Author's Blurb

500T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants: Volume 6, Fruits,DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5628-1, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

TK Lim (Tong Kwee Lim) obtained his Bachelor and Masters in Agricultural Science from the University of Malaya and his Ph.D. (Botanical Sciences) from the University of Hawaii. He worked in the University of Agriculture Malaysia for 20 years as a lecturer and Associate Professor; as Principal Horticulturist for 9 years for the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Darwin, Northern Territory; 6 years as Manager of the Asia and Middle East Team in Plant Biosecurity Australia, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Australia; and 4 years as Research Program Manager with the Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research (ACIAR), Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australia before he retired from public service. He has published over a 100 scienti fi c papers including several books: “Guava in Malaysia: Production, Pest and Diseases”, “Durian Diseases and Disorders”, “Diseases of Mango in Malaysia”, chapters in books, interna-tional refereed journals, conference proceedings (as editor) and technical bulletins in the areas of plant pathology, crop protection, horticulture, agronomy and quarantine science. He was also a reviewer of scienti fi c papers for several international scienti fi c journals. As Principal Horticulturist in Darwin, he and his team were instrumental in establishing the horticultural industry in the Northern Territory, Australia,

especially on tropical fruits, vegetables, culinary herbs, spices/medicinal herbs and tropical fl owers. During his tenure with Plant Biosecurity, he led a team responsible for conducting pest risk analyses and quarantine policy issues dealing with the import and export of plants and plant products into and out of Australia for the Middle East and Asian region. During his time with ACIAR, he oversaw and managed international research and development programs in plant protection and horticulture covering a wide array of crops that included fruits, plantation crops, vegetables, culinary and medicinal herbs and spices mainly in southeast Asia and the Paci fi c. In the course of his four decades of working career he has travelled extensively worldwide to many coun-tries in South Asia, East Asia, southeast Asia, Middle East, Europe, the Paci fi c Islands, USA and England, and also throughout Malaysia and Australia. Since his tertiary education days he always had a strong passion for crops and took an avid interest in edible and medicinal plants. Over the four decades, he has taken several thousands of photographs of common, known and lesser known edible, medicinal and non-medicinal plants, amassed local literature, local indigenous knowledge, books, and has developed and estab-lished close rapport with many local researchers, scientists, growers and farmers during the course of his work and travels.

Author’s Blurb


Medical Glossary

AAD Allergic airway disease, an in fl ammatory disorder of the airways caused by allergens.

AAPH 2,2 ¢ -azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydro-chloride, a water-soluble azo compound used extensively as a free radical generator, often in the study of lipid peroxidation and the charac-terization of antioxidants.

Abeta aggregatio Amyloid beta protein (Abeta) aggregation is associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD); it is a major component of the extracellular plaque found in AD brains.

Abdominal distension referring to generalised distension of most or all of the abdomen. Also referred to as stomach bloating often caused by a sudden increase in fi bre from consump-tion of vegetables, fruits and beans.

Ablation therapy the destruction of small areas of myocardial tissue, usually by application of electrical or chemical energy, in the treatment of some tachyarrhythmias.

Abortifacient a substance that causes or induces abortion.

Abortivum a substance inducing abortion. Abscess a swollen infected, in fl amed area fi lled

with pus in body tissues. ABTS 2.2 azinobis-3-ethylhenthiazoline-6-sulfo-

nic acid, a type of mediator in chemical reac-tion kinetics of speci fi c enzymes.

ACAT acyl CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase. ACE see angiotensin-converting enzyme. ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) also

known as ‘corticotropin’, is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.

Acetogenins natural products from the plants of the family Annonaceae, are very potent inhibi-tors of the NADH-ubiquinone reductase (Com-plex I) activity of mammalian mitochondria.

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) enzyme that catalyzes the biotin-dependent carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to produce malonyl-CoA.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an enzyme that degrades (through its hydrolytic activity) the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, producing choline.

Acne vulga’ris also known as chronic acne, usually occurring in adolescence, with come-dones (blackheads), papules (red pimples), nodules (in fl amed acne spots), and pustules (small in fl amed pus- fi lled lesions) on the face, neck, and upper part of the trunk.

Acidosis increased acidity, an excessively acid condition of the body fl uids.

Acquired immunode fi ciency syndrome (AIDS) an epidemic disease caused by an infection by human immunode fi ciency virus (HIV-1, HIV-2), retrovirus that causes immune system failure and debilitation and is often accompa-nied by infections such as tuberculosis.

Acridone an organic compound based on the acridine skeleton, with a carbonyl group at the 9 position.

ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone (or cor-ticotropin), a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a role in the synthesis and se-cretion of gluco- and mineralo-corticosteroids and androgenic steroids.

502 Medical Glossary

Activating transcription factor (ATF) a protein (gene) that binds to speci fi c DNA sequences regulating the transfer or transcription of information from DNA to mRNA.

Activator protein-1 (AP-1) a heterodimeric protein transcription factor that regulates gene expression in response to a variety of stimuli, including cytokines, growth factors, stress, and bacterial and viral infections. AP-1 in turn regulates a number of cellular processes including differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.

Acyl-CoA dehydrogenases A group of enzymes that catalyzes the initial step in each cycle of fatty acid b -oxidation in the mitochondria of cells.

Adaptogen a term used by herbalists to refer to a natural herb product that increases the body’s resistance to stresses such as trauma, stress and fatigue.

Adaptogenic increasing the resistance of the body to stress.

Addison’s disease is a rare endocrine disorder. It occurs when the adrenal glands cannot produce suf fi cient hormones (corticosteroids). It is also known as chronic adrenal insuf fi ciency, hypo-cortisolism or hypocorticism.

Adenocarcinoma a cancer originating in glan-dular tissue.

Adenoma a benign tumour from a glandular origin.

Adenopathy abnormal enlargement or swelling of the lymph node.

Adenosine receptors a class of purinergic, G-protein coupled receptors with adenosine as endogenous ligand. In humans, there are four adenosine receptors. A

1 receptors and A

2A

play roles in the heart, regulating myocar-dial oxygen consumption and coronary blood fl ow, while the A

2A receptor also has broader

antiin fl ammatory effects throughout the body. These two receptors also have important roles in the brain, regulating the release of other neurotransmitters such as dopamine and glu-tamate, while the A

2B and A

3 receptors are

located mainly peripherally and are involved in in fl ammation and immune responses.

ADH see alcohol dehydrogenase. Adipocyte a fat cell involved in the synthesis

and storage of fats.

Adipocytokine bioactive cytokines produced by adipose tissues.

Adiponectin a protein in humans that modu-lates several physiological processes, such as metabolism of glucose and fatty acids, and immune responses.

Adipose tissues body fat, loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes (fat cells).

Adoptogen containing smooth pro-stressors which reduce reactivity of host defense sys-tems and decrease damaging effects of vari-ous stressors due to increased basal level of mediators involved in the stress response.

Adrenal glands star-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys.

Adrenalectomized having had the adrenal glands surgically removed.

Adrenergic having to de with adrenaline (epine-phrine) and/or noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

Adrenergic receptors a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the no-radrenaline (norepinephrine) and adrenaline (epinephrine).

Adulterant an impure ingredient added into a preparation.

Advanced Glycation End products (AGEs) resultant products of a chain of chemical reac-tions after an initial glycation reaction. AGEs may play an important adverse role in process of atherosclerosis, diabetes, aging and chronic renal failure.

Aegilops an ulcer or fi stula in the inner corner of the eye.

Afferent something that so conducts or carries towards, such as a blood vessel, fi bre, or nerve.

Agammaglobulinaemia an inherited disorder in which there are very low levels of protective immune proteins called immunoglobulins. Cf. x-linked agammaglobulinaemia.

Agalactia lack of milk after parturition (birth). Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) a

medical condition of elderly adults that results in a loss of vision in the center of the visual fi eld (the macula) because of damage to the retina.

Agglutinin a protein substance, such as an anti-body, that is capable of causing agglutination (clumping) of a particular antigen.

Agglutination clumping of particles.

503Medical Glossary

Agonist a drug that binds to a receptor of a cell and triggers a response by the cell.

Ague a fever (such as from malaria) that is marked by paroxysms of chills, fever, and sweating that recurs with regular intervals.

AHR AhR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, a cytoso-lic protein transcription factor.

AIDS see Acquired Immunode fi ciency Syndrome. Akathisia a movement disorder in which there

is an urge or need to move the legs to stop unpleasant sensations. Also called restless leg syndrome, the disorder is often caused by long-term use of antipsychotic medications.

AKT serine/threonine kinase (also known as protein kinase B or PKB) plays a critical regula-tory role in diverse cellular processes, including cancer progression and insulin metabolism.

Akt signaling pathway Akt are protein kinases involved in mammalian cellular signaling, in-hibits apoptotic processes.

Akt/FoxO pathway Cellular processes involving Akt and FoxO transcription factors that play a role in angiogenesis and vasculogenesis.

Alanine transaminase (ALT) also called Serum Glutamic Pyruvate Transaminase (SGPT) or Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT), an enzyme present in hepatocytes (liver cells). When a cell is damaged, it leaks this enzyme into the blood.

ALAT, (Alanine aminotransferase) see Alanine transaminase.

Albumin water soluble proteins found in egg white, blood serum, milk, various animal tissues and plant juices and tissues.

Albuminaria excessive amount of albumin in the urine, a symptom of severe kidney disease.

Aldose reductase, aldehyde reductase an enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism that converts glu-cose to sorbitol.

Alexipharmic an antidote, remedy for poison. Alexiteric a preservative against contagious and

infectious diseases, and the effects of poisons. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) an enzyme in-

volved in the break-down of alcohol. Algesic endogenous substances involved in the

production of pain that is associated with in fl ammation, e.g. serotonin, bradykinin and prostaglandins.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) an enzyme in the cells lining the biliary ducts of the liver. ALP levels in plasma will rise with large bile

duct obstruction, intrahepatic cholestasis or in fi ltrative diseases of the liver. ALP is also present in bone and placental tissues.

Allergenic having the properties of an antigen (allergen), immunogenic.

Allergic pertaining to, caused, affected with, or the nature of the allergy.

Allergic conjunctivitis in fl ammation of the tissue lining the eyelids (conjunctiva) due to allergy.

Allergy a hypersensitivity state induced by exposure to a particular antigen (allergen) resulting in harmful immunologic reactions on subsequent exposures. The term is usually used to refer to hypersensitivity to an envi-ronmental antigen (atopic allergy or contact dermatitis) or to drug allergy.

Allogeneic cells or tissues which are geneti-cally different because they are derived from separate individuals of the same species. Also refers to a type of immunological reaction that occurs when cells are transplanted into a genetically different recipient.

Allografts or homografts, a graft between indi-viduals of the same species, but of different genotypes.

Alloknesis itch produced by innocuous mechan-ical stimulation.

Allostasis the process of achieving stability, or homeostasis, through physiological or behav-ioral change.

Alopecia is the loss of hair on the body. Alopeci areata is a particular disorder affect-

ing hair growth (loss of hair) in the scalp and elsewhere.

ALP see Alkaline phosphatase. Alpha-adrenoceptor receptors postulated to

exist on nerve cell membranes of the sympa-thetic nervous system in order to explain the speci fi city of certain agents that affect only some sympathetic activities (such as vasocon-striction and relaxation of intestinal muscles and contraction of smooth muscles).

Alpha amylase a -amylase a major form of am-ylase found in humans and other mammals that cleaves alpha-bonds of large sugar molecules.

ALT see Alanine transaminase. Alterative a medication or treatment which grad-

ually induces a change, and restores healthy functions without sensible evacuations.


Alveolar macrophage a vigorously phagocytic macrophage on the epithelial surface of lung alveoli that ingests carbon and other inhaled particulate matter. Also called coniophage or dust cell.

Alzheimer’s disease a degenerative, organic, mental disease characterized by progressive brain deterioration and dementia, usually occurring after the age of 50.

Amastigote refers to a cell that does not have any fl agella, used mainly to describe a certain phase in the life-cycle of trypanosome protozoans.

Amenorrhea the condition when a woman fails to have menstrual periods.

Amidolytic cleavage of the amide structure. Amoebiasis state of being infected by amoeba

such as Entamoeba histolytica . Amoebicidal lethal to amoeba. AMPK (5 ¢ AMP-activated protein kinase) or

5 ¢ adenosine monophosphate-activated pro-tein kinase, enzyme that plays a role in cel-lular energy homeostasis.

Amyloid bet (A b or Abeta) a peptide of 39–43 amino acids that appear to be the main con-stituent of amyloid plaques in the brains of Alzheimer’s disease patients.

Amyloidosis a disorder that results from abnormal deposition of the protein, amyloid, in various tissues of the body.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or ALS, is a dis-ease of the motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord that control voluntary muscle movement.

Amyotrophy progressive wasting of muscle tissues. adj. amyotrophic.

Anaemia a blood disorder in which the blood is de fi cient in red blood cells and in haemoglobin.

Anaesthesia condition of having sensation tem-porarily suppressed.

Anaesthetic a substance that decreases partially or totally nerve the sense of pain.

Analeptic a central nervous system (CNS) stim-ulant medication.

Analgesia term describing relief, reduction or suppression of pain. adj. analgetic.

Analgesic a substance that relieves or reduces pain. Anaphoretic an antiperspirant. Anaphodisiac or antiaphrodisiac is something

that reduces or blunts the libido. Anaphylaxis a severe, life-threatening allergic

response that may be characterized by symp-

toms such as reduced blood pressure, wheez-ing, vomiting or diarrhea.

Anaphylactic adj. see anaphylaxis. Anaphylotoxins are fragments (C3a, C4a or

C5a) that are produced during the pathways of the complement system. They can trigger release of substances of endothelial cells, mast cells or phagocytes, which produce a local in fl ammatory response.

Anaplasia a reversion of differentiation in cells and is characteristic of malignant neoplasms (tumours).

Anaplastic adj. see anaplasia. Anasarca accumulation of great quantity of

fl uid in body tissues. Anencephaly a cephalic disorder that results

from a neural tube defect that occurs when the cephalic (head) end of the neural tube fails to close, resulting in the absence of a major portion of the brain, skull, and scalp.

Androgen male sex hormone in vertebrates. Androgens may be used in patients with breast cancer to treat recurrence of the disease.

Android adiposity centric fat distribution pat-terns with increased disposition towards the abdominal area, visceral fat – apple shaped cf gynoid adiposity.

Andrology branch of medicine concerned with the reproductive diseases in men.

Aneugen an agent that affects cell division and the mitotic spindle apparatus, causing the loss or gain of whole chromosomes, thereby inducing aneuploidy. adj . aneugenic.

Angina pectoris, Angina chest pain or chest discomfort that occurs when the heart muscle does not get enough blood.

Angiogenic adj. see angiogenesis. Angiogenesis a physiological process involving

the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels.

Angiotensin an oligopeptide hormone in the blood that causes blood vessels to constrict, and drives blood pressure up. It is part of the renin-angiotensin system.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) an exopeptidase, a circulating enzyme that partic-ipates in the body’s renin-angiotensin system (RAS) which mediates extracellular volume (i.e. that of the blood plasma, lymph and inter-stitial fl uid), and arterial vasoconstriction.

505Medical Glossary

Anglioplasty medical procedure used to open obstructed or narrowed blood vessel resulting usually from atherosclerosis.

Anisonucleosis a morphological manifestation of nuclear injury characterized by variation in the size of the cell nuclei.

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a type of in fl a-mmatory arthritis that targets the joints of the spine.

Annexin V or Annexin A5 is a member of the annexin family of intracellular proteins that binds to phosphatidylserine (PS) in a calcium-dependent manner.

Annexitis also called adnexitis, a pelvic in fl a-mmatory disease involving the in fl ammation of the ovaries or fallopian tubes.

Anodyne a substance that relieves or soothes pain by lessening the sensitivity of the brain or nervous system. Also called an analgesic.

Anoikis apoptosis that is induced by inadequate or inappropriate cell-matrix interactions.

Anorectal relating to the rectum and anus. Anorectics appetite suppressants, substances

which reduce the desire to eat. Used on a short term basis clinically to treat obesity. Also called anorexigenics.

Anorexia lack or loss of desire to eat. Anorexic having no appetite to eat. Anorexigenics see anorectics. Anoxia absence of oxygen supply. Antagonist a substance that acts against and

blocks an action. Antalgic a substance used to relive a painful

condition. Antecubital vein This vein is located in the an-

tecubital fossa -the area of the arm in front of the elbow.

Anterior uveitis is the most common form of ocular in fl ammation that often causes a pain-ful red eye.

Anthelmintic an agent or substance that is de-structive to worms and used for expulsion of internal parasitic worms in animals and humans.

Anthocyanins a subgroup of antioxidant fl avo-noids, are glucosides of anthocyanidins. Which are bene fi cial to health. They occur as water-soluble vacuolar pigments that may appear red, purple, or blue according to pH in plants.

Anthrax a bacterial disease of cattle and ship that can be transmitted to man though unpro-cessed wool.

Anthropometric pertaining to the study of human body measurements.

Antiamoebic a substance that destroys or sup-presses parasitic amoebae.

Antiamyloidogenic compounds that inhibit the formation of Alzheimer’s b -amyloid fi brils (fA b ) from amyloid b -peptide (A b ) and de-stabilize fA b .

Antianaphylactic agent that can prevent the occurrence of anaphylaxis (life threatening allergic response).

Antiangiogenic a drug or substance used to stop the growth of tumours and progression of cancers by limiting the pathologic formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis).

Antiarrhythmic a substance to correct irregular heartbeats and restore the normal rhythm.

Antiasmathic drug that treats or ameliorates asthma.

Antiatherogenic that protects against athero-genesis, the formation of atheromas (plaques) in arteries.

Antibacterial substance that kills or inhibits bacteria.

Antibilious an agent or substance which helps remove excess bile from the body.

Antibiotic a chemical substance produced by a microorganism which has the capacity to inhibit the growth of or to kill other microorganisms.

Antiblennorrhagic a substance that treats blen-orrhagia a conjunctival in fl ammation resulting in mucus discharge.

Antibody a gamma globulin protein produced by a kind of white blood cell called the plas-ma cell in the blood used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign ob-jects (antigen).

Anticarcinomic a substance that kills or inhibits carcinomas (any cancer that arises in epithe-lium/tissue cells).

Anticephalalgic headache-relieving or preventing. Anticestodal a chemical destructive to tape-

worms. Anticholesterolemic a substance that can pre-

vent the build up of cholesterol. Anticlastogenic having a suppressing effect of

chromosomal aberrations.


Anticoagulant a substance that thins the blood and acts to inhibit blood platelets from stick-ing together.

Antidepressant a substance that suppresses depression or sadness.

Antidiabetic a substance that prevents or allevi-ates diabetes. Also called antidiabetogenic.

Antidiarrhoeal having the property of stopping or correcting diarrhoea, an agent having such action.

Antidote a remedy for counteracting a poison. Antidopaminergic a term for a chemical that pre-

vents or counteracts the effects of dopamine. Antidrepanocytary anti-sickle cell anaemia. Antidysenteric an agent used to reduce or treat

dysentery and diarrhea. Antidyslipidemic agent that will reduce the ab-

normal amount of lipids and lipoproteins in the blood.

Anti-edematous reduces or suppresses edema. Antiemetic an agent that stops vomiting and

nausea. Anti-epileptic a drug used to treat or prevent

convulsions, anticonvulsant. Antifebrile a substance that reduces fever, also

called antipyretic. Antifeedant preventing something from being

eaten. Antifertility agent that inhibits formation of ova

and sperm and disrupts the process of fertil-ization (antizygotic).

Anti- fi brosis preventing/retarding the develop-ment of fi brosis i.e. excessive growth and ac-tivity of fi broblasts. t

Anti fi larial effective against human fi larial worms. Antifungal an agent that kills or inhibits the

growth of fungi. Antigen a substance that prompts the produc-

tion of antibodies and can cause an immune response. adj. antigenic.

Antigenotoxic an agent that inhibits DNA ad-duct formation, stimulates DNA repair mecha-nisms, and possesses antioxidant functions.

Antiganacratia anti- menstruation. Antigastralgic preventing or alleviating gastric

colic. Antihematic agent that stops vomiting. Antihemorrhagic an agent which stops or

prevents bleeding. Antihepatotoxic counteracting injuries to the liver.

Antiherpetic having activity against Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV).

Antihistamine an agent used to counteract the effects of histamine production in allergic re-actions.

Antihyperalgesia the ability to block enhanced sensitivity to pain, usually produced by nerve injury or in fl ammation, to nociceptive stimuli. adj. antihyperalgesic.

Antihypercholesterolemi term to describe low-ering of cholesterol level in the blood or blood serum.

Antihypercholesterolemic agent that lowers chlolesterol level in the blood or blood serum.

Antihyperlidemic promoting a reduction of lipid levels in the blood, or an agent that has this action.

Antihypersensitive a substance used to treat excessive reactivity to any stimuli.

Antihypertensive a drug used in medicine and pharmacology to treat hypertension (high blood pressure).

Antiin fl ammatory a substance used to reduce or prevent in fl ammation.

Antileishmanial inhibiting the growth and pro-liferation of Leishmania a genus of fl agellate protozoans that are parasitic in the tissues of vertebrates.

Antileprotic therapeutically effective against leprosy.

Antilithiatic an agent that reduces or suppresses urinary calculi (stones) and acts to dissolve those already present.

Antileukaemic anticancer drugs that are used to treat leukemia.

Antilithogenic inhibiting the formation of calculi (stones).

Antimalarial an agent used to treat malaria and/or kill the malaria-causing organism, Plasmo-dium spp.

Antimelanogenesis obstruct production of melanin.

Antimicrobial a substance that destroys or in-hibits growth of disease-causing bacteria, vi-ruses, fungi and other microorganisms.

Antimitotic inhibiting or preventing mitosis. Antimutagenic an agent that inhibits mutations. Antimycotic antifungal. Antineoplastic said of a drug intended to inhibit

or prevent the maturation and proliferation of

507Medical Glossary

neoplasms that may become malignant, by targeting the DNA.

Antineuralgic a substance that stops intense intermittent pain, usually of the head or face, caused by neuralgia.

Antinociception reduction in pain: a reduction in pain sensitivity produced within neurons when an endorphin or similar opium-containing substance opioid combines with a receptor.

Antinociceptive having an analgesic effect. Antioxytocic inhibiting premature labour. cf.

tocolytic. Antinutrient are natural or synthetic compounds

that interfere with the absorption of nutrients and are commonly found in food sources and beverages.

Antioestrogen a substance that inhibits the biological effects of female sex hormones.

Antiophidian anti venoms of snake. Antiosteoporotic substance that can prevent

osteoporosis. Antiovulatory substance suppressing ovulation. Antioxidant a chemical compound or substance

that inhibits oxidation and protects against free radical activity and lipid oxidation such as vitamin E, vitamin C, or beta-carotene (con-verted to vitamin B), carotenoids and fl avonoids which are thought to protect body cells from the damaging effects of oxidation. Many foods in-cluding fruit and vegetables contain compounds with antioxidant properties. Antioxidants may also reduce the risks of cancer and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

Antipaludic antimalarial. Antiperiodic substance that prevents the recur-

rence of symptoms of a disease e.g. malaria. Antiperspirant a substance that inhibits sweat-

ing. Also called antisudori fi c, anaphoretic. Antiphlogistic a traditional term for a sub-

stance used against in fl ammation, an anti-in fl ammatory.

Antiplatelet agent drug that decreases platelet aggregation and inhibits thrombus formation.

Antiplasmodial suppressing or destroying plas-modia.

Antiproliferative preventing or inhibiting the reproduction of similar cells.

Antiprostatic drug to treat the prostate. Antiprotozoa suppressing the growth or repro-

duction of protozoa.

Antipruritic alleviating or preventing itching. Antipyretic a substance that reduces fever or

quells it. Also known as antithermic. Antirheumatic relieving or preventing rheu-

matism. Antiscorbutic a substance or plant rich in vita-

min C that is used to counteract scurvy. Antisecretory inhibiting or diminishing secre-

tion. Antisense refers to antisense RNA strand because

its sequence of nucleotides is the complement of message sense. When mRNA forms a du-plex with a complementary antisense RNA sequence, translation of the mRNA into the protein is blocked. This may slow or halt the growth of cancer cells.

Antiseptic preventing decay or putrefaction, a substance inhibiting the growth and develop-ment of microorganisms.

Anti-sickling agent an agent used to prevent or reverse the pathological events leading to sickling of erythrocytes in sickle cell condi-tions.

Antispasmodic a substance that relieves spasms or inhibits the contraction of smooth muscles; smooth muscle relaxant, muscle-relaxer.

Antispermatogenic preventing or suppressing the production of semen or spermatozoa.

Antisudori fi c see antiperspirant. Antisyphilitic a drug (or other chemical agent)

that is effective against syphilis. Antithermic a substance that reduces fever and

temperature. Also known as antipyretic. Antithrombotic preventing or interfering with

the formation of thrombi. Antitoxin an antibody with the ability to neu-

tralize a speci fi c toxin. Antitumoral substance that acts against the

growth, development or spread of a tumour. Antitussive a substance that depresses coughing. Antiulcerogenic an agent used to protect against

the formation of ulcers, or is used for the treat-ment of ulcers.

Antivenin an agent used against the venom of a snake, spider, or other venomous animal or insect.

Antivinous an agent or substance that treats addiction to alcohol.

Antiviral substance that destroys or inhibits the growth and viability of infectious viruses.


Antivomitive a substance that reduces or suppresses vomiting.

Antizygotic see antifertility. Anuria absence of urine production and excre-

tion. adj. anuric. Anxiogenic subbstance that causes anxiety. Anxiolytic a drug prescribed for the treatment

of symptoms of anxiety. APAF-1 apoptotic protease activating factor 1. Apelin also known as APLN, a peptide which in

humans is encoded by the APLN gene. Aperient a substance that acts as a mild laxative

by increasing fl uids in the bowel. Aperitif an appetite stimulant. Aphonia loss of the voice resulting from dis-

ease, injury to the vocal cords, or various psychological causes, such as hysteria.

Aphrodisiac an agent that increases sexual ac-tivity and libido and/or improves sexual per-formance.

Aphthae white, painful oral ulcer of unknown cause.

Aphthous ulcer also known as a canker sore, is a type of oral ulcer, which presents as a painful open sore inside the mouth or upper throat.

Aphthous stomatitis a canker sore, a type of painful oral ulcer or sore inside the mouth or upper throat, caused by a break in the mucous membrane. Also called aphthous ulcer.

Apnoea suspension of external breathing. Apoliprotein B (APOB) primary apolipopro-

tein of low-density lipoproteins which is re-sponsible for carrying cholesterol to tissues.

Apoplexy a condition in which the brain’s function stops with loss of voluntary motion and sense.

Apoprotein the protein moiety of a molecule or complex, as of a lipoprotein.

Appendicitis is a condition characterized by in fl ammation of the appendix. Also called epityphlitis.

Appetite stimulant a substance to increase or stimulate the appetite. Also called aperitif.

aPPT (Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time) a blood test, a measure of the part of the blood clotting pathway.

Apolipoprotein A-I (APOA1) a major protein component of high density lipoprotein (HDL) in plasma. The protein promotes cholesterol ef fl ux from tissues to the liver for excretion.

Apolipoprotein B (APOB) is the primary apolipoprotein of low-density lipoproteins (LDL or “bad cholesterol”), which is respon-sible for carrying cholesterol to tissues.

Apolipoprotein E (APOE) the apolipoprotein found on intermediate density lipoprotein and chylomicron that binds to a speci fi c receptor on liver and peripheral cells.

Apoptogenic ability to cause death of cells. Apoptosis death of cells. Apurinic lyase a DNA enzyme that catalyses a

chemical reaction. Arachidonate cascade includes the cyclooxy-

genase (COX) pathway to form prostanoids and the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway to gener-ate several oxygenated fatty acids, collectively called eicosanoids.

ARE antioxidant response element, is a tran-scriptional control element that mediates ex-pression of a set of antioxidant proteins.

Aribo fl avinosis a condition caused by the dietary de fi ciency of ribo fl avin that is characterized by mouth lesions, seborrhea, and vascularization.

Aromatase an enzyme involved in the produc-tion of estrogen that acts by catalyzing the conversion of testosterone (an androgen) to estradiol (an estrogen). Aromatase is located in estrogen-producing cells in the adrenal glands, ovaries, placenta, testicles, adipose (fat) tissue, and brain.

Aromatic having a pleasant, fragrant odour. Aromatherapy a form of alternative medicine

that uses volatile liquid plant materials, such as essential oils and other scented compounds from plants for the purpose of affecting a per-son’s mood or health.

ARPE-19 cells a human retinal pigment epithe-lial cell line with differentiated properties.

Arrhythmias abnormal heart rhythms that can cause the heart to pump less effectively. Also called dysrhythmias.

Arsenicosis see arsenism. Arsenism an incommunicable disease resulting

from the ingestion of ground water contain-ing unsafe levels of arsenic, also known as arsenicosis.

Arteriogenic erectile dysfunction a penis dys-function caused by the narrowing of the arter-ies in the penis, decreasing blood in fl ow to it, thus making erection impossible.

509Medical Glossary

Arteriosclerosis imprecise term for various disorders of arteries, particularly hardening due to fi brosis or calcium deposition, often used as a synonym for atherosclerosis.

Arthralgia is pain in the joints from many pos-sible causes.

Arthritis in fl ammation of the joints of the body.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) a ligand-activated transcription factor best known for mediating the toxicity of dioxin and other exogenous contaminants and is responsible for their toxic effects, including immunosup-pression.

ASATor AST aspartate aminotransferase, see aspartate transaminase.

ASBT apical sodium dependent bile acid trans-porter, belongs to the solute carrier family (SLC) of transporters and is an important car-rier protein expressed in the small intestine.

Ascaris a genus of parasitic intestinal round worms.

Ascites abnormal accumulation of fl uid within the abdominal or peritoneal cavity.

Ascorbic acid See vitamin C. Aspartate transaminase (AST) also called Se-

rum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase (SGOT) or aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT) is similar to ALT in that it is another enzyme associated with liver parenchymal cells. It is in-creased in acute liver damage, but is also pres-ent in red blood cells, and cardiac and skeletal muscle and is therefore not speci fi c to the liver.

Asphyxia ilure or suppression of the respiratory process due to obstruction of air fl ow to the lungs or to the lack of oxygen in inspired air.

Asphyxiation the process of undergoing asphyxia. Asthenia a nonspeci fi c symptom character-

ized by loss of energy, strength and feeling of weakness.

Asthenopia weakness or fatigue of the eyes, usually accompanied by headache and dim-ming of vision. adj. asthenopic.

Asthma a chronic illness involving the respira-tory system in which the airway occasionally constricts, becomes in fl amed, and is lined with excessive amounts of mucus, often in response to one or more triggers.

Astringent a substance that contracts blood vessels and certain body tissues (such as mucous mem-

branes) with the effect of reducing secretion and excretion of fl uids and/or has a drying effect.

Astrocytes collectively called astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord.

Ataxia (loss of co-ordination) results from the degeneration of nerve tissue in the spinal cord and of nerves that control muscle movement in the arms and legs.

Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related pro-tein (ATR) also known as Serine/threonine-protein kinase ATR, FRAP-related protein 1 (FRP1), is an enzyme encoded by the ATR gene. It is involved in sensing DNA damage and activating the DNA damage checkpoint, leading to cell cycle arrest.

ATF-2 activating transcription factor 2. Athlete’s foot a contagious skin disease caused

by parasitic fungi affecting the foot, hands, causing itching, blisters and cracking. Also called dermatophytosis.

Atherogenic having the capacity to start or ac-celerate the process of atherogenesis.

Atherogenesis the formation of lipid deposits in the arteries.

Atheroma a deposit or degenerative accumula-tion of lipid-containing plaques on the inner-most layer of the wall of an artery.

Atherosclerosis the condition in which an ar-tery wall thickens as the result of a build-up of fatty materials such as cholesterol.

Atherothrombosis medical condition charac-terized by an unpredictable, sudden disruption (rupture or erosion/ fi ssure) of an atheroscle-rotic plaque, which leads to platelet activation and thrombus formation.

Athymic mice laboratory mice lacking a thy-mus gland.

Atonic lacking normal tone or strength. Atony insuf fi cient muscular tone. Atopic dermatitis an in fl ammatory, non-conta-

gious, pruritic skin disorder of unknown etiol-ogy; often called eczema.

Atresia a congenital medical condition in which a body ori fi ce or passage in the body is abnor-mally closed or absent.

Atretic ovarian follicles an involuted or closed ovarian follicle.

Atrial fi brillation is the most common cardi-ac arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm) and


involves the two upper chambers (atria) of the heart.

Attention-de fi cit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD, ADD or AD/HD) is a neurobehav-ioral developmental disorder, primarily char-acterized by the co-existence of attentional problems and hyperactivity.

Auditory brainstem response (ABR) also called brainstem evoked response (BSER) is an electrical signal evoked from the brainstem of a human by the presentation of a sound such as a click.

Augmerosen a drug that may kill cancer cells by blocking the production of a protein that makes cancer cells live longer. Also called bcl-2 antisense oligonucleotide.

Auricular of or relating to the auricle or the ear in general.

Aurones [2-benzylidenebenzofuran-3(2H)-ones] are the secondary plant metabolites and is a subgroup of fl avonoids. See fl avonoids.

Autoantibodies antibodies manufactured by the immune system that mistakenly target and dam-age speci fi c tissues and organs of the body.

Autolysin an enzyme that hydrolyzes and de-stroys the components of a biological cell or a tissue in which it is produced.

Autonomic disorder a neurological disease in which the autonomic nervous system ceases to function properly.

Autophagy digestion of the cell contents by en-zymes in the same cell.

Autopsy examination of a cadaver to determine or con fi rm the cause of death.

Avenanthramides low molecular weight, soluble phenolic compounds found in oats.

Avidity Index describes the collective interac-tions between antibodies and a multivalent antigen.

Avulsed teeth is tooth that has been knocked out.

Ayurvedic traditional Hindu system of medi-cine based largely on homeopathy and natur-opathy.

Azoospermia is the medical condition of a male not having any measurable level of sperm in his semen.

Azotaemia a higher than normal blood level of urea or other nitrogen containing compounds in the blood.

B-cell activating factor (BAFF) also called tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13B. It plays an important role in the proliferation and differentiation of B cells.

Babesia a protozoan parasite (malaria–like) of the blood that causes a hemolytic disease known as Babesiosis.

Babesiosis malaria-like parasitic disease caused by Babesia, a genus of protozoal piroplasms.

Bactericidal lethal to bacteria. Balanitis is an in fl ammation of the glans (head)

of the penis. BALB/c mice Balb/c mouse was developed in

1923 by McDowell. It is a popular strain and is used in many different research disciplines, but most often in the production of monoclo-nal antibodies.

Balm aromatic oily resin from certain trees and shrubs used in medicine.

Baroreceptor a type of interoceptor that is stim-ulated by pressure changes, as those in blood vessel wall.

Barrett’s esophagus (Barrett esophagitis) a disorder in which the lining of the esophagus is damaged by stomach acid.

Basophil a type of white blood cell with coarse granules within the cytoplasm and a bilobate (two-lobed) nucleus.

Bax/Bad proapoptotic proteins. BCL-2 a family of apoptosis regulator proteins

in humans encoded by the B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) gene.

BCL-2 antisense oligonucleotide see aug-mereson.

BCR/ABL a chimeric oncogene, from fusion of BCR and ABL cancer genes associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia.

Bechic a remedy or treatment of cough. Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) act

as a relay site within the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and regulate its activity in response to acute stress.

Belching, or burping refers to the noisy release of air or gas from the stomach through the mouth.

Beri-beri is a disease caused by a de fi ciency of thiamine (vitamin B

1 ) that affects many sys-

tems of the body, including the muscles, heart, nerves, and digestive system.

511Medical Glossary

Beta-carotene naturally-occurring retinol (vita-min A) precursor obtained from certain fruits and vegetables with potential antineoplastic and chemopreventive activities. As an anti-oxidant, beta carotene inhibits free-radical damage to DNA. This agent also induces cell differentiation and apoptosis of some tumour cell types, particularly in early stages of tumorigenesis, and enhances immune system activity by stimulating the release of natural killer cells, lymphocytes, and monocytes.

Beta-catenin is a multifunctional oncogenic protein that contributes fundamentally to cell development and biology, it has been impli-cated as an integral component in the Wnt sig-naling pathway.

Beta cells a type of cell in the pancreas in areas called the islets of Langerhans.

Beta glucans polysaccharides of D-glucose monomers linked by b -glycosidic bonds, (1→3), (1→4)- b -D-glucan, soluble, viscous component of fi bres found in cereals like oats.

Beta-thalassemia an inherited blood disorder that reduces the production of hemoglobin.

Beta-lactamase enzymes produced by some bacteria that are responsible for their resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics like penicillins.

BHT butylated hydroxytoluene (phenolic com-pound), an antioxidant used in foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and petroleum products.

Bi fi dobacterium is a genus of Gram-positive, non-motile, often branched anaerobic bac-teria. Bi fi dobacteria are one of the major genera of bacteria that make up the gut fl ora. Bi fi dobacteria aid in digestion, are associated with a lower incidence of allergies and also prevent some forms of tumour growth. Some bi fi dobacteria are being used as probiotics.

Bi fi dogenic promoting the growth of (bene fi cial) bi fi dobacteria in the intestinal tract.

Bile fl uid secreted by the liver and discharged into the duodenum where it is integral in the digestion and absorption of fats.

Bilharzia, bilharziosis see Schistosomiasis. Biliary relating to the bile or the organs in which

the bile is contained or transported. Biliary infections infection of organ(s) associat-

ed with bile, comprise: (a) acute cholecystitis: an acute in fl ammation of the gallbladder wall; (b) cholangitis: in fl ammation of the bile ducts.

Biliousness old term used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries pertaining to bad diges-tion, stomach pains, constipation, and exces-sive fl atulence.

Bilirubin a breakdown product of heme (a part of haemoglobin in red blood cells) produced by the liver that is excreted in bile which causes a yellow discoloration of the skin and eyes when it accumulates in those organs.

Biotin also known as vitamin B7. See vitamin B7. Bitter a medicinal agent with a bitter taste and

used as a tonic, alterative or appetizer. Blackhead see comedone. Blackwater fever dangerous complication of

malarial whereby the red blood cells burst in the blood stream (haemolysis) releasing hae-moglobin directly into the blood.

Blain see chilblain. Blastocyst blastocyst is an embryonic structure

formed in the early embryogenesis of mam-mals, after the formation of the morula, but before implantation.

Blastocystotoxic agent that suppresses further development of the blastocyst through to the ovum stage.

Blebbing Bulging e.g. membrane blebbing also called membrane bulging or ballooning.

Bleeding diathesis is an unusual susceptibility to bleeding (hemorrhage) due to a defect in the system of coagulation.

Blennorrhagia gonorrhea. Blennorrhea inordinate discharge of mucus, es-

pecially a gonorrheal discharge from the ure-thra or vagina.

Blepharitis in fl ammation of the eyelids. Blister thin vesicle on the skin containing serum

and caused by rubbing, friction or burn. Blood brain barrier (BBB) is a separation

of circulating blood and cerebrospinal fl uid (CSF) in the central nervous system (CNS). It allows essential metabolites, such as oxy-gen and glucose, to pass from the blood to the brain and central nervous system (CNS) but blocks most molecules that are more massive than about 500 daltons.

Boil localized pyrogenic, painful infection, orig-inating in a hair follicle.

Borborygmus rumbling noise caused by the muscular contractions of peristalsis, the


process that moves the contents of the stom-ach and intestines downward.

Bowman Birk inhibitors type of serine protei-nase inhibitor.

Bouillon a broth in French cuisine. Bradicardia as applied to adult medicine, is

de fi ned as a resting heart rate of under 60 beats per minute.

Bradyphrenia referring to the slowness of thought common to many disorders of the brain.

Brain derived neutrophic factor (BDNF) a protein member of the neutrophin family that plays an important role in the growth, mainte-nance, function and survival of neurons. The protein molecule is involved in the modulation of cognitive and emotional functions and in the treatment of a variety of mental disorders.

Bright’s disease chronic nephritis. Bronchial in fl ammation see bronchitis. Bronchiectasis a condition in which the airways

within the lungs (bronchial tubes) become damaged and widened.

Bronchitis is an in fl ammation of the main air passages (bronchi) to your lungs.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) a medical pro-cedure in which a bronchoscope is passed through the mouth or nose into the lungs and fl uid is squirted into a small part of the lung and then recollected for examination.

Bronchopneumonia or bronchial pneumonia; in fl ammation of the lungs beginning in the terminal bronchioles.

Broncho-pulmonary relating to the bronchi and lungs.

Bronchospasm is a dif fi culty in breathing caused by a sudden constriction of the mus-cles in the walls of the bronchioles as occurs in asthma.

Brown fat brown adipose tissue (BAT) in mam-mals, its primary function is to generate body heat in animals or newborns that do not shiver.

Bubo in fl amed, swollen lymph node in the neck or groin.

Buccal of or relating to the cheeks or the mouth cavity.

Bullae blisters; circumscribed, fl uid-containing, elevated lesions of the skin, usually more than 5 mm in diameter.

Bursitis condition characterized by in fl ammation of one or more bursae (small sacs) of syn-ovial fl uid in the body.

C fi bres afferent fi bres found in the nerve of the somatic sensory system.

c-FOS a cellular proto-oncogene belonging to the immediate early gene family of transcrip-tion factors.

C-jun NH(2)-terminal kinase enzymes that belong to the family of the MAPK superfam-ily of protein kinases. These kinases mediate a plethora of cellular responses to such stressful stimuli, including apoptosis and production of in fl ammatory and immunoregulatory cytok-ines in diverse cell systems. cf: MAPK.

c-Jun-I (Ser 73) substrate of JNK-1 activated by phosphorylation at Ser73.

c-Jun II (Ser 63) substrate of JNK-1 activated by phosphorylation at Ser63.

C-reactive protein a protein found in the blood the levels of which rise in response to in fl ammation.

c-Src a cellular non-receptor tyrosine kinase. CAAT element-binding proteins-alpha (c/EBP-

akpha) regulates gene expression in adipo-cytes in the liver.

Cachexia physical wasting with loss of weight, muscle atrophy, fatigue, weakness caused by disease.

Caco-2 cell line a continuous line of heteroge-neous human epithelial colorectal adenocarci-noma cells.

Cadaver a dead body, corpse. Ca 2+ ATPase (PMCA) is a transport protein in

the plasma membrane of cells that serves to remove calcium (Ca 2+ ) from the cell.

Calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP) is a 37-amino acid neuropeptide that is abundant in the sensory neurons which innervate bone.

Calcium (Ca) is the most abundant mineral in the body found mainly in bones and teeth. It is required for muscle contraction, blood ves-sel expansion and contraction, secretion of hormones and enzymes, and transmitting im-pulses throughout the nervous system. Dietary sources include milk, yoghurt, cheese, Chi-nese cabbage, kale, broccoli, some green leafy vegetables, forti fi ed cereals, beverages and soybean products.

513Medical Glossary

Calcium ATPase is a form of P-ATPase which transfers calcium after a muscle has contracted.

Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) a class of drugs and natural substances that disrupt the calcium (Ca2+) conduction of calcium channels.

Calciuria abnormal presence of calcium in the urine.

Calculosis the tendency or deposition to form calculi or stones.

Calculus (calculi) hardened, mineral deposits that can form a blockage in the urinary system.

Calculi infection most calculi arise in the kid-ney when urine becomes supersaturated with a salt that is capable of forming solid crystals. Symptoms arise as these calculi become im-pacted within the ureter as they pass toward the urinary bladder.

Caligo dimness or obscurity of sight, dependent upon a speck on the cornea.

Calmodulin is a Calcium Modulated protein that can bind to and regulate a multitude of different protein targets, thereby affecting many different cellular functions.

cAMP dependent pathway cyclic adenosine monophosphate is a G protein-coupled recep-tor triggered signaling cascade used in cell communication in living organisms.

CAMP factor diffusible, heat-stable, extracel-lular protein produced by Group B Strepto-coccus t hat enhances the hemolysis of sheep erythrocytes by Staphylococcus aureus. It is named after Christie, Atkins, and Munch-Pe-terson, who described it in 1944.

Cancer a malignant neoplasm or tumour in nay part of the body.

Candidiasis infections caused by members of the fungus genus Candida that range from super fi cial, such as oral thrush and vaginitis, to systemic and potentially life-threatening diseases.

Canker see chancre. Carboxypeptidase an enzyme that hydrolyzes

the carboxy-terminal (C-terminal) end of a peptide bond. It is synthesized in the pancreas and secreted into the small intestine.

Carbuncle is an abscess larger than a boil, usu-ally with one or more openings draining pus onto the skin.

Carcinogenesis production of carcinomas. adj. carcinogenic.

Carcinoma any malignant cancer that arises from epithelial cells.

