Chapter 1 Introduction

Ban Non Wat is one of the large, moated settlements that dominate the archaeological

landscape of Northeast Thailand (Fig. 1.1) Excavations there between 2002-9 identified a

cultural sequence of twelve phases, beginning with hunter gatherers and followed by Neolithic,

Bronze and Iron Age occupation dating between 1750 BC and AD 500 (Higham and Higham

2009). During the course of these excavations, 1018 clay artefacts of similar form were

recovered and initially named “conical rollers” (Higham and Kijngam 2009: 248). This is a

misnomer, as they are neither conical nor rollers. However, the name has now entered the

literature. They are enigmatic; none has been reported from any other site in Southeast Asia.

Fig. 1.1 Map of Southeast Asia showing the major rivers and the location of several important Bronze Age sites including Ban Non Wat

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Four subsequent seasons at this site, under the direction of Dr. Nigel Chang, have

uncovered a further 809 of these artefacts which make up the sample that is the subject of this

dissertation. Since no previous study of these artefacts has been undertaken, this dissertation

will examine their physical characteristics, their chronological distribution, and their association

with other artefacts, features, and contexts. This information will allow conclusions to be

drawn about their possible function.

This dissertation is organized into five chapters. The first states the aims and objectives

of this project and examines conical rollers within the context of prehistoric Southeast Asia and

with particular reference to Northeast Thailand. It also describes other prehistoric artefacts

which appear to be similar to conical rollers. Chapter 2 investigates the presence of conical

rollers in cultural contexts at Ban Non Wat. Chapter 3 describes the materials and methodology

used in this study, and explains how they are suited its aims. Chapter 4 analyzes the data on

conical rollers recorded at Ban Non Wat, exploring variation in conical roller properties and

examining their association with other artefacts and features. Chapter 5 evaluates the results of

the conical roller analysis, drawing out the implications of the research, its limitation and

avenues for further research.

1.1 Conical rollers – an overview

This section introduces conical rollers by placing them in the chronology of prehistoric

Northeastern Thailand and describing their physical characteristics.

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Fig. 1.2 Conical rollers from Ban Non Wat (Cat. 34251, 34236)

Conical rollers are solid fired clay artefacts found in Bronze and Iron Age contexts at Ban

Non Wat. The name was applied to this type of artefact during the first phase of excavation

without any certain knowledge of their function. The term was given to them because of the

conical shape of their tips and the cordmarked patterns which seemed to bear a resemblance

to the most simply decorated clay rollers found at other sites in Northeast Thailand, particularly

Ban Chiang.

They have a roughly arrow-shaped appearance and are characterized by a triangular or

conical “tip” and a smaller attached handle or “tail” (Fig. 1.2). The tip is the most commonly

found portion.

The lower portion of the tip is always incomplete, being more vulnerable to breakage

because of the space between it and the inner portion of the tip/tail assembly. In addition to

breakage, mild to moderate wear is common on the pointed end of the tip. Complete tails are

between 2.3 cm and 4.5 cm in length. In many cases the tail has broken off partially or

completely. Hundreds of fragments have been found, most appearing to come from the tip.

Conical rollers are made from coarse clay. Inclusions of laterite nodules, chaff, shell,

and very small bits of clay, usually bright reddish in color, can be seen with a hand lens (Fig 1.3).

tip

tail

4

Fig. 1.3 Coarse clay and inclusions of small pottery fragments, shell, and laterite (Cat. 34343, 28174)

The outer surface ranges in color from light and dark grey, to buff, to reddish depending

of firing temperature and degree of oxidation. The interior has a similar range of color.

These artefacts are decorated with impressions made by cordmarking in a spiral pattern.

Several variations are present. Closely spaced cordmarking is most common, but a widely

spaced pattern is frequently seen as well. Another style is characterized by a smooth surface

with widely-spaced cordmarkings made with a noticeably thinner cord. The impressions appear

in a clockwise pattern diagonally on the tip. On the tail they may go in either direction (Fig. 1.4).

5

Fig. 1.4 Cordmarking in opposite directions (Cat. # 31063, 31077, 31076)

It appears that the two pieces were made separately and assembled before firing. In

some cases, fingerprints are visible where small bits of clay were pushed in to solidify the

connection (Fig. 1.5).

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Fig. 1.5 Clay used to connect tail and tip at insertion point (Cat. #31070)

The number of conical rollers found thus far suggests they were commonly used.

Identifying their function will provide important information about material culture at Ban Non

Wat during this time.

1.2 Prehistoric Archaeology in Thailand

This section will outline the results of research undertaken at other prehistoric sites in

Southeast Asia, particularly those contemporary with Bronze and Iron Age occupation of Ban

Non Wat (c.1050 BC – AD 400). These sites have produced assemblages of artefacts similar to

those found at Ban Non Wat, with the noticeable exception of conical rollers.

Southeast Asia is a region which remains little known archaeologically. Understanding

the prehistoric cultures which inhabited this area has been the aim of a large number of

research programs. The region is an important potential source of information on the cultural

changes that took place during the Bronze and Iron Ages.

Research on the early development of agricultural societies, establishment of bronze

and iron making technologies, and the formation of early chiefdoms in the path to state

formation has prompted many excavations in Southeast Asia over the past several decades,

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many of them in Northeast Thailand. This transformation has been studied extensively in other

parts of the world, but in Southeast Asia the process is not as well documented (Higham 1989:

28). The focus of research in the area has been better to understand the indigenous societies

that developed into the early states including that of Angkor (Higham 2002: 7-8).

During the 1950’s, Williams-Hunt published an account of circular mounded sites

surrounded by irregular ditches and banks in this region. They came to be known as “moated

sites” (Boyd et al 1999: 169). The account included aerial photographs which showed many of

them scattered across the region. This prompted several large research projects focused on

this type of sites, many of which are located within the Mun River valley.

Ban Non Wat is one of these “moated” sites. Excavation commenced in 2002 as part of

the major research project entitled “Origins of Angkor”, which began in 1994 under the

direction of Prof. Charles Higham and Dr. Ratchanie Thosarat. Excavations were conducted at

four moated sites and site surveys were completed in the area west of Phimai. At Ban Non

Wat, over 1000 conical rollers were found during the first seven years of excavation.

Many other sites in Northeast Thailand that were occupied contemporaneously with

Ban Non Wat have been excavated. Reports indicate evidence of settlement, industrial activity

and agriculture similar to what was found at Ban Non Wat. In 1966 and 1968, excavations at

Non Nok Tha revealed the first evidence of bronze casting in Northeast Thailand. In 1974-5,

Gorman and Charoenwongsa identified Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age occupation at Ban

Chiang. During the 1980’s sites at Ban Na Di, Ban Lum Khao, and Nong Nor were also

excavated. (Higham 2002:27-28). These and other projects in Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and

China have produced a wealth of data about prehistoric Southeast Asia. Burials containing large

quantities of grave goods, including pottery, jewelry, bronze, copper, and iron tools, spindle

whorls, shells, and other offerings have been found. Material remains of pottery production,

smithing, casting, and weaving has been uncovered. Despite this, artefacts resembling conical

rollers have never been reported. However, artefacts called “rollers” have been found

elsewhere, and these are important to examine and compare with conical rollers found at Ban

Non Wat.

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1.3 Clay rollers and seals from other contexts

This section will discuss ceramic cylinder seals and “rollers” that have been found at

other prehistoric sties. None are directly comparable to conical rollers found at Ban Non Wat in

their physical form or decoration. However, they occur at roughly the same time period as the

Ban Non Wat conical rollers, and it is possible that they share a similar function. For these

reasons they will be examined.

Stamp seals were made during the mid 6th millennium BC in Iraq, Syria and Turkey, in

what were small Copper Age farming villages. They were made of clay or stone in a variety of

shapes with a design incised on one flat surface, usually covering the entire area. The designs

are often geometric with segmented circles or random lines and dots. It has been suggested

that they were used to create patterns on textiles and to create a marked seal to prevent theft

from storage jars, boxes, baskets, and rooms. There is no evidence they were used to decorate

pottery. In addition to their utilitarian uses, they were also worn as amulets (Porada 1993:

563).

Stone cylinder seals have been discovered at Uruk in Iraq and Susa in Iran dating to 3300

BC (Porada 1993:563). They have a continuous repeated design, each one unique (Fig. 1.6).

Like stamp seals, cylinder seals were used to seal jars to prevent theft. They may have indicated

ownership. In a ritual context they were worn as amulets, were used as votive gifts, and were

often included as burial goods (Skeates 2007:185).

Fig. 1.6 White and green calcite cylinder seal from Uruk (c. 3200-3100 B.C)

9

The Aegean region also has evidence of seals, including conical clay stamps with circular

or oval bases, and clay cylinders. They were introduced from Anatolia and the Near East in the

early Bronze Age along trade routes (Skeates 2007, 185).

