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UniversityMicrofilms

International3 0 0 N. ZEEB R OAD, ANN A R B O R , Ml 4 8 1 0 6 18 B E D F O R D ROW, L O N D ON WC1R 4 EJ , E N G L A N D

7922535OKAFOR, UDDDIRI PAUL

THE INTERACTION OF SPORTS AND P O L IT IC S AS A DILEMMA OF THE MODERN DLYMPIC GAMES.

THE OHIO STATE U N IV E R S IT Y * P H . D . , 1979

COPR. 1979 OKAFOR, UDODIRI PAULUniversity

MiorxilmsInternational 300 N. ZEEB ROAD, ANN ARBOR, Ml 4S10G

0 Copyright by Udodiri Paul Okafor

1979

THE INTERACTION OF SPORTS AND POLITICS AS A DILEMMA OF THE MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

ByUdodiri Paul Okafor, DIP. P.E., B.Sc., M.Sc.

* * * * * *

The Ohio State University 1979

Reading Committee:Dr. Donald Harper Dr. Bruce Bennett Dr. James Sweeney

Approved By

School of Health, and Physical Education

Dedicated to my wife Susan, my daughters Ify, Oby, Kem, and to my sisters Chioma and Uzcma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Every dissertation completed is always a team work, but though like in basketball one - person gets the basket credited to him the other members of the team deserve words of appre­ciation.

The author wishes to express gratitude to his adviser Dr. Donald D. Harper for his patience, time and guidance in the execution of this project. To other members of the Com­mittee Dr. Bruce L. Bennett for introducing him to Avery Brundage Collections— a major source of information for this study, and for his words of encouragement. To Dr. James Sweeney for his thoroughness.in reading the manuscript.

Expressions of appreciation also go to Mr. C. Robert Paul, Jr., Director of Communication U.S.O.C. for his assis­tance and cooperation all through the study.

The author wants to thank all the U.S. Olympians, the U.S.O.C. Sports Administrators and the U.S. College Professors of Sports who responded to the questionnaire with useful com­ments .

The staff of the University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign Archives were superbly co-operative during the time the author was there to retrieve information from Avery Brundage Collec­tions and they deserve his gratitude.

To Bob Mathias and Miklos Tottossy, pre-196 0 Olympiansiii

who gave him useful comments the author is grateful. To the other Professors Dr. Donald K. Mathews, Dr. Barbara Nelson and Dr. Walter G. Hack who guided him during the doctoral program the author is grateful.

Finally to my wife Susan for always reminding me that I am capable.

VITA

1940, March 31 1960-1963

1963

1963-1966

1966-1970

1970-1973

1973-1975

1976

1977

1977

Born NSU, Imo State NigeriaAhmadu Bello University Zaria, NigeriaDiploma Physical Education Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, NigeriaTutor, Holy Ghost College UmuahiaEastern Region, NigeriaAssistant Education Officer, GovernmentTeacher Traning College Uyo, NigeriaAssistant Inspector of . EducationMiniistry of Education East Central State, NigeriaSports Coach, Acting Head Coach and Sports Administrator Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, NigeriaBachelor of Science University of Wisconsin Madison, WisconsinOne Semester Teaching Assis­tant, Soccer Univesity of Wisconsin Madison, WisconsinMaster of Science University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin

v

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Physical Education: Sports AdministrationMinor Field: Higher Education: Administration of Higher

EducationStudies in Comparative Physical Education and Sport.Studies in International Sports and Intercollegiate

Athletics.Studies in Higher Education Administration.

Completed Research: A Comparison of Opinions of AthleticDirectors and Coaches In U.S.A. and Nigeria On the Concepts of Athletic Scholarships. M.S. degree, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . ........................................ iiiV I T A ........................................................... V

TABLE OF C O N T E N T S ................................. viiLIST OF TABLES.................................................. XLIST OF F I G U R E S ............................................. xivChapter

I. INTRODUCTION ......................................... 1Background Information ......................... 1The Revival of the Modern Olympics Games . . . 2Olympic Ideology, Reaslism versus Idealism . . 5Olympics Rules, Applicability and

Contradictions ............................... 7Purpose of the S t u d y ........................ 8Statement of the Problem ....................... 8The H y p o t h e s e s ............................... 9The Rationale for the S t u d y ...................... 10Definition of T e r m s ............................... 11Limitations of the S t u d y ........................ 12Notes Chapter I .................................... 15

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ....................... 16Causes of Controversy in the Olympic

G a m e s .......................................... 16The International Olympic Committee

(I.O.C.)........................................ 22The Structures of the I.O.C....................... 24The National Olympic Committee .................. 27The International Federations of Sports . . . . 29Governmental Involvements in Sports . ........... 32The Political Use of Sports in the

Western B l o c .................................... 33The Political Use of Sports in

Socialist Countries ........................... 38

Sports and Politics in the Third World . . . . 43Olympic Presidents Views on Sports and

P o l i t i c s .................................... 51Demitrius Bikelas ........................... 52Pierre de Coubertin......................... 52Henri De Baillet L a t o u r .................... 54Sigfrid Edstrom ............................. 55Avery B r u n d a g e ............................. 56Michael Morris (Lord Killanin)............. 65

S u m m a r y ......................................... 66Review of Research on Olympics, Sports,

and P o l i t i c s ............................... 69Pro-political Incidents in the Modern

O l y m p i c s .................................... 77Berlin Olympics 1936 77London Olympics 1948 79Helsinki Olympics 1952.. .................... 81Melbourne Olympics 1956 .................... 8 2Rome Olympics 1960 ......................... 8 4Tokyo Olympics 19 64 ......................... 84Mexico City Olympics 19 68 .................. 85Munich Olympics 1972 87Montreal Olympics 19 76 .................... 88Moscow Olympics 1980 ........................ 91

Notes Chapter I I ................................ 92III. METHODOLOGY......................................... 98

Study D e s i g n .................................... 9 8Population of S t u d y ........................... 101Sampling Procedure . .........................105S.I.P. I n s t r u m e n t ............................. 10 6Data Collection Procedure .................... 10 8Response Returns ............................... 109Notes Chapter I I I ............................. 113

IV. ANALYSIS OF D A T A .................................... 114Data Reduction..................................114Discussion...................................... 115Summary of the Purpose of the

Olympic Games ............................... 133Olympics Athletes, Sports, and

P o l i t i c s .................................... 135Summary of Perceptions on Olympics,

Sports, and P o l i t i c s ...................... 149Econony of Sports and International

Relations.................................... 14 9

viii

Summary Economy of Sports and Inter­national R e l a t i o n s ........................... 166

Nationalism and Government Involvement . . . . 168Summary of opinions on Government and

S p o r t s ......................................... 183Measures for Separating Politics and

S p o r t s ......................................... 185Summary on Measures for Separating

Politics and S p o r t s ............. 203The Views of Pre-19 60 Olympians on

Selected Concepts ............................ 205Results of the Study .................. 206Review of Hypotheses ............................ 209Notes for Chapter I V ........................... 220

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . 223Summary................................................ 223Review of F i n d i n g s .................................. 225C o n c l u s i o n s ............................................ 226The Future of the O l y m p i c s ......................... 2 27Recommendations .............. . . . . . . . . . . 230

Recommendations for Depoliticizingthe O l y m p i c s .................................. 230

Recommendations for Research .................. 231Notes Chapter V .....................................233

APPENDIXESA. Letters to P a r t i c i p a n t s ............................... 234B. Letters from Olympic Committees ................... 25 0C. Questionnaire and Schedule ......................... 25 8D. Table of Means for All G r o u p s ..................... 265E. Summary Olympics venue Guide 1896-1984 ............ 268F. Data Printout from the Respondents.................2 70

B I B L I O G R A P H Y ................................................... 274

ix

LIST OF TABLESTABLE Page

1 Percentage Returns For The S.I.P. Instrument By Three Groups 1102 Views of Respondents On The Purpose Of The Olympic

Games With Regard To Promotion Of Competition AmongNations.................................................... 117

3 Views Regarding The Use Of The Olympic Games ToDevelop Lasting Friendship Between Countries ............. 120

4 Opinions On The Values Of The Olympic Games To RaiseSports Standards Of Developing Countries ................. 122

5 Respondents' Views On The Use Of The Olympic GamesFor Cultural Exchange ...................................... 125

6 Opinions On The Service Of The Olympic Games To Maintain And Promote The Ideals Of Spores For TheGlory Of I t ................................................ 128

7 Views On The Use Of The Olympic Games To GainInsight Into The Other Countries ......................... 130

8 Opinion Scores On The Use Of The Olympic GamesTo Construct A Better And More Peaceful W o r l d ............ 132

9 Respondents Views On The Concept That The GamesAre Used To Make Friends From Other Nations............... 134

10 Professors, Administrators And Olympians Views Regarding That Olympic Athletes Wish To KeepSports Free From Politics................................. 137

11 Opinion Scores On The Issue Of Athletes Use Of Sports To Demonstrate Political Maturity OfTheir Country.............................................. 138

12 Views That Olympic Athletes Welcome The Politics In Sports Because It Enables Their Country ToAssert Herself ............................................. 140

13 Athletes Are More Eager To Meet And Compete Against The Big Names In Their Sport In Other CountriesThan To Care If Their Countries Are Friendly Or Not . . . . 142

14 Respondents Reaction To The Statement That Athletes Want To Use The Opportunities To Know Other NationsMore Than To Care For The Foreign Policy Of Those Countries. 144

x

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

PageThe Scores of Respondents On Whether Athletes Compete Internationally For Self Glory First and Country Second . . . 146Views On The Notion That Politics Promotes The Olympics Through Engendering National Rivalry Resulting In Stronger, Higher and Faster Performances...................Responses To The Opinion That Recently The OlympicGames Serve To Promote The Economy Of The Host Nation . . . . 152Opinion Scores That Participation In The OlympicsShould Have No Bearing With Trade Between Nations ........... 154Response Rate On The Issue Of The Olympics BecomingToo Expensive For Many Nations and Requires CostCurtailment.....................................................157Respondents Reaction To Cutting The Expenses Of TheOlympic Games by Reducing The Number of Athletes ........... 159

Proffessors Sports Administrators and Olympians Views On The Statement About Not Selling Export Products To A Country Because Of Her Domestic Sports Policy ............. 162The Scores Of Repondents On Whether It Is Right To Use International Economic Sanctions To Affect A Change In Any Country's Internal Sports Segregative Policy .......... 165Views of Respondents On The Interaction Between Sportsand Politics Being A Thorny Problem For The Olympic Games . . 167Data Showing The Statistics Of Response To The Statement That The Olympics Is Now Used As A Strong Avenue To Pro­ject The Image Of One's Country 170The Response On The Necessity Of Government Involvement ForThe Success Of Their Olympic National T e a m s ................... 1-73The Opinions Of Professors Administrators and Olympians On The Issue That Smaller Nations Divert All Energies To International Sports To Achieve Prominence..................... 175Respondents Stand On The Achievement of Few Or No Medals In The Olympic Gaines And On The Shifting Of Emphasis To Satisfaction For Competing W e l l ................................178

xi

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

Page

180

182

184

187

190

192

194

196

198

201

204

. 208

Opinions Held By The Respondents On Government Involve­ment In Funding Sports Bodies And Whether This Suggests Infection By Politics ...................................The Views Of The Subjects On Whether Government Establish­ment Of The Ministry Of Culture, Youth, and Sports, Means Wedding Politics and Sports .............................Professors, Administrators and Olympians Reactions To Government Appointment Of Politicians Into Commissions To Review Amateur Sports And Make Recommendations . . . .Respondents Reaction To The Issue That Heads Of State Of Host Countries Should Not Be Given Royal Attention At The Olympic Games ...................................Opinions Of The Respondents On Who Should Appoint Dele­gates Of The International Olympic Committee . . . . . .Opinion Scores On Whether Accountability Of Non-Poli­tical Interference In Sports In Any Country Is The Responsibility Of That Country's I.O.C. Delegate . . . .Reactions Of Respondents On Desisting From Playing The National Anthem Of a Winning Athlete's Country In Order To Have A Low Key National Identity ...........The Responses To The Views That National Flays And Team Dresses Should Be The Only Allowable Conspicuous Iden­tification For Countries ................................The Opinions Of Professors, Administrators, And Olym­pians On The Concept That There Should Be No Medal Tables Published During The Olympic Games ..............The Reactions Of Respondents On Whether Belonging To An International Athletic Association Reminiscent Of Past Colonial Ties Is Indicative Of Relationship Between Sports and Politics .............................Respondents Opinions On the Elimination Of ProblemsOf Amateurism In The Olympic Games By Making ThemOpen To All Athletes .....................................Rank Order Of Items In Which The Groups Scored More Than 80% And A Mean Of Four And Above ...................

xii

TABLE Page40 Rank Order Of Statements In Which The Professors Scored

80% Or More. And A Mean 4.0 And Above . . . . . . . . . . . 21341 Rank Order Of Items In Which The Administrators Scored

Above 80% And A Mean Of 4.0 And A b o v e ....................... 21442 Rank Order Of Items In Which The Olympians Score Above

80% And A Mean 4.0 And A b o v e ............................ . 21643. Rank Differences On Eleven Highly Ranked Items In The

S.I.P. Instrument....................................... . . 21844 Means Of The Groups And The Population Responding To

The S.I.P. Instrument On A Five Point Sc a l e................. 26645 Guide For Summer Olympics Venues 1896-1984 269

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE1

PAGEOrganization of the International

Olympic Committee 28

xiv

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background Information

The interference of politics in the international sports arena and especially in the Olympic Games has been the sub­ject of topical interest in the second half of the century. Though there were reasons to believe that politics in sports is as old as sports itself the impact of the interplay of poli-' tics and sports has been more keenly felt by athletes, coaches and sports administrators during the past three decades. Pro­bably with advancement in technology and cilization it seems many nations of the world have continued to reshuffle their value systems. Some have placed more importance on athletic prowess and have devoted much time and money to sports. Others like the Third World Countries have not been carried away by these sentiments attached to sports in such a way as to over­shadow their other priorities. However, both the developed and the developing nations have so placed varying degrees of importance on winning international sports that it has been estimated that many nations spend between one and five percent of their national budget on sports. Sports awareness and sports fever have not simply been an institutional phenomenon

for schools and collages, but entire system, the body politic, and entire nations have been engulfed by the sports enthusiasm.

To be particular about the involvement of a people in sports, the Olympic Games have been the most outstanding sports spectacle for which countries elaborately and painstakingly have prepared for a long period of time. It is therefore pertinent in this introduction to visit the Olympic Games with a view to understanding their original mission as visualized by the founders of the modern games.

The Revival of the Modern Olympic Games

Most historians of Sports have traced the beginnings of the Modern Olympic Games to the ancient Greek Olympics, which were held in Olympia, Greece for many decades. As Henry has stated "the modern Olympic Games are the honest heirs of the ancient Games. Both were founded on a high religious and moral plane and showed signs of decay under the influence of politics and professionalism" (1:3).

The Olympic Games were orginally a Greek national affair. Graham and Ueberhorst developed the theory that the renewal ofthe Olympic Games was suggested to take the form of GreekNational Games..."The community of Letrinen near Olympiadecided to inaugurate the new Olympic Games to be held in Pyr-gos, the capital of Elis each four years (2:6). However this effort failed but by a decree of King Otto on August 19, 1858 the Games were renewed and "the first National Greek Olympics

were conducted in 1859 at the Ludwig Square in Athens" (2:6). The Second National Greek Olympics were held at the Panathe- naion Stadium in Athens in 1870. In the true account of modern Olympic Games, these Greek Games were not reckoned with. The revival of the modern Olympic Games started with a dynamic French educator and young man, Baron Pierre de Coubertine, who in 18 94 tcured some world capitals soliciting support for the revival of his envisioned idealistic games. Coubertin got his inspiration to revive the Olympic Games from his visit to England to watch the Olympick Games of England which were cele­brated at Dover's Hill between Oxford and Worcester. These were not actually the Olympic Games international in nature as the world knows it today.

...Coubertin was convinced after having seen the sports and games in Great Britain that the Eng­lish people had recognized and fully appreciated the relationship between physical and moral edu­cation (2:7) .

He sought to revive the Olympic Games because he believed... the practice of sport would help >_o fight physi­cal and moral decadence; a new kind of teaching in which world history in creating international understanding would bring about peace, access to culture for the underpriveleged, to develop sport to which Olympic movement was to give its seal of nobility (3:138).

He had a great vision of the uses of sport. His creative imagi­nation fired him to develop the festivities of the ancient Olympia into new channels for the promotion of international peace and a reform of education with sport as a base. His dream to use sport to create cultural awareness and for

4educational reformation was not unconnected with "the defeat ofhis country in the Franco-Prussian War and the humiliationwhich Coubertin felt from it. It was his sensitivity ratherthan his intelligence that gave birth to the Games" (3:138).

After the Conference of 1894 held at the Sorbonne Francewhere he had convinced the world of the need for the revival ofthe Olympic Games, the Modern Olympic Games was born withAthens being the first host in 1893. This was as a tribute tothem as the originators of the Games. In this keynote addressto Union des Sports Athletiques pursuant to emphasizing theimportance of the Gamas, Pierre de Coubertin said,

...Let us export rowers, runners, fencers, thereis the free trade of the future...your servanthopes that with you he will be able to continue and complete on a basis suited to the conditions of modern life, this grandiose and salutary task, the restoration of the Olympic Games (3:139).

Coubertin's initial motives have been apolitical because hethought of using the Games to give France a new world image.In 1891 he told the young men of the French Christian Union"the rebirth of sport within our societies which have beentransformed by scientific discoveries will perhaps assure it ofan international role which no one can fully envisage" (3:139).

There were seventy-nine delegates from twelve countriesat the Sorbonne Conference in 1894 at which place he enunciatedwhy he had restored the Olympic Games namely "to ennoble andstrengthen sports, in order to assure their independence andduration, thus to set them better to fill the educational rolewhich devolves upon them in the modern world. To exalt the

individual athlete whose very existence is necessary for the involvement of the community in athletic sports and whose achievement provide an example to be emulated" (3:139). Thus Coubertin had in mind the physical, intellectual, and moral education in his conception of the Games. The first of the revived Olympic Games was successfully held in Athens. This then became the first Olympiad, a term now more aptly used for the intervening period between one festival and the next one. But the numbering of the Games take their count from the 1896 Games held in Athens and are referred to as the First Olympiad. See Appendix E page for the numbering of the Olympiads.

Olympic Ideology, Reality Versus Idealism

The Modern Olympic Games as conceived by Coubertin and nurtured by Brundage is very idealistic. The Games were origi­nally for exhibition of individual prowess, artistry and cul­ture related aesthetics. The athletes originally were trained to be conscious of beauty of body and were tutored to compete for self glory and self fulfilment. The original prizes were branches of olives won by winners as garlands. Today there is reason to look back and ponder whether the idealism with which the Modern Olympic Games were conceived match the realities of life currently in our fast changing world. The rules which sound idealistic established that "the Games are contests between individuals and not between countries or areas" (4:74). At the same time the rules emphasize that "only citizens of a

country or area are qualified to participate in the Olympic Games under the colors of that country" (4:74). The fact remains that in spite of the written rules the Games have pro­gressed to be international contests among nations with sepa­rate identities. This came on strongly with the introduction of team games which did not exist in the earliest Games. The Greek -City Games which developed into the Ancient Olympics from which the Modern Games emerged were completely individual events. It is the Modern City States of the world who later asked for team sports to be included in the Olympic programs. Since 1908, in skating and 1932 in track and field, women have come to take part in the Olympic Games though originally Cou­bertin had exclude women from participation. It was considered not decorous for women to be seen in public competing along­side the men. The International Olympic Committee (I.O.C.) who made the rules is responsible also for the international out­look the Games now have. It has stated that "the flag of the country of the winner shall be hoisted on the central flagpoles on the right and on the left as they face the arena, — meanwhile the national anthem of the country of the winner is played" (4:37). The countries have thus been projected thereby creat­ing national awareness and attachment in the results at the Games. In other developments of the Modern Games, the press have gone out of their way to tabulate medals and publish the running totals won by each country. The I.O.C. is against this but the ability to check such pressment defies them. These are

the new kinds of reality which beset the ideals set for the Gaines.

Olympic Rules, Applicability and Contradictions

Some of the problems of the Olympic Games are in the defi­nitions and enforceability of the rules. It has been pointed out that the Games in reality are contests between nations and not between individuals as the rules would make the public to believe. The eligibility code for instance contains idealistic but unrealistic-in-the-modern world clauses. The question of non­amateur has clear definitions but defies enforcement because toe few athletes would qualify as amateur sportsmen. Rule 26 which elaborately and strenuously attempts to establish true amateurism and eligibility is a major cause of prcblems in the Games. By modern standards most athletes would not qualify for the Olympic Games if the rules are enforced as written. The impression that the Games are contests between individuals and not among nations who sponsor the athletes is a contradiction. The fact that in team sports uhe International Olympic Commit­tee stipulates "one team per country" (4:21) is an indication that it recognizes that it is no longer an individual contest between people emphasizing no national identities. More so the rules establish that "only citizens of a country or area in which a National Olympic Committee recognized by the I.O.C. operates, are qualified to participate in the Olympic Games under the colors of that country or area" (4:4). The I.O.C.

further established the power to punish the entire national team for the fraud of an individual especially "if the compet­itor's National Olympic Committee or National Federation is proved to have been party to the fraud" (4;24).

Purpose cf the Study

The Purpose of the study are:1. To examine the various factors that induce politics into

the Olympic Games arena thereby engendering controversies, suspicion and misunderstanding during competitions.

2. To delineate the true complexities of thes characteristics with a view to determining how they can be eradicated.

3. To compare the perceptions of three principal groups ofpeople knowledgeable about the Olympic Games on seme critical issues.

4. To investigate the view that politics promotes the Olympic Games, a view of the reverse side of the issue.

5. To explore the diverse role of governments in the adminis­tration of sports in their countries with special attentionto the composition of their National Olympic Committees'and the participation of their athletes in Olympic competitions.

6 . To determine the unfavoralbe effects on the Olympic Gamesby the intervention of politics into sports.

7. To compare the opinions of United States pre-1960 Olympianswith those of recent Olympians cn trends regarding politi­cal interference in the Olympic Games.

Statement of the Problem

Since the beginning of the century, the Olympic Games have been plagued by such troubles as politics and race problems. These two issues are the principal problems in many other international sports competitions as well. The Olympic Games

9have continued to have one crisis after another. This situa­tion bothers the sports loving people of the world and leads the investigator to search for the causes and possible solu­tions to these vexing problems. The following specific arsas will be examined:1. Political controversies have erupted prior to or during

most of summer and winter Olympic Games.a. Why has this been so?b. Is the interaction between sports and politics desir­

able?2. Is there a strong relationship between sports and politics?

a. In the international sports scene?b. At the home front and local scene?

3. What measures can reduce the incursion by politics into sports appreciably?

4. Would the Olympic Games be a successwithout the backing and involvement of government appointed officials in deci­sion-making about sports?

5. Is politics a strong causation factor for the controversies at the Olympic Games competitions?

6. To what extent, if any, does politics in the Olympic Games promote competitions and the Olympics itself?

7. Are the Olympic ideals of the early decades of the twentieth century still valid now in the light of the changing world of the late seventies?

The Hypotheses

1. Olympic athletes and Olympic sports administrators willview issues about the interaction of sports and politics at the Olympic Games differently.

102. Professors of sports and Olympic sports administrators will

see differently the effects of the incursions of politics into sports.

3. Olympic athletes and Professors of Sports will agree that sports and politics have been greatly meshed.

4. There will be no significant difference between Olympic sports admistrators, college sports professcrs, and Olympic athletes in the statement that politics promotes the Olym­pic Games.

Rationale for the Study

With the incessant disruptive incidents at the Olympic Games following one another in a seemingly endless reaction, this researcher is interested in finding what opinions various people held about the Olympic Games. With the mass withdrawal of the African nations at the Montreal Games in 19 7 6 and with no certainty that the Moscow Games will not be threatened, the researcher wants to gather and analyze thought trends about the apparents politicization of the Olympic Games. The athletes who have been on the scene must have by now developed unease and discomfort about incidents at the Games and so it would seem beneficial to sample their views on the effect of politics during the Olympic Games, what they hold to be the cause of these problems and their suggestions about improving the situa­tion.

Should the Olympic Games be power blocs manipulated, and should sports through the Olympic Games be used for political purposes? These are issues of concern worth investigating and the results may perhaps be useful for the future of the

11

Olympic Games.

Definition of Terms

Politics - The art of science concerned with competitionbetween competing interest groups or individuals for power and leadership in a government or other group. — Webster Collegiate Dictionary.

Dilemma - A problem seemingly incapable of a satisfactory solu­tion. It is also a choice between two alternatives which are equally unfavorable. — Merriam Webster Dictionary.

1.0.C. - International Olympic Committee. It is the bodyresponsible for making policies about the Olympic Games.

N.O.C. - National Olympic Committee. It is the body that represents the parent body in the member nations.

I.S.F. - International Sports Federations. These are thebodies responsible for policies on individual sports.

Apartheid - With special reference to South Africa in Sport it is a government policy which prevents contact through sports between the white supremacist race and the other races not white. Separate sports teams built on race groups are developed.

Chauvinism - A narrow and exaggerated partriotism in one's own country and its affairs to the disregard of other countries.

Socialism - A system or condition of society in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the State. — Webster Collegiate Dictionary.

5.1.P. - Hereafter referred to as SIP represents Sports-Inter-acticn-with Politics, instrument.

State Amateur - An athlete employed to work in a means of live­lihood by the State but is free to devote lots of time to the practice of his sport for the achievement of glory for his State.

12

Olympism - Developed by Coubertin from Olympia in Ancient Greece and Olympic Games, attempts to assemble in a radiant beam all the principles leading to the perfection of man.

Shamateurism - A portmanteau term designed to describethe practice common among Iron curtain and some other countries of subsidzing their "amateur" athletes as fully as any profes­sionals (5:47)..

Limitations of the Study

This study is limited to the use of United State of America subjects who have competed in the Olympic Games and those who are now or have been Olympic sports administrators.It includes United States of America university professors of sports sociology, sports history and sports administration. A study of this nature which involves world sports and athletic personnel would best have been conducted with global subjects but it is impossible to handle such a group within the scope of this study. Opinions and conclusions will therefore be limited to the perceptions of the United States of America subjects who have in one way or the other been connected with Olympic Sports at various levels. It has not been possible to delineate and treat as a group the United States of America Olympic Sports Coaches who have been personally in attendance at the site of the Olympic Games. However, members of the United States Olym­pic Committee and the I.O.C. delegates from the U.S.A. who have been at the helm of Olympic affairs for a long time had very useful contributions to make to the study. It would have been desirable in a study of this magnitude to get feedback from

13

African Olympic Sports leaders especially as their last Mon­treal Games walkout has been described as politically motivated. One of them, Abraham Ordia of Nigeria was sampled for informa­tion but his data were not used for analysis because it would not be statistically appropriate if the generalization is limited to the United States subjects. In the absence of the other countries of the world in this study, the generalizations and interpretations will be restrained to the U.S.A.

Conclusions from this study using a Likert Scale do not come solely from data generated with the SIP instrument. The Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, a storage of knowledge donated to the University of Illinois at Champaign Urbana were examined. Brundage, a former Vice President and President of the I.O.C., and U.S.O.C. at different times had preserved for posterity all documents he amassed in connection with the Olym­pic Games. The former President's speeches battling politics in the Olympic Games were recorded and preserved.

In addition to these two major sources ten older Olympians in the United States of America who competed before 1960 were to be interviewed. The demarcation of the year 1960 was arbi- tratrily chosen as a separation for older athletes and younger adults.

A number of respondents from professorial class had cri­ticized the instrument for being non-specific about investigat­ing the Olympic Games 'as it is1 or 'as it should be.' This criticism was noted but the investigator had hoped that the

14

questions suggested to their respondents whether to address the issue from "as it is" or from "as it should be" point of view. Dealing with as it is helps to arrive at studied recommenda­tions for 'as it should be.'

It is hoped the exclusive selection of the three groups of sujects to the exlsusion of ordinary people of the land does not bias the study. Perhaps other important groups with rela­tion to the Olympic Games are the sports journalists and the professional politicians. Including them in such a study would be very unwieldy and unmanageable hence it has been limited to only three available groups, and is accepted as a limitation of the scope of the study.

NOTES

CHAPTER I

Bill Henry, An Approved History of the Olympic Gaines,New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1976.

Peter Graham and Ueberhorst Horst (Eds.) The Modern Olym­pic Games, Cornwall, New York, Leisure Press, 1976.

Lord Killanin and John Rodda (Eds.), The Olympic Games, New York, Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., 1976.

Comite International Olympique, Olympic Rules and Regula­tions . Chateau De Vidy, Lausanne Switzerland, 1974.

Goodman Mark, "How to Save the Olympics," Time, September 25, 1972, p. 47.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE

Causes of Controversy in the Olympic'Games

It has been observed that most Olympic Games of the modern era have been plagued by crisis. It is pertinent to identify the causes of these controversies. Such identification is necessary if recommendations on how to eracicate them will be apt. Much of the controversy at the Olympic Games relates to what each country has at stake in the Olympics. It is known that while it is looked on as pure sport for some countries, for others it is business, and means everything to their country ranging from a feeling of belonging to a satisfaction for domi­nating. The founders of the Games may not have foreseen the degree of rivalry that was going to develop out of the quadren­nial Games. Most of the problems and controversies are gene­rated by politics, by race-related issues, by marred diplomatic relations, by the intensity of competition and the winning-at- all-cost attitude. In addition to these causes, other genera­tors of controversy are rivalry between sub-national groups such as one country sending two rival teams to the Games. It maybe observed that rivalry between super powers makes one sus­picious of the other's intentions in the Olympic Games.

16

Another causal factor of controversy at the Gaines is the calcu­lated bias by judges which are made to deny a particular coun­try a much valued medal. Cheating and disqualifications for not complying with the rules also are some of the causes, such as"in 1904 at St. Louis an American thought it would be a won­derful put-on to hitch a ride on that new-fangled invention, the automobile and to appear to win the marathon" (22:7) . When he was discovered he was disqualified. An Austrian, Karl Schraanz was declared ineligible in 1972 Winter Games because he had made money from ski racing. Some I.O.C. rules are in themselves controversial and contradictory, and have sometimes caused discontent and exchanges of words in the Olympic Games. Rivalry which has stretched far beyond control is entrenched in the I.O.C. rules when it states "the sharing of friendly effort and rivalry is an essential aim of the Olympic Games" (4:39). Doping and the resultant dismissal of an athlete found using drugs as ergogenic aids have caused animosity at the Games. Proven departure from amateurism lead to disqualifications and controversial withdrawal from competition by affected nations.

Though beyond the organizer's control, the weather may be a controversial issue. If rain marred the Olympic Games, the host country has been blamed for it, such was the case at the rain soaked track of Sheperds Bush London 1908 (5:66). Prior to arrival at the Olympic Village there are usually and always countries that are not in agreement with one another. This can easily lead to open protests in accommodation arrangements.

18The Ugandan team may not want to share with U.S.A. or Tanzania, the Israelis will not share with the Arabs, Egypt, and Cyprus do not want to be housed in the same building. These are few examples of current possible causes of controversy at the Games. Defections from social, communist or capitalist states to other states during the Olympic Games had in the past threatened the Games with one contingent or the other treatening to withdraw. Such was the case in Montreal when a Russian diver announced defection to Canada and the Russians threatened to withdraw froiji the Games.

In reporting the controversies of the 1976 Olympics, Put­nam summarised the Games briefly:

...Much of the controversy stirred by these Games will of course continue to exacerbate international athletic relations, already it has created specula­tion over host Russia's intentions for the 1980 Olympics (6:19).

There is no doubt that politics is principally responsible forpart of the controversies. Kieran and Daley comment on theBerlin Olympic Games about political undertones and outrage.

...There were political repercussions even as the athletes of the competing nations paraded past Der Fuehrer, Chancellor Hitler, at the formal opening of the Games. The parading groups from nations that were friendly to Nazi or Farcist political philosophy gave the Nazi salute and were enthusiastically hailed by the German spectators in the towering stand (5:155).

Apartheid is another cause of controversy in the Olympic Games.South Africa who is the principal architect of this policy hasbeer, expelled from the Olympic movement. Because of theirapartheid policy African sports administrators have warned that

no nation should play any sport with South Africa. In the case of South Africa related controversy at the Games, Bennett et. al. report...The race controversy led to the withdrawal ofI.O.C. invitations to South Africa both for the 1964 and 196S Olympics until she was expelled from the Olympic Movement in 1970 (10:207). The African walkout at Montreal was as a result of New Zealand playing rugby with racist South Africa in spite of the protest by Africa that the country South Africa should be isolated regarding international sport as has been done with economic sanctions of a global nature. Rival teams from one country can result in problems that mar the Olympic Games. Kieran and Daley report one incident in the 1936 Games in Berlin:

...Rival political parties in Brazil had sent rival Olympic teams to Berlin. The Olympic arbiters could find no way of settling the dispute as to which was to represent Brazil and both teams finally were withdrawn from the competition (5:155).

Other causes include international strife. During the Olympic Games in Melbourne in 1956 Russia invaded Czechoslovakia and the Olympic Village was thrown into confusion (5:280). Sub­national groups such as the Palestinians entered the Olympic Village in Munich in 1972 and murdered eleven Israeli athletes and coaches. Internal feud as to who should represent the country has been carried to the Olympic Village. Fouss had written about such an incident at one of the Winter Games where rival teams came from one country.

20

...In 1947/ the Swiss Olympic Committee in charge of Winter Olympics chose not to ac­cept the Amateur Hockey Association (U.S.A.) entry not approved by U.S.O.C. who had re­fused to certify the Amateur Hockey Associa­tion as amateurs in accordance with Olympic protocal (7:202).

Judgement calls interpreted as unfair by teams receiving such judgements have also threatened the Olympic Games. "In the Berlin Olympics during the soccer campaign, there was an argument over a game won by Peru over Austria and the game was ordered replayed. This exasperated the Peruvians who promptly withdrew their whole team from further participation in the Olympic Games, and in far-off Lima the indignant citizens of Peru gathered stones and bombarded the German Consulate...." (5:158). Proven departure from amateuristic ideals such as having received cash or cash-valued property while competing as an amateur is a cause of disqualification, controversy and threat­ened walkout or withdrawal. In the Fifth Olympiad, a pentath­lon winner "James Thorpe was disqualified on the technicality of once as a youth having accepted a small sum of money for playing a baseball game" (8:41). Helping athletes to finish their races can earn one a disqualification. In the Games of 1908 in London, "Dorando Pietri first to appear in the stadium during the marathon was in physical collapse and had to be helped over the last few yards of the course" (8:40). He was later disqualified and the Italians protested strongly about the muddle. Incidents of prejudice by referees were numerous in boxing. In the Olympic Games in Munich there were shouts

21

of "Schieber, Schieber" meaning 11 crook, crook" at some of the racial prejudices in judging boxing. In a row three blacks, an Ugandan, a Mongolian and an American {from the United States) had all lost and the winners were all white. The issue was reviewed and "the executive board of the International Amateur Boxing Association suspended Judge Jan Krom from the Nether­lands and gave sixteen others stern warnings and last chances" (9:69). When Chris Taylor the 400 lbs United States of America wrestler lost on an official decision the Turkish referee Umit Demirga was disqualified (9:69).

Doping when proved results in the withdrawal of an ath­lete 's right to compete. Athletes are subjected to tests and are disqualified if results show some presence of anabolic steroids usually amphetamines. This also causes furor and dis­ruption in the Olympics.Summary: In the final analysis the main causes of controversyat the Olympic Games are:

1. Politics2. Racism and apartheid3. Doping4. Bad judgement calls by officials5. Departures from amateurism6 . Double delegation from one country7. Subnational and liberation groups in attendance8 . Pre-Olympics strained diplomatic relations between

countries9. Big Power rivalry

10. Inadequacies and Conflicts in the I.O.C. rules

The International Olympic Committee22

The International Olympic Committee (I.O.C.) is the supreme authority responsible for policy making regarding the Olympic movement. It was founded in 1894 by Baron Pierre de Coubertin.

...An independent organization it recruits new mem­bers by co-opting them. They are the representa­tives of the I.O.C. in their respective countries and not delegates of their respective country to the I.O.C. (11:10)....It selects such persons as it considers qualified to be members provided that they speak English or French and are citizens of and reside in a country which possesses a National Olympic Committee recog­nized by the International Olympic Committee (4:5).The I.O.C. recognizes one National Olympic Committee for

each country. The I.O.C. serves as a policing agency for theupkeep of Olympism, the ideals to which the founders devotedthe Olympic Games. It sponsors the quadrennial organizationfor the Summer and Winter Games. The Olympic movement to whichthe I.O.C. is devoutly attached represents the revival of theideals which shone brightly for over a thousand years duringthe long climax of the quadrennial festivals of Olympia. TheI.O.C. is the watchdog of the Olympic Charter which defines thefundamental principles of the Olympic movement as well as theorganization and powers of the I.O.C.

..."In order to implement the ideals of the Charter the I.O.C. ensures the assembling of the athletes of the world in two big quadrennial festivals the Olympic Games and the Winter Games" (11:10).

