘

th e name of Narayana or Govinda i scalled on . N o prayers or slokas are said . Th e graveis dug and th e pile also i s placed so that th e body shal ll ie, whether buried or burnt , with i t s head towards th esouth . This custom arises from th e idea that it i s nu

lucky to sleep with th e head towards th e south . Whil stsome H indus will not sleep with th e head to th e south ,others think it most unlucky to sleep with th e headtowards th e north . Th e company al l bathe after th efuneral and that finishes th e ceremonies for that day .

Th e members of th e funeral group usual ly then go toa drinking shop to drink arrack at th e expense of th e

30

34 TH E H INDU A T H OME "

karta. N othing i s done at th e house; except that th ewomen clean up th e place after th e funeral party havegone . Th ey purify it by smearing it with th e dung of

cows and by spr inkling it with water in which thatpu rifying substance h as been m ixedFor several nigh ts after a burial , a smal l fire of somekind i s kept on th e grave , even if it should only be a

smouldering wisp of straw . This i s to frighten off t h e

jackals which might otherwise unearth th e body . Thisprecaution , however , does not always prevent such a

revolting thing taking place. Th e corpse i s never putinto a coffin by H indus , though some of '

th e Christianswho can afford it , especial ly in th e towns, adopt th eEuropean fashion , using wooden or bamboo ‘Wickerbasket coffins . In th e vil lages, th e Christians have fewfaci l ities for such refinements, and a winding sheetwith an outer covering of matting suppl ies al l thati s r eal ly needful for decency and reverential regard forth e dead . Sometimes when cholera or any other pestilence i s prevalent , or when any one happens to

i

die

wh ilst on a j ourney , th e survivors may mer ely cast ou tth e body to become a prey to th e vultures and jackals .

I now describe funeral obsequies whi ch represent th en i tya karma and sapindi rites of t h e Brahminical religion . There are two such ceremonies amongst th eMalas , called in Telugu

"

th e ch innadinamu and th e

peddad inam u , or th e little day and ' the big or impor tan t day . Th e former of these m ay be ob served

'

on th e

very day of th e funeral , or on th e third or fifth dayaf terwards . It i s general ly done on th e fifth day . Th e

day fixed upon will depend upon th e position of certains tar s, which matter i s decided by th e dasari . It can

never be on an even day , as odd numbers are lucky whilsteven ones are unluckly . Th e peddad inam u is alwaysobserved on th e fifteenth day after th e death . Untilth e ch innadinam u rite h as been perform ed , it is properfor th e karta to take h is food sit ti ng on

,

th e spot where


they are congregated , repeating at th e same time variou s names of Vishnu and th e sank alpam , or a declaration of th e place , time, tr ibe, and name of th e deceased .

It includes also a prayer for pardon of sin . H e thenprepares a place on th e earth near th e spot where th edeath took place, and with white powder draws a cabal istie figure , formed of two paral lel lines drawn at rightangles across two other paral lel l ines , th e ends of th efour lines being al l j oined together by cross l ines. Thisi s cal led ash tak sh ar am or th e eight figures . Near thisfigure a heap of rice i s placed'. This i s a perquisite ofth e dasari who grumbles much , if th e heap is notas large as h e l ikes . H e then brings certain figures ,cal led in Telugu per umal lu and places them on th e

heap of r ice . Th e figures represent th e gods and

their retinue . Th e karta slays a fowl or a sheepover th e spot , as on th e day of th e funeral , and

this i s given to th e women of th e household to cook .

When th e rice and curries have been duly prepared , a

por tion i s placed near th e perumal lu and another portion is placed into vessels which th e dasari and karta,with a few friends , take to th e cemetery .

On ar r iving at th e cemetery , if they are night-observers, they pr oceed to gather together th e ashes of th efuneral p ile and pour water upon them , th e whole being flattened down and made smooth. In th e case of

those who bury , th e top of th e grave i s thus prepared .

A leaf-plate i s put on th e prepared place and th e foodbrough t i s laid upon it . Th e dasari then places on a

separate leaf three lumps of th e food . This i s supposedto be for th e departed spirit , bu t it i s eaten by th ekar ta . Th e r emainder i s divided by th e dasar i amongstth e others present who forthwith eat it . A little ar racki s also g iven to them to drink . On thus dividing t h e

food,th e dasar i , in th e name of th e karta, says words

to th e fol lowing effect :“ A s th is depar ted spir i t h as comm itted s ins, i t cannot appear

UNORTH ODOX H INDU FUNERALS 237

before god ; th erefore th ese cerem on ies are per form ed in th e h opeth at i t m ay th er eby be fit ted to en ter h eaven .

”

This ceremony closely resembles th e feeding of th eB hok tas by th e orthodox , of which it i s probably an

imitation . In th e case of th e day-observers, th e food

is placed on th e spot wh ere th e cremat ion took placeor on th e grave, but those present do not eat of it .They simply place it there and then go away a l ittled istance to al low th e crows and other birds to comeand take it . When th e bir ds have once begun to eat

th e food thus placed , th e persons are satisfied and

take their departur e . On placing th e food th e dasarisays words to th e fol lowing effect :

0 Narayafi a, wh o bear est th e conch sh ell , th e wh eel and th e

club , I m ake nam ask aram to th ee. Gran t th at by th e giving of

th is food th is spir it m ay be sat isfied .

Amongst this section of th e people ,each day from

th e funeral to th e ch innad inam u , th e karta before h e

partakes of h is meals places a por t ion of h i s food on

th e house to attract th e birds , and until a bird h as

begun to eat what i s thus placed h e does not taste h isown meal . This must be very tantal izing to a hungrym an , especial ly if ther e should happen to be no birdsin th e neighbourhood . Th e Indian crow, however, i subiquitous and it really seems to know un tu i t ivelywhen anything of th e kind i s going on by which itcan get something to satisfy i t s rapacious , omnivorousappetite. This i s why th e day

-observers are called

pak sh ivésévarn , or those who thr ow to th e birds .

After this ceremony a smal l feast i s prepared at

th e house and partaken of by th e dasari and a few

fr iends . Th e dasari m ust be wel l fed and must alsohave an extra l iberal share of th e arrack provided forth e feast . After th e m eal i s over it is customary forth e dasari to make a funeral oration in wh ich h e setsforth th e good qual it ies of th e deceased .

238 T HE H INDU AT H OME

N othing further i s done until th e fifteenth day whenth e most important cer emonies are performed , answering to a certain extent to th e sapindi rites of th e or

th odox . Th e ceremonies on this day are very d ifieren tamongst th e two section s . In th e case of night-observers , th e dasar i and friends assemble at th e house ofth e deceased , when th e karta and th e friends and re

lat ives of th e deceased , who are of th e same surname

(h ouse-name) , al l shave th e head and th e face . Th e

kar ta also h as h i s moustache shaven off, and in somecases even th e sikha . Th e kill ing of t h e fowl or

sh eep , an d th e ceremony of th e ash tak sh aram are al l

gone through as on th e ch innad inam u , except thatth ere i s no visit paid to th e cemetery . A s a very largenumber of people gather together for this ceremony , a

pig m ay possibly be kil led . On this occasion t here i sfeasting and dr inking as at a great wedding feast .Som etime after th e sun sets th e dasari proceeds to

t ie together with some sticks a contr ivance about twoor th ree feet high . Cross pieces ar e also tied so as to

make two li t tle platforms inside , one of which i s for

a lamp . Som e cotton cloth i s t ied round th e upperpar t of this ar rangement so as to form a sh el ter forth e lam p , and also to make i t look like a l ittle shrine .

Th e name given to this in Telugu i s tr i téru or the threestoried car . A light i s placed inside this shrine and

i t i s taken up by th e dasari who i s accompanied byth e assem b led fr iends both male and female . Strumming 'on h is gu itar-l ike instrument , h e proceeds, singing a song , to some place near an adjacent main road .

A specimen of th e songs thus sung , supplied to m e

by a dasar i , i s a meaningless composition referring toRama in a pantheistic way , as being al l things and

pervading al l things . Ther e i s no al lusion in it whatever to th e cerem ony itsel f or anything connectedwith it . Ar r ived at a suitable spot they al l sit downround th e temporary shr ine, now l ighted up , and th e


Spir it , after which t h e assembly pr oceed to th e housefor a big feast . Each one of th e r elatives to showrespect or affection to th e memory of th e deceased ,brings a portion of arrack to add to th e amount forconsumption .

In th e case of th e day-observing section , there i s no

t r i tér u ,but th e fr iends r epair to th e bank of a neigh

bou r ing tank , or to some other water , where th e sb aving and widow r ites are al l gone th rough in much th esame way . After this they al l bathe and then returnto th e house for a feast .When th e feast i s over , i t i s usual , as at weddings ,for th e friends and relatives to signify their respect forth e deceased by presenting money and other things toth e kar ta, for which purpose grain i s brought . Thiscustom i s real ly a way of mutual ly assisting each otherin th e heavy expenses of th e ceremony , and it i s ex

pected that th e recipients of such aid shal l in l ikemanner assist th e g ivers on any similar occasion .

This help i s cal led k atnam , a wor d meaning dues orgifts . Th e way these gifts are col lected is ratherpeculiar . After th e feast i s over th e dasari receivesfr om each one a gift , and as h e takes it h e holds i t upabove h is head , shouting out that so and so h as givensuch and such a sum in th e name of so and so (th edeceased) . H e then gives a leap up into th e air and

repeats a verse . This goes on unt i l each one whointends doing so h as presented h is contr ibutions . Th e

dasari receives a fee for h is trouble. After this h e sitsand tel ls stories until night or day l ight , as th e casem ay be, when th e company separate .

Th e reason given for al l this feasting and drinkingand tel l ing of stories is that th e departed spirit m ay

be sat isfied and go away , without causing any harmto th e l iving . They fear th at , i f i t were not thussatisfied , th e spirit might take away some one to bewith it , especial ly one whom it h ad l oved in i ts l ife


time . A further idea in these ceremonies i s that notonly wil l th e departing spir i t be benefited ; but alsothat if it reaches heaven it wil l intercede for th e

survivor s . A fear of demons and evi l spir its i s one

th at dominates th e minds of these people to a fearfulextent , and ther e i s l ittle doubt but that this feel ing ,more than any other, pr ompts th e masses of India intheir funeral rites and Observances for th e dead .