Carcinosarcoma a rare tumour containing carcinomatous and sarcomatous components.

Cardiac relating to, situated near or affecting the heart.

Cardiac asthma acute attack of dyspnoea with wheezing resulting from a cardiac disorder.

Cardiac hypertrophy is a thickening of the heart muscle (myocardium) resulting in a decrease chamber size, including the left and right ventricles. common causes of cardiac hypertrophy include high blood pressure (hy-pertension) and heart valve stenosis.

Cardialgia heartburn. Cardinolides cardiac glycosides with a 5-mem-

bered lactone ring in the side chain of the ste-roid aglycone.

Cardinolide glycoside cardenolides that con-tain structural groups derived from sugars.

Cardioactive having an effect on the heart. Cardiogenic shock is characterized by a de-

creased pumping ability of the heart that causes a shock like state associated with an in-adequate circulation of blood due to primary failure of the ventricles of the heart to function effectively.

Cardiomyocytes cardiac muscle cells. Cardiomyopathy heart muscle disease. Cardiopathy disease or disorder of the heart. Cardioplegia stopping the heart so that surgical

procedures can proceed in a still and blood-less fi eld.

Cardiotonic something which strengthens, tones, or regulates heart functions without overt stimulation or depression.

Cardiovascular pertaining to the heart and blood vessels.

Caries tooth decay, commonly called cavities. Cariogenic leading to the production of caries. Carminative substance that stops the for-

mation of intestinal gas and helps expel gas that has already formed, relieving fl atulence: relieving fl atulence or colic by expelling gas.

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT1) also known as carnitine acyltransferase I or CAT1


is a mitochondrial enzyme, involved in converting long chain fatty acid into energy.

Carotenes are a large group of intense red and yellow pigments found in all plants; these are hydrocarbon carotenoids (subclass of tet-raterpenes) and the principal carotene is beta-carotene which is a precursor of vitamin A.

Carotenoids a class of natural fat-soluble pigments found principally in plants, belong-ing to a subgroup of terpenoids containing 8 isoprene units forming a C40 polyene chain. Carotenoids play an important potential role in human health by acting as biological anti-oxidants. See also carotenes.

Carotenodermia yellow skin discoloration caused by excess blood carotene.

Carpopedal spasm spasm of the hand or foot, or of the thumbs and great toes.

Capases cysteine-aspartic acid proteases, are a family of cysteine proteases, which play es-sential roles in apoptosis (programmed cell death), necrosis and in fl ammation.

Catalase (CAT) enzyme in living organism that catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen per-oxide to water and oxygen.

Catalepsy inde fi nitely prolonged maintenance of a fi xed body posture; seen in severe cases of catatonic schizophrenia.

Catamenia menstruation. Cataplasia Degenerative reversion of cells or

tissue to a less differentiated form. Cataplasm a medicated poultice or plaster. A soft

moist mass, often warm and medicated, that is spread over the skin to treat an in fl amed, aching or painful area, to improve the circulation.

Cataractogenesis formation of cataracts. Catarrh, Catarrhal in fl ammation of the mucous

membranes especially of the nose and throat. Catechins are polyphenolic antioxidant plant

metabolites. They belong to the family of fl avonoids; tea is a rich source of catechins. See fl avonoids.

Catecholamines hormones that are released by the adrenal glands in response to stress.

Cathartic is a substance which accelerates defecation.

Caustic having a corrosive or burning effect. Cauterization a medical term describing the

burning of the body to remove or close a part of it.

Caveolae tiny (50–100 nm) invaginations of the plasma membrane of the cell.

cdc2 Kinase a member of the cyclin-dependent protein kinases (CDKs).

CDKs cyclin-dependent protein kinases, a fam-ily of serine/threonine kinases that mediate many stages in mitosis.

CD 28 is one of the molecules expressed on T cells that provide co-stimulatory signals, which are required for T cell (lymphocytes) activation.

CD31 also known as PECAM-1 (Platelet En-dothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule-1), a mem-ber of the immunoglobulin superfamily, that mediates cell-to-cell adhesion.

CD36 an integral membrane protein found on the surface of many cell types in vertebrate animals.

CD40 an integral membrane protein found on the surface of B lymphocytes, dendritic cells, follicular dendritic cells, hematopoietic pro-genitor cells, epithelial cells, and carcinomas.

CD68 a glycoprotein expressed on monocytes/macrophages which binds to low density lipo-protein.

Cecal ligation tying up the cecam. Celiac disease an autoimmune disorder of the

small intestine, triggered in genetically sus-ceptible individuals by ingested gluten from wheat, rye, barley, and other closely related cereal grains; Peptides resulting from partially digested gluten of wheat, barley or rye cause in fl ammation of the small intestinal mucosa.

Cell adhesion molecules (CAM) glycoproteins located on the surface of cell membranes in-volved with binding of other cells or with the extra-cellular matrix.

Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in or-ganisms’ cells to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve the oxidation of one molecule and the reduction of another.

Cellulitis a bacterial infection of the skin that tends to occur in areas that have been dam-aged or in fl amed.

Central nervous system part of the vertebrate nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord.

515Medical Glossary

Central venous catheter a catheter placed into the large vein in the neck, chest or groin.

Cephalagia pain in the head, a headache. Cephalic relating to the head. Ceramide oligosides oligosides with an N-acetyl-

sphingosine moiety. Cercariae a free-swimming larva of the parasitic

schistosome worm that has a tail, and suckers on its head for penetration into a host.

Cerebral embolism a blockage of blood fl ow through a vessel in the brain by a blood clot that formed elsewhere in the body and trav-eled to the brain.

Cerebral ischemia is the localized reduction of blood fl ow to the brain or parts of the brain due to arterial obstruction or systematic hyperfusion.

Cerebral infarction is the ischemic kind of stroke due to a disturbance in the blood ves-sels supplying blood to the brain.

Cerebral tonic substance that can alleviate poor concentration and memory, restlessness, un-easiness, and insomnia.

Cerebrosides are glycosphingolipids which are important components in animal muscle and nerve cell membranes.

Cerebrovascular disease is a group of brain dysfunctions related to disease of the blood vessels supplying the brain.

Cerumen ear wax, a yellowish waxy substance secreted in the ear canal of humans and other mammals.

cFLIP cellular FLICE-inhibitory protein, an in-hibitor of death ligand-induced apoptosis.

cGMP cyclic guanosine monophosphate is a cyclic nucleotide derived from guanos-ine triphosphate (GTP). cGMP is a common regulator of ion channel conductance, glycog-enolysis, and cellular apoptosis. It also relaxes smooth muscle tissues.

CGRP calcitonin gene-related peptide a vasodi-lator neuropeptide that is expressed in a sub-group of small neurons in the dorsal root, trigeminal and vagal ganglia. This neuropep-tide has been postulated to play a role in the pathophysiology of migraine.

Chalcones a subgroup of fl avonoids. Chancre a painless lesion formed during the

primary stage of syphilis. Chemoembolization a procedure in which the

blood supply to the tumour is blocked surgi-

cally or mechanically and anticancer drugs are administered directly into the tumour.

Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines, which stimulate migration of in fl ammatory cells to-wards tissue sites of in fl ammation.

Chemonociceptors nociceptors or sensory peri-pheral neurons that are sensitive to chemical stimuli.

Chemosensitizer a drug that makes tumour cells more sensitive to the effects of chemo-therapy.

Chemosis edema of the conjunctiva of the eye. Chickenpox is also known as varicella, is a high-

ly contagious illness caused by primary in-fection with varicella zoster virus (VZV). The virus causes red, itchy bumps on the body.

Chilblains small, itchy, painful lumps that de-velop on the skin. They develop as an abnor-mal response to cold. Also called perniosis or blain.

Chlorosis iron de fi ciency anemia characterized by greenish yellow colour.

Cholagogue is a medicinal agent which pro-motes the discharge of bile from the system.

Cholecalcifereol a form of vitamin D, also called vitamin D3. See vitamin D.

Cholecyst gall bladder. Cholecystitis in fl ammation of the gall bladder. Cholecystokinin a peptide hormone that plays

a key role in facilitating digestion in the small intestine.

Cholera an infectious gastroenteritis caused by enterotoxin-producing strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholera and characterized by severe, watery diarrhea.

Choleretic stimulation of the production of bile by the liver.

Cholestasis a condition caused by rapidly de-veloping (acute) or long-term (chronic) inter-ruption in the excretion of bile.

Cholesterol a soft, waxy, steroid substance found among the lipids (fats) in the blood-stream and in all our body’s cells.

Cholethiasis presence of gall stones (calculi) in the gall bladder.

Choline a water soluble, organic compound, usually grouped within the Vitamin B complex. It is an essential nutrient and is needed for physiological functions such as structural in-tegrity and signaling roles for cell membranes,


cholinergic neuro-transmission (acetylcholine synthesis).

Cholinergic activated by or capable of liberat-ing acetylcholine, especially in the parasym-pathetic nervous system.

Cholinergic system a system of nerve cells that uses acetylcholine in transmitting nerve im-pulses.

Cholinomimetic having an action similar to that of acetylcholine; called also parasym-pathomimetic.

Chonotropic affecting the time or rate, as the rate of contraction of the heart.

Choriocarcinoma a quick-growing malignant, trophoblastic, aggressive cancer that occurs in a woman’s uterus (womb).

Chromium (Cr) is required in trace amounts in humans for sugar and lipid metabolism. Its de fi ciency may cause a disease called chromi-um de fi ciency. It is found in cereals, legumes, nuts and animal sources.

Chromosome long pieces of DNA found in the center (nucleus) of cells.

Chronic persisting over extended periods. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

(COPD) a progressive disease that makes it hard to breathe.

Chronic venous insuf fi ciency (CVI) a medi-cal condition where the veins cannot pump enough oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.

Chyle a milky bodily fl uid consisting of lymph and emulsi fi ed fats, or free fatty acids.

Chylomicrons are large lipoprotein particles that transport dietary lipids from the intestines to other locations in the body. Chylomicrons are one of the fi ve major groups of lipopro-teins (chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, HDL) that enable fats and cholesterol to move within the water-based solution of the bloodstream.

Chylorus milky (having fat emulsion). Chyluria also called chylous urine, is a medi-

cal condition involving the presence of chyle (emulsi fi ed fat) in the urine stream, which results in urine appearing milky.

Chymase member of the family of serine pro-teases found primarily in mast cell.

Chymopapain an enzyme derived from papaya, used in medicine and to tenderize meat.

Cicatrizant the term used to describe a product that promotes healing through the formation of scar tissue.

C-Kit Receptor a protein-tyrosine kinase receptor that is speci fi c for stem cell factor. this inter-action is crucial for the development of he-matopoietic, gonadal, and pigment stem cells.

Cirrhosis chronic liver disease characterized by replacement of liver tissue by fi brous scar tis-sue and regenerative nodules/lumps leading progressively to loss of liver function.

Clastogen is an agent that can cause one of two types of structural changes, breaks in chro-mosomes that result in the gain, loss, or re-arrangements of chromosomal segments. adj. clastogenic.

Claudication limping, impairment in walking. Climacterium refers to menopause and the

bodily and mental changes associated with it. Clonic seizures consist of rhythmic jerking

movements of the arms and legs, sometimes on both sides of the body.

Clonus a series of involuntary muscular con-tractions and relaxations.

Clyster enema. C-myc codes for a protein that binds to the DNA

of other genes and is therefore a transcription factor.

CNS Depressant anything that depresses, or slows, the sympathetic impulses of the central nervous system (i.e., respiratory rate, heart rate).

Coagulopathy a defect in the body’s mecha-nism for blood clotting, causing susceptibility to bleeding.

Cobalamin vitamin B12. See vitamin B12. Co-carcinogen a chemical that promotes the

effects of a carcinogen in the production of cancer.

Cold an acute in fl ammation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract especially of the nose and throat caused by a virus and accompanied by sneezing and coughing.

Collagen protein that is the major constituent of cartilage and other connective tissue; compris-es the amino acids hydroxyproline, proline, glycine, and hydroxylysine.

Collagenases enzymes that break the peptide bonds in collagen.

Colic a broad term which refers to episodes of uncontrollable, extended crying in a baby who is otherwise healthy and well fed.

Colitis in fl ammatory bowel disease affecting the tissue that lines the gastrointestinal system.

517Medical Glossary

Collyrium a lotion or liquid wash used as a cleanser for the eyes, particularly in diseases of the eye.

Colorectal relating to the colon or rectum. Coma a state of unconsciousness from which a

patient cannot be aroused. Comedone a blocked, open sebaceous gland

where the secretions oxidize, turning black. Also called blackhead.

Comitogen agent that is considered not to in-duce cell growth alone but to promote the ef-fect of the mitogen.

Concoction a combination of crude ingredients that is prepared or cooked together.

Condyloma, Condylomata acuminata genital warts, venereal warts, anal wart or anogenital wart, a highly contagious sexually transmitted infection caused by epidermotropic human papillomavirus (HPV).

Conglutination becoming stuck together. Conjunctival hyperemia enlarged blood ves-

sels in the eyes. Conjunctivitis sore, red and sticky eyes caused

by eye infection. Constipation a very common gastrointestinal

disorder characterised by the passing of hard, dry bowel motions (stools) and dif fi culty of bowel motion.

Constitutive androstane receptor (CAR, NR113) is a nuclear receptor transcription factor that regulates drug metabolism and ho-moeostasis.

Consumption term used to describe wasting of tissues including but not limited to tuberculosis.

Consumptive af fl icted with or associated with pulmonary tuberculosis.

Contraceptive an agent that reduces the likeli-hood of or prevents conception.

Contraindication a condition which makes a particular treatment or procedure inadvisable.

Contralateral muscle muscle of opposite limb (leg or arm).

Contralateral rotation rotation occurring or originating in a corresponding part on an op-posite side.

Contusion another term for a bruise. A bruise, or contusion, is caused when blood vessels are damaged or broken as the result of a blow to the skin.

Convulsant a drug or physical disturbance that induces convulsion.

Convulsion rapid and uncontrollable shaking of the body.

Coolant that which reduces body temperature. Copper (Cu) is essential in all plants and animals.

It is found in a variety of enzymes, including the copper centers of cytochrome C oxidase and the enzyme superoxide dismutase (containing copper and zinc). In addition to its enzymatic roles, copper is used for biological electron transport. Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper de fi ciency can often pro-duce anemia-like symptoms. Dietary sources include curry powder, mushroom, nuts, seeds, wheat germ, whole grains and animal meat.

Copulation to engage in coitus or sexual inter-course. adj. copulatory.

Cordial a preparation that is stimulating to the heart.

Corn or callus is a patch of hard, thickened skin on the foot that is formed in response to pres-sure or friction.

Corticosteroids a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex, used clini-cally for hormone replacement therapy, for suppressing ACTH secretion, for suppression of immune response and as antineoplastic, anti-allergic and anti-in fl ammatory agents.

Corticosterone a 21-carbon steroid hormone of the corticosteroid type produced in the cortex of the adrenal glands.

Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone made by the adrenal glands.

Corni fi cation is the process of forming an epi-dermal barrier in strati fi ed squamous epithe-lial tissue.

Coryza a word describing the symptoms of a head cold. It describes the in fl ammation of the mucus membranes lining the nasal cav-ity which usually gives rise to the symptoms of nasal congestion and loss of smell, among other symptoms.

COX-1 see cyclooxygenase-1. COX-2 see cyclooxygenase-2. CpG islands genomic regions that contain a

high frequency of CpG sites. CpG sites the cytosine-phosphate-guanine nu-

cleotide that links two nucleosides together in DNA.

cPLA(2) cytosolic phospholipases A2, these phospholipases are involved in cell signaling processes, such as in fl ammatory response.


CPY1B1, CPY1A1 a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of heme-thiolate monooxy-genase enzymes.

Corticosterone a 21-carbon corticosteroid hor-mone produced in the cortex of the adrenal glands that functions in the metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins.

Creatin a nitrogenous organic acid that occurs naturally in vertebrates and helps to supply energy to muscle.

Creatine phosphokinase (CPK, CK) enzyme that catalyses the conversion of creatine and consumes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to create phosphocreatine and adenosine diphos-phate (ADP).

CREB cAMP response element-binding, a pro-tein that is a transcription factor that binds to certain DNA sequences called cAMP response elements.

Crohn Disease an in fl ammatory disease of the intestines that affect any part of the gastroin-testinal tract.

Crossover study a longitudinal, balance study in which participants receive a sequence of different treatments or exposures.

Croup is an infection of the throat (larynx) and windpipe (trachea) that is caused by a virus (Also called laryngotracheobronchitis).

Crytochidism (cryptochism) a developmenta defect characterized by the failure of one or both testes to move into the scrotum as the male fetus develops.

Curettage surgical procedure in which a body cavity or tissue is scraped with a sharp instru-ment or aspirated with a cannula.

Cutaneous pertaining to the skin. CXC8 also known as interleukin 8, IL-8. Cyanogenesis generation of cyanide . adj.

cyanogenetic. Cyclooxygenase (COX) an enzyme that is

responsible for the formation of prostanoids - prostaglandins, prostacyclins, and thrombox-anes that are each involved in the in fl ammatory response. Two different COX enzymes exist-ed, now known as COX-1 and COX-2.

Cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) is known to be present in most tissues. In the gastrointestinal tract, COX-1 maintains the normal lining of the stomach. The enzyme is also involved in kidney and platelet function.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is primarily present at sites of in fl ammation.

Cysteine proteases are enzymes that degrade polypeptides possessing a common catalytic mechanism that involves a nucleophilic cysteine thiol in a catalytic triad. They are found in fruits like papaya, pineapple, and kiwifruit.

Cystitis a common urinary tract infection that occurs when bacteria travel up the urethra, in-fect the urine and in fl ame the bladder lining.

Cystorrhea discharge of mucus from the bladder. Cytochrome bc-1 complex ubihydroquinone:

cytochrome c oxidoreductase. Cytochrome P450 3A CYP3A a very large and

diverse superfamily of heme-thiolate proteins found in all domains of life. This group of enzymes catalyzes many reactions involved in drug metabolism and synthesis of cholesterol, steroids and other lipids.

Cytokine non-antibody proteins secreted by cer-tain cells of the immune system which carry signals locally between cells. They are a cat-egory of signaling molecules that are used ex-tensively in cellular communication.

Cytopathic any detectable, degenerative chang-es in the host cell due to infection.

Cytoprotective protecting cells from noxious chemicals or other stimuli.

Cytosolic relates to the fl uid of the cytoplasm in cells.

Cytostatic preventing the growth and prolifera-tion of cells.

Cytotoxic of or relating to substances that are toxic to cells; cell-killing.

D- galactosamine an amino sugar with unique hepatotoxic properties in animals.

Dandruff scurf, dead, scaly skin among the hair.

Dartre condition of dry, scaly skin. Debility weakness, relaxation of muscular fi bre. Debridement is the process of removing non-

living tissue from pressure ulcers, burns, and other wounds.

Debriding agent substance that cleans and treats certain types of wounds, burns, ulcers.

Deciduogenic relating to the uterus lining that is shed off at childbirth.

Decidual stromal cells like endometrial glands and endothelium, express integrins that bind basement components.

519Medical Glossary

Decoction a medical preparation made by boiling the ingredients.

Decongestant a substance that relieves or reduces nasal or bronchial congestion.

Deep venous thrombosis is a blood clot that forms in a vein deep inside a part of the body.

De fi brinated plasma blood whose plasma com-ponent has had fi brinogen and fi brin removed.

Degranulation cellular process that releases an-timicrobial cytotoxic molecules from secretory vesicles called granules found inside some cells.

Delayed afterdepolarizations (DADs) abnormal depolarization that begins during phase 4 – after repolarization is completed, but before another action potential would normally occur.

Delirium is common, sudden severe confusion and rapid changes in brain function that occur with physical or mental illness; it is reversible and temporary.

Demulcent an agent that soothes internal mem-branes. Also called emollient.

Dendritic cells are immune cells and form part of the mammalian immune system, function-ing as antigen presenting cells.

Dentition a term that describes all of the upper and lower teeth collectively.

Deobstruent a medicine which removes ob-structions; also called an aperient.

Deoxypyridinoline (Dpd) a crosslink product of collagen molecules found in bone and ex-creted in urine during bone degradation.

Depilatory an agent for removing or destroying hair.

Depressant a substance that diminish function-al activity, usually by depressing the nervous system.

Depurative an agent used to cleanse or purify the blood, it eliminates toxins and puri fi es the system.

Dermatitis in fl ammation of the skin causing discomfort such as eczema.

Dermatitis herpetiformis an autoimmune chronic blistering skin disorder characterised by blisters fi lled with a watery fl uid.

Dermatophyte a fungus parasitic on the skin. Dermatosis is a broad term that refers to any

disease of the skin, especially one that is not accompanied by in fl ammation.

Dermonecrotic pertaining to or causing necro-sis of the skin.

Desquamation the shedding of the outer layers of the skin.

Detoxi fi er a substance that promotes the remov-al of toxins from a system or organ.

Diabetes a metabolic disorder associated with inadequate secretion or utilization of insulin and characterized by frequent urination and persistent thirst. See diabetes mellitus.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) (sometimes called “sugar diabetes”) is a set of chronic, meta-bolic disease conditions characterized by high blood sugar (glucose) levels that result from defects in insulin secretion, or action, or both. Diabetes mellitus appears in two forms.

Diabetes mellitus type I (formerly known as juvenile onset diabetes), caused by de fi ciency of the pancreatic hormone insulin as a result of destruction of insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas. Lack of insulin causes an in-crease of fasting blood glucose that begins to appear in the urine above the renal threshold.

Diabetes mellitus type II (formerly called non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus or adult-onset diabetes), the disorder is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin de fi ciency in which insulin is available but cannot be prop-erly utilized.

Diabetic neuropathy a neuropathic disorder that is associated with diabetes mellitus. It affects all peripheral nerves including pain fi bers, motor neurons and the autonomic ner-vous system.

Diabetic retinopathy damage to the retina caused by complications of diabetes mellitus, which can eventually lead to blindness.

Diads two adjacent structural units in a polymer molecule.

Dialysis is a method of removing toxic sub-stances (impurities or wastes) from the blood when the kidneys are unable to do so.

Diaphoresis is profuse sweating commonly as-sociated with shock and other medical emer-gency conditions.

Diaphoretic a substance that induces perspira-tion. Also called sudori fi c.

Diaphyseal pertaining to or affecting the shaft of a long bone (diaphysis).

Diaphysis the main or mid section (shaft) of a long bone.


Diarrhoea a profuse, frequent and loose discharge from the bowels.

Diastolic referring to the time when the heart is in a period of relaxation and dilatation (expan-sion). cf . systolic.

Dieresis surgical separation of parts. Dietary fi bre is a term that refers to a group

of food components that pass through the stomach and small intestine undigested and reach the large intestine virtually unchanged. Scienti fi c evidence suggest that a diet high in dietary fi bre can be of value for treating or preventing such disorders as constipation, ir-ritable bowel syndrome, diverticular disease, hiatus hernia and haemorrhoids. Some com-ponents of dietary fi bre may also be of value in reducing the level of cholesterol in blood and thereby decreasing a risk factor for coro-nary heart disease and the development of gallstones. Dietary fi bre is bene fi cial in the treatment of some diabetics.

Digalactosyl diglycerides are the major lipid components of chloroplasts.

Diosgenin a steroid-like substance that is involved in the production of the hormone progesterone, extracted from roots of Dioscorea yam.

Dipsia sensation of dryness in the mouth and throat related to a desire to drink.

Dipsomania pathological use of alcohol. Discutient an agent (as a medicinal application)

which serves to disperse morbid matter. Disinfectant an agent that prevents the spread of

infection, bacteria or communicable disease. Distal sensory polyneuropathy (DSPN) or peri-

pheral neuropathy, is the most common neu-rological problem in HIV disease. DSPN also represents a complex symptom that occurs because of peripheral nerve damage related to advanced HIV disease.

Diuresis increased urination. Diuretic a substance that increases urination

(diuresis). Diverticular disease is a condition affecting

the large bowel or colon and is thought to be caused by eating too little fi bre.

DMBA 7,12-Dimethylbenzanthracene. A poly-cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon found in tobacco smoke that is a potent carcinogen.

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the

development and functioning of all known living organisms.

DOCA desoxycorticosterone acetate - a steroid chemical used as replacement therapy in Addison’s disease.

Dopamine a catecholamine neurotransmit-ter that occurs in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates.

Dopaminergic relating to, or activated by the neurotransmitter, dopamine.

Double blind refer to a clinical trial or experiment in which neither the subject nor the researcher knows which treatment any particular subject is receiving.

Douche a localised spray of liquid directed into a body cavity or onto a part.

DPPH 2,2 diphenyl -1- picryl-hydrazyl – a crys-talline, stable free radical used as an inhibitor of free radical reactions.

Dracunculiasis also called guinea worm disease (GWD), is a parasitic infection caused by the nematode, Dracunculus medinensis .

Dropsy an old term for the swelling of soft tis-sues due to the accumulation of excess water. adj. dropsical.

Drusen tiny yellow or white deposits of extra-cellular materials in the retina of the eye or on the optic nerve head.

DT diaphorase also called DTD or NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase, is an obligate two-electron reductase which bioactivates chemo-therapeutic quinones.

Dysentery (formerly known as fl ux or the bloody fl ux) is a disorder of the digestive sys-tem that results in severe diarrhea containing mucus and blood in the feces. It is caused usu-ally by a bacterium called Shigella .

Dysesthesia an unpleasant abnormal sensation produced by normal stimuli.

Dysgeusia distortion of the sense of taste. Dyskinesia the impairment of the power of

voluntary movement, resulting in fragmentary or incomplete movements. adj. dyskinetic.

Dyslipidemia abnormality in or abnormal amount of lipids and lipoproteins in the blood.

Dysmenorrhea is a menstrual condition characterized by severe and frequent men-strual cramps and pain associated with menstruation.

521Medical Glossary

Dysmotility syndrome a vague, descriptive term used to describe diseases of the muscles of the gastrointestinal tract (esophagus, stom-ach, small and large intestines).

Dyspedia indigestion followed by nausea. Dyspepsia refers to a symptom complex of epi-

gastric pain or discomfort. It is often de fi ned as chronic or recurrent discomfort centered in the upper abdomen and can be caused by a va-riety of conditions. cf. functional dyspepsia.

Dysphagia swallowing disorder. Dysphonia a voice disorder, an impairment in

the ability to produce voice sounds using the vocal organs.

Dysplasia refers to abnormality in development. Dyspnoea shortness of breath, dif fi culty in

breathing. Dysrhythmias see arrhythmias. Dystocia abnormal or dif fi cult child birth or

labour. Dystonia a neurological movement disorder

characterized by prolonged, repetitive muscle contractions that may cause twisting or jerk-ing movements of muscles.

Dysuria refers to dif fi cult and painful urination. E- Selectin also known as endothelial leukocyte

adhesion molecule-1 (ELAM-1), CD62E, a member of the selectin family. It is transiently expressed on vascular endothelial cells in re-sponse to IL-1 beta and TNF-alpha.

EC 50 median effective concentration that produces desired effects in fi fty percent of the test population.

Ecbolic a drug (as an ergot alkaloid) that tends to increase uterine contractions and that is used especially to facilitate delivery.

Ecchymosis skin discoloration caused by the escape of blood into the tissues from ruptured blood vessels.

ECG see electrocardiography. EC–SOD extracellular superoxide dismutase,

a tissue enzyme mainly found in the extracel-lular matrix of tissues. It participates in the detoxi fi cation of reactive oxygen species by cat-alyzing the dismutation of superoxide radicals.

Ectrodactyly involves the absence of one or more central digits of the hand or foot.

Eczema is broadly applied to a range of persis-tent skin conditions. These include dryness and recurring skin rashes which are charac-

terized by one or more of these symptoms: redness, skin edema, itching and dryness, crusting, fl aking, blistering, cracking, oozing, or bleeding.

Eczematous rash dry, scaly, itchy rash. ED 50 is de fi ned as the dose producing a response

that is 50% of the maximum obtainable. Edema formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy,

is characterized swelling caused by abnormal accumulation of fl uid beneath the skin, or in one or more cavities of the body. It usually occurs in the feet, ankles and legs, but it can involve the entire body.

Edematogenic producing or causing edema. EGFR proteins epidermal growth factor recep-

tor (EGFR) proteins - Protein kinases are en-zymes that transfer a phosphate group from a phosphate donor onto an acceptor amino acid in a substrate protein.

EGR-1 early growth response 1, a human gene. Eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by

oxygenation of arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon essential fatty acid, includes prostaglandins and related compounds.

Elastase a serine protease that also hydrolyses amides and esters.

Electrocardiography or ECG, is a transtho-racic interpretation of the electrical activity of the heart over time captured and externally recorded by skin electrodes.

Electromyogram (EMG) a test used to record the electrical activity of muscles. An electro-myogram (EMG) is also called a myogram.

Electuary a medicinal paste composed of pow-ders, or other medical ingredients, incorporat-ed with sweeteners to hide the taste, suitable for oral administration.

Elephantiasis a disorder characterized by chronic thickened and edematous tissue on the genitals and legs due to various causes.

Embrocation lotion or liniment that relieves muscle or joint pains.

Embryotoxic term that describes any chemical which is harmful to an embryo.

Emesis vomiting, throwing up. Emetic an agent that induces vomiting, cf : an-

tiemetic. Emetocathartic causing vomiting and purging. Emmenagogue a substance that stimulates,

initiates, and/or promotes menstrual fl ow.


Emmenagogues are used in herbal medicine to balance and restore the normal function of the female reproductive system.

Emollient an agent that has a protective and soothing action on the surfaces of the skin and membranes.

Emphysema a long-term, progressive disease of the lungs that primarily causes shortness of breath.

Emulsion a preparation formed by the suspen-sion of very fi nely divided oily or resinous liquid in another liquid.

Encephalitis in fl ammation of the brain. Encephalomalacia cerebral softening, a local-

ized softening of the brain substance, due to hemorrhage or in fl ammation.

Encephalopathy a disorder or disease of the brain.

Endocrine adj. of or relating to endocrine glands or the hormones secreted by them.

Endocytosis is the process by which cells absorb material (molecules such as proteins) from outside the cell by engul fi ng it with their cell membrane.

Endometrial cancer cancer that arises in the en-dometrium, the lining of the uterus (womb).

Endometriosis is a common and often painful disorder of the female reproductive system in which the endometrium, the tissue that nor-mally lines the womb (uterus), grows outside the uterus. The two most common symptoms of endometriosis are pain and infertility.

Endometritis refers to in fl ammation of the endometrium, the inner lining of the uterus.

Endometrium the inner lining of the uterus. Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules,

vesicles and sacs around the nucleus that are interconnected.

Endostatin a naturally-occurring 20-kDa C-terminal protein fragment derived from type XVIII collagen. It is reported to serve as an an-ti-angiogenic agent that inhibits the formation of the blood vessels that feed cancer tumours.

Endosteum the thin layer of cells lining the medullary cavity of a bone.

Endosteul pertaining to the endosteum. Endothelial progenitor cells population of rare

cells that circulate in the blood with the ability to differentiate into endothelial cells, the cells that make up the lining of blood vessels.

Endothelin any of a group of vasoconstric-tive peptides produced by endothelial cells that constrict blood vessels and raise blood pressure.

Endotoxemia the presence of endotoxins in the blood, which may result in shock. adj . endo-toxemic.

Endotoxin toxins associated with certain bacte-ria, unlike an ‘exotoxin’ that is not secreted in soluble form by live bacteria, but is a structur-al component in the bacteria which is released mainly when bacteria are lysed.

Encephalocele protrusion of brain tissue through a congenital fi ssure in the skull.

Enema liquid injected into the rectum either as a purgative or medicine, Also called clyster.

Enophthalmos a condition in which the eye falls back into the socket and inhibits proper eyelid function.

Enteral term used to describe the intestines or other parts of the digestive tract.

Enteral administration involves the esopha-gus, stomach, and small and large intestines (i.e., the gastrointestinal tract).

Enteritis refers to in fl ammation of the small in-testine.

Enterocolic disorder in fl amed bowel disease. Enterocytes tall columnar cells in the small

intestinal mucosa that are responsible for the fi nal digestion and absorption of nutrients.

Enterohemorrhagic causing bloody diarrhea and colitis, said of pathogenic microorganisms.

Enterohepatonephropathy hepatorenal lesions accompanied by renal failure.

Enterolactone a lignin formed by the action of intestinal bacteria on lignan precursors found in plants; acts as a phytoestrogen.

Enteropooling increased fl uids and electro-lytes within the lumen of the intestines due to increased levels of prostaglandins.

Enterotoxigenic of or being an organism con-taining or producing an enterotoxin.

Enterotoxin is a protein toxin released by a microorganism in the intestine.

Entheogen a substance taken to induce a spir-itual experience.

Enuresis bed-wetting, a disorder of elimination that involves the voluntary or involuntary re-lease of urine into bedding, clothing, or other inappropriate places.

523Medical Glossary

Envenomation is the entry of venom into a person’s body, and it may cause localised or systemic poisoning.

Eosinophilia the state of having a high concen-tration of eosinophils (eosinophil granulo-cytes) in the blood.

Eosinophils (or, less commonly, acidophils), are white blood cells that are one of the immune system components.

Epididymis a structure within the scrotum at-tached to the backside of the testis and whose coiled duct provides storage, transit and matu-ration of spermatozoa.

Epididymitis a medical condition in which there is in fl ammation of the epididymis.

Epigastralgia pain in the epigastric region. Epigastric discomfort bloated abdomen, swell-

ing of abdomen, abdominal distension. Epilepsy a common chronic neurological disor-

der that is characterized by recurrent unpro-voked seizures.

Epileptiform resembling epilepsy or its mani-festations. adj. epileptiformic.

Epileptogenesis a process by which a normal brain develops epilepsy, a chronic condition in which seizures occur. adj . epileptogenic.

Episiotomy a surgical incision through the perineum made to enlarge the vagina and as-sist childbirth.

Epithelioma a usually benign skin disease most commonly occurring on the face, around the eyelids and on the scalp.

Epitope a single antigenic site on a protein against which an antibody reacts.

Epitrochlearis the super fi cial-most muscle of the arm anterior surface.

Epistaxis acute hemorrhage from the nostril, nasal cavity, or nasopharynx (nose-bleed).

Epstein Barr Virus herpes virus that is the causative agent of infectious mononucleosis. It is also associated with various types of hu-man cancers.

ERbeta estrogen receptor beta, a nuclear recep-tor which is activated by the sex hormone, es-trogen.

Ergocalciferol a form of vitamin D, also called vitamin D2. See vitamin D.

Ergonic increasing capacity for bodily or men-tal labor especially by eliminating fatigue symptoms.

ERK (extracellular signal regulated kinases) widely expressed protein kinase intracellular signaling molecules which are involved in functions including the regulation of meiosis, mitosis, and post mitotic functions in differen-tiated cells.

Eructation the act of belching or of casting up wind from the stomach through the mouth.

Eruption a visible rash or cutaneous disrup-tion.

Erysipelas is an intensely red Streptococcus bacterial infection that occurs on the face and lower extremities.

Erythema abnormal redness and in fl ammation of the skin, due to vasodilation.

Erythema multiforme is a skin disorder due to an allergic reaction or infection; characterised by fever, general ill feeling, skin itching, joint aches, and multiple skin lesions.

Erythematous characterized by erythema. Erythroleukoplakia an abnormal patch of red

and white tissue that forms on mucous mem-branes in the mouth and may become cancer. Tobacco (smoking and chewing) and alcohol may increase the risk of erythroleukoplakia.

Erythropoietin (EPO) a hormone produced by the kidney that promotes the formation of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the bone marrow.

Eschar a slough or piece of dead tissue that is cast off from the surface of the skin.

Escharotic capable of producing an eschar; a caustic or corrosive agent.

Estradiol is the predominant sex hormone pres-ent in females, also called oestradiol.

Estrogen female hormone produced by the ova-ries that play an important role in the estrous cycle in women.

Estrogen receptor (ER) is a protein found in high concentrations in the cytoplasm of breast, uterus, hypothalamus, and anterior hypophysis cells; ER levels are measured to determine a breast CA’s potential for response to hormonal manipulation.

Estrogen receptor positive (ER+) means that estrogen is causing the tumour to grow, and that the breast cancer should respond well to hormone suppression treatments.

Estrogen receptor negative (ER−) tumour is not driven by estrogen and need another test to determine the most effective treatment.


Estrogenic relating to estrogen or producing estrus. Estrus sexual excitement or heat of female; or

period of this characterized by changes in the sex organs.

Euglycaemia normal blood glucose concentration. Eupeptic conducive to digestion. Exanthematous characterized by or of the nature

of an eruption or rash. Excitotoxicity is the pathological process by

which neurons are damaged and killed by glu-tamate and similar substances.

Excipient a pharmacologically inert substance used as a diluent or vehicle for the active ingredients of a medication.

Exocytosis the cellular process by which cells ex-crete waste products or chemical transmitters.

Exophthalmos or exophthalmia or propto-sis is a bulging of the eye anteriorly out of the orbit. adj. exophthalmic.

Exotoxin a toxin secreted by a microorgan-ism and released into the medium in which it grows.

Expectorant an agent that increases bronchial mu-cous secretion by promoting liquefaction of the sticky mucous and expelling it from the body.

Exteroceptive responsiveness to stimuli that are external to an organism.

Extrapyramidal side effects are a group of symptoms (tremor, slurred speech, akathisia, dystonia, anxiety, paranoia and bradyphrenia) that can occur in persons taking antipsychotic medications.

Extravasation discharge or escape, as of blood from the vein into the surrounding tissues; discharge or escape from a vessel or channel.

Fabry disease is a rare X-linked (inherited) lysosomal storage disease caused by alpha-galactosidase A de fi ciency, which can cause a wide range of systemic symptoms such as pain in the extremities, papules on the lower body parts, cornea clouding, fatigue, neuropa-thy, renal and cardiac complications.

FAC chemotherapy fl uorouracil, doxorubicin (adriamycin), and cyclophosphamide chemo-therapy.

FADD Fas-associated protein with death do-main, the protein encoded by this gene is an adaptor molecule which interacts with other death cell surface receptors and mediates apoptotic signals.

Familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP) also called Corino de Andrade’s disease, a neuro-degenerative autosomal dominant genetically transmitted, fatal, incurable disease.

Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is an inherited condition in which numerous pol-yps form mainly in the epithelium of the large intestine.

Familial dysautonomia a genetic disorder that affects the development and survival of auto-nomic and sensory nerve cells.

Fanconi syndrome is a disease of the proximal renal tubes which certain substances normally absorbed into the bloodstream by the kidneys are released into the urine instead.

FasL or CD95L Fas ligand is a type-II trans-membrane protein that belongs to the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) family.

FAS: fatty acid synthase (FAS) a multi-enzyme that plays a key role in fatty acid synthesis.

Fas molecule a member of the Tumour Necrosis Factor Receptors, that mediates apoptotic signal in many cell types.

Fauces the passage leading from the back of the mouth into the pharynx.

Favus a chronic skin infection, usually of the scalp, caused by the fungus, Trichophyton schoenleinii and characterized by the develop-ment of thick, yellow crusts over the hair fol-licles. Also termed tinea favosa.

Febrifuge an agent that reduces fever. Also called an antipyretic.

Febrile pertaining to or characterized by fever. Febrile neutropenia the development of fever,

often with other signs of infection, in an individual with neutropenia, an abnormally low number of neutrophil granulocytes in the blood.

Fetotoxic toxic to the fetus. Fibrates hypolipidemic agents primarily used

for decreasing serum triglycerides, while in-creasing High density lipoprotein (HDL).

Fibril a small slender fi bre or fi lament. Fibrin insoluble protein that forms the essential

portion of the blood clot. Fibrinolysis a normal ongoing process that

dissolves fi brin and results in the removal of small blood clots.

Fribinolytic causing the dissolution of fi brin by enzymatic action.

525Medical Glossary

Fibroblast type of cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, the struc-tural framework (stroma) for animal tissues, and play a critical role in wound healing.

Fibrogenic promoting the development of fi bres.

Fibromyalgia a common and complex chronic, body-wide pain disorder that affects people physically, mentally and socially. Symptoms include debilitating fatigue, sleep disturbance, and joint stiffness. Also referred to as FM or FMS.

Fibronectin a high-molecular weight (~440 kDa) glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix (ECM) that adheres to membrane-spanning receptor proteins called integrins.

Fibrosarcoma a malignant tumour derived from fi brous connective tissue and characterized by immature proliferating fi broblasts or undiffer-entiated anaplastic spindle cells.

Fibrosis the formation of fi brous tissue as a reparative or reactive process.

Filarial pertaining to a thread-like nematode worm.

Filariasis a parasitic and infectious tropical dis-ease that is caused by thread-like fi larial nem-atode worms in the superfamily Filarioidea.

Fistula an abnormal connection between two parts inside of the body.

Fistula-in-ano a track connecting the internal anal canal to the skin surrounding the anal ori fi ce.

5 ¢ -Nucleotidase (5’-ribonucleotide phosphohy-drolase), an intrinsic membrane glycoprotein present as an ectoenzyme in a wide variety of mammalian cells, hydrolyzes 5 ¢ -nucleotides to their corresponding nucleosides.

Flatulence is the presence of a mixture of gases known as fl atus in the digestive tract of mam-mals expelled from the rectum. Excessive fl atulence can be caused by lactose intoler-ance, certain foods or a sudden switch to a high fi bre.

Flavans a subgroup of fl avonoids. See fl avonoids.

Flavanols a subgroup of fl avonoids, are a class of fl avonoids that use the 2-phenyl-3,4-di-hydro-2H-chromen-3-ol skeleton. These com-pounds include the catechins and the catechin gallates. They are found in chocolate, fruits and vegetables. See fl avonoids.

Flavanones a subgroup of fl avonoids, constitute >90% of total fl avonoids in citrus. The major dietary fl avanones are hesperetin, naringenin and eriodictyol.

Flavivirus A family of viruses transmitted by mosquitoes and ticks that cause some impor-tant diseases, including dengue, yellow fever, tick-borne encephalitis and West Nile fever.

Flavones a subgroup of fl avonoids based on the backbone of 2-phenylchromen-4-one (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one). Flavones are mainly found in cereals and herbs.

Flavonoids (or bio fl avonoids) are a group of polyphenolic antioxidant compounds in that are occur in plant as secondary metabolites. They are responsible for the colour of fruit and vegetables. Twelve basic classes (chemi-cal types) of fl avonoids have been recognized: fl avones, iso fl avones, fl avans, fl avanones, fl avanols, fl avanolols, anthocyanidins, cate-chins (including proanthocyanidins), leukoan-thocyanidins, chalcones, dihydrochalcones, and aurones. Apart from their antioxidant activity, fl avonoids are known for their abil-ity to strengthen capillary walls, thus assisting circulation and helping to prevent and treat bruising, varicose veins, bleeding gums and nosebleeds, heavy menstrual bleeding and are also anti-in fl ammatory.

Flourine F is an essential chemical element that is required for maintenance of healthy bones and teeth and to reduce tooth decay. It is found in sea weeds, tea, water, seafood and dairy products.

Fluorosis a dental health condition caused by a child receiving too much fl uoride during tooth development.

Flux an excessive discharge of fl uid. FMD (Flow Mediated Dilation) a measure of

endothelial dysfunction which is used to eval-uate cardiovascular risk.

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a protein ty-rosine kinase which is recruited at an early stage to focal adhesions and which mediates many of the downstream regulatory responses.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) a hormone produced by the pituitary gland. In women, it helps control the menstrual cycle and the pro-duction of eggs by the ovaries.

Follicular atresia the break-down of the ovar-ian follicles.


Fomentation treatment by the application of war, moist substance.

Fontanelle soft spot on an infant’s skull. Forkhead box-O transcription factors

(FOXOs) are a family of transcription fac-tors that play important roles in regulating the expression of genes involved in cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, and longevity. It also play an important role in tumour sup-pression by regulating the expression of genes involved in stress resistance, DNA damage repair, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.

Framboesia see yaws. FRAP ferric reducing ability of plasma, an assay

used to assess antioxidant property. Friedreich’s ataxia is a genetic inherited disor-

der that causes progressive damage to the ner-vous system resulting in symptoms ranging from muscle weakness and speech problems to heart disease. cf. ataxia.

Fulminant hepatitis acute liver failure. Functional Dyspepsia a non-ulcer condition

that causes an upset stomach or pain or discom-fort in the upper belly, near the ribs.

Functional food is any fresh or processed food claimed to have a health-promoting or disease-preventing property beyond the basic function of supplying nutrients. Also called medicinal food.

Furuncle is a skin disease caused by the infec-tion of hair follicles usually caused by Staph-ylococcus aureus, resulting in the localized accumulation of pus and dead tissue.

Furunculosis skin condition characterized by persistent, recurring boils.

GABA gamma aminobutyric acid, required as an inhibitory neurotransmitter to block the trans-mission of an impulse from one cell to another in the central nervous system, which prevents over- fi ring of the nerve cells. It is used to treat both epilepsy and hypertension.