The I.O.C. has been called a "self perpetuating body" and a

"conservative bunch" who are living the past in the present- Most of the ideals the body stands for are outdated. The com­position of the membership has been severely criticized in newspapers, journals and texts. It has been accused of main­taining a "closedshop" and keeping itself immune from all pres­sure and influences and effectively preventing any "public interference" which would have led to the evils of "ineffici­ency and mediocrity." Czula (1975) in reviewing the membership and composition of the I.O.C. observed:

...An examination of the membership role of the I.O.C. as of 1973 shows it has 73 members, all male, with an average age of 62 and 14 members over 70 years old.Fifteen have titles including a sultan, a King, a Moslem Prince and four Christian Princes, and the dean is David George Brownlow Cecil, Lord Burghley Sixth Marquess of Exeter (12:15).

These members are recruited by the I.O.C. in a self selecting process. The founder of the I.O.C. was a Lord Barron Pierre de Coubertin and its present President is Michael Morris another Lord Killanin, Third Baron of Irish aristocracy. The I.O.C. thus portrays the impression of an elitist exclusivist club whose membership is circumscribed. It has been criticized for being too powerful and for its "inability to adapt to a chang­ing world" (12:16). According to Czula 1975 "Many observes feel that the International Olympic Committee is continuing to steer an ancient charted course which can only lead to its inevitable destruction (12:10). In spite of all the criticisms levelled against the I.O.C., it has strongly held the forth one Olympic Games after the other and has discharged its self

24

assigned responsibilities which are:1. the regular clebiration of the Games2. making the Games ever more worthy of their glorious

history and of the high ideals which inspired theirrevival by Baron de Coubertin and his associates

3. encouraging the organization of amateur sport com­petitions

4. inspiring and leading sport within the Olympic ideal,thereby promoting and strengthening friendshipbetween the sportsmen (and sportswomen*) of all coun­tries (4:5).

The Structure of the International Olympic Committee

According to its rules, "The International Olympic Commit­tee elects a President for eight years from among its members by secret ballot and by absolute majority of those present" (4:6).This body "has three Vice-Presidents (one at least from Europe) to hold office for one period of four years." An Executive Board composed of the President, three Vice-Presidents and five additional members perform the following duties assigned to it by the I.O.C.

It must ensure that the Rules and Regulations are observed.It prepares the agenda for the meetings of the I.O.C.It submits to the I.O.C. the names of the persons whom it recommends for election.It is responsible for the management of the I.O.C.'s finances and makes an annual report.

Addition in brackets is author's.

It appoints the Directors.It accepts the ultimate responsibility for administration.It keeps the I.O.C.'s records (4:7).

The organization chart (p. 28) shows the various Sub-Committees and Ad Hoc Committees. The structure also indicates there are a number of Sub-Canmisions charged wth specific responsibili­ties. A study of the organization of the I.O.C. leads the writer to conclude that the body has an amorphous structure that is reeling with numerous sub-parts. It appears unwiedly and is probably part of why it is steeped in bureaucracy and conservatism.

A delineated classification ahows the following structure: (see chart p. 28).

The International Olympic Committee The Executive Board

The President Three Vice Presidents, charge with

a. Tresuryb. Protocolc. Supervisory and Co-ordination of Committee

There are Nine Sub-Committees namely:Public Relations and Press Sub-CommitteeOlympic Academy Sub-CommitteeRules Sub-CommitteeFinance Sub-CommitteeCultural Sub-Committee

Various Ad Hoc Sub-CommitteeWinter Games Sub-CommitteeMedical Sub-CommitteeEligibility Sub-Committee

There are Five Commissions Aid Commission Eligibility CommissionLegislation, Discrimination and Relations between

N.O.C.'s and Governments CommissionOlympic Program, Officials at the Games and

Designation for cities to stage Games CommissionI.O.C. Membership, Relations I.O.C., N.O.C.’s and I.

annual meetings and Olympic Congress Commission

There are Two Directors responsible for: Information and Publicity Technique and Assistance

There are Ten Departments responsible for: Cultural Affairs Public Relations and Press Library, Museum, Documentation Translation Services AdministrativeI.O.C. Members and Sessions TechnicalNational Olympic Committees International Federations

27

Organizing Committees In summary the I.O.C. is the final authority on all questions concerning the Olympic Games and the Olympic movement. How­ever the I.O.C. "delegates to the International Federations the technical control of the sports which they govern" (4:9).

The National Olympic Committee (N.O.C.)

The National Olympic Committee is the governing body ofOlympic policy in member countries. It is composed of membersof National Federations of the different sports. It is a bodywhich represents the I.O.C. in other nations affiliated to theOlympic movement. The N.O.C. of any country sponsors theircountries' athletes to the Olympic Games. In regard to thisbody the I.O.C. states:

In order that contestants from a country or geographi­cal area can participate in the Olympic Games, a National Olympic Committee must be composed of at least five National Federations (4:10).

The National Federations must be those whose sport is included in the Olympic program. Like the International Olympic Commit­tee, the National Olympic Committees serving as the territorial controller and representatives of the Olympic movement were created in 1394. Their number has risen from the original two (Greece and France) to 133 in 1978 (11:11). The main tasks of every N.O.C. are:

1 . to ensure the participation of the athletes of its country in the Olympic Games

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28

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rnational Olymic Com- Pirchives, Urbana.

292. to find the essential and stable resources

indispensable to its proper working in com­plete independence

3. to spread the ideas of the Olympic movement and protect its heritage

4. to serve as a link between the National Federa­tions affiliated to the International Federa- . tions recognized by the I.O.C.

5. to enourage and help the government of its country to organize a program of physical education and sport for all its citizens and in particular for the young/ with a view to developing the character and improving the health of the participants

6 . to combat all discrimination7. to celebrate an annual "Olympic Day"8 to imbue all its activities with educational

ethical and aesthetic feeling (11:11).The relationship between the I.O.C. and the N.O.C. is describedby Graham and Ueberhorst, "The National Olympic Committees areintended to be the premier diffusers of the Olympic word inindividual nations" (2:48). Though the all powerful I.O.C.drastically reduced the influence of the N.O.C. in running theOlympic Games, Graham and Uberhorst reported that:

the relations of the N.O.C.'s and the I.O.C.appears to have improved as a result of theestablishment of the N.O.C. General Assemblyand the meetings with the Executive Board (2:49).

The International Federations of Sport (I.S.F.)

The International Federations of Sport are the governing bodies that make policies in individual sports. They standar­dize rules for all international sports competitions. The

30

rapid growth of sport and the creation of new sports events have considerably increased the number and the importance of the International Federations. Last year the Olympian reported:

Today in 1978 there are over 60 International Federations, 26 which take part in the Olym­pic program (11:11).

While the N.O.C.'s are responsible for the implementation of Olympic ideas and principles in their respective countries, the International Sports Federation s have each a global influence and control on the conduct of each sport. The I.O.C. does not exert as much influence over the I.S.F.'s as it does over the N.O.C.'s primarily because the I.S.F. have powers that transcend Olympic Sports. The earliest International Sport Federations were Gymnastics and Rowing (2:49) and were the only ones with international structure prior to the 1896 Games. The Inter­national Sports Federations are compos ed of National Sport Governing Bodies (N.S.G.B .'s). These are bodies which promote their sport in their countries but they attach importance to supporting the Olympic Games. As expected the N.O.C. in each country will naturally consist of leaders of Sports Governing Bodies especially the Olympic Sports.

The responsibilities of the I.S.F. cover the legislation organization and development of sport. In detail these are:

1 . promulgation of regulations governing thepractice of the sports concerned, the instal­lations and equipment, the length of events and the rules governing them.

312. classification of competitors into categories,

according to sex, age, weight and performance..3. definition of the competitors status: amateur,

professional.4. laying down of medical rules aimed at protecting

the health of athletes while fighting against dop­ing and other dangerous practices

5. adoption of preventive measures against all unfair and unlawful dealings

6. organization of big regional, continental and world competitions

7. control of all international competitions8. training and accreditation of international

referees9. co-ordination of the activites of their members

10. development of the sports movement11. co-ordinates the contributions and the co-opera­

tion of the national federations affiliated to them (11:11).

In terms of effectiveness and influence, the International Sports Federations are very important in the Olympic Games and with their co-operation ensure placing each sport in their country at the proper level of recognition. Because of the importance and role of the N.O.C. and I.S.F., the I.O.C. has constituted with them into a tripartite commission. A tripar­tite co-operation exists between these three bodies,

It was to put this tripartite co-operation into a concrete form and reinforce the work begun in 1894 by Baron de Coubertin that the 1973 Olympic Congress of Varna was organized. A Tripartite Commission com­posed of representatives of the I.O.C., N.O.C's and I.S.F's was created for its preparation. The Congress decided to keep the Commission in existence in order to ensure better co-ordination between the three bodies (11:10).

32

Governmental Involvements in Sports

This chapter reviews how various world governments have attached importance to sports and how some have reacted to sports victory or defeat in international competitions. They have also extended government involvement to the Olympic Games. Some Eastern countries have to a greater degree attached nation­al prestige to sports thereby politicising what was designed to be an entertainment. This review will show that Third World countries also attach political significance to international sports victories. When in 1972 the Zairean National Soccer team won the African Zone Finals to appear in the World Cup in West Germany, the Government of Zaire donated a car to each of those players. The same country Zaire had spent some millions of dollars to stage a world heavyweight title fight between Mohamed Ali and George Foreman. The principal motive was poli­tical publicity. "Television-by-satellite, as well as more prosaic media had given Zaire enormous unprecedented exposure" (13:170). Roberts (1976) in reference to that fight also com­mented "Third World countries stood in line for chances to match the publicity coup pulled off by the obscure 'native' govern­ment that so recently had replaced Belgian Control (13:170). Malaysia also followed the Zaire publicity purchase. It spent millions of dollars to stage another Ali fight this time against Frazier. In an interview with Sports Illustrated that country's leader President Marcos was quoted to have said in reference to gains

33from staging the fight that

...We have benefit already. The fight publicizes our country; Many people do not know where the Philipines are, and don't know what the situation is here. They think that the military runs the government, tanks are in the streets. Have you seen any tanks? (13:166).

In Nigeria, when the Federal Government financially sponsored a world middleweight boxing championship fight between Dick Tiger and Gene Fullmer in 1963, publicity for the newly emergent Republic was part of the ulterior motive. That Dick Tiger had a better chance of retaining the title with home fans cheering him on could also be a higher motivating factor to sponsor the fight. However, both objectives were achieved. In Nigeria more recently, a state government had in 1977 given a brand new Volkswagen Beetle car to each of members of a soccer club that had won a continental trophy. In 1973, barely three years after the Nigerian Civil War the Head of the Federal Military Government had ordered a National Sports Festival as the fast­est and surest way to unite all the parts of the country. It achieved its objective because the result showed that sports was the greatest political integrator even to erstwhile embit­tered people.

The Political Use of Sports in the Western Bloc

Lipsyte (1975) on the Olympic and political use of sports by the United States of America states:

34

.,.but for American international politicians the Olympics is an important summit convention, a kind of staging area for sports diplomacy on all its levels, from a high school basketball coach's mis­sion to Israel, to Arthur Ashe's tennis tour of Africa, to a Ping Pong team to China and a Volley­ball team to Cuba (14:79).

McIntosh adds an observation to the interaction of sports andpolitics in the United States of America.

,.„in the United States the influence of sport onpolitics has been considerable....... In a broadersphere sport gave cohesion to a great variety of immigrants with different racial, religious and political backgrounds (15:488).

McIntosh cites the instance of German-American gymnasts as an examples of sports and politics correlates. The British are not left out in the use of sports to improve political rela­tionship, McIntosh comments further:

.,.Roger Bannister had just become the first man to run the mile in less than four minutes. The Foreign Office sent him on a "good will" visit to the United States in order to improve Anglo-American relations (.15:4 91) .

The British Government through sports is able to bring together all her former political colonies by way of the (British) Com­monwealth Games held quadrennially in member countries. The Games are presided over by the British Monarch the Queen or her representative, the Duke of Edinburgh, her husband. Bennett et, al, comment that "Many Commonwealth Sport Meets begin with 'God Save the Queen' (10:221). The British Government also glorifies winners as many other countries do. At the end of the Tokyo Olympic GameSj reception for the athletes was excep­tional and Allen reports of the athlete winners,

35

they and all the rest of the Olympic team went to receptions at Buckin.gham Palace and Number 10 Downing Street and a host of other functions (16:100).

Buckingham Palace is where the King or Queen of Britain livesand Number 10 Downing Street is the residence of British PrimeMinisters. The following observation was made by Hart:

"In 1963 the British Prime Minister....assigned to Lord Hailsham the task of co-ordinating the aid given to sport and recreation by different Government departments such as the Ministries of Education,Health and Housing and Local Government. It looked as if Lord Hailsham was to be in fact but not in name a Minister of Sport" (15:491).

The British Government is not alone in aiding sports through a Ministry. In Africa most countries have a Ministry of Sport, Youth and Culture and supervise activities of the department through a Minister. National and international developments in sports, including the Olympics are monitored and reported to the government. It is not therefore an understatement to say that many governments in the world relate sports and poli­tics. Only those who are scrupulous and conscious of the let­ter and intent of the Olympic Charter have carefully avoided interference in Sports. These are the few who have not funded sports through a government budget allocation and who have not appointed sports functionaries. Until recently the United States of America was the only outstanding model of a country that had allowed sport organizations to run their affairs with­out governmental intervention. The Amateur Athletic Union, the United States Olympic Committee, the National Collegiate

Athletic Association, the Association for Intercollegiate Ath­letics for Women, and the National Association for Intercolle- gia,te Athletics were all independent and autonomous organiza­tions. But with pressures from the citizenry and the athletes who had complained that their Olympic efforts were individua­listic and personal, the Federal Government set up a Commission on Olympic Sports, The Commission concluded with a recommen­dation for the merger of all sports bodies to strengthen Olym­pic efforts of the United States. A supreme body responsible for amateur sport in this country was born and placed under overall control of the United States Olympic Committee (64:10). The Federal Government has approved a subvention of thirty million dollars to this body to organize training, purchase equipment, procure sports medicine services and cater for the needs of athletes. This record appears to be the first visible United States Government involvement in amateur sports. In order to emphasize that sports is politically important to the nation, former President Ford had the following comments:

...a sport triumph can be as uplifting to a nation's spirit as well as a battlefield victory.... If we want to remain competitive and I think we do, we owe it to ourselves to reassess our priorities, to broaden our base of achievement so that we again present our best in the world's arenas. From a purely political viewpoint, I don't know of anything more beneficial in diplomacy and prestige (13:174).His predecessor Nixon was reported to have done more poli­

ticizing of sports than any other United States President.Novak remarked "one identified sports with narrow politics" but goes on tp comment on Nixon thus,

37...a heavy-browed manipulation of the metaphors of sport weights on us years after Nixon adminis­tration which conducted a public pilfering of the good coin of sports for political purpose. All those invocations of game plans options, the will to win, team spirit and the rest were thefts from the offertory plate Cl7:212).

There could hardly be any more strongly worded proclamation onthe use of sports for politics and diplomacy than the words ofFord. In this discussion which has so far concentrated on theWest, Canada cannot be left out. For Canada success in sporthas political importance. In 1962 she was reported to have:

"launched a government- campaign for fitness and amateaur sport, in full recognition that those who compete in the Olympic Games, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games, the Pan American Games and other international championship games are ambassa­dors of goodwill for Canada" (15:493).

Canada is proud of her supremacy over the world in Ice Hockey.Once she was defeated by another country at the Winter Olympicsand the Government of Canada ordered an inquiry into the loss.Defeats in Ice Hockey was said to have affected Canada's imageabroad that the Minister of External Affairs was reported tohave said:

,,.Officials of the Department of External Affairs have assured us that this deterioration in the over­all image of Canada abroad and especially in Europe, because of our recent failures in hockey is of much concern to them (10:223).

The officials assured the nation that government was going todo something about it.

When for the first time the United State of America lostthe Olympic Basketball Tourney in 1972 to the U.S.S.R. therewas a public out cry and a call for inquiry by the citizenry

through the press. In the Netherlands sports is extremely popular to such a degree that 2,7 million of the 13.5 million inhabitants are members of sports clubs (11:16). The Sports Federation in that country is the largest and the most active of the sports organizations which include the Cultural Sports Association, the Protestant Sports Union and the Catholic Sports Federation. The Sports Federation includes the Olympic Committee which makes the preparations for sending the Dutch Olympic Team. Like many other nations where governments aid and sponsor sports in the Nethelands, it is found that "Sports organizations are subsidized by the government and also receive income from the football pools and lottery" (11:16). Govern­ment patronage of sports is overwhelming and as a result this small country had 400 sports centers and 3 84 indoor swimming pools (1977). These are few examples in the West of govern­ments’ involvement in sport generally and in the Olympics in particular.

The Political Use of Sports in Socialist Countries

In the Eastern countries government participation in sports is greater and entails more emphasis on winning at international meets. In East Germany and the Soviet Union sports are used to showcase socialism. Their success at inter­national sports, and this includes the Olympic Games, is inter­preted as success for socialism and they do not hesitate to announce it. In the Soviet Union sport is an integral part of

39

national policy and the government commits vast sums of money to produce top teams and Olympic winners. Soviet socialism stresses collectivism and co-operation over individual and self interest and to the leaders sports bring about intense feel­ing of nationalism. Sports in the Soviet Union is utilitarian, it serves as tryout for political overtures. An illustration of this deployment of sport in political detente is the Soviet gymnastic tour of the United States of America in 1973. The U,S,S,R, does not fail to emphasize that sports successes were a salient feature of the overall ability of their country as a nation and of the communist system. Recently a Russian dele­gation toured African countries to brief their sports leaders on the 198Q Olympic Games she is hosting. In Nigeria, the Director of Sports asked the Russian delegation to convey to their government that Nigerian would want their financial aid to up grade her sports to succeed like Cuba. The Russians replied that the success of Cuba in Sports is due to her sys­tem— Socialism and not due to finance (18:28). This illus­trates how she uses sports to sell an ideology to developing countries. Cuba, a Soviet Socialist ally confirms this same opinion about success in international sports. “When Cuba won twenty times more gold medals than did the United States on a per capita basis at the 1971 Pan American Games Cuban Premier Castro proclaimed to Latin America this was proof of the superiority of the Cuban people and the Cuban system" (42:145).

The Soviet Union is now paying greater attention to Third

40

World Sports by appointing sport laison personnel. Theircoaches and instructors are sent to developing nations to helpthem improve their sport. Other types of sporting aid isgiven to emerging nations so that these nations can be on theinternational sports scene. Domestically the U.S.S.R.uses sports to keep unity between the fifteen republics thatmake the Union. She also encourages sport relations withfeudal states that are geographically close:

The pattern of foreign sport competition involving the U.S.S.R. has closely followed the course of Soviet foreign policy and displays clearly differ­entiated contours in regard to the geo-political situation of different countries (19: 1978).

With the new balance of power after World War II the Soviet leaders have assigned sport such tasks as demonstrating their superiority and of winning support for the Communist system and encouraging friendly relations with political neighbors. The heightened competition in the Olympic Games and the appa­rent overwhelming political implications of winning has been blamed on the Soviet Union. Morton wrote:

Soviet entry in 1952 brought heightened political tension to the Games, The participation of their large squad of superbly conditioned athletes has since led to spectacular results and radically affected the nature of the Games (20:84).

Since then, the U.S.S.R. has been a strong contender at everyOlympic Games and is partly responsible for Olympic Villagemedal tables and points scoreboard because she wants to keeptrack of her performance against the United States of America.

In the 1952 Olympic Games in Helsinki when Russia finally

41

took the lead in total points unofficially kept, Pravda pro­claimed, "the golden Thursday of Soviet sport. The American lead has been liquidated" (13:173). This illustrates how the Russians have turned the Olympics into an ideological battle­ground and athletes have become "soldiers in the war with friendly arms" C21:73). The same outrageous competitiveness of two super powers has drawn comments from Morton,

...the attention of the world has shifted from per­formance of gifted athletes competing for world recognition to a cold war drama in which Soviet and American competitors vie for a world supremacy in sport (20:84).Brundage had also deplored the unhealthy rivalry between

these two nations and warned, "If this becomes a giant contest between two giant nations rich in talent and resource the spirit of the Olympics will be destroyed (22:257). In the same language commentators and sports leaders have apparently felt the same way Brundage did, for Schaap had remarked, "the empha­sis on the American - Russian rivalry which had nearly obscured the rest of the Games distressed many people particularly Avery Brundage" (22:257).

The other Eastern bloc country which has emphasized suc­cess in sports as success for socialism is East Germany. She has built her nation to a super power athletically by her per­formance in the last two Olympics. Sports for nationalism, sports for socialism and sports for foreign relations are some of the uses to which she has put international sports. East Germany believes in the use of athletes as foreign relations

42

delegates. When an East Germany gymnastic team toured China they were described by McIntosh as "diplomats in sport dress" and "ambassadors of goodwill" (15:494). In the most recent Olympic Games in Montreal, Eastern Germany a country compara­tively new in the Olympic arena as a nation had performed so well that she collected medals for herself resulting in a second place finish after the Soviet Union. This was possible because she had resorted to the "manufacture" of athletes in Chemie Clubs and these athletes are trained for Olympic Gold Medals, A Chemie Club is a sports laboratory for the training of budding athletes for Olympic gold. Each Chemie Club spe­cializes in one sport. Government involvement is quite evi­dent, There is a sports university in Leipzig where adults are trained to win Olympic gold. There are 6 91 gymnasia in East Germany (.1976) and are used by a large number of people. Spartakiades (sports festivals) are organized in East Germany as in U.S.S.R, For East Germany Spartakiades are used to select those who would go in for special training in various Olympic events. Having been subdued by socialist powers this State was forced to develop other ways of projecting her identity and national pride. They chose the medium of sports and have become a power in world sports. East Germany also referred to as G.D.R, tell their athletes departing for foreign competition, "You are sports— diplomats in track suits"(30:349) .

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Sports and Politics in the Third World

This renascent term covers Asia, Africa, Mexico, China, and South American countries but excludes the two power blocs of the East and the West. Governments in Third World Countries also attach political significance to international sports including the Olympic Games. Having dealt briefly with the East and West in their use of the Olympics and other interna­tional sports meets as ideological battleground, it will be proper to deal with the rest of the world under the umbrella term— Third World. Most of them have created cabinet level posts to cater to sports. In one research with the United Nations supplying the information, Goodhue (1973) found,

...that 26.3% (N=35) nations of the world have sport bodies at the cabinet level. That 88.6% (N-31) of the countries with sports bodies at the cabinet level are classified as developing, while 75.2% (N=100) of the total sample is classified as developing (23:34).In Korea sport was one of the unifying forces used to

bring together the North and the South. Park reports that "the National Sport organizations also met informally at the 1972 Olympics to find a possible sport exchange program between the two countries (24:59). The Republic of Korea was for a long time divided into two Koreas and when unification was pos­sible sport was the first panacea to be tried and the venue was the Olympic Village in Munich. The new nations do also empha­size winning at the Olympic Games and attached political signi­ficance to medals. According to Park: "Jong Phil Kim the Pre­mier once.told the Korean Olympic Team that the ultimate goal

of participating in the Olympics' is to obtain more medals (24;112}, It is a sad note that even some world leaders either do not know the aims and purposes of the Olympic Games as identified by the founder of the modern Olympic Games. If they do and have read the objectives, it is probable that the purposes are only idealistic and have out lived the realities of life. Kim, the Premier of Korea was only voicing the ambi­tions of the people as Park further reports that "the Korean people expect their athletes to win at all cost" (24:113).

In a similar study of Kenya, Hall’s (1973) observation showed that government involvement in sports is sub-cabinet level.

...Government-sponsored sports programs are directed by the Division of Sports in the Department of Com­munity Development and Social Services which in turn is a branch of the Ministry of Co-operatives and Social Services (25:201).

He reports that there exists a certain amount of centraliza­tion and control of sports inthe government, and a Kenyan Senator and Assistant Minister for Housing had declared that "the establishement of the Kenya National Sports Council meant that all sports would be financially backed by government" (25:202). Among African countries Kenya is not alone in using a Minister as Chairman of her National Sports Council such as Ronald Ngala was in 1967. In 1970-1977 the Chairman of the National Sports Council in Nigeria was a Brigadier with a Cabinet post in the Military Government. He has since become the Commissioner for External Affairs and at the same time

45

the Patron of the Nigerian Olympic Association. It is diffi­cult how such an officer can owe allegiance to his home govern­ment’s sports ideology as well as to the Olympic ideals of the1 ,0, C . — a body Morton had described as:

, ,,a self-recruiting sovereign body, its members are bound not to accept instruction from the governments and sports bodies in their countries since that might compromise their decisions and their votes (20:92).

Putting the business of national and international sports in the charge of a Minister ensures closer governmental supervi­sion, control and intrusion into sports and the use of sports for political purposes.

Eleyae (1974) in discussing central organization for amaeur sports in the United States and Nigeria might have hinted the degree of government control of sports in Nigeria. For instance, he reported that the National Sports Commission is established by the Federal Government in the Federal Law Decree No, 34 (,26:186) . it also established the National Stadia Man­agement Board to maintain every stadium in Nigeria owned or controlled by the Federal Military Government and of directing all activities relative there to (26:186). The Public Service Commission of the Nigerian Government employs the National Director of Sports who is under the supervision of the Minister of the Government, Like many other African countries Nigeria can order an athletic team of Nigerian origin to participate in an international sports meet or order it to boycott any one not in her interest. An example is the last Commonwealth Games

46

in Edmonton Canada. And so it goes on and on that Third World Governments also have politically enmeshed sports and politics.

The birth of GANEFO I was as a result of the politiciza­tion of sports. This is the Games of the New Emerging Forces held in 1963 for the first time in Djarkata, Indonesia on the orders of President Sukarno. In all, 51 countries were repre­sented (27:1711. The Third World Countries were mainly invited but it is observed that countries like France, U.S.S.R., Poland, Czechoslovakia and Netherlands participated. Friendship between Indonesia and China was revived as Ewa observed.

During the march past of competitors President Sukarno rose to shake hands with China’s Vice Pre­mier Ho Lung who was on the receiving stand having been invited by the Indonesian Government to the opening of GANEFO, (2 7:172) .

The GANEFO was as a result of suspension of Indonesia from theOlympic Games by the I.O.C. "on the basis that politics hadbeen allowed to enter the non-political field of sports duringthe Asian Games" (27:173). Earlier at the organization of the1962 Fourth Asian Games held in Djarkata, Indonesia had failedto issue visas to athletes of Israel and Nationalist Chinathough they were charter members of the Asian Games Federation.When I.O.C. suspended Indonesia indefinitely for the treatmentmeted to Israel and Nationalisht China, Sukarno decided torally support for an alternate Olympic Games and declared:

...as President of the Republic of Indonesia, as Supreme Commander of the Republic of Indonesia, as great leader of the Indonesian revolution, and as Supreme leader of the National Front, I now order Indonesia quit I.O.C Brothers, besides

47

my order to quit the I.O.C., I also order; organize as fast as possible GANEFO, the Games of the New Emerging Forces-'-"Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Socialist countries (.27:173),

The Indonesian Head, of State continued his address:,.,Pak Bandrio has clearly said that sports cannot be separated from politics. Therefore, let us now work for a sports association on the basis of poli­tics, We do not want to put on any masks: let uscreate a sports association on the basis of the new emerging forces (27:173).

Indonesia had Maladi as Minister of Sports and he shouldered the tasks of organizing the GANEFO Games. Although Indonesia had organized the Games as a political protest and a slap on the face of the I.O.C., participants made it clear that they were participating for sports competition and not for protest against the I.O.C, to which many of them also belong. The Indonesian Head of State's powerful speech to a preparatory conference of the Games overwhelming slanted toward the inter­meshing of politics and sports and he commented as follows:

...the International Olympic Games have proved to be openly an imperialistic tool. They (are) said to have sports without politics in the Olympic Games, to have them only among nations who are not communistic, who are not against imperialism, colonialism, and the I.O.C. have excluded Indonesia from the International Olympic Committee, because we have behaved not pleasantly to their concept. Now after that experience we Indone­sians thought, let us better speak frankly.... When they excluded Communist China, is that not politics?When they are not friendly to the U.A.R., is this not politics? When they are not friendly to North Korea, is this not politics? When they exclude North Vietnam, is this not politics? I propose to be frank. Now lets frankly say, sports have something to do with politics. Indonesia proposes now to mix sports with politics, and let us now establish the Games of the New Emerging Forces, the GANEFO,...against the Old Established Order (27:174),

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This, extensive quotation spotlights the mixture of sports andpolitics as employed by Head of State. In this GANEFO itwas estimated that about one third of the 51 countries wererepresented by local or official teams rather than nationalsports delegations. Among the propaganda handouts in theDjarkata Games was a booklet which had one sidedly stated whyIndonesia had to quit the I.O.C, One of such reasons was thisspeech by Sukarno:

,,,there is no use for Indonesia to remain a member of the I.O.C, as long as this body is still dominated by people who may want to serve the interests of certain political groups in the world and completely ignore the interests of the new emerging forces which make up three-fourth of the world population (27:179).

In concluding the report of the use of sports for politics in Indonesia Ewa had observed in obvious reference to GANEFO that "as an instrument of political warfare the Games were a success C27:185). In China, government also uses sports to influence politics. Sports are used for physical culture of the workers and for the advancement of the socialist ideology. In the book. Sports, Politics and Ideology in China, Kolatch has observed that to the Chinese leaders Liu Shao-chi and Chou En-lai have been attributed such statements as, "Develop physical culture and sports and strengthen health so as to serve social con­struction" and "Develop staff and workers physical culture and sports so as to advance the socialist enterprise" (28:87).China which had not been a member of the International Olympic movement because of the presence of Taiwan was present to take part in the GANEFO Games of 1963. The Taiwanese call

49

themselves Republic of China, while the mainland China is People’s Republic of China. The presence of one in interna­tional sports meets is enough to cause controversy resulting in one withdrawing for the other. The participation of Nationa­list China in GANEFO has political implications as observed by Ewa*

,.,it gave China the opportunity to score against the Soviet Union, it provided an excellent forum for person to person diplomacy and it seemed to be a public demonstration of a growing cordial rela­tionship between Indonesia and China (27:183).

China like other nations has sent out her own diplomats in sports dress, Chinese gymnasts have toured Africa in what again could be described as ping pong diplomacy.

Japan is not left out among Third World countries that use sports to project her political belongingness. Kieran in reference to the Olympic Games of Tokyo 19 64 remarked, "Japan spent two billion dollars in producing the 1964 Games, the Japanese were determined to make their Olympics the most suc­cessful of all (5:365).

In concluding this chapter on Third World use of sports as political tools, it should be noted that only a sample of countries have been discussed. The issue appears to be a uni­versal trend and one in which there is no way out. The inter­action of these two socio-cultural variables, sports and poli­tics is now a dilemma. "In such sporting events as the Olym­pics or international soccer or basketball leagues, and even international Little League baseball, nationalist interests

are projected into the Games” (29:32). The writer does not see anything wrong with normal national pride. It is per­fectly ligitimate. What is abused is the use of the sports to assert that one political system is superior to the other or to show that one country is superior in culture than the other. There is hardly a country that can be absolved in this trend. Every one of them is guilty if it is an offence to intermesh sports and politics. Olympic victories are not a measure of the strength of nations nor of political systems. In the words of Brundage "we are not going to permit the Olympic Games to be used as a tool or a weapon for any ulterior purpose of any kind by individuals, organizations or governments" (45).*

As Indonesia organized GANEFO I in 1963 in protest to anI.O.C. decision suspending them from the Olympics, so did Canada react in 1936 when they did not want to take part in what has gone down in history as the Nazi Olympics. Canada leftists departed to participate in the People's Olympic Games of Barcelona. These Games were being staged as an alternative to "the Berlin Olympiad which stands for the fascization of sport and the preparation of youth for war" (38:46). As rela­tions between People's Republic of China and U.S.S.R. continue to deteriorate, sports pundits have not ruled out the possibil­ity of China using the opportunity to organize GANEFO II. Indonesia will be quick to rally round her because China parti­cipated fully in the first Games of the New Emerging Forces.

*No page was available.

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Olympic Presidents Views on Sports and Politics

There is a great deal of evidence in the literature to show that the use of sports for political purposes is older than the modern Olympic Games. It is for this reason that the battle to separate these two variables has been waged by many Presidents of the Olympic Movement beginning from Baron Pierre de Coubertin to Lord Killanin the third Baron who is currently the president. When Pierre de Coubertin who has been deifi- cally referred to as the 'Reviver* revived the old Olympic Games, one of his aims was to bring the youths of the world together in a quadrennial sports festival. By bringing the youths together, nationalities were being brought together. These are political entities and it would be impossible for these athletes to divorce the reality of their national iden­tities from the Games. In other words political consciousness or nationalism which when projected at a high level has been the bane of the Olympics is older than the Games. This sec­tion of this study intends to trace how some of the previous and present presidents have addressed the issue of politics when they realized it was hurting the Games. The previous presidents of the Olympic Movement are:

1. Demitrius Bikelas 1894 - 18962. Baron Pierre de Coubertin 1897 - 19243. Count Henri de Baillet Latour 1925 - 19424. Sigfrid Edstrom 1946 - 19525. Avery Brundage 1952 - 1972

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6, Michael Morris (.Lord Killanin) 1972 -

Demitrius Bikelas

The Bikelas reign was short lived. He had been president because Greece was to be given the honor of producing the first president of the revived Modern Olympic Games. Greece, the home of Olympic Games preserved this legacy and deserved the honor to host the first Games. But even the first Olympiad in Athens 18 96 was not free of extreme nationalism exhibited by the Greeks, However, there was not such political ramifi­cations from winning in those days as there are now. This is probably one reason Bikelas as president had no pressure to wage war on politics in the Olympic Games.

Pierre de Coubertin

The second president and founder of the Modern Olympic Games was aware of national consciousness as manifested by jubilations of winning athletes' countrymen.. In reviving of the Games:

, . . Coubertin conceived for the first time the idea of drawing together educators, diplomats, sports leaders, to see if some way could not be found to further the interchange of ideas and make it possi­ble for the youth of many nations to benefit by a meeting of the minds and .of the muscles" (1:8).

By this statement Henry (1976) suggests that Coubertin reck­oned with politicians. Diplomats represent governments, who are epitome of politics. Statements by Pierre de Coubertin indicate that initially he envisaged nationalism which can

53

be considered to be political chauvinism. In 1908 in London he commented:

,..Heaven preserve us from a society in which there are no excesses and where any expresion of impas­sioned feeling must be kept imprisoned within the narrow confines of convention. (1:9).The Ancient Olympic Games had seen some sectionalism,

jealousies and yet they survived. Coubertin therefore did not see how nationalism could hurt the Games. At the declaration of the first Olympiad opened by King George of Greece, Couber­tin in reference to the political pride of the Greeks for hosting the first Games made the following observation.

Across the way (represented by Greek audience) stood rampant nationalism reeling at the hope of seeing Athens become the permanent site of the Games and of welcoming every four years a flood of flattering and profitable visitors (1:28).The words of Coubertin clearly indicate that if political

chauvinism is nationalism, then it is older than the Games. One idea alluded in the Coubertin statement was in reference to a permanent site. This might have been the original idea con- ceifed by the 'renovator' of the Modern Games but the idea did not materialize. After the success of the 1896 Games in Athens "the newspapers appeared urging Greek parliament to pass a law assuring the regular celebration of the Games in Athens" (1:40). Coubertin saw this frenzy of the Greeks and on his visit to Olympia as he returned to Paris he sounded his motto for the future:

54...final success demands this price— for their future destiny is equal to their past great­ness— that the Olympic Games shall be profoundly democratic and rigorously international (1:41).

This was his first confrontation with political chicanery exhibited by a people who wanted this world events to be perma­nently held quadrennially on their land. However the next Games were held in Paris in 1900. When the first Games were held in Greece with Bikelas of Greece as president of theI.O.C., and the Second Games were held in Paris, France with Coubertin as president, the idea of rotating the presidency was hinted when St. Louis in United States of American was to play host. This would have been tantamount to politicizing the presidency but Professor Sloan of the U.S.A. who could have been president declined and added that it was best for the reviver to continue to steer the I.O.C. during its teething period. Coubertin went on to successive re-elections and this prevented the election of one other president every four years. In 1927 Coubertin made an address from Olympia. He remarked in these words:

...my friends and I have not been laboring at re­storing the Olympic Games in view of making them a fitting object for a mu.seum or a cinema, not is it our wish that commercial or political interests should seize upon them" (44:1927)

Henri de Baillet Latour

The next president chat fought politics at the Olympics was Count Henri de Baillet Latour of whom Coubertin said "his intelligent activity was largely responsible for the perfect

55

organization and the magnificent success of the Olympic Con­gress of Brussels. He played a leading role and rendered signal services to the Olympic cause" (1:65). With such a friend behind him Coubertin fought stronger for the ideals which led him to revive the Olympic Games. Killanin and Rodda referring to Coubertin remarked:

,,,He never stopped fighting against chauvinism, racism, the attempts to take over by certain international organizations and the influence of politics and money ('3:140).