Th e Malas, l ike th e orth odox H indus,have a cere

mony for th e dead every month for th e fir st year afterth e decease , and on th e last of these ther e i s a feastsomething l ike that of th e peddad inam u . There i s alsoan annual ceremony made by those wh o can afford it .Th e description given of th e funeral rites and ceremonies of th e Malas m ay also serve for those of th e

Madigas , or dealer s in skins and leather . There are

m inor differences , but substantial ly their ceremonies are

th e same . This description will al so be sufficient togive a general idea of th e funeral r i tes of most of

those castes or tribes wh o, though not regularly in

cluded within th e pale of th e Brahminical rel igion ,stil l to a cer tain extent per form , in an il legitimate kindof way , r ites and ceremonies of evidently H indu or igin ;which at th e same tim e are mixed up with ceremoniesderived from undoubted pagan sour ces .

H aving no personal knowledge of th e death cer emonies of tr ibes total ly , or alm ost so

,unconnected with

H induism , I have consulted a few of th e GovernmentD istrict Manuals for information on th e subject , and

th e r est of this chapter i s chiefly taken fr om thesesources . Th e N ilg iri D istr ict Manual compiled by th elate Mr . Grigg contains most interesting informationwh ich wil l answer al l my purpose . It describes a greatvar iety of customs current amongst non-H indu tribes .

Th e most interesting of these cerem onies are those of

th e Todas . At th e funerals of these people a numberof buffaloes are kil led to supply th e deceased with milk

31


in th e next world,of which they seem to have some

dist inct ideas . Th e viaticum for a dying Toda i s a

dr ink of milk, and after death h e i s wrapped up in a

garment,into th e pockets of which i s placed a supply

of grain and sugar for use on t h e ghostly j ourney .

There are two funeral ceremonies cal led th e greenfuneral an d th e dry funeral . Th e former i s th e actualfuneral ceremony , and th e latter is that which answerssomewhat to th e sapindi rite of th e orthodox .

Very soon after death th e body i s carried out to th eburying gr ound an d a smal l her d of buffaloes i s drivenalong with th e procession . Each animal h as a l ittlebel l hung r ound i t s neck an d each one i s dr iven closeup to th e funeral pile . Th e m ourners present includewomen and children . Each one present takes up threehandfuls of earth and throwing it upon th e body says ,L et h im go into th e soil .” Th e rest of this touching ceremony m ay be best given in Mr . Grigg ’

s own

words : “Th e recumbent corpse i s now l ifted up in th e

arms of th e relatives , and each cow in succession isdragged by two m en up to h er master , whose arm i s

raised and made to touch th e animal’s horns . Afterthis th e pyre i s l ighted by fire made by th e frictionof two st icks . Th e body i s l ifted up and swung threet imes from side to side, then laid on th e burning woodface downwards. A s th e flames devour th e body th e

people cry ,‘shal l we kil l buffaloes for you ? You are

going to Am nur (heaven) ; m ay it be wel l with you ;m ay al l thy sins go .

’

One or two buffaloes ar e nowkilled , and , as each creature fal ls dead from a blowfrom th e butt end of an axe, th e people crowd roundit , sobbing and lamenting and kissing i ts face . Afterthis they si t round th e bier in pairs wi th their facestogether and their foreheads touching , weeping bitterlyand wai l ing in true oriental fashion .

Th e skull and bones are preserved for th e dry funer al . There i s no rel igious ceremony at th e cremation


I have already referred to th e simple marr iage r itesof th e B adagas.

l Their funeral ceremonies appear tobe much more elaborate . When a per son i s seen tobe dying , a ver y smal l gold coin i s d ipped in ghee

(clarified butter) and placed between th e l ips . If thisi s swal l owed , so much th e better ; if not , it i s tied toth e arm . This i s supposed to pay th e expenses of th ej ourney to th e next world . This smal l coin i s said t obe a Mysore one called a birian-hanna or viria r ayaand i s valued at four annas ( four pence) . After death ,messengers are sent for th to cal l together fr iends and

relatives , and also to summon Kota music ians . Afuneral car i s made with wood and th e branches Of

trees , and draped with cloth . Th e body i s placed on

a cot underneath this construction . Al l th e next daya kind of death dance i s kept up . Th e r elat ives donot j oin in th e dance, but walk round th e bier carrying food in their hands and r epeat ing with muchweeping . th e good qual i ties of th e deceased . A s withth e Todas, a calf i s chosen to be a

“scape-goat, and

at this ceremony there i s much chanting of prayer s ,concluding as follows : “

L et al l h is sins be forgiven ,and m ay it be wel l with him , yea, m ay al l be wel l .”

Th e body with th e car i s then taken and burnt near tosome neighbouring stream , and th e ashes are col lectedand thrown into th e water .Th e Kotas, who act as musicians to th e other hilltribes, seem in their funeral r ites to copy both th e

Badagas and th e Todas . They have th e car-l ike erection of th e former , which they burn with th e imple

ments of th e deceased . They also have a dry funeralin imitat ion of th e latter , when skulls are placed on

cots and burnt , together with bows and arrows and

various other implements .

Th e Kurum bas , another tr ibe also described by Mr .Grigg

,whenever they can afford it , admin ister th e smal l

1 An te, Ch apter vi i , p . 132.


gold coin to their sick when dying , in imitation ofth e Badagas . They also place th e body under a car

draped with cloths . After dancing round th e car to

th e sounds of music , they burn th e corpse with th e

car and th e ceremony i s complete .

Th e Iru las , whose simple marriages I have alreadydescribed ,1 bury t heir dead without much ceremony .

Th e body i s placed in th e grave in a sitting posture ,

with a lamp by i t s side ; th e friends dance round th egrave for some t ime , after which they fi l l it up and

place a smal l upright stone to mark th e spot , and thati s al l .

“ Th e Vel lan s of Cochin either bury or burn theirdead . Th e sons are th e chief mourners and per form th e

funeral rites . Th e pollution lasts for sixteen days .

On th e m orning of th e sixteenth day th e b u t of th edead m an or woman i s wel l swept and cleaned bysprinkl ing water mixed with cowdung. Th e membersof th e family then bathe .

” 2

I have given these instances , as they seem to be re

presentative of th e various funeral rites of th e nonH induised tribes of South India ; and , as such , theym ay perhaps be representat ive of other parts of India .

1 A n te, p . 133 .

2 For an excel len t accoun t of t h is t r ibe, see Ch r isti an Col lege (Mad ras)Magaz in e , August 1907, pp . 76 86. Ar t icle on th e Vel lan s of Coch in ,

byL . K . Anan th ak r ishna Iyer , B .A .

CH P A TE R ! IV .

H I N D U O M E N S .

m , ( Sh ak unam )

“Neith er by explain in g om en s and prod igies , nor by skill inast rology and palm ist ry , nor by casuistry an d exposit ion s of h olytexts let h im (a Sanyasi) at any t im e gain h i s support .

”

(Manu ,vi,

TH E bel ief in omens h as existed in a l l ages and countries . Traces of it stil l l inger in th e most civi lized and

enlightened communities, and such bel ief pervades al l

classes in India . Th e most unobservant travel lercannot fail to be struck with th e peculiar objects, some

most gro tesque and some most obscene , that are placedin gardens and fields to pr otec t th e crops from th e evileye. In order to pr otect h er child from th e same baleful influence a mother decks it with charms or somepeculiar ornam ents . Th e obscene figures that are

sometimes seen over th e gateways of H indu templesare placed there from th e same motive . Such superst i

tions as a bel ief in th e good or evil influence of certainstars or th e conjunction Of certain planets have a

wonderful hold upon th e H indu mind amongst m en of

every rank and station . Th e influence of cer tainnumber s i s largely bel ieved in by th e people ; odd number s are thought to be lucky , whilst even num ber s are

unlucky ; 1 so it becomes a m atter of ver y gr eat anxiety

l Mu salm an s also h ave an object ion t o even num bers . See Sell ’sFaith of Islam ,

”(ed . 3 rd ) , p . 307.

248 TH E H INDU“

AT H OME

worldly affair s, must not , for th e sake of acquiringgain , ever engage in what are ordinar ily consider edsacred em ployments .

A knowledge of omens is considered an ar t or scienceamongst th e H indus general ly , an d ther e i s a book inTelugu , tr anslated fr om th e Sanskr i t, upon this subject .Th e thr ee divisions of this book are palmistry (samud r ik am ) , or th e interpretation of spots on th e body and

of creases in th e hands ; enquir y (prash nam ) , or divinat ion tr ied by dipping th e hand into th e “

Ramayanam

and omens . Ther e i s a class of people who ar e learnedin omens and kindred subjects ; th e chief of these are

th e astronomers or astr ologer s (jyot i sh k a) who , as theirname implies , ar e learned in th e stars and occultmatters .

Th e following account of a variety of omens i s takenfr om th e book to which I have referred .

O MEN S O N S ETT IN G O U T O N A JO U RN EY .

There are no less than forty-three differ ent thingsenumerated as prognosticating good and thirty-four evil ,if any of them should happen just as a person setsout on a j ourney . For instance, it i s a good omento overhear a pleasant conversation , to hear musicalinstruments ; to see a good blaze of fir e ; to meet a

company of dancing girls, or a few young women , tomeet an elephant , a horse, or a bullock, or even a

corpse, to meet two B rahm an s, ,

or four Kom at ies , or

a Sudra with a stick in h is hand ; to see in front ofone an umbrel la, fans, mirror s , a harp , diamonds ,gold

,weapons , fruit or flowers ; to h ear th e braying of

an ass from th e east , south,north or north-east . It i s

lucky,if a crow ,

a parrot , a stork, a heron , or a jackalpasses from th e left to th e right ; if a brahm iny kite ,a hawk , an owl , an iguana, a deer , a musk-rat , a dog ,or a mongoose passes from right to left ; and if a

l i zard ’s cry i s heard from th e right , or from overhead .

H INDU OMENS 249

It seems strange that it sh ould be a good omen tomeet a corpse, but it i s th e case . To dream of a corpse,of a blaze of fir e, of flowers , of fruit , of having step

ped into filth,or of having any fi lth fal l on one’

s bodyis consider ed to be a good omen . To dr eam of any

thing red , such as r ed flower s , a r ed cloth or bloodis bad .

