This d issertation has been 63-4652 m icrofilm ed exactly as received

DITTY, Dona Doreen, 1930— SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CLOTHING PREFERENCES OF COLLEGE WOMEN.

The Ohio State U niversity, Ph.D ., 1962 Home Econom ics

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

It is evident that for the majority of Americans, conformity in relation to bodily coverage becomes a part of the socialization process. It seems that we are oriented to believe individual freedom exists to the extent that the group permits. A supposed increased in the amount • of group pressure in our society is now an area of concern for many social philosophers and commentators. Riesman states that "we must give every encouragement to people to develop their private selves—

their escape from groupism."! Yet, the contemporary literature and advertising emphasize the diversity of offering of the American cloth­ing market. We pride ourselves on a democracy, economy, and technology which enable fashion conformity as well as individual expression through clothing and other material possessions. Taste in clothing is the ambig­uous position between indicated awareness of fashion and adaptation of it for the most effective self-expression. A speculation about women's taste from a male, psychoanalytical point of view suggests that

. . . there are few, if any, conspicuously taste­less women . . . there are only neurotically inhibited women— women who unerringly pick the wrong clothes for certain unconscious reasons . . . Conspicuous tastelessness in dress is almost always the result of psychic masochism— the unconscious courting of self-degradation.2

It appears that with women's clothing, a product of greater and more accelerated fashion change than men's clothing, this balance

David Riesman, Individualism Reconsidered and Other Essays (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 195*0# P* 37*

2 Edmund Bergler, "A Psychoanalyst Looks at Women's Clothes" A Tape Recorded Interview by Carl Bakal, Cosmopolitan, 148 (February, I960), p. 53.

presented in Appendix 0. For this aspiration-measure institution number two was selected as "most desirable," and institution number one was selected as the "least desirable" choice by the predominance of the subjects. Two hundred two or ifh- per cent of the sample indicated a pre­ference for institution number two which represented high aspirations with a social emphasis type of choice. The most frequent reason for this selec­tion was the curriculum which was described as "well rounded and offers a year of study abroad." The second and third most frequently reported reasons were "good collegiate rating" and "provides a variety of social outlets." Institution number one, the least satisfactory choice for 198 or 1*3 per cent of the subjects, represented low aspirations with a social emphasis. The three most frequent reasons for choice of this institution as unsatisfactory were: (l) "average academic requirements";(2) "average admissions policy"; and (3) "strong athletic program and high record of athletic success."

Findings Concerning the Social-PsychologicalVariables

A total of 1*29 subjects, those individuals whose replies were complete, were included in this analysis. Multiple regression proce­dures were used to compare specific questions concerning the social activities of these subjects and the findings from the P. P. S. and the P. P. - P. S. scale. Appendix P presents the regression coefficients and t tests and the multiple regression coefficients and F test find­ings for these data.

The t tests for the regression coefficients which were signifi­cant at the 0.01 level are listed below.

93X. The higher number of states of residence, the

lower the score on the job advancement inventory indi­cating fewer personal factors which would dissuade these subjects from talcing a certain type of job.

2. The greater the participation in campus activities, the greater the tendency to indicate a high aspiration with individual emphasis institution as the “most desir­able" choice for son's education.

3* The greater the participation in campus activities, the greater the tendency to indicate a low aspiration with social emphasis institution as the "least desirable" choice for son's education.

4. The greater the participation in campus activities, the greater the tendency for a high general aspirational score.

Those t tests which were significant at the 0.05 level were the following.

1. The higher number of parties and social gatherings attended during a four week interval, the greater the ten­dency toward oral, sarcastic social attitudes (subgroup 3 on P. P. S.).

2. The greater the participation in campus activities, the greater the tendency toward "overcompensated masculinity in a female" (subgroup 8 on P. P. S).

3. The greater the participation in non-campus acti­vities, the greater the tendency toward social maturity, leadership, and strong feelings about the "larger world" (subgroup 10 on P. P. S.).

4. The higher the number of dates in the last fourweeks, the greater the tendency toward social immaturity,less concern about impersonal situations, and less abil­ity to conceptualize relationships (subgroup 10 on P. P. S.)

5. The higher the number of parties attended during the last four weeks, the greater the tendency to indi­cate as "most desirable" a house preference revealing high aspirations with social emphasis.

6. The greater the participation in campus organiza­tions, the greater the tendency to indicate as "least desirable" an educational institution for son revealing low aspirations with a social emphasis.

9bFive t tests were close to significance at the 0.05 level,

1. Participation in campus organizations and a method­ical, punctilious, stubborn, and parsimonious type of behavior (subgroup 5 on P. P. S., t* I.9MO.

2. Increased number of dates and a submissive, coop­erative attitude (subgroup 7 oh P. P. S., t s 1,920).

3. Participation in campus organizations and social maturity, a tendency to leadership, and strong feelings about the larger world (subgroup 10 on P. P. S., t s 1.875).

I4-. Increased number of cities of residence and more serious considerations concerning personal sacrifices for a Job (score on Job advancement Inventory, t = I.852).

5. Increased number of dinners off-campus and in­creased income level desired for husband (t ■ I.829).Five F tests on the multiple regression coefficients were signi­

ficant when the variables were compared. In these tests the following data were treated as independent variables: cities, states, and countriesof residence; participation in campus and non-campus organizations; and non-campus social activities (parties, dates, and dinners during the last four weeks). Two of the multiple regression coefficients were significant at the 0.01 level when compared with the above variables.

1. Increased social maturity together with strong feelings.about the larger world and a tendency to leader­ship (subgroup 10 on P. P. S.).

2. A higher score on the general aspiration-measure.Three of the coefficients were significant at the 0.05 level.

1. Higher income desired for husband.2. High aspirational choice with an individual emphasis

as the "most desirable" preference for son's college edu­cation.

3. High aspirational choice with an individual emphasis as the "least desirable" preference for son's college education^ (This F test was slightly higher than the above).

95One multiple regression coefficient was close to significance at the 0.05 level. This revealed an F test of 1.910 and was a measure of masculinity- femininity in the subjects. This test indicated that those subjects with increased femininity, as revealed through a submissive, cooperative attitude on the P. P. S., were more closely correlated with increased tendencies in the variables.

General Clothing Preferences Measured

A total of k3k participants were included in the analysis of the C. P. S. Table 7 presents the means and standard deviations of these subjects for the six parts of this scale.

TABLE 7* Means and standard deviations of responses on the C. P. S.

Parts on C. P. S. Mean StandardDeviation (Ns^) (N=43l0

Sleepwear, most desirable choice 2.U8 .798Sleepwear, least desirable choice 1.80 .705Leisure or sportswear, most desirable

choice 2.30 .771Leisure or sportswear, least desirable

choice 1.72 .8 5Slips, most desirable choice 2.33 .605Slips, least desirable choice 1.50 .833Daytime dresses, most desirable choice I.63 .721.Daytime dresses, least desirable choice 2.51 • 751Date or dance dresses, most desirable

choice 1.61 CD O v_n

Date or dance dresses, least desirablechoice 2.28 .801

Suits, most desirable choice 1.72 .725Suits, least desirable choice 2.29 .819

Since these responses were coded according to a one-two-three masculinity-femininity continuum, the mean scores were determined in this way. For the "most desirable" selections, those parts on sleep­wear, slips, and leisure or sportswear represented more feminine selections when compared with the other parts of the scale. The "most desirable" preference for slips also revealed the lowest standard deviation for the scale. The remaining three parts, date or dance dresses, and suits had more masculine clothing preferences as desirable and feminine clothing preferences as "least desirable." The "least desirable" preference for leisure clothes or sportswear had the widest standard deviation for the six parts of the scale.

On the basis of these findings when clothing preferences were analyzed in relation to the social role situations, those parts related to minimal social influence and pressures (sleepwear, slips, and leisure apparel or sportswear) revealed more feminine preferences as desirable. The parts with Indicated social interaction (date or dance dresses, day­time dresses, and suits) revealed more masculine clothing preferences as desirable. Date or dance dresses, the one social role which was de­veloped with a specific male contact and increased social competition, had the lowest mean for the "most desirable" selection indicating pre­ference for the masculine clothing choice. The standard deviations for all six parts were relatively small and close in distribution.

Relation Between Social-Psychological Characteristics and Clothing Preferences of the Subjects

Masculinity-Femlnlnity and C. P. S. Responses

Multiple regression procedures were used to correlate scores on subgroups seven and eight of the P. P. S. with the C. P. S. responses

97of the subjects. According to Krout and Tabin,1 these two subgroups, respectively, emphasize feminine and masculine personality components. Table 8 presents the regression coefficients and t tests for these correlations.

TABLE 8. Regression coefficients and t tests of correlations be­tween P. P. S. subgroups seven and eight and preferences on C. P. S.

Variables Regression Coefficient t TestMost Least Most LeastDesirable Desirable Desirable Desirable(N*l*l*2) (N=l*37)

Subgroup 7 end- C.P.S. I 0.062 -0.01*9 l*.890b -l*.233bSubgroup 8 and 6 .P.S. I -0.039 0.020 -2.787a 1.536Subgroup 7 and C.P.S. II 0.035 -0.052 2.689b -3.707bSubgroup 8 and C.P.S. II -0.029 0.011* -2.036a 0.091Subgroup 7 and C.P.S. III 0.032 -0.031 3.127b -2.196aSubgroup 8 and C.P.S. III 0 .0 0 k 0.018 0.395 1.132Subgroup 7 and C.P.S. IV 0.009 0.011 0.728 0.883Subgroup 8 and C.P.S. IV -0 .0 1 k 0.018 -l.oil* 1.312Subgroup 7 and C.P.S. V 0.012 -0.015 0.856 -1.088Subgroup 8 and C.P.S. V 0.010 -o.ool* 0.662 -0.21*1Subgroup 7 and C.P.S. VI -0.003 -0.010 -0.21*3 -0.735Subgroup 8 and C.P.S. VI -0.013 0.017 -0.978 . 1.111

A 0.05 level of significance (t.05*1*97) b 0.01 level of significance (tQ^=2.59)

Krout and Tabin, A Guide to. . ., og. cit.

"Most Desirable11 PreferencesThree of the "most desirable" preferences were significant at the

0.01 level. These were the correlations between subgroup 7 and- parts I, II, and III on the C. P. S. With each of these, the relationship was positive indicating that a high score on this personality measure was significantly related to a high score on the C. P. S. Thus, for these tests, increased femininity or a "cooperative" attitude and "passive- receptive traits" was related to feminine clothing choices for the apparel items of sleepwear, sportswear, and slips. This finding was substantially above the conventional confidence limit for sleepwear.

Two of the tests with subgroup 8 were inversely significant at the 0.05 level. A high score on this subgroup indicated an "overcompen­sated masculinity in a female." With these correlations, as the score on subgroup 8 increased, the score on the C. P. S. decreased indicating a more masculine clothing preference for sleepwear and sportswear. None of the other t tests were significant; however, both daytime dresses and suits showed the same directional trend when compared with subgroup 8.

"Least Desirable" PreferencesTwo of these t tests were significant at the 0.01 level. However,

both of these revealed inverse correlations. The higher the score on sub­group 7 indicating increased femininity, the lower the score for the "least desirable" preference on sleepwear indicating the more masculine clothing choice was least preferable. Also, the higher the score on subgroup 7# the lower the score for the sportswear preference indicating that the more masculine clothing choice was, again, "least desirable."

Since both of these t tests were considerably higher than the 0.01 level of significance, these findings were substantially supported.

One t test was significant at the 0.05 level. This represented an inverse relationship between scores on subgroup 7 and "least desirable preferences concerning slips. Again, increased general femininity was correlated with a more masculine clothing preference as "least desirable. None of the other correlations were close to significance, but two others subgroup 7 and date or dance dresses and suits, revealed the same direc­tional trend. None of the t tests were statistically significant when subgroup 8 and the "least desirable" preferences of the C. P. S. were correlated.

Relation Between Clothing Preferences and Social RolesThese significant findings on the P. P. S. and C. P. S. when

examined according to the represented social roles revealed that two parts which had no indicated social Interaction, sleepwear and slips, were significantly related to the personality characteristics of mascu­linity and femininity of the participants. One additional social role, a peer group, feminine-oriented situation which was described in con­junction with leisure apparel or sportswear, was also significantly re­lated to these personality tendencies. The remaining three situations, all of which involved increased social interaction and possible social pressures, were not statistically related to masculine or feminine ten­dencies of these subjects.

Uniformity of Responses on C. P. S.

In order to determine the amount of variation in the responses for the six parts of the C. P. S., a total standard deviation for "most desirable" preferences was computed. This was then treated as the dependent variable in a multiple regression procedure incorporating the social-psychological variables. Table 9 presents the t tests for the regression coefficients in this analysis.

One of the t tests was significant at the 0.01 level. This was the aspiration-measure concerning desired income for husband when his career is at its height providing the subject is married. This corre­lation indicated that those subjects who desired an income of "over $20,000." vacillated in their clothing preferences for the six social roles. Thus, this measure of aspiration was positively correlated with increased variation in clothing preferences or the clothing, extravert type of description— an individual who uses clothing for a contributory significance in the role-playing process. Since this t test was above the 0.01 level of significance, it supported the premise that, for these subjects, the individual with high aspirations (desired monetary income for husband) revealed greater variation in clothing preferences according to the Indicated social roles.

Two t tests were close to significance at the 0.05 level. These were the correlations with subgroups 7 and 10 on the P. P. S. The relationship with subgroup one of the measures of masculinity-femin- inity, indicated that subjects with increased femininity or "passive- receptive traits" tended to fluctuate more in their clothing preferences

on the C. P. S. Therefore, with these subjects, increased femininity as indicated by this subgroup was positively correlated with greater variation in clothing preferences according to a masculinity-femininity continuum of clothing types. Subgroup 10, one of the measures of socia­bility- individuality, was inversely correlated with amount of variation _ in clothing preferences. In other words, as the score on this subgroup increased denoting social maturity with "strong feelings about the larger world" and leadership tendencies, the "most desirable" clothing prefer­ences were more constant for the six social roles. This finding indi­cated that sociability as measured by a concern for impersonal situations and the ability to conceptualize relationships in the larger societal milieu was correlated with increased uniformity in clothing preferences. Social immaturity and a lack of concern about impersonal situations re­vealed greater variation in clothing preferences.

The multiple regression coefficient in this analysis was 1.99 with a F test of 1.38. The latter test was not significant at the 0.05 level of confidence.

between fashion conformity and Individual expression becomes difficult to maintain.

Investigators in the area of clothing and psychology stress the need for self-expression through dress* Dearborn, in a list of apparel essentials, states that clothing should reveal a H . . . fitness to each unique personality . . . "3 yiugel,^ indicates that the essential function of clothing is to enable individual differentiation or identi­fication in society. Zimmerman describes clothing as a "social body surface" Inextricably bound to personality. **

The need for stud^ of clothing as a means for personality expression and social adaptation is continually stated by both theor­ists and empiricists. Tet the fact that personality is an illusory phenomenon that is difficult to define, let alone analyze, is a problem of great magnitude to the researcher in this area. Clothing preferences and behavior, interrelated with individual values, attitudes, and many other variables, pose an equally difficult maze for the investigator, who must attempt to examine conscious and unconscious influences.

Laver, who has spent considerable time analyzing the historical and cultural implications of clothing, indicates that " . . . we may well be astonished that so few psychologists have seen fit to study the

Qeorge Van Mess Dearborn, "The Psychology of Clothing," The Psychological Monographs, 26, Vo. 1, p. 5b.

L John Plugel, The Psychology of Clothes (London: The logarthPress, 1950).

Carle D. Zimmerman, Consumption and Standards of Living (lew York: Van Veatrand Company, Inc., 1936), P* 2bl.

102

TABLE 9* Regression coefficients and t tests for standard deviation of C. P. S. "most desirable" preferences and the social- psychological variables

Social-Psychological Variables RegressionCoefficient(N-396)

t Test

P. P. S., subgroup 1 .001 .182P. P. S., subgroup 2 .003 .714P. P. S., subgroup 3 - .001 - .220P. P. S., subgroup 4 .001 .198P. P. S., subgroup 5 .000 .131P. P. S., subgroup 6 .002 .546P. P. S., subgroup 7 .007 1.875P. P. S., subgroup 8 - .004 -1.007P. P. S., subgroup 9 .006 1.719P. P. S., subgroup 10 - .006 -1.962ID-OD inventory score - .002 - .562Desired income level for husband .007 2.616Score on general aspiration scale .000 - .962Score on Job advancement inventory .018 .518House-type-ownership, most desirable

house type 1 .020 .358house type 2 - .019 - .524house type 3 - .006 - .157house type 4 - .013 - .441

House-type-ownership, least desirablehouse type 1 - .030 -1.018house type 2 - .016 - .578house.type 3 - .029 - .404house type 4 - .002 - .562

Educational preference for son, most desirable.006institution 1 - - .157

institution 2 - .013 - .441institution 3 .019 .552institution 4 - .000 - .048

Education preference for son, least desirable.024institution 1 - - .799

institution 2 .002 .066institution 3 .037 1.152institution 4 .018 .518

a 0.05 level of significance ( t ^ - I.97) 13 0.01 level of significance (tois 2.59)

Chapter VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

This research vas undertaken to determine whether differential relationships existed between clothing preferences related to a variety of social roles and certain personality characteristics of women college students. The personality characteristics, examined, included mascu- linity-femininity, sociability-individuality, and level of aspiration.The findings generally endorsed a relationship between clothing prefer­ences associated with specific social roles, masculinity-femininity, certain social characteristics, and aspirational tendencies of the subjects.

Three major scales were used in the study. These included:(1) a personality measure; (2) a social-psychological scale to determine inner-other direction and aspirations; and (3) a clothing preference scale. Pre-testing and retesting were undertaken to establish needed modifications and reliability of the developed scales. The reliability of these measures, the scales on material aspirations and the C. P. S., was statistically good. Pace validity was assumed, for these instruments due to their dimensions and construction.

The universe for the study was 465 unmarried women students enrolled at Hood College, Frederick, Maryland, during the spring of 1962. These students represented an age range from 17 to 26 years, all class

103

levels and academic majors, and a distribution of socio-economic back­grounds .

The findings from the P. P. S. when compared with the estab­lished standard deviations recommended by Krout and Tabin generally revealed fewer extreme cases of masculinity-femininity than existed for the other variables of the study. On these measures the majority of the subjects revealed adverse feelings toward behavior typically assoc­iated with the feminine sex. Eighty-nine per cent measured high on "overcompensated masculinity." It was also discerned that for most of the subgroups the extreme cases were unbalanced between high scores and low scores. This was particularly true for the measures of sociability- individuality and aspiration-level.

Concerning inner-other direction, the mean score indicated a tendency for greater other-direction for these subjects. Correlations of the ID-OD responses with the other social-psychological variables revealed that this scale was not related in its measurement to the other variables of the investigation.

The findings from the aspiration-measures indicated that job advancement was important to these subjects. Also, they tended to score high on general aspirations indicating a desire for community distinction, influence, "power," and a high relative salary. These aspirations were projected to husband if married. The majority of the subjects indicated a desired income for husband over $20,000. and an occupational title that was either professional, technical, or managerial. One of the material aspirational. scales also revealed high aspirations.. This was the type of institution selected for son's college education. Con­

cerning house-type preferences, k9 per cent of the sample preferred a house representing low aspirations and a social emphasis. Thus, it appeared that for the two measures of material aspirations there was a differential influence of the dimensions of aspiration and sociability- individuality for these subjects. In relation to son's college educa­tion, aspiration seemed to be the important consideration in the selec­tion of an institution, while with house preference the sociability- individuality dimension with the related characteristics of possibilities for entertaining seemed important in the selections.

Comparison of the social-psychological variables with certain questions concerning the social experience and behavior of the subjects revealed statistically significant findings at the 0.01 level. These questions included number of cities, states, and countries of residence, amount of participation in campus and non-campus organizations, and certain social activities (parties, dates, and dinners during a four week interval). Positive correlations between these variables and in­creased social maturity and a high score on the general aspiration-mea- sure supported the premise that the individual with sociability tenden­cies would reveal high aspirations. Generally, a relationship between increased sociability and certain social tendencies measured by the P. P. S. was also discerned. When compared with masculinity-feminlnity, these findings seemed to indicate that those women with an aggressive, so-called "masculine" type of orientation, were more inclined to be socially active in their actual behavior.

Analysis of 43^ responses on the C. P. S. disclosed that three of the "most" and "least desirable" parts emphasized feminine choices,

106and the remaining three parte emphaeized masculine choices. Comparison of the means for the "most" and "least desirable" selections indicated an inverse relationship. Parts I, II, and III— sleepwear, leisure type apparel or sportswear, and slips— had a more feminine "most desirable" mean while the "least desirable" mean was more masculine. For the remaining three parts, daytime dresses, date or dance dresses, and suits, the "most desirable" mean was more masculine and the "least de­sirable" mean was more feminine.

Comparison of the general measures of masculinity and femininity with the clothing preferences on the C. P. S. indicated highly signi­ficant correlations at the 0,01 level between increased femininity and feminine clothing preferences for sleepwear, sportswear, and slips.The relationship also existed between decreased general femininity or "antagonism toward typical behavior associated with the feminine sex" and masculine clothing preferences. None of the three remaining parts on the C. P. S. had significant t tests when compared with these per­sonality predispositions.

The association between clothing preferences, the social role dimensions of the scale, and general masculinity or femininity revealed statistically significant findings for those preferences which had a m-tirimni amount of social pressure and could be considered "hidden" types of apparel less frequently in public view (sleepwear and slips). Also significant was one social role which involved a female-peer-group situation. The other three parts of the scale representing increased amounts of social interaction, various types of reference groups, and

107t

possible Increased social pressure were not significantly related to these personality characteristics.

Multiple regression procedures on the amount of uniformity for the six "most desirable" clothing preferences indicated that greater fluctuation vas apparent with increased desired Income for husband if married and Increased tendencies toward general femininity. With sociability, greater social maturity and leadership Interests were correlated with less variation in the clothing preferences of the sub­jects. None of the other variables related to masculinity-femininity, sociability-individuality, and level of aspiration had significant t tests when correlated with the standard deviation of the "most desirable" clothing preferences. However, the fact that there were significant findings for each of the variable categories endorsed the premise that for these subjects, individuals with high aspirations concerning de­sired monetary Income for husband revealed the characteristics of the clothing extravert. The reverse of this was evident for one of the mea­sures of sociability-individuality. With this correlation the socially mature individual tended to be a clothing Introvert preferring more sim­ilar clothing "types" for the six social roles. Consequently, it is possible that this individual views clothing as a medium of self-expression, while the' socially Immature individual must rely to a greater extent on the selection of clothing which will enhance her social adjustment.

Hypotheses and Conclusions

Three major hypotheses and three sub-hypotheses were established for the purpose of the study. The following discussion will relate the

108data to the hypotheses of the study and their interpretation and possi­ble implications.

Major hypothesis 1. There is a relationship between the personality characteristics of masculinity-femininity and clothing preferences for college women.

Sub-hypothesis 1A. Women vho score high on mascu­linity prefer a different type of clothing than womenvho score high on femininity.Two measures of general masculine and feminine tendencies of the

subjects were compared with the responses on the C. P. S. Both of thesewere subgroups from the P. P. S. One, the measure of femininity or "passive-receptive” traits and a "submissive-cooperative” attitude, revealed significant findings vhen compared with certain of the six parts on the C. P. S. Highly significant was the tendency toward in­creased femininity and feminine clothing preferences for sleepwear, sportswear, and slips. The relationship also existed between general masculine predispositions, or those subjects who revealed antagonism toward typical behavior associated with the feminine sex, and masculine clothing preferences for these items of apparel. Therefore, the above hypotheses were statistically supported for the apparel items of sleep­wear, leisure apparel or sportswear, and slips. Although a similar direc­tional trend was evident for the "least desirable” preferences for date or dance dresses, the hypotheses were not confirmed for these types of apparel or daytime dresses and suits. Consequently, the relationship between clothing selection or clothing taste and these personality characteristics is apparent for certain items of apparel. Clothing as a symbolic aspect of individual representation is then, seemingly, re­lated to personality and self-expression. The degree to which this is

109operative can be Important in the aeeooiation between clothing and cer­tain psychological mechanisms and general psychological adjustment.

An interesting relationship also existed between the tendencies for masculine or feminine clothing preferences and associated socialroles with the clothing items. Two of the significant correlations were undefined social situations with a limited amount of social pressure.

These were sleepwear and slips. The third significant correlation was leisure apparel or sportswear in which a feminine, dormit ory-peer-group

situation was described. The three parts which were not significant included varied types of reference groups and more general societal exposure. Thus, it is concluded that for this research universe, the relationship between these personality characteristics and clothing type preferences existed for the items of apparel whioh were less frequently in general societal view, as well as for those items worn with peers.For the other items, or those which could be more significant in the role-playing process, this relationship was not existent. The question concerning whether this relationship was influenced by the types of apparel items presented, or by the associated social roles was not answered by this research. However, the influence of both of these fac­tors seems evident as a result of this study.

Another finding related to general masculinity-femininity and clothing preferences was a correlation between increased femininity

variation in clothing preferences for the six social roles. Therefore, it can be concluded that there was not only an association between the “type of clothing preferences and these personality characteristics, but there was also a relationship between these behavioral tendencies and the amount of fluctuation in clothing preferences.

110It is then possible that the individual who is high in general feminin­ity tends to use clothing more as a medium of social role adjustment than does the individual with masculine behavioral tendencies. Conse­quently, if the average American woman is in a marginal position con­cerning societal expectations and her sex role, these findings indicate that the woman who is more feminine and supposedly closer to the sex-role "ideal" uses her clothing in a social contributory function. Thus, clothing can be instrumental in enhancing adjustment to different social roles and their related reference group expectations.

