Hepatoma

60
HEPATOMA (KARSINOMA HEPATOSELULER) DEFINISI Hepatoma (Karsinoma Hepatoseluler) adalah kanker yang berasal dari sel-sel hati. Hepatoma merupakan kanker hati primer yang paling sering ditemukan. Karsinoma fibrolamelar merupakan jenis hepatoma yang jarang, yang biasanya mengenai dewasa muda. Penyebabnya bukan sirosis, infeksi hepatitis B atau C maupun faktor resiko lain yang tidak diketahui. PENYEBAB Di daerah tertentu di Afrika dan Asia Tenggara, hepatoma lebih banyak ditemukan dibandingkan dengan kanker hati metastatik dan merupakan penyebab kematian yang utama. Di daerah-daerah tersebut, terdapat angka kejadian infeksi hepatitis virus B yang tinggi, yang meningkatkan resiko terjadinya hepatoma. Infeksi menahun dari hepatitis C juga meningkatkan resiko terjadinya hepatoma. Bahan-bahan karsinogenik (penyebab kanker) tertentu juga menyebabkan hepatoma. Di daerah subtropis, dimana hepatoma banyak terjadi, makanan sering tercemar oleh bahan karsinogenik yang disebut aflatoksin, yang dihasilkan oleh sejenis jamur. Di Amerika Utara, Eropa dan daerah lainnya dimana hepatoma jarang

description

hepatoma

Transcript of Hepatoma

Page 1: Hepatoma

HEPATOMA (KARSINOMA HEPATOSELULER)

DEFINISI

Hepatoma (Karsinoma Hepatoseluler) adalah kanker yang berasal dari sel-sel hati.

 Hepatoma merupakan kanker hati primer yang paling sering ditemukan.

Karsinoma fibrolamelar merupakan jenis hepatoma yang jarang, yang biasanya mengenai dewasa muda. Penyebabnya bukan sirosis, infeksi hepatitis B atau C maupun faktor resiko lain yang tidak diketahui.

PENYEBAB

Di daerah tertentu di Afrika dan Asia Tenggara, hepatoma lebih banyak ditemukan dibandingkan dengan kanker hati metastatik dan merupakan penyebab kematian yang utama. Di daerah-daerah tersebut, terdapat angka kejadian infeksi hepatitis virus B yang tinggi, yang meningkatkan resiko terjadinya hepatoma.

Infeksi menahun dari hepatitis C juga meningkatkan resiko terjadinya hepatoma.

Bahan-bahan karsinogenik (penyebab kanker) tertentu juga menyebabkan hepatoma. Di daerah subtropis, dimana hepatoma banyak terjadi, makanan sering tercemar oleh bahan karsinogenik yang disebut aflatoksin, yang dihasilkan oleh sejenis jamur.

Di Amerika Utara, Eropa dan daerah lainnya dimana hepatoma jarang ditemukan, sebagian besar penderita hepatoma adalah pecandu alkohol dengan sirosis hati yang telah berlangsung lama. Jenis sirosis lainnya juga berhubungan dengan hepatoma, tetapi sirosis bilier primer memiliki resiko yang lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan sirosis lainnya.

GEJALA

Page 2: Hepatoma

Biasanya gejala awal hepatoma adalah nyeri perut, penurunan berat badan dan terdapatnya suatu masssa yang besar, yang dapat dirasakan/diraba di perut kanan bagian atas.

Penderita yang sebelumnya menderita sirosis menahun, akan tampak sangat sakit.

Pada umumnya terdapat demam.

Kadang gejala awalnya berupa nyeri perut akut dan syok, yang disebabkan oleh pecahnya tumor atau perdarahan pada tumor

.

DIAGNOSA

Kadar alfa-fetoprotein darah pada penderita hepatoma tinggi.

Kadang pemeriksaan darah menunjukkan kadar gula darah yang rendah atau peningkatan kadar kalsium, lemak atau sel darah merah.

Pada awalnya, gejala yang ada tidak cukup untuk mengarah pada diagnosis. Tetapi jika teraba pembesaran hati, patut dicurigai suatu hepatoma, terutama jika terdapat sirosis menahun.

Pada pemeriksaan dengan stetoskop, kadang terdengar suara bising (bruit hepatik) dan suara gesekan (friction rubs).

USG dan CT Scan perut kadang dapat menemukan kanker yang belum menimbulkan gejala. Di beberapa negara, dimana banyak terdapat virus hepatitis B (misalnya di Jepang), USG digunakan untuk menyaring penderita infeksi terhadap kanker hati.

Arteriografi hepatik bisa menunjukkan hepatoma dan terutama dilakukan sebelum pembedahan, untuk membantu menentukan lokasi yang pasti dari pembuluh darah hati.

Biopsi jaringan hati dapat memperkuat diagnosis. Resiko terjadinya

Page 3: Hepatoma

perdarahan atau cedera lainnya pada saat melakukan biopsi pada umumnya rendah.

PENGOBATAN

Kadang penderita dengan tumor yang kecil dapat sembuh dengan baik setelah tumor diangkat melalui pembedahan.

Biasanya prognosis untuk hepatoma jelek karena tumor ditemukan pada stadium lanjut.

Page 4: Hepatoma

HEPATOMA, THE SILENT KILLER

Netsains.Com – Hepatoma atau Karsinoma hepatoseluler adalah tumor ganas hati primer yang paling sering ditemukan daripada tumor ganas di hati lainnya, seperti limfoma maligna, fibrosarkoma dan hemangioendotelioma. Penyakit ini paling sering ditemukan di China dan kawasan Asia Tenggara.

Hepatoma selain sering menimbulkan gangguan faal pada hati, juga membentuk beberapa jenis hormon yang dapat meningkatkan kadar hemoglobin, kalsium, kolesterol dan alfa feto protein di dalam darah. Gangguan faal hati menyebabkan peningkatan kadar SGOT, SGPT, fosfatase alkali, laktat dehidrogenase, dan alfa L-fukosidase.

Pasien hepatoma 88% terinveksi virus hepatitis B atau C. Dan kedua virus ini mempunyai hubungan yang erat dengan timbulnya hepatoma. Hepatoma seringkali tidak terdiagnosis karena gejala karsinoma tertutup oleh penyakit yang mendasari yaitu sirosis hati atau hepatitis kronik. Dan lebih dari 80% pasien hepatoma menderita sirosis hati.

Dasar terapi dari hepatoma adalah operasi, terutama pada hepatoma kecil yang diameternya kurang dari 5cm dan tunggal.

Tidak sedikit pakar berpendapat, untuk terapi hepatoma kecil cangkok hati lebih baik daripada lobektomi. Dewasa ini hepatoma kecil disertai sirosis terapi pilihan pertama adalah cangkok hati. Alasannya adalah, hepatoma yang timbul diatas sirosis seringkali bersifat multifokal, bila direseksi satu, di tempat lain akan timbul lagi. Sedangkan sirosis bersifat progresif, bila hanya dilakukan lobektomi, tidak mungkin dapat menyembuhkan sirosis, bahkan seringkali hipertensi portal dipersulit dengan pendarahan hebat dan kegagalan fungsi hati.

Hepatoma atau karsinoma hepatoseluler biasa dan sering terjadi pada sirosis hati yang merupakan komplikasi hepatitis virus kronik. Hepatitis kronik adalah faktor resiko penting hepatoma, virus penyebabnya adalah virus hepatitis B dan C.

Pada awalnya, gejala hepatoma tidak begitu tampak. Jika pun tampak, biasanya sudah stadium lanjut dan harapan hidup pasien sekitar beberapa minggu sampai beberapa bulan. Keluhan yang paling sering dirasakan oleh

Page 5: Hepatoma

pasien pada awalnya adalah berkurangnya selera makan, penurunan berat badan, nyeri di perut kanan atas dan mata tampak kuning.

Untuk deteksi dan menegakkan diagnosis hepatoma pada pasien sirosis, hepatitis B kronik, hepatitis C kronik, diperlukan pemeriksaan penunjang seperti CT Scan dan USG. Pemeriksaan ini sangat membantu karena dapat menemukan tumor yang masih berukuran kecil dan gejalanya tertutup oleh sirosis hati ataupun hepatitis.

Kanker hati ini merupakan silent killer karena tidak ada gejala yang khas sampai akhirnya pasien tahu bahwa tubuh sudah ada kanker hati bahkan sudah sampai stadium ke stadium lanjut. Hepatoma tidak bisa diobati tetapi hanya bisa mengurangi rasa sakit dan terapinya seperti yang telah disebutkan diatas, yaitu cangkok hati.

Badan Kesehatan Dunia (WHO) menyebutkan hingga saat ini sekitar dua milyar orang terinveksi hepatitis B (sebagai cikal bakal hepatoma) di seluruh dunia dan 350 juta diantaranya berlanjut menjadi infeksi hepatitis B kronis. Diperkirakan 600.000 orang meninggal dunia per tahun karena penyakit tersebut. Di Indonesia, angka kematian infeksi hepatitis diperkirakan mencapai 5-10 persen dari jumlah penduduk. (sumber: Republika  01 Februari 2011)

Prof. dr Ali Sulaiman, Sp PD.KGEH, guru besar dari divisi Hepatologi Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia menjelaskan, proses hepatitis menjadi kanker boleh dibilang butuh waktu panjang. Di awal virus hepatitis B akan masuk ke dalam tubuh yang kemudian virus tersebut merusak dan merangsang sel-sel beraktivasi. Akibatnya sel-sel tersebut membentuk benjolan pada hati yang bila dibiarkan akan menjadi sirosis hingga kanker hati. Proses ini juga dipengaruhi gen dalam riwayat keluarga yang ternyata memiliki keterkaitan penyakit hepatitis.  Selain itu faktor lainnya adalah obesitas, perlemakan hati, merokok, menkonsumsi alkohol dan pengguna steroid anabolik jangka panjang.