It i s a very anxious time when a good H indu leavesh is home to start out for a j ourney . H e wil l natural ly look and l isten careful ly for some good sign . Apandit friend tel ls m e that there i s no definite distancelaid down beyond which bad omens have no effect ; butperhaps twenty or twenty-five yar ds, or even less, m ay

be considered enough as a test . After th e travel lergets out into th e main street , if th e house started fromis in a side street , it wil l not matter much if anythingof th e nature of a bad omen happens . Th e settingout

,therefore , i s th e anxious time . It i s a bad sign,

if any one tries to persuade th e departing travel lernot to go

,or says h e h ad better take some food

before star t ing , or offers to accompany him , or enquiresas to where h e i s going , or pulls h is garment to keephim back . It i s considered a bad omen when a personsets out , to meet , or to see in fr ont of him , any of th efol lowm g

— a woman with plaited r ed hair 1 , a widow, a

new pot , a whirlwind , dr ops of rain , a bundle of fire

wood , a single Brahmin , an oil-monger , a pariah , a

lame m an , m en quarrel l ing , m en in snfler ing, m en with

1 “ Super st it ion s as to i t s being un lucky t o m eet a wom an wh enset t ing ou t t o fish ,

or upon any journey by sea , are not uncomm on

in th e West of Ireland . A boat was beat ing acr oss th e bay againsta h eavy sea and st iff breeze , wh ich h ad sudden ly sprung up . Aft era long and h ard figh t for i t , th e l it t le craft m ade th e pier i n safety,and upon con dolences being offered th e sk ipper on h i s recen t h ard

sh ips , h e said :“ Sure, wh at bet ter luck could I h ave ? D idn ’

t I

m eet a red-h ead ed woman in Sligo th is m orn ing th e m om en t I leftm y lodging to walk down t o t h e boat ! Spectator , August 10 , 1907.

p. 190 .


dishevel led hair , a hunchback , a leper , inval ids, buttermilk

,oil , empty pots, grass, bones, a bundle of dir ty

clothes , smoking fire or var ious other things which ar e

mentioned . It i s not a good sign to see an ass eitherto th e west , th e nor th-west , th e south-west or th e

south-east with i ts head hanging down an d brayingor to see a cr ow, a parrot , a stork , a heron , or a

jackal pass fr om th e r ight to th e left .If any of these bad om ens appears to a pious H induwhen h e i s setting ou t on a j ourney , especial ly if th ej ourney i s an important on e, h e will cer tainly turnback home again . On enter ing h is house h e wil l carefully wash h i s feet and then perform ach am anam ,

whichi s sipping of water three tim es , repeat ing th e following names of Vishnu , Késh ava Svah a ! hai l Krishna,Narayana Svah a ! hail Narayana , Madh ava Svah a !

hai l Madh ava . After this i s over , and after spendingsome time in quiet meditation , h e will again set for th .

If after a succession of attempts h e st il l meets withbad omens th e j ourney will be deferred entirely for th eday ,

if not al together given up . If th e travel ler i s a

Sudra,h e will not be able to repeat th e words m en

t ioned above, when performing h is ach am anam , as theyare taken from th e Vedas, and none but a twice-bornmust take such holy wor ds within h is l ips . Th e

Sudra w il l sip th e water and say Govinda ! GOvinda !or Siva ! Siva ! according as h e is a Vaishnava, ora Siva, a worshipper of th e god Vishnu , or of th e

god Siva.

S N A KE O MEN S .

In a country l ike India where serpent wor ship is so

common, th e movements of these reptiles ar e lookedupon as ominous . Th e vital statistics of th e IndianGovernment show an annual l oss of l ife by snake bitealone, averaging from twenty to twenty-five thousand .

It i s not then to be wondered at that th e serpent

252 TH E H INDU AT ‘H OME

journey it i s bad to hear it hiss . If any one sees th e

trai l of a snake on th e gr ound , h e must walk backwards along i t , rubbing it out with h is foot .

L l Z A RD O MEN S .

There are two ways in which a l izard i s supposed toexer cise a good or an evil influence, and these ar e i t s

cry and i ts fal l ing upon anyone . With reference to

th e cry of a l izar d it i s said that , if on entering a town ,anyone hears a l izard ’s cry coming from th e left handit denotes prosperity ; but if it should be heard fromth e right it bespeaks delay in th e accomplishmentof th e designs of him who hears it . If th e cry is

heard from th e front , it is a good omen ; but it i s badto hear it from behind . If a number of lizards cry

out together, or if one should cry many times it is a

good sign . If when any on e is considering about anybusiness a l izard ’s cry is heard from th e right or fromabove , it bespeaks wel l for th e hearer

’

s designs ; buti t would denote disaster if it were heard from th e

left side .

Every dwel ler in India knows how univer sal th e ordinary l izard i s ; i t i s everywhere both indoors and out .It i s a very harmless thing and many of i ts ways are

rather entertaining than otherwise ; especially i t s dexter i ty in pouncing upon th e insects which form i ts food .Many lizards are very pretty , and th e effect i s verypleasing when they are seen darting about in th e sun

l ight , or along th e white wal ls by lamplight . Some ofthem , it i s true, are not so engaging in appearance ;but others have most beautiful colours and mar kings ,and th eir feeble l ittle “ tweet ” “ tweet ” is by no meansunpleasant to th e ear , though not very musical . Ini ts movements here , there and everywhere , up th e

wal ls , along th e beams and in and ou t among th e raf

ter s, seeking what it m ay devour, th e sil ly thing mustver y Often go very carelessly , or else get giddy from

H INDU OMENS 253

runn ing al ong horizontal beams with i t s natural positionrever sed as to i t s legs and back . I t i s no unusual thingfor it to fall on th e floor, and to be stunned . It i s,however, soon up again and off l ike a dart , as if nothingh ad happened . Th e H indu h as very superstitious notions about th e fal l of a l izard , that is , if i t shouldhappen to fal l on h i s person ; and h e will try al l h e

can to prevent such a thing happening . Althoughunder certain conditions, such a fal l m ay be a tokeno f good

, th e chances to th e contrary ar e so great as tomake it worth while to take every precaution againstsuch a contingency .

In a book on omens there i s a l ist of no less thansixty-five places on th e person which m ay for ebodegood or evil , if touched by a l izard in i t s fal l . Ifit fal ls upon th e centre of one’

s head , it forebodesa quarrel or disease ; i f on th e temples, evil to one’

s

brother ; if on th e front of th e head , evil to onesel f ;if on th e head cover ing , evil to males , death to females ;if on th e tips of one’

s hair , death ; if on th e rightcheek , good for m ales , evil for females ; if on th e leftcheek , good for fem ales , evil for males and so on

thr ough th e whole body right down to th e toes , and

even to th e nails on th e toes . F or instance , if a

l izard falls on th e toes of th e right foot , it denoteswealth ; but if on th e nai ls of th e same foot

,a quar

r el ; i f on th e edge of th e nails of th e same foot ,annoyance or suffering i s betokened . If in th e fal l ittouches either th e toes , or th e nai ls, or th e edge of

th e nai ls of th e left foot , it i s an omen of weal th and

good fortune .

Th e chapter fr om which these remarks are taken con

cludes as follows : Upon whatever part of th e body a

l izar d m ay fal l , it i s th e best thing to at once bathe and ,

having l it a lamp fed with oi l , pray to a favourite godfor th e prevention of any evil that might otherwisehappen . To this i t m ay be objected that th e omen


might be a good one, hence why this deprecatoryaction . Th e reply to this would probably be that ,owing to th e possible uncertainty as to th e exact spotupon which th e reptile al ighted , it would be safer toassume that th e om en i s a bad one, and so at oncepr ovide for th e possible contingency .

Separate information is given as to what i s denotedby th e fall of a chameleon— th e large l izard usual lycal led a bloodsucker . Strange to say , som e of theseomens are th e Opposite of those of t h e ordinary l izard .

For instance ,if a l izar d fal ls on th e nose , it betokens

disease ; whilst a fal l of t h e ch ameleon on th e sameplace for etel ls th e cure of a disease . Enough , h owever , h as been said to show what a very portentouscreature a l izard i s in th e eyes of th e H indus , and toaccount for th e anxiety th ey evince to prevent one , at

any time, fal l ing upon them .

C ROW O M EN S .

To one at al l acquainted with th e Indian cr ow ,i t i s

not at al l a matter of surpr ise that th e ways of thatwily bird are thought to be highly ominous . Th e veryg l itter of i t s wicked beady black eye i s suggestive of

evil . Th e H indus think , fr om th e peculiar squintingway th e cr ow h as of looking at a thing— turning i t shead from side to side in a m ost uncanny fashion—thati t can only see w ith one eye at a time ,

but that it h asth e power of transferring vision from one eye to th eother at will . According to this theory

, one eye m ust ,for th e t ime, be only a dummy . A s m ay be expected ,th e crow is a proverbial bird amongst th e H indus .

They say , for instance,“Th e cr ow ’

s chick i s dear toth e crow , or , as th e English proverb h as it , Evena beggar loves h er brat ” ; Th e cr ow i s black at birthand black wh en gr own

, or ,“ What i s bred in th e

bone will come out in th e flesh” ; “ To kill crows and

th row them to kites,” or ,

“ To rob Peter to pay Paul .


creatures are seen . A thor oughbred b r injar i dog or

a r eal ly good poligar i s an excel lent animal and suitsth e countr y ; but th e dog of th e E ast i s a miserablecr eature

, and th e word dog i s un iveral ly used as a

term of contempt . Such term s as“a lucky dog or

“a j ol ly dog , with th e implied strain of compl imentrather than repr oach , ar e unknown in India

, and probab ly th e same m ay be said for th e East general ly .

It is a good sign,if a dog comes near anyone with

a piece of old shoe in i t s mouth ; and it bespeaksweal th to a per son wh o sees a dog with some flesh ini t s m outh . If a dog passes by with a raw bone in i t smouth it i s a lucky sign ; but if a dog h as a bu rningstick or a dry bone in i t s mouth

,i t for etel ls death . If

a dog enter s a house with a d ry bone in i ts mouth ,th e h ouseholder will be in great danger of death ; if onso entering i t h as r opes , or leather straps in i t s mouth ,it shows that t h e householder wil l be put into prison .

It i s good , if a dog comes from th e righ t towards a

per son about to star t on a j ourney ; or if i t shouldcom e towards him from th e front when actual ly on a

j ourney . If a dog shaking i t s ears jumps upon a

traveller, or walks behind h im treading in h i s footsteps,it denotes that d ifficulties m ay h appen . When a dog

stops a travel ler in th e way and prevents h i s proceeding

,it means that h e will fal l among r obbers or be

stopped by enem ies . If any one sees a dog scratchingitself , i t denotes disease to th e beholder. Evil also willhappen to anyone who sees a dog ly ing down withi t s tai l cook ed up . A journey i s for etold to a personwhose shoes a dog smel ls . It also predicts danger fr omenemies or from robbers if a dog smells a person ’

s

shoulders .

C A T O M EN S .

A cat i s evidently not though t to be such a veryportentous creature , as but little i s said about it inth e book on omens . Th e fol lowing i s a free translation

H INDU OMENS 257

of al l that is said there Should a cat be in frontof anyone when h e m ay be considering any business,that business will not pr osper . If anyone sees a cat ,

just on awaking in th e morning nothing h e m ay do

that day will prosper . A cat coming towards anyonewho is leaving home shows that th e object h e h ad inview will fai l . Should a cat follow anyone who i s leaving th e house, th e Object in view will be accomplishedwithout any hindrance . It i s a good omen to hear acat cry from th e side towards th e west . ”

JA CKA L O MEN S .