Baillet-Latour' s war against politicizing the Olympic Games wasmost conspicuous in the Berlin Games of 1936. When the chiefhost and Head of State of Germany, Hitler was selective incongratulating successful athletes:

.,.Count Baillet-Latour, President of the Interna­tional Olympic Committee sent word to Hitler that he was merely a guest of honour at the Games. He should congratulate all or none (3:57).

It is reported that Hitler stopped congratulating winners publicly. But rather he congratulated the German winners out­side the public view.

Sigfrid Edstrom

Edstrom who was the President of the I.O.C. from 1941 to 195 2 made few statements addressed to the issue of world peace through the Olympic Games. At the end of the 194 8 Olympiad, his first since taking office because the twelfth and thir­teenth Olympiads were not held due to the World War II,Edstrom said:

.56

. . .The future does not belong to the present diplo­mats, but to the men coming out of the present youth who understand the old wisdom in the words 'To live and let live,1 young men who have competed in the Olympic Games today may one day become leaders of their nations. It is thus the Games help obtain peace" Cl:1201.

He continued;...the Olympic Games are not able to force peace, a supreme gift to which all aspire, but in the youth of the entire world being brought together is the opportunity to find that all men of the earth are brothers" Cl:210).

Thus Edstrom speeches were not aimed at reproaching any con­tingents for political- ramifications at the Olympics but were aimed at emphasizing peace throug international sports. Edstrom was still the president until the end of the Games in Helsinki hence at the end of London Olympics he closed with these words:

"I invite the youth all over the world to the com­petition and peaceful combats of the 1952 Olympiad which can and must prepare the earth so that rela­tions among people may be more friendly and under­standing. Because the youth of today will be the leaders of tomorrow their experiences in the mastery of international sports may become the ideal ferment that will one day transform into trust stubborn ani­mosities that nowadays separate nations" (1:224).

Avery Brundage

•Among the I.O.C. presidents the most publicized in world press was Avery Brundage, the American successor to Sigfrid Edstrom. There is much in the literature on his war on poli­tics at the Olympics, his fanaticism about amateurism, his dogmatic demand for observance of the I.O.C. rules and his

57

conservatism in preserving the Coubertin ideals even when they had outlived the times they were meant for. In a recapitula­tion of how Brundage warred against politics at the Olympics extensive use will be made of his records which were donated to the archives of the University of Illinois at Urbana, Illi­nois. Many of Brundages' addresses and press releases were titled "Stop— ^Look and See." In one of the series Brundage still believed that the Olympics is free of politics and said, "The growth and development of the Olympic Movement and the esteem in which it is held throughout the World is due to the fact that it is amateur and free from political or commercial influence" (.31:1), This statement weighed now in a fair objective assesment appears far from the truth. The Olympics now can hardly pass the test of amateurism and to say it is free of politics is not based on factual observation. But in recognition of the powers of governments and weakness of the national organization of sports Brundage remarked:

.,.Certainly no national organization can resist effectively if its government seeks to take con­trol and use sports as a political instrument for either personal or national aggrandizement (31:2).

Apparently what he had feared happens now all over the world.Heads of State no longer restrain their feelings when theysend out their athletes to international sports meeting. .They rather tell the athletes the prestige of the nation is intheir hands and that they must go and win for their country.Siebel, in reference to nationalism at the Olympics observed that

58

that "aslong as- this formal obeisance to national prestige is observed, politics will never be kept out of the Olympic Games" (32:20). The International Olympic Committee president and the committee were always aware of the intentions of politi­cians about the Olympics hence Brundage (1964) once remarked

11 the politicians were trying to take over the Olympics, theI.O.C. would never let them do it" (32:21). The weakness of Brundage lay in his presenting deaf ears and blind eyes to the reality that politics is there with him at the I.O.C. and in the Games. For instance it has been insinuated that "politi­cal considreations forced the I.O.C. to deal differently with Indonesia and South Africa, two equal transgressors against Olympic principles (32:21). This reference had to do with the suspension of Indonesia by the I.O.C. for barring Israel and Taiwan from the Fourth Asian Gaines held in Djarkata in 1962, while not dealing with South Africa who had as a policy barred blacks in that territory from participating in mixed racial sports including the Olympics. Yet the I.O.C. strongly con­tinues to battle political interference. Its 59th Annual Ses­sion was devoted to fighting politics in the Olympics. For this meeting Brundage told the press that "As far as politics is concerned we will probably reaffirm our fundamental position of non-political interference in sports" (Brundage: 31:1). He reaffirmed I.O.C. stand to the pressmen in answering their questions. "We have nothing to do with politicians. We deal with National Olympic committees" (31:1).

The Soviet Union has been known for long to urge that each nation should have one member representing each country in the I.O.C. instead of the present compact self selected group. "In 1959 a Soviet proposal aimed at the heart of theI.O.C. called for sweeping reorganization which would greatly broaden the representation of the I.O.C. claiming the present set up to be non-democratic and non-representational" (20:93). In Lausanna to attend an I.O.C. meeting Brundage (1961) vowed to fignt the .proposal. He remarked "they would turn a body that is currently above politics into an international debat­ing society" (34:37). What appears intriguing is the insis­tence by Brundage that the I.O.C. is 'above politics' in spite of its records about decisions involving Third World countries such as suspending Indonesia from the I.O.C. In one of the International Olympic Committee session the body discussed world sports reform designed "to lob off the intruding tentacles of politics" (35:34). A three point plan described by an I.O.C. member, Sondhi of India as a desperate remedy for a desperate situation was debated. These are:

1. Withdrawal of I.O.C. recognition from the National Olympic Cannittee of any nation practicing political racial or religious discrimination.

2. A halt to the playing of national anthens and the raising of flags at wsrld games and other international sports meetings.

3. Adoption by all international sports federations of similar constitutions outlawing discrimination (35:34).

In the debate at the session Sondhi, I.O.C. delegate from Indiathe following observation, "The I.O.C. as the supreme sportsorganizing agency and the International Sports Federationas the supreme controlling agencies must take the

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strongest action against the interference of politics or there is no future for amateur international sport" (35:34). This comment by an insider of the I.O.C. is an open acknowledgement that politics had ripped their idealistic Olympics, and the custodians of the Olympic Charter and flickering torch had to take tougher measures to control politics in the Games. In another instance Brundage had given the following guide to com­bat nationalism in the Olympics. He suggested "that the Olym­pic banner be hoisted instead of national flag and when parti­cipants finally leave the stadium all of them should march out behind the flags of all nations. Such an arrangement would truly be in the spirit of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the Modern Olympic Games" (36: Brundage, 1969). At the end of the 1956 Olympics all the athletes marched randomly behind all the nations flags. The interesting development about sports and politics in the Olympics, is the fact that while the I.O.C. is combating the interaction of sports and politics from one end, governments and states in the opposite direction encourage it. In 1962, France had refused East Germans visas to enter the country and compete in the World Championship Alpine Ski at Chamonix. In Paris, Maurice Herzog High Commissioner of Youth and Sports, (note a cabinet level treatment for sports) said after the F.I.S. temporarily withdrew the world championship title from Chamonix.

...sports federations cannot substitute themselves for sovereign states, demanding that the states re­ceive on their territory teams from countries with whom they have no diplomatic relations, or which they may

61

not even recognize. The federations must modify their regulations to be able to adapt to excep­tional political situations" (37: Herzog, 1962).Herzog's comment is not an isolated case. The expression

represents the attitude of many sovereign states on such issues. It was also not the first time a team had been refused visa into another country to play sports. The visas of Taiwa­nese athletes who were to go to Britain for sports competition early in 197 6 were reported 'lost' by the Foreign Office (56: 33). The Taiwanese did not take part in the Games. Spain barred Israel from competing in the Mediterranean Games in Barcelona. Though a regional competition, the Mediterranean Games like any other regional games are closely connected to the Olympic organization through the same International Sports Federation. The United States of America in 1962, refused East Germans visas to come into Colorado to play ice hockey in com­pliance with North Atlantic Treaty Organization (N.A.T.O.) policy at that time. The Phillipine Government excluded Yugo­slavia from the world basketball tournament in Manilla (49:3). They had failed to get travel visas to Phillipines for the December, 19 62 tournament and the official championship were transferred to Brazil.

This part of the literature review though devoted to speeches of present and past presidents on politics, sports and the Olympics, will occasionally retrieve other relevant cases that strengthen the issue. Avery Brundage continued to make the speeches that hit the main problem. In 19 62 he warned the

62

United States of America that "it would lose out on futureinternational events if it continued to mix politics and sports"(39:1962). He was speaking from Moscow in a friendly talk withSoviet Premier, Khrushchev. Brundage further commented:

...the only object of the Olympic Movement is to build international goodwill. We don't propose to let governments use sports as a political weapon or political tool. That's our view on this question and it is a very important one (39:1962).

In order to illustrate incidents classified as mixing sports and politics Brundage referred the press to the failure of East German teams to get visas to compete in the international ice- hockey championships at Colorado Springs in the U.S.A. the previous winter. Brundage warned that "sports could exist out­side of political barriers and added that the politicians have been trying to put Germany together for fifteen years and wehave had a united East and West German team for the last fourOlympics" (39:1962). Apparently the claim was that sports suc­ceed where diplomacy fails.

In an address at the Lions Club, Desert Hotel, Spokane, Illinois, Brundage again warned on the politicization of the Olympics:

...the Olympic Games must not be allowed to degene­rate to the point where one political power is attempt­ing to prove, through athletic competition that it isstronger than another (40:8).

Reiterating the aim of the I.O.C., he emphasized that the I.O.C. aim is to keep the Olympics free "from dollar signs and politi­cal intrigue." The Soviet Union had pressed that each presi­dent of a National Olympic Committee of any nation and leaders

63of International Sports Federation be members of the I.O.C.In the words of Brundage that would increase the membership "from about 70 to around 200 persons. This would throw the whole Olympic movement into politics" (41:N.P.). He observed that "the committee which elects its members from among out­standing international sports figures has never pretended to represent all nations participating in Olympic competitions (41:N.P.). He told an audience which included Soviet President Leonid Brezhnev and about 70 International Olympic Committee members from 50 countries that 'degradation of Olympic Sport and its use for ulterior purposes must be prevented' (41:1962). He continued: "One of the greatest difficulties we have is toprevent political interference with sports. Government-s- knowing the great popular appeal of sport are always tempted to try to use it as a political tool or as a political weapon" (41:N.P.). He had in his earlier press interview remarked that politics was the only thing hindering the achievement of the Olympic goal of promoting international friendship (43:3).

Brundage who had earned such appellations as "World Game- master," "Olympic Chief," "High Priest of Amateurism," also attacked the use of national flags and anthems on his way to make suggestions to eradicate politics at the Olympics. He opined:

...a certain degree of national pride in sport accom­plishments is no doubt legitimate. But there has been

N.P. No Page

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so much trouble recently because of political infringe­ments, that I propose to ask the I.O.C. to examine the desirability of eliminating the use of national flags and anthemsC45:1960) .

This idea received world wide publicity. But at the I.O.C. meeting Brundage was opposed by many members. The minutes of the Executive Board Meeting held at Baden-Baden in October,1963 showed that Kieselev of U.S.S.R. spoke strongly against it and remarked, "How then could the athletes be identified?These athletes could not be deprived of their pride in repre­senting their country" (46:5). He was supported by Stoytchev, the I.O.C. delegate from Bulgaria. There is no doubt that theI.O.C. is not a house intact. Within the body itself opposi­tion to Brundage who had exerted a charismatic leadership over it was common but more of it was from the Eastern Countries. However an outspoken I.O.C. member from the United States of America, Douglas Roby once told the New York World Telegram in 1959 "that the International Olympic Committee was under poli­tical influence...that politics nevertheless crept into our meetings; and that...."we kicked out the free Chinese" all these smacking of politics. After the controversy following the press announcement, the President of the I.O.C. reminded members that "only the President and the Chancellor should make statements to the press in order to avoid conflicting reports and incorrect or inaccurate information: (47:1959)*

While politics is apparent in I.O.C. proceedings, it was _

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also present in the International Federations of Sports. "The Ski International Federation (F.I.S.) Congress of 1946 excluded Germany because the West Germans had been ruled by a dictator" while 'the F.I.S. Congress of 1951 and the majority of the leading international federations admitted East Germany which retained the worst features of Nazism" (48:34). The situation leaves the world with two principal bodies that control world sports being themselves immersed in politically inclined deci­sions regarding sports. While Avery Brundage must be evaluated highly for his unrelenting fight against utilization of Olympic sports to further national political image, and while he scored high as a defender of amateruism it must be observed that he stuck to an idealist Games that could no longer sustain idea­lism. The Olympic Games belong to the world body of Nations and has been likened to the United Nations. The popular opinion of each country having one representative at the I.O.C. has long been resisted by the I.O.C.

Michael Morris (Lord Killanin)

The successor of Brundage, Lord Killanin of Ireland has been quoted as saying that the I.O.C. "should look ahead and be realistic while at the same time stick to its principles" (10: 228). This has been interpreted to reflect the opinion held by world sports leaders that the I.O.C. needs some revamping and re-organization. Lord Killanin's utterances on Olympic poli­tics have been few and far between. His recipe for reducing

66

the nationalism at the Olympics was that there should be a dis­tribution of Olympic sports to many countries and the sports should be spread out over the years. This will reduce the massing of people of the 141 nations registered in the I.O.C. roster as eligible participants. In the words of Lord Killanin "there is too much concentration on the forthnight of the Games rather than on the Olympic Movement which goes on all the time" (33:47). The reasoning is that tension and political chicanery are more exhibited when all the world's athletes in all the Olympic sports assemble in one city for two weeks of competi­tion with pressmen of some of the countries constantly beaming out the medal count. Olympism would be better enhanced if the sports are distributed to all the continents in any one Olympic year.

Summary

Of all the presidents, Brundage had made more impression on the world of sports and politics. Some historians have described him as a great politician while Brundage had personally said he did not want to go into politics, of all professions. Brundage had run the I.O.C. as a personal property he was guarding jealously. When the I.O.C. defeated his proposal to allow a mixed Rhodesian Olympic team to compete in Munich, Brundage lamented that it was the first time the I.O.C. had decided against him in twenty years. Brundage had his way for so long that other I.O.C. members appeared like pawns in his hands.

67

Perhaps this was how Pierre de Coubertin had such influence over the I.O.C. he formed that they called him the "reviver." Brundage followed the example of Pierre de Coubertin. The die­hard attitude of Brundage in sticking to the idealism of the Olympics 'free from politics' and his insistence on down to earth true amateurism were consequences of his admiration for him. Brundage as President of the I.O.C. felt like a dutiful member of a relay team duty bound to get the baton there and not be responsible for any breakdown or departures from the goal. He ran a good race and carefully handed the baton to Lord Killanin who must not drop it. There.seems to be no alternative for future presidents of the I.O.C. than to perpe­tuate the ideals and maintain the status quo. However it is better for the I.O.C. to be aware of current world truths and take precautions than to be deserted "in possession of a flic­kering Olympic torch that no one wants to bear" (33:47).

In concluding this series of presidential speeches and actions an examination of the proposals put up by the I.O.C. to combat political interference will be valuable.

The Seven-Point Charter published in March, 1962 reads:1. The I.O.C. and the International Sports Federations

are completely opposed to any interference in sports on political racial and religious grounds and parti­cularly any act that prevents the unhindered entry of competitors and officials between their member countries.

2. The I.O.C. already includes this point in connection with the Olympic Games and will continue vigorously to enforce the rule that the I.O.C. will not award the Olympic Games to any city nor grant its patronage

68

to any regional games unless free access was guaranteed.

3. Invitations to regional games or championships must be sent to all countries in the area concerned.

4. The International Federations undertake to collabo­rate closely with each other to insure compliance.

5. World and regional games championships shall only be held in countries whose governments and national sports committees explicitly undertake that all concerned shall have free access.

6. Failure to honor this undertaking will result in further action by the International Federations con­cerned.

7. The federations will place such an issue before I.O.C. which will convene emergency meeting of the I.O.C. executive board and the International Federations.This may even result in the I.O.C. deciding to exclude the country responsible from the next Olympic Games" (50:37).

The truth of the matter is that if a country is dissident and wants to organize 'protest games' like Indonesia did, it does not care about the I.O.C.'s patronage. As long as some countries cooperate with her and participate in the Games, her objective has been achieved. The Indonesian offense came too soon after the seven point charter had been adopted hence the International Olympic Committee made an example of her by that suspension from the i.o.C.

Review of Research on Olympics, Sports and Politics

There has been considerable literature on the Olympics and the political use of sports at the Games. Some of the literature :has been pure research on the intermeshing of politics and sports and how these have been carried to the Olympic arena. This section concentrates not on incidents of the Olympic Games but on academic research that address the issue of Sports, Olympics and Politics. These studies discuss the composition of the International Olympic Committee, the factors that influence their decisions, why people watch the Olympic Games, and the politicization of the Games. Some of these studies suggest how the Olympics could be improved. One of the pioneer researches in the area in the United States of America was done by Luca (1962).

In a critical comment on the composition of the I.O.C. members Lucas remarked as follows:

...It is significant to note that the philosophyof the Games, the rules were largely thecreation of a group of men of the nineteenth century. Nearly all the worlds societies have undergone enormous changes in the last six decades (1962). However almost nothing has changed in the Olympic hierarchy. We have been living by nineteenth century rules while work­ing with 20th century tools (51:7).

This pointed comment by Lucas is still as true today as whenit was made. The I.O.C. was referenced by Thayer (1960) asa "self perpetuating clique of rich like-minded old men in

70

horse blinkers living in the long forgotten past” (52:74).The critics of the I.O.C. seem to be against the composition and conservatism of the members who do not want any changes and who cling to Olympic ideals that are decades behind the times. In another research Leigh (1974) observed that "the Olympic Games evolved from the stated objective of creating international harmony into a political tool used by governments to gain prestige and recognition for their respective nations" (53:415). There is strong following for the view expressed by Leigh. Bennett and associates commented that "Governments and politicians have recognized the mass and communicative appeal of sports and have used them to promote social/ cultural/ eco­nomic and political ends" (10:220). Oren (1975) adds to these comments that "Governments have used in the past and are using today sports as a political means and have caused the specta­tor to identify with the government through identification with the athlete's performance" (54:3).

In another research Holden (1972) made the following con­cluding statement after an investigation of the Socio-politi­cal Influences on the Olympic Games 1948-1968.

....The Olympic Games have never been free of political pressures. The Games have sur­vived the disputes and disruptions designed to gain political or social propaganda. The Games are an easily accessible target for a political or social group to pressure for change in social causes or for propaganda purposes (55: ) .

Every Olympic Games since in 1936 in Berlin .have been rocked by geopolitical controversies and what has surprised pundits

71

is how the Olympics survive one crisis after another and still becomes stronger. Goodhue (1974) in a research on sports and politics, not unaware of the African threatened walkout in the 1972 Munich Olympics remarked that: "the African nations seemto show a greater political interest in sport. This may be this related to their late political maturity and their need for cheap political tools (23:35). Goodhue, in the opinion of writer missed the point. Countries of the big powers, count­ries that were never ruled and had early "political maturity" some hundred years before African States also use sports for "cheap political tools." This writer would want to opine that the African nations show a greater political interest in sports because it is undoubtedly one way to attract world press to give a country publicity and to give hearing to a cause they stand for which has received little or no world attention. This statement is an attempt to explain causes of African action and does not necessarily reveal the writer's opinion on the issue of African nations and sports politics. However, this writer does not favor walkouts and boycotts of Olympic Games and International Sports competitions as a panacea for political and quasi-political problems. Such a boycott does not do the athlete and athletics any good. Other types of diplomatic offensives should be used outside the sports arenae to hit such offenders as New Zealand who engages in sports with South Africa.

Wright (1977) in a research report at the London School of Economics, and published in the Millenium wrote on the issue of

72

the relationship of politics and sports. He thinks the African boycott of the 197 6 Olympic Games highlighted the relationship of politics and sports but wonders if it is possible to detach the Olympics from the realities of world politics. Wright remarked that "the national teams, the flags and the anthems, all serve to contradict the avowed intention of the Interna­tional Olympics Committee to stifle national antagonisms: (56:30) .

In the findings of Wright "Sport is now the grandest andleast harmful form of politics available to the nations of theworld. It is the continuation of war by other means" (56:32).Wright made a thorough review of the incidents of politics atthe various Olympics Games of this century and came out withthis statement:

...sport cannot be isolated from politics. States do use it as a legitimate resource of foreign policy. Sport is an ideal political tool for certain tasks as it can be passed off as unimportant when it becomes politically em­barrassing (56:41).Wright's conclusion sounds like a strong thesis but it is

defeatism if the world fails to put in operation concrete pro­posals to depolitcize sports and the Olympic Games. This wri-. ter'1 s comments can be examined at the end of this research when data are examined for more information from those involved in the Games. Mechikoff (1977) investigated the politicization of the XXI Olympiad. With facts mainly dug out from United States of America press he reviewed politics-related controversies in previous Olympic Games, while the incidents of Taiwan and

73African boycott at Montreal dominated the politics of the XXIOlympiad. Mechikoff observed that the Games have become apolitical forum in which nations wage war against each otherthrough their athletes. Olympic athletes have truly become'soldiers of sport' in a war without arms. He concluded that:

...the intrusion of politics into the Olympic Games in any form is detrimental to the spirit of Olym- picism. Perhaps a moratorium on the Games is in order, this would enable the International Olympic Committee to select a permanent site for the Games preferably Greece where it all began (21:137).Much more research on the political use of sports have

been done by Bedecki (1971) and Fuoss (1951). Bedecki examined modern sport as an instrument of national policy with reference to Canada and selected countries. He concluded "that the expansion of international sport participation by a number of countries is related to the political emphasis and related to government involvement policy" (57)*. Bedecki holds the view that generally strong central governments have intentionally and effectively utilized sports as an instrument for the achievement of national goals. This is also true of federal governments all over the world. Units of the federation have been held together through the deployment of sport for inter­state facilitation and harmony. Nigeria is one such example where interstate teams are regularly in sport contests with other teams almost in any sport you can name. Even at the high school and teachers college levels, interstate tournaments area year round phenomenon. In another study Fuoss (1951) observed

*Dissertation abstracts.

74that one of "the objectives of the Olympic Games has been and is the promotion of international understanding and the expres­sion of goodwill" (7:285). Fuoss did not see anything wrong with expressions of nationalism but condemns 'excessive nation­alism. 1 The problem here is, where do critiqs draw the line? When is nationalism excessive? What one country sees as excesses in another nation may be seen by another as the moder­ate way of expressing the appreciation and the honor done to their country by the athlete who won the Olympic Crown. However, Fuoss remarked, "Over emphasis on nationalism and the political use of athletes could become the most crucial problem in the future of the Olympic Games" (7:274). While the statement was made in 1951, it is perfectly true today that how to separate politics and sports has become a dilemma of the modern Olympic Games. Much of the findings in previous researches tried to establish the indisputability of the painful fact that there is strong relationship between these two culto-social variables. Unfortunately few of the recommendations have not been imple­mented by the I.O.C. to see if they would work as part panacea for the ills of the Olympic Games. That does not preclude further researches. Mashiach investigated why American specta­tors went to the Olympics. He found out the foremost reason to be that they "wanted to feel the international excitement" (65:63). It is interesting to note that the next most impor­tant factor determining why American spectators tripped to the Olympic Games in Montreal was because they "wanted to cheer for

75

American team" (65:63). This would seem to confirm that nationalism is a strong spark for any nation's team in the Olym­pics, athletes and spectators alike. However, nationalism and political system superiority do not have the same connotations for most of those spectators who went to Montreal.

Much of the published research on politics in sports and the Olympic Games have tended to be an in depth literature review of political incidents at the Games since 1896. In this group of researchers are Yariv (1975), Voigt (1974), Wright (1977) , Fuoss (1952), Bedecki (1970), and Mechikoff (1977) . Another approach used was the presence of the investigators at the scene of the Olympic Games or to Lausanne, I.O.C. headquar­ters to interview officials athletes and coaches. In this group are Leigh (1974) and De Koff (1962). Mashiach (1977) used a questionnaire to gather information. De Koff (1962) investi gated the role of governments in the Olympics. He was in Rome Olympics to interview officials; athletes and coaches, and in Lausanne to retrieve information from I.O.C. bulletins. He con­cludes that "Government has a responsibility in the area of international sports and can be more active without necessarily controlling sports" (66:4600).*

In another report Thirer commenting on Politics and Protest at the Olympic Games reiterated as follows:

...in conclusion it is most unfortunate to say at this point in time the presence of politics is very strongly felt in Olympic competition both at the national and*Dissertation abstracts

76international levels. Without a total re-struc- turing of the concept of the Olympic Games it will continue to be an arena for political and social protest (67:159).Chass (1978) using a questionnaire to the U.S.O.C. in a

recent research found that athletes, administrators and coaches were unamimous in agreement that "the U.S.O.C. should, forcefully resist any attempt to use the Olympic and Pan-American Games as a political arena" (68:79). The respondents to Chass study rejected the concept that "the U.S.O.C. is properly represent­ing the political view of the United States in the internation­al sport arena: (68:79).

Lapchick (1973) investigated the politics of race and international sport with special reference to the case of South Africa. Commenting on the Olympics, Lapchick remarked, ...it is bound up with hatred, jealousy, boastfulness, disregard for all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing violence— in order words it is war minus the shooting (69:1). He concludes strongly in the following words from Star, ...however, absurd it might be, in the mass mind today, national images are cre­ated on fields of sports.... Take politics out of sports and springboks overseas would do more for the image of South Africa than all our propaganda offices put together (69:168). This present study is unique because it is the first— to the best of the knowledge of the writer— to make use of the recently assem­bled Avery Brundage Collections and the first to use an instru­ment developed solely for the interaction of sports and poli­tics in a three group study. What has enriched the study is the

77

fact that information is directly from athletes and personnel involved in Olympic Efforts over a span of many years.

Pro-Political Incidents in the Modern Olympics

This study up to this moment has dealt with research find­ings in the Olympics, governmental involvements in sports and the various presidential speeches that have attached extreme nationalism and political bickerings in the Olympic Games.This section will take on each Olympic Games since 1936 briefly and with emphasis on political incidents. Historians have lumped every incident under politics but in lesser known but important political problems cover racism, biased judging, diplomatic relations, subnation's demonstrations, controversial rules, aggravated nationalism and chauvinism. While one Olym­pics may have more of the above issues to mar it, some have had less of them. For same reason the count will have to begin with the 193 6 Olympic Games in Berlin because many sports his­torians believe there was much political symbolisms in the Games there.

193 6 Olympic Games in Berlin

Hitler wanted this game to boost nationalism of the Nazi Regime and to demonstrate Aryan sypremacy. The Berlin Games were the most lavish up to this time because of "the prestige they would bring to Germany" (2:177). Notable among political incidents in the Games was the 'Nazi Salute" at the march past

of athletes by spectators loyal to the Socialist Regime.Another politically tainted incident was the failure of the DerFueher to congratulate Negro athletes who had won in the colorsof the United States of America. He had been congratulatingwinners but by the time a black athlete Jesse Owens won a goldmedal, ’’Hitler was seen hurrying off the field.” While somesports historians defend that Adolf Hitler left the stadium ina hurry because rain was threatening, another version was thathe left to avoid shaking hands with Jews and black winners.There is more weight on the side of history that Hitler leftthe stadium because of rain drizzle than that he wanted toavoid shaking hands with Johnson and Albritton, the Negroes whowon medals late that evening in high jump. Jesse Owens wasleading in long jump and had not won a medal the first day.Jesse Owens had nice comments about Hitler,

...when I passed the Chancellor he arose, waved his hand at me and I waved back at him. I think the writers showed bad taste in criticizing the man of the hour in Germany (70:227).

However, Mandel quotes Hitler as having said,...the Americans ought to be ashamed of themselves for letting their medals be won by Negroes. I my­self would never even shake hands with one of them (70:236).

This evidence showed that Hitler would not have shake hands with Jesse Owens his rival in popularity at the Berlin Games and he had rejected a suggestion to pose with— James Cleveland Owens— Jesse Owens. Hitler had congratulated two German win­ners of the hammer, the shot, and the track and field medal

79winners including the Flying Finns, but did not wait for the victory ceremony when Cornelius Johnson, California, Jesse Owens and Dave Albritton both of whom were Ohio State Univer­sity and United States of America black athletes. However, the Fueher received a warning from the I.O.C. President Baillet- Latour and he stopped congratulating winners publicly. In another incident "rival political parties in Brazil had sent rival Olympic teams to Berlin. The Olympic arbiters could find no way of settling the dispute as to which was to represent Brazil and both teams finally were withdrawn from competition" (5:155).

The Games were however, the highlight of internal popu­larity for the Hitler regime. "Germany enjoyed having the world as guests which was interpreted by the German press as the people of the world paying homage to Hitler" (2:179). This was the strong beginning of political implications of hosting the Olympic Games but it was not to be the end of nations attaching political weight to playing host.

London Olympics, 19 48

The British had hosted the Olympic Games in 1908, and now again in 1948. Before the Summer Olympics, the Winter Olympics at St. Moritz had had its problems, weather inclusive. "The United States had one ice hockey team too many....the A.A.U. (Amateur Athletic Union) sent over its Olympic team and the A.H.A. (Amateur Hockey Association) sent over its Olympic team

80...The U.S.O.C. certified the A.A.U. team and refused to cer­tify the A.H.A. team (5:185). The Swiss organizing committee and the I.O.C., ran head on to a collision backing different teams. Eventually the organizers permitted the A.H.A. team to play.

The Summer Olympic in London had a very low key perhaps due to post war effect and attitude. It had borrowed from the estravanza of Berlin. There were skimpy mention in the local papers that gave more space to cricket and dog racing than to the Olympic Games. Perhaps this is what the Olympic Games need right now instead of medal tables and publicized rivalry. The King of England took the salute. This custom-of the political head of the country taking the salute is as old as the Olympic Games. When in attendance, the King, Queen, President, Emperor, or Prime Minister of any country, like a human being excitedly congratulates a winning athlete from the host country, the . world accuse "politics." Would it not have been better to exclude the Head of State from daily attendance at the Games?

An error in judging the relay nearly marred the Gams inLondon. 'The American quartet had won but one judge thought he saw a foot fault in the changeover zone. The Americans were disqualified. The Bristish took the gold but the decision was reversed after an appeal was upheld by the jury. Without having to unplay "God Save the Queen' the band struck up the 'Star Sjpangled Banner' for the award of one set of medals a second time. At the end of the Games "some of the Czech and Hungarian

81athletes flatly refused to return home behind Russia's Iron Curtain" (5:217). Comparatively the Second London Olympics did not go down as a politics plagued show but there were traces of it.

Helsinki Olympics, 1952

This Olympics was beset by political incidents. At the Helsinki Games the Russians introduced rivalry between them and the U.S.A. The U.S.S.R. was taking part for the first time.The Winter Olympics was held in Oslo. "The only sour notes came when the Americans got into fist fights with Poles in one game and a Swiss was slugged in another" (5:224). A Swiss news- paper characterized Americans as 'rowdies' and demanded an end to "the polution of European hockey by overseas teams" (5:224). At trie Summer Olympics the Russians quartered in their own pri­vate Olympic village. This attitude was strange to other Olym­pians who looked at the Games as an avenue to exhibit universal brotherhood through sports, ...the Russians were unapproach­able, they spoke to no one and wouldn't even admit the Finns, their hosts to their camp (5:227). This attitude of theirs changed midway through the Games because they received orders from the Kremlin. In this Helsinki Games, West Germany held the I.O.C. franchise while East Germany sought entry as a separate entity. China had two Olympic Committees, Nationalist China and the Peoples Republic. As an escape decision, theI.O.C. accepted both of them. The Nationalists (also referred

82to by the names— Taiwan or Formosa) withdrew in favor ofPeople’s Republic, but the latter did not even have a team inHelsinki. By the end of the Games the dual rivalry of the twosupper powers of Russia and the U.S.A. had gone down on recordas what churned the Olympics. Kieran and Daley (1973) remarkedthis regretful language:

...Never before were Olympics distorted. Instead of a great athletic carnival involving the athletes ofsixty-seven nations/ this had become in the eyes ofthe entire world a dual meet between the United States and the Soviet Union (5:233).It seems the rivalry has come to stay since Helsinki, but

with the emergence of East Germany the Olympic Games havedegenerated into a tripartite keen competition with the othernations playing the role of satellites. Outside the politics of the two nations one other incident that marred the Games was the sound beating an Uruguayan mob inflicted on Vincent Farrell an American basketball referee over a call he made in favour ofthe French team that had only a two point lead. This Olympicswill be remembered for being the beginning of points conscious­ness. But the International Olympic Committee does not score or recognize points at the Games.

Melbourne Olympics, 1956

Politics related incidents that hurt the Melbourne Games were wars that broke out well outside the host country or con­tinent for that matter. Russia invaded Hungary while the Games were going on and the world feared that small wars could

lead to big wars. Not only that incident, but Egypt, Irag, and Lebanon all Arab countries refused to compete against Britain, France, and Israel because of the invasion of the Suez Canal (10:228). Bennet and associates report that Holland, Switzer­land and Spain did not compete at all to protest against theinvasion of Hungary (10:228). As a result of this outbreak ofhostility the water polo finals between Hungary and U.S.S.R. turned into a violent display of national feelings. "After the Olympic Games many Hungarians— athletes, coaches, journalists and sports officials— chose not to return home" (1:252). In the face of all the withdrawals against the two invasions what Brundage had to say was: "we are dead against any countryusing the Games for political purposes whether right or wrong. The Olympics are competitions between individuals and not nations" (3:70). What could be more callous than to expect a contigent whose home country has been invaded not to show indig­nation at this rape of political independence.

It should also be noted that at this Olympics the Spanishteam was withdrawn by their government and not by their National Olympic Committee. The withdrawal was "in protest against Rus­sia's savage and murderous treachery in Hungary" (5:281). In order to illustrate further the political undertone of repre­senting a nation, Heads of State have sent emissaries to the athletes in the Olympic village. Henry (1976) reports that... United States President Eisenhower sent along former champion Sammy Lee to help and encourage the divers.... Lee, Bob Mathias,

84

Jesse Owens were his personal representatives to the XVIth Olympiad" in Melbourne (1:256).

Rome Olympics, 19 60

The Games of Rome were the least in political controversy loading. One of the few was that the Republic of China had been ordered by the I.O.C. to parade as Formosa not as China and this they did "under protest." The only other incident had to do with biased judging in boxing and this led to the suspen­sion of some judges. Terry O'Connor commented:

...Again a regrettable feature of the boxing was the standard of judging.... there were instances where contests were marked 60-57 by one of the five judges and 57-60 by another (3:76).

In Rome Olympics a cyclist had collapsed and died as a resultof drugs he had taken to improve his strength.

Tokyo Olympics, 196 4

The XVIII Olympiad was described as the greatest modern Olympics up to this time. The political incident in Tokyo Games was the presence of suspended Indonesia and North Korea. They had been suspended by the I.O.C. for staging and taking part in the GANEFO I in Djakarta which was dicussed elsewhere in this study: However the I.O.C. allowed Indonesia and NorthKorea conditionally on I.O.C. terms, namely that those athle­tes who took part in GANEFO were disqualified.

85The International Federations of swimming, and track and

field were ready to accept who they described as 'uncontami­nated athletes' are obvious reference to athletes who did not compete in Djakarta . Rather than participate in halves, the two teams decided to withdraw and return home. At this meetthe I.O.C. convinced the press to shelve the idea of tabulat­ing unofficial team points much to the dismay of the public. However the I.O.C. allowed the publication of medals won (5:382). The touching end of the Tokyo Games was the way all athletes ended the final march past. They did not march accord­ing to nations, but "they were a happy disorganized frolicsome mob with nationalities interspersed" (5:403).

Mexico City Olympics, 1968

Many Third World countries feel strongly that economically they were not ready to host the Olympic Games as the expense of such an extravaganza continued to be monumental. The students of Mexico City had protested against spending so much money for the window dressing Olympics in a country where the standard of living was still very low. But the government thought other­wise and had ordered the shootings which left many students dead before the high altitude Olympics even started. According to John Rodda (1976) , "in the bitter battle which followed last­ing five hours more than 2 60 were killed and 1,200 injured"(3:79).. The Mexico City Games was dented with more incidents of

86political implications. Racism surfaced in the Olympics when two black athletes Tom Smith, and John Carlos raised black- gloved fist in the victory dais after winning the 200 meter dash and during the playing of the United States national anthem (59:15). When the 'Star Spangled Banner1 was played, "Each bowed his head defiantly refusing to look at the flag" (5:431). Smith's demonstration was not unconnected with racial problems in the United States before the Olympics, whereby black militants announced a protest demonstration in California to show the world Negroes were second class citi­zens in the United States. In a similar incident and accord­ing to Bennett and associates "....at the Games in 1968 a Czech gymnast Vera Caslavska lowered her head during the Soviet anthem to protest the invasion of her country by the U.S.R.R." (10:22$). The other racial issue that was to mar the1968 Olympics was the decision of the I.O.C. to allow apart­heid South Africa to compete after it assured the I.O.C. that it was making concessions for integrating blacks and whites for the team it would send to Mexico City (5:418). The world response to boycott the Games was overwhelmingly on the Afri­can side. When pressure mounted, the nine-man executive com­mittee of the I.O.C. reversed itself and barred South Africa from the 1968 Olympics (5 :419). At the 69 plenary session in Amsterdam in May, 1970 the I.O.C. withdrew recognition of the South African Olympic Committee. Far away in Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union had ruthlessly invaded this tiny freedom

87

loving country by sending troops, tanks, and planes to attack her. In sympathy the Czechs received the greatest ovation from the Mexico City crowd of spectators and athletes at the opening ceremony.

