TAJT, P e a r l F r e i , 1932-AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OP THE PLAY BEHAVIOR OF YOUNG BLIND CHILDREN.

The Ohio S ta te U n iv e rs i ty , P h .D ., 1970 E d u ca tio n , s p e c ia l

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company , Ann Arbor, Michigan

© 1971

Pearl Frei Tait

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE PLAY BEHAVIOR

OF YOUNG BLIND CHILDREN

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Pearl Frei Tait, B.A. , M.A.

* * * * * *

The Ohio State University 1970

Approved by

TMlnAdviser

C ollege of Educa

D er M e n s c h i s t nur M e n s c h w e n n er s p i e l t - M an is o n ly fu l ly a m an w h en he p l a y s . (Schiller)

M a n is by n a tu re a p lay in g c r e a t u r e . W hen p la y in g he is n o t b e in g l ik e an an im a l; r a t h e r , he is m o s t l ik e h im s e l f , a s m an is m ean t to b e . To s p e a k a g a in in te rm s o f i n t e n t io n a l i t y , p lay is w h a t m an is m ade for. In p l a y , a s it is g ro unded on lo v e , m an r e a c h e s in to h is f u l l e s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s a s an in d iv id u a l s u s ta in e d and l ib e ra te d by a n o th e r in a t ru ly p e rs o n a l w o r ld . In th is m odern e r a , w h ic h s t i l l s u f fe r s from a h a n g o v e r of the P uritan s u s p ic io n th a t so m ew h ere som eone m ight be h a v in g a good t i m e , and in w h ich the e th i c o f w ork has b e e n a b s o lu t i z e d a s th a t a c t iv i t y w h e re m an p ro v es h is w o r th , w e a re d a n g e ro u s ly c lo s e to lo s in g our a w a r e n e s s of the v i ta l im p o rtan ce of p lay for a u th e n t i c e x i s t e n c e . To b eco m e h u m an , to find the m e a n ­ing of l i f e , w e m u s t le a rn to p l a y — to p lay not m ere ly a lo n e bu t more b a s i c a l l y to p la y to g e th e r in th e e c s t a t i c , b o u n d le s s , c a r e f r e e , r io to u s w orld of lov e [S a d le r , 1966 , p . 2 4 4 ] .

i i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is a p le a s u r e to a c k n o w le d g e the c o o p e ra t io n a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g

of a i l t h o s e w ho h a v e m ade t h i s s tu d y p o s s i b l e . In p a r t i c u l a r , I w ould

l ik e t o e x p r e s s my a p p re c ia t io n

To my a d v i s e r . P ro fe s s o r V iola C a s s i d y , for h e r e n c o u ra g e m e n t a n d

p a t ie n c e in d i r e c t in g t h i s s tu d y ;

to th e m em bers of my c o m m it te e , P r o f e s s o r s C h a r le s H ue lsm ar. and

C h a r le s W e n a r , for th e i r s u g g e s t io n s an d co m m en ts ;

to L o e t ta H u n t , A s s o c ia te P r o f e s s o r , for her h e lp in u n d e rs ta n d in g

th e p ro b lem s of b l in d c h i ld re n ;

to th e p e r s o n n e l o f th e F lo r id a S ta te S choo l for th e D e a f an d 31 Ltd,

S t . A u g u s tin e ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y to W il l ia m M c C lu re , P re s id e n t ; and W a l te r

D a v i s , P r in c ip a l ;

to th e p e r s o n n e l of th e G u e r in -D a re N u rse ry S c h o o l , M e lb o u rn e ,

F lo r id a , for a l lo w in g me to o b s e r v e th e i r c h i ld re n a t p lay ;

to th e p e r s o n n e l of th e M in n e so ta B raille and Sight Sav ing S c h o o l ,

F a r ib au lt- a n d e s p e c i a l l y to M e lv in V o x lan d , S u p e r in te n d e n t ; an d D oro thy

T h o m p so n , C h i ld C a re S u p e rv iso r ;

to th e p e rs o n n e l o f th e S e rv ic e s for th e B lind , D e p a r tm e n t o f P u b lic

W e l f a r e , S t . P a u l , M in n e s o ta ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y to C . S ta n le y P o t te r ,

i l l

D ire c to r ; an d Jam es O 'K e e fe , A s s i s t a n t D ire c to r ;

t o th e p e r s o n n e l o f th e School for th e B lind , G rand F o rk s , N orth

D a k o ta ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y to H e rb e r t Je f f re y , S u p e r in te n d en t ;

to th e p e r s o n n e l o f the W is c o n s in S ch oo l for th e V isu a l ly H a n d i ­

c a p p e d , J a n e s v i l l e , W is c o n s in ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y to R. E. L ong , S u p e r in ­

te n d e n t ; an d Robert O k ra y , P r in c ip a l;

to th e p e r s o n n e l o f th e D ray ton S c h o o ls , D ra y to n , N orth D a k o ta ;

a n a e s p e c i a l l y to E dw ard H am m er, S u p e r in te n d e n t ;

to th e p e r s o n n e l o f th e M into S c h o o ls , M in to , N orth D a k o ta ; a n d

e s p e c i a l l y to G eo rge B rooks, S u p e r in te n d e n t ;

to the p e r s o n n e l o f th e L inco ln E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l , G rand F o rk s ,

N orth D a k o ta ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y to W ay n e P e te r s o n , P r in c ip a l;

to th e p e r s o n n e l o f th e S ta te L ib ra ry o f O ly m p ia , W a s h in g to n , to

w hom I am in d e b te d for th e i r a s s i s t a n c e w h i le c o n d u c t in g th e r e s e a r c h of

th e l i t e r a tu r e ;

to th e c h i ld re n a n d th e i r p a re n ts w h o p a r t i c ip a te d in t h i s s tu d y ;

to my c o l l e a g u e s a t th e U n iv e rs i ty o f N orth D a k o ta w ho a s s i s t e d

me in t h i s p ro je c t ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y to D r. R ich a rd L an d ry , w ho r e n d e r e d

v a lu a b le h e lp in th e s t a t i s t i c a l a s p e c t s o f th e d a ta h a n d lin g ;

to my tw o s o n s , Iv a r a n d H o g a r , w ho g a v e me v iv id e x a m p le s

d a i ly o f th e im p o rtan c e o f p la y in th e l ife o f g row ing c h i ld re n ;

a n d a b o v e a l l to my h u s b a n d , w i th o u t w hom th e r e w o u ld h a v e b e e n

no b e g in n in g a n d no e n d to t h i s s tu d y .

iv

4

VITA

M ay 19, 1932 ..................Born - J e r s e y C i ty , N ew Je rse y

19 5 3 .......................................B.A, , C o l le g e of N o tre Dam e for W om en ,B a l t im o re , M ary lan d

I S 5 4 .......................................P os t g r a d u a te D ip lo m a , Pius XII In s t i tu te of FineA r ts , F lo r e n c e , I ta ly

I S 5 8 - 1 S 5 9 .......................... I n s t r u c to r , N a t iv e S c h o o l , E n g lish Bay, A laska

1S 5C -1S 52 .......................... T e a c h e r , F i r s t G r a d e , P e ru , South Am erica

1962-1963 ..........................T e a c h e r , F i r s t G ra d e , W ra n g e l l , A la sk a

1 9 5 4 .......................................M .A . , C o lo ra d o S ta te C o l l e g e , G re e le y ,C o lo ra d o

1 9 6 4 -1 9 6 5 ..........................T e a c h e r , N u rs e ry for D eaf C h i ld r e n , C o lo radoS ta te C o l l e g e , G r e e l e y , C o lo rad o

1 9 65 -1 966 ..........................R e s e a rc h A s s o c i a t e , Program med In s t ru c t io nP ro je c t , L anguage Im p rovem en t for H ear in g Im paired C h i ld r e n , The O hio S ta te U n iv e r s i ty , C o lu m bus , Ohio

196 6 - 1 9 6 7 .......................... D i re c to r , R ead ing C l in i c , and I n s t ru c to r , S p e c ia lE d u c a t io n , F lo rida M e m o ria l C o l l e g e , S t . A u g u s t in e , F lo r ida

1969 to p r e s e n t . . . . A s s i s t a n t P ro f e s s o r , S p e c ia l E d u c a t io n , anaD ir e c to r , L earn ing P o te n t ia l C e n te r , The U n iv e r ­s i ty of N orth D a k o ta , G rand F o rk s , N orth D ak o ta

v

FIELDS OF STUDY

M ajo r F ie ld : E x c e p t io n a l C h i ld re n

S tu d ie s in E d u c a tio n of th e Blind and P a r t ia l ly S e e in g . P ro fe sso r L o e t ta H unt

S tu d ie s in E d u ca tio n of the D eaf and A c o u s t ic a l ly H a n d ic a p p e d . P ro fe s s o r P a tr ic e C o s te l lo

S tu d ie s in E d u ca tio n of the M e n ta l ly R e ta rd e d . P ro fe s s o r R eginaldJones

M inor F ie ld : Hum an D ev e lo p m en t

S tu d ie s in C h ild G row th and D e v e lo p m e n t . P ro fe s s o rs J o h n E . H o r ro c k s , G eorge G . T h o m p so n , and C h a r le s W e n a r

M inor F ie ld : E d u c a tio n a l T e le v i s io n

S tu d ie s in E d u c a t io n a l T e le v i s io n . P ro fe s s o r I . K eith T y ler

v i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS.................................................................................................

VITA........................................................................................................................................

LIST OF TABLES..............................................................................................................

C h a p te r

I . INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................

P re l im in a ry S ta te m e n tP u rp o se of the S tudyD e f in i t io n o f TermsR e a s o n s for th e S tu d yR a tio n a le for th e D e s ig n of the S tudyH y p o th e s e sP ro ced u reH a n d l in g of th e D a ta

I I . SURVEY OF LITERATURE............................................................................

I n t ro d u c t io nThe P la y of th e Blind C h ildThe Im p o rtan ce o f P la y a s it R e la te s to th e Blind C h ild Summary

II I . PROCEDURE......................................................................................................

In t ro d u c t io nP re -E x p e r im e n ta l P ro ced u re The E x p e r im e n ta l P ro c e s s H a n d l in g the D a ta A n a ly s is of the D a ta

IV. FINDINGS 38

In tro d u c t io nI d e n t i f ic a t io n a n d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n A n a ly s is o f th e S t a t i s t i c a l D a ta P e r ta in in g

to th e H y p o th e s e s A n a ly s is o f th e S t a t i s t i c a l D a ta P e r ta in in g

to th e P la y S e s s io n D e s c r ip t iv e A n a ly s is o f th e P la y S e s s io n s

V. SUMMARY, CON CLU SION S, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 134i

Summary C o n c lu s io n s R ecom m en da tion s

APPENDIX

A ................................................................................................................................... 157

B ................................................................................................................................... 183

C .................................................................................................................................... 189

D ................................................................................................................................... 194

E ................................................................................................................................... 209

F .................................................................................................................................... 214

G ................................................................................................................................... 216

REFERENCES................... ' ........................................................... 234

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LIST OF TABLES

T ab le P age

1. C a u s e s o f B l in d n e s s a n d F re q u e n c y E n c o u n t e r e d ....................... 91

2 . D e s c r ip t io n o f B l in d n e s s E n c o u n t e r e d ................................................ 93

3 . M e a n s and S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s ( S .D . ) o f th e Ageo f th e M a le a n d Fem ale Blind S u b je c ts andth e M a le a n d F em ale S e e in g S u b j e c t s .................................. 94

4 . M e a n s and S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s ( S .D . ) o f th eI n te l l ig e n c e of th e M ale an d Fem ale Blind S u b je c ts a n d th e M ale a n d F em ale S ee ing S u b j e c t s .................................................................................................. 95

5 . Summary T ab le for th e T w o -W ay A n a ly s is o f V a r ian ceR e la tiv e to th e In te l l ig e n c e o f th e Blind a n dS ee ing S u b je c ts . . , .................................................................... 9 6

6 . T h em es E x p r e s s e d in th e L o n g e s t D ra m a tic U nitby Blind a n d S e e in g S u b j e c t s ......................... 100

7 . Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a r ian ce R e la tiv eto th e Tim e Spent in D ra m a tic P la y b y Blindand S e e in g S u b je c t s ................................................................ 102

8 . Summary T ab le fo r th e A n a ly s is o f C o v a r ia n c e R e la tiv eto th e T im e Spen t in D ra m a tic P la y b y Blindan d S ee in g S u b j e c t s ........................................................................ 104

9 . M e a n s A d ju s te d for th e C o v a r ia te I n te l l ig e n c eR e la t iv e to th e Time Spent in D ra m a tic P layby Blind a n d S ee in g S u b j e c t s ....................................................... 104

10. Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a riance R e la tiv eto th e Time In v o lv e d in th e L o n g e s t D ra m a tic U nit b y Blind a n d S e e in g S u b j e c t s ........................................... 105

ix

106

106

108

109

109

111

112

112

114

115

116

Summary T a b le for th e A n a ly s is of C o v a r ia n c e R e la t iv e t o th e T im e In v o lv ed in th e L o n g es t D ra m a tic U n it b y Blind a n d S e e in g S u b j e c t s ..............................

M e a n s A d ju s te d for th e C o v a r ia te In te l l ig e n c eR e la t iv e to th e Time In v o lv e d in th e L o n g es t D ra m a t ic U nit b y Blind a n d S ee in g S u b je c ts . . .

Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s i s o f V a rian ce R e la t iv e t o t h e N um ber of S u b -U n i t s In t ro d u c e d b y B lind a n d See in g S u b j e c t s ...............................................

Summary T a b le for th e A n a ly s is o f C o v a r ia n c e R e la t iv e to th e N um ber o f S u b -U n i t s In t ro d u c e d b y B lind a n d S e e in g S u b je c t s . . . . * ......................................

M e a n s A d ju s te d for t h e C o v a r ia te In te l l ig e n c e R e la t iv e to th e N um ber o f S u b -U n its In tro ­d u c e d b y Blind a n d S e e in g S u b j e c t s ..........................

Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a riance R e la tiv e to th e In te n s i ty o f th e L o n g e s t D ram a tic U nit Shown b y Blind a n d S e e in g S u b j e c t s ..........................

Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f C o v a r ia n c e R e la t iv e to th e I n te n s i ty o f th e L o n g e s t D ra m a tic U nit Show n b y Blind a n d S ee in g S u b j e c t s ..........................

M e a n s A d ju s te d for th e C o v a r ia te In te l l ig e n c eR e la t iv e to th e I n t e n s i t y o f th e L o n g es t D ra m a t ic U n it Shown by Blind a n d S ee ing S u b je c ts . . . .

C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e O b s e rv e d (O) a n d E x p e c te d (E) F re q u e n c y o f B lind an d S ee in g S u b je c t s ' In v o lv em en t in M a n ip u la t iv e P la y . . .

C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e O b s e rv e d (O) and E x p e c te d (E) F re q u e n c y o f Blind a n d See ing S u b je c t s ' In v o lv em en t in D ram a tic P l a y ..................

C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e O b s e rv e d (O) a n d E x p e c te d (E) F re q u e n c y o f Blind a n d S ee in g S u b je c t s ' In v o lv em en t in P la y O th e r Than D ra m a t ic an d M a n i p u la t i v e ...............................................

x

117

118

119

119

12 1

122

122

123

124

124

125

C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e O b s e rv e d (O) a n d E x p ec ted (E) F re q u e n c y o f Blind an d See ing S u b je c t s ’ N o n - In v o lv e m e n t in P l a y ..........................................

Summary T ab le fo r th e A n a ly s is o f V a riance R e la tiv e to th e Time S p en t in M a n ip u la t iv e P lay b y Blind and S ee ing S u b je c t s .......................................................

Summary T ab le fo r th e A n a ly s is o f C o v a r ia n c e R e la tiv e to th e Time S p en t in M a n ip u la t iv e P lay b y Blind an d S ee in g S u b j e c t s ........................................................................

M e a n s A d ju s te d fo r th e C o v a r ia te I n te l l ig e n c e R e la tiv e to th e Time Spent in M a n ip u la t iv e P lay b y B lind a n d S e e in g S u b j e c t s ..........................................

Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n ce R e la t iv eto th e T im e S p en t in P la y O th e r Than M a n ip u la t iv e and D ra m a tic by Blind a n d S ee in g S u b je c ts . . . . . .

Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f C o v a r ia n c e R e la tiv e to th e Time S p e n t in P la y O th e r Than M a n ip u la t iv e and D ra m a tic b y B lind a n d S e e in g S u b j e c t s .....................

M e a n s A d ju s ted fo r th e C o v a r ia te I n te l l ig e n c eR e la tiv e to th e Time Spent in P lay O th e r T hanM a n ip u la t iv e a n d D ra m a tic b y Blind a n dSeeing S u b j e c t s ................................................................................

Summary T ab le fo r th e A n a ly s is o f V ariance R e la t iv e to th e N um ber o f V o c a l iz a t io n s U tte re d d u r in g P la y b y B lind a n d S e e in g S u b j e c t s ..........................................

Summary T ab le fo r th e A n a ly s is o f C o v a r ia n c e R e la tiv e to th e N um ber o f V o c a l iz a t io n s U tte re d d u rin g P lay b y Blind a n d S ee in g S u b j e c t s ..........................................

M e a n s A d ju s ted for th e C o v a r ia te I n te l l ig e n c eR ela tive to th e Num ber o f V o c a l iz a t io n s U t te re d during P la y b y Blind and S e e in g S u b j e c t s ..........................

C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e O b s e rv e d (O) a n d E x p ec ted <E) F re q u e n c y o f B lind a n d S ee in g S u b je c t s ' R e q u e s t fo r th e In v o lv em en t o f th e O b s e rv e r in D ra m a tic P l a y ...........................................................

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33 . R o les A s s ig n e d to P la y M a te r i a l s d u r in g th e L o n g es tD ra m a tic U n it b y Blind a n d S e e in g S u b je c ts . ................. 127

3 4 . C o m p ar iso n o f th e A ges in M o n ths o f B lind andS ee ing S u b j e c t s ................................................................................ 215

3 5 . M e an s a n d S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s ( S .D . ) o f th e Ageof M in to a n d D ray ton S u b j e c t s ................................................... 218

3 6 . Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a r ian ce R e la tiv eto th e Age o f M in to an d D ra y to n S u b j e c t s .......................... 219

3 7 . M e an s a n d S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s ( S .D . ) o f theIn te l l ig e n c e o f M in to an d D ra y to n S u b j e c t s ...................... 219

3 8 . Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e R e la tiv eto th e I n t e l l i g e n c e o f M in to a n d D ray ton S u b je c ts . . . 220

39 . C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Showing th e R e p re s e n ta t io n of M a le s a n d F e m a le s in th e M in to a n d D ray ton G r o u p s ...................................................................................................... 221

4 0 . C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e O b s e rv e d (O) andE x p ec te d (E) F re q u e n c y of M in to a n d D ray tonS u b je c t s ' In v o lv em en t in M a n ip u la t iv e P l a y ...................... 222

4 1 . C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e O b s e r v e d (O) andE x p ec ted (E) F re q u e n c y o f M in to a n d D ray tonS u b je c t s ' In v o lv em en t in D ra m a t ic P l a y .............................. 223

4 2 . C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e O b s e r v e d (O) a n dE x p ec te d (E) F re q u e n c y o f M in to a n d D ray tonS u D ie c ts ' In v o lv em en t in P la y O th e r ThanM a n ip u la t iv e a n d D r a m a t ic .............................. ...................... 224

43 . C o n t in g e n c y T ab le Show ing th e F re q u e n c y of M intoa n d D ray to n S u b je c t s ' N o n - In v o lv e m e n t in P lay . . . . 225

4 4 . M e a n s a n d S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s ( S .D . ) R e la tiveto th e Time S p en t in M a n ip u la t iv e P lay byM into a n d D ray to n S u b j e c t s ....................................................... 22 6

4 5 . Summary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e R e la tiv eto th e Time Spen t in M a n ip u la t iv e P lay byM into a n d D ra y to n S u b j e c t s ....................................................... 22 6

x i i

4 6 . M e a n s a n d S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s ( S .D .) R e la tiv eto th e Time S p en t in D ra m a t ic P la y byM in to a n d D ra y to n S u b j e c t s ....................................................... 227

4 7 . Sum m ary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a riance R e la t iv eto th e Time S pen t in D ra m a tic P lay by M in toa n d D ra y to n S u b j e c t s ........................................................................ 228

4 8 . M e a n s a n d S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s ( S .D .) R e la t iv eto th e Time S pen t in P la y O th e r ThanM a n ip u la t iv e a n d D ra m a tic b y M in to andD ra y to n S u b je c t s .................................................................... 229

4 9 . Sum m ary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n ce R e la tiv eto th e Time Spen t in P lay O th e r Than M a n ip u la t iv e a n d D ra m a t ic by M into a n dD ray to n S u b j e c t s ................................................................................. 22 9

5 0 . M e a n s a n d S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s (S .D .) R e la t iv eto th e N um ber o f V o c a l iz a t io n s U tte re d byM in to a n d D ray to n S u b j e c t s ....................................................... 23 0

51 . Sum m ary T ab le for th e A n a ly s is o f V a riance R e la tiv eto th e N um ber o f V o c a l iz a t io n s U tte re d b yM in to a n d D ray to n S u b j e c t s ....................................................... 231

x i i i

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

P re l im in a ry S ta te me at

Young c h i ld re n a r e , by n a tu r e , e n d o w ed w i th a n i n s a t i a b l e c u r i ­

o s i t y a b o u t th e w orld in w h ic h th e y l i v e . P a ra l le l in g t h i s u rge to e x p a n d

th e i r h o r i z o n s , th e y a l s o a re p o s s e s s e d of th e n e c e s s a r y h igh e n e rg y

le v e l w h ic h a l lo w s them to e x p lo re a n d in v e s t ig a te t h e i r su r ro u n d in g s a t

e v e ry o p p o r tu n i ty . C h i ld re n p la y by t h e m s e lv e s , w i th o t h e r s , w i th t o y s ,

w ith n o th in g . T hey w ig g le , ju m p , s k ip , h o p , c l im b , f a l l . They m ake up

g a m e s a n d a c t o u t r o l e s . T hey a re f a th e r , b a b y , b u s d r iv e r , p o l ic e m a n ,

d o c to r , s c h o o l t e a c h e r . T hey b u i ld ; th e y kn ock d o w n . W ith h u g s a n d

p o k e s , g ig g le s a n d s m i l e s , t h e y r e a c h o u t s e e k in g p l a y m a te s . It m ay be

a p l e a s a n t w o r ld , or a f r ig h te n in g w o r ld , b u t c h i ld re n a re a lw a y s a w a re

of t h e i r su r ro u n d in g s r e a d y to a d v a n c e , or r e t r e a t , a c c o rd in g to t h e i r

e x p e r i e n c e s an d th e d e g re e of c o n f id e n c e in th e i r a b i l i t i e s . T h e ir

e n v iro n m en t b e c k o n s to them a n d th e y r e a c t by i n v e s t ig a t in g i t , a lw a y s

try in g to beco m e more f a m il ia r w i th i t .