Th e jackal enters largely into H indu fable ; but veryl itt le is said of it from th e omen point of View . Th e

fol lowing are th e chief things mentioned as portendinggood or evil . It i s a good omen for a travel ler whena jackal crosses over from th e left to th e r ight . It isalso a good portent when a jackal ’s cry i s heard fromth e east or th e north ; but it predicts great calamitiesif it cries exactly at midday . If it cries fr om th e

south or when turning towards th e sun,evil will h ap

pen to th e town or th e army . If one jackal cries ou t

towards th e south in reply to another, it portends an

execution by hanging if i t so cries in reply to anotherturning to the west , it bespeaks death by drowning .

If a jackal cr ies out so l oud as to deafen th e earsof a person , but when another begins to cry

,lessens

i ts own cry, it foretel ls wealth and prosperity and alsoth e safe return of friends and relatives who m ay have

gone on a distant j ourney .

S N EEZ IN G REGA RD ED A S A N O MEN .

A sneeze at th e important rite of a marriage ceremony is regarded as an unpropi tious sign .

1 If a goodH indu sneezes h e snaps h i s fingers and then makessome earnest exclamat ion like ch iranjeeva (l ive a longlife) or sh atayu ssu (l ive for a hundred years) in order

l An te, p. 106.

‘


to avert any evil . It i s said that to sneeze many t imesdenotes th e accomplishment of one’

s desires ; i t is alsoa good sign to cough after sneezing . On th e otherhand , i t i s a sign of evil to sneeze just once and thenstop . A person must not blow h i s nose immediatelyafter sneezing , as that would be a sign of death . Aftera single sneeze ,

or if a m an unwitting ly blows h is noseimmediately after sneezing ,

it i s wel l to cease thinkingabout any business that m ay have been occupying h isattention and immediatel y to l ie down and be quietfor a time, having first expectorated ; in this way th e

evi l m ay be nul l ified . It i s a good omen to hear sucezing when tak ing betel , or when about to take food , orupon going to bed . If when thinking about some

impor tant business , any one hears a fourfooted beastsneeze, or if such a thing occurs when he happens tobe contemplating a j ourney , i t would be a sign of

death , or some equal ly great calamity . It i s a goodthing to get up whil st sneezing ; but it i s an omenof delay in one’

s business to si t down whil st doing so .

It i s a sign that h is Object wil l be accomplished , if h esneezes whilst holding in h is hand bel l-metal , copper ,or gold ; but i t i s th e very opposite, if the metal inth e hand should be of iron or silver .

It i s good to hear young chi ldren , infants , prostitates , pariahs , or th e lame sneeze ; but it is a sign thatmany tr oubles will happen to any one unfortunateenough to hear any of th e fol lowing women sneezea married woman , a widow , one who i s blind , dumb ,or maimed , a washerwoman , or one of th e t oddy drawercaste, a Madiga (workers in leather ) woman , a womanof th e Yerukala caste (gypsies) , or one carrying a

burden . It i s also a bad s ign if a person when sneez

ing should happen to see a woman .

There is no importance to b e attached to sneezescaused by snuff, red pepper, or a cold , nor to sneezingheard in th e bazaar . Probably th e reason for the latter


T H E C H A RA CT ERIS TIC S O F B REA TH ING .

Th e H indus have a most cur ious idea with referenceto breathing thr ough th e nose . They distinguish between breathing through th e r ight and th e left nostr il .Th e right nostril i s cal led suryanad i , or that of th e sun ,

and th e breath that comes through this i s supposedto be comparat ively warm ; whilst th e left nostr il i scal led th e ch andranad i , or that of th e m oon , th e breathcoming through th is being considered as comparativelycold . It i s bel ieved that a preponderance of breathcomes through one nostri l for a per iod of two hours ,after which this preponderance changes to th e othernostril . Not only so, but actions performed or thingshappening during one or other of these per iods are

thought to be influenced thereby . A list i s given inth e book on omens showing what it would be wel lshoul d happen , or not happen , during th e prevalenceof either th e suryanad i , or th e ch andr anad i . There issaid to be a book on this subject , Svara Sh ast ram ;

”

but I have not been able to procure a copy. At six

o ’clock in th e morning of th e fir st day of a certainmonth in th e year , th e suryanad i comm ences and fromthis calculat ions can be made . When a m an desires toconsult this oracle h e breathes hard down h is nostrils onto th e back of h is h and , and having thus determ inedto h is own satisfaction , by th e excess in volume of th e

flow of breath fr om either nostri l , th e auspiciousnessor otherwise of th e time, h e forms a judgment thereupon and , if action i s called for , acts accordingly .

It i s pr op itious if i t i s suryanadi , when first marching forth for war , or when commencing any importantcommer cial transaction . It should be at this periodthat th e marriage bath should take place (mangalasuanam ) and also th e ceremony at th e coming togetherof a mar r ied pair when arr ived at a suitable age (gar

bhathanam ) . It i s wel l if during suryanadi food is

H INDU OMENS 261

taken , or if a person should be frightened , or defeatedin any way . It i s a propi tious sign at th e commencement of any affliction . It i s recommended that , on

star ting out for any of these enterpr ises, a personshould start off fir st with th e right foot .Persons ar e advised to fix upon th e per i od of

ch andranad i for set ting for th on a j ourney , or for a

marriage ; for first putting on new jewels, or for comm encing to plough th e fields ; for beginning to build a

house, or to plant a garden . It i s necessary to put th eleft foot first on star t ing out to do any of these things.

TH E T IN G LIN G O R T H RO BB IN G O F LIMBS O R

M EMBERS .

There are no less than twenty-two parts of th e humanbody

,in which a tingl ing i s auspicious, or otherwise.

Th e thr obbing of any part of . th e right. hand s ide ofth e body is auspicious ; whilst that of th e left i s lessso. A throbbing of th e centre of th e top of th e headbespeaks good food , and that of th e nose i s also a goodsign . A thr obbing of th e right ch eck i s ominous of

evil coming from a ruler , whilst that of th e left cheekshows that employment wil l come . , It i s a good thing

,

therefore, said an Indian friend to m e, i f on settingou t to seek for employment one should have a ting l ing

,

sensation in th e left cheek . Th e l ist goes on downwards from th e eyes to th e l ips and chin and thenceon to th e shoulders, th e chest and th e arms , rightdown to th e feet . Th e tingl ing of th e calf of the legforetel ls th e possession of jewels, and that of th e soleof th e foot happiness general ly .

Y AWN IN G .

Yawning is'

not properly speaking regarded as an

omen , but H indus have some very peculiar ideas aboutit . It i s thought that when a person yawns , th e l ifemay. leave the body ; whether merely from th e effects


of th e spasmodic action ,or fr om any other cause is

not clear . H ence it is usual on yawning , to snap th efingers and say Krishna ! Krishna ! or Siva ! Siva ! in ’

order to avert any evil that m ay otherwise result . So

strong is th e bel ief that t he l ife m ay leave th e bodythrough a hearty yawn , that ‘to yawn

’

i s sometimesused as a euphemism for

‘to d ie .

’ If a baby yawns, th emother , or someone near, who h as Observed it , snapsth e fingers saying, Krishna ! Krishna ! or Siva ! Siva !It is probable that th e superstitious ideas withreference to yawning , and sneezing 1 also , h ad theirorig in in th e fact that any spasmodic action m ay be ofi tself physical ly somewhat dangerous . This presump

tion i s strengthened from th e fac t that a mkam onth e subject also includes fal l ing down . It i s as

follows

fiaqraa spit], afi ffi glflfg

iflffl : l

flint: aended nmsuwfezaa

On sneez ing, falling , or yawn ing,Snap th e finger s and say , live ! ar i se !I t i s fi t even for a younger to do th i s to an elder .

Th is i s for th e revi ving .”

Th e third l ine in th e verse i s an al lusion to th e

wel l-known impropriety of a younger person presumingto bless an Older one . In th e three possible eventsmen tioned , th e danger i s considered such as to warrantthis departure from what i s ordinarily considered to beright and proper .There are m any m ore omens ; but I have given

enough to show how th e H indu people are tied and

bound with th e chains of superstit ion . D oubtlessthere are many who pay l ittle heed to these things ;

1 I t is obligatory on a Musalman wh o sneezes to say at once, A l

h am d u’

l lAh—o God be praised : th e answer given by h i s companion i s

“God h ave mercy upon you .

”H erk lot ,

“Qanti n a i-Islam ,

” p . 284.

C H A P TE R ! V .

H I N D U O R NAM E N T S .

WWW. ( A b h a ranam ) .

A wife being gaily adorned , h er wh ole h ouse i s embell ish ed ;bu t , if sh e be dest itute of ornamen t , al l will b e depr ived of deco

r at ion . (Manu , i i i .

PROBABLY in no country in th e world i s th e love of

personal o rnament so manifest as i t i s in India. Th e

sight of th e great pr inces in ful l gala dress i s a dreamof brightness and weal th ; and even th e poorest daylabourer manages to possess some ornament , if i t i sonly a silver, or even copper ring for h is finger , or toe .

This passion for jewels hinders a true advance in th e

wel far e of th e country . Money which properly circu

lated would add infinitely to th e comfort of th e individual , and to th e wel fare of th e community , i s lockedup in jewel s that l ie utterly unproductive of good ,and are a cause of anxiety . Any little extra gain and

savings are almost invariably invested in jewels . Th e

owner i s happy if on gala days h e can adorn himsel f ,or h is family with so much jewel lery ; and h e l ikes tobe Spoken of as a m an possessing so many rupeesworth of th e same . A man ’

s wealth i s often spokenof as the possession of so much in jewels. Even a

domestic servant , or day labour er , wi ll have h is l ittlesavings mel ted down and made in to an ornament forhimsel f

,or for one of h i s family . Such people, when

remonstrated with, will say it is a good investment ,

H INDU ORNAMENTs 265

for when a rainy day . comes th e money-lender willalways g ive a loan on jewels as a security .

'

A Teluguproverb says : “ Jewels worn for ornament wil l beuseful in times of difficul ty.” Such people canno t bebrought to understand what an im pr ovement therewould be to heal th , and domestic happiness , if th emoney thus buried were expended in bettering th e miserable condition Of the house or surroundings , or in proyiding better food for th e family ; nor do they see th e

positive gain that might be derived from properlylaying ou t th e money , instead of carrying it to th emelt ing pot of th e goldsmith . H indu m en adornthemselves in . this way more than those of Westerncountries do ; but it i s th e women who wear th e mostornaments . It is not a quest ion on ly of h er personalappearance ; for h er dignity and status amongst h erfriends and neighbours depend very much upon th e

amount and value of th e ornaments sh e wears . Whenwom en meet at th e v illage wel l or tank for a chat ,jewels usual ly form a prominent subject of conversation

,

in th e same way as dress i s supposed to occupy a

large share of'

th e conversation amongst women in

Western lands .