Major hypothesis 2. There is a relationship between the tendency for sociability or individuality and clothing preferences of college women.

Sub-hypothesis 2A. An individual who scores high on sociability or social extraversion will also be a clothing extravert.

Sub-hypothesis 2B. An individual who scores high on individuality or social introversion will also be a clothing introvert.

Use of the terms clothing extravert and clothing introvert inthese hypotheses referred to the significance of apparel and individualuniformity in clothing selection for various social roles. It wasproposed that the clothing extravert would consider clothing as a typeof social contributory medium to enhance individual fulfillment ofvarious social roles and perceived social demands. For this person,clothing selection (based on a masculinity-femininity continuum) wouldfluctuate with various types of social roles. The clothing introvertwould use apparel as an individual expression of self and would be moreconsistent in her clothing preferences for various social roles.

IllOne of the measures of sociability-individuality evidenced a

trend when compared with the amount of uniformity in clothing preferences for the six social roles. With this measure, as social maturity— the ability to conceptualize impersonal relationships and general leadership tendencies— Increased, clothing preferences were more constant. There­fore, this seemed to indicate support for major hypothesis 2; however, the sub-hypotheses were not supported. These findings seemed to contra­dict sub-hypothesis 2B indicating that the socially mature individual represented the clothing Introvert. The socially immature individual who is socially ambivalent, reveals inability to accept responsibility, tends to narrow the range of social contacts, and has low leadership potential represented the clothing extravert. Thus, it is generally concluded that a relationship existed between social maturity or immaturity and clothing preferences for these subjects. As social maturity increased, clothing became a medium of self-expression and self-enhancement; as it decreased, greater variation in clothing preferences was evidenced indicating the possibility that clothing was more important in social role adjustment. Consequently, clothing may be an instrumental aspect of the social- psychological adjustment of the socially immature college woman.

It needs to be emphasized that use of the terms sociability- individuality in these hypotheses was broad in connotation. Since1 none of the other measures of these behavioral characteristics were statis­tically significant or close to significance, the support for the major hypothesis is limited.

Major hypothesis 3. College women with high social aspirations will tend to score higher on sociability or social extraversion and will reveal less consistency in

its

clothes ve wear with any degree of sustained attention.Bear, apsychologist with the sane concern, queries:

I would ask writers on personality, as it has been studied scientifically in the last decade, why there is not nore about appearance and speech?”

Due to the recognized need for research in this area and because ofthe writer's interest in the social-psychological implications ofclothing, the following problem was undertaken.

The Problem

This study was designed to analyze, through statistical inter­pretation, the relationship between certain behavioral or personality characteristics, social role transition, and clothing preferences of women college students. The personality characteristics included: tendencies toward masculinity or femininity; tendencies toward socia­bility or individuality, sometimes identified as social extroversion or introversion; and social aspirations.

For the purpose of this study, these characteristics have been visualized as a series of concentric circles surrounding the Individual and relating him to society. In this configuration, masculinity-femin­inity can be represented as closely allied with the psychology of the individual; sociability-individuality encompasses more of the social- psychological field of the individual; and social aspiration, or the

Lawrence Laagner, The Importance of Wearing Clothes (Kew Tork: Hastings louse, 1959) > P* lx, introduction by James Laver.

^ Theodore H. Bear, Personality Appearance and Speech (London: George Vnwln, Ltd., 1957), p. lM.

112their clothing "type" selections, according to differentsituations, than women with low social aspirations.It was proposed that college women with high aspirations, in

their attempt to express different social roles, would select clothing representing their interpretation of the role requirements. Consequently, the clothing choices of these women would reveal more variation than the selections of college women with low social aspirations.

Correlations between social experiences and activities of the subjects and their responses to certain of the measures of sociability- individuality revealed significant findings concerning increased social activities, tendencies toward sociability, and high aspirations. Highly significant were participation in campus activities and a high aspir­ational Institution as "least desirable" for son's education. Also significant were number of parties attended during the last four weeks, a house preference with high aspirations and a social emphasis, and participation in campus organizations. These tests endorsed the rela­tionship between tendencies toward sociability and high aspirations for these subjects. The tests of significance on the multiple regression coefficients also confirmed the association between increased social activities and aspirations. Social activities of the subjects were significantly related to a high score on the general aspiration-measure and higher desired income for husband. Therefore, these data supported this part of the major hypothesis.

Concerning the relationship between uniformity of clothing preferences according to a masculinity-femininity continuum of clothing "types," associated social roles, and sociability tendencies, the measure

113of social maturity was inversely correlated with fluctuation in clothing selections. When the responses on this measure were compared with the actual social behavior of the participants, increased number of dates was significantly related to the tendencies for social immaturity, ambivalence, and lack of concern about impersonal situations. However, the correlations between cities, states, and countries of residence, participation in campus and non-campus organizations, and non-campus social activities were significantly related to increased social maturity. Consequently, on the basis of this measure, the reverse of the hypothesis seemed to be indicated. As social maturity increased, greater consis­tency in clothing "type" selections was evident. As social immaturity and ambivalence increased, these subjects had more dates but revealed lower aspirations and greater fluctuation in their clothing preferences. It then appears that for these subjects clothing ambivalence according to various social roles is related to social ambivalence and lower aspirations. Those individuals who have difficulty conceptualizing impersonal situations and who narrow the range of social contacts tend to date more frequently and reveal greater inconsistency in their clothing preferences for various social roles. It is possible that the narrowed range of social contacts and increased amount of dating are not inconsistent findings for these subjects. It is highly probable that the former characteristic may attribute to the latter behavior and that these dates are with the same person. However, this informa­tion was not obtained from the subjects.

The implication of this finding, seemingly, indicates that clothing functions more as a medium of self-expression for those indi-

viduals who are socially mature and confident. Those individuals lack­ing this social awareness use clothing as a means of social role adjust­ment. It is then probable that clothing has greater importance to these individuals since it can be an important aspect of improved social interaction and success. The fact that none of the other measures of sociability-individuality were statistically significant hinders inter­pretation of these findings. The relationship between increased dates, social immaturity, and greater variation in clothing preferences for different social roles confirms an association between this aspect of sociability and clothing fluctuation. However, the fact that increased number of dates and greater femininity were also close to significance may indicate that clothing extraversion is more typically a feminine characteristic.

* * *

The following general conclusions seem pertinent to this investigation—

1. A relationship between the personality character­istics of masculinity-femininity and certain clothing preferences of women college students.

2. A relationship between social roles, their related reference groups, and clothing preferences of women college students.

3. A relationship between the personality characteristics of masculinity-femininity and the use of clothing for self- expression or social role expression.

!{•. A relationship between tendencies for social maturity and high general aspirations of women college students.

5. A relationship between social maturity, high aspir­ations, and the use of clothing for self-expression in social interaction.

1156. A relationship between social immaturity and ambi­

valence and the use of clothing as a means of social role adjustment.These conclusions point out an association between clothing

preferences, certain personality characteristics, and social role parti­cipation for these subjects. It seems apparent that clothing is symbolic of both personality and social role expression. Consequently, both of these represent directives for individual clothing taste. This indi­cates that the significance of clothing is relational. It can serve as an aspect of self-expression or it can be effective in social adjustment. The fact that the use of clothing is a part of the socialization process does not negate variations in individual expression through apparel; however, seemingly, certain personality predispositions will alter the type of clothing preferences and the extent of individual or social role expression evidenced through the medium of clothing. Consequently, the theoretical view of clothing as both an expressive and reflective aspect of the externalized self seems to be endorsed by this study.

Recommendations

Since behavioral research, frequently, must be based on limited empirical knowledge, it is to be expected that this type of undertaking will introduce further areas of development and theoretical importance. The recommendations from this study are related to its limitations, the social-psychological variables and their measurement, and possible elaborations of the investigation.

Certain complexities arise from the lack of decisive defini­tions concerning aspects of individual behavior. The present study

116tried to alleviate some of this difficulty "by use of broad definitions for the social-psychological variables. However, this endeavor is alwayB in danger of transmitting other interrelated variables in the findings. Consequently, this type of research investigation must pro­ceed cautiously in order to avoid generalizations from tenuous grounds.

A forthcoming recommendation from this study is that further research concerning these and other social-psychological variables is needed. The fact that this investigation supported a relationship between aspects of personality and clothing preferences points to a need for additional study in this area. Since the preponderance of the literature concerning clothing and personality has been theoretical in nature, it is obvious that increased empirical efforts regarding the association between clothing and individual behavior are needed. With elaboration and clarification of the concepts of personality, factors such as masculinity-femininity, sociability-individuality or social extraversion-introversion, and individual aspirations can be more directly approached.

One of the limitations of the present study was use of the sur­vey technique in collecting the data. This, ultimately, results in a limited number of extreme cases on which statistical analysis is based.It is recommended that future research in this area incorporate a variety of types of measurement. The author recommends detailed case analysis as a worthwhile technique. Also, longitudinal study of the relationship between personality and clothing preferences and behavior would enable improved understanding and determination of variable correlations and predictions.

117The restriction of the research universe for the purpose of

greater homogeneity in the social setting of the subjects is another limitation of the study. Further related research with other subjects and various types of samples is needed. It is quite possible that the relationship between the variables of this study would be noticeably effected by variations in age, socio-economic background characteristics, professional orientation and occupations of subjects, as well as other factors.

It is recommended that the C. P. S. be enlarged to incorporate more social role situations. Since certain parts of this scale revealed significant findings in the analyses, additional application of this technique of measurement is recommended for other types of apparel and related social roles. Also, since good reliability was evident as a result of retesting, expansion, validation, and application of this instrument with other research samples would be worthwhile.

The bi-dimensional focus of the two material aspiration-scales which attempted to discern both sociability-individuality and aspir- ational tendencies of the subjects seemed to reveal inconsistent findings. This was especially apparent for selections concerning type of institution for son's college education. Since the findings on aspirations were somewhat consistent with the other aspiration-measures included in the study, this dimension is recommended for future use.

Certain other areas of empirical study are evident as a result of this investigation. The present study concerned whether or not relationships between personality ..characteristics, the influence of social roles, and clothing preferences were discernible. Since

significant findings were obtained endorsing the existence of relation­ships for this research universe and the variables of the study, invest­igation of the extent of these associations and the conditions under which they exist is recommended. Further elaboration of clothing as an indi­vidual expressive or social contributory medium and the related dis­tinctions between these functions warrants additional study. Also, research on the social-psychological concept of the self and clothing preferences and behavior is needed. The use of experimental research designs in these areas could be profitable. With development of various testing techniques and valid and reliable methods of measurement,

rcontrolled experiments which will enable progress beyond the determin­ation of variable relationships are necessary. The author believes that experimental design can be the source of more precise and definitive findings and improved understanding of clothing as a social symbol and an expressive and reflective aspect of the individual and society.

APPENDIX A ATTITUDES CONCERNING PRE-TEST

120To be completed after answering the three questionnaires.

1. Indicate (with a check) your reaction(s) to participation in this pre-test. Interesting Worth the time because it’s a research project______ Involves too much time regardless of research value(s) Wo reaction Other (please explain) ________________________________

2. Were there any of the three questionnaires which you did not like?_____ Yes NoIf Yes indicate with a check which one(s) and briefly explain why. Personal Preference Scale

Personal Preferences According to Problem Situations

Clothing Preference Scale

3. Number (l through 3) each of the three questionnaires listed below in their order of interest to you. Personal Preference Scale Personal Preferences According to Problem Situations Clothing Preference ScaleGeneral comments in relation to the length and type of questions:a. Personal Preference Scale -

b. Personal Preferences According to Problem Situations -

c. Clothing Preference Scale -

APPENDIX E COVER LETTER TO SUBJECTS IN RETEST

desire for effective action in the social milieu, are indicative of the individual's societal motivations.

An American college population vas selected in order to main­tain a certain amount of constancy in the present social setting of the participants. Unmarried vomen students vere preferred for the same reason and so that the number of variables associated with clothing preferences might he kept at a minimum. _ The research universe for this investigation consisted of k6$ college vomen enrolled at lood College, Frederick, Maryland.

It is the writer's Intent that this study may ultimately con­tribute to general understanding of the relationship between clothing preferences, individual characteristics, and selected behavioral aspects linking the Individual to society. Therefore, the following question is central: Is clothing primarily an aspect of individual self-expression,or, is it related to the individual's perception of his social function? The findings from this effort will be limited to specific aspects of this question; however, it is hoped that they will contribute to the general understanding of the symbolic significance of clothing to the individual and his social interaction.

H O O D C O L L E G EF R E D E R IC K , M A RYLAND 122

June 27, 1962

Dear ;Once more I'm soliciting your cooperation in the study

of SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CLOTHING PREFERENCES in which you participated this spring. Since follow-up statistical analysis is now necessary, I have enclosed several parts of the schedule which are similar to the ones in the initial study. I realize that summer is vacation time; however, I would appreciate your completing the enclosed schedules and returning them to me in the stamped, self- addressed envelope. It should require no more than 15-25 minutes to complete these forms. This material, like the original schedules, will he anonymous. Remember, there are no "right" or "wrong" answers; the important thing is to indicate your individual reactions to the questions.

Please return the completed schedules by Monday, July l6th, or sooner. Thank you again for your interest and cooperation in the study, and have a pleasant summer.

Cordially,

Dona D. Ditty, Asst. Professor, Home Economics Department.

123

APPENDIX CMeans, mean differences, standard deviations, and

coefficients of correlation "between test and retest scores on aspiration measures

12l+

Aspiration Means0, MeanDiffer-

StandardDeviation0,

Coeffi­cient, Corre-a latlonMeasures Test Retest encea Test Retest

House-type- ownership, most desir­able pref­erence 2.321 2.308 0.013 1.087 1.081+ 0.962House-type- ownership, least de­sirable preference 2.551 2.782 0.231b 1.191 1.202 O.765Son's col­lege edu­cation, most desir­ablepreference 2.61+9 2.688 0.039 0.997 0.990 0.959Son's col­lege edu­cation, least de­sirable preference 2.218 2.692 0. if 7i+'b 1.202 1.251 0.681+

Ql Number equals 78. b .05 level of significance.

APPENDIX DMeans, mean differences, standard deviations,

and coefficients of correlation between test and retest scores on Clothing Preference Scale

126

Farts on Clothing Preference Scale

I, sleep- wear, most desirableI, sleep- vear, least desirableII, sports- wear,mos^ desirableII, sports­wear, least desirableIII, slips, mostdesirableIII, slips, least desirableIV, dresses, mostdesirableIV, dresses, least desirableV, date dresses, mostdesirableV, date dresses, least desirable

Means* Mean_________ ' Differ-Test Retest encea

2.436 2.436 0.000

1,808 1.821 0.013

2.256 2.282 0.026

1.808 1.615 0.193b

2.385 2.397 0.012

1.410 1.321 0.089

1.590 1.628 O.O38

2.551 2.346 0.205

1.718 1.718 0.000

2.269 2.192 0.077

Standard Coeffi-Deviation* cient,

Corre-Test Retest lation*

0.782 0.782 1.000

0.756 0.817 0.867

0.812 0.804 0.901

O.883 0.825 O.663

O.586 O.566 0.942

0.796 0.729 0.866

0.710 0.704 0.911

0.714 0.865 0.675

0.881 0.881 1.000

0.784 0.868 O.705(Tabulation continued)

(Tabulation continued)127

Parts on Standard Coeffi­Clothing Means Mean Deviation8, cient,Preference Differ- Corre-Scale Test Retest encea Test Re test 'lation8.VI, suits,most desirable 1.731 1.744 0.013 0.732 0.746 0.917VI, suits,leastdesirable 2.423 2.269 0.154b 0.7611- 0.877 0.757

a Number equals 78.

13 .05 level of significance.

128

APPENDIX E PERSONAL REFERENCE SCALE1

~ Permission for Inclusion of this scale granted by Johanna Krout Tabin, Ph.D.

PERSONAL PREFERENCE SCALE•' ' - - A Pm oM lity Inventory

■ A ; \

Maurice H. Krout, PtiJ).Director, Chicago Psychological Institute

’ ' end '

Jotanna,iC|rout.v-PKXI.Associate Director, Chicogo Psychological institute

Name.

Age— .Sex.

J>ate.

.Occupation.

Suction . 1 Ill IV v ^ VI VII VIII v'',VXv:

Scor« ^vS- .1'

± ■

i

INSTRUCTIONS

On the pages that foUow you wiU find a list of items which you may like, dislike, or feel indifferent about There is no "correct" response for these items. Your preference is die coniect response for you. If you have never experienced the item, or have not experienced it lately, imagine how you might feel if you did experience it. Encircle die letters which most nearly express what you feel, and be sure to check every item.

L means "I like it"FI means "I feel indifferent about it"D means "I dislike it”

Examples:

1. Blue sky FI DThis means you like it.

2. Sickness L FIThis means you dislike it.

S. The ringing of a bell L DThis means you feel indifferent about it

T H E P E R S O N A L P R E F E R E N C E S C A L EA Personality Inventory

byM aurice H. K rout, Ph .D.

andJo h a n n a K rout Tabin, Ph.D.

liutructiont: Below and on the next page you will find a list of items which you may like, dislike, or feel indif­ferent about. There is no “correct” response for. these items. Your preference is the correct response for you. If you have never experienced the item, or have not experienced it lately imagine how you might feel if you experi­enced it now. Encircle the letters which most nearly express what you feel. “L” means MI like it.” “D” means “I dislike it.” “FT” means “I feel indifferent about it.’’ Plea sc he sure to check every item.

I II1. Sleeping alone in a house L FI D 1. Sucking candy L FI D2. Working in a soundproof room L FI D 2. Studying languages L FI DS. Sleeping curled up L FI D S. Drinking strong beverages L FI- D4. Swimming under water L FI D 4. Eating soft-boiled'eggs L FI D5. Sleeping in the nude L FI D 5. Eating cooked cereals L FI D6. A seat near the wall L FI D 6. Warm milk L FI D7. Sleeping under heavy blankets L FI D 7. Eating rich creamy foods L FI D8. Floating in the air L FI D 8. Getting breakfast in bed L FI D9. A place that's always warm10. Sleeping long hours

L FI D — - L FI D 1 1

9. Bland (lightly seasoned) foods 10. Sucking oranges

L FI D L FI D □

III IV1. Making sarcastic remarks L FI D 1. Leaving things where they are L FI D2. Taste of rare meat L FI D 2. Odor of kerosene L FI D3. Bread crusts L FI D S. Mixing paints L FI D4. Using strong language L FI D 4. Odor of manure on a field L FI D5.■ Cracking nuts with teeth L FI D 5. Giving things away L FI D6. Eating caramels L FI D 6. Sound of bass violin L FI D7. Chewing on celery L FI D 7. Making deposits L FI D

/8. Steaks well done L FI D 8. Letting others dean up after your work L FI D9. Crunchy foods L FI D |— -i

i. ft n 1 19. Odor of tar L FI D

10. Chewing gum 10. Sound of tuba L FI D

Continue an next

Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE OR FERSOIALITT STRUCTURE

In order to establish a theoretical framework for the study, this selective review of the literature is organized as follows:

1. Conceptions of personality.A. Specific theories concerning personality.

1. Biological conceptions.2. Atomistic conceptions.3. Holistic conceptions.4. Freudian conceptions.

2. Personality organization and its relation to social structure.A. The role concept.B. The self concept.

3. Selected theories related to personality types.A. The sex role.B. Sociability and individuality.C. Aspiration-level behavior.

Conceptions of Personality

Theorists and empiricists of human behavior generally agree that personality is structured into an organized pattern of "responsesystems." The concept denotes "... some kind of organization or

„1integration of behavior." Beyond this point, it is difficult to

Alfred R. Lindesmith and Anselm L. Strauss, Social Psychology (2nd ed.j Hew Xork: Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1956), p. ^3»

6

1.Proof-reading L FI D2. Firmness of decision(onyourpart) L FI DS. Swatting flies L FI D

5. Prosecuting offenders . j L FI D6. Taking extreme carie to preserve; clothes L FI D

7. Classifying postal stamps - L FI D8. Being obstinate . L FI D9. Chewing down price L FI D10. Sebking perfection L F I D

1. Using profanity at times2. Very modest men ,

■; S. Reading sports page4. Dependent women

■.: 5. Using firearms'6. Wearing boon7. Good disdpline8. Wood-carving9. Running track10. Playing football

L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D. L FI D L FI D L FI D

VI1. Burning matches for fun2. Playing solo S. Ardiery4. Creative writing5. Climbing a tree6. Posing for a picture7. Drawing8. Appearing on the stage9. Flying high10. Watching a fire

L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D L FI D □

IX . ,1. Collecting antiques L FI D2. Taking advice of older women L FI D8. Andent history L FI D4. Teaching kindergarten L FI D5. Taking care of sick L FI D6. Assisting the mentally handicapped L FI D7. Obstetrics (child delivery) L FI D8. Taking advice of older men L FI D9. Care of crippled children L FI D10. Prolonging life of the aged L FI D

VII1. Reading tb sick people L FI D2. Ballet dancing L FI D8. Reading fashion reports L FI D4. Using perfume L FI D5, Being a private aecretary .— L FI D6. Sleeping in a nightgown L FI D7. Being a inodel L FI D8. Wearing nail polish > , L FI D9. Preparing meals L FI D I10. Strong athletic girls L FI D 1

1. Submitting to fate gracefully L FI D2. Being master of ceremonies L FI D8. Helping people who don’t like you L FI D4. Responsibility for other people’s

.... _ „ actions , „L.FI..D.5. Raising money for charity L FI D6. Making others toe the mark L FI D7. Advancing yourself through your

friends L FI D8. Telling people their true vsdue L FI D9. Working on committees ‘L H I)10. Accepting others’faults L FI D

APPENDIX FPERSONAL PREFERENCES ACCORDING TO PROBLEM SITUATIONS SCALE

131General Instructions: There are no right or wrong answers to thisquestionnaire; you are only asked to give your honest opinion on each question. Your answers will he kept strictly confidential. Bead each question carefully hut try not to spend too much time on any one question.1. The seniors at F high school were asked for their major social studies

project to turn in a report on some aspect of the American Civil War. Susan got very much interested in her topic and found that she had written 25 pages even before she had half-finished her outline. She mentioned this to one of her friends, who told her that the othersin the class had pretty much agreed among themselves to hold their reports down to 35 pages. If Susan was going to hand in 50 or 60 pages, all the others would.have to put in more work on their reports in order to get a decent grade. Therefore, said her friends, it was only fair to the others for Susan not to put in all the extra material she had planned. What do you think Susan should do? (Circle 1 number)

1. Turn in a shorter paper than planned.2. Turn in paper as originally planned.

2. Stan is the outstanding Btudent at X high school and is also very good in sports. But, although he has a few close friends, he is not very popular with most of the other fellows. This is probably because they resent his always being "first”— although, he’s not boastful or con­ceited about it. What would you do if you were Stan? (Circle 1 number)

1. Give less time to school work and athletics and more to making friends.

2. Be satisfied with a few close friends and not worry about being more popular.

3. Suppose there were a student in your college class who took no part in group activities of any kind, whether athletics, student government, political discussions, social events, or any other. She did no harm to anyone in the class; she simply ignored them. She was conscientous in her school work; however, she devoted all her other time and energy to studying music which was her consuming passion. What would you think of such a person? (Circle 1 number)

1. She would be Justified; it's her own business.2. She wouldn't be Justified; she should combine her music

with other activities.In Suppose you are starting on your first Job. Two possible women are

available to teach you "the ropes". Mrs. S is a very warm, friendly person who has only recently started working at the place herself and is therefore not too familiar with the set-up as yet. Mrs. L, on the other hand, knows all the operations inside and out, but is rather reserved and impersonal in her manner. If these were the only two women available, which would you prefer to supervise your work? (Circle 1 number)

1321. Mrs. S.2. Mrs. L.

5. What do you think of someone who always tries to be "the best" in almost everything she does? (Circle 1 number)

1. I admire this kind of person very much.2. She's all right, if she isn't conceited and doesn't step on

other people's toes.6. When shopping for a dress at a department store, which type of sales

person do you prefer? (Circle 1 number)1. Someone who explains the merchandise very well and can answer

any question about quality and price.2. Another type who doesn't explain the merchandise so well but

seems to be interested in its appearance on you.7* If you were going to have a medical career which of the following

would you rather be? (Circle 1 number)»

1. A great medical scientist who has a world-wide reputation, even during her lifetime, but whose own community thinks sheis "queer" and who lives alone without having any close friends.

2. A competent general practitioner who is not and never will be famous but who enjoys the respect of her community and the warm friendship of many.

Which of these would you prefer that your husband be? (Answer #1 or #2)

8. Here are some different ways to live which various persons at various times have recommended and followed. Don't think about whether it's the kind of life you are living now, or whether it would be wise to live that way in our society. Just judge it according to the way you personally would like to live. After you have read the following "paths of lifeH you will be asked to rank them in your own order of preference. Try to react to the general "tone" of each paragraph.Path 1. I like for the most part to "go it alone," making sure I have

privacy where I live, having much time to myself, attempting to control my own.life. I enjoy being self-sufficient, reflective and meditative, knowing myself. I want to direct my interest away from close associations with social groups, and away from managing and trying to control my physical environment. These things I believe would make me happiest: simplifying my external life,moderating desires which can be satisfied only through outside forces over which I have little control, and concentrating my attention on refinement, clarification, and direction of my own self. I would not enjoy "living outwardly." I wish to avoid depending upon persons and things. I want the.center of life to be within myself.

133Path 2. I don't want to hold on to myself, withdraw from people, keep

aloof and self-centered. I would much rather merge Into a social group, enjoy cooperation and companionship, and join with other people In purposefully working to fulfill common goals. I believe people are social and people are active. My life will he happiest if I can have hoth energetic group activity and cooperative group enjoyment. I do not believe In meditation, restraint, worrying about my independence, liking ideas for the sake of ideas, living by myself, thinking a great deal of my possessions; these things don't make for good neighbors. I want to live "outwardly" with gusto, enjoying the good things of life, working with other people to get the things which make a pleasant and energetic life.