O b s e rv a t io n o f a g roup o f b l in d c h i ld re n in a c la s s ro o m r e v e a l s

s t r ik in g d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n s u c h a g roup a n d a t y p i c a l c l a s s o f s e e in g

1

2

c h i ld r e n . T h e s e d i f f e re n c e s h a v e l i t t l e to do w ith th e more e v id e n t

e f f e c t s o f b l i n d n e s s . Blind c h i ld r e n a p p e a r t o b e a b le to s i t a n d do

n o th in g , o r r e s o r t to rh y th m ic a l s e l f - p l a y , for g re a t l e n g th s o f t im e .

They s e e m n o t o n ly u n a b le to k e e p th e m s e lv e s o c c u p ie d c o n s t r u c t iv e ly ,

bu t u n a b le , o r u n m o tiv a te d , to w a rd c o n ta c t in g a c l a s s m a te a l s o e q u a l ly

u n o c c u p ie d a t th e m om ent. G ro u p s a re r a r e ly form ed s p o n ta n e o u s ly for

c o o p e ra t iv e p u r s u i t s . A lm ost no f a n ta s y or ro le p la y in g is o b s e r v e d , in

th e in d iv id u a l or group s i t u a t i o n . T oys o f te n rem a in u n u s e d or e n jo y a

b r ie f im p o r tan c e o n ly if so m e o n e e l s e is u s in g th em a t th e m om ent. An

o b s e rv e r g e t s th e im p re ss io n t h a t for th e b l in d c h i ld th e w o rld i s no t

f a s c in a t in g ; i t is d a n g e ro u s a n d m u s t be sh u t o u t . The urge to e x p lo r e ,

becom e fa m i l ia r w i th , w ith th e id ea of e n jo y in g , c o n tro l l in g or m e a n in g ­

fu lly m a n ip u la t in g th e e n v iro n m e n t , a l l a c t io n s b a s e d on c o n f id e n c e in

o n e 's ow n a b i l i t i e s , a p p e a r s l a c k in g .

W h a t is th e im p o rtan ce o f th e c h i l d ' s , a n y c h i l d ' s , c o n s t a n t , e v e r

e x p a n d in g , in v e s t ig a t io n and e x p lo r a t io n , th e d r iv e to t ry a n y th in g ,

ex am in e n e w t h i n g s , s e e k n o v e l e x p e r i e n c e s , s a t i s f y a c ra v in g for

c h a n g e , to r e a c h o u t and le a rn more a b o u t th e w orld a ro u n d them ? O ne of

the comm on c r i t i c i s m s o f form al t r a d i t io n a l e d u c a t io n a l p r a c t ic e h a s b e e n

the d ich o to m y b e tw e e n th e d e s i r e o f th e c h i ld t o le a rn a c t i v e l y , to be

free to m ove a ro u n d , to s p o n ta n e o u s ly i n v e s t ig a t e a n d s tu d y w h a t h e w a s

c u rre n t ly i n t e r e s t e d in and to f u n c t io n in a p e e r g roup w i th a l l i t e n t a i l s

a s o p p o s e d t o s i t t i n g in s e a t s in a ro w , s tu d y in g a p r e s c r ib e d th in g

a c c o rd in g to a r ig id s c h e d u l e , fo rce d to k e e p q u i e t , to re s p o n d o n ly

w h e n c a l l e d u p o n , a n d to s u p p r e s s m uch o f h i s s p o n ta n e o u s i n q u i s i t i v e ­

n e s s . In c o m p a tib le w ith th e n a tu re of c h i ld r e n a s it m ay s e e m , o n e o f

th e a c c e p t a b l e o b je c t iv e s of e a r ly e d u c a t io n i s to p rep a re c h i ld re n for

a c a d e m ic s tu d y w h ic h in v o lv e s t r a in in g th em to s i t q u ie t ly a n d be

r e c e i v e r s o f e d u c a t io n r a th e r th a n c re a t iv e f i n d e r - o u t e r s . The d e s i r e d

b e h a v io r is to l i s t e n to th e t e a c h e r a n d to p o n d e r upon th e in fo rm a tio n

d i s p e n s e d . There a re a l l d e g re e s o f t h i s r e s t r i c t i v e n e s s a s on e g o e s

from t r a d i t io n a l to p r o g re s s iv e a n d e x p e r im e n ta l c l a s s r o o m s . Blind

c h i ld r e n , b e c a u s e o f th e i r r e d u c e d d r iv e to w a rd e x p lo r a t io n , w o u ld seem

to b e more a d v a n c e d from a s i t s t i l l an d l i s t e n a s p e c t a n d , t h u s , b e t t e r

p re p a re d for c la s s ro o m a c a d e m ic le a rn in g th a n th e i r in q u is i t i v e ,

e x p e r i e n c e - s e e k in g s ig h te d p e e r s . Blind c h i ld r e n c a n s i t q u i e t l y for

h o u r s . T h ey d o no t e x h ib i t m uch d e s i r e to c o m m u n ica te w ith t h e i r p l a y ­

m a te s a s th e y a p p e a r to r e l a t e to a n d be more d e p e n d e n t upon th e i r

t e a c h e r s . If t h i s i s th e c a s e , th e n sh o u ld e d u c a to r s an d t h o s e c o n c e rn e d

w i th c h i ld d e v e lo p m e n t be t r o u b le d b y th e a p p a r e n t la c k of c u r i o s i t y , th e

r e d u c t io n in s e e k in g o r e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r , o r p a u c i ty of p e e r i n t e r ­

a c t i o n s a s e v in c e d by b l in d c h i ld r e n ? T h e s e c o n c e p t s , in th e b r o a d e r ,

more fu n d a m e n ta l p e r s p e c t iv e , a re i n v e s t i g a t e d in t h i s s tu d y ; h o w e v e r ,

t h e y w i l l be re fe r re d to in t h i s w ork u n d e r th e m ore c o m p r e h e n s iv e ,

i n c lu s iv e p h e n o m e n o n — p l a y , i t s e l f a p r o c e s s u rg e n t ly n e e d in g more

e x p l i c i t e x p la n a t io n a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n .

4

In e d u c a t io n , p la y is a c k n o w le d g e d a s ta k in g a m e a n in g fu l p la c e

in in s t r u c t io n . H o w e v e r , t h i s p la y m ust u s u a l ly s e rv e so m e s p e c i f i c a l l y

u s e fu l p u r p o s e . C h i ld re n p la y b in g o to l e a rn th e i r n u m b e r s , r in g - a - r o u n d

th e r o s y to im prove c o o rd in a t io n , l o t t o . Sim ple S im on, a n d o t h e r s , to

t e a c h so m e th in g a c a d e m ic a l ly r e s p e c t a b l e . T h ese e x e r c i s e s p rov ide an

o p p o r tu n ity for le a rn in g w ith a c a n d y c o v e re d c o a t in g . To e x p la in th e

o b je c t iv e of p la y in the more free e n v iro n m en t o f k in d e rg a r te n a n d p r e ­

sc h o o l b e c o m e s more d i f f i c u l t . H ere th e c h i ld l e a r n s to " e x p re s s h im ­

s e l f , " "g e t a lo n g w ith o t h e r s , " "becom e a c c u s to m e d to th e d i s c ip l in e of

s c h o o l r o u t i n e , " an d to " d e v e lo p a c c e p t a b l e b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s . " T here

a p p e a r s to be a t a c i t a g re e m e n t th a t p la y b e h a v io r , o f te n u n t im e ly a n d

s p o n ta n e o u s ly in i t i a te d b y c h i ld r e n , i s in e v i ta b le a n d e x t r e m e ly d i f f ic u l t

to c o n tro l or i r r a d i c a te , t h e r e f o r e , it i s m a n ip u la te d to c h a n n e l i t ,

d i r e c t ly o r in d i r e c t ly , to se rv e som e u s e f u l p u rp o s e . But w h a t h a p p e n s

w h en p la y b e h a v io r a s a p e r s o n a l i ty t r a i t i s n o t p r e s e n t or it i s re d u c e d

to a d e g re e w h e re it b e c o m e s r e a d i ly o b v io u s th a t it i s a b s e n t for a l l

p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ? I s p lay o f s u f f ic ie n t s ig n i f i c a n c e in i t s e l f to

w a r ra n t th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c e r t a in l e v e l o f p lay b e h a v io r be fo re

m ea n in g fu l a c a d e m ic l e a rn in g c a n , or s h o u ld , be p u r s u e d ? It e x i s t s to

som e d e g re e in a l l c h i ld r e n , bu t th e re a p p e a r to b e o b s e rv a b le d i f f e r e n c e s .

In b l in d c h i ld r e n it i s o b v io u s b y i t s r e l a t iv e a b s e n c e .

V arious t h e o r i e s o f th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p la y h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d .

No one th e o ry i s a l l i n c l u s i v e . H o w e v e r , th e im p o rtan c e o f p lay i s

e x p o u n d e d in e a c h th e o ry w h ic h in v o lv e s on e or more a s p e c t s o f p la y .

W h en a l l th e f a c e t s e x p la in e d in th e v a r io u s t h e o r i e s o f p la y are c o n ­

s i d e r e d , it b e c o m e s e v id e n t t h a t p la y b e h a v io r is a v i t a l e le m e n t in th e

no rm al d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c h i ld . W ith o u t t h i s v i t a l e l e m e n t , d e v e lo p ­

m en t o f th e c h i ld m ay be r e t a r d e d , o r d i s t o r t e d , in w a y s w h ic h may no t

a p p e a r r e l a te d to p l a y . The e d u c a to r m ay find th a t p la y in i ts f u l le s t

m ea n in g m u st be p r e s e n t b e fo re a n y m ea n in g fu l a c a d e m ic lea rn in g

b e h a v io r in the c la s s ro o m or e v e n a s a t i s f a c to r y l i fe a d ju s tm e n t c an be

a c c o m p l i s h e d . It may be n e c e s s a r y , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n w o rk in g w ith d i s ­

a b le d c h i ld r e n , for th e e d u c a to r to f o s t e r u n d ire c te d p la y a c t iv i t i e s in

th e c la s s ro o m in s u c h a w a y th a t t h e s e c h i ld re n m ay p u r s u e , to a much

h ig h e r l e v e l and i n c i d e n c e , p la y a c t i v i t i e s bo th c r e a t i v e l y and in d e p e n ­

d e n t l y . A c h ild w i th a h a n d ic a p m ay h a v e to d e v e lo p h i s own p lay

a c t i v i t i e s in a d i f fe re n t m an n e r u s in g h i s a v a i la b le fu n c t io n in g s e n s e s to

th e m axim um d e g re e . In th e c a s e of th e b l in d , t h o s e s e n s e s , o th e r th a n

v i s i o n , w i l l be u s e d w h e re th e s e e in g p e r s o n w ould r e s o r t to v i s u a l

in v o lv e m e n t and h e n c e d i f fe re n t p la y p a t t e r n s w ould r e s u l t .

T h is s tudy o f th e p la y b e h a v io r o f young b lin d c h i ld r e n c o n c e rn s

i t s e l f w i th th e ro le o f p la y in th e i n t e l l e c t u a l , e m o t io n a l a n d s o c ia l

g row th o f young c h i ld re n a s it r e l a t e s to th e b lind c h i l d . I t e s p e c i a l l y

c o n c e rn s i t s e l f w ith a n a ly z in g in d e t a i l t h e p lay of b l in d c h i ld re n in

o rd e r to p rov ide b a s i c in fo rm a tio n on w h ic h to c o n s t r u c t e d u c a t io n a l p ro ­

g ram s d e s ig n e d p u rp o s e fu l ly to e n h a n c e th e ro le o f p la y in th e

6

c la s s ro o m . At th e p r e s e n t tim e s u c h a b o d y o f in fo rm a tio n d o e s no t

e x i s t .

P u rp o se o f th e Study

The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y i s to in v e s t ig a te th e im p o rtan ce o f p lay

in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h i ld re n a s i t r e l a t e s to b l in d c h i ld r e n in p a r t i c u ­

l a r , ro d e te rm in e w h e th e r or no t th e p lay p a t te r n s of b l in d c h i ld re n

e x h ib i t a la c k of t y p i c a l p la y a c t i v i t y , a n d to a n a ly z e q u a n t i t a t iv e ly ,

g i id cjUc. ̂i l g t i v e l y , th e p la y p a t t e r n s in w h ic h b l in d c h i ld re n p a r t i c ip a te

a s co m p ared to p e e r s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

It is b e l i e v e d t h a t th e in fo rm a tion r e s u l t in g from s u c h an i n v e s t i g a ­

t io n m ay , by p ro v id in g g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h i s f a c e t o f th e l i fe or

th e b l in d c h i ld , l e a d to th e im provem ent o f e d u c a t io n a l p rogram s fo r th e

b l in d c h i ld w h ic h in tu rn w i l l f o s t e r a m ore a c t iv e a n d c r e a t iv e ro le in

s o c i e ty by the b l in d .

T h is s tu d y w a s d e s ig n e d to be e x p lo ra to ry s in c e th e q u e s t io n s

r a i s e d a p p e a re d to o p ro found a n d e n c o m p a s s in g to b e e x h a u s t iv e ly

e x a m in e d by one s in g l e s tu d y p a r t i c u la r ly in v ie w of th e a b s e n c e of o th e r

s tu d i e s s p e c i f i c a l ly r e s e a r c h in g t h i s s u b j e c t . As a n in i t i a l s tu d y , t h i s

p a r t ic u la r one m u s t a l s o a t t e m p t to p o in t up a r e a s n e e d in g fu r th e r

in v e s t ig a t io n a n d p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n on w h ic h to b a s e s u b s e q u e n t

i n - d e p th s t u d i e s . It w a s a l s o f e l t t h a t th e in i t i a l s tu d y sh o u ld fo c u s on

th e more p r a c t ic a l a s p e c t s o f th e problem w h ic h may l e a d t o im m ed ia te

7

c h a n g e s r a th e r th a n on t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n s w h ic h , w h i le im p o r ta n t ,

w ould no t a s e x p e d i t io u s ly p re p a re th e w a y for th e b e t te rm e n t of th e

e d u c a t io n o f th e b l in d c h i ld . H e n c e , in d e s ig n in g a n d c o n d u c t in g th e

s tu d y , a n d in re p o r t in g on the v a r io u s f in d in g s , a d e l ib e r a te e f fo r t w a s

m ade to k e e p th e p o te n t ia l u s e r s o f s u c h a s tu d y in m in d , n a m e ly , th e

p a r e n t s , e d u c a t o r s , an d c h i ld d e v e lo p m e n t s p e c i a l i s t s .

D e f in i t io n of Term s

For th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e s e te rm s h a v e b e e n u s e d

s p e c i f i c a l ly a s fo l lo w s :

1. D ra m a tic p la y — t h i s r e f e r s to t h a t p la y in w h ic h th e c h i ld

e n g a g e d du ring th e e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s i o n w h e re in th e o b j e c t s a n d p e r s o n s

in v o lv e d p a r t i c ip a te d in m a k e - b e l i e v e s i t u a t i o n s .

2 . L e g a l ly b l in d c h i ld — t h i s i s a c h i ld w ith (H a tf ie ld , 1966)

“v i s u a l a c u i ty for d i s t a n t v i s io n o f 2 0 /2 0 0 or l e s s in th e b e t t e r e y e ,

w ith b e s t c o r r e c t io n ; or v i s u a l a c u i ty o f more th a n 2 0 /2 0 0 if th e w id e s t

d ia m e te r of f i e ld o f v i s io n s u b te n d s an a n g le no g r e a t e r th a n 20

d e g re e s [ p . 10]. "

3 . M a n ip u la t iv e p la y — t h i s r e f e r s to th a t p la y in w h ich th e c h i ld

e n g a g e d du ring th e e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s i o n w h e re in th e o b je c t an d p e r s o n s

in v o lv ed d id no t a s s u m e or p a r t i c ip a te in r o le s o r m a k e - b e l ie v e s i tu a t io n s

bu t rem a in e d in th e i r r e a l l i fe s t a t u s .

4 . P a r t ia l ly s e e in g c h i l d — t h i s r e f e r s to th e c h i ld w ith (H a tf ie ld ,

a

1966) "a v i s u a l a c u i ty g r e a t e r th a n 2 0 /2 0 0 bu t no t g r e a te r th an 2 0 /7 0 in

th e b e t t e r e y e a f te r c o r r e c t io n [p . 1 0 ] ."

5 . S e c o n d a ry d i s a b :K ty - - t h i s r e f e r s to a n y d i s a b i l i t y w h ich is n o t

c o n s id e r e d to be th e prim ary d i s a b i l i t y , b l i n d n e s s .

6 . T o ta l ly b l in d c h i l d — t h i s r e fe r s to th e c h i ld w ho is (H a tf ie ld ,

1965) "u n a b le to d i s t in g u i s h l ig h t from d a r k n e s s o r w i th no l ig h t p e r ­

c e p t io n [ p . 10]. "

S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem

T h is s tu d y so u g h t to a s c e r t a i n , by m e a n s o f o b s e r v a t io n du ring a n

e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n , w h e th e r o r n o t th e p la y o f b l in d c h i ld re n d i f f e r s

from th a t of p e e r s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

T h is in v o lv e d th e d e t a i l e d d o c u m e n ta t io n o f th e p la y a c t i v i t i e s

e n g a g e d in b y b l in d c h i ld r e n p r e s e n te d w i th s p e c i a l p la y m a te r ia l s du r ing

in d iv id u a l f i f te e n m inu te e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s i o n s . T w e n ty -n in e l e g a l ly

b l in d c h i ld re n w ith in the a g e ran g e of four y e a r s th ro u g h n in e y e a r s w e re

i n v e s t i g a t e d . In a d d i t i o n , in o rd e r to r e l a te th e p la y of b l in d c h i ld re n to

th a t o f p e e r s e e in g c h i ld r e n , a n e q u a l num ber o f s e e in g c h i ld re n m a tc h e d

for a g e a n d s e x w ere s im i la r ly o b s e rv e d an d th e i r a c t i v i t i e s r e c o r d e d .

R e a s o n s for th e S tudy

D uring th e w r i t e r ' s y e a r s o f e x p e r ie n c e a s a t e a c h e r of young

c h i ld r e n , w h ic h in c lu d e d w ork w i th s u c h v a r i e d g ro u p s a s e s k im o s ,

I n d i a n s , U n i te d S ta te s A m erican s i s o la t e d in a fo re ig n c o u n try , fo re ig n

9

n a t i o n a l s , th e a c o u s t i c a l l y h a n d ic a p p e d (deaf a n d h a r d - o f - h e a r i n g ) ,

e x p e r ie n c e in th e m ore t y p ic a l U n ited S ta te s p u b l ic s c h o o l s e t t i n g , a n d

a s a m other w ith in t im a te d a i ly c o n ta c t w ith n o rm al c h i ld re n from th e

m om ent o f b ir th p lu s in n u m e rab le c o n ta c t s w i th th e p e e r s o f t h e s e g ro w ­

ing c h i ld r e n , a f a m i l ia r i ty w i th th e c h ild in a p la y s i tu a t io n e v o lv e d .

W h en o b se rv in g v a r io u s g roups of b l in d c h i ld r e n , th e w r i t e r w a s

s t a r t l e d by the s t r ik in g ly e v id e n t la c k of p la y a n d l a c k of i n t e r e s t in

fe l lo w c l a s s m a t e s . W h ile a g r e a te r in te r a c t io n w i th the t e a c h e r m ay be

e x p e c te d due to th e r e s t r i c t i o n o f b l in d n e s s a n d th e sm a lle r r a t io of

s t u d e n ts to t e a c h e r s , t h i s d id no t se em to e x p la in th e la c k of co m m un i­

c a t io n of the b lind p u p i l s w ith th e i r fe l lo w c l a s s m a t e s . D e a f c h i ld re n

th e w r i te r h a s w o rk ed w i th a l s o sh a re d a sm a l l t e a c h e r s tu d e n t r a t io a n d

c e r t a in ly w ere r e s t r i c t e d in th e i r a b i l i ty t o c o m m u n ic a te , b u t th e y s t i l l

e x h ib i te d a fo rc e fu l i n t e r e s t in th e i r c l a s s m a t e s a n d in th e a c t i v i t i e s of

t h e s e p e e r s .

It w a s d is tu rb in g to s e e one c h i ld s i t t i n g a t h i s d e s k d o in g n o th in g

w h i le n e x t to him m igh t b e a n o th e r c h i ld s im i la r ly u n o c c u p ie d . T here

w a s l i t t l e c h a t te r , id le t a l k , or in te r a c t io n . T h e s e c h i ld re n w e re free to

m ove a b o u t , to t a l k , a n d to p la y w ith a v a i l a b l e o b j e c t s . W h en t h e y d id

r e a c h o u t to th e i r c l a s s m a t e s it w a s g e n e r a l ly to g rab o b j e c t s w i th w h ic h

a n o th e r c h i ld w a s p l a y in g , o r in s u l t in g th e p e e r v e r b a l ly . W h ile a l l

c h i ld re n may o c c a s i o n a l l y r e s o r t to t h e s e m e th o d s o f i n te r a c t io n , th e

d e g re e to w h ic h t h i s b e h a v io r w a s e x h ib i te d by th e b l in d c h i ld r e n w a s

10

m ore e x t r e m e . I t w a s a s if t h e b l in d c h i ld w ere b e re f t o f th e jo y s o f

c h i ld h o o d an d w a s le f t o n ly w i th th e d i s a d v a n t a g e s in h e re n t in b e in g a

c h i l d , a n d w a s r e a c t in g o v e r t ly to t h i s s i t u a t io n .