Jewels are often a subject of quarrel s in Indianhouseholds . If one member h as more than another

,

th e wife than th e sister or th e sister-in -law, or th e

reverse, th e peace Of th e good m an of th e house is oftendisturbed and th e household is divided . This state of

things h as , in fact , become proverbial . There is a Sanskrit saying current which ir onical ly expresses thisNam askaram (Obeisance) to gold which creates enmitybetween mother and son ; and a Telugu proverbsays : “ E ven though th e b rother-in -l aw h as to go toprison , th e elder sister must have h er anklets.

Some personal ornament is necessary for it i s saidThere must always be at least a speck of gold on

the person in order to ensure personal ceremonial34


purity . Most H indus contrive to h ave some jewel ,however small , somewhere or other upon their person ,either in th e nose or th e ear

, or on th e arm or hand .

According to rule, a youth until h e i s marr ied oughtnot to wear any ornaments at al l ; but , as a matter of

fact, they do and l ittle boys are often ornamentednear ly as much as l i ttle gir ls . Those wh o h ave per

formed a yajnam sacrifice, and who thereby becomeentitled to th e proud tit le of somayaju lu , are allowed ,as a mark of personal d istinction

,to wear a certain

kind of ear -ring and three peculiar shaped rings ontheir fingers . These jewels at once pr oclaim to th einitiated th e spir itual rank of th e wearer .Th e goldsmith guild , or rather caste, i s a very distinct

one and there seems always plenty of work for i tsmembers to do . Th e ordinary Indian distrusts th e goldsm ith and takes trusty fr iends to watch th e processof h i s piece of gold being made into an ornament forh i s wife . Popular sayings are Th e jewel belongs toth e wearer, but th e gold remains with th e jewel ler .“ A goldsmith wil l steal a scrap of h is mother’s nosering .

” 1 Th e workmanship i s somewhat crude and

there i s a want of finish , as compared w i th work ofEuropean manufac ture ; but it i s al l hand work and

done with th e simplest tool s. Yet what i s lacking infinish i s made up in beauty of design . If a new jewelshould be required , th e cu stomer does not go to a

jewel ler ’s shop and select th e article from a variedstock as in Europe . Th e designs are wel l known .

Th e customer must take gold or si lver or gems withhim

,and th e goldsmith will work up th e materials

thus brought . Sometimes th e workman goes to th eh ouse of th e custom er and does th e work there . N oblesand other m en of weal th keep workmen con stantlyemployed in making , or al tering , or repairing ornaments . Th e gold or si lver that i s taken to be worked

1 Crooke, “ N at ixes of Nor th ern India, p . 130 .

268 THE H INDU AT HOME

H indus, wh en a child i s born'

to a married pair after along time, or one survives after several have died ininfancy . . In such a case, especially if it be a boy,but also somet imes in th e case of a girl , th e parentswil l beg money from their fr iends and neighbours, or

even from strangers— th e money must be obtained inthis way—and with what i s real ized , t h ey get smal ljewels made for th e ear and th e nose, to be worn as

amulets . It mus t at least be enough for one ear and

one nostri l ; but if suffi cient i s obtained to " meet th ecost , both ear s and both nostr ils are thus ornamented .

When these are once put on , they are never removed .

Great danger would be incurred by removmg thesecharms. It is very dangerous for a visitor to praise th eornaments of a child .

“ Praise of this kind i s believedto bring a nemesis with it , or i t m ay suggest theenvious glance of the mal ignant .” 1

Th e ornaments for women are natural ly far morenumerous. There are no less th an twelve differen tkinds for th e head al one. Probably this does notexhaust th e l ist , bu t these are those in ordinary use,

either for gala days or for every-day wear . Therei s an ornament called th e betel-leaf, . made of gold ,ornamented with lit tle balls along i ts edges , and wornon th e top of th e head towards th e front . Anotherornament made into th e shape of th e petal of a cer

tain Indian flower is worn just behind it . Next comesa large circular ornament named after th e Indianchrysanthemum , and placed at th e end of th e chignon;which i s worn at th e side and not at th e back of th e

head . A golden sun-flower , with a crescent attachedto it by links , i s put on th e crown of th e head .

These four ornaments are in or dinary wear by wel l-toe

do females ; those hereafter mentioned are, as a rule,only worn on gala days . An ornament, sh aped likean inver ted A , sometimes set with “pearls, is worn on

1‘Crooke, “Nat ives of Nor thern India , p. 178.

H INDU ORNAMENTS 269

the forehead , th e angle being attached to th e’

h ai r

in a l ine with th e par ting . Pendant from this is a

locket adorned wi th pear ls. On th e hai r in fr ont and

j ust between th e A shaped ornament and th e betel-leafshaped one

'

are two jewels ; th e -one ou'

th e right is'

called the sun , and th e . one on th e left , being of a

crescent shape, i s named th e moon .

‘ Both of theseare sometimes a dorned with precious stones . There i salso a k ind“ of gold buckle worn on th e side of th echignon, Which is used for attaching to i t any ar t ificial

'

h air that m ay be necessary to m ake th e bunchof th e approved size and

'

appearance; An ornamen tl ike a chrysanthemum -wi th an emerald in th e centrei s a lso worn on th e chignon .

On great occasions , such as h er wedding day , or

other gala days , a H indu lady m ay have al l theseornaments on at th e same time. Th ere are two headornaments that are worn instead of those on the

chignon,when th e wearers are voung girls. Their hair

is plaited into a tai l , hanging straight down behind , andbeaut ified with a long ornament of .gold , often set

with precious stones. At th e end of this yet another.article is attached , consist ing of a bunch of gold bal ll ike ornaments fastened on with silk .

Strange as it m ay seem to Western ideas, ornamentsare frequently attached to th e nose by H indu ladies .

Each nostr il and th e car ti lage between th e two are

pierced , and some one or other of th e following ornam ents

‘

are attached to th e nose . F irst, there :i s a

pendant from th e centre, hanging down over th e upper,

l ip . In th e middle of this ornamen t th ere i s a stoneOf s ome k ind a nd pendant from that again is a pearl .Into one of th e nostrils a short pin __with a preciousstone as '

a head i s put . A,pendant pearl i s attached

to i t. Into ' th e other nostr il a flower-shaped jewel .of gold and '

smal l pearls These three

jewels are in ordinary daily wear .by those who can


afford th em . For high days and holidays, a ring, sometimes as large round as a rupee, and ornamentedwith pear ls, or pr ecious stones , i s worn in one of th enostrils ; whilst in th e other m ay be a flower-l ikejewel of smal ler size. A hal f-moon shaped Ornamenti s also attached to a nostril . It i s not possible tohave al l these on at one and th e same time ; bu t a

fair number can be thus worn together .There are at least four parts of th e ear , and sometimes even more, that are pierced to enable th e various ornaments to be attached to it . I have a l ist offifteen different kinds of ear -jewel s, al l known by differen t names . Some are of ornamented gold

,whilst

others are richly set with gems and pearls, accordingto th e means of th e owner . Some are for th e lobe of

th e ear and some for th e tip and middle of th e outerr im , each place being pier ced for th e purpose. Therei s also a hole pierced in th e l ittle prominence in frontof the external Opening of th e ear which is made toserve th e purpose of holding a jewel .Th e var iety of neck ornaments is very great . Ihave th e names of twenty-four . Th e style and qual itydiffer very largely . Some are tight bands , fitting closeround th e neck , usual ly composed of

“

flat gold beadsor tablets strung together on silken or other cord .

Amongst poorer people th e gold beads ar e al ternatedwith those of colour ed glass . Some of th e neck ornaments are loose hanging chains. A very favouriteneck jewel i s composed of gold coins, Engl ish orAustral ian sover eigns , or French five or ten francpieces , or th e Old Indian gold mohur .There are jewels for th e upper part of th e arm and

for th e wr ists . Those for th e upper part are l ike bracelets of var ious kinds . Some are l ike chains and some

are merely plain bands, wh i lst others are beautifullyembossed in various patterns. O thers are ornamentedwith precious stones .


h i s shoulder . H e h as h i s usual rounds and appears tomeet with a very hearty wel come. Th e bangles areputon by th e bangle-m an

, and i t seems a very painful process for th e poor fem ale . Sh e sits on th e ground infront of th e manipulator , and h e, seated tailor fashion,takes h er hand in h is , and begins th e operation , kneading and pressing with practised fingers. H e now and

then soothes th e sufferer by pointing ou t th e beautythat will be th e resul t of th e pain . Th e wonder i s, th ecircles being so small

,h ow they can be got over th e

hand at al l ; but th e H indu hand i s very supple, and

th e operator knows h ow to press and squeez e so as toaccomplish h is purpose .

‘

Th e painful operation m ust ;however , be done, and th e sooner it i s over and th e lessfuss made about it th e better . Th e lac bangle is notput on over th e hand in this way ; i t i s cut and pressedopen and , after a piece or two h as been. snipped off

to m ake i t th e proper size, th e ends are heated and

pressed together when they readily join . When a

female h as in this way h ad h er bangles renewed ,sh e makes Obeisance to th e bang le-m an and also toh is stock in trade .

Th e ornamen ts hitherto enum eI ated are ordinarilymade of gold , th e g lass bangles excepted . Th e bodyor inner part of th e jewel m ay be of copper or lead ,especially in th e larger sized ones ; but si lver is onlyworn by poor people. Th e women of th e L am bard is

and some o ther gypsy tr ibes are ornamented in th e

most profuse and barbarous fashion . Full blown flower:

l ikei

silver ornaments , with numerous smal l globularpendant-s tinkling softly l ike l ittle bel ls fal l over theirhair ; large and heavy bracelets of brass , or ivory

,or

even painted wood are on their wrists . Their heavybrass anklets , which are hol low and contain l ittle pel lets;g ive ou t a tinkling sound as they walk along. The

dress of these women i s quite different from that ofordinary H indu females ; it is very picturesque, and


even grotesque, in i ts shape and material . There i s a

lavish ornamentation of beads and cowry shel ls sewnon to th e close fitting jacket and to th e bag

-l ikepockets

,which dangle at th e side of their par ti

coloured skir ts . Though picturesque, i t i s al l verydir ty and looks as th ough a change of raiment werea luxury seldom or never indulged in .