Bath 3. 1 believe that the secret of a rewarding life lies in usingthe body's energy. Our hands need material to make into some­thing; they need lumber and stone for building, for instance, and food to harvest, and clay to mold. I think action is the only way to make my muscles alive to joy— climbing, running, skiing, and the like. I am satisfied only when performing an active deed, when I am living for the present in a daring and adventuresome deed.. I dislike cautious foresight and relaxed ease. If I could choose how I'd like to live, it would be in outward energetic action, in the excitement of power in my day-to-day life.

Bathji. I think that enjoyment is the most important thing in life.I don't mean a wild search for intense and exciting pleasures. I believe in the enjoyment of the simple and easily obtainable pleasures: the pleasures of just existing, of tasty food, ofcomfortable surroundings, of talking with friends, of rest and relaxation. I want the place I live to be a warm comfortable home, with soft chairs and bed, a kitchen well-stocked with food, and a door always open to the entrance of friends. I dislike driving ambition and I dislike the sort of super-enthusiasm which believes in self-discipline and throwing out the comforts of life. These _ things are the signs of discontented people- who have lost the ability to appreciate simple, care-free wholesome enjoyment.

Bath 5. I think that life tends to become sluggish, too comfortable, unchanging because of too much thought and no action. I want to resist this tendency. I am eager for constant action— physical action, adventure, meeting and solving each problem as it comes up, improving techniques for controlling the world and society.Bor myself, I put my trust in technical advances made possible by scientific knowledge. My goal in life is to solve my own and society's problems. I will not be satisfied with some thing that is merely good if there is something else which is better.

Bath 6. I believe that sympathetic concern for other persons isextremely important. I think living with affection is the right way to live, affection.that makes it impossible for me to impose

13^myself on others or to use others for my own purposes. I believe it's wrong to he greedy in my possessions, to want power over persons and things, to be overly concerned with myself. For these things impede sympathetic love and whatever is aggressive and self-assertive in me. I am eager to become receptive, appreciative, and helpful in my relations vith other persons.Now fill in the following: I like path no. best.

J like path no._____ second.I like path no. _____ third.I like path no. fourth.I like path no. fifth.I like path no. _____ sixth.

9* In terms of today's value of money, which income level would you pre­fer for your husband (providing you are married) when his career is at it8 peak? (Check one of the categories below.__________ Under $20,000._________ Over $20,000.

10. When your husband has become as successful as you ever expect him to be, what kind of job would you expect him to have? Please be as specific as possible and use a job title if you can. If you have no definite ideas about this, please write in "no definite ideas.N

11. Whether or not you plan a career after graduation, suppose you were offered an opportunity to make a substantial advance in a job or occupation. Place a check opposite each item in the following list to show how important it would be in stopping you from making that advance.

Might Serious Wouldn'tStop Me Consideration Stop Me

but wouldn't stop me

1. Endanger your health ______ _____________ _______2. Leave your family for some time _______ ____________ _________3. Move around the country a lot _ _ _ _ _ ____________ ________4. Leave your community _ _ _ _ _____________ _______5. Leave your friends ______ _________ ______6. Give up leisure time__________________ ___________ _______7. Keep quiet about political views _ _ _ _ _ ■ _______8. Keep quiet about religious views ______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______9. Learn a new routine____________ ______ ___________ _______

10. Work harder than you are now ■ _________ _______11. Take on more responsibility ______ ___________ _______

12. In the following list of 4 items, please check 1 alternative for each item.When you have become as successful as you ever expect to be, do you expect to be:

1351. ______ Quite a bit more distinguished than most women in your field

____ Somewhat more distinguished than most women in your field_______ About the same as the average woman in your field A little less distinguished than the average woman in your

fieldAnd do you expect to:

2. ______ Have considerable more influence than most people in yourcommunity

______ Have a little more Influence than the average person Be about like the average person in your community Be a little less influential than the average person

in your communityDo you expect to be:

3. * Quite a bit more highly paid than most women in your field Somewhat more highly paid than most women in your field______ About the same as the average woman in your field A little less highly paid than the average woman in your field

And do you expect to have:4. ____ Quite a bit more power than most women in your community

_____ Somewhat more power than most women in your community About an average amount of power_____ A little less power than the average person in your community

13. Assume that you are planning to buy a house. You have decided to buy one that is already furnished. The following types of homes are available in an area where you now plan to permanently locate. Indicate by number, in the space provided, the most desirable of these four houses in rela­tion to your interests and needs-and the number of the least desirable house. Then answer the questions at the end of this section.

House #1This house is larger than your immediate needs but it is new and lux­

urious in appearance. It has a living room, dining room, kitchen, four bed­rooms, two baths, and a.two-car garage. The living room is furnished with good quality contemporary furniture. Wall-to-wall carpeting and indirect lighting are used throughout. The kitchen has many built-in accessories but it is small; consequently, the dining room must be used for informal Entertaining. The lawn is large and well landscaped. An outside patio and barbecue pit provide added opportunities for entertaining and family recrea­tion. Because of its size, the average homemaker would need additional help in its care and maintenance.House §2.

This house is small and cottage-like. It is sufficient for your family needs; however, it would not be satisfactory.for large-scale entertaining.

136It has a medium sized living room, a kitchen, a downstairs den, two bed­rooms, one bath, and a basement. In addition, the attic has two small rooms which could be used for recreation, vork, or hobbies. The furni­ture is in good condition; however, it is not elaborate. The house is light and open in appearance. The kitchen is medium sized with ample vork facilities. An average sized lawn vith sufficient shrubbery for privacy surrounds the house.House #3

This house is medium in size and tastefully furnished. It features a large living room, a dining room, kitchen, and, three bedrooms and bath on the second floor. The Interior arrangement is open enabling sufficient room for entertaining. The furniture is good quality; however, it is not elaborate and you would probably want to make some changes. The basement has a game room and workshop. The lawn is ample vith an outside picnic table and fireplace. The house and lawn could be easily maintained by the owner.House Jtb

This house is contemporary in design and furnishings. It is unusual in architectural style and a "show house." It is tastefully furnished and reveals many unusual features. It has a large living-dining area, a kitchen, two bedrooms, and two baths. The basement is unfinished but quite large and could be furnished according to individual needs. The kitchen is large and exceedingly veil equipped. There is considerable opportunity to finish the house according to future needs. The lawn is large but lacks landscaping and attention. It would be necessary to have additional help in order to keep the house and grounds in satisfactory condition.___________ Most desirable house__________ Least desirable house1. On the basis of the choice you have indicated as "most desirable,"

underscore the characteristics which make this house particularly appealing to you.

2. On the basis of your "least desirable" choice, underscore the characteristics which make this house particularly undesirable to you.

14. Assume that you are faced with the problem of helping your teen age son to decide on a college. All of the four institutions below offer a good academic program in his area of interest. On the basis of the following descriptions indicate by number, in the space provided, the institution you would consider most preferable and the one you would consider least desirable. Then answer the questions at the end of this section.

137Institution #1

This Institution is a coeducational state college. Both its admissions policy and tuition are average. It has a strong athletic program and a high record of athletic success in all areas. Many of the students carry part-time jobs. It offers both a two year and a four year program in your son's area of interest/ and the curriculum is planned to enable practical vork experience. It has considerable variety as far as social outlets with a number of sororities, fraternities, and recreational groups. Since its academic requirements are average, future vocational placement is dependent on the individual's academic record.Institution #2

This is one of the "Ivy League" colleges. It is highly selective in its admission, and the.tuition and living costs are high. It provides a number of social opportunities such as fraternal organizations, dramatics, music, and others. In addition, it has honorary and*professional societies and a strong intramural athletic emphasis. It is coeducational. Built into its academic program is a year of study abroad. It seems to offer well rounded academic and social opportunities and has a good collegiate rating. Graduating students are assured of good vocational placement because of the college name.Institution #3

This is a small coeducational college; however, there is a separate academic program for the men and women students. It has the advantage of a moderate priced institution and offers a considerable number of scholar­ship and self-help opportunities. It emphasizes its academic program and does not participate in Intramural or intercollegiate athletics other than its physical education program. Most of the social outlets consist of special interest groups. It is not widely known, but, seemingly, has a good collegiate rating. Placement of graduating students is dependent on individual ability and initiative.Institution

This college is a highly selective men's college. It emphasizes the liberal arts and concentrates on its academic program. Consequently, social opportunities are limited to special Interest groups, such as, debating, drama, music, art, literary groups, and professional societies. The students at this institution are from the upper social classes. Because of its high academic standards, placement opportunities for graduating students are excellent; a good student is assured of a top position in his area of concentration._____________ Most desirable institution_________ Least desirable institution1. On the basis of the choice you have indicated as "most desirable,"

underscore the characteristics which make this institution particularly

appealing to you.On the basis of your "least desirable" choice, underscore the characteristics Which make this Institution particularly undesirable to you.

ascertain agreement among psychologists, sociologists, social psycholo­gists, anthropologists, and other scholars. A generally accepted defin­ition of personality is still to he developed.

oThus, Allport, in a historical review of writings about person­ality, cites fifty possible meanings of this word. These, he categorizes according to sociological, theological, blosoclal, psychological, and juridical emphases. Basically, this establishes the diversity of conno­tations and approaches to analytical study In this area.

Specific Theories Concerning PersonalityWhen multiform definitions are evident, further theorising Is

bound to reveal continued divergence. The following discussion will encompass some of the alternative approaches to personality.

Biological conceptions. Among the earliest of the theoretical and empirical conceptions' of behavioral functioning were the views that ” . . . behavior is a correlate of, or is determined by, biological factors."3 Derived from Greek philosophy, these students proposed a direct Interrelationship between physiological functioning and behavioral organization.

A recent formulation along this line Is a typology of "anatom-ileal determinism" developed by Sheldon. Based on body types an

2 Gordon W. Allport, Personality: A Psychological Interpretation (London: Constable Publishers, 1937)> PP* 24-5**.

3 Lindesmlth and Strauss, ©g. clt., p. 486.Ibid., pp. 486-1*90.

139

APPENDIX G CLOTHING PREFERENCE SCALE

\

CLOTHING PREFERENCE SCALE

General Instructions:

On the following pages are line drawings of women's clothing. These are presented in groups of three. Included with each set of drawings are instructions to be read before making your selections. Examine each set and then indicate your selections on the basis of the one you would most prefer to wear, and the one you would least prefer -£2 wear. Your selections of what you would most like to wear and what you would least like to wear should be made on the basis of your likes and dislikes in relation to the three illustrated garments and not on the basis of vour figure and what y o u can or cannot wear. Although you may like all three of the drawings equally well, or, you may not like any of the three drawings, indicate bv letter the one you would most prefer and the one you would least prefer. Please be certain to answer all six parts.

PART I :

These three ganaents repre­sent sleepMear. Assueing that each Mould be constructed fro* a satisfactory Material, tdiich M o u ld you uost prefer to Near a n d uhich M o u ld you least pre­fer to Mear?

Host Prefer

Least Prefer

-t=-H

PART I I :

These three ganaents represent sportswear. Assuaing that yoe could itaar all thraa equally Mil. but are selecting ioeething that you would wear for relaxation or for lounging In the dorw, which would you nost pre­fer end which would you least prefer? Host Prefer Least Prefer

P a rt I I I :

These three garm ents re p re se n t teamen's slips. Select the slip you would most prefer to wear and the slip you would least prefer to wear. Vour decision is not to be made on the basis of performance, durability, or the slips you already have in your wardrobe, but, instead ort your general likes and dislikes in relation to these three slips.

Host Prefer

Least Prefer

H-P~U)

PART IV :

These three garments are dresses. Assrne that your parent? or relatives are visit­ing the college and are planning to take you to dinner at the best hotel in Frederick. If you could uear all three of the dresses equally MelI, which dress Mould you Most prefer to Mear and uhich dress Mould you least pre­fer to wear?

Host Prefer

Least Prefer

PART V :

These three garaents are dresses. Assuoe that you have a 'special date1 tc a dance or simi­lar function and could‘wear all three equally well. Wiich M o u ld you eoat prefer to uear?_____ host Prefer Least Prefer

H-P-VJ1

PART V I :

These three jarnents represent wmr.'s suits. Again, assuming that you could wear all three equally well, which would you nest prefer if you were selecting one to wear into Washington, 0. C., to shop, and which would you least prefer to wear?

host Prefer

Least Prefer

■frON

APPENDIX H BACKGROUND DATA QUESTIONNAIRE

148General Information; Please answer the following questions by writing

- in the information or by placing a check in the space following the appropriate alternative.1. How old were you on your last birthday? __________

2. Class rank: Freshman ; Sophomore ; Junior ;Senior ; Other .

3. Marital Status: Single ; Married_____ .4. What type of concern does your father work for? (If your father is

no longer living, please give his job at the time he died.)

. Self-Employed__________ Government Agency___________ Institution such as school, hospital, etc.__________ Small (Under 100 employees) privately owned business

• Large (100 or more employees) privately owned business__________ Other (please describe) ______________________________

5. What is his job title? (Please be as specific as you can; for example, lathe operator, lawyer, order clerk. If your father is no longer living, please give his job at the time he died.) __________________

6. Does your mother work? Yes ____ ; N o _____.7. If your mother works, what is her job title? (Please be as specific

as you can; for example: nurse, stenographer.)_____________________8. In what income range would you put your family? (Father's income or

combined income if mother works)._________ $5,000 - $9,999__________________ $15,000 - $19,999_________ $10,000 - $14,999 _________ $20,000 - $50,000

_________ Over $50,0009. What is the last grade of formal education your father completed?

_____ No formal education ____ Completed business, trade school 1st to 8th grade ____ Some College Some high school ____ Completed College Completed High School Advanced graduate study

individual'■ somatotype classification can than ha datarained. These somatotypes are described according to their relationship to physiolog-

ileal development and behavior* *

Criticiaaa of the biological conceptlona of behavioral analysis are frequently directed at the nebulous theoretical framework and weak empirical findings In these areas, leglect in explaining the rationale between cause and effect, and the causes for deviancy are often sources of confusion. It Is also questioned whether or not empirical data can be controlled sufficiently to Isolate variables In order to discern the assuned cause-effect relationship.

Atonlstlc conceptions. Referred to as "elementarlstic" con­ceptions of behavior, these approaches focus on the component elements of personality.

Ordinarily Inherent In this system Is the conception that a whole can be analyzed properly only by sub­dividing it as far as possible into its constituent elements and subjecting them to minute analysis.5

This is well illustrated by those investigators who dissect personality into traits or types. Cattell defines this trait concept as follows:

A trait, whether unique or common, is a collection of reactions or responses bound by some kind of

. unity which permits the responses to be gathered under one term and^treated In the same fashion for most purposes.

5 Ibid., p. %9©.6 Raymond B. Cat tell, Description and Measurement of Bersonality

(lew Tork: Vorld look Co., I9H6), p. 61.

14910. What is the last grade of formal education your mother completed?

No formal education _____ Completed business, trade school_____ 1st to 8th grade _____ Some College Some high school _____ Completed College Completed High School Advanced graduate study

11. Is your father still living? Yes ; No .12. Is your mother still living? Yes ; No .13. In how many citieB, towns, villages, or farms have you lived during

your life? Please list them below, including Frederick if you are living at >one of the college dormitories.Name of city, town, village, farm State Country

14. Please list all the clubs and organizations to which you belong. Include both campus and non-campus activities.

Campus Activities Non-Campus Activities

15. About how many parties and social gatherings would you say you have attended during the last four weeks? _____

16. About how many dates have you had during the past four weeks? ____17. How many times have you attended movies, lectures, concerts, etc,

alone during the past four weeks? _____18. Hew many books have you read strictly for pleasure during the past

four weeks? Please do not include assigned class reading. ____19. Do you have a roommate(s) or do you live alone? Have roommate(s)

; Live alone ____

15020. About how many times -have you gone out to dinner during the past

four weeks?21. About how many times have you gone out to dinner alone during the

past four weeks? _________

Please Tear Off Here

APPENDIX ICOVER LETTER ACCOMPANYING FINAL SCHEDULES

152

April 12, 1962

These are the questionnaires you were informed about at your April class meeting. If you have not received information concerning them, please contact me if you have any questions.

Included are three short answer questionnaires plus a sheet on background data; please complete them according to the Instructions and return them to me through communes by Monday, April 23, 1962.There are no "right" or "wrong" answers to these questions; they, instead, reflect your personal opinions, reactions, or preferences.It is most essential that you give your honest reactions without consulting the opinion of anyone.

Since the replies are to be anonymous, remember to tear off the strip with your name attached on the last sheet of the background data form. The code numbers on each form are used to identify class parti­cipation. Since I would like to have 100$ representation from Hood regarding this research, please complete the forms and return them to me as soon as possible. Your cooperation is thoroughly appreciated and may I thank you in advance for your participation.

Dona D. Ditty,Home Economics Department.

Check ( ) to indicate if you are interested in receiving the resultsof this research when the study is completed.

YesNo

APPENDIX JKEY FOR SCORING WEIGHTS ON OTHER-DIRECTI ON SCALE

15^Item Number Score First Score Second

Alternative Alternative

1 k .... 22 k .... 23 2 . . . . 44 k .... 25 2 .... k

6 2 .... If-7 2 .... k

7 A ...............................2 . . . . 4

Paths of Life:If Path One is ranked in first or second place, it should receive a score of one; if ranked in third or fourth place, three; if ranked in fifth or sixth place, five.If Path Two is ranked in first or second place, it should receive a score of five; if ranked in third or fourth place, three; if ranked in fifth or sixth place, one.

APPENDIX KSCORING WEIGHTS FOR JOB ADVANCEMENT INVENTORY

156

Item Number Weight1 112 103.... .................... 9k .................... 85 .................... k

6 .................... 5-57 5-58.... .................... 79 210 311 1

APPENDIX L CODING INSTRUCTIONS

158

Column numbers on punch card

Item Code Instructions

1, 2, 3 Schedule identification number, upper right corner

Schedule numbers range from 001 through 627* Not all num­bers are represented since not all schedules were returned.

^ 5 Score on Subgroup 1, P. P. S

2-digit Actual numerical score. Range 00 through 20.

6, 7 Score on Subgroup 2, P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above

8, 9 Score on Subgroup 3* P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above.

10, 11 Score on Subgroup 4, P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above.

12, 13 Score on Subgroup 5* P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above.

1^, 15 Score on Subgroup 6, P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above.

16, 17 Score on Subgroup 7 , P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above

18, 19 Score on Subgroup 8, P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above.

20, 21 Score on Subgroup 9 , P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above.

22, 23 Score on Subgroup 10, P. P. S.

2-digit Same as above.

2 k , 25 Score on ID-QD Inventory 2-digitXX

Actual numerical score. Range 18 through k 2 .No datum

2<o Desired Income level for husband

12X

Under $20,000. Over $20,000. No datum

(Coding instructions continued)

Sparred by the applicability of statistical methods in corre­lating and predicting traits, sons psychologists in this framework hare moved ahead to formulate the notion of trait clusters and typologies.Eysenck and Stagser describe the differences between the trait theory

«

and the type or syndrom theory as follows:Type theory tends to classify people into sharply divided groups while trait theory assumes a continuous gradation with most people near the average.7Many authors consider that a theory Invoking on the grounds that trait theory presupposes a normal distribution of the characteristic measured, while type theory presupposes a blmodal distribution.8

By means of a theoretical model, these investigators diagrampersonality into levels or hierarchies of organisation. The "lowestlevel" of behavior encompasses "specific acts" which nay intermittentlyoccur but nay not be characteristic of the individual. The second levelrepresents "habitual responses." These consistently reappear when thesane stimulus situation is encountered. The third level consists of"organizations of habitual acts"; these are then referred to as traits.Theoretical in construction, these organised responses will revealintercorrelations; consequently, they can be viewed as "group factors."The fourth level is the type or syndrome of the individual. This level,

^ Sans J. Eysenck, Dimensions of Personality (London: BeganPaul, Trench, Trubner and Co., Lt., 19^), p. 25, quoting Bichard Stagner, Psychology of Personality (London: MnrmiJTan Co*) •

159

Column numbers on punch card

Item Code Instructions

27, 28, 29 Score on job advance­ment inventory

3-digitXXX

Actual numberical score. Range 000 through 66.0. No datum.

30 House-type-ownership preference, most desir­able selection

123k

X

High aspiration, social emphasis

Low aspiration, indi­vidual emphasis

Low aspiration, social emphasis

High aspiration, indi­vidual emphasis

No datum.

31 Educational preference for son, most desir­able selection

123k

X

Low aspiration, social emphasis

High aspiration, social emphasis

Low aspiration, indi­vidual emphasis

High aspiration, indi­vidual emphasis

No datum.

32 Desired occupation for husband

012yX

Professional, technical, and kindred workers

Farmers and farm man­agers

Managers, officials, and proprietors

No definite idea NO datum

33, 3 Score on Aspiration scale

2-digit XX

Actual numerical score. Range Ol* to 16 No datum

35 House-type-ownership preference, least desirable selection

123kX

Same as house-type- ownership, most desir­able categories above.

(Coding instructions continued)

l6o

Column numbers on punch card

Item Code Instructions

3 6 Educational prefer­ 1ence for son, least 2 Same as educationaldesirable selection 3 preference for son,

k most desirable cate­X gories above.

37 C. P. S., Part I, 1 Masculine preferencemost desirable . 2 Composite preferenceselection 3 Feminine preference

X No datum38 C. P. S., Part II, 1

most desirable 2 Same as above.selection 3X

39 C. P. S., Part III, 1most desirable 2 Same as above.selection 3X

ho C. P. S., Part IV, 1most desirable 2 Same as above.selection 3X

kl C. P. S., Part V, 1most desirable 2 Same as above.selection 3X

b2 C. P. S., Part VI, 1most desirable 2 Same as above.selection 3 ..

X

b3 C. P. S., Part I, 1least desirable. 2 Same as above.selection 3X1* C. P. S., Part II, 1

least desirable 2 Same as above.selection 3X

(Coding instructions continued)

161

Column numbers on punch card

Item Code Instructions

45

46

C. P. S., Part III, least desirable, selection

C. P. S., Part IV, least desirable selection

123X123x

Same as above.

Same as above.

47 C. P. S., Part V, least desirable selection

123X

Same as above.

C. P. S., Part VI, least desirable . selection

123X

Same as above.

49,50 Present Age 2-digit Actual number,range 17 to 26.

XX No datum51 College Class rank 1

23456 X

Freshman class Sophomore class Junior class Senior class Special student Unclassified No datum

52 Father's employment 1234

56

Self-employed Government agency Institution Small privately owned

business Large privately owned

business Other, type to be hand

tallied

(Coding instructions continued)

162

Column numbers on punch card

Item Code Instructions

53 Father's occupational 0 Professional, technical,title and kindred workers

1 Farmers and farm managers2 Managers, officials, and

proprietors3 Clerical and kindred

workersk Sales workers5 Craftsmen, foremen6 Operative and kindred

workers7 Private household workers8 Service workers, except

private household9 LaborersX No datum

5^ Mother's employment 1 Yes2 NoX No datum

55 Mother's occupational 0title 1

23k Same as categories used5 for father's occupa­6 tional title. See7o above.o9X No datum

56 Family income level 0 Less than $5,0001 $5,000 - $9,9992 $10,000 - lit, 9993 $15,000 - 19,999k $20,000 - 50,0005 Over $50,0006 Does not knowX No datum

(Coding instructions continued)

163

Column numbers on punch card

Item Code Instructions

57 Last grade of. father's 1 No formal educationformal education 2 1st to 8th grade

3 Some high schoolk Completed high school5 Completed business,

trade school6 Some college7 Completed college8 Advanced graduate study9 Irregular classificationX No datum

58 Last grade of mother18 1formal education 2

3k5 Same as categories used67 for father. See above.(89X

59 Father, living or l Father livingdeceased 2 Father deceased

X No datum60 Mother, living or 1 Mother living

deceased 2 Mother deceasedX No datum

61, 62 Cities of residence 2-digit Actual number, range 01to 20.

YY UncertainXX No datum

63, 6k States of residence 2-digit Actual number, range 01to 20.

YY UncertainXX No datum

*v

(Coding instructions continued)

Column numbers on punch card

Item Code Instructions

65

66

Countries of residence 1-digit

67

68, 69

Membership in campus organizations

Membership in non­campus organizations

Y X

1-digitY X

1-digitY X

Attendance at parties 2-digitand social gatheringsfor four week interval YY

XX

Actual number, range 1 to 9*

Uncertain No datumActual number, range 1 to 9*

Uncertain No datumActual number, range 1 to 9»

Uncertain No datum

Actual number, range 00 to 30.

Uncertain No datum

70, 71 Dates during four week 2-digit interval

YYXX

Actual number, range 00 to 30.

Uncertain No datum

72, 73

7 , 75

76

Attendance at social 2-dlglt activities by self during four week inter- YY val XXBooks read during four 2-digit week interval

XXCollege roomate(s) 1

23X

Actual number, range 00 to 10.

Uncertain No datumActual number, range 00 to 17.

No datumYesNoLives at home No datum

(Coding instructions continued)

165

Column Item Code Instructionsnumbers on punch card

77, 78 Dinner off-campus 2-digitduring four weekinterval XX

Actual number, range 00 to 28.

No datum

79 Dinner off-campus by 1-digitself during fourveek interval XX

Actual number, range 0 to 5.