GADD 152 a pro-apoptotic gene. Galctifuge or lactifuge, causing the arrest of

milk secretion. Galactogogue a substance that promotes the

fl ow of milk. Galactophoritis in fl ammation of the milk ducts. Galactopoietic increasing the fl ow of milk;

milk-producing. Gall baldder a small, pear-shaped muscular

sac, located under the right lobe of the liver, in

which bile secreted by the liver is stored until needed by the body for digestion. Also called cholecyst, cholecystis.

Gallic Acid Equivalent (GAE) measures the total phenol content in terms of the standard Gallic acid by the Folin-Ciocalteau assay.

Galphai proteins or G alpha I proteins are heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-regulatory (G) proteins associated with a variety of intra-cellular membranes and speci fi c plasma mem-brane domains.

Gamma GT (GGT) Gamma-glutamyl trans-peptidase, a liver enzyme.

Gastralgia (heart burn) - pain in the stomach or abdominal region. It is caused by excess of acid, or an accumulation of gas, in the stomach.

Gastric pertaining to or affecting the stomach. Gastric emptying refers to the speed at which

food and drink leave the stomach. Gastritis in fl ammation of the stomach. Gastrocnemius muscle the big calf muscle at

the rear of the lower leg. Gastrotonic (Gastroprotective) substance that

strengthens, tones, or regulates gastric func-tions (or protects from injury) without overt stimulation or depression .

Gavage forced feeding. Gene silencing suppression of the expression of

a gene. Genotoxic describes a poisonous substance

which harms an organism by damaging its DNA thereby capable of causing mutations or cancer.

Genotoxin a chemical or other agent that dam-ages cellular DNA, resulting in mutations or cancer.

Geriatrics is a sub-specialty of internal medicine that focuses on health care of elderly people.

Gestational hypertension development of arte-rial hypertension in a pregnant woman after 20 weeks gestation.

Ghrelin a gastrointestinal peptide hormone secreted by epithelial cells in the stomach lin-ing, it stimulates appetite, gastric emptying, and increases cardiac output.

Gingival Index an index describing the clinical severity of gingival in fl ammation as well as its location.

Gingivitis refers to gingival in fl ammation in-duced by bacterial bio fi lms (also called plaque) adherent to tooth surfaces.

527Medical Glossary

Gin-nan sitotoxism toxicity caused by inges-tion of ginkgotoxin and characterised mainly by epileptic convulsions, paralysis of the legs and loss of consciousness.

GIP gastric inhibitory polypeptide also known as the glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide, a member of the secretin family of hormones.

Glaucoma a group of eye diseases in which the optic nerve at the back of the eye is slowly de-stroyed, leading to impaired vision and blindness.

Gleet a chronic in fl ammation (as gonorrhea) of a bodily ori fi ce usually accompanied by an ab-normal discharge.

Glial cells support, non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system that maintain homeo-stasis, form myelin and provide protection for the brain’s neurons.

Glioma is a type of tumour that starts in the brain or spine. It is called a glioma because it arises from glial cells.

Glioblastoma common and most lethal form of brain tumor.

Glioblastoma multiforme most common and most aggressive type of primary brain tumour in humans, involving glial cells.

Glomerulonephritis (GN) a renal disease char-acterized by in fl ammation of the glomeruli, or small blood vessels in the kidneys. Also known as glomerular nephritis. adj. glomeru-lonephritic.

Glomerulosclerosis a hardening ( fi brosis) of the glomerulus in the kidney.

Glossal pertaining to the tongue. GLP-1 glucagon-like peptide-1. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is derived

from the transcription product of the proglu-cagon gene, reduces insulin requirement in diabetes mellitus and promotes satiety.

Gluconeogenesis a metabolic pathway that re-sults in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate. adj . gluconeogenic.

Glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT 4) insulin-regulated glucose transporter found in adipose tissues and striated muscles that modulates insulin-related translocation into the cell.

Glucose transporters (GLUT or SLC2A fam-ily) are a family of membrane proteins found in most mammalian cells.

Glucosuria or glycosuria is the excretion of glucose into the urine.

Glucosyltranferase an enzyme that enable the transfer of glucose.

Glucuronidation a phase II detoxi fi cation path-way occurring in the liver in which glucuronic acid is conjugated with toxins.

Glutamic Oxaloacetate Transaminase (GOT) catalyzes the transfer of an amino group from an amino acid (Glu) to a 2-keto-acid to generate a new amino acid and the residual 2-keto-acid of the donor amino acid.

Glutamic pyruvate transaminase (GPT) see Alanine aminotransferase.

Glutathione (GSH) a tripeptide produced in the human liver and plays a key role in intermedi-ary metabolism, immune response and health. It plays an important role in scavenging free radicals and protects cells against several tox-ic oxygen-derived chemical species.

Glutathione peroxidase (GPX) the general name of an enzyme family with peroxidase activity whose main biological role is to pro-tect the organism from oxidative damage.

Glutathione S -transferase (GST) a major group of detoxi fi cation enzymes that participate in the detoxi fi cation of reactive electrophilic compounds by catalysing their conjugation to glutathione.

Glycaemic index (GI) measures carbohydrates according to how quickly they are absorbed and raise the glucose level of the blood.

Glycaemic load (GL) is a ranking sytem for carbohydrate content in food portions based on their glycaemic index and the amount of available carbohydrate, i.e. GI x available carbohydrate divided by 100. Glycemic load combines both the quality and quantity of car-bohydrate in one ‘number’. It’s the best way to predict blood glucose values of different types and amounts of food.

Glycation or glycosylation a chemical reaction in which glycosyl groups are added to a pro-tein to produce a glycoprotein.

Glycogenolysis is the catabolism of glycogen by removal of a glucose monomer through cleavage with inorganic phosphate to produce glucose-1-phosphate.

Glycometabolism metabolism (oxidation) of glucose to produce energy.

Glycosuria or glucosuria is an abnormal condi-tion of osmotic diuresis due to excretion of glucose by the kidneys into the urine.


Glycosylases a family of enzymes involved in base excision repair.

Goitre an enlargement of the thyroid gland lead-ing to swelling of the neck or larynx.

Goitrogen substance that suppresses the func-tion of the thyroid gland by interfering with iodine uptake, causing enlargement of the thyroid, i.e. goiter.

Goitrogenic adj. causing goiter. Gonadotroph a basophilic cell of the anterior

pituitary specialized to secrete follicle-stimu-lating hormone or luteinizing hormone.

Gonatropins protein hormones secreted by gonadotrope cells of the pituitary gland of vertebrates.

Gonorrhoea a common sexually transmitted bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae .

Gout a disorder caused by a build-up of a waste product, uric acid, in the bloodstream. Excess uric acid settles in joints causing in fl ammation, pain and swelling.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) con-stitute the largest family of cell-surface mol-ecules involved in signal transmission. These receptors play key physiological roles and their dysfunction results in several diseases.

Granulation the condition or appearance of be-ing granulated (becoming grain-like).

Gravel sand-like concretions of uric acid, cal-cium oxalate, and mineral salts formed in the passages of the biliary and urinary tracts.

Gripe water is a home remedy for babies with colic, gas, teething pain or other stomach ail-ments. Its ingredients vary, and may include alcohol, bicarbonate, ginger, dill, fennel and chamomile.

Grippe an epidemic catarrh; older term for in fl uenza.

GSH see Glutathione. GSH-Px Glutathione peroxidase, general name

of an enzyme family with peroxidase activity whose main biological role is to protect the organism from oxidative damage.

GSSG glutathione disul fi des are biologically important intracellular thiols, and alterations in the GSH/GSSG ratio are often used to assess exposure of cells to oxidative stress.

GSTM glutathione S transferase M1, a major group of detoxi fi cation enzymes.

GSTM 2 glutathione S transferase M2, a major group of detoxi fi cation enzymes.

G2-M cell cycle the phase where the cell pre-pare for mitosis and where chromatids and daughter cells separate.

Gynecopathy any or various diseases speci fi c to women.

Gynoid adiposity fat distribution mainly to the hips and thighs, pear shaped.

Haemagogic promoting a fl ow of blood. Haematemesis, Hematemesis is the vomiting

of blood. Haematinic improving the quality of the blood,

its haemoglobin level and the number of eryth-rocytes.

Haematochezia passage of stools containing blood.

Haematochyluria, hematochyluria the dis-charge of blood and chyle (emulsi fi ed fat) in the urine, see also chyluria.

Haematoma, hematoma a localized accumula-tion of blood in a tissue or space composed of clotted blood.

Haematometra, hematometra a medical condi-tion involving bleeding of or near the uterus.

Haematopoiesis, hematopoiesis formation of blood cellular components from the hae-matopoietic stem cells.

Haematopoietic adj. relating to the formation and development of blood cells.

Haematuria, Hematuria is the presence of blood in the urine. Hematuria is a sign that something is causing abnormal bleeding in a person’s genitourinary tract.

Haeme oxygenase (HO-1, encoded by Hmox1) is an inducible protein activated in sys-temic in fl ammatory conditions by oxidant stress, an enzyme that catalyzes degrada-tion of heme.

Haemochromatosis iron overload in the body with a hereditary or primary cause.

Haemodialysis, Hemodialysis a method for removing waste products such as potassium and urea, as well as free water from the blood when the kidneys are in renal failure.

Haemolyis lysis of red blood cells and the release of haemoglobin into the surrounding fl uid (plasma). adj. haemolytic.

Haemoptysis, hemoptysis is the coughing up of blood from the respiratory tract. The blood

529Medical Glossary

can come from the nose, mouth, throat, and the airway passages leading to the lungs.

Haemorrhage, hemaorrhage bleeding, dis-charge of blood from blood vessels.

Haemorrhoids, Hemorrhoids a painful condi-tion in which the veins around the anus or low-er rectum are enlarged, swollen and in fl amed. Also called piles.

Haemostasis, hemostasis a complex process which causes the bleeding process to stop.

Haemostatic, hemostatic something that stops bleeding.

Halitosis (bad breath) a common condition caused by sulfur-producing bacteria that live within the surface of the tongue and in the throat.

Hallucinogen drug that produces hallucinogen. Hallucinogenic inducing hallucinations. Haplotype a set of alleles of closely linked loci

on a chromosome that tend to be inherited to-gether.

Hapten a small molecule that can elicit an im-mune response only when attached to a large carrier such as a protein.

HATs histone acetyl transferases, enzymes that regulate the acetylation of histones and tran-scription factors, playing a major role in the growth and differentiation of cells.

HbA1c glycosylated haemoglobin. HBeAg hepatitis B e antigen. HBsAg hepatitis B s antigen. Heartburn burning sensation in the stomach

and esophagus caused by excessive acidity of the stomach fl uids.

Heat rash any condition aggravated by heat or hot weather such as intertrigo.

Heat Shock Chaperones (HSC) ubiquitous molecules involved in the modulation of pro-tein conformational and complexation states, associated with heat stress or other cellular stress response.

Heat Shock Proteins (HSP) a group of func-tionally related proteins the expression of which is increased when the cells are exposed to elevated temperatures or other cellular stresses.

Helminthiasis a disease in which a part of the body is infested with worms such as pinworm, roundworm or tapeworm.

Hemagglutination a speci fi c form of agglutina-tion that involves red blood cells.

Hemagglutination–inhibition test measures of the ability of soluble antigen to inhibit the ag-glutination of antigen-coated red blood cells by antibodies.

Hemagglutinin refers to a substance that causes red blood cells to agglutinate.

Hemangioma blood vessel. Hematocrit is a blood test that measures the

percentage of the volume of whole blood that is made up of red blood cells.

Hematopoietic pertaining to the formation of blood or blood cells.

Hematopoietic stem cell is a cell isolated from the blood or bone marrow that can renew it-self, and can differentiate to a variety of spe-cialized cells.

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) an enzyme that catalyses the degradation of heme; an induc-ible stress protein, confers cytoprotection against oxidative stress in-vitro and in-vivo.

Hemoglobinopathies genetic defects that pro-duce abnormal hemoglobins and anemia.

Hemolytic anemia anemia due to hemolysis, the breakdown of red blood cells in the blood vessels or elsewhere in the body.

Hemorheology study of blood fl ow and its ele-ments in the circulatory system. adj. hemor-heological.

Hemorrhagic colitis an acute gasteroenteritis characterized by overtly bloody diarrhea that is caused by Escherichia coli infection.

Hemolytic-uremic syndrome is a disease char-acterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure (uremia) and a low platelet count.

Hepa-1c1c7 a type of hepatoma cells. Hepatalgia pain or discomfort in the liver area. Hepatomegaly condition of enlarged liver. Hepatectomy the surgical removal of part or all

of the liver. Hepatic relating to the liver. Hepatic cirrhosis affecting the liver, characterize

by hepatic fi brosis and regenerative nodules. Hepatic fi brosis is overly profuse wound heal-

ing in which excessive connective tissue builds up in the liver.

Hepatitis in fl ammation of the liver. Hepatitis A (formerly known as infectious

hepatitis) is an acute infectious disease of the liver caused by the hepatovirus hepatitis A virus.


Hepatocarcinogenesis represents a linear and progressive cancerous process in the liver in which successively more aberrant monoclonal populations of hepatocytes evolve.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) also called malignant hepatoma, is a primary malignancy (cancer) of the liver.

Hepatocytolysis cytotoxicity (dissolution) of liver cells.

Hepatoma cancer of the liver. Hepatopathy a disease or disorder of the liver. Hepatoprotective (liver protector) a substance

that helps protect the liver from damage by toxins, chemicals or other disease processes.

Hepatoregenerative a compound that promotes hepatocellular regeneration, repairs and re-stores liver function to optimum performance.

Hepatotonic (liver tonic) a substance that is tonic to the liver - usually employed to nor-malize liver enzymes and function.

Hernia occurs when part of an internal organ bulges through a weak area of muscle.

HER- 2 human epidermal growth factor recep-tor 2, a protein giving higher aggressiveness in breast cancer, also known as ErbB-2, ERBB2.

Herpes a chronic in fl ammation of the skin or mucous membrane characterized by the devel-opment of vesicles on an in fl ammatory base.

Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 – (HSV-1 and HSV-2) are two species of the herpes virus family which cause a variety of illnesses/infections in humans such cold sores, chick-enpox or varicella, shingles or herpes zoster (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and various cancers, and can cause brain in fl ammation (encephalitis). HSV-1 is commonly associ-ated with herpes outbreaks of the face known as cold sores or fever blisters, whereas HSV-2 is more often associated with genital herpes. They are also called Human Herpes Virus 1 and 2 (HHV-1 and HHV-2) and are neurotro-pic and neuroinvasive viruses; they enter and hide in the human nervous system, accounting for their durability in the human body.

Herpes zoster or simply zoster, commonly known as shingles and also known as zona, is a viral disease characterized by a painful skin rash with blisters.

Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus (HZO) is a viral ocular disease characterized by a painful skin

rash in one or more dermatome distributions of the fi fth cranial nerve, shared by the eye and orbit.

Heterophobia term used to describe irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against heterosexuals.

HDL-C (HDL Cholesterol) high density lipo-protein-cholesterol, also called “good choles-terol”. See also high-density lipoprotein.

Hiatus hernia occurs when the upper part of the stomach pushes its way through a tear in the diaphragm.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is one of the fi ve major groups of lipoproteins which enable cholesterol and triglycerides to be transported within the water based blood stream. HDL can remove cholesterol from atheroma within arteries and transport it back to the liver for excretion or re-utilization—which is the main reason why HDL-bound cholesterol is some-times called “good cholesterol”, or HDL-C. A high level of HDL-C seems to protect against cardiovascular diseases. cf. LDL.

HGPRT, HPRT (hypoxanthine-guanine phos-phoribosyl transferase) an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate and hypoxanthine, guanine, or 6-mercaptopurine to the corresponding 5 ¢ -mononucleotides and pyrophosphate. The enzyme is important in purine biosynthesis as well as central nervous system functions.

Hippocampus a ridge in the fl oor of each lateral ventricle of the brain that consists mainly of gray matter.

Hippocampal pertaining to the hippocampus. Hirsutism a condition where women have

excess facial and body hair that is dark and coarse.

Histaminergic liberated or activated by hista-mine, relating to the effects of histamine at histamine receptors of target tissues.

Histaminergic receptors are types of G-protein coupled receptors with histamine as their endogenous ligand.

HIV see Human immunode fi ciency virus. Hives (urticaria) is a skin rash characterised by

circular wheals of reddened and itching skin. HLA human leukocyte antigen system, name of

the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in humans.

531Medical Glossary

HLA-DQB1 human leucocyte antigen beta chain.

HLA-DR a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II cell surface receptor encoded by the human leukocyte antigen complex on chromosome 6 region 6p21.31.

HMG-CoAr 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase or (HMGCR) is the rate-controlling enzyme (EC 1.1.1.88) of the me-valonate pathway.

HMG-CoA 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coen-zyme A, an intermediate in the mevalonate pathway.

Hodgkin’s disease disease characterized by enlargement of the lymph glands, spleen and anemia.

Homeodomain transcription factor a protein domain encoded by a homeobox. Homeobox genes encode transcription factors which typi-cally switch on cascades of other genes.

Homeostasis the maintenance of a constant in-ternal environment of a cell or an organism, despite fl uctuations in the external.

Homeotherapy treatment or prevention of dis-ease with a substance similar but not identical to the causative agent of the disease.

Homocysteine an amino acid in the blood. Homograft see allograft. Hormonal (female) substance that has a hor-

mone-like effect similar to that of estrogen and/or a substance used to normalize female hormone levels.

Hormonal (male) substance that has a hormone-like effect similar to that of testosterone and/or a substance used to normalize male hor-mone levels.

HRT hormone replacement therapy, the admin-istration of the female hormones, oestrogen and progesterone, and sometimes testosterone.

HSP27 is an ATP-independent, 27 kDa heat shock protein chaperone that confers protec-tion against apoptosis.

HSP90 a 90 kDa heat shock protein chaperone that has the ability to regulate a speci fi c subset of cellular signaling proteins that have been implicated in disease processes.

hTERT – (TERT) telomerase reverse tran-scriptase is a catalytic subunit of the enzyme telomerase in humans. It exerts a novel pro-tective function by binding to mitochondrial

DNA, increasing respiratory chain activity and protecting against oxidative stress–induced damage.

HT29 cells are human intestinal epithelial cells which produce the secretory component of Immunoglobulin A (IgA), and carcinoembry-onic antigen (CEA).

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) a DNA herpes virus which is the leading cause of con-genital viral infection and mental retardation.

Human factor X a coagulation factor also known by the eponym Stuart-Prower factor or as thrombokinase, is an enzyme involved in blood coagulation. It synthesized in the liver and requires vitamin K for its synthesis.

Human immunode fi ciency virus (HIV) a retrovirus that can lead to acquired immunode fi ciency syndrome (AIDS), a con-dition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening op-portunistic infections.

Humoral immune response (HIR) is the as-pect of immunity that is mediated by secreted antibodies (as opposed to cell-mediated im-munity, which involves T lymphocytes) pro-duced in the cells of the B lymphocyte lineage (B cell).

HUVEC human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

Hyaluronidase enzymes that catalyse the hy-drolysis of certain complex carbohydrates like hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfates.

Hydatidiform a rare mass or growth that forms inside the uterus at the beginning of a preg-nancy.

Hydrocholeretic an agent that stimulates an in-creased output of bile of low speci fi c gravity.

Hydrogogue a purgative that causes an abun-dant watery discharge from the bowel.

Hydronephrosis is distension and dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces, usually caused by obstruction of the free fl ow of urine from the kidney.

Hydrophobia a viral neuroinvasive disease that causes acute encephalitis (in fl ammation of the brain) in warm-blooded animals. Also called rabies.

Hydropsy see dropsy. Hydrothorax accumulation of serous fl uid in

the pleural cavity.


Hyperaemia the increase of blood fl ow to dif-ferent tissues in the body.

Hyperalgesia an increased sensitivity to pain (enhanced pricking pain), which may be caused by damage to nociceptors or periph-eral nerves.

Hyperammonemia, hyperammonaemia a meta bolic disturbance characterised by an ex-cess of ammonia in the blood.

Hypercalciuria ( Idiopathic ) presence of excess calcium in the urine without obvious cause.

Hypercholesterolemia high levels of choles-terol in the blood that increase a person’s risk for cardiovascular disease leading to stroke or heart attack.

Hyperemia is the increased blood fl ow that occurs when tissue is active.

Hyperemesis severe and persistent nausea and vomiting (morning sickness) during pregnancy.

Hyper fi brinogenemia excessive fi brinogen in the blood.

Hyperglycaemia hyperglycemic high blood sugar; is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma.

Hyperglycemic a substance that raises blood sugar levels.

Hyperhomocysteinemia is a medical condition characterized by an abnormally large level of homocysteine in the blood.

Hyperinsulinemia a condition in which there are excess levels of circulating insulin in the blood; also known as pre-diabetes.

Hyperkalemia is an elevated blood level of the electrolyte potassium.

Hyperknesis enhanced itch to pricking. Hyperleptinemia increased serum leptin level. Hyperlipoproteinemia a metabolic disorder

characterized by abnormally elevated concen-trations of lipid/lipoprotein in the plasma; also known as hyperlipidemia and hyperlipemia.

Hypermethylation an increase in the inherited methylation of cytosine and adenosine resi-dues in DNA.

Hyperphagia or polyphagia abnormally large ingestion of food beyond that needed for basic energy requirements.

Hyperpiesia persistent and pathological high blood pressure for which no speci fi c cause can be found.

Hyperplasia increased cell production in a normal tissue or organ.

Hyperprebeta-lipoproteinaemia increased concentrations of pre-beta-lipoproteins in the blood.

Hyperpropulsion using water pressure as a force to move objects; used to dislodge calculi in the urethra.

Hyperpyrexia is an abnormally high fever. Hypertension commonly referred to as “high

blood pressure” or HTN, is a medical condi-tion in which the arterial blood pressure is chronically elevated.

Hypertensive characterized or caused by in-creased tension or pressure as abnormally high blood pressure.

Hypertonia abnormal increase inmuscle tension and a reduced ability of the nuscel to stretch.

Hypertriglyceridaemia or hypertriglycemia a disorder that causes high triglycerides in the blood.

Hypertrophy enlargement or overgrowth of an organ.

Hyperuricemia is a condition characterized by abnormally high level of uric acid in the blood.

Hypoadiponectinemia the state of having too low levelof adiponectin, a major metabolic endocrine, responsible for regulating things like glucose uptake and lipolysis (the break-down of fat deposits); low adiponectin, is a risk factor for both Type II Diabetes and meta-bolic syndrome.

Hypoalbuminemia a medical condition where levels of albumin in blood serum are abnor-mally low.

Hypocalcemic tetany a disease caused by an abnormally low level of calcium in the blood and characterized by hyperexcitability of the neuromuscular system and results in carpope-dal spasms.

Hypochlorhydria refer to states where the production of gastric acid in the stomach is absent or low.

Hypocholesterolemic (cholesterol-reducer), a substance that lowers blood cholesterol levels.

Hypocitraturia low amount of citrate in the urine, an important risk factor for kidney stone formation.

Hypocorticism see Addison’s disease.

533Medical Glossary

Hypocortisolism see Addison’s disease. Hypoesthesia (or hypesthesia) refers to a re-

duced sense of touch or sensation, or a partial loss of sensitivity to sensory stimuli.

Hypoglycemic an agent that lowers the concen-tration of glucose (sugar) in the blood.

Hypoperfusion decreased blood fl ow through an organ, characterized by an imbalance of ox-ygen demand and oxygen delivery to tissues.

Hypophagic under-eating. Hypospadias an abnormal birth defect in males

in which the urethra opens on the under sur-face of the penis.

Hypotensive characterised by or causing dimin-ished tension or pressure, as abnormally low blood pressure.

Hypothermia a condition in which an organ-ism’s temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and body functions.

Hypothermic relating to hypothermia, with sub normal body temperature.

Hypoxaemia is the reduction of oxygen speci fi cally in the blood.

Hypoxia a shortage of oxygen in the body. adj. hypoxic.

ICAM-1 (Inter-Cellular Adhesion Molecule 1) also known as CD54 (Cluster of Differentia-tion 54), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ICAM1 gene.

IC 50 the median maximal inhibitory concentra-tion; a measure of the effectiveness of a com-pound in inhibiting biological or biochemical function.

I.C.V. (intra-cerebroventricular) injection of chemical into the right lateral ventricle of the brain.

Iceterus jaundice, yellowish pigmentation of the skin.

Ichthyotoxic a substance which is poisonous to fi sh. Icteric hepatitis an infectious syndrome of

hepatitis characterized by jaundice, nausea, fever, right-upper quadrant pain, enlarged liver and transaminitis (increase in alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and/or aspartate ami-notransferase (AST)).

Icterus neonatorum jaundice in newborn infants. Idiopathic of no apparent physical cause. Idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss

(ISSHL) is sudden hearing loss where clini-cal assessment fails to reveal a cause.

I.g. gastric intubation, insertion of Levin tube through the nasal passage to the stomach.

IgE Immunoglobin E – a class of antibody that plays a role in allergy.

IGFs insulin-like growth factors, polypeptides with high sequence similarity to insulin.

IgG Immunoglobin G – the most abundant im-munoglobin (antibody) and is one of the major activators of the complement pathway.

IgM Immunoglobin M - primary antibody against A and B antigens on red blood cells.

IKAP is a scaffold protein of the IvarKappa-Beta kinase complex and a regulator for ki-nases involved in pro-in fl ammatory cytokine signaling.

IKappa B or IkB-beta, a protein of the NF-Kappa-B inhibitor family.

Ileus a temporary disruption of intestinal peri-stalsis due to non-mechanical causes.

Immune modulator a substance that affects or modulates the functioning of the immune system.

Immunode fi ciency a state in which the immune system’s ability to fi ght infectious disease is compromised or entirely absent.

Immunogenicity the property enabling a sub-stance to provoke an immune response, adj. immunogenic.

Immunoglobulin class switching Ig class switching a biological mechanism that changes a B cell’s production of antibody from one class to another.

Immunomodulatory capable of modifying or regulating one or more immune functions.

Immunoreactive reacting to particular antigens or haptens.

Immunostimulant agent that stimulates an im-mune response.

Immunosuppression involves a process that re-duces the activation or ef fi cacy of the immune system.

Immunotoxin a man-made protein that consists of a targeting portion linked to a toxin.

Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) a pre-diabetic state of dysglycemia associated with insulin resistance, increased risk of cardio-vascular pathology and also a risk factor for mortality.

Impetigo a contagious, bacterial skin infection characterized by blisters that may itch, caused


by a Streptoccocus bacterium or Staphylococcus aureus and mostly seen in children.

Impotence a sexual dysfunction characterized by the inability to develop or maintain an erec-tion of the penis.

Incontinence (fecal) the inability to control bowel’s movement.

Incontinence (Urine) the inability to control urine excretion.

Incretin a group of gastrointestinal hormones that cause an increase in the amount of insu-lin released from the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans after a meal; members include GIP and GLP-1.

Index of structural atypia (ISA) index of struc-tural abnormality.

Induration hardened, as a soft tissue that be-comes extremely fi rm, sclerosis.

Infarct an area of living tissue that undergoes necrosis as a result of obstruction of local blood supply.

Infarction is the process of tissue death (necro-sis) caused by blockage of the tissue’s blood supply.

In fl ammation a protective response of the body to infection, irritation or other injury, aimed at destroying or isolating the injuries and charac-terized by redness, pain, warmth and swelling.

In fl uenza a viral infection that affects mainly the nose, throat, bronchi and occasionally, lungs.

Infusion a liquid extract obtained by steeping something (e.g. herbs) that are more volatile or dissolve readily in water, to release their ac-tive ingredients without boiling.

Inguinal hernia a hernia into the inguinal canal of the groin.

Inhalant a medicinal substance that is admin-istered as a vapor into the upper respiratory passages.

iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthases through its product, nitric oxide (NO), may contribute to the induction of germ cell apoptosis. It plays a crucial role in early sepsis-related microcir-culatory dysfunction.

Inotropic affecting the force of muscle con-traction.

Insecticide an agent that destroys insects. adj . insecticidal.

Insomnia a sleeping disorder characterized by the inability to fall asleep and/or the

inability to remain asleep for a reasonable amount of time.

Insulin a peptide hormone composed of 51 amino acids produced in the islets of Langer-hans in the pancreas causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle. Insulin de fi ciency is often the cause of diabetes and exogenous insulin is used to control diabetes.

Insulin homeostasis blood sugar regulation. Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) polypep-

tides with high sequence similarity to insulin. They are part of a complex system that cells employ to communicate with their physiologic environment.

Insulin-mimetic to act like insulin. Insulin resistance a condition where the natural

hormone insulin becomes less effective at re-ducing blood sugars.

Insulinogenic associated with or stimulating the production of insulin.

Insulinotropic stimulating or affecting the pro-duction and activity of insulin.

Integrase an enzyme produced by a retrovirus (such as HIV) that enables its genetic material to be integrated into the DNA of the infected cell.

Interferons (IFNs) are natural cell-signaling glycoproteins known as cytokines produced by the cells of the immune system of most vertebrates in response to challenges such as viruses, parasites and tumour cells.

Interleukins a group of naturally occurring proteins and is a subset of a larger group of cellular messenger molecules called cytokines, which are modulators of cellular behavior.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) a cytokine that could in-duce fever, control lymphocytes, increase the number of bone marrow cells and cause degen-eration of bone joints. Also called endogenous pyrogen, lymphocyte activating factor, haemo-poetin-1 and mononuclear cell factor, amongst others that IL-1 is composed of two distinct proteins, now called IL-1 a and IL-1 b .

Interleukin 1 Beta (IL-1 b ) a cytokine protein produced by activated macrophages. cytokine is an important mediator of the in fl ammatory response, and is involved in a variety of cel-lular activities, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.

535Medical Glossary

Interleukin 2 (IL-2) a type of cytokine immune system signaling molecule that is instrumen-tal in the body’s natural response to microbial infection.

Interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R) a heterotri-meric protein expressed on the surface of cer-tain immune cells, such as lymphocytes, that binds and responds to a cytokine called IL-2.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) an interleukin that acts as both a pro-in fl ammatory and anti-in fl ammatory cytokine.

Interleukin 8 (I- 8) a cytokine produced by macrophages and other cell types such as epi-thelial cells and is one of the major mediators of the in fl ammatory response.

Intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) is one of the fi ve major groups of lipoproteins (chy-lomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL) that enable fats and cholesterol to move within the water-based solution of the bloodstream. IDL is further degraded to form LDL particles and, like LDL, can also promote the growth of ather-oma and increase cardiovascular diseases.

Intermittent claudication an aching, crampy, tired, and sometimes burning pain in the legs that comes and goes, caused by peripheral vascular disease. I t usually occurs with walk-ing and disappears after rest.

Interoceptive relating to stimuli arising from within the body.

Interstitium the space between cells in a tissue. Interstitial pertaining to the interstitium. Intertrigo an in fl ammation (rash) caused by mi-

crobial infection in skin folds. Intima innermost layer of an artery or vein. Intoxicant substance that produce drunkenness

or intoxication. Intracavernosal within the copus cavernsoum,

columns of erectile tissues forming the body of the penis.

Intraperitoneal (i.p.) the term used when a chemical is contained within or administered through the peritoneum (the thin, transparent membrane that lines the walls of the abdomen).

Intrathecal (i.t.) through the theca of the spinal cord into the subarachnoid space.

Intromission the act of putting one thing into another.

Intubation refers to the placement of a tube into an external or internal ori fi ce of the body.

Iodine (I) is an essential chemical element that is important for hormone development in the human body. Lack of iodine can lead to an enlarged thyroid gland (goitre) or other iodine de fi ciency disorders including mental retarda-tion and stunted growth in babies and chil-dren. Iodine is found in dairy products, sea-food, kelp, seaweeds, eggs, some vegetables and iodized salt.

IP see Intraperitoneal. IP3R3 (inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor

type 3) is an intracellular calcium release channel that mediates calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Iron (Fe) is essential to most life forms and to normal human physiology. In humans, iron is an essential component of proteins involved in oxygen transport and for haemoglobin. It is also essential for the regulation of cell growth and differentiation. A de fi ciency of iron limits oxygen delivery to cells, resulting in fatigue, poor work performance, and decreased im-munity. Conversely, excess amounts of iron can result in toxicity and even death. Dietary sources include, certain cereals, dark green leafy vegetables, dried fruit, legumes, seafood, poultry and meat.

Ischemia an insuf fi cient supply of blood to an organ, usually due to a blocked artery.

Ischuria retention or suppression of urine. Iso fl avones a subgroup of fl avonoids in which

the basic structure is a 3-phenyl chromane skeleton. They act as phytoestrogens in mam-mals. See fl avonoids.

Isomers substances that are composed of the same elements in the same proportions and hence have the same molecular formula but differ in properties because of differences in the arrangement of atoms.

Isoprostanes unique prostaglandin-like com-pounds generated in vivo from the free radi-cal-catalysed peroxidation of essential fatty acids.

Jamu traditional Indonesian herbal medicine. Jaundice refers to the yellow color of the skin

and whites of the eyes caused by excess bili-rubin in the blood.

JNK (Jun N-terminal Kinase), also known as Stress Activated Protein Kinase (SAPK), belongs to the family of MAP kinases.


Jurkat cells a line of T lymphocyte cells that are used to study acute T cell leukemia.

KB cell a cell line derived from a human carci-noma of the nasopharynx, used as an assay for antineoplastic (anti-tumour) agents.

Kaliuresis the presence of excess potassium in the urine.

Kallikreins peptidases (enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins), a subgroup of the serine protease family; they liberate kinins from kininogens. Kallikreins are targets of active investigation by drug researchers as possible biomarkers for cancer.

Kaposi sarcoma a cancerous tumour of the connective tissues caused by the huma herpes-virus 8 and is often associated with AIDS.

Kaposi sarcoma herpes virus (KSHV) also known as human herpesvirus-8, is a gamma 2 herpesvirus or rhadinovirus. It plays an impor-tant role in the pathogenesis of Kaposi sarcoma (KS), multicentric Castleman disease (MCD) of the plasma cell type, and primary effusion lymphoma and occurs in HIV patients.

Karyolysis dissolution and disintegration of the nucleus when a cell dies.

Karyorrhexis destructive fragmentation of the nucleus of a dying cell whereby its chromatin disintegrates into formless granules.

Keratin a sulphur-containing protein which is a major component in skin, hair, nails, hooves, horns, and teeth.

Keratinocyte is the major constituent of the epi-dermis, constituting 95% of the cells found there.

Keratinophilic having an af fi nity for keratin. Keratitis in fl ammation of the cornea. Keratomalacia an eye disorder that leads to a

dry cornea. Kidney stones (calculi) are hardened mineral

deposits that form in the kidney. Kinin is any of various structurally related polypep-

tides, such as bradykinin, that act locally to induce vasodilation and contraction of smooth muscle.

Kininogen either of two plasma a 2-globulins that are kinin precursors.

Ki-67 human protein associated with cell prolif-eration.

Knockout gene knockout is a genetic technique in which an organism is engineered to carry genes that have been made inoperative.

Kunitz protease inhibitors a type of protein contained in legume seeds which functions as a protease inhibitor.

Kupffer cells are resident macrophages of the liver and play an important role in its normal physiology and homeostasis as well as partici-pating in the acute and chronic responses of the liver to toxic compounds.

L-Dopa (L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) is an amino acid that is formed in the liver and con-verted into dopamine in the brain.

Labour process of childbirth involving muscu-lar contractions.

Lacrimation secretion and discharge of tears. Lactagogue an agent that increases or stimu-

lates milk fl ow or production. Also called a galactagogue.

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) enzyme that cat-alyzes the conversion of lactate to pyruvate.

Lactation secretion and production of milk. Lactic acidosis is a condition caused by the

buildup of lactic acid in the body. It leads to acidi fi cation of the blood (acidosis), and is considered a distinct form of metabolic acidosis.

LAK cell a lymphokine-activated killer cell i.e. a white blood cell that has been stimulated to kill tumour cells.

Laminin a glycoprotein component of connec-tive tissue basement membrane that promotes cell adhesion.

Laparotomy a surgical procedure involving an incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity. adj. laparo-tomized.

Larvacidal an agent which kills insect or para-site larva.

Laryngitis is an in fl ammation of the larynx. Laxation bowel movement. Laxatives substances that are used to promote

bowel movement. LC 50 median lethal concentration, see LD

50 .

LD 50 median lethal dose - the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population. Also called LC 50 (median lethal concen-tration).

LDL see low-density lipoprotein. LDL Cholesterol see low-density lipoprotein. LDL receptor (LDLr) a low-density lipopro-

tein receptor gene.

537Medical Glossary

Lectins are sugar-binding proteins that are highly speci fi c for their sugar moieties, that aggluti-nate cells and/or precipitate glycoconjugates. They play a role in biological recognition phenomena involving cells and proteins.

Leishmaniasis a disease caused by protozoan parasites that belong to the genus Leishma-nia and is transmitted by the bite of certain species of sand fl y.

Lenitive palliative. Lenticular opacity also known as or related to

cataract. Leprosy a chronic bacterial disease of the skin

and nerves in the hands and feet and, in some cases, the lining of the nose. It is caused by the Mycobacterium leprae. Also called Hansen’s disease.

Leptin is a 16 kDa protein hormone with impor-tant effects in regulating body weight, metab-olism and reproductive function.

Lequesne Algofunctional Index is a wide-spread international instrument (10 questions survey) and recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for outcome measurement in hip and knee diseases such as osteoarthritis.

Leucocyte white blood corpuscles, colour-less, without haemoglobin that help to com-bat infection.

Leucoderma a skin abnormality characterized by white spots, bands and patches on the skin; they can also be caused by fungus and tinea. Also see vitiligo.

Leucorrhoea commonly known as whites, re-fers to a whitish discharge from the female genitals.

Leukemia, leukaemia a cancer of the blood or bone marrow and is characterized by an abnormal proliferation (production by multi-plication) of blood cells, usually white blood cells (leukocytes).

Leukemogenic relating to leukemia, causing leukemia.

Leukocytopenia abnormal decrease in the number of leukocytes (white blood cells) in the blood.

Leukomyelopathy any diseases involving the white matter of the spinal cord.

Leukopenia a decrease in the number of circu-lating white blood cells.

Leukoplakia condition characterized by white spots or patches on mucous membranes, espe-cially of the mouth and vulva.

Leukotriene a group of hormones that cause the in fl ammatory symptoms of hay-fever and asthma.

Luteolysis degeneration of the corpus luteum and ovarian luteinized tissues. adj. luteolytic.

Levarterenol see Norepinephrine. LexA repressor or Repressor LexA is repressor

enzyme that represses SOS response genes coding for DNA polymerases required for repairing DNA damage.

Libido sexual urge. Lichen planus a chronic mucocutaneous dis-

ease that affects the skin, tongue, and oral mucosa.

Ligroin a volatile, in fl ammable fraction of petroleum, obtained by distillation and used as a solvent.

Limbic system complex set of brain structures, including the hypothalamus, amygdala, hip-pocampus, anterior thalamic nuclei, septum, limbic cortex and fornix that control various functions such as emotion, behaviour, motiva-tion, memory and olfaction.

Liniment liquid preparation rubbed on skin, used to relieve muscular aches and pains.

Linterized starch starch that has undegone pro-longed acid treatment.

Lipodiatic having lipid and lipoprotein lower-ing property.

Lipodystrophy a medical condition character-ized by abnormal or degenerative conditions of the body’s adipose tissue.

Lipogenesis is the process by which acetyl-CoA is converted to fats.

Lipolysis is the breakdown of fat stored in fat cells in the body.

Lipooxygenase enzyme that catalyzes the oxi-dation of polyunsaturated fatty acids to form a peroxide of the acid.

Liposomes arti fi cially prepared vesicles made of lipid bilayer.

Lipotoxicity refers to tissues diseases that may occur when fatty acids spillover in excess of the oxidative needs of those tissues and en-hances metabolic fl ux into harmful pathways of nonoxidative metabolism.


Lipotropic refers to compounds that help catal-yse the breakdown of fat during metabolism in the body. e.g. chlorine and lecithin.

Lipoxygenase a family of iron-containing en-zymes that catalyse the dioxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in lipids contain-ing a cis , cis -1,4- pentadiene structure.

Lithiasis formation of urinary calculi (stones) in the renal system (kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra) can be of any one of several compositions.

Lithogenic promoting the formation of calculi (stones).

Lithontripic removes stones from kidney, gall bladder.

Liver X receptors nuclear hormones that func-tion as central transcriptional regulators for lipid homeostasis.

Lotion a liquids suspension or dispersion of chemicals for external application to the body.

Lovo cells colon cancer cells. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is a type of li-

poprotein that transports cholesterol and trig-lycerides from the liver to peripheral tissues. High levels of LDL cholesterol can signal medical problems like cardiovascular disease, and it is sometimes called “bad cholesterol.

LRP1 low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1, plays a role in intracellular signal-ing functions as well as in lipid metabolism.

LTB4 a type of leukotriene, a major metabolite in neutrophil polymorphonuclear leukocytes. It stimulates polymorphonuclear cell function (degranulation, formation of oxygen-centered free radicals, arachidonic acid release, and metabolism). It induces skin in fl ammation.

Luciferase is a generic name for enzymes com-monly used in nature for bioluminescence.

Lumbago is the term used to describe general lower back pain.

Lung abscess necrosis of the pulmonary tissue and formation of cavities containing necrotic debris or fl uid caused by microbial infections.

Lusitropic an agent that affects diastolic relaxation. Lutein a carotenoid, occurs naturally as yellow or

orange pigment in some fruits and leafy vegeta-bles. It is one of the two carotenoids contained within the retina of the eye. Within the central macula, zeaxanthin predominates, whereas in the peripheral retina, lutein predominates.

Lutein is necessary for good vision and may also help prevent or slow down atherosclero-sis, the thickening of arteries, which is a major risk for cardiovascular disease.

Luteinising hormone (LH) a hormone pro-duced by the anterior pituitary gland. In fe-males, it triggers ovulation. In males, it stim-ulates the production of testosterone to aid sperm maturation.

Luteolysis is the structural and functional deg-radation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the es-trous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy.

Lymphadenitis-cervical in fl ammation of the lymph nodes in the neck, usually caused by an infection.

Lymphatitis in fl ammation of lymph vessels and nodes.

Lymphadenopathy a term meaning “disease of the lymph nodes – lymph node enlargement.

Lymphadenomegaly is the enlargement of the lymph node/nodes.

Lymphoblastic pertaining to the production of lymphocytes.

Lymphocyte a small white blood cell (leuco-cyte) that plays a large role in defending the body against disease. Lymphocytes are re-sponsible for immune responses. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells. Lymphocytes secrete products (lymphok-ines) that modulate the functional activities of many other types of cells and are often present at sites of chronic in fl ammation.

Lymphocyte B cells the B cells make antibodies that attack bacteria and toxins.

Lymphocyte T cells T cells attack body cells themselves when they have been taken over by viruses or have become cancerous.

Lymphoma a type of cancer involving cells of the immune system, called lymphocytes.

Lymphopenia abnormally low number of lymphocytes in the blood.

Lysosomes are small, spherical organelles con-taining digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases) and other proteases (cathepsins).

Maceration softening or separating of parts by soaking in a liquid.

Macrophage a type of large leukocyte that trav-els in the blood but can leave the bloodstream

539Medical Glossary

and enter tissue; like other leukocytes it pro-tects the body by digesting debris and foreign cells.

Macular degeneration a disease that gradually destroys the macula, the central portion of the retina, reducing central vision.

Macules small circumscribed changes in the color of skin that are neither raised (elevated) nor depressed.

Maculopapular describes a rash characterized by raised, spotted lesions.

Magnesium (M g) is the fourth most abundant mineral in the body and is essential to good health. It is important for normal muscle and nerve function, steady heart rhythm, immune system, and strong bones. Magnesium also helps regulate blood sugar levels, promotes normal blood pressure, and is known to be involved in energy metabolism and protein synthesis and plays a role in preventing and managing disorders such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. Dietary sources include legumes (e.g. soya bean and by-products), nuts, whole unre fi ned grains, fruit (e.g. banana, apricots), okra and green leafy vegetables.

MAK cell macrophage-activated killer cell, activated macrophage that is much more phagocytic than monocytes.

Malaise a feeling of weakness, lethargy or discomfort as of impending illness.

Malaria is an infection of the blood by Plasmo-dium parasite that is carried from person to per-son by mosquitoes. There are four species of malaria parasites that infect man: Plasmodium falciparum , so called ‘malignant tertian fever’, is the most serious disease, Plasmodium vivax , causing a relapsing form of the disease, Plas-modium malariae , and Plasmodium ovale .

Malassezia a fungal genus (previously known as Pityrosporum ) classi fi ed as yeasts, natural-ly found on the skin surfaces of many animals including humans. It can cause hypopigmen-tation on the chest or back if it becomes an opportunistic infection.