Sebagian besar penderita kanker hati dan hepatitis merupakan kaum pria, dengan data jumlah perbandingannya dengan perempuan sebesar 3:1 hingga 5:1. Penyebab pasti mengapa laki-laki lebih banyak menderita kanker hati masih belum jelas betul. Namun diduga disebabkan adanya perbedaan hormonal dan  intensitas kegiatan laki-laki yang banyak menghabiskan waktu diluar. Pendapat lain, mengatakan bahwa perempuan memiliki sistem kekebalan tubuh yang lebih kuat dibanding laki-laki.

Page 6: Hepatoma

Pencegahan hepatoma adalah dengan mencegah penularan virus hepatitis B ataupun C. Vaksinasi merupakan pilihan yang bijaksana, tetapi saat ini baru tersedia vaksinasi untuk virus hepatitis B.

Penyakit yang telah banyak memakan korban ini, masih menjadi peristiwa yang menakutkan karena virus yang menjadi penyebabnya belum bisa sepenuhnya dijinakkan. Adalah benar bahwa mencegah adalah lebih baik daripada mengobati. Karena itu, siapapun yang peduli terhadap keselamatan jiwa memerlukan kewaspadaan  kesehatan pribadi yang tinggi.

foto: klikdokter.com

Page 7: Hepatoma

ETIOLOGI

A.    Virus Hepatitis B

Hubungan antara infeksi kronik HBV dengan timbulnya hepatoma terbukti kuat, baik secara epidemiologis, klinis maupun eksperimental. Sebagian besar wilayah yang hiperendemik HBV menunjukkan angka kekerapan hepatoma yang tinggi. Umur saat terjadinya infeksi merupakan faktor resiko penting karena infeksi HBV pada usia dini berakibat akan terjadinya kronisitas. Karsinogenitas HBV terhadap hati mungkin terjadi melalui proses inflamasi kronik, peningkatan proliferasi hepatosit, integrasi HBV DNA ke dalam DNA sel penjamu, dan aktifitas protein  spesifik-HBV berinteraksi dengan gen hati. Pada dasarnya, perubahan hepatosit dari kondisi inaktif menjadi sel yang aktif bereplikasi menentukan tingkat karsinogenesis hati. Siklus sel dapat diaktifkan secara tidak langsung akibat dipicu oleh ekspresi berlebihan suatu atau beberapa gen yang berubah akibat HBV. Infeksi HBV dengan pajanan agen onkogenik seperti aflatoksin dapat menyebabkan terjadinya hepatoma tanpa melalui sirosis hati.1

B.    Virus Hepatitis C

     Di wilayah dengan tingkat infeksi HBV rendah, HCV merupakan faktor resiko penting dari hepatoma. Infeksi HCV telah menjadi penyebab paling umum karsinoma hepatoseluler di Jepang dan Eropa, dan juga bertanggung jawab atas meningkatnya insiden karsinoma hepatoseluler di Amerika Serikat, 30% dari kasus karsinoma hepatoseluler dianggap terkait dengan infeksi HCV. Sekitar 5-30% orang dengan infeksi HCV akan berkembang menjadi penyakit hati kronis. Dalam kelompok ini, sekitar 30% berkembang menjadi sirosis, dan sekitar 1-2% per tahun berkembang menjadi karsinoma hepatoseluler. Resiko karsinoma hepatoseluler pada pasien dengan HCV sekitar 5% dan muncul 30 tahun setelah infeksi. Penggunaan alkohol oleh pasien dengan HCV kronis lebih beresiko terkena karsinoma hepatoseluler dibandingkan dengan infeksi HCV saja. Penelitian terbaru menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan antivirus pada infeksi HCV kronis dapat mengurangi risiko karsinoma hepatoseluler secara signifikan.1,5 

C.    Sirosis Hati

Sirosis hati merupakan faktor resiko utama hepatoma di dunia dan melatarbelakangi lebih dari 80% kasus hepatoma. Penyebab utama sirosis di Amerika Serikat dikaitkan dengan alkohol, infeksi hepatitis C, dan infeksi

Page 8: Hepatoma

hepatitis B. Setiap tahun, 3-5% dari pasien dengan sirosis hati akan menderita hepatoma. Hepatoma merupakan penyebab utama kematian pada sirosis hati. Pada otopsi pada pasien dengan sirosis hati , 20-80% di antaranya telah menderita hepatoma.1,5

D.    Aflatoksin

Aflatoksin B1 (AFB1) meruapakan mikotoksin yang diproduksi oleh jamur Aspergillus. Dari percobaan pada hewan diketahui bahwa AFB1 bersifat karsinogen. Aflatoksin B1 ditemukan di seluruh dunia dan terutama banyak berhubungan dengan makanan berjamur.1 Pertumbuhan jamur yang menghasilkan aflatoksin berkembang subur pada suhu 13°C, terutama pada makanan yang menghasilkan protein. Di Indonesia terlihat berbagai makanan yang tercemar dengan aflatoksin seperti kacang-kacangan, umbi-umbian (kentang rusak, umbi rambat rusak,singkong, dan lain-lain), jamu, bihun, dan beras berjamur. 7

Salah satu mekanisme hepatokarsinogenesisnya ialah kemampuan AFB1 menginduksi mutasi pada gen supresor tumor p53. Berbagai penelitian dengan menggunakan biomarker menunjukkan ada korelasi kuat antara pajanan aflatoksin dalam diet dengan morbiditas dan mortalitas hepatoma.1

E.    Obesitas

Suatu penelitian pada lebih dari 900.000 individu di Amerika Serikat diketahui bahwa terjadinya peningkatan angka mortalitas sebesar 5x akibat kanker pada kelompok individu dengan berat badan tertinggi (IMT 35-40 kg/m2)  dibandingkan dengan kelompok individu yang IMT-nya normal. Obesitas merupakan faktor resiko utama untuk non-alcoholic fatty liver disesease (NAFLD), khususnya non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) yang dapat berkembang menjadi sirosis hati dan kemudian berlanjut menjadi hepatoma.1

F.     Diabetes Mellitus

Tidak lama ditengarai bahwa DM menjadi faktor resiko baik untuk penyakit hati kronis maupun untuk hepatoma melalui terjadinya perlemakan hati dan steatohepatitis non-alkoholik (NASH). Di samping itu, DM dihubungkan dengan peningkatan kadar insulin dan insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)  yang merupakan faktor promotif potensial untuk kanker. Indikasi kuatnya aasosiasi antara DM dan hepatoma terlihat dari banyak penelitian. Penelitian

Page 9: Hepatoma

oleh El Serag dkk. yang melibatkan173.643 pasien DM dan 650.620 pasien bukan DM menunjukkan bahwa insidensi hepatoma pada kelompok DM lebih dari dua kali lipat dibandingkan dengan insidensi hepatoma kelompok bukan DM.1

G.   Alkohol

Meskipun alkohol tidak memiliki kemampuan mutagenik, peminum berat alkohol (>50-70 g/hari atau > 6-7 botol per hari) selama lebih dari 10 tahun meningkatkan risiko karsinoma hepatoseluler 5 kali lipat. Hanya sedikit bukti adanya efek karsinogenik langsung dari alkohol. Alkoholisme juga meningkatkan resiko terjadinya sirosis hati dan hepatoma pada pengidap infeksi HBV atau HVC. Sebaliknya, pada sirosis alkoholik terjadinya HCC juga meningkat bermakna pada pasien dengan HBsAg positif atau anti-HCV positif. Ini menunjukkan adanya peran sinergistik alkohol terhadap infeksi HBV maupun infeksi HCV

Page 10: Hepatoma

PEMERIKSAAN FAAL HATI

Banyak faal metabolik yang dilakukan oleh jaringan hati, maka ada banyak pula, lebih dari 100, jenis test yang mengukur reaksi faal hati. Semuanya, disebut sebagai "tes faal hati". Sebenarnya hanya beberapa yang- benar-benar mengukur faal hati. Diantara berbagai tes tersebut tidak ada tes tunggal yang efektif mengukur faal hati secara keseluruhan. Beberapa tes terlalu peka sehingga tidak khas, sebagian lagi dipengaruhi pula oleh faktor-faktor di luar hati, sebagian lagi sudah obsolete. Sebaliknya makin banyak tes yang diminta maka makin besar pula kemungkinannya mendapatkan defisiensi biokimia. Cara pemeriksaan shotgun semacam itu akan menimbulkan kebingungan. Sebaiknya memilih beberapa tes saja.

Beberapa kriteria yang dapat dipakai adalah, antara lain, dapatnya dikerjakan tes tersebut secara baik dengan sarana yang memadai, segi kepraktisan, biaya, stress yang dibebankan kepada penderita, kemampuan diagnostik dari tes tersebut, dan lain-lain. Pada pengujian kerusakan hati, gangguan biokimia yang terlihat adalah peningkatan permeabilitas dinding sel, berkurangnya kapasitas sintesa, terganggunya faal ekskresi, berkurangnya kapasitas penyimpanan, terganggunya faal detoksifikasi peningkatan reaksi mesenkimal dan imunologi yang abnormal.