Munich Olympics, 1972

The Munich Olympic Games went down in history as the bloodiest ever and one that left the world wondering if the last Olympics have come to pass. Minor politically involved issue was a continuation of black athletes showdown of Mexico City. History repeated itself in Munich when "two United States medal winners, Vince Mathews and Wayne Collett stood in slumped positions and showed total disregard as their nation's anthem was played and their nation's flag was raised" (10:207).

In another incident Africa threatened to boycott the Games if Rhodesia team was allowed to enter the Olympic Games. In order to save the Games the invitation to Rhodesia was with­drawn by the I.O.C. with great reluctance (2:200). It was the first time a recognized N.O.C. had its invitation to the Games withdrawn. The saddest event in Olympic history that took place in Olympic village was the massacre of Israeli athletes and coaches by Palestinian terrorists:

"....the Palestinian terrorist group of the Black September staged the most dreadful murderous Olym­pic interference in history. The terrorists killed an Israeli coach in an insidious raid into the quar­ters of the Israeli team and took ten other athletes as hostages in order to extort the release of ar­raigned Palestinian guerrillas from the Isaraeli

88Government. Thirteen people died on the black September 5th. Horror, unsurpassable sadness and mourning remained throughout the Games"(2:201).

In a moving speech Avery Brundage remarked:"....sadly in this imperfect world, the greater and the more important the Olympic Games become the more they are open to commercial, political and now criminal pressures. The games of the Twentieth Olympiad were subjected to two savage attacks. We lost the Rhodesian battle against naked political blackmail" (60:442).

It is difficult analogically to understand how protest againstRhodesia could be described as savage attack. Inspite of thecatastrophy that struck Munich, the Games still ended with theathletes of the world marching in mixed rowdy columns. But theOlympics cost continues to soar. Munich cost $780 million.The Rhodesian issue may continue to plague the Olympics unlessLord Killanin is equal to the task ahead.

Montreal Olympics, 1976

The Montreal show was immersed already in a political liquid when the details of how Drapeau the tough Mayor of Montreal fought and got the nod from rhe I.O.C. Drapeau told the world, "I never practiced any sport, I may be the only one who came to sport through the spiritual force of the Olympics ....I discovered Olympicism in 1963" (61:80). Drapeau thepolitician Mayor who had rehearsed to say 'politics must be kept out of the Olympics1 worked hard to get Montreal awarded the 1976 Olympics Games. One United States I.O.C. member sums what brought the Olympic Games to Montreal, "Drapeau1s

89personality— and that speech he made" {61:81). Trudeau the Prime Minister of Canada had assured the world free entry to Canada for the Olympics in giving a pledge to the I.O.C. when he said,

"... I would like to assure you that all parties representing the National Olympic Committees and International Sports Federations recognized by the I.O.C. will be free to enter Canada pursuant to the normal regulations" (62:33).

The proviso was squeezed in there to hurt Taiwan Chinese as the Trudeau promise was breached when Canada refused Taiwan participation as Republic of China. Both politics and econo­mics were involved. Canada recognizes the Peoples China of 825 million people and looks ahead to some millions of dollars trade boom as against recognizing island China. However, after some political fast moves in the Olympic village Canada was prepared to allow Taiwan to compete in that name suggested for compromise. Victor Yuen, secretary of Taiwan delegation warned

"We don't want another compromise....Either we are the Republic of China or we go home" (6:17).

They had been allowed to use their flag and play their anthem if they won a gold medal, but they decided to withdraw. This was a case of putting politics before sports. In 1968 Rhodesia offered to compete even in British Union Jack and play 'God Save the Queen' but they were refused. The departure of the Taiwanese was not the end of political Olympics crises. Afri­can leaders led by Tanzania had warned that New Zealand should be excluded from Montreal for playing Rugby with South Africa. Tanzania had declared from Mauritius where the Organization of

90African Unity was meeting in Conference.

... to exclude from the Games countries which fra­ternize with South Africa is the greatest, contri­bution mankind can make in reaching a peaceful solution in South Africa (62:34).Since the I.O.C. was not willing to capitulate again to

African demands, the entire continent save two nations Senegal and Ivory Coast withdrew from the Montreal Olympics. The Irish peer Lord Killanin had paid more attention to Taiwan issue than to the pressure of the whole of Africa. The Canadian press tacitly played a role of not publicizing the African stand and threats. Accusing the Canadian Government of a breach of faith Killanin thundered "the whole world is absolutely fed up with politicians interfering with sport" (62:34). But that has not solved anything. Meanwhile disgusted and disappointed athletes from Africa pranced the Olympic village grumbling, Bayi was quoted as saying, "four years of training have gone for nothing ...But the Government had to do what it did" (62:34) while Ehizuelen of Nigeria remarked: "I don't like it. I have donereally good I won the N.C.A.A. last year, I've done 27'4", I had a good chance of winning a medal" (6:19). There were also other athletes from other countries who were in sympathy with their African fellow sportsmen and women in the true Olympic spirit. Don Quax whose country of New Zealand was the offender remarked:

...But I can't blame the Africans....! mean knowing how they feel about South Africans. I blame the rugby people and I blame our government for putting us in this position. If our government says sports and politics don't mix they ought to be here (6:17).

91

The only other political incident was the defection of a Rus­sian diver to Canada which made the U.S.S.R. threaten to with­draw but the situation was saved.

Moscow Olympics, 1980

At this point the Moscow Games have reached advanced pre­paration. The Kremlin who do not tolerate the Jews have assured the I.O.C. that all recognized N.O.C. will be allowed entry to participate in the Games. It is hoped Israel will be allowed to enter the Soviet Union for the Games. As this is written (Spring# 1979) mainland China is invading Vietnam and the U.S.S.R. is in sympathy with Vietnam and had issued threats to China to withdraw before it is too late. If it does not break into a major confrontation the sport world is curious to see how China will take part in the Moscow Games. The possibi­lity of the U.S.A. being out of Moscow Olympics has not been ruled out if Russia goes on to 'station nuclear missiles in Cuba* because the U.S.A. supplied missiles to N.A.T.O. count­ries" (63:3). This veiled threat of how the U.S.A. will react leaked recently when California Democrat Charles Wilson spoke with a Soviet negotiator.

92

1.2.

3.

4.

5.

6 .

7.

3.

9.10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

NOTES

CHAPTER IX

Bill Henry,, An Approved History of the Olympic Games, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1976.

Peter J. Graham and Horst Ueberhorst, (eds), The Modern Olympics, Cornwall, New York: Leisure Press, 19 76.

Lord Killanin and John Rodda, (eds), The Olympic Games,New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1976.

Comite International Olympique, Olympic Rules and Regula­tions , Chateau De Vidy, 19 74.

John Kieran, and Arthur Daley, The Story of the Olympic Games, Philadelphia: Lippincott Co., 1973.

Pat Putnam, "It Was. A Call to Colors." Sports Illustrated, Vol.XLV/ July 26, 1976, p. 14-19.

Donald Fuoss, Analysis of the Incidents in the OlympicGames From 1924-1948 with Reference to the Contribu­tions of the Games to International Understanding. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Teachers College Columbia, 1951.

Harry Stuff, The Story of the Olympic Games, Los Angeles: Times Mirror Printing and Binding House, 193 2.

"The XX Olympiad." Newsweek, September 11, 1972, p. 69.Bruce L. Bennett, Maxwell L. Howell, and Uriel Simri,

Comparative Physical Education and Sport, Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger Publishers, 1975.

I.O.C., "International Developments," The Olympian, Vol.IV, July/August, 1978, p. 10-12.Roman Czula, "Pierre de Coubertin and Modern Olympism."

Quest, XXIV, Summer, 1975, p. 10-18.Michael Roberts, Fans: How We Go Crazy Over Sports, Wash­

ington: The New Republic Book Co., Inc., 19 76.Robert Lipsyte, Sports World: An American Dreamland, New

York: Quadrangle Books, New York Times Book Co., 1975.

93

15.

16.

17.

18.19.

20.

21.

22.

23 .

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

Peter McIntosh, "Sports, Politics and Internationalism," as cited by Marie Hart (ed), Sport in the Socio-Cul- tural Process, Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co.Publishers, 1972.

Allen Neil, Olympic Diary Tokyo, 1964, London: NicholasKaye Limited, 1965.

Michael Novak, The Joy of Sports, New York: Basic BooksInc. Publishers, 1976.

Daily Times of Nigeria, September, 1978.Robin Riley, A paper presented on "Sports and Foreign

Policy in the U.S.S.R." at the Ohio State University, Columbus, School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Winter, 1978.

Henry W. Morton, Soviet Sports: Mirror of Soviet Society,New York: Collier Books, 1963.

Robert Mechikoff, "The Politicization of the XXI Olympiad," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1977.

Richard Schapp, An Illustrated History of the Olympics.New York: Alfred A. Knopf Publishers, 1967.

Robert M. Goodhue, "The Politics of Sports: An Institution­al Focus," in North American Society for Sports His­tory, Proceedings, 1974, p. 34.

Sung Jae Park, "Physical Education and Sport as an Instru­ment of Nation-Building Process in the Republic of Korea," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 19 74.

Sydney Owen Hall, "The Role of Physical Education and Sport in the Nation-Building Process in Kenya," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1973.

Awoture Eleyae, "A Comparative Assessment of the CentralOrganizations for Amateur Sports in the United States of America and in Nigeria,'1 Unpublished Doctoral Dis­sertation. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1974.

Pauler T. Ewa, "GANEFO I, Sports and Politics in Jarkata," Asian Survey, V. p. 171-185, April, 1965.

Jonathan Kolatch, Sports, Politics and Ideology in China. New York: Jonathan David Publishers, 1972.

94

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

David Voigt, "Sane Reflections on Sports and Politics, " inNorth American Society of Sports History, Proceedings, 1974, p. 32.

Benjamin Lowe, David B. Kanin, and Andrew Stenk, Sport and International Relations, Champaign, Illinois: StipesPublishing Co., 1978.

Avery Brundage, "Stop-Look and See," An Address to theI.O.C, Sessions in Lausanne. From Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975. University of Illinois, Archives, Champaign.

Norman Siebel, "Politics in Sports," The Asian Magazine, October 11, 1964, p. 20-22. From Avery Brundage Col­lections 1908-1975. University of Illinois Archives, Urbana-Champaign.

Mark S. Goodman, "How to Save the Olympics," Time, Septem- ber25, 1972, p. 47.

"Brundage Draws Battle Line for Olympics," Chicago Daily News, Friday, March 2, 1962. From Avery Brundage Collections, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

United Press International, "Olympics to Bar Bias, Anthems, Seek End of Sports and Politics," Chicago Daily News, February, 1963. From Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana- Champaign.

Associated Press, "Brundage Combats Nationlism in Olympics," Munich Paper, January 28, 1969. From Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana-Champaign.

Robert Daley, "Sports Versus Politics," The New York Times, February 24, 1962. From Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

Bruce Kidd, "Canadian Participation in the People's Olym­pic Games of 1936," North American Association of Sports History, Proceedings, 1977, p. 46.

Avery B r u n d a g e ."Don11 Mix'Sports and Politics," NewsPress, June 2, 196 2. From Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana.

"Brundage Says Olympics No Place for Politics," TheAmateur Athlete, January, 195 3, p. 8, Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, University of illinois Archives, Urbana-Champaign,

95

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

"Olympic Reorganization Plan of Russia Under Fire," and"Brundage Issues Warning Over Olympic Restrictions," all in Chicago Sun Times, June 5, 1962, Avery Brund­age Collections 1908-1975, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana-Champaign.

D. Stanley Eitzen, and George H. Sage, Sociology of Ameri- can Sport, Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Pub-Ushers','-1978.

"Avery Wars Politics," San Francisco Examiner, June 2, 1962, p. 3. Avery Brundage Collections 1908-19.75, University of illinois Archives, Urbana-Champaign.

Pierre De Coubertin, "Address from Olympia," April 17, 1927, Olympic Bulletin, June, 1927. Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

Ban Nations Flags Says Chief," San Francisco SundayChronicle, February 14, 19 60. Avery Brundage Collec- tions 1908-1975. University of illinois Archives Urbana-Champaign.

Comite International Olympique, Minutes, Meeting of Execu­tive Board of the I.O.C. with representatives of N.O.C.s, Kurhaus Baden-Baden, Germany, October, 1963. Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana-Champaign.

Circular letter to I.O.C. Lausanne, June 23, 1959. Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, University of Illi­nois, Urbana-Champaign.

Sir Arnold Lunn, "Sports and Politics," Quest I , Decem­ber, 1963, p. 33-36.

"I.O.C. Strives to Remove Politics from Sports," LosAngeles Times, February 9, 1963. Avery Brundage Col­lections 1908-1975, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana-Champaign.

Olympic Group Sets 7-Point Plan to Stop Political Inter­ference," Chicago Daily News, March 2, 1962, p. 37. Also in Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, Scrap­book No. 8 A, p. 67, University of Illinois Archives,Urbana-Champaign.

John Lucas, "Baron Pieire de Coubertin and the Formative Years of the Modern International Olympic Movement 1883-1896," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland, 19 62, p. 7.

96

52.53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63 .

64.65.

Sports Illustrated, August, 15, 1969, p. 74.Mary Leigh, "The Evolution of Women's Participation in the

Summer Olympic Games-1960-1948," Unpublished Docto­ral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1974.

Yariv Oren, "The Politization of Sports and Its Influence on Physical Education," A paper presented to the I.C.H.P.E.R. Congress Rotterdam, August, 1975.

Laura L. Holden, "An Investigation of the Sociopolitical Influences on the Olympic Games 1948-1968," Unpub­lished Master's Thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 1972.

Stephen Wright, "Are the Olympics Games? The Relationship of Politics and Sport," Millenium: Journal of Inter­national Studies, VI, Spring, 1977.

Thomas G. Bedecki, "Modern Sport as an Instrument ofNational Policy with Reference to Canada and Selected Countries," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1970.

The Final Report of the Presidents Commission on Olympic Sports, 1975-1977.

"A Matter of Still Being Victimized, Mexico City Protes­ters Edwards, Smith denied Tenure," Capital Times Madison, Wisconsin, May 7, 1977, p. 15.

Serge Groussard, The Blood of Israel: The Massacre ofIsraeli Athletes, the Olumpics 197 2, New York:William Morrow and Company Inc. 1975.

Frank Deford,"Run It Up the Flagpole Johnny," Sports Illus­trated, September 28, 1970.

Frank Deford, "More Dark clouds Over Montreal," Sports Illustrated, July 19, 1976.

Charles Wilson, (Representative D-California), The Lantern, The Ohio State University Student Newspaper, February, 23, 1978, p. 3

"From the U.S.O.C." The Olympian, June, 1978, p. 10-11.Asher Mashiach, "A Study To Determine the Factors Which

Influenced American Spectators to Go To See the Sum­mer Olympic Games in Montreal," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1977.

9766.

67.

68.

69 .

Irving DeKoff, "The Role of Government in the Olympics/" Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation/ Columbia Univer­sity, 1962, Abstracts No. 23/12, p. 4600.

Joel Thirerr, "Politics and Protest at the Olympic Games," in Sports and International Relations, Lowe et. al., Champaign, Illinois: Stipes Publishing Company, 19 78.

Baruch Chass, "An Analysis of Perceptual DifferencesAmong the United States Olympic Committee Executive Board Members, Athletes' Representatives and Coaches," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1978.

New York Times, October 4, 1959, and Johannesburg Star, July 27, 196 6, as cited by Richard E. Lapchick, The Politics of Race and International Sport— The Case of South Africa, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Denver, 1973.

70. Richard D. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics, New York: The Mac­millan Company, 19 71.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Study Design

The survey technique was principally used to supplement information processed from the records and files of the former President of the International Olympic Committee/ Avery Brund­age. The documents referred to in this study are called Avery Brundage Collections which were collected by him from 1908-1975. These records are available at the University of Illinois Archieves at Urbana Champaign in the U.S.A. The Avery Brundage Collections are documented into a book edited by Bundesinstitut fur Sportwissenschaft (Federal Institute for Sport Science) in Cologne, West Germany and the University of Illinois. The con­tents were compiled by Maynard Brichford in 1977. They are packed in 33 7 boxes in which the entire clearly arranged and easily accessible collection will be kept in the University Archives. The Federal Institute of Sports Science in West Ger­many is the only other place one will have access to the Avery Brundage Collections and that in microfilms. There are "about 400,000 pages of valuable sports history material" (1:4). The organization of the boxes for easy accessibility to materials is commendable. "The shopping boxes were sorted by type of

99

of materials into publications, subject files, artifacts, cor­respondences and notebooks, clippings, scrapbooks, and photos, stamps and tapes and films" (1:6). There is hardly anything on the Olympics up to 1975 that cannot be found in the Avery Brundage Collections. This study was addressed to the issue of politics at the Olympic Games and there were numerous records on politics and sports in the Olympics in those collec­tions. The rest of the information was not available in the Archives because they were events between 1975-1979, and were gathered from numerous texts written on the Olympics since 1976. The researcher needed one week in the Archives retrieving per­tinent information which was supplemented by a questionnaire study. A survey designed to gather perceptions and information from the people who have actually been involved with sports at the collegiate, A.A.U. and Olympic levels was conducted. The descriptive statistics procedure was used to report quantita­tively the various and recent trends in the Olympics as seen by the subjects in the study. The perceptions of the three groups was compared using statistics. Percentages were also used to report some of the case findings.

Though the status survey method may not be perfect, in a study such as this one, when the researcher cannot be personal­ly present in several Olympic Games to conduct tests and inter­views, using a questionnaire gather perceptions from those who had been involved, is the next best thing. In this survey research therefore the investigator is interested in the

100

accurate assessment of the characteristics of whole populations of athletes, sports administrators and sports-professors through a sample of them.

Another element in the design was to interview a small group of pre-1960 Olympians in order to compare the opinions of the older athletes with those of the more recent athletes. The cut-off line of pre-1960 and post-1960 for the purpose of determining older Olympians and recent Olympians was arbitrary. A schedule of five questions was designed for the purpose of the interview. When it was not possible to interview the available short list of pre-1960 Olympians in person because they were scattered all over the U.S.A., they were mailed the schedule. Some might have relocated since the availabe addresses were submitted to the United States Olympic Committee office from where the researcher got them, hence few of them responded. Library search was also used to supplement the information available through the previously named sources. These included dissertations and theses on sports politics and the Olympics. More sources were books, periodicals, and newspapers

In summary the sources of material to enrich this descrip­tive research study came from four sources, namely 1) Avery Brundage Collections, 2) questionnaire, 3) an interview schedule, and 4) library study.

101

Population of Study

Three principal sources of knowledgeable and involved personnel about the Olympics and sports were surveyed. The first group were present and past Olympians, since 1960. A list of the United States athletes who have represented the nation in past Olympic Games and whose addresses were relatively current was obtained from the Director of Communications of the United States Olympic Committee in Colorado Springs. The list contained 107 names and addresses and the sample used was 50. The rationale for using athletes lies in the researcher1s con­viction that these people who have participated in the Olympic Games are better experienced in the politics of the Games than athletes who have competed at home only. Some of them have been to the Olympic Games more than twice and are well informed. The list showed that the earliest Olympics experienced by any of the respondents was 1960 and a thorough count disclosed that there were more athletes from the 197 6 Olympics than any other year. Probably this can be accounted for by the fact that the addresses of the 1976 Olympians have a better chance of being current than the addressess of those of 1960-1972. However, a span of nineteen years (1960-1979) of the Olympics surely revealed a lot about the athletes' perceptions on the Olympic Games. Of the fifty Olympians sent the questionnaire there were :five returned undelivered as a result of moving. This type of problem is to be expected if one uses addresses filed in the U.S.O.C. before the Olympic Games of 1960-1976. It is

102

noted that any conclusions from this study will be as from U.S.A. Olympians.

The second group of subjects were Olympic sports adminis­trators all from the U.S.A. This is a broad term to cover United States I.O.C. members, United States Olympic Committee, Officers of State Olympic Organizations, Presidents and Secre­taries of International Sports Federations of Olympic Sports.A combined count showed a population of 140 people from which a sample of 50 was used. A list of all these people was received as contained in the U.S.O.C. Directory of the Qua­drennial Period 1977-1980. This was available from the United States Olympic Committee in Colorado Springs, Colorado, U.S.A. The decision to sample these people is based on the need to tap from their rich experiences as people who have been at the scene of the Olympic Games over the years. The use of I.O.C. delegates from the U.S.A. makes it the more intriguing because they belong to the 'enclave' that is "self perpetuating" and their response would present interesting comparison with the minutes in the I.O.C. proceedings in which they had taken part. It should be noted that the views of I.O.C- and U.S.O.C. mem­bers are personal and do not represent the United States of America views on the Olympics.

The third group of subjects included Professors of Sports History, Sports Sociology and Sports Administration in U.S. colleges and universities. A list was culled from the North American Society for Sport History Proceedings 1974, which had

103

a directory of members and addresses. The list was reviewed with an Ohio State University Professor, Doctor Bennett, who is Chairman of the Publications Board for this Society. The rationale for using the group called 'Sports Professors' in this study is because most of them are specialists in sports history at international levels and this includes the Olympic Games.A couple of them turned out to be professors who had partici­pated in the Olympic Games in the past, some had written books and articles on the Olympics, while some have coached and are still coaching Olympic sports in their institutions. Their experiences were very much needed as source for this study. Other names in this group were extracted from publications of sports sociology Association on Leisure Sport Review, made available by Professor Barbara Nelson. Other names of sports administration professors were generated with the assistance of another Ohio State University Professor, Doctor Coates, who coordinates such a program in that University. A combination of these groups of professors reached a total of 314 names.The N.A.S.S.H. Proceedings list had members from all over the world but since the study was concentrated on the United States of America subjects those names from outside the United States were eliminated from the list after 43 were picked up in the sample.

The United States pre-1960 Olympians list was received from the United States Olympic Committee. The Director of Communications had indicated that those addressess were 'old'

104'old' 'real old1 (2:3) and this reflected the very low response from this group. But unfortunately the letters did not return as undelivered.

The study had planned to include professor of Sports Medicine who had accompanied the United States team to the Olympic Games and Pan-American Games over the years. A list of such people was not available from the Director of U.S.O.C. Sports Medicine at Colorado Springs.* A follow-up study should of necessity include them for their experiences about doping and political implications of winning which give rise to why athletes dope. One more source of relevant information could have bee'n from the sports journalists who covered the Olympic Games. That is a wonderful group to interview also or to send questionnaires to because they fan the flame of nationalism through published medal tables. . But the original idea . to include sports journalists was shelved because the study would tend to be unwieldy.

The President of the International Olympic Committee was written the letter in Appendix A on page 23*1 to explain his locus standi on three burning issues, and one of them involves a controversial statement he was quoted to have made long ago but since becoming the president. Lord Killanin wrote to say he would reply in due course when he was back from tour. A follow-up letter was sent to him but yet no response came back.

Page 24 3 of Appendix A reflects that a request was sent to the right source for the names of Sports Medicine Professors but there was no response.

105

Sampling Procedure

From the list of Olympians a random selection was made using selection of alternate names. That would yield a sample of 53 from a list of 107 names. In the end three that fell into the sample were dropped from the 1976 athletes who were domi­nating the list. The sports administrators had 140 listed and 50 were required for the sample. The first 15 names who were members of the U.S.O.C. central administration were all used intact because these included I.O.C. members from the U.S.A. whose feedback was considered very indispensable. From the remainder of names in the list, 125, every third name was selected and that yielded 41. Since only 35 were required, six names of administrators from non-olympic sports such as tennis, softball, and baseball were dropped from the sample. The only reason for eliminating them is not that they know less than administrators in the Olympic sports, it is rather the rationale that they probably have had less appearances at the Olympic Games than those whose sports are in the Olympic Games schedule.

From the group of professors of sports, 50 were selected using purposive sampling (66:129). The writer wanted sports sociologists and sports administrators to contribute to this study hence the distribution was '33 Sports Historians, 10 Sports Sociologists, and 7 Sports Administrators. From the large group selection in a long list of 296 names available in N.^.S.S.H. 1974 Prodeedings was used and a table of random

106

numbers (1:714) was employed to generate 43 names. Those who were not from the U.S.A. but who fell into the sample were eli­minated and it was possible to limit to 33 names and addresses. The list of pre-1960 Olympians was a short one with ten names. All were posted the schedule that had five questions.

S.I.P. Instrument

The questionnaire, Sports Interaction with Politics instrument referred to in this study as S.I.P. instrument was developed by the researcher to aid this study. It is an instrument containing 38 questions and divided into five sec­tions. Section A containing eight items was devoted to the Purpose'Of the Olympic Games. It is not that the investigator has not read all the I.O.C. had to say about the purpose of the Games, but it is amazing how some of the respondents were unre- ceptive of those ideals of the I.O.C. as identified by the charter. The Section B of the instrument has seven questions and deals with Olympic Athletes, Sports and Politics. The questions here were designed with the athlete in mind, what does he think generally about the Games as portrayed currently. Section C has eight questions that explore the internationalism of the Olympic Games andhow it hurts or improves the ecomony of the host nation who bids for the Games without a clear picture of the cost aspect but who generally thinks of the publicity it brings to their nation. The D Section deals with governmental involvement in Sports across cultures. Most of the questions

107

relate to their stakes in the Olympics. The final Section E, deals with a topical issue, that of separating politics and sports not only for the good of the Olympics but for interna­tional sports generally.

A Pre-test of the S.I.P. instrument was carried out with a class of fifteen graduate students in History of Physical Education and Sports at the Ohio State Univesity.

The students along with their professor were requested to make critical comments and feedback to improve the instrument. Some items were dropped as a result of their comments about ambiguity of the wordings. This accounts for the Sections not all having equal numbers of items. However, more than two items were dropped from an original draft of 43 items. In that pilot study students were requested to respond in the capacity of one of the following people:

1. Sports Professor2. International Athlete3. Sports Administrator4. Sports Journalist

The last group was eventually dropped.Items that were understood differently by more than two of

the people were eliminated or amended for uniformity of inter­pretation. The final draft of the S.I.P. instrument was checkedover and over again by three Ohio State University Professors before it was mailed. Their recommendations were incorporated into the final copy.

108

Data Collection Procedure

Data were collected through the questionnaire using a Likert method of summated ratings to record perceptions on the questions (4:170-175). The five responses that could represent a respondent's views are a) Strongly Agree, b) Agree, c) Unde­cided, d) Disagree, and e) Strongly Disagree. It is expected that on reading an item the respondent could fit his locus standi on any one of the five classification which were also scored from 5 to 1. A strongly agree would score five while a strongly disagree would score one. The respondents who were given the option of being anonymous were each posted a ques­tionnaire. The questionnaires were coded so that those who returned their reponses could be identified. This enabled the researcher to repost to non-respondents. Some valuable parts of the questionnaire included the suggestions to improve the study which the investigator solicited and got a variety of them. There were valuable comments and information unknown to the investigator at the time the questionnaire was posted but which are now found to be very relevant. A face sheet had only requested information on experience with personal presence at the Olympic Games. Interesting enough there were respon­dents who had been to the Olympic Games more than five times. The most experienced athletes had been to the Games in four successive Olympics.

109Response Return

Of the 5 0 Olympians who were posted 22 responded initially and four more responded after receiving the second batch of questionnaire sent to previously non-respondents. There were five questionnaires returned as undelivered. Altogether useable data from Olympians were returned by 26 out of 50 athletes. Accepted a 52% return is low but the problem here has to do with the attitude of athletes and the non-current nature of some postal addresses submitted to the U.S.O.C. so long ago.

There were 50 Olympic sports administrators mailed the questionnaire. Thirty one sent back usable data for 62% return, three were returned as undelivered. Of the 31 people who responded seven questionnaires came later after a second letter.

Out of 50 sports professors who were posted the question­naire 41 responded. This includes eleven returns received after previously non-respondents were sent reminders with addi­tional questionnaires. This is an 82% return. However, of the 41 respondents two questionnaires were unuseable. One respon­dent fount it 'difficult to complete,' while another had mis- takingly skipped a whole page and did not scale the items.Both questionnaires were not used in data count. Two were returned as undelivered.

The total for all groups shows that 98 out of 150 returned the S.I.P. instrument for 65% return, but 96 were used in the analysis. See Table 1, page 110 for percentage returns. Again this is not a high response rate by comparison. Lehmann and

110

TABLE 1Percentage Returns For The S.I.P. Instrument By Three Groups

GROUP SIZE N.R. R.R.%

T.R.%

Professors 50 39 78 40.6

Administrators 50 31 62 32.3

Olympians 50 26 52 27.1

Population 150 96 64 100

R.R. = Response Rate T.R. = Total Response N.R. = Number of Returns

Ill

Mehrens (1971) realized this problem and counselled any researcher with such response "to adjust the results to com­pensate for the nonresponses" (5:97). In order to put weight on the results of this study an agreement on an issue recorded by 8 0% of the total respondents to that item will be accepted as a strong finding and popular opinion of the three groups of subjects in this study. Selected issues that scored 80% or more overall were subjected to further analysis for signifi­cance of difference between groups.

Other source of response planned into the study was to come from Lord Killanin. At this time the President of the I.O.C. had not written again to answer those questions. Among the pre-1960 Olympians the Director of the U.S.O.C. Training Camp and two others responded. The celebrated two time decath­lon Olympic winner Robert Mathias (1948 and 1952) had strong views expressed somewhere else in this study.

The most experienced on the Olympics among the professors has been to the Olympic Games five times. That is a 20 year experience attending the Games. Of the 31 Administrators of Sports who responded 16 of them had been to the Olympics 92 times sharing an experience of 3 68 years of Olympic Games.There may be others who had been to the Olympic Games but did not bother to check this information into the face sheet. The 26 Olympians who responded have been to the Olympic Games 35 times and share an Olympic experience of 14 0 years allowing four years as one Olympiad. The relative low experience at the

112Olympic Games by athletes reflects the already stated fact that there were more Olympians from the 19 76 contingent than all others put together, but again because of the competitive nature of the United States athletes, it is tough to repeat as the United States representative in one event for two Olympics.

NOTES

CHAPTER III

Maynard Brickford, Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975. Koln (Cologne), Verlag Karl Hofmann Schordorf, 1977.

Robert C. Paul, Correspondence from the Director of Commu­nications United States Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, January, 1979.

Fred Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research. NewYork: (2nd Ed), Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1973.

John W. Best, Research in Education. Third Ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977.

Irvin J. Lehmann, and William A. Mehrens, EducationalResearch: Readings in Focus. New York: Holt, Rine­hart and Winston, Inc., 1971.

Standord Labovitz, and Robert Hagerdorn, Introduction toSocial Research. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,1976.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Data ReductionThe total number of cases analyzed in this study for the

three principal groups studied are ninety six. The data were analyzed in the Ohio State University Computer Systems using the S.P.S.S. package for means, standard deviations, degrees of standard error, ANOVA and bi-lateral t-test between groups. Group means were found and the population means were calcu­lated for each variable on the questionnaire. Frequencies for all the variables were calculated and used in reporting the opinion count, while percentages of agreement and disa­greement are published. A 'it-test procedure was used for thedifference between group means. Only the instances of signi-

. *

ficant differences were reported. Significant F ratio were reported from ANOVA conducted for variables having a mean difference of .5 or more. The group and population standard* deviations were found and only group.deviations were reported. The range and standard error were available but were not found to be necessary in reporting response trends. The means, standard deviations, and percentages, t-test and ANOVA give enough information on how each group responded and felt

114

115about any issue in the S.I.P. Instrument- There were many instances of significant differences between the means of Olym­pic Sports Administrators and Professors than between the Olym­pians and any of the other two.

Discussion

The discussion is according to the questionnaire sections.Section A deals with the purposes of the Olympic Games.

An item analysis will best portray the perceptions of each group and will bring out their stand when compared to another group.

When issues yield results contrary to the I.O.C. rules and regulations, or discussions and records, greater emphasis will be placed on developing the topic and rationalizing what could be causing the disagreement. A Table of means is presented in the Appendix D for the readers convenience. Frequencies that scored for "strongly agree" and "agree" will be counted as an acceptance of the statement while those that score "strongly disagree" and "disagree" will count as a rejection of the statement. "The pupose of the Olympic Games is to promote com­petition between nations" This should have read 'among' nations. This could have caused semantic differentials in scoring, but the data are presented as a response to the way the statement was written. Sixteen out of 3 0 (41%) Professors who responded to this item accepted it as being the purpose of the Olympic Games while 22 (56%) rejected the idea. The group mean was 2.8 on a

116

five point Likert Scale. Twenty three Olympic Administrators out of 31 disagreed on this issue for a 74% ratio while only eight, or 26% accepted this idea being the purpose of the Games. The group mean was 2.2. Note that the means have been approx­imated to one decimal digit. Eighteen out of 26 Olympians accept for 69% while 30% reject this purpose. They scored a group mean of 3.7 while the population mean is 2.9. An anal­ysis of variance for this variable reveals that it is signifi­cant at more than .0.1 level of "confidence. Table 2 indicates these data in a concise manner.

The question that arises is , "why would the Olympians differ significantly from the others on this identified pur­pose of the Games?" It will appear therefore that while the athletes were going to this sports pilgrimage principally for competition, those who teach sports and those who administer Olympic sports have other objectives in mind. In order to ameliorate this misunderstanding the writer feels that ath­letes and especially Olympic calibre athletes need more sports education and broadening of their views on the Games. It is however, hard for them to reconcile that they were not in the Olympic Games for competitions among the nations they repre­sent. Probably the athletes rightly understood this item to mean competition among athletes which would perhaps be accept­able to the administrators and professors. What the adminis­trators want to avoid is the emphasis on 'nations' because the original idea of the founder of the Olympic movement was to

117

TABLE 2

Statement A-lThe Purpose Of The Olympic Games Is To

Promote Competition Between Nations

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 16 Reject. 22

Und. 1

39 41 56 2.8 1.6

AdministratorsAccept. 8 Reject. 23 Und. —

31 26 74 2.2 2.9

Olympians

Accept. 18 Reject. 8 Und. —

26 69.2 30.8 3.7 1.2

PopulationAccept. 42 Reject. 53 Und. 1

96 43.7 53.1 2.9 1.5

Key to all the tables: Accept, is to be read AcceptingReject, is to be read Rejecting Und. is to be read Undecided N is number of responses SD is standard Deviation

118

promote individual competitions among the youths of the world.Though the emphasis on 'nations' detracts from the Games,Coubertin did not initially see it so when he remarked that:

"the quadrennial Olympic Games are necessary and adequate to maintain at the right level the spirit of emulation among nations. The relation between that question and peace between nations and between individuals is a close one" (1:*).

It is not an easy task to determine 'right level,1 a relative term used by Coubertin.

"The purpose of the Olympic Games is to develop lasting friendship between countries."

There are 2 0 (51.3%) professors accepting this view as opposed to 18 (46%) who rejected it. Among the administrators, 25 out of 31 agree while 6 reject. This is an 80.6% acceptanceby this group with 19.4% not going along with the opinion asexpressed. Sixteen out of 26 (61.5%) Olympians agree on this purpose of the Games while only three reject this purpose. The number, seven who could not decide either way is a cause for further investigation. If all three groups are taken together on tnis one item 63.5% agree, 28.1% disagree while 8.3% were undecided.

While the Prossors had a group mean of 3.2, the Adminis­trators recorded a mean of 3.8 and the athletes had 3.8 also,and the population mean is 3.55. If 80% was used as an accep­table score for the population, this item is invariably

*No page was available. An article in one of the files of

Brundage.

119

rejected. With a mean difference of .6 existing between the Administrators and Olympians on the one hand, and the Profes­sors on the other, ANOVA was performed and an F value of 3.3 62 was significant at more than .01 but less than .05 level of confidence. Table 3 shows the groups and the population score in percentages, the mean and standard deviations.

Again, but with no problem dealing with misunderstanding the item, the Administrators do not see the issues in the same light as the Professors. By a present percentage standard of 80% the reader could infer that the administrators accept this item as one purpose, of the Olympic Games while the other two groups reject it. This kind of conclusion could be wrong if because the population had 63.5% accepting, the reader of this may infer that the concept is rejected by them when in actual fact group acceptance indicates the administrators are high on acceptance. The reader is therefore advised to pay more attenr tion to group perceptions than to the total population scores. The Olympic Charter had made this issue clear when it say the International Olympic Committee is responsible for, "inspiring, and leading sport within the Olympic ideal, thereby promoting and strengthening friendship between the sportsmen of all countries" (2:5). This statement explains why the Olympic Sports Administrators would agree while the other groups score lower than them. By accepting the ideal of developing 'friend­ship between sprotsmen of all countries it implies developing friendships among countries through the athletes. There is no

120

TABLE 3

Statement A-2The Purpose Of The Olympic Games Is To Develop

Lasting Friendship Between Countries

Gzoap Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 20 Reject. 18 Und. 1

39 51.3 46 3.2 1.4

AdministratorsAccept. 25 Rej ect. 6

Und. —31 80.6 19.4 3.8 1.1

Olympians

Accept. 16 Reject. 3

Und. 7

26 61.5 11.5 3.8 1

PopulationAccept. 61 Reject. 27 Und. 8

96 63.5 28.1 3.6 1.2

_ ..