China produced square seals during the Iron Age, during the Qin and Han Periods; some

Han seals have been recovered from the site of Khao Sam Kaeo in peninsular Thailand (Bellina-

Pryce and Silapanth: 2006). In India, cylinder seals similar to those found in Mesopotamia were

found at Harrappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

Artefacts known as cylindrical rollers, clay rollers, or clay seals have been found at

several sites in Southeast Asia. At Lao Pako in Laos, clay rollers were found in association with

spindle whorls, leading to speculation that they are used in weaving (Cort 2008). They are

found at many sites in Northeast Thailand, including Ban Na Di (Higham and Kijngam 1984), Non

Chai (Bayard et al 1986), and Ban Non Wat (Higham and Kijngam 2009). Perhaps the most

famous examples of clay rollers come from Ban Chiang where 200 were excavated (Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7 Clay rollers from Ban Chiang

Several experts have hypothesized that the Ban Chiang rollers were used to print

patterns on textiles (Folan and Hyde, 1980: 153). So far no imprints found on any preserved

materials; they may have been used to imprint wood, bark, leather, food, or other

impermanent materials. Clay stamps have also been found at many sites in the region (Fig.

1.8).

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Fig. 1.8 Clay stamp from Ban Non Wat

Conical rollers found at Ban Non Wat do not have shapes or decoration similar to

cylinder and stamp seals. While the shape of rollers from other cultures makes them appear

suitable for imprinting on a straight, flat surface, the shape of conical rollers makes them ill

suited for that purpose - they would not roll in a straight line, but in a semi-circle. Conical

rollers do not have holes in them, while most cylinder seals and clay rollers from other sites in

have one drilled through the center, suggesting they were worn as amulets. The decoration of

Near Eastern and other rollers comprises geometric forms, human and animal figures, and

symbols with cultural significance. Conical rollers have coarsely applied cordmarking with little

variation other than the degree of spacing and the width of the cord. These differences are

significant, making it reasonable to argue that conical rollers are a completely new and

different prehistoric artefact type.

1.4 Conical rollers from previous excavations at Ban Non Wat

Previous excavations at Ban Non Wat yielded 1018 conical rollers. They have not been

researched or reported on in any great detail, but their stratigraphic context has been

examined in a published report from the first seven years of excavation under the direction of

Prof. Charles Higham and Dr. Rachanie Thosarat. They were found only in Bronze and early Iron

Age contexts in the main excavation square and square Y, being entirely absent from square X

which contained material remains solely from the later Iron Age.

Only seventy-five conical rollers were found in burial contexts. Several Bronze Age 5

and Iron Age 1 burials may have had conical rollers in a primary association. In one case, a

11

conical roller lay under the head. In two others they lay beyond the head. Burial 344 had a

conical roller beside the right hand. A ceramic vessel in burial 229 had a conical roller in it.

However, most conical rollers were found in grave fill and not in clear association with the

body. Higham hypothesizes that they may be functional, or they might be associated with a

ritual purpose related to male fertility because of their clear resemblance to a human phallus

(Higham, 2009: 248). Data from the first phase of excavations at Ban Non Wat will allow

comparison with the current sample collected for this study, and will allow testing of his

hypotheses.

1.5 Typology development for ceramic objects

Conical rollers have not yet been identified as belonging to any particular artefact type.

In order to analyze them, to develop hypotheses about their possible use and function, and to

systematically describe their attributes for future use, a typology has been developed.

Typologies are often used for relative dating; artefacts from a specific place and time are

stylistically similar and reflect information about the culture that created them. By classifying a

group of artefacts according to style, they can be arranged in a chronological sequence that

reflects gradual changes, following the principle that “like goes with like” (Renfrew and Bahn

2008: 125). Because it does not address the question of function, it is not the most

appropriate form for this typology to follow.

Krieger (1944) suggested that typologies take four forms: full descriptions of each

individual artefact, visually determined groupings, classifications based on selected attributes,

and types formed by specific groupings of structural features with proven historical importance.

In the case of a new object type, such as conical rollers, he suggested the first method might be

the best approach.

Following on Krieger’s ideas, Rouse (1960) described the process of typology as

identifying classes based on attributes that are perceived to be similar. He considered these

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attributes to be reflections of the standards, customs, and concepts used by the people who

made them, such as shape, size, color, materials, decorations, and wear or breakage patterns.

This report will present a typology for conical rollers that combines these theories. In

addition, the diagnostic attributes of conical rollers will be described in order clearly to identify

them as a new class of artefact within prehistoric archaeology in Southeast Asia. This will

provide data with which to examine patterns in form, size, fabric, decoration, colour, and use-

wear. Interpretation of this data will lead to hypotheses about the function of this new artefact

type. The characteristics of each attribute will be clearly presented, making this typology useful

in allowing others to consider these data when studying their own collections of artefacts

(Sinopoli 1991, 46).

Chapter 2 Ban Non Wat

2.1 Introduction

It is important to describe the contexts in which conical rollers have been found. This

section will summarize the geographic features of the region in which Ban Non Wat is located,

the stratigraphy and chronology of the excavation, and the material culture associated with the

people who lived here during the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages.

The first phase of excavation at Ban Non Wat, part of the” Origins of Angkor” research

program, occurred from 2002 to 2007 under the direction of Prof. Charles Higham and Dr.

Rachanie Thorsarat (Higham 2009: 1). This was followed by four seasons of excavation

between 2007 and 2011 under the direction of Dr. Nigel Chang (James Cook University), Dr.

Kate Domett (James Cook University), Dr. Warrachai Wiriyaromp (Kasetsart University), Dr.

Amphan Kijngam (Fine Arts Department, Bangkok) and Prof. William Boyd (Southern Cross

University). It is arguably the most extensively investigated prehistoric site in Thailand today

(Chang 2011). Excavations have revealed a cultural sequence that spans the Neolithic, Bronze

and Iron Ages lasting from 1650 BC to 500 AD based on radiocarbon dating and stratigraphic

13

evidence (Higham and Higham 2009:139). The archaeological material includes artefacts

associated with both occupation and mortuary practices.

The second phase of the project, “Society and Environment at Ban Non Wat, Northeast

Thailand” began in 2009 and continues today. In order to study inter-related and changing

social and economic activities across the mound, units are positioned to sample across the site.

Six units were arranged in an east to west transect, with a further two units further north (Fig.

2.1). This approach supports the focus of this second phase: resilience and opportunity in

ancient Southeast Asia. Understanding how the people of the region interacted with changing

environments is the central aim. Interpreting the wider context of the site within the Mun

River valley, and identifying the origins and development of the “moats” and associated banks

surrounding many prehistoric sites, including Ban Non Wat, are other important goals.

Fig. 2.1 Units of excavation at Ban Non Wat. Phase I units are in green and blue; units belonging to the east-west transect from the second phase of the project are in yellow

14

The opportunity for understanding the complexities of cultural change over time makes

this site and the project an important one for researchers representing various inter-related

disciplines including metallurgy, ceramics, ornamentation, bone tools, faunal and human

remains, and archaeobotany. The stratigraphic and chronological sequences have been well-

established, and the remains of the material culture and mortuary practices from the first

phase of the excavation have been examined and published. Conical rollers, as part of the

material culture, represent an important piece of evidence in relation to the overall research

aims of this project. The study of these enigmatic artefacts has the potential increase our

understanding of human activities over part of the prehistoric occupation of Ban Non Wat.

2.2 Geographic Background

Ban Non Wat is a village in the Non Sung district of Nakhon Ratchasima province located

in the upper Mun River catchment of lower Northeast Thailand (Fig. 2.2).

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Fig. 2.2 Mun River Valley prehistoric sites

16

Fig. 2.3 Sites of Ban Non Wat and Noen U-Loke: mounds encircled by earthworks

It sits within the floodplain upon one of many mounded archaeological sites surrounded

by encircling earthworks that are concentrated in the Mun River valley (Fig. 2.3).

Ban Non Wat lies within a study area that spreads across the floodplains into the middle

and low terraces and beyond the mountains to the southwest (Fig. 2.4). This has been a rice-

growing region since prehistoric times. The floodplain, which receives irregular seasonal rain,

today has a sparse vegetation and salty soil, but in prehistory it would have been a much richer

environment under a deciduous dipterocarp forest with perennial streams and rivers and a rich

natural fauna. Natural resources in the region center on deposits of salt (Higham 1996:188).

There are local clay sources at surface and subsurface levels within rice fields surrounding the

site (Sarjeant, 2009: 4).

Ban Non Wat

Noen U-Loke

17

Fig. 2.4 Location of the present study area

The geography of this region supported many prehistoric settlements. It is within the

context of these cultures that conical rollers are found.

2.3 The chronology

This section will describe the chronology of Ban Non Wat to provide information about

the cultural contexts within which the conical rollers were found. The chronological framework

provides evidence for cultural developments that began with pioneer rice farmers and ended

with the early foundations of the Kingdom of Angkor (Higham and Higham, 2009:139). It was

established through interpretation of the stratigraphy and the mortuary record.

Excavation has uncovered many burials with grave goods. This allowed a relative

chronology to be developed based on the mortuary sequence for 637 burials, the contents of

which were used for dating the burials based on pottery typology and the presence or absence

18

of artefacts used as indicators, such as those made of bronze or iron. Radiocarbon dating has

been done on charcoal from firm contexts, such as hearths, and freshwater shells placed with

the dead. The latter come from secure burial contexts and are therefore well-provenanced

(Higham, 2009: 17).