No datum

APPENDIX M

FORMULAS USED FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSES

167

1. Blserial Correlation:

is * Mp - % . (| )<F

2. Pearsonian Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation:

r = NfJXY) . < X { Y- (^X)-j [H - ( n-=j

3. t test

t = (x-l - \ ) I nl n2 ^nl n2 “ 2)yj C11!-** n2) (s2 x^+ S2 X2)

k . General Linear Regression Equation

168

APPENDIX NFREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS AND PERCENTAGES OF UNDERSCORED

REASONS FOR PREFERENCES ON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING HOUSE-TYPE-OWNERSHIP

1 0

alio, represents "observed inter correlations," so that tha carralatloaa of the raxious traits in the third leral enable conception of an indl- Tldual type or syndrome.9

Instead of traits, other psychologists hare femulated con­ceptions of personality centering aroand elenents snch as attitudes, motives,. sentinents, inpulses, ideas, wishes, desires, interests, and additional behavioral aspects. Investigators with this enphasls usually concentrate on the isolation of one or more of these factors in order to identify its interrelationship with other behavioral characteristics.^*®

This segmented view of personality study is often criticised on the basis of its neglect to explain the "hows” and "whys" of behavioral response, the interdependency of personality "atons," and the conflict and discordance of these in behavioral functioning. In addition, although the trait theorists are cognisant of the social setting as a significant factor in personality organisation, they frequently isolate it in their research design, thus inparting an artificial character to it.

Kolistic conceptions. In contrast to the unit or elenentaristic conceptions of personality are the "total personality" theories projected by certain psychologists and social psychologists. These scholars view behavioral functioning as a composite of individual activities closely

^ Bavld Krech and George 8. Klein (eds), Theoretical Models and Personality Theory (Durham, V. C.: Duke Wniversity Press, 1952),pp. 103-104.

10 »Llndesmlth and Strauss, op. clt., p. 490.

169

REASONS INDICATED FOR "MOST” AND "LEAST” DESIRABLE CHOICESON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING HOUSE-TYPE-OWNERSHIP,

HOUSE DESCRIPTION l.a

Descriptive Categories Most Desirable Choice

Least Desirable Choice

N=133 Per Cent N*78 Per Cent

House size:larger than immediate needs 39 29 35 ^5New and luxurious in appearance ^5 3^ 11 ll*-Number and types of rooms 97 73 ' 10 13Furnishings:good quality furniture; wall-to- wall carpets; indirect lighting; built-in accessories in kitchen 88 67 66 85

Possibilities for inside and out­side entertaining and family recre ation

MB

lOfc 78 3 kkLarge lawn; well landscaped 106 8° 2 3Need additional help in care and maintenance 5 k 6h 82

No report 0 0 3 k

a This description represented a high aspiration choice with asocial emphasis.

1,7°

REASONS INDICATED FOR "MOST" AND "LEAST" DESIRABLE CHOICESON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING HOUSE-TfEE-OWNERSHIP,

HOUSE DESCRIPTION 2.a

Descriptive Categories Most Desirable Least DesirableChoice Choice

N=32 Ter Cent N-173 Per Cent

House size:house is small; sufficient for family needs

Cottage-likeNumber and type of rooms Condition of furnishings Not satisfactory for large-scale entertaining

Space for recreation, work, or hobbies

Average sized lawn No report

22 69 135 7813 4l 89 5215 47 . 105 6l12 38 28 164 13 104 6o19 59 .22 1321 66 46 270 0 4 2

a This description represented a low aspiration choice with anindividual emphasis.

171

REASONS INDICATED FOR "MOST" AND "LEAST" DESIRABLE CHOICES ON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING HOUSE-TYPE-OWNERSHIP,

HOUSE DESCRIPTION 3*a

Descriptive Categories Most Desirable Least DesirableChoice Choice

N=230 Per Cent N-12 Per Cent

House size: medium 103 ^5 3 25Number and types of rooms 153 67 5 k2Possibilities for inside and

outside entertaining 151 66 2 17Condition of furnishings; prob­ably want to make changes 218 95 9 75Space in basement for recreation

56and a workshop 137 1 8Ample lawn 155 67 1 8House and lawn could be easily

66maintained by owner 152 0 0No report 3 1 0 0

a This description represented a low aspiration choice with a social emphasis.

172

REASONS INDICATED FOR "MOST" AND "LEAST" DESIRABLE CHOICESON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING HOUSE-TYPE-OWNERSHIP,

HOUSE'DESCRIPTION 4.a

Descriptive Categories

Unusual in architectural style and a "shov house"

Contemporary in design and fur­nishings

Number and types of roans Tastefully furnished and. . .many unusual features

Basement unfinished hut could he furnished according to individ­ual needs

Considerable opportunity to finish house according to future needs

Large lawn hut lacks landscaping and attention

Necessary to have additional help for maintenance of house and grounds

No report

Most Desirable Choice

N=67 Per CentLeast Desirable

Choice N=198 Per Cent

4634k2

48

4546 43

31

69516372

676964

51

167585823

458

127

1311

84292912

23464

672

a This description represented a high aspiration choice with an individual emphasis.

APPENDIX 0FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS AND PERCENTAGES OF UNDERSCORED

REASONS FOR PREFERENCES ON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING SON’S COLLEGE EDUCATION

17k

REASONS INDICATED FOR "MOST" AND "LEAST" DESIRABLE CHOICESON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING INSTITUTION SELECTED

FOR SON'S COLLEGE EDUCATION, INSTITUTION l.a

Descriptive Categories

Type of institution: coeducational state college

Average admissions policy Average tuition Average academic requirements Offers two year and four year curric ulum in son's area of interest, plus practiced work experience

Considerable variety in relation to social outlets

Strong athletic program and high record of athletic success

Many students carry part-time jobs Future vocational placement depen­dent on individual's academic record

No report

Most Desirable Least Desirable Choice Choice

N=6k Per Cent Ns19g Per Cent

33 5^ 35 187 11 62 3119 30 108 552k 38 97 k9

k 6 lko 71

55 86 kk 2253 • 83 55 2731 kB 88- kk30 k l 13 7

35 55 65 330 0 5 3

a This description represented a low aspiration choice with a social emphasis.

175

REASONS INDICATED FOR "MOST" AND "LEAST" DESIRABLE CHOICESON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING INSTITUTION SELECTED

FOR SON'S COLLEGE EDUCATION, INSTITUTION 2.a

Descriptive Categories Most Desirable Choice

N=202 Per CentLeast Desirable Choice

N*61|- Per Cent

Type of institution:Ivy League college coeducational

Selective admissions policy High tuition and living costs Good collegiate rating Provides a variety of social outlets

Provides honorary and pro­fessional societies

Curriculum: well rounded andoffers a year of study abroad

Strong intramural athletic em­phasis

Graduating students assured good vocational placement

No report

38 19 I k 22106 52 k 686 ^3 15 236 3 k6 72153 76 0 0i k l 70 13 20128 63 16 25166 82 5 895 ^7 11 17113 56 k j 732 1 k 6

a This description represented a high aspiration choice with a social emphasis.

I176

REASONS INDICATED FOR "MOST" AND "LEAST" DESIRABLE CHOICESON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING INSTITUTION SELECTED

FOR SON'S COLLEGE EDUCATION, INSTITUTION 3.a

Descriptive Categories Most Desirable Least DesirableChoice Choice

N=8l Per Cent N-93 Per Cent

Type of institution: small college 55 68 31 33coeducational hut separate aca­demic program for men and women 32 40 28 31Moderate priced institution 51 63 0 0

Not widely known, but has a good collegiate rating 72 89 11 12

Emphasizes academic program 60 74 19 20Offers. . .scholarships and self- help opportunities 52 64 1 1

Social outlets consist of special interest groups 23 28 51 55Does not participate in intramural or intercollegiate athletics other than physical education 6 7 81 87Placement of graduating students de­pendent on individual ability and initiative 50 62 16 17

No report 0 0 2 2

& This description represented a low aspiration choice with an individual emphasis.

177

REASONS INDICATED FOR "MOST" AND "LEAST" DESIRABLE CHOICESON ASPIRATION MEASURE CONCERNING INSTITUTION SELECTED

FOR SON’S COLLEGE EDUCATION, INSTITUTION l*.a

Descriptive Categories Most Desirable Least DesirableChoice Choice

N-109 Per Cent N«98 Per Cent

Type of institution: men's college emphasizes liberal arts

Highly selective Concentrates on academic program High academic standards Student enrollment consists of upper social classes

Excellent placement opportunities for graduating students

No report

1*5 1*1 31 325^ 50 19 191*6 1*2 28 2981 7^ 25 2672 66 0 021* 22 70 7181* 77 - 3 38 7 2 2

a This description represented a high aspiration choice with anindividual emphasis.

178

APPENDIX PREGRESSION COEFFICIENTS, t TESTS, MULTIPLE REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS,

AND F TESTS FOR THE SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES

11integrated with the environment, and directed by the ego or self orsome other organizing concept of behavior.

According to Lecky the individual becomes. . . a unified system with two sets of prob­lems— one, the problem of maintaining inner harmony within himself, and the other the problem of maintaining harmony with the environ­ment, especially the social environment, in the midst of which he lives.^2

Consequently, the personality is an "integrated whole" structuredfrom the organization of e x p e r i e n c e .^3

Representative of this holistic approach to behavior is Gestaltpsychology with its emphasis on the ego and self. In this framework,the ego is defined as "that part of the individual's organization thatrepresents the organism, or the reaction of the organism to its ownactions."^ The self is "the ego become conscious.Personalityanalyses by these investigators frequently incorporate the organizationof certain "psychophysical systems," such as attitudes, instincts,drives, needs, traits, and others, which are believed to be influentialin behavioral response.^

11 Ibld*» P* ^95.^ Prescott Lecky, "The Personality," The Self: Explorations

in Personal Growth, ed. Clark E. Moustakas (New York: Harper andBrothers, 1956), p. 91*

13 Ibldt» P* 91.•^Solomon E. Asch, Social Psychology (New York: Prentice Hall,

Inc., 1952), p. 277.!5 Ibid., 278.^ Krech and Klein (eds.), oj>. cit., p. 102.

179

Social-Psychological Variables Regression t Test Coefficient(N-429)

Multiple F Test Regression

— Coefficient (N-429)

Subgroup 1 on P.P.S. correlatedvith:1. number of cities of residence - .046 - .4542. number of states of residence - .011 - .0773. number of countries of resi­

dence - .103 - .3214. number of campus organizations - .092 -1.0715. number of non-campus organi­

zations - .035 - .2346. number of parties .010 .2407. number of dates .039 1.2658. number of dinners off-campus .011 .304

.115 .709Subgroup 2 on P.P.S. correlatedwith:1. - .154 -1.3522. - .020 - .1313. .092 .2574. .114 1.1945- - .090 - .5436. - .004 - .0947. .012 .3578. *° - .013 - .303 .128 .868

Subgroup 3 on P.P.S. correlatedwith:1. .016 .1592. - .084 - .6173* - .136 - .4304. .095 1.1245. - .189 -1.2866. .085 2.047a7- - .045 il.48l8. - .026 - .705

.137 1.002

(Tabulation continued)

180

APPENDIX P continued

Social-Psychological Variables RegressionCoefficient(Nrif29)

t Test Multiple F Test Regression Coefficient

(N=lf29)

Subgroup 1* on P.P.S. correlated •with:1. .OlfO • 38if2. - .087 - .6123. .023 .070If. .019 .2175. - .056 - .36U6. - .033 - .7657- - .034 -1.0738. .031 .799

.103 .561Subgroup 5 on P.P.S. correlatedwith:1. .022 .1922. - .063 - .if063- .335 •933If. .187 1.9**5. .Qlf2 .2506. .057 1.2037. - .037 -1.0728. .013 .311

.133 .9*f0Subgroup 6 on P.P.S. correlatedwith:1. - .020 - .1622. .067 .4 013- .055 .Ilf 3If. .180 1.7355* .09»f .5206. - .032 - .6367. .033 .891 i8. - .026 - .577 .106 .602

(Tabulation continued)

; 181

APPENDIX P continued

Social-Psychological Variables Regression t Test Multiple F TestCoefficient Regression

Coefficient• (N«l*29) (N-429)

Subgroup 7 on P.P.S. correlatedwith:1. .050 .4312. .047 .2943. - .295 - .804Ik - .054 - .5525. - .081 - .4746. .081 1.6907. .067 1.9208. - .055 -1.290

.187 1.910Subgroup 8 on P.P.S. correlatedwith:1. - .043 - .3952. .034 .2293. .167 .491Ik .230 2.5l5a5- .141 .8916. - .006 - .1367. - .028 - .8658. - .006 - .153

.151 1.228Subgroup 9 on P.P.S. correlatedwith:1. .033 .2272. .001 .0063. - .208 - .450Ik - .032 - .2565. .326 1.5186. .089 1.46o7- - .059 -1.3368. - .088 -1.634

.135 .975Subgroup 10 on P.P.S. correlatedwith:1. .098 .8102. - .072 - .4353. - .681 -1.7824. .192 1.875

(Tabulation continued)

182

APPENDIX P continued

Social-Psychological Variables

5-6.7.8.

Regression t TeBt Coefficient

(N=l*29)

.1*5.081- .053- .091+

2.500a1.605■1-^57e-2.101*

MultipleRegressionCoefficient(N=l*29)

F Test

.230 2.921Desired income level for husband:1. .0152. .0283. .Oil1*. - .0125. .0036. .0057 - - .0018. .011Score on Job advancement in­ventory:1. 7.8852. -17.6293. 1.3511*. 2.5105. 2.9066. .8387. .1838. -I.052

House-type-ownership, most de­sirable preference:1. .0082. - .061*3 . .0681*. .0565. - .0726. - .0357. .0178. .008

.912 1.233 .203

■ .899 .130.675

- .21*7 1.829

I.852*3.039.101.700.1*66.1*76.11*3- .671

.207 .2.357a

.167 1.510

.208-I.197.5561 .6 9 b-1 .261*-2.172a1.1*76"567 .171 I.58O(Tabulation continued)

183

APPENDIX P continued

-Social-Psychological Variables Regression t Test

Coefficient

(N-429)

Multiple F Test Regression Coefficient (Ns429)

Educational preference for son,* rmost desirable selection:1. .000 .0082. .014 .2863- .141 1.2064. .094 2.9915. - .028 - .5176. .018 1.1917. - .023 -2.071a8. - .001 - .085

• 197 2.123aHouse-type-ownership, least de­sirable preference:1. - .070 -1.5902. .095 1.5973. - .094 - .6804. - .013 - .3525- - .108 -1.6776. - .006 - .3147. - .014 -1.0378. .009 .535 .148 1.178

Educational preference for son,least desirable selection:1. .003 .0672. .065 1.0753. - .175 -1.251

- .129 -3.442b5. .025 .3826. - .007 - .3997- .021 1.6048. .006 .349

.207 2.359aScore on general aspirationscale:1. - .116 -1.5242. .179 1.7313. .201 .8391*. .271 4.225b

(Tabulation continued)

CO-4 CT\VI

184

APPENDIX P continued

Social-Psychological Variables Regression t Test Multiple' F TestCoefficient Regression

Coefficient (N=429) (N=429)

- .097 - .874.025 .805.006 .267.007 2.393a

.251 3.535*

a .05 level of significance.13 .01 level of significance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BooksAllport, Floyd Henry, Social Psychology. New York: Houghton Mifflin

Company, 1924.Allport, Gordon W. Personality, A Psychological Interpretation. New

York: Henry flolt and Company, 1937*Asch, Solomon E. Social Psychology. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc.,

.1952.Cattell, Raymond B. Description and Measurement of Personality. New

York: World Book Company, 1945.________ . Personality, A Systematic, Theoretical, and Factual Study.

New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950.Cooley, Charles H. Human Nature and the Social Order. 1st ed. revised.

New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922.Davies, Owen L.(ed.). Statistical Methods in Research and Production.

London: Oliver and Boyd, 1957.Department of Commerce, i960 Census of Population Classified Index of

Occupations and Industries. Washington: U. S. GovernmentPrinting Office, I960.

Eysenck, Hans J. Dimensions of Personality. London: Kegan Paul,Trench, Trubner and Company, Ltd., 1947*

Flugel, John. The Psychology of Clothes. London: The Hogarth Press,1950.

Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1959*

Krech, David and Crutchfield, Richard S. Elements of Psychology. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958.

Krech, David and Klein, George S. (eds.). Theoretical Models and Per­sonality Theory. Durham, North Carolina: Duke UniversityPress, 1952.

185

186Langner, Lawrence. The Importance of Wearing Clothes. New York:

Hastings House, 1959•LaPiere, Richard T. and Farnsworth, Paul R. Social Psychology. 2nd

ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19^2.Lee, Alfred M. (ed.). Readings in Sociology. New York: Barnes and

Hoble, Inc., 1951 •Lindesmith, Alfred R. and Strauss, Anselm L. Social Psychology. Re­

vised. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1956.Linzey, Gardner (ed.). Handbook of Social Psychology. Vol. 1. Cam­

bridge, Mass.: Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 195^.Lynd, Robert S. and Lynd, Helen M. Middletown in Transition. New York:

Hareourt, Brace, and Company, 1937*Moustakas, Clark E. (ed.). The Self: Explorations in Personal Growth.

New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 195^Nelson, Benjamin (ed.). Freud and the 20th Century. New York: Mer­

idian Books, Inc., 1957*Pear, Theodore H. Personality Appearance and Speech. London: George

Unwin, Ltd., 1957*Riesman, David. Individualism Reconsidered and Other Essays. Glencoe,

Illinois: The Free Press, 195^•Riesman, David, Denney, Ruel, and Glazer, Nathan. The Lonely Crowd.

New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950*Rohrer, John H. and Sherif, Muzafer. Social Psychology at the Cross­

roads. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951*Senders, Virginia L. Measurement and Statistics. New York: Oxford

University Press, 1958'Sherif, Muzafer and Cantril, Hadley. The Psychology of Ego-Involvements.

New York: Wiley Book Company, 19^7*Silverman, Sylvia A. Clothing and Appearance: Their Psychological Im­

plications for Teen-Age Girls. New York: Bureau of Publica­tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, 19^5*

Warner, W. Lloyd, Meeker, M., and Eells, Kenneth. Social Class inAmerica: A Manual for Procedure for the Measurement of SocialStatus. Chicago: Science Research Associates, 19^9*

187Zimmerman, Carle D. Consumption and Standards of Living. New York:

Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1936.

Articles and PeriodicalsBarr, Estelle De Young. "A Psychological Analysis of Fashion Motiva­

tion," Archives of Psychology, 26 (June, 1934).Bergler, Edmund. "A Psychoanalyst Looks at Women's Clothes," Interview

by Carl Bakal, Cosmopolitan, 148 (Feb., i960), 52-55.Bush, George and London, Ferry. "On the Disappearance of Knickers:

Hypotheses for the Functional Analysis of the Psychology of Clothing," Journal of Social Psychology. 51 (May. I960),359-366. ^

Dearborn, George Van Ness. "The Psychology of Clothing," The Psycho- ' logical Monographs, 26 (No. l), 1-72.

Dynes, Russell R., Clarke, Alfred C., and Dinitz, Simon. "Levels of Occupational Aspiration: Some Aspects of Family Experience asa Variable," The American Sociological Review, 22 (1956), 212-215.

Flaccus, Louis W. "Remarks on the Psychology of Clothes," Pedagogical Seminary, 13 (1906), 61-83.

Gardner, John W. "The Relation of Certain Personality Variables to Level of Aspiration," The Journal of Psychology, (1940), 191-206.

Hall, G. Stanley. "Some Aspects of the Early Sense of Self," American Journal of Psychology, 9 (I897-I898), 315-395-

Hoult, Thomas F. "Experimental Measurement of Clothing as a Factor in Some Social Ratings of Selected American Men," American Socio­logical Review, 19 (June, 195*0, 324-328.

Krout, Maurice H. and Tabin, Johanna K. "Measuring Personality in De­velopmental Terms: The Personal Preference Scale," GeneticPsychological Monographs, 50 (Nov., 1954), 289-335.

Mills, C. Wright. "The Competitive Personality," Partisan Review, (Sept.-Oct., 1946), 433-441.

Mitchell, Jr., James V. "Goal-Setting Behavior as a Function of Self- Acceptance, Over- and Underachievement, and Related Personality Variables," Journal of Educational Psychology, 50 (June, 1959), 93-104.

188Rabban, Meyer. "Sex-Role Identification In Young Children in Two Di­

verse Social Groups," Genetic Psychology Monographs, k2 (1950), 81-158.

Sears, Pauline Snedden. "Level of Aspiration in Relation to Some Var­iables of Personality: Clinical Studies," Journal of SocialPsychology, 311“336.

Stagner, Ross, Lawson, Edwin D., and Mofflt, J. Weldon. "The KroutPersonal Preference Scale: A Factor-Analytic Study," Journalof Clinical Psychology, 11 (April, 1955), 103-113.

Unpublished MaterialsBell, Elaine Graham. "Inner and Other-Directed Attitudes." Unpublished

Ph. D. dissertation, Yale University, 1955.Cramer, Mary Jane. "Levels of Aspiration and Other-Direction." Unpub­

lished Ph. D. dissertation, Dept, of Sociology and Anthropology, The Ohio State University, 1958.

Hoffman, Adeline M. "Clothing Behavioral Factors for a Specific Group of Women Related to Aesthetic Sensitivity and Certain Socio- Economic and Psychological. Background Factors." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, School of Home Economics, The Pennsyl­vania State University, 1956.

Lapitsky, Mary. "Clothing Values and Their Relation to General Values and to Social Security and Insecurity." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, School of Home Economics, The Pennsylvania State University, i960.

Relssman, Leonard. "Levels of Achievement and Aspiration: A Study inSocial Class and Status Striving." Unpublished Ph. D. disser­tation, Dept, of Sociology, Northwestern University, 1952.

Rosencranz, Mary Lou. "The Application of a Protective Technique for Analyzing Clothing Awareness, Clothing Symbols, and the Range of Themes Associated with Clothing Behavior." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Dept, of Sociology and Antrhopology, Mich­igan State University, i960.

Treece, Anna Jean. "An Interpretation of Clothing Behavior Based onSocial-Psychological Theory." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, School of Home Economics, The Ohio State University, 1959.

Warden, Jessie. "Some Factors Effecting the Satisfactions and Dissat­isfactions with Clothing of Women Students in the College of Education and the College of Liberal Arts." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, School of Hone Economics, The Pennsylvania State University, 1955*

Copyright by

Dona Doreen Ditty

1963

12Some authorities, namely those in social-psychology, place the

self In a dualistic position in the integration and organization of per­sonality. These theorists view the self as a product of social inter­action so that an individual's activities become an experience for self- development. The self, composed of physical and non-physical components, is an interrelationship between two processes— the private precept and the social-psychological field. In other words, it represents a combined process in which the social self is acquired in social interaction and is internalized to become a subjective as well as social influence in indi­vidual behavior.

Closely related to these holistic approaches, but yet distinct in that it represents a combination of the atomistic view and the ego as "ordering principle," is the focus on ego-attitudes proposed by investigators such as Sherif and Cantril.

The basic idea is that the person's ego is involved in all kinds of actions important to himself . . . the ego is conceived of as composed of a constellation of ego-attitudes. Like any other attitudes, these are learned and are not immutable, but may change through the social experiences of the person.J-7

These authors indicate that ego-attitudes are the directive forces whichenable the individual to act according to his "instinctual tendencies anddrives." However, since these ego-attitudes are closely related tovarious reference points, they become a composite of individual and

X8sociological drives.

Muzafer Sherif and Hadley Cantril, The Psychology of Ego- Involvements (New York: Wiley Book Co., 19^7)> P* 93•

Lindesmith and Strauss, op. cit., p. 497-

189

Other SourcesKrout, Maurice H. and Tabin, Johanna K. A Guide to1 Personal Prefer­

ence Scale. Chicago: The Chicago Psychological Institute,1953.

Ryan, Mary S. Psychological Effects of Clothing, Part I, Survey of the Opinions of College Girls. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univer­sity Agricultural Experiment.Station, Bulletin 882, 1952.

. Psychological Effects of Clothing, Part II, Comparison of College Students with High School Students. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 898, 1953.

___________ . Psychological Effects of Clothing, Part III, Report of Inter­views with a Selected Sample of College Women. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 900, 1953.

___________ . Psychological Effects of Clothing, Part IV, Perception ofSelf in Relation to Clothing. Ithaca, New York: CornellUniversity Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 905, 195^.

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Dona Doreen Ditty, was born in Summerville, Pennsylvania, December 4-, 1930* I received my secondary education in the public schools of Summerville, Pennsylvania, and my undergraduate education at Carnegie Institute of Technology which granted me the Bachelor of Science degree in 1952. After two years of public school teaching in home economics, I attended The Pennsylvania State University which granted me the Master of Science degree in 1955* Following this grad­uate work, I was employed at Hood College, Frederick, Maryland, as assistant professor in home economics. I have held this position for seven years. Further graduate work was undertaken at The Michigan State University and The University of Rhode Island. In the summer of 1959# I started my graduate program at The Ohio State University and was granted a year’s leave-of-absence from Hood College during 1960-1961 to continue my work. During this time, I was the recipient of the General Foods Fellowship in home economics. I have now resumed my teaching position at Hood College. ~

190

13The criticisms of these unified conceptions of personality are

related to their fundamental orientation. If the ego is an integrator of all psychological and sociological behavior, then analysis of the component parts is of little significance even though the elementaristic parts are a function of the ego or self. Therefore, the authenticity of these directives is frequently questioned. Enhanced interest in these views of personality structure is apparent, though, because of their consideration of both the individual and his social setting. Eysenck, in theory a trait psychologist, reveals the growing trend of coopera­tive understanding between the atomistic and holistic views.