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) path-way that regulates mitochondrial oxygen con-sumption and oxidative capacity.

Mammogram an x-ray of the breast to detect tumours.

Mandibular relating to the mandible, the hu-man jaw bone.

Manganese is an essential element for heath. It is an important constituent of some enzymes and an activator of other enzymes in physi-ologic processes. Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) is the principal antioxi-dant enzyme in the mitochondria. Manganese-activated enzymes play important roles in the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol. Manganese is the preferred cofactor of enzymes called glycosyltransfer-ases which are required for the synthesis of proteoglycans that are needed for the forma-tion of healthy cartilage and bone. Dietary source include whole grains, fruit, legumes (soybean and by-products), green leafy veg-etables, beetroot and tea.

MAO activity monoamine oxidase activity. MAPK (Mitogen-activated protein kinase)

these kinases are strongly activated in cells subjected to osmotic stress, UV radiation, dis-regulated K + currents, RNA-damaging agents, and a multitude of other stresses, as well as in fl ammatory cytokines, endotoxin, and with-drawal of a trophic factor. The stress-responsive MAPKs mediate a plethora of cellular respons-es to such stressful stimuli, including apoptosis and production of in fl ammatory and immuno-regulatory cytokines in diverse cell systems.

Marasmus is one of the three forms of serious protein-energy malnutrition.

Mastectomy surgery to remove a breast. Masticatory a substance chewed to increase

salivation. Also called sialogue. Mastitis a bacterial infection of the breast which

usually occurs in breastfeeding mothers. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) a member

of a group of enzymes that can break down proteins, such as collagen, that are normally found in the spaces between cells in tissues (i.e., extracellular matrix proteins). Matrix metalloproteinases are involved in wound healing, angiogenesis, and tumour cell metas-tasis. See also metalloproteinase.

MBC minimum bacterial concentration - the low-est concentration of antibiotic required to kill an organism.

MCP-1 monocyte chemotactic protein-1, plays a role in the recruitment of monocytes to sites


of infection and injury. It is a member of small inducible gene (SIG) family.

MDA malondialdehyde is one of the most fre-quently used indicators of lipid peroxidation.

Measles an acute, highly communicable rash illness due to a virus transmitted by direct contact with infectious droplets or, less com-monly, by airborne spread.

Mechanonociceptors sensory neurons that are mechanically sensitive found in all of the paraspinal connective tissues including liga-ment, joint capsule, annulus fi brosus of the intervertebral disk, muscle, tendon, and skin. They respond to a noxius (damaging) me-chanical load.

Medial Preoptic Area is located at the rostral end of the hypothalamus, it is important for the regulation of male sexual behavior.

Megaloblastic anemia an anemia that results from inhibition of DNA synthesis in red blood cell production, often due to a de fi ciency of vitamin B12 or folate and is characterized by many large immature and dysfunctional red blood cells (megaloblasts) in the bone marrow.

Melaene (melena) refers to the black, “tarry” feces that are associated with gastrointestinal hemorrhage.

Melanogenesis production of melanin by living cells.

Melanoma malignant tumour of melanocytes which are found predominantly in skin but also in the bowel and the eye and appear as pigmented lesions.

Melatonin a hormone produced in the brain by the pineal gland, it is important in the regula-tion of the circadian rhythms of several bio-logical functions.

Menarche the fi rst menstrual cycle, or fi rst menstrual bleeding, in female human beings.

Menorrhagia heavy or prolonged menstruation, too-frequent menstrual periods.

Menopausal refer to permanent cessation of menstruation.

Menses see menstruation. Menstruation the approximately monthly dis-

charge of blood from the womb in women of childbearing age who are not pregnant. Also called menses. adj. menstrual.

Mesangial cells are specialized cells around blood vessels in the kidneys, at the mesangium.

Mesothelioma is an aggressive cancer affect-ing the membrane lining of the lungs and abdomen.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) represents a combination of cardiometabolic risk fac-tors, including visceral obesity, glucose intolerance or type 2 diabetes, elevated triglycerides, reduced HDL cholesterol, and hypertension.

Metabonome complete set of metabologically regulated elements in cells.

Metalloproteinase enzymes that breakdown proteins and requiring zinc or calcium atoms for proper function.

Metallothionein (MT) a family of cysteine-rich, low molecular weight (500 to 14000 Da) proteins.

Meta-analysis a statistical procedure that com-bines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses.

Metaphysis is the portion of a long bone be-tween the epiphyses and the diaphysis of the femur.

Metaphyseal pertaining to the metaphysis. Metaplasia transformation of one type of one

mature differentiated cell type into another mature differentiated cell type.

Metastasis is the movement or spreading of can-cer cells from one organ or tissue to another.

Metetrus the quiescent period of sexual inactiv-ity between oestrus cycles.

Metroptosis the slipping or falling out of place of an organ (as the uterus).

Metrorrhagia uterine bleeding at irregular in-tervals, particularly between the expected menstrual periods.

Mevinolin a potent inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoA reductase).

MHC acronym for major histocompatibility complex, a large cluster of genes found on the short arm of chromosome 6 in most ver-tebrates that encodes MHC molecules. MHC molecules play an important role in the im-mune system and autoimmunity.

MHC 11 molecules Class II MHC molecules belong to a group of molecules known as the Immunoglobulin Supergene Family, which includes immunoglobulins, T-cell receptors, CD4, CD8, and others.

541Medical Glossary

MIC minimum inhibitory concentration - lowest concentration of an antimicrobial that will in-hibit the visible growth of a microorganism.

Micelle a submicroscopic aggregation of mol-ecules.

Micellization formation process of micelles. Microangiopathy (or microvascular disease) is

an angiopathy affecting small blood vessels in the body.

Micro fi laria a pre-larval parasitic worm of the family Onchocercidae, found in the vector and in the blood or tissue fl uid of human host.

Micronuclei small particles consisting of acen-tric fragments of chromosomes or entire chro-mosomes, which lag behind at anaphase of cell division.

Microsomal PGE2 synthase is the enzyme that catalyses the fi nal step in prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) biosynthesis.

Microvasculature the fi ner vessels of the body, as the arterioles, capillaries, and venules.

Micturition urination, act of urinating. Migraine a neurological syndrome character-

ized by altered bodily perceptions, severe, painful headaches, and nausea.

Mimosine is an alkaloid, b -3-hydroxy-4 pyri-done amino acid, it is a toxic non-protein free amino acid and is an antinutrient.

Mineral apposition rate MAR, rate of addition of new layers of mineral on the trabecular sur-faces of bones.

Miscarriage spontaneous abortion. Mitochondrial complex I the largest enzyme in

the mitochondrial respiratory oxidative phos-phorylation system.

Mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) is an increase in the permeability of the mi-tochondrial membranes to molecules of less than 1500 Daltons in molecular weight. MPT is one of the major causes of cell death in a variety of conditions.

Mitogen an agent that triggers mitosis, elicit all the signals necessary to induce cell proliferation.

Mitogenic able to induce mitosis or transfor-mation.

Mitogenicity process of induction of mitosis. Mitomycin a chemotherapy drug that is given

as a treatment for several different types of cancer, including breast, stomach, oesophagus and bladder cancers.

Mitosis cell division in which the nucleus di-vides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.

MMP matrix metalloproteinases, a group of peptidases involved in degradation of the ex-tracellular matrix (ECM).

Mnestic pertaining to memory. Molecular docking is a key tool in structural

molecular biology and computer-assisted drug design.

Molluscidal destroying molluscs like snails. Molt 4 cells MOLT4 cells are lymphoblast-like

in morphology and are used for studies of apoptosis, tumour cytotoxicity, tumorigenic-ity, as well as for antitumour testing.

Molybdenum (Mo) is an essential element that forms part of several enzymes such as xanthine oxidase involved in the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid and use of iron. Mo-lybdenum concentrations also affect protein synthesis, metabolism, and growth. Dietary sources include meat, green beans, eggs, sun fl ower seeds, wheat fl our, lentils, and ce-real grain.

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) is an isozyme of monoamine oxidase. It preferentially deaminates norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline), serotonin, and do-pamine.

Monoaminergic of or pertaining to neurons that secrete monoamine neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing single antibody-forming cells to tumour cells grown in culture.

Monocyte large white blood cell that ingest microbes, other cells and foreign matter.

Monogalactosyl diglyceride are the major lipid components of chloroplasts.

Monorrhagia is heavy bleeding and that’s usu-ally de fi ned as periods lasting longer than 7 days or excessive bleeding.

Morbidity a diseased state or symptom or can refer either to the incidence rate or to the prev-alence rate of a disease.

Morello fl avone a bi fl avonoid extracted from Garcinia dulcis , has shown antioxidative, antiviral, and anti-in fl ammatory properties.

Morphine the major alkaloid of opium and a potent narcotic analgesic.


MTTP microsomal triglyceride transfer protein that is required for the assembly and secretion of triglyceride -rich lipoproteins from both en-terocytes and hepatocytes.

MUC 5AC mucin 5AC, a secreted gel-forming protein mucin with a high molecular weight of about 641 kDa.

Mucositis painful in fl ammation and ulceration of the mucous membranes lining the diges-tive tract.

Mucous relating to mucus. Mucolytic capable of reducing the viscosity of

mucus, or an agent that so acts. Mucus viscid secretion of the mucous mem-

brane. Multidrug resistance (MDR) ability of a liv-

ing cell to show resistance to a wide variety of structurally and functionally unrelated com-pounds.

Muscarinic receptors are G protein-coupled acetylcholine receptors found in the plasma membranes of certain neurons and other cells.

Mutagen an agent that induces genetic mutation by causing changes in the DNA.

Mutagenic capable of inducing mutation (used mainly for extracellular factors such as X-rays or chemical pollution).

Myalgia muscle pain. Myc codes for a protein that binds to the DNA

of other genes and is therefore a transcription factor, found on chromosome 8 in human.

Mycosis an infection or disease caused by a fungus. Myelocyte is a young cell of the granulocytic

series, occurring normally in bone marrow, but not in circulating blood.

Myeloid leukaemia (Chronic) a type of can-cer that affects the blood and bone marrow, characterized by excessive number of white blood cells.

Myeloma cancer that arise in the plasma cells a type of white blood cells.

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is a peroxidase en-zyme most abundantly present in neutrophil granulocytes (a subtype of white blood cells). It is an in fl ammatory enzyme produced by activated leukocytes that predicts risk of cor-onary heart disease.

Myeloproliferative disorder disease of the bone marrow in which excess cells are pro-duced.

Myelosuppressive causing bone marrow sup-pression.

Myelotoxicity state of being toxic to myeloid tissues, the bone marrow.

Myocardial relating to heart muscles tissues. Myocardial infarction (MI) is the rapid devel-

opment of myocardial necrosis caused by a critical imbalance between oxygen supply and demand of the myocardium.

Myocardial ischemia an intermediate condi-tion in coronary artery disease during which the heart tissue is slowly or suddenly starved of oxygen and other nutrients.

Myocardial lipidosis is the accumulation of fat droplets in myocardial fi bers.

Myoclonus brief, involuntary twitching of a muscle or a group of muscles.

Myogenesis the formation of muscular tissue, especially during embryonic development.

Myopathy a muscular disease wherein the mus-cle fi bres do not function for any one of many reasons, resulting in muscular weakness.

Myopia near – or short-sightedness. Myosarcoma a malignant muscle tumour. Myotonia dystrophica an inherited disorder

of the muscles and other body systems char-acterized by progressive muscle weakness, prolonged muscle contractions (myotonia), clouding of the lens of the eye (cataracts), cardiac abnormalities, balding, and infertility.

Myotube a developing skeletal muscle fi ber or cell with a tubular appearance and a centrally located nucleus.

Myringosclerosis also known as tympanoscle-rosis or intratympanic tympanosclerosis, is a condition caused by calci fi cation of colla-gen tissues in the tympanic membrane of the middle ear.

Mytonia a symptom of certain neuromuscular disorders characterized by the slow relaxation of the muscles after voluntary contraction or electrical stimulation.

Myotube a developing skeletal muscle fi bre with a tubular appearance.

N-nitrosmorpholine a human carcinogen. N-nitrosoproline an indicator for N-nitrosation

of amines. NADPH The reduced form of nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide phosphate that serves as an electron carrier.

543Medical Glossary

NAFLD Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Narcotic an agent that produces narcosis, in

moderate doses it dulls the senses, relieves pain and induces sleep; in excessive dose it cause stupor, coma, convulsions and death.

Nasopharynx upper part of the alimentary continuous with the nasal passages.

Natriorexia excessive intake of sodium evoked by sodium depletion. adj. natriorexic, natri-orexigenic.

Natriuresis the discharge of excessive large amount of sodium through urine. adj. natri-uretic.

Natural killer cells (NK cells) a type of cy-totoxic lymphocyte that constitute a major component of the innate immune system.

Natural killer T (NKT) cells a heterogeneous group of T cells that share properties of both T cells and natural killer (NK) cells.

Nausea sensation of unease and discomfort in the stomach with an urge to vomit.

Necropsy see autopsy. Necrosis morphological changes that follow cell

death, usually involving nuclear and cytoplas-mic changes.

Neointima a new or thickened layer of arterial intima formed especially on a prosthesis or in atherosclerosis by migration and proliferation of cells from the media.

Neonatal adj. of or relating to newborn infants or an infant.

Neoplasia abnormal growth of cells, which may lead to a neoplasm, or tumour.

Neoplasm tumour any new and abnormal growth, speci fi cally one in which cell mul-tiplication is uncontrolled and progressive. Neoplasms may be benign or malignant.

Neoplastic transformation conversion of a tis-sue with a normal growth pattern into a malig-nant tumour.

Neovasculature formation of new blood vessels. Nephrectomised kidneys surgically removed. Nephrectomy surgical removal of the kidney. Nephric relating to or connected with a kidney. Nephrin is a protein necessary for the proper

functioning of the renal fi ltration barrier. Nephritic syndrome is a collection of signs

(known as a syndrome) associated with dis-orders affecting the kidneys, more speci fi cally glomerular disorders.

Nephritis is in fl ammation of the kidney. Nephrolithiasis process of forming a kidney

stone in the kidney or lower urinary tract. Nephropathy a disorder of the kidney. Nephrotic syndrome nonspeci fi c disorder in

which the kidneys are damaged, causing them to leak large amounts of protein from the blood into the urine.

Nephrotoxicity poisonous effect of some sub-stances, both toxic chemicals and medication, on the kidney.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) a small protein that induces the differentiation and survival of particular target neurons (nerve cells).

Nervine a nerve tonic that acts therapeutically upon the nerves, particularly in the sense of a sedative that serves to calm ruf fl ed nerves.

Neural tube defects (NTDs) are common birth defects of the brain and spinal cord.

NEU 4 sialidase this protein belongs to a family of glycohydrolytic enzymes, which remove terminal sialic acid residues from various sialo derivatives, such as glycoproteins, glycolipids, oligosaccharides, and gangliosides.

Neuralgia is a sudden, severe painful disorder of the nerves.

Neuraminidase glycoside hydrolase enzymes that cleaves the glycosidic linkages of neuraminic acids.

Neuraminidase inhibitors a class of antiviral drugs targeted at the in fl uenza viruses whose mode of action consists of blocking the func-tion of the viral neuraminidase protein, thus preventing the virus from reproducing.

Neurasthenia a condition with symptoms of fatigue, anxiety, headache, impotence, neural-gia and impotence.

Neurasthenic a substance used to treat nerve pain and/or weakness (i.e. neuralgia, sciatica, etc).

Neurite refers to any projection from the cell body of a neuron.

Neuritis an in fl ammation of the nerve character-ized by pain, sensory disturbances and impair-ment of re fl exes. adj . neuritic.

Neuritogenesis the fi rst step of neuronal dif-ferentiation, takes place as nascent neurites bud from the immediate postmitotic neuronal soma.

Neuroblastoma a common extracranial cancer that forms in nerve tissues, common in infancy.


Neuroendocrine adj. of, relating to, or involv-ing the interaction between the nervous system and the hormones of the endocrine glands.

Neurogenesis process by which neurons are gen-erated from neural stem and progenitor cells.

Neurogenic originating from the nerves of the nervous system.

Neuroleptic refers to the effects on cognition and behavior of antipsychotic drugs that re-duce confusion, delusions, hallucinations, and psychomotor agitation in patients with psychoses.

Neuroma is a growth or tumour of nerve tissue. Neuropharmacological relating the effects of

drugs on the neurosystem. Neuroradiology is a subspecialty of radiology

focusing on the diagnosis and characterization of abnormalities of the central and peripheral nervous system . adj. neuroradiologic.

Neurotrophic relating to neutrophy i.e. the nu-trition and maintenance of nervous tissue.

Neutropenia a disorder of the blood, character-ized by abnormally low levels of neutrophils.

Neutrophil type of white blood cell, speci fi cally a form of granulocyte.

Neutrophin protein that induce the survival, de-velopment and function of neurons.

NF-kappa B (NF-kB) nuclear factor kappa B, is an ubiquitous rapid response transcrip-tion factor in cells involved in immune and in fl ammatory reactions.

Niacin vitamin B3. See vitamin B3. Niacinamide an amide of niacin, also known as

nicotinamide. See vitamin B3. NIH3T3 cells a mouse embryonic fi broblast cell

line used in the cultivation of keratinocytes. Niosomes are novel, vesicular, drug delivery

systems composed of nonionic surfactants in-stead of phospholipids; they are capable of en-trapping hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs.

Nitrogen (N) is an essential building block of amino and nucleic acids and proteins and is essential to all living organisms. Protein rich vegetables like legumes are rich food sources of nitrogen.

NK cells natural killer cells, a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte that constitute a major component of the innate immune system.

NK1.1+ T (NKT) cells a type of natural killer T (NKT) cells. See natural killer T cells.

NMDA receptor N-methyl- d -aspartate recep-tor, the predominant molecular device for controlling synaptic plasticity and memory function. A brain receptor activated by the amino acid glutamate, which when exces-sively stimulated may cause cognitive defects in Alzheimer’s disease.

Nociceptive causing pain, responding to a pain-ful stimulus.

Nociceptors specialized peripheral sensory neurons that responds to potentially damaging stimuli by sending nerve signals to the spinal cord and brain.

Non-osteogenic fi bromata of bone a benign tumour of bone which show no evidence of ossi fi cation.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease one cause of a fatty liver, occurring when fat is deposited (steatosis) in the liver not due to excessive al-cohol use.

Nootropics are substances which are claimed to boost human cognitive abilities (the func-tions and capacities of the brain). Also popu-larly referred to as “smart drugs”, “smart nutrients”, “cognitive enhancers” and “brain enhancers”.

Noradrenalin see Norepinephrine. Norepinephrine a substance, both a hormone

and neurotransmitter, secreted by the adrenal medulla and the nerve endings of the sympa-thetic nervous system to cause vasoconstric-tion and increases in heart rate, blood pres-sure, and the sugar level of the blood. Also called levarterenol, noradrenalin.

Normoglycaemic having the normal amount of glucose in the blood.

Normotensive having normal blood pressure. Nosebo a harmless substance that when taken

by a patient is associated with unpleasant or harmful effects due to negative expectations or the psychological state of the person.

Nosocomial infections infections which are a result of treatment in a hospital or a healthcare service unit, but secondary to the patient’s original condition.

NPC1L1 Niemann-Pick C1-Like 1 gene that plays a major role in cholesterol homeosta-sis. It is critical for the uptake of cholesterol across the plasma membrane of the intestinal enterocyte.

545Medical Glossary

Nrf2 NF-E2-related factor 2, a transcription factor that activates ARE-containing genes.

Nrf2/ARE pathway plays an important role in inducing phase II detoxifying enzymes and antioxidant proteins and has been considered a potential target for cancer chemoprevention because it eliminates harmful reactive oxygen species or reactive intermediates generated from carcinogens.

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) a transcription factor that plays a major role in response to oxidative stress by binding to antioxidant-responsive elements that regu-late many hepatic phase I and II enzymes as well as hepatic ef fl ux transporters.

Nucleosomes fundamental repeating subunits of all eukaryotic chromatin, consisting of a DNA chain coiled around a core of histones.

Nulliparous term used to describe a woman who has never given birth.

Nyctalopia night blindness, impaired vision in dim light and in the dark, due to impaired function of certain specialized vision cells.

Nystagmus fast, involuntary movements of the eyes.

Nycturia excessive urination at night; especially common in older men.

Occludin a novel integral membrane protein localizing at tight junctions cf tight junction.

Occlusion closure or blockage (as of a blood vessel).

Occlusive peripheral arterial disease (PAOD) also known as peripheral vascular disease (PVD), or peripheral arterial disease (PAD) refers to the obstruction of large arteries not within the coronary, aortic arch vasculature, or brain. PVD can result from atherosclerosis, in fl ammatory processes leading to stenosis, an embolism, or thrombus formation.

Oculomotor nerve the third of twelve paired cranial nerves.

Odds ratio a statistical measure of effect size, describing the strength of association or non-independence between two binary data val-ues.

Odontalgia toothache. adj. odontalgic. Odontopathy any disease of the teeth. Oedema see edema. Oligoarthritis an in fl ammation of two, three or

four joints.

Oligonucleosome a series of nucleosomes. Oligospermia or oligozoospermia refers to

semen with a low concentration of sperm, commonly associated with male infertility.

Oliguria decreased production of urine. Oligoanuria insuf fi cient urine volume to allow

for administration of necessary fl uids, etc. Omega 3 fatty acids are essential polyunsatu-

rated fatty acids that have in common a fi nal carbon–carbon double bond in the n−3 posi-tion. Dietary sources of omega-3 fatty acids include fi sh oil and certain plant/nut oils. The three most nutritionally important omega 3 fatty acids are alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapen-taenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Research indicates that omega 3 fatty acids are important in health promotion and disease and can help prevent a wide range of medical problems, including cardiovascular disease, depression, asthma, and rheumatoid arthritis.

Omega 6 fatty acids are essential polyunsatu-rated fatty acids that have in common a fi nal carbon–carbon double bond in the n−6 po-sition. Omega-6 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids (EFAs) found in veg-etable oils, nuts and seeds. They are essential to human health but cannot be made in the body. Omega-6 fatty acids – found in veg-etable oils, nuts and seeds – are a bene fi cial part of a heart-healthy eating. Omega-6 and omega-3 PUFA play a crucial role in heart and brain function and in normal growth and development. Linoleic acid (LA) is the main omega-6 fatty acid in foods, accounting for 85–90% of the dietary omega-6 PUFA. Other omega 6 acids include gamma-linolenic acid or GLA, sometimes called gamoleic acid, ei-cosadienoic acid, arachidonic acid and do-cosadienoic acid.

Omega 9 fatty acids are not essential polyun-saturated fatty acids that have in common a fi nal carbon–carbon double bond in the n−9 position. Some n−9s are common components of animal fat and vegetable oil. Two n−9 fatty acids important in industry are: oleic acid (18:1, n−9), which is a main component of olive oil and erucic acid (22:1, n−9), which is found in rapeseed, wall fl ower seed, and mustard seed.


Oncogenes genes carried by tumour viruses that are directly and solely responsible for the neoplastic (tumorous) transformation of host cells.

Oncosis accidental cell death, also referred to swelling necrosis.

Ophthalmia severe in fl ammation of eye, or the conjunctiva or deeper structures of the eye. Also called ophthalmitis.

Ophthalmia (Sympathetic) in fl ammation of both eyes following trauma to one eye.

Ophthalmopathy an autoimmune disease where the thyroid gland is overactive leading to ocular manifestations.

Opiate drug derived from the opium plant. Opioid receptors a group of G-protein coupled

receptors located in the brain and various organs that bind opiates or opioid substances.

Optic placode an ectodermal placode from which the lens of the embryonic eye develops; also called lens placode.

ORAC (Oxygen radical absorbance capacity) a method of measuring antioxidant capacities in biological samples.

Oral submucous fi brosis a chronic debilitat-ing disease of the oral cavity characterized by in fl ammation and progressive fi brosis of the submucosa tissues.

Oral thrush an infection of yeast fungus, Can-dida albicans , in the mucous membranes of the mouth.

Orchidectomy surgery to remove one or both testicles.

Orchidectomised with testis removed. Orchitis an acute painful in fl ammatory reaction

of the testis secondary to infection by different bacteria and viruses.

Orexigenic increasing or stimulating the appetite. Orofacial dyskinesia abnormal involuntary

movements involving muscles of the face, mouth, tongue, eyes, and occasionally, the neck—may be unilateral or bilateral, and con-stant or intermittent.

Oropharyngeal relating to the oropharynx. Oropharynx part of the pharynx between the

soft palate and the epiglottis. Ostalgia, Ostealgia pain in the bones. Also

called osteodynia. Osteoarthritis is the deterioration of the joints

that becomes more common with age.

Osteoarthrosis chronic nonin fl ammatory bone disease.

Osteoblast a mononucleate cell that is respon-sible for bone formation.

Osteoblastic relating to osteoblasts. Osteocalcin a noncollagenous protein found in

bone and dentin, also refer to as bone gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein.

Osteoclasts a kind of bone cell that removes bone tissue by removing its mineralized matrix.

Osteoclastogenesis the production of osteoclasts. Osteodynia pain in the bone. Osteogenic derived from or composed of any

tissue concerned in bone growth or repair. Osteomalacia refers to the softening of the

bones due to defective bone mineralization. Osteomyelo fi brosis a myeloproliferative disor-

der in which fi brosis and sclerosis fi nally lead to bone marrow obliteration.

Osteopenia reduction in bone mass, usually caused by a lowered rate of formation of new bone that is insuf fi cient to keep up with the rate of bone destruction.

Osteoporosis a disease of bone that leads to an increased risk of fracture.

Osteoprotegerin also called osteoclastogenesis inhibitory factor (OCIF), a cytokine, which can inhibit the production of osteoclasts.

Osteosacrcoma a malignant bone tumour. Also called osteogenic sarcoma.

Otalgia earache, pain in the ear. Otic placode a thickening of the ectoderm on

the outer surface of a developing embryo from which the ear develops.

Otitis in fl ammation of the inner or outer parts of the ear.

Otorrhea running drainage (discharge) exiting the ear.

Otopathy disease of the ear. Ovariectomised with one or two ovaries re-

moved. Ovariectomy surgical removal of one or both

ovaries. Oxidation the process of adding oxygen to a

compound, dehydrogenation or increasing the electro-negative charge.

Oxidoreductase activity catalysis of an oxi-dation-reduction (redox) reaction, a revers-ible chemical reaction. One substrate acts as a hydrogen or electron donor and becomes

547Medical Glossary

oxidized, while the other acts as hydrogen or electron acceptor and becomes reduced.

Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) a method of measuring antioxidant capacities in biological samples.

Oxytocic adj. hastening or facilitating child-birth, especially by stimulating contractions of the uterus.

Oxytocin is a mammalian hormone that also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. It is best known for its roles in female reproduction: it is released in large amounts after distension of the cervix and vagina during labor, and after stimulation of the nipples, facilitating birth and breastfeeding, respectively.

Oxyuriasis infestation by pinworms. Ozoena discharge of the nostrils caused by

chronic in fl ammation of the nostrils. p.o. per os, oral administration. P-glycoprotein (P-gp, ABCB1, MDR1) a cell

membrane-associated drug-exporting protein that transports a variety of drug substrates from cancer cells.

P- Selectin also known as CD62P, GMP-140, LLECAM-3, PADGEM, a member of the selectin family. It is expressed by activated platelets and endothelial cells.

p21waf1/cip1 encodes a cyclin-dependent ki-nase inhibitor that is transcriptionally activated by the p53 tumor suppressor gene, transform-ing growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta 1), AP2, and other pathways, all regulating apoptosis and the cell cycle.

Palliative relieving pain without alleviating the underlying problem.

Palpebral ptosis the abnormal drooping of the upper lid, caused by partial or total reduction in levator muscle function.

Palpitation rapid pulsation or throbbing of the heart.

Paludism state of having symptoms of malaria characterized by high fever and chills.

Pancreatectomized having undergone a pan-createctomy.

Pancreatectomy surgical removal of all or part of the pancreas.

Pancreatitis in fl ammation of the pancreas. Pancytopenia a hematological condition in

which there is a reduction in the number of red and white blood cells, as well as platelets.

Pantothenic acid vitamin B5. See vitamin B5. Papain a protein degrading enzyme used me-

dicinally and to tenderize meat. Papilloma a benign epithelial tumour growing

outwardly like in fi nger-like fronds. Papule a small, solid, usually in fl ammatory el-

evation of the skin that does not contain pus. Paradontosis is the in fl ammation of gums and

other deeper structures, including the bone. Paralytic person affected with paralysis, per-

taining to paralysis. Paraoxonase an enzyme that protects against

oxidation of low density lipoprotein and af-fects the risk of coronary artery disease.

Parasitemia presence of parasites in blood. adj. parasitemic.

Parasympathetic nervous system subsystem of the nervous systems that slows the heart rate and increases intestinal and gland activity and relaxes the sphincter muscles.

Parasympathomimetic having an action re-sembling that caused by stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system.

Paresthesia a sensation of tingling, burning, pricking, or numbness of a person’s skin with no apparent long-term physical effect. Also known as “pains and needles”.

Parenteral administration administration by intravenous, subcutaneous or intramuscular routes.

Paresis a condition characterised by partial loss of movement, or impaired movement.

Paresthesia is an abnormal sensation of the skin, such as burning, numbness, itching, hy-peresthesia (increased sensitivity) or tingling, with no apparent physical cause.

Parotitis in fl ammation of salivary glands. Paroxysm a sudden outburst of emotion

or action, a sudden attack, recurrence or intensi fi cation of a disease.

Paroxystic relating to an abnormal event of the body with an abrupt onset and an equally sud-den return to normal.

PARP see poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. Pars compacta is a portion of the substantia

nigra (a brain structure located in the mid-brain).

Parturition act of child birth. PCAF (P300/CBP-associated factor) - a histone

acetyl transferase (HAT) that plays a role in


regulation of transciton, cell cycle progression and differentiation.

PCE/PCN ratio polychromatic erythrocyte/normochromatic erythrocyte ratio use as a measure of cytotoxic effects.

PCNA proliferating cell nuclear antigen, an auxil-iary protein of DNA polymerase delata involve in modulating eukaryotic DNA replication.

pCREB phosphorylated cAMP (adenosine 3 ¢ 5 ¢ cyclic monophosphate)-response ele-ment binding protein.

PDEF acronym for prostate-derived ETS factor, an ETS (epithelial-speci fi c E26 transform-ing sequence) family member that has been identi fi ed as a potential tumour suppressor.

PDGR receptor (platelet-derived growth fac-tor receptor) are cell surface tyrosine kinase receptors for members of the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) family.

PDGFs platelet-derived growth factors con-stitute a group of growth factors that play a signi fi cant role in blood vessel formation, and the growth of blood vessels.

Pectoral pertaining to or used for the chest and respiratory tract.

pERK phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase, protein kinases involved in many cell functions.

P53 also known as protein 53 or tumour protein 53, is a tumour suppressor protein that in hu-mans is encoded by the TP53 gene.

Peliosis see purpura. Pellagra is a systemic nutritional wasting disease

caused by a de fi ciency of vitamin B3 (niacin). Pemphigus neonatorum Staphylococcal scald-

ed skin syndrome, a bacterial disease of in-fants, characterized by elevated vesicles or blebs on a normal or reddened skin.

Peptic ulcer a sore in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, the fi rst part of the small intestine.

Peptide Y a short (36 amino acid) pancreatic protein released by cells in the ileum and co-lon in response to feeding.

Percutanous pertains to a medical procedure where access to inner organs or tissues is done via needle puncture of the skin.

Perfusion to force fl uid through the lymphatic system or blood vessels to an organ or tissue.

Periapical periodontitis is the in fl ammation of the tissue adjacent to the tip of the tooth’s root.

Perifuse to fl ush a fresh supply of bathing fl uid around all of the outside surfaces of a small piece of tissue immersed in it.

Perilipins highly phosphorylated adipocyte proteins that are localized at the surface of the lipid droplet.

Perimenopause is the phase before menopause actually takes place, when ovarian hormone production is declining and fl uctuating. adj . perimenopausal.

Periodontal ligament (PDL) is a group of spe-cialized connective tissue fi bres that essential-ly attach a tooth to the bony socket.

Periodontitis is a severe form of gingivitis in which the in fl ammation of the gums extends to the supporting structures of the tooth. Also called pyorrhea.

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a disease in which plaque builds up in the arteries that carry blood to your head, organs, and limbs.

Peripheral neuropathy refers to damage to nerves of the peripheral nervous system.

Peripheral neuropathic pain (PNP) refers to situations where nerve roots or peripheral nerve trunks have been damaged by mechani-cal and/or chemical stimuli that exceeded the physical capabilities of the nervous system. Symptoms may include pain, parestesia, dysesthesia, spasm, weakness, hypoesthesia or anesthesia.

Peripheral vascular disease (PVD) see periph-eral artery occlusive disease.

Peristalsis a series of organized, wave-like muscle contractions that occur throughout the digestive tract.

PERK a transmembrane protein kinase of the PEK family resident in the endoplasmic retic-ulum (ER) membrane and is linked to insulin processing.

Perlingual through or by way of the tongue. Perniosis an abnormal reaction to cold that oc-

curs most frequently in women, children, and the elderly. Also called chilblains.

Per os (P.O.) oral administration. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors

(PPARs) a family of nuclear receptors that are involved in lipid metabolism, differentiation, proliferation, cell death, and in fl ammation.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-alpha) a nuclear receptor

549Medical Glossary

protein, transcription factor and a major reg-ulator of lipid metabolism in the liver.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR- g ) a type II nuclear receptor protein that regulates fatty acid storage and glucose metabolism.

Pertussis whooping cough, sever cough. Peyers Patches patches of lymphoid tissue or

lymphoid nodules on the walls of the ileal-small intestine.

PGE-2 Prostaglandin E2, a hormone-like sub-stance that is released by blood vessel walls in response to infection or in fl ammation that acts on the brain to induce fever.

Phagocytes are the white blood cells that pro-tect the body by ingesting (phagocytosing) harmful foreign particles, bacteria and dead or dying cells. adj. phagocytic.

Phagocytosis is process the human body uses to destroy dead or foreign cells.

Pharmacognosis the branch of pharmacology that studies the composition, use, and history of drugs.

Pharmacodynamics branch of pharmacol-ogy dealing with the effects of drugs and the mechanism of their action.

Pharmacokinetics branch of pharmacology con-cerned with the movement of drugs within the body including processes of absorption, distri-bution, metabolism and excretion in the body.

Pharmacopoeia authoritative treatise containing directions for the identi fi cation of drug samples and the preparation of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a government or a medical or pharmaceutical society and in a broader sense is a general reference work for pharmaceutical drug speci fi cations.

Pharyngitis, Pharyngolaryngitis in fl ammation of the pharynx and the larynx.

Pharyngolaryngeal pertaining to the pharynx and larynx.

Phenolics class of chemical compounds consist-ing of a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group.

Pheochromocytoma is a rare neuroendocrine tumour that usually originates from the ad-renal glands’ chromaf fi n cells, causing over-production of catecholamines, powerful hormones that induce high blood pressure and other symptoms.

Phlebitis is an in fl ammation of a vein, usually in the legs.

Phlegm abnormally viscid mucus secreted by the mucosa of the respiratory passages during certain infectious processes.

Phlegmon a spreading, diffuse in fl ammation of the soft or connective tissue due to infection by Streptococci bacteria.

Phoroglucinol a white, crystalline compound used as an antispasmodic, analytical reagent, and decalci fi er of bone specimens for micro-scopic examination.

Phosphatidylglycerol is a glycerophospho-lipid found in pulmonary active surface lipoprotein and consists of a L-glycerol 3-phosphate backbone ester-bonded to ei-ther saturated or unsaturated fatty acids on carbons 1 and 2.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI 3-kinases or PI3Ks) a group of enzymes involved in cellular functions such as cell growth, prolif-eration, differentiation, motility, survival and intracellular traf fi cking, which in turn are in-volved in cancer.

Phosphatidylserine a phosphoglyceride phos-pholipid that is one of the key building blocks of cellular membranes, particularly in the ner-vous system. It is derived from soy lecithin.

Phosphaturia a urinary tract condition of ex-cessive urine phosphorus, causing urine to appear cloudy or murky color; also called hy-pophosphatemia.

Phosphodiesterases a diverse family of en-zymes that hydrolyse cyclic nucleotides and thus play a key role in regulating intracellular levels of the second messengers cAMP and cGMP, and hence cell function.

Phosphoenolpyruvate C kinase (PEPCK) an enzyme in the lyase family used in the meta-bolic pathway of gluconeogenesis.

Phospholipase an enzyme that hydrolyzes phospholipids into fatty acids and other lipo-philic substances.

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) a small lipolytic en-zyme that releases fatty acids from the second carbon group of glycerol. Plays an essential role in the synthesis of prostaglandins and leu-kotrienes.

Phospholipase C enzymes that cleaves phos-pholipase.


Phospholipase C gamma (PLC gamma) en-zymes that cleaves phospholipase in cellular proliferation and differentiation, and its enzy-matic activity is upregulated by a variety of growth factors and hormones.

Phosphorus (P) is an essential mineral that makes up 1% of a person’s total body weight and is found in the bones and teeth. It plays an important role in the body’s utilization of carbohydrates and fats; in the synthesis of pro-tein for the growth, maintenance, and repair of cells and tissues. It is also crucial for the pro-duction of ATP, a molecule the body uses to store energy. Main sources are meat and milk; fruits and vegetables provides small amounts.

Photoaging is the term that describes damage to the skin caused by intense and chronic expo-sure to sunlight resulting in premature aging of the skin.

Photocarcinogenesis represents the sum of a complex of simultaneous and sequential bio-chemical events that ultimately lead to the occurrence of skin cancer caused by exposure to the sun.

Phtodermatoses skin disorders caused by expo-sure to sunlight.

Photophobia abnormal visual intolerance to light.

Photopsia an affection of the eye, in which the patient perceives luminous rays, fl ashes, cor-uscations, etc.

Photosensitivity sensitivity toward light. Phthisis an archaic name for tuberculosis. Phytohemagglutinin a lectin found in plant that

is involved in the stimulation of lymphocyte proliferation.

Phytonutrients certain organic components of plants, that are thought to promote human health. Fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, nuts and teas are rich sources of phytonutri-ents. Phytonutrients are not ‘essential’ for life. Also called phytochemicals.

Phytosterols a group of steroid alcohols, cho-lesterol-like phytochemicals naturally occur-ring in plants like vegetable oils, nuts and le-gumes.

Piebaldism rare autosomal dominant disorder of melanocyte development characterized by distinct patches of skin and hair that contain no pigment.

Piles see haemorrhoids. PI3K phosphoinositide 3-kinase. PI13K/AKT signaling pathways are involved

in the modulation of cell survival, cell cycle progression and cellular growth in cancer.

Pityriasis lichenoides is a rare skin disorder of unknown aetiology characterised by multiple papules and plaques.

PKC protein kinase C, a membrane bound enzyme that phosphorylates different intra-cellular proteins and raised intracellular Ca levels.

PKC Delta inhibitors Protein Kinase C delta in-hibitors that induce apoptosis of haematopoi-etic cell lines.

Placebo a sham or simulated medical interven-tion.

Placode a platelike epithelial thickening in the embryo where some organ or structure later develops.

Plasma the yellow-colored liquid component of blood, in which blood cells are suspended.

Plasma kallikrien a serine protease, synthe-sized in the liver and circulates in the plasma.

Plasmalemma plasma membrane. Plasmin a proteinase enzyme that is responsible

for digesting fi brin in blood clots. Plasminogen the proenzyme of plasmin, whose

primary role is the degradation of fi brin in the vasculature.

Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) also known as endothelial plasminogen activator inhibitor or serpin E1 is a serine protease in-hibitor (serpin) that functions as the principal inhibitor of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase (uPA), the activators of plasmi-nogen and hence fi brinolysis (the physiologi-cal breakdown of blood clots).

Plaster poultice. Platelet activating factor (PAF) is an acety-

lated derivative of glycerophosphoryl-choline, released by basophils and mast cells in immediate hypersensitive reactions and macrophages and neutrophils in other in fl ammatory reactions. One of its main ef-fects is to induce platelet aggregation.

PLC gamma phospholipase C gamma plays a central role in signal transduction.

Pleurisy is an in fl ammation of the pleura, the lining of the pleural cavity surrounding the

551Medical Glossary

lungs, which can cause painful respiration and other symptoms. Also known as pleuritis.

Pneumonia an in fl ammatory illness of the lung caused by bacteria or viruses.

Pneumotoxicity damage to lung tissues. Poliomyelitis is a highly infectious viral disease

that may attack the central nervous system and is characterized by symptoms that range from a mild non-paralytic infection to total paraly-sis in a matter of hours; also called polio or infantile paralysis.

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) a pro-tein involved in a number of cellular processes especially DNA repair and programmed cell death.

Polyarthritis is any type of arthritis which in-volves fi ve or more joints.

Polychromatic erythrocyte (PCE) an imma-ture red blood cell containing RNA, that can be differentiated by appropriate staining tech-niques from a normochromatic erythrocyte (NCE), which lacks RNA.

Polycystic kidney disease is a kidney disorder passed down through families in which mul-tiple cysts form on the kidneys, causing them to become enlarged.

Polycystic ovary syndrome imbalance of wom-an’s sex hormone, this imbalance may cause changes in menstrual cycle, skin changes, small cysts in the ovary and problem in get-ting pregnant.

Polycythaemia a type of blood disorder char-acterised by the production of too many red blood cells.

Polymorphnuclear having a lobed nucleus. Used especially of neutrophilic white blood cells.

Polyneuritis widespread in fl ammation of the nerves.

Polyneuritis gallinarum a nervous disorder in birds and poultry.

Polyneuropathy simultaneous malfunction of many peripheral nerves throughout the body.

Polyp a growth that protrudes from a mucous membrane.

Polyphagia medical term for excessive hunger or eating.

Polyuria a condition characterized by the pas-sage of large volumes of urine with an increase in urinary frequency.

Pomade a thick oily dressing.

Porphyrin any of a class of water-soluble, ni-trogenous biological pigments.

Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is neuralgia (pain in the nerves) caused by the varicella Herpes Zoster virus. The pain may last for more than a month or more after a shingles infection occurred.

Postpartum Depression depression after preg-nancy; also called postnatal depression.

Postprandial after mealtime. Potassium (K) is an element that’s essential

for the body’s growth and maintenance. It’s necessary to keep a normal water balance be-tween the cells and body fl uids, for cellular enzyme activities and plays an essential role in the response of nerves to stimulation and in the contraction of muscles. Potassium is found in many plant foods and fi sh (tuna, hali-but): chard, mushrooms, spinach, fennel, kale, mustard greens, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauli fl ower, cabbage winter squash, eggplant, cantaloupe, tomatoes, parsley, cucumber, bell pepper, turmeric, ginger root, apricots, straw-berries, avocado and banana.

Poultice is a soft moist mass, often heated and medicated, that is spread on cloth over the skin to treat an aching, in fl amed, or painful part of the body. Also called cataplasm.

PPARs peroxisome proliferator-activated recep-tors - a group of nuclear receptor proteins that function as transcription factors regulating the expression of genes.

Prebiotics a category of functional food, de fi ned as non-digestible food ingredients that bene fi cially affect the host by selec-tively stimulating the growth and/or activ-ity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon, and thus improve host health. cf. probiotics.

Pre-ecamplasia toxic condition of pregnancy characterized by high blood pressure, abnor-mal weight gain, proteinuria and edema.

Prepubertal before puberty; pertaining to the period of accelerated growth preceding go-nadal maturity.

Pregnane X receptor (PXR NR1I2) is a li-gand-activated transcription factor that plays a role not only in drug metabolism and trans-port but also in various other biological pro-cesses.


Pregnenolone a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands, involved in the ste-roidogenesis of other steroid hormones like progesterone, mineralocorticoids, glucocorti-coids, androgens, and estrogens.

Prenidatory referring to the time period be-tween fertilization and implantation.

Prenylated fl avones fl avones with an isoprenyl group in the 8-position, has been reported to have good anti-in fl ammatory properties.

Proangiogenic promote angiogensis (formation and development of new blood vessels).

Probiotication enhancement with bene fi cial probitoic bacteria such as Lactobacillus spe-cies that can prevent the growth of intestinal pathogenic micro fl ora.

Probiotics are dietary supplements and live mi-croorganisms containing potentially bene fi cial bacteria or yeasts that are taken into the ali-mentary system for healthy intestinal func-tions. cf. prebiotics.

Proctitis an in fl ammation of the rectum that causes discomfort, bleeding, and occasionally, a discharge of mucus or pus.

Procyanidin also known as proanthocyanidin, oligomeric proanthocyanidin, leukocyanidin, leucoanthocyanin, is a class of fl avanols found in many plants. It has antioxidant activity and plays a role in the stabilization of collagen and maintenance of elastin.