The main excavation unit, located in approximately the center of the site, covers a

period from the earliest settlement of the region by hunter-gatherers, through the Neolithic,

Bronze and Iron Ages, and into the Historic Period. Square Y, which covered an area of 8 by 4

meters in the northeast part of the site, spans the early Bronze Age into the Historic Period.

Square X, a 4 by 4 meter unit on the southern edge of the mound, contained only Iron Age

material.

Cultural period Date Flexed burials 1750-1050 Neolithic 1 1650-1250 Neolithic 2 1250-1050 Bronze Age 1 1050-1000 Bronze Age 2 1000-900 Bronze Age 3 900-800 Bronze Age 4 800-700 Bronze Age 5 700-420 Iron Age 1 420-100 Iron Age 2 200-AD 200 Iron Age 3 AD 200-400 Iron Age 4 AD 300-500 Early Historic 500-

Fig. 2.5 Prehistoric chronology for Ban Non Wat

The conical rollers fit into the cultural sequence of Ban Non Wat during the Bronze and

Iron Ages. A clear chronology was developed with a cultural sequence spanning twelve phases

of different associated mortuary and occupational activity, according to Higham (2009)

(Fig.2.5). It is based on 76 radiocarbon determinations, subjected to a Bayesian analysis by

employing OxCal 4.0 at Oxford University (Higham and Higham 2009: 133).

19

Conical rollers from the first seven years of excavation are concentrated in Bronze Age

(BA) periods 2-5. One conical roller was found in a clearly Neolithic context, in Layer 5 of the

main excavation unit but it is quite possible that this conical roller is not in its original context.

The incidence of conical rollers increased markedly with the Bronze Age and then declined

dramatically during the early Iron Age. They were not found after Iron Age 2 (Higham, 2009:

28-33).

Recent excavations identified the same basic sequence. Conical rollers from the past

four years are found primarily in late Bronze Age and early Iron Age contexts, although several

were found in Neolithic and Historic contexts as well.

Fig.2.6 Stratigraphic profiles of excavation units at Ban Non Wat

Excavations have produced similar artefacts and burials to those found in the previous

phase of study. The features and the chronology, however, reflect the wider area covered by

the units spread across the mound rather than being located in the center (Fig. 2.6). Conical

20

rollers are found in every unit; interpretation of their distribution patterns over this wide area is

essential to understanding their potential function.

2.4 The Material Culture

This section describes the settlement evidence and the principal artefact

categories found at Ban Non Wat, providing context for the examination of conical rollers which

are associated with these artefacts.

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Fig. 2.7 A. Clay counters B. Crucible C. Spindle whorls D. Clay anvils E. Whetstone F. Clay moulds G. Pellet bow pellets H. Stone adze (All scales are 1 cm)

Conical rollers are found in a variety of cultural contexts relating to occupation and

industrial activity, such as post holes, pits, hard clay floors, middens, hearths, and clay furnaces.

While the tropical environment has had a substantial effect on taphonomic processes at this

site, making interpretation of some settlement evidence such as pits and post holes difficult,

there are some well preserved features that provide evidence of occupational activities.

Neolithic middens and Iron Age floors are the best preserved of these.

The material culture of prehistoric Ban Non Wat includes evidence for the production of

pottery, bronze, iron, and fabric (Fig. 2.7). Salt may also have been produced at this site (Duke

et al 2010). Clay pellets (used with a bow for hunting birds and small animals), whetstones,

bone and metal tools such as axes, chisels, awls, spear-points, and needles, and ceramic vessels

are some of the artefacts related to domestic activities. Similar artefacts and settlement

contexts exist on nearby sites.

Stone adzes are predominantly from Neolithic contexts but they are occasionally found

within Bronze Age layers. Although their presence overlaps with some layers in which conical

rollers are found, they cannot be said to have any clear association with them (Higham 2009:

187).

Bronze artefacts and fragments are found in abundance in the same contexts as conical

rollers. Indeterminate fragments are common in non-mortuary contexts, while whole or partial

artefacts are commonly found in burials. Moulds and crucibles, made of clay and occasionally

sandstone, are indicators that bronze casting was occurring at the site (Higham 2009: 197).

Iron artefacts and slag are also found, although they are concentrated in a period that

coincides only partially with that of conical rollers (Higham 2009: 197).

Ceramic vessels, most of them locally manufactured, have been found at Ban Non Wat

throughout its occupation. They range in date from the Neolithic through the Iron Age. Many

were recovered from burials, as they were used as offerings for the dead. A large number have

been reassembled, and clear types have been determined for each phase within the overall

chronology of the site (Higham 2009: 205).

22

Clay anvils and burnishing stones, used both in prehistoric times and in present day

Thailand in the manufacture and decoration of pottery, have also been found. Burnishing

stones are not found in the Neolithic layers, but rise sharply in frequency during the Bronze and

Iron Ages. Clay anvils have a similar distribution pattern (Higham 2009: 216).

A variety of personal ornaments were placed in mortuary contexts. Mostly from the

Bronze and Iron Ages, they include marble, shell, ivory, bronze, clay and bone bangles, shell and

marble earrings, shell and stone beads, and bronze ornaments such as rings, bells, bracelets.

Iron bangles, bimetallic ornaments, carnelian, agate and glass ornaments were found only in

Iron Age contexts. Gold is very rarely found, but several beads, an earring, and a gold fragment

were reported in Iron Age 2 burials. Cowrie shells ornaments were found in Neolithic and

Bronze Age contexts (Higham 2009: 225-243).

Iron Age deposits produced eight artefacts which appear to be clay beads or net sinkers.

Other small clay items include pellet bow pellets, still used in recent times, and clay counters

whose purpose is still unknown. Both were found throughout the cultural sequence, as were

whetstones, used for sharpening stone and metal tools (Higham 2009: 244).

Spindle whorls are the artefact most commonly found in association with conical rollers.

Rarely found in Neolithic contexts, they became more common during the early stages of the

Bronze Age. They peaked in the late Bronze Age and fell off sharply during the Iron Age. A total

of 1118 were recovered, most from occupational contexts and 118 from burials. Of these, 54

were included as a primary mortuary offering. They were placed with both the old and the

young, and there seems to be no clear pattern of where they were placed relative to the body.

Most were found with women. Often they formed part of a set of offerings including red ochre,

grey clay and bivalve shells. The presence of spindle whorls in such numbers, especially in the

Bronze Age, indicates that production of yarn and weaving were taking place at Ban Non Wat

during this time (Higham 2009: 219)

It is suggested that one way of determining the possible function of conical rollers is to

seek a correlation, both in time and context, with other artefacts for which the use is not in

doubt. If it were found that conical rollers co-vary chronologically with spindle whorls, then

they may have been employed in weaving. If on the other hand, they always appear in the

23

same contexts as bronze casting moulds, then they might have been used by metal founders.

By reviewing the chronological distribution of different artefact forms, and their related

contexts with conical rollers, it may be possible to narrow down likely functions for these

artefacts.

Ch. 3 Methodology

The purpose of this study is to characterize the physical attributes of conical rollers and

to develop and test hypotheses concerning their possible function. This chapter describes the

methods and materials used to achieve these aims. A description of how data was gathered

and analyzed and how they were used to classify them is the focus of the first part of this

chapter. The second section focuses on how spatial and temporal trends were analyzed. The

last section discusses the methodology used to analyze associated artefacts and features,

providing a context for interpreting their function.

3.1 The sample

The conical rollers examined in this study were excavated during three field seasons at

Ban Non Wat between 2008 and 2010. After the mound was surveyed, five excavation units

were chosen and laid out: G104, N100, T200, TU199-200, and Z201. Six were excavated during

the second season. They included O300, P300, S400, U200, V200, and W200. During the third

season excavation took place in I500, J500, K500, and N96. Units S400, G104, N100, N96, and

Z201 were squares of four by four meters. The other three were made by joining contiguous

units (Fig. 3.1).

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Fig. 3.1 Three combined excavation units

All conical rollers from 2007-2010 were included in the study sample in order to

examine the full range of variation within their physical attributes. The sample totaled 237

conical rollers classified as complete, tip, tail or half. An additional 555 fragments were also

studied.

Data was collected on conical rollers from all excavation units in order to examine and

interpret of the widest range of contexts within Ban Non Wat. Units were excavated in 10

centimeter spits within which all discrete contexts, such as postholes, pits, hearths, floors, and

graves were given individual treatment. Where a layer change was identified, a new series of

spits within it were initiated. All soil passed through a 10 mm sieve, and a sample was wet

sieved using a 20 mm screen. Artefacts, features, and soil types were entered onto recording

sheets and later into a comprehensive site database. Surface maps and section drawings for

each unit were made. The chronology of each layer within the unit was determined using

relative dating methods which link artefact technologies and types with stratigraphic layers and

heights.