I t w a s fe l t by th e w r i te r t h a t t h e s e c h i ld re n n e e d e d a n a c t iv e

e d u c a t io n a l program d e s ig n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y to e s t a b l i s h more fu n c t io n a l

p la y p a t t e r n s , b e h a v io r s w h ic h w h ile th e y m ight in c o rp o ra te a c a d e m ic

l e a r n in g , m ust s u re ly ta k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r s u b j e c t s su c h a s b ra i l le

r e a d in g or w r i t in g . An a t te m p t to f in d any in fo rm ation in th e f ie ld o f th e

e d u c a t io n of th e b l in d f a d e d to u n c o v e r a n y p r a c t i c a l s u g g e s t io n s for the

t e a c h e r or e v e n to p o in t out th a t s u c h a s i tu a t io n m ight e x i s t . N um erous

a r t i c l e s w e re found on th e t e a c h in g o f b r a i l l e , a r i th m e t ic , a n d th e

a d v a n t a g e s o f v a r io u s m e th o d s of r e c o r d in g . O th e r e d u c a t io n a l m a te r ia l s

w h ic h m ight a p p ly , s u c h a s t h o s e d e a l in g w ith young p r e s c h o o l , or

n u r s e ry c h i ld r e n , p u r s u e d a d i f fe re n t ty p e o f p ro b lem . A r t ic le s te n d e d to

c o n c e rn th e m s e lv e s w ith w a y s in w h ic h th e t e a c h e r c o u ld d i r e c t a h ig h

l e v e l o f c h ild a c t iv i t y in to e d u c a t io n a l ly a p p ro v e d u n d e r t a k in g s . The

p rob lem he re is t h a t th e a c t iv e p a r t i c ip a t io n o f the b l in d c h i ld re n w i l l not

be s u s t a in e d u n l e s s th e t e a c h e r is in d i r e c t c o n ta c t w i th e a c h

i n d iv id u a l— an o b v io u s ly im p o s s ib le s i tu a t io n in a c la s s r o o m . H e n c e ,

w h i le th e one w i th whom th e t e a c h e r i s w o rk in g d i r e c t ly i s a c t iv e ly

p a r t i c i p a t i n g , th e r e s t o f th e c l a s s w ith d ra w s in d iv id u a l ly u n t i l th e

t e a c h e r in tu rn w o rk s d i r e c t ly w i th th e m .

11

A s e a r c h of p e r t in e n t l i t e r a tu r e p ro d u ce d som e e v id e n c e th a t t h i s

r e d u c e d p la y o f b l in d c h i ld re n w a s n o t a phenom enon l im i te d to the

p a r t i c u la r c l a s s e s w h ic h the w r i te r h a s o b s e r v e d . S e v e ra l a r t i c l e s w e re

found w h ich p a r a l l e l e d th e o b s e r v a t io n s of th e w r i te r t o a s u b s ta n t i a l

d e g r e e . T h ese w r i t in g s ten d to d e a l w i th im p re s s io n s r a th e r th an f a c t .

H o w e v e r , th e im p r e s s io n s h e lp to s p o t l ig h t an in te r e s t i n g phenom enon

w h ic h a p p e a re d to p r e s e n t a p o te n t i a l ly f ru itfu l a r e a for fu r th e r r e s e a r c h

and a n a l y s i s .

O b je c t iv e s tu d y o f th e p la y b e h a v io r o f young b l in d c h i ld re n w i l l

f o c u s a t t e n t io n upon s e v e ra l q u e s t i o n s w h ic h a re p r e s e n t ly no t a n s w e r -

a b l e , for e x a m p le : D o e s the p la y of th e b lin d c h i ld d i f fe r from th a t of

t h o s e w ith s i g h t ? If a d i f fe re n c e d o e s e x i s t , i s t h i s d i f f e re n c e due to

th e l o s s o f s ig h t o r t o e n v iro n m e n ta l c a u s e s ? Is th e re a d i f fe re n c e in th e

p la y p a t te rn s o f th e b l in d c h i ld in te r a c t in g w ith o th e r b l in d c h i ld re n a n d

th e b lin d c h ild in te r a c t in g w ith s e e in g c h i ld r e n ? D o e s th e b l in d c h i ld

s u b s t i tu t e a d i f fe re n t s e t of p la y a c t i v i t i e s for th o s e w h ic h may b e d e n ie d

him due to h i s v i s u a l l o s s , o r i s th e r e a v o id i n s t e a d o f lo g ic a l s u b ­

s t i tu t i o n ? Is th e re a n y e v id e n c e t h a t th e la c k o f p l a y , if su c h a c o n d i t io n

is d e te rm in e d to e x i s t , h a s a f f e c te d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e b lind c h i l d ?

T h ere is c u r re n t ly l i t t l e in fo rm ation to b e found in th e l i t e r a r y w orks to

w h ic h one w o u ld tu rn w h en s e e k in g a n s w e r s to q u e s t io n s s u c h a s t h e s e .

W h a t r e f e r e n c e s a n d in f e r e n c e s t h a t d o r e la te to t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a re s e t

fo r th and re v ie w e d in d e ta i l in C h a p te r II o f t h i s s t u d y .

12

R ationa le fo r th e D e s ig n o f th e S tudy

In v ie w of th e fu n c t io n o f p la y in th e e m o t io n a l , s o c i a l , a n d

i n te l l e c tu a l a s p e c t s of th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n y c h i ld , i t a p p e a rs l o g ic a l

t h a t th e b l in d c h i ld sh o u ld a l s o e n g ag e in t h e s e p la y a c t i v i t i e s p o s s ib l y

to an e v e n g r e a te r e x te n t t h a n s e e in g c h i ld r e n , bu t a t l e a s t to th e sam e

e x te n t a s s e e in g c h i ld r e n . Y e t , o b s e rv a t io n s o f b l in d c h ild ren du ring

free p la y a n d a v a i la b le l i t e r a tu r e on th is s u b j e c t i n d ic a t e s th a t th e b l in d

c h i ld e n g a g e s not on ly l e s s f re q u e n t ly in p la y a c t i v i t i e s , bu t e n g a g e s in

l e s s c o m p le x p lay a c t i v i t i e s th a n th e s e e in g c h i l d .

Some common p la y a c t i v i t i e s w ou ld s e e m to b e of l im ited v a lu e to

th e b l in d c h i ld due to th e p a r t i c u la r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the a c t iv i ty and

th e n a tu re o f th e c h i l d 's d i s a b i l i t y . Art a c t i v i t i e s , s u c h a s p a in t in g ,

d r a w in g , c u t t in g , an d p a s t i n g , a re o f l im i te d u s e w i th b l in d c h i ld re n

due to th e h ig h re q u ire m e n ts for v i s u a l p a r t i c ip a t i o n a s t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s

a re c u r r e n t ly be ing p r e s e n t e d . T h is is n o t to in fe r t h a t a v e ry s a t i s ­

fa c to ry e x p r e s s iv e a r t form c o u ld n o t be c r e a t e d to b e e n jo y e d th ro u g h

the t a c t i l e s e n s e by b o th th e s e e in g an d th e b l in d , h o w e v e r , to d a te a

to ta l t a c t i l e a r t form h a s no t y e t b e e n d e v e lo p e d . E xperim en ts b e in g

c o n d u c te d w ith new a r t fo rm s invo lv ing o th e r th a n th e v i s u a l s e n s e

a p p e a r v e ry p ro m is in g .

T h ere a re in d ic a t io n s t h a t o th er p la y a c t i v i t i e s w ou ld seem to be o f

l im ite d v a lu e to the b l in d c h i ld p rim arily b e c a u s e o f th e in a b i l i ty o f

th o s e w o rk in g w ith th e c h i ld to u n d e rs ta n d a n d p r e s e n t m a te r ia ls in a

13

w a y s u i t e d to th e b l in d c h i l d ’s p a r t i c u la r l i fe s t y l e . An e x a m p le o f t h i s

is d e s c r ib e d b y Surlingham (1 9 6 7 ) .

B uild ing i s a n o th e r a c t i v i t y th a t p la y s a la rg e p a r t in bo th s ig h te d a n d b lin d c h i ld r e n , b u t th e re is a s ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in th e w a y in w h ic h th e b l in d c a r ry ou t t h i s a c t i v i t y . The b u i ld in g of th e s e e in g c h i ld is n o rm a l ly g u id e d by som e in n e r image w h ic h th e c h i ld a t t e m p ts to re p ro d u c e in th e o u ts id e w o r ld . Such a n im age may b e r e t a in e d from a c t u a l e x p e r ie n c e or m ay b e w h o lly or in p a r t th e p ro d u c t o f the c h i l d ' s im a g in a t io n . The m ore fa i th fu l ly t h i s inner im age h a s b e e n r e p r o d u c e d , the more w i l l t h e b u i ld e r be p l e a s e d w i th the r e s u l t o f "his e f f o r t s .

Apart from very e x c e p t io n a l c a s e s , th e im a g in a t io n of th e b l in d c h ild d o e s n o t seem to w ork o n th e sam e l e v e l , nor a re th e re a n y v i s u a l im a g e s to be r e t a i n e d . A c co rd in g ly , w i th m any su c h c h i ld r e n , b u i ld in g may p r o c e e d a im le s s ly a n d c o n s i s t e s s e n t i a l l y of k n o c k in g or th row ing b lo c k s a b o u t r a th e r t h a n be an o rg a n iz e d a c t i v i t y . T h is is re m e d ie d in p a r t by th e t e a c h e r ' s v e rb a l e x p l a n a ­t i o n s . The c h i ld is ta u g h t w h a t is h igh or lo w , u n d e rn e a th o r on to p , e t c . a n d if he is w i l l in g to fo llow i n s t r u c t i o n s , th e r e s u l t c a n be a p r e te n s e of s p o n ta n e o u s b u i ld in g , w h ic h in tu rn is p r a i s e d a n d e n c o u ra g e d by th e s ig h te d a d u l t . There is no d o u b t th a t th e c h i ld " l e a r n s " a good d e a l a b o u t s p a c e in th i s m an n e r an d th a t t h i s i s a n e c e s s a r y prop for the o r i e n ta t io n of th e b l in d .

V /h a t I h a v e in mind is t h a t t h i s c a n h a rd ly b e c l a s s e d a s p la y in th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , s in c e i t d o e s n o t g iv e e x p r e s s io n to a n y of the c h i l d ' s in s t in c tu a l n e e d s . It is a c q u i r e d r a th e r th a n s p o n t a n e ­o u s , a le a rn in g a c t iv i t y r a th e r th a n a p la y a c t iv i t y [p . 197].

O th e r p la y a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h w ould a p p e a r to b e o f g r e a t v a l u e ,

su c h a s m u s ic a n d d a n c in g , a r e , for the p u rp o s e s o f th i s s tu d y , o f

l im ite d v a lu e b e c a u s e o f th e d i f f ic u l ty in v o lv ed in m easu r in g s u c h

b e h a v io r . A d a n c e may be v e ry e x p r e s s iv e for th e c h i ld y e t th e o b s e r v e r

c an o n ly g u e s s a s to i t s m e a n in g . It i s a l s o , to som e e x te n t , s t r u c tu r e d

b y th e m ood p r e s e n te d in th e m u s ic .

T h e re fo re , in o rd er to a v o id t h e s e l im i t a t i o n s , it w a s d e c id e d th a t

to i n v e s t ig a t e th e p lay b e h a v io r o f th e b l in d c h i ld i t w ou ld b e

14

a d v a n ta g e o u s to fo c u s on o ne p la y a c t iv i ty ; n a m e ly , s p o n ta n e o u s

d ra m a tic p la y . The s tu d y of s p o n ta n e o u s d ra m a t ic p la y h a s s e v e r a l

a d v a n t a g e s . F i r s t , it i s a w id e s p r e a d a c t iv i t y f r e q u e n t ly e n jo y e d a n d

e n g a g e d in by m any c h i ld r e n . It may be u n d e r ta k e n by an in d iv id u a l

s e p a r a te ly or in a g ro u p . It i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l im i te d by th e p h y s ic a l

l o s s o f v i s i o n . In a d d i t i o n , i t i s v e ry f e a s ib l e to o b s e r v e d ra m a tic p la y

an d a t tem p t to e v a lu a t e it in a more or l e s s c o n c r e te m an n e r .

A good d e a l h a s b e e n w r i t te n ab o u t d ra m a tic p la y an d i ts im p o rtan ce

in th e c h i l d 's l i fe by su c h s p e c i a l i s t s a s S u san I s a a c s (1933 , 1950),

Zrik E rikson (1550), M arg are t L ow enfe ld (1935), S . R. S la v so n (1943),

and V irg in ia A xline (1947). D ra m a tic p lay h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d a s a m ea n s

b y w h ic h th e c h i ld c a n grow in s o c i a l a r e a s , r e l i e v e t e n s i o n s , d i s ­

c r im in a te b e tw e e n r e a l i t y and n o n - r e a l i t y , a n d a d a p t to th e r e a l w orld

w ith i t s in e v i ta b le f r u s t r a t i o n .

In v ie w o f t h e im p o rtan ce a n d p o p u la r i ty of d ra m a tic p la y , it w a s

in te r e s t in g to n o te t h a t du ring p re v io u s c o n tro l le d o b s e r v a t io n s o f th e

p la y b e h a v io r of b l in d c h i ld re n p re v io u s ly c o n d u c te d b y th e w r i t e r , on ly

one in s t a n c e w a s r e c o rd e d of a d ra m a tic p la y s i tu a t io n o c c u r r in g . Six

b l in d c h i ld re n (a g e s s ix a n d se v e n ) w ere o b s e rv e d for f i f ty m in u te s a d a y

for a t o t a l of f iv e d a y s . O f t h i s t o t a l t im e , f iv e m inu te o b s e r v a t io n s of

e a c h c h ild w ere r e c o rd e d in d e t a i l for four d a y s . T h is e x am p le re fe r re d

to d e s c r ib e s w h a t m ight be c a l l e d a n a t te m p t a t d ra m a tic p la y by th e one

15

c h ild in th e p o p u la t io n s tu d ie d w ho e x h ib i te d th is p h e n o m e n o n du ring th e

e n t i r e re c o rd e d tim e (se e A p pend ix D ) .

E llen f inds a sm a l l c r a d le w ith a d o l l in i t . She t a k e s th e d o l l o u t , s e t s it on the f lo o r and th en p u ts the c ra d le over h e r a rm . She s in g s o u t , " C ra c k y corn for s a l e . " Tom co m es over an d h o ld s the c r a d l e . E llen s a y s , "Y ou 're not a b a b y , " Then sh e s a y s to Tom,"N ow you ge t in h e r e , " Tom p u ts the d o l l in the c r a d l e . E llen s a y s , "N o , d o n ' t put her in t h e r e . You g e t in y o u r s e l f . " She f in d s a p ie c e of p l a s t i c m a te r ia l u s e d a s a b la n k e t in the c r ib . R e p e a te d ly s i n g s , "C ra c k y co rn for s a l e . " Tom p u ts th e b la n k e t o v e r he r h a ir , rubs it a ro u n d . E llen t r i e s to ge t it o f f . Then s i t s h u n c h ed over g ig g lin g and c h a n t in g . Tom and E l le n t u s s l e (good n a tu re d ly ) o v e r a m u s ic a l e g g . E llen s i n g s , "H ot p o ta to e s for s a l e . " Tom l e a v e s . E llen now c h a n t s , " C r o c o d i le s fo r s a l e , " th e n , "B la n k e ts for s a l e , " and sh e ta k e s th e d o l l b la n k e t and w ra p s it around he r l ik e a b ib .

In c o n t r a s t to t h i s , p r a c t ic e o b s e r v a t io n s had b e en m ade the p re ­

v io u s w e e k of a g roup of f ive and s ix y e a r old s e e in g c h i ld r e n d u rin g a

f o r ty - f iv e m inu te period of free p la y . T hroughout th is e n t i r e t im e , one

g roup of four c h i ld re n a c te d ou t a s c e n e in w h ic h th e y w e re e n g a g e d in

w ar m a n e u v e rs . This in c lu d e d s e c r e t d i s c u s s i o n s , a s s ig n in g of s p e c i f i c

d u t i e s , and v a r io u s c h a n g e s of l o c a t io n . A nother g roup c o m p o s e d of th re e

g i r ls p la y e d a gam e in w h ic h one g ir l d ie d a f t e r go ing th ro u g h e x p r e s s iv e

d e a th th r o e s , w h e re u p o n , the "d o c to r" ex am in ed h e r , g a v e h e r a n i n j e c ­

t io n , and th en w ith c e rem o n y sw ung a co rded b e l t (sym bol o f l i fe p e rhaps)

ove r th e d e a d g i r l . The g ir l s t i r r e d , and look ed abou t h e r a s one who

s e e s th e w orld a f r e s h .

R e g a rd le s s of a n y in te r p r e ta t io n s o ne w ould make a b o u t a n y o f the

p la y s e q u e n c e s , it is v e ry o b v io u s th a t th e s c e n e s of th e s e e i n g c h i ld re n

w e re fa r more c o m p le x , i n t e n s e , and l e n g th y .

16

It se e m e d lo g ic a l to c o n c lu d e th a t if su c h a p a u c i ty o f d ram a tic

p lay d id e x i s t in b l in d c h i ld re n a s a g ro u p , the e f f e c t s o f t h i s m ight be

e x e r t in g a s u b s t a n t i a l in f lu e n c e on th e i r s u b s e q u e n t d e v e lo p m e n t . A

rev iew of th e l i t e r a tu r e c o n c e rn in g th e b l in d s u g g e s t s t h i s p o s s ib i l i t y .

H o w ev e r , for th is p a r t i c u la r s tu d y th e r e s e a r c h w as d e s i g n e d to id e n t i fy

the p lay a c t i v i t i e s th a t b lind c h i ld re n e n g a g e in and c o m p a re th e s e

a c t iv i t i e s to th o s e c a r r ie d on by th e i r s ig h te d p e e r s . In a d d i t io n , in v iew

of the im p o rtan c e of s p o n ta n e o u s d ra m a t ic p la y , it w a s d e c id e d to fo cu s

a t t e n t io n upon an y s p o n ta n e o u s d ra m a t ic p la y w h ich m igh t b e e x p re s s e di

and e v a lu a te it in a c o n c re te m a n n e r .

H y p o th e s e s

W ith the c o n f in e s o f th is s t u d y , th e nu ll h y p o th e s e s a re :

1. T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e in the c o n te n t o f the d ra m a tic

p lay of yo ung b lind c h i ld re n and s e e i n g c h i ld re n .

2 . T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in the am o u n t of tim e s p e n t

in the d ra m a t ic p lay o f young b l in d c h i ld r e n and s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

3 . T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in th e c o m p le x i ty o f the

d ra m a tic p lay of young b lind c h i ld re n and se e in g c h i ld r e n .

4 . T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in the i n t e n s i t y of the p e r ­

s o n a l in v o lv e m e n t e x h ib i te d in th e d ra m a t ic p lay o f y o u n g b lin d c h i ld re n

and s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

It w a s f e l t t h a t th is p a r t i c u la r s tu d y of the n a tu re o f th e p lay of

17

b lind c h i ld re n a s c o m p ared to th a t o f s e e in g c h i ld r e n , d u e to i t s b e in g

one of so ve ry few s tu d i e s r e la t in g to th i s t o p i c , w ould be u n d u ly

r e s t r i c t e d by in c o rp o ra t in g a d d i t io n a l h y p o th e s e s in to th i s a s p e c t o f the

s tu d y . W ith o u t th e s t ru c tu r in g e f fe c t o f a d d i t io n a l p re c o n c e iv e d

h y p o t h e s e s , w h ich w ou ld of n e c e s s i t y a t th i s tim e be p ro m u lg a te d on

im p re s s io n s ra th e r th a n on f a c t re g a rd in g th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p la y of

m e g roup s tu d ie d , it w a s b e l ie v e d th a t a more s e n s i t i v e , u n b i a s e d ,

in te rp r e ta t io n w ou ld be a c c o m p l i s h e d . H e n c e , the d e s ig n o f th e s tu d y

w a s s t ru c tu re d on ly w h e re s t ru c tu re w a s d e em ed f e a s ib le and p e r t in e n t ,

b u t l e f t u n r e s t r i c te d w h e re l e s s r e s t r i c t i o n and f ree r in te r p r e t a t io n would

e n h a n c e the g a th e r in g o f in fo rm a tio n w h ic h is no t p r e s e n t ly a v a i l a b l e .

In v iew of th e d e a r th of u s a b le r e s o u r c e d a ta p r e s e n t ly a v a i l a b l e ,

it w a s c o n s id e re d im p o rtan t a t th is tim e to c o l l e c t , a n a l y z e , an d in te r ­

p re t the d a ta r e s u l t in g from the s tu d y from th e p o s i t io n of w h a t is_ the

s i t u a t i o n r a th e r th a n to d e te rm in e w h e th e r or n o t s p e c i f i c s p e c u la t i o n s

a r e , o r a re n o t , s u b s t a n t i a t e d , e x c e p t for t h o s e p o r t io n s of th e s tu d y

w h ic h lend th e m s e lv e s to th e form al h y p o th e s e s s e t fo rth a t th e b e g in n in g

of th i s s e c t i o n .

P rocedure

In o rder to i n v e s t i g a t e th e p lay b e h a v io r of young b l in d c h i ld re n

tw e n ty - n in e l e g a l ly b l in d c h i ld r e n , f i f te e n m a le s and fo u r te e n fem a le s

b e tw e e n the a g e s o f fou r th rough n in e , w e re s e l e c te d for t h i s s tu d y . The

18

sa m e num ber o f s e e in g c h i ld r e n m atched for s e x and c h ro n o lo g ic a l age to

th e i r c o u n te rp a r t s a l s o to o k p a r t in the sa m e e x p e r im e n t .