Progestational of or relating to the phase of the menstrual cycle immediately following ovula-tion, characterized by secretion of progesterone.

Proglottid one of the segments of a tapeworm. Prognosis medical term to describe the likely

outcome of an illness. Prolactin a hormone produced by the pituitary

gland, it stimulates the breasts to produce milk in pregnant women. It is also present in males but its role is not well understood.

Prolapse a common condition where the blad-der, uterus and or bowel protrudes into the vagina.

Prolapsus to fall or slip out of place. Prolapus ani eversion of the lower portion of

the rectum, and protruding through the anus, common in infancy and old age.

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) a new marker to study human colonic cell pro-liferation.

Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) a most common cause of failure in retinal reattach-ment surgery, characterised by the formation of cellular membrane on both surfaces of the retina and in the vitreous.

Promastigote the fl agellate stage in the devel-opment of trypanosomatid protozoa, charac-terized by a free anterior fl agellum.

Promyelocytic leukemia a subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), a cancer of the blood and bone marrow.

Pro-oxidants chemicals that induce oxidative stress, either through creating reactive oxygen species or inhibiting antioxidant systems.

Prophylaxis prevention or protection against disease.

Proptosis see exophthalmos. Prostacyclin a prostaglandin that is a metabolite

of arachidonic acid, inhibits platelet aggrega-tion, and dilates blood vessels.

Prostaglandins a family of C 20 lipid com-pounds found in various tissues, associ-ated with muscular contraction and the in fl ammation response such as swelling, pain, stiffness, redness and warmth.

Prostaglandin E2 (PEG -2) one of the pros-taglandins, a group of hormone-like sub-stances that participate in a wide range of body functions such as the contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle, the dila-tion and constriction of blood vessels, con-trol of blood pressure, and modulation of in fl ammation.

Prostaglandin E synthase an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the glutathione-depen-dent PTGES gene.

Prostanoids term used to describe a subclass of eicosanoids (products of COX pathway) con-sisting of: the prostaglandins (mediators of in fl ammatory and anaphylactic reactions), the thromboxanes (mediators of vasoconstriction) and the prostacyclins (active in the resolution phase of in fl ammation).

Prostate a gland that surround the urethra at the bladder in the male.

Prostate cancer a disease in which cancer de-velops in the prostate, a gland in the male re-productive system. Symptoms include pain, dif fi culty in urinating, erectile dysfunction and other symptoms.

553Medical Glossary

Prostate –speci fi c antigen (PSA) a protein pro-duced by the cells of the prostate gland.

Protein kinase C (PKC) a family of enzymes involved in controlling the function of other proteins through the phosphorylation of hydroxyl groups of serine and threonine ami-no acid residues on these proteins. PKC en-zymes play important roles in several signal transduction cascades.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) a group of enzymes that remove phosphate groups from phosphorylated tyrosine residues on proteins.

Proteinase a protease (enzyme) involved in the hydrolytic breakdown of proteins, usually by splitting them into polypeptide chains.

Proteinuria means the presence of an excess of serum proteins in the urine.

Proteolysis cleavage of the peptide bonds in protein forming smaller polypeptides. adj. proteolytic.

Proteomics the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions.

Prothrombin blood-clotting protein that is con-verted to the active form, factor IIa, or throm-bin, by cleavage.

Prothyroid good for thyroid function. Protheolithic proteolytic see proteolysis. Proto-oncogene A normal gene which, when

altered by mutation, becomes an oncogene that can contribute to cancer.

Prurigo a general term used to describe itchy eruptions of the skin.

Pruritis de fi ned as an unpleasant sensation on the skin that provokes the desire to rub or scratch the area to obtain relief; itch, itching. adj . pruritic.

PSA Prostate Speci fi c Antigen, a protein which is secreted into ejaculate fl uid by the healthy prostate. One of its functions is to aid sperm movement.

Psoriasis a common chronic, non-contagious autoimmune dermatosis that affects the skin and joints.

Psychoactive having effects on the mind or be-havior.

Psychonautics exploration of the psyche by means of approaches such as meditation, prayer, lucid dreaming, brain wave entrain-ment etc.

Psychotomimetic hallucinogenic.

Psychotropic capable of affecting the mind, emotions, and behavior.

PTEN phosphatase and tensin homolog, a tu-mour suppressor gene.

Ptosis also known as drooping eyelid; caused by weakness of the eyelid muscle and damage to the nerves that control the muscles or loose-ness of the skin of the upper eyelid.

P13-K is a lipid kinase enzyme involved in the regulation of a number of cellular functions such as cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, motility, survival and intracellular traf fi cking, which in turn are involved in cancer.

P13-K/AKT signaling pathway shown to be important for an extremely diverse array of cellular activities - most notably cellular pro-liferation and survival.

Pthysis silicosis with tuberculosis. Ptosis drooping of the upper eye lid. PTP protein tyrosine phosphatase. PTPIB protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B. P21 also known as cyclin-dependent kinase in-

hibitor 1 or CDK-interacting protein 1, is a potent cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor.

Puerperal pertaining to child birth. Puerperium post-partum period. Pulmonary embolism a blockage (blood clot)

of the main artery of the lung. Purgative a substance used to cleanse or purge,

especially causing the immediate evacuation of the bowel.

Purpura is the appearance of red or purple dis-colorations on the skin that do not blanch on applying pressure. Also called peliosis.

Purulent containing pus discharge. Purulent sputum sputum containing, or con-

sisting of, pus. Pustule small, in fl amed, pus- fi lled lesions. Pyelonephritis an ascending urinary tract infec-

tion that has reached the pyelum (pelvis) of the kidney.

Pyodermatitis refers to in fl ammation of the skin.

Pyorrhea see periodontitis. Pyretic referring to fever. Pyrexia fever of unknown origin. Pyridoxal a chemical form of vitamin B6. See

vitamin B6. Pyridoxamine a chemical form of vitamin B6.

See vitamin B6.


Pyridoxine a chemical form of vitamin B6. See vitamin B6.

Pyrolysis decomposition or transformation of a compound caused by heat. adj. pyrolytic.

PYY Peptide a 36 amino acid peptide secreted by L cells of the distal small intestine and colon that inhibits gastric and pancreatic secretion.

QT interval is a measure of the time between the start of the Q wave and the end of the T wave in the heart’s electrical cycle. A prolonged QT interval is a biomarker for ventricular tachyar-rhythmias and a risk factor for sudden death.

Quorum sensing (QS) the control of gene ex-pression in response to cell density, is used by both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria to regulate a variety of physiological functions.

Radiolysis the dissociation of molecules by ra-diation.

Radioprotective serving to protect or aiding in protecting against the injurious effect of ra-diations.

RAGE is the receptor for advanced glycation end products, a multiligand receptor that propagates cellular dysfunction in several in fl ammatory disorders, in tumours and in diabetes.

RAS see renin-angiotensin system or recurrent aphthous stomatitis.

Rash a temporary eruption on the skin, see uticaria.

Reactive oxygen species species such as super-oxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radi-cal. At low levels, these species may function in cell signaling processes. At higher levels, these species may damage cellular macromol-ecules (such as DNA and RNA) and partici-pate in apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Rec A is a 38 kilodalton Escherichia coli pro-tein essential for the repair and maintenance of DNA.

Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily of cell surface molecules; medi-ates neurite outgrowth and cell migration upon stimulation with its ligand, amphoterin.

Recticulocyte non-nucleated stage in the devel-opment of the red blood cell.

Recticulocyte lysate cell lysate produced from re-ticulocytes, used as an in-vitro translation system.

Recticuloendothelial system part of the im-mune system, consists of the phagocytic cells located in reticular connective tissue, primar-ily monocytes and macrophages.

Recurrent aphthous stomatitis, or RAS is a common, painful condition in which recur-ring ovoid or round ulcers affect the oral mu-cosa.

Redox homeostasis is considered as the cumu-lative action of all free radical reactions and antioxidant defenses in different tissues.

Refrigerant a medicine or an application for al-laying heat, fever or its symptoms.

Renal calculi kidney stones. Renal interstitial fi brosis damage sustained

by the kidneys’ renal tubules and interstitial capillaries due to accumulation of extracellu-lar waste in the wall of the small arteries and arterioles.

Renal resistive index (RRI) measures the resis-tance of renal arterial fl ow to the kidney.

Renin also known as an angiotensinogenase, is an enzyme that participates in the body’s renin-angiotensin system (RAS).

Renin-angiotensin system (RAS) also called the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a hormone system that regulates blood pressure and water ( fl uid) balance.

Reperfusion the restoration of blood fl ow to an organ or tissue that has had its blood supply cut off, as after a heart attack.

Reporter gene a transfected gene that produces a signal, such as green fl uorescence, when it is expressed.

Resistin a cysteine-rich protein secreted by adi-pose tissue of mice and rats.

Resolutive a substance that induces subsidence of in fl ammation.

Resolvent reduce in fl ammation or swelling. Resorb to absorb or assimilate a product of the

body such as an exudates or cellular growth. Restenosis is the reoccurrence of stenosis, a nar-

rowing of a blood vessel, leading to restricted blood fl ow.

Resveratrol is a phytoalexin produced naturally by several plants when under attack by patho-gens such as bacteria or fungi. It is a potent an-tioxidant found in red grapes and other plants.

Retinol a form of vitamin A, see vitamin A.

555Medical Glossary

Retinopathy a general term that refers to some form of non-in fl ammatory damage to the ret-ina of the eye.

Revulsive counterirritant, used for swellings. Rhabdomyolysis breakdown of muscle fi bres

leading to the release of muscle fi bre content (myoglobin) into the bloodstream.

Rheumatic pertaining to rheumatism or to ab-normalities of the musculoskeletal system.

Rheumatism, Rheumatic disorder, Rheumatic diseases refers to various painful medical conditions which affect bones, joints, muscles, tendons. Rheumatic diseases are characterized by the signs of in fl ammation – redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, sys-temic autoimmune disorder that most com-monly causes in fl ammation and tissue dam-age in joints (arthritis) and tendon sheaths, together with anemia.

Rhinitis irritation and in fl ammation of some in-ternal areas of the nose and the primary symp-tom of rhinitis is a runny nose.

Rhinopathy disease or malformation of the nose. Rhinoplasty is surgery to repair or reshape the

nose. Rhinorrhea commonly known as a runny nose,

characterized by an unusually signi fi cant amount of nasal discharge.

Rhinosinusitis in fl ammation of the nasal cavity and sinuses.

Rho GTPases Rho-guanosine triphosphate hy-drolase enzymes are molecular switches that regulate many essential cellular processes, including actin dynamics, gene transcription, cell-cycle progression and cell adhesion.

Ribosome inactivating proteins protein that are capable of inactivating ribosomes.

Rickets is a softening of the bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity.

Ringworm dermatophytosis, a skin infection caused by fungus.

Roborant restoring strength or vigour, a tonic. Rotavirus the most common cause of infectious

diarrhea (gastroenteritis) in young children and infants, one of several viruses that causes infections called stomach fl u.

Rubefacient a substance for external applica-tion that produces redness of the skin e.g. by

causing dilation of the capillaries and an in-crease in blood.

Ryanodine receptor intracellular Ca ++ channels in animal tissues like muscles and neurons.

S.C. abbreviation for sub-cutaneous, beneath the layer of skin.

S-T segment the portion of an electrocardio-gram between the end of the QRS complex and the beginning of the T wave. Elevation or depression of the S-T segment is the charac-teristics of myocardial ischemia or injury and coronary artery disease.

Sapraemia see septicaemia. Sarcoma cancer of the connective or supportive

tissue (bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood ves-sels) and soft tissues.

Sarcopenia degenerative loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength associated with aging.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum a special type of smooth endoplamic reticulum found in smooth and striated muscle.

SARS Severe acute respiratory syndrome, the name of a potentially fatal new respiratory dis-ease in humans which is caused by the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV).

Satiety state of feeling satiated, fully satis fi ed (appetite or desire).

Scabies a transmissible ectoparasite skin infection characterized by super fi cial burrows, intense pruritus (itching) and secondary infection.

Scarlatina scarlet fever, an acute, contagious disease caused by infection with group A streptococcal bacteria.

Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes, are the principal supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system, they form the myelin sheath of a nerve fi bre.

Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by several species of fl uke of the genus Schisto-soma . Also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever.

Schizophrenia a psychotic disorder (or a group of disorders) marked by severely impaired thinking, emotions, and behaviors.

Sciatica a condition characterised by pain deep in the buttock often radiating down the back of the leg along the sciatic nerve.

Scleroderma a disease of the body’s connective tissue. The most common symptom is a thick-


ening and hardening of the skin, particularly of the hands and face.

Scrofula a tuberculous infection of the skin on the neck caused by the bacterium Mycobacte-rium tuberculosis .

Scrophulosis see scrofula. Scurf abnormal skin condition in which small

fl akes or sales become detached. Scurvy a state of dietary de fi ciency of vitamin C

(ascorbic acid) which is required for the syn-thesis of collagen in humans.

Secretagogue a substance that causes another substance to be secreted.

Sedative having a soothing, calming, or tran-quilizing effect; reducing or relieving stress, irritability, or excitement.

Seizure the physical fi ndings or changes in be-havior that occur after an episode of abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Selectins are a family of cell adhesion mole-cules; e.g. selectin-E, selectin –L, selectin P.

Selenium (Se) a trace mineral that is essential to good health but required only in tiny amounts; it is incorporated into proteins to make sele-noproteins, which are important antioxidant enzymes. It is found in avocado, brazil nut, lentils, sun fl ower seeds, tomato, whole grain cereals, seaweed, seafood and meat.

Sensorineural bradyacuasia hearing impair-ment of the inner ear resulting from damage to the sensory hair cells or to the nerves that supply the inner ear.

Sepsis a condition in which the body is fi ghting a severe infection that has spread via the bloodstream.

Sequela an abnormal pathological condition re-sulting from a disease, injury or trauma.

Serine proteinase peptide hydrolases which have an active centre histidine and serine in-volved in the catalytic process.

Serotonergic liberating, activated by, or involving serotonin in the transmission of nerve impulses.

Serotonin a monoamine neurotransmitter syn-thesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system.

Sepsis is a potentially fatal medical condition characterized by a whole-body in fl ammatory response (called a systemic in fl ammatory re-sponse syndrome or SIRS) that is triggered by an infection.

Septicaemia a systemic disease associated with the presence and persistence of pathogenic microorganisms or their toxins in the blood.

Sequelae a pathological condition resulting from a prior disease, injury, or attack.

Sexual potentiator increases sexual activity and potency, enhances sexual performance due to increased blood fl ow and ef fi cient me-tabolism.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) infections that are transmitted through sexual activity.

SGOT, Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transami-nase an enzyme that is normally present in liver and heart cells. SGOT is released into blood when the liver or heart is damaged. Also called aspartate transaminase (AST).

SGPT, Serum glutamic pyruvic transami-nase an enzyme normally present in serum and body tissues, especially in the liver; it is released into the serum as a result of tis-sue injury, also called Alanine transaminase (ALT).

Shiga–like toxin a toxin produced by the bacte-rium Escherichia coli which disrupts the func-tion of ribosomes, also known as verotoxin.

Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) com-prises a diverse group of organisms capable of causing severe gastrointestinal disease in humans.

Shiga toxin a toxin produced by the bacterium Shigella dysenteriae , which disrupts the func-tion of ribosomes.

Shingles skin rash caused by the Zoster virus (same virus that causes chicken pox) and is medically termed Herpes zoster.

Sialogogue salivation-promoter, a substance used to increase or promote the excretion of saliva.

Sialoproteins glycoproteins that contain sialic acid as one of their carbohydrates.

Sialyation reaction with sialic acid or its deriva-tives; used especially with oligosaccharides.

Sialyltransferases enzymes that transfer sialic acid to nascent oligosaccharide.

Sickle cell disease is an inherited blood disorder that affects red blood cells. People with sickle cell disease have red blood cells that contain mostly hemoglobin S, an abnormal type of hemoglobin. Sometimes these red blood cells become sickle-shaped (crescent shaped) and

557Medical Glossary

have dif fi culty passing through small blood vessels.

Side stitch is an intense stabbing pain under the lower edge of the ribcage that occurs while exercising.

Signal transduction cascade refers to a se-ries of sequential events that transfer a signal through a series of intermediate molecules until fi nal regulatory molecules, such as tran-scription factors, are modi fi ed in response to the signal.

Silicon (Si) is required in minute amounts by the body and is important for the development of healthy hair and the prevention of nervous disorders. Lettuce is the best natural source of Silicon.

Sinapism signi fi es an external application, in the form of a soft plaster, or poultice.

Sinusitis in fl ammation of the nasal sinuses. SIRC cells Statens Seruminstitut Rabbit Cornea

(SIRC) cell line. SIRT 1 stands for sirtuin (silent mating type in-

formation regulation 2 homolog) 1. It is an en-zyme that deacetylates proteins that contribute to cellular regulation.

6-Keto-PGF1 alpha a physiologically active and stable hydrolysis product of Epoprostenol, found in nearly all mammalian tissues.

Skp1 (S-phase kinase-associated protein 1) is a core component of SCF ubiquitin ligases and mediates protein degradation.

Smads a family of intracellular proteins that mediate signaling by members of the TGF-beta (transforming growth factor beta) super-family.

Smad2/3 a key signaling molecule for TGF-beta.

Smad7 a TGF b type 1 receptor antagonist. Smallpox is an acute, contagious and devastat-

ing disease in humans caused by Variola virus and have resulted in high mortality over the centuries.

Snuff powder inhaled through the nose. SOD superoxide dismutase, is an enzyme that

repairs cells and reduces the damage done to them by superoxide, the most common free radical in the body.

Sodium (Na) is an essential nutrient required for health. Sodium cations are important in neuron (brain and nerve) function, and in in fl uencing

osmotic balance between cells and the inter-stitial fl uid and in maintenance of total body fl uid homeostasis. Extra intake may cause a harmful effect on health. Sodium is naturally supplied by salt intake with food.

Soleus muscle smaller calf muscle lower down the leg and under the gastrocnemius muscle.

Somites mesodermal structures formed during embryonic development that give rise to seg-mented body parts such as the muscles of the body wall.

Sopori fi c a sleep inducing drug. SOS response a global response to DNA dam-

age in which the cell cycle is arrested and DNA repair and mutagenesis are induced.

Soyasapogenins triterpenoid products obtained from the acid hydrolysis of soyasaponins, des-ignated soyasapogenols A,B, C, D and E.

Soyasaponins bioactive saponin compounds found in many legumes.

Spasmogenic inducing spasm. Spasmolytic checking spasms, see antispasmodic. Spermatorrhoea medically an involuntary

ejaculation/drooling of semen usually noctur-nal emissions.

Spermidine an important polyamine in DNA synthesis and gene expression.

Spina bi fi da a congenital birth defect caused by the incomplete closing of the embryonic neu-ral tube.

Sphingolipid a member of a class of lipids de-rived from the aliphatic amino alcohol, sphin-gosine.

Spleen organ that fi lters blood and prevents infection.

Spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK) is an enigmatic protein tyrosine kinase functional in a num-ber of diverse cellular processes such as the regulation of immune and in fl ammatory re-sponses.

Splenitis in fl ammation of the spleen. Splenocyte is a monocyte, one of the fi ve major

types of white blood cell, and is characteristi-cally found in the splenic tissue.

Splenomegaly is an enlargement of the spleen. Sprain to twist a ligament or muscle of a joint

without dislocating the bone. Sprue is a chronic disorder of the small intestine

caused by sensitivity to gluten, a protein found in wheat and rye and to a lesser extent oats and


barley. It causes poor absorption by the intes-tine of fat, protein, carbohydrates, iron, water, and vitamins A, D, E, and K.

Sputum matter coughed up and usually eject-ed from the mouth, including saliva, foreign material, and substances such as mucus or phlegm, from the respiratory tract.

SREBP-1 see sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1.

Stanch to stop or check the fl ow of a bodily fl uid like blood from a wound.

Statin a type of lipid-lowering drug. STAT3 signal transducer and activator of

transcription 3, plays a key role in many cellular processes such as cell growth and apoptosis.

Status epilepticus refers to a life-threatening condition in which the brain is in a state of persistent seizure.

STD sexually transmitted disease. Steatorrhea is the presence of excess fat in fe-

ces which appear frothy, foul smelling and fl oats because of the high fat content.

Steatohepatitis liver disease, characterized by in fl ammation of the liver with fat accumula-tion in the liver.

Steatosis refer to the deposition of fat in the in-terstitial spaces of an organ like the liver, fatty liver disease.

Sterility inability to produce offspring, also called asepsis.

Steroidogenic relating to steroidogenisis. Steroidogenisis the production of steroids. Sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1

(SREBP1) is a key regulator of the transcrip-tion of numerous genes that function in the metabolism of cholesterol and fatty acids.

Stimulant a substance that promotes the activity of a body system or function.

Stomachic (digestive stimulant), an agent that stimulates or strengthens the activity of the stomach; used as a tonic to improve the ap-petite and digestive processes.

Stomatitis oral in fl ammation and ulcers, may be mild and localized or severe, widespread, and painful.

Stomatology medical study of the mouth and its diseases.

Stool faeces.

Strangury is the painful passage of small quan-tities of urine which are expelled slowly by straining with severe urgency; it is usually ac-companied with the unsatisfying feeling of a remaining volume inside and a desire to pass something that will not pass.

Straub tail condition in which an animal carries its tail in an erect (vertical or nearly vertical) position.

STREPs sterol regulatory element binding pro-teins, a family of transcription factors that regulate lipid homeostasis by controlling the expression of a range of enzymes required for endogenous cholesterol, fatty acid, triacylg-lycerol and phospholipid synthesis.

Stria terminalis a structure in the brain consist-ing of a band of fi bres running along the lat-eral margin of the ventricular surface of the thalamus.

Striae gravidarum a cutaneous condition char-acterized by stretch marks on the abdomen during and following pregnancy.

Stricture an abnormal constriction of the inter-nal passageway within a tubular structure such as a vessel or duct.

Strongyloidiasis an intestinal parasitic infection in humans caused by two species of the para-sitic nematode Strongyloides. The nematode or round worms are also called thread worms.

Styptic a short stick of medication, usually an-hydrous aluminum sulfate (a type of alum) or titanium dioxide, which is used for stanching blood by causing blood vessels to contract at the site of the wound. Also called hemostatic pencil. see antihaemorrhagic.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage is bleeding in the area between the brain and the thin tissues that cover the brain.

Substance P a neuropeptide that functions as a neurotransmitter, neuromodulator and is asso-ciated with the sensation of pain.

Substantia nigra is a dark coloured brain struc-ture located in the midbrain that play an im-portant role in reward, addiction and move-ment.

Sudatory medicine that causes or increases sweating. Also see sudori fi c.

Sudori fi c a substance that causes sweating. Sulfur Sulfur is an essential component of all

living cells. Sulfur is important for the syn-

559Medical Glossary

thesis of sulfur-containing amino acids, all polypeptides, proteins, and enzymes such as glutathione an important sulfur-containing tripeptide which plays a role in cells as a source of chemical reduction potential. Sul-fur is also important for hair formation. Good plant sources are garlic, onion, leeks and other Alliaceous vegetables, Brassicaceous vegetables like cauli fl ower, cabbages, Brus-sels sprout, Kale; legumes – beans, green and red gram, soybeans; horse radish, water cress, wheat germ.

Superior mesenteric artery (SMA) arises from the anterior surface of the abdominal aorta, just inferior to the origin of the celiac trunk, and supplies the intestine from the lower part of the duodenum to the left colic fl exure and the pancreas.

Superoxidae mutase (SOD) antioxidant enzyme. Suppuration the formation of pus, the act of

becoming converted into and discharging pus. Supraorbital located above the orbit of the eye. Sural nerve sensory nerve comprising collateral

branches off of the common tibial, and com-mon fi bular nerve.

SYK, Spleen tyrosine kinase is a human pro-tein and gene. Syk plays a similar role in transmitting signals from a variety of cell sur-face receptors including CD74, Fc Receptor, and integrins.

Sympathetic nervous system the part of the autonomic nervous system originating in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord that in general inhibits or opposes the physi-ological effects of the parasympathetic ner-vous system, as in tending to reduce digestive secretions or speed up the heart.

Synaptic plasticity the ability of neurons to change the number and strength of their synapses.

Synaptogenesis the formation of synapses. Synaptoneurosomes puri fi ed synapses contain-

ing the pre- and postsynaptic termini. Synaptosomes isolated terminal of a neuron. Syncope fainting, sudden loss of consciousness

followed by the return of wakefulness. Syndactyly webbed toes, a condition where two

or more digits are fused together. Syneresis expulsion of liquid from a gel, as

contraction of a blood clot and expulsion of liquid.

Syngeneic genetically identical or closely re-lated, so as to allow tissue transplant; immu-nologically compatible.

Synovial lubricating fl uid secreted by synovial membranes, as those of the joints.

Synoviocyte located in the synovial membrane, there are two types. Type A cells are more numerous, have phagocytic characteristics and produce degradative enzymes. Type B cells produce synovial fl uid, which lubricates the joint and nurtures nourishes the articular cartilage.

Syphilis is perhaps the best known of all the STD’s. Syphilis is transmitted by direct con-tact with infection sores, called chancres, syphitic skin rashes, or mucous patches on the tongue and mouth during kissing, necking, petting, or sexual intercourse. It can also be transmitted from a pregnant woman to a fetus after the fourth month of pregnancy.

System lupus erythematosus a long-term au-toimmune disorder that may affect the skin, joints, kidneys, brain, and other organs. Symp-toms may include chest pain, fatigue, fever, hair loss, mailasie, mouth sores, sensitivity to sunlight, skin rash (butter fl y-rash).

Systolic the blood pressure when the heart is contracting. It is speci fi cally the maximum arterial pressure during contraction of the left ventricle of the heart.

T cells or T lymphocytes a type of white blood cell that play a key role in the immune system.

Tachyarrhythmia any disturbance of the heart rhythm in which the heart rate is abnormally increased.

Tachycardia a false heart rate applied to adults to rates over 100 beats per minute.

Tachykinins neuropetide transmitters that are widely distributed and active in the central nervous system and periphery, evoking a vari-ety of responses in a variety of tissues.

Tachyphylaxia a decreased response to a medicine given over a period of time so that larger doses are required to produce the same response.

Tachypnea abnormally fast breathing. Taenia a parasitic tapeworm or fl atworm of the

genus, Taenia. Taeniacide an agent that kills tapeworms. Tau is a class of microtubule-associated protein

(MAP) in neuronal and glial cells.


Tau-1 (Ser198/199/202), pS396 (Ser396), and pS214 (Ser214) epitopes serine phosphory-lation sites of tau-1.

Tau phosphorylation plays an important role in neurodegenerative diseases and regulated by protein kinases and phosphatases.

TBARS see thiobarbituric acid reactive sub-stances.

T-cell a type of white blood cell that attacks virus-infected cells, foreign cells and cancer cells.

TCA cycle see Tricarboxylic acid cycle. TCID50 median tissue culture infective dose;

that amount of a pathogenic agent that will produce pathological change in 50% of cell cultures.

Telencephalon the cerebral hemispheres, the largest divisions of the human brain.

Telomerase enzyme that acts on parts of chro-mosomes known as telomeres.

Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJD or TMD syndrome) a disorder characterized by acute or chronic in fl ammation of the temporo-mandibular joint, that connects the mandible to the skull.

Tendonitis is in fl ammation of a tendon. Tenesmus a strong desire to defaecate. Teratogen is an agent that can cause malforma-

tions of an embryo or fetus. adj. teratogenic. Testicular torsion twisting of the spermatic

cord, which cuts off the blood supply to the testicle and surrounding structures within the scrotum.

Tetanus an acute, potentially fatal disease caused by tetanus bacilli multiplying at the site of an injury and producing an exotoxin that reaches the central nervous system producing pro-longed contraction of skeletal muscle fi bres. Also called lockjaw.

Tete acute dermatitis caused by both bacterial and fungal infection.

Tetter any of a number of skin diseases. TGF-beta transforming growth factor beta is a

protein that controls proliferation, cellular dif-ferentiation, and other functions in most cells.

Th cells or T helper cells a subgroup of lym-phocytes that helps other white blood cells in immunologic processes.

Thalassemia major is a genetic blood disorder that causes the body to manufacture an abnor-mal form of haemoglobin.

Thelarche the beginning of secondary (postna-tal) breast development, usually occurring at the beginning of puberty in girls.

Thermogenic tending to produce heat, applied to drugs or food (fat burning food).

Thermogenesis is the process of heat produc-tion in organisms.

Thermonociceptors or thermal nociceptors, sensory receptors that are stimulated by nox-ius heat or cold at various temperature.

Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) a well-established method for screening and monitoring lipid peroxidation.

Thixotropy the property exhibited by certain gels of becoming fl uid when stirred or shaken and returning to the semisolid state upon standing.

Thrombocythaemia a blood condition character-ize by a high number of platelets in the blood.

Thrombocytopenia a condition when the bone marrow does not produce enough platelets (thrombocytes) like in leukaemia.

Thromboembolism formation in a blood ves-sel of a clot (thrombus) that breaks loose and is carried by the blood stream to plug another vessel.cf. deep vein thrombosis.

Thrombogenesis formation of a thrombus or blood clot.

Thrombophlebitis occurs when there is in fl ammation and clot in a surface vein.

Thromboplastin an enzyme liberated from blood platelets that converts prothrombin into thrombin as blood starts to clot, also called thrombokinase.

Thrombosis the formation or presence of a thrombus (clot).

Thromboxanes any of several compounds, originally derived from prostaglandin precur-sors in platelets that stimulate aggregation of platelets and constriction of blood vessels.

Thromboxane B2 the inactive product of thromboxane.

Thrombus a fi brinous clot formed in a blood vessel or in a chamber of the heart.

Thrush a common mycotic infection caused by yeast, Candida albicans , in the digestive tract or vagina. In children it is characterized by white spots on the tongue.

Thymocytes are T cell precursors which devel-op in the thymus.

Thyrotoxicosis or hyperthyroidism - an overac-tive thyroid gland, producing excessive circu-

561Medical Glossary

lating free thyroxine and free triiodothyronine, or both.

Tight junction associated areas of two cells whose membranes join together forming a virtually impermeable barrier to fl uid.

TIMP-3 a human gene belongs to the tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) gene family. see MMP.

Tincture solution of a drug in alcohol. Tinea ringworm, fungal infection on the skin. Tinea favosa See favus. Tinea cruris ringworm of the groin. Tinea pedis fungal infection of the foot, also

called atheletes’foot. Tinnitus a noise in the ears, as ringing, buzzing,

roaring, clicking, etc. Tisane a herbal infusion used as tea or for me-

dicinal purposes. Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) a serine

protease involved in the breakdown of blood clots.

TNF alpha cachexin or cachectin and formal-ly known as tumour necrosis factor-alpha, a cytokine involved in systemic in fl ammation. primary role of TNF is in the regulation of im-mune cells. TNF is also able to induce apop-totic cell death, to induce in fl ammation, and to inhibit tumorigenesis and viral replication.

Tocolytics medications used to suppress prema-ture labor.

Tocopherol fat soluble organic compounds be-longing to vitamin E group. See vitamin E.

Tocotrienol fat soluble organic compounds be-longing to vitamin E group. See vitamin E.

Tolerogenic producing immunological tolerance. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) a class of proteins that

play a key role in the innate immune system. Tonic substance that acts to restore, balance,

tone, strengthen, or invigorate a body system without overt stimulation or depression.

Tonic clonic seizure a type of generalized sei-zure that affects the entire brain.

Tonsillitis an in fl ammatory condition of the tonsils due to bacteria, allergies or respiratory problems.

TOP2A topoisomerase II alpha enzyme. Topoisomerases a class of enzymes involved in

the regulation of DNA supercoiling. Topoiosmerase inhibitors a new class of antican-

cer agents with a mechanism of action aimed at interrupting DNA replication in cancer cells.

Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) is a method of feeding that bypasses the gastrointestinal tract.

Toxemia is the presence of abnormal substances in the blood, but the term is also used for a serious condition in pregnancy that involves hypertension and proteinuria. Also called pre-eclampsia.

Tracheitis is a bacterial infection of the trachea; also known as bacterial tracheitis or acute bac-terial tracheitis.

Trachoma a contagious disease of the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye, producing painful sensi-tivity to strong light and excessive tearing.

TRAIL acronym for tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, is a cy-tokine that preferentially induces apoptosis in tumour cells.

Tranquilizer a substance drug used in calm-ing person suffering from nervous tension or anxiety.

Transaminase also called aminotransferase is an enzyme that catalyzes a type of reaction between an amino acid and an a -keto acid.

Transaminitis increase in alanine aminotrans-ferase (ALT) and/or aspartate aminotransferase (AST) to > 5 times the upper limit of normal.

Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) is an interventional radiology proce-dure involving percutaneous access of to the hepatic artery and passing a catheter through the abdominal artery aorta followed by radi-ology. It is used extensively in the palliative treatment of unresectable hepatocellular car-cinoma (HCC).

Transcriptional activators are proteins that bind to DNA and stimulate transcription of nearby genes.

Transcriptional coactivator PGC-1 a potent transcriptional coactivator that regulates oxi-dative metabolism in a variety of tissues.

Transcriptome pro fi ling to identify genes in-volved in peroxisome assembly and function.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF- b ) a protein that controls proliferation, cellular dif-ferentiation, and other functions in most cells.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) receptor also known as capsaicin receptor and vanilloid receptor, is a Ca 2+ permeable nonselective cation channel local-ized on a subset of primary sensory neurons


and can be activated by physical and chemical stimuli.

TRAP 6 thrombin receptor activating peptide with 6 amino acids.

Tremorine a chemical that produces a tremor resembling Parkinsonian tremor.

Tremulous marked by trembling, quivering or shaking.

Triacylglycerols or triacylglyceride, is a glyc-eride in which the glycerol is esteri fi ed with three fatty acids.

Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) a series of enzymatic reactions in aerobic organisms involving oxidative metabolism of acetyl units and producing high-energy phosphate com-pounds, which serve as the main source of cellular energy. Also called citric acid cycle, Krebs cycle.

Trichophytosis infection by fungi of the genus Trichophyto n.

Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is a neuropathic disorder of one or both of the facial trigeminal nerves, also known as prosopalgia.

Triglycerides a type of fat (lipids) found in the blood stream.

Trismus continuous contraction of the muscles of the jaw, speci fi cally as a symptom of teta-nus, or lockjaw; inability to open mouth fully.

TrKB receptor also known as TrKB tyrosine kinase, a protein in humans that acts as a cata-lytic receptor for several neutrophins.

Trolox Equivalent measures the antioxidant ca-pacity of a given substance, as compared to the standard, Trolox also referred to as TEAC (Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity).

Trypanocidal destructive to trypanosomes. Trypanosomes protozoan of the genus Try-

panosoma. Trypanosomiasis human disease or an infection

caused by a trypanosome. Trypsin an enzyme of pancreatic juice that hydro-

lyzes proteins into smaller polypeptide units. Trypsin inhibitor small protein synthesized in

the exocrine pancreas which prevents conver-sion of trypsinogen to trypsin, so protecting itself against trypsin digestion.

TRPV1 see transient receptor potential vanilloid 1. Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection of the

lungs caused by a bacterium called Mycobac-terium tuberculosis, characterized by the for-

mation of lesions (tubercles) and necrosis in the lung tissues and other organs.

Tumorigenesis formation or production of tu-mours.

Tumour an abnormal swelling of the body other than those caused by direct injury.

Tussis a cough. Tympanic membrane ear drum. Tympanitis infection or in fl ammation of the

inner ear. Tympanophonia increased resonance of one’s

own voice, breath sounds, arterial murmurs, etc., noted especially in disease of the middle ear.

Tympanosclerosis see myringoslcerosis. Tyrosinase a copper containing enzyme found

in animals and plants that catalyses the oxida-tion of phenols (such as tyrosine) and the pro-duction of melanin and other pigments from tyrosine by oxidation.

Ubiquitin ligase also called an E3 ubiquitin li-gase, is a protein that targets other proteins to be broken down (degraded) within cells.

UCP1 an uncoupling protein found in the mito-chondria of brown adipose tissue used to gen-erate heat by non-shivering thermogenesis.

UCP – 2 enzyme uncoupling protein 2 enzyme, a mitochondrial protein expressed in adipo-cytes.

Ulcer an open sore on an external or internal body surface usually accompanied by disinte-gration of tissue and pus.

Ulcerative colitis is one of 2 types of in fl a-mmatory bowel disease - a condition that causes the bowel to become in fl amed and red.

Ulemorrhagia bleeding of the gums. Ulitis in fl ammation of the gums. Unguent ointment. Unilateral ureteral obstruction unilateral

blockage of urine fl ow through the ureter of 1 kidney, resulting in a backup of urine, disten-sion of the renal pelvis and calyces, and hy-dronephrosis.

Uraemia an excess in the blood of urea, crea-tinine and other nitrogenous end products of protein and amino acids metabolism, more correctly referred to as azotaemia.

Urethra tube conveying urine from the bladder to the external urethral ori fi ce.

Urethritis is an in fl ammation of the urethra caused by infection.

563Medical Glossary

Uricemia an excess of uric acid or urates in the blood.

Uricosuric promoting the excretion of uric acid in the urine.

Urinary pertaining to the passage of urine. Urinogenital relating to the genital and urinary

organs or functions. Urodynia pain on urination. Urokinase also called urokinase-type plasmi-

nogen (u-PA), is a serine protease enzyme in human urine that catalyzes the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin. It is used clinically as a thrombolytic agent.

Urokinase-type plasminogen (u-PA) plays a key role in tumour invasion and metastasis, also see Urokinase.

Urolithiasis formation of stone in the urinary tract (kidney bladder or urethra).

Urticant a substance that causes wheals to form. Urticaria (or hives) is a skin condition, com-

monly caused by an allergic reaction, that is characterized by raised red skin welts.

Uterine relating to the uterus. Uterine relaxant an agent that relaxes the

muscles in the uterus. Uterine stimulant an agent that stimulates the

uterus (and often employed during active childbirth).

Uterotonic giving muscular tone to the uterus. Uterotrophic causing an effect on the uterus. Uterus womb. Vagotomy the surgical cutting of the vagus

nerve to reduce acid secretion in the stomach. Vagus nerve a cranial nerve, that is, a nerve

connected to the brain. The vagus nerve has branches to most of the major organs in the body, including the larynx, throat, windpipe, lungs, heart, and most of the digestive sys-tem.

Variola or smallpox, a contagious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus vari-ants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is characterised by fever, weakness and skin eruption with pustules that form scabs that leave scars.

Varicose veins are veins that have become en-larged and twisted.

Vasa vasorum is a network of small blood ves-sels that supply large blood vessels. plur. vasa vasori.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) a polypeptide chemical produced by cells that stimulates the growth of new blood vessels.

Vasculogenesis the process of blood vessel formation occurring by a de novo production of endothelial cells.

Vasoconstrictor drug that causes constriction of blood vessels.

Vasodilator drug that causes dilation or relax-ation of blood vessels.

Vasodilatory causing the widening of the lumen of blood vessels.

Vasomotor symptoms menopausal symptoms characterised by hot fl ushes and night sweats.

Vasospasm refers to a condition in which blood vessels spasm, leading to vasoconstriction and subsequently to tissue ischemia and death (necrosis).

VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion mole-cule-1) also known as CD106, contains six or seven immunoglobulin domains and is ex-pressed on both large and small vessels only after the endothelial cells are stimulated by cytokines.

VEGF Vascular endothelial growth factor. Venereal disease (VD) term given to the diseas-

es syphilis and gonorrhoea. Venule a small vein, especially one joining

capillaries to larger veins. Vermifuge a substance used to expel worms

from the intestines. Verotoxin a Shiga-like toxin produced by

Escherichia coli, which disrupts the function of ribosomes, causing acute renal failure.

Verruca plana is a reddish-brown or fl esh-colored, slightly raised, fl at-surfaced, well-demarcated papule on the hand and face, also called fl at wart.

Verruca vulgaris small painless warts on the skin caused by the human papillomavirus.

Vertigo an illusory, sensory perception that the surroundings or one’s own body are revolving; dizziness.

Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) a type of lipoprotein made by the liver. VLDL is one of the fi ve major groups of lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, intermediate-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein (HDL)) that enable fats and cholesterol to move within the water-


based solution of the bloodstream. VLDL is converted in the bloodstream to low-density lipoprotein (LDL).

Vesical calculus calculi (stones) in the urinary bladder.

Vesicant a substance that causes tissue blister-ing.

Vestibular relating to the sense of balance. Vestibular disorders includes symptoms of diz-

ziness, vertigo, and imbalance; it can be result from or worsened by genetic or environmental conditions.

Vestibular system includes parts of the inner ear and brain that process sensory informa-tion involved with controlling balance and eye movement.

Vibrissa stiff hairs that are located especially about the nostrils.

Viremia a medical condition where viruses en-ter the bloodstream and hence have access to the rest of the body.

Visceral fat intra-abdominal fat, is located in-side the peritoneal cavity, packed in between internal organs and torso.

Vitamin any complex, organic compound, found in various food or sometimes synthe-sized in the body, required in tiny amounts and are essential for the regulation of metabolism, normal growth and function of the body.

Vitamin A retinol, fat-soluble vitamins that play an important role in vision, bone growth, re-production, cell division, and cell differentia-tion, helps regulate the immune system in pre-venting or fi ghting off infections. Vitamin A that is found in colorful fruits and vegetables is called provitamin A carotenoid. They can be made into retinol in the body. De fi ciency of vitamin A results in night blindness and kera-tomalacia.

Vitamin B1 also called thiamine, water-sol-uble vitamins, dissolve easily in water, and in general, are readily excreted from the body they are not readily stored, consistent daily intake is important. It functions as co-enzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates and branched chain amino acids, and other cellular processes. De fi ciency results in beri-beri disease.

Vitamin B2 also called ribo fl avin, an essential water-soluble vitamin that functions as coen-

zyme in redox reactions. De fi ciency causes aribo fl avinosis.

Vitamin B3 comprises niacin and niacinamide, water-soluble vitamin that function as coen-zyme or co-substrate for many redox reac-tions and is required for energy metabolism. De fi ciency causes pellagra.

Vitamin B5 also called pantothenic acid, a water-soluble vitamin that function as coen-zyme in fatty acid metabolism. De fi ciency causes paresthesia.

Vitamin B6 water-soluble vitamin, exists in three major chemical forms: pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine. Vitamin B6 is needed in enzymes involved in protein me-tabolism, red blood cell metabolism, ef fi cient functioning of nervous and immune systems and hemoglobin formation. De fi ciency causes anaemia and peripheral neuropathy.

Vitamin B7 also called biotin or vitamin H, an essential water-soluble vitamin, is involved in the synthesis of fatty acids amino acids and glucose, in energy metabolism. Biotin pro-motes normal health of sweat glands, bone marrow, male gonads, blood cells, nerve tis-sue, skin and hair, De fi ciency causes dermati-tis and enteritis.

Vitamin B9 also called folic acid, an essential water-soluble vitamin. Folate is especially im-portant during periods of rapid cell division and growth such as infancy and pregnancy. De fi ciency during pregnancy is associated with birth defects such as neural tube defects. Folate is also important for production of red blood cells and prevent anemia. Folate is needed to make DNA and RNA, the building blocks of cells. It also helps prevent changes to DNA that may lead to cancer.

Vitamin B12 a water-soluble vitamin, also called cobalamin as it contains the metal co-balt. It helps maintain healthy nerve cells and red blood cells, and DNA production. Vitamin B12 is bound to the protein in food. De fi ciency causes megaloblastic anaemia.

Vitamin C also known as ascorbic acid is an es-sential water-soluble vitamin. It functions as cofactor for reactions requiring reduced cop-per or iron metalloenzyme and as a protective antioxidant. De fi ciency of vitamin C causes scurvy.

565Medical Glossary

Vitamin D a group of fat-soluble, prohormone vitamin, the two major forms of which are vita-min D2 (or ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (or cholecalciferol). Vitamin D obtained from sun exposure, food, and supplements is biological-ly inert and must undergo two hydroxylations in the body for activation. Vitamin D is essen-tial for promoting calcium absorption in the gut and maintaining adequate serum calcium and phosphate concentrations to enable normal growth and mineralization of bone and prevent hypocalcemic tetany. De fi ciency causes rickets and osteomalacia. Vitamin D has other roles in human health, including modulation of neuro-muscular and immune function, reduction of in fl ammation and modulation of many genes encoding proteins that regulate cell prolifera-tion, differentiation, and apoptosis.

Vitamin E is the collective name for a group of fat-soluble compounds and exists in eight chemical forms (alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol and alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocotrienol). It has pronounced an-tioxidant activities stopping the formation of Reactive Oxygen Species when fat undergoes oxidation and help prevent or delay the chronic diseases associated with free radicals. Besides its antioxidant activities, vitamin E is involved in immune function, cell signaling, regulation of gene expression, and other metabolic pro-cesses. De fi ciency is very rare but can cause mild hemolytic anemia in newborn infants.