Th e ornam ents for t he female waist , legs an d feetare mor e often made of silver than of gold , especial lyth e anklets and toe rings . A broad zone of gold or

silver, with clasps , i s worn round th e waist by thosewho can affor d it . This i s sometimes plain and somet imes ornamented with raised work . Th e effect i s verypleasing in contrast with th e bright coloured raimentwhich picturesquely envelopes t h e figure . Th e ankletsar e of var ious shapes ar

i

d si zes . Some are circu lar, l iketh e bracelets for th e wrists , whilst others are formedso as to curve over th e ankles . Some ar e chains , whilsto thers have attached to them a number of l ittle bellswhich tinkle tinkle with a soft and pleasant sound , as

th e wearer moves about . Si lver rings of var ious kindsare worn on th e toes . There must always be one ringon th e middle toe of one or both feet . If through ex

treme pover ty a si lver ring cannot be obtained for thistoe, then one of bel l-metal wil l be used instead . Th e

shape of these rings for th e toes of females differs fromthat of those for m en , in that they are usual ly shapedl ike two or three twists of wire ; hence th e Telugunam e for women ’

s toe rings i s t sut tu , which means a

twist round . Married women wear a peculiar shapedring on th e fourth toe which h as an embossed ornament on th e top . Men ’

s toe r ings are more l ikeordinary finger rings, except that they are not j oinedunderneath so that they can be pulled open and pressedtogether again , when put on or taken off .

A l l these ornaments are not worn at one and th e

same time, but it i s astonishing how many jewels can

85


be crowded on to th e person . Th e dress of a womani s not very elaborate as to quanti ty or shape. A clothor sar i of some delicate m ater ial and lovely colour

,

beautiful ly embroidered in fine gold,graceful ly enfolds

th e figure ; and this, togeth er with a shor t tight-fi t t ingbodice, forms th e chief ar ticle of clothing , proper ly so

cal led . There i s no head cover ing other than t h e end

of th e sari thrown gracefully over th e head so as toconceal th e face at wil l . Th e lack of variety ingarments is, however, made up by th e num ber and

value of th e gl ittering jewels, which seem to occupyevery available space, and which must , in spite oftheir beauty, be rather heavy and cumbersome toth e wearer . So imperative is

“

i t at weddings thatth e bride should be decked ou t in jewels , thatthey are freely borrowed and

'as freely lent by th e

neighbours and friends upon so important an occasion .

This Open display of valuables i s a great temptationto th e lawless , and deeds of violence are often doneto get th e jewels of th e victim . On journ ies, especiallyin th e common bullock car t of th e country, robbersattack travel lers for th e sake of their jewels . Insecluded places near to towns or villages, or evenin th e open streets, jewel-snatchers of ten manage tosecure valuable booty . L ittle children are sometimesdecoyed and sometimes even murdered for th e sakeof their jewel s . Children , without a thread of clothing ,m ay be seen playing abo

'

ut with bracelets or neckletsof value, or ornaments of some kind or other onthei r l ittle brown bodies.

It i s an old world notion that magic proper ties are

attached to certain gems , an d this idea h as beensystematized by th e H indus . It is cal led “

th e testof precious stones ; but th e testing i s largely confined ,to th e luckiness or o therwise of th e particular gem and

has nothing to do with i ts intrinsic value. N ine


If a pure diamond is worn , Venus, i ts patron , will blessth e wearer with th e comforts of life.

There are said to be n ine places in which pearlsar e found . In th e clouds ; this kind i s said to be ovalin shape, and to be worn by th e gods . In th e headof a serpent ; th ese are said to be l ike a smal l red

seed , and to have th e qual ity of rel ieving theirwearers from al l troubles . In th e hollow of a

bamboo ; these are said to be black in colour, and togive th e wearer cer tain at tractions . In a fish ; theseare white in colour , and pr otect th e wearer fromdanger by fire . In th e head of an elephant ; theseare yel lowish green and should be worn by kings .

In a sugar cane ; this kind i s of a r eddish colourand i s said to h ave th e power of causing al l

,

even kings and queens , to be subjected to th e

will of th e wear er . In a conch shel l ; these are

said to be l ike a dove ’

s egg, but they cannot be

obtained by ordinar y m en ; i t r equires a knowledge of

mantrams, or of magic , to get them . In th e tusk of

a wild boar ; this kind i s r ed in colour , an d i s in sizel ike th e regu fruit (ziziphus juj uba) ; it wil l bringfam e to th e wearer . In th e pear l oys ter ; of thesethere are said to be three kinds , of a reddish , a golden ,or a white colour . Th e moon , th e patron of pear ls ,wil l bless a wearer of pure pearls with fam e and th e

pleasur es of l ife .

Emeralds are said to be of eight classes accordingto their colour . Poisons have no power over thosepersons who wear a good emerald . It gives proteotion against th e power of th e evil eye ; and develop sth e mental faculties . Emer alds also have th e powerof protec ting th e wearer of one from th e designs of

foes , from sorrows , madness, internal pains, swoonsand various diseases of th e l iver . A sure access toheaven i s promised to that one who freely gives an

emerald to a Brahm in .


Sapphires are divided into three classes accordingto th e depth of their colour . There ar e also six kindsthat are said to br ing evil to th e wearer ; such evilsas quar rels with relatives, loss of children , hazar d tol ife

,cer tain death within a year . A sapphire i s

purest wh en , if placed in milk , it g ives to th e

milk a bluish tinge . It i s then a true sapphire . A

sapphire is said to be electric , when a blade of grasswill adhere to it though blown upon . Such a stonei s said to br ing lustre to th e wearer . Th e planetSaturn , th e patron of sapphir es , wil l b less th e wear erof a true sapphire with prosper ity and immunityfrom death .

Th e topaz i s described as having a colour like a

drop of dew on a flower , and i ts patr on dei ty , Jupiter ,wil l bless th e wear er with immense wealth .

Four kind s of coral ar e enum erated that wil l cau seevil to th e wearer , troubles, gr ief, disease, and death .

There ar e six kinds of good coral m entioned,accor d

ing to th e colour , and th e wearer of such i s promisedth e pleasures of l ife and th e accomplishment of h isdesigns .

Th e blessing of Mar s i s prom ised to th e wearer of

an agate , which blessing ensures weal th and prosperity .

Th e detai ls given in th is chapter , have, I think ,served to show h ow strong th e passion for jewels i samongst th e H indus . One of th e most hopeful signsof th e t imes is that th e more thoughtful H indus are

venturing to r aise their voice against this and othersocial evils . There i s hope, th at , as r eforms havebegun in other directions

,so something m ay be done

here to contr act with in leg itim ate bounds that loveof display , which , though innocent in itsel f, causes so

m uch evil and loss , when carr ied to su ch extrem es as

I have now descr ibed .

I h ave now given an account of many of th e customs

of th e H indu people and h ave shown h ow much

278 TH E HINDU AT H OME

superstition h as entered into th e rel igion of their dailyl ife ; but th e fact i s that th e H induism of th e presentday is not th e r el igion of th e Aryans as they broughtit with them into India . It i s a mixture in whichth e new h as so absorbed and assimilated th e old withwhich it cam e in contact and h as been so influencedby it , as to have become, at least as far as th e outward expression of i t i s concerned , a very different , i fnot a new rel igion . This i s more perceptible inSouthern India,

where th e Aryans did not penetratein number s sufficient to al low their religious systemto overpower th e old cults which they found flourishing there . In these Southern parts, amongst largesections of th e community , th e so-called H induism of

tod ay is more D ravidian than Aryan in i ts ulter ioror igin .

Mr . Mayne, when speaking of H indu L aw, makessome remarks that m ay very wel l be applied here toth e H indu r el igion . H e says : When th e Aryans penet rated into Ind ia , they found ther e a number of usageseither th e same or not wholly unlike their own . Theyaccepted these , with or without modifications, rejectingonly those that were incapable of being assimilated , suchas polyandry , incestuous m ar riages and th e like. Th e

latter l ived on a merely local l ife, while th e former because incorporated among th e customs of th e ruling race

I think i t i s impossible to imagine that anybody of usage could have obtained general acceptancethrou ghout India, merely because it was inculcated byB rahmin wr iter s , or even because it was hel d by th e

Aryan tr ibes . In South ern India , at al l events , i t seems

clear that neither Aryans nor Brahmins ever sett led insuffi cient num ber s to produce

‘any such r esult . We

know th e tenacity with which Eastern races cling toth eir customs , unaffected by th e example of those whol ive near them . W e have no reason to suppose th atth e Aryans in India ever attempted to force their usages

TH E H INDU AT H OME

philosophical conceptions and spir itual aspirations , W i tha pandering to th e lowest instincts of h uman nature ,a com bination forming what i s now cal led H induism ;

when al l th is shal l have given place to a simpler ritualand th e purer Faith of th e one true Incarnation , thenth e r eligious life of India wil l assume a form whicheven now we can begin to contemp la te with j oyfulanticipation .

“ For from th e r i sing of th e sun even un to th e going downof th e sam e sh a ll My n am e be great am ong th e Gen t i les ; and inevery place incen se sh al l b e offer ed u n to My nam e, an d a

pure offer ing ; for My n am e sh all be great am ong th e h eath ensaith th e Lord of h ost s .

”(Ma lach i i .

A P P E N D I ! .

O N S O C I A L R E F O R M

SINCE th e fir st edition of this book was issued , a movement for social r eform h as been going on , more or lessvigorously , in India . Al l that I have stated about th evar ious superst itions and ceremonies i s corr ect as re

gard s th e gr eat m ass of th e people ; bu t I g ladly recordth e fact th at amongst some of th e more educated m en

there i s a feel ing th at th e restrictions of caste and

custom are not only irksome, but are a hindrance toth e real pr ogress of th e people . H indu social customshave a r el igious basis an d so al l religious reformers fromRam Mohun Roy downwards have tried to modify th eforce of these custom s . It i s general ly agreed thatthere i s a real desire amongst a smal l bu t importantsection of educated m en for reform ; but i t i s said thatth e practical outcome of much talking and writing i s

smal l . St il l , anything is better than stagnation and iti s not to be expected

.

that customs , which h ave theirroot in ages long gone by , can suddenly be uprooted . Iti s ver y difficult for a non-H indu to real ize th e deadweight of opposition a reformer h as to contend withand , if h e i s slow in real izing th e ideal h e h as set be

fore himself , we should not blame h im or think thath is work , im perfect i t m ay be, i s altogether useless .

Rather , should we be thankful for al l that is said and

apprec iative of th e l ittle that i s done .

282 APPEND IX—ON SOC IAL REFORM

There can be no large movement til l public opinionh as been educated and th is th e leader s in th e movem entar e trying to do , by Conferences , b y cor r espondence inth e newspaper s and by t h e issue of social reformliterature . In June, 1907, a social reform Conferencefor South India was h el d in Vi zagapatam . Th e r eso

lutions adopted show exactly th e question s which are

under discussion . They are as follows :

Th e Educat ion of W om en .