Dengan melihat gangguan faal biokimia mana yang ingin diketahui dan mempertimbangkan kriteria di atas maka testes yang ada dapat dikelompokkan menurut suatu program bertahap.

I. Integeritas Sel

Enzim-enzim AST, ALT & GLDH akan meningkat bila terjadi kerusakan sel hati. Biasanya peningkatan ALT lebih tinggi dari pada AST pada kerusakan hati yang akut, mengingat ALT merupakan enzim yang hanya terdapat dalam sitoplasma sel hati (unilokuler). Sebaliknya AST yang terdapat baik dalam sitoplasma maupun mitochondria (bilokuler) akan meningkat lebih tinggi daripada ALT pada kerusakan hati yang lebihdalam dari sitoplasma sel. Keadaan ini ditemukan pada kerusakan sel hati yang menahun. Adanya perbedaan peningkatan enzim AST dan ALT pada penyakit hati ini mendorong para peneliti untuk menyelidiki ratio AST & ALT ini. De Ritiset al mendapatkan ratio AST/ALT =0,7 sebagaibatas penyakit hati akut dan

Page 11: Hepatoma

kronis. Ratio lni yang terkenal dengan narna ratio De Ritis memberikan hasil <> 0,7 pada penyakit hati kronis. Batas 0,7 ini dipakai apabila pemeriksaanenzim-enzim tersebut dilakukan secara optimized, sedangkan apabila pemeriksaan dilakukan dengan cara kolorimetrik batas ini adalah 1. Istilah "optimized" yang dipakai perkumpulan ahli kimia di Jerman ini mengandung arti bahwa cara pemeriksaan ini telah distandardisasi secara optimum baik substrat, koenzim maupun lingkungannya. Enzim GLDH bersifat unikoluker dan terletak di dalam mitochondria. Enzim ini peka dan karena itu baik untuk deteksi dini dari kerusakan sel hati terutama yang disebabkan oleh alkohol, selain itu juga berguna untuk diagnosa banding ikterus. Perlu diketahui bahwa cortison dan sulfonil urea pada dosis terapi dapat menurunkan kadar GLDH. Pemeriksaan enzim LDH total akan lebih bermakna apabila dapat dilakukan pemeriksaan isoenzimnya yaitu LDH. Dalam hubungannya dengan metabolisme besi, sel hati rnembentuk transferin sebagai pengangkut Fe dan juga menyimpannya dalam bentuk feritin dan hemosiderin.

Cu terdapat di dalam enzim seruloplasmin yang dibentuk oleh hati. Kelebihan Cu akan segera diekskeresi oleh hati. Perubahan kadar Fe dan / atau Cu pada beberapa penyakit hati.

II. Faal Metabolisme/Ekskresi

Tes BSP (bromsulfonftalein), suatu zat warna, merupakan tes yang peka terhadap adanya kerusakan hati. Diukur retensinya di dalam darah beberapa waktu setelah disuntikkan intravena.

Di dalam darah ia diikat oleh albumin dan di "uptake" olehsel-sel hati, dikonyugasi dan diekskresi melalui empedu. Pada penyuntikan 5 mg/kg berat badan maka setelah 45 menit retensinya kurang dari 5% pada keadaan normal.

Korelasinya baik dengan kelainan histopatologik. Tes ini berguna pada hepatitis anikterus, mengetahui kerusakan setelah sembuh dari hepatitis, sirosis hati, semua tingkat hepatitis kronik, tersangka perlemakan hati dan keracunan hati. Namun tes ini kurang disenangi karena dapat timbul efek samping, walaupun jarang, yang fatal seperti renjatan anafilaktis.

Akhir-akhir ini makin banyak dikerjakan pemeriksaan kadar asam empedu dalam darah. Tes ini mempunyai makna seperti tes retensi BSP dan juga amat peka terutama kadarnya 2 jam

Page 12: Hepatoma

setelah makan.

Kadar amonia mengukur faal detoksifikasi hati yang merubahnya menjadi ureum. Faal ini baru terganggu pada kerusakan hati berat karena itu tes ini baru berguna untuk mengikuti perkembangan sirosis hati yang tidak terkompensir atau koma hepatikum. Kadarnya juga akan meningkat bila ada shunt portokaval yang mem"by-pass" hati.

Tes toleransi galaktosa menguji kemampuan faal hati mengubah galaktosa menjadi glukosa. Tes ini sudah jarang dilakukan.

III. Faal Ekskresi

Pemeriksaan kadar bilirubin serum terutama panting untuk membedakan jenis-jenis ikterus. Pemeriksaan ini yang umumnya memakai metodik Jendrassik dan Grof (1938) dapat dipengaruhi oleh kerja fisik dan makanan tertentu seperti karoten, oleh karena itu pengambilan sampel sebaiknya pagi hari sesudah puasa. Pada ikterus prahepatik yang dapat disebabkan oleh proses hemolisis ataupun kelainan metabolisme seperti sindroma Dubin-Johnson, ditemukan peningkatan dari bilirubin bebas. Ikterus hepatik sebagai akibat kerusakan sel hati akan meningkatkan baik bilirubin babas maupun bilirubin (diglukuronida) dalam darah serta ditemukannya bilirubin (diglukuronida) didalam urin. Sedangkan ikterus obstruktif, baik intra maupun ekstra hepatik, akan meningkatkan terutama bilirubin diglukuronida di dalam darah dan urin. Kadar urobilinogen dalam urin akan meningkat pada ikterus hepatik, sebaliknya ia akan menurun atau tidak ada sama sekali pada ikterus obstruktif sesuai dengan derajat obstruksinya.

Seperti telah disinggung sebelumnya pemeriksaan asam empedu makin banyak dipakai sebagai tes faal hati. Pemeriksaan ini dimungkinkan untuk dipakai di dalam klinik sejak ditemukannya metodik onzimatik yang relatif sederhana dibandingkan metodik-metodik sebelumnya. Dalam keadaan normal hanya sebagian kecil saja asam empedu terdapat di dalam darah sedangkan sebagian besar di uptake oleh sel hati. Pada kerusakan sel hati, hati gagal mengambil asam empedu, sehingga jumlahnya meningkat dalam darah. Pemeriksaan ini seperti pemeriksaan BSP dapat mendeteksi kelainan hati yang ri ngan disamping untuk follow up dan menguji adanya shunt port caval.

Page 13: Hepatoma

IV. Faal Sintesa

Albumin disintesa oleh hati. Pada gangguan faal hati kadarnya di dalam darah akan menurun. Cara pemeriksaan yang banyak dipakai sekarang adalah cara bromcresylgreen. Selain dengan cara di atas, penurunan kadar albumin juga dapat diukur secara elektroforesa dengan peralatan khusus yang lebih mahal. Selain dengan pemeriksaan albumin, pemeriksaan enzim cholinesterase(ChE) juga dipakai sebagai tolok ukur dari faal sintesa hati. Penurunan aktivitas ChE ternyata lebih spesifik dari pemeriksaan albumin, karena aktivitas ChE kurang dipengaruhi faktor-faktor di luar hati dibandingkan dengan pemeriksaan kadar albumin.

Penetapan masa protrombin plasma berguna untuk menguji sintesa faktor-faktor pembekuan II, VII, IX dan X. Semua pemeriksaan tersebut lebih berguna untuk menilai atau membuat prognosa dari pada mendeteksi penyakit hati kronis.

V. Proses Reaktif

Baik enzim GGT, AP, 5-NT maupun. LAP akan meningkat pada kelainan saluran empedu Enzim-enzim cholestasis ini juga akan meningkat dalam kadar yang lebih rendah pada kerusakan sel parenkin hati. Pemeriksaan GGT pada saat ini merupakan pemeriksaan yang paling populer dari ketiga pemeriksaan lainnya. Peningkatan aktivitas enzim ini sering merupakan tanda pertama keracunan sel hati akibat alkohol. Disamping itu mengingat half-life nya yang panjang peningkatan enzim ini sering merupakan abnormalitas terakhir yang dijumpai pada proses penyembuhan kerusakan hati.

VI. Imunologi

Pemeriksaan TTT (tes turbiditas timol) merupakan salah satu tes labilitas yang telah lama dikenal (sejak 1944). Mekanisme fisika—kimia dari tes ini belum jelas. Diketahui globulin akan mempermudah pembentukan presipitasi, sedangkan albumin menghambat proses ini. Disamping itu trigliserida dan khilomikron dapat menyebabkan tes TTT positip. Peningkatan dari TTT kadang-kadang ditemukan sebelum terjadi kelainan pada hasil pemeriksaan elektroforesa dan albumin. Tes labilitas yang lain adalah tes turbiditas zink sulfat (Kunkel), Takata Ara, dan lain-lain. Sebenarnya tes-tes labilitas ini bukan berdasarkan reaksi antigen antibodi, tetapi

Page 14: Hepatoma

menggambarkan fraksi-fraksi protein.

Peningkatan dari globulin yang merupakan respon imunitas ini biasanya baru ditemukan pada kerusakan hati yang kronis. Pada penyakit hati kronik biasanya ditemukan peningkatan IgG. Peningkatan IgM menyolok pada hepatitis type A, sedangkan untuk hepatitis type B yang menyolok biasanya IgG.