Conical rollers were collected from all units. However, ongoing excavations made data

on unit I/J/K500 incomplete and therefore items from this unit’s conical rollers numbers were

not included in some calculations. Only data from the second phase of excavation (2007-2010)

were analyzed and reported. Information from the first phase (2002-7) was used only for the

purpose of comparison with the current sample.

25

3.2 Analytic method

Conical rollers were found either in a specific context such as a pit or hard

surface, or discovered in the process of sifting fill from a particular spit. Data on each were

entered into the unit’s artefact register with a drawing and basic measurements, and later this

information was added to the site database with a photograph. For this study, conical rollers

were located in storage and brought to the site for processing. First, measurements were

taken. The diameter of the tip was measured at several different points (-.50, -1.0, -2.0, -3.0 cm

where possible) using vernier calipers. The overall length, tail length, and length of the tip from

top to edge was also measured (Fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.2 Measurements taken on conical rollers

Relative density was measured using a digital scale and a graduated beaker. Because

the beaker did not have sufficiently specific gradations, the accuracy of this measurement

cannot be assured. However, the process was used consistently enough to yield results that

were used for comparative purposes.

In addition to being measured, the conical rollers were described, drawn, and

photographed. A hand lens was used to examine the fabric and decoration on each artefact.

26

After examining and recording was completed, the information was entered into a new

database created for this study.

The conical rollers were counted using the principle of the minimum number of

individuals (MNI) and by counting the number of individual specific pieces (NISP). The first step

in determining the MNI was to classify each artefact as belonging to one of five categories: tips,

tails, halves, complete conical rollers, or fragments (Fig. 3.3). To be counted as a tip, it had to

contain more than half of the rounded top portion. Tails were counted if they had the

complete end portion. Halves were tips which were at least 50% complete, but which did not

have more than half the rounded top. Complete conical rollers had both a tip and a tail, using

the previously described criteria. Fragments were any artefacts identified as conical rollers that

did not meet the criteria of being a tip, a tail, a half, or a complete artefact. Calculation for the

NISP total included each fragment, tip, tail, and complete conical roller. The MNI total did not

include any fragments.

Fig. 3.3 Examples of conical rollers: complete, tip, tail (above), and half (below) (Cat. #31197, 34224,

29345, 41025)

27

3.3 Methods of classification

Because they are relatively unknown and have never been described in any publication,

it was not possible to classify conical rollers based on a previously developed typology. An

original typology was developed. Size, form, and decoration were chosen as the most

important attributes on which to concentrate; relative density and amount of wear were also

evaluated. Other attributes such as color, texture, and composition were examined and

recorded but not analyzed systematically. Due to varying degrees of wear and breakage,

differing numbers of conical rollers were available for each specific measurement and

assessment.

3.3.1 Size

The diameter of each conical roller tip was measured at -50, -1.0, and -2.0 cm from the

point of the tip. Tips were also measured along one exterior side. The overall length from tip

point to tail end was measured, as was tail length. All data was recorded in a field notebook,

entered into the database, and processed using MS Excel to create histograms for analysis.

3.3.2 Shape

Assessment of shape was done in two ways. The determination of whether the conical

roller was arrow shaped was made during the process of recording each artefact. Many conical

rollers, especially complete ones and large tips, are arrow-shaped. However, because of the

amount of wear and breakage it is not clear if all of them were arrow-shaped or if there are

some that were created with a solid cone shape. Conical rollers are classified as arrow-shaped

if the lower portion of the tip was clearly separated from the tail (Fig. 3.4).

28

Fig. 3.4 Conical roller tail separated from the lower tip (Cat. #34155)

A conical roller is described as arrow-shaped even without a tail as long as the tail

attachment was visible and the inner walls of the tip were clearly sloping away from that point

(Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5 Arrow-shaped conical rollers with tail missing (Cat. #31088, 31112)

Another method of classifying shape was to calculate the ratio of the diameter of the tip

measured at two points (-.50 and -2.0 cm. down from the top). A scatter diagram was created

to investigate whether there was an observable pattern in the angle of the sides of the tip.

3.3.3 Decoration

Decoration on conical rollers was observed with a hand lens. Descriptions were

recorded for each tip, tail, and complete conical roller. Each was categorized as being

tail

at

ta

ch

m

e

nt

tail

at

ta

c

h

m

e

nt

29

cordmarked (closely or widely spaced), cordmarked and slashed, slashed or not clearly marked.

Uncommon decorative attributes, such as burnishing or unusual positioning of decorative

marks were also recorded.

3.3.4 Other attributes used for classification

Relative density was measured to look for patterns that might indicate differences in the

materials with which the conical rollers were made. Ten conical rollers from four units (S400,

G104, N100, and N96) were used for this purpose. The measurements were plotted to

determine whether any trends were visible both across the site and within individual

excavation units.

The systematic classification of conical rollers according to colour types was not

undertaken because of the tremendous variation, from grey to brown to red, often within one

piece. Colour was assessed by field observation and noted, and photographs were taken.

The amount of wear on each tip and complete conical roller was observed using a hand

lens and recorded in the database on a scale of 1 – 4, based on how minimal or severe the wear

was (Fig. 3.6).

Fig. 3.6 Degrees of wear: almost none, little, moderate, and severe (Cat. #29106, 34182, 34196,

28174)

Conical rollers in the first group had almost no wear and had clear decoration all the

way up the top of the tip in the characteristic spiral cordmarked pattern. Those in the second

category showed some wear on the tip, but the overall full curve of the top was visible. Conical

rollers with flat tips and moderate wear were in the third category, and ones that were so worn

30

that they lacked clear decoration or characteristic conical shape were put in the last group.

Tails and fragments were not included in this classification because they were broken rather

than worn.

The attributes described above provide the basis for the development of a typology for

conical rollers.

3.4 Methods used in spatial and temporal analysis and interpretation

In order to analyze and interpret the spatial and temporal distribution of conical rollers,

data on the number of conical rollers found within each unit and within each layer and spit

were processed using MS Office Excel 2007. One series of graphs and charts was produced to

represent the proportions of conical rollers in each stratigraphic context visually. This was

done using both Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) and Number of Identified Specimens

(NISP) figures. A second series of charts illustrates the changing proportions of conical rollers

throughout the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages. In this case the number of conical rollers

within the volume of soil from each context within each excavation unit was calculated. This

allowed for differences in soil volumes between excavation units.

3.5 Methods used to analyze and interpret context

Trends in the distribution of associated artefacts and features, as well as data on the soil

matrix where conical rollers are found, provide information necessary to investigate their

function.

The field database was used to assemble a record of artefacts found at the same context

as the where conical rollers. This information was processed using MS Office Excel 2007.

Histograms were made comparing conical rollers to several other commonly found associated

artefacts. The graphs were used to analyze their distribution within each excavation unit. The

percentage of conical rollers relative to all other artefacts was also calculated. Data in the field

database was incomplete for units N96, N/O/P300, and I/J/K500 so they were not included in

this analysis.

31

Several resources were used to examine features associated with conical rollers. A list

of features found at the same layer and spit as conical rollers was compiled using the field

database. The database was also used to record each feature with which a conical roller was

directly associated. Drawn plans and sections were used to examine features and soil changes

associated with the majority of conical roller finds in unit S400.

It is concluded that the methodology used for this study was appropriate to the aims of

the dissertation in allowing a system of classification to be developed, and data to be gathered

and organized so that patterns were detected and interpreted. On this basis, hypotheses on

the function of these artefacts have been formulated for testing.

32

Chapter 4 Results

This chapter reports the results of this study and notes significant trends within the

data. The first section includes a typology of conical rollers that focuses on the attributes of

composition and texture, size, shape, decoration, colour, and degree of wear. Fragments are

characterized separately. In the second section, the distribution of conical rollers

chronologically and spatially across the site will be reported and analyzed. The context within

which conical rollers are found will be the subject of the third section. It will include data on

associated artefacts, features, and soil types.

4.1 Typology

The purpose of this classification is to describe conical rollers as clearly as possible.

Their attributes can then be analyzed and interpreted in order to develop hypotheses about

their function.

4.1.1 Composition and texture

Fabric analysis was not done for this study. However, analysis of Bronze and Iron Age

mortuary ceramics from Ban Non Wat using an electron microprobe identified temper

materials, natural mineral inclusions, and a clay matrix composition which identified the

ceramic wares as being locally manufactured (Sarjeant 2009:1). It is likely that conical rollers

were made from local clays as well. Laterite nodules, small pieces of shell, and rounded

fragments of red fired clay are the most common inclusions visible with a hand lens. The clay

generally has a good deal of sand either added as temper or occurring naturally within the clay

matrix. This gives most conical rollers a coarse texture. A small number of conical rollers are

made with clay that appears to be slightly finer; an even smaller number appear to have a much

higher sand content than most. This might be expected given the likelihood that these

artefacts were made by many hands over centuries of occupation.

33

Fig. 4.1 Relative density of forty conical rollers

The relative density of forty samples, ten from each of four excavation units (S400,

G104, N100, and N96) was measured to determine whether different composition types could

be detected (Fig. 4.1). The results show no noticeable variation. The majority fall into a range

of between 1.0 and 3.0 along a very gradual curve. Average relative density ranges from 1.5766

(G104) to 2.4151 (S400), a difference of only .8385. There is minor variation from one

excavation unit to another; unit S400 has slightly denser conical rollers than the other units

(Fig. 4.2). However, there are no discernable groupings (Fig. 4.3).