While, seemingly, antagonistic, these two different methods of approaching the funda­mental problem of psychology are in reality complementary. There is after all no scien­tific way of investigating the inner, sub­jective organization of a person's fundamental needs and drives except by studying " the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observation . . . " and there ia no way of accounting for observed consistencies and charac­teristic tendencies except by assuming some kind of inner organization, embracing "every phase of human character, intellect, temperament, skill, morality, and every attitude" that has been built up in the course of one's life.^9

*

Freudian conceptions♦ Sigmund Freud, described as a "toughPOold humanist with a profoundly skeptical mind," developed a diagram­

matic and elaborate formulation of personality organization. Within

19 Eysenck, op. cit., p. 23.20 Benjamin Nelson (ed.)., Freud and the 20th Century (New

York: Meridian Books, Inc., 1 9 5 7 ) P*

14this theoretical orientation, the "tripartite scheme of the mental

apparatus," or the id, ego, and superego are the components of behavior.21The id is the original powerhouse of the mental apparatus; it contains the inherited instinctive forces which at birth are not yet organized into a coordinated system. The ego is conceived as a product of development which consists in the adaptation of the inherited instinctive drives to one another and to the environment. The superego . . . represents the Incorporation of parental attitudes which are determined by the existing cultural standards.2^

Emphasizing the significance of symbolism, Freudian theory views

overt behavior as representative of unconscious impulses. In addition, the personality becomes a typology of behavioral organization. This

typology, labelled the theory of "psychosexual growth," is described as follows:

. . . All children go through successive phases or stages of development . . . at any stage cer­tain reactions and tendencies are dominant and characteristic £so that^ personality types repre­sent various possible adult outcomes of psychosexualdevelopment— that is, differences in content andinterrelationship of ego, superego, and id.23

This view of behavioral development has also been elaborated to the

oral, anal, and genital stages of personality growth.The criticisms of the Freudian conception of personality are

multifold. One line of attack is against the means used to obtainevidence. Many critics feel that clinical data— about the only kind

advanced by psychoanalysts— is illustrative rather than scientific

21 Lindesmith and Strauss, op. cit., p. 498.22 Ibid., p. 498.2 3 Ibid., p. 500.

15evidence. Many also believe that the psychoanalytical relationship between the superego, representing "parental attitudes" and "related

cultural standards," slights, considerably, the broad spectrum of social influences to which the child is exposed. This, in conjunction

with the emphasis on psychosexual development is criticized as taking a very narrow view of the factors operative in the socialization process.

Finally, the anthropomorphic descriptions of the id, superego,and ego, implicit in much of the psychoanalytic literature, are thesource for "raised eyebrows" among other theorists. According toLindesmith and Strauss,

The ego, id, and superego are not merely names for functioning or for behaving, but become "little men" . . . endowed with purposes and personalities of their own, able to initiate and block and channelize action. They are entitle^ within the person whose domestic quarrels, com­promises, and courtships, behind the iron curtain of the unconscious determine the action of the person.

Personality Organization and its Relation to Social Structure

Investigators interested in the association between individual

behavior and the larger organization of society usually discern this relationship as indivisible. Other theorists and empiricists with an

interest in one or the other of these aspects of humanity are” increas­ingly accepting the undivided significance of both the individual and

his social environment. Consequently, whether viewed from an individ­ualistic or societal approach, a" general tendency to analyze these as

Ibid.. pp. 501-502.

16two interrelated variables is becoming pronounced. For this reason, empirical research has been, increasingly, concerned with both rela­

tional individualistic analysis and environmental significance. Two interrelated concepts which lend themselves to this type of associa-

tional study are the role concept and the self concept.

The Role Concept

Derived from the significance of role to drama, this concept stresses the dynamic aspects of social stimulation and contribution.

Parsons, well known for his avant-garde sociological perception, dis­

cusses the concept as follows:Social structure is a patterned system of the social>relationships of actors. It is a dis­tinctive feature of the structure of systems of social action, however, that in most rela­tionships the actor does not participate as a total entity, but only by virtue of a given differentiated "sector" of his toted, action.Such a sector ... . hag become predominantly to be called a "role" . . . Role is the concept of the actor.as a."psychological" behaving entity to the distinctively social structure • * •

Rohrer and Sherif present a somewhat more social-psychological

concept of roles in the following manner.Systemative studies in social psychology gener­ally conceive of roles as differentiations within the social aggregate which originated to facili­tate the successful prosecution of the group tasks.Each role is defined in terms of its reciprocal relationships with other roles in the group . . .The role is essentially defined by what the

^ Ibid., p. 373# quoting Talcott Parsons, "Systematic Theory in Sociology," Essays in Sociological Theory.(Glencoe,111.: The Free Press# 19^9)# pp. 3*1-35 •

17members of a group expect of an individual.who occupies any given position in the group.

Thus, to these authors, "situations" become group activities

and the responses to roles evolve into the learning patterns of group members.

The role concept recognizes differences in the characteristics of roles— for example, their individual significance, their require­ments for action, the mechanism of control, and other factors. Roles

can be rigidly or loosely defined; they can be general or segmental in their social origin; they can be prerequisites for social adjust­

ment, in other words, rigidly enforced by societal norms, or, they can be individually evaluated as to their importance.^

It is generally agreed that an individual must be in "communi­cation" with himself as he enacts roles. Basically, self-identifica­

tion or projection, manifested through response evocation or repression, is necessary. Consequently, the individual must have a conception of

the role and its dimensions before he can successfully portray it.

Frequently, individual awareness of role characteristics is discerned through the reference group, the "generalized others" or the

"significant others." Mead refers to these prompters and members of the audience in the role drama as the "generalized others," the voice

of society, so to speak. Mills refers to them as the "significant

26 John H. Rohrer and Muzafer Sherif (eds.), Social Psychology at the Crossroads (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951)*' P« 378.

27 Lindesmith and Strauss, 0£. cit., pp. 375-382.

others." In general, it ia believed tkat tha "significant other*" ara the aoat effective directives far tha majority of an inilTldual'a roles.2®

Soma of tha raoant theorising la thla araa pointa to tha recip- rocal aaaociatloa between role expectations and role portrayal aa a manipulative endearor. In Oofffcan's unique terminology, rola portrayal through expression and impression hacoaaa a cyclical conmunlcatlom of

"expression control" and "impraaalon management."^? Thus, tha develop­ment of objectivity, morality, manipulation, and/or amorallty will

depend on tha aoeial Betting, the lndlvlduala involved, and tha goala to be achieved.

Tha rola concept may be correlated with a game of charadea.Tha rola or dramaturgical apecificationa are made evident to the partici­pator. Ie then emacte thaae, aucceaefully or unaucceaafully, according to tha rule a of tha game and on tha baaia of hla azparlence. Tha audience, or reference group, redproeatea by responding to the preaented cuea. Each charade experience, ultimately, improves one'a participation and response opportunities with the game, and each rola. experience, ulti­mately, becomes a learning process in tha dynamics of social adjustment.

28 P* 397*2? Irving Ooffnan, Tha Presentation of Self in Everyday Life

(Garden City, V. T.t Beubleday and Company ,~Inc., 1959)• (This book presents an interesting and unique interpretation ef tha role drama in society. If this author's perception is accurate, there ia a decided discrepancy between the cultural ideal of "fair play" and the manipula­tive characteristics ef social interaction. According to Goffman, Individual success or failure within the social "establishment" is dependent on meeting the prerequisite of a correct "front" in role ) participation. Reference group ideals then become a "team myth"— a product of collaboration and subjective manipulation.)

19The Self Concept

The significance of the self concept has been determined, pri­marily, through theoretical speculations rather than through empirical study. Consequently, the view of self has fluctuated within and between philosophical, theological, psychological, and sociological frameworks. It has sporadically blossomed in popularity and shriveled in scientific acceptance. One result has been a divergence of meanings and different' evaluations of its Importance as a central concept. More recently, promoted by research in social psychology and some of the specific psychological areas of concentration, it has gained broadened accept­ance. The role theorists use it as one of the core concepts in their theoretical scheme.

Permeating role participation is the significance of the self.The self becomes instrumental in directing an individual's activitiestoward motive satisfaction. Lecky in a theoretical consideration ofpersonality states:

. . . The individual . . . is a unified system with two sets of problems— one the problem of maintaining inner harmony within himself, and the other the problem of maintaining harmony with the environment, in the midst of which he lives. In order to understand the environment he must keep his interpretations consistent with his experience, but in order to maintain his individuality he must organize his interpretations to form a system which is internally consistent.This consistency is not objective . . . but sub­jective and wholly individual.30

The self Is viewed as a relative or relational aspect of the individual; it is not an entity nor does it have an organic, bodily

Lecky, oj>. cit., p. 91*

2 0

representation. Need, a behavlorist, indicates that the self Is not so each a substance as a process in vhich the "conversation of gestures" has been Internalized within the organic form.31 This concept of per* sonallty stresses the "situational" aspect of behavior so that self activities become a reciprocal relationship between role demands and role portrayal.

Lindesmith and Strauss define the self as. . . a set of more or less consistent and stable responses on a conceptual level, which . . . exercises a regulatory function over other responses of the same organism at lowerlevels.32

J

These authors visualize the self as an Integrator and organizer of behavior imprinted on the individual by social Interaction. Indorsing this directive function of the self, Serbia relates self and role with the following definition. Self is " . . . a cognitive structure that exercises a selective and directive effect on role perception and roleenactment."33

In explaining the development of the self, most role theorists stress thesignificance of language. Verbal symbols enable in-group or out-group boundaries. The initiation of this is during childhood when the individual starts to conceptualize his particular family

3^ George S. Head, "Mind as the Individual Importation of the Social Process," Readings in Sociology, ed. Alfred M. Lee (lew York: Barnes and Boble, Inc., 1951), p. bk.

32 Llndesmlth and Strauss, op. cit., pp. klk-kl5. (These authors present an effective explanation of the problems Involved in scientific explanation of the self.)

33 Theodore R. Sarbin, "Role Theory," Handbook of Social Psychology,.Vol. I, ed. Gardner. Llnzey (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison- Vesley Publishing.Co., Inc., 195*0# P* 225*

21role. The child, then learns the significance of group Identification and hla effect ae a social stinmlus.^ Continued development of the self proceeds in the interaction of the child with others, so that many of Its attributes are grounded In the "environment" of other humanbeings.35

It Is generally agreed among these theorists that identity for a normal individual Involves knowing himself .as well as other people knowing him with some consistency in the two Identifications. Aschindicates that the consequences of discord or neglect between individual

ipotentialities and social demands result In an "alienation" to others and an attempt to refocus the self or to re-emphasize it.3^ Thus, con­sistency between the self and social expectations, or the role, isimportant in behavioral adjustment.

It is evident that the self is internally felt as well as socially seen, and its significances are highly valued by the individual since they enable both internal and external satisfactions in interpersonal activity. Consequently, the protection of the self and establishment of self-status is important. According to Sullivan, this is one of thereasons for the "self-system" to come into being.37

Cooley's popular posit concerning the "looking-glass self" or projected imagery of our self-esteem in others reveals some of the

3^ Rohrer and Sherif (eds.), op. clt., p. 377.35 Asch, o£. cit., p. 5.

3 6 I b l d - > P* 2 3 ° •

37 Lindesmlth and Strauss, op. cit., p. J»-31, quoting I. S. Sullivan, The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry (Morton, 1953)> P* 1^9*

S O C I A L - P S Y C H O L O G I C A L A S P E C T S O F C L O T H I N G P R E F E R E N C E S

O F C O L L E G E W O M E N

D I S S E R T A T I O N

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

ByDona Doreen Ditty, B. S., M.S

The Ohio State University1962

Approved by

Adviser Department of Hone Economics

22t

interrelatedness between the physical and non-physical components of the self. According to this author, the "self-idea" is an association between three basic elements: (1) our Imagery of our physical and otherappearance; (2) our imagery of general evaluation of our appearance; and, (3) a resultant type of "self-feeling" concerning our judgments.3®

The fact that the self is considered a social product does not negate individual uniqueness. Although the self is inseparable from "other," it is not a mere reflection of the perspectives of others* According to Llndesmith and Strauss, the facets of self are "amalgams of these perspectives" which may be discordant with the initial role dimensions or may be modifications of it. 39

The question of individual self-autonomy is frequently argued among social scientists. Some, who feel that the interpendency of roles and counter-roles involves individual evaluation and choice concerning conflicting and uncoordinated roles, present this as a crucial aspect of individual autonomy.1* Others, especially some of

3® Charles H. Cooley, Human lature and the Social Order (1st ed., rev.; Hew fork: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922J, p. Itft.

^ Llndesmith and Strauss, op. cit., pp. 428-^30.Cooley, op. cit.. pp. 35-51* (This author contended that

role expectations ana performance are not merely "imported,” but are sometimes an assimilation of great discontent; a "sense of appropri­ation" is crucial to the expansion of a sense of self. This implies individual autonomy in evaluating and selecting those roles in which the individual will become a participator.)

23the contemporary authors, question the actual amount of individual self-lhigovernment. A popular expression of this latter view is the foilowing statement.

The idea that men are created free and equal is both true and misleading; men are created different; they lose their social freedom and their individual autonomy in seeking to become like each other. *

Selected Theories Belated to Personality Types

From the above discussions of personality concepts and personal organization and their relation to the social structure, it is apparent that the study of personality can be approached from many different vlevs. However, whether the emphasis of study is on the individual or on the relationship between the individual and his social environment, it is generally agreed that there cure personality predispositions. In other vords, whether inherently derived or environmentally Influenced, individuals differ in characteristics.

The relationship between a certain type of demeanor and the atomistic view of personality is, perhaps, more readily discernible.

See the following references for amplification of this subject: C. Wright Mills, "The Competitive Personality," PartisanReview (September-October, 19^6), pp. 4-33-MH; David Rlesman, Reuel Denney, and lathan Glazer, The Lonely Crowd (lev Haven, Conn.: TaleUniversity Press, 1950); David Rlesman, Individualism Reconsidered and Other Essays, op. cit., Ervlng Goffman, The Presentation of Self op. cit. (These authors propose a diminished amount of individual autonomy as.the social structure increasingly "engulfs" its con­stituents. Mills and Rlesman attribute this to the desire to conform and "other-direction'1— in other vords, to the contemporary social outlook. Goffman'a view, although basically similar, is uniquely phrased by the term "working consensus,” a product of the dramaturgical approach and collective functioning.

kp Rlesman, Denney, and Glazer, ibid., p. 373*

2 k

If individuals hare basic needs and drives, or if they are a composite of traita aad syndromes, than tbay will-reveal certain behavioral man- lfeatatlona mere readily than othera. The generality and United empirical atndy of the holletlc concepts make it more difficult to ascertain this relationship. This, coupled with the facta that invest­igators are not agreed concerning the amount of individual autonomy, w-nfl that all behavior la viewed from a "situational" perspective, enhance the difficulty in correlating personality predispositions, behavioral activity, and the individual. With the Freudian conception of personality organization, these behavioral typologies are linked to the individual's psychosexual development.

Although there is disagreement among social scientists concerning Inherent individual direction aad whether it is related to the self, many of them endorse inclinations and variations in individual tendencies to react according to different role dimensions. . The following dis­cussion will present seme of the literature related to various aspects of individual behavior. Included are theories and studies concerning:(1) the sex role; (2) sociability and individuality; aad, (3) ego- advancement or Individual aspirations.

The Sex BoleDistinctions between the male and female sex roles are sometimes

considered comparable to different sub-cultures. In other vords, thedimensions of these roles are frequently more pronounced than those ofother aspects of social Interaction. Concerning these societaldifferences between the sexes, the Lynda state:

The worlds of the two sexes constitute something akin to separate sub-cultures. Each Involves an

25elaborate assignment of relee to Its members aad the development of preferred personality types. 3

These authors elaborate that men and vomsn net only hare different roleexpectations, but they mere viewed as different "kinds" of people bythe "Middletown" participants.

Men are stronger, bolder, less pare, less refined, mere logical, more reasonable, more given to seeing things in the large . . .Vomsn are mere delicate, stronger in sympathy, understanding, and insight, less mechanically adept, mors immersed in petty detail and in personalities, and given to "getting emotional over things."**

Although indignant objections may be exercised by members of both sexesconcerning these descriptions, and it can be seriously questionedwhether they axe generally representative, it is apparent that male andfemale differences are closely related to societal expectations.

Since sex role distinction is more far reaching than mere bio­logical differences between males and females, societal requirements may place considerable restrictions on role participants if role pre­scriptions are incompatible with the self-concept. Ferguson, as a result of an investigative study of mascullnity-femininlty, questions the amount of harm which nay be implicit In "over-refined" definitions of appropriate behavior for either sex.^5 Mead Indicates that there

^ Bobert 8. Lynd and Helen M. lynd, Middletown in Transition (Hew York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1937)> p. "176*

^5 Meyer Babban, "Sex-Bole Identification in Young Children in Two Diverse Social'Groups," Genetic. Psychology Monographs. k2 (1950), p. 152.

26should be many available patterns of sexual behavior for individual

U6adjustment.Learning of sex role identification is closely related to per­

ception. The initial differences in the physical appearance of males and females are a contributing factor in the formation of masculine and feminine self-concepts. However, another important factor is language

)

and the normative structure. Llndesmith and Strauss state thatevery child must not only (1) learn the meanings of "male" and "female" but also(2) classify.himself as.one or.the other.He cannot, at least publicly, identify himself with both or neither.^7

Investigations of masculinity and femininity in relation to bio­logical, atomistic, holistic, and psychoanalytical rationales are numer­ous in the literature. All of these recognize distinctions in the degree of masculinity or femininity among individuals of both sexes. The rea­sons for these differences are frequently attributed to varying factors, dependent on the particular school of thought and the nature of theresearch. Since the present study is concerned with femininity in women,only the pertinent literature in this area will now be reviewed.

Kirkpatrick, as a result of an empirical study concerning atti­tudes toward feminism, indicates that "attitudes toward femininity are

Jighighly inconsistent" for both parents and adolescents of both sexes. Kitay endorses this view by reference to the fact that the middle class

^ I£id.> P. 153*^ Llndesmith and Strauss, op. cit., p. 321.

Sherif and Cantril, ojd. cit., p. 237*

27female Is frequently la danger of remaining socially "marginal" due to "contradictory ego-attitmdes and situations" in which she is placed.^9

R&bban, in an exploration of social class and sex role Identi­fication among children, found a definite suggestion in middle class women of resentment and confusion concerning aspects of their sex role. These women and their daughters tend to he "vasclllating" and "uncertain" with an indicative feminine protest to their inferior stcfcus.^

Parsons, although lauding American society in the conspicuous emphasis of equal educational opportunities for women and men, recog­nizes "ambivalence concerning the feminine role." He then questions as do others, whether the pressures toward sex role conformity are conducive to optimum individual personality expression.51

Recognltlon of degrees of differences and the associated prob­lems in acceptance of the sex role appears to be widespread among researchers. The fact that this may be more difficult for women than for men In American society is of increasing concern to many social scientists and commentators. Questions such as the effects of this on individual manifestations, the amount ef awareness the individual may have in relation to this role protest, its relationship to other behavioral factors and human interaction, still need precise investi­gation.

I!»id*5® Rabban, op. cit.. p. 152.51 Ibid., p. 152, quoting Talcott Parsons, "The Social Structure

of the Family," The Family: Its Function and Destiny, Ruth Anshen (ed.)(Mew York: Harper anal Brothers, 19*9), FF* 173-&®1«

Sociability and IndividualitySince these two terms lack a generally accepted referent,

ambiguity seems to be inherent with them. Furthermore, other termsare often used somewhat interchangeably with them. Thus, psychologists

52frequently refer to the terms extraversion and introversion. Whenextracted from the psychological literature, the terms extraverBion

and introversion are equally nebulous in definition. It appears thatthe connotation of each is relevant to the particular psychologicalemphasis of the investigator.

Jung, one of the earliest of the psychologists to concentrateon this aspect of individual behavior, equated these terms with thetype of object-orientation.

When orientation to the object and the objective facts is so predominant that the most frequent and essential decisions and actions are determined, not by sub­jective values, but by objective relations, one speaks of an extraverted attitude. When this becomes habitual, one speaks of the extraverted type . . . The introverted type is prevailingly oriented by subjective factors.Introverted consciousness doubtless views the external conditions, but it selects the sub­jective determinants as the decisive o n e s .53

From this description, the extraverted individual is objectively directed and the introverted individual is subjectively directed.

. -Paralleling these terms with the degree of sociability, Freyd states that an extravert is

52 However, since the emphasis for this study is social- psychological, the writer prefers to use the terms sociability and individuality.

53 Eysenck, oj>. cit., p. 56, quoting C. G. Jung, Psychological Types (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1923), p. 52.

an individual in whom exists a diminution of the'thought processes in relation to directly observable social behavior with an accompanying tendency to make social contacts.^

The introvert becomesan individual in whom exists an observable social behaviour, with an accompanying tendency to withdraw‘from social contacts.55

After reviewing.some of the representative psychological defini­tions for extraversion and Introversion, Eysenck emphasizes the wide differentiation in explanation and use of these terms. He concludes that agreement is evident concerning the association of objectivity of outlook and extraversion, and subjectivity and introversion. Also, seemingly, the extraverted individual reveals a higher "development" of behavioral activity, while the introvert displays a higher degree of "cerebral activity." A difference in the amount of individual self- control is frequently evident with a lesser amount manifested by the introvert.^

Social scientists derive extraversion-introversion, sociability- individuality, or other-inner direction, from the behavioral character­istics of individuals. All human beings have a need for privacy but some tend to withdraw from social contacts more than others; conse­quently, barriers can be erected against self-revealment, and the

5^ Ibid., p. 57# quoting M. Freyd, "Introverts and Extraverts," Psychological Review, 5 (1921*), p. 57-

55 ibid.

^ Ibid., p. 58.

30individual becomes less socially inclined and more individually oriented. If the self is represented as a series of concentric circles, in most cases the inner circle is kept "private," but the peripheral circles become less intimate. However, the individualistic person represents the tendency to withdraw from contacts invading more of these aspects of self, so that an increased number of barriers are presented in the exer­cise of his social roles.57

Rlesman, poignant in his analysis of American society, corre­lates sociability and other-direction and Individuality and inner- dire ct ion. In this unique terminology the other-directed type of individual is:"people-minded"; reveals "pressure toward social com­petence"; uses group references emphasizing the "we" rather than the "I"; is directed by the "mood of the group"; excels in "taste-exchanging"; and reveals a decided tendency to "over-confonn." The inner-directed individual is: "impersonal"; has a "core of self-reliance"; operateson "internalized standards" with "gyroscopic adaptation"; and is an "unambiguous escapist."56

Although different linguistic labels are frequently used to identify these two behavioral types, it is apparent that psychologists, social psychologists, and sociologists, all recognize degree differences in the type of social participation of individuals. The fact that seme people approach social interaction more subjectively, or with internalized

57 Lindesmith and Strauss, op. cit.. pp. 435-436.56 See Riesman, Denney, and Glazer, op. cit.. for the full

implications of inner-directedness and other-directedness in American society.

31standards and less explicit group influence, while others are more objective relying on explicit group references, portrays these dis­tinctions in individuality and soclahillty or introversion and extra- version.Aspiration-Level Behavior

Frequently identified by a number of terns— drive, aspiration, ego-striving, ego-advancenent, ego-enhancement, ego-expansion, and other "ego's"— this behavioral characteristic is representative of individual goal-setting. Although based on different values in various cultures, it is generally contended that ego-advancenent, or aspiration, can be an important personality characteristic.

Sherlf and Cantrll vho refer to it as ego-striving state the following—

. . . whoever a person nay be and whatever social milieu surrounds him, what he learns to regard as his loyallty, his purpose, his ambition, his striving to gratify basic needs or drives is affected, regulated, or directed in a major way by the referential franework that has become so large a part of him in . . • his social development. Ego-striving . . . is the individual's effort to place hlsnelf securely In those constellations of human relationships that represent for him desirable values, that will make his status or position secure.5?

These authors attribute differences in the manner, persistence, and intensity of ego-striving to variations in temperament, ability, and energy, but indicate that these function within the framework of norms designated by the reference group

59 sherif and Cantrll, oj>. cit., p. 113.60 Ibid.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Grateful appreciation is expressed to Dr. D. Lois Gilmore,

Professor of Home Economics, and to Dr. Enrico L. Quarantelli, Associate Professor of Sociology, for their willing guidance and encouragement with the design and execution of the study. For counsel and constructive

criticism, acknowledgment is extended to: Dr. Dorothy D. Scottj Dr.Ruth T. Lehman; Dr. John F. Cuber; and Dr. Everett J. Kircher.

It is a privilege to acknowledge the General Foods Foundation whose fellowship grant gave valuable financial support to the develop­

ment of the research.Special credit is given to Dr. D. Ransom Whitney and to Mrs.

Lydia G. Kinzer for guidance and assistance with the statistical part

of the study.Due recognition is made to Dr. Ruth E. Griffith and to Miss

Nora Jane Deater, Frederick, Maryland, for encouragement, advice, and loyal support throughout this endeavor and in scoring and tabulating

the data of the study.The author is especially grateful to the administration, facul­

ty, and students of Hood College, Frederick, Maryland, whose cooperation and participation made this investigation both possible and pleasurable.

ii

32Other personality variables frequently associated with aspir­

ation-level are ambition, prudence or daring, self-confidence or feel- ings of inferiority, realism or lack of it, and ego-level involvement.

The latter variable, revealing a close affiliation vlth the reference

group and significance of the asplratlon-value, is, also, related to self- competition. In other vords, individual past performance and reference

group pressures can be contributing factors to enhanced aspiration.Representative of this viev is the following statement.

Experiments . . . demonstrate that vhether a level of aspiration is socially Imposed . . . or vhether it is based on sane definite anchoring from past experience, it must be regarded as an ego-involving frame of reference.^

Ego-involvement can then contribute to the significance of an aspira-

tion-object and enable a pattern of attitudes and subsequent responsesto it. . This, ultimately, results in the personality effect of successor failure following the aspiration-effort.