121

doubt that countries use sports to develop friendship between nations and instances such as the ping-pong diplomacy and socialist countries gymnastic teams tour of the West have been sited. Instances of using sports to promote friendship between countries abound for instance, in 1977, Senator George McGovern, Democrat from South Dakota, arranged for the University of South Dakota basketball team to tour Cuba in the hope of help­ing to normalize doplomatic ties between the two countries" (3:14).

"The Olympics serve the purpose of raising the sports standards of the less developed countries."

In the item three that address this issue, 25 (64%) out of 3 9 professors agree, nine (23%) disagree while five were unde­cided. Among the 31 administrators who responded 22 accept this issue for a 71% ratio while seven rejected it for a 22.6% ratio.

There were 26 (38.5%) Olympians who responded to it out of whom ten agree and seven (27%) disagree with the rest opting to be undecided. While the professors had a mean of 3.5, the Administrators 3.5, the athletes had a 3.2 and the population mean is 3.4. There was no significant difference between their means. Table 4 shows the kinds of scores on this opinion.

Taken as a total of 96 respondents 57 (59.3%) think the Olympics improve the sports standards of less developed coun­tries while 23 or 24% reject this idea. This question had best be put to the "less developed countries" who are in a better

122

Table 4Statement A-3

The Olympics Serve The Purpose of Raising The r Sports Standards.Of The Less Developed Countries

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 25 Rej ect. 9 Und. 5

39 64 23 3.5 1.2

AdministratorsAccept. 22

Rej ect. 7 Und. 2

31 71 22 3.5 1.2

Olympians

Accept. 10

Reject. 7 Und. 9

26 38.5 27 3.2 .93

PopulationAccept. 57 Reject. 23

4

Und. 1696 59.3 14 3.4 1.1

12 3

position to state the effect of the Olympics on their sports. Though the Olympic Sports Administrators scored high on this opinion, there are no reports from the International Olympic Committee or the founder of the movement which specifically emphasized the raising of the sports standards of the develop­ing countries. However, one of the objectives of the I.O.C. includes guarding and promoting amateurism and amateur sports in all member nations. It was not particular about specific countries.

"The Olympics affords simultaneously a cultural exchange opportunity."

This issue was not in doubt judging from the positive response to that item. With only one undecided respondent 30 out of 31 Administrators accept this issue scoring a 97% against no opposition, and a mean of 4.5. Similarly 24 (92%) out of 26 Olympians accept this view. There was only one res­pondent who disagreed while another did not decide. A mean of 4.3 was recorded. Out of 39 Professors, 31 (81.5%) agreed, 4 (13%) were opposed to it, 3 did not take sides and one did not check in an answer. The group mean for Professors is 3.9 while the mean for the population that responded is 4.2. All the groups were each above 80% acceptance level, and had 88.6% popu- population acceptance score and a 5.2% rejection. This'issue is interesting enough to make the Olympic Games worth continuing. But a search for the cause of unanimity is not difficult to find. The founder of the Olympic movement had emphasized art,

12 4

arts and crafts, rythmn and cultural exhibitions to be part ofthe Games. In the Games proper, nations are invited to bringalong one cultural troupe at one Olympics or the other andthese doubtless afford the cultural exchange opportunity. Drewin reference to the Olympics had pointed out inter alia:

...There are only two organizations in the World which have representatives from all nations, the U.N. and the Olympics. In these instruments we have the opportunity for concerted action as a means to intercultural understanding (4:*).

Table 5 shows the response to the item on Culture and the Olympics. Olympic Rule No 31, strengthens the case for this issue because "the Organizaing Committee shall arrange exhibi­tions and demonstrations of the national fine arts, painting, sculpture, architecture, music, literature, theatrical, ballet and opera performances" (2:19).

"The Olympic Games serve to maintain and promote the ideals of sport for the glory of it."

Sports for the love of it is an intrinsic ideal that was supposed to reflect the Olympic Games. How true that concept is today is subjected to test from the perceptions of these three groups of respondents. Fifteen out of 38 (39%) Profes­sors buy this ideal, 17 (44.7%) reject it outright while six remained uncommitted. The Professors had a mean score of 2.9 on the item analyzed. There are 25 out of 30 Administrators who agree that the Olympic Games maintain and promote the ideals of sport for the glory of it. This is an 83.3% agreement as

*A document in Avery Brundage Collections. A paper in Box 10 of Brundage1s records on A.A.U.

125

Table 5 *

Statement A-4The Olympics Afford Simultaneously A

Cultural Exchange Opportunity

Gztmp Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 31 Reject. 4 Und. 3

38 81.5 13 3.9 .95

AdministratorsAccept. 30 Rej ect. —

Und. i31 97 — 4.5 .56

Olympians

Accept. 24 Reject. l Und. l

26 92 4 4.3 .72

PopulationAccept. 85 Reject. 5 Und. 5

95 88.6 5.2 .8

against a 16.7% rejection. Eighteen out of 26 (70%) Olympians believe in the concept determined while seven (17%) are not in agreement. The mean distribution is 3.7 for Olympians and 4.1 for the Administrators. The ANOVA among the means of Olympians, Professors and Administrators is significant at more than .01 level of confidence. In all the items discussed so far there is in each case a clear disagreement between the Professors and the Administrators. Are the Olympic Sports Administrators more informed about the Olympic Games or are the Professors disil­lusioned about the Olympics because there has been-rauch depar­tures from the original ideals? This writer in attempt to answer this question regarding the variance gap between these two groups, wants to opine an observation that the Olympic Sports Administrators appear committed to defend Olympism and its ideals and that attachment to Olympism reflects in their answers. They seem to have taken all that Brundage had to say to the Olympic movement and are convinced by him. One of the assigned roles of the International Olympic Committee is "mak­ing the Games ever more worthy of their glorious history and of the high ideals which inspired their revival by Baron Pierrede Coubertin and his associates" (2:5). This reflects the highscore by the Administrators in this purpose. The Olympic Games has a "glorious history" to preserve amateur sport for mankind. This defense of sport fro the glory of it isentrenched in the Olympic Oath which reads:

127

...we swear that we will take part in the Olympic Games in loyal competitions, respecting the regula­tions which govern them and desirous of participat­ing in them in the true spirit of sportsmanship for the honor of our country and FOR THE GLORY OF SPORT*(5:3) .

This has been amended recently to read "For the glory of sport abd the honor of our teams" (2:36) to avoid national importance. Table 6 presents this item as viewed by the respondents *

"The Olympic Games give the people concerned insight intowhat is happening inside the other countries."

A couple of years ago it was difficult to get behind the Soviet Union called the 'Iron Curtain.1 It was therefore dif­ficult to know what type of life exist there for athletes andall. The opinion expressed in this item is not a popular viewas scored by the subjects in this study. Seventeen out of 3 8 (44.7%) Professors accept this issue, 14 (37%) reject it while seven are undecided. Of the 31 Administrators who responded 19 (61%) agree, nine disagree and three are neutral. There were 12 out of 26 Olympians agreeing for 46% and nine disagreeing for 34.6%. Their group means are 3.4, 3.1, and 2.9 fpr Administra­tors, Olympians and Professors respectively. The total respon­dents scored a population mean of 3.1 and a 50% acceptance in this concept. It dees not appear to be an opinion entirely popular with any group. The reason behind the responses is pro­bably based on the fact that a fortnight of busy sports program is not enough time to know what is happening inside the host country. A country like the Soviet Union would probably provide

*Capitals are this writer's emphasis.

128

TABLE 6

Statement A-5The Olympic Games Serve To Maintain And

Promote The Ideals of Sports For The Glory Of It

Gttrop Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 15 Reject. 17 Und. 6

38 39 44.7 2.9 1.4

AdministratorsAccept. 25 Rej ect. 5 Und. —

30 83.3 16.7 4.1 .92

Olympians

Accept. 18 Reject. 7

Und. l26 69 27 3.7 1.3

PopulationAccept. 58 Reject. 27 Und. 7

94 60.4 28.1 3.5 1.3

129guides for every visitor and especially journalists to insurethat they see only what the Kremlin wants them to see. Referto Table 7 for the presentation of scores on this item.

"The Olympic Games help to contruct a better and morepeaceful world."

In February, I960, San Francisco Sunday Chronicle quotedAvery Brundage in the following statement in his reference tothe Olympic Games:

...these friendly contacts on the fields of amateur sport— if the politicians will leave us alone— will create and develop international amity and goodwill which will lead us to a happier and more peaceful world (45:1960)*

This issue was put to test with the feedback from these three groups of respondents. Nine out of 3 9 (23%) Professors agree on this statment, 21 (54%) disagree while nine others were not sure it does that. Twenty-five out of 31 Olympic Sports Admin­istrators support this claim and six were undecided. There was no opposition in this item. This is an almost 81% support with no disagreement. Of the 26 Olympians only nine agree, eight disagree and nine were uncommitted. With 34.6% each being in agreement and neutral, 3 0.4% disagreed. Again the discrepancy between the Administrators and the others is enormous. The athletes had a mean of 3.1, the Professors 2.9 but the Adminis­trators scored 4.0. The difference between them and the othertwo groups is highly significant at .01 level of confidence.

*This page is missing but the paper quoted is a cutting in

the sport column, and is in Avery Brundage Files, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

130

. TABLE 7

Statement A-6The Olympic Games Give The People Concerned Insight

Into What Is Happening Inside The Other Countries

Gtcrop Response H Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 17 Reject. 14 Und. 7

38 44.7 37 2.9 1.4

AdministratorsAccept. 19 Rej ect. 9 Und. 3

31 61 30 3.4 1.0

Olympians

Accept. 12 Rej ect. 9 Und. 5

26 46 34.6 3.1 1.1

PopulationAccept. 48 Reject. 32 Und. 15

. i . . . . .

95 50.5 33.8 3.1 1.2

131

Once more the Administrators showed their conviction and obei­sance to the Olympic fundamental principles the first of which stresses that the aims of the Olympic movement includes "help­ing to construct a better and more peaceful world" (2:3). This writer thinks that one of these two groups is not in close touch with realities of the Olympic Games. With one Olympic Games crisis after another already documented earlier in this research/ it is hard to believe that a peaceful world is being constructed. The Olympic Rules and regulations might have out­grown currency of the Olympic Games. The scores on this item are presented in Table 8.

This is a case of one group heavily skewed positively dragging the negatively skewed groups to its side. In a case like this the population scores should be looked at with scru­tiny and not be allowed to lead to misleading inference.

"Olympic athletes want to use the Games to make friends from other nations."

This is well received by the Olympians and the Sports Administrators, while the Professors scored much lower than the two other groups. From the 26 Olympians 20 agree, two disagree and four did not decide thus, yielding 77%, 7.5%, and 15% respectively. Out of 31 sports Administrators 26 (35%) favor the statement, two disagree for 7.8% and three were undecided. Sixteen Professors out of 38 (42%) respondents agree, 15 (39.4%) disagree and seven did not take sides. The trend whereby the Administrators score in opposite ends with the Professors has

132

TABLE 8

Statement A-7The Olympic Games Help To Construct A

Better And More Peaceful World

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 9 Reject. 21 Und. 9

39 23 54 2.5 1.1

AdministratorsAccept. 25 Rej ect. 0 Und. 6

31 80.6 — 4.0 .65

Olympians

Accept. 9 Reject.

Und. 9

26 34.6 30.4 3.1 1.7

PopulationAccept. 43

Reject. 29 Und. 24

96 44.8 30.2 3.2 1.2

133

continued and is a cause for a more detailed search for the reasons of their disagreement outside those already identified by this writer. The means for the Olympians is 4., the Pro­fessors have 3.1 and the Administrators score 3.9. The variance between the Administrators, the Olympians, and the Professor is again highly significant at more than .01 level of confidence. Note that there is a tendency for the Olympians and the Administrators to agree more often than for the Pro­fessors to agree with any of them. This writer's explanation of this phenomenon is that the records show many of the Admin­istrators were former athletes of Collegiate and Olympic cali­bre. However, it was observed early in this project that few of the Professors were also former Olympians. Table 9 pre­sents the scores on this opinion.

Summary of the Purpose of the Olympic Games

Out of eight conceptually differing items in this section only one emerged acceptable to the three groups of respondents as being the purpose of the Olympic Games. It reads that "the Olympics afford simultaneously a cultural exchange opportunity." There were division in other items with a trend which showed that the Olympic Sports Administrators do not agree with Pro­fessors of Sports in many issues. Generally the Sports Admin­istrators were found to be more agreeable on almost all the issues than any other group. They scored highest in acceptance in seven out of eight items, the only one they rejected was an

134

TABLE 9

Statement A-8Olympic Athletes Want to Use The Games

To Make Friends From Other Nations

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 16 Reject. 15 Und. 7

38 42 39.4 3.1 1.2

AdministratorsAccept. 26 Rej ect. 2 Und. 3

31 83.8 7.8 3.9 .7

Olympians

Accept. 20 Rej ect. 2 Und. 4

26 77 7.5 4.0 .9

PopulationAccept. 62 Reject. 19 Und. 14

95 64.6 19.8 3.6 1.0

135item that had a semantic problem. The Olympians were the next in acceptance while the Professors were hightest in the rejec­tions of the concepts.

Olympic Athletes, Sports, and Politics

Most of the United States Olympic athletes are collegiate and high school athletes who are relatively innocent of inter­national politics and its ramifications in sports. "Inter­collegiate athletics in the United States is decisively a strong contributor to the success of this country (U.S.A.) in international competition" (7:81) and this includes the Olympic Games. These intercollegiate athletes who became Olympians were part of the respondents.

"Olympic athletes wish to keep sports free from politics."Twenty-four out of 26 (92%) Olympians favor the statement

one disagreed and one was undecided. The one respondent who disagreed entered a remark that as far back as "700 B.C. it was political— who's kidding who." Twenty-eight out of 39 Profes­sors agree (71.8%), three disagree while eight don't know. An "undecided" in Likert Scale can also be referred to as 'neut­ral' or 'don't know.' Among the 31 Administrators 29 (93.5%) agree, one each disagreed or was undecided. As groups the Olympians, the Administrators, and the Professors each had a mean of 4.6, 4.6, and 3.9 respectively. Their, population mean is 4.3 and population percentage is 84.4% when 81 out of 96 agreed on the issue. For the second time all groups scored

136

above 80% in agreement. The data in Table 10 indicate con­cisely this agreement.

"Athletes want to use sports to demonstrate political- maturity for their country."

Goodhue (1974) had earlier stated that African nations seem to show a greater political interest in sport because of their late political maturity and want to use sport as a cheap political tool. Goodhue's research may have been put to test to confirm his findings. Only five (12.8%) out of 39 Profes­sors agree to this statement, 18 disagree (46%) while 16 did not decide. There were 31 Sports Administrators six (19.3%) of who agree, 24 (77.4%) disagree and one did not know. From the Olympians 4 are in favor of the statement for 15.4%, the 20 that disagree account for 77%. This issue therefore is rejected. Athletes, whether they are from Third World coun-.- tries or the East and West blocs do not use sports to demon­strate political maturity for their countries. For further detail refer to Table 11.

"Olympic athletes welcome the politics in sports because it enables their country to assert herself."

Avery Brundage as President of the I.O.C. had stated:...The Olympic Games were not revived by the Baron de Coubertin merely to give contestants a chance to win medals and to break records, not to enter­tain the public, nor to provide for the participants a stepping stone to a career in professional sport and certainly not to demonstrate the superiority of one political system over another (9:*).*An unpaged memo by Avery Brundage, stuck away in one of the files of Avery Brundage Collections.

137

TABLE 10

Statement B-lOlympic Athletes Wish to Keep Sports

Free From Politics

GrtJtsp Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 28 Rej ect. 3 Und. 8

39 71.8 7.7 3.9 .98

AdministratorsAccept. 29 Rej ect. 1 Und. 1

31 93.5 3.4 4.6 .7

Olympians

Accept. 24 Reject. 1 Und. l

26 92 3.8 4.6 .9

PopulationAccept. 81 Reject. 5 Und. io

96 84.4 5.2 4.3 .9

138

TABLE 11

Statement B-2Athletes Want To Use Sports To Demonstrate

Political Maturity For Their Country

Gttrap Response • N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 5 Rej ect. 18 Und. 16

39 12.8 46 2.5 .9

AdministratorsAccept.

Rej ect. 24 Und. i

31 19.3 77.4 2.1 1.1

Olympians

Accept. 4

Reject. 20 Und. 2

26 15.4 77.0 2.1 1.1

PopulationAccept. 15 Reject. 62 Und. 19

96 15.6 64.6 2.2 1.0

139The Brundage statement is put to test when the responses to the above item were analyzed. Three Professors out of 3 9 agree, 28 disagree (71.8%) while eight did not decide. Only one Administrator favors this statement. He was three times an Olympian before becoming an Adminstrator. Thirty out of 31 disagree (96.7%). Three Olympians (9.6%). accept this opinion,21 (80.7%) rejected the idea of athletes using sport for assertion of their country. The mean scores for the group are 1.6 for Administrators, the lowest on this instrument, 1.96 for Olympians and 2.2 for the Professors. The population mean of 1.9 is also the lowest of the whole items. (See Table 12). As a total group 82.3% reject this opinion. The response here is consistent with an earlier unaminmous rejection of the con­cept that the athletes want to use sports to demonstrate poli­tical maturity. Some of these findings may contradict popular opinion held by published papers of sports experts. For ? instance, Locke (1971) had in reference to socio-political uses of sports commented as follows:

...We have used sport as an agency of social control cooling the hot urban ghettos in the summers of discontent. We have used sport as an instrument of chauvinistic national policy, extolling the virtues of free capitalism or democratic socialism (10:1971).The purpose is not that Locke strengthens the case but to

show that chauvinism in sport is a fact. However, the responseoverwhelmingly establishes that Olympic athletes do not welcomethe politics in sports, and are not in sports to help theircountry in assertion.

140

TABLE 12

Statement B-3Olympic Athletes Welcome The Politics In Sports

Because It Enable Their Country To Assert Herself

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 3

Rej ect. 28 Und. 8

39 7.7 71.8 2.2 .90

AdministratorsAccept. l Reject. 30

Und. —31 3.2 96.7 1.6 .66

Olympians

Accept. 3 Reject. 21 Und. 2

26 9.6 80.7 1.96 1.20

PopulationAccept. 7

Reject. 79 Und. 10

96 7.3 82.3 1.9 .90

1.41

"Athletes are more eager to meet and compete against the big names in their sports in other countries than to care if their countries are friendly or not."

In the Olympic Games, the culmination of an athlete's efforts, the athletes are more excited about competing against the big names they have read so much about in their sport than to care about these countries policies. This writer knows this fact having coached inter-African Universities athletes and observed how eager athletes are to meet their counterparts from other countries. This trend was put to the subjects in order to confirm or establish the authenticity of the claim. There were 34 out of 3 9 Professors (87%) who favor this state­ment, one was opposed and four did not decide. Twenty-eight out of 31 Administrators agree (90%) while two (6.4%) were not in favor. In the class of Olympians 20 out of 26 agree (77% 1 , there were five (19%) Olympians who do not agree. The mean distribution is 4.1 for Administrators, 4.3 for Professors and4.1 for Olympians. The population mean is 4.15, and a total count indicate that 83 out of 96 (85.4%) were in favor.Table 13 shows the analysis in tabulated form.

"Athletes want to use the opportunities to know other nations, more than to care for the foreign policy of those countries."

This issue seeks to establish that the host country's foreign policy does not interest the athletes as they are more eager to know other nations they have not visited before. The

142

TABLE 13

Statement B-4Athletes Are More Eager To Meet And Compete Against The Big Names In Their Sports In Other Countries

Than To Care If Their Countries Are Friendly Or Not

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 34 Rej ect. 1 Und. 4

39 87 2.6 4.3 .8

AdministratorsAccept. 28 Rej ect. 2 Und. 1

31 90 6.4 4.1 .7

Olympians

Accept. 20 Reject. 5 Und. 1

26 77 19.0 4.1 1.3

PopulationAccept. 82 Reject. 8

Und. 6

96 85.4 10.3 4.2 .9

143

Olympians thought this was correct in returning acceptance of 22 out of 26 (84.6%) as against only two rejecting and two neu­tral. The two who reject it account for 7.7%. Among 39 Pro­fessors, 27 (69%) favor the opinion, four (10%) are not in agreement while eight are uncommitted. Of the 31 Administra­tors 30 believe this statement is true yielding 97% with only 3% opposed to it. The trend whereby the Olympic Sports Admin­istrators have scored highest in acceptance has continued even when the athletes are most concerned and were expected to score higher. Refer to Table 14 for details.

"Athletes compete internationally for self glory first and country second."

While Olympic athletes have been described as soldiers without arms, diplomats in track suits and all those names sug­gesting that they are in the service of their country through sports, a controversial issue arises which seeks to establish that athletes compete in international sport for self glory first and glory of the country second in importance. Before this item is analyzed an article in Brundage files on Olympic Games had commented:

...These contests every four years are based on a vigorous patriotism. Nation competes against na­tion, and the individual is struggling, not for his own glory but for the honor of his country (11:11).

This may contradict the official position of the I.O.C. whosince changed the last part to read "for the glory of sportand the honor of our teams." But it shows that for once thefounders of the Modern Olympic Games had given prominence to

TABLE 14

Statement B-5Athletes Want To Use The Opportunities To Know

Other Nations, More Than To care For The Foreign Policy Of Those Countries

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 27 Rej ect. 4 Und. 8

39 69 10 3.7 .89

AdministratorsAccept. 30 Rej ect. i Und. —

31 97 3 4.2 .60

Olympians

Accept. 22 Rej ect. 2

Und. 226 84.6 7.7 4.0 .95

PopulationAccept. 79

Reject. 7 Und. io

96 82.3 6.2 3.9 .90

145

national consciousness. Mac Wilkins the United States Olym­pian and the 1976 Champion in discus declared in Montreal that he was competing for himself and not the U.S.A. The statement he made was unpopular with the home press but probably he did not know that Brundage would have given him a pat on the back if he were alive and in Montreal because what Mac said extols Olym­pic idealism and slogan "for the glory of sport and honor of individualism in winning." The Olympics are not a competition between nations, the I.O.C. would want the world to believe, but between individuals.

That explains the score of Sports Administrators as 20 out of 30 (67%) agree while six (20%) of them disagree. Four did not decide what to believe. For the Professors 20 of 39 (74%) respondents agree the athletes compete for self glory first but five (12.8%) disagree. The athletes themselves had 22 out of 26 (84.6%) favoring the opinion with three rejecting it. The score of this group who are directly involved vindicates the outbursts of Mac Wilkins in Montreal as he is now supported by other Olympians. Table 15 gives more data on the statement.

"Politics promotes the Olympics through engendering national rivalry to achieve higher faster and stronger, the motto of the Olympics."

This crucial question in this study seeks to evaluate the positive effects of politics at the Olympic Games. Rivalry is at the centre of the competitions and the Olympic motto extols it by emphasis on higher, faster' and stronger1 (citius,

146

TABLE 15

Statement B-6Athletes Compete Internationally for Self

Glory First and Country Second

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 29 Rej ect. 5 Und. 5

39 74 12.8 3.8 1.1

AdministratorsAccept. 20 Rej ect. 6

Und. 430 67 20.0 3.7 1.1

Olympians

Accept. 22 Reject. 3 Und. 1

26 84.6 11.5 4.1 .95

PopulationAccept. 71 Reject. 14 Und. io

95 74.7 14.6 3.9 1.1

147

altius, fortius). In response to the above issue which sug­gested that politics may after all be promoting the Olympics, all the groups rejected the concept. Eighteen out of 3 8 (47%) Professors agree, 17(44.7%-) disagree and three were neutral. Among 31 Administrators only four (13%) accept-this opinion,

23 (74%) rejected it. Ten Olympians out of 25 (40%) are in favor while seven (28%) reject it leaving eight undecided res­pondents. The group means are 2.2 for Administrators, 3.1 for athletes and 2.9 for Professors. An analysis of variance was significant at more than .01, but less than .05 level of confi- cence. A population mean of 2.7 and a percentage score of 33.3 are recorded. Other data are available in Table 16. The Administrators were as usual high on rejection in keeping with the Olympic hackneyed slogan "politics must be kept out of the Olympics," and all efforts are directed at "repelling the inva­sion by World Sport Enemy Number One— the forces of political and class warfare" (12:10). Though it is rejected by all groups Olympic experts have written a lot on the effect of politics. Llorente (1968) had stated in Mexico City:

...It would be a falsity to state that the Games are .... outside politics. Politics do have influence in the march of the Olympic Movement. This cannot be avoided but in the other hand, it could be prevented that po­litics get mixed with the development of the Olympiads (13:1).

148

TABLE 16

Statement B-7Politics Promotes the Olympics Through Engendering

National Rivalry To Achieve Higher Faster And Stronger The Motto Of The Olympics

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 18 Reject. 17

Und. 338 47 44.7 2.9 1.4

AdministratorsAccept. 4 Reject. 23 Und. 4

31 13 74 2.2 1.0

Olympians

Accept. 10 Reject. 7 Und. 8

25 40 28 3.1 1.2

PopulationAccept. 32

Reject. 47 Und. 15

94 33.3 49 2.7 1.2

149

Summary of Perception on Olympics/ Sports, and Politics

The Olympic Sports Administrators always led the other two groups both in accepting or rejecting any of the concepts expressed in this section. It is a valid conclusion to say that the Administrators are touchy about Olympic issues and their answer often reflect those ideals which are no longer attainable in our real world. The groups were unanimous in declaring that Olympic athletes wish to keep sports out of politics and again in accepting that athletes are always eager to meet with and compete against the big names in their sports. Athletes want to use the chance of Olympic travel to know other nations.

Economy of Sports and International Relations

"Recently the Olympic Games serve to promote the economy of the host nation."

During the Olympic Games the (country) city that plays host usually makes souvenirs that are worth millions of dollars. In addition to these proceeds from Olympic souvenir which include stamps, the television rights which is another multi­million dollar agreement accrue to the host nation and the I.O.C. get a certain percentage. While one city may run a loss and into big depth after the Olympics, another city may gain after all accounts have been settled. Lord Killanin reports this statement:

150

...Montreal, I personally think was extremely extra­vagant and they also had certainly a number of labor problems which escalated. But I think it is interest­ing to note that actually from the cash income the Games at Montreal made 126.8 Canadian dollars. In Germany (Munich) the profit was 940.9 million DM ((over 300 million American dollars) (33:7).

For the 1980 Olympics N.B.C. for instance is paying the Soviet Union $85 million for rights to telecast the Games. Over a hundred nations spend their countries' money in foreign exchange in the host country to the tune of some millions. Without knowing what a city spends to host the Games— it varies but it is continually going up— the outsider would think that the host country gains and their economy is improved. Olympians, Olym­pic Sports Administrators, and Professors were asked to evalu­ate the issue about the Olympic Games impacting favorably on the host nation. Thirty-nine Professors responded to the issue, 14 (35.9%) think favorably while 25 (61.5%) do not agree. All 31 Administrators responded, eight (25.8%) agree, 20 (64.5%) disagree while three were neutral. From the Olympians only four (15%) agree, 19 (73%) disagree, and three were undecided. All the three groups reject this opinion outright in spite of published articles on Olympic income. When Montreal hosted the Olympic Games that City's Mayor, "Drapeau and his supporters maintain that the improvements forced on a city by the Olympics live on long after the Games are gone and forgotten" (14:83).In the same source Deford had questioned the wisdom of "build­ing a conspicuosly luxurious village costing well over a million dollars to house athletes for a nere fortnight (14:83). One

151fact could be true, that the investment on infrastructure by a host city could be converted to revenue producing enterprizes for life and this accounts for why it is thought the Olympic Games can impact the economy of a host nation. Table 17 pre­sents the results of this issue in a concise manner.

"Participation in the Olympics should have no bearing with trade between nations."

The case of apartheid in South African sports was for a long time the sick baby of the Olymoic Games until one last operation was carried out— place that country on quarantine. Nations of the world in an attempt to get South Africa bend or break have tried economic sanctions even approved by the United Nations. This body is political but sanctioned more than diplo­matic offensive. The trade boycott is economical. In 1962, "when India implied that the Fourth Asian Games become unoffi­cial (because Indonesia barred Nationalist China and Israel) Indonesia Trade Minister Suharto broke off trade relations, and 4000 Indonesians raided the Indian Embassy in Jarkata" (36:7).Is this action a pointer that trade as an economic weapon should relate to what actions are taken in the sports arena? Sport is another factor of social facilitation and the sports world and the Olympic body have used sports boycott in order to. force a change in South Africa. Is it right to impose trade boycott? Does it work? This is a sensitive issue and the analysis reveals one important factor in research— the popula­tion determines the results. While all the respondents score

152

TABLE 17

Statement C-lRecently The Olympic Games Serve To Promote

The Economy Of the Host Nation

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 14 Rej ect. 24

Und. 1

39 35.9 61.5 2.6 1.3

AdministratorsAccept. 8

Reject. 20 Und. 3

31 25.8 64.59

2.3 1.2

Olympians

Accept. 4 Reject. 19 Und. 3

26 15 73.0 2.2 1.0

PopulationAccept. 26 Reject. 63 Und. 7

96 27.1 65.6 2.4 1.2

153

a group mean each past 4.3 on a five point scale, it might score differently in Canada as the issue of Taiwan at Montreal had to do with a new trade pact between Canada and Mainland China. In the statement that suggests there should be no connection between international trade and the Olympics, thirty-six out of 3 9 (92%) Professors agree, one disagreed and two were undecided. Prom the Sports Administrators point of view, 27 agree out of 31 (87%) respondents, three disagreed (10%). Among the 26 Olympians, 24 (92%) agree and two (7.7%) disagree. As a total group they scored 90.6% with only 6% on the other end. The group means present an interesting run, 4.4 for the Adminis­trators, 4.3 for the Olympians and 4.4 for the Professors.They were very close on this issue that there was hardly any mean difference. For details of other statistics refer to Table 18.

"The Olympics are becoming too expensive for many nations and require cost curtailment."

Is the Olympics becoming too expensive for many nations? This question by implication was focussing on hosting nations. This writer admits that those who might have answered from the point of view of participation were misled. However, much that is available in the literature would discuss what it cost Tokyo, Mexico, Munich or Montreal to host the Games and not what it cost Nigeria to send a 120 man team or Bermuda to send a one man track team. This is why it is hoped that respondents were interested in cost to the host nation and the data will

154

TABLE 18

Statement C-2Participation In The Olympics Should Have No

Bearing With The Trade Between Nations

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 36 Rej ect. 1

Und. 239 92 2.5 4.4 .70

AdministratorsAccept. 27 Reject. 3 Und. 1

31 87 10.0 4.4 1.10

Olympians

Accept. 24 Rej ect. 2 Und. —

26 92 7.7 4.3 1.10

PopulationAccept. 87 Rej ect. 6

Und. 3

96 90.6 6.2 4.4 .90

.155

be read from that perspective. The three groups of respondents hopefully had one interpretation. They averaged a 4.1 on a five point scale. There are 37 out of 39 (95%) Professors who agree while one disagrees. Nineteen out of 31 Administrators (61%) favor this view, ten do not, and two have no opinion on it. Twenty-two Olympians out of 25 agree (88%) , two (8%) had no .views and one (4%) disagree. It is therefore reasonable to suggest curtailment of the cost of the Olympic Games to the host nation. Canada planned a $300 million fiesta, but "the Olympics cost Canada $1.5 billion" (15:34). Deford commented on security costs "there are many more soldiers and cops— 16,000— than athletes.... the price tag here for keeping the athletes alive will exceed $100 million" (15:39). The depart­ments that inflate the cost for host nations are security and infrastructure. Munich spent $700 million to build the Olympic Village. If both Munich and Montreal spent so much on build­ings and security, Moscow may spend more and by the time the Los Angeles Olympics are over there may be no more bids to host the world sports summit. However, Lord Killanin and the I.O.C. have today come out with a viable suggestion to reduce cost to the host city.

...We have agreed in the case of Los Angeles that they may use the University of Southern California as a village and therefore will not have to construct a village and therefore provide a considerable capi­tal saving (33:7).

In another move to reduce cost Killanin adds, "we have alsochanged our rules in Athens so that it is possible for a city

156

to share its responsibilites with other cities. (33:7). The Olympic Village may now share its priveleges with other cities or sites in the same country. Table 19 shows the response patterns of the groups on this issue.

The reader's attention is drawn to a large difference in opinion on this issue between the Administrators and Professors. Assuming there is no ambiquity in interpreting the question by all the three grups, the ANOVA is significant at more than .001 but less than .01. The F test yielded 6.656.

"One way to cut the expenses is to reduce the number of athletes."

Interesting enough, the population, while admitting that cost curtailment is a necessary exercise, do not subscribe to the panacea for reducing the number of athletes. Again if this was tied to an earlier question there was but slight connec­tion between the infrastructural investment and the number of athletes takingpart, for instance in accomodations. But if the issue is cost of security, expenses on each athlete by partici­pating nations, shorter duration which invariably results with fewer athletes heats and playoffs, then the reduction of team size is tenable as a way to cut cost. If athletes are selected by country for each event the duration of the Olympics lasts longer but does not imply that the best in the world in any one individual event are present at the Olympic Games. The fact that many countries want to take part in as many events they are qualified as possible increases the cost of

TABLE 19

Statement C-3The Olympics Are Becoming Too Expensive For Many Nations And Require Cost Curtailment

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 37 Rej ect. 1 Und. 1

39 95.0 2.6 4.5 .8

AdministratorsAccept. 19 Rej ect. 10 Und. 2

31 61.0 32.0 3.5 1.4

Olympians

Accept. 22 Rej ect. 2 Und. 1

25 88.0 8.0 4.1 1.1

PopulationAccept. 70 Reject. 13 Und. 4

95 81.2 13.6 4.1 1.2

158

participation. Moore saw this right when he observed. "Selec­tion of athletes by country guarantees some of the best will stay at home and some of the worst (but best in their count­ries)* will take part as well as allows governments to freight athletes, with the political burdens that have so troubled these Games' (16:4). If reduction in the number of athletes were accepted, the measures would be to raise qualifying stan­dards, cut down the teams in team games to just eight, and eli­minate many swimming events which are a repetition of the same stroke. Out of 3 9 Professors responding 12 (31%) would accept the idea as the proper thing to do, 23 (59%) reject the propo­sal, four had no views. Five Administrators (16%) think it is right to reduce the athletes, 25 (81%) reject the idea. Twenty- one out of 26 (81%) Olympians reject this proposal while two (7.7%) accept it and three had no opinion. While the Adminis­trators have a mean of 1.8, the Olympians had 1.8, and the Pro­fessors had 2.6. Though all reject the idea the variance degree is significant at more than .001 and less than .01. More sta­tistics are presented in Table 20. The variance was caused by Professors' scores as the other two groups were a perfect match. This is another example of a positively skewed single group dragging up the population mean of the total group. More importance shold be placed on group scores and views than on entire population. This writer would want to infer that Olym­pic athletes and Olympic Sports Administrators do not want the

*Addition in brackets are the writer's opinion.

159

TABLE 20

Statement C-4One Way To Cut The Expenses Is

To Reduce The Number Of Athletes

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 12 Rej ect. 23 Und. 4

39 31.0 59.0 2.6 1.2

AdministratorsAccept. 5 Reject. 25 Und. 1

31 16.0 81.0 1.8 1.1

Olympians

Accept. 2

Reject. 21 Und. 3

26 7.7 81.0 1.8 1.0

PopulationAccept. 19 Reject. 69 Und. 8

96 19.8 71.9

_ ___

2.1 1.1

160

number of athletes cut because the depth of a team is important in team games, relay, ball games, gymnastics, diving and swimm­ing. It would also be true that if the number of athletes are drastically cut, the number of officials accompanying the team will also be reduced thus depriving, the Administrators the opportunity of this jamboree that is the Olympic Games. Pro­bably one can say that ulterior motives and consideration of selves affect how people respond to any questionnaire item.

"It is wrong not to sell export products to a country because of their domestic sports policy."

Sports, politics having been meshed together extend to drag economics into it. For instance many countries of the world do not trade with South Africa because of her domestic policy of apartheid which also caused her expulsion from the Olympic Movement. Oil embargo and other kinds of economic sanctions have not as yet forced South Africa to change. Is it right not to sell export products to any country because of their domestic sports policy? Twenty-three out of 38 (60.5)Frorfessors think it is wrong, while six (15.7%) think it is not wrong, ‘and nine did not decide. The high degree of unde­cided response might have been caused by the wording of the item as written. From Sports Administrators 22 out of 29 (76%) think it is wrong, while five think it is not. There are 17 Olympians who believe it is wrong (65%) while four think it is right. Five people did not have an opinion.The distribution of means is 3.8 for Administrators, 3.7

161

for Olympians and 3.7 for the Professors. There is no differ­ence between their means. Sixty-four percent of the total cases agree it is wrong not to sell export products to any country because of their domestic sports policy. Table 21 has a concise presentation of data. It should be read carefully because acceptance means 'it is wrong' while rejection means it is right.