Fig. 4.2 Relative density of forty samples from four excavation units with averages

0

1

2

3

4

5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Re

lati

ve d

en

sity

Conical rollers(N)

relative density

1.5766 2.4151

1.8977 1.9827

0

1

2

3

4

5

G104 S400 N100 N96

Re

lati

ve D

en

sity

Excavation Unit

Relative Density

average

34

Fig. 4.3 Distribution of relative density measurements

4.1.2 Size

It is difficult to measure and compare conical rollers accurately on the basis of an overall

measurement of length (top of tip to bottom of tail) because they are often broken and worn.

However, that measurement was recorded where possible. The tip and tail were measured and

analyzed separately.

Fig. 4.4 Tip diameter measurements

0

5

10

15

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

)

relative density range

Relative Density

54

114

54

7

0

50

100

150

1.1 - 1.5cm

1.6-2.0cm

2.1-2.5cm

2.6-3.0cm

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

)

Tip diameter at -.5 cm

47

113

57

10

0

50

100

150

1.6-2.0cm

2.1-2.5cm

2.6-3.0cm

3.1-3.6cm

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

)

Tip diameter at -1.0 cm

4

51 57

20

0

20

40

60

2.1-2.5 cm 2.6-3.0 cm 3.1-3.5 cm 3.6-4.0 cm

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

)

Tip diameter at -2 .0 cm

35

The data on conical roller tips show a range of diameters within each group of

measurements. At -5.0 cm down from the point, the tip diameter ranges from 1.1- 3.0 cm.

Most are 1.6 - 2.0 cm in diameter. At -1.0 cm the range is 1.6-3.6 cm with most tips falling in

the 2.1-2.5 cm range. At -2.0 the diameter varied from 2.1- 4.0 cm. Tips measuring 2.6- 3.5 cm

in diameter were most common (Fig. 4.4).

size(cm) Conical

Rollers (N)

3.4 1

3.8 3

4.0 3

4.1 1

4.2 4

44 2

4.5 1

4.7 3

4.9 1

5.3 1

Fig. 4.5 Diameter measured at -3.0 from the top of the tip

Only twenty tips were complete enough to measure at -3.0 cm from the top. Diameter

ranged from 3.4 -5.3 cm with no clear pattern or grouping within the measurements (Fig. 4.5)

Data on the length of the tip from the top to the bottom edge at the longest point was

also recorded.

Fig. 4.6 Length of tip from point to bottom edge

A majority of conical rollers are within the category of 2.1-3.0 cm in length, although a

significant number are in 3.1-4.0 cm range, and just over half of those have sides of 4.1-5.0 cm

in length (Fig. 4.6).

15

88

53

22 4 2 2

020406080

100

1.1-2.0cm

2.1-3.0cm

3.1-4.0cm

4.1-5.0cm

5.1-6.0cm

6.1-7.0cm

7.1-8.0cm

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

)

Length: tip point to tip edge (cm)

36

Fig. 4.7 Range of tail lengths

A total of forty-seven tails were measured. Tail length varies from 1.6 - 4.5 cm long (Fig.

4.7). As with tips, many of these are broken and there is little doubt that many shorter ones

were incomplete.

Fig. 4.8 Conical roller tails (Cat.# 31147, 32136, 31192, 27633,36075, 34341,31163, 27033, 34306, 31701)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0.6-1.0 cm 1.1-1.5 cm 1.6-2.0 cm 2.1-2.5 cm 2.6-3.0 cm 3.1-3.5 cm 3.6-4.0 cm 4.1-4.5 cm

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

) Tail length(cm)

37

Fig. 4.9 Small, medium and large conical rollers (Cat. # 34262, 34214, 41116, 28164, 28198, 31124, 31060; 34186, 33148, 32182, 34132; 39236, 34182, 28298, 39259, 34093,34184, 34264, 34248)

A range of sizes was clearly present within the sample based on field observation; there

did not appear to be any standardized size types (Fig. 4.9).

38

4.1.3 Shape

Shape was assessed by field observation and by examining the angle at which the sides

of the tip slope down and away from the point, determined by the ratio of the diameter of the

tip at -0.50 from the point to the diameter at -2.0. The results show only a slight variation

among all samples in the slope of the tip sides (Fig. 4.10). Most conical rollers have a similar

overall tip shape.

Fig. 4.10 Variation in the slope of the side of conical roller tips

The arrow-shaped tip is distinctive (Fig.4.11). It is referred to in this typology as Type I.

A clear separation between the tip and tail is the key attribute.

05

101520253035

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

)

ratio range (cm)

Ratio of diameter at -0.5 to -2.0 cm

39

Fig. 4.11 Type I (arrow-shaped) conical rollers (Cat. # 39263, 34251, 34155, 31133, 31279, 31070, 34236)

The other discernable type (Type II) does not have an arrow shape. It is characterized

by its smooth, reddish surface with thin, widely-spaced cordmarking (Fig. 4.12).

Fig. 4.12 Type II (smooth red) conical rollers (Cat. #29106, 36335, 37170, 27164, 32164)

While the data show a far lower percentage of arrow-shaped tips compared to those

that do not exhibit those characteristics, it is not known how many of the broken or worn

samples might have been arrow-shaped when complete (Fig. 4.13).

Fig. 4.13 Distribution of Type I and Type II conical rollers

19%

4%

77%

Conical Roller Types

Type I Type II other

25

14

3 4 3 1 0 0 3

0

8 2

S400 G104 N100 N96 T-W200 Z201

Spatial distribution of conical roller types

Type I (arrow shaped) Type II (smooth red)

40

4.1.4 Decoration

Fig. 4.14 Cordmarking (Cat. #34248)

Conical roller tips, with rare exception, have been decorated by wrapping cord around

the wet clay in spiral pattern before firing (Fig. 4.14). Diagonal slashes, apparently made with a

sharp tool, are less commonly used (Fig. 4.15).

Fig. 4.15 Distribution of styles of decoration on conical roller tips

147

50

13 13

closely spaced widely spaced smooth surface,thin cordmarks,widely spaced

cross-hatched orslashed

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

)

Decoration on tip

41

Many tips have closely spaced markings, as do most fragments. Widely spaced is the

next most common type of cordmarks for both tips and tails. A third distinct type is thin, widely

spaced cordmarks applied to a surface that is noticeably smoother compared to other types.

Tails are often decorated with cordmarks or slashes, but it does not appear that cord was

wrapped around in the same way as on the tip. Cross-hatched marks and slashes are often

combined with cordmarks to make another type of decorative pattern found on a small number

of tips and tails. Some cordmarked samples could not be categorized in any of the types above,

but displayed one or more of the attributes.

Fig. 4.16 Decoration: closely-spaced and widely spaced cordmarks, slashes (on tail), and smooth surface with thin, widely-spaced cordmarks (Cat. #31111, 39203, 31063, 36335)

4.1.5 Colour

Colour was not systematically measured because of the wide range of colours

possible among all rollers and often within a single conical roller (Fig. 4.17). Grey, brown, tan,

red and yellow are the colours most commonly seen. Much of this colour variation is probably

due to the firing atmosphere.

42

Fig. 4.17 Colour variation within conical rollers (Cat. #31087, 34252, 31197)

4.1.6 Wear and breakage

The degree of wear and breakage, measured on a scale of 1-4 from least to most

extreme, is slight to moderate for most conical roller tips (Fig. 4.18).

Fig. 4.18 Degree of wear on conical roller tips

The most common pattern of wear was the tip worn flat, either alone or in combination

with moderate overall wear. A third of the tips showed slight wear on the tip. Together they

point to a pattern of wear that was concentrated at the pointed end of the tip, rather than on

the lower sides (Fig. 4.19).

12%

31%

41%

16%

Percentages of each degree of wear

1 (almost none)

2 (slight wear on tip)

3 (tip wornflat/moderate wear)

4 (severe)

43

Fig. 4.19 Conical rollers with wear on the tip (Cat. 34239, 34251)

4.1.7 Fragments

Many conical roller fragments appear to have broken off from the tip. Some have a

curved shape to indicate this (Fig. 4.20). Differences between the outer decorated surface and

the inner roughly formed side is another visible sign that the tip is where they were once

attached. There are generally few signs of wear; the decoration is usually distinct.

44

Fig. 4.20 Fragments including some curved pieces (Cat. #34370, 27372, 34377)

The attributes above have been described in detail to provide a base for further study

and to allow comparison with similar artefacts. Through analysis of these attributes, patterns

can be discovered and interpreted to indicate a possible function for these previously unknown

artefacts.

4.2 Chronological and Spatial Distribution

Conical rollers were recovered predominantly from Iron and Bronze Age contexts. Five

were found within a Neolithic context and three within a Historic context (Fig. 4.21).