This ex p e r im e n t r e q u ire d a s e p a r a te room su c h th a t the o b s e rv e r

and c h i ld w e re c o m p le te ly a lo n e and u n d is tu rb e d during th e s e s s i o n . The

room w a s on e w ith w h ic h th e c h ild w a s f a m i l i a r . This room w a s found

e i th e r in th e c h i l d ’s s c h o o l o r in h is h o m e , s u c h a s the l iv in g room . In

o rd er to r e t a in an e n v iro n m en t th a t w a s w e l l k n ow n to e a c h c h i ld and y e t

p rov ided a n en v ironm en t w h ic h w as the sa m e for a l l the c h i ld r e n , a

p a r t i - ro o m (a p o r tab le e n c lo s u r e m ade o f p a r t i t io n s ) w a s s e t u p w i th in the

c h o s e n room to d e f in e a b o u n d a ry w ith in w h ic h the ch ild w a s a b le to p lay

w ith o u t e x te r n a l d i s t r a c t i o n s .

The o b s e r v e r b e c a m e a c q u a in te d w ith th e ch ild du ring th e a d m in i s ­

t r a t io n of th e S lo s s o n I n te l l ig e n c e T e s t (1963) w h ic h took a p p ro x im a te ly

f i f te e n m in u te s to c o m p le te . After th i s th e o b s e r v e r and c h i ld p lay ed w ith

b lo c k s to g e th e r w ith in th e p a r t i - ro o m u n t i l a f r ie n d ly r e l a t i o n s h i p w as

e s t a b l i s h e d and the c h i ld f e l t free to v e rb a l iz e and e x p re s s h im s e l f

c r e a t iv e ly . The tim e in v o lv e d in th is s t e p d i f fe re d a c c o rd in g to th e need

of e a c h c h i l d .

W h e n rap p o r t had b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , th e o b s e rv e r th e n rem oved the

b l o c k s , and offered th e c h i ld th e fu n d a m e n ta l p la y m a te r ia ls w h ic h w ere

a c a rd b o a rd b o x , a w o o d e n d o w e l , a n o n d e s c r ip t h a t , and a p i e c e of

c lo th . A fter the p r e s e n ta t io n of th e s e m a te r i a l s to the c h i l d , th e

o b s e r v e r s a i d , "Let me se e you play w ith t h e s e , " a t w h ich t im e the

19

t im e r w a s s e t for a f i f te e n m in u te period a n d th e ta p e r e c o r d e r w a s turned

o n .

The p la y pe riod w a s te rm in a te d a f t e r f i f te e n m inu tes by th e

o b s e r v e r . H o w e v e r , th e c h i ld w a s a b le to te rm in a te the p la y p e rio d at

an y p re v io u s tim e by a b a n d o n in g th e to y s o r by a v e rba l s t a t e m e n t such

a s , "I d o n ' t w a n t to p lay a n y m o r e ."

The in te r a c t io n and v e r b a l iz a t io n th a t to o k p lac e d u r in g th e en tire

p lay period w ere re c o rd e d on t a p e . The e x a m in e r a l s o to o k n o ta t io n s

c o n c e rn in g the a c t io n s of the c h i ld w h ic h w o u ld not be p ic k e d u p by a

ta p e r e c o rd e r . A fter th e p la y p e rio d w a s c o m p le te d and th e c h i ld had left

th e o b s e r v a t io n roo m , th o s e g e n e r a l im p r e s s io n s rec e iv e d d u r in g the p lay

period w ere a l s o r e c o rd e d .

H a n d l in g of the D a ta

The d a ta to be a n a ly z e d w ere c o m p r ise d of tap e r e c o r d in g s and

b r ie f n o ta t io n s m ade d u r in g th e p la y s e s s i o n s , g e n e ra l i m p r e s s io n s of

th e p lay s e s s i o n s no ted a t th e end of th e s e s s i o n s , and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

in fo rm a tion o b ta in e d from th e c a s e record s h e e t on e a c h c h i l d .

The o b s e rv e r rev ie w ed a i l the in fo rm a tio n on e ac h c a s e a n d com ­

p iled a n a r ra t iv e c a s e r e c o rd . T h e se n a r r a t iv e s were th e n s t u d i e d and a

c h e c k s h e e t w a s d e v e lo p e d w h ic h s e t fo r th q u a n t i ta t iv e ly th e s ig n i f ic a n t

in fo rm a tion on e a c h c a s e . In a d d i t io n to th e o b je c t iv e d a ta s u c h a s a g e ,

s e x , d e g re e o f b l in d n e s s and s o fo r th , p la y p a t te rn s w ere i d e n t i f i e d and

20

the r e s u l t in g in fo rm a tio n e x t r a c te d and r e la te d to th e a p p ro p r ia te

h y p o t h e s i s . In fo rm ation no t s u i t a b l e fo r s t a t i s t i c a l t re a tm e n t w a s

a n a ly z e d and p re s e n te d in d e s c r i p t i v e form .

The i te m s th a t w ere id e n t i f ie d and q u a n t i f ie d in e a c h c a s e w e re

co d ed for pu n ch ca rd e le c t r o n ic d a ta p r o c e s s in g h a n d l in g . From t h e s e

c a rd s c o m p i la t io n s and c a l c u l a t i o n s w ere m a d e . I n te l l ig e n c e w a s

co v ar ied ou t a s a f a c to r in th e in te rp re ta t io n of th e r e s u l t s . The a n a l y s i s

of v a r ia n c e and c h i sq u a re w e re u s e d w hen a p p l i c a b l e . From th e r e s u l t ­

ing c o m p i la t io n s and c a l c u l a t i o n s , c o n c lu s io n s w e re d raw n and r e l a te d to

th e d e s c r ip t iv e f in d in g s . R eco m m en d a tio n s w e re b a s e d on th e f i n d in g s .

CHAPTER II

SURVEY OF LITERATURE

In tro d u c t io n

It is no t th e p u rp o se o f th i s c h a p te r to p r e s e n t a d e f in i t io n of th e

term " p l a y , " to c r i t iq u e th e v a r io u s th e o r ie s w h ic h h a v e b e e n p r e s e n te d ,

nor to a t te m p t to d e s c r i b e a n y o f t h e s e th e o r ie s in d e p th . T h is c h a p te r

w i l l a t t e m p t , by r e f e r e n c e to v a r io u s s tu d i e s and th e o r i e s p re s e n te d in

l i t e r a t u r e , to s u g g e s t th a t p lay m ay be v i t a l to th e d e v e lo p m e n t of the

b lind ch ild if he is to a c h ie v e fu l l p a r t i c ip a t io n in a d y n a m ic w orld ; th a t

a l a c k of p lay h a s u n fa v o ra b ly in f lu e n c e d the d e v e lo p m e n t o f b lind

c h i ld re n ; and th a t th i s l a c k of p la y m ay be c a u s e d by f a c to r s o th e r th a n

b l in d n e s s p e r s e .

A lthough th e w ord " p la y " h a s b e e n u s e d fo r a long t im e , and

n um ero us th e o r ie s h a v e b e e n p ro p o u n d e d , th e te rm i t s e l f h a s n o t b e e n

d e f in e d s a t i s f a c to r i l y to c o v e r a l l of th e c o m p le x a s p e c t s of th i s

b e h a v io r . Johan H u iz in g a (1950), in h is c l a s s i c w ork on p lay and c u l ­

t u r e , s t a t e s th a t " p la y i s a fu n c t io n o f th e l iv in g , b u t i s no t s u s c e p t ib l e

of e x a c t d e f in i t io n e i t h e r l o g ic a l ly , b io lo g i c a l ly , o r a e s t h e t i c a l l y

[p . 7 ] . " Lowrey (1955) s t a t e s th a t " p la y . . . i s n o t e x a c t ly th e s im p le s t

21

22

word in our l a n g u a g e . The d e f in i t io n s and sy n o n y m s ta k e u p two c o lu m n s

in W e b s t e r ’s U n a b r id g e d D ic t io n a ry [p . 5 7 4 ] ." A ga in (S a d le r , 1966),

w h ile p la y i s a s ig n i f i c a n t form of b e h a v io r " i t is n e v e r t h e l e s s a

pheno m en on w h ic h p u z z le s and c o n fo u n d s m any w h o s tu d y i t , a s

e v id e n c e d by a g e n e r a l in a b i l i ty to d e f in e it [p . 2 3 7 ] ." S lob in (1964),

in h is d i s c u s s i o n o f p la y in c h i ld h o o d , d o e s no t a t te m p t to d e f in e th e

word but d o e s n o t f e e l th is to be d e t r im e n ta l to th e d i s c u s s i o n of the

b e h a v io r . As he e x p l a i n s , "w e a re u n a b le to d e f in e p r e c i s e ly m ost of th e

w ords w e u s e in e v e ry d a y s p e e c h , y e t th i s in no w a y in te r fe re s w ith ou r

a b i l i ty to u s e them c o n s i s t e n t l y [p . 6 1 ] ." It h a s e v e n b e e n s u g g e s te d by

Berlyne (1968) th a t p la y is no lo n g e r a u s e f u l c a te g o r y in p sy c h o lo g y and

it m ight be w e l l to g iv e it up s i n c e i t s e e m s th a t ig n o ra n c e is th e m ain

f a c to r t h a t h o ld s i t to g e th e r . H o w e v e r , M a so n (1965) b e l i e v e s th a t " i t

is th e p e c u l i a r q u a l i ty o f th i s b e h a v io r th a t it c a n u s u a l ly be re c o g n iz e d

and la b e le d a s p la y [p . 5 2 8 ] ." And S u t to n -S m ith (1 96 7 , p . 98) f e e ls it is

b e s t to p e r s i s t w i th a g e n e r a l c a te g o r y w h ic h m o s t p e o p le b e l ie v e th e y

a re a b le to o b s e r v e e v e n if the d e f in i t io n i s i n a d e q u a te .

For th e p u r p o s e s o f th i s s tu d y , the term " p la y " w i l l be c o n s id e re d

in i ts m o s t g e n e r a l , a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g m e a n in g , in c lu d in g w ith in i ts

s p h e r e , th e te rm s " e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r , " " c u r i o s i t y , " and s im i la r t e r m s .

The l i t e r a tu r e s u p p o r ts th is broad u s e of th e te rm . S u tto n -S m ith (1967)

s t a t e s th a t in c u r re n t r e s e a r c h " p la y h a s g e n e r a l ly b e e n id e n t i f ie d w ith

e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r [p . 9 8 ] . " B urgers (1966) s t a t e s th a t " te rm s s u c h a s

23

'c u r i o s i t y , ' 'd iv e r s iv e e x p lo r a t io n , ' 'd i s tu r b a n c e by a l a c k of in fo rm a­

tio n ,* 'a t t r a c t io n e m a n a t in g from o b je c t s w h ic h o ffe r more v a r ie d or more

i r re g u la r s t i m u l a t i o n , ' 'e p i s t e m ic c u r io s i ty ,* and 'c o n c e p tu a l c o n f l i c t ’

a p p e a r a s c o n s e q u e n c e s of a te n d e n c y tow ard p la y [p . 1 6 8 1 ] ." In a d d i ­

t io n , v a r io u s s t u d i e s in v e s t ig a t in g a v a r i e ty o f b e h a v io r s in v o lv in g young

c h i ld re n o f ten r e s o r t to e x a m in in g som e ty p e of p la y b e h a v io r . T h is c a n

be s e e n in s u c h s t u d i e s a s th o s e of s o c i a l p a r t i c ip a t io n in w h ic h th e free

p lay a c t i v i t i e s o f n u r s e ry c h i ld re n a re e x a m in e d (P a rten , 1932, 1933),

and R u b e n s te in 's s tu d y (1967) of m a te rn a l a t t e n t i v e n e s s and s u b s e q u e n t

e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r in w h ic h e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r w a s m e a su re d by

" p re s e n t in g p lay o p p o r tu n i ty [p . 1093]" and th e " a v a i l a b i l i t y of to y s

w i th in r e a c h [p . 1 0 9 3 ] . “ T ak ing in to a c c o u n t th e f a c t th a t th e term is

p re s e n t ly so i l l d e f in e d and th a t it is e x t r e m e ly d i f f ic u l t to s e p a r a t e

a c t iv i t i e s of c h i ld r e n in to p lay and n o n - p l a y (Eat y o u r fo o d , d o n ’t p la y

w ith i t l ) , i t is f e l t p ru d e n t to e r r on th e s id e of in c lu d in g too m uch u n d e r

th is term ra th e r th a n e x c lu d e th a t w h ic h m ay prove s i g n i f i c a n t . H e n c e ,

th e word p lay is u s e d th ro u g h o u t th is s tu d y in the b ro a d e s t s e n s e .

The Play of th e Blind C h ild

S e v e ra l r e p o r t s in th e l i t e r a tu r e in d ic a te th a t th e p la y of b lin d

c h i ld re n is l im i te d . A n n e -M a r ie S a n d le r (1963), d i s c u s s i n g the d e v e lo p ­

m ent of b lin d c h i ld r e n a s o b s e rv e d a t a n u rse ry in E n g la n d , s t a t e s th a t

24

on e n te r in g th e H a m p s te a d Blind N u rse ry ( th is h a s a l s o b e e n re p o r te d by o b s e r v e r s a t m any o th e r i n s t i t u t io n s for th e b lind) one is so o n s t ru c k by th e p h en o m en o n w h ic h s e e m s to be c h a r a c t e r ­i s t i c o f m o st b lin d c h i ld re n a s c o m p a red w i th s ig h te d c h i ld re n of th e sam e a g e . T h is ph en o m en o n is th e t e n d e n c y o f t h e s e c h i ld r e n , no m a t te r how much th e y a re s t im u la te d by th e i r t e a c h e r s , to la c k a n y so r t o f r e a l c re a t iv e d r iv e to w a rd , or in te r e s t in , th e p r o g r e s ­s iv e m a s te ry of th e o u t s id e w o r ld . . . . It a p p e a r s t h a t many of t h e s e c h i ld re n a re a b n o rm a lly c o n te n t t o b e le f t a lo n e , and to Indu lge in r e p e t i t iv e s e l f - s t im u l a t in g m o v em en ts o r s te r e o ty p e d n o n a d a p t iv e a c t i v i t i e s . S tre n u o u s e f fo r t s on th e p a r t of th e t e a c h e r m ay o f te n e l i c i t th e c o o p e ra t io n of t h e s e c h i ld r e n , and th e y may e v e n a p p e a r to e n jo y su c h a c t i v i t i e s a s group g a m e s , b u t t h i s e n jo y m en t is r a th e r s h a l lo w , an d th e m om ent th e t e a c h e r ' s e f fo r t s s l a c k e n , th e y a p p e a r to s in k b a c k in to a s t a t e o f le th a rg y [p p . 3 4 4 -3 4 5 ] .

Burlingham (19 65) c o m p a re s th e p u p il in a norm al n u r se ry s c h o o l

w h o i s " in v a r ia b ly a c t iv e a n d s p o n ta n e o u s ly o c c u p ie d [p . 196]" w ith th e

c h i ld r e n in th e N u rse ry for th e Blind w ho w i l l s i t , if n o t c o m p e lle d

o t h e r w i s e , " m o to r ic a l ly i d l e , o n th e f lo o r , in a c o rn e r , o f te n w ith th e i r

h e a d s on th e t a b l e [p . 196]. " She r e f e r s a g a in (1967) to t h i s la c k of th e

d e s i r e to p lay w h ic h is found to be a p rob lem to m o th e rs a n d n u rse ry

s c h o o l t e a c h e r s w hen sh e d i s c u s s e s th e p la y a c t i v i t i e s o f the b l in d

c h i l d . "The c h i ld re n s e e m to l a c k a n y d e s i r e for th e o b j e c t s su rro und ing

th e m a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly sh o w no s ig n of a w is h t o p la y [p . 1 8 7 ] ."

R o th sc h ild (I960) p r a c t ic e d p la y th e r a p y w ith b l in d c h i ld re n o v e r a

p e r io d of f ive y e a r s a t th e S e rv ice Bureau for B lind C h i ld re n , a d e p a r tm e n t

o f th e I n d u s t r i a l Home for th e B lind , B ro ok ly n , New York. He s t a t e s

(1 9 6 0 , p . 329) t h a t w h i le p la y i s n o rm ally u s e d a s th e b a s i s for th e ra p y

w i th c h i ld re n b e c a u s e it i s a s s u m e d to b e th e m o s t s p o n ta n e o u s , n a tu ra l

25

a n d u n g u a rd e d m edium of e x p r e s s io n of c h i l d r e n , he found it o f te n

n e c e s s a r y w h en d e a l in g w i th b l in d c h i ld r e n , to in tro d u ce th e b l in d c h i ld

to p la y f i r s t b e fo re p la y c o u ld b e u s e d a s a th e r a p e u t i c t o o l . "The b lin d

c h i ld m ay no t be a c c u s to m e d to e x p r e s s and to invo lve h im s e l f in p la y .

P la y . . , m ay be a fa r l e s s f re q u e n t ly p u r s u e d e n d e a v o r a n d c o n s id e r a b ly

l e s s im portan t in th e b l in d c h i l d ' s life th a n in th e l i fe o f th e c h i ld w ith

fu ll v i s io n [p . 3 3 0 ] . ”

S in g e r a n d S tre in e r (19 66) in v e s t ig a te d t h e im a g in a t iv e c o n te n t in

th e d ream s a n d f a n ta s y p la y o f b l in d an d s ig h te d c h i ld r e n . In te rv ie w s

a n d s p o n ta n e o u s a c c o u n t s o f th e p la y , f a n t a s i e s , an d d re a m s o f b l in d

an d s ig h te d c h i ld re n (aged e ig h t to tw e lv e ) w e re re c o rd e d a n d r a te d

in d e p e n d e n t ly b y ju d g e s fo r im a g in a t iv e n e s s . The r e s u l t s in d ic a te d th a t

s ig h te d c h i ld re n p ro ved more im a g in a t iv e in a l l th re e a r e a s w h i le th e form

an d c o n te n t o f the s t o r i e s , d r e a m s , an d p la y a c c o u n ts o f th e b l in d

c h i ld re n " s u g g e s t g r e a te r c o n c r e t e n e s s a n d l a c k o f f l e x ib i l i ty or

a s s o c i a t i o n a l v a r ie ty [p . 4 7 9 ] . " The b lin d c h i ld r e n r a r e ly u s e d m a te r ia l

th a t d e v ia te d from th e i r d a y - t o - d a y l ife e x p e r i e n c e s an d th e c o n te n t d id

no t d if fe r from s to ry to s to r y , u s u a l ly be ing r e s t r i c t e d to o ne or tw o

c h a r a c t e r s . S in ge r a n d S tre in e r c o n c lu d e w ith th e fo llo w in g re c o m m e n d a ­

t io n :

To th e e x te n t t h a t fo r th e c h i ld a v a r ie d a n d r ic h f a n ta s y l i fe m ay be a v a lu a b le a d d i t io n to th e c o g n i t iv e r e p e r to ry an d in c r e a s e d a f f e c t iv e e n jo y m e n t , on e m ight hope th a t s p e c i a l a t t e n t io n to th e t r a in in g o f th e b l in d to im a g in a t iv e s t o r y - t e l l i n g an d p r a c t ic e o f f a n t a s y p la y w o u ld be d e s i r a b l e . . . . I f fu tu re r e s e a r c h s u p p o r ts

26

th e e v id e n c e o f t h i s s tu d y on the im a g in a t iv e l im ita t io n o f th e b l in d c h i l d , a more c o n s c io u s effort a t im a g in a t iv e s t im u la t io n in th e e d u c a t io n a l c u rr ic u lu m and in th e p a t t e r n of p a re n t - c h i ld r e l a ­t io n s m ay p rov e d e s i r a b l e [p . 481].

Cow en <1968) e x a m in e d th e s e x - r o le t y p in g o f e le m e n ta ry b l in d

s tu d e n ts w ith th e u s e o f a q u e s t io n n a ire b a s e d o n Rosenberg & S u t to n -

S m ith 's l i s t o f g a m e s p r e f e r e n c e s . She s t a t e s t h a t "the v i s u a l l y h a n d i ­

c a p p e d c h i ld r e n o f te n r e s p o n d e d more s lo w ly t o the q u e s t io n n a i r e , a s k e d

more q u e s t io n s a b o u t th e a c t i v i t i e s , an d f r e q u e n t ly sa id so m e th in g like

'O h , I 'v e p la y e d t h a t a few t im e s , and I l i k e d i t . ' Such re m a rk s

im p re sse d th e e x a m in e r t h a t th e i r w orld o f p l a y w a s c e r ta in ly m ore

l im ite d th a n the r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tudy r e v e a l e d [p . 4 1 ] ."

The fo l lo w in g p ic tu re of th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th a t p lay in w h ic h

b l in d c h i ld re n do p a r t i c ip a te is drawn up from a c c o u n ts in th e l i t e r a t u r e .

The ra n g e o f m a te r i a l s u s e d by b l in d c h i ld r e n is r e d u c e d b e c a u s e

t o y s req u ire v i s i o n for m ea n in g fu l m a n ip u la t io n (R othsch ild , 1 9 6 0 ,

p . 3 2 9 ) . M oto r a c t iv i t y i s re d u c e d and th e b l i n d ch ild w ill t e n d to w a lk

q u ie t ly a n d c a r e f u l ly (Burlingham , 1965, p . 1 9 6 ) . A g g ress iv e a c t s su c h

a s th ro w in g , h i t t i n g , a n d k ick in g are r e s t r a i n e d (Burlingham, 1 9 6 1 ,

p p . 1 3 1 -1 3 2 ) . T he i n te n s i t y a n d the d e g re e o f p e rs o n a l in v o lv e m e n t in

p lay is r e d u c e d (R o th sc h i ld , 1960, p . 3 2 9 ) . T h e re is a l im ite d in t e r e s t

in th e o u t s id e w o r ld a n d a tu rn in g tow ard th e s e l f for p le a s u ra b le b o d i ly

s e n s a t io n s (S a n d le r , 1 9 6 3 , p . 355). T h ere i s a n a b s e n c e o f c r e a t i v e

d r iv e (S an d le r , 1 9 6 3 , p . 3 5 9 ) . C u r io s i ty i s m ore q u ick ly s a t i s f i e d

27

(D e u ts c h , 19 40 , p . 128). P lay i s l e s s im a g in a t iv e o r f le x ib le th a n th a t

o f c o m p a ra t iv e s ig h te d p e e r s (S inger & S t re in e r , 19 66 , p . 4 7 9 ) . The

f re e d o m , r e l a x a t io n , a n d p e a c e f u l s t a t e o f mind w h ic h is c o n d u c iv e to

" p la y f u ln e s s " m ay no t be e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e s e c h i ld r e n (R o th sc h i ld ,

1960, p . 3 2 9 ) . P lay m ay in c lu d e a n x ie ty - l a d e n i d e a s w h ic h may le a d to

c h ro n ic "p lay d i s r u p t io n " (R o th sc h i ld , 1960, p . 3 2 9 ) . R e p e t i t iv e

behav iO r i s a d h e re d to b e y o n d th e t im e r e q u ire d fo r m a s te ry or p le a s u re

in th e fa m il ia r a n d r e t a r d s p r o g re s s io n to th e n e x t fu n c t io n a s e v id e n c e d

by c h o ic e o f a c t i v i t i e s s u i ta b le for a y o u n g e r a g e (B urlingham , 1965 ,

p . 198). P ro g re s s io n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by p e r s o n a l a t ta c h m e n t to th e

t e a c h in g a d u l t r a th e r t h a n th ro u g h i n t e r e s t in th e a c t iv i t y o r p e e r g roup

(B urlingham , 1 965 , p . 198).