Pemeriksaan AFP pada mulanya disangka adalah spesifik untuk karsinoma hati primer (hepatoma), namun ternyata selain selain oleh sel tumor hati, AFP juga adakalanya dibentuk oleh sel tumor pada saluran pencernaan. Denaan cara radioimmunoassay atau enzyme immunoassay kadarnya hanya 20 mg/ml dalam darah orang normal. Masih belum diketahui dengan jelas mekanisme peningkatannya pada sel-sel tumor diatas. Bila kadarnya melebihi 3000 ng/ml hampir dapat dipastikan diagnosa hepatoma. Kadar yang kurang dari itu dapat juga dijumpai pada sirosis hati, hepatitis, kehamilan trimester ketiga, teratoma, dll. Pemeriksaan AFP ini terutama dipakai untuk memonitor terapi bedah ataupun khemoterapi karsinoma hati.

Ada pula beberapa antibodi yang berhubungan dengan penyakit hati. Antibodi-antibodi yang ditetapkan secara immunofluorescence ini antara lain antinuclear antibody (ANA) ditemukan pada hepatitis kronik aktif, anti micochandrial antibody (AMA) dapat ditemukan pada hepatitis kronik aktif, sirosis bilier dan cholestasis dan smooth muscle antibody (SMA) yang ditemukan pada hepatitis virus akut.

Telah diketahui beberapa "seromarker" virus hepatitis A dan B. Untuk virus hepatitis A dikenl HA Ag dan anti-HA. Untuk virus hepatits B dikenal HBsAg, HBcAg, HBeAg, anti-HBc dananti-HBe. Pertanda serologik ini bermakna untuk menentukan etiologi, mekanisme penularan, daya tular, tahap penyakit hepatitis dan penyakit hati lainnya yang berkaitan serta prognosanya.

PENGGUNAAN DALAM KLINIK

Di klink pemeriksaan "faal" hati diperlukan untuk diagnosa adanya dan jenis penyakit hati, diagnosa banding (ikterus, hepatomegali, asites, perdarahan saluran pencernaan), menilaiberatnya penyakit, menilai prognosa dan mengikuti hasil pengobatan. Juga diperlukan untuk penilaian prabedah serta pada keracunan obat-obatan.

Page 15: Hepatoma

Sebagai pedoman umum dapat dilakukan menurut beberapa prinsip praktis seperti pemilihan tes haruslah menggambarkan berbagai macam tolok ukur dari faal-faal hati, tes faal hati dilakukan secara serial untuk menilai perkembangan penyakit dan juga semua tes tersebut harus ditafsirkan di dalam keseluruhan konteks klinik. Juga harus dipahami bahwa tiap tes laboratorium dapat saja tidak bebas dari kesalahan.

Pengertian menyeluruh diartikan mulai dari anamnesa, pemeriksaan fisik, pemeriksaan laboratorik sampai pemeriksaan khusus. Pentingnya anamnesa misalnya pada diagnosa druginduced hepatitis.

Dengan makin banyaknya pemakaian biopsi jarum, endoskopi, ultrasonografi, scanning, arteriografi dan lain-lain untuk diagnosis tepat peranan diagnostik dari tes-tes faal hati sekarangini sudah banyak berkurang. Walaupun demikian tes-tes ini masih berguna untuk menyaring adanya penyakit hepatobilier, mengetahui beratnya dan mengikuti kemajuannya.

Sherlock mengusulkan pola tes-tes faal hati yang paling berguna pada beberapa jenis kelainan hepatobilier. Untuk diagnosa ikterus diusulkannya fosfatase alkali, elektroforesa proteinserum dan enzim aminotransferase (AST, ALT), warna feses dari hari-kehari. Penilaian beratnya kerusakan sel hati dilakukan dengan memeriksa secara serial bilirubin serum, albumin,aminotransferase dan masa protrombin setelah pemberian vitamin K. Kerusakan sel hati yang minimal didiagnosa dengan mengamati kenaikan kadar bilirubin serum dan aktivitas aminotransferase yang minimal. Bila disebabkan oleh alkohol dilakukan dengan GGT.Infiltrasi hati dipikirkan bila ada kenaikan aktivitas fosfatase alkali tanpa ikterus.

Sebagai pemeriksaan penyaring Schmidt dan Schmidt mengusulkan pemeriksaan 3 macam enzim, yaitu ALT untuk kerusakan sel hati, GGT untuk kolestasis dan cholinesterase untuk faal sintesa hati.

Pemilihan macam tes faal hati apa saja yang diperlukan untuk setiap keadaan dan jenis penyakit hepatobilier ini masih belum ada kesepakatan, Bermacam-macam algoritme yang diusulkan dan penggunaan komputer telah dilakukan pula. Untuk itu terlebih dahulu perlu dibakukan klasifikasi

Page 16: Hepatoma

penyakit, metode pemeriksaan laboratorium dan diagnostik lainnya kemudian diterapkan untuk mendapatkan data asupan.

KEPUSTAKAAN

1. Raphael SS. Lynch's Medical Laboratory Technology, 3rd ed.Philadelphia : WB Saunders Company, 1976 ; 212 - 236.

2. Bauer JD, Ackermann PG, Toro G. Clinical Laboratory Methods, 8thed, Saint Louis. The CV Mosby Company, 1974 ; 434 - 447.

3. Henry JB. Todd - Sanford - Davidson.Clinical Diagnosis and Managementby Laboratory Methods, 6th ed, Philadelphia : WB SaundersCompany 1979; 305-383.

4. Isselbacher KJ, LaMont IT. Diagnostic procedures in liver disease. 1n:Isselbacher, Adams,Braunwald, Petersdorf, Wilson eds. Harrison'sPrinciples of Internal Medicine. 9th ed. Tokyo : Mc Graw-HillKogakusha Ltd., 1980 ; 1450.

5. Sherlock S.Diseases of the Liver and Biliary System, 6th ed. Fromedan London : Butler & Tanner Ltd. 1981 ; 14 - 27.

6. Gotz W. Diagnosis of Hepatic Diseases, 1 st ed. Darmstadt : G-I-TVerlag Ernst Giebeler, 1980 ; 19 - 44.

7. Schmidt E, Schmidt FW. Brief Guide to Practical Enzyme Diagnosis.2nd ed Mannheim : Boehringer Mannheim GmBH, 1976 ; 73-76.

8. Henry RJ, Cannon DC, Winkelman JW. Clinical Chemistry, Principlesand Technics, 2nd ed. Hagerstown : Harper and Row, 1974 ; 1009 - 1019.

Page 17: Hepatoma

Imaging in the Diagnosis, Staging, Treatment, and Surveillance of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

1. Janio Szklaruk 1 , 2. Paul M. Silverman and

3. Chusilp Charnsangavej

+ Author Affiliations

1. 1 All authors: Division of Diagnostic Imaging, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Box 57, Houston, TX 77030-4009.

 

Next Section

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the eighth most common malignancy worldwide. This article will review the epidemiology, clinical presentation, staging, pathology, laboratory findings, radiology, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Previous Section Next Section

Epidemiology

Hepatocellular carcinoma represents 6% of all cancers and is the most common primary hepatic malignancy worldwide. A geographic bias is seen, with an increased incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in the Far East, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa (90 cases per 100,000 population vs 2.4 cases per 100,000 in the United States) [1,2,3,4].

The most important risk factors include cirrhosis and hepatitis B and C viruses. Additional risk factors include hemochromatosis; excessive androgens; α1-antitrypsin deficiency; and exposure to aflotoxins, thorotrast, oral contraceptives, and vinyl chloride [4]. The latter is associated with all types of liver tumors, including angiosarcomas [5]. Hepatitis B virus is considered to be the primary cause of 80% of cases worldwide. The peak age of incidence is 50-70 years, with a male predominance of 4:1. The incidence in the United States has increased approximately 70% during the past two decades, from 1.4 per million in 1976-1980 to 2.4 per million in 1991-1995 [6]. Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results of the National Cancer

Page 18: Hepatoma

Institute evaluation of 7389 cases of hepatocellular carcinoma reported an improvement in the 1-year survival rate from 14% to 23% during the same periods [1]. This improvement is thought to be a reflection of the earlier detection of small resectable tumors, a more aggressive surgical approach, and the wider availability of liver transplantation. The 5-year survival rate has increased from 2% to 5%, and the increase has resulted in a slight change in the still-very-low median survival rate from 0.57 to 0.64 years.

Previous Section Next Section

Clinical Presentation

Clinical manifestations are often masked by the presence of cirrhosis and or chronic hepatitis. Common symptoms include abdominal pain, malaise, fatigue, and weight loss (Table 1). The most common finding on physical examination is an enlarged, irregular, and nodular liver. Jaundice and abnormal findings of liver function tests may not be present until late in the course of the disease because of the functional reserve of the liver. A number of paraneoplastic manifestations of hepatocellular carcinoma, including hypercalcemia and hyperglycemia, are directly or indirectly a result of tumor secretion or synthesis [7]. Polycythemia occurs in fewer than 10% of patients.

View this table:

In this window In a new window

TABLE 1 Predominant Symptoms and Physical Signs in Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma Previous Section Next Section

Staging

The staging of the disease is performed using the TNM system [8] (Fig. 1A,1B,1C,1D,1E,1F,1G,1H,1I,1J and Table 2). The primary lesion is defined by tumor size, the number and location of lesions, invasion of vascular structures, and biliary extension. In addition, this staging system addresses the presence and location of regional nodal metastasis and the presence or absence of distant metastases. The most common sites of metastatic disease are the lung and bony skeleton. In the latest data analysis (1985-

Page 19: Hepatoma

1996) from the National Cancer Data Base, 4.6% of the patients were stage I; 13.7%, stage II; 23%, stage III; 33.8%, stage IVA; and 23.9%, stage IVB [9].