Fig. 4.21 Chronological distribution of conical rollers (MNI)

0

20

40

60

80

100

O,P300 S400 G104 N100 N96 T-W200 Z201

Chronological distribution by unit (MNI)

Historic Pd.

Iron Age

Bronze Age

Neolithic

45

Fig. 4.22 Average number of conical rollers/ volume of soil (m3)

in Bronze and Iron Age contexts

When soil volume is taken into account the number of artefacts in the Bronze Age is

roughly double the number in Iron Age contexts (Fig. 4.22). Unit S400 stands out because of

noticeably higher numbers in both periods; G104 has comparable numbers in the Iron Age (Fig.

4.23).

0

0.5

1

Bronze Age Iron Age

Average number of conical rollers /m3 of soil

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

S400 G104 N100 N96 T-W200

Conical Rollers/volume of soil (m3) - Bronze Age

46

Fig. 4.23 Bronze and Iron Age distribution (per m3 of soil)

Conical rollers are found in each excavation unit across the site. Unit S400 had by far

the most conical rollers. Units N/O/P300, I/J/K500, and Z201 had the fewest (Fig. 4.24).

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

O/P300 S400 G104 N100 N96 T-W200 Z201 I-J500

Conical rollers/volumeof soil (m3) - Iron Age

47

Fig. 4.24 Distribution of conical rollers across the site

N/O/P 300 2%

S 400 64%

G 104 9%

N 100 4%

N 96 14%

T-W200 5%

Z 201 1%

I/J/K 500 1% NISP

N/O/P 300 2%

S 400 52%

G 104 15%

N 100 9%

N 96 7%

T-W200 9%

Z 201 2%

I/J/K 500 4%

MNI

48

Fig. 4.25 Spatial distribution of conical rollers/volume of soil (m3)

Unit S400 also has the most conical rollers when the volume of soil excavated is taken in

to account. Units with moderate numbers include G104 and T-W200. Units N100 and N96

have even fewer, and O/P300, Z201, and I/J500 the fewest (Fig. 4.25).

Chronological distribution places conical rollers in a context of the Bronze and Iron Ages.

Numbers were higher during the Bronze Age when the volume of soil excavated was taken into

consideration; fewer conical rollers were found in Iron Age contexts. In terms of spatial

distribution, unit S400 stands out as having a noticeably higher number than any other unit.

Units located nearest to the center of the mound also have higher numbers compared with the

units located at the edge that contain only Iron Age material.

4.3 Context

Artefacts, features, and soil types associated with conical rollers are critical to the

understanding of what function conical rollers may have had. Correlation with spindle whorls

could indicate a role in weaving; connections with casting moulds would suggest that they were

used in bronze casting. Contexts where conical rollers are found are described and analyzed in

this section.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

O/P300 S400 G104 N100 N96 T-W200 Z201 I/J500

con

ical

ro

llers

(N

)

Excavation Unit

conical rollers/m3 of soil

49

4.3.1 Associated Artefacts

Fig. 4.26 Conical rollers as a percentage of total artefacts by unit

In the five excavation units where conical rollers are found in the greatest numbers,

they make up between 5% and 30% of the total number of artefacts (Fig.4.26). Artefacts most

commonly found with conical rollers include a variety of tools used in bronze casting and

pottery production, weaving, and domestic life. Spindle whorls, bronze fragments, crucibles,

iron fragments, slag, clay anvils, and burnishing stones are some of the most commonly

associated artefacts. Bronze and iron artefacts, ceramic vessels, bangle fragments, clay pellets,

adzes, whetstones, counters, pieces of burnt clay, and daub fragments are often found as well.

Bronze fragments, iron fragments and slag have the highest numbers. Spindle whorls

are the next most common (Fig. 4.27). The co-variance of conical rollers with both spindle

whorls and bronze fragments will be discussed in the following chapter.

147

37 20 22 4

346

371 304 336 39

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

S400 G104 N100 T-W200 Z201

total number of artefacts

CRs (MNI)

50

Fig. 4.27 Common associated artefacts and conical rollers by excavation unit

4.3.2 Features and soil contexts

Most conical rollers are recovered after soil excavated from the general spit is sifted.

However, they are also found in association with certain features such as pits, postholes,

pottery concentrations, hard surfaces or floors (Fig. 4.28). Several smithing hearths and

furnaces could possibly have an association. Although there were burials recovered during the

second phase of excavation, conical rollers are only occasionally found in grave fill; they are not

clearly in direct association with the body or with burials goods. However, in unit G104 one

conical roller was found next to the feet of one burial (B650) and inside a whole pot at the head

of another (B646).

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

nu

mb

er

of

arte

fact

s Associated artefacts by excavation unit

S400

G104

N100

T-W200

Z201

51

Fig. 4.28 Common associated features

In units S400, N96, N100 and O/P300 in particular, conical rollers were often found in

reddish sandy or silty soil that contained crushed pottery and shell (Fig. 4.29).

Fig. 4.29 Sandy soil with crushed shell and ceramic in unit N96

Conical rollers display homogeneity in terms of virtually all variables considered. The

distributions of size, density, form and surface decoration fail to reveal groups that might

reflect change over time, style or use. They are almost completely absent from mortuary

contexts. There is no consistent relationship with pits, postholes, or floors, nor is there with

other types of artefacts. This study has analyzed and interpreted these results for the purpose

51%

29%

8%

7% 5%

Common associated features

pit

post hole

hard surface/floor

pottery concentration

whole pot

Conical roller

52

of developing hypotheses as to the function of conical rollers. This is the subject of the

following discussion.

Chapter 5 Discussion

This chapter examines the characteristics of conical rollers, hypothesizes about possible

utilitarian or ritual functions of conical rollers, explains the limitations of this study, and

discusses the implications of the results.

5.1 Conical roller typology

The specific attributes of conical rollers - their form, size, shape, decoration, colour, and

the distinctive patterns of wear and breakage - have been described and analyzed in order to

develop hypotheses about their function. Attributes such as wear and breakage reflect the

physical effects of the unknown function on conical rollers, providing insight into how they

were used. Others, such as shape and decoration, are indications of what design element may

have been considered useful.

There are two main types of these artefacts. The more common (Type I) is arrow-

shaped and cordmarked, most often in a closely-spaced pattern made with a comparatively

thick cord. The other (Type II) is smaller with thin, widely-spaced cordmarking on a relatively

smooth, often reddish surface. Because far more conical rollers and fragments have closely-

spaced cordmarking, it is likely that many of the ones that could not be assigned as either Type I

or Type II belong to the former. Eight of the Type II samples came from unit T-W200, two were

found nearby in Z201, and three were found in N100. The fact that Type II conical rollers were

found in only one part of the site could be significant, but without more information,

interpretation of this pattern is not possible. Both types are so similar that, whatever their

function, they would have been the right shape and size. The similarities include the two-part

form of the conical roller: the conical tip and the attached tail. It seems likely that the latter

was used as a handle. Given the relatively small size, however, it was probably not grasped

53

with the whole hand but instead gripped by several fingers and the thumb. This form must have

been best suited to the function, as it remained unchanged throughout its existence.

Conical roller size varies within the sample, but not by a significant amount. No

chronological or spatial distribution pattern was found; perhaps they are linked to the personal

skills and preferences of the maker. However, it is possible that variations in size were created

to suit a function that required these slight differences.

Relative density varies to some extent from one excavation unit to another. Unit S400

has conical rollers with the highest average relative density. Overall, however, there do not

seem to be any discernable groupings, indicating that in general, conical rollers were made with

the same clays using the same process.

The degree of wear and breakage is highly variable. The pattern of wear appears to be

at the top of the tip where in many cases it has been worn flat. Lower on the tip, surface wear

is usually slight and the grooves made by cordmarking are distinct. The condition of some of

the larger fragments suggests that breakage occurred most often at the bottom edge of the tip.

The wear on the top of the tip suggests a function where that point is coming in contact with

another surface in a rubbing or grinding motion. While tails are often broken or completely

missing, the amount of wear is generally minor. This is consistent with the idea that they were

held while the tip was used in some way.

The cordmarking that is characteristic of conical roller tips has two components: the

width of the cord used to wrap around the tip, and the proximity of one wrap of the cord to the

next. These characteristics vary but despite slight differences, the similarity of one to another

makes it likely that all conical rollers were decorated to appear and to be used in the same basic

way. If the decoration was designed to be functional, the usefulness would have come from

the rough texture made by the cordmarking.

Decoration on the tail was not consistent. Widely-spaced cordmarking and slashmarks

were found on some conical roller tails, others had no markings at all. If cordmarking was

functional and not all tails are decorated, perhaps tails were not the functional part of a conical

roller.

54

The reddish tint that is characteristic of most of the Type II conical rollers is the only

observable pattern related to colour. Variations found within the sample are most often

attributed to differences in firing atmosphere that occurred during the process of making them.

However, William Lucius, Director of the Institute for Archaeological Ceramic Research (IACR)

has suggested that extreme oxidation at the end of the tip may indicate their use as plugs for

moulds used in bronze casting (W. Lucius, pers. comm. 12/14/10).