In a study to analyze patterns of goal-setting behavior and the related personality characteristics of women college students,

Mitchell classified four levels of aspirations. These Included the "self-acceptant underachiever," the "self-acceptant overachiever,"

the "self-rejectant underachiever," and, the "self-rejectant over­achiever." Generally the findings from this study Indicated that

individuals in each of these categories revealed certain behavioral

61 John W. Gardner, "The Relation of Certain Personality Variables to Level of Aspiration," The Journal of Psychology, 9 (19^0), p. 191.

^ Sherif and Cantrll, op. cit., p. 115.

33characteristics* However, the relationships were a complicated pat­tern. 3 Another study by Gardner revealed similar findings* Gardner indicates that the association between personality variables and aspira- tion-level is sufficiently complicated to negate "aspiration-level behavior as unequivocal evidence of a specific trait*

Sears as a result of a clinical study of children, affirms the interrelatedness of aspirations and behavior in the following manner*

Logically, the specific aspiration level response fits into more general reaction patterns of the individual, and hence it seems reasonable to suppose that the aspiration level response forms a part of a cluster of associated personality attributes which may function as a whole in a number of different situations*®5

iConsequently, the close association between personal and social values in the initiation and functioning of aspirations is generally accepted by Investigators in this field*

Sometimes described as a "genetic formation" of values by the behavlorlsts, it is evident that, analytically, aspirations axe closely related to role, status, and class. u They then become a connective bond between the individual and society* However, the precise amount of individual and social initiation and orientation of aspirations has not been scientifically determined*

63 James V; Mitchell, Jr*, "Goal-Setting Behavior as a Function of Self-Acceptance, Over- and Underachievement, and Related Personality Variables," Journal of Educational Psychology* 50 (June, 1959)9 PP* 93-104.

64 Gardner, og>* cit.* p* 205*65 Pauline S* Sears, "Level of Aspiration in Relation to Some

Variables of Personality: Clinical Studies," Journal of SocialPsychology* 14 (1941), p. 335*

66 sherif and Cantrll, op. cit.* pp. 152-153*

One proposed theory which relates status and self suggests an "equil­ibration hypothesis"~

. . . the individual anchors himself at the point of his highest status in any one dimension and tries to bring his status in all other dimensions up to a comparable point. '

This hypothesis haB been corroborated by the findings in an honors study in 19^9* Although limited in its scope and methodology, individ­uals were classified according to five different reference groups. Information concerning their present and desired status in these groups was then obtained. The general findings Indicated that

. . . the strivings of individuals in the reference groups in which they rated their status lowest was significantly greater than their strivings in the groups in which they rated their present status highest.®®

It thus appears that the self-image can reveal the aspiration-level ofthe individual, and behavior will, ultimately, be affectedly thestatus desires of the self. Consequently, it might be expected thatany symbolic representations of self-status would be highly significantin human interaction.

* * *This total discussion represents a segment of the literature

concerning personality and related behavioral variables. However, it presents the diverse concepts, theories, and approaches used by invest­igators in their attempts to examine human behavior, analytically. The

^ Rohrer and Sherif, op. cit., p. 383*68 Ibid., P. 377*

fact that many of these theories in psychology, social psychology, aad sociology reveal certain aspects of agreeaent indicates common bases for study. This seems to be particularly apparent concerning the interrelationship between the individual and environmental influences. She present effort is then concerned with this two-way relationship. Is clothing expressive of certain individual personality characteristics? How closely is it regulated by the social setting?The following discussion will present certain investigations concerning the association between clothing, personality, and social roles.

Chapter III

REVIEW OF LITERATURE GV CLOTHUG AID ITS SIGHIFICAHCE TO BEHAVIOR

This discussion is based on social-psychological theory and empirical studies in this area. The main divisions are: (l) clothingas a contributor to self-expression and social roles; and (2) studies related to clothing and personality structure.

Clothing as a Contributor to Self-Expression and Social Roles

Clothing as a social stimulus has been analyzed according to its cultural, economic, moralistic, psychological, and sociological implications. Many of the theorists, who have attempted to determine reasons for wearing clothes in various cultures, generally posit that the vearing of clothing is an integral part of the socialization process of individuals. The fact that there are obvious outward manifestations and inner implications to the use of clothing seems to be broadly accepted. However, analysis of clothing as a product of both the Individual and his society involves multitudinous scientific problems* What are the different significances of clothing to Indi­viduals! What behavioral values are related to the use of clothing!What contributions does clothing afford to the individual and his social interaction! How are these clothing characteristics analytically measured!

37Dearborn, in a perceptive examination of some of the psycholog­

ical implications of clothing states the following:. . . One's clothes are one of the important things that Intervenes between the individual personality and his environment, and . . . life itself in a sense is a reaction of an individual to his environment. We might almost consider clothes as a vicarious or artificial skin, almost an extension of the individual's boundary, involving important relationships between the person and his environment, spiritual as well as material.

Clothing as a means of self-expression and self-enhancement is proposed by many social psychologists, flugel, like Dearborn, refers to clothing as an "extension of the bodily self," effective in dis-

ptlngulshing the Individual from others. Bruner and Taglurl speak of it as an "impression" conveyer of the personality.3 Fear envisions

clothing as a mask for the self and closely related to impression manage­ment. This author also indicates that clothing as it relates to appear­ance can be an important factor in successful or discordant role playing.^

That self-expression is integrated and organized by a. pattern of ideals, attitudes, and values which the individual uses as a basis for self-judgment, is generally recognized. 3 Thus significance of the self- idaal becomes Important.

^ Dearborn, op. cit., p. k.2 Flugel, og. cit., p. 330.3 jeroaie s. Bruner and Renato Tagiuri, "The Perception of People,"

landbook of 8ocial Psychology, Vol. II, ed. Gardner Linzey (Cambridge,Mass.: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 195*0> P* 650.

* Pear, eg. cit., p. 13k, pp. 57-56.5 Ibid., chap. II, pp. 38-k2.

Krech and Crutchfield define the self-ideal as ", . . the highest level in the hierarchy of the self . . . a standard against which the rest of self may he evaluated."^ They then elaborate that for some people the self-ideal represents a remote connection to the self-concept, while with others a greater amount of unification or con­sistency is apparent. These authors identify clothing as an external means of self-continuity and self-identity, a symbolic "marker" of the self.7

The association between clothing, self-expression, and individualroles appears to be most important in the symbolic representation ofclothing. Its social significance is evidenced in individual appraisaland evaluation concerning self-position and status. Bush and Londonendorse this view in the following manner.

The importance for an individual . . . of a given social role, as well as the intensity of his role taking (self-concept) will frequently be reflected in his clothing . . . More broadly stated we may hypothesize that differences in modes of dress within a particular society are indicative of differences in social roles and self-concepts of members of that society.®

Dearborn relates individual and societal importance of clothing to a protection against fear. Enumerating some of these fears he includes fear of: ridicule; anxiety; obtrusiveness; lack of desiredbeauty; dermal discomforts; and bodily internal discomforts. In

6 David Krech and Richard S. Crutchfield, Elements of Psychology (New York:, Alfred A. Knopf Co., 1958)> P» 208.

7 Ibid., pp. 208-209.® George Bush and Perry London, "On the Disappearance of

Knickers: Hypotheses for the Functional .Analysis of the Psychologyof Clothing," Journal of Social Psychology, 51 (May, i960), p. 361.

39addition, he enumerates fear of the estimations of: poverty, ineffic­iency; bodily immodesty; lack of self-respect; lack of taste; and underestimation of worth. Many of these fears are subconscious, and others, plus emotions such as vanity and modesty, are decidedly con­nected to the social environment. However, in this author’s estimation, fear is the "moving emotion," and the directive for this emotion is pro­tection of the self?

It appears that clothing, as a symbol, can serve a contribu­tory or a self-adaptive function to the self and its expression in various social roles. The effect of clothing on the behavioral patterns and sexual roles of men and womenr as compared with clothing for various roles within each of these sexes evidences its gradations of service in the social situation. In addition, this comparison reveals another function of clothing— the transition from one role situation to another.

Theory points the way to clothing as an instrumental vehicle forboth self and role recognition. As the outermost representation of theself "configuration" it can be reflective as well as expressive, and thesignificance of this externalized self is, unmistakably clear, in thefollowing interpretation.

One must now "show one’s stuff" in a competitive market, and one's stuff is one's "personality," an externalized part of the self . . . It is not the genuine self that is put on the market in the race for success, or even economic survival, but the "cosmetic" self, which is free of any aroma of personal, non-marketable idiosyncrasy as it is free of "B.O." or last year's waistline.

9 Dearborn, oj>. cit., p. 5110 Riesman, og. cit., pp. 55-60.

Ho

Studies Related to Clothing and Personality

Analysis of the theoretical and empirical studies concerned with clothing and personality reveals three things: (l) a limited number ofcontributions; (2) emphasis on segmented types of small group studies; and, (3) a recognized-need for further study in this area. The following discussion will review some of these pertinent Investigations in relation to their general significance and contributions. Ho attempt will be made to include all studies in this area, and it is emphasized that only therelevant aspects of these investigations will be presented.

One of the very early psychological studies concerning the signi­ficance of clothing to children was conducted by Rail in 1897* The findings from five hundred questionnaires in which he attempted to determine "some aspects of the early sense of self" Indicated that these children were Interested in dressing for others rather than for their own self-comfort.11

The child who is habitually well dressed learns to avoid acts and environments which tend to soil his clothes aad may become dainty, finical, fastidious, and effeminate. The child who is rudely aad poorly dressed . . . comes in closer contact with the worldabout him and acquires a knowledge more real aadsubstantial . . . Cleanliness of body like clean dress has a prodigious effect upon children, who change manners, temper,-conduct, and put on a better self.12

G. Stanley Hall, "Some Aspects of the Early Sense of Self," American Journal of Psychology, XX (1897-1898)* pp. 315-395*

22 Ibid., p. 367.

to

A follow-up study, in an attsapt to discern the effects of being veil dressed, Included 181 adolescent girls. Placcus, vho presented these findings, revealed that feelings of sociability and approval fron others vere indicated vhan these girls were veil dressed. Clothing appeared to have an effect on the sociability, self-consciousness, and self-esteem of this sample. It also played an important part in their appraisal of others.^

Dearborn, in 1917# conducted a study in vhlch he analyzed therelationship between clothing Judgments and success. His participantsvere tventy-four men aad vomen averaging tventy-elght years of age. Inhis conclusions this author stressed the interrelationship betweenpersonality and clothing.

The clothes a man vears are really part of his personality considered from a comaonsense (pragmatic) point ef viev . . . the really veil dressed persons in general vear clothes vhich are not easily differ­entiated from the rest of their personality . . . In a social coosninlty a man's clothes are part of his self.1*

Oriented toward determining the degree of self-expression and distinction through clothing choice, and the extent clothing choices represent individual expressions of group membership, Barr distributed questionnaires to vomen ranging from seventeen to fifty years of age.The conclusions from this study revealed that for these vomen

^3 Louis W. Tlaccus, "Remarks on the Psychology on Clothes," Pedagogical Seminary, XIII (1906)* PP* 61-83.

Ik ,,Dearborn, 0£. cit., p. 66.

CONTENTSChapter PageACKNOWLEDGMENTS............. ............................ iiLIST OF T A B L E S ....................... ................... vi

I. INTRODUCTION..................................... 1The Problem..................................... k

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ON PERSONALITY STRUCTURE 6Conceptions of Personality ..................... 7Personality Organization and its Relation to

Social Structure ............................ 15Selected Theories Related to Personality Types . . 23

III. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON CLOTHING AND ITS SIGNIFICANCETO BEHAVIOR................................... 36Clothing as a Contributor to Self-Expression and

Social Roles . ......... 36Studies Related to Clothing and Personality . . . ^0

IV. THE METHOD AND MATERIALS OF INVESTIGATION........ k3

Design of the S t u d y .............. k9Definitions of Terms....................... 51Selection and Development of Measures .......... 52The Pre-Test . . . . . ......................... 69Reliability of Developed Instruments ............ 71The Final Instruments ..................... 75Setting of the Study and the S a m p l e ............ 75Administration of the Schedules ............... 76Treatment of D a t a ................. 78

V. FINDINGS . . . . . . . ...................... 83Descriptive Findings Concerning Participants . . . 83The Social-Psychological Dimensions of the Study . 86Relation Between Social-Psychological Characteristics

and Clothing Preferences of the Subjects . . . . 96

iii

k2

the really fundamental attitudes in the choice of clothing— >those associated with desire to conform, desire for comfort, desire for economy, the artistic impetus, and with self-expression through sex and femininity— occur so positively and so widely diffused as to seem '•universal." They cut across differences in educational background, in economic status, in reading habits, in amount of technical fashion knowledge, and in professional Interest in fashion.^

Barr then concluded that the desire to conform was the strongest motive effecting clothing choice for both the students and professional women represented in this sample.^

In 19^5 Silverman presented the results of a study of 373 adoles­cent girls. Using a variety of techniques to gather data, this investi­gator found a definite relationship between care of appearance and certain aspects of personality. In general,

appearance behavior seemed to serve as a means of expressing psychological mechanisms, such as compen­sation, identification, and attention-getting. '

Silverman concluded that clothing and appearance can be important meansof satisfying certain needs or desires. Specifically, for this sample,these included "... the need for approval, the desire to be sexuallyattractive, and the need for self-confidence."-*-8

15 Estelle DeYoung Barr, "A Psychological Analysis of Fashion Motivation," Archives of Psychology, 26 (June, 193*+)> p. 98.

16 ibid.

■*■7 Sylvia S. Silverman, Clothing and Appearance: Their Psycholog­ical Implications for Teen-Age Girls (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 19^5)> P« 118.

18 Ibid., p. 119.

1*3A recent research contribution by Ryan concentrated on the

psychological effects of clothing on the individual. Due to its breadth and depth of investigation, the variety of testing techniques, and the adaptation of certain instruments from other areas of research, this empirical study has been a significant landmark in the study of clothing behavior. Ryan surveyed college and high school students in order to determine

. . . how and in vhat vay the girls think clothes affect them, to find out vhat factors make the girls feel veil or poorly dressed, to measure their interest in clothing, and to determine their attitudes tovards the importance of being veil dressed.^

The extensiveness of the questionnaire response in this study vlth 1,072replies from college students and 239 replies from high school studentscontributes to its value. Subsequent intervievs vith ninety-fourcollege girls also enabled greater depth investigation. The generalfindings from analysis of the questionnaire data revealed that bothgroups of students considered "social contribution” the reason for beingveil dressed. A considerably higher percentage of the high school girlsindicated a sense of feeling veil dressed than was acknovledged by thecollege girls. It vas also ascertained that the college girl vas morelikely to have her "mood" affected by colors, styles, and textures

20related to her dress than vas the high school girl. In her attempt to

Mary S. Ryan, Psychological Effects of Clothing, Part I, Survey of the Opinions of College"Girls (Ithaca, H.Y.: Cornell UniversityAgricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 882, 1952)> P* 7*

20 Ryan, Psychological Effects of Clothing, Part II, Comparison of College Students vltii High School Students (Ithaca, K.T.: Cornell Unlver-sity Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 898, 1953)1 P* 27*

examine the self-concepts of these students, Ryan found that many of the girls could not describe themselves, and for those who could the descrip­tions tended to be quite general. Concerning feelings related to clothing and personality characteristics, the investigator states:

The girl who feels well dressed seems generally to be more relaxed, at ease, and more confident . . . the girl who feels that she is poorly dressed is worried about her appearance, generally ill-at-ease, and is more self-centered.21

\Exemplifying an interesting experimental research design is a study conducted by Hoult on college men. Although primarily focused on the extent to which various types of clothes may alter status ratings of men, the significance of clothing '‘appropriateness" and individual "attractiveness" ratings was affirmed. The author concluded that under certain circumstances, clothing may play an . . important and measur­able part in structuring the nature of interpersonal relationships."22

Warden, in 1955* completed a study on the factors contributing to satisfactions and dissatisfactions with clothing of eighty women college students. One aspect of these findings was related to the desire for clothing representing "conformity" or "distinctiveness." This investigator indicates that there was no significant difference, and

Ryan, Psychological Effects of Clothing, Part III, Report of Interviews with a Selected Sample of College Women (Ithaca,,N. Y.: CornellUniversity Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin.900, 1953)> P* 22.

Also see: Ryan, Psychological Effects of Clothing, Part IV,Perception of Self in Relation to Clothing (supra., Bulletin 905> 195^)•

^ Thomas F. Hoult, "Experimental Measurement of Clothing as a Factor in Some Social Ratings of Selected American Men," American Sociological Review, 19 (June, 195*0 > P* 328.

45that the majority of the sample desired clothing that was both distinc­tive, as well as conforming with the clothes of the group. Warden generally concluded that this stucLy revealed a relationship between individual personality differences^physique, and clothing needs and interests. However, since no personality measurement was attempted, these conclusions are more in the nature of hypotheses than findings. ^

In an effort to determine whether significant relationships could be found between clothing behavior and certain psychological back-

\X ground and personality factors; Hoffman used a sample of eighty wives ofprofessional men. Among the research techniques for this study werepersonal interviews, psychological tests, art judgment tests, objectivewardrobe analyses, and ratings according to the aesthetic qualitiesof the interviewees' homes. Significant correlations between generalindividual aesthetic interests, aspects of clothing selection, andfeelings of self-confidence concerning the individual wardrobe wereindicated. On the basis of these findings, it appears that for thisgroup of women, high aesthetic interests were closely related to self-confidence with clothing. The degree to which this is individually or

24socially determined was not indicated.

3 Jessie Warden, "Some Factors Effecting the Satisfactions and Dissatisfactions with Clothing of Women Students in the College of Educa­tion and the College of Liberal Arts" (Ph. D. dissertation, School of Home Economics, The Pennsylvania State University, 1955)*

24 Adeline M. Hoffman, "Clothing Behavioral Factors for a Specific Group of Women Related, to Aesthetic Sensitivity and Certain Socio-Economic and Psychological Background Factors" (Ph. D. dissertation, School of Home Economics, The Pennsylvania State University, 1956).

46A recent theoretical study by Treece applies the self and role

concepts to clothing as a social symbol. As a result of this investi­gation, Treece concludes:

If the self-concept is as Important in determining behavior as it is believed to be, and if Individuals naturally strive to defend the self and present It in a complementary fashion, it can be anticipated that some individuals would perceive their dress as conveying an impression to others of their self-concept. The more highly one holds the self in aposition of esteem, the greater would be the Importance which he should attach to clothing. 5

By means of a projective technique, a modified Thematic Apperception Instrument, Rosencranz initiated a study to determine the extent to which clothing is used as a guide in discerning the role and status of unknown persons. Eighty-two married women were the partici­pants in this study. This investigator found that clothing is an important guide in determining both role and status of unknown indi­viduals. This seemed to be particularly applicable to those inter-

26viewees from the higher social class.Bush and London in a recent analysis of certain social-psycho-

logical aspects of clothing and its symbolism propose three hypotheses for further study.

Anna Jean Treece, "An Interpretation of Clothing Behavior Based on Social Psychological Theory" (Ph.D. dissertation, School ofHome Economics, The Ohio State University, 1959); P* 163*<

Mary Lou Rosencranz, "The Application of a Projective Technique for Analyzing Clothing Awareness, Clothing Symbols, and the Range of Themes Associated with Clothing Behavior" (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Michigan State University, I960).

kl

(1) . . . Differences In modes of dress within a particular society are Indicative of differences in social roles and self-concepts of members of that society.(2) . . . Changes in fundamental or enduring modes of dress in a society are indicative of changes in the social roles and self-concepts of members of that society.

, (3) • • • The greater the variability of clothing styles in a society, the less well-defined and conflict-free are social roles . . . and, con­versely, the smaller the variability of clothingstyles . • • the more enduring, clearly defined,and conflict-free are the social roles of indi­viduals in that society.-7

These authors indicate that although these are broad formulations,there is real need for research exploration concerning this aspect ofclothing behavior.

In an empirical analysis of clothing values, their relation to general values and individual behavior representing social security orinsecurity, Lapitsky administered questionnaires to eighty students andeighty teachers for comparative purposes. These instruments included a general value scale, a related clothing value scale, and a scale to measure social security and insecurity. The pertinent findings from this investigation indicated that secure subjects tended to rate high on clothing values, while insecure subjects tended to rate higher on the desire for social approval and conformity.2® Thus, it would appear that the secure individual is concerned about the aesthetic expression of her

27 Bush and London, op. cit., pp. 361-362.2® Mary Lapltsky, "Clothing Values and Their Relation to General

Values and to Social Security and Insecurity" (Ph.D. dissertation,School of Home Economics, The Pennsylvania State University, 1961).

48clothing, vhlle the Insecure individual is concerned about the judgment of others. This researcher stressed the need for further investigation concerning clothing choices and usage and the relationship of these to self-expression.

The above chronological review of certain of the research contri­butions related to clothing and its social-psychological implications shows the interest in this aspect of clothing behavior during the last century. The fact that an increased number of studies are now undertaken by social psychologists, home economists, and sociologists reveals the interrelatedness of this area of investigation. It is to be expected that with augmentation of cooperative efforts, development and use of various types of research designs and methodologies, and accumulated findings, this aspect of behavioral study will enable improved under­standing of the adage " . . . the apparel oft proclaims the man."2^

29 William Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act i, sc. 3, 1. 70.

Chapter IV

THE METHOD AND MATERIALS OF INVESTIGATION

The present research is exploratory for several reasons: (l)availability of a minimum amount of systematic empirical effort for establishment of base references; and (2) limited development of behavioral measures concerning clothing and its social-psychological implications. It is obvious that this limits the researcher in estab­lishment of a rigorous experimental design; it affords a challenge to the investigator interested in determining whether relationships may be extant.

The following discussion will present: (l) design of the study;(2) definitions of terms; (3) selection and development of measures;(k ) the pre-test; (5) reliability of developed instruments; (6) the final instruments; (7) setting of the study and selection of the sample; (8) administration of instruments; and (9) treatment of the data.

Design of the Study

This study was undertaken to investigate the relationship between certain personality characteristics and general clothing preferences for various social roles. The variables included variations in individual tendencies toward masculinity-femininity, sociability- lndividuality, level of aspiration, and the relation between these and

9

50clothing preferences associated with certain social roles. Consequently, the investigator planned to determine whether correlations existed between general clothing preferences and certain personality character­istics and social role transition.

The specific purposes of this investigation were—1. to develop a graphic measure for determining general individual clothing preferences according to various social situations;2. to determine whether there is a differential relation­ship between certain personality characteristics and clothing preferences related to various social roles;3. to determine whether general clothing preferences of women college students remain constant when related to varying social roles.Three major hypotheses related to the above variables were estab­

lished. These hypotheses and their sub-hypotheses are presented below.Major hypothesis 1, There is a relationship between the person­ality characteristics of masculinity and femininity and clothing preferences of college women.Sub-hypothesis 1A. Women who score high on masculinity prefer a different type of clothing than women who score high on femin­inity. .Major hypothesis 2. There is a relationship between the ten­dency for sociability or individuality and clothing preferences of college women.Sub-hypothesis 2A. An individual who scores high on sociability or social extraversion will also be a clothing extravert.Sub-hypothesis 2B. An individual who scores high on individuality or social introversion will also be a clothing introvert.Major hypothesis College women with high social aspirations will tend to score higher on sociability or social extraversion and will reveal less consistency in their clothing "type" selec­tions, according to different situations, than women with low . social aspirations.

51

Definitions of Terms

Throughout the study certain terms will be used in a technical sense. It needs to be emphasized that other connotations or implications may be given to these words; however, the following definitions represent the intended interpretations for the purpose of this research.

1. Masculinity— An individual who is inclined tobe aggressive and„self-assertive in behavior; reveals an interest in activities frequently associated with the male sex role in American society.^2. Femininity— An Individual who is inclined to be submissive with a passive-receptive type of behavior; cooperative and apprehensive; reveals an interest in activities frequently associated with the female sex role in American society.23. Sociability or social extraversion— An individual who is inclined to have strong feelings about society and a tendency toward leadership activity in social situations; communicative, out-going, and optimistic; desirous of close object relations; active; interested in new experiences.3

Individuality or social introversion— An individual who is inclined to be unconcerned about impersonal situ­ations; reveals difficulty ir. visualizing social relation­ships with a tendency toward withdrawal from social con­tacts; taciturn; insecure; tends to cling to the past.^

Although this definition is the result of accumulated reading in this area, it emphasizes "masculinoid attitudes" presented in the manual of instructions for the personality instrument used in this study. See: Maurice H. Krout and Johanna K. Tabin, A Guide to Personal PreferenceScale (Chicago: The Chicago Psychological Institute, 1953)> sections 7-8.

2 This definition emphasizes "effeminoid attitudes" presented in the Krout and Tabin reference. Ibid.,

Ibid., sections 1, 2, 10.^ Ibid.