The Im p o rta n ce o f P lay a s it R e la te s t o th e Blind C h i ld

S o c ia l D e v e lo p m e n t

C o n tro l o f th e e n v iro n m e n t

E rikson (1950) p r o p o s e s th e th e o ry th a t " the c h i l d ' s p la y is th e

in fa n t i le form of th e hu m an a b i l i ty t o d e a l w ith e x p e r i e n c e by c re a t in g

m odel s i t u a t io n s a n d to m a s te r r e a l i t y by e x p e r im e n t a n d p lan n in g

[p . 1 9 5 ] ." W h ile " the p la y in g a d u l t s t e p s s id e w a rd in to a n o th e r r e a l i ty ;

th e p la y in g c h i ld a d v a n c e s forw ard to new s t a g e s o f r e a l i t y [p . 1 9 4 ] ."

E rik so n p r e s e n t s th re e s t a g e s in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c h i ld in w h ic h by

28

m e a n s o f p l a y e a c h s t a g e m u s t be m a s te r e d i f a s e n s e o f r e a l i t y a n d

m a s te r y i s to b e a c h i e v e d .

The f i r s t s t a g e b e g in s w i th o r c e n t e r s o n th e c h i l d ’s o w n b o d y . I t

c o n s i s t s o f t h e e x p lo r a t io n b y r e p e t i t i o n of s e n s u a l p e r c e p t i o n s , o f

k i n e s t h e t i c s e n s a t i o n s , o f v o c a l i z a t i o n s , a n d s o f o r th . H e n e x t p l a y s

w i th a v a i l a b l e p e r s o n s a n d t h i n g s , p r im a r i ly h i s m o th e r 's b o d y . T h is

in te rp la y e s t a b l i s h e s th e e g o ' s " f i r s t o r i e n t a t i o n in th e 'w o r ld ' [ p . 1 9 4 ) , "

The th in g - w o r ld o r th e s m a l l w o r ld o f m a n a g e a b le to y s m a y , i f u s e d

s u c c e s s f u l l y , o f fe r th e p l e a s u r e o f m a s te r in g to y t h in g s a n d th e t r a u m a ta

w h ic h w e re p r o j e c te d on th e m . I f , h o w e v e r , m a s te r y i s u n s u c c e s s f u l , it

l e a d s t o f e a r or d i s a p p o in tm e n t a n d t h e c h i ld m ay r e g r e s s t o th e f i r s t

s t a g e w h ic h c e n t e r e d on h i s ow n b o d y . F i n a l l y , a t n u r s e r y - s c h o o l a g e ,

p l a y f u l n e s s r e a c h e s in to th e w o r ld s h a r e d w i th o t h e r s . T he c h i ld th e n

d i s c o v e r s w h a t c o n te n t c a n b e s u c c e s s f u l l y r e p r e s e n t e d o n ly in th e w o r ld

o f t o y s a n d t h in g s ; a n d w h a t c o n te n t c a n b e s h a r e d w i th o t h e r s a n d fo rc e d

u p o n t h e m .

V iew ing E r ik s o n 's d e s c r i p t io n o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p l a y , it is

q u i te p o s s i b l e t h a t in th e f i r s t s t a g e t h e b l in d a n d s ig h t e d in fa n t b e g in

l i fe on e q u a l t e r m s . The e x p lo r a t i o n s o f th e s e n s e s a n d h i s b o d y a re n o t

h a m p e re d u n d u ly b y t h e l a c k o f v i s i o n . H o w e v e r , i t i s w h e n th e c h i l d

t a k e s t h e n e x t s t e p , t h a t I s , t o p la y w i th " a v a i l a b l e p e r s o n s a n d t h i n g s "

t h a t d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e . W h i le a l l i n f a n t s u s e t h e i r m o th e r 's b o d y a s a

p la y t h i n g , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t th e b l in d c h i ld m u s t s p e n d a l o n g e r p e r io d

on th i s ty p e o f p la y (Burlingham, 1967, p p . 1 88 -1 90 ) . The b lin d c h i ld ,

due to th e la c k o f v i s io n is l e s s a t t r a c te d to th e inan im ate w orld or

“th in g s " a n d a l s o m ay p o s s ib ly req u ire more tim e to ex p lo re h i s m o th e r 's

body s in c e he m ust m a s te r th i s pa rt of h i s w orld w ithou t v i s i o n , w hich

s e n s e , w h ile no t dom inan t in in fa n ts a t t h i s age may su p p le m e n t the

o th e r s e n s e s an d le a d to an e a r l ie r m a s te ry . W hile th e re is no rea l

d if f ic u lty a t th i s s ta g e of deve lo pm en t for the b lind in fa n t , th e infant

can n o t be c o n s id e re d a s an e n t i ty w h o lly d e p en d e n t on h im s e l f a lone and

th e in fa n t-m o th e r r e la t io n s h ip e x e r t s a pow erfu l in f lu en ce o v e r th e infant

b io lo g ic a l ly a t c o n c e p t io n an d p sy c h o lo g ic a l ly a t b i r th . If t h i s m other-

in fan t r e l a t io n s h ip is d is tu rb ed we c a n e x p e c t v a r ia t io n s in th e behav io r

of th e m other a n d o f th e in fa n t . The m ost o b v io u s d i s tu rb a n c e in th i s

r e la t io n s h ip o c c u r s w hen th e m other r e a l i z e s th a t the in fa n t i s b l in d .

The a d ju s tm e n t sh e i s a b le to make s e e m s to depend la rg e ly on the

m o th e r 's p s y c h o lo g ic a l m a k e -u p , h e r m ari ta l r e l a t i o n s h ip s , and he r own

p e rso n a l a n d s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t to l ife (Sommers, 1944, p . 63). All too

o f ten th e m other f a l l s to m ake a d e q u a te a d ju s tm e n t r e s u l t in g in the

r e j e c t io n , d i s g u i s e d or o v e r t , o f t h e i r in fan t (Sommers, 1944; Im am ura,

1965; C o le & T ab o ro ff , 1956). This s u g g e s t s th a t the m o th e r - in fa n t

r e la t io n s h ip m ay , in th e s e c a s e s , be dam aged or chan g ed in some w a y .

The dam age w h ich o c c u rs i s of an o n -g o in g n a tu re : th e in fa n t , p h y s i ­

c a l ly la c k in g th e s e n s e o f s ig h t b e g in s an d c o n t in u e s to fu n c t io n in the

env ironm en t a s a n o rgan ism w ith o u t s i g h t , w h ile the m o th e r , who h a s

30

no t a d j u s t e d , c o n t in u e d to o p e ra te a s an o rg an ism la c k in g the

p s y c h o lo g ic a l m a k e -u p w h ic h p r e v e n te d th e in i t i a l a d ju s tm e n t .

T here i s h o w e v e r a more s u b t l e in te r fe re n c e in th e m o th e r - in fa n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p . To e s t a b l i s h a n o rm al c h i ld -m o th e r in te r a c t io n it is

e s s e n t i a l t h a t th e n ew born b a b y sh o w a c e r ta in b e h a v io r p a t te r n .

P re c h t l (1963) s t a t e s th a t " i t s e e m s im portan t for e v e ry m o ther th a t he r

b a b y sh o w th e u s u a l am ount of m o b i l i ty an d a c t i v i t y , t h a t h e h a s a

norm al to n u s a n d t h a t th e m o th e r i s a b le to p a c ify him w h e n he i s u p s e t

[p . 5 3 ] . " A lthough th e b l in d c h i l d (if l a c k of v i s io n i s th e o n ly f a c to r

invo lved) e s s e n t i a l l y fo llo w s th e sa m e d e v e lo p m e n ta l s e q u e n c e in

g row th (L ow enfe ld , 1963; G e s e l l , I l g , & B u l l i s , 1 949 , p . 265 ) , th e re i s

a t e n d e n c y b e c a u s e of the l a c k o f v i s u a l s t im u la t io n by o b je c t s in the

e n v iro n m en t for the b l in d c h i ld to b e l e s s a c t iv e a n d l e s s m obile th a n

h i s c o u n te rp a r t (G e se l l & A m a tru d a , 1941 , p . 255; M a x f ie ld & F je ld ,

1942 , p . 2 6 ) . He f e e l s no n e e d to g r a s p for o r c ra w l to w a rd a n o b je c t

w h ic h , m ak ing no s o u n d , c e a s e s t o e x i s t (F ra ib e rg , S i e g a l , & G ib s o n ,

1966 , p p . 3 4 6 -3 4 9 ) . G e s e l l a n d A m atruda (1941) s t a t e t h a t "ev en th o u g h

th e [b lind] in fan t is n o t w ra p p e d in s i l e n c e he l i v e s in a w o rld o f v i s u a l

n o th in g n e s s w h ic h th r e a te n s to d r iv e him in to i n c r e a s in g in tro v e rs io n a s

h e m a tu re s [p . 2 5 3 ] . " Burlingham (1961) a l s o s p e a k s o f "a p a s s iv e

a t t i tu d e w h ic h s e e m s a s n a tu ra l to th e b l in d c h i ld a s i t i s h i s g r e a te s t

d a n g e r [ p . 123]. " If th e m o th e r i s u n a b le to o v e rco m e t h i s w i th d ra w a l o f

h e r b l in d c h i ld sh e m ay b lam e h e r s e l f fo r m ish a n d l in g t h e c h i ld o r f e e l

31

r e j e c t e d by th e c h i ld w h ic h in b o th c a s e s m ay te rm in a te in a r e j e c t io n of

th e c h i ld by th e m o th e r .

Another p rob lem f a c e s th e m other in t h i s p a r tn e r s h ip . The b l in d

c h i ld may f a c e a n d a d ju s t to a w o rld w i th o u t v i s i o n . He a p p ro a c h e s th e

w o rld a s an in te g ra te d s y s te m , in s p i t e o f d e f i c i t s an d o b s t a c l e s , a n d

l e a r n s an d a c t s a s a s y s te m no t d e p e n d e n t on th e v i s u a l s e n s e bu t on th e

rem a in in g s e n s e s (G e s e l l & A m atruda , 1941 , p . 253; K le in , 1962). The

m o th e r , h o w e v e r , r e t a in s h e r d e p e n d e n c y on th e v i s u a l s e n s e an d c o n ­

t i n u e s to l iv e in a b a s i c a l l y v i s u a l l y o r ie n te d w o r ld . I t h a s b e e n s u g ­

g e s t e d t h a t r e s p o n s e to v i s u a l a n d a u d i to ry s t im u la t io n a r e im p o rtan t for

a t ta c h m e n t b e h a v io r (W a lte rs & P a rk e , 1965; R h e in g o ld , 1961).

A ssum ing th a t th e b l in d c h i ld m ay m ake a s a t i s f a c to r y a t t a c h m e n t to th e

m o ther th ro u g h th e a v a i la b le a u d i to ry c h a n n e l o n ly , may n o t th e m other

h a v e g re a te r d i f f ic u l ty in form ing a s a t i s f a c to r y a t ta c h m e n t w i th o u t th e

u s e o f th e (to he r) do m in an t v i s u a l c h a n n e l ?

In th e s tu d y by Sadako Im am ura (1965) on th e in f lu e n c e o f c h i l d -

r e a r in g p r a c t i c e s o n th e b e h a v io r o f p r e s c h o o l b lin d c h i ld r e n , a g e s th re e

to s i x , it w a s found t h a t m o the rs o f b l in d c h i ld re n te n d to ignore th e i r

c h i l d r e n ’s r e q u e s t fo r h e lp more t h a n do m o th e rs o f s ig h te d c h i ld r e n .

M ore s p e c i f i c a l l y , w h en the m o th e rs o f s ig h te d c h i ld r e n do no t c o m p ly , th e y u s u a l ly re fu s e ; ig n o r in g i s u s e d r a r e ly , o n ly n in e p e r c e n t o f t h e t im e . The m o th e rs o f b l in d c h i ld re n , o n th e o th e r h a n d , do n o t r e fu s e r e q u e s t s fo r h e lp q u i te a s o f ten a s do th e m others o f s ig h t e d c h i ld re n , b u t th e y ignore su ch r e q u e s t s th re e t im e s a s o f te n (27 p e r cen t o f a l l n o n c o m p lia n t a c t s ) a s do the m o the rs o f s ig h te d c h i ld re n [p . 3 4 ] .

Im am ura fu r th e r s t a t e s t h a t t h i s t e n d e n c y to igno re r e q u e s t s fo r h e lp m ay

In th e l ig h t o f S om m er 's f in d in g s b e in te r p r e te d a s a "dL sgu tsed

e x p r e s s io n o f r e j e c t i o n [ p . 35 ] . " T here m ay be a n a d d i t io n a l e x p la n a t io n

for t h i s ignoring b e h a v io r . I t is s u g g e s te d h e re th a t th e s ig h te d c h i ld

v e ry e a r ly r e a l i z e s w h e n h e h a s th e m o th e r 's a t t e n t io n by e s t a b l i s h in g

e y e c o n t a c t , and o n ly th e n r e q u e s t s h e lp ; a n d th a t th e m o th e r is more a p t

to r e s p o n d in a d e f in i t e m an n e r w hen t h i s c o n ta c t h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d .

The b l in d c h i ld h a s no w a y in w h ic h to d e te rm in e w h e n th e m o th e r 's

a t t e n t io n i s d i r e c te d e l s e w h e r e and c o n s e q u e n t ly m ust r e p e a t th e r e q u e s t

u n t i l he h a s g a in e d a t t e n t i o n . The im p o r tan c e o f e y e c o n ta c t in c o m ­

m u n ic a t io n i s e x p e r i e n c e d b y e v e ry o n e . The s tu d e n t a v o id s e y e c o n ta c t

w i th th e p ro f e s s o r if h e d o e s not w a n t to b e s in g le d out o f a c ro w d . It i s

i r r i t a t in g a n d d i f f ic u l t to c a r ry on a s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n v e r s a t io n w i th so m e ­

on e w e a r in g dark s u n g l a s s e s . M uch o f t h e s u c c e s s o f t e l e v i s i o n o v e r

r a d io d e p e n d s on th e e y e to e y e c o n ta c t o f th e s p e a k e r w ith th e s c a t t e r e d

a u d i e n c e .

The s ig h te d c h i ld v e ry e a r ly l e a r n s t h a t e v e n th o u g h th e m other

m ay b e w i th in c lo s e r a n g e h e r a t te n t io n m ay be d i r e c te d e l s e w h e r e a n d

s m i le s or a c t io n s h a d b e t t e r w a i t if t h e y a re to b e re w a rd e d b y th e

m o th e r . The fo llow ing o b s e r v a t io n i l l u s t r a t e s th e s ig n i f ic a n c e th e c h i ld

p l a c e s on v i s u a l c o n ta c t e v e n a t th e a g e o f s ix m o n th s .

The fa th e r w a s h o ld in g h is s ix m onth o ld so n w h i le w e a r in g a c a p w ith a b rim . The m o ther w a s w a tc h in g c lo s e b y . The c h i ld , p o s s e s s i n g four s h a rp t e e t h , e a g e r ly a p p ro a c h e d a l l o b j e c t s w ith

33

th e in te n t to b i t e . At th is t im e h e s t r e tc h e d up a n d w i t h an a g g r e s s i v e , v ig o ro u s th ru s t o f th e h e a d b it the brim o f th e cap w ith f o r c e . T he m other and f a t h e r b o th resp ond ed to t h i s ac t io n w ith l a u g h te r . The c h i ld , n o t in g t h e re sp o n se of th e m o th e r and f a th e r , r e p e a t e d th e a c t io n w i th th e sam e v ig o ro u s , a t t a c k in g a p p ro a c h o n ly t h i s tim e im m e d ia te ly looked to w ard t h e m othe r .The m o th e r a g a in re sp o n d ed w i th l a u g h te r . The c h i ld r e p e a te d t h i s a c t io n s e v e r a l t im e s e a c h t im e w ith the sam e a g g r e s s iv e a p p ro a c h , h o w e v e r th e te e th no l o n g e r b it the brim w i th force but b a re ly c l o s e d upon the c a p . E a c h tim e the c h i ld im m ed ia te ly tu rn e d h is h e a d to se e the m o th e r 's r e s p o n s e . At t h i s t im e the m other tu rn e d h e r h e a d aw ay b u t w a s c a l le d back by t h e fa th e r to w a tc h s in c e t h e c h i ld c o n tin u e d to lo o k e x p e c ta n t ly to w a rd the m o th e r . As s o o n a s the m other a g a i n e s ta b l i s h e d e y e c o n ta c t w ith th e c h i l d , th e ch ild tu rn e d a n d b i t th e b rim . ^

It c a n be s e e n h e re th a t w h i le t h e c h i ld 's f i r s t a c t i o n w a s b a s e d on

a p h y s i c a l n e e d d ue to t e e th in g , t h e s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n s w e re perform ed

for th e s a k e o f a s o c i a l rew ard a n d t h e c h i ld , a t th e a g e o f s ix m on ths ,

r e a l i z e d t h a t o n ly w h e n th e m other w a s looking did it p a y t o perform th e

a c t .

W h ile it m ay be p o ss ib le fo r t h e b l in d ch ild to b e s e n s i t i v e to

a u d ito ry c l u e s a n d e s t a b l i s h c o n ta c t in t h i s w ay , th e m o th e r may not f ind

i t e a s y t o a d j u s t t o t h i s u n n a tu ra l (to her) a r ra n g e m e n t. In f a c t , her

a b i l i ty to r e s p o n d to au d ito ry c u e s r a t h e r th a n v i s u a l c u e s may very w e l l

b e an im p o rtan t f a c to r in e s t a b l i s h i n g a s a t i s f a c to r y r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith h e r

c h i ld .

R etu rn ing to E r ik so n 's d e s c r i p t io n of the s e l f - w o r l d , it is p o s s ib le

to s e e t h a t w h i le th e b lin d c h i ld m a y n e e d more t im e to e x p lo re h is

^ O b s e rv a t io n m ade by the w r i t e r , Novem ber 2 5 , 1 9 6 8 , o f male c h i l d , a g e s ix m o n th s .

34

m o th e r 's b o d y , he may a c tu a l ly r e c e iv e l e s s if th e m o th e r - in fa n t r e l a ­

t io n s h ip is d i s t u r b e d . Burlingham (1967) b e l i e v e s it i s n e c e s s a r y to

t e a c h m o th e rs o f b l in d c h i ld re n to len d th e i r b o d ie s to th e c h ild to be

p la y e d w ith a n d to p lay w ith t h e i r c h i l d ' s b o d y . "T h is co m es n a tu ra l to

th e n o rm al m o th e r , bu t may be a b s e n t w h en a m other i s d e p r e s s e d , and

d i s a p p o in te d in he r c h i ld , a s th e m o th e rs o f b l in d c h i ld re n a re [p . 18S ]. "

If t h i s in te r p la y is a b s e n t , th e m a s te ry d u rin g th e f i r s t s t a g e may no t b a

r e a c h e d a n d th e e g o ’s f i r s t o r ie n ta t io n in th e "w orld " m ay be re ta rd e d or

d a m a g e d .

H o w e v e r , a s s u m in g th a t th e b l in d c h i ld h a s s a t i s f a c to r i l y a c h ie v e d

a u to c o s m ic p la y a s d e s c r ib e d b y E rikson (1950), t h e n e x t s ta g e p r e s e n t s

e v e n more h u rd le s b e c a u s e th e b l in d c h i l d ' s m a s te ry o f th e th in g -w o r ld

i s In i t i a l ly m ore d i f f i c u l t . The s e e in g in fa n t du r ing th e f i r s t few m onths

o f l i fe is c a p a b le o f re sp o n d in g w i th h e a d a n d e y e m o v em en ts to v i s u a l

a n d a u d i to ry s t im u la t io n . By m e a n s of t h e s e r e s p o n s e s he is a b le to

e x p lo re o b j e c t s a t a m o dera te d i s t a n c e b e fo re he c a n a p p ro a c h them

th ro u g h lo c o m o t io n , an d in t h i s w a y he c a n e s t a b l i s h a n d m a in ta in

c o n ta c t w i th h i s s o c ia l e n v iro n m en t (W alte rs & P a rk e , 1965). The

s ig h te d in fa n t may look an d e x p lo re or by tu rn in g h i s h e a d a w a y or

sh u t t in g h i s e y e s he may c a u s e th e o b je c t to c e a s e to e x i s t . In t h i s

w a y , h e c a n a c h ie v e c o n tro l o v e r o b j e c t s in th e v e ry f i r s t m onths o f l i f e .

The b l in d in fa n t c an n o t do t h i s . He c a n n o t , due to h i s la c k o f v i s i o n ,

re sp o n d o r c o n tro l v i s u a l s t im u la t io n a n d w h i le h e c a n re s p o n d to

35

a u d i to r y s t im u la t io n he c a n n o t c o n tro l i t . T here i s no w ay to a v o id or

s h u t o u t so und a t w i l l .