Resolved Th at th is Con ference r egr ets that th e

education of wom en is not m ak ing r apid pr ogr ess , and

impr esses on al l inter ested in th e advancem ent of th e

H indu commun ity th e necessity of tak ing earnest stepsfor its spr ead .

TheAge of Mar r iage .

Resolved That th is Con fer ence r eiter ates its empha

tic conviction th at no am elior ation in th e cond ition of

H indu Society is possible so long as the per nicious cu stom of

pr em atu r e m ar r iage Is perm itted to prevail . In the opin ionof th e Con fer ence it sh ou ld be ster n ly d iscour aged by publ ic Opin ion and effor ts shou ld be m ade by en ligh tenedm ember s of the several castes to r ever t to th e soun der

and mor e author itative practice of post-puber ty m ar r iages ;

or , at al l events , the m ar r iageable age of gir ls sh ould be

r aised to at least twelve and th at of boys to at leasteigh teen , th e con summ ation of m ar r iage being postponedtil l the ages of four teen an d twenty at least .

Fus ion of S ub -Cas t es .

Resolved Th at th is Con ference u rges th at the existing r estr ictions on inter -d in ing and inter -m ar r iage am ong

th e var iou s sub-castes shou ld be speed ily r em oved ,as th e

progr ess of H indu society is considerably h indered th er eby .

For eign Travel .

Resolved That th is Confer ence u rges that no d iffi

cu l t ies should be placed in the way of the r e o adm iss ion

into society of H indus who visit for eign countr ies , as over

G L O S S A R .Y

OF

H I N D U T E R M S

Abh arnam

Ach am anam

A charyasAdvaitaAgn i KaryamAhar aAk shatam

Anan tasashayagam

Appagin ta

Ar ivén i

Ash tak sharam

Ash i'

i sh i

A sth ihatra

Ornam ents .

A th r eefold sipping of water .

A Vaishnava sect .Non -D ual . Pantheism .

Fir e wor sh ip .

D iet .Colour ed r ice used in r eligious

cer em on ies .

Th e new m oon .

Th e Toda h eaven .

A black m ark form ing par t of

th e face m ark of a Madhava.

Th e ever lasting couch . A bier .

The final giving over of th e

br ide to th e br idegroom and

h is fam ily .

Noble. The pr edom inen t H indur ace.

Colour ed ear then pot .

Cabalistic figur es d rawn at a

Mala funeral .Ceremon ial defilmen t . Mourning.

An ear then vessel in wh ich the

r em ains of calcined bones arepr eserved from the funeralpyr e until th ey can be cer emo

n ially disposed of.

GLO SSARY OF H INDU TERMS 285

Aum or Om A wor d typi fying th e H induTr in ity , Br ahm a

,Vishnu and

Siva .

Badagas

B rahm alOkam

B ramachar i

B rin jar i

Ch innad inam

Darbh a Sacr ed grass m uch used in

H indu cer em on ies (Poa-cynosur roides) .

A tr ibe living on the Ni lgir i H ills ,South Ind ia .

Shopk eeper or m er ch ant .

Br acelet .Or nam en t for th e for eh ead .

Th e k ing crow .

Wedding or nam ent .Ear th .

Sk y .

Th e Br ahm ins who at cereme

n ies for th e dead are fed vicar iou sly for th e depar ted spir it .

Th e h eaven of Brahm a .

U nm ar r ied studen t .Wander ing Indian tr ibe of

carr ier s.

Wheel .Left nostr i l .Large ear th enwar e pot .

An exclam ation , m ean ing, l ivea long life .

Th e little day ,a cer tain day in

th e days of th e funeral cer em on ies .

Wor ker in leath er . Sh oem aker .

Public lodging-place .

Gr uel .Th e sacr ed top

-knot .

286 GLO S SARY or HINDU TERMS

IDasara

Dasar i

D evatar ch ana

D igalaD halD h arm a kar taD h arm a ShastraD urga

D vaita

Ekavh anam A cer em ony by wh ich a Br ahm inat a funer al takes upon h im

self th e sins of th e deceased .

Garbhathanam

Gaur iGayatr iGhee

Gnanam

GOdanam

GOpadam

GOpich andanam

A nam e of Siva .

A nam e Of Vish nu .

Th e monkey god .

Fes tival in h onou r of D u rga ,

th e wi fe of Siva .

Par iah pr iest .Wor sh ip of th e god s .

A h awk ing gam e .

D ish m ade Of one of the pulses .

Temple patr on .

Code of r ules for daily l ife.

Nam e of th e wife of Siva .

Dual . God and m atter ar e dis

tinct .Twice-born . A m ember of th e

h igh castes entitled to wearth e sacr ed th r ead .

Club .

Th e son of Siva . The causerand th e r emover of obstacles .

Th e cer em ony of th e com ing togeth er of a m ar r ied couplewh en of suitable age .

Th e wife of Siva .

H ind u invocation or prayer .

Clar ified butter .

Wisdom . Knowledge .

Gift or offer ing of a cow.

Footpr in t of a cow.

Yellow clay used for one of th e

sacr ed m arks .

A nam e of Kr ish na .

Mar r ied house-h older .

288 GLOS SARY OF H INDU TERMS

A m igr atory tr ibe .

A wor sh ipper of the lingam .

Emblem of Siva .

MadhvasMad iMad igaMalasMa‘m r

'

i l

Manava D h arm a

Mangalasutram

Manalash tak am

Mangalasutr am

Mantram

Idaravas

hdargosa

Mathupar k am

Nak abal i

Nak sh ak tram

Nair s

Namah

Nam askaram

Nandi

N i tya karma

A Vishnu sect .Cer emonial pur ity .

Wor ker in leather . Ch uck ler .

Nam e of Telugu Par iah s .

Cu stom .

Code of Mann .

Mar r iage bath .

Wedd ing ch ant .Gold or nament worn round the

neck as a sign Of m ourn ing.

Form of wor d s tak en from the

Vedas and u sed as a Spell orincantation .

A pr im itive tr ibe in South Ind ia.

Neem tr ee .

A m ixtur e m ade of m ilk , ghee,

sugar and honey .

Ind ian tree (Bu tea frondosa) .Absorption into th e Supr em e.

Th is wor ld .

Sacr ifice at a wedd ing.

Nam e Of a star . Constellation .

One of th e twenty-seven lunarm an sions .

A tr ibe on th e West Coast of

Ind ia .

A salu tation .

H indu obeisance m ade withh ands closed .

Th e hu l l wh ich i s th e veh icle of

Siva . A stone im age of th isbu ll .Cerem on ies after a funeral , lasting ten days .

GLOSSARY OF H INDU TERMS 289

A name .Of Vishnu as th e Sn

Neem

Ni rvana

N i tya karma

N ivédanam

N iyOgis

Om (see Aum ) .Oupasana Sacr ifice by fire.

Padm a

Pak sh ivésévam

Panch am as

PandalPanchangam

Panch agavyam

Pansupar i (see Tambulam ) .Papalok am

Par amatma

ParvatiPar ivetr u

P ar ivi t tu

PatalaP at ivratam

P eddadinamu

Pend le aruga

Perumal lu

pr em e .

Margosa tree (Azadirach ta Ihd ica) .

Liberation . Extinction . Ah

sorption into th e Suprem e

Essen ce .

Th e H indu 'dai ly round .

Offer ing of food to the gods.

A Saiva sect .

Th e lotus or water lily.Malas who bu ry th eir dead inth e day tim e .

Non-caste H indus . Out-castes .

Temporary booth .

Almanack .

Mixtu r e , consisting of th e five

products of th e cow, given toa per son about to die.

Temporary H ell .Th e Suprem e Spir it .Nam e of th e wife of Siva .

A m ar r ied broth er whose elderbroth er is unmar r ied .

U nmar r ied elder broth er whoseyou nger broth er i s mar r ied .

H ell .H usband wor sh ip .

A cer tain day in th e days of

m ourm ng.

Th e mar r iage m ound .

Fi gures of gods used in funeralceremonies .

290 GLO SSARY OF H INDU TERMS

P i tr u lOkam

P i tr u tarpanam

P radak sh ina

P rashnam

P ratayam

P rathanam

P ratish ta

P ravara

P rayasch i ttam

Preta

P ré tahar am

Preta sh ila

Pu jaP undram s

P unyalOk am

P und rar ikak sha

P unyah avachanam

Raksh asa Monster . D em on .

Ratnapar ik shaA book on th e testing of pre

ciou s stones .

Th e spi r i t of th e depar ted wh en ,

by vir tue Of cer tain r ites , th epreta or spir it i s invested withan eth erea l body and is adm itted into th e company of i ts

ancestor s .

Th e ancestr al h eaven .

Ancestral wor sh ip .

A cer emony at a funeral .Enquiry . D evinat ion .

An age .

Betroth al ceremon ies .

Cerem ony on invok ing the presence of th e gods into anyth ing.

Th e m ention by a wor sh ipperof th e nam es of h im self, tr ibeand fam ily .

A cerem ony of expiation .

Gh ost , Spir it of th e depar tedbefor e th e funeral r ites are

performed .

Food for th e spi r i t of the de

par ted .

A stone wh ich , wh en con se

cr ated at a funeral , is supposedto becom e th e per son ificationof th e depar ted spir it .

Wor sh ip .

Sacr ed m arks .

Tempor ary h eaven .

The wh ite lotus-eyed one .

P u r ificator y r ite when a hou se

h as been ceremonially defiled .

Acquired m er it .Th e fam ily pr iest .

292 GLO S SARY OF H INDU TERMS

Sutraeh ch édam

TambUIam

Tiryak kundam

Tirumani

Tirupal l ivaru

Upanayanam Investiture of the twice-bornwith th e sacred th read .

U rdhva pundram Perpendicular sacred mar k s .

Mar k s of Vishnu .

Vaikuntha H eaven of Vishnu .

A m ar r iage r ite.

The r igh t nostr il .A m eeting of the elder s at a

wedd ing.

Th e sun .

Mou rn ing. Cer emonial defilem ent .Cu tting th e m ar r iage cord fromoff th e neck of a widow at h er

degr adation cer emony .

Native. National .H eaven .

Betel leaf and ar eca nu t made

up for ch ewing.

D r ink offer ing.

Red mark m ade by women on

th eir foreh ead .

H or izon tal lines d rawn on the

for eh ead by wor sh ipper s of

Siva.

Wh ite clay used for th e sacred

m ark s .

Malas who bu ry th eir dead at

n igh t .Tr ibe on th e N i lgIr I H ills .

Pr im itive tr ibe in South India.

Scavenger .

Th e H indu tr inity .

Th r ee-stor ied car, sm all sh r ine

made at a Mala funeral .Woman

’

s toe-r ing.

Sacred basil tr ee (Ocymum sanc

tum ) .