Vitamin K a group of fat soluble vitamin and consist of vitamin K

1 which is also known as

phylloquinone or phytomenadione (also called phytonadione) and vitamin K

2 (menaquinone,

menatetrenone). Vitamin K plays an important role in blood clotting. De fi ciency is very rare but can cause bleeding diathesis.

Vitamin P a substance or mixture of substances obtained from various plant sources, identi fi ed as citrin or a mixture of bio fl avonoids, thought to but not proven to be useful in reducing the extent of hemorrhage.

Vitiligo a chronic skin disease that causes loss of pigment, resulting in irregular pale patch-es of skin. It occurs when the melanocytes, cells responsible for skin pigmentation, die or are unable to function. Also called leu-coderma.

Vitreoretinopathy see proliferative vitreoretin-opathy.

VLA-4 very late antigen-4, expressed by most leucocytes but it is observed on neutrophils under special conditions.

VLDL see very low density lipoproteins. Vomitive substance that causes vomiting. Vulnerary (wound healer), a substance used to

heal wounds and promote tissue formation. Wart an infectious skin tumour caused by a

viral infection. Welt see wheal. Wheal a fi rm, elevated swelling of the skin. Also

called a weal or welt. White fat white adipose tissue (WAT) in mam-

mals, store of energy. cf. brown fat. Whitlow painful infection of the hand involv-

ing 1 or more fi ngers that typically affects the terminal phalanx.

Whooping cough acute infectious disease usu-ally in children caused by a Bacillus bacterium and accompanied by catarrh of the respiratory passages and repeated bouts of coughing.

Wnt signaling pathway is a network of pro-teins involved in embryogenesis and cancer, and also in normal physiological processes.

X-linked agammaglobulinemia also known as X-linked hypogammaglobulinemia, XLA, Bruton type agammaglobulinemia, Bruton syndrome, or sex-linked agammaglobuline-mia; a rare x-linked genetic disorder that af-fects the body’s ability to fi ght infection.

Xanthine oxidase a fl avoprotein enzyme con-taining a molybdenum cofactor (Moco) and (Fe

2 S

2 ) clusters, involved in purine metabo-

lism. In humans, inhibition of xanthine oxi-dase reduces the production of uric acid, and prevent hyperuricemia and gout.

Xanthones unique class of biologically ac-tive phenol compounds with the molecular formula C13H8O2 possessing antioxidant properties, discovered in the mangosteen fruit.

Xenobiotics a chemical (as a drug, pesticide, or carcinogen) that is foreign to a living organ-ism.

Xenograft a surgical graft of tissue from one species to an unlike species.

Xerophthalmia a medical condition in which the eye fails to produce tears.


Yaws an infectious tropical infection of the skin, bones and joints caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pertenue, characterized by papules and pappiloma with subsequent deformation of the skins, bone and joints; also called framboesia.

yGCN5 a histone acetyl transferase (HAT) that plays a role in regulation of transciton, cell cycle progression and differentiation.

Yellow fever is a viral disease that is transmit-ted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes. Illness ranges in severity from an in fl uenza-like syndrome to severe hepatitis and hemorrhagic fever. Yellow fever virus (YFV) is maintained in nature by mosquito-borne transmission between nonhuman primates.

Zeaxanthin a common carotenoid, found natural-ly as coloured pigments in many fruit vegetables

and leafy vegetables. It is important for good vi-sion and is one of the two carotenoids contained within the retina of the eye. Within the central macula, zeaxanthin predominates, whereas in the peripheral retina, lutein predominates.

Zinc (Zn) is an essential mineral for health. It is involved in numerous aspects of cellular metabolism: catalytic activity of enzymes, immune function, protein synthesis, wound healing, DNA synthesis, and cell division. It also supports normal growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence and is required for proper sense of taste and smell. Dietary sources include beans, nuts, pumpkin seeds, sun fl ower seeds, whole wheat bread and animal sources.

ZO1 protein A high molecular weight tight junction-associated protein.


Scienti fi c Glossary

Abaxial facing away from the axis, as of the surface of an organ.

Abscission shedding of leaves, fl owers, or fruits following the formation of the abscission zone.

Acaulescent lacking a stem, or stem very much reduced.

Accrescent increasing in size after fl owering or with age.

Achene a dry, small, one-seeded, indehiscent one-seeded fruit formed from a superior ovary of one carpel as in sun fl ower.

Acid soil soil that maintains a pH of less than 7.0. Acidulous acid or sour in taste. Actinomorphic having radial symmetry, capable

of being divided into symmetrical halves by any plane, refers to a fl ower, calyx or corolla.

Aculeate having sharp prickles. Acuminate tapering gradually to a sharp point. Acute (Botany) tapering at an angle of less than

90° before terminating in a point as of leaf apex and base.

Adaxial side closest to the stem axis. Aldephous having stamens united together by

their fi laments. Adherent touching without organic fusion as of

fl oral parts of different whorls. Adnate united with another unlike part as of sta-

mens attached to petals. Adpressed lying close to another organ but not

fused to it. Adventitious arising in abnormal positions,

e.g. roots arising from the stem, branches or leaves, buds arising elsewhere than in the axils of leaves.

Adventive Not native to and not fully established in a new habitat or environment; locally or tem-porarily naturalized. e.g. an adventive weed.

Aestivation refers to positional arrangement of the fl oral parts in the bud before it opens.

Akinete a thick-walled dormant cell derived from the enlargement of a vegetative cell. It serves as a survival structure.

Al fi sols soil with a clay-enriched subsoil and relatively high native fertility, having under-gone only moderate leaching, containing aluminium, iron and with at least 35% base saturation, meaning that calcium, magnesium, and potassium are relatively abundant.

Alkaline soil soil that maintains a pH above 7.0, usually containing large amounts of calcium, sodium, and magnesium, and is less soluble than acidic soils.

Alkaloids naturally occurring bitter, complex organic-chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen and oxygen atoms and having vari-ous pharmacological effects on humans and other animals.

Alternate leaves or buds that are spaced along opposite sides of stem at different levels.

Allomorphic with a shape or form different from the typical.

Alluvial soil a fi ne-grained fertile soil depos-ited by water fl owing over fl ood plains or in river beds.

Alluvium soil or sediments deposited by a river or other running water.

Amplexicaul clasping the stem as base of certain leaves.

568 Scientific Glossary

Anatomizing interconnecting network as applied to leaf veins.

Andisols are soils formed in volcanic ash and containing high proportions of glass and amorphous colloidal materials.

Androdioecious with male fl owers and bisexual fl owers on separate plants.

Androecium male parts of a fl ower; comprising the stamens of one fl ower.

Androgynophore a stalk bearing both the an-droecium and gynoecium above the perianth of the fl ower.

Androgynous with male and female fl owers in distinct parts of the same in fl orescence.

Andromonoecious having male fl owers and bi-sexual fl owers on the same plant.

Angiosperm a division of seed plants with the ovules borne in an ovary.

Annual a plant which completes its life cycle within a year.

Annular shaped like or forming a ring. Annulus circle or ring-like structure or mark-

ing; the portion of the corolla which forms a fl eshy, raised ring.

Anthelate an open, paniculate cyme. Anther the part of the stamen containing pollen

sac which produces the pollen. Antheriferous containing anthers. Anthesis the period between the opening of the

bud and the onset of fl ower withering. Anthocarp a false fruit consisting of the true

fruit and the base of the perianth. Anthocyanidins are common plant pigments. They

are the sugar-free counterparts of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins a subgroup of antioxidant

fl avonoids, are glucosides of anthocyanidins. They occur as water-soluble vacuolar pig-ments that may appear red, purple, or blue ac-cording to pH in plants.

Antipetala situated opposite petals. Antisepala situated opposite sepals. Antrorse directed forward upwards. Apetalous lacking petals as of fl owers with no

corolla. Apical meristem active growing point. A zone of

cell division at the tip of the stem or the root. Apically towards the apex or tip of a structure. Apiculate ending abruptly in a short, sharp,

small point. Apiculum a short, pointed, fl exible tip.

Apocarpous carpels separate in single individ-ual pistils.

Apopetalous with separate petals, not united to other petals.

Aposepalous with separate sepals, not united to other sepals.

Appressed pressed closely to another structure but not fused or united.

Aquatic a plant living in or on water for all or a considerable part of its life span.

Arachnoid (Botany) formed of or covered with long, delicate hairs or fi bers.

Arborescent resembling a tree; applied to non-woody plants attaining tree height and to shrubs tending to become tree-like in size.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) a type of my-corrhiza in which the fungus (of the phylum Glomeromycota) penetrates the cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant and form unique structures such as arbuscules and ves-icles. These fungi help plants to capture nu-trients such as phosphorus and micronutrients from the soil.

Archegonium a fl ask-shaped female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, and other related plants.

Areolate with areolea. Areole (Botany) a small, specialized, cush-

ion-like area on a cactus from which hairs, glochids, spines, branches, or fl owers may arise; an irregular angular spaces marked out on a surface e.g fruit surface. pl. areolea.

Aril specialized outgrowth from the funiculus (attachment point of the seed) (or hilum) that encloses or is attached to the seed. adj. aril-late.

Arillode a false aril; an aril originating from the micropyle instead of from the funicle or cha-laza of the ovule, e.g. mace of nutmeg.

Aristate bristle-like part or appendage, e.g. awns of grains and grasses.

Aristulate having a small, stiff, bristle-like part or appendage; a diminutive of aristate.

Articulate jointed; usually breaking easily at the nodes or point of articulation into segments.

Ascending arched upwards in the lower part and becoming erect in the upper part.

Ascospore spore produced in the ascus in Asco-mycete fungi.

Ascus is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in Ascomycete fungi. pl . asci.

569Scientific Glossary

Asperulous refers to a rough surface with short, hard projections.

Attenuate tapered or tapering gradually to a point.

Auricle an ear-like appendage that occurs at the base of some leaves or corolla.

Auriculate having auricles. Awn a hair-like or bristle-like appendage on a

larger structure. Axil upper angle between a lateral organ, such

as a leaf petiole and the stem that bears it. Axile situated along the central axis of an ovary

having two or more locules, as in axile pla-centation.

Axillary arising or growing in an axil. Baccate beery-like, pulpy or fl eshy. Barbate bearded, having tufts of hairs. Barbellae short, stiff, hair-like bristles. adj. bar-

bellate. Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots

of woody plants. Basal relating to, situated at, arising from or

forming the base. Basaltic soil soil derived from basalt, a common

extrusive volcanic rock. Basidiospore a reproductive spore produced by

Basidiomycete fungi. Basidium a microscopic, spore-producing

structure found on the hymenophore of fruit-ing bodies of Basidiomycete fungi.

Basi fi xed attached by the base, as certain an-thers are to their fi laments.

Basionym the synonym of a scienti fi c name that supplies the epithet for the correct name.

Beak a prominent apical projection, especially of a carpel or fruit. adj. beaked.

Bearded having a tuft of hairs. Berry a fl eshy or pulpy indehiscent fruit from a

single ovary with the seed(s) embedded in the fl eshy tissue of the pericarp.

Biconvex convex on both sides. Biennial completing the full cycle from germi-

nation to fruiting in more than one, but not more than 2 years.

Bi fi d forked, divided into two parts. Bifoliolate having two lea fl ets. Bilabiate having two lips as of a corolla or calyx

with segments fused into an upper and lower lip. Bipinnate twice pinnate; the primary lea fl ets

being again divided into secondary lea fl ets.

Bipinnatisect refers to a pinnately compound leaf, in which each lea fl et is again divided into pinnae.

Biserrate doubly serrate; with smaller regular, asymmetric teeth on the margins of larger teeth.

Bisexual having both sexes, as in a fl ower bear-ing both stamens and pistil, hermaphrodite or perfect.

Biternate Twice ternate; with three pinnae each divided into three pinnules.

Blade lamina; part of the leaf above the sheath or petiole.

Blotched see variegated. Bole main trunk of tree from the base to the fi rst

branch. Brachyblast a short, axillary, densely crowded

branchlet or shoot of limited growth, in which the internodes elongate little or not at all.

Bracket fungus shelf fungus. Bract a leaf-like structure, different in form

from the foliage leaves, associated with an in fl orescence or fl ower. adj. bracteate.

Bracteate possessing bracts. Bracteolate having bracteoles. Bracteole a small, secondary, bract-like struc-

ture borne singly or in a pair on the pedicel or calyx of a fl ower. adj. bracteolate.

Bran hard outer layer of grain and comprises the aleurone and pericarp. It contains impor-tant antioxidant, vitamins and fi bre.

Bristle a stiff hair. Bulb a modi fi ed underground axis that is short

and crowned by a mass of usually fl eshy, im-bricate scales. adj. bulbous.

Bulbil A small bulb or bulb-shaped body, es-pecially one borne in the leaf axil or an in fl orescence, and usually produced for asex-ual reproduction.

Bullate puckered, blistered. Burr type of seed or fruit with short, stiff bristles

or hooks or may refer to a deformed type of wood in which the grain has been misformed.

Bush low, dense shrub without a pronounced trunk.

Buttress supporting, projecting outgrowth from base of a tree trunk as in some Rhizophorace-ae and Moraceae.

Caducous shedding or falling early before maturity refers to sepals and petals.


Caespitose growing densely in tufts or clumps; having short, closely packed stems.

Calcareous composed of or containing lime or limestone.

Calcrete a hardpan consisting gravel and sand cemented by calcium.

Callus a condition of thickened raised mass of hard-ened tissue on leaves or other plant parts often formed after an injury but sometimes a normal feature. A callus also can refer to an undifferen-tiated plant cell mass grown on a culture medium. n. callosity. pl. calli, callosities. adj. callose.

Calyptra the protective cap or hood covering the spore case of a moss or related plant.

Calyptrate operculate, having a calyptra. Calyx outer fl oral whorl usually consisting of

free sepals or fused sepals (calyx tube) and ca-lyx lobes. It encloses the fl ower while it is still a bud. adj. calycine.

Calyx lobe one of the free upper parts of the calyx which may be present when the lower part is united into a tube.

Calyx tube the tubular fused part of the calyx, often cup shaped or bell shaped, when it is free from the corolla.

Campanulate shaped like a bell refers to calyx or corolla.

Canaliculate having groove or grooves. Candelabriform having the shape of a tall

branched candle-stick. Canescent covered with short, fi ne whitish or

grayish hairs or down. Canopy uppermost leafy stratum of a tree. Cap see pileus. Capitate growing together in a head. Also

means enlarged and globular at the tip. Capitulum a fl ower head or in fl orescence hav-

ing a dense cluster of sessile, or almost sessile, fl owers or fl orets.

Capsule a dry, dehiscent fruit formed from two or more united carpels and dehiscing at ma-turity by sections called valves to release the seeds. adj. capsular.

Carinate keeled. Carpel a simple pistil consisting of ovary,

ovules, style and stigma. adj. carpellary. Carpogonium female reproductive organ in red

algae. pl. carpogonia. Carpophore part of the receptacle which is

lengthened between the carpels as a central

axis; any fruiting body or fruiting structure of a fungus.

Cartilaginous sinewy, having a fi rm, tough, fl exible texture (in respect of leaf margins).

Caryopsis a simple dry, indehiscent fruit formed from a single ovary with the seed coat united with the ovary wall as in grasses and cereals.

Cataphyll a reduced or scarcely developed leaf at the start of a plant’s life (i.e., cotyledons) or in the early stages of leaf development.

Catkin a slim, cylindrical, pendulous fl ower spike usually with unisexual fl owers.

Caudate having a narrow, tail-like appendage. Caudex thickened, usually underground base of

the stem. Caulescent having a well developed aerial stem. Cauli fl ory botanical term referring to plants

which fl ower and fruit from their main stems or woody trunks. adj. cauli fl orus.

Cauline borne on the aerial part of a stem. Chaffy having thin, membranous scales in the

in fl orescence as in the fl ower heads of the sun fl ower family.

Chalaza the basal region of the ovule where the stalk is attached.

Chartaceous papery, of paper-like texture. Chasmogamous describing fl owers in which pol-

lination takes place while the fl ower is open. Chloroplast a chlorophyll-containing organelle

(plastid) that gives the green colour to leaves and stems. Plastids harness light energy that is used to fi x carbon dioxide in the process called photosynthesis.

Chromoplast plastid containing colored pig-ments apart from chlorophyll.

Chromosomes thread-shaped structures that oc-cur in pairs in the nucleus of a cell, containing the genetic information of living organisms.

Cilia hairs along the margin of a leaf or corolla lobe.

Ciliate with a fringe of hairs on the margin as of the corolla lobes or leaf.

Ciliolate minutely ciliate. Cilium a straight, usually erect hair on a margin

or ridge. pl. cilia. Cincinnus a monochasial cyme in which the

lateral branches arise alternately on opposite sides of the false axis.

Circinnate spirally coiled, with the tip innermost.


Circumscissile opening by a transverse line around the circumference as of a fruit.

Cladode the modi fi ed photosynthetic stem of a plant whose foliage leaves are much reduced or absent. cf. cladophyll, phyllode.

Cladophyll A photosynthetic branch or portion of a stem that resembles and functions as a leaf, like in asparagus. cf. cladode, phyllode.

Clamp connection In the Basidiomycetes fun-gi, a lateral connection or outgrowth formed between two adjoining cells of a hypha and arching over the septum between them.

Clavate club shaped thickened at one end refer to fruit or other organs.

Claw the conspicuously narrowed basal part of a fl at structure.

Clay a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fi ne-grained minerals like kaolin-ite, montmorrillonite-smectite or illite which exhibit plasticity through a variable range of water content, and which can be hardened when dried and/or fi red.

Clayey resembling or containing a large propor-tion of clay.

Cleft incised halfway down. Cleistogamous refers to a fl ower in which fertil-

ization occurs within the bud i.e. without the fl ower opening. cf. chasmogamous.

Climber growing more or less upwards by lean-ing or twining around another structure.

Clone all the plants reproduced, vegetatively, from a single parent thus having the same gen-tic make-up as the parent.

Coccus one of the sections of a distinctly lobed fruit which becomes separate at maturity; sometimes called a mericarp. pl. cocci.

Coenocarpium a fl eshy, multiple pseudocarp formed from an in fl orescence rather than a single fl ower.

Coherent touching without organic fusion, re-ferring to parts normally together, e.g. fl oral parts of the same whorl. cf. adherent, adnate, connate.

Collar boundary between the above- and below ground parts of the plant axis.

Colliculate having small elevations. Column a structure formed by the united style,

stigma and stamen(s) as in Asclepiadaceae and Orchidaceae.

Comose tufted with hairs at the ends as of seeds.

Composite having two types of fl orets as of the fl owers in the sun fl ower family, Asteraceae.

Compost organic matter (like leaves, mulch, manure, etc) that breaks down in soil releas-ing its nutrients.

Compound describe a leaf that is further divid-ed into lea fl ets or pinnae or fl ower with more than a single fl oret.

Compressed fl attened in one plane. Conceptacles specialised cavities of marine al-

gae that contain the reproductive organs. Concolorous uniformly coloured, as in upper

and lower surfaces. cf. discolorous. Conduplicate folded together lengthwise. Cone a reproductive structure composed of an

axis (branch) bearing sterile bract-like organs and seed or pollen bearing structures. Applied to Gymnospermae, Lycopodiaceae, Casuarinaceae and also in some members of Proteaceae.

Conic cone shaped, attached at the broader end. Conic-capitate a cone-shaped head of fl owers. Connate fused to another structure of the same

kind . cf . adherent, adnate, coherent. Connective the tissue separating two lobes of an

anther. Connivent converging. Conspeci fi c within or belonging to the same

species. Contorted twisted. Convolute refers to an arrangement of petals in

a bud where each has one side overlapping the adjacent petal.

Cordate heart-shaped as of leaves. Core central part. Coriaceous leathery texture as of leaves. Corm a short, swollen, fl eshy, underground

plant stem that serves as a food storage organ used by some plants to survive winter or other adverse conditions.

Cormel a miniature, new corm produced on a mature corm.

Corn silk the long, fi lamentous styles that grow as a silky tuft or tassel at the tip of an ear of corn.

Corolla the inner fl oral whorl of a fl ower, usu-ally consisting of free petals or a petals fused forming a corolla tube and corolla lobes. adj. corolline.

Corona a crown-like section of the staminal column, usually with the inner and outer lobes as in the Stapelieae.


Coroniform crown shaped, as in the pappus of Asteraceae.

Cortex the outer of the stem or root of a plant, bounded on the outside by the epidermis and on the inside by the endodermis containing undifferentiated cells.

Corymb a fl at-topped, short, broad in fl orescence, in which the fl owers, through unequal pedicels, are in one horizontal plane and the youngest in the centre. adj. corymbose.

Costa a thickened, linear ridge or the midrib of the pinna in ferns. adj. costate.

Costapalmate having de fi nite costa (midrib) unlike the typical palmate leaf, but the lea fl ets are arranged radially like in a palmate leaf.

Cotyledon the primary seed leaf within the em-bryo of a seed.

Cover crop crop grown in between trees or in fi elds primarily to protect the soil from ero-sion, to improve soil fertility and to keep off weeds.

Crenate round-toothed or scalloped as of leaf margins.

Crenulate minutely crenate, very strongly scal-loped.

Crisped with a curled or twisted edge. Cristate having or forming a crest or crista. Crozier shaped like a shepherd’s crook. Crustaceous like a crust; having a hard crust or

shell. Cucullate having the shape of a cowl or hood,

hooded. Culm the main aerial stem of the Graminae

(grasses, sedges, rushes and other monocots). Culm sheath the plant casing (similar to a leaf)

that protects the young bamboo shoot during growth, attached at each node of culm.

Cultigen plant species or race known only in cultivation.

Cultivar cultivated variety; an assemblage of cul-tivated individuals distinguished by any charac-ters signi fi cant for the purposes of agriculture, forestry or horticulture, and which, when re-produced, retains its distinguishing features.

Cuneate wedge-shaped, obtriangular. Cupular cup-shaped, havin a cupule. Cupule a small cup-shaped structure or organ,

like the cup at the base of an acorn. Cusp an elongated, usually rigid, acute point.

cf. mucro.

Cuspidate terminating in or tipped with a sharp fi rm point or cusp. cf. mucronate.

Cuspidulate constricted into a minute cusp. cf. cuspidate.

Cyathiform in the form of a cup, a little wid-ened at the top.

Cyathium a specialised type of in fl orescence of plants in the genus Euphorbia and Chamaesyce in which the unisexual fl owers are clustered to-gether within a bract-like envelope. pl. cyathia.

Cylindric tubular or rod shaped. Cylindric-acuminate elongated and tapering to

a point. Cymbiform boat shaped, elongated and having

the upper surface decidedly concave. Cyme an in fl orescence in which the lateral axis

grows more strongly than the main axis with the oldest fl ower in the centre or at the ends. adj. cymose.

Cymule a small cyme or one or a few fl owers. Cystidium a relatively large cell found on the

hymenium of a Basidiomycete, for example, on the surface of a mushroom.

Cystocarp fruitlike structure (sporocarp) devel-oped after fertilization in the red algae.

Deciduous falling off or shedding at maturity or a speci fi c season or stage of growth.

Decorticate to remove the bark, rind or husk from an organ; to strip of its bark; to come off as a skin.

Decompound as of a compound leaf; consisting of divisions that are themselves compound.

Decumbent prostrate, laying or growing on the ground but with ascending tips. cf. ascending, procumbent.

Decurrent having the leaf base tapering down to a narrow wing that extends to the stem.

Decussate having paired organs with successive pairs at right angles to give four rows as of leaves.

De fl exed bent downwards. Degumming removal of gum deposits (phos-

phatides, entrained oil and meal particles) from crude edible oils traditionally done with water. Water degumming process also remove hydrophilic substances such as sug-ars from the oil.

Dehisce to split open at maturity, as in a capsule. Dehiscent splitting open at maturity to release

the contents. cf. indehiscent.


Deltate triangular shape. Deltoid shaped like an equilateral triangle. Dendritic branching from a main stem or axis

like the branches of a tree. Dentate with sharp, rather coarse teeth perpen-

dicular to the margin. Denticulate fi nely toothed. Diageotropic the tendency of growing parts,

such as roots, to grow at right angle to the line of gravity.

Diadelphous having stamens in two bundles as in Papilionaceae fl owers.

Dichasium a cymose in fl orescence in which the branches are opposite and approximately equal. pl. dichasia. adj. dichasial.

Dichotomous divided into two parts. Dicotyledon angiosperm with two cotyledons. Didymous arranged or occurring in pairs as of

anthers, having two lobes. Digitate having digits or fi ngerlike projections. Dikaryophyses or dendrophydia, irregularly,

strongly branched terminal hyphae in the Hy-menomycetes (class of Basidiomyctes) fungi.

Dimorphic having or occurring in two forms, as of stamens of two different lengths or a plant having two kinds of leaves.

Dioecious with male and female unisexual fl owers on separate plants. cf. monoecious.

Diploid a condition in which the chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell exist as pairs, one set being derived from the female parent and the other from the male.

Diplobiontic life cycle life cycle that exhibits alter-nation of generations, which features of spore-producing multicellular sporophytes and gamete-producing multicellular gametophytes. mitoses occur in both the diploid and haploid phases.

Diplontic life cycle or gametic meiosis, wherein instead of immediately dividing meiotically to produce haploid cells, the zygote divides mitotically to produce a multicellular diploid individual or a group of more diploid cells.

Dipterocarpous trees of the family Dipterocar-paceae, with two-winged fruit found mainly in tropical lowland rainforest.

Disc (Botany) refers to the usually disc shaped receptacle of the fl ower head in Asteraceae; also the fl eshy nectariferous organ usually be-tween the stamens and ovary; also used for the enlarged style-end in Proteaceae.

Disc fl oret the central, tubular 4 or 5-toothed or lobed fl oret on the disc of an in fl orescence, as of fl ower head of Asteraceae.

Disciform fl at and rounded in shaped. cf. dis-coid, radiate.

Discoid resembling a disc; having a fl at, circular form; disk-shaped cf. disciform, radiate.

Discolorous having two colours, as of a leaf which has different colors on the two surfaces. cf. concolorous.

Disomic having one or more chromosomes present twice but without the entire genome doubled.

Dispersal dissemination of seeds. Distal site of any structure farthest from the

point of attachment. cf. proximal. Distichous referring to two rows of upright

leaves in the same plane. Dithecous having two thecae. Divaricate diverging at a wide angle. Domatium a part of a plant (e.g., a leaf) that has

been modi fi ed to provide protection for other organisms. pl. domatia.

Dormancy a resting period in the life of a plant during which growth slows or appears to stop.

Dorsal referring to the back surface. Dorsi fi xed attached to the back as of anthers. Drupaceous resembling a drupe. Drupe a fl eshy fruit with a single seed enclosed

in a hard shell (endocarp) which is tissue em-bedded in succulent tissue (mesocarp) sur-rounded by a thin outer skin (epicarp). adj. drupaceous.

Drupelet a small drupe. Ebracteate without bracts. Echinate bearing stiff, stout, bristly, prickly

hairs. Edaphic refers to plant communities that are

distinguished by soil conditions rather than by the climate.

Eglandular without glands. cf. glandular. Ellipsoid a 3-dimensional shape; elliptic in out-

line. Elliptic having a 2-dimensional shape of an el-

lipse or fl attened circle. Eongate extended, stretched out. Emarginate refers to leaf with a broad, shallow

notch at the apex. cf. retuse. Embryo (Botany) a minute rudimentary plant

contained within a seed or an archegonium,


composed of the embryonic axis (shoot end and root end).

Endemic prevalent in or peculiar to a particular geographical locality or region.

Endocarp The hard innermost layer of the peri-carp of many fruits.

Endosperm tissue that surrounds and nourishes the embryo in the angiosperm seed. It contains starchy carbohydrates, proteins and small amounts of vitamins and minerals.

Endospermous refers to seeds having an en-dosperm.

Endotrophic as of mycorrhiza obtaining nutri-ents from inside.

Ensilage the process of preserving green food for livestock in an undried condition in airtight conditions. Also called silaging.

Entire having a smooth, continuous margin without any incisions or teeth as of a leaf.

Entisols soils that do not show any pro fi le de-velopment other than an A horizon.

Ephemeral transitory, short-lived. Epicalyx a whorl of bracts, subtending and re-

sembling a calyx. Epicarp outermost layer of the pericarp of a

fruit. Epicormic attached to the corm. Epicotyl the upper portion of the embryonic

axis, above the cotyledons and below the fi rst true leaves.

Epigeal above grounds with cotyledons raised above ground.

Epiparasite an organism parasitic on another that parasitizes a third.

Epipetalous borne on the petals, as of stamens. Epiphyte a plant growing on, but not parasitic

on, another plant, deriving its moisture and nutrients from the air and rain e.g. some Or-chidaceae. adj. epiphytic.

Erect upright, vertical. Essential oils volatile products obtained from a nat-

ural source; refers to volatile products obtained by steam or water distillation in a strict sense.

Etiolation to cause (a plant) to develop without chlorophyll by preventing exposure to sunlight.

Eutrophic having waters rich in mineral and organic nutrients that promote a proliferation of plant life, especially algae, which reduces the dissolved oxygen content and often causes the extinction of other organisms.

Excentric off the true centre. Excrescence abnormal outgrowth. Excurrent projecting beyond the tip, as the

midrib of a leaf or bract. Exserted sticking out, protruding beyond some

enclosing organ, as of stamens which project beyond the corolla or perianth.

Exstipulate without stipules. cf. stipulate. Extra- fl oral outside the fl ower. Extrose turned outwards or away from the axis

as of anthers. cf. introrse, latrorse. Falcate sickle shaped, crescent-shaped. Fascicle a cluster or bundle of stems, fl owers,

stamens. adj. fasciculate. Fasciclode staminode bundles. Fastigiate a tree in which the branches grow al-

most vertically. Ferrosols soils with an iron oxide content of

greater than 5%. Ferruginous rust coloured, reddish-brown. Fertile having functional sexual parts which are

capable of fertilisation and seed production. cf. sterile.

Filament the stalk of a stamen supporting and subtending the anther.

Filiform Having the form of or resembling a thread or fi lament.

Fimbriate fringed. Fixed oils non volatile oils, triglycerides of fatty

acids. Flaccid limp and weak. Flag leaf the uppermost leaf on the stem. Flaky in the shape of fl akes or scales. Flexuous zig-zagging, sinuous, bending, as of a

stem. Floccose covered with tufts of soft woolly hairs. Floral tube a fl ower tube usually formed by the

basal fusion of the perianth and stamens. Floret one of the small individual fl owers of

sun fl ower family or the reduced fl ower of the grasses, including the lemma and palea.

Flower the sexual reproductive organ of fl owering plants, typically consisting of gynoecium, an-droecium and perianth or calyx and/or corolla and the axis bearing these parts.

Fluted as of a trunk with grooves and folds. Fodder plant material, fresh or dried fed to

animals. Foliaceous leaf-like. Foliar pertaining to a leaf.


Foliolate pertaining to lea fl ets, used with a num-ber pre fi x to denote the number of lea fl ets.

Foliose leaf-like. Follicle (Botany) a dry fruit, derived from a single

carpel and dehiscing along one suture. Forb any herb that is not grass or grass-like. Free central placentation The arrangement of

ovules on a central column that is not con-nected to the ovary wall by partitions, as in the ovaries of the carnation and primrose.

Frond the leaf of a fern or cycad. Fruit ripened ovary with adnate parts. Fugacious shedding off early. Fulvous yellow, tawny. Funiculus (Botany) short stalk which attaches

the ovule to the ovary wall. Fusiform a 3-dimensional shape; spindle

shaped, i.e. broad in the centre and tapering at both ends thick, but tapering at both ends.

Gall- fl ower short styled fl ower that do not de-velop into a fruit but are adapted for the de-velopment of a speci fi c wasp within the fruit e.g. in the fi g.

Gamete a reproductive cell that fuses with an-other gamete to form a zygote. Gametes are haploid, (they contain half the normal (dip-loid) number of chromosomes); thus when two fuse, the diploid number is restored.

Gametophyte The gamete-producing phase in a plant characterized by alternation of generations.

Gamosepalous with sepals united or partially united.

Genome complete set of genetic material of an organism.

Geniculate bent like a knee, refer to awns and fi laments.

Geocarpic where the fruit are pushed into the soil by the gynophore and mature.

Geophyte a plant that stores food in an under-ground storage organ e.g. a tuber, bulb or rhi-zome and has subterranean buds which form aerial growth.

Geotextile are permeable fabrics which, when used in association with soil, have the ability to separate, fi lter, reinforce, protect, or drain.

Germ of cereal is the embryo of the seed or ker-nel. It contains vitamins B, E, folic acid, some protein, minerals and polyunsaturated fats.

Glabrescent becoming glabrous. Glabrous smooth, hairless without pubescence.

Gland a secretory organ, e.g. a nectary, extra- fl oral nectary or a gland tipped, hair-like or wart-like organ. adj. glandular. cf. eglandular.

Glaucous pale blue-green in colour, covered with a whitish bloom that rubs off readily.

Gley soils a hydric soil which exhibits a green-ish-blue-grey soil color due to wetland condi-tions.

Globose spherical in shape. Globular a three-dimensional shape; spherical

or orbicular; circular in outline. Glochids tiny, fi nely barbed hair-like spines

found on the areoles of some cacti and other plants.

Glochidiate having glochids. Glochidote plant having glochids. Glume one of the two small, sterile bracts at the

base of the grass spikelet, called the lower and upper glumes, due to their position on the ra-chilla. Also used in Apiaceae, Cyperaceae for the very small bracts on the spikelet in which each fl ower is subtended by one fl oral glume. adj. glumaceous.

Grits consist of coarsely ground corn, or some-times alkali-treated corn.

Groats hulled, whole grains of various cereals, such as oats, wheat, barley or buckwheat, it includes the cereal germ, fi bre-rich bran por-tion and endosperm of the grain.

Guttation the appearance of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of leaves of some vascular plants, such as grasses and bamboos.

Guttule small droplet. Gymnosperm a group of spermatophyte seed-

bearing plants with ovules on scales, which are usually arranged in cone-like structures and not borne in an ovary. cf. angiosperm.

Gynoecium the female organ of a fl ower; a col-lective term for the pistil, carpel or carpels.

Gynomonoecious having female fl owers and bisexual fl owers on the same plant. cf. an-dromonoecious.

Gynophore stalk that bears the pistil/carpel. Habit the general growth form of a plant, com-

prising its size, shape, texture and stem orien-tation, the locality in which the plant grows.

Halophyte a plant adapted to living in highly saline habitats. Also a plant that accumulates high concentrations of salt in its tissues. adj. halophytic.


Hapaxanthic refer to palms which fl owers only once and then dies. c.f. pleonanthic.

Haploid condition where nucleus or cell has a single set of unpaired chromosomes, the hap-loid number is designated as n.

Haplontic life cycle or zygotic meiosis wherein meiosis of a zygote immediately after karyo-gamy, produces haploid cells which produces more or larger haploid cells ending its diploid phase.

Hastate having the shape of an arrowhead but with the basal lobes pointing outward at right angles as of a leaf.

Hastula a piece of plant material at the junction of the petiole and the leaf blade; the hastula can be found on the top of the leaf, adaxial or the bottom, abaxial or both sides.

Heartwood wood from the inner portion of a tree. Heliophilous sun-loving, tolerates high level of

sunlight. Heliotropic growing towards sunlight. Herb a plant which is non-woody or woody at

the base only, the above ground stems usually being ephemeral. adj. herbaceous.

Herbaceous resembling a herb, having a habit of a herb.

Hermaphrodite bisexual, bearing fl owers with both androecium and gynoecium in the same fl ower. adj. hermaphroditic.

Heterocyst a differentiated cyanobacterial cell that carries out nitrogen fi xation.

Heterogamous bearing separate male and fe-male fl owers, or bisexual and female fl owers, or fl orets in an in fl orescence or fl ower head, e.g. some Asteraceae in which the ray fl orets may be neuter or unisexual and the disk fl orets may be bisexual. cf. homogamous.

Heteromorphous having two or more distinct forms. cf. homomorphous.

Heterophyllous having leaves of different form. Heterosporous producing spores of 2 sizes, the

larger giving rise to megagametophytes (female), the smaller giving rise to microg-ametophytes (male). Refer to the ferns and fern allies. cf. homosporous.

Heterostylous having styles of two different lengths or forms.

Heterostyly the condition in which fl owers on polymorphous plants have styles of different lengths, therby facilitating cross-pollination.

Hilar of or relating to a hilum.

Hilum The scar on a seed, indicating the point of attachment to the funiculus.

Hirsute bearing long coarse hairs. Hispid bearing stiff, short, rough hairs or

bristles. Hispidulous minutely hispid. Histosol soil comprising primarily of organic

materials, having 40 cm or more of organic soil material in the upper 80 cm.

Hoary covered with a greyish layer of very short, closely interwoven hairs.

Holdfast an organ or structure of attachment, especially the basal, root-like formation by which certain seaweeds or other algae are at-tached to a substrate.

Holocarpic having the entire thallus developed into a fruiting body or sporangium.

Homochromous having all the fl orets of the same colour in the same fl ower head cf. het-erochromous.

Homogamous bearing fl owers or fl orets that do not differ sexually cf. heterogamous.

Homogenous endosperm endosperm with even surface that lacks invaginations or infoldings of the surrounding tissue.

Homogonium a part of a fi lament of a cyanobac-terium that detaches and grows by cell division into a new fi lament. pl. homogonia.

Homomorphous uniform, with only one form. cf. heteromorphous.

Homosporous producing one kind of spores. Refer to the ferns and fern allies. cf. hetero-sporous.

Hurd fi bre long pith fi bre of the stem. Hyaline colourless, almost transparent. Hybrid the fi rst generation progeny of the

sexual union of plants belonging to differ-ent taxa.

Hybridisation the crossing of individuals from different species or taxa.

Hydathode a type of secretory tissue in leaves, usually of Angiosperms, that secretes water through pores in the epidermis or margin of the leaf.

Hydrophilous water loving; requiring water in order to be fertilized, referring to many aquat-ic plants.

Hygrochastic applied to plants in which the opening of the fruits is caused by the absorp-tion of water.

Hygrophilous living in water or moist places.


Hymenial cystidia the cells of the hymenium de-velop into basidia or asci, while in others some cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia.

Hymenium spore-bearing layer of cells in cer-tain fungi containing asci (Ascomycetes) or basidia (Basidiomycetes).

Hypanthium cup-like receptacles of some di-cotyledonous fl owers formed by the fusion of the calyx, corolla, and androecium that sur-rounds the ovary which bears the sepals, pet-als and stamens.

Hypha is a long, branching fi lamentous cell of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. pl. hyphae.

Hypocotyl the portion of the stem below the cotyledons.

Hypodermis the cell layer beneath the epider-mis of the pericarp.

Hypogeal below ground as of germination of seed.

Hysteresis refers to systems that may exhibit path dependence.

Imbricate closely packed and overlapping. cf. valvate.

Imparipinnate pinnately compound with a single terminal lea fl et and hence with an odd number of lea fl ets. cf. paripinnate.

Inceptisols old soils that have no accumulation of clays, iron, aluminium or organic matter.

Incised cut jaggedly with very deep teeth. Included referring to stamens which do not

project beyond the corolla or to valves which do not extend beyond the rim of a capsular fruit. cf. exserted.

Incurved curved inwards; curved towards the base or apex.

Inde fi nite numerous and variable in number. Indehiscent not opening or splitting to release the

contents at maturity as of fruit. cf. dehiscent. Indumentum covering of fi ne hairs or bristles

commonly found on external parts of plants. Indurate to become hard, often the hardening

developed only at maturity. Indusium an enclosing membrane, covering

the sorus of a fern. Also used for the modi fi ed style end or pollen-cup of some Goodeniaceae (including Brunoniaceae ). adj. indusiate.

Inferior said of an ovary or fruit that has se-pals, petals and stamens above the ovary. cf. superior.

In fl ated enlarged and hollow except in the case of a fruit which may contain a seed. cf. swollen.

In fl exed Bent or curved inward or downward, as petals or sepals.

In fl orescence a fl ower cluster or the arrange-ment of fl owers in relation to the axis and to each other on a plant.

Infrafoliar located below the leaves. Infraspeci fi c referring to any taxon below the

species rank. Infructescence the fruiting stage of an

in fl orescence. Inrolled curved inwards. Integuments two distinct tissue layers that sur-

round the nucellus of the ovule, forming the testa or seed coat when mature.

Intercalary of growth, between the apex and the base; of cells, spores, etc., between two cells.

Interfoliar inter leaf. Internode portion of the stem, culm, branch,

or rhizome between two nodes or points of attachment of the leaves.

Interpetiolar as of stipules positioned between petioles of opposite leaves.

Intrastaminal within the stamens. Intricate entangled, complex. Introduced not indigenous; not native to the

area in which it now occurs. Introrse turned inwards or towards the axis or

pistil as of anthers. cf. extrorse, latrorse. Involucre a whorl of bracts or leaves that sur-

round one to many fl owers or an entire in fl orescence.

Involute having the margins rolled inwards, re-ferring to a leaf or other fl at organ.

Jugate of a pinnate leaf; having lea fl ets in pairs. Juvenile young or immature, used here for

leaves formed on a young plant which are dif-ferent in morphology from those formed on an older plant.

Keel a longitudinal ridge, at the back of the leaf. Also the two lower fused petals of a ‘pea’ fl ower in the Papilionaceae, which form a boat-like structure around the stamens and styles, also called carina. adj. keeled. cf. stan-dard, wing.

Labellum the modi fi ed lowest of the three petals forming the corolla of an orchid, usually larger than the other two petals, and often spurred.


Laciniate fringed; having a fringe of slender, narrow, pointed lobes cut into narrow lobes.

Lamella a gill-shaped structure: fi ne sheets of material held adjacent to one another.

Lamina the blade of the leaf or frond. Lanate wooly, covered with long hairs which

are loosely curled together like wool. Lanceolate lance-shaped in outline, tapering

from a broad base to the apex. Landrace plants adapted to the natural envi-

ronment in which they grow, developing naturally with minimal assistance or guid-ance from humans and usually possess more diverse phenotypes and genotypes. They have not been improved by formal breeding programs.

Laterite reddish–coloured soils rich in iron oxide, formed by weathering of rocks under oxidizing and leaching conditions, commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. adj. lateritic.

Latex a milky, clear or sometimes coloured sap of diverse composition exuded by some plants.

Latrorse turned sideways, i.e. not towards or away from the axis as of anthers dehiscing lon-gitudinally on the side. cf. extrorse, introse.

Lax loose or limp, not densely arranged or crowded.

Lea fl et one of the ultimate segments of a com-pound leaf.

Lectotype a specimen chosen after the original description to be the type.

Lemma the lower of two bracts (scales) of a grass fl oret, usually enclosing the palea, lodi-cules, stamens and ovary.

Lenticel is a lens shaped opening that allows gases to be exchanged between air and the inner tissues of a plant, commonly found on young bark, or the surface of the fruit.

Lenticellate dotted with lenticels. Lenticular shaped like a biconvex lens. cf. len-

tiform. Lentiform shaped like a biconvex lens, cf. len-

ticular. Leptomorphic temperate, running bamboo rhi-

zome; usually thinner then the culms they sup-port and the internodes are long and hollow.

Liane a woody climbing or twining plant. Lignotuber a woody, usually underground, tu-

berous rootstock often giving rise to numerous aerial stems.

Ligulate small and tongue shaped or with a little tongue shaped appendage or ligule, star shaped as of fl orets of Asteraceae.

Ligule a strap-shaped corolla in the fl owers of Asteraceae; also a thin membranous outgrowth from the inner junction of the grass leaf sheath and blade. cf. ligulate.

Limb the expanded portion of the calyx tube or the corolla tube, or the large branch of a tree.

Linear a 2-dimensional shape, narrow with nearly parallel sides.

Linguiform tongue shaped cf. ligulate. Lithosol a kind of shallow soils lacking well-

de fi ned horizons and composed of imperfectly weathered fragments of rock.

Littoral of or on a shore, especially seashore. Loam a type of soil mad up of sand, silt, and

clay in relative concentration of 40-40-20% respectively.

Lobed divided but not to the base. Loculicidal opening into the cells, when a ripe

capsule splits along the back. Loculus cavity or chamber of an ovary. pl. loculi. Lodicules two small structures below the ovary

which, at fl owering, swell up and force open the enclosing bracts, exposing the stamens and carpel.

Lyrate pinnately lobed, with a large terminal lobe and smaller laterals ones which become progressively smaller towards the base.

Macronutrients chemical elements which are needed in large quantities for growth and development by plants and include nitrogen, phopshorus, potassium, and magnesium.

Maculate spotted. Mallee a growth habit in which several to many

woody stems arise separately from a lignotu-ber; usually applied to certain low-growing species of Eucalyptus.