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1A. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustrations show solitary tumors ≤2 cm without (stage T1) (A) and with (stage T2a) (B) vascular invasion.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1B. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustrations show solitary tumors ≤2 cm without (stage T1) (A) and with (stage T2a) (B) vascular invasion.

Page 20: Hepatoma

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1C. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustration shows multiple tumors ≤2 cm that are limited to one lobe with no vascular invasion (stage T2b).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1D. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustrations show solitary tumors >2 cm without (stage T2c) (D) and with (stage T3a) (E) vascular invasion.

Page 21: Hepatoma

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1E. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustrations show solitary tumors >2 cm without (stage T2c) (D) and with (stage T3a) (E) vascular invasion.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1F. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustration shows multiple tumors ≤2 cm limited to one lobe with vascular invasion (stage T3b).

Page 22: Hepatoma

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1G. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustration shows multiple tumors >2 cm with or without vascular invasion (stage T3c).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1H. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustration shows multiple tumors in more than one lobe (stage T4a).

View larger version:

In this page

Page 23: Hepatoma

In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1I. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustration shows multiple tumors with invasion of major branch of hepatic or portal vein or of adjacent organs other than gallbladder.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 1J. —Staging of primary tumors. Illustration shows segmental anatomy of liver.View this table:

In this window In a new window

TABLE 2 TNM Staging System Devised by the American Joint Committee on Cancer [8]

New staging and scoring systems have recently challenged the widely accepted TNM classification [10,11,12,13]. The Cancer of the Liver Italian Program has developed a different scoring system that is based on Child-Pugh classification [14]. This classification includes assessment of ascites, encephalopathy grade, albumin level, prothrombin time, and bilirubin level [15]. The Cancer of the Liver Italian Program staging for liver disease includes not only tumor morphology but also α-fetoprotein levels and grading of portal vein invasion (on a score of 1-6). The Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer group has also developed a staging score for hepatocellular carcinoma that includes symptomatology and vascular and extrahepatic invasion [13]. The Okuda staging system (I-III) includes the presence of ascites, jaundice, and serum albumin levels [16].

The natural progression of hepatocellular carcinoma is well documented [16]. The overall median survival of hepatocellular carcinoma patients with no

Page 24: Hepatoma

treatment is reported to be 1.6-4.1 months for stages I and II and 0.8-2.4 months for stages III and IV [16, 17].

Previous Section Next Section

Pathology

The gross pathology of hepatocellular carcinoma is a direct reflection of the imaging findings. Hepatocellular carcinoma may appear as a unifocal mass, multifocal nodules of variable size, or diffusely infiltrative. The tumor may cause liver enlargement, and small nodules or diffuse patterns may be hidden in a cirrhotic parenchyma. The tumor is paler than normal liver parenchyma and in well-differentiated cases may have a greenish hue as a result of bile accumulation.

Microscopically, tumors range from well differentiated to highly anaplastic [18]. Four histologic classifications are based on the structural organization: trabecular, pseudoglandular, compact, and scirrhous, the trabecular pattern being the most common. The pseudoglandular pattern has malignant hepatocytes surrounding a lumen that may contain bile, with some of these tumors having clear cells because of glycogen or fat. Scirrhous, the least common pattern, contains fibrous stroma separating the tumor cell plates.

The development of hepatocellular carcinoma from premalignant lesions is reported to occur in stages. The transformation usually begins in a cirrhotic background, with regenerative nodules evolving into dysplastic nodules, and the subsequent development of early hepatocellular carcinoma, which, if untreated, becomes advanced carcinoma.

The fibrolamellar type of hepatocellular carcinoma has distinct clinical, histologic, and prognostic features and a mean survival of 68 months compared with conventional hepatocellular carcinoma. The fibrolamellar tumor is more frequent in young patients who have no history of cirrhosis or chronic liver disease.

Previous Section Next Section

Laboratory Findings

Testing for the α-fetoprotein level is the primary laboratory test for diagnosing hepatocellular carcinoma (sensitivity, 80-70%; specificity, 90%).

Page 25: Hepatoma

Values greater than 400 ng/mL are most diagnostic [19]. Elevated α-fetoprotein levels have also been reported in yolk sac tumors, cirrhosis, massive liver necrosis, chronic hepatitis, pregnancy, fetal distress, and fetal neural tube defects. Other tumor markers with less sensitivity include des-gamma-carboxyprothrombin (sensitivity, 58-91%; specificity, 84%), α-L-fucosidase (sensitivity, 75%; specificity, 70-90%), and isoenzymes of γ-glutamyl transferase (sensitivity, 60%; specificity, 96%).

Previous Section Next Section

Radiology

Radiography of the chest may show pulmonary and skeletal metastases (Fig. 2). The right hemidiaphragm is elevated with hepatomegaly [19].

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 2. —79-year-old man who underwent hepatic resection for hepatocellular carcinoma and tested positive for hepatitis D antibody. Chest radiograph shows bilateral pulmonary metastases.

Sonography has been postulated as a screening imaging modality for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with a history of chronic liver disease (hepatitis or alcohol abuse) [20]. However, the role of sonography in screening has yet to be fully determined. The most common sonographic appearance of small well-differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma (<3 cm) is a well-circumscribed hypoechoic mass [20] (Fig. 3). However, sonography cannot reliably distinguish hepatocellular carcinoma from other solid lesions in the liver. The sonographic appearance in larger masses is variable and is related to the presence of fat, calcium, and necrosis. The presence of compact cellular elements, necrosis, or sinusoidal dilatation gives a hypoechoic appearance, whereas the presence of hemorrhage, fatty change, or fibrosis is seen as a hyperechoic mass. A surrounding capsule, when present, generally appears hypoechoic (Fig. 4).

Page 26: Hepatoma

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 3. —50-year-old man with history of cirrhosis and hepatitis B and C. Transverse sonogram shows hypoechoic mass (arrow) in right lobe of liver.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 4. —61-year-old man with metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma. Transverse sonogram of liver with sonographically guided biopsy shows hyperechoic mass with hypoechoic capsule (arrow) in right lobe of liver. Echogenic needle (arrowhead) is visualized.

Sonography is helpful in providing guidance for percutaneous biopsy and in delivering therapy for a suspected liver mass (Fig. 4). Duplex and color Doppler sonography can show hypervascularity and arteriovenous shunting. Doppler and power Doppler sonography may play a role in differentiating hepatocellular carcinoma from other small tumors. Doppler sonography of hepatic nodules may play a role in selecting a nodule for biopsy in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma that is suspected as a result of an elevated α-fetoprotein level.

Sonographic contrast agents have shown promise in characterizing masses suspected to be hepatocellular carcinoma [21]. A problem exists in distinguishing regenerative nodules in cirrhosis from hepatocellular carcinoma. Recently, Fracanzani et al. [22] evaluated contrast-enhanced Doppler sonography in distinguishing early hepatocellular carcinoma from nonmalignant nodules in cirrhosis. Those authors reported intratumoral arterial blood flow in 95% of hepatocellular carcinomas versus 28% of

Page 27: Hepatoma

nonmalignant tumors. Doppler sonography may be a promising imaging modality for this radiologic problem. In staging, sonography can provide information regarding the size, number of lesions, and involvement of the biliary tree, and can help in evaluating the portal vein, hepatic vein, and inferior vena cava (Fig. 5A,5B). An intravascular arterial waveform indicates neoplastic rather than bland thrombus. However, the lack of an arterial waveform does not exclude tumor thrombosis.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 5A. —50-year-old man with history of cirrhosis and hepatitis B and C. Transverse color Doppler sonogram of right upper quadrant shows flow of middle hepatic vein (white arrow), no flow in right hepatic vein (arrowhead), and echogenic thrombus in inferior vena cava (black arrow).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 5B. —50-year-old man with history of cirrhosis and hepatitis B and C. Transverse color Doppler sonogram of right upper quadrant shows flow in right main portal vein (arrow). Normal spectral waveform (arrowhead) is also shown.

Although many imaging modalities are essential in the diagnosis and staging of hepatocellular carcinoma, CT is the most commonly used. On unenhanced CT, hepatocellular carcinoma appears hypodense (Fig. 6) except in diffusely fatty liver, where it may appear denser. Hemorrhage or calcifications may be detected but are rare (5%). Fatty metamorphosis of hepatocellular carcinoma will appear as areas of low attenuation.

Page 28: Hepatoma

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 6. —48-year-old woman with serology findings negative for hepatitis and no history of alcohol abuse. Unenhanced CT scan of abdomen shows multiple low-attenuation bilobar masses.

The CT evaluation of the liver in a patient with a clinical suspicion of hepatocellular carcinoma should be performed at three stages of contrast enhancement [23, 24]: the hepatic arterial phase at 20-30 sec after the infusion of contrast material, an early parenchymal phase at 40-55 sec, and the portal venous phase at 70-80 sec after the infusion of contrast material. Hypervascular lesions are best viewed during the earlier phases of enhancement. The rate of injection also plays a role in the sensitivity of CT to liver lesions; a rate of 4-8 mL/sec is suggested. The added speed and flexibility of multidetector CT (MDCT) allows high-quality, thin-section imaging and permits three-dimensional reconstruction for preoperative vascular mapping.