E x p lo ra tio n o f a n o b je c t is a l s o more d i f f ic u l t for the b l in d c h i ld .

The s e e in g c h i ld r e a c h e s fo r , a n d a t t a i n s , a n o b je c t "on s ig h t " b e tw e e n

f ive a n d s ix m onths o f a g e . The s e e in g c h i ld c a n , a t th i s a g e , b e g in to

c o n tro l o b j e c t s in h i s e n v iro n m e n t . The to y t h a t d ro p s from h is poorly

c o o rd in a te d h a n d s c a n be r e a c h e d for a g a in a n d e x p lo re d f a c t u a l l y ,

m o u th e d , o r b a n g e d , o r d ro p p e d . The to y c o n t in u e s to e x i s t fo r th e

s e e in g c h i ld a s long a s he s e e s i t . W h en th e to y i s o u t o f s ig h t it

c e a s e s t o e x i s t , bu t a s long a s it r e m a in s in s ig h t it c o n t in u e s to e x i s t

a n d m ay b e r e a c h e d for a g a in (F ra ib e rg , S i e g a l , & G ib s o n , 1966 ) . It

m ay v e ry w e l l be t h a t w h e n th e b l in d c h i ld d ro p s a to y and he l o s e s

t a c t u a l c o n tro l of th e t o y , it c e a s e s to e x i s t for h im . He d o e s n o t ,

t h e r e f o r e , r e a c h o u t fo r a " n o n - e x i s t in g o b j e c t" b u t may a c c id e n ta l l y

e n c o u n te r it a g a in . The o b je c t s e e m s to com e a n d g o a s it p l e a s e s a n d

th e b l in d c h i ld i s d e p e n d e n t on th e v a g a r i e s o f th e o b je c t r a th e r th a n in

c o n tro l o f th e o b j e c t . T he s e a r c h for a n d s u b s e q u e n t re a c h in g fo r a n

o b j e c t a p p e a r s to be d e p e n d e n t on v i s io n u n t i l th e e n d o f th e f i r s t y e a r .

F ra ib e rg , S ie g a l , a n d G ib so n (1966) found th a t a b l in d c h i ld o f s u p e r io r

in t e l l i g e n c e d id no t r e a c h o r s e a r c h for a n o b je c t o n so und c u e u n t i l th e

e l e v e n t h m onth . P re v io u s to t h i s , t h e b l in d c h i ld w h e n p r e s e n te d w ith

th e so u n d of a fa m il ia r to y b e h a v e d a s if th e re w e re "no th ing t h e r e . 11 It

w o u ld s e e m th a t so u n d a lo n e d o e s no t c o n fe r s u b s t a n t i a l l y to a n y o b j e c t .

The b l in d c h i ld , t h u s , m ay a g a in be f r u s t r a t e d to a g re a te r d e g re e

in h i s a t t e m p ts to c o n tro l th e th in g w o r ld . T h a t t h i s is so is r e f l e c t e d in

s t a te m e n t s by L ow enfe ld (1 9 4 6 ) , Bauman (1954), a n d Je rv is (1959) th a t

th e b l in d c h i ld is one w ho i s r e s t r i c te d in h i s c o n tro l of th e e n v iro n m e n t .

L and a n d V ineberg (1965) i n v e s t i g a t e d th e lo c u s o f c o n tro l in b l in d

c h i ld re n b a s e d on the v ie w t h a t b l in d and s ig h te d c h i ld re n w ould d if fe r in

th e fe e l in g th a t th e y , by t h e i r own a c t i o n s , c o u ld c o n tro l th e i r w o r ld .

R e s u l ts in d ic a te d th a t b l in d c h i ld re n s c o re d lo w e r for in te rn a l c o n tro l

th a n s ig h te d c h i ld re n m a tc h e d for m en ta l a g e . I n d iv id u a ls w ere c h a r a c ­

t e r i z e d a s h a v in g an i n te r n a l lo c u s of c o n tro l if " th e y p e rc e iv e th e m ­

s e l v e s a s in s t ru m e n ta l , o r e f f e c t iv e in o b ta in in g s o c i a l rew ard s a n d / o r

n e e d s a t i s f a c t i o n s [p . 257] , " H o w ev e r , Land a n d V ineberg n o te d th a t th e

ra n g e o f s c o r e s w a s m uch g r e a t e r fo r th e b l in d th a n for the s ig h te d

c h i ld r e n , som e o f the b l in d c h i ld re n s c o r in g a s h ig h a s th e h ig h e s t o f th e

s ig h te d c h i ld r e n . They s t a t e d th a t t h i s w o u ld s e e m to in d ic a te th a t

s e n s o r y d e f e c t a lo n e w a s n o t th e p re d is p o s in g f a c t o r . Land a n d V ineberg

c o n t in u e w i th th e s t a te m e n t th a t " th is f in d in g m ay r e f l e c t an a p p a r e n t

o v e r - p r o t e s t on the p a r t o f so m e b l in d s u b j e c t s in r e s p e c t to t h e i r a b i l i ty

to h a n d le t h e i r w orld [p . 2 5 9 ] . " It a p p e a r s f e a s i b l e to th e w r i te r t h a t t h i s

f in d in g in a d d i t io n to id e n t i fy in g o v e r - p r o t e s t m igh t a l s o in fer t h a t som e

o f th e b l in d c h i ld re n m ay a c t u a l l y be e x p r e s s in g th e f e e l in g th a t th e y

w e re a d e q u a te ly ab le to c o n t r o l th e i r e n v iro n m e n t b a s e d on th e i r e x p e r i ­

e n c e s . A lthough th e b l in d c h i ld f a c e s m any h u r d l e s t h i s d o e s n o t m ean

37

h e is no t a b le to su rm oun t th e m . T h is a p p l i e s to th e m o ther o f th e b l in d

c h i ld a l s o . Land a n d V ineberg recom m end on th e b a s i s o f th e i r f in d in g s

t h a t " s tu d i e s o f th e m e th o d s by w h ic h b l in d c h i ld re n find s e c u r i ty in

t h e i r w o r ld , or of m e th o d s b y w h ic h t e a c h e r s a n d o th e r a d u l t s c an h e lp a

b l in d c h i ld f e e l more s e c u re . . . be c o n d u c te d [p . 2 6 0 ] . " It is s u g ­

g e s t e d h e r e , th a t p la y a s d e s c r ib e d by E rik so n m ight v e ry w e l l be th e

fo u n d a t io n o f s u c h a m e th o d .

E xp lo ra to ry b e h a v io r

E x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r is n o t s e p a r a te from m a s te ry o r c o n tro l o f th e

e n v iro n m en t; r a th e r , e x p lo ra t io n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t r e s u l t s in th e m a s te ry

o f th e e n v iro n m e n t . An a t te m p t w i l l b e m ade h e re to p u rsu e th e im po r­

t a n c e o f t h i s b e h a v io r a n d ex am in e it w ith th e b l in d c h i ld in m ind .

M o rr is (1967) h a s d e s c r ib e d e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r a s a d i s t i n c t ,

s e p a r a te d r iv e .

I ts fu n c t io n is to p rov id e u s w i th a s s u b t le a n d com plex an a w a r e ­n e s s o f th e w o rld a ro u n d u s , a n d o f our ow n c a p a c i t i e s in r e la t io n to i t , a s p o s s i b l e . T h is a w a r e n e s s is n o t h e ig h te n e d in th e s p e c i f i c c o n te x t s o f th e b a s i c g o a l s b u t in g e n e r a l i z e d t e r m s .W h a t w e a c q u i re in t h i s w a y c a n th e n be a p p l i e d a n y w h e r e , a t a n y t i m e , in a n y c o n te x t . . . [p . 139],

W h ite (1954 , p . 189) h a s s im ila r ly s t a te d t h a t in th e c a s e o f m an w h e re

so much h a s to b e l e a r n e d th ro u g h e x p e r ie n c e on e m ight e x p e c t to f in d a

v e ry pow erfu l d r iv e o p e ra t in g to in su re p ro g re s s to w a rd c o m p e te n c e ,

in s te a d w e f in d p la y a n d l e i s u r e ly e x p lo r a t io n .

38

T here i s g o o d r e a s o n to s u p p o s e , h o w e v e r , t h a t a s tro n g drive w o u ld be p r e c i s e ly th e w rong a rra n g em e n t to s e c u r e a f l e x ib le , k n o w le d g e a b le pow er o f t r a n s a c t i o n w ith th e e n v iro n m e n t .Strong d r i v e s c a u s e u s to l e a r n c e r t a in l e s s o n s w e l l , bu t th e y do n o t c r e a t e maximum f a m i l ia r i ty w ith our su r ro u n d in g s [p . 189].

I t i s d u r in g th e q u ie te r t im e s t h a t

th e in fa n t c a n a t te n d to m a t te r s of l e s s e r u r g e n c y , e x p lo r in g th e p r o p e r t i e s o f th in g s he d o e s n o t n e e d to e a t , l e a rn in g to g au g e th e fo rce of h i s s t r i n g - p u l l i n g w h en th e o n ly p e n a l ty for fa i lu re is s i l e n c e o n th e p a r t o f th e a t t a c h e d r a t t l e s , a n d g e n e ra l ly a c c u m u la t in g for h im s e l f a b ro a d know ledge a n d a b ro ad s k i l l in d e a l in g w i th h is su r ro u n d in g s [p . 189].

I t c a n b e s e e n , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r is n e c e s s a r y

for a k n o w le d g e o f a c o m p le x , c h a n g in g e n v iro n m e n t . H o w ev e r , t h i s

d r iv e , in o rd e r to rem a in f l e x i b l e , s a c r i f i c e s i ts s t r e n g th a n d d i r e c tn e s s

o f p u r p o s e . U nlike th e d r iv e h u n g e r , for e x a m p le , w h ic h if th w a r te d

e n d s in d e a t h , e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r m ay be more e a s i l y in h ib i te d in th e

in d iv id u a l a n d th e r e s u l t is n o t im m e d ia te ly a p p a r e n t . There i s , m o re ­

o v e r , b e h a v io r w h ich is a n t i - e x p lo r a to r y (M a so n , 196 5 , p . 536; M o r r i s ,

1967, p . 1 4 2 ) . I n d iv id u a ls in d u lg in g in th i s b e h a v io r (M o rr is , 1967)

f in d th e en v iro n m en t s o t h r e a t e n i n g , s o c ia l c o n t a c t s so f r ig h te n ­ing a n d Im p o s s ib le , t h a t t h e y s e e k com fort a n d r e a s s u r a n c e by s u p e r - f a m i l ia r iz in g t h e i r b e h a v io r . The r e p e t i t io n o f an a c t r e n d e r s it in c r e a s in g ly fa m i l ia r a n d " s a f e , " I n s t e a d of pe rfo rm ­ing a w id e v a r ie ty o f h e te r o g e n e o u s a c t i v i t i e s , t h e w ith d raw n in d iv id u a l s t i c k s to the few h e k now s b e s t . For him th e o ld s a y in g ; "N o th ing v e n tu r e d , n o th in g g a in e d " h a s b e e n r e - w r i t t e n "N o th in g v e n tu r e d , n o th in g l o s t " [p . 142],

T h a t b l in d c h i ld re n o f te n in d u lg e in a c t s o f a n t i - e x p lo r a to r y

b e h a v io r i s e v id e n t a s c a n b e s e e n by the nam ing o f t h e s e a c t s a s

" b l ln d l s m s " e v e n th ough o th e r s s u c h a s the e m o t io n a l ly d i s tu rb e d o r

39

m e n ta l ly d e f i c i e n t a l s o in d u lg e in t h e s e a c t s . It is g e n e r a l ly s t a t e d th a t

th e l a c k o f s t im u la t io n from th e e x te rn a l w orld fu r th e rs the b l in d c h i l d ' s

c o n c e n t r a t io n on th e s e l f a n d e n c o u r a g e s th e e x e r c i s e o f s e l f - s t im u l a t i o n

( C u ts fo r th , 19 51 , p . 6; L o w e n fe ld , 1956 , p . 9 6 ) . L ow enfe ld (1956)

q u e s t i o n s w h e th e r b l in d c h i ld r e n c a n be k e p t s u f f i c i e n t ly s t im u la te d to

in h ib i t th e am o u n t of s e l f - s t im u l a t i o n o r if it w ou ld e v e n be w is e to

a t te m p t i t .

The s e e in g c h i l d ' s m any im p re s s io n s c a n n o t be e q u a l le d b y th o s e w h ic h th e b l in d c h i ld r e c e i v e s from h is e n v iro n m e n t , an d th e sam e h o ld s t ru e o f h i s o u t le t s for a c t i v i t y . T h e re fo re , it w o u ld a p p e a r a lm o s t n o rm al for th e b l in d c h i ld to r e s o r t to som e s e l f - s t im u l a t io n .As h e g ro w s o ld e r , he w i l l b e a b le to d e v e lo p in t e r e s t in a g r e a te r v a r i e ty o f a c t i v i t i e s , a n d in du e t im e th e y w i l l s u p p la n t h i s m a n n e r is m s b e c a u s e of th e i r g r e a te r s a t i s f a c t i o n s [p . 9 6] .

H o w e v e r , may no t a t l e a s t som e o f t h e s e r e p e t i t iv e s e l f ­

s t im u la t io n s b e th e sam e m a n i f e s ta t io n s o f r e g r e s s io n of w h ic h E rikson

(1950) s p e a k s w h en he r e f e r s t o th e c h i ld w ho f in d s th e th in g - w o r ld to o

f r ig h te n in g a n d re tu rn s " in to th e a u to s p h e r e , d a y d re a m in g , th u m b -

s u c k in g , m a s tu rb a t in g [p . 194] " ? And in th e e v e n t th a t th e b l in d c h i ld

in r e t r e a t in g from th e th in g -w o r ld f in d s th e r e l a t i o n s h ip w ith th e m o the r

to b e d a m a g e d a n d u n s a t i s f a c to r y , m ay it no t b e co m e n e c e s s a r y for him

to w i th d ra w e v e n fu r th e r to th e o n ly w orld o v e r w h ic h he h a s e x p e r i e n c e d

s u c c e s s f u l c o n t r o l— h is ow n b o d y ?

In In f a n t s W ith o u t F a m i l i e s , F reud a n d Burlingham (1944) found

s im ila r b e h a v io r p a t te rn s in t h o s e s e e in g In fa n ts w ho had b e e n u n a b le to

sh a re b o d i ly p l e a s u r e s w ith t h e i r m o th e rs .

40

Lack of su c h g r a t i f i c a t io n w ith c o n s e q u e n t in c r e a s e o f a u t o ­e ro t ic a c t i v i t i e s d im in is h e s th e c h i l d ' s i n t e r e s t s in i t s su r ro u n d ­i n g s : w ith e x c e s s i v e th u m b - s u c k in g , ro c k in g or m a s tu rb a t in g th e c h i ld c r e a t e s a com forting w orld o f i t s ow n in to w h ic h it may w ith d raw and t h u s becom e u n re a c h a b le fo r o u ts id e in f lu e n c e [p . 9 9 ] . ( I t a l i c s m in e .)

W hen the c h i ld r e t r e a t s to t h i s s e l f - w o r ld , e x te rn a l s t im u la t io n is d i s ­

r e g a rd e d or a c t iv e l y th r u s t o u t . "Toys a re th row n out or d i s r e g a r d e d

. . . and th e rh y th m ic m ovem en ts o f th e b o d y re m a in s th e s o l e o c c u p a ­

t io n [p . 1 8 2 ] ." The q u a n t i ty of s t im u la t io n d o e s no t seem to be a s

s ig n i f ic a n t a s th e f a c t th a t th e c h i ld is u n a b le to a s s i m i l a t e th e e x te rn a l

s t im u la t io n th a t d o e s e x i s t and e i th e r f e a r s it or it is to o rem o v e d from

th e c h i l d ' s s t a t e o f d e v e lo p m e n t to be m e a n in g fu l .

S im ilar r e p e t i t i v e m ovem en ts h a v e b e e n found in l a b o r a to ry - r e a r e d

p r im a te s . W h ile it h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e s e m o v em en ts a re made

in an a t te m p t to c o m p e n s a te for low l e v e l s o f e n v iro n m e n ta l s t im u la t io n

o r for r e s t r i c t i o n o f m o v em en t. M a so n (1965) b e l i e v e s t h a t w h i le th e s e

n o n - s o c i a l f a c to r s m ay in f lu e n c e th e l e v e l o f o c c u r re n c e o f r e p e t i t iv e

m o v e m e n ts , th e o r ig in o f t h e s e m o v em en ts i s du e to e a r ly s o c i a l e x p e r i ­

e n c e . It i s s u g g e s t e d by M a so n (1965) t h a t th e g e n e ra l l e v e l o f

e n v iro n m e n ta l s t im u la t io n is r e l a t iv e ly u n im p o r ta n t in th e d e v e lo p m e n t

of r e p e t i t iv e s t e r e o ty p e d m ovem en ts in p r im a te s . It h a s b e e n found th a t

a n im a ls r e a re d in t h e la b o ra to ry w ith th e m o th e r te n d no t to r o c k and

s w a y , w h e re a s t h o s e r e a re d a p a r t from th e m o ther a lm o s t in v a r ia b ly d o ,

e v e n w h en th e a n im a l i s r e a re d in a hum an h o u s e h o ld w h e re th e g e n e ra l

41

le v e l o f s t im u la t io n w ould be e x tre m e ly h igh c o m p a r a t iv e ly . S p a t ia l

r e s t r i c t io n on m ovem ent a l s o d o e s no t a p p e a r to b e a p rim ary f a c to r

s in c e t h e s e m o v e m e n ts a p p e a r b e fo re th e a n im a l i s c a p a b le of m oving

a b o u t in th e a v a i l a b l e s p a c e . It h a s a l s o b e e n found t h a t s e v e re

r e s t r i c t i o n o f a c h im p a n z e e d u rin g in fa n c y r e s u l t e d in l e s s , r a th e r th a n

m ore , s t e r e o ty p e d r o c k in g , a s c o m p a red to la b o ra to ry r e a r e d a n im a l s .

O nce t h e s e s t e r e o ty p e d a c t i v i t i e s h a v e b eco m e e s t a b l i s h e d th e y sh ow

v a r ia t io n in a m p l i tu d e , f r e q u e n c y a n d form a c c o rd in g to v a ry in g in te rn a l

f a c t o r s , b u t a p p e a r to show l im i te d r e v e r s ib i l i t y (M a s o n , 1965).

A lthough th e fo llow ing p o in t s re g a rd in g th e s ig n i f ic a n c e o f s t e r e o ­

ty p e d b e h a v io r p r e s e n te d by M a s o n (1965) a p p ly to p r im a te s , it i s n o t

im p o ss ib le to f in d s ig n i f ic a n t a p p l i c a t io n to s te r e o ty p e d b e h a v io r in

b l in d c h i ld re n a n d to s u g g e s t t h a t su c h b e h a v io r i s no t c a u s e d by l a c k o f

s t im u la t io n o n ly b u t p o s s ib ly a l s o by in s u f f ic ie n t m o th e r - in fa n t in t e r ­

a c t io n during in f a n c y .

1. T here i s c o n v in c in g e v id e n c e th a t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s e b e h a v io r s i s r e l a te d to re a r in g c o n d i t io n s . A lthough th e s p e c i f i c e t io lo g ic a l f a c to r s h av e no t y e t b e e n d e m o n s t r a te d , th e a b s e n c e o f a no rm al a s s o c i a t i o n w i th th e n a tu ra l m o th e r s e e m s to be an im portan t p r e d i s p o s in g c o n d i t io n . The a g e o f o n s e t for t h e s e b e h a v io r s c a n b e s p e c i f i e d a n d th e i r e m e rg en c e c a n p ro b ab ly be r e l a te d to n o rm a l d e v e lo p m e n ta l c h a n g e s .

2 . T h ere s e e m s to b e a c r i t i c a l p e rio d for th e d e v e lo p m e n t of s te r e o ty p e d b e h a v io r s in th e s e n s e th a t a n a n im a l t h a t h a s p a s s e d bey o n d a c e r t a i n a g e w i th o u t a c q u i r in g s u c h r e s p o n s e s can be p e rm an en tly p l a c e d in a s i t u a t io n id e n t ic a l to th a t w h ic h p ro d u c e d them in a y o u n g e r a n im a l a n d th e y w il l no t em erg e . . . . M o re ­o v e r , s t e r e o ty p e d r e s p o n s e s sh o w o n ly l im ite d r e v e r s ib i l i t y a n d may p e r s i s t i n d e f in i t e ly , a l th o u g h th e s p e c i f i c form o f th e r e s p o n s e m ay c h a n g e a s th e a n im a l g row s o ld e r . . . . A lthough

42

th e f re q u e n c y o f s te re o ty p e d r e s p o n s e s t e n d s to d e c r e a s e w ith a g e , th e y m ay be o b s e rv e d on o c c a s i o n in fu l ly m atu re a n im a l s , p a r t i c u la r ly d u r in g m om ents o f e x c i te m e n t .

3 . T here is a fu n d am e n ta l s im i la r i ty in th e form o f t h e s e b e h a v io r s a s th e y a re s e e n in th e nonhum an p r im a te s a n d in c e r ta in h um an g r o u p s , in c lu d in g b l in d . . . a n d s c h iz o p h r e n ic c h i ld re n . . . a n d th e s e v e r e ly r e ta rd e d . . . . As w o u ld be e x p e c te d , p h y lo g e n e t ic d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t in th e n um b er and com ­p le x i ty o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s a n d t h e i r p o s tu ra l c o n c o m i t a n t s . . . .

4 . B e c a u se s te r e o ty p e d b e h a v io r s b ecom e p e r s i s t e n t m odes of r e s p o n d in g , t h e y may s u b s t i t u t e fo r o r in te r fe re w i th th e d e v e lo p ­m ent o f r e s p o n s e s w h ich a re more a d a p t iv e or a p p r o p r i a t e , th u s in d i re c t ly p s y c h o lo g ic a l g ro w th [p p . 5 3 5 -5 3 6 ] , ( I t a l i c s m in e .)