Mangrove a distinctive vegetation type of trees and shrubs with modi fi ed roots, often vivipa-rous, occupying the saline coastal habitats that are subject to periodic tidal inundation.

Marcescent withering or to decay without falling off.

Margin the edge of the leaf blade. Medulla the pith in the stems or roots of cer-

tain plants; or the central portion of a thallus in certain lichens.


Megasporangium the sporangium containing megaspores in fern and fern allies. cf. mi-crosporangium.

Megaspore the large spore which may develop into the female gametophyte in heterosporous ferns and fern allies. cf. microspore.

Megasporophyll a lea fl ike structure that bears megasporangia.

Megastrobilus female cone, seed cone, or ovu-late cone, contains ovules within which, when fertilized by pollen, become seeds. The female cone structure varies more markedly between the different conifer families.

Meiosis the process of cell division that results in the formation of haploid cells from diploid cells to produce gametes.

Mericarp a 1-seeded portion of an initially syn-carpous fruit (schizocarp) which splits apart at maturity. Cf. coccus .

Meristem the region of active cell division in plants, from which permanent tissue is de-rived. adj. meristematic.

-merous used with a number pre fi x to denote the basic number of the 3 outer fl oral whorls, e.g. a 5-merous fl ower may have 5 sepals, 10 petals and 15 stamens.

Mesic moderately wet. Mesocarp the middle layer of the fruit wall de-

rived from the middle layer of the carpel wall. cf. endocarp, exocarp, pericarp.

Mesophytes terrestrial plants which are adapted to neither a particularly dry nor particularly wet environment.

Micropyle the small opening in a plant ovule through which the pollen tube passes in order to effect fertilisation.

Microsporangium the sporangium containing microspores in petridophyes. cf. megasporan-gium.

Microspore a small spore which gives rise to the male gametophyte in heterosporous pterido-phytes. Also for a pollen grain. cf. megaspore.

Midvein the main vascular supply of a simple leaf blade or lamina. Also called mid-rib.

Mitosis is a process of cell division which results in the production of two daughter cells from a single parent cell.

Mollisols soils with deep, high organic matter, nutrient-enriched surface soil (A horizon), typically between 60 and 80 cm thick.

Monadelphous applied to stamens united by their fi laments into a single bundle.

Monocarpic refer to plants that fl ower, set seeds and then die.

Monochasial a cyme having a single fl ower on each axis.

Monocotyledon angiopsrem having one coty-ledon.

Monoecious having both male and female uni-sexual fl owers on the same individual plant. cf. dioecious.

Monoembryonic seed the seed contains only one embryo, a true sexual (zygotic) embryo. polyembryonic seed.

Monolete a spore that has a simple linear scar. Monopodial with a main terminal growing point

producing many lateral branches progressive-ly. cf. sympodial.

Monotypic of a genus with one species or a family with one genus; in general, applied to any taxon with only one immediately subor-dinate taxon.

Montane refers to highland areas located below the subalpine zone.

Mucilage a soft, moist, viscous, sticky secre-tion. adj. mucilaginous.

Mucous (Botany) slimy. Mucro a sharp, pointed part or organ, especially

a sharp terminal point, as of a leaf. Mucronate ending with a short, sharp tip or

mucro, resembling a spine. cf. cuspidate, mu-ticous.

Mucronulate with a very small mucro; a dimin-utive of mucronate.

Mulch protective cover of plant (organic) or non-plant material placed over the soil, pri-marily to modify and improve the effects of the local microclimate and to control weeds.

Multiple fruit a fruit that is formed from a clus-ter of fl owers.

Muricate covered with numerous short hard outgrowths. cf . papillose.

Muriculate with numerous minute hard out-growths; a diminutive of muricate.

Muticous blunt, lacking a sharp point. cf . mu-cronate.

MYB proteins are a superfamily of transcrip-tion factors that play regulatory roles in devel-opmental processes and defense responses in plants.


Mycorrhiza the mutualistic symbiosis (non-pathogenic association) between soil-borne fungi with the roots of higher plants.

Mycorrhiza (vesicular arbuscular) endomyc-orrhiza living in the roots of higher plants pro-ducing inter-and intracellular fungal growth in root cortex and forming speci fi c fungal struc-tures, referred to as vesicles and arbuscles. ab-brev. VAM.

Native a plant indigenous to the locality or region. Naviculate boat-shaped. Necrotic applied to dead tissue. Nectariferous having one or more nectaries. Nectary a nectar secretory gland; commonly

in a fl ower, sometimes on leaves, fronds or stems.

Nervation venation, a pattern of veins or nerves as of leaf.

Nixtamalization refers to a process for the preparation of maize (corn), or other grain, in which the grains are soaked and cooked in an alkaline solution, usually limewater, and hulled.

Node the joint between segments of a culm, stem, branch, or rhizome; the point of the stem that gives rise to the leaf and bud.

Nodule a small knoblike outgrowth, as those found on the roots of many leguminous, that containing Rhizobium bacteria which fi xes ni-trogen in the soil.

Nom. ambig. nomen ambiguum (Latin) am-biguous name used in different senses which has become a long-persistent source of error.

Nom. cons. nomen nonservandum (Latin) name conserved in International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

Nom. dub. nomen dubium (Latin) an invalid proposed taxonomic name because it is not accompanied by a de fi nition or description of the taxon to which it applies.

Nom. illeg. nomen illegitimum (Latin) illegiti-mate taxon deemed as super fl uous at its time of publication either because the taxon to which it was applied already has a name, or because the name has already been applied to another plant.

Nom. invalid. nomen invalidum (Latin) invalid name according to International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

Nom. nud. nomen nudum (Latin) the name of a taxon which has never been validated by a description.

Nom. rej. nomen rejiciendum (Latin) name rejected in International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

Notho- (subsp. or var.) pre fi x to the rank of a hybrid taxon below the rank of species.

Nucellus central portion of an ovule in which the embryo sac develops.

Nucellar embryony a form of seed reproduc-tion in which the nucellar tissue which sur-rounds the embryo sac can produce additional embryos (polyembryony) which are genetical-ly identical to the parent plant. This is found in many citrus species and in mango.

Nut a dry indehiscent 1-celled fruit with a hard pericarp.

Nutlet a small. 1-seeded, indehiscent lobe of a divided fruit.

Ob- pre fi x meaning inversely or opposite to. Obconic a 3-dimensional shape; inversely con-

ic; cone shaped, conic with the vertex pointing downward.

Obcordate inversely cordate, broad and notched at the tip; heart shaped but attached at the pointed end.

Obdeltate inversely deltate; deltate with the broadest part at the apex.

Oblanceolate inversely lanceolate, lance-shaped but broadest above the middle and tapering to-ward the base as of leaf.

Oblate having the shape of a spheroid with the equatorial diameter greater than the polar di-ameter; being fl attened at the poles.

Oblong longer than broad with sides nearly par-allel to each other.

Obovate inversely ovate, broadest above the middle.

Obpyramidal resembling a 4-sided pyramid at-tached at the apex with the square base facing away from the attachment.

Obpyriform inversely pyriform, resembling a pear which is attached at the narrower end. cf. pyriform.

Obspathulate inversely spathulate; resembling a spoon but attached at the broadest end. cf. spathulate.

Obtriangular inversely triangular; triangular but attached at the apex. cf. triangular.


Obtrullate inversely trullate; resembling a trowel blade with the broadest axis above the middle. cf. trullate.

Obtuse with a blunt or rounded tip, the converging edges separated by an angle greater than 90°.

-oid suf fi x denoting a 3-dimensional shape, e.g. spheroid.

Ochraceous a dull yellow color. Ocreate having a tube-like covering around some

stems, formed of the united stipules; sheathed. Oleaginous oily. Oligotrophic lacking in plant nutrients and

having a large amount of dissolved oxygen throughout.

Operculum a lid or cover that becomes detached at maturity by abscission, e.g. in Eucalyptus , also a cap or lid covering the bud and formed by fusion or cohesion of sepals and/or petals. adj. operculate.

Opposite describing leaves or other organs which are borne at the same level but on opposite sides of the stem. cf. alternate.

Orbicular of circular outline, disc-like. Order a taxonomic rank between class and fam-

ily used in the classi fi cation of organisms, i.e. a group of families believed to be closely related.

Ori fi ce an opening or aperture. Organosols soils not regularly inundated by

marine waters and containing a speci fi c thick-ness of organic materials within the upper part of the pro fi le.

Orth. Var. orthographic variant, i.e., an incor-rect alternate spelling of a name.

Ovary the female part of the pistil of a fl ower which contains the ovules (immature seeds).

Ovate egg-shaped, usually with reference to two dimensions.

Ovoid egg-shaped, usually with reference to three dimensions.

Ovule the young, immature seed in the ovary which becomes a seed after fertilisation. adj. ovular.

Ovulode a sterile reduced ovule borne on the placenta, commonly occurring in Myrtaceae.

Oxisols refer to ferralsols. Pachymorphic describes the short, thick, rhi-

zomes of clumping bamboos with short, thick and solid internode (except the bud-bearing internodes, which are more elongated). cf. sympodial.

Palate (Botany) a raised appendage on the lower lip of a corolla which partially or completely closes the throat.

Palea the upper of the two membraneous bracts of a grass fl oret, usually enclosing the lodi-cules, stamens and ovary. pl. paleae. adj. pal-eal. cf . lemma.

Paleate having glumes. Palm heart refers to soft, tender inner core and

growing bud of certain palm trees which are eaten as vegetables. Also called heart of palm, palm ito, burglar’s thigh, chonta or swamp cabbage.

Palmate describing a leaf which is divided into several lobes or lea fl ets which arise from the same point. adj. palmately.

Palmito see palm heart. Palustrial paludal, swampy, marshy. Palustrine marshy, swampy. Palustrine herb vegetation that is rooted below

water but grows above the surface in wetland system.

Panduriform fi ddle shaped, usually with refer-ence to two dimensions.

Panicle a compound, indeterminate, racemose in fl orescence in which the main axis bears lat-eral racemes or spikes. adj. paniculate.

Pantropical distributed through-out the tropics. Papilionaceous butter fl y-like, said of the pea

fl ower or fl owers of Papilionaceae, fl owers which are zygomorphic with imbricate pet-als, one broad upper one, two narrower lateral ones and two narrower lower ones.

Papilla a small, super fi cial protuberance on the surface of an organ being an outgrowth of one epidermal cell. pl. papillae. adj. pap-illose.

Papillate having papillae. Papillose covered with papillae. Pappus a tuft (or ring) of hairs, bristles or scales

borne above the ovary and outside the corolla as in Asteraceae often persisting as a tuft of hairs on a fruit. adj. pappose.

Papyraceous resembling parchment of paper. Parenchyma undifferentiated plant tissue com-

posed of more or less uniform cells. Parietal describes the attachment of ovules to

the outer walls of the ovaries. Paripinnate pinnate with an even number of

lea fl ets and without a terminal lea fl et. cf. im-paripinnate.


-partite divided almost to the base into seg-ments, the number of segments written as a pre fi x.

Patelliform shaped like a limpet shell; cap-shaped and without whorls.

Patent diverging from the axis almost at right angles.

Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter.

Pectin a group of water-soluble colloidal car-bohydrates of high molecular weight found in certain ripe fruits.

Pectinate pinnati fi d with narrow segments re-sembling the teeth of a comb.

Pedicel the stalk of the fl ower or stalk of a spike-let in Poaceae. adj. pedicellate.

Pedicellate having pedicel. Peduncle a stalk supporting an in fl orescence.

adj. pedunculate. Pellucid allowing the passage of light; transpar-

ent or translucent. Pellucid-dotted copiously dotted with im-

mersed, pellucid, resinous glands. Peltate with the petiole attached to the lower

surface of the leaf blade. Pendant hanging down. Pendulous drooping, as of ovules. Penniveined or penni-nerved pinnately veined. Pentamerous in fi ve parts. Perennial a plant that completes it life cycle or

lives for more than 2 years. cf. annual, biennial. Perfoliate a leaf with the basal lobes united

around--and apparently pierced by--the stem.

Pergamentaceous parchment-like. Perianth the two outer fl oral whorls of the An-

giosperm fl ower; commonly used when the calyx and the corolla are not readily distin-guishable (as in monocotyledons).

Pericarp (Botany). The wall of a ripened ovary; fruit wall composed of the exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp.

Persistent remaining attached; not falling off. cf. caduceus.

Petal free segment of the corolla. adj. petaline. cf. lobe.

Petiolar relating to the petiole. Petiolate having petiole. Petiole leaf stalk . adj. petiolate. Petiolulate supported by its own petiolule.

Petiolule the stalk of a lea fl et in a compound leaf. adj. petiolulate.

pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is de fi ned as the cologarithm of the activity of dissolved hydrogen ions (H+).

Phenology the study of periodic plant life cycle events as in fl uenced by seasonal and interan-nual variations in climate.

Phyllary a bract of the involucre of a composite plant, term for one of the scale-like bracts be-neath the fl ower-head in Asteraceae.

Phylloclade a fl attened, photosynthetic branch or stem that resembles or performs the func-tion of a leaf, with the true leaves represented by scales.

Phyllode a petiole that function as a leaf. adj. phyllodineous. cf. cladode.

Phyllopodia refer to the reduced, scale-like leaves found on the outermost portion of the corm where they seem to persist longer than typical sporophylls as in the fern Isoetes.

Phytoremediation describes the treatment of environmental problems (bioremediation) through the use of plants which mitigate the environmental problem without the need to excavate the contaminant material and dispose of it elsewhere.

Pileus (Botany) cap of mushroom. Piliferous (Botany) bearing or producing hairs,

as of an organ with the apex having long, hair-like extensions.

Pilose covered with fi ne soft hairs. Pinna a primary division of the blade of a com-

pound leaf or frond. pl. pinnae. Pinnate bearing lea fl ets on each side of a central

axis of a compound leaf; divided into pinnae. Pinnati fi d, pinnatilobed a pinnate leaf parted

approximately halfway to midrib; when divid-ed to almost to the mid rib described as deeply pinnati fi d or pinnatisect.

Pinnatisect lobed or divided almost to the midrib. Pinnule a lea fl et of a bipinnate compound leaf. Pistil female part of the fl ower comprising the

ovary, style, and stigma. Pistillate having one or more pistils; having pis-

tils but no stamens. Placenta the region within the ovary to which

ovules are attached. pl. placentae. Placentation the arrangement of the placentae

and ovules in the ovary.


Plano- a pre fi x meaning level or fl at. Pleonanthic refer to palms in which the stem

does not die after fl owering. Plicate folded like a fan. Plumose feather-like, with fi ne hairs arising lat-

erally from a central axis; feathery. Pneumatophore modi fi ed root which allows

gaseous exchange in mud-dwelling shrubs, e.g. mangroves.

Pod a dry 1 to many-seeded dehiscent fruit, as applied to the fruit of Fabaceae ie. Caesalpini-aceae, Mimosaceae and Papilionaceae.

Podzol, Podsolic soil any of a group of acidic, zonal soils having a leached, light-coloured, gray and ashy appearance. Also called spo-dosol.

Pollen cone male cone or microstrobilus or pol-len cone is structurally similar across all coni-fers, extending out from a central axis are mi-crosporophylls (modi fi ed leaves). Under each microsporophyll is one or several microspo-rangia (pollen sacs).

Pollinia the paired, waxy pollen masses of fl owers of orchids and milkweeds.

Polyandrous (Botany) having an inde fi nite number of stamens.

Polyembryonic seed seeds contain many em-bryos, most of which are asexual (nucellar) in origin and genetically identical to the maternal parent.

Polygamous with unisexual and bisexual fl owers on the same or on different individuals of the same species.

Polymorphic with different morphological vari-ants.

Polypetalous (Botany) having a corolla com-posed of distinct, separable petals.

Pome a fl eshy fruit where the succulent tissues are developed from the receptacle.

Pore a tiny opening. Premorse Abruptly truncated, as though bitten

or broken off as of a leaf. Procumbent trailing or spreading along the

ground but not rooting at the nodes, referring to stems. cf. ascending, decumbent, erect.

Pro hyb. (Latin) as a hybrid. Pro parte (Latin) in part. Pro Parte majore (Latin) for the greater part. Pro parte minore (Latin) for a small part. Pro sp. (Latin) as a species.

Pro subsp. (Latin) as a subspecies. Pro syn. (Latin) as a synonym. Prophyll a plant structure that resembles a leaf. Prostrate lying fl at on the ground. Protandous relating to a fl ower in which the an-

thers release their pollen before the stigma of the same fl ower becomes receptive.

Proximal end of any structure closest to the point of attachment. cf. distal.

Pruinose having a thick, waxy, powdery coating or bloom.

Pseudocarp a false fruit, largely made up of tissue that is not derived from the ovary but from fl oral parts such as the receptacle and calyx.

Pseudostem The false, herbaceous stem of a banana plant composed of overlapping leaf bases.

Pteridophyte a vascular plant which reproduces by spores; the ferns and fern allies.

Puberulent covered with minute hairs or very fi ne down; fi nely pubescent.

Puberulous covered with a minute down. Pubescent covered with short, soft hairs. Pulvinate having a swelling, pulvinus at the

base as a leaf stalk. Pulvinus swelling at the base of leaf stalk. Pulviniform swelling or bulging. Punctate marked with translucent dots or

glands. Punctiform marked by or composed of points

or dots. Punctulate marked with minute dots; a diminu-

tive of punctate. Pusticulate characterized by small pustules. Pyrene the stone or pit of a drupe, consisting of

the hardened endocarp and seed. Pyriform pear-shaped, a 3-dimensional shape;

attached at the broader end. cf. obpyriform. Pyxidium seed capsule having a circular lid

(operculum) which falls off to release the seed. Raceme an indeterminate in fl orescence with a

simple, elongated axis and pedicellate fl owers, youngest at the top. adj. racemose.

Rachilla the main axis of a grass spikelet. Rachis the main axis of the spike or other

in fl orescence of grasses or a compound leaf. Radiate arranged around a common centre; as

of an in fl orescence of Asteraceae with mar-ginal, female or neuter, ligulate ray- fl orets and


central, perfect or functionally male, tubular, disc fl orets. cf . disciform, discoid.

Radical arising from the root or its crown, or the part of a plant embryo that develops into a root.

Ray the marginal portion of the in fl orescence of Asteraceae and Apiaceae when distinct from the disc. Also, the spreading branches of a compound umbel.

Receptacle the region at the end of a pedicel or on an axis which bears one or more fl owers. adj. receptacular.

Recurved curved downwards or backwards. Re fl exed bent or turned downward. Regosol soil that is young and undeveloped,

characterized by medium to fi ne-textured un-consolidated parent material that maybe allu-vial in origin and lacks a signi fi cant horizon layer formation.

Reniform kidney shaped in outline. Repand with slightly undulate margin. Replicate folded back, as in some corolla lobes. Resinous producing sticky resin. Resupinate twisted through 180°. Reticulate having the appearance of a network. Retrorse bent or directed downwards or back-

wards. cf. antrorse. Retuse with a very blunt and slightly notched

apex. cf. emarginated. Revolute with the margins inrolled on the lower

(abaxial) surface. Rhizine a root-like fi lament or hair growing

from the stems of mosses or on lichens. Rhizoid root-like fi laments in a moss, fern, fun-

gus, etc. that attach the plant to the substratum. Rhizome a prostrate or underground stem con-

sisting of a series of nodes and internodes with adventitious roots and which generally grows horizontally.

Rhizophore a stilt-like outgrowth of the stem which branches into roots on contact with the substrate.

Rhombic shaped like a rhombus. Rhomboid shaped like a rhombus. Rib a distinct vein or linear marking, often

raised as a linear ridge. Riparian along the river margins, interface

between land and a stream. Rosette a tuft of leaves or other organs arranged

spirally like petals in a rose, ranging in form

from a hemispherical tuft to a fl at whorl. adj. rosetted, rosulate.

Rostrate beaked; the apex tapered into a slen-der, usually obtuse point.

Rostrum a beak-like extension. Rosulate having a rosette. Rotate wheel shaped; refers to a corolla with a

very short tube and a broad upper part which is fl ared at right angles to the tube. cf. salver-form .

Rotundate rounded; especially at the end or ends. Rugae refers to a series of ridges produced by

folding of the wall of an organ. Rugose deeply wrinkled. Rugulose fi nely wrinkled. Ruminate (Animal) chew repeatedly over an

extended period. Ruminate endosperm uneven endosperm sur-

face that is often highly enlarged by ingrowths or infoldings of the surrounding tissue. cf. homogenous endosperm.

Rz value is a numerical reference to the mesh/emulsion equalization on the screen.

Saccate pouched. Sagittate shaped like an arrow head. Saline soils soils that contain excessive levels

of salts that reduce plant growth and vigor by altering water uptake and causing ion-speci fi c toxicities or imbalances.

Salinity is characterised by high electrical con-ductivities and low sodium ion concentrations compared to calcium and magnesium.

Salverform applies to a gamopetalous corolla having a slender tube and an abruptly expand-ed limb.

Samara an indehiscent, winged, dry fruit. Sand a naturally occurring granular material

composed of fi nely divided rock and mineral particles range in diameter from 0.0625 to 2 mm. adj. sandy.

Saponins are plant glycosides with a distinc-tive foaming characteristic. They are found in many plants, but get their name from the soap-wort plant ( Saponaria) .

Saprophytic living on and deriving nourishment from dead organic matter.

Sapwood outer woody layer of the tree just adjacent to and below the bark.

Sarcotesta outermost fl eshy covering of Cycad seeds below which is the sclerotesta.


Scabrid scurfy, covered with surface abrasions, irregular projections or delicate scales.

Scabrous rough to the touch. Scale dry bract or leaf. Scandent refer to plants, climbing. Scape erect fl owering stem, usually lea fl ess, ris-

ing from the crown or roots of a plant. adj. scapose.

Scapigerous with a scape. Scarious dry, thin and membranous. Schizocarp a dry fruit which splits into longi-

tudinally multiple parts called mericarps or cocci. adj. schizocarpous.

Sclerotesta the innermost fl eshy coating of cy-cad seeds, usually located directly below the sarcotesta.

Scorpoid refers to a cymose in fl orescence in which the main axis appears to coil.

Scutellum (Botany) any of various parts shaped like a shield.

Secondary venation arrangement of the lat-eral veins arising from the midrib in the leaf lamina.

Secund with the fl owers all turned in the same direction.

Sedge a plant of the family Apiaceae, Cyper-aceae.

Segmented constricted into divisions. Seminal root or seed root originate from the

scutellar node located within the seed embryo and are composed of the radicle and lateral seminal roots.

Senescence refers to the biological changes which take place in plants as they age.

Sepal free segment of the calyx. adj. sepaline. Septum a partition or cross wall. pl. septa. adj.

septate. Seriate arranged in rows. Sericeous silky; covered with close-pressed,

fi ne, straight silky hairs. Serrate toothed like a saw; with regular, asym-

metric teeth pointing forward. Serrated toothed margin. Serratures serrated margin. Serrulate with minute teeth on the margin. Sessile without a stalk. Seta a bristle or stiff hair. pl. setae. adj. setose,

setaceous. Setaceous bristle-like. Setate with bristles.

Setiform bristle shaped. Setulose with minute bristles. Sheathing clasping or enveloping the stem. Shrub a woody plant usually less than 5 m high

and many-branched without a distinct main stem except at ground level.

Silicula a broad, dry, usually dehiscent fruit de-rived from two or more carpels which usually dehisce along two sutures. cf. siliqua.

Siliqua a silicula which is at least twice as long as broad.

Silt is soil or rock derived granular material of a grain size between sand and clay, grain par-ticles ranging from 0.004 to 0.06 mm in diam-eter. adj. silty.

Simple refer to a leaf or other structure that is not divided into parts. cf. compound.

Sinuate with deep wavy margin. Sinuous wavy. Sinus an opening or groove, as occurs between

the bases of two petals. Sodicity is characterised by low electrical con-

ductivities and high sodium ion; concentra-tions compared to calcium and magnesium.

Sodic soils contains high levels of sodium salts that affects soil structure, inhibits water move-ment and causes poor germination and crop establishment and plant toxicity.

Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of the soil. See pH.

Solitary usually refer to fl owers which are borne singly, and not grouped into an in fl orescence or clustered.

Sorocarp fruiting body formed by some cellular slime moulds, has both stalk and spore mass.

Sorophore stalk bearing the sorocarp. Sorosis fl eshy multiple fruit formed from fl owers

that are crowded together on a fl eshy stem e.g. pineapple and mulberry.

Sorus a discrete aggregate of sporangia in ferns. pl. sori.

Spadix fl eshy spike-like in fl orescence with an unbranched, usually thickened axis and small embedded fl owers often surrounded by a spathe. pl. spadices.

Spathe a large bract ensheathing an in fl orescence or its peduncle. adj. spathaceous.

Spatheate like or with a spathe. Spathulate spatula or spoon shaped; broad at

the tip and narrowed towards the base.


Spicate borne in or forming a spike. Spiculate spikelet-bearing. Spike an unbranched, indeterminate in fl ore-

scence with sessile fl owers or spiklets. adj. spicate, spiciform.

Spikelet a small or secondary spike character-istics of the grasses and sedges and, gener-ally composed of 2 glumes and one or more fl orets. Also applied to the small spike-like in fl orescence or in fl orescence units commonly found in Apiaceae.

Spine a stiff, sharp, pointed structure, formed by modi fi cation of a plant organ. adj. spinose.

Spinescent ending in a spine; modi fi ed to form a spine

Spinulate covered with small spines. Spinulose with small spines over the surface. Spodosol see podsol. Sporidia asexual spores of smut fungi. Sporangium a spore bearing structure found in

ferns, fern allies and gymnosperms. pl. spo-rangia. adj. sporangial.

Sporocarp a stalked specialized fruiting struc-ture formed from modi fi ed sporophylls, con-taining sporangia or spores as found in ferns and fern allies.

Sporophore a spore-bearing structure, especial-ly in fungi.

Sporophyll a leaf or bract which bears or sub-tends sporangia in the fern allies, ferns and gymnosperms.

Sporophyte the spore-producing phase in the life cycle of a plant that exhibits alternation of generations.

Spreading bending or spreading outwards and horizontally.

Spur a tubular or saclike extension of the corolla or calyx of a fl ower.

Squama structure shaped like a fi sh scale. pl. squamae.

Squamous covered in scales. Squarrose having rough or spreading scale-like

processes. Stamen the male part of a fl ower, consisting typ-

ically of a stalk ( fi lament) and a pollen-bearing portion (anther). adj. staminal, staminate.

Staminate unisexual fl ower bearing stamens but no functional pistils.

Staminode a sterile or abortive stamen, often reduced in size and lacking anther. adj. sta-minodial.

Standard refers to the adaxial petal in the fl ower of Papilionaceae. cf. keel, wing.

Starch a polysaccharide carbohydrate consist-ing of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds a -1-4 linkages.

Stellate star shaped, applies to hairs. Stem the main axis of a plant, developed from

the plumule of the embryo and typically bear-ing leaves.

Sterile lacking any functional sexual parts which are capable of fertilisation and seed production.

Stigma the sticky receptive tip of an ovary with or without a style which is receptive to pollen.

Stilt root a supporting root arising from the stem some distance above the ground as in some mangroves, sometimes also known as a prop root.

Stipe a stalk that support some other structure like the frond, ovary or fruit.

Stipel secondary stipule at the base of a lea fl et. pl. stipellae. adj. stipellate.

Stipitate having a stalk or stipe, usually of an ovary or fruit.

Stipulated having stipules. Stipule small leaf-like, scale-like or bristle-like

appendages at the base of the leaf or on the petiole. adj. stipulate.

Stolon a horizontal, creeping stem rooting at the nodes and giving rise to another plant at its tip.

Stoloniferous bearing stolon or stolons. Stoma a pore in the epidermis of the leaf or stem

for gaseous exchange. pl . stomata. Stone the hard endocarp of a drupe, containing

the seed or seeds. Stramineous chaffy; straw-liked. Striae parallel longitudinal lines or ridges. adj.

striate. Striate marked with fi ne longitudinal parallel

lines or ridges. Strigose bearing stiff, straight, closely appressed

hair; often the hairs have swollen bases. Strobilus a cone-like structure formed from

sporophylls or sporangiophores. pl. strobili. Style the part of the pistil between the stigma

and ovary. Sub- a pre fi x meaning nearly or almost, as in

subglobose or subequal. Subcarnose nearly fl eshy.


Sub-family taxonomic rank between the family and tribe.

Subglobose nearly spherical in shape. Subretuse faintly notched at the apex. Subsessile nearly stalkless or sessile. Subshrub intermediate between a herb and shrub. Subspecies a taxonomic rank subordinate to

species. Substrate surface on which a plant or organism

grows or attached to. Subtend attached below something. Subulate narrow and tapering gradually to a fi ne

point, awl-shaped. Succulent fl eshy, juicy, soft in texture and usu-

ally thickened. Suckers young plants sprouting from the under-

ground roots of a parent plant and appearing around the base of the parent plant.

Sulcate grooved longitudinally with deep fur-rows.

Sulcus a groove or depression running along the internodes of culms or branches.

Superior refers to the ovary is free and mostly above the level of insertion of the sepals, and petals. cf. inferior.

Suture line of dehiscence. Swidden slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation. Syconium a type of pseudocarp formed from a

hollow receptacle with small fl owers attached to the inner wall. After fertilization the ovaries of the female fl owers develop into one-seeded achenes, e.g. fi g.

Symbiosis describes close and often long-term mutualistic and bene fi cial interactions be-tween different organisms.

Sympetalous having petals united. Sympodial refers to a specialized lateral growth

pattern in which the apical meristem. cf mo-nopodial.

Synangium an organ composed of united spo-rangia, divided internally into cells, each con-taining spores. pl. synangia.

Syncarp an aggregate or multiple fruit formed from two or more united carpels with a single style. adj. syncarpous.

Syncarpous carpels fused forming a compound pistil.

Synteny presence of two or more genetic loci on the same chromosome.

Tannins group of plant-derived phenolic com-pounds.

Taxon the taxonomic group of plants of any rank. e.g. a family, genus, species or any infraspeci fi c category. pl. taxa.

Tendril a slender, threadlike organ formed from a modi fi ed stem, leaf or lea fl et which, by coiling around objects, supports a climb-ing plant.

Tepal a segment of the perianth in a fl ower in which all the perianth segments are similar in appearance, and are not differentiated into ca-lyx and corolla; a sepal or petal.

Tetrasporangium a sporangium containing four haploid spores as found in some algae.

Terete having a circular shape when cross-sectioned or a cylindrical shape that tapers at each end.

Terminal at the apex or distal end. Ternate in threes as of leaf with 3 lea fl ets. Testa a seed coat, outer integument of a seed. Thallus plant body of algae, fungi, and other

lower organisms. Thyrse a dense, panicle-like in fl orescence, as of

the lilac, in which the lateral branches termi-nate in cymes.

Tomentose refers to plant hairs that are bent and matted forming a wooly coating.

Tomentellose mildly tomentose. Torus receptacle of a fl ower. Transpiration evaporation of water from the

plant through leaf and stem pores. Tree that has many secondary branches sup-

ported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk.

Triangular shaped like a triangle, 3-angled and 3-sided.

Tribe a category intermediate in rank between subfamily and genus.

Trichome a hair-like outgrowth of the epider-mis.

Trichotomous divided almost equally into three parts or elements.

Tridentate three toothed or three pronged. Tri fi d divided or cleft into three parts or lobes. Trifoliate having three leaves. Trifoliolate a leaf having three lea fl ets. Trifurcate having three forks or branches. Trigonous obtusely three-angled; triangular in

cross-section with plane faces. Tripartite consisting of three parts. Tripinnate relating to leaves, pinnately divided

three times with pinnate pinnules.


Tripliveined main laterals arising above base of lamina.

Triploid describing a nucleus or cell that has three times (3n) the haploid number (n) of chromosomes.

Triveined main laterals arising at the base of lamina.

Triquetrous three-edged; acutely 3-angled. Trullate with the widest axis below the middle

and with straight margins; ovate but margins straight and angled below middle, trowel-shaped.

Truncate with an abruptly transverse end as if cut off.

Tuber a stem, usually underground, enlarged as a storage organ and with minute scale-like leaves and buds. adj. tuberous.

Tubercle a wart-like protuberance. adj. tubercu-late.

Tuberculate bearing tubercles; covered with warty lumps.

Tuberization formation of tubers in the soil. Tuft a densely packed cluster arising from an

axis. adj. tufted. Turbinate having the shape of a top; cone-shaped,

with the apex downward, inversely conic. Turgid distended by water or other liquid. Turion the tender young, scaly shoot such as as-

paragus, developed from an underground bud without branches or leaves.

Turnery articles made by the process of turning. Twining winding spirally. Ultisols mineral soils with no calcareous

material, have less than 10% weatherable minerals in the extreme top layer of soil, and with less the 35% base saturation through-out the soil.

Umbel an in fl orescence of pedicellate fl owers of almost equal length arising from one point on top of the peduncle. adj. umbellate.

Umbellet a secondary umbel of a compound umbel. cf. umbellule.

Umbellule an, a secondary umbel of a com-pound umbel. cf. umbellet.

Uncinate bent at the end like a hook; unciform. Undershrub subshrub; a small, usually sparsely

branched woody shrub less than 1 m high. cf . shrub.

Undulate with an edge/margin or edges wavy in a vertical plane; may vary from weakly to strongly undulate or crisped. cf. crisped.

Unifoliolate a compound leaf which has been reduced to a single, usually terminal lea fl et.

Uniform with one form, e.g. having stamens of a similar length or having one kind of leaf. cf. dimorphic.

Uniseriate arranged in one row or at one level. Unisexual with one sex only, either bearing the

anthers with pollen, or an ovary with ovules, referring to a fl ower, in fl orescence or individ-ual plant. cf. bisexual.

Urceolate shaped like a jug, urn or pitcher. Utricle a small bladdery pericarp. Valvate meeting without overlapping, as of se-

pals or petals in bud. cf. imbricate. Valve one of the sections or portions into which

a capsule separates when ripe. Variant any de fi nable individual or group of in-

dividuals which may or may not be regarded as representing a formal taxon after examina-tion.

Variegate, variegated diverse in colour or marked with irregular patches of different colours, blotched.

Variety a taxonomic rank below that of sub-species.

Vein (Botany) a strand of vascular bundle tis-sue.

Velum a fl ap of tissue covering the sporangium in the fern, Isoetes.

Velutinous having the surface covered with a fi ne and dense silky pubescence of short fi ne hairs; velvety. cf. sericeous.

Venation distribution or arrangement of veins in a leaf.

Veneer thin sheet of wood. Ventral (Botany) facing the central axis, op-

posed to dorsal. Vernation the arrangement of young leaves

or fronds in a bud or at a stem apex. cf. cir-cinnate.

Verrucose warty. Verticil a circular arrangement, as of fl owers,

leaves, or hairs, growing about a central point; a whorl.

Verticillaster false whorl composed of a pair of opposite cymes as in Lamiaceae.

Verticillate whorled, arranged in one or more whorls.

Vertisol a soil with a high content of expansive montmorillonite clay that forms deep cracks in drier seasons or years.


Vertosols soils that both contain more than 35% clay and possess deep cracks wider than 5 mm during most years.

Vesicle a small bladdery sac or cavity fi lled with air or fl uid. adj. vesicular.

Vestigial the remaining trace or remnant of an organ which seemingly lost all or most of its original function in a species through evolution.

Vestiture covering; the type of hairiness, scali-ness or other covering commonly found on the external parts of plants. cf. indumentum .

Vibratile capable of to and for motion. Villose covered with long, fi ne, soft hairs, fi ner

than in pilose. Villous covered with soft, shaggy unmatted hairs. Vine a climbing or trailing plant. Violaxanthin is a natural xanthophyll pigment

with an orange color found in a variety of plants like pansies.

Viscid sticky, being of a consistency that resists fl ow.

Viviparous describes seeds or fruit which sprout before they fall from the parent plant.

Whorl a ring-like arrangement of leaves, sepals, stamens or other organs around an axis.

Winged having a fl at, often membranous expansion or fl ange, e.g. on a seed, stem or one of the two lateral petals of a Papiliona-ceous fl ower or one of the petal-like sepals of Polygalaceae. cf. keel, standard.

Xanthophylls are yellow, carotenoid pigments found in plants. They are oxidized derivatives of carotenes.

Xeromorphic plant with special modi fi ed struc-ture to help the plant to adapt to dry conditions.

Xerophyte a plant which naturally grows in dry regions and is often structurally modi fi ed to withstand dry conditions.

Zygomorphic having only one plane of sym-metry, usually the vertical plane, referring to a fl ower, calyx or corolla. cf. actinomorphic.

Zygote the fi st cell formed by the union of two gametes in sexual reproduction. adj. zygotic.

590

A Abiu , 129–131 Ackee , 4–8, 10–12 African bitter pea-aubergine , 310 African chillies , 213 African eggplant , 310 African fi nger millet , 12 African locust bean , 11 African pepper , 161, 213 African shea tree , 1 Aji Amarillo , 197, 198 Aji Pepper , 197 Akee , 1, 4–6, 8, 12 Akee Apple , 4 Aki , 4 Alupag-amo , 30, 31, 45 Amarillio chilli , 197 Amazon grape fruit , 446, 448 Amazon tree grape , 446–448 American black nightshade , 318 Anaheim , 170, 207 Angular winter cherry , 283 Annato seed , 206 Annual ground cherry , 283 Annual nightshade , 395 Ants , 69, 215, 358, 377, 564, 584 Apple of Sodom , 364 Asian Bulletwood , 119 Aubergine , 310, 311, 333, 370, 371, 376, 429 Avian in fl uenza virus strains , 155 Aztec Berry , 300

B Baculovirus , 480 Badian star anise , 151 Bakul , 119, 120, 122 Balloon cherry , 283 Bananas , 112, 420 Barbados gooseberry , 300 Barbary boxthorn , 240 Barbary matrimony vine , 240 Barbary wolfberry , 240 Bell peppers , 161, 163, 167, 169–171, 173–176, 178,

179, 183, 187, 188, 190, 197, 199, 207, 456, 552 Bird-eye chilli , 213, 216

Bird fl u (H5N1) virus , 155 Bird pepper , 206, 213 Bird’s-eye pepper , 213 Bitter tomato , 310 Blackberry , 395 Blackberry nightshade , 395, 413 Black fruited nightshade , 395 Black nightshade , 318, 319, 323, 395, 396, 431 Black raspberry , 462, 472 Black seed , 20, 31, 113, 477 Bladderberry , 283, 300 Bladder cherry , 283 Blueberry , 462 Bolsa mulaca , 283 Boxthorn , 240, 267, 270, 271 Brazilian cocoa , 80 Breastberry , 364 Brinjal , 311, 316, 370, 372, 378, 382 Broccoli , 181, 513, 552 Brush pepperbush , 490 Bullet wood tree , 119 Bully tree , 111 Bulro kugi , 267, 271

C Cachucha peppers , 209 Canistel, egg fruit , 2, 133–136 Cape gooseberry , 2, 283, 300–302, 304, 305 Cape tomato , 326 Capsicum, chili , 2 Capsicum pepper , 11, 161, 166, 170, 218 Caqui, East Coast , 107 Castor oil , 7, 141, 358 Cat’s eye , 15, 33 Cattle tick , 439 Catuaba , 88 Cayenne , 161–164, 213, 214, 217, 220, 226 Cayenne pepper , 161, 197, 220 Cherry eggplant , 429 Cherrylance-leaf ground cherry , 283 Cherry pepper , 161 Cherry tomato goldenberry , 300 Chicle , 98, 111, 116, 136, 143 Chico sapote , 111 Chiku , 2, 111, 114

Common Name Index

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants: Volume 6, Fruits,DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5628-1, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

591 Common Name Index

Chile De Cera , 213 Chili , 2, 161, 162, 170, 183, 185, 205, 207,

213–215, 218 Chili peppers , 161, 183, 185, 205, 213, 218, 221,

223, 232 Chillies , 171, 190, 211, 213, 372 Chilli, fruit pointing upwards , 213 Chilli padi , 216, 234 Chiltepin chili , 207 Chinese

anise , 151 aniseed , 151 averrhoe , 39 boxthorn , 267 cherry , 45 chilli pepper , 217 desert-thorn , 267 red jujubes , 268 scarlet eggplant , 310 star anise , 151–159 teaplant , 240 wolfberry , 240, 267

Chitlepin , 161 Christmas pepper , 161 Chrysanthemum , 26, 55, 258, 268 Cilantro , 206 Cinnamon , 11, 139, 152 Cinnamon bark , 126 Cloves , 126, 152, 206, 431 Cluster beans , 431 Cockspur pepper , 213 Cocoa , 80, 139 Cocona , 2, 365, 424–427 Coconut , 108, 311, 372, 431, 466, 473 Coffee , 81, 82, 141, 241, 268, 278, 331, 447 Common beans , 11, 12, 303 Common boxthorn , 267 Common grapevine , 450 Common matrimoney vine , 240 Common nightshade , 395 Cone pepper , 161 Coriander , 126, 190, 431 Corn , 139, 152, 406, 420, 518, 572, 576, 581 Cornish pepper leaf , 493 Cowpea , 11, 12 Cow pops , 283 Cow’s udder , 364 Coxsackie virus B3 (CVB3) , 54 Cranberry , 462, 472, 474 Cumin , 431 Cutleaf groundcherry , 283 Cut-leaved ground cherry , 283

D Damiana , 87 Damson plum , 103 Date plum , 103 Dawa , 92, 93

Dayak eggplant , 311, 316 Deadly nightshade , 2, 395 Devil’s fi g , 429 Dog tomato , 283 Domestic grape , 450 Dorrigo pepper , 490 Dragon’s eye fruit , 18 Duke of Argyll’s teaplant , 240 Duke of Argyll tea tree , 240, 267

E Egg fruit , 2, 133–135 Egg fruit tree , 133 Eggplant , 2, 310, 311, 313, 315, 316, 333, 370–379,

381–385, 429, 430, 432, 439, 552 Epstein–Barr virus , 155, 180, 524 Ethiopian eggplant , 310 European grapes , 451

F Faint pepper bush , 490 Fennel , 126, 152, 529, 552 Fijian longan , 92 Fisalia tooth-leaved bladder , 283 Fox face , 364 Frog , 384

G Gadung , 126 Gallbladder cancer , 232 Garden egg , 310, 311 Garden huckleberry , 395 Garden nightshade , 395 Garden tomato , 339 Garlic , 152, 206, 355, 372, 431, 560 German cockroaches , 158 Giant rambutan , 1, 59, 60 Gilo , 310, 311, 315, 316, 382 Ginger , 88, 112, 152, 221, 431, 529, 552 Glossy nightshade , 318 Goat , 12, 213, 287, 413 Goat-lice , 439 Goat’s pod , 213 Goji , 240, 242, 247, 249, 256, 260 Goji berry , 2, 240, 245–247, 256, 259, 260, 267, 269,

270, 279 Goldenberry , 300, 302–304 Golden leaf tree , 97 Gooseberry-tomato , 300 Go Qi Zi , 267 Gow Kee , 267 Grape , 3, 67, 345, 446–448, 450–482, 555 Grapefruit , 355 Grapevine , 450, 452, 457, 458, 481 Green bell peppers , 174 Green capsicum , 161, 166, 169


Green cat’s eye , 15 Green chilli , 170, 171, 207, 372 Green-fruited pea , 429 Green mata kucing , 1, 15, 37 Green peppers , 11, 161, 163, 171, 172, 179, 327 Green sapote , 2, 143, 144 Green tea , 22, 50, 67, 68, 87, 228 Ground cherry , 283, 300 Guarana , 1, 80–89 Guinea pepper , 213 Guinea worm , 294, 412, 521 Gully bean , 429 Guring , 33

H Habanero chilli pepper , 205, 207, 208 Habaneros , 183, 190, 197, 205–211 Hairless rambutan , 72 Hairy-fruited eggplant , 333 Hairy lychee, rambutan , 62 Hairy nightshade , 333 Halapenos , 161 Harsh , 395 Hazelnut , 350 Hematophagous fl y , 439 Hepatitis C virus , 406 Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) , 54, 68, 294,

322, 381, 434, 507, 531 Herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) , 68 Herpes zoster virus , 225, 226, 322, 531, 552, 557 Himalayan goji , 240, 279 Hog weed , 283 Honey pear , 389 Hot chili , 213 Hot chili pepper , 221 Hot peppers , 170, 172, 173, 179, 186, 187, 197, 200,

211, 213, 234 Hot red peppers , 172, 188, 200,

225, 228 Hot short pepper , 219 Hound’s berry , 395 House fl y , 117 Hungarian pepper , 161 Husk cherry , 300 Husked tomato , 283