"It is right to use international economic sanctions to affect a change in any country's internal sports segregative policy."

Similarly it appears in some cultures a justified measureis to use appears in some cultures a justified measure is to use international economic sanctions to effect a change in any coun­try’s internal sports segregative policy. In the United Nations sanctions are almost the last measures after persuasions and diplomacy have failed. There is no doubt this issue has to do with stubborn South Africa whose segregative domestice policy is constitutionally established within that territory. Much as the International Olympic Committee would repeatedly emphasize that sports should be divorced from politics the reality is that in the case of South Africa, politics of sports is part of the embedded problem.

...When in 1962 SANROC-South Africa Non-Racial Olympic Committee was formed the South African Govern­ment Police constantly harrassed the members and put pressure on their employees, and their passports were withheld to prevent them puting their case to inter­national bodies" (17:73).

This is a Government mixing sports, politics and racism all in an

16 2

TABLE 21

Statement C-5It Is Wrong Not To Sell Export Products To A

Country Because Of Their Domestic Sports Policy

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 23 Rej ect. 6

Und. 938 60.5 15.7 3.7 1.1

AdministratorsAccept. 22 Rej ect. 5 Und. 2

29 76 17.0 3.8 1.2

Olympians

Accept. 17 Reject. A Und. 5

26 65 15.0 3.7 1.2

PopulationAccept. 62 Reject. 15 Und. 16

93 66.6 15.6 3.7 1.2

163effort to put down the non-white races. This is one reason it is thought that international economic sanctions will pressure them to change. But 25 (64%) United States Professors of Sports out of 39 who were sampled are opposed to the idea, while only five are in favor. As many as nine did not have a view. The Administrators had only three (10%) supporting the proposal, 23 (77%) rejected it and four were uncommitted. Of the 26 Olympians only two (7.7%) were in favor, 15 (58%) were opposed to the concept of economic sanction and nine were neu­tral .

Group mean distribution were 1.9 for the Administrators,2.2 and 2.2 for Professors and Olympians respectively. Per­centage of population in favor was only 10% while 66% reject this opinion. One of the problems of research is highlighted in this question and that is, that results of an opinion study greatly depends on who are sampled. If this questionnaire were filled in Africa or Asia this item might score differently.For instance Abraham Ordia the anti-apartheid famous African sports leader was asked to fill the same questionnaire to be used for comparative reaction and he had "strongly agreed that international economic sanctions should be used" to effect such a change. Ordia is the President of Supreme Council for Sports in Africa and had been credited with leading frontline attacks on apartheid in sports and influencing African teams to pull out of international sports competitions including the Olympic Games. Since this study wants to limit its findings to United

164

States subjects Ordia's returned questionnaire is not in the frequency count but is used for information on what the trend would most likely have been if Africa were sampled. Ordia happens to be the Secretary of the Nigerian Olympic Committee and has for long attended the I.O.C. meetings with the dele­gate from Nigeria, Sir Adetokumbo Ademola. For the concise table on the response to this item the reader is referred to Table 22.

The questionnaire item which suggests that all nations should contribute equitably to the International Olympic Com­mittee will not be analyzed because the writer has since found out from U.S.O.C. member that:

...Countries don't contribute to the I.O.C.— the International Olympic Committee distributes money to the countries' National Olympic Committee from T.V. rights and funds generated by the Games... distribution has been controversial (18:1).

Drum adds that "as for money and the Olympics— it's all selfsupporting as far as hosting the Games. Cost by participatingnations is self regulated and not controlled by the I.O.C. orthe Games.

"The interaction between sports and politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games."

After the various sequenced incidents of politics at the modern Olympic Games as reported by the world press, to hear from Olympians and Sports Administrators of Olympic Sports, and Professors of Sports was ideally necessary to get at pri­mary sources. These groups have therefore been asked to

165

TABLE 22

Statement C-6It Is Right To Use International Economic

Sanctions To Affect A Change In Any Country's Internal’Sports Segregative Policy

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 5 Reject. 25 Und. 9

39 12.8 64.0 CN•CM 1.0

AdministratorsAccept. 3 Rej ect. 23 Und. 4

30 17.0 77.0 1.9 1.1

Olympians

Accept. 2 Reject. 15 Und. 9

26 7.7 58.0 2.2 1.1

PopulationAccept. 10 Reject. 63 Und. 22

95 10.4 54.2 2.1 1.1

evaluate the intermesh of politics at the Olympics and how it has been a thorny problem. The three groups scored their second highest mean in agreement on this issue out of 38 items. Such an admittance by these three major actors serves to strengthen the case for this thesis, that the interaction between sports and politics at the modern Olympic Games has become a dilemma. Brundage battled it for too long, but could not solve it. The situation has defied the I.O.C. for years. Resolutions, actions and counter actions bordering on the pro­blems occasioned by politics fill the records of the I.O.C. meetings and uet it is hard to kill this cankerworm before it kills the patient. How do the groups feel about it? Thirty- eight (97%) out of 39 Professors agree while scoring a mean of 4.7 in this issue. There are 28 (90%) out of 31 Administrators who subscribe to this view while three (9.7%) reject it. That accounts for a group mean of 4.2. Of the 26 Olympians 23 (88%) would accept the view expressed and 12% rejection respectively and they had a mean of 4.3. The t test performed between the Professors mean and each of the other means produced no signi­ficant difference. For more data information the reader is referred to Table 23.

Summary: Economy of Sports and International Relations

Contrary to common belief the Olympics do not promote the economy of the host nation judging by the views of these groups of people. The Olympic Games should be free of any

167

TABLE 23

Statement C- ‘8The Interaction Between Sports And Politics Is A Thorny Problem For The Olympic Games

Gtonp Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 38 Rej ect. 1

Und. —39 97.0 3.0 4.7 .70

AdministratorsAccept. 28 Rej ect. 3 Und. —

31 90.0 9.7 4.2 .90

Olympians

Accept. 23 Reject. 2 Und. 1

26 88.0 7.7 4.3 1.00

PopulationAccept. 89 Reject. 6

Und. 196 92.7 6.3 4.4 • V

O o

168strings such as attachment to the trade between nations. It is agreed by all the groups sampled that the Olympic Games need cost curtailment. However, the groups rejected the one idea suggested to curtail cost, that is, to reduce the number of athletes Contrary to the United Nations use of economic sanc­tions against countries, the subjects in this study do not favor introducing international economic sanctions as a measure designed to affect another country's domestic sports policy whether it is segregative or discriminatory. One bitter truth which these people who carry much experience on the Olympics with them unanimously accept was that there is an existent pro­blem that has defied solutions— the-interaction of sports and politics at the Olympic Games.

Nationalism and Government Involvement

Seven issues were subjected to reactions in this section of the study. In earlier review, it was discovered the various ways governments have used sports and physical education in nation building. It was observed that governments' involvement in sports include 1) sports grants and subsidy to sports bodies,2) creation of ministry of sports and culture 3) appointment of National Director of Sports, 4) appointment of committees to review amateur sports, 5) development of state amateurs who trained full time, 6) building of sports institutes to "manu­facture" athletes, and 7) offering athletic scholarship to high schools or colleges for superior athletes.

169

These were ferreted from the literature. In the following discussion an attempt is made to discover how the Professors, Administrators and Olympians evaluate some of the above trends.

"The Olympics is now used as a strong avenue to project the image of one 1s country."

Thirty-eight out of 39 Professors agree with this state­ment thus accounting for 97%. No Professor disagreed and one did not decide. This is a high percentage of reaction which emphasized how they feel about the Olympics and politics. Twenty-six (90%) out of 29 Sports Administrators reacted favor­ably to this statement, two (7%) rejected it, while one did not have an opinion. Among the 25 Olympians who responded, 24 (96%) agreed with this statement, and one had no views. The means for the groups are 4.3 for the Administrators, 4.7 for the Pro­fessors, and 4.3 for the Olympians. The F value of 2.706 was significant at more than .05 and less than .01. Out of 93 total response 88 (94.6%) support the statement that countries use the Olympics to project their image. Table 24 presents the data concisely.

"Government involvement is necessary for the success of their Olympic national teams."

While some sources want government participation in the sports and physical education of their countries, there is another school of thought which thinks government involvement means government interference in sports and a departure from the Olympic ideals. At one point in time the celebrated I.O.C.

170

TABLE 24

Statement D-lThe Olympics Is Now Used As A Strong Avenue

To Project The Image Of One's Country

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 38 Rej ect. —

Und. 1

t

39 97 ------ 4.7 .50

AdministratorsAccept. 26 Rej ect. 2 Und. i

29 90 7 4.3 .80

Olympians

Accept. 24 Rej ect. —

Und. 1

25 96 -- 4.3 .55

PopulationAccept. 88

Reject. 2 Und. 3

93 94.6 7 4.5 .66

171P^ssident, Avery Brundage would decry government involvement in sports and at another time he encouraged government financing sports "without interfering." But-it is a known fact that whenany government invests in any enterprize it surely will want todictate the policy. In one statement Brundage in 1960 hadsaid, “Since National Olympic Committees sometimes depend ongovernment support it may be difficult to resist political pre-sure. All N.O.C. should therefore strive for complete financialindependence" (19:1). But in 1963 in Britain he was quoted byDaily Express:

...Reports that I disapprove of the new financial sup­port of the Olympics by your government are right off the beam. . . .Amateur sport today, most of all the Olym­pics is hard up and I welcome help provided the money is correctly handled (19:1).

Mr. Brundage, continued the Daily Express of December 14, 1963, admitted that in the past he had objected to subverted finan­cial subsidies. Until 1978, the U.S.O.C. had worked completely independent of Federal Government financial assistance and had relied on public donation to send their teams to the Olympic Games. Though the Federal Government in 1978 approved a $30 million grant to the U.S.O.C. as the Central Sports Organiza­tion coordinator for amateur sports, there has been no evidence of governmental interference because it gave the C.S.O. some grant money. On the question of government involvement in Olym­pic efforts of their national teams 26 out of 38 Professors (68%) are in favor while ten (26%) are opposed to it. From the Administrators group seven out of 31 are in favor (22.5%) while 17 (54.8%) reject the involvement by governments. As many as

172

seven out of 31 are in favor (22.5%) while 17 (54.8%) reject the involvement by governments. As many as seven did not take sides. There were 14 out of 26 Olympians who reacted favorably (53.8%) as against eight who are not in agreement (30.7%). The groups each scored a mean of 2.6/ 3.3, and 3.6 for the Adminis­trators, Olympians and Professors respectively. From the entire groups 49% favor governmental involvement as necessary. For more details the reader is referred to Table 25.

"Smaller nations divert all energies to international sports to achieve prominence."

East Germany is a model of a small country which has diverted a lot of energy into sports and has used it to achieve international prominence. Many other smaller nations such as Finland, Norway, Sweden, Australia to name a few have much investment in sports and for some that is the first thing you remember when they are mentioned. If you were on Fleet Street in London and said Australia, your audience would listen to what you had to say about Cricket. The issue about using sports to achieve international fame for a country was surveyed. There are 18 out of 3 9 Professors who support this statement (46%) while eleven (28%) rejected it leaving ten Professors undecided. Of the 30 Administrators who responded six agree (20%) 19 disagee (63%) while five remained neutral. Six Olym­pians reacted favorably out of 26 (23%). Eleven were opposed to this statement (42%) while nine remain uncommitted. Their group differences show that the Professors had a mean score of

173

TABLE 25

Statement D-2Government Involvement Is Necessary For The

Success of Their Olympic National Teams

Group Response N AcceptZ

......................Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 26 Rej ect. xo Und. 2

38 68 26 3.6 1.3

AdministratorsAccept. 7 Reject. 17

Und. 731 22.5 54.8 2.6 1.1

Olympians

Accept. 14 Reject. 8

Und. 426 00* 30.7 3.3 1.4

PopulationAccept. 47 Reject. 35 Und. 13

95 49 36.5 3.2 1.3

174of 3.2, the Administrators had 2.6 while the Olympians had 2.8. As a total group of sports people looking at the issue, 30 out of 95 (31.6%) approve this statement while 41 (43,2%) rejected it. The large number who are neutral (24) is a pointer to the issue as being controversial. This writer will like to observe that the phrase 'divert all energies' might be too much for any one to buy and this could have affected the results. But one thing is clear these days, and that is that many nations invest a substantial effort and money in international sports for the fame it generates for them. Table 26 is a precise summary of the data on the issue. The ANQVA was significant at .10 level of confidence but more than .05 level.

"It is not national humiliation to achieve few or no medals in the Olympic Games, rather there should be satisfaction for competing well."

The attitude of athletes, their administrators, and their tutors is measured by askingthem whether it is national humi­liation for a country to achieve no medals at the Olympic Games. Earlier this writer gave instances of where Heads of States have emphasized the importance of Olympic medals, Heads of Government have even sent messages to winners right into the Olympic Village. It was also sited the countries which regarded any particular sport as their national pride have reacted unfavorably when they lost the gold medal in any Olym­pics. Yet the Olympic ideals emphasize participation and not winning. In the words of Coubertin, re-echoed by Brundage:

175

TABLE 26

Statement D-3Smaller Nations Divert All Energies To

International Sports To Achieve Prominence

Group Response N AcceptZ

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 18 Reject. 11 Und. 10

39 46 28 3.2 1.1

AdministratorsAccept. 6

Rej ect. 19 Und. 5

30 20 63 2.6 1.2

Olympians

Accept. 6

Reject. 11 Und. 9

26 23 42 2.8 .8

PopulationAccept. 30 Rej ect. 41 Und. 24

95 41.2 42.7 2.9 1.1

176

...The important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, the important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle, the essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well, to spread these precepts is to build up a stronger and more valiant and above all more scrupulous and more generous humanity (30:1).

If this advice of the founder of the Modern Olympic Games wereheeded, there would be less friction at the Games, but ratherthe unofficial medal table and points make some countries whoare contenders feel humiliated. Here in the United States thegeneral impression and attitude to winning— 'go get them1— iscarried to the Olympic Games and it puts tremendous pressure onthe athletes. Ryan (1972) commented on the win all or losehonor attitude of U.S.O.C. sports administrators.

...the idea that the United States must enter compe titors in every event in both Summer and Winter Games has been fostered by a certain element in the U.S.O.C. who feel that the national honor is at stake if we don't succeed in winning more medals than any other country. This ridiculous concept is foreign to the spirit in which the Modern Games were organized (21:18).In the analysis that follows the U.S.O.C. sports adminis­

trators have vindicated their stand by rejecting the concept of national humiliation or loss of honor by winning fewer medals at the Olympic Games. This writer is not unaware of the implications of opinion research whereby the respondents incline to checking items for public consumption while in their hearts their wishes are sitting on the other end of the fulcrum.

In scoring this issue all the respondent groups had a mean that is 4 or higher. Thirty-two (82%) out of 39 Professors agree it is not national humiliation to achieve few or no

177

medals in the Olympic Games, five (12.8%) do not agree. From the Olympic Sports Administrators, 27 (90%) out of 30 accept the statement while three (10%) reject it. There were 21 out of 26 Olympians (80.7%) who think it is not national humilation to be defeated and who believe that satisfaction for competing well is enough for the athlete. Four (15.3%) did not agree. The three groups score each mean of 4.0 for the Olympians, 4.7 for Administrators and 4.2 for the Professors. The entire popula­tion scored 83.4% for the 80 out of 95 who responded to this item. There was no significant difference between their meansThe reader is referred to Table 27 for detailed scores.

"Government involvement in Sports which invariably suggests infection by politics starts when governments are responsible for funding sports bodies."

Could governments be involved in the promotion of sports in their countries without much interference in the running of sports? In socialist societies where government controls means of production and wealth of the country, sports must rely on governmental financing to survive. This contrasts with capita­list societies where a public appeals for support yields suffi­cient support to run amateur sports including participation in international competitions.

In this statement which sought to investigate if govern­ment funding of sports smacks of politics, 20 out of 31 Admin­istrators scored 77% in supporting it while 25.8% rejected it.In the professorial group 3 0 out of 39 (64.5%) are in

178

TABLE 27

Statement D-4It Is Not National Humuliation To Achieve Few

Or No Medals In The Olympic Gaines, Rather There Should Be Satisfaction For Competing Well

Gzoop Response N AcceptZ

Reject%

X SD

Professors

•

Accept. 32 Reject. 5 Und. 2

39 82 12.8 4.2 1.0

AdministratorsAccept. 27 Rej ect. 3

Und. —30 90 10 4.4 1.1

Olympians

Accept. 21

Reject. 4 Und. 1

26 80.7 15.3 4.0 1.1

PopulationAccept. 80 Reject. 12 Und. 3

95 83.4 12.5 4.2 1.1

179

agreement and six (15%) do not react favorably. The Olympians who were earlier divided about government involvement in Olym­pic efforts, scored 65% support while 23% reject the opinion. The mean distribution is 3.6 for the Administrators, 3.6 for the Olympians, and 3.9 for the Professors But the bilateral t test and the ANOVA did not yield significant differences.As a total group the mean is 3.7 with 69.8% accepting this view and 20.8% rejecting it. In real numbers 67 out of 96 think that government funding introduces politics into sports while 20 do not hold this opinion. The reader is referred to Table 28 for other statistical details generated by this state­ment.

"When governments establish Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports, they are wedding politics and sports."

This is a popular opinion usually held by sports writers The groups in this study do not all seem to see it in the same light. Twenty-seven out of 39 Professors are favorable in their response for 69% while only one did not agree with this statement. As many as 11 could not go either way. The 16 Administrators and the eight who agreed and rejected it respec­tively scored 53% and 26.6%. Six of this group registered for undecided. Fourteen Olympians agree, two disagree while ten remained neutral. These account for 53.8% and 7.7% respective­ly. The number that remained undecided.in this clearly defined statement is disturbing. Are the respondents avoiding the pro­blem? a reader would ask. The different groups had a mean of

180

TABLE 28

Statement D-5Government Involvement In Sports Which Invariably

Suggests Infection By Politics Starts When Governments Are Responsible For Funding Sports Bodies

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 3Q Rej ect. g Und. 3

39 64.5 25.8 3.9 .99

AdministratorsAccept. 20

Rej ect. 8

Und. 331 77 15 3.6 1.3

Olympians

Accept. 17

Reject. 6

Und. 3

26 65 23 3.6 1.2

PopulationAccept. 67 Reject. 20 Und. 9

96 69.8 20.8 3.7 1.1

181

3.4 for the Administrators, 3.5 for the Olympians, and 3.9 for the Professors. As a total group 59.4% were in favor against 11.4%. The difference was significant at .05 level of confi­dence. Table 29 deals with this item. It is remarkable that only one Professor did not buy this idea in the same way the response of the Administrators could be remarkable. The Inter­national Olympic Committee encourages governments to develop the physical education and culture of their youth through athletic sports. This writer thinks that it is not the mere establishment of such Ministry that is the problem, the kinds of political influence internal and international that the country wants to derive from it occasion the interference.The misuse of sports to do what the government wants it to be used for is the problem.

"When the government of any country appoints politicians to a commission to study all features of her sports and make recommendations, that government by implication acknowledges a relationship between sports and politics."

When recently the government of the United States appointed a few Senators and members of Congress into a Commission to review amateur sport in that country and make recommendations, was it an acknowledgement that politics and sports are related? Was it necessary to include politicians or could civil servants and coporate bodies personnel have been sufficient to repre­sent government interests. This statement was similar to the one in this study to which three United States

182

TABLE 29

Statement D-6When Governments Establish Ministry of Culture

Youth And Sports They Are Wedding Politics And Sports

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 27 Rej ect. 1

Und. 1139 69 2.5 3.9 .80

AdministratorsAccept. 16 Rej ect. 8

Und. 6

30 53 26.6 3.4 1.10

Olympians

Accept. 14 Rej ect. 2 Und. 10

26 53.8 7.7 3.5 .60

PopulationAccept. 57 Reject. 11

Und. 2795 59.4 11.4 3.6 .90

groups of sports personnel responded. The trend is not an exclusive phenomenon in the U.S.A., but in other countries too. As can been seen from Table 30, thirty-two out of 39 Professors agree that government by this procedure acknowled­ges a relationship between sports and politics. Four Profes­sors do not think so while three had no opinion. This would result in 82% agreement and 10% rejection. There are ten out of twenty-five Olympians who think so against six who object to that conclusion and nine who did not decide. The percent­age for agreement and rejection account for 40% and 24% respectively. Among the Sports Administrators 18 out of 31 or 58% would agree while 11 are not in favor of that state­ment thus accounting for 35%. The distribution of group means is 3.3 for Sports Adminisbrators, 4.1 for Professors and 3.1 for the Olympians. While the Olympians and the Sports Administrators are close on this issue and tend to reject this view, the Professors unequivocally accept it and have caused the significant difference at more than .01. As a total popu­lation 60 out of 95 valid cases yield 62.6% acceptance but this kind of conclusion should view more critically how one highly positively skewed group pulls the lowest group up.

Summary of Opinions on Government in Sports

There is a unanimous agreement that the Olympic Games are now used as a strong avenue to project the image of one's coun­try. There is prestige attached to hosting as well as to

184

TABLE 30 Statement D-7

When The Government Of Any Country Appoints Politicians To A Commission To Study All Features Of Her Sports And Make Recommendations, That Government By Implication

Acknowledges A Relationship Between Sports and Politics

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 32 Re j ect. 4

Und. 339 82 10 4.1 .90

AdministratorsAccept. 18 Reject. 11 Und. 2

31 58 35 3.3 1.0

Olympians

Accept. io Reject. 6

Und. 925 40 24 3.1 1.0

PopulationAccept. 60 Reject. 21 Und. 14

95 62.6 21.9 3.6 1.0

*Note that this writer has all along preferred to state the words of the Table as the original statement read. An attempt to shorten it might eli­minate the rather minute concepts on which respondents based their decision.

185

winning more medals but at the same time respondents do not think any country should feel humiliated for winning no medals. There is divided opinion among the subjects on the rest of the concepts in this Section D of the questionnaire. The trend however is that while government financial support is neces­sary for the success of sports, that assistance should not warrant governmental interference in the running of sports and the misdirection for the uses of sports.

Measures for Separating Politics and Sports

It was rationalized that these people who are directly involved with the Olympic Games and who feel the politics of the Games directly would contribute useable conclusion from among the opinions suggested to them. They came out unanimous only on one issue while all the other suggestions were rejected. Since the Modern Olympic Games, the Head of State or Government of the host country has been called upon to pre­side over the Games and recite only the words forced on him to say by the charter, "I declare open the Olympic Games of......celebrating the Olympiad of the modern era” (2:36) thecity and the Olympiad number (see Table 45 page 269) are inserted into those spaces respectively. The Sovereign per­forms this function because the I.O.C. who want 'no politics in the Olympics1 have in their rules and regulations on the opening ceremony imposed on the chief this duty.

186"....The Sovereign or Chief of State who has been invited to open the Games is received at the entrance of the stadium by the President of the I.O.C. and the President of the Organizing Commit­tee The two Presidents conduct the Sovereignor Chief of State and his retinue to his box.... where he is greeted with the national anthem of his country" £.2:35) .This is nothing short:of acceptance of the place of' poli­

tics, in the Olympic Games. It may be right to make this kind of conclusion because the Chief of State at one time or the other has interpreted it as an acknowledgement of the success of their political system. It was presumed that if the Head of State had less attention the political system may not be in the' * focus throughout the Games. Hitler's behavior in 193 6 Berlin Olympics was enough to signal to the International Olympic Committee what was in store for the Olympics if the trend con­tinued in subsequent Olympics. But the Olympic Sports Admin­istrators view the presence of the Chief of State differently.Out of 3 0 who responded to the issue only nine (3 0% agree that he4 should not be given royal attention. 'Twenty disagreefor 67%. From ,38 responding Professors 22 (5.8%) favor the - statement, nine (23.6%) objected and seven were undecided. Onlynine out of 26 Olympians (34.6%) were supportive.of the state­ment, ten disagree (38%) and seven had nd views either way.The mean for each group was 3.0, 2.5, and 3.4 for Olympians, Administrators and Professors respectively. The difference was significant at. .05 level of confidence. Table 31 gives more information on this issue.' Though the Professors did not

187

TABLE 31

Statement E-lHeads Of State Of Host Countries At The

Olympic Competition Should Not Be Given Royal Attention

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 22 Rej ect. 9 Und. 7

38 58 23.6 3.4 1.2

AdministratorsAccept. 9 Rej ect. 20 Und. 1

30 30 67 2.5 1.3

Olympians

Accept. 9 Reject. 10 Und. 7

26 34.6 38 3.0 1.2

PopulationAccept. 40 Reject. 39 Und. 15

94 41.7 40.7 3.0 1.2

188

reach the 80% level arbitrarily set for these items to be an acceptable positive conclusion, they were highest in support­ing that opinion.

"Delegates to the I.O.C. should not be appointed by government or their agencies, but should be nominated by Sports bodies including athletes."

One of the criticisms levelled against the I.O.C. is that it is a self perpetuating clique of old men assembled in a self selecting process. The International Olympic Committee of 71 members (1976) in a body of 141 nations do not have each country represented on the Committee. But there is a delegate Assembly in which each National Olympic Committee is repre­sented. The I.O.C. members— it must be noted— are not dele­gates of their countries to the International Olympic Committee but rather they are delegates of the I.O.C. to their countries. This reader would want to ask why the I.O.C. does not have delegates to all countries? These suggestions have been made in the past but have been rejected by the I.O.C. Brundage the former I.O.C. President thought that the Olympics would be highly politicized if each country had one member in the I.O.C. In this Body of 71 members the U.S.A. alone has three members,

... Of the 71 members of the I.O.C., 37 represented Europe for 3 2 European countries, 15 represented America for 3 2 countries, 11 represented Asis/Austra- lia for 32 countries, and seven represented Africa for 27 countries (34:36).

If each country had one representative, Third World countrieswould have more strength in the I.O.C. and it may not be far

189from right to say that the I.O.C. wants to avoid this. In order to avoid politicization of the Olympic Committee it has been suggested that governments.should not appoint delegates. They should be nominated by sports bodies and athletes. For toolong athletes have demanded a voice in the decision making pro­cess of the Olympic Games in which they are a major factor.But the Committee who at best are conservatives, think it would introduce politics into the organization. In opposition to the idea Brundage told the Russians in a speech in the Kremlin that he doesn't want them "trifling around with his Olympic Committee."

...The Soviets are pushing for enlargement of the Committee membership from 70 (1963) to 200 giving feach nation a vote but Brundage is suspicious ofall this. He told the Communists they are tryingto throw the whole Olympic Movement into politics (22:no page).This preference for non-governmental nomination is accepted

by the three groups in this study. Thirty-three of 3 8 Profes­sors are in favor of the statement, three are opposed. Those who support this suggestion are 87% of the respondents and 7.8% are not favorable. Among the 31 Administratros 30 (97%) wel­come the statement. There are 24 from 26 Olympians (92%) who favor the statement with only one opposed. The group means are4.4 for the Olympians, 4.4 for the Administrators and 4.1 for the Professors. The difference is not significant. Table 32 accounts for more details on this concept.

"The I.O.C. does not deal with governments and of course N.O.C.'s are-not responsible for actions of-their governments" (23:514).

190

TABLE 32

Statement E-2Delegates To The I.O.C. Should Not Be Appointed

By Government On Their Agencies, But Should Be Nominated By Sports Bodies Including Athletes

Group Response N Accept%

Reject%

X SD

Professors

Accept, 33 Rej ect. 3 Und. 2

38 86.8 7.8 4.1 .90

AdministratorsAccept. 30 Rej ect. 1 Und. —

31 96.7 3 4.4 .70

Olympians

Accept. 24 Rej ect. 1 Und. 1

26 92 3.8 4.4 .80

PopulationAccept. 87 Rej ect. 5 Und. 3

95 91.5 5.2 4.3 .80

191

The I.O.C. does not have a delegate to each country, the N.O.C. chairman may be the strongest defender of amateurism and non­political interference in their country's sports. A suggestion to hold the I.O.C. member responsible was surveyed from the subjects of this study. Twenty-six out of 38 Professors favor this suggestion thus yielding 68%, the four who disagreed account for 10.5% while eight had no opinion. Fourteen Admin­istrators from 31 agree (45%) while 12 (38.7%) disagreed. Five in this group were undecided. Among the Olympians, 15 out of 26 responded favorably for 57.6%, four Olympians (15%) disa­greed while seven were neutral. The mean distribution is 3.6 for the Olympians, 3.1 for the Administrators, and 3.7 for the Professors. The difference is not significant. The detailed statistics are presented in Table 33.

In the literature review it was observed that many writers had commented unfavorably about the use of national anthems- at the medal award ceremonies. It doubtless aggravates national feelings. The Olympic rules thought by many as outdated pro­vides that:

...the national anthem (abbreviated) of the country of the winner is played during which the three competi­tors and the spectators shall face the flag.... In the closing ceremony the flag of the country organizing the Games is hoisted on the centre flagpole while itsnational anthem is played Finally the national flagof the city selected to organize the next Olympic Games is hoisted on the flagpole to the strains of its national anthem (2r37).

Thus by definition the Olympic rules provide for too muchof national anthems being played at the Games. A suggestion

192

TABLE 33

Statement E-3Accountability Of Non-Political Interference In Sports In Any Country Is The Responsibility Of

That Country’s Member At The I.O.C.

Gtoop Response N Accept%

Reject%

■a*.X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 26 Reject. 4 Und. 8

38 68 10.5 3.7

1 o

1 00 •

AdministratorsAccept. 14 Reject. 12 Und. 5

31 45 38.7 3.1 1.3

Olympians

Accept. 15 Reject. 4 Und. 7

26 57.6 15 3.6 .90

PopulationAccept. 55 Reject. 20 Und. 20

95 57.3 20.8 3.5 1.0

193

made to go low key at the Olympic Games by disusing national anthems was surveyed. There were 27 out of 39 Professors (69%) who think that it was the right thing to do but nine others (23%) do not agree with their colleagues. Three could not decide on that issue. Only seven Sports Administrators accepted this opinion while 19 out of 31 (61%) of them reject it and five were neutral. While nine Olympians (34.6%) welcome the suggestion to abolish national anthems 12 opposed it for 46% and five did not decide . The mean distribution is 2.8 for the Olympians, 2.3 for the Administrators, 3.7 for the Professors, and 3.0 for the whole respondents. The difference between their means is very significat at more than .01 level of con­fidence. The difference is largely caused by the Professors stand. For other statistics the reader is referred to Table 34.

"National flags and team dresses should be the only allow­able conspicuous identification for countries."

Brundage had once told the press his proposal to the I.O.C. to ban national flags and anthems from international champion­ships. "Some of the international sports federations meeting here (Lausanne) with the I.O.C. called the proposals too far reaching and unrealistic (24:1963*). This proposal was strongly opposed by some I.O.C. members led by the Soviet Union. In this survey the suggestion was that national flags and team dresses should be the only identification allowed for countries. This is another way of suggesting the ban on

*N;P. no page. 1963 is the year.

194

TABLE 34

Statement E-4

National Anthems Of A Winning Athlete's Country Should No Longer Be Played If There Is

To Be A Low Key National Identity

Group Response N AcceptX

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 27 Rej ect. 9 Und. 3

39 69 23 3.7 1.4

AdministratorsAccept. 7 Rej ect. 19 Und. 5

31 22.5 61 2.3 1.2

OlympiansAccept. 9 Reject. 12 Und. 5

26 34.6 46 2.8 1.4

PopulationAccept. 43 Reject. 40 Und. 13

96 44.8 41.7 3.0 1.4

195

national anthems and all other types of team identification. Twenty-four out of 38 (63%) responding Professors are favorable to this proposal but ten (26%) others do not agree. The other four had no decisive view . From among 11 Sports Administrators 14 accepted this proposal for 45%. In the same split 14 are opposed to the suggestions. Three were undecided. Nine Olym­pians (34.6%) agree while ten (3 8.4%) disagree with as many as seven of them not taking sides. While the Olympians and the Administrators had a mean of 2.9 each, the Professors had 3.4, but the difference was not significant. The scores are con­cisely presented in Table 35.

"There should be no medal tables published during the Olym­pic Games. "

Nationalism is being boosted at the Olympic Games by medal tables which rival countries keep in order to monitor the pro­gress they make against other teams. These medal tables are unofficial and are frowned at by the I.O.C. "The I.O.C. does not publish medal tables during the Olympic Games. In fact it is opposed to it. The International Press is responsible for the publication" (25:5). These were the comments of Abraham Ordia the Secretary to the Nigerian Olympic Committee.

In several speeches Brundage and the I.O.C. have continued to dissuade the world press from publishing team points and medal tables because the Olympic Games are competitions between individuals and not between nations. In Melbourne a sign on the Olympic scoreboard within the Melbourne Cricket ground

4

196

TABLE 35Statement E-5

National Flags And Team Dresses Should Be The Only Allowable Conspicurous Identification For Countries

Group Response N Accept%

Rej ect%

X SD

Professors

«

Accept. 24 Reject. 10 Und. 4

38 63 26 3.4 1.3

AdministratorsAccept. 14 Reject. 14 Und. 3

31 45 45 2.9 1.3

OlympiansAccept. 9 Reject. 10 Und. 7

26 34.6 38.4 2.9 1.2

PopulationAccept. 47 Reject. 34 Und. 14

95 49 35.5 3.1 1.3

197

read, "Classification by points on a national basis is not recognized......Nobody paid any attention to the sign. Every­body wanted to know once again how the Americans stacked up against the Russians" (26:277). It would appear that the spectators and the sports world want to see medal tables and points and they clamour for it. Morton also has commented on this issue, "....the unofficial team score has therefore become a matter of central importance— unofficial because theI.O.C. not only does not recognize any points system but deplores its very existence" (27:277). The three groups in this study were scored on the need to abolish medal tables and by implication points tables also. Twenty-five of the 3 9 Pro­fessors (64%) accept this proposal while ten (25.6%) are opposed to non-publication, leaving four of their Colleagues undecided. Seventeen of the 31 Administrators (54.8%) buy the idea not to publish medal tables while 13 disagree (42%). From the Olym­pians fifteen (57.7) do not want it published, nine 3 4.6%) want medal tables and two did not decide. Table 36 presents the scores on the statement, the means and standard deviations of the groups and the population.

"To belong to an international athletic association reminiscent of past Colonial ties is indicative of relationship between sports and politics."

Sports have bee:n used to weld political groups together such as in Federations. For countries that were once under colonial rule the former colonial master has established some

198

TABLE 36

Statement E-6There Should Be No Medal Tables Published

During The Olympic Games

Group Response N AcceptZ

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 25 Rej ect. 10 Und. 4

39 64 25.6 3.9 1.5

AdministratorsAccept. 17 Reject. 13 Und. 1

31 54.8 42 3.2 1.4

OlympiansAccept. 15 Rej ect. 9 Und. 2

26 57.7 34.6 3.4 1.4

PopulationAccept. 57 Reject. 32 Und. 7

96 59.4 33.3 3.4 1.4

199

other meeting grounds to enable the close association to con­tinue after the colonies have achieved political independence. This new area of political friendship is through sports.

One of the outstanding examples started in 1911 in London under the name, "Festival of the Empire and later the British Empire Games first held in Hamilton in Canada in 1930" (28:6).It involved colonies under the British rule. It has since undergone two more nomenclature changes. British Empire and Commonwealth Games and now, just Commonwealth Games. "The Commonwealth Games originated as a festival designed to promote the political union of nations and territories within the British Empire" (28:6). There is a strong felief that Britain who "ruled the waves" now clings to sports to keep her former ’sons' together. Commenting on the change of the name of the organization Agbogun observed, "The changing of the name of the Games reflects the transformation of political relationship between the British and her Empire" (26:6). The subjects of this study were surveyed on this relationship of sports and politics between the ruler and the ruled. Fifteen Professors (38.4%) agree on the statement, eleven (28.2%) do not agree and thirteen were undecided (N=3 9). There were twenty-five Administrators (80.6%) who object to this view, only one (3.2%) would agree and five (16%) could not go either way. Seven Olympians responded favorably, ten disagree and nine were uncertain (N=26). These account for 27% and 38.5%. The three groups scored the means 2.8 for Olympians, 2.1 for Administrators

200

and 3.1 for Professors. The difference was significant at more than .01 level of confidence. In the opinion of this writer it is doubtful whether there could have been other cheaper tool Britain could have used to keep the former colonial possessions in closer association than sports. Since the U.S. did not colonize a lot and does not have such satel- litic groups around her, the subjects in this study might have found it hard to rationalize. Probably the results would have been different in Africa where France organizes Franco­phone Games to rival Commonwealth Games. Table 3 7 presents this issue in more statistical details.

"Eliminate problem of amateurism in the Olympic Games by making them open to all athletes."