E xam ining M a s o n 's s t a te m e n t t h a t s t e r e o ty p e d b e h a v io r s may s u b ­

s t i tu t e fo r o r in te r f e re w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f r e s p o n s e s w h ic h a re more

a d a p t iv e or a p p r o p r i a t e , it i s p o s s ib l e to s u g g e s t t h a t b l in d c h ild ren m ay

s u b s t i tu t e " b l in d i s m s " for e x p lo ra to ry o r p la y b e h a v io r . Jud ith

R u b e n s te in (1967) m e a su re d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n m a te rn a l a t t e n t i v e ­

n e s s a n d e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r . She found th a t th e g ro u p of f ive m onth

o ld In fa n ts w h o r e c e iv e d a h ig h l e v e l o f a t t e n t i v e n e s s from t h e i r m o th e rs ,

d e f in e d by th e n um ber o f t im e s th e m o th e r w a s o b s e r v e d to look a t ,

t o u c h , h o ld o r t a l k to he r b a b y , s ig n i f i c a n t ly e x c e e d e d th e lo w ­

a t t e n t i v e n e s s g ro u p in lo o k in g a t , t a c t i l e m a n ip u la t io n o f , an d v o c a l iz in g

t o a n o v e l s t im u lu s p r e s e n te d a l o n e , a n d e x c e e d e d b o th low a n d m edium

g ro u p s In lo o k in g a t a n d m a n ip u la t in g n o v e l s t im u l i in p re fe re n c e to

fam ilia r o n e s . The s t im u la t io n in t h i s e x p e r im e n t w a s th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f

t o y s w i th in r e a c h a n d th e o p p o r tu n i ty to p la y w ith t h e s e t o y s .

R u b e n s te in (1967) found th i s t o i l l u s t r a t e th e c a u s e a n d e f f e c t r e l a t i o n ­

sh ip b e tw e e n m a te rn a l a t t e n t io n a n d e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r .

43

In c o n s id e r in g th e d e f in i t io n o f a t t e n t i v e n e s s a s d e f in e d by

R u b e n s te in , it i s p o s s ib le th a t w h i le th e m other o f a b l in d c h i ld may

se n d forth a h ig h l e v e l o f a t t e n t i v e n e s s — loo k ing a t , t o u c h in g , h o ld ing

a n d ta lk in g to h e r c h i l d — th e b l in d c h i ld r e c e iv e s o n ly th e to u c h in g ,

ho ld ing a n d t a l k i n g , a n d m ay th e re fo re b e in a m edium o r low le v e l

a t t e n t i v e n e s s g roup u n l e s s th e m o th e r m a k e s a d e f in i te e f fo r t to r e p la c e

th e looking w i th som e one o f th e o th e r a t t e n t i v e n e s s b e h a v io r s . W hile

t h i s is not im p o s s ib le it m u s t be rem em bered th a t th e m o th e r is s t i l l

d e p en d e n t on v i s i o n . She m ay look a t h e r c h i ld e v e n more f r e q u e n t ly if

she is a n x io u s a b o u t h i s w e l l b e in g a n d " lo o k " to s e e if h e is a l l r ig h t

bu t the c h i ld d o e s no t r e c e iv e t h i s m e s s a g e a n d to him i t d o e s no t e x i s t .

V ision h a s th e fu r th e r a d v a n ta g e o f n o t r e q u ir in g fu ll a t t e n t i o n to make

c o n ta c t . The m other i s a b le to e s t a b l i s h e y e c o n ta c t w i th h e r c h i ld in

th e m iddle o f a te le p h o n e c o n v e r s a t io n w i th n o in te r ru p t io n . She c a n n o t

v e ry w e l l do t h i s in a n y o th e r w a y .

It i s a l s o p o s s ib l e t h a t th e in fa n t -m o th e r r e l a t i o n s h ip of th e b l in d

c h i ld may n o t o f fe r a s e c u r e b a s e from w h ic h th e b l in d c h i ld may ex p lo re

h i s e n v iro n m e n t . The r e a s o n s for t h i s , a s h a s b e e n e x p la in e d p re v io u s ly ,

m ay be due t o o u t r ig h t r e j e c t io n or u n in te n t io n a l f a i lu re on th e p a r t of th e

m other to r e c o g n iz e th e d i f f e r e n c e s in an o rg an ism u s in g o th e r s e n s e s .

The im portance o f th e m o th e r - in fa n t a t t a c h m e n t in e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r

h a s b e en o b s e r v e d (W a lte rs & P a rk e , 1965). W hen le f t a lo n e in a s t ra n g e

room , s e e in g p r e s c h o o l c h i ld r e n sh o w e d l i t t l e e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r ,

44

w h i le if a c c o m p a n ie d by t h e i r m other th e y m oved a rou nd th e room a n d

p la y e d f r e e ly w ith a v a i l a b l e t o y s . C o n ta c t w i th th e m other w ho s e r v e s

a s a s e c u r e b a s e from w h ic h to e x p lo re m ay be m a in ta in e d p r im a r i ly by

th e d i s t a n c e r e c e p to r s ; n a m e ly , v i s i o n a n d h e a r in g . The b l in d c h i ld

w o u ld n e c e s s a r i l y b e d e p e n d e n t on h e a r in g a lo n e w h ic h m ay no t be a s

e f f i c ie n t a s th e v i s u a l c o n ta c t or c o m b in ed s t r e n g th of v i s i o n a n d h e a r in g .

M cAndrew (1962) in v e s t ig a te d th e s a t i a t i o n p o in t o f b l in d c h i ld re n

w ho w e re re q u ire d to m od e l f ig u re s in c l a y . It w a s found th a t

th e b l in d g la d ly e n g a g e in s im p le , r e p e t i t iv e a c t i v i t i e s and th a t th e y g e n e ra l ly f e a r v e n tu r in g in to s t r a n g e t e r r i to r y . . . . T hey w i l l e n g a g e in s im p le , d i f f e r e n t ia te d t a s k s for lo n g e r p e r io d s th a n th e o th e r g ro u p s (d ea f a n d norm al); w h i le m ost o f them a re to o h e l p l e s s a n d in s e c u re to a t te m p t a n u n d i f f e re n t ia te d a c t i v i t y .T h is f e e l in g is e x e m p l i f i e d by one b l in d c h i l d ' s s t a te m e n t : "I o n ly know how to m ake w h a t you ta u g h t me [p . 3 7 6 ] . “

M cA ndrew (1962) fu r th e r s t a t e s th a t

w h e n a s k e d if t h e y w is h e d to m ake "a n y th in g e l s e " o n ly s e v e n of th e b l in d c h i ld re n p a r t i c ip a t in g in th e e x p e r im e n t r e p l ie d In th e a f f i rm a t iv e , b u t th r e e o f t h e s e (not t o t a l l y b lind ) w ere so v e n tu r e ­som e th a t th e i r s c o r e s d o m in a te d th e w h o le g ro u p . . . . An a l l - o r -n o n e q u a l i ty i s s u g g e s te d in w h ic h f e a r s e e m s to b e a la rg e f a c to r [p . 3 7 6 ] .

T h is sam e q u a l i t y h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d in b l in d c h i ld re n by

Burlingham (1965).

L eft to th e i r ow n d e v i c e s , th e c h i ld re n te n d to "p lay s a f e " by r e p e a t in g th e f a m i l ia r , su c h a s o p e n in g a n d sh u t t in g d o o r s , t u r n ­ing s w i tc h e s on a n d o f f , p la y in g w i th th e w a te r f a u c e t s , l e t t in g w a te r run o v e r th e i r h a n d s , or f i l l in g a n d em pty ing c o n t a i n e r s , a l l o f th em a c t io n s s u i t e d to m uch y o u n g e r c h i ld r e n . A g a in , l ik e m uch y o u n g e r c h i ld r e n , th e y c a n n o t be c o a x e d aw ay from r e p e t i t io n to c o n s t r u c t iv e p r o g re s s by a s p e c i f i c gam e o r b y o f fe r in g them a to y ; th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h i s p u rp o se h a s to r e ly

45

o n th e i r p e r s o n a l a t ta c h m e n t to th e t e a c h in g a d u l t . They d o no t p ro g re s s w i th o u t in d iv id u a l h e lp a n d a re a t t h e i r b e s t n o t in th e g roup b u t a lo n e w i th th e t e a c h e r ; in a n in d iv id u a l p e r s o n - t o - p e rs o n r e l a t i o n s h ip th e y fu n c t io n s u r p r i s in g ly w e ll [p . 198] .

T h is b a s i c fe e l in g of i n s e c u r i t y , f e a r , o r fe e l in g o f d e p e n d e n c e

h a s b e e n n o te d in Im a m u ra 's s tu d y (1965) o f b l in d c h i ld r e n . H e found

t h a t " the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h ic h m o st c l e a r l y d i s t in g u i s h e s th e b e h a v io r

o f th e b l in d c h i ld r e n from t h a t o f th e s ig h te d c h i ld re n i s s u c c o r a n c e

[p . 6 4 ] . " The s im p le s t a n d m o st o b v io u s r e a s o n for t h i s k in d o f b e h a v io r

w o u ld a s c r i b e t h e s e r e q u e s t s fo r h e lp to th e p h y s ic a l l im i ta t io n s o f the

c h i ld . " H o w e v e r , a c tu a l o b s e r v a t io n o f th e b e h a v io r of b l in d c h i ld re n

r e v e a l s th a t t h e y m ake m any s u c c o r a n t a c t s w h ic h a re no t d i r e c t e d

to w a rd s e e k in g p h y s ic a l a s s i s t a n c e [p . 2 4 ] . " Imamura th e r e f o re s u g ­

g e s t s th a t " b l in d n e s s in i t s e l f c a n n o t a d e q u a te ly e x p la in th e s t ro n g

t e n d e n c y fo r s u c c o ra n c e e x h ib i te d b y b l in d c h i ld re n [p . 2 4 ] . "

Im am ura (1965) fu r th e r p r e s e n t s s e v e r a l e x p la n a t io n s fo r t h i s

d e p e n d e n c y b e h a v io r . C o le an d T ab o ro ff (1956) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e in f a n t 's

s e n s e o f o m n ip o te n c e is c o r r e l a t e d w i th i t s in a b i l i ty to s e e . By

r e c e iv in g e x te r n a l s t im u l i th ro u g h i t s v i s u a l s e n s e , th e in fa n t p r o g r e s ­

s iv e ly e n la r g e s i t s k n o w le d g e o f th e e n v iro n m e n t an d r e a l i t y i s a t t a i n e d .

W h en a c h i ld l a c k s th e a id o f v i s u a l p e r c e p t io n , i ts u n d e r s ta n d in g of the

e x te r n a l w o rld i s h a n d ic a p p e d a n d th e d i f f e r e n t ia t io n o f s e l f a n d n o n ­

s e l f b e c o m e s d i f f i c u l t . A nother e x p la n a t io n a d v a n c e d by Im a m u ra ,

b a s e d on H e b b 's th e o ry (1949) t h a t a c e r t a i n am ount of s e n s o r y

46

s t im u la t io n i s im po rtan t in th e m a in te n a n c e o f n o rm a l , in te g ra te d

b e h a v io r , is th a t th e b l in d c h i ld is a t te m p t in g t o c o r re c t a c o n d it io n of

s t im u lu s d e f i c ie n c y w h ic h e x i s t s due to th e i r b l i n d n e s s by a t te m p t in g to

m ake th e m o ther r e s p o n d to th e m . Im am ura a l s o f in d s a s trong s im i la r i ty

b e tw e e n th e b e h a v io r o f b l in d c h i ld re n a n d th o s e o v e rp ro te c te d c h i ld re n

w h o h a v e do m ina ting m o th e rs a s d e s c r ib e d by L evy (1945). Im am ura

s t a t e s t h a t " th e s e s i m i l a r i t i e s b eh o o v e u s to lo o k upon th e m a te rn a l

t r e a tm e n t o f th e b l in d c h i ld a s a p o s s ib le e x p la n a t io n o f th e b l in d

c h i l d ' s . . . m arked t e n d e n c y to w a rd s u c c o r a n c e [p . 2 8 ] . "

In th e l ig h t o f th e p re v io u s ly d i s c u s s e d m o th e r - in fa n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ,

i t a p p e a r s lo g ic a l to s u g g e s t th a t th e d e p e n d e n c y b e h a v io r o f th e b l in d

c h i ld m ay a l s o be due t o th e d a m a g ed in fa n t -m o th e r r e l a t io n s h ip a t a t im e

in th e c h i l d ’s d e v e lo p m e n t w h e n h e w o u ld n o rm a lly r e a c h ou t t a c tu a l ly

a n d e x p e r im e n t w ith o r e x p lo re h i s e n v iro n m e n t . The im portance o f a

s e c u re r e l a t io n s h ip w i th th e m other fo r e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r h a s b e e n

n o te d p r e v io u s ly .

The th e o ry o f s e n s o r y d e p r iv a t io n a p p e a r s s ig n i f ic a n t w h en it i s

v ie w e d in th e s t a g e s o f c h i ld d e v e lo p m e n t . In o th e r w o rd s , th e am oun t

o f s e n s o r y s t im u la t io n a lo n e m ay no t b e a s im p o r tan t a s the am ou n t o f

th e r ig h t k in d of s t im u la t io n a t th e r ig h t t im e in th e c h i l d ' s d e v e lo p m e n t .

The c h i ld d o e s no t p la y w ith th e r a t t l e u n t i l h e i s s a t i s f i e d in r e la t io n to

h im s e l f a n d th e m o ther f ig u r e . Or a s E rikson d e s c r i b e s i t , th e

47

m ic ro sp h e re c a n n o t be a p p ro a c h e d c o n s t r u c t iv e ly u n t i l th e a u to s p h e r e is

m a s te re d a n d so fo rth up th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l l a d d e r .

D e p e n d e n t b e h a v io r is n o t a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l im ite d to b l in d c h i ld re n

a l o n e . Barker a n d W rig h t (1954 , p . 440) found s im i la r b e h a v io r in a

s tu d y o f c h i ld re n d i s a b le d due to c e r e b r a l p a l s y , c o n g e n i ta l h e a r t d e f e c t ,

am yotom in a n d s p in a b i f id a . I t h a s a l s o b e e n n o te d (Sw ift , 1964) am ong

n o n - d i s a b le d c h i ld re n th a t th e " c h i ld sh o w s g r e a te r d e p e n d e n c e , and

t e n d s to s e e k a t t e n t io n an d a p p ro v a l from a d u l t s more a c t iv e ly w h en s u c h

a t t e n t io n h a s b e e n l im ite d or d e n ie d , th a n w h en it h a s b e e n c o n t in u o u s ly

a v a i l a b l e [p . 2 6 8 ] . "

A n a ly s is o f t h e m a te r ia l s p r e s e n te d to t h i s p o in t s u g g e s t s th a t th e

in fa n t -m o th e r r e l a t io n s h ip o f th e b l in d c h i ld m ay no t p rov ide th e n e c e s ­

sa ry p e r s o n a l s e c u r i ty for th e b l in d c h i ld to pe rm it him to r e a c h o u t a n d

e x p lo re th e e x p a n d in g e n v iro n m en t su rro u n d in g h im . W h a t is th e

s ig n i f ic a n c e o f t h i s la c k o f e x p lo r a to r y b e h a v io r a n d w h a t c o u ld r e s u l t

from t h i s d e f i c i e n c y ?

H arlow (1961) d e s c r i b e s c u r i o s i t y a n d e x p lo ra t io n a s " b a s i c ,

prim ate r e s p o n s e s y s t e m s — r e l e a s in g s y s te m s t h a t ove rcom e th e im m ed i­

a te in fa n t -m o th e r a f f e c t io n a l s y s te m s a n d p rep a re th e in fan t fo r a w ide

new w orld [p . 7 6 ] The n ew b o rn m o n k ey i s b o m w ith p ow erfu l r e f le x

m e c h a n is m s w h ic h u n i te the in fa n t a n d m o th e r , for e x a m p le , s u c k in g ,

c l a s p i n g . If t h e s e r e f l e x e s c o n t in u e d w ith no c o u n te ra c t in g fo rc e th e

in fan t an d m o ther w o u ld sh o w in c r e a s in g ly s t ro n g e r a t t a c h m e n ts a n d " i f

48

th i s w e re t r u e , th e re w o u ld be few er b a b y m o n k e y s , a n d o th e r p r im a te

fo rm s , th a n th e r e a re in th e w o r ld to d a y [ p . 7 6 ] , "

The e x i s t e n c e o f a s im i la r r e l e a s in g m e c h a n ism in th e hum an in fa n t

h a s b e e n n o te d by S c h a ffe r (1963).

It so o n b e c o m e s o b v io u s t h a t r ig h t from th e b e g in n in g th e in fa n t i s no m ere p a s s iv e b e in g to whom n o th in g m a t te r s b u t food a n d w a rm th . W h a te v e r l a b e l w i l l e v e n tu a l ly be found m ost a p p ro p r i ­a te . . . — st im u lu s h u n g e r , c u r i o s i t y , a r o u s a l s e e k i n g , e x p lo ra to ry d r iv e — it s e e m s l ik e ly th a t t h i s fu n c t io n is on e o f th e m ost im p o rtan t a t t r i b u t e s w ith w h ic h a c h i ld c o m e s in to th e w orld [p . 194],

W h ite (1954) a l s o e x p r e s s e s t h i s s im ila r th o u g h t , "The c h i ld a p p e a r s to

be o c c u p ie d w i th th e a g r e e a b le t a s k o f d e v e lo p in g a n e f f e c t iv e fa m i l ia r i ty

w ith h i s e n v iro n m e n t . T h is in v o lv e s d i s c o v e r in g th e e f f e c t s he c a n h a v e

on th e e n v iro n m e n t a n d th e e f f e c t s th e e n v iro n m e n t w i l l h a v e on him

[p . 1 8 4 ] ."

From t h e s e o b s e r v a t io n s a n in te r e s t in g p a ra d o x i s fo rm ed .

E xp lo ra to ry b e h a v io r i s n e c e s s a r y for th e r e l e a s in g of a t t a c h m e n t

b e h a v io r , y e t e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r i s d e p e n d e n t o n a s e c u r e a n d s a t i s f y ­

ing a t t a c h m e n t o f th e in fa n t a n d m o th e r . If th e a t t a c h m e n t i s not s e c u r e ,

th e r e l e a s in g m e c h a n ism , e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r , i s no t a v a i l a b l e a n d th e

in fan t r e m a in s d e p e n d e n t on a n a t ta c h m e n t w h ic h w a s n o t n e ed fu l f i l l in g

in th e f i r s t p l a c e . In o th e r w o r d s , th e more s a t i s f y in g th e a t ta c h m e n t

th e e a s i e r th e a t ta c h m e n t d i s s o l v e s . T hat t h i s is so c a n b e s e e n b y th e

p re v io u s ly m e n t io n e d s t a t e m e n t s w h e re d e p e n d e n c y i s g r e a t e s t in g ro u p s

w h e re in th e a d u l t - i n f a n t r e l a t i o n s h ip is c o n s id e r e d f a u l ty .

49

H arlow (1961) d e s c r i b e s tw o s t a g e s in th e d e v e lo p m e n t of

a f f e c t io n a l b o n d s . D uring th e f i r s t s t a g e th e m other " p ro v id e s th e n u t r i ­

t io n a l an d com fort n e e d s upon w h ic h a re form ed a f f e c t io n a n d s e c u r i ty ,

a n d it s a f e g u a r d s i t s in fan t u n t i l e f f e c t iv e d a n g e r s ig n a l s a re r e c o g n iz e d

[ p . 8 4 ] . " The s e c o n d s ta g e c o n s i s t s of " the g ra d u a l r e l a x a t io n of t h e s e

a f f e c t io n a l b o n d s b e tw e e n m other a n d c h i ld [p . 8 4 ] . "

It i s p o s s ib l e to s e e th a t for th e m o ther o f th e b l in d c h i ld th e f i r s t

s t a g e may o f n e c e s s i t y c o n tin u e for a lo n g e r p e r io d o f t im e . The b l in d

c h i ld f a c e s more d a n g e r s a n d h a s g r e a te r d i f f ic u l ty in r e c o g n iz in g th e s e

d a n g e r s . The s e c o n d s ta g e a l s o p r e s e n t s a d d e d d i f f i c u l ty . It i s s u g ­

g e s t e d h e re t h a t more th a n a r e l a x a t io n o f b o n d s is in v o lv e d a n d t h a t the

m other is a n a c t iv e a g e n t in t h i s s t a g e o f d e v e lo p m e n t . It h a s b e e n show n

th a t th e e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r of th e c h i ld i s n o t in i t s e l f s t ro n g e n o u g h to

c o n tin u e in th e f a c e o f in s e c u r i ty o r to b re a k th e b o n d s o f d e p e n d e n c y .

It is th e re fo re n e c e s s a r y to lo ok to th e m o th e r for som e a c t io n w h ic h m ay

p re c ip i ta te th e r e l a x a t io n of b o n d s b e tw e e n th e m o ther a n d c h i l d . T h is

i s e a s i l y s e e n a s t h e m other g u id e s h e r c h i ld th rou gh v a r io u s s i t u a t io n s

in c re a s in g in d i f f ic u l ty a c c o rd in g to th e c h i l d ' s a b i l i t y . The m other

e n c o u r a g e s t h e youn g c h i ld to w a lk ; h o w e v e r , n o t o n th e e d g e o f a

p r e c ip ic e . The m o th e r of th e b l in d c h i ld , for s e v e r a l r e a s o n s , m ay not

b e a s a c t iv e a n a g e n t in r e l e a s in g th e c h i ld from th e f i r s t s t a g e .

C h ev ig n y (1946) s u g g e s t s t h i s w h e n he d i s c u s s e s th e p a r e n t - b l in d c h i ld

r e l a t i o n s h ip .

soAll c h i ld r e n h i t h e a d s a n d b r u i s e s h i n s , bu t in th e c a s e of a b l in d c h i ld a l lo w in g him s u c h e n c o u n te r s se e m s w ro n g . He is t o ld , in d e e d u s u a l ly fo rc e d , to k e e p out o f e v e n s u c h s im p le e n c o u n te r s w i th d a n g e r a s a re pa rt o f th e e x p e r ie n c e o f a lm o s t a l l s ig h te d c h i ld r e n . He is made to s i t s t i l l much of th e t im e , w h ic h r e s t r i c t s h i s e x p e r i e n c e s . . . . He i s m ade to f e e l r e j e c t e d , u n w a n te d , o r he g e t s a n u n u s u a l show ing o f a f f e c t io n w h ic h , h o w ­e v e r , i s no t a lw a y s a d e m o n s t r a t io n o f r e a l b e l i e f t h a t he w i l l e v e r am o u n t t o a n y th in g [p . 178].