The attributes of shape, size, patterns of wear and breakage, and decoration are all

relatively consistent, supporting the idea that conical rollers appear to be designed for one

particular function. The tip appears to be the part used in such a way that there is commonly

slight to moderate wear on the pointed end and breakage at the edge. The tail is relatively

small, and is often broken off entirely, suggesting it may have been used as a handle.

5.2 Chronological and spatial distribution patterns

Analysis of chronological distribution patterns for conical rollers has led to

several interpretations of their possible function. Bronze casting, weaving, pottery and salt

making, as well as activities related to domestic habitation, have been well documented at Ban

Non Wat, and it is possible that conical rollers had a function related to one of these industries.

Examination of the chronological distribution patterns for artefacts associated with bronze

casting and weaving do co-vary somewhat with those of conical rollers, in some excavation

units more than in others.

Bronze casting is indicated by the presence of bronze fragments, moulds, and crucibles.

The chronological distribution pattern of bronze fragments has some similarity overall to that of

conical rollers in units G104, N100 and T-W200. Spindle whorls are also distributed in a pattern

similar to conical rollers (Fig. 5.1). However, the general pattern for conical rollers is not similar

enough to that of either artefact type for a conclusion to be drawn about their connection to

55

either weaving or bronze making. There was no correlation between conical rollers and any

artefact type related to pottery production.

Fig. 5.1 Distribution of conical rollers, bronze fragments, and spindle whorls in G104, N100, and T-W200.

0

5

10

15

20

4:3 4:2 4:1 3:4 3:3 3:1 2:5 2:4 2:3 2:2 2:1 1:7 1:5

nu

mb

er

of

arte

fact

s

Bronze Age / Iron Age

G104

spindle whorls

bronze fragments

conical rollers (NISP)

0

5

10

15

6:3 6:2 5:3 5:2 5:1 4:2 4:1 3:8 3:7 3:6 3:3 2.7 2:4 1:4nu

mb

er

of

arte

fact

s

Bronze Age / Iron Age

N100

spindle whorls

bronze fragments

conical rollers (NISP)

0

2

4

6

8

10

7:3 7:2 7:1 6:3 6:2 6:1 5:5 5:4 5:3 4:6 4:4 4:3 4:1nu

mb

er

of

arte

fact

s

Neolithic / Bronze Age / Iron Age

T - W200

spindle whorls

bronze fragments

conical rollers (NISP)

56

Fig. 5.2 Distribution of conical rollers, bronze fragments, and spindle whorls in S400

The chronological distribution of conical rollers in unit S400 is generally similar to other

excavation units, but the association with bronze fragments and spindle whorls is far less

obvious (Fig. 5.2). Distribution patterns from the first phase of excavations show a stronger

correlation, but conical rollers do not co-vary with either one specifically (Fig. 5.3).

The chronological distribution patterns indicate that conical rollers could have been

associated with weaving or bronze casting during the Bronze and Iron Ages at Ban Non Wat, but

the evidence is not substantial.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

5:2 5:1 4:3 4:2 4:1 3:9 3:8 3:7 3:6 3:5 3:4 3:3 3:2 2:12

nu

mb

er

of

arte

fact

s

Bronze Age / Iron Age

S400

spindle whorls

bronze fragments

conical rollers (NISP)

57

Fig. 5.3 Conical rollers and associated artefacts in the Bronze and Iron Ages: Phase I

The spatial distribution of conical rollers across the site also supports the idea that they

could be associated with weaving or bronze casting. In three of the four units with the highest

number of conical rollers, there were also significant numbers of both spindle whorls and

bronze fragments (Fig 5.4). The low numbers in unit Z201 reflects the fact that this square is

located at the edge of the mound and has only Iron Age contexts.

0

50

100

150

200

5:3 5:1 4:7 4:5 4:3 4:1 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.1

nu

mb

er

of

arte

fact

s

Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age

Main Excavation Square

conical rollers

spindle whorls

bronze artefacts

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

9:9

9:6

9:3

8:4

8:1

7:1

2

7:9

7:6

7:3

6:3

5:6

5:3

4:5

4:2

3:4

3:1 2.3

nu

mb

er

of

arte

fact

s

Natural / Bronze Age / Iron Age

Square Y

conical rollers

spindle whorls

bronze artefacts

58

Fig.5.4 Spatial distribution of spindle whorls, bronze fragments, and conical rollers in unit S400, G104, N100, and T-W200

Spatial distribution within each unit provides further evidence for the association of

conical rollers with some kind of industrial activity. They are often found in contexts with hard

floors, clay furnaces, and concentrations of sandy soil with crushed shell and pottery. Unit S400

had an especially large amount of this soil type in the same context as the highest number of

conical rollers found anywhere on the site (Fig. 5.5).

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

S400 G104 N100 T-W200 Z201

nu

mb

er

of

arte

fact

s Spatial distribution

spindle whorls

bronze fragments

conical rollers (MNI)

59

Fig. 5.5 Unit S400: feature plan (Layer 4 Spit 1 surface) and plan of spatial distribution of artefacts (Layer 4 Spit 2)

60

The distribution pattern for conical rollers in the main excavation square from

Phase I has a slight similarity to that of spindle whorls (Fig. 5.6). However, without testing it

against distribution patterns for all artefacts, nothing can be concluded.

A. B.

Fig. 5.6 Distribution of conical rollers (A) and spindle whorls (B) in the main excavation unit (Phase I)

In mortuary contexts, artefacts such as spindle whorls and grey clay, both associated

with fabric production, and clay moulds associated with bronze casting, are regularly found.

Clay anvils employed in pottery manufacture and metal chisels and axes, perhaps used in wood

working, are also common. With few exceptions, conical rollers have not been found in direct

association with burials. Two burials in unit G104 contained conical rollers, one at the feet and

one inside a pot placed at the head. Phase I excavations revealed two conical rollers within

one grave (B352) (Fig. 5.7) and a conical roller and a spindle whorl placed together in another

(B344) (Fig. 5.8). All four burials date to the Iron Age. These are rare, however; there appears

to have been no regular practice of including conical rollers with grave goods.

61

Fig. 5.7 Conical rollers found with B352

62

Fig. 5.8 Spindle whorl (above) and conical roller (below) found in B344 from the main excavation unit. Scale 5 cm

Conical rollers are found in association with many artefact types, from bangle fragments

to clay pellets, from whetstones to clay anvils. It is impossible to say with any certainty that

conical rollers are associated with one particular domestic or industrial activity. While there is

some correlation between the chronological and spatial distribution patterns of conical rollers,

spindle whorls, and bronze fragments and artefacts, the evidence is not conclusive. Conical

rollers are not found regularly in burial contexts suggesting that they were not generally

considered important enough to be placed in graves with other artefacts related to weaving,

bronze casting and pottery production.

63

5.3 Possible Functions of conical rollers

It has been established that conical roller distribution patterns are similar to those of

spindle whorls and bronze fragments, and therefore it is logical to examine the possibility that

conical rollers had a function related to either weaving or bronze casting. Other utilitarian and

ritual functions will be considered as well.

In considering the function of conical rollers, it is helpful to hypothesize about the

maker’s intent by analyzing the particular attributes that were chosen when creating the

artefact. The purpose of the tail may have been to create a handle for controlling the motion of

the tip. The tip was presumably cone or arrow-shaped and cordmarked in a spiral pattern

because it was appropriate for a particular task.

It is also important to consider the possible motions that created wear and breakage

patterns. In this case the tip point became worn through use, sometimes to the point of being

flat; the lower sides remained relatively unworn. Fragments from the edge of the tip commonly

broke off, but the wear on the broken edges implies that they were still useful even after losing

these pieces.

5.3.1 Functions related to bronze casting

It is possible that conical rollers were used as plugs for moulds during the lost wax

method of bronze casting. The Luristan Bronzes, from the Iron Age in Iran, were made by this

process. It is thought that clay plugs were used to seal up the holes before pouring in the

bronze (Wilbur 1991). Based on evidence from other sites in Northeast Thailand, this method

of casting was very likely used at Ban Non Wat. Also, a number of bronze bells that would have

been cast by this method were found during the first phase of excavation. (C. Higham, pers.

comm. 16/12/10).

Conical rollers have a suitable shape for this function. Used as a plug, a conical roller tip

would have filled a relatively small circular or funnel-shaped space. The tail would have been

used as a handle to insert the plug. There is no way of knowing if the holes in the mould would

64

have matched the shape and size of conical rollers, as moulds were broken during the process

of removing the bronze object.

Cordmarking may have made conical rollers suitable as plugs. The rough surface and

spiral pattern may have allowed them to be secured by a screwing motion. Inserted this way,

the lower tip of the conical roller may have protruded and broken off at the edge, creating the

pattern of numerous lower tip fragments.

The wear pattern is not consistent with this function, however. A plug does not move in

a way that would make it worn at the tip, as most conical rollers are.

While it is possible that conical rollers functioned as mould plugs in the lost wax method

of bronze casting, there is only limited support for this theory. The fact that clay plugs were

used for bronze casting during the Iron Age in Iran does not mean they were used in Bronze and

Iron Age Thailand. Although they have some characteristics that make them suitable as plugs,

the wear pattern makes it unlikely. While the chronological and spatial distribution patterns of

conical rollers do co-vary to an extent with bronze fragments, there is no strong association.