Hepatocellular carcinoma predominately shows maximum enhancement during the hepatic arterial phase (Fig. 7A,7B,7C). In the portal venous phase of enhancement, the tumor will become hypoattenuating compared with the liver as a result of rapid washout. Although most lesions have hyperdense components in the early phase, a small percentage may be isodense or hypodense after the administration of contrast material [25]. A heterogeneous pattern of enhancement has been termed the “mosaic” pattern. Heterogeneous attenuation may often be due to necrosis. When a capsule is present, it is usually hypodense on the hepatic arterial phase, of mixed density on the portal venous phase, and showing enhancement on the delayed images. Recent studies have reported that delayed scans might increase confidence in the detection of lesions [26] (Fig. 8A,8B).

Page 29: Hepatoma

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 7A. —74-year-old man with cirrhosis and history of alcohol exposure. Unenhanced CT scan of liver shows exophytic mass (arrow) on segment VII.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 7B. —74-year-old man with cirrhosis and history of alcohol exposure. Contrast-enhanced CT scan of liver during late arterial phase shows multiple enhancing masses (arrows).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 7C. —74-year-old man with cirrhosis and history of alcohol exposure. Contrast-enhanced CT scan of liver during venous delayed phase of enhancement shows decreased contrast between lesion and liver.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Page 30: Hepatoma

Fig. 8A. —Axial CT scans of abdomen in 58-year-old man with hepatitis B. Image obtained during late arterial phase of enhancement shows faint mass (arrow) in liver segment VII.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 8B. —Axial CT scans of abdomen in 58-year-old man with hepatitis B. Image obtained during delayed phase of contrast enhancement shows increase in contrast (arrow) between low-attenuation hepatocellular carcinoma and liver parenchyma.

In CT arterial portography, the portal system is opacified with contrast material. CT will show relatively low attenuation of the hepatocellular carcinoma because the blood supply is from the hepatic artery. CT arterial portography is usually used in patients in whom the clinical suspicion of hepatocellular carcinoma is high. This technique has been reported to be the most sensitive technique for the detection of liver tumors, but it is invasive, requiring catheter insertion (Fig. 9). Most recently, MDCT has provided high-quality images and has generally supplanted CT arterial portography [27].

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 9. —46-year-old man with hepatitis B. CT angiogram of liver during portal phase after direct infusion of contrast material into superior mesenteric artery shows low-attenuation hepatoma (white arrow). Spleen (black arrow) is also low in attenuation with respect to liver.

Page 31: Hepatoma

CT is highly accurate in staging hepatocellular carcinoma by detecting the number of lesions and segments, regional adenopathy, vascular tumor invasion (Fig. 10), and metastases [25, 28]. Distinction between bland thrombus and tumor thrombus is not always possible, but the identification of thrombus enhancement is indicative of tumor (Fig. 11A,11B). Indirect signs of a portal vein diameter greater than 23 mm (Fig. 12) have been reported to have a low (62%) sensitivity but 100% specificity for tumor thrombus [29]. Bile duct obstruction is usually related to extrinsic compression on the biliary system by the tumor or direct tumor extension into the biliary system. CT also plays a major role in posttreatment evaluation and surveillance (Fig. 13), guidance for biopsy of suspected recurrences, assessing regeneration of liver parenchyma (Fig. 14A,14B), and follow-up after ablation when a change in enhancement suggests tumor recurrence. CT is somewhat limited in assessing peritoneal implants because of the presence of ascites related to the primary hepatic disease.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 10. —50-year-old man with history of hepatitis B and C, cirrhosis, and portal hypertension. Delayed phase contrast-enhanced CT scan of liver shows thrombus (white arrow) in proximal inferior vena cava. Primary tumor (black arrow) is in segment VIII.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 11A. —69-year-old man with alcohol cirrhosis. Arterial phase contrast-enhanced CT scan of abdomen at level of main portal vein shows linear enhancement of portal vein and ascites (arrow).

Page 32: Hepatoma

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 11B. —69-year-old man with alcohol cirrhosis. Late phase contrast-enhanced CT scan of abdomen at same level as A shows washout of enhancement in portal vein (arrow).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 12. —51-year-old man with history of hepatitis C, cirrhosis, and hemochromatosis. Delayed phase contrast-enhanced CT scan of abdomen shows filling defect (arrow) in main portal vein. Note nodular contour of liver that is consistent with cirrhosis.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 13. —76-year-old woman with history of left hepatic lobectomy. Delayed contrast-enhanced CT scan of abdomen shows recurrence of tumor (arrow) adjacent to surgical margin.

View larger version:

Page 33: Hepatoma

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 14A. —50-year-old man with history of hepatitis B and C and cirrhosis. Patient also had history of solid mass in lateral segment of left lobe of liver. Delayed phase contrast-enhanced CT scans of abdomen obtained 5 days (A) and 5 months (B) after radiofrequency ablation. Both images show change in size and attenuation of treated area (arrows) in lateral segment of left lobe of liver.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 14B. —50-year-old man with history of hepatitis B and C and cirrhosis. Patient also had history of solid mass in lateral segment of left lobe of liver. Delayed phase contrast-enhanced CT scans of abdomen obtained 5 days (A) and 5 months (B) after radiofrequency ablation. Both images show change in size and attenuation of treated area (arrows) in lateral segment of left lobe of liver.

MR imaging should include T1-weighted images, T2-weighted images with fat suppression, and dynamic contrast-enhanced gradient-echo sequences of the liver. The T1 technique is usually a breath-hold gradient-echo sequence with an in-phase TE of 4.1 msec at 1.5-T field-strength magnet. The T2-weighted sequences are obtained at two TE ranges (60-70 and 136-150 msec) for lesion characterization. For T2-weighted sequences, a fast spin-echo sequence with fat suppression is performed. The critical sequences in the detection of hepatocellular carcinoma are the dynamic gadolinium-enhanced images [24, 30]. The arterial phase of enhancement may be the only phase in which a tumor may be revealed (Fig. 15A,15B). On T1-weighted sequences, hepatocellular carcinoma is usually hypointense to liver (Fig. 16A,16B,16C). Areas of increased intensity may be due to fat, protein, or copper in the tumor [31]. On T2-weighted sequences, the tumor is usually hyperintense to liver [32] (Fig. 16A,16B,16C). Dynamic enhancement shows

Page 34: Hepatoma

hyperintensity on the hepatic arterial phase because of the hepatic artery supply [33, 34]. The fibrous capsule shows low signal intensity on T1- and T2-weighted images and enhancement on delayed contrast-enhanced images (Fig. 17A,17B). The tumor may invade the portal vein, hepatic veins, or the biliary system (Figs. 18 and 19). The MR imaging biliary contrast agent, mangafodipir (Teslascan; Nycomed-Amersham, Oslo, Norway) is taken up by hepatocytes and well-differentiated tumors (Fig. 16A,16B,16C). This technique can reveal lesions not visualized on the unenhanced images [35]. MR imaging plays a role in postoperative treatment. Tumor may recur locally or distant from the surgical site. After successful ablation, patients with hepatocellular carcinoma show low-signal-intensity areas on the T2-weighted protocol.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 15A. —52-year-old man with history of hepatitis B and C. Axial two-dimensional spoiled gradient-echo unenhanced MR image (TR/TE, 4.1/110) shows faint hyperdense nodules (arrow) in right lobe of liver.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 15B. —52-year-old man with history of hepatitis B and C. MR image from same sequence as A during early phase of enhancement shows marked enhancement of nodule (arrow) in segment VII.

View larger version:

Page 35: Hepatoma

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 16A. —74-year-old man with history of alcohol exposure. Axial spin-echo T1-weighted MR image of liver (TR/TE, 600/8) without IV contrast material shows low-signal-intensity mass (arrow) in segment V of liver.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 16B. —74-year-old man with history of alcohol exposure. Axial fast spin-echo T2-weighted MR image (136/68; echo-train length, 12) shows hyperintense hepatocellular carcinoma (arrow).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 16C. —74-year-old man with history of alcohol exposure. Axial spin-echo T1-weighted MR image of liver (600/8) after administration of mangafodipir (Teslascan; Nycomed-Amersham, Oslo, Norway) shows uptake of contrast material, which suggests moderately to well-differentiated tumor (arrow).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Page 36: Hepatoma

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 17A. —73-year-old man with hepatitis C and cirrhosis. Axial fast spin-echo T2-weighted MR image (TR/TE, 136/68; echo-train length, 12) of liver shows tumor to be slightly hyperintense. Note thin low-signal-intensity capsule (arrow).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 17B. —73-year-old man with hepatitis C and cirrhosis. Delayed fat-saturated gadolinium-enhanced axial spin-echo T1-weighted MR image (TR/TE, 600/9) shows that hepatocellular carcinoma has low signal relative to liver. Note enhancing capsule (arrow).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 18. —72-year-old man with history of hepatitis C and cirrhosis. Axial gradient-echo MR image (TR/TE, 110/4.1) during venous phase of enhancement after dynamic administration of gadolinium shows filling defect (arrow) in main left portal vein.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Page 37: Hepatoma

Fig. 19. —61-year-old man with history of hepatitis B and cirrhosis. Axial time-of-flight gradient-echo MR image (TR/TE, 50/4) of liver during arterial phase of contrast enhancement shows filling defect (arrow) in inferior vena cava.

Various groups have compared the sensitivity of imaging modalities for the diagnosis and detection of hepatocellular carcinoma (Table 3). Although the imaging modalities are similar, direct comparison is limited because the sensitivity of detection depends on equipment, operator skill, and techniques.