I Inca berry , 300 Indian anise , 151 Indian medlar , 119 Indian nightshade , 333 In fl uenza virus , 54, 155, 544 Inkberry , 395 Isau , 1, 33, 35–37

bala , 33, 37 beleng , 33, 37

Island Lychee , 92

J Jalapeno , 165, 210, 211 Jalapeno peppers , 161, 167 Jamaican bitter balls , 310 Japanese star anise , 157, 158, 159 Japanese termites , 158 Jews’s apple , 370 Johore fruit , 39

K Kakus , 1, 33, 34, 36, 37 Kangaroo apple , 336, 337 Ketumbar , 126 Kumba , 310, 311, 316

L Lalaki , 31 Large-fruited black nightshade , 318 Lava sapote , 138 Leechee , 45 Leek , 175 Lemon , 175 Lichee , 45 Licorice , 152 Lime , 47, 98, 112, 116, 134, 198, 206, 324, 420, 571 Liquorice , 152, 268 Litchi , 1, 26, 45, 48–56, 62, 75 Locoto , 197 Longan , 1, 18–27, 30, 31, 33–37, 49, 55, 75, 92 Long pepper , 161 Love apple , 364 Lulo , 419–422, 424 Luna nut , 42 Lungan , 18 Lycee , 19, 20 Lychee , 1, 45–56, 62, 92

M Macaw bush , 364 Mace , 190, 569 Mad apple , 370 Magic berry , 146 Malagueta chilli pepper , 218 Malaria vector , 437 Malaysian , 39, 95, 164, 215 Mamee apple , 138 Mamee zapote , 138 Mamey colorado , 138, 139 Mamey sapote , 2, 138–141, 143, 144 Mandarin orange , 158 Mangoes , 206 Marmalade plum , 111, 138 Marmalade tree , 138 Mata kucing , 1, 33, 35, 37 Matrimony , 240, 267 Matrimony vine , 240, 267

593

Measles virus , 294 Mede berry , 240 Mellow fruit , 389 Melon , 34, 355 Melon pear , 389 Melon shrub , 389 Meritam , 75, 78 Mexican chillies , 213 Mickey mouse plant , 364 Milk fruit , 97 Miracle berry , 146 Miracle fruit , 2, 146–150 Miraculous berry , 146 Mississippi sport pepper , 161 Mock tomato , 310 Mosquitoes , 158, 409, 437, 526, 540, 567 Mountain kangaroo apple , 336, 337 Mountain lychee , 45 Mountain pepper , 493, 494, 498 Mountain pepperbush , 493 Muirapuama , 88 Mullaca , 283, 284 Murraya curry leaves , 431 Mushrooms , 175, 372, 552 Mustard seeds , 546

N Naranjilla , 2, 419–422 Naseberry , 111 Nematodes , 438, 439, 521, 526, 559 Nightshade , 395 Nightshade black-berry , 395 Nipple fruit , 364 Nipple nightshade , 364

O Obra cabbage , 300 Oceanic , 92 Olive plum , 103 Ongael , 442 Onions , 5, 175, 206, 327, 372, 431, 452, 560 Oolong tea , 83 Orange , 20, 67, 152, 175, 330, 381 Orange, bitter , 87 Orange, mandarin , 158 Orange, Seville , 206 Orange, sour , 112 Orinoco apple , 424 Ornamental pepper , 161

P Paci fi c Lychee , 92 Palm oil , 5, 11 Papayas , 20, 206 Paprika , 161–163, 167–169, 172, 175, 178–180, 185,

188–190, 197, 213, 214, 233 Pea aubergine , 310, 429

Peach tomato , 424 Pea eggplant , 429, 432 Peanuts , 5, 372 Pear , 5, 355, 389, 581 Pearl millet , 12 Pepino , 2, 389–393

dulce , 389, 390 melon , 389

Pepper , 2, 3, 11, 134, 161–163, 166–190, 197, 199–202, 205–211, 213–215, 217–223, 225, 228, 231–234, 327, 372, 378, 431, 456, 490, 492–495, 498, 552

bush , 490, 492, 493 fruit , 169, 170, 172, 173, 178, 179, 185, 187, 200,

210, 218 tree , 3, 490

Peruvian ground cherry , 300, 301 Peruvian hot pepper , 197 Peruvian pepino , 389 Petty morel , 395 Phaleria jack , 2, 442 Pigs ears , 364 Pimento pepper , 161 Plate brush , 429 Plum , 97, 103, 107, 111, 138 Plum tree , 107 Pod pepper , 161 Poha berry , 300, 301 Poisonberry , 395 Polio virus I , 294 Potato bush , 395 Potatoes , 2, 139, 358, 376, 384, 395 Pulasan , 75–79 Pungent pepper , 213

Q Quito-orange , 419

R Raisin , 47, 452, 472, 481 Rambutan , 1, 20, 30, 37, 59–70, 72, 75, 76, 78 Red and green bell pepper , 174 Red bell pepper , 171, 173, 174, 179 Red chilli , 170, 171, 183, 188, 190, 207, 215, 221,

228, 431 Red chilli pepper , 223, 232 Red chilli powder , 431 Red cone pepper , 161 Red coondoo Spanish cherry , 119 Red mata kucing , 37 Red medlar , 240 Red paprika , 169, 178, 180, 185 Red peppers , 161, 163, 168, 169, 171, 172, 175, 176,

178, 179, 188, 190, 213, 225, 228, 231, 234, 372 Red raspberry , 462 Red sapote , 138 Rice , 5, 44, 112, 152, 241, 268, 385, 430, 438, 452 Rocoto , 199, 209

Common Name Index


S Sage , 83 Sakay , 213 Sambar onion , 431 Sapodilla , 2, 105, 109, 111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 144 Sarawak wild eggplant , 310, 311, 316 Satan chili , 205 Satin leaf fruit , 97, 103, 104 Satin-leaf tree , 103 Sau , 1, 33, 34, 36, 111 Savory akee , 4 Scarlet eggplant , 310 Scotch bonnet , 206 Serait , 1, 72, 73 Serrano pepper , 163, 167 Sesame seeds , 5 Shallots , 206 Shea butter , 1, 12 Sheep parasite , 439 Shum , 310, 311, 316 Small- fl owered nightshade , 318 Snails , 12, 293, 323, 409, 410, 542, 556 Sour brinjal , 311, 316 Spanish cherry , 2, 119 Spiny longan , 1, 30, 31 Spur pepper , 213 Star anise , 151–159 Star aniseed , 151 Starapple , 2, 97–101, 103, 129 Star plum , 97 Strawberries , 20, 48, 300, 355, 552 Strawberry tomato , 300 Sua , 37 Sunberry , 283 Sundakai , 433, 434, 436 Susumba , 429 Susumber berries , 429, 437, 438 Sweet bell peppers , 178 Sweet berry , 146 Sweet cucumber , 389 Sweet green pepper , 163, 169, 178 Sweet pepino , 389 Sweet peppers , 163, 169, 177 Sweet red pepper , 161, 163, 169, 172

T Tabasco sauce pepper , 213 Tamarillo , 2, 326–331 Tamarind , 125, 206, 372, 431 Tasmanian pepperberry , 493 Tasmanian pepper bush , 493 Tasmannia pepper , 3, 495 Tea , 22, 43, 47, 50, 55–57, 67, 68, 81, 83, 106,

141, 152, 157, 158, 228, 240, 241, 245, 260, 267, 268, 278, 284, 294, 515, 526, 540, 562

Teak , 11, 442 Terong asam , 311, 316, 333, 335 Terung asam , 310–314, 316, 333, 335, 367

Terung dayak , 310, 311, 316, 333 Terung Iban , 310, 316, 333 Thai cultivated nightshade , 429 Thai hairy-fruited eggplant , 333 Thai pea eggplant , 429 Thoor dhal , 431 Thornapples , 2, 429 Tibetan goji , 240, 279 Ti-Es , 133, 134 Ti-ku-pi , 273 Tit Plant , 364 Tit/Titty fruit , 364 Tobacco , 158, 368, 469, 470, 521, 524 Tomatillo , 284, 326, 345, 397 Tomato(es) , 2, 5, 168, 179, 206, 209, 260,

283, 300, 310, 315, 316, 326, 327, 330, 339–358, 372, 376, 384, 395, 424, 430, 439, 552, 557, 559

bush , 395 fruit eggplant , 310 fruit worm , 348

Tooth-leaved winter cherry , 283 Topiro , 424 Torres Straits Wongi , 107 Tree grape, 446 Tree melon , 389 Tree tomato, 326, 330 Trengganu cherry , 39 True sapote , 138 True star anise , 151 Tuko , 103 Turkey berry , 364, 424, 429, 431, 435 Turmeric , 69, 221, 431, 552

U Uvilla , 300, 301, 446

V Vanilla , 134, 152, 327 Vegetable brain , 4 Violet pepper , 378 Virus B3 (CVB3) , 54

W Water lychee , 45 Water nightshade , 429 West Indian star apple , 97 White fl ies , 345 White fl y , 345, 358 Wild African aubergine , 310 Wild baccatum , 197 Wild cape gooseberry , 283 Wild Chinese yam , 268 Wild currants , 395 Wild dilly , 105, 106 Wild eggplant , 311, 316, 371, 429 Wild gooseberry , 2, 283

595

Wild pea-aubergine , 310 Wild pepper , 213 Wild physalis , 283 Wild sapodilla , 105 Wild star apple , 103 Wild tomato , 283 Wine grapes , 450, 453, 456, 458–460, 482 Winter cherry , 283, 300 Wolfberry , 240, 244, 249, 257–260,

267, 268 Wongai , 107–109 Wongi plum , 107 Wrinkled pepper , 161

Y Yellow bell pepper , 170, 207 Yellow lantern , 205 Yellow pepper , 163, 168–171, 189, 207 Yellow sapote , 133, 134 Yellow star apple , 129 Yellow tree tomato , 326

Z Zanzibar pepper , 213 Zapotillo , 111, 133, 138, 143 Zombie fruit , 364

Common Name Index

596

Scienti fi c Name Index

A Acanthus mollis , 410 Acer , 1 Achradelpha

A. mammosa , 110 A. viridis , 143

Achras A. breviloba , 110 A. caimito , 129 A. calderonii , 110 A. conzattii , 110 A. coriacea , 110 A. dactylina , 110 A. gaumeri , 110 A. guapeba , 129 A. latiloba , 110 A. lobulata , 110 A. lucuma , 110 A. mammosa , 107, 110, 138 A. meridionalis , 110 A. occidentalis , 110 A. octodecem fi da , 107 A. paludosa , 110 A. petenensis , 110 A. rojasii , 110 A, sapatilla , 110 A. sapota , 110 A. sapota f. asperma , 110 A. sapota var. candollei , 110 A. sapota var. globosa , 110 A. sapota var. lobata , 110 A. sapota var. ovalis , 110 A. sapota var. pedicellaris , 110 A. sapota var. sphaerica , 110 A. sapota var. typica , 110 A. striata , 110 A. tabogaensis , 110 A. tainteriana , 110 A. tchicomame , 110 A. verrucosa , 110 A. zapota , 110 A. zapota var. major , 110 A. zapota var. zapotilla , 110 A. zapotilla , 110

Achyranthes bidentata , 252 Acinetobacter baumannii , 156

Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans , 480 Aedes aegypti , 158, 409 Aeromonas hydrophila , 479 Alkekengi pubescens , 300 Allium cepa , 330 Allophylus , 1 Alternaria solani , 158 Anchomanes difformis , 294 Angelica sinensis , 245 Anopheles

A. culicifacies , 409 A. stephensi , 409, 437 A. subpictus , 437

Aphania neo-ebudica , 92 Aporetica pinnata , 92 Aquillaria agallocha , 276 Argania spinosa , 1–2 Artemia

A. salina , 115 A. salina nauplii , 322

Ascardia galli , 125 Aspergillus

A. fl avus , 115, 156, 219, 220, 231, 290, 497 A. fumigatus , 219–220, 435, 497 A. niger , 84, 220, 231, 331 A. orchraceus , 290, 591 A. parasiticus , 220

Astragalus membranaceus , 268 Atropa belladonna , 2

B Bacillus

B. amyloliquefaciens , 479 B. brevis , 479 B. cereus , 84, 183, 184, 201, 211, 219, 434, 479 B. coagulans , 479 B. licheniformis , 123 B. megaterium , 115, 183, 479 B. subtilis , 84, 115, 123, 183, 201, 211, 219, 220,

290, 434, 479 Bakeriella dulci fi ca , 146 Barleria lupulina , 68 Bemisia tabaci , 345, 358 Biomphalaria

B. alexandrina , 409, 410

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants: Volume 6, Fruits,DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5628-1, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

597Scientifi c Name Index

B. arabica , 410 B. glabratus , 367 B. tenagophila , 293 B. glabrata , 323

Bipolaris maydis , 158 Blattella germanica , 158 Blighia sapida , 1, 4–12 Boberella

B. angulata , 283 B. peruviana , 300 B. pubescens , 300

Boberella halimifolia, 240Boehmeria nivea , 2 Bothrops atrox , 229 Botryodiplodia theobromae , 157 Browallia , 2 Brunfelsia , 2 Bulinus

B. globosus , 12 B. truncatus , 12, 409

Bumelia dulci fi ca , 146

C Caenorhabditis elegans , 257 Cainito pomiferum , 97 Caleatia caimito , 129 Calocarpum

C. huastecanum , 138 C. mammosum , 110 C. mammosum var. bonplandii , 138 C. mammosum var. candollei , 138 C. mammosum var. ovoideum , 138 C. sapota , 138 C. viride , 143

Calospermum C. mammosum , 110 C. mammosum var. ovoidea , 138 C. parvum , 138

Camellia sinensis , 83 Canarium album , 158 Candida , 25

C. albicans , 25, 156, 184, 220, 277, 289–290, 435, 497, 547, 561

C. guilliermondii , 184 C. krusei , 25, 497 C. lipolytica , 497 C. parapsilosis , 25, 184 C. stellatoidea , 290 C. torulopsis , 290 C. tropicalis , 184, 497 C. utilis , 497

Capsicum , 184, 201, 206, 210, 211, 219 C. annuum , 2, 11, 161–191, 199–201, 205,

207–211, 213, 215–219, 221, 225, 231, 233, 234, 378

C. annuum L. var. annuum , 172 C. annuum L. var. glabriusculum , 173 C. annuum L. var. grossum , 161, 172

C. annuum var. abbreviatum , 183, 187, 219 C. annuum var. acuminatum , 161, 172, 176, 179, 180,

187, 188 C. annuum var. angulosum , 181 C. annuum var. annuum , 170, 173, 209, 218 C. annuum var. aviculare , 161 C. annuum var. cerasiferum , 180, 187 C. annuum var. cerasiforme , 161 C. annuum var . fasciculatum , 161, 171, 176 C. annuum var. frutescens , 213 C. annuum var. glabriusculum , 172, 173, 200, 207,

209, 218 C. annuum var. grossum , 161, 172, 174, 187 C. annuum var. longum , 161 C. annuum var. lycopersiciforme rubrum , 168 C. baccatum , 2, 169, 171, 172, 183, 191, 198–202,

208–211, 218, 234 C. baccatum L. var. baccatum , 202 C. baccatum L. var. pendulum , 197, 199, 209 C. baccatum var. baccatum , 198, 202 C. baccatum var. pendulum , 197–202 C. baccatum var. praetermissum , 171, 198, 200, 202,

208, 218 C. cerasiforme , 161 C. chacoense , 200 C. chinense , 2, 169–172, 174, 177, 183, 191,

199–201, 205–211, 217–219, 225, 234 C. conoides , 161 C. cordiforme , 161 C. fastigiatum , 213 C. frutescens , 2, 161, 163, 169, 171, 172, 174, 177,

183, 191, 199–201, 205, 208–211, 213–234 C. frutescens var. abbreviatum , 219 C. frutescens var. cerasiforme , 161 C. frutescens var. conoides , 161, 217 C. frutescens var. fasciculatum , 161, 219, 231 C. frutescens var. grossum , 161 C. frutescens var. longum , 161, 220 C. frutescens var. pendulum , 197 C. grossum , 161 C. hispidum , 161 C. indicum , 161 C. indicum var. pendulum , 197 C. microcarpum , 202 C. minimum , 213 C. pendulum , 197, 202 C. petenense , 161 C. pubescens , 171, 181, 183, 185, 199–201, 208, 209,

211, 218, 277, 327, 408, 427, 434 C. sinense , 205 C. toxicarium , 205

Capura C. alata , 39 C. fruticosa , 42

Carica papaya , 294 Cecropia , 2, 294 Cestrum , 2 Chenopodium album , 399 Chromobacterium violaceum , 115

598 Scientifi c Name Index

Chrysophyllum C. bicolor , 97 C. bonplandii , 97 C. caeruleum , 97 C. cainito , 2, 97–101 C. cainito var. caeruleum , 97 C. cainito var. jamaicense , 97 C. cainito var. martinicense , 97 C. cainito var. pomiferum , 97 C. cainito var. portoricense , 97 C. cainito var. typicum , 97 C. jamaicense , 97 C. maliforme , 97 C. mirapoanum , 103 C. monopyrenum , 97, 103 C. oliviforme , 2, 103–104 C. oliviforme var. typicum , 103 C. ottonis , 97 C. sericeum , 97

Cichorium intybus , 406 Cissus vinifera , 450 Citrullus colocynthis , 233 Citrus sinensis , 67, 330 Clinacanthus siamensis , 68 Clostridium

C. sporogenes , 183, 201, 211, 219 C. tetani , 183, 201, 211, 219

Codonopsis pilosula , 268 Colletotrichum lindemunthianum , 184 Colocasia esculenta , 365 Coriander sativum , 126, 189 Coriandrum sativum , 190 Corvinia litchi , 45 Corynebacterium xerosis , 183 Cryptococcus neoformans , 25, 220, 322, 497 Culex

C. quinquefasciatus , 158, 409, 437 C. tritaeniorhynchus , 437

Cupania C. akeesia , 4 C. edulis , 4 C. sapida , 4

Curcuma longa , 221 Cyphomandra , 358

C. betacea , 326, 330 C. crassifolia , 326 C. procera , 326

D Dabanus

D. acuminatus , 92 D. pinnatus , 92

Dactimala oliviformis , 103 Damalinia caprae , 439 Datura , 2 Dendrocnide , 2 Dias dubiosa , 442 Dimocarpus

D. crinita , 62 D. dentatus , 17 D. fumatus , 15–17 D. fumatus subsp. fumatus , 1, 15–17 D. fumatus subsp. j avensis , 17 D. fumatus subsp. philippinensis , 17 D. lichi , 33, 45 D. longan. ssp . malesianus var. echinatus , 33 D. longan. ssp . malesianus var. malesianus , 33 D. longan ssp. longan , 27 D. longan ssp. malesianus , 27 D. longan ssp. malesianus var. echinatus , 37 D. longan ssp. malesianus var. malesianus , 34, 37 D. longan subsp. longan var. longan , 1, 18–27 D. longan subsp. malesianus var. echinatus ,

1, 30–31, 37 D. longan subsp. malesianus var. malesianus ,

1, 33–37 D. longan var. echinatus , 27 D. longan var. longan , 1, 18–27 D. longan var. longepetiolatus , 27 D. longan var. malesianu , 27 D. longan var. obtusus , 27

Dioscorea D. hispida , 126 D. opposita , 268

Dracaena , 335 Drimys

D. aromatica , 493 D. dipetala , 490 D. insipida , 490 D. lanceolata , 493

Drosophila melanogaster , 188, 473 Drymispermum

D. blumei , 442 D. cauli fl orum , 442 D. laurifolium , 442 D. phaleria , 442 D. urens , 442

E Eccremanthus eximius , 92 Eikenella corrodens , 156 Eleusine coracana ssp. africana , 12 Enterobacter

E. aerogenes , 479 E. agglomerans , 220 E. cloaca , 183

Enterococcus feacalis , 479 Epidermophyton fl occosum , 322, 497 Erwinia

E. carotovora subsp. carotovara , 190 E. carotovora var. carotovora , 331

Escherichia coli , 25, 51, 84, 88, 115, 156, 183, 185, 189, 220, 233, 289, 290, 412, 413, 434, 479, 480, 530, 555, 557, 564

Euphoria , 33 E. cambodiana , 33


E. crinita , 62 E. didyma , 33, 45 E. echinulata , 18 E. elongata , 33 E. fragifera , 33 E. glabra , 62 E. gracilis , 33 E. litchi , 45 E. longana , 18, 75 E. malaiensis f. declavata , 33 E. microcarpa , 30, 33 E. nephelioides , 30 E. nephelium , 62 E. pallens , 33 E. pinnata , 92 E. pometia , 92 E. ramboutan , 62 E. ramboutan-ake , 75 E. sclerocarpa , 33 E. setosa , 33 E. sinensis , 18 E. succulenta , 33

F Fasciola , 323

F. gigantica , 410 F. hepatica , 410

Fossaria (Lymnaea) cubensis , 323, 367 Fusarium , 115, 331

F. graminearum , 159, 220 F. moniliforme , 219, 220 F. oxysporum , 184, 220 F. vasinfectum , 435 F. verticilloides , 290

Fusobacterium nucleatum , 480

G Galba truncatula , 410 Gambeya mammosa, 110 Ganoderma

G. applanatum , 331 G. lucidum , 259

Geotrichum candidum , 231 Gleichenia , 78 Guapeba

G. caimito , 129 G. lasiocarpa , 129 G. laurifolia , 129

Guapebeira G. brasiliensis , 129 G. laurifolia , 129

Guersentia oliviformis , 103

H Haemaphysalis bispinosa , 439 Haemonchus contortus , 439 Helicobacter pylori , 181, 185, 277, 408, 427,

434, 480

Heliothis zea , 348 Helminthosporium sativum , 123 Herschelia edulis , 300 Hibiscus sabdariffa , 365 Hippobosca maculata , 439

I Ilex paraguayenis , 87 Illicium , 2

I. anisatum , 157, 158 I. san-ki , 151 I. verum , 2, 151–159

Imbricaria I. malabarica , 107 I. perroudii , 119

Irina I. alnifolia , 92 I. diplocardia , 92 I. glabra , 92 I. tomentosa , 92 I. tomentosa forma cuspidata , 92 I. tomentosa var. alnifolia , 92

Iris pseudacorus , 410

J Jasminoides fl accida , 240Jasminoides fl accidum, 240

K Kadsura , 2 Kaukenia

K. elengi , 119 K. kauki , 107 K. timorensis , 119

Klebsiella pneumoniae , 183, 220, 290, 479 Kluyveromyces marxianus , 183, 184 Koelreuteria edulis , 42

L Labatia

L. lasiocarpa , 129 L. reticulata , 129

Lactobacillus acidophilus , 278 Lagenaria siceraria , 365 Leishmania , 497

L. amazonensis , 292 L. major , 292 L. panamensis , 307

Lenzites elegans , 331 Lepisanthes

L. alata , 1, 39–41 L. fruticosa , 1, 42–44

Leptinotarsa decemlineata , 497 Leucosmia burnettiana , 442 Listeria monocytogenes , 183, 479, 480 Litchi

L. chinensis , 1, 45–56


L. chinensis var. euspontanea , 45 L. litchi , 45 L. philippinensis , 45 L. ramboutan , 62 L. ramboutan-ake , 75

Lucuma L. bonplandii , 138 L. caimito , 129 L. campechiana , 133 L. elongata , 133 L. glabrifolia , 133 L. heyderi , 133 L. inseparabilis , 133 L. laeteviridis , 133 L. lasiocarpa , 129 L. laurifolia , 129 L. laurifolia var. reticulata , 129 L. mammosa , 110 L. nervosa , 133 L. palmeri , 133 L. rivicoa var. angustifolia , 133 L. salicifolia , 133 L. sphaerocarpa , 133 L. temare , 129 L. zapota , 110 L. zapota var. anguai , 110

Lycium , 2 L. barbarum , 2, 240–261, 278 L. chinense , 2, 241, 245, 256, 260, 261, 267–279 L. europaeum , 240 L. fl accidum , 240 L. halimifolium , 240 L. lanceolatum , 240 L. subglobosum , 240 L. turbinatum , 240 L. vulgare , 240

Lycopersicon , 358 L. aethiopicum , 310 L. cerasiforme , 339 L. esculentum , 339, 348 L. esculentum ssp. galenii , 339 L. esculentum var. cerasiforme , 339, 346 L. esculentum var. esculentum , 339 L. esculentum var. leptophyllum , 339 L. esculentum var. pyriforme , 339 L. hirsutum , 348 L. lycopersicum , 339 L. lycopersicum var. cerasiforme , 339 L. pyriforme , 339

Lymnaea L. columella , 323 L. cubensis , 367 L. natalensis , 409

M Macrocarpon , 474 Magnolia xerophila , 119 Manilkara

M. achras , 110 M. breviloba , 110

M. calderonii , 110 M. conzattii , 110 M. emarginata subsp. Jaimiqui , 105 M. gaumeri , 110 M. grisebachii , 110 M. jaimiqui , 2, 105–106 M. kauki , 2, 107–109 M. meridionalis , 110 M. meridionalis var. caribbensis , 110 M. parvifolia , 119 M. rojasii , 110 M. striata , 110 M. tabogaensis , 110 M. zapota , 2, 109–117 M. zapotilla , 110

Manilkariopsis M. lobulata , 110 M. meridionalis , 110 M. petenensis , 110 M. rojasii , 110 M. striata , 110 M. tabogaensis , 110

Mansoa alliacea , 367 Marisa cornuarietis , 323 Meloidogyne , 438 Melongena

M. esculenta , 370 M. ovata , 370

Maurella , 324 Micrococcus luteus , 123 Microsporum

M. canis , 220, 322 M. gypseum , 322

Mimusops M. browniana , 107 M. elengi , 2, 107, 119–126 M. elengi var. parvifolia , 119 M. erythroxylon , 119 M. grisebachii , 110 M. hexandra , 122 M. hookeri , 107 M. javensis , 119 M. kauki , 107 M. kauki var. browniana , 107 M. latericia , 119 M. lucida , 119 M. manilkara , 107, 122 M. parvifolia , 119 M. timorensis , 119

Morella , 324 Moringa oleifera , 124 Musca domestica , 117 Mycobacterium

M. avium , 289 M. intracellulare , 289 M. kansasii , 289 M. malmoense , 289 M. smegmatis , 479 M. tuberculosis , 289

Myristica fragrans , 190 Myzus persicae , 498


N Neisseria gonorrhoeae , 289, 290, 529 Nephelium

N. acuminatum , 92 N. bengalense , 18 N. chinense , 45 N. chryseum , 62 N. chryseum var. topengii , 62 N. cuspidatum , 60 N. cuspidatum var. bassacense , 60 N. cuspidatum var. cuspidatum subvar.

dasyneurum , 60 N. cuspidatum var. cuspidatum subv. cuspidatum , 60 N. cuspidatum var. eriopetalum , 60, 61 N. cuspidatum var . multinerve , 60 N. cuspidatum var. ophiodes subvar. beccarianum , 60 N. cuspidatum var . ophiodes subvar. ophiodes ,

60, 61 N. cuspidatum var. robustu m , 1, 59–61 N. didymum , 18 N. diplocardia , 92 N. echinatum , 62 N. eximium , 92 N. fumatum , 15, 17 N. glabrum , 62, 72 N. intermedium , 17, 75 N. lappaceum , 1, 37, 62–70 N. lappaceum var. glabrum , 62 N. lappaceum var. lappaceum , 69 N. lappaceum var. maingayi , 72 N. lappaceum var. pallens , 69 N. lappaceum var. topengii , 62 N. lappaceum var. xanthoides , 69 N. litchi , 45 N. longana , 18, 33 N. longana var. acuminata , 18 N. longana var. pallida , 18 N. maculatum , 62 N. maingayi , 1, 72–74 N. malaiense , 33 N. mutabile , 75 N. mutabile var. pallens , 62 N. obovatum , 62 N. pallens , 75 N. philippense , 75 N. pinnatum , 92 N. pupillum , 18 N. ramboutan-ake , 1, 75–79 N. rambutan , 62 N. robustum , 59 N. schneideri , 30 N. sufferrugineum , 62 N. topengii , 62 N. xanthioides , 62

Nicotiana , 2 Nierembergia , 2 Nigella sativa , 477 Nispero achras , 110 Nocardia asteroides , 123 Normania , 358

O Otolepis

O. alata , 39 O. cambodiana , 42 O. erythrocalyx , 42 O. fruticosa , 42 O. furcata , 42 O. nodosa , 42 O. sessilis , 42, 44

Otophora O. acuminata , 42 O. alata , 39 O. blancoi , 42 O. cambodiana , 42 O. eberhardtii , 42 O. edulis , 39 O. erythrocalyx , 42 O. fruticosa , 42 O. furcata , 42 O. glandulosa , 42 O. latifolia , 42 O. nodosa , 42 O. resecta , 42

P Palaquium gutta , 1 Panax ginseng , 84, 276 Paramphistomum cervi , 439 Parietaria , 2 Parkia biglobosa , 11 Paulinnia , 1

P. sorbilis , 80 P. cupan a , 1, 80–89 P. cupan a var. cupana , 80, 81 P. cupana var. guarana , 89 P. cupana var. sorbilis , 80, 81, 83, 89

Pediococcus acidilactici , 278 Penicillium , 290

P. chrysogenum , 497 P. cyclopium , 84 P. marneffei , 497 P. notatum , 331

Pennisetum glaucum , 12 Petunia , 2 Phaleria

P. capitata , 2, 242–245 P. cauli fl ora , 442 P. cumingii , 442–445 P. disperma , 442 P. dubiosa , 442 P. urens , 442

Phaseolus vulgaris , 12 Pheretima posthuma , 125 Phomopsis sojae , 331 Phyllanthus amara , 294 Physa cubensis , 323 Physalis , 2

P. angulata , 2, 283–295 P. angulata fo. ramosissima , 283


P. angulata var. capsicifolia , 283 P. angulata var. ramosissima , 283 P. capsicifolia , 283 P. chenopodifolia , 300 P. ciliata , 283 P. edulis , 300 P. esculenta , 300 P. esquirolii , 283 P. ixocarpa , 345 P. lagascae , 295 P. lanceifolia , 283, 285, 286 P. latifolia , 300 P. linkiana , 283 P. minima , 283, 285–287, 289–293, 295 P. peruviana , 2, 287, 300–308 P. peruviana var. latifolia , 300 P. puberula , 300 P. ramosissima , 283 P. tomentosa , 300

Pichia membranifaciens , 184 Pilea , 2 Pionandra betacea , 326 Plantago major , 295 Plasmodium

P. berghei , 293 P. falciparum , 293, 437, 540 P. yoelii , 383, 409

Pneumocystis carinii , 220 Polyomavirus , 480 Pometia

P. acuminate , 92 P. alnifolia , 92 P. annamica , 92 P. coriacea , 92 P. curtisii , 33 P. glabra , 92 P. gracilis , 92 P. macrocarpa , 92 P. pinnata , 92–96 P. pinnata forma acuminata , 92, 93, 96 P. pinnata forma alnifolia , 92, 93, 96 P. pinnata forma cuspidata , 92, 93, 96 P. pinnata forma glabra , 92, 93, 96 P. pinnata forma macrocarpa , 92, 93, 96 P. pinnata forma pinnata , 92, 93, 96 P. pinnata forma repanda , 92, 93, 96 P. pinnata forma tomentosa , 92, 93, 96 P. pinnata var. javanica , 92 P. tomentosa , 92 P. tomentosa var. cuspidate , 92

Poria cocos , 245, 276 Porphyromonas gingivalis , 480 Pourouma , 2

P. cecropiifolia , 2, 446–448 P. edulis , 446 P. multi fi da , 446 P. sapida , 446 P. uvifera , 446

Pouteria , 135, 141 P. caimito , 2, 129–131

P. caimito var. laurifolia , 129 P. caimito var. typica , 129 P. campechiana , 2, 133–136 P. campechiana var. nervosa , 133 P. campechiana var. palmeri , 133 P. campechiana var. salicifolia , 133 P. campechiana var. typica , 133 P. dulci fi ca , 146 P. elongata , 133 P. glabrifolia , 133 P. laeteviridis , 133 P. lasiocarpa , 129 P. laurifolia , 129 P. leucophaea , 129 P. mammosa , 110 P. mante , 133 P. sapota , 2, 138–141 P. temare , 129 P. viridis , 2, 143–144

Proteus P. mirabilis , 84, 123 P. vulgaris , 12, 84, 479

Pseudocapsicum torulosum , 310 Pseudomonas , 434

P. aeruginosa , 84, 115, 156, 183, 220, 289, 290, 479

P. corrugata , 331 P. fl uorescens , 84 P. solanacearum , 290, 331 P. syringae pv. s yringae , 331

Pseudonephelium P. fumatum , 15 P. javanicum , 17

Ptychopetalum olacoides , 88 Pycnoporus sanguineous , 331 Pythium aphanidermatum , 157, 158

R Radlkoferella

R. glabrifolia , 133 R. inseparabilis , 133 R. sphaerocarpa , 133

Rehmannia R. glutinosa , 250, 255, 276 R. glutinosa var. purpurae , 276

Reticulitermes speratus , 158 Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus , 117, 439 Rhizoctonia

R. batiticola , 413 R. solani , 158

Rhizopus oryzae , 231 Rhodnius prolixus , 292 Rhodotorula rubra , 183 Rhopalosiphum padi , 498 Richardella

R. nervosa , 133 R. dulci fi ca , 146 R. salicifolia , 133 R. temare , 129


S Saccharomyces , 231

S. cerevisiae , 184, 455, 497 Salmonella , 183

S. choleraesuis , 497 S. cibrum , 434 S. typhi , 25, 115, 435 S. typhimurium , 51, 55, 88, 123, 183, 187, 189, 232,

233, 355, 382, 409, 434 Salpiglossis , 2 Salvia of fi cinalis , 83 Sapindus

S. baccata , 42 S. cinereus , 33 S. edulis , 45 S. fruticosa , 42

Sapota S. achras , 110 S. achras var. lobata , 110 S. achras var. sphaerica , 110 S. elongata , 133 S. mammosa , 138 S. zapotilla , 110

Sarcina lutea , 25, 115 Schisandra , 2 Schistosoma , 323

S. haematobium , 409, 410 S. mansoni , 187, 409, 410

Schizanthus , 2 Schizophyllum commune , 331 Schizosaccharomyces pombe , 184 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum , 413 Scubulon humboldtii , 339 Scytalia

S. chinensis , 45 S. litchi , 45 S. ramboutan , 62

Sechium edule , 116, 370, 409 Serjania , 1 Shigella dysenteriae , 435, 557 Sideroxylon

S. campestre , 133 S. derryanum , 103 S. dulci fi cum , 146 S. sapota , 138

Solandra , 2 Solanum , 2, 358, 422, 426

S. acanthifolium , 429 S. adventitium , 318 S. aethiopicum , 310–316, 370, 376, 377 S. aethiopicum var. aculeatum , 310 S. aethiopicum var. armatum , 310 S. aethiopicum var. giorgii , 310 S. aethiopicum var. inerme , 310, 370 S. aethiopicum var . integrifolium , 310 S. aethiopicum var. modicelobatum , 310 S. aethiopicum var. paaschenianum , 310 S. aethiopicum var. violaceum , 370 S. alibile , 424 S. amarantoides , 318

S. ambrosiacum , 310 S. americanum , 2, 318–324, 397, 400, 401 S. americanum subsp. nodi fl orum , 318 S. americanum var. nodi fl orum , 318 S. anguivi , 311 S. angulatum , 419 S. arecunarum , 424 S. aurantiacum , 310 S. betaceum , 2, 326–331 S. brieyi , 310 S. calvum , 318 S. caribaeum , 318 S. cestrophyllum , 395 S. chenopodioides , 321, 401 S. crassifolium , 326 S. curtipes , 318 S. daturifolium , 429 S. decipiens , 395 S. depilatum , 318 S. dillenii , 395 S. distichum , 311 S. dulcamara , 384 S. edule , 370 S. edule var. multi fi dum , 370 S. eleagnifolium , 384 S. elskensii , 310 S. erythrocarpon , 318 S. esculentum , 370 S. esculentum var . aculeatum , 370 S. esculentum var . inerme , 370 S. esculentum var . subinerme , 370 S. fauriei , 318 S. ferox , 316, 334, 335 S. ferox var. lasiocarpum , 333 S. ferrugineum , 429 S. fi cifolium , 429 S. fi stulosum , 318 S. ganchouenense , 318 S. geminifolium , 310 S. gollmeri , 318 S. gilo , 310, 315, 382 S. gilo subsp . megalacanthum , 310 S. gilo subsp. monteiroi , 310 S. gilo var. ellipsoideum , 310 S. gilo var. erectifructum , 310 S. gilo var. pierreanum , 310 S. gilo var. sparseaculeatum , 310 S. giorgii , 310 S. globiferum , 364 S. guatemalense , 389 S. hebephorum , 389 S. hirsutum , 333 S. humile , 395 S. hybridum , 310 S. imerinense , 318 S. immane , 333 S. incanum , 315, 371, 372 S. inconspicuum , 318 S. indecorum , 318 S. indicum , 310, 320, 365


S. indicum subsp . ambifarium , 310 S. inops , 318 S . insanum , 370 S. insigne , 326 S. integrifolium , 310 S. judaicum , 395 S. kupperi , 310 S. largi fl orum , 429 S. lasiocarpum , 2, 316, 333–335 S. lasiocarpum var. domesticum , 333 S. lasiocarpum var. velutinum , 333 S. linearifolium , 2, 336–338 S. linnaeanum , 371 S. lobelii , 310 S. longifolium , 389 S. longum , 370 S. lusitanicum , 310 S. lycopersicum , 2, 339–358 S. lycopersicum var. cerasiforme , 339 S. lycopersicum var. lycopersicum , 339 S. maccai , 429 S. macrocarpon , 2, 315, 316, 419 S. macrotonum , 318 S. mammosissium , 364 S. mammosum , 2, 364–368 S. mammosum var. corniculum , 364 S. mannii , 429 S. mayanum , 429 S. melanocarpum , 370 S. melongena , 2, 313–315, 365, 370–385, 439 S. melongena subsp. agrest e , 370 S. melongena var. esculentum , 370 S. melongena var. giganteum , 370 S. melongena var. globosi , 370 S. melongena var. inerme , 370 S. melongena var. leucoum , 370 S. melongena var. ovigera , 370 S. melongena var. racemi fl orum , 370 S. melongena var. racemosum , 370 S. melongena var. stenoleucum , 370 S. melongena var. variegatum , 370 S. melongena var. violaceum , 370 S. melongena var. viride , 370 S. melongenum , 370 S. merrillianum , 318 S. microtatanthum , 318 S. minutibaccatum , 318 S. minutibaccatum forma nodi fl orum , 318 S. minutibaccatum subsp. curtipedunculatum , 318 S. monteiroi , 310 S. morella , 395 S. morella subsp . nigrum , 395 S. moschatum , 395 S. muricatum , 2, 389–393 S. muricatum forma glaberrimum , 389 S. muricatum var. dissectum , 389 S. muricatum var. papillosistylum , 389 S. muricatum var. parvifolium , 389 S. muricatum var. popayanum , 389 S. muricatum var. praecedens , 389

S. muricatum var. protogenum , 389 S. muricatum var. teleutogenum , 389 S. naumannii , 310 S. nigrum , 2, 318, 321, 322, 324, 395–413 S. nigrum forma luridum , 395 S. nigrum forma nodi fl orum , 318 S. nigrum forma glabrum , 318 S. nigrum forma violaceum , 318 S. nigrum subsp. chlorocarpum , 395 S. nigrum subsp. dilleni , 395 S. nigrum subsp. humile , 395 S. nigrum subsp. luteovirescen , 395 S. nigrum subsp. nutans , 318 S. nigrum subsp . schultesii , 395 S. nigrum var. acuminatum , 318 S. nigrum var. americanum , 318 S. nigrum var. atriplicifolium , 395 S. nigrum var. dillenii , 318, 395 S. nigrum var. minor , 318 S. nigrum var. nodi fl orum , 318 S. nigrum var. pauci fl orum , 318 S. nigrum var. virginicum , 318 S. nodi fl orum , 318 S. nodi fl orum subsp. nutans , 318 S. nodi fl orum var. acuminatum , 318 S. nodi fl orum var. fauriei , 318 S. nodi fl orum var. macrophyllum , 318 S. nodi fl orum var. pauci fl orum , 318 S. nodi fl orum var. petiolastrum , 318 S. nodi fl orum var. puberulum , 318 S. nodi fl orum var. sapucayense , 318 S. nodi fl orum var. virginicum , 318 S. nollanum , 419 S. obtusifolium , 310 S. oleraceum , 318 S. oleraceum var. macrocarpum , 318 S. olivare , 310 S. ovatifolium , 310 S. ovigerum ß oblongocylindricum , 370 S. ovigerum sinuatorepandum , 370 S. ovigerum subrepandum , 370 S. ovigerum var. album , 370 S. ovigerum var. insanum , 370 S. ovigerum var. luteum , 370 S. ovigerum var. ruber , 370 S. ovigerum var. violaceum , 370 S. ovigerum violaceum , 370 S. paaschenianum , 310 S. pachystylum , 318 S. papilionaceum , 395 S. parvi fl orum , 318 S. pauci fl orum , 318 S. pedunculatum , 389 S. pentagonocalyx , 318 S. photeinocarpum , 318 S. pierreanum , 310 S. platanifolium , 364 S. poggei , 310 S. pseudo fl avum , 395 S. pseudomelongena , 310


Solanum (cont.) S. pterocaulon , 318 S. ptychanthum , 318 S. quadrangulare , 318 S. purpuratum , 318 S. quadriloculare , 333 S. quitoense , 2, 419–422, 427, 439 S. quitoense f. septentrionale , 419 S. quitoense var. septentrionale , 419 S. racemi fl orum , 310 S. repandum , 335 S. retro fl exum , 321, 401 S. rhinozerothis , 318 S. sarrachoides , 384 S. scabrum , 310, 389 S. schroederi , 310 S. schultesii , 395 S. sciaphilum , 318 S. sessili fl orum , 2, 424–427 S. sinaicum , 410 S. sparsespinosum , 310 S. stramonifolium , 429 S. subsessile , 310 S. subspathulatum , 318 S. sudanense , 310 S. suffruticosum , 395 S. tenellum , 318 S. texanum , 310 S. topiro , 424 S. torvum , 2, 315, 367, 429–439 S. torvum var. daturifolium , 429 S. trongum var. divaricatum , 370 S. trongum var. rumphii , 370 S. trongum var. tongdongense , 370 S. torvum var. typicum , 429 S. triangulare , 318 S. trilobatum , 379 S. trongum , 370 S. tuberosum , 2 S. undatum , 371 S. undatum var. violaceum , 310 S. variegatum , 389 S. verapazense , 429 S. villosissimum , 364 S. villosum , 321, 322, 397, 400, 401, 410 S. vulgare , 395 S. vulgatum var. chlorocarpum , 395 S. vulgatum var. nigrum , 395 S. wallisii , 389 S. willdenowii , 310 S. worsleyi , 310 S. zeylanicum , 333, 370 S. zuccagnianum , 310 S. zuccagnianum var. allogonum , 310

Sonchus asper , 399 Spodoptera littoralis , 497 Staphylococcus

S. aureus , 25, 84, 156, 183, 184, 220, 277, 289, 290, 412, 434, 479, 480, 514, 527, 535

S. epidermidis , 68

Streptococcus S. b -haemlyticus , 435 S. faecalis , 183 S. mutans , 25, 84, 184, 480 S. pyogenes , 183, 201,

211, 219 Streptosolen , 2 Synsepalum

S. dulci fi cum , 2, 146–150 S. glycydora , 146

T Tarebia granifera , 323 Tasmannia

T. aromatica , 493 T. cordata , 3 T. insipida , 3, 490–492 T. lanceolata , 3, 493–498

Teremis elliptica, 240 Trichilia catigua , 87 Trichoderma viride , 84, 123 Trichophyton

T. mentagrophytes , 156, 220, 322, 497 T. rubrum , 220, 322, 497 T. tonsurans , 220

Triguer a , 358 Trypanosoma

T. cruzi , 292, 322, 323, 497 T. rangeli , 292

Turnera diffusa var. aphrodisiaca , 87

U Urtica , 2, 399

V Vaccinium macrocarpon , 474 Vasianfactum sp , 115 Vibrio

V. cholerae , 183, 434, 516 V. mimicus , 25

Vigna unguiculata , 12 Vitellaria

V. campechiana , 133 V. mammosa , 110 V. nervosa , 133 V. paradoxa , 1, 12 V. salicifolia , 133 V. sphaerocarpa , 133 V. tenuifolia , 133

Vitis V. amurensis , 456 V. vinifera , 3, 450–482

W Winterana lanceolata , 493


X Xanthomonas

X. axonopodis , 290 X. campestris pvar

vesicatoria , 331 X. vesicatoria , 290

Xantolis palmeri , 133 Xenopus laevis , 384

Xerospermum X. ferrugineum , 33 X. topengii , 62

Z Zingiber of fi cinale , 88, 221 Zygosaccharomyces bailii , 497

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