CONTENTSChapter Page

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 103Summary...................... 103Hypotheses and Conclusions...................... 107Recommendations.............. 115

APPENDIXESA. Attitudes Concerning Pre-Test .................... 119B. Letter of Explanation Concerning Study ........... 121C. Means, Mean Differences, Standard Deviations, and

Coefficients of Correlation Between Test andRetest Scores on Aspiration Measures . ......... 123

D. Means, Mean Differences, Standard Deviations, andCoefficients of Correlation Between Test andRetest Scores on Clothing Preference Scale . . . . 125

E. Personal Preference Scale ........................ 128&F. Personal Preferences According to Problem

Situations Scale .............................. 130G. Clothing Preference Scale ........................ 139H. Background Data Questionnaire.................... lV£I. Cover Letter Concerning Study ..................... 151J. Key for Scoring Weights on Other-Direction Scale. . . I53K. Scoring Weights for Job Advancement Inventory . . . . 155L. Coding Instructions for Study ..................... 157' M. Formulas Used for Statistical Analyses........... 166N. Frequency Distributions and Percentages of Under­

scored Reasons for Preferences on Aspiration Measure Concerning House-Type-Ownership.......... 168

iv ,

525* Social aspirations—'Certain social goal levels an individual establishes for himself.6. Clothing extrovert— 1The individual's use of clothing is strongly socially oriented; clothing has a decided contributory significance to social roles.7. Clothing introvert--The individual uses clothing for self-importance; clothing has a self-adaptive significance contributing to the Individual's feelings about self.8. Masculine clothing preferences— The individual reveals a preference for garments with the following style features: relatively straight line emphasis; relatively loose fit and minimized figure revealment; relatively tailored details paralleling those associ­ated with masculine clothing in American society.9* Feminine clothing preferences— The individual reveals a preference for garments with the following style features: relatively curved line emphasis;relatively close fit and emphasized figure revealment; details paralleling those associated with feminine clothing in American society.10. Composite clothing preferences— The individual reveals a preference for garments with the following fctyle features: combined straight and curved lineemphasis; some figure revealment and some figure concealment through fit of clothing; details associ-

with both feminine and masculine clothing in American society.

Selection and Development of Measures

Three instruments were used to measure the variables in the study. These were: (l) Personal Preference Scale by Maurice H. Krout and JohannaK. Tabin; (2) a composite scale designated as Personal Preferences Accord­ing to Problem Situations; and (3) a Clothing Preference Scale which was developed for the purpose of this research. In addition, a series of items to secure background data on the participants were included.

53

Personal Preference Scale

The problems involved in personality analysis are evident as a result of the foregoing discussions concerning various personality con­cepts . Consequently, a number of techniques have been devised to assess personality. These include paper-and-pencil measures, graphic repre­sentations, projective instruments, depth Interviews, clinical study, and many others. After reviewing the literature concerning personality measurement and techniques, and after surveying many of these, the writer decided to narrow the representation of measures by pre-testing certain of these related to the variables in the study.

The Personal Preference Scale, hereafter designated as the P. P. S., was selected as most satisfactory for the design of the present investigation— a general measure of the behavioral characteristics of masculinity-feminlnity, sociablllty-individuality or social eztraverslon- lntroversion, and aspirational tendencies. The P. P. S. is described as a ". . • dynamic, projective, verbal, paper-and-pencll test by which the individual can express his personality in terms of development."^

This measure developed by Maurice H. Krout and Johanna K. Tabin of the Chicago Psychological Institute was first initiated in the 1930's with the original edition appearing in 19^7• The revised edition of 1951 was the instrument used in the present investigation.

Maurice H. Krout and Johanna K. Tabin, "Measuring Personality in Developmental Terms: The Personal Preference Scale," QeneticPsychology Monographs, k2 (195*0» P« 303*

Development of the instrument was based on the rationale statedbelow.

1. Fundamental drives . . . are Involved in the early learnings resulting from Inhibition or over-gratification, which come to be the emotional fixations of the individual. Basically, it is assumed . . . that ^individuals developmental levels are logically and psychologically different­iable .2. These learnings have a lasting effect on person­ality and . . . become foci of discrimination and choice in areas which are only remotely connected with the fixations themselves.3* [The P. P. S.], . . . by assessing the typical later-life preferences for certain objects, states, relationships, and behaviors . . . alms to discover the developmental fixations of an individual which, when categorically Interpreted, supply the answers to some basic questions psychologists tend to ask about personality.It. The subject supplies projective responses in that he reveals his dynamics indirectly through what his choice represents and not through the choice as such. The choices which must be accepted at face value . . . are verbalized and enforced, except as to degree, which the subject is left free to determine.”

This scale is oriented to the adult and recommended for use with individuals aged fifteen years and over. Ten specific subtests measuring the following items are included: active-inactive; sociable-individual­istic; permissive-critical; consistent-inconsistent; efficient-inefficientself-effacing-egocentric; mascullne-effeminoid; feminlne-mascullnoid; emotionally mature-emotionally immature; and socially mature-socially immature.^ The test is so designed that each of the ten subtests

6 Ibid*# P. 331.71 Although these are the primary emphases of these subgroups, a

complete description of each is presented in Krout and Tabin, "Mea­suring Personality. . ibid., pp. 303-305*

55represents an independent behavioral variable; however, each of these supplements the other and the total personality pattern is revealed by comparison of the subtest scores.

Standardization of the data for the revised scale was accom­plished by use of 300 unselected college males and 300 unselected college females. The median age of this sample was eighteen years. This enabled determination of scoring norms and suitability of the instrument for group testing.

Efforts at validation, cross-validation, and reliability were accomplished with statistically significant results. It appears that the authors of this instrument have maintained high standards in the revision and subsequent testing of the scale. Both the tests for validity and reliability reveal acceptable statistical correlations.®

This instrument has been selected on the basis of its content and structure, satisfactory validity and reliability, and ease of administration and scoring.? It appears to be a sensitive instrument

& The techniques of determining validity and reliability of this measure are presented in the following articles: Krout and Tabin,"Measuring Personality . . .," ibid.. pp. 313-319; and Ross Stagner, Edwin D. Lawson, and J. Weldon Moffitt, "The Krout Personal Preference Scale: A Factor-Analytic Study," Journal of Clinical Psychology. 11(1955), pp. 103-113*

9 The approach to the development of this instrument is ". • • that an individual's emotional dynamics can be reached by a method that is not . . . ego-threatening and hence anxiety-producing. . . . The emphasis is on anamesis, not self-evaluation or free association in the usual sense; hence the subject can risk realistic responses to the items." The authors further contend that "since any item may . . . for some individuals, be emotionally charged, the nine other items in the subbest, of equal psychological portent, tend to reduce the effect of the 1 charged’ item . • • (thus, the scale has a built-in mechanism to reduce anxiety for the subjects)." Consequently, it would seem

i

and is endorsed for use in definitive and comparative studies. In relation to the present study, the writer believes that this represents the most satisfactoxy personality scale for the intended areas of investigation.

Personality Preferences According to Problem Situations

The intent of this scale was to determine individual tendencies toward inner-direct ion or other-direct ion and level of aspirations. The measure is composed of a modified subscale from the Bell Inner-Direction Other-Direction Inventory, hereafter referred to as ID-OD Inventory, a scale on goal and career aspirations modified and developed by Cramer, and two parts on material aspirations developed by the writer. Conse­quently, the purpose of this instrument, referred to as P.P. - P,S. throughout the study, was to correlate, statistically, the variables of sociability-individuality or social extraversion-introversion and level of aspirations with the P. P. S., as well as to compare these findings with those on the Clothing Preference Scale.10

9 that this reduction on ego-defense is an Important factor in the reliability and validity of the scale (Krout and Tabin, ibid.. p. 308).

10 The variables of sociability-individuality and level of aspira­tion on this scale were not only measured in a different way when compared with the P. P. S., but were also representative of different aspects of individual behavior. For these reasons, the writer believed that inclu­sion of this instrument enabled a broader measure of these individual characteristics.

57

Inner-Direction Other-DlrectionThe original ID-OD Inventory v m developed, as a part of an

unpublished study by Elaine 6. Bell at Tale University.1'1' This inven-19tory, based on Riesman, Denney, and Glazer's terminology, was

constructed to measure attitudes concerning self-orlentatlon versus field- orientation. The method of obtaining this Information included a series of questions concerning human interaction and a question on preferred "paths of life." These were then correlated with independent measures of perceptual field dependence.^

Bell paralleled other-dlrection vlth a high degree of perceptual field dependence, suggestibility and conformity to external standards, and a passive self-concept. Inner-direction revealed an analytic, field-independent type of perception, resistance to external influences, an active self-concept with greater self-awareness, self-assertion, and

Ikmore social unconventionality and withdrawal. The findings from Bell's study of forty-two male college freshmen indicated that the instrument was significantly discriminating in relation to inner and other-direction. However, Bell concluded that the distinctions between these two behavioral

11 Elaine Graham Bell, "Inner and Other-Directed Attitudes"(Ph.D. dissertation, Tale University, 1955)*

IP Riesman, Denney, and Glazer, op. cit.^3 The independent measures of perceptual field determination,

employed by Bell, included Vitkin et al.fa tilting-room-tllting-chalr test, the Gottschaldt embedded figures test, a social conformity modifi­cation of the Sherif autoklnetic experiment, and an attitude-change test.

^ Bell, ibid., pp. 6-7.

58characteristics, as measured by the questionnaire, vere--

1. inner-directed individuals revealed a more precise and assertive self-image together with greater inner avareness;

2. other-directed individuals revealed a weak, passive self-image, and an "inhibition of inner avareness." This correlation tended to be more pronounced than positive behavioral tendencies towards others for the other-directed group.

Cramer modified this questionnaire, pre-tested the modification, statistically determined its validity and reliability, and used it in a

l/Tstudy of 589 male college students at The Ohio State University. Generally, this investigator found that there were certain significant differences in other-direction, inner-dlrection, and aspiratlonal levels ©f these male participants. Due to the extensiveness of Cramer's tests for validity and reliability, the modified version of this scale was selected for use in this study.

Job Advancement Inventory and Aspiratlon-Scales

The Job Advancement Inventory and one of the aspiratlon-scales were also products of Cramer's investigation. This researcher concept­ualized aspiratlonal level in the following way: " . . . expectationsfor achieving high goals and a preference for Job advancement ahead of

15 Ibid-» PP* ^5-^6.^ Mary Jane Cramer, "Levels of Aspiration and Other-Dlrection,"

(Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, The Ohio State University, 1958).

17 I5id-> PP* 28-32.

59other interests."^-® Consequently, both of these dimensions were included in determining aspirations of the 589 male participants in this study.

The present writer has adapted these measures of aspiration, plus a two-part scale to determine certain material aspirations. Thus, for the purpose of this study, level of aspiration is concerned with interest in Job advancement, desired social success, and preferences concerning house-type-ownership and desired college education for son.

Job Advancement InventoryThe original developer of this inventory, Leonard Reissman,

determined career interests of men according to intent to put the job ahead of factors such as individual health, leaving the family, leaving the community, giving up leisure time, working harder than at present,

-and other related aspects of individual satisfaction. By means of forced choice within certain response alternatives, the subject could indicate whether certain "conditions” or "considerations" were more important than occupational advancement. Each response category was then weighted to enable a total score. Reissman recommended that this inventory was not satisfactory as a sole measure of aspiration for the following reasons: inability of determining internal consistency;difference in significance of meanings for the various categories; and- limitations in determining degree difference between the response categories. However, because it discriminates between career-minded

18 P* 37-

, 6o

individuals and those with low career goals, it is a useful supple­mentary device for study in this area.

Cramer's research incorporated this measure and revealed that it was related to the aspiration-level of her participants. In this study, statistical interpretation indicated significant differences between high and low aspirers. For these reasons it was included as a part of the aspirational-measure on the P.P.-P. S. scale.

Aspiration and Desired Success.Cramer's scale to determine aspiration-level consisted of one

question regarding maximum expected success. The measured factorsincluded preferences concerning general individual distinction,community influence, salary expectations, and community "power." Ina test for reliability with 100 cases, this investigator stated:

The items have a split-half reliability of .83 with a standard error of .03 when corrected for attenuation by the Spearman-Brown formula. The scale is therefore assumed to be sufficiently reliable to justify its use in dividing subjects into high and low categories on the basis of totalscores.20

A cross-validity test revealed that the high scores on this scale, or those with high aspirations, indicated a job preference which afforded prestige and income, while the low aspirers preferred a job providing enjoyment. This statistical measurement was significant

19 Leonard Reissman, "Levels of Achievement and Aspiration:A Study in Social Class and Status Striving," (Ph. D. disseafcation, Department of Sociology, Northwestern University, 1952).

20 Cramer, oj>. clt., p. 23.

61pibeyond the 0.01 level. Consequently, although this scale was developed

and used with men college students, it seems equally applicable for use with women college students— especially with the Increased number of employed women in the labor force.

Other Aspiration-MeasuresThe present study included two other determinants of aspiration-

level. These were devised to ascertain material types of goals and their relation to Individualistic or social tendencies. The rationale for the selection of categories related to house-type-ownershlp and type of college or university education desired for son, is based on W. L. Warner's multlple-item index of social class position.22 In the orig­inal index developed by Warner, Meeker, and Bells, six items revealed high correlations when compared with the evaluated participation tech­nique of social class identification. These were occupation, amount ofincome, source of Income, house type, residential location, and amount

21of education. Since questions concerning desired occupation and amount of Income for husband were already included in the questionnaire, house- type-ownership, residential location, and amount of education were selected for this part of the schedule. Realization that the sample

21 PP- 23-2*.22 W. Lloyd Warner, M. Meeker, and Kenneth Eells, Social Class in

America: A Manual for Procedure for the Measurement of Social Status(Chicago: ""Science Research Associates, 19*9)» PP« 127-130.

23 Ibid.

CONTENTSAPPENDIXES Page

0. Frequency Distributions and Percentages of Under­scored Reasons for Preferences on Aspiration Measure Concerning Son's College Education . . . . 173

P. Regression Coefficients, t Tests, MultipleRegression Coefficients, and F Tests for the Social-Psychological Variables ......... . . . . 178

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................... 185AUTOBIOGRAPHY........................................... 190

v

62would consist of women college students necessitated adjustment of "amount of education" to a situation which would still reveal the aspiration-level of the participants. Desired education for son was selected since this would not involve as obvious a bias as desired education for daughter, in that the participants might select an educa­tional institution for daughter comparable to their own selection rather than on the basis of future aspirations. After development of these measures, residential area was discarded in order to reduce the length of time involved for answering this part of the questionnaire.

Aspiration concerning house-type-ownership. Four descriptions emphasizing house size and appearance, number and types of rooms, condi­tion of furnishings, suitability for entertaining, and size and condition of lawn were included. These were developed in order to distinguish between houses which would enable a more sociable type of living pattern, and houses which would be limited in affording space for entertaining.A general explanation of the problem concerning the purchase of one of these homes was presented together with the four alternatives. The participants were instructed to indicate which of these homes was most desirable and which was least desirable and to underscore the reasons for these choices. No weighting technique was used in scoring answers.

The reliability of this measure will be discussed separately. A pre-test in which thirty-one participants completed the battery of instruments enabled a preliminary examination of the validity. Although this analysis was limited by the size of the group, biserial correlations were used to compare scores on this measure of aspiration and scores on the aspiration subgroup of the P. P. S. This technique was used because

of Its applicability to the data and to ascertain a tentative "indexof validity." According to Senders, biserial correlation

. . . is a measure of the strength and direction of relationship between two variables, one of which is normally distributed but artificially dichotomized, and the other of which has a continuous range of scores.^

The biserial correlation for high aspirations, measured by sub­group six on the P. P. S., and house preferences revealing high aspira­tions was 0.895* In relation to low aspirations for these two instru­ments r^g s 0.920. A coefficient of one would indicate a perfect correlation between these two variables. Because of the small size of the sample and the preliminary nature of this test, no correction factor was determined. It needs to be emphasized that validity of choices for this measure is of the face validity type, since it is impossible within the confines of this study to establish statistical validity concerning projected aspirations of the subjects.

Aspiration concerning institution for son's college education. This part of the developed aspiration-measure concerned desired type of college or university education for son. This approach was selected since it would determine-future desires of the subjects, and aspirations as they might be related or projected to children. The four response categories were developed to assess high aspirations with a social emphasis, high aspirations with an individual emphasis, low aspirations with a social emphasis, and low aspirations with an individual emphasis.

^ Virginia L. Senders, Measurement and Statistics (New York; Oxford University Press, 1958)> PP* 271-272.

6 k

The factors related to these aspiratlonal and social-individual emphases vere type of Institution, institutional public recognition, admissions policy, tuition rates, social opportunities, sports emphasis, self-help or vocational opportunities, and vocational placement possibilities after graduation. Again the most desirable and least desirable prefer­ences vere requested together with instructions for underscoring the reasons for these selections.

A blserial correlation of 0.895, exactly the same as house-type- ovnership, vas obtained vhen high aspiratlonal types on this measure vere compared vith high aspirers on the P. P. S. for the thirty-one subjects in the pre-test. Comparison of the lov aspirers for these tvo measures indicated r^g = 0.725* Again, no correction factor vas determined for the sample. Pace validity is assumed for this measure of aspiration.

Clothing Preference Scale

In determining clothing preferences according to social roles, the need for a measure vhich vould reveal a minimal number of other variables vas recognized. Also, the difficulties Involved in semantic connotations, especially vhen the sample vould consist of individuals vith varying avareness of fashion terminology, seemed to necessitate an illustrative type of presentation rather than a descriptive type.

Since the main emphasis in development of this instrument, here­after referred to as the C. P. S., vas to ascertain clothing preferences related to a mascullnity-feminlnity continuum of vomen's clothing styles, certain aspects of style vere controlled in the presentation.

65These included line, form, closeness of fit, and type of construction and decorative details. This representation is baaed on certain features of masculine and feminine clothing as these are represented in American society: (1) the association between straight lineemphasis and the type of construction used in tailored or "masculine" clothing; (2) the general belief that a woman vho prefers apparel revealing figure curves has more Interest in displaying her femininity than the woman who prefers less figure revealing clothing; and (3) noticeable differences in the detail and construction of "masculine" and "feminine" clothing in our society with a subsequent relationship between these features and the sexes.

Another important factor which had to be considered in thedevelopment of this measure was the difficult association between objectivity and subjectivity of the clothing choices. In other words, it was important that these preferences reflect the participants' likes and dislikes concerning clothing, but such factors, as suitability of styles for various figure types, adaptability to actual wardrobe and individual needs, could become influential variables if they effected the clothing preferences of the subjects. Consequently, it was contin­ually repeated, throughout the measure, that the individual should assume that she could wear all of the illustrated garments equally well— that her selections should represent her likes and dislikes and not what she could or could not wear. Participants were also told to disregard factors such as type of material or fabric used in construc­tion of the garments, suitability to wardrobe, and individual activities which might influence their decisions. However, it needs to be stressed that these and other related variables are difficult to control in a measure such as this.

66Another aspect of the dimensions of this scale vas selection

and explanation of the social roles related to each of the sets of illustrations. These vere associated vith the types of garments vhlch vould be Included. It vas decided to select as vide a range of social roles as vould be feasible for application of the measure. Consequently, these vere developed so that they vould be representative of the social situations ordinarily encountered by the members of the planned universe, and so that they vould reveal a variety of reference group types. The latter factor vas considered important since the vriter believed that different reference groups may have divergent influences on clothing preferences. The six social situations together vith the type of apparel presented in the measure included the following.

1. Sleepvear— This vas designed as a rather undefined role situation, perhaps more closely related to individual preferences concerning clothing.

2. Leisure or sportsvear— This vas designed as a general peer-group situation, or, more specifically, the type of dress most and least preferable vhen in contact vith vomen of the same age. A dormitory setting vas selected since this vould reveal a minimum amount of external pressures concerning appropriate clothing for the planned universe. However, this vould be a social situation in vhich the Individual vould be in contact vith other students.

3. Slips— This vas designed to determine clothing preferences vith a limited amount of social pressure. As a type of lingerie, it vould seem that slips might reflect individual preferences vith little influence from others, or, at least, minimal social pressures.

k. Daytime dresses— This vas designed to determine clothing preferences vith older people, specifically, the family in an off-campus situation. Clothing selection for this category vas based on a dinner invitation to the "best hotel" in the city. Since the members of the planned universe vould be avare of the location of this dinner engagement, and since this hotel is frequently used by these students vhen they vaat to "dress up" and go out to dinner, this vould be a more formal or prescribed role situation.

675. Date or dance dresses— This was designed to determine clothing preferences when in the company of a "special" male contact and for a social situation where there might be moire social pressure, as well as recognized social competition. The role situation involved a date for a dance or similar social function.6. Suits— This was designed to determine clothing preferences in a rather loosely organized role— shopping in Washington, D. C. It was planned that recognized social pressures for this role would probably be related to the "generalized other," since no reference was made to shopping companions.

In the initial efforts it was hoped that six apparel Illustra­tions might be presented with each social role. Following preliminary evaluations of these garments by selected individuals, it was realized that these many representations became confusing to evaluate on the basis of a masculinity-femininity continuum. Consequently, the number of illustrations was reduced to three for each role situation.

Selection of Illustrations for the MeasureThe criteria for selection of judges to evaluate the illustra­

tions were: (l) the writer's estimation of their discriminatory abilityin relation to a masculinity-femininity continuum of women's clothing;(2) a combination of men and women; (3) & range of ages; and ( ) a variety of professional interests— it was important, however, that these individuals be familiar with the college girl and her clothing so that they would have an understanding of the universe to be used. Indi­viduals with training in the area of clothing were purposely avoided in order to eliminate possible bias stemming from this type of background. Table 1 presents the sex, age, and occupational descriptions of the ten final judges selected for this study.

68

SABLE 1. Descriptive information concerning panel of Judgesfor Clothing Preference Scale

Individuals Sex Age Range Occupation

1 Female 20 - 25 College professor2 Female 20 - 25 College administrator3 Female 30 - 35 College professor4 Male 35 - ^0 College professor5 Female ko - 1*5 College professor6 Male ko - k5 College professor7 Male *5 - 50 College administrator8 Female 50 - 55 College administrator9 Female 55 - 60 College professor

10 Male 70 - 75 Business executive

Each of the evaluations vas done in an independent session. Prior to this the six social role situations, as veil as the clothing illustra­tions within each of these, vere shuffled. The instructions for the eval­uation purposely avoided the terms “masculine" or "masculinity"; it vas simply explained that each set of illustrations vas to he Judged on the basis of femininity as the Judges sav it— from most feminine to least feminine. It vas also emphasized to the vomen judges that their choice should not, necessarily, reflect vhat they vould wear or select, but should indicate their Interpretation of femininity. In each of the sessions, the evaluator vas asked to state his or her reasons for the categorization. These vere then recorded. This 'latter information vas very helpful in determining the objectivity of the Judgments. In general, these comments seemed to be consistent vlth the Intended differences between masculinity-femlninity which had been Incorporated into the illustrations. Following the evaluations, certain modifications vere

69made In the Illustrations and they vere again judged. This process of revision and judgment was continued until there vas general agreement from the judges on the masculinity-femininity of the eighteen illustrations.

The final judging revealed one hundred percent agreement from seven of the ten judges on the masculinity-femininity of the illustra­tions. The lowest agreement for the remaining three vas eighty-nine percent, representing one individual vho categorized two of the eighteen illustrations differently.

The validity of this Instrument is of the face validity type.It is assumed that if participants indicate a certain illustration as most desirable, this represents their clothing preference from the three Illustrations shown. In order to alleviate the influence of factors other than clothing styles, the illustrations vere presented vith a minimum of additional detail. In other vords, although models vere used in representing the various clothing styles, hair arrange­ments vere similar for each of the three models in a group,..no facial features vere used, the figures of the models vere constant in scale, and no accessories, other than shoes, vere included. The latter vere the same for each of the three illustrations in a set. Although the poses of the models vere different, this was not considered an influential factor by the ten judges. The reliability of this instru­ment is discussed under separate title. - --

The Pre-Test Population of Test

In counsel with an administrator at Hood College, Frederick,

70Maryland, a cross section of this student enrollment in relation to class rank, academic Interest or major, and family background based on father's occupation vas obtained. This vas a total of forty-eight students or seven per cent of the student enrollment. A total of thirty-one women or sixty-five per cent of the original forty-eight students could parti­cipate in the study during the indicated times.

Findings from the Pre-Test

Due to the small size of this pre-test sample, statistical analysis vas limited. However, it vas generally discerned, vhen the P. P. S. and C. P. S. vere compared, that those individuals rating high on masculinity tended to prefer masculine clothing choices more frequently than those women rating high on femininity indicated feminine clothing choices. Also, on the P. P. S., those individuals above the standard deviation for masculinity seemed more frequently insecure as measured by this Instrument. Thus, although most tentative, it is suggested in these findings that a woman rating high on general masculine preferences is more consistent in her expression of these through clothing and is less well socially adjusted, than a woman rating high on general feminine preferences. This might be expected in American society since a woman with a preponderance of masculine personality characteristics is more deviant in her self-image and reference group expectations, than one rating high in femininity.

Concerning these students' evaluation of the instruments, forty responses indicated that the study was "interesting" or "worth the time because it's a research project." Only one student responded that it

"involves too much time regardless of research value(s)." Other responses concerning the instruments revealed positive reactions for the most part, and indications that the battery of measures vas "thought provoking," "enjoyable," "interesting," and "nicely presented." The evaluation sheets for the pre-test are included in Appendix A.

Reliability of Developed Instruments

The general validity and reliability of the instruments which vere adapted to this study have been previously discussed* Three instruments vere developed for the purpose of this study. These vere: aspirations concerning house-type-ownership; aspirations concerning type of college education desired for son; and the C. P. S. The validity of these measures is assumed to be of the face validity type due to their dimensions and construction. In order to determine their reliability for the study, retesting vas undertaken.

Composition of the Retest Population

The sample for the retest vas obtained by selection of every third subject from the research universe. This vas a total of 155 individuals. The three instruments together with a letter of explan­ation (see Appendix B) vere mailed to these students tvo months after the initial testing. The author believed that this tvo month interval between the original test period and the retest assured sufficient time to minimize the influence of recall in relation to these instruments. Also, the fact that these measures represented a part of the original

LIST OF TABLESTable Page1. Descriptive Information Concerning Panel of

Judges for Clothing Preference Scale ................ 682. Distribution of Test Responses According to

College Class R a n k ................................ 773. Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Extent *

of Formal Education of Subjects' Fathers andMothers............... 8lf

!»-. Frequency and Percentage Distributions of FamilyIncome of Subjects................ 85

5* Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Parents'Occupational Titles . ........ ................... 86

6. Frequency and Percentage Distributions of SubjectsBeyond Standard Deviation According to P.P.S.Subgroup Scores .................................. 87

7. Means and Standard Deviations of Responses onthe C. P. S.................................... . 95

8. Regression Coefficients and t Tests of. Corre­lations Between P. P. S. Subgroups Seven andEight and Preferences on C. P. S............... 97

9. Regression Coefficients and t Tests for StandardDeviation of C. P. S. "Most Desirable" Prefer­ences and the Social-Psychological Variables . . . . 102

vi

72instruments should have reduced the possibility of individual recall and enabled a relatively unbiased test of reliability.