View this table:

In this window In a new window

TABLE 3 Comparison in Radiology Literature of Sensitivities of CT, Sonography, and MR Imaging in Diagnosing and Detecting Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Angiography is a versatile technology that plays a role in the diagnosis when coupled with CT arterial portography, pretreatment imaging, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Angiography plays a role in the pretreatment of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma with preoperative portal vein embolization, which can improve the prognosis after right hepatectomy by the development of compensatory liver hypertrophy [36] (Fig. 20A,20B,20C). The hypertrophy may be adequate at 2-4 weeks after portal vein embolization [36]. Two major approaches to portal vein embolization are used: direct ileocolic vein catheterization (requiring laparotomy) and the percutaneous approach. Embolization agents include Gelfoam (Upjohn, Kalamazoo, MI), coils, thrombin, cyanoacrylate, polyvinyl alcohol, microspheres, and absolute alcohol. No specific agent has been shown to be superior. Portal vein embolization is used when the remnant liver volume is 25% or less of the total liver volume in patients without compromised liver function. In patients with compromised liver function, portal vein embolization is used when the volume is 40% or less.

View larger version:

Page 38: Hepatoma

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 20A. —61-year-old man with serology findings negative for hepatitis B or C and no history of alcohol abuse. Arterial phase contrast-enhanced CT scan shows mass (arrow) in liver segment VII.

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 20B. —61-year-old man with serology findings negative for hepatitis B or C and no history of alcohol abuse. Delayed phase contrast-enhanced CT scans show coils (arrow, B) used in portal vein embolization (B), hypertrophy (arrow, C) of left lobe of liver, and changes after trisegmentectomy (C).

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 20C. —61-year-old man with serology findings negative for hepatitis B or C and no history of alcohol abuse. Delayed phase contrast-enhanced CT scans show coils (arrow, B) used in portal vein embolization (B), hypertrophy (arrow, C) of left lobe of liver, and changes after trisegmentectomy (C).

Angiography also plays an essential role in transarterial catheter embolization, which is a selective catheterization of the branch of the hepatic artery feeding the tumor (Fig. 21).

Page 39: Hepatoma

View larger version:

In this page In a new window

Download as PowerPoint Slide

Fig. 21. —61-year-old man with history of alcohol liver cirrhosis. Selected image from digital subtraction angiography of right hepatic artery (white arrow) shows catheter (black arrow) used for transarterial chemoembolization of tumor (arrowhead) in right lobe of liver.Previous Section Next Section

Treatment

The treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma includes surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and combination therapies. In the period 1995-1996, the National Cancer Data Bank reported that 17.7% of patients were treated with chemotherapy alone, 17% with surgery alone, and 3.2% with radiation therapy [9, 37].

Surgery is considered the best treatment option. Patients are surgical candidates if their disease is stage I, II, or IIIA. Surgical removal may be performed by either tumor resection or orthotopic liver transplantation [38, 39]. The reported 5-year survival rate of patients after orthotopic liver transplantation ranges from 58% to 75% [38] (Table 4). The results in Table 4 are from a highly selected population. For resection, the 5-year survival rate ranges from 35% to 51% (Table 4). The recurrence rate after resection in one series was reported to be as high as 33%, with a recurrence rate of 3-17% for orthotopic liver transplantation [40]. Factors considered in the selection of candidates for surgery are liver function, bilobar disease, biliary obstruction, venous tumor extension, nodal involvement, and metastasis.

View this table:

In this window In a new window

TABLE 4 Survival Rates Reported in Literature for Various Treatment Modalities for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Page 40: Hepatoma

The 5-year survival rate of unifocal tumors smaller than 5 cm was reported in one series to be 63% [41]. That report noted that larger tumors were associated with indicators of poor outcome such as absence of capsule, multiple nodules, satellite nodules, and vascular invasion.

Percutaneous ethanol injection, transarterial catheter embolization, cryoablation, and radiofrequency ablation are secondary treatment options for hepatocellular carcinoma [42,43,44]. Percutaneous ethanol injection for tumor ablation has been reported to be the most effective form of direct ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma in lesions smaller than 3 cm and fewer than three in number (5-year survival rate, 36-68%). Percutaneous ethanol injection is contraindicated in the presence of gross ascites, bleeding, or obstructive jaundice. Radiofrequency ablation is a therapeutic option for hepatocellular carcinoma for tumors smaller than 3 cm and has a 5-year survival rate of 45%. In comparison with percutaneous ethanol injection, radiofrequency ablation achieved tumor necrosis in fewer sessions [45]. Cryotherapy is an alternative treatment for solitary tumors of 3-6 cm. The 5-year survival rate is 20%. Cryotherapy is contraindicated for lesions near major vessels. Transarterial catheter embolization uses combination agents to compromise the flow of the hepatic artery. The agents include gelatin (Gelfoam), iodized oil (Lipiodol [Guerbet, Aulnay-sous-Bois, France]), and a cytotoxic agent. Retreatment can be performed in 6-12 weeks. The 5-year survival rate is reported to be 6-22% (Table 4). The selective nature of hepatic artery infusion of chemotherapy minimizes adverse effects while maximizing drug delivery to the tumor. A hepatic artery infusion pump may be implanted in a selected number of patients. Agents used include 5-fluorouracil, floxuridine, doxorubicin, mithoxantrone, epirubicin, and cisplatin [43]. Radiotherapy is a well-documented treatment, and proton therapy has recently been implemented [46].

Systemic chemotherapy has been used with single and multiple agents including 5-fluorouracil, interferon, cisplatin, thalidomide, octreotide, and tamoxifen [43, 47].

Previous Section Next Section

Summary

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most common malignancies worldwide. Imaging plays an essential role in the detection, diagnosis, staging, treatment, and surveillance of these patients. Reports to clinicians

Page 41: Hepatoma

should include all pertinent diagnostic information for staging, including lesion size, number, location, and the presence of adenopathy, ascites, cirrhosis, vascular involvement, biliary tree involvement, and metastases. Despite advanced imaging techniques and the large number of therapeutic options, the 5-year survival rate remains dismal. Close surveillance with imaging now affords the opportunity to diagnose recurrences early and to apply the most effective therapy.

Previous Section Next Section

Footnotes

Address correspondence to J. Szklaruk.

Received December 11, 2001.

Accepted July 9, 2002.

© American Roentgen Ray Society

Previous Section 

References

1. ↵

El-Serag HB, Mason AC. Risk factors for the rising rates of primary liver cancer in the United States. Arch Intern Med 2000;160: 3227 -3230

Abstract / FREE Full Text

2. ↵

El-Serag HB. Epidemiology of hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Liver Dis 2001;5: 87 -107

CrossRef Medline

3. ↵

Page 42: Hepatoma

Yu MW, Chang HC, Liaw YF, et al. Familial risk of hepatocellular carcinoma among chronic hepatitis B carriers and their relatives. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92: 1159 -1164

Abstract / FREE Full Text

4. ↵

Tabor E. Hepatocellular carcinoma: global epidemiology. Dig Liver Dis 2001;33: 115 -117

CrossRef Medline

5. ↵

Ward E, Boffetta P, Andersen A, et al. Update of the follow-up of mortality and cancer incidence among European workers employed in the vinyl chloride industry. Epidemiology 2001;12: 710 -718

CrossRef Medline

6. ↵

El-Serag HB, Mason AC. Rising incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States. N Engl J Med 1999;340: 745 -750

CrossRef Medline

7. ↵

Luo JC, Hwang SJ, Wu JC, et al. Paraneoplastic syndromes in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma in Taiwan. Cancer 1999;86: 799 -804

CrossRef Medline

8. ↵

Baron R. Primary tumours of the liver and bile ducts. In: Hubbard JES, Reznek RH, eds. Imaging in oncology, vol. 1 , 1st ed. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998: 169-177

9. ↵

Page 43: Hepatoma

Cance WG, Stewart AK, Menck HR. The National Cancer Data Base Report on treatment patterns for hepatocellular carcinomas: improved survival of surgically resected patients, 1985-1996. Cancer 2000;88: 912 -920

CrossRef Medline

10. ↵

Chiappa A, Zbar AP, Podda M, et al. Prognostic value of the modified TNM (Izumi) classification of hepatocellular carcinoma in 53 cirrhotic patients undergoing resection. Hepatogastroenterology 2001;48: 229 -234

Medline

11. ↵

Marsh JW, Dvorchik I, Bonham CA, Iwatsuki S. Is the pathologic TNM staging system for patients with hepatoma predictive of outcome? Cancer 2000;88: 538 -543

CrossRef Medline

12. ↵

Llovet JM, Bruix J. Prospective validation of the Cancer of the Liver Italian Program (CLIP) score: a new prognostic system for patients with cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2000;32: 679 -680

CrossRef Medline

13. ↵

Llovet JM, Bru C, Bruix J. Prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma: the BCLC staging classification. Semin Liver Dis 1999;19: 329 -338

Medline

14. ↵

Page 44: Hepatoma

The Cancer of the Liver Italian Program (CLIP) investigators. Prospective validation of the CLIP score: a new prognostic system for patients with cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2000;31: 840 -845

CrossRef Medline

15. ↵

Kim WR, Poterucha JJ, Wiesner RH, et al. The relative role of the Child-Pugh classification and the Mayo natural history model in the assessment of survival in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis. Hepatology 1999;29: 1643 -1648

CrossRef Medline

16. ↵

Okuda K, Ohtsuki T, Obata H, et al. Natural history of hepatocellular carcinoma and prognosis in relation to treatment: study of 850 patients. Cancer 1985;56: 918 -928