GLO S SARY OF HINDU TERMS 293

Vastru Shastram

Vastru Shastr i

VedaVedan taVet t ian

Vibhu th i

Visish tadvaita

Yagnam

YajnOpavl tamYam a

Zu t tu Telugu word for th e sacr ed tuftof hair .

Zuvvi Indian tree (Ficus infector ia) .

Th e mer ch ant caste.

Wor sh ipper of Vishnu .

Anclor i te.

Colou red water used on festiveoccasions .

Code Of cer emonial requir em entsin conn ection with housebu ild ing.

A m an learned in th e Vastr u

Shastram .

H indu sacr ed book s .

A school of H indu ph ilosophy .

Petty village official (Tam il) .Bu rnt ash es of cowdung.

U n ity with attr ibutes , a d ivi s ionof H indu ph ilosophy .

Canopy .

Religious observance .

A k ind of an imal sacr ifice .

Sacred th read .

Gen iu s of death . Judge of de

par ted Spir its .

A m igratory abor iginal tr ibe .

A Gypsy tr ibe .

H erm it .Per iod of tim e. An age .

I N D E !

ARH ARNAM , 264

A ch am anam , 34

Adopt ion , 225

Advaita ph ilosophy , 74 , 89Ak sh ata , 10 , 81

Alm sgiving , 170 ; good side of, 171evil of, 171 fruit Of, 172 to

students, 173 ; to travellers , 174Ancestor worsh ip , 38Anan tash ayanam , 213

Appagin ta , 116

A r ivén i , 122, 125-6

A ru n dh at i , 111 , 124-5

Ash tak sh aram ,236

A sth ipat ra , 203

Ast rologers , 248

B ADAGAS , 209 , 244-5Bangles , 271-2Bath ,

19 , 32, 33, 37, 90

Beard , 88

B et roth al , 100 , 121 .

Bh aradvaj a , 259

Bhasik am ,108 , 122

Bh fi dvi,12

Bh Ok tas , 218-9 , 221-2, 223-4 , 227

B ier,198

B irds , 259B ram ach é rf, 30

B rahm a knot , 67, 123-4B rahm a lOkam , 220-1

B rah m in ,daily life of, 30-9

B reath ing, 250

Buddh ism , 279

CASTE , rest r ict ions of, 85

Cats , 257

Cat t l e, 17

Cem etery, 199Ch am eleon , 254

Ch and ran zi d i , 260

Chat ty, 243Ch innad inamu , 235, 237

Cir car s , 14Cobra ,

251

Coral , 277Corpse, 197

-8 213 , 231 , 233 .

Crows , 254 , 259 ; proverbs on, 255.

Cudum i , see Sikh a .

DASARA , 145, 150‘D évatar ch ana , 51

D eath , last cerem ony before, 194

pl ace of,195-6 ; m ou rn ing for ,

196 ; preparat ion of corpse for

burn ing , 197 ; posit ion of corpseon funeral pyre, 199 ; l igh t ing oft h e pyre , 200 ; state after death ,

D h arm ak ar ta ,168

\ Dh arm a Shast ra , 30

D iam onds , 275

D iet , 134-145 ; forbidden , 135-7

var iet ies of, 138 ; d r in k , 140

m eals , 141 ; of outcastes , 142-3D ivinat ion

,248

Dogs , 255D ream s , 249

Durga, 150 , 167, 169D u rgzi pu ja , 150

296 I N D E !

Karma kar ta , 197

Ked , 243

Kitch en ,16

Kite , 259Kotas , 243 , 244K r i sh najayan t i , 155

Ku ram bas , 132 244

Kunk um a , 11 , 169

N AGALOKUM , 154

Nak abal i , 115-6

N ak sh at ram , 25

N i tya karm a , 201 , 203-4 , 217, 221 ,

234

N ost r il , 260

L INGADH AR IS, 211 , 213 , 214

L ingai ts , 38 , 40

Lingam , 38 , 40 , 150 , 151 , 211

L iz ards , 252

MADIGA , 258MahaSivaratr i , 148Mala , 120Ma‘mfil , 64

Mangalasnénam ,103 , 260

Mangal ésh tak am , 107

Mangal as fi t ram , 104-5, 108 , 121 ,

123 , 129 , 205-6, 239

Man t ram s , 39-40 , 43 , 105, 109 , 111 ,

115

Marr iage, 94-133 ; ch oice of, 94 of

ch ild ren ,95 ; of twice-born ,

96 ;

re-m ar r iage, 96 ; degrees of relat ionsh ip for , 97 bar to

, 98 dowryfor , 98-9 ; bet roth el

,100 , 121 ;

suitable t im e for , 107; cere

m on ies for or th odox, 102-118 ;

of Ind ian Ch r ist ians, 107 ; impor tan t r ite Of, 108 ; unor th odoxm ar r iage, 1 18-133 ; pr iest ’s blessing on , 123

-4 ; songs on, 125-6 ,

feast of, 127 ; of th e Yeruk las

and th e Yenad ies , 128

Maravan s , 129

Masika , 221

Math u rpark am , 104

Meals , 40-42 ; on a jou rney, 43 ;

in sickness , 43Mend ican ts , 170 , 175-6 ; classes of,179 , 18 1 , 185, 189 ; songs of

180-1 , 186-7; professional , 189-90 ;ch oult ries for , 190

Mendicity, 170-192 evil of, 175,

191 ; m eth od of, 178

Mok sh am, 220

Moustach e, 89-90Mourn ing, Sign of

,90 ; ceremon ies

of,90

Muh ar ram , 160-l

OMENS , 240-263 ; m arks on h or se,

247 ; for a journey, 248 ; snakeom ens , 250-2 lizard om en s , 252

4 ; crow om ens , 254-5 ; dog

om ens , 255-6 cat om ens , 256-7

jackal om ens , 257 ; sneezingom ens , 267-9 ; bird om ens

,259 ;

breath ing om ens , 260-1 ; t h rob

bing om ens , 261 yawn ingom en s , 261-2 evi l of, 263 .

Ornam en ts,264-280 ; for wom en ,

268 , 273 wh ere worn , 269-70 ; of

glass , 271 of lac , 272 ; of silver ,272 of precious stones , 275-7.

P AKSH IVESIVARU , 235

Palm istry , 248P anch agavyam , 194

P anch angam , 176-7

P anch ayéch avach anum , 196

P apalok am ,220

P ar ivet tu , 98

P ar ivet ru , 98

P at ivratam , 44

Pearls , 276P edadi nam u , 234 , 241

P end l i arugu , 122

P erumal lu , 236

Pita , 219 , 220

P i t ru lok am , 219

P i t ru tapanam , 35

Polyand ry, 95

I N D E X

Polygamy, 95, 96Ponga l

,147, 148

P radak sh ina , 200

P ral ayam , 220

P rath zi nam , 100-1 , 122

P rat ish k a , 10 , 163

P rayasch i t tam , 90-1 , 195

Prayer , to Sh anku god , 10 ; morn

ing, 33—34 ; even ing , 44 ; gayat r i

prayer, 33 , 35, 69 , 71-2

Fr éta , 201 , 216, 217, 219

Preta sh ila, 20 1 , 202

P u ndar i kak sh a , 43

P und ram s, see Sacred Marks

Pu nyyam , 154

R EFORMS , in widow re-m ar r iage ,207 in var ious custom s, 282

p ies , 275

SACRED GRASS , 88 , 145, 203Sacred m arks , 33 , 37, 53 , 61 , 73-4on foreh ead , 75 ; on oth er par ts ,75 cerem on ies of, 77, 80 ; of

Vish nu , 77 ; of Siva , 78 ; var iet ies of, 79 ; of m ourn ing , 80-1 ;of wives , 81 ofwidow 81 197

Sacred th r ead , 63 ; by wh om wor n ,

64 ; un lawful wearer s of, 66

var iet ies of, 66 ; h ow m ade, 67

invest iture of, 68-9 ; defi lem en t

of, 70 ; re-invest iture of, 71 im

por tance of, 72Sadasyam , 113

Sak tass , 150

Sam an tak am , 158

San ch anam , 203

Sanayas i , 30 , 188 , 211 , 215

Sandh yz’tvandna , 33 , 42

Sank al pam , 35, 230

S an k ran t i , 147

Sapph ires, 277Sapind i , 218 , 221 , 234, 238, 242Sapind i k aranam , 217, 221

Satan is, 21 1

Sat i , 60Satpadi , 108

£537

Sects, 76

Sh ak unam , 247

Shm ashanam,199

Sh raddh as , 209 , 216, 217, 218,

Sh atayu ssu , 257

Sikh a, 83 , 84 , 86, 88, 90 , 93Sim h adwaram , 11

Sm r i t ies, 73

Snakes , 251Sneezing , 106, 257-8 , 262Som ayaj u lu , 266

Sr i ch i'

i rnam , 81

Sr i ram ajayan te, 152

Sthal ipak am , 110

Su ryand i , 260

Svargam , 220

TAMBU L AM , 13

Tarpanam ,226

Tirum an i , 75Ti rupa l l ivé ru , 235

Tiryak pand ram , 74

Todas, 131 , 209 , 241

Ton sure, 83 cerem on ies of, 84

-8

Topaz , 277Top

-knot , see Sikh aTot t iyans , 131

Tr im ur t i , 71Tr ipu résu ra , 62

Tr i teru , 238 , 239 .

Twice-born , see D viya

U P A NAYAM , 51 , 64 , 66, 68, 69, 84, 87

U rdh va paddram ,74

\VASTU P U RU SH A , 9

Véstu shast ra, 3 , 9

Vastu Sh ést r is, 3

Vanabh oj anam , 43

Vanaprasth a, 30

Vel lan s , 245

Vet t ian , 199

Vi bh ut i , 43 , 78 , 79 , 213

Vi sish tadvai ta , ph ilosoph y of, 74Vi tanam , 54

298 I N

WEL L , ceremon ies connected withd igging of, 13

Widows , 59 , 81 ; degradat ion of

205-8 , 239

W in dows , 15Wom an , religion Of, 46-62 ; socialstatu s of 47 appI eciat ion of , 48

d ei ot ion of, 48

-50 ; worsh ip by ,51 ; dail y dut ies of, 52 ; m iddayp rayei s of, 54-5 ; pilgr im age and

r ows of,

*

56 ; ch aracter of 57-8 ;

!

fu ture of , 60 ; rel ig ion of lowercaste, 61

Z U TTU ,see Sikh a

YAGNOP AVITA , 51 , 63 , 66, 68 , 69 ,

72, 83 , 85

Yaj nam , 236

Yam alok am , 220

Yawn in g , 261Yerukala , 258

The H Ndu at Home - Forgotten Books

Documents

Transcript of The H Ndu at Home - Forgotten Books