Adherence to the principles of amateurism has been one of the problems of the Olympic Games. It is a whole new dilemma that deserves a separate study. Critics have observed a great many deviations from the Olympic amateur code. Classes of athletes have developed in the 'amateur province' such as 'state amateurs' defined as:

...A competitor who is taken away from his regular vocation or business or from his school and given special facilities to practice and train for com­petition. . .He may be given some sort of a job and paid the regular wages without permitting his work to interfere with his athletic training (30:1) .Other critics of amateurism have accused some State sys­

tems with "Shamateurism' which involves subsidizing their amateur' athletes as fully as professionals. It has been

201

TABLE 37

Statement E-7To Belong To An International Athletic Association

Reminiscent Of Past Colonial Ties Is Indicative Of Relationship Between Sports And Politics

Group Response N AcceptZ

Rej ect%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 15 Rej ect. 11 Und. 13

39 38.5 28.2 3.1 1.10

AdministratorsAccept. 1 Reject. 25 Und. 5

31 3.2 80.6 2.1 .70

OlympiansAccept. 7 Reject. 10 Und. 9

26 27 38.5 2.8 1.10

PopulationAccept. 23 Reject. 46 Und. 27

96 24 38 2.7 1.00

observed that if article 26 of the Olympic rules and regula­tions which discuss eligibility is enforced to the letter and intent, hardly will any athletes of Olympic calibre qualify.In the midst of these accusations and threat of the Olympic Games by Shamateurism, would it not be better to abolish ama- teruist demands and open the Games to all athletes? In response to this proposal the Olympians themselves accept it eleven in 26 persons (42%) and in the same vein eleven reject it while four were undecided (N=26). Six Olympic Sports Administrators (19.5%) favor the proposal, twenty-three are opposed to keeping the Games open to all athletes (74%) and two had no views (N=31). From 39 Professors, 25 are in favor (64%), seven are against keeping it open and another seven could not decide at this time. While the athletes split their views on this much discussed issue, the Administrators and Professors have bipolar views. The distribution of means among the groups is 3.1 for the athletes, 2.0 for the Administrators and 3.6 for the Professors. The ANOVA produced a highly signi­ficant difference at more than .01 level of confidence. The reason for such magnitude of difference could be inferred from the trend in Third World countries and Socialist Bloc who do not have professionals 'as such' but have a very thin line between amateurism and professionalism. Perhaps it would be more reasonable and fair to all athletes to drop this line and let the Olympic Games be open to the World's best athletes and teams or the thin line should be thickened if amateurism can be

203

strictly monitored. Brundage in one of his "Stop Look and See" releases of Lausanne 2 8 November, 19 61 had said with reference to amateurism, "We must not tamper with Amateur Rule. The first and most important fundamental principle of the Olympic Movement and the reason for the sensational success of the Olympic Games is that they are amateur" (35:1). In a most recent public interview- in B r i t a i n on amateurism and keeping the Games open, Killanln the I.O.C. President reiterated that it should not be open but added that there should be a way to pro­vide for every talented sportsman to take part. Table 3 8 pre­sents the scores on this statement concisely.

Summary on Measures for Separating Politics and Sports

Only one issue emerged unanimously agreed by these three groups in the study and that is on the appointment of theI.O.C. delegates. They should not be appointed by governments or their agencies but should be nominated by sports bodies including athletes. This agreement ostensibly is a universal protest against self recruiting and self perpetuating I.O.C. members. In the modern world it would seem these subjects emphasize democratic principles of people involved in Olympic sports getting the chance to elect their leaders. Among the other concepts there were varying degrees of agreement and and disagreement as the tables quickly reveal. It is to be noted that the pattern of response consistently showed a gulf of difference between the Professors and the Administrators.

204

TABLE 38

Statement E-8Eliminate Problems Of Amateurism In The Olympic

Games By Making Them Open To All Athletes

Group Response N AcceptZ

Reject%

X SD

ProfessorsAccept. 25 Reject.

Und. 739 64 18 3.6 1.2

AdministratorsAccept. 6 Reject. 23 Und. 2

31 19 74 2.0 1.4

OlympiansAccept. 11 Reject. 11 Und. 4

26 42 42 3.1 1.5

Population

ii— — ............ . ..

Accept. 42 Reject. 41 Und. 13

96 43.7 42.7 2.7 1.1

205

The Views of Pre-196 0 Olympians on Selected Concepts

The pre-1960 Olympians who responded do not agree that the Olympics has been more politicized than before 1960, but they think that rather television coverage has made the Games a more visible forum throughout the world. One of the respondents how­ever thought there has been more politicization. This is con­sistent with the views of modern Olympians who unanimously con­cede that meshing politics and sports has become a dilemma of the Olympic Games.. The pre-1960 Olympians agree that Government sponsorship of sports through funding and creating a Ministry is not wedding sports and politics. One of such great Olympians, Bob Mathias remarked: "...It is necessary for many countries to support sports through government funding and supervision. I feel our U.S. Olympic Committee can and does a better job over­all than our U.S. Government could." (31:1).

Their responses and those of modern Olympians are in line with the I.O.C. expectations that governments should develop physical culture through physcial education and sports. The present Olympians reject the concept that politics promotes the Olympics by engendering rivalry and bringing out national con­sciousness. While the pre-1960 Olympians deplore that some countries promote sports for political gain rather than for the good of the populace, they think promotion is good for sports because it makes sports popular. One of such pre-1960 Olympians Tottossy a Hungarian resident of the U.S. remarked: "...Nothingwrong that athletes bring out national consciousness

and excelling above other nations athletes" (32:1).The pre-1960 Olympians maintain that the Olympics still

have great ideals and goals and if there were any departures from the original ideals it is more financial support for athletes.

In recent years more blame has been levelled on the press for the politicization of the Olympics. This issue was not surveyed and is worth the next focus. But the former Olym­pian Bob Mathias does not have the blame squarely on the press and he observed that "the press reports what politicians do, blame the leaders and politicians for bringing politics into the Games" (31:1). In short he implies "don't blame the press.

There is another observation that it is the U.S.A. press, "who are introducing politics into the Games" (32:1). But in earlier observation Morton had said the Soviets since their entry into the Olympics in 1952 were responsible for introduc­ing politics into the Games. The pre-1960 Olympians were reported to have been low in response. In future they should be a valuable source of useable information in reforming the Olympic Games.

Results of the Study

The results of this questionnaire aspect of the study are best presented by summary tables of group and population rank­ings of highest placed issues. Tables 39-43 present very important conclusions based on the data analyzed during

207

'Discussion.' The items in which the three groups scored a group average of 80% or more and a mean of 4.0 and above will be rank ordered. These points of unanimous agreement reflect the issues uppermost in the minds of the repondents on the modern Olympic Games. They provide a base for valid conclu­sions on the findings. Table 39 provides the ranked items according to highest population mean to the lowest.

1) Olympic athletes are aware that their countries use them to project their image but these athletes are not inter­ested in the interaction of sports and politics at the Olympic Games. This is true for the United States who were the sub­jects of the study. They want competition for themselves as individuals against the giants in their sports. 2) Cultural gains are by products of the Olympic Games. This should be explored and encouraged. 3) In a world in which the people want more participation in the decision making process, there is a demand by athletes to be involved in the selection ofI.O.C. delegates. 4) The U.S. respondents are desirous to see the soaring cost of the Olympics down and would urge that the cost be curtailed. 5) Athletes suscribe to the ideal of joy in participating well more than they emphasize winning. This may be true in the United States where the generalization applies. It may not be the same ideal in other parts of the world

In Table 42 the Olympians scored above 4.0 on nine out of eleven items that were in the administrators eleven items

208

TABLE 39Rank Order Of Items In Which The Groups

Scored More Than 80% And A Mean Of Four And Above

Rank Item Statement Mean %

D - 1 The Olympics is now used as a strong 4.452 91.6avenue to project the image of one's country.

C - 8 The Interaction between sports and 4.448 92.7politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games.

C - 2 Participation in the Olympics should 4.365 90.6have no hearing with the trade be­tween nations.

B - 1 Olympic Athletes wish to keep sports 4.333 84.4free from politics.

E - 2 Delegates to the I.O.C. should not be 4.295 90.7appointed by governments or their agencies, but should be nominated by sports bodies including athletes.

A - 4 The Olympics afford simultaneously 4.232 88.6a cultural exchange opportunity.

D - 4 It is. not national humiliation to 4.179 83.4achieve few or no medals in the Olym­pic Games, rather there should be satisfaction for competing well.

B - 4 Athletes are more eager to meet and 4.156 85.4compete against the big names in their sports in other countries than to care if their countries are friendly or not.

9 C - 3 The Olympics are becoming too expensive 4.053 81.2for many nations and require cost curtailment.

209

(see Table 41). The Professors and Administrators agree on sixitems out of the eleven items the Sports Administrators reactedfavorably. The Professors agree with the Olympians in sevenitems out of the eleven the Olympians scored above 4.0.

It is interesting to note that one item is ranked highestby both Administrators and Olympians while the Professors didnot have that item B-l in their eight highly ranked items.Table 43 shows overall ranking and mean ranking of the elevenitems that scored best in the S.I.P. instrument. The issuethat reached highest is C-8 which states that:

"The interaction between sports and politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games."

This finding is very important to this thesis and justifies the assumption that the interaction between sports and politics has become a dilemma for the modern Olympic Games. Two issues that tied for second most important were D-l and E-2 which res­pectively states:

"The Olympics are now used as a strong avenue to pro­ject the image of one's country" (D-l).

"Delegates to the International Olympic Committee should not be appointed by governments or their agencies, but should be nominated by sports bodies including athletes" (E-2).

This concensus is necessary for depoliticization of the OlympicGames and to stop the Olympics from going further towards thedirection it is going.Review of Hypotheses

Hypothesis #1. "The Olympic athletes and the Olympic Sports Administrators will view issues about the interaction of

210

sports and politics at the Olympic Games differently.” Using item C-8 to test this hypothesis, it states, "the interaction between sports and politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games." In order words it says the mean of the scores of the Olympians will not equal the mean of the scores of the Adminis­trators .

The hypothesis is rejected. There is no significant difference between their means. In addition to rejection of the hypothesis, results analyzed show that out of eleven items in which both groups scored a mean of 4.0 and above they were agreed on nine items. They do not view issues differently.

Hypothesis #2. Professors of Sports and Olympic Sports Administrators will see differently the other effects of the incursions of politics into sports. In other words there will be a difference between them This hypothesis is tested with the item which states that "the Olympics are now used as a strong avenue to project the image of one's country." The professors scored a mean of 4.692 while the administrators scored 4.225.The difference between their means is .467. It was statistically tested using a two tailed test. The F value of 1.46, 0.268,

U#1XX = x2OlympiansSports Administrators

XX — 4.346 X2 — 4.225

Difference Between Xx and X 2t test X scores between Xx and X 2 t test Yield F = 1.33, 0.457 df 55 ns.

121

0 5 level

211

df 68 is not significant at .05 level of confidence. The hypo­thesis is rejected. However, it had been reported earlier that there was a trend of differences in opinion existing between these two groups on other variables of the S.I.P. Instrument.

■I

The two groups agree on six out of eleven highly ranked items of the administrators ranking.

Hypothesis #3. 'Olympic Athletes and Professors of Sports will agree that sports and politics have been greatly meshed.1 Item c-8 which states 'the interaction between sports and politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games.

U#3 X-l = X2Olympians X^ — 4.346Professors X 2 — 4.692Difference between X^ and X2 — .346t test yield 1.94, .064 df 63 ns .05

level .The hypothesis is not rejected. The groups agreed on the

intermesh of sports and politics..Hypothesis #4. 'There will be no significant difference

between the Olympic Sports Administrators, College Sport Pro­fessors, and Olympic athletes in the statement that politics promotes the Olympic Games.' This issue was surveyed in item B-7 and the mean scores were, Professors 2.921, Administrators 2.161 and Olympians 3.120. An ANOVA was performed to test the difference. It yield an F value 4.056, 0.021 df 90 and was significant at .05 level of confidence. The hypothesis is

212

therefore rejected. There is a significant difference which must have been caused by the gap of difference between Admin­istrators and the Olympians.

213

TABLE 40Rank Order of Statements in Which the Professors Scored 80% or More and a Mean of 4.0 and Above

RANK ITEM STATEMENT MEAN %

1 C-8 The Interaction between sports and 4.692 97politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games.

2 D-l The Olympics is now used as a strong 4.667 97avenue to project the image of one's country.

3 C-3 The Olympics Is becoming too expensive 4.462 95for many nations and requires cost curtailment.

4 C-2 Participation in the Olympics should 4.410 92have no bearing with the trade between nations.

5 B-4 Athletes are more eager to meet and 4.256 87compete against the big names in their sports in other countries than to care if their countries are friendly or not

6 D-4 It is not national humiliation to 4.154 82achieve few or no medals in the Olympic Games rather there should be satisfaction for competing well

7 E-2 Delegates to the IOC should not be 4.132 86.7appointed by governments or their agencies, but should be nominated by sports bodies including athletes

8 D-7 When the governmentof any country 4.103 82appoints politicians to a commission to study all features of her sports and make recommendations, that government by implication acknowledges a relationship between sports and politics

214

TABLE 41Rank Order of Items in Which the Administrators Scored Above 80% and a Mean of 4.0 and Above

RANK ITEM STATEMENT X %

1 B-l Olympics athletes wish to keep sports 4.613 93.5free from politics

2 A—4 The Olympics affords simultaneously 4.548 97a cultural exchange opportunity

3 E-2 Delegates to the IOC should not be 4.419 96.7appointed by governments or their agencies, but should be nominated by sports bodies including athletes

4 D-4 It is not national humiliation to 4.367 90achieve few or no medals in the Olympic Games, rather there should be satisfaction for competing well

5 C-2 Participation in the Olympics should 4.355 87have no bearing with the trade between nations

6 D-l The Olympics is now used as a strong 4.276 90avenue to project the image of one’s country

7 C-8 The interaction between sports and 4.226 90politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games

8 B-5 Athletes want to use the opportunities 4.194 97to know other nations, more than to care for the foreign policy of those countries

9 A-5 The Olympic Games serve to maintain 4.100 83.3and promote the ideals of sports for the glory of it

10 B-4 Athletes are more eager to meet and 4.077 90compete against the big names in their sports in other countries than to care If their countries are friendly or not

215TABLE 41 (continued)

RANK ITEM STATEMENT X %

11 A-7 The Olympic Games help to construct a 4.032 80.6better and more peaceful world

216

TABLE 42Rank Order of Items in Which the Olympians

Scored a Mean of 4.0 and Above and 80% or More

RANK ITEM STATEMENT

B-l Olympic athletes wish to keep sports 4.615 92free from politics

E-2 Delegates to the International Olympic 4.385 92Committee should not be appointed by governments or their agencies, but should be nominated by sports bodies including athletes

C-8 The interaction between sports and 4.346 88politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games

D-l The Olympics is now used as a strong 4.320 94.6avenue to project the image of one's country

C-2 Participation in the Olympics should 4.308 92have no bearing with the trade between nations

A-4 The Olympics affords simultaneously a 4.269 92cultural exchange opportunity

C—3 The Olympics is becoming too expensive 4.120 88for many nations and requirs cost curtailment

B-6 Athletes compete internationally for 4.115 84.6self glory first and country second

B-4 Athletes are more eager to meet and 4.077 77*compete against the big names in their sports in other countries than to care if their countries are friendly or not

10 B-5 Athletes want to use the opportunities 4.038 84.6to know other nations more than to care for the foreign policy of those countries

217

TABLE 42 (.continued)

RANK ITEM STATEMENT X %

11 D-4 It is not national humiliation to achieve few or no medals in the Olympic Games, rather there should be satisfaction for competing well

4.000 80.7

* The only exception. Ranking is based on mean scores.

TABLE 43Rank Differences on Eleven Highly-Ranked Items in the SIP Instrument

ITEM NO. STATEMENT PRORANK

ADMRANK

OLYRANK

XRANK

0V-RANK

OV.%

C-8 The interaction between sports and politics is a 1 7 3 3.6 1 92,7thorny problem for the Olympic Games

D-l The Olympics is now used as a strong avenue to 2 6 4 4.0 2 94.6project the image of one's country

E-2 Delegates to the IOC should not be appointed by 7 3 2 4.0 2 91.5governments or their agencies, but should be nominated by sports bodies including athletes

B-l Olympic athletes wish to keep sports free from politics 11 1 1 4.3 4 84.4

C-2 Participation in the Olympics should have no bearing 4 5 5 4.6 5 90.6with the trade between nations

A-4 The Olympics afford simultaneously a cultural 9 2 6 5.6 6 88.6exchange opportunity

D-4 It is not national humiliation to achieve few or no 6 4 11 7.0 7 83.4medals in the Olympic Games, rather there should be satisfaction for competing well

B-4 Athletes are more eager to meet and compete against 5 10 9 8.0 8 85.4the big names in their sports in other countries, than to care if their countries are friendly or not

TABLE 43 (continued)

ITEM NO. STATEMENT PRORANK

ADMRANK

OLYRANK

XRANK

OVRANK

OV%

C-3 The Olympics are becoming too expensive for many nations and require cost curtailment

3 18 7 9.3 9 81.2

B-5 Athletes want to use the opportunities to know other nations, more than to care for the foreign policy of those countries

15 8 10 11.0 10 82.3

B-6 Athletes compete internationally for self glory first and country second

13 15 8 12.0 11 74.7

KEY: PRO - Professor; ADM - Administrator; OLY - Olympian; OV - Overall

219

NOTES

CHAPTER IV

Eiere .DeCoubertin, Culled from Avery Brundage Collec­tions , University of Illinois Archives at Urbana- Champaign.

Comite - International Olympique, Olympic Rules and Regu­lations. Chateau De Vidy Lausanne, 1974.

Robert Mechikoff, "The Politicization of the XXI Olym­piad". Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1977, Columbus.

Gwendolyn A. Drew, "Olympic Games - Implication for Phy­sical Education." A paper prepared by Dr. A. Gwendo­lyn Drew found in Box 10 of Avery Brundage Collections University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Olympic News, August, 193 4, p. 3. American Olympic Commit­tee . New York, 1934. Also in Boy Scout Magazine,1956, p. 11, in the article: "Olympic Games For the Honor of Our Country."

San Francisco Sunday Chronicle: February 14, 1960, AveryBrundage Collections 1908-1975.

Paul S. Okafor, A Comparison of Opinion of Athletics Directors and Coaches in U.S.A. and Nigeria on the Concepts of Athletic Scholarships. An unpublished Research for the Master's degree, Unversity of Wiscon­sin, Madison, May, 1977.

Richard E Lapchick, "The Politics of Race and International Sport: The Case of South Africa" Unpublished Doctoral Disseration, Univer­sity of Denver, 1973.

Avery Brundage, "Objectives of the Olympic Movement."An extract from Brundage files in Avery Brundage Col­lections 1908-1975. University of Illinois, Urbanna-Champaign.

22110.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

La-wrence vLocke, "Sports Whose Bag? Are Sports Educa­tional? An address to Canadian Association of Health Physical Education and Recreation. University of Waterloo, Toronto, Canada, June, 1971.

Boy Scout Magazine: "Olympic Games: For the Honor ofOur Country. " ‘An undated zeroxed article in Brundage Collections, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

Guido Von Mengden: "The Aftermath of Sport and Politicsfrom Baden Baden." A paper read at the 60th session of the I.O.C. in Baden Baden. Available in Brundage Collections, University of illinois, Urbana.

Javier Santos Llorente, "The Olympic Movement Is In Dan­ger. The Influence of Politics." El Sol De Mexico, May 25, 1968.

Frank Deford, "Run it Up the Flag Pole Johnny." Sports Illustrated, September 28, 1970, p. 83.

Frank Deford, "More Dark Clouds Over Montreal." Sports Illustrated, July 19, 1976, p. 39.

Kenny Moore: "Flame in the Wind." Sports Illustrated, July 19, 1976, p. 41.

Joan Brickhill: Race Against Race: South Africa's MultiNational Sport Fraud. Internal Defence and Aid Fund. London, 1976, p. 73.

Personal Communication from Loren Drum u.S.O.C. Execu­tive Board Member, January, 1979.

Avery Brundage, Circular Letter to National OlympicCommittees, Lausanne, 17 November, 19 60. Avery Brund­age Collections, University of Illinois, Urbana-Cham- paign.

Daily Express: London, December 14, 1963. "BrundageApplauds Sporting Subsidy." Avery Brundage Collec­tions , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Alan Ryan, "The Future of the Olympics." J.O.H.P.E.R. November/December, 1972, p. 18-20.

Shirley Povich, -Correspondent, Philadelphia Inquirer Thursday Morning, October 17, 1963. Avery Brundage Collections, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

222

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

Monique Berlioux, Circular Letter to the National Olym­pic Committees Ref C/514, Lausanne, November, 1969.

U.P.I. Correspondent "I.O.C.'s Proposals Held Unrealistic" Chicago Daily News, February 8, 1963. From Avery Brundage Collections, University of Illinois, Urbana-

Champaign.Abraham Ordia, Secretary, Nigerian Olympic Committee.

Personal Correspondence. January, 1979.Richard Schaap, An Illustrated History of the Olympics

Alfred Knopf, New York, 1967.Henry W. Morton, Soviet Sport: Mirror of Soviet Society.

Colliers Books, New York, Collier-Macmillan, Ltd.London.

Rich Baka and .David Hoy, "Political Aspects of Cana­dian Participation in the Commonwealth Games 193 0- 1978." Canadian Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, March-April, 1978. pp. 6-14, and 24.

Jacob B. Agbogun,. A History of the Bristish Commonwealth Games, 1930-1966. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Alberta, 1970 p v as cited by Baka and Hoy "Politi­cal Aspects of Canadian Participation in the Common­wealth Games 1930/1978." CAHPER Journal, March/April, 1978, p.6

Pierre Baron Coubertin, From Avery Brundage Notes inAvery Brundage Collections, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

.Robert Mathias, Personal Correspondence from the Director U.S. Olympic Training Centre, Colorado Springs, February, 197 9.

Miklos Tottossy, -Fersonal Correspondence, 1979."Kilanin Speaks" The Olympian. April, 1979, p. 6-7.

Keesing's Contemporarary Archives (longman) Vol. 17, 23280 A, as cited by Stephen Wright, "Are the Olympics Games? The relationship of Politics and Sports. Millenium Journal of International Studies, 6 Spring, 1977.

Avery Brundage, "Stop, Look and See," Comite International Olympigue , Lausanne, November 28, 1961, Ref. No. 185.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARYThis study has used these sources in enriching the conclu­

sions and recommendations that are made at the end, namely Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1972, a questionnaire to Olympic Sports Administrators, Olympians and College Sports Professors; a short schedule of questions for pre-1960 Olympians. The library sour­ces were extensively used to track the trends of politics and sports at the modern Olympic Games. The questionnaire was ana­lyzed and frequencies were used in descriptive report of the study. Other statistical procedures used were paired t test and ANOVA.

Four hypotheses were tested using the t test and ANOVA F values. These were:

1. The Olympic Athletes and the Olympic Sports Adminis­trators will view issues about the interaction of sports and politics differently.

2. Professors of Sports and Olympic Sports Administrators will see differently the effects of the incursions of politics into sports.

3. Olympic Athletes and Professors of Sports will agree that sports and politics have been greatly meshed.

4. There will be no significant difference between the Olympic Sports Administrators, College Sports Pro­fessors, and the Olympic Athletes in the statement that politics promotes Olympic Games.

223

224

In addition to these hypotheses an attempt was made toanswer the questions raised at the beginning of the study.1) The various causes of controversies during most of summer

and winter Olympic Games were reviewed and found to be politics, racism, strained diplomatic relations, power bloc rivalry, incompetent and biased judging, doping and departures from the principles of amateurism.

2) The interaction between sports and politics is not a desi­deratum but it is found to be a dilemma.

3) There is a strong relationship between sports and politics as far as governments all over the world are concerned. A trend whereby sports and physical education were used in nation building prevailed.

4) In the international scene it was confirmed that nations use sports to project their countries image. At the home . front, governments use sports to keep their federal units knit together through sports festivals and spartakiades.

5) One of the measures found to reduce the incursions of poli­tics into sports was to ensure that governments do not con­trol the nomination of sports personnel, such as appointing the I.O.C. delegate.

6) It was established that governmental financial involvement is necessary for the success of amateur sports in any coun­try and it is encouraged. The restraint should be that governments aid stop at that and the involvement in sports decision issues should be left to sports bodies.

7) Politics is only one of the factors that caused controversy at the Olympics. The only problem here is that all the activities that marred the Games have been lumped together under politics thereby giving it a wider meaning.

8) Politics has not been found to promote the Olympics in anyway, rather it leaves scars on the Olympic Games.

9) The Olympic ideals were originally the best for the timethey were structured but have been found to lack currency, such ideals refer to the emphaj.sis on the tenets of amateu­rism in a materialistic world, the eligibility code that needs restructuring, the individualism of the Olympic Games that have been drowned by team games and team unofficial scores and the exclusive self selecting process of a 70 some member I.O.C. representing 141 nations.

225

10) The insistent shying of the fact that the Olympic Games have become nothing short of being inter-nations Games.

Review of Findings

In addition to the nine issues in Table 3 9 dealing with some data based on findings, there is overwhelming information from the Avery Brundage Collections which-reveal the degree of endless battle with . politics at the Olympics. The most combatant President was Avery Brundage whose speeches, press releases, I.O.C. minutes on Olympics and politics, circular letters exposed how much effort has been put in this direction. One outstanding remark about Brundage is his failure to live with the realities of the time. Records in the Brundage Col­lections also revealed that politics even threatened the I.O.C. meetings but his charismatic leadership over the members kept him in office for too long. The International Olympic Commit­tee who are the custodian of the Olympic Charter find themsel­ves incapable of wielding the axe even when they are able to identify the political ills of the Olympics. They are incap­able of introducing low key programs that will depoliticize the Olympic Games such as less emphasis on royal attention for the Head of State of the country whose city is hosting the Games, the de-emphasis on national anthems, the democratization of the selection and representation process of the I.O.C. dele­gates. The I.O.C. has not been able to come out with;a plan to cut down the soaring cost of hosting the Games until now,

226

Spring, 19 7 9 when Killanin announced that host city could use existing university facilities as in Los Angeles. The I.O.C. this parent body does not encourage remuneration for athletes beyond its own stipulation but it pries and monitors television millions of dollars just short of asking for their share of souvenir proceeds. Until numerous changes are introduced by the I.O.C. aimed at the identified bacteria that bother the Games, politics will continue to mar the Games and the inter­action with sports will remain the dilemma.

Conclusions

The concept of politics cannot be divorced from government* On the other hand Governments all over the World are heavily involved in sports. They create and man Ministry of Sports, appoint the nation's Director of Sports,1 appoint politicians on committees

to review amateur sport, sponsor state amateurs, build sports institutes to "manufacture" athletes and winners, give athletic scholarships- to athletes, finance sports festivals (spartakiades) to keep federations united and use sports for diplomacy. It is therefore a sound thesis to say government and sports are inse­parable, and in the same vein sports and politics are inseparable.

The importance of athletes has not been given prominence in the Olympic Games. The Games were created for them to show their athletic prowess as individuals but it is observed their voice has not been given a place in the Olympic organization - It may not be too long when the Olympic Village crisis will

227

move to their court.

The Future of the Olympics

It has been possible to establish the causes of contro­versy at the Olympic Games but the solutions to some of the causation factors have not gone beyond the thoughtful specula­tions. How can the I.O.C. solve an apartheid problem that has defied the United Nations? How can the I.O.C. prevent coun­tries of accredited National Olympic Committees from engaging in sports contacts with South Africa so that Africa can parti­cipate in the Games? How can the I.O.C. solve the problem of localized but bi-national wars between N.O.C. member countries?Have the International Olympic Committees any authority to curbpower bloc rivalries at the Games? Should Africa not use other diplomatic offensives against nations fraternizing with South Africa instead of the not-very-popular self eliminations from the Olympic Games and international sports? All these identi­fied problems appear beyond the I.O.C. to handle and as long as they exist in the world, the Olympics "of 1980" will continue to be threatened. Already the Moscow Olympics of 1980 appear to face Montreal's problems. At the moment South Africa plans a Rugby tour of France on schedule in October, 1979.

...Lord Killanin had warned that the tour was inop­portune just a year before the 1980 Moscow ' Games.He had voiced his dissatisfaction to one of theFrench members of the I.O.C. (1:30).It will be recalled that Africa walked out in Montreal

228because New Zealand which had allowed a Rugby tour of South Africa was not barred from participating. France is a founda­tion member of the I.O.C. and perhaps Giscard (current French President) had better realize the honor earned France by De Coubertin and stop any moves that will hurt the Games. It is also reported that "Anti-apartheid groups have already called on the French Government to halt the tour or face the risk of seeing certain countries boycotting the Moscow Games" (1:30). France has nothing to lose if some countries boycott the Games, but does, if she is barred from the Games.

This illustrates the future of the Olympic Games. Some of its problems are cancerous. The Olympic Games may be the victim or splitting the Olympic Games may start in the name of regional Olympic Games. The future of the Olympics does not actually depend on one country or a bloc of countries pulling out. Montreal may be an example. But when those kinds of issues keep coming up every four years some other actions might result which will erode the worth of the Games. The United

iStates has restrained a threat of what they will do if Moscow does not invite Israel to the 1980 Games. In a recent state­ment by the U.S.O.C. President, he remarked:

...An Olympic problem which seems to be bothering some American citizens these days is an alleged 'covert conspiracy' by a Soviet-Third World combination to exclude Israel from the 1980 Games at Moscow (2:3).The National Review editorialist had "predicted that if

the Soviet Union prevails against Israel in this plot, that theU.S. would not participate in the Olympic Games at Moscow

229

because 1980 is an election year in the United States" (2:3).If this is already the trend of thought in the United Statesand concerning Africa it is evidence enough not to be toooptimistic about the future of the Olympics, in the meantimethe 19 80 Olympics.

...In another move 'The Israeli Olympic Committee have decided to modify their earlier decision to break off sports links with South Africa. The earlier decisions had been criticized by the Israeli Foreign Ministry which considered the sports rupture as 'harmful to Israeli— South Africa relations.' The revised decision is now in line with the policy of the Ministries of Edu­cation and Foreign Affairs (3:28).This again strengthens the pessimism about the future of

the Olympics as more N.O.C. countries keep sports link with South Africa at governmental and official levels. An intrigu­ing development about the Moscow Olympics at this time is that timely warning by Lord Killanin to France. It was reiterated in a recent press report published here in Columbus:

....The President of the International Olympic Com­mittee Lord Killanin warned French Sports Officials that if they allow a South African rugby team to tour France next fall, France could be excluded from the 1980 Olympics in Moscow (4:3).

This reader will recall that in the 1976 Montreal Olympics, Lord Killanin and the I.O.C. did not bulge on this same issue because they had maintained a stand that rugby was not an Olym­pic sport. Would it not smack of inconsistency to shift stand now and bar France from Moscow Olympics while New Zealand was allowed at Montreal Olympics? Perhaps this is one of current policy changes by the organization of the Olympic movement.

230

Again let it be said that the I.O.C. should heed the handwrit­ing on the wall now. It might as well be timely to start deal­ing with governments who control visa of sportsmen to and from their countries. Governments, politics and sports are inter­meshed and difficult to disentangle and that really hurts the Olympic Games.

Recommendations

In making the recommendations alternatives are also sug­gested to replace extreme views.

Recommendations For Depoliticizing the Olympics

1. Bidding to host the Olympics is political because City Mayors have been known to use it to boost their image in a pre-election year. A permanent site for the Olympics is an alternative.

2. All team games should be dropped from the Olympic schedule. These Games should join World Cup matches.

3. Only the Olympic anthem should be played to honorthe three medal winners of an event instead of play­ing anthem of first place winners.

4. In order not to assemble all the athletes of the world in one city for a fortnight forcing a cityto put up amorphous structures, battle with secu­rity problems and cope with accomodation, the Olym­pic Games should be spread over one month and held

231

in four countries in an Olympic year. Olympic spirit should be made to prevail. The events in the Olympic Games will be grouped into four areas:1) Track and Field in one country.2) Aquatic Sports in another.3) Ball Games in another.4) Gymnastics, Equestrian and others in yet another

country.5. More attention should be given to culture, arts and

crafts at the various venues of the Olympics than they get now.

Recommendations For Research

While conclusions for this study apply to United States subjects only, this writer thinks that many parts of the world will react to the questions almost in the same way, with little variances on political issues.

1) It is recommended that with a slight semantic amend­ments in one or two items, this S.I.P. Instrument should be taken to an Olympic Village and have at least twenty athletes and officials from each country to fill them out. The UNESCO could sponsor such a broad based project.

2) The members of the I.O.C. should be surveyed at Laus­anne the headquarters of the Olympic secretariat.

2323) Sports journalists should be surveyed and interviewed.

The S I.P. Instrument could be used in a comparative y-t\ with another group.

4} A survey to determine why Mayors bid for the Olympic Games could be done to find out their motivation to stage the Games.

5) A study on politics and the Olympic Games aimed at com­parison of the opinions of Pre-1960 and Post-1960 Olympics should be undertaken when more of the former are identified.

233

NOTES

CHAPTER V

1- Daily Times of Nigeria, February 3, 1979, p. 30.2. Kane, Robert J. 'Presidents' Message, The Olympian,

December/January, 1978/79, p. 3.3. Daily Times of Nigeria, February 9, 1979, p. 28.

4. 'Olympics, Paris' Columbus Dispatch, April 13, 1979.p. C-3.

APPENDIX A

LETTERS TO PARTICIPANTS

234

235

Udodlri Okafor c/o Prof. Don Harper 1760 Neil Ave. 309 Columbus, Ohio 43210 October 23, 1978

Mr. C. Robert Paul, Jr.The Director Communications, U ,S. O . C .Olympic House, 52 Park. Avenue New York, New York 101,16.

Dear Sir:

I am a doctoral student in physical Education at The Ohio State University. Z am Conducting a dissertation study on The Interaction of Sports and Politics as a Dilemma of the Olympic Games. I stronglyffeei that the present and past athletes oftthe United States who have participated in the Olympics would be the best to sample for their opinion and ex­periences .

Could you please oblige me with a list of names and current addresses of the U .S. athletes to the last three Summer and Winter Olympics so that I could randomly sample them for the purpose of distributing a questionnaire.

Also, would it be possible for me to meet individually with U.S.O.C. sports administrators to interview them with a questionnaires that they could fill out for me.

I would appreciate your cooperation in this matter and look forward to your early reply. Thank you!

Sincerely yours,

U O /b b

Udodlri Okafor

236Udodlri P. Okafor The Ohio State University 1760 Neil Avenue #309 Columbus, Ohio 43210 25 October 1978

The Director of Libraries University of Illinois Urbana-Champaigne Illinois 60 g l O

Dear Sir;

Avery Brundaqe Collection 1905 - 1975

I am a doctoral candidate doing a dissertation on The Interaction of Snorts and Politics As A Dilemma of the Modem Olympic Games. I have found reference to the above mentioned book which contains the collections of former International Olympic Committee President - Avery Brundage. It was published in Germany with the cooperation of the University of Illinois.

Is it possible for me to buy a copy? You might be helpful in giving suggestions as to how I may obtain a copy. Is it possible for me to visit the University of Illinois libraries and Archives to make a study from those 167 boxes especially those containing relevant records?Who should I contact to make arrangements for a visit?

I will appreciate your early response to this letter. Thanks.

Yours sincerely,

Udodiri Okafor

237Udodiri P. Okafor School of Health and Physical Education

The Ohio State University c/o Professor Donald Harper 1760 Neil Avenue #309 Columbus, Ohio 43210 25 October 1978

The PresidentInternational Olympic Committee Chateu De Vidy 1007 Lausanne Switzerland

Dear Lord Killanin:

I am a doctoral student (from Nigeria) in the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA, I am currently doing a dissertation on The Interaction of Sports And Politics As A Dilemma of The Modem Olympic Games. Since I could not afford a trip to Ireland to interview you, I would be grateful if you replied to the following questions so I can extract statements for inclusion in my dissertation.

Question One: You have been quoted in texts as saying " . . . theInternational Olympic Committee should look ahead and be realistic while at the same time stick to its principles." I hope I am fair to you if I ask you to elaborate. What are the kinds of things you think the I. O . C . should change in an attempt to be realistic ?

Question Two: All over the world, the press and the people see someinterference by politics in the Olympic Games. Do you agree with them or do you see things differently? Do you think politics is doing harm to the Olympic Games ?

Question Three: On the other side of the coin one would like to say thatpolitics promotes the Olympic Games by generating international rivalry thereby promoting "higher, faster and longer" - the motto of the Olympics. Do you agree with this school of thought?

The PresidentInternational Olympic Committee Page 225 October 1978

I know you are a busy person, however, the information you supply me will be greatly appreciated and surely a contribution to knowledge.