Finally, it would be expected that some remains of molten bronze would adhere to the surface

of at least some conical rollers, yet this is not the case. Although it remains one theory, it is

doubtful that conical rollers were mould plugs. In total, the evidence does not suggest they had

any other function related to bronze casting. However, one means of further testing this

hypothesis would be to analyze the tip ends for the presence of bronze residues. None has

been found thus far.

5.3.2 Functions related to weaving

Several possible functions related to weaving have been suggested for conical rollers.

They could have been used to create a pattern on fabric, a theory suggested for the clay rollers

from Ban Chiang and Lao Pakao. It is more likely that these cylindrical clay rollers were used for

this purpose, because the shape would leave a straight row of pattern; a conical shape would

not roll in a straight line, and therefore conical rollers seem ill suited for applying pattern to

fabric.

65

They could have functioned as bobbins or spools for holding thread. The cordmarking

would be useful for keeping the thread from sliding off. The handle would have been held or

placed in something during the process of winding and unwinding. Bobbins of a similar shape

were included in a typology of pre-Roman pottery spools, but not all scholars agree this was

their function (C. Higham pers. comm. 30/1/11)). If they were bobbins or spools, it makes

sense that they were found in association with so many spindle whorls, used for making thread.

Another artefact type associated with weaving, also found at Bronze and Iron Age sites

in other parts of the world, is a loom weight. They are often circular or triangular with a hole

for attaching the thread which would provide tension during the weaving process (Fig. 5.9).

Fig. 5.9 Loom weights and spindle whorls

Conical rollers are unlikely to have been loom weights. They are not found in groups, as

loom weights often are, and they have no hole bored through them. It is possible that the

thread could have been secured by using the cordmarks to catch the thread within the grooves

and making a knot around the tail. The conical roller would then hang with the tip down,

perhaps wearing down the point as it came in contact with the ground.

It is tempting to conclude that because they occurred at the same time and have a

similar distribution pattern to spindle whorls that conical rollers were associated with weaving.

However, there are not enough data to support this theory. If their function was related to

66

fabric production, it is possible that they functioned as bobbins or spools for collecting and

storing thread or yarn. It is unlikely that they were used as either loom weights or as rollers for

applying decoration.

5.3.3 Other possible functions

Conical rollers may have functioned as plugs for something besides a mould for bronze

casting. There are no ceramic vessel types with an opening of a size that match any of the

conical rollers. However, it is possible that a container made of an organic material such as

bamboo or leather would have an opening of a similar size. As previously discussed, the

pattern of spiral cordmarking would be helpful in securing the plug, and the tail would function

as a handle. Breakage along the edges would be expected. The wear pattern on the tip,

however, still makes the idea that conical rollers were used as plugs unlikely.

It has been suggested, both with regard to the conical rollers from Ban Non Wat and the

pre-Roman pottery spools mentioned above, that they may have functioned as spacers in kilns

to support the weight of the pottery and to provide stability. Several attributes, such as the

carefully applied cordmarking and the overall shape of the conical rollers, makes them appear

ill-suited to this function.

The pattern of wear on the pointed part of the tip, the tip surface roughened by

cordmarking, and the tail which may have been used as a handle all suggest a function related

to grinding or grating. It is important to note that the wear is usually confined to the point and

not along the sides of the tip, indicating a very specific range of motion. If conical rollers were

used in this way, a greater area of wear might be expected.

These same characteristics, as well as the symmetrical arrow shape of the tip, are similar

to those of many spinning tops that are found in many cultures, past and present. It may be

that a thread was wound around the tail and pulled, setting it spinning, or perhaps the tail was

held in the fingertips and spun. Its size is suited for either possibility. The distribution patterns

make little sense in this case, however; it is unlikely that a children’s toy would have a large

increase in numbers in the Bronze Age and a decline in the Iron Age.

67

It appears unlikely that conical rollers functioned as a symbolic representation of male

fertility. They are only very occasionally found in mortuary contexts, and when they are, there

is no strong association with any particular area of the skeleton as there is with bivalve shells

which are interpreted as being symbols of female fertility. If these artefacts were ritual objects,

it seems likely that they would have been found more regularly in burials rather than scattered

among the features and within the general excavation material.

Conical rollers may have been used in one of the ways described above; for now, they

elude solid interpretation. It is possible that with a larger sample and further testing, the

question of their function will be answered.

5.4 Limitations of this study

In order to characterize several attributes of conical rollers, such as composition,

decoration, and wear patterns, a hand lens was used. While this did reveal important details,

microscopic analysis would have been better, perhaps exposing evidence of fabric, bronze, or

dye. Use-wear analysis was also not done. Damage to the surface of ceramics often occurs

during processing leaving striations and abraded areas (Rice 1987: 234). Close examination of

these types of damage on conical rollers could reveal useful information about their function.

The lack of any chemical analysis was another limitation of this study. Found on the tip,

residue from fats, waxes or resins could provide evidence that conical rollers were used as

graters, grinders or plugs for containers. Bronze residue would suggest their association with

casting.

There are limitations to studying an artefact that has not already been described and

analyzed. There is no basis for comparison, nor is there any systematic way to search through

the data accumulated over years of excavation in Southeast Asia to see if other ceramic items

like conical rollers have been found.

The sample used in this study was excavated during the second phase of excavation,

although some from Phase I was used for comparison. When the excavation of Ban Non Wat is

68

complete, a study which encompasses both phases would provide further opportunities for

analysis.

Challenges existed in the process of measuring and classifying conical rollers, since each

is unique in degree of wear and breakage. The tip diameter was measured at a set of points

located at -0.5cm, -1.0cm, -2.0cm, and -3.0cm below the top. However, in most cases this is

not an accurate measurement of the diameter because in most cases the top starts below

where the original point must have been because it has been worn down. Therefore these

measurements do not reflect the shape and size of the conical roller when it was complete.

Another difficulty was in classifying the cordmarking pattern; there are many variations within

the types described above. Microscopic analysis would provide information useful in further

classifying the decoration found on conical rollers. Additional analysis of all attributes would

provide an opportunity to expand the current typology.

5.5 Implications of these results

As a result of this study there now exists a basic typology and analysis of distribution

patterns that will be valuable as a basis for further research.

Conical rollers are commonly found artefacts at Ban Non Wat, yet they remain

unidentified. Perhaps their regular appearance indicates significant activities were taking place

that have not yet been identified as well. Alternatively, perhaps they did function as tools for

producing textiles, bronze, or pottery, which are well documented. More research is needed to

answer these questions. Thus they remain enigmatic and unique.

The Bronze and Iron Ages were an important period in the cultural development of Ban

Non Wat. Despite the fact that their function remains a mystery, the study of conical rollers

adds to the understanding of the material culture of this important period in the prehistory of

this site.

69

Chapter 6 Conclusion

The aim of this study was to determine the function of conical rollers within the material

culture of Ban Non Wat. To achieve this, morphological analysis and scientific methodologies

were used to examine and interpret chronological and spatial distribution patterns and to

create a typology based on an assessment of the sample.

Conical rollers are found at Ban Non Wat and nowhere else. They became common

during the Bronze and early Iron Age, after which their numbers decreased. This pattern co-

varies to some degree with those of spindle whorls and bronze fragments, suggesting the

possibility that conical rollers were used in weaving or bronze casting. However, they were not

regularly included in burials, as other artefacts related to these industries were.

Several possible functions are suggested by the shape, size, decoration, and use-wear

patterns of conical rollers. They could be bobbins used for winding thread, plugs used either in

bronze moulds or in some organic container, grinding or grating tools, or spinning tops.

Whatever the function, the frequent appearance of conical rollers across the site indicates that

it was a common activity.

70

Other questions about this artefact remain unanswered. The assemblage of artefacts

from Bronze and Iron Age contexts at Ban Non Wat is quite similar to those found at other sites

across Southeast Asia. Conical rollers are the exception. Was there an activity at this site that

was not occurring elsewhere? Was the clay conical roller an object that, in other places, was

made of wood or bamboo, so that only the ceramic version of the artefact remains? Why are

conical rollers largely absent from burials, while most other artefact types are included among

the range of grave goods?

The question of what these artefacts should be named is another unresolved problem.

The term “conical roller” implies a particular function and a similarity to the artefacts called

rollers found in Thailand, India, Iraq, Egypt, and the Mediterranean coast. There is no function

implied by the term “conical”, but it does not reflect the presence of the tail or handle portion

of the artefact. Had a specific function been identified for conical rollers, a suitable name to

replace the current one would have suggested itself. However, since the name has already

entered the literature, it will remain until a more suitable one can be found to replace it.

There is clearly more research that needs to be done in order to understand the place of

these unique artefacts in the material culture of this site. Future studies should include use-

wear analysis, testing for residues, and closer examination of the composition of conical rollers.

This study forms a baseline for further research which, it is hoped, will one day reveal the role

of conical rollers at Ban Non Wat.

71

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