Eighty-four or fifty-four per cent of these individuals returned completed schedules; however, six of these vere received too late to be used in the statistical analysis of the data. The retest population vas seventy-eight individuals or fifty per cent of the original sample. This lover percentage of return for the retest, when compared vith the initial test return, can be explained by several factors: the lack of personalcontact in explaining the follow-up study; and the fact that this testing period occurred during the summer vacation period. Although the schedules vere mailed to the home addresses of the individuals, it is possible that some of these students may have been located elsewhere during the summer months. It is also possible that some individuals may not have received the correspondence in time for completion. The fact that several letters vere returned undelivered endorses the possibility that certain of the students did not receive the correspondence.

Due to the initial delimitation of the sample, all of the retest participants vere seventeen to tventy-six years of age and unmarried.Class rank distribution, according to the original class Identifications, vas thirty-two freshmen, twenty-one sophomores, sixteen juniors, and nine seniors.

Findings from the Retest

Measures of AspirationThe means, mean differences, standard deviations, and coefficients

of correlation for most and least desirable house-type preferences and college education preferred for son are presented in Appendix C.

. A

i

73Examination of these data indicates that the most desirable

preferences for both of these measures revealed coefficients of correl­ation of 0.959 or higher. Since a coefficient of one would indicate a perfect correlation between preferences on the original test and the retest, these parts of the measures appeared to be quite reliable. Examination of the least desirable preferences revealed mean differences which were significant at the 0.05 level, and coefficients of correlation of O.765 or lower. Consequently, the least desirable preferences were not as reliable in these measures. However, it needs to be emphasized that after two months between the original test and retest, certain shifts In responses for these measures would be expected.

The Clothing Preference ScaleStatistical comparisons of the original test findings and the

retest for the C. P. S. are presented in Appendix D.The most desirable preferences for two of the six parts of this

measure revealed coefficients of correlation of 1.00. For the remaining most desirable preferences, no coefficient of correlation was less than 0.901. In addition, none of the most desirable preferences revealed a t test which was significant at the five per cent level; consequently, these parts of the measure were highly consistent for these subjects, with parts I and V revealing perfect correlations.

For the least desirable preferences on the six parts of the C. P. S., the mean differences between the original responses and the retest were higher. These preferences also revealed lower coefficients of correlation when compared with the most desirable preferences. It

would appear that for these subjects greater consistency existed in relation to the most desirable preferences, while less reliability was evident for the least desirable preferences. The two parts of this scale which revealed coefficients of correlation less than 0.700 were the least desirable preference for leisure or sportswear apparel and the least desirable preference for daytime dresses. It is possible that this may be attributed to the seasonal change between the original testing period which was undertaken in early spring and the retest which occurred during the summer. It is also probable that part of this variation may have been due to the change in residency of the subjects which may have, subsequently, altered their preferences.However, the fact that this did not consistently appear throughout the scale makes these interpretations tentative. Although the t test on the mean difference for least desirable suit preferences is signifi­cant at the five per cent level, the coefficient of correlation is sufficiently high to indicate acceptable reliability. None of the other t tests were significant at the five per cent level, and the coefficients of correlation for the least desirable preferences were relatively high indicating acceptable reliability.

It would appear that for these three measures, reliability in relation to most desirable preferences was quite good. The reliability of the least desirable preferences was less consistent. However, all parts of the measures, except the marginal cases of least desirable preference of college institution for son, least desirable preference of leisure or sportswear apparel, and least desirable preference of daytime dress, endorsed acceptable reliability.

75The Final Instruments

The final battery of measures consisted of the P. P. S., the P.P.- P.S. scale, and the C. P. S. Since the P. P. S. is a standardized and copyrighted scale, permission vas granted by the authors for use of it in its original form for both the pre-test and final test. This measure is included in Appendix E. A copy of the .inventory on P.P.- P.S. appears in Appendix F. A copy of the C. P. S. is presented in Appendix G.

In addition to these instruments, a series of questions vere included to secure background data on the subjects. Certain of these items vere also included for validating the measures included in the study. See Appendix H for a copy of this questionnaire.

Setting of the Study and the Sample

The location of this study vas Hood College, Frederick, Maryland. Hood College is a women's liberal arts college with a maximum enrollment of 6^5 students at the time of this investigation. The preponderance of this enrollment consists of resident students from Maryland, Massa­chusetts, Hev Jersey, Nev Tork, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and other sur­rounding states. The college offers liberal arts academic majors in fourteen areas, plus a degree program in home economics. Its costs are average vhen compared vlth similar educational institutions. The enroll­ment consists of women from, primarily, upper-middle-class to lower- upper-class families.

Since this universe enabled a vide range of academic interests of the participants, and a certain amount of homogeneity in the college

setting, this locale vas selected for the research. The study con­sisted of responses obtained from the total student enrollment.

Administration of the Schedules

Distribution of the schedules by college communes vas selected as the most feasible method since the pre-test had indicated that the instructions vere self-explanatory and since a large number of partici­pants vas desired for the study. By means of class lists, each of the schedules vas coded so that all schedules for one participant could be compared.

The students vere initially contacted during their general class meetings. It vas explained that this vas a study concerning social- psychological aspects of clothing preferences and that there vould be a total of four schedules to be ansvered. The fact that there vere no "right" or "vrong" ansvers vas emphasized, and it vas stressed that their ovn Judgment vas essential for the purpose of the study.2-* Complete anonymity vas guaranteed the participants. The students vere advised to see the investigator if they had any questions concerning the schedules; hovever, no questions vere asked during the tvo-veek testing interval.

Since Hood College operates on an academic and social "honor system," the importance of individual honor is veil recognized by the students. For this reason, any effects of bias in individual responses, as a result of influence from, others, vas not considered a problem since the students vere requested to abide by the college "honor system" during completion of the schedules.

77A total of 625 questionnaires were distributed by college com­

munes together with a general sheet of instructions.^ This latter was included as a reminder of the study as well as to familiarize students if they had not been present during the initial discussion (see AppendixI).

A total of 491 responses were received representing a seventy- eight per cent rate of return on the questionnaires. Table 2 presents the distribution of these responses according to academic class rank.Since the percentage distributions of return for the four classes were relatively consistent, it was assumed that the 491 respondents were representative of the college universe. Twenty-six of the question­naires had to be eliminated in order to satisfy the demands of the study. The final 465 subjects were unmarried women college students, seventeen to twenty-six years of age, and represented all class levels, all academic majors, and a broad range of socio-economic levels for the Hood College enrollment.TABLE 2. Distribution of test responses according to college class rank

Class RankTotal Student Representation

Student Response Per Cent

N of Total

Freshmen 199 158 79Sophomores 198 148 74Juniors 114 93 82Seniors 114 92 81

Total 625 491 • t

Although there was a total of 645 students enrolled at Hood College during the spring semester of 1962, when the study was conducted, twenty of these students were not on campus due to study abroad or at other institutions, or off-campus student teaching. These students were not included in the investigation.

78Treatment of Data

This discussion includes: (l) scoring methods for the measures;(2) coding of data; and (3) statistical methods of data interpretation.

Scoring Methods for the Measures

The P. P. S. vas scored according to the recommended technique2 7in the manual of instructions. Total scores for each of the ten parts

vere obtained together vith comparisons betveen these and the standard means for each of these parts. The difference, if any, betveen each score and the standard deviation vas then computed and recoded on the test sheet.

The methods of scoring for the P.P. -P.S. scale vere those recommended by Cramer for the parts vhich had been incorporated from this study. The original scoring of items for the ID-OD scale, proposed by Bell, vas followed except for the "paths of life." In this part of the scale, Cramer recommended scores for Just path one and path tvo. These paths vere scored according to their placement by the respondents. Path one, representing an inner-dlrected choice, vas given a score of1one if ranked first or second; if ranked third or fourth, it vas given a score of three; if ranked fifth or sixth, it received a score of five. Path tvo, an other-directed choice, vas scored five if placed first or Becond; a score of three if ranked third or fourth; and a score of one if ranked fifth or sixth. All of the other parts of this scale vere scored so that an other-directed choice represented a score of four, and

^ Krout and Tabin, A Guide to . . ., ©g. cit.

79an inner-directed choice represented a score of two. Possible scores for the ID-OD scale range from eighteen through forty-two. A key to the method of scoring this scale is presented in Appendix J.

For the Job Advancement Inventory (question number eleven on the schedule), only those responses indicating "might stop me from taking . the job" were scored. According to Cramer the other alternatives were incorporated in order to help the respondent clarify reactions to the items.2® This weighting system was also used by Dynes, Clark, and Dinitz in a study of attitudes and levels of aspiration concerning family experience.^ The total score on this measure represents the sum of the weights for the items checked. The range is from zero to sixty-six with a low score indicative of a low level of interest in job advancement and a high score representing a high level of interest. A list of the weights used in scoring this part of the P.P. -P.S. scale is included in Appendix K.

Cramer's measure of aspirations (question number fourteen on the schedule) was scored according to the weights recommended by the author. This represented a score of four when the subject checked "quite a bit more . . . 'distinguished,' 'influence,' 'highly paid,' 'power'"; a score of three for the next ranked response category; a score of two for the next; and a score of one for the lowest level of aspiration. The range of possible scores on this measure is four to sixteen.

pQ Cramer, oj>. cit.29 Russell R. Dynes, Alfred C. Clarke, and Simon Dinitz, "Levels

of Occupational Aspiration: Some Aspects of Family Experience as aVariable," The American Sociological Review, 22 (1956), pp. 212-215*

8 0

The two remaining parts of the schedule— most and least desirable house-type-ownership and choice of education for son— vere not scored. Since each of these choices represented either high or low aspiration and an Individual or social orientation, it was decided, after counsel with several statisticians, to tabulate and code the response category as it had been marked in order to enable the most reliable statistical treat­ment. This information is presented in the coding instructions, Appendix L.

No scoring system was used for the choices on the C. P. S. These answers vere, instead, coded according to the masculinity-femlninlty continuum. Since the total role situations for each of the six parts of this scale were designed to represent a range of reference group contacts and various types of role participation, no total score was considered practical for the purpose of the study.

Coding the Data

The data obtained from the scored instruments were coded and transferred to I. B. H. cards. Cross-checks vere made for accuracy of data transferral and card punching.

In the coding procedure actual scores were maintained for the ten subgroups of the P. P. S. This was also the technique used for the ID-QD scale, job advancement inventory, and Cramer's aspiratlon-scale. The other parts of the P.P. -P.S. scale, those measuring material aspirations, were coded according to the significance of the response category designated. The reasons for these selections, which had been under­scored by the participants, vere coded according to the dimensions of

81the statements. Preferences for each of the six parts of the C. P. S. were coded by type of response and a one-two-three, masculinity- femininity continuum. A score of one represented a masculine clothing preference; two, represented a composite clothing preference; and three, represented a feminine clothing preference.

Background data for the respondents were coded according to category response where this was possible. Codification of parents' job titles was achieved by reference to the Classified Index of Occu­pations and Industries of the United States. 0 This was also used for question number ten on the P.P. -P.S. scale which requested a projected, occupational title for husband when he "has reached the height of his success," providing the subject is married. The coding instructions for the study are presented in Appendix L.

Statistical Methods of Data Interpretation

Since the purpose of this study was to ascertain whether relationships were discernible for the specific variables, statistical analysis included determination of correlations and their confidence levels. For the pre-test, biserial correlations were used as a prelim­inary index of the validity of the developed asplrational measures. Product moment coefficients of correlation and t tests of the differences between means, were employed in a comparison of the original test and

30 Department of Commerce, i960 Census of Population Classified Index of Occupations and Industries (Washington: U. S. GovernmentPrinting Office, I960). .

Chapter I

XNQKODUCTIOM

Since man is often described as an environmental and social creature, his symbols of communication and expression become important media for self-adjustment and achievement. Clothing, universally accepted and used by man, is a contributing symbol in the process of social interaction. The present study is primarily concerned with this segment of social orientation— clothing as it relates to individual manifestations and social role transition.

Clothing as a social symbol helps to endorse individual identi­fication; however, this function is multilateral. Interpretation of it must relate to the individual, his personality, attitudes, values, and expressions, as well as his social stimulus effect. Clothing is frequently discussed in both the popular and technical literature as a means of cultural identity, social role identity, self-identity, and other aspects of individual representation. The use of clothing is related to the socialization process, but its functions may be indi­vidually, socially, and culturally diverse. Realization that the symbolic significance of clothing is important in cultural and soci­etal studies is evidenced by an increased amount of contemporary writing in these areas. The relationship between clothing and individual self-expression is less well elaborated.

82retest material for the reliability of the aspirational measures and the C. P. S.

Statistical analysis of the data from the study vas based on multiple regression procedures. Davies describes the multiple re­gression equation as • . a statistical relationship betveen ob­served values of tvo or more variables."^- Consequently, this type of analysis vas an attempt to find relationships betveen the variables in the study.

In addition, precision of the regression coefficients vas deter­mined by measurement of the standard error or conventional confidence limits. For this analysis, the t test vas employed. This tests the hypothesis that the regression coefficients equal zero; therefore, all of the hypotheses vere converted to null hypotheses for substantiation or refutation. The F test vas used to determine the precision of the multiple regression coefficients. According to Davies, interpretation of these tests should be as follovs.

It must be appreciated that the non-significance of a particular regression coefficient does not in any vay imply that the independent variable concerned does not effect, or is not related to, the dependent variable. It implies merely that, at the level of significance adopted, the confi­dence limits for the estimated effect, or slope, include zero as a possible v a l u e .32

Certain formulas for the statistical tests used in this study arepresented in Appendix M.

3^ Oven L. Davies (ed.), Statistical Methods in Research and Production (London: Oliver and Boyd, 1957)* P« 253.

Chapter V

FINDINGS

Responses from k6^ women college students, collected during the spring of 1962, comprised the data of the study. The findings are pre­sented In the following sequence: (1) descriptive findings concerningparticipants; (2) the social-psychological dimensions of the study;(3) general clothing preferences measured; and (4) relation between social-psychological characteristics and clothing preferences of the subjects.

Descriptive Findings Concerning Participants

Information concerning age, college class rank, type of college residence, and family socio-economic background factors was collected.In addition, certain aspects of the social activities of these subjects were obtained.

Three hundred fifty-eight of the subjects or 5^ per cent were in the age range 18 through 20 years. The remaining subjects were 21 to 26 years of age. The class rank distribution was 31 per cent freshmen, 30 per cent sophomores, 20 per cent juniors, 18 per cent seniors, and one individual was a "special student" pending senior classification. Eighty-eight per cent of the students resided in a college dormitory and had roommates, while 10 per cent of the sample lived alone. Two per cent of

8Uthe subjects lived at home. Concerning parents' vital statistics, 93 per cent indicated that their father vas living, while 7 per cent indi­cated that their father vas dead. Ninety-nine per cent of the subjects indicated that their mother vas living.

Table 3 presents the distribution of answers concerning extent of fathers' and mothers' formal education.

TABLE 3. Frequency and percentage distributions of extent of formal education of subjects' fathers and mothers

Educational Categories Fathers' Education

Number Per Cent (N-465)

Mothers' Education

Number Per Cent (N-1 5)

No formal education 1First to eighth grade 10Seme high school 27Completed high school 62Completed business, tradeschool 3U

Some college 71Completed college 117Advanced graduate study IkONo report 3

0.2 0 0.02.2 3 0.65.8 Ik 3.o

13.3 10I4- 22.if7.3 70 15.115.3 89 19.125.2 1L-7 31.630.1 38 8.20.6 0 0.0

These figures reveal that for slightly less than one-third of the parti­cipants the fathers had some advanced graduate study beyond college, and the mothers had completed college.

Table k presents the income range of the families of the sub­jects. This figure, as presented on the questionnaires, represented a combined income if both father and mother worked.

TABLE 4. Frequency and percentage distributions of family income of subjects

Income Categories Number(N=465)

Per Cent

Less than $5,000 1 0.2$5,000 - $9,999 103 22.1$10,000 - $14,999 104 22.4$15,000 - $19,999 96 20.7$20,000 - $50,000 106 22.8Over $50,000 19 4.1 'Does not know 1 0.2No report 35 7-5

Examination of this table reveals a relatively even distribution between the four income categories ranging from $5>000* to $50,000. However, some of the subjects indicated that they were uncertain of the accuracy of their answer.

Concerning employment of fathers, 29 per cent indicated that fathers were employed by a large (100 or more employees), privately owned business. The second most frequently reported category was "self-employed" which was indicated by 25 per cent of the subjects. The remaining cate­gories, in frequency of report were: large corporation indicated by 15per cent; small privately owned business checked by 13 per cent; govern­ment agency, 11 per cent; and institution such as school or hospital, 7 per cent. Only two students did not answer this question.

One hundred sixty-eight or 36 per cent of the students indicated that their mothers worked either part-time or full-time. Table 5 pre­sents the categorization of occupational titles for both the mothers and fathers of the subjects.

TABLE 5* Frequency and percentage distributions of parents' occupa­tional titles

Occupational Descriptions Fathers MothersNumber Per Cent Number Per Cent

(N=465) (N*k65)

Professional, technical, and kindred workers 15k 33-1 8k 18.1

Farmers and farm managers 12 2.6 1 0.2Managers, officials, and pro­prietors 222 ^7.7 16 3AClerical and kindred workers 8 1.7 50 10.8

Sales workers 32 6.9 12 2.6Craftsmen, foremen, operative, and kindred workers 2k 5.2 1 0.2

Private household workers 7 1.5 2 o.kService workers, except pri­vate household 0 0.0 0 0.0

Laborers 0 0.0 3 0.7No report 6 1.3 296a 63.6a

a These 296 mothers were not employed.

The 222 fathers who were classified as managers, officials, and pro­prietors included, primarily, business executives. The second most fre­quently reported category, "professional, technical, and kindred workers, was comprised of engineers, physicians, lawyers, architects, and other related occupations. This category was also most frequently represented in the mothers' occupational titles.

The Social-Psychological Dimensions of the Study Findings from P.P.S.

All k65 subjects completed the ten subgroup divisions of the P.P.S. Standardized norms for each of these subgroups, based on a

87total of 500 males and females, are presented by Krout and Tabln in themanual of instructions for the revised scale. Table 6 presents the frequency distributions together with percentages of the subjects who received scores above or below the recommended standard deviations.The percentage range of scores beyond the standard deviations for the ten subgroups was from a low of 2k per cent to a high of 1*6 per cent of the sample. Generally, fewer scores were outside the standard deviation limits for the two subgroups measuring masculinity-femininity.

TABLE 6. Frequency and percentage distributions of subjects beyond standard deviation according to P.P.S. subgroup scores

Subgroups Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Number Per CeOutside Outside Above Above Below Belov(N=l*65) cr

cr (n -i*65) a~ (Nsl*65)crcr

la 157 3k 11*9 95 8 52a 202 k3 151 75 51 -253a 208 k5 175- 81* 33 169a 216 k6 161 7^ 55 2610a 170 36 27 16 11*3 81*l*b 186 1*0 121 65 65 355* 121 26 ^3 36 78 61*6b 163 35 139 85 21* 157C 110 2l* 1*8 1*1* 62 568C 138 30 123 89 15 11

a For the purposes of this study, these subgroups were selected as a measure of sociability-individuality.

^ For the purposes of this study, these subgroups were related to aspiration.

c These subgroups measured tendencies toward masculinity-femin­inity.

The findings concerning sociability-individuality as determined by this scale for those subjects beyond the standard deviations are presented below. Use of the term "high score" refers to a score above

88the recommended standard deviation hy Krout and Tabin; use of the term"low score" refers to a. score below the recommended standard deviationby these authors.

Subgroup 1.- Ninety-five per cent of the subjects received high scores indicating insecurity with a regressive tendency and inclination to . . cling to the past." The remaining 5 per cent received low scores indicating security, a ten­dency to be active, out-going, and " . . . inclined to seek new experiences."Subgroup 2.- Seventy-five per cent of the subjects received high scores indicating a communicative, optimistic type of behavior and inclination to ". . . seek close object rela­tions." The 25 per cent receiving low scores " . . . may be considered taciturn, pessimistic, inclined to withdrawal from contact. . ."Subgroup 3.- Eighty-four per cent of the subjects received high scores indicating a ". . . oral-sadistic type of person who drains his hostility via oral channels— hence, tends to be subtly punitive (sarcastic) in his social attitudes." The 16 per cent receiving low scores represented " . . . altruistic, tolerant social behavior."Subgroup 9*“ Seventy-four per cent of the subjects received high scores Indicating " . . . sublimated, sensitive, emotionally mature attitudes, high personal loyalty, acceptance of author­ity, and enjoyment of personal services." The 26 per cent receiving low scores were representative of an". . . insensi­tive, unsentimental, unsublimated type of attitude and rela­tively loose personal ties."Subgroup 10.- Eighty-four per cent of the subjects received low scores indicating ". . .a socially immature individual, unconcerned about impersonal situations, unable to concep­tualize. . .relationships." The 16 per cent with high scores revealed "socially mature" personalities with "strong feel­ings about the larger world, and a tendency to leadership.Three of the subgroups were used in an analysis of aspirations;

however, only one of these (subgroup 6) was directly indicative of

^ These descriptions refer to the subgroup dimensions presented for the P.P.S. See: Maurice H. Krout and Johanna K. Tabin, A Guide1jO * • • m y Oj « cite

"ambition" or "aspiration." In report of these findings, use of the terms"high score" and "low score" refers to the positions associated with therecommended standard deviations. These findings revealed the following.

Subgroup V.- Sixty-five per cent of the subjects received high scores representing ". . .an emotionally labile, 'easy going' sort of attitude." The 35 per cent receiving low scores revealed tendencies toward "emotional rigidity."Subgroup 5*~ Sixty-four per cent of the subjects received low scores representing "irregular, rather inconsistent behavior trends." The 36 per cent receiving high scores revealed a methodical, punctilious, stubborn, and parsimon­ious type of behavior.Subgroup 6.- Eighty-five per cent of the subjects received high scores representing an egocentric emphasis or high as­piration. The 15 per cent receiving low scores were self- effacing with a relatively low aspirational level.2Two specific subgroups in this scale measured masculinity-femin­

inity. Interpretation of these, according to Krout and Tabin, varies with the sex of the participants. The same procedure, as mentioned above, is used in the reports of "high scores" and "low scores." The following findings were discerned.

Subgroup 7*- Fifty-six per cent of the subjects received low scores representing ". . .in a woman,. . .presence of a 'masculine protest,1 or antagonism toward typical behavior associated with her sex, and a tendency toward self-assertive­ness." The per cent receiving high scores represented a submissive, cooperative attitude.Subgroup 8.- Eighty-nine per cent of the subjects received high scores representing "an overcompensated masculinity in a female." The 11 per cent receiving low scores revealed normal attitudes for females.3

2 Ibid.3 Ibid.

90Findings from the P.P. - P.S. Scale

ID-OD InventoryFour hundred thirty-three subjects were used in the analysis of

the ID-OD Inventory. The possible range on this scale was from 18 to 42. The mean score for these subjects was 27.97 with a standard devia­tion of 9»33« Since this mean score was higher than the mid-point of the range, these subjects tended to reveal more other-direction than inner-direction. When this variable was compared with the other vari­ables of the study, no correlation was above 0.l6l. Thus, it was assumed that this scale was measuring different behavioral character­istics than the other measures of the research.

Aspirat i on-Measure sA total of 4-29 subjects had completed scores on the job advance­

ment inventory. The mean score for these participants was 21.1*4.Since the possible range for this scale was 0 to 66, this was less than the mid-point indicating that the significance of a job was more 'important to these subjects than many of the listed personal satis­factions.

In relation to the general aspiration-measure (possible range,4 to 16), the mean for the 429 subjects was 11.03. This was indica­tive of a tendency in the direction of high general aspirations.

A question related to projected aspirations for husband, assum­ing that the participants were married, was answered by 433 of the subjects. The majority of these individuals indicated over $20,000. as the desired income for husband when his career would be at its

peak. Another question concerning the occupational title preferred for husband revealed a narrow representation of categories. One hundred forty or 30 per cent indicated a type of professional or technical occupation; 108 or 23 per cent indicated a managerial title; and one indicated a farmer. One hundred ninety-four or 42 per cent answered "no definite idea," and 21 or 5 per cent did not answer the question.

Frequency distributions and percentages of the underscored reasons for preferences on the aspiratlon-measure concerning house- type-ownership are presented in Appendix N. Two hundred thirty or 14-9 per cent selected house number three as the "most desirable." This selection represented low aspirations, with a social type of emphasis according to the four house descriptions. The most frequent reason for this selection was the descriptive category concerning the furnishings; second in frequency of underscoring were the number and types of rooms; third in frequency, and just one per cent below the second most popular category, were possibilities for inside and outside entertaining. The "least desirable" of the four descriptions was house number four which represented high aspirations with an individualistic emphasis. This selection was least desirable for 198 or 43 per cent of the sample.The three most frequently underscored reasons for selection of this house as the "least desirable" choice were: (l) "unusual in architec­tural style and a 'show house*"J (2) "necessary to have additional help for maintenance of house and grounds"; and (3) "large lawn but lacks landscaping and attention."

Tables of frequency distributions and percentages of reasons for type of college institution "most" and "least desirable" for son are