I am, Sir,Yours in the Love of Sport,

238

Udodiri Okafor

UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 239U rb a n a , Illinois 61801

November 7, 1978Udodirl P . Okafor The Ohio State University 1760 Neil Avenue it309 Columbus, Ohio 43210

Dear Mr. Okafor:Thank you for your October 25 letter about your research on the interaction of sports and politics in the modern Olympic games. I enclose a copy of our guide to the Avery Brundage Collection and a user's application form. We would be pleased to assist you if you come to Urbana to use the Brundage Collection. The University Archives is located in Room 19 in the southeast corner of the Main Library Building (telephone 217-333- 0798) and is open from 8 to 5 Monday through Friday, except for December 26-30.Sincerely yours,

Maynard Brichford wf University Archivist

240

November 9, 1978

Walter Byers,,Executive SecretaryNational Collegiate Athletic Association Box 1906Shawnee Mission, Kansas 66222 Dear Mr. Byers:

X am a Nigerian graduate student in Physical Education at the Ohio State University. As an Athletic Administrator my interest is in The Interaction of Politics and Sports As a Dilemma of the Modern-0lympic Games for my dissertation. I would like to request your co-operation and that of your staff colleagues in completing some questionnaires to enable me to generate data for my study.

I know you are a busy person but I appreciate any contribution you and your staff could make to knowledge about the Olympic Games.

If it might be easier for you to send me a list of names and ad­dresses of your staff, I could send the questionnaire directly to each of them.

Thank you.Sincerely,

Udodiri Okafor

UO/cs

241

November 9, 19;8

C. Robert Paul, Jr.Director of Communications U.S. Olympic Committee Olympic House 1750 East Boulder Street Colorado Springs, Colorado 80909Dear Mr. Paul:

In reply to your letter dated, November 2, 1978 I would think that 100-150 names with their current addresses could be used for random sampling instead of 1600 your calculation indicated. I thought a larger population would satisfy sampling procedures better and will have more depth.

U.S.O.C. sports administrators would include all staff members of the United States Olympic Committee and Secretariat who know enough of the Blympic Games to fill out thi3 enclosed questionnaire.

The sample questionnaire is attached as you requested. Could you please authorize me then to reach your athletes with it.

Thank you for your co-operation.Sincerely,

Udodirl Okafor

UO/csEnclosures

242

November 9, 197G

Dear Sir:I am a graduate student in the Department of Physical Education at

the Ohio State University. I am conducting a dissertation study on "The Interaction of SBort3 and Politics As A Dilemma Of The Modem Olympic Games." I am sending out questionnaires to,different groups of people connected with the Olympics to help me generate data to enrich the study.

Could you please spare a few minutes to fill out the enclosed ques­tionnaire. The survey Is not long in that it only took between nine and thirteen minutes in a pilot study.

I will appreciate your co-operation, and prompt responses and enclose a self-addressed-stamped envelop for your use. Thank you.

Sincerely,

Udodiri Okafor

UO/csEnclosure

The Ohio State University School of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation1760 Neil Avenue Columbus. Ohio 43210

243

Phone 614 422-2615

November 9, 1978

Mr. Robert BeetenOlympic House1750 East Boulder StreetColorado Springs, Colorado 80909Dear Mr. Beeten:

I am a Nigerian graduate student in the Ohio State University and I am conducting a study on the Interaction of Sports and Politics at the Olympic Gaines. I would like to include sports medicine personnel who have accdmpanied the United States team to any Olympic or Pan American Games. Could you please help me by sending me a list to be Included in my survey.

Thank you for your co-operation.Sincerely,

UO/cs

Udodiri Okafor

244

Udodiri Okafor 1760 Neil Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43210 December 28, 1978

Dear Sir/Ms:

Early in December, I sent you a questionnaire together with a self-addressed and stamped envelope for reply.

I realize that your schedule may not have given you sufficient time to respond, therefore I am enclosing again a questionnaire and self-addressed stamped envelope for your response.

I would appreciate your completion of this questionnaire or the previous copy as soon as possible to enable me to use it for the pro­ject.

Thank you for your co-operation.

Yours sincerely,

Udodiri P. Okafor

UPO/cs

Udodiri P. Okafor l/oO Noil Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43210 December 28, 1978

C. Robert Paul, Jr.Director of Communication United States Olympic Committee 1750 E. Boulder Street Colorado Springs, Colorado 80909

Dear Mr. Paul:

I want to thank you for the two separate lists of U.S. Olympic Athletes and U.S.O.C. Sports administrators.. I have already posted questionnairs to samples of them and hope they will continue to re­spond. Up to this moment the response is low especially with athletes.

Part of my project was to interview pre --- 1960 olympians such asJesse Owens and Ralph Metcalf who unfortunately recently died. Do you think you can give me the addresses of only five of such people from the state of Ohio and around.

Since Mr. Owens is an adviser to the U.S.O.C. is his address the same as for all others in Colorado Springs?

I appreciate your past and future co-operation in my study. Thanks for your wonderful co-operation.

yours sincerely.

Udodiri P. Okafor

UPO/cs

The National Collegiate Athletic AssociationPresident

J . N e i l s T h o m p s o n University of Texas

Austin, Texas 78712

Executive Director W a l t e r B y e r s

Secretary-Treasurer 2 4 6E d g a r A . S h e r m a n Muskingum College

New Concord, Ohio 43762

January 11, 1979

Mr. Udodiri Okafor School of Health, Physical

Education and Recreation Ohio State University 1760 Neil Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43210Dear Mr. Okafor:This is in response to your inquiry of November 9 which was in­advertently misplaced. I regret any inconvenience this may have caused.While this office would be happy to cooperate with you in completing your questionnaire(s) relative to your dissertation regarding the Olympic Games, X believe the United States Olympic Committee would certainly be of more assistance to you than this office. I suggest you direct your inquiry to F. Don Miller, executive director,United States Olympic Committee, Olympic House, 1750 Boulder Street, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80909.I trust the USOC will be able to respond to your questions. Best of luck to you in completing your work on your dissertation.

Cordially yours

Thomas W. Jernstedt Assistant Executive Director

TWJ :ms

National Office: U. S. Highway 50 and Natl Avenue • Mission, Kansas Mailinc Address: P.O. Box 1906 • Shawnee Mission. Kansas 66222 ■ Telephone 913/384-3220

Udodiri P. Okafor Ohio State University 1760 Neil Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43210 January 26, 1979

Dear Sir:

I am a graduate student at the Ohio State University and doing a dissertation on the Interaction of Sports and Politics as a Dilemma of the Modern Olympic Games. A section of my thesis seeks to report how the views of pre— 1960 U.S.A. Olympians agree or differ in some of the vital issues with those of the more recent olympians (1960-1976).

t

To obtain the kinds of information needed, freedback is required from American athletes who competed prior to the Rome Games. You have been selected in this small sample because your contribution and com­ments are vital to my thesis. Please respond as you reminiesce the Olympic Games of the time when you competed.

I hope you can find time to answer these five attached questions. Your views are confidential unless you indicate that you will allow mention. Enclosed is a self addressed and stamped envelop for your re­ply. I want to thank you for your cooperation and an early response.

Sincerely yours.

Udodiri P. Okafor Graduate Student

247

UPO/cs

c/o Professor Don Harp 1760 Neil Avenue Cols., OH 43210

March 6, 1979

Lord Killanin, President International Olympic Committee Chateau De Vidy 1007 Laussane SwitzerlandDear Sir,

In reference to your letter dated Dublin, 27th November, 1978, I wish to say that I would very much like to hear from you concerning my questions on the Olympics. I know you are a very busy person as you have been recently touring the con­tinent of Africa. However, may I emphasize that it is im­portant that I need to receive your response before the 10th of April in order for me to include all extracts and letters into my dissertation.

Your earliest response will be greatly appreciated.Yours respectfully,

Udodiri Okafor

249

Udodiri Okafor 25 9 3 Lorain Court Columbus, Ohio 43210 February 19, 197 9

Mayor Tom Bradley Los Angeles City Council

,City Hall 2 00 North Spring Street Los Angeles, California 90012

Dear Mayor Bradley,I am a Nigerian graduate student in Ohio State University study­

ing for a Ph.D. degree in Physical Education and specializing in Sports Administration. I was excited to see that you visited Nigeria. I read it in Nigeria's Daily Times.

Enclosed is a questionnaire I am additionally using in a study on the Modern Olympic Games. I assume the study will interest you. The subjects on this questionnaire were all from the U.S.A. — present and past Olympians, U.S.O.C. State and Federal Sports Administrations, Pro­fessors of Sports History, Sports Administration and Sports Sociology in one group. The response was good.

I shall like to get a feedback from you on what you think. I wrote Lord Killanin too. My phone is (614) 268-1087, in case you cannot have time to write.

Sincerely yours,

Udodiri OkaforUO/cs

APPENDIX B

LETTERS FROM OLYMPIC COMMITTEES

250

N I T E D S T A T E S O L Y M P I C C O M M I T T E E251

OLYMPIC HOUSE: 1750 EAST BOULDER STREET, COLORADO SPRINGS. COLORADO 80909^ Tel: (303> 632-5551 Tel6x: 45-2424 Cable; “AMOLYMPIC CSP"

D. ROBERT PAUL, Jr. Director of Com m unications

VIII PAN AMERICAN GAMES, San Ju a n . P u erto Rico. Ju ly 1-15. 1979 XIII OLYMPIC WINTER GAMES. Lake Placid, U.S.A.. F eb ruary 13-24, 1980

GAMES OF THE XXII OLYMPIAD, Moscow. U.S.S.R.. July 19-August 3, 1980

November 2, 1978

Mr. Udodiri Okafor c/o Prof. Don Harper 1760 Neil Ave. 309 Columbus, Ohio 43210Dear Mr. Okafor:Thank you very much for your recent letter concerning the dissertation study you are planning to conduct by questioning a sampling of athletes who have represented the United States in the last three Olympic Games. May I ask you to share this letter with Dr. Harper, himself a former USA Olympian.When Baruch Chass of Israel was working on his doctorate, we had an exchange of several letters before we could get together on exactly what he would be doing in gathering his raw material. It is a policy of the United States Olympic Committee to ask for any material which will be sent to former members of our Olympic Team. Therefore, as a starting point, I would ask you to submit your questionnaire for review prior to approval.The United States Olympic Committee does not have a large enough research staff to compile a list of the names and addresses of the more than 1,600 athletes who have represented us in the last three Olympic Games. Therefore,I would suggest that you counsel with Dr. Harper to come up with a more manage­able group. Also, let Dr. Harper know that we do not have the addresses of more than 25 percent of those who have represented us in these last three Games.For any questionnaire which you would circulate among a group whom you class as "USQC sports administrators," I again ask you to forward your questionnaire for review prior to approval. However, you will have to be more explicit in the group whom you have called "US0C sports administrators." Is this the exact same group of leaders in our national sports governing bodies who were circularized by Dr. Chass?After we have undertaken these preliminaries then we can see how far we can pro­ceed and whether we can proceed at all.

C. Robert Paul, Jr.CRP:kh

CONTRIBUTIONS ARE DEDUCTIBLE FOR INCOME TAX PURPOSES

U N I T E D S T A T E S O L Y M P I C C O M M I T T E E252

OLYMPIC HOUSE: 1750 EAST BOULDER STREET, COLORADO SPRINGS, COLORADO 80909Tel: (303) 632-5551 Telex: 45-2424 Cable: "AMOLYMPIC CSP”

VIII PAN AMERICAN GAMES, San Ju a n , P u e r to Rico, Ju ly 1-15, 1979 XIII OLYMPIC WINTER GAMES. Lake P lacid, U.S.A., F eb ru ary 13-24. 1980

GAMES OF THE XXII OLYMPIAD. Moscow, U.S.S.R., Ju ly 19-A ugust 3, 19 8 0ROBERT PAUL, J r .

irec to r of C om m unications

November 20, 1978

Mr. Udodiri Okafor Ohio State University 1760 Nei1 Avenue Columbus, OH ^3210

Dear Mr. Okafor:

The United States Olympic Committee is happy to give your permission to circulate your questionnaire among recent Olympic Athletes, members of the USOC, and staff members.

I am now drawing up a list of Olympic athletes whom you should oontact. Since Olympic athletes frequently move from one place to another we are not always up to date on their most recent addresses. If you have any letters returned to you will you please notify us of these "incorrect addresses."

The most responsible staff members to send the questionnaire to are:

Lt. Col. Dennis Keegan, USAF, Director of Public Relations Jerry Lace Director of OperationsCapt. Larry McCollum, USMC (ret), Asst Dir of Operations Mrs. Rochelle Evans, Adminis. Assistant., Public Relations Mrs. Marilyn Crawford, Adminis. Assistant, Operations Baaron B. Pittenger, Jr., Director of Special Events Col. John Colbrunn, USAF (ret), Asst. Dir. of Operations James E. McHugh, Office Manager Ernest Hinck, Business ManagerT. Harold Forbes, Jr., NY Public Relations, 57 Park Ave., NYC 10016Robert F. Berry, Natl Fund Raising Director, as ab oveArthur I. Kuman, Director of Corporate ParticipaationWilliam Campbell, Asst. Dir. of Corporate ParticipationDouglas W. Dunlop, Esq., In House CounselMrs. Marsha Thomas, Staff Librarian

All of the staff personnel above (except for two in New York) may be addressed at the Colorado Springs address/

i am enclosing the names and addresses of all important members of theUSOC. Use as many as you may like. Am preparing the other list ofathletes and will forward soon. OK?

Cord i a 1ly, _

CONTRIBUTIONS ARE DEDUCTIBLE FOR INCOME TAX PURPOSES

253

U N I T E D S T A T E S O L Y M P I C C O M M I T T E E

November 25, 1978 Mr. Okafor:Will gather together additional names the next time I have some free time in the office.These names along with those previousl; sent will enable you to get started.BOB PAUL

C. ROBERT PAUL. JR.

U N I T E D S T A T E S O L Y M P I C C O M M I T T E E254

OLYMPIC HOUSE: 1750 EAST BOULDER STREET, COLORADO SPRINGS. COLORADO 80909Tel: (303) 632-5551 Telex: 45-2424 Cable: "AMOLYMPIC CSP"

VIII PAN AMERICAN GAMES, San Ju a n , P u er to Rico, July 1-15, 1979 XIII OLYMPIC WINTER GAMES, Lake Placid, U.S.A.. February 13-24, 1980

[_ / \C £ GAMES OF THE XXII OLYMPIAD. Moscow, U.S.S.R., July 19-August 3, 1980

o p e r a t i o n s December 27J 1978

Mr. Udodiri, Okafor o/o Prof. Don Hamper 1760 Neil Avenue 309 Columbus3 Ohio 43210

Dear Mr. Harper:

I received your letter and questionnaire on the subject of Interaction of Sports and Politics.

I gust want to advise you that our copies of this questionnaire were forwarded to Mr. Bob Pauly Director of Communications3 whose respon­sibility it is to release publicity statements on policy3 etc. As I have only been with the United States Olympic Committee for about six monthsy I did not really feel qualified to answer some of the questions that you asked.

I hope Mr. Paul did reply to you on behalf of the United States Olympic Committee - and I am sorry for the delay in my answering your letter.

Thank you for your interest on the subject - and good luck on your project.

Sincerely y

. /? •4— --£ /_ ^ /-I C - . w

Marilyn Crawford Secretary to Jerry Lace

CONTRIBUTIONS ARE DEDUCTIBLE FOR INCOME TAX PURPOSES

U N I T E D S T A T E S O L Y M P I C C O M M I T T E E255

OLYMPIC HOUSE: 1750 EAST BOULDER STREET, COLORADO SPRINGS, COLORADO 80909Tel: (303) 632-5551 Telex: 45-2424 Cable: "AMOLYMPIC CSP"

VIII PAN AMERICAN GAMES. San Ju a n . P uer to Rico. July 1-15, 1979 XIII OLYMPIC WINTER GAMES. Lake Placid. U.S.A.. F ebruary 13-24. 1980

C ROBERT PAUL J r GAMES OF THE XXII OLYMPIAD. Moscow. U.S.S.R.. July 19-August 3, 1980

Director ot Communications

January 12, 1979 Dear Mr. Okafor:Attached are some names and addresses of Pre-60 Olympians living in OhiO. I cannot vouch for a single address other than Hayes Allen Jenkins, Figure Skating. They are old old old but you may find five of them still in order.Good luck^}

CONTRIBUTIONS ARE DEDUCTIBLE FOR INCOME TAX PURPOSES

& Q § )

CITIUS ■ ALTJUS • FORTIUS

C O M IT E IN T E R N A T IO N A L O L Y M PIQ U EC H A T E A U O E V I D Y . t 0 0 7 L A U S A N N E . S U I S S E _ .256

■£ 2 5 3 2 71 ' 7 2 7 3 § 2 - 1 0 2 4 C I O lj! C I O L A U S A N N E

9 A N Q U E : U N l O N O E S A N C J U E S S U I S S E S C H . = C S T . to • 2 2 9 2

Mr. Udodiri P. Okafor,Sch.ool of Health and Physical

the president Education,The Ohio State University, c/o Professor Donald Harper, 1760 § 309Columbus, Ohio 43210 U.S.A.

Dublin, 27th November 1978

Dear Sir,Your letter of 25th October has just reached

Lord Killanin, as he has been away.Unfortunately, at the moment he is extremely

busy but will endeavour to answer your questions, if he has an opportunity.

Yours faithfully,

Secretary to the Lord Killanin President of the I.O.C.

I

NIGERIA OLYMPIC COMMITTEE

Set n ta ry -t ! eneral: A .A .O R D IA M.B.E. ' W W

Postal Address: P. 0 . Box 3156, Lagos.

Grand Patron:Treasurer:J .L .A . O N A 5A N Y A T H E H T . H O N . SIR A D ETOK UN BO A D E M O LA , K.B.E., C .F .R ., P.C.

(IOC Member)

Cables & Grams: OLYMCOM . LAGOS

Patron: Major-General H .E.O. A D E F O P E .

Telephones: 46645, 46247 • 8

Mr. Udodiri P. Okafor Date....29.th.. J a n u a r y , ........1979.1760 Neil Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43210 U. S. A.

Dear Mr. Okafor,

Your letter dated 28th December, 1978, together with your questionnaire, addressed to His Excellency Major — General H. E. O. Adefope, Commissioner for External Affairs, has been referred to me for action.

I have accordingly filled the ques tionnaire and return it herewith. It should be understood that the answers to your questions are purely personal and in no way represent official or national position. I hope you will find the answers useful.

Oh behalf of His Excellency the Commissioner I wish you success in your endeavours.

Yours Sincerely,

(Abraham Ordia) Secretary - General,

Nigeria Olympic Committee.

APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULE

258

Name:_______Institution:

(Optional, but Confidential)

Status Please check below1. Professor ________2. Olympian________________ Year in the Olympics3. Administrator _________ Year in the Olympics

Your comments and suggestions below will be greatly appreciated.

260

Instrument on the Interaction of Sports and Politics

A. Purpose of the Olympic Games SA A U D SE1. The purpose of the Olympic Games is to 5 4 3 2 1

promote competition between nations.2. The purpose of Olympic Games is to 5 4 3 2 1

develop lasting friendship between countries.3. The Olympics serves the purpose of 5 4 3 2 1

raising the sports standards of the lessdeveloped countries.

4. The Olympics affords simultaneously a cultural 5 4 3 2 1exchange opportunity.

5. The Olympic Games serve to maintain and 5 4 3 2 1promote the ideals of sports for the gloryof i t .

6. The Olympic Games gives the people concerned 5 4 3 2 1insight into what is happening inside the othercountries.

7. The Olympic Games help to construct a better 5 4 3 2 1and more peaceful world.

8. Olympic athletes want to use the Games to 5 4 3 2 1make friends from other nations.Other Purposes

3. Olympic Athletes, Sports, and Politics

1. Olympic athletes wish to keep sports free from 5 4 3 2 1politics.

2. Athletes want to use sports to demonstrate 5 4 3 2 1political maturity for their country.

3. Olympic athletes welcome the politics in sports 5 4 3 2 1because it enables their country to assertherself.

4. Athletes are more eager to meet and compete against the big names in their sports in other countries than to care if their countries are friendly or not.

5. Athletes want to use the opportunities to know other nations, more than to care for the foreign policy of those countries.

6. Athletes compete internationally for self glory first and country second.

7. Politics promotes the Olympics through engendering, national rivalry to achieve higher, faster and stronger which is the motto of the Olympics.

C. Economy of Sports and International Relations1. Recently the Olympic Games serve to promote the

economy of the host nation.2. Participation in the Olympics should have no

bearing with the trade between nations.3. The Olympics is becoming too expensive

for many nations and requires cost curtailment.4. One way to cut the expenses is to reduce the

number of athletes.5. It is wrong not to sell export products to

a country because of her domestic sports policy.6. It is right to use international economic

sanctions to affect a change in any country's internal sports segregative policy.

7. All nations should contribute equitably to the International Olympic Committee.

8. The interaction between sports and politics is a thorny problem for the Olympic Games.

D .Nationalism and Government Involvement1. The Olympics is now used as a strong avenue

to project the image of one's country.

261SA A U D SD

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

2. Government involvement is necessary for the success of their Olympic national teams.

3. Smaller nations divert all energies to international sports to achieve prominence.

4. It is not national humiliation to achieve few or no medals in the Olympic Games, rather there should be satisfaction for competing well.

5. Government involvement in sports which invariably suggests infection by politics, starts when governments are responsible for funding sports bodies.

6. When governments establish Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports, they are wedding politics and sports

7. When the government of any country appoints politicians to a commission to study all features of her sports and make recommen­dations, that government by implication acknowledges a relationship between sports and politics.

Measures for Separating Politics and Sports1. Heads of state of host countries at the Olympic

competition should not be given royal attention2. Delegates to the International Olympic Committe

should not be appointed by government or their agencies, but should be nominated by sports bodies including athletes.

3. Accountability of non political interference in sports in any country is the responsibility of that country's member at the International Olympic Committee..

M-. National anthems of a winning athlete's country should no longer be played if there is to be a low key national identity.

5. National flags and team dresses should be the only allowable conspicuous identification for countries.

6. There should be no medal tables published during the Olympic Games.

263SA A U D SD

7. To belong to an international athletic 5 4 - 3 2 1association reminiscent of past colonialties is indicative of relationship between sports and politics. (For instance, the British Commonwealth Games)

8. Eliminate problems of amateurism in the Olympic 5 4 3 2 1 Games by making them open to all athletes.

- End -

Key SA : Strongly AgreeA : AgreeU : UndecidedD : DisagreeSD : Strongly Disagree

* The Interaction of Sports and Politics as a Dilemma of the Modern Olympic Games.

ByUdodiri Paul Okafor

School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation The Ohio State University

To Pre— 1960 U.S.A. Olympians 264

Name: __________________________________ (confidential) Age: ________

Year(s) in the Olympic Games: Event: _____________________

Will allow mention in the thesis. Circle; YES NO

Question 81: It has been said that the Olympic Games since 1960 has been morepoliticized than as was the case with the Olympic Games before 1960. Do you agree with this statement? Please comment briefly,

Question 82: All over the world, some governments have established Ministry ofCulture, Youth and Sports, and some governments are also responsible for funding sports bodies and sometimes they appoint politicians into commissions to look into sports reorganization in their country. Do you see these government involvements as wedding politics and sports? Please comment.

Question 83: Politics promotes the achievement of the athletes in the OlympicGames because it brings out that national consciousness which makes the athletes want to excel above other nations' athlete. Please give your views on this issue. Does politics promote the Olympic games or does it harm it?

/Question 84: The Olympic ideals of the Pierdde Coubertin era do not hold any

longer in this Killanin era. What are the departures from the original ideas and ideals of the Olympic Games as you see them today?

Question 85; The press, in general, has been accused or introducing politics into the Olympic Games than the athletes or the administrators of Olympic Sports. Do you have comments either way?

APPENDIX D

TABLE OF MEANS FOR ALL GROUPS

265

266

TABLE 44Means Of The Groups And The Population Responding To

The S.I-P. Instrument On A Five Point Scale

Variable Code Olympians Administration Professors Population

A - 1 3.692 2.194 2. 769 2.833A - 2 3.808 3.839 3.154 3.552A - 3 3.192 3.548 3.462 3.417A - 4 4.269 3.548 3.947 4.232A - 5 3.692 4.100 2.921 3.511A - 6 3.077 3.419 2.947 3.137

> I 3.192 4.032 2.487 3.177A - 8 3.962 3.903 3.105 3.600B - 1 4.615 4.613 3.923 4.333B - 2 2.077 2.097 4.257 4.156B - 3 1.962 1.613 2.179 1.937B - 4 4.077 4.097 4.257 4.156B - 5 4.038 4.194 3.692 3.948B - 6 4.115 3.700 3.846 3.874B - 7 3.120 2.161 2.921 2.723C - 1 2.154 2.387 2.590 2.406C - 2 4.308 4.355 4.410 4.365

C - 3 4.120 3.484 4.462 4.053C - 4 1.846 1.839 2.590 2.146

C - 5 3.731 3.793 3.684 3.731

267

TABLE 44 (Con't)

Variable Code Olympians Administrators Professors Population

C - 6 2.231 1.933 2.179 2.116C - 7 3.192 3.194 3.632 3.369C - 8 4..346 4.226 i 4.692 4.448D - 1 4.320 4.276 4.667 4.452D - 2 3.308 2.581 3.632 3.200D - 3 2.808 2.600 3.231 2.916D - 4 4.000 4.367 4.154 4.179D - 5 3.615 3.613 3.897 3.729D - 6 3.642 3.367 3.947 3.632D - 7 3.129 3.290 4.103 3.579E - 1 3.000 2.500 3.421 3.011E - 2 4.385 4.419 4.132 4.295E - 3 3.577 3.129 3.684 3.474E - 4 2.846 2.290 3.718 3.021E - 5 2.885 2.871 3.421 3.095E - 6 3.423 3.161 3.684 3.423E - 7 2.846 2.097 3.103 2.708E - 8 3.077 2.000 3.615 2.948

APPENDIX E

SUMMER OLYMPICS VENUE GUIDE 1896-19 84

268

TABLE 45SUMMER OLYMPICS VENUE GUIDE

YEAR CITY OLYMPIAD

1896 Athens I OLYMPIAD

1900 Paris II OLYMPIAD

1904 St. Louis III OLYMPIAD

1908 London IV OLYMPIAD

1912 Stockholm V PLYMPIAD

1916 Not Held VI OLYMPIAD

1920 Antwerp VII OLYMPIAD

1924 Paris VIII OLYMPIAD1928 Amsterdam IX OLYMPIAD1932 Los Angeles X OLYMPIAD

1936 Berlin XI OLYMPIAD

1940 Not Held XII OLYMPIAD

1944 Not Held XIII OLYMPIAD

1948 London XIV OLYMPIAD

1952 Helsinki XV OLYMPIAD

1956 Melbourne XVI OLYMPIAD

1960 Rome XVII- OLYMPIAD

1964 Tokyo XVIII OLYMPIAD

1968 Mexlo City XIX OLYMPIAD

1972 Munich XX OLYMPIAD

1976 Montreal XXI OLYMPIAD

*1980 Moscow XXII OLYMPIAD

*1984 Los Angeles XXIII OLYMPIAD

*Not yet held at this time.

269

APPENDIX F

DATA PRINOUTS ON THE THREE GROUPS

270

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Allen, Neil, Olympic Diary Tokyo 1964, London: Nicholas Kaye Limited, 1965.

Babbie, Earl R., Survey Research Methods, Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishers Coy, 1973.

Bennett, Bruce et. al., Comparative Physical Education and Sport, Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger Publishers, 1975.

Best, John W., Research in Education, Third Ed., Englewood Cliff, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1977.

Brickford, Maynard, Avery Brundage Collections 1908-1975, Koln (Cologne): Verlag Karl Hofman Schornforf, 1977.

Brickhill, Joan, Race Against Race, South Africa's MultiNational Fraud, Internal Defence and Aid Fund, London,1976, p. 73.

Eitzen, D. Stanley and Sage, George H., Sociology of American Sport. Dubugue, Iowa: William C. Brown and CompanyPublishers, 1978.

Graham, Peter J, and Horst, Ueberhorst. (eds) , The Modern Olympics, Cornwell, New York: Leisure Press, 1976.

Groussard, Serge, The Blood of Israel. The Massacre of the Israeli Athletes, the Olympics 1972, New.York: WilliamMorrow and Company, Inc., 19 75.

Harry, Stuff, The Story of the Olympic Games, Los Angeles:Times Mirror, Printing and Binding House, 1932.

Hart, Marie, (ed), Sport in the Socio-Cultural Process, Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company Publishers, 19 72.

Henry, Bill, An Approved History of the Olympic Games, New York:G.P. Putnam's Son's, 1976.

Kieran, John and Arthur, Daley, The Story of the Olympic Games, Philadelphia: Lippincott Company, 1973.

274

275

Kolatch, Jonathan, Sports Politics and Ideology in China, New York: Jonathan David Publishers, 1972.

Labovitz, Stanford and Hagerdon, Robert Introduction to Social Research, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976.

Lehmann, Irvin and Mehrens, A. Williams, Educational Research Readings in Focus, New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston,Inc., 1971.

Lipsyte, Robert, Sports World: An American Dreamland, New York:Quadrangle Books, The New York Times Co., 1975.

Lord Killanin and John Rodda, (eds), The Olympic Games, New York: Macmillan Publishing Co , Inc., 1976.

Iowe, Benjamine et. al. Sport and International Relations, Champaign, Illinois: Stipes Publishing Co., 1978.

Mandel, Richard D., The Nazi Olympics, New York: The MacmillanCompany, 1971.

Morton, Henry W . , Soviet Sport: Mirror of Soviet Society, NewYork: Colliers Books, Collier-Macmillan, Ltd., London.

Novak, Michael, The Joy of Sports, New York, Basic Books, Inc. Publishers, 1976.

Robert, Michael, Fans: How We Go Crazy Over Sports, Washington:The New Republic Book Company Inc., 1976.

Schaap, Richard, An Illustrated History of the Olympic Games,New York: Alfred A. Knoff, 19 67.

Unpublished Research, Theses and Dissertations

Agbogun, Jacob B., "A History of the British Commonwealth Games 1930-1966." Masters thesis University of Aiberta as cited by Baka and Hoy "Political Aspects of Canadian Participa­tion in the Commonwealth Games 1936-1978." C.A.H.P.E.R. Journal March-April, 1978.

Bedecki, Thomas George, "Modern Sport as an Instrument of National Policy with References to Canada and Selected Countries." Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus,1970.

Chass, Baruch, "An Analysis of Perceptual Differences Among the United States Olympic Committee Executive Board Members, Athletes' Representatives and Coaches." Doctoral Disserta­tion,. The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1978.

276

De Koff, Irving. The Role of Government in the Olym­pics. Doctoral Dissertation. Columbia University, 1962. Abstracts 23/12 p. 4600.

Eleyae, Awoture. A Comparative Assessment of the Cen­tral Organization For Amateur Sports in the United States of America and In Nigeria. Doctoral Disser­tation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1974.

Fuoss, Donald. Analysis of the Incidents in the Olympic Games from 1924-1948. Doctoral Dissertation, Teachers College Columbis, 1951.

Hall, Sydney Owen. The Role of Physicl Education and Sport in the Nation Building Process in Kenya. Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1973.

Holden, Laura L. An Investigation of the Sociopoliti­cal Influences on the Olympic Games 1948-1968. Master's Thesis California State University, Long Beach, 1972.

Lapchick, Richard E. The Politics of Race and Inter­national Sport. The Case of South Africa. Doc­toral Dissertation, University of Denver, 1973.

Leigh, Mary. The Evolution of Women's Participation in the Summer Olympic Games 1900-1948. Doctoral Dis­sertation, The Ohio State University, 1974.

Lucas, John. 'Baron Pierre de Coubertin and the Forma­tive Years of the Modern International Olympic Movement 1883-1896. Doctoral Dissertation, Univer- Maryland, 1962.

Mashiach, Asher. A Study to Determine the Factors Which Influenced American Spectators to go to See the Summer Olympic Games in Montreal 1976. Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1977.

Mechikoff, Robert. The Politicization of the XXI Olym­piad. Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State Uni­versity, 1977.

Okafor, Paul S. A Comparison of Opinions of AthleticDirectors and Coaches in U.S.A. and Nigeria on the Concepts of Athletics Scholarships. Master's Re­search, University of Wisconsin, Madison, May, 1977.

277

Park, Sung Jae. Physical Education and Sport As AnInstrument of Nation Building in the Republic of Korea. Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State Uni­versity, 1974.

Slavich, Sandra L. Olympic Games at Munich Politics and Nationalism. Master's thesis Bringham Young Uni­versity, Provo , Utah, 1973.

Periodicals and Journals

Asian Magazine, October 11, 1964, p. 20-22.Asian Survey, Vol. V No. 4, April, 1965, p. 171-185.Boy Scout Magazine, 1956, Undated zeroxed article

(Avery Brundage Collections).Canadian Journal of Health Physical Education and Recre­

ation, March-April, 1978, p. 6-14 and 24.Canada and World, 41:3-7, May, 1976.J.O.H.P.E.R., November-December, 1972, p. 18-20.Millenium, Journal of International Studies, Vol. 6

No. I, Spring, 1977.Newsweek, September 11, 1972, p. 69.Olympic News, August, 1934, p. 3.Quest Monograph XXIV, Summer, 1975, p. 10-18.Quest Monograph, December, 1963. p. 33-34.Sports Illustrated, July 25, 1976, p. 14-19.Sports Illustrated, September 28, 1970, p. 83Sports Illustrated, July 19, 1976, p. 39-42Sports Illustrated, August 15, 1960, p. 74.The Amateur Athlete, January, 1953, p. 8 (Avery Brund­

age Collections).The Olympian, July-August, 1978. p. 10-12.

278

The Olympian/ December-January/ 1978/79/ p. 31Time, September 25, 1972/ p. 47.

Newspaper References

Capital Times, Madison Wisconsin, May 7, 1977, p. 15.Chicago Daily News, February 8, 1963.Chicago Daily News, Friday, March 2, 1962 (Avery Brund-

age Collections).Chicago Sun-Times, June 5, 1962 (Avery Brundage Col­

lections) *Columbus Citizen Journal, October 19, 1978, p. 2Daily Express London, December 14, 1963 (Avery Brundage

Collections)Daily Times, Lagos, Nigeria, February 3, 1979, p. 30.Daily Times, Lagos, Nigeria, February 9, 197 9, p. 28.Daily Times, Lagos, Nigeria, September, 1978.Los Angeles Times, February 9, 19 63.Munich Paper Thursday, January 28, 1969 (Avery Brundage

Collections)News Press, United Press International June 2, 1962.

(Avery Brundage Collections)New York Times, February 24, 19 6 2 (Avery Brundage Col­

lections)Philadelphia Inquirer, Thursday, October 17, 1963

(Avery Brundage Collections)San Francisco Examiner, June 2, 1962, p. 3.San Francisco Sunday Chronicle, February 14, 1960,

(Avery Brundage Collections)The Lantern, Ohio State University, Columbus, February

23, 1978, p. 3.

279Minutes, Proceedings and Circular Letters

Berlioux, Monique: Circular letter to the N.O.C.,Ref. C/514 Lausanne, November, 1969.

Brundage, Avery: Circular letter to N.O.C., Lausanne,17 November, 1969, (Avery Brundage Collections).

Circular letter to the I.O.C., Lausanne, June 23, 1959, (Avery Brundage Collections).

Comite International Olympique: Minutes, meeting ofExecutive Board of the I.O.C. with representatives of the N.O.C.s Kurhaus Baden Baden, Germany, October, 1963, (Avery Brundage Collections).

North American Society for Sport History Proceedings, 1974.

North American Society for Sport History Proceedings, 1977.

Handbooks and Manuals

Comite International Olympique: Olympic Rules andRegulations, Chateau De Vidy, 1974.

The Final Report of the Presidents Commission on Olympic Sports, Vol. I, 1975-1977.

Addresses and Unpublished Papers

Brundage, Avery: Stop-Look See. An Address to the I.O.C.Sessions in Lausanne, Avery Brundage Collections.

De Coubertin, Pierre: Address from Olympia, April 17, 1927in Olympic Bulletin, June, 19 27, Avery Brundage Collec­tions .

Guido Von Mengden: "The Aftermath of Sport and Politics,"from Baden Baden. Read at the 60th Session of the I.O.C. (Avery Brundage Collections).

Drew, Gwendolyn A: Olympic Games-Implications for PhysicalEducation, (Avery Brundage Collections).

280

Llorente Javier Santos: "The Olympic Movement is inDanger. The Influence of Politics" El Sol de Mexico, May 25, 1968.

Locke, Lawrence: "Sport Whose Bag? Are Sports Educa­tional?" An address to Canadian Association ofH.P.E.R., University of Waterloo, Toronto, June,1971.

Oren, Yariv: The Politization of Sports and its In­fluence on Physical Education. Presented to the ICHPER Congress Rotterdam, August, 1975.

Riley, Robin: Sport and Foreign Policy in the U.S.S.R.Department of H.P.E.R., Ohio State University, Winter, 1978.

Personal Correspondences

Drum, Loren. U.S.O.C. Executive Board Member, January, 1979.

Mathias, Robert. Director U.S. Olympic Training Centre, Colorado Springs, February, 1979.

Ordia, Abraham. Secretary, Nigerian Olympic Committee, January, 1979, Lagos, Nigeria.

Paul, C. Robert, Jr. Director of Communications UnitedStates Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, January, 1979.

Tottossy, Miklos. Pelham, New York, Professor and Ex-Olym­pian, March, 19 79.