CrossRef Medline

17. ↵

Pawarode A, Voravud N, Sriuranpong V, Kullavanijaya P, Patt YZ. Natural history of untreated primary hepatocellular carcinoma: a retrospective study of 157 patients. Am J Clin Oncol 1998;21: 386 -391

CrossRef Medline

18. ↵

Noltenius H. Hepatocellular carcinoma. In: Noltenius H, ed. Human oncology: pathology and clinical characteristics. Baltimore: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1988: 373-375

19. ↵

Feldman M. Gastrointestinal disease. In: Sleisenger MH, Feldman M, Scharnschmidt BF, eds. Sleisenger and Fordtran's gastrointestinal and

Page 45: Hepatoma

liver disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis, management, 6th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1998; 2046 -2050

20. ↵

Monzawa S, Omata K, Shimazu N, Yagawa A, Hosoda K, Araki T. Well-differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma: findings of US, CT, and MR imaging. Abdom Imaging 1999;24: 392 -397

CrossRef Medline

21. ↵

Kim AY, Choi BI, Kim TK, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma: power Doppler US with a contrast agent—preliminary results. Radiology 1998;209: 135 -140

Abstract / FREE Full Text

22. ↵

Fracanzani AL, Burdick L, Borzio M, et al. Contrast-enhanced Doppler ultrasonography in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma and premalignant lesions in patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology 2001;34: 1109 -1112

CrossRef Medline

23. ↵

Kim T, Murakami T, Oi H, et al. Detection of hypervascular hepatocellular carcinoma by dynamic MRI and dynamic spiral CT. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1995;19: 948 -954

Medline

24. ↵

Kanematsu M, Oliver JH 3rd, Carr B, Baron RL. Hepatocellular carcinoma: the role of helical biphasic contrast-enhanced CT versus CT during arterial portography. Radiology 1997;205: 75 -80

Page 46: Hepatoma

Abstract / FREE Full Text

25. ↵

Angelelli G, Ianora AA, Scardapane A, Pedote P, Memeo M, Rotondo A. Role of computerized tomography in the staging of gastrointestinal neoplasms. Semin Surg Oncol 2001;20: 109 -121

CrossRef Medline

26. ↵

Loyer EM, Chin H, DuBrow RA, David CL, Eftekhari F, Charnsangavej C. Hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic peripheral cholangiocarcinoma: enhancement patterns with quadruple phase helical CT—a comparative study. Radiology 1999;212: 866 -875

Abstract / FREE Full Text

27. ↵

Yu JS, Kim KW, Lee JT, Yoo HS. MR imaging during arterial portography for assessment of hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison with CT during arterial portography. AJR 1998;170: 1501 -1506

Abstract / FREE Full Text

28. ↵

Murakami T, Kim T, Takamura M, et al. Hypervascular hepatocellular carcinoma: detection with double arterial phase multi-detector row helical CT. Radiology 2001;218: 763 -767

Abstract / FREE Full Text

29. ↵

Tublin ME, Dodd GD III, Baron RL. Benign and malignant portal vein thrombosis: differentiation by CT characteristics. AJR 1997;168: 719 -723

Abstract / FREE Full Text

Page 47: Hepatoma

30. ↵

Oi H, Murakami T, Kim T, Matsushita M, Kishimoto H, Nakamura H. Dynamic MR imaging and early-phase helical CT for detecting small intrahepatic metastases of hepatocellular carcinoma. AJR 1996;166: 369 -374

Abstract / FREE Full Text

31. ↵

Rummeny E, Weissleder R, Stark DD, et al. Primary liver tumors: diagnosis by MR imaging. AJR 1989;152: 63 -72

Abstract / FREE Full Text

32. ↵

Onaya H, Itai Y. MR imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2000;8: 757 -768

Medline

33. ↵

Winston CB, Schwartz LH, Fong Y, Blumgart LH, Panicek DM. Hepatocellular carcinoma: MR imaging findings in cirrhotic livers and noncirrhotic livers. Radiology 1999;210: 75 -79

Abstract / FREE Full Text

34. ↵

Ohtomo K, Matsuoka Y, Abe O, et al. High-resolution MR imaging evaluation of hepatocellular carcinoma. Abdom Imaging 1997;22: 182 -186

CrossRef Medline

35. ↵

Page 48: Hepatoma

Murakami T, Baron RL, Peterson MS, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma: MR imaging with mangafodipir trisodium (Mn-DPDP). Radiology 1996;200: 69 -77

Abstract / FREE Full Text

36. ↵

Abdalla EK, Hicks ME, Vauthey JN. Portal vein embolization: rationale, technique and future prospects. Br J Surg 2001;88: 165 -175

CrossRef Medline

37. ↵

Colella G, Bottelli R, De Carlis L, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison between liver transplantation, resective surgery, ethanol injection, and hemoembolization. Transpl Int 1998;11[suppl]: S193 -S196

38. ↵

Suarez Y, Franca AC, Llovet JM, Fuster J, Bruix J. The current status of liver transplantation for primary hepatic malignancy. Clin Liver Dis 2000;4: 591 -605

CrossRef Medline

39. ↵

Rose AT, Rose DM, Pinson CW, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma outcomes based on indicated treatment strategy. Am Surg 1998;64: 1128 -1134

Medline

40. ↵

Fuster J, Garcia-Valdecasas JC, Grande L, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma and cirrhosis: results of surgical treatment in a European series. Ann Surg 1996;223: 297 -302

Page 49: Hepatoma

CrossRef Medline

41. ↵

Figueras J, Ibanez L, Ramos E, et al. Selection criteria for liver transplantation in early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma with cirrhosis: results of a multicenter study. Liver Transpl 2001;7: 877 -883

CrossRef Medline

42. ↵

Palma LD. Diagnostic imaging and interventional therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma. Br J Radiol 1998;71: 808 -818

Abstract

43. ↵

Aguayo A, Patt YZ. Liver cancer. Clin Liver Dis 2001;5: 479 -507

CrossRef Medline

44. ↵

Rust C, Gores GJ. Locoregional management of hepatocellular carcinoma: surgical and ablation therapies. Clin Liver Dis 2001;5: 161 -173

CrossRef Medline

45. ↵

Livraghi T. Guidelines for treatment of liver cancer. Eur J Ultrasound 2001;13: 167 -176

CrossRef Medline

46. ↵

Page 50: Hepatoma

Matsuzaki Y, Osuga T, Saito Y, et al. A new, effective, and safe therapeutic option using proton irradiation for hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 1994;106: 1032 -1041

Medline

47. ↵

Leung TW, Patt YZ, Lau WY, et al. Complete pathological remission is possible with systemic combination chemotherapy for inoperable hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 1999;5: 1676 -1681

Abstract / FREE Full Text

48. ↵

Lai CL, Lam KC, Wong KP, Wu PC, Todd D. Clinical features of hepatocellular carcinoma: review of 211 patients in Hong Kong. Cancer 1981;47: 2746 -2755

CrossRef Medline

49. ↵

Rode A, Bancel B, Douek P, et al. Small nodule detection in cirrhotic livers: evaluation with US, spiral CT, and MRI and correlation with pathologic examination of explanted liver. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2001;25: 327 -336

CrossRef Medline

50. ↵

Bartolozzi C, Lencioni R, Caramella D, Gibilisco G, Cioni R, Vignali C. Staging of hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison of ultrasonography, computerized tomography, magnetic resonance, digital angiography, and computerized tomography with Lipiodol [in Italian]. Radiol Med (Torino) 1994;88: 429 -436

51. ↵

Page 51: Hepatoma

Bartolozzi C, Lencioni R, Caramella D, Palla A, Bassi AM, Di Candio G. Small hepatocellular carcinoma: detection with US, CT, MR imaging, DSA, and Lipiodol-CT. Acta Radiol 1996;37: 69 -74

Medline

52. ↵

De Santis M, Romagnoli R, Cristani A, et al. MRI of small hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison with US, CT, DSA, and Lipiodol-CT. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1992;16: 189 -197

Medline

53. ↵

Ueda K, Kitagawa K, Kadoya M, Matsui O, Takashima T, Yamahana T. Detection of hypervascular hepatocellular carcinoma by using spiral volumetric CT: comparison of US and MR imaging. Abdom Imaging 1995;20: 547 -553

CrossRef Medline

54. ↵

Takayasu K, Moriyama N, Muramatsu Y, et al. The diagnosis of small hepatocellular carcinomas: efficacy of various imaging procedures in 100 patients. AJR 1990;155: 49 -54

Abstract / FREE Full Text

55. ↵

Llovet JM, Fuster J, Bruix J. Intention-to-treat analysis of surgical treatment for early hepatocellular carcinoma: resection versus transplantation. Hepatology 1999;30: 1434 -1440

CrossRef Medline

56. ↵

Page 52: Hepatoma

Lencioni R, Pinto F, Armillotta N, et al. Long-term results of percutaneous ethanol injection therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: a European experience. Eur Radiol 1997;7: 514 -519

CrossRef Medline

57. ↵

Yamada R, Kishi K, Sato M, et al. Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) in the treatment of unresectable liver cancer. World J Surg 1995;19: 795 -800

CrossRef Medline

58. ↵

Yamamoto K, Masuzawa M, Kato M, et al. Evaluation of combined therapy with chemoembolization and ethanol injection for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Semin Oncol 1997;24[suppl]: S650 -S566

http://www.ajronline.org/content/180/2/441.full