T he m other o f th e b l in d c h i ld is th e re fo re f a c e d w i th th e t a s k o f

p re p a r in g h e r c h i ld for in d e p e n d e n c e in th e w o rld f e e l in g th a t i n d e p e n ­

d e n c e fo r he r c h i ld i s , if n o t im p o s s ib le , a t l e a s t more d i f f i c u l t . The

t a s k is fu r th e r c o m p l ic a te d by th e f a c t th a t th e m o th e r d o e s no t r e a l ly

know how t o t e a c h t h i s in d e p e n d e n c e to h e r c h i l e w ho is e s s e n t i a l l y

l iv in g in a d i f fe re n t d im e n s io n . She can w ith h e r s e e in g c h i ld re n u t i l i z e

h e r ow n e x p e r ie n c e a n d p e r c e p t io n s o f r e a l i t y — for h e r b l in d c h i ld s h e

c a n n o t . W i l l s (1965) s u g g e s t s t h a t

th e m o th e r of the b l in d c h i ld m ight h ave to pe rfo rm tw o d i s t in c t r o l e s : sh e h a s on th e one h a n d to e s t a b l i s h a g o o d b o d i ly r e l a ­t io n s h ip w ith her b l in d c h i ld th ro u g h h e r h a n d l in g and c a r e , b u t s h e a l s o h a s to p ro v id e th e r ig h t k ind of a u x i l i a r y e g o for h im , no t in th e u s u a l s e n s e of s u p p ly in g c o n tro l , bu t in th e s e n s e of g iv in g him m ea n in g fu l e x p e r i e n c e s o f th e w orld , so m e th in g th a t th e m o th e r o f a s ig h te d c h i ld c a n do a u to m a t ic a l ly on th e b a s i s o f h e r ow n e x p e r i e n c e . W e do n o t y e t know e x a c t ly how sh e c a n b e s t d o t h i s . . . . It may be th a t if a b l in d c h i l d ' s m o th e r can n o t h e lp him to m ake t h i s s t e p from h e r t o th e w orld a t th e r igh t t im e , he d o e s no t m ake up th e d e f i c i t ; in o th er w o r d s , it w o u ld seem . . . t h a t t h i s m ay be in f a c t a " c r i t i c a l p e rio d " [p . 3 6 1 ] .

In a s im i la r v e in , M o rr is (1967) d i s c u s s e s on e s p e c i a l a s p e c t o f

e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r , the i n f a n t ' s s o c ia l p l a y . T h is p la y , d i r e c te d f i r s t

to th e p a r e n t s a n d th e n to w a rd t h e ju v e n i le p e e r g ro u p , is a " c r i t i c a l

SI

s t e p " in th e c h i l d ' s d e v e lo p m e n t w ith " f a r - r e a c h in g e f f e c t s on th e l a t e r

l i fe o f th e in d iv id u a l [p . 1 3 9 ] ." L ack o f s a t i s f a c to r y s o c i a l p la y l e a d s

to a n t i - e x p lo r a to r y b e h a v io r a n d , in e x tre m e c a s e s , r e s u l t s in a n

in d iv id u a l w ho f in d s th e e n v iro n m e n t so f r ig h te n in g th a t he s e e k s

com fort in r e p e t i t iv e s t e r e o t y p e s (M o rr is , 1967 , p . 142), H a r lo w (1963)

s tu d ie d th e e f f e c t s o f r e a l a n d in an im a te m o th e r in g on th e d e v e lo p m e n t

o f v a r io u s p la y p a t t e r n s in m a c a q u e m o n k e y s . It w a s found th a t

from e a r ly in l i fe o n w a rd s th e r e a l m o thered in fa n ts show s u p e r io r i ty in s o c ia l p la y r e s p o n s e s o v e r th e s u r ro g a te -m o th e re d b a b ie s b o th in te rm s o f th e t im e o f a p p e a r a n c e o f the v a r io u s p la y p a t t e r n s a n d a l s o in te rm s o f th e c o m p le x i ty o f p la y p a t t e r n s w h ic h d e v e lo p during th e f i r s t y e a r of in fa n c y . . . . As the m o n k ey s a p p ro a c h th e e n d o f th e f i r s t y e a r o f l i f e , th e tem p o of th e i r p lay a c t i v i t i e s i n c r e a s e s a n d th e y com e more a n d more to in c o rp o ra te a l l a v a i l a b l e o b j e c t s — a n im a te a n d in an im a te — in to a p a t te rn o f in te g ra te d p l a y . . . . T h is p la y i s a lm o s t n o n - e x i s t e n t in th e s u r r o g a te - r a i s e d i n f a n t s . . . . [This finding] d e m o n s t r a te s c le a r ly t h a t th e m other p l a y s a n im portan t ro le in th e s u b s e q u e n t p e r s o n a l - s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t in h e r in fa n t [p p . 1 3 -1 5 ] .

It c a n , t h u s , be s e e n t h a t a n u n s a t i s f a c to r y p a r e n t - c h i ld r e l a t i o n ­

s h ip m ay a d v e r s e ly a f f e c t th e e x p lo ra to ry o r p la y b e h a v io r o f th e b l in d

c h i ld w h ic h , in tu r n , may a f f e c t th e s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c h i ld l a t e r

in l i f e . A lthough s e v e r a l s t u d i e s h a v e e x a m in e d th e s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t of

th e b l in d , m e th o d o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s m ake it d i f f ic u l t to d raw a n y

d e f in i te c o n c lu s io n s (P r in g le , 1 964 , p . 134). H o w e v e r , it i s g e n e r a l ly

a g re e d (W alte rs & P a rk e , 1965; M a x f ie ld & F je ld , 1942) t h a t d e f e c t s o f

v i s i o n a re a s s o c i a t e d w ith s o c i a l r e t a r d a t io n .

The r e a s o n for t h i s s o c i a l r e ta rd a t io n is no t k n o w n . W a l te r s and

P a rk e (1965) s u g g e s t th a t th e d i s t a n c e r e c e p to r s (v is io n a n d h e a r in g )

p la y an im portan t p a r t in s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t . In the a b s e n c e o f the

d i s t a n c e r e c e p to r s s u c h a s in b l in d , d e a f , a n d d e a f - b l in d i n f a n t s , s o c ia l

in te r a c t io n m ay b e more d i f f ic u l t to m a in ta in a n d s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t

w o u ld be c u r t a i l e d , Som m ers (1944) b e l i e v e s th a t th e p e r s o n a l a n d

s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s o f th e b l in d a d o le s c e n t a r e du e to s o c ia l

a t t i t u d e s and c o n d i t io n s su rro u n d in g th e b l in d ra th e r t h a n from th e d i s ­

a b i l i t y i t s e l f . N o r r i s , S p a u ld in g , a n d Brodie (195 7) s t a t e th a t n o s p e c ia l

p ro b lem s c an be a t t r ib u te d d i r e c t ly to b l i n d n e s s . In th e s tu d y o f th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p re s c h o o l b l in d c h i l d , th e y found t h a t fa v o ra b le

o p p o r tu n i t i e s for le a rn in g (in t h i s c a s e a s e c u r e e m o t io n a l c l im a te in

w h ic h th e c h i ld is a l lo w e d freedom to e x p lo re ) a re "more im p o rtan t in

d e te rm in in g th e c h i l d ' s fu n c t io n in g l e v e l th a n s u c h f a c to r s a s h i s d e g re e

o f b l i n d n e s s , h i s i n te l l ig e n c e a s m e a su re d by p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s , or

th e s o c i a l , e c o n o m ic , o r e d u c a t io n a l b a c k g ro u n d of h i s p a r e n t s [p . 6 5 ] . "

K now ledge o f th e m o th e r - c h i ld r e l a t i o n s h ip a n d e x p lo ra to ry

b e h a v io r is no t s u f f ic ie n t a t t h i s tim e to in d ic a te w h e th e r o r no t th e

e f f e c t s o f one a re t o t a l l y t i e d to th e o th e r in th e c a s e o f th e b l in d c h i l d .

T h ere i s r e a s o n to b e l ie v e t h a t if t h e b l in d c h i ld i s s e c u r e in h i s p a re n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p , e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r m ay d e v e lo p no rm ally in s p i t e o f the

s e n s o r y d e fe c t (N o rr is , S p a u ld in g , & B rod ie , 1957). But it r e m a in s to be

s e e n i f , in s p i te o f a d a m a g e d r e l a t i o n s h i p , th e b l in d c h i ld m ay w ith

53

he lp from o u ts id e s o u r c e s d e v e lo p s a t i s f a c to r y e x p lo ra to ry o r p lay

b e h a v io r w h ic h w ould l e a d to n o rm al s o c ia l d e v e lo p m e n t . H arlow (19 61}

h a s s u g g e s t e d th a t p e e r r e l a t i o n s h ip m ay a l s o be im p o r tan t in s o c ia l

d e v e lo p m e n t w h e n he s t a t e s t h a t "one sh o u ld u s e g r e a t c a u t io n in in te r ­

p re t in g t h e e f f e c t s o f m o th e r - in fa n t r e l a t i o n s h ip s or th e e f f e c t s o f a n y

k ind o f e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e , s in c e i t is o b v io u s t h a t t h e in te r a c t io n of

t h e s e tw o a f f e c t io n a l s y s t e m s — m a te rn a l an d i n f a n t - i n f a n t - - i s ve ry

im p o rtan t [p . 2 9 ] . " T h u s , it m ay b e p o s s ib l e th a t an a d e q u a te p e e r

r e l a t i o n s h ip may m ake u p to som e e x te n t fo r a d a m a g e d in fa n t -m o th e r

r e l a t i o n s h i p .

I n t e l l e c tu a l D ev e lo p m en t

The m o s t g e n e ra l ly r e c o g n iz e d fu n c t io n of s p o n ta n e o u s p lay h a s

b e e n in a s p e c t s r e la t in g to th e e m o t io n a l g row th o f t h e c h i l d . Almy

(1967) h a s s u g g e s te d t h a t in f a c t th e re is su c h a p e r v a s iv e an d p e r s i s t e n t

p re o c c u p a t io n w ith the e m o t io n a l a s p e c t s o f p la y t h a t i t s i n te l l e c tu a l

c o n n o ta t io n s h a v e b e e n s e v e r e ly n e g le c t e d e v e n th o u g h th e ro le o f

s p o n ta n e o u s p lay in i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t h a d b e e n r e c o g n iz e d

e a r l i e r . I s a a c s (1933) h a s d e s c r ib e d im a g in a t iv e a n d m a n ip u la t iv e p la y

a s " the s t a r t i n g po in t w h ic h l e a d s to th e c h i l d ' s d i s c o v e r y , r e a s o n in g

and th o u g h t [p . 2 0 9 ] . " Im a g in a t iv e p la y c r e a t e s

p r a c t i c a l s i tu a t io n s w h ic h m ay o f ten be p u rsu e d for t h e i r own s a k e , an d t h u s l e a d on to a c t u a l d i s c o v e r y , or to v e r b a l ju d gm en t and r e a s o n i n g . . . . It b u i ld s a b r id g e by w h ic h th e c h i ld c a n p a s s from t h e sy m b o lic v a lu e s o f t h in g s to a c t iv e in q u iry in to th e i r r e a l

54

c o n s t r u c t io n a n d r e a l w a y o f w o rk in g . . . . And in h i s m ak e - b e l i e v e p lay he t a k e s th e f i r s t s t e p s to w a rd s t h a t e m a n c ip a t io n o f m e a n in g s from th e h e re a n d now o f a c o n c r e te s i t u a t i o n , w hich m a k e s p o s s ib le h y p o th e s i s and the " a s if" c o n s c i o u s n e s s [p . 2 0 9 ] .

S u tto n -S m ith (1967) in a d i s c u s s i o n of th e ro le o f p lay in c o g n i t iv e

d e v e lo p m e n t s u g g e s t s th e p o s s ib i l i t y th a t p la y p ro d u c e s a " su p e r ­

a b u n d a n c e o f c o g n i t io n s a s w e l l a s a r e a d i n e s s fo r th e ad o p tio n o f a n

' a s i f ’ s e t , bo th of w h ic h a re p o te n t i a l ly a v a i l a b l e if c a l l e d upon for

a d a p t iv e o r c r e a t iv e r e q u i r e m e n ts [p . 10 7 ] . "

P ia g e t (1947), in h i s in v e s t ig a t io n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e f in e s it a s

a n a d a p t iv e p r o c e s s . A d a p ta t io n i s th e e q u il ib iru m b e tw e e n th e a c t io n

o f th e o rg a n is m o n th e e n v iro n m e n t , " a s s i m i l a t i o n , " a n d th e a c t io n o f

th e e n v iro n m en t on th e o rg a n is m , " a c c o m m o d a t io n ." A ss im ila t io n is th e

a c t io n o f th e o rg an ism to m odify th e e n v iro n m e n t by im p o s in g on it a

s t r u c tu r e o f i t s o w n , w h i le a t th e sam e t im e , th e e n v iro n m en t fo rc e s t h e

o rg a n is m to m odify i t s e l f , a c c o m m o d a t io n , to r e a l i t y . A dap ta tion o c c u r s

w h e n th e r e is a n e q u il ib r iu m b e tw e e n th e a c t io n o f th e o rg an ism an d i t s

e n v iro n m e n t . The in d iv id u a l i s no t a d a p te d w h e n e i t h e r p r o c e s s p re ­

d o m in a t e s .

It h a s b e e n p re v io u s ly d i s c u s s e d in t h i s p a p e r th a t th e b lind c h i ld

f in d s i t more d if f ic u l t to c o n tro l or m a s te r the e n v iro n m e n t . E x tra p o la t in g

from P i a g e t ' s c o n c e p ts to in c lu d e c o n s id e r a t io n s o f th e b l in d c h i ld , i t i s

p o s s ib l e t o s a y th a t th e b l in d c h i ld m ay be a t a d i s a d v a n ta g e w hen it

c o m e s to m odify ing th e e n v iro n m e n t by im p o s in g o n i t a s t ru c tu re o f i t s

55

o w n a n d h e th e r e f o r e d o e s n o t a c h i e v e e q u i l ib r iu m s in c e th e p r o c e s s o f

a c c o m m o d a t io n p r e d o m i n a t e s , P ia g e t (1952) h a s d e s c r i b e d p la y a s th e

" e x t re m e p o le o f a s s i m i l a t i o n of th e r e a l i t y t o th e e g o w h i le a t th e sa m e

t im e it h a s s o m e th in g o f t h e c r e a t iv e im a g in a t io n w h ic h w i l l b e th e m oto r

o f a l l fu tu re th o u g h t a n d e v e n o f r e a s o n [ p . 1 6 2 ] . " T h u s , p l a y m igh t

o f f e r t h e o p p o r tu n i ty fo r t h e y o u n g b l in d c h i l d to m odify th e e n v iro n m e n t

a n d a c h i e v e e q u i l i b r iu m . H o w e v e r , a s p r e v i o u s ly p o in te d o u t , th e

l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e b l in d c h i l d r e s o r t s to p la y l e s s f r e q u e n t ly

t h a n th e s e e in g c h i l d . T h u s o n e m ig h t r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t to f in d som e

d i s t o r t i o n in th e s e n s e o f r e a l i t y a n d l a c k o f c r e a t i v i t y in th e b l in d

c h i l d , a n d o th e r r e l a t e d d i s t u r b a n c e s .

T h e s e n s e o f r e a l i t y

B lind c h i ld r e n a r e fo rc e d t o o b ta in t h e i r k n o w le d g e o f r e a l i t y o f

o b j e c t s a n d s i t u a t i o n s th ro u g h th e s e n s e s o t h e r th a n v i s i o n . To th e

s e e i n g , h o w e v e r , t h e s e n s e o f v i s i o n i s t h e u n ify in g a g e n t w h ic h a l l o w s

t h e in d iv id u a l t o o b s e r v e s i t u a t i o n s in a n a l l e n c o m p a s s in g m a n n e r . The

s e n s e o f s ig h t a l s o o r g a n i z e s d i s c r e t e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d f a c i l i t a t e s t h e

r e d u c t io n o f form v a r i e t i e s to s im p le r p a t t e r n s o r s c h e m a t a . The

e x p e r i e n c e s o f th e b l in d c h i ld re m a in d i s c r e t e a n d u n o rg a n iz e d u n l e s s

g u id e d o b s e r v a t io n l e n d s o r g a n iz a t i o n to th e m (L o w e n fe ld , 1 9 6 3 , p . 2 4 5 ) .

W i l l s (1965) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s i s th e s e c o n d ro le o f th e m o th e r o f

56

th e b lin d c h i ld . The b l in d c h i ld w i l l d ep en d on h is m other to h e lp him to

some k ind of s y n th e s i s through the e x p e r ie n c e s sh e p ro v id e s .

O th e rw ise he w il l be f looded by a w ide range of p e rc e p t io n s from h is d if fe ren t s e n s e s ; a n d , w ith o u t th e a id o f v i s io n , he w il l not know w h ic h to a t te n d to and so w i l l h ave d if f ic u l ty in o rg an iz in g them in to c o n c e p t s . T his in tu rn w i l l ho ld up s e c o n d a r y - p r o c e s s th in k in g [pp . 3 6 1 -3 6 2 ] .

The d i f f ic u l ty o f the b lind c h i ld in a c h ie v in g an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f

th e e x te rn a l w orld h a s b e en no ted b y s e v e ra l w r i te r s (C ohen , 1966;

L ow en fe ld , 1963; W i l l s , 1965). L ow enfeld (1963) h a s s t a t e d th a t sp e c ia l

o p p o r tu n i t ie s for o b se rv a t io n w i l l h e lp b lin d c h i ld re n "avo id fa l l in g in to

a p a t te rn of u n re a l i ty w h ich so o f ten in te r fe re s w ith th e i r l a t e r a d ju s tm e n t

to the req u ire m e n ts o f l ife [p . 2 4 6 ] . " G e s e l l , I lg , and B ullis (1949) have

s t a te d th a t " the p s y c h o lo g ic a l t a s k o f th e b l in d infant i s to . . . a c h ie v e

a n a p p re c ia t io n of r e a l i t i e s o th er th a n h i s own ego [p . 2 6 4 ] . " D e u ts c h

(1940) in v e s t ig a te d th e s e n s e o f r e a l i ty in p e r s o n s born b l in d a n d found a

s tr ik in g r e a d in e s s to g iv e up r e a l i ty a n d e s c a p e in to f a n t a s y .

The se e in g c h i l d , in h is s p o n ta n e o u s p la y , t a k e s in r e a l i ty in h is

own e g o c e n tr ic a n d a f f e c t - l a d e n w a y . T h is i s n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e th e

c h i ld c a n n o t Im m edia te ly a d ap t to th e sy s te m of lo g ic a l th o u g h t th a t

c h a r a c te r i z e s a d u lt th in k in g (Almy, 1967), According to P ia g e t (1962)

" th is th o u g h t h a s n o t b e e n c o n s t r u c te d , and during d ev e lo p m en t it i s

In ad eq u a te to su p p ly th e n e e d s of d a i ly l i fe [p . 1 6 6 ] ." The c o n s t ru c t io n

o f lo g ic a l th o u g h t d e p e n d s not on ly on th e c h i ld 's a c t iv i ty w ith m a te r ia l

t h in g s , b u t a l s o on h i s s o c ia l c o l la b o ra t io n w ith o ther c h i ld re n .

57

In te ra c t io n w ith h is p e e r s in th e s o c i a l g i v e - a n d - t a k e o f s p o n ta n e o u s

p la y c o n fro n ts him w i th th e n e c e s s i t y o f acco m m o d a tin g h im s e l f to t h e i r

i d e a s a n d s in c e t h e s e id e a s a re no t s o s t r ik in g ly d i f f e re n t from h is o w n ,

a d a p ta t io n i s more r e a d i ly made to p e e r th o u g h t th a n to t h e th o u g h t o f th e

o ld e r p e rso n (Almy, 1967).

W ri te r s w ho h a v e d e a l t w ith p l a y b e h a v io r h a v e r e c o g n iz e d the

im p ortan ce o f p la y in d e v e lo p in g a s e n s e of r e a l i ty in c h i ld r e n . I s a a c s

(1933) s t a t e s o f f ree d ra m a tic p la y th a t " i t fu r th e rs th e d e v e lo p m e n t of

th e e g o , an d o f th e s e n s e of r e a l i t y . It h e lp s to f ree th e c h i ld from h is

p e r s o n a l s c h e m a s , a n d to e n h a n c e h i s r e a d i n e s s t o u n d e r s t a n d the

o b je c t iv e p h y s i c a l w o r ld for i t s ow n s a k e [p . 210] . " A ccord ing to

E rik so n (19 50) th e c h i ld m ust d i s c o v e r

w h a t p o te n t ia l p la y c o n te n t c a n be a d m it te d o n ly to f a n t a s y or on ly to a u to c o s m ic p la y ; w h a t c o n te n t c a n b e s u c c e s s f u l l y r e p r e s e n te d o n ly in th e m ic ro c o s m ic w orld of t o y s a n d th in g s ; a n d w h a t c o n te n t c a n be s h a re d w i th o th e r s an d fo rc e d upon th e m . As t h i s i s l e a r n e d e a c h s p h e re i s e n d o w ed w i th i t s own s e n s e o f r e a l i t y and m a s te ry [p . 194 ] ,

L an g u a g e a n d a b s t r a c t fu n c t io n in g

An im po rtan t s t e p in the d e v e lo p m e n t of in te l l ig e n c e o c c u r s w hen

th e c h i ld is a b le to w i th d ra w from th e a c t u a l o b j e c t s o f th e r e a l w orld

a n d to d e a l w ith in te r n a l ly o rg a n iz e d c o n c e p tu a l s y s te m s w h ic h r e p r e s e n t

r e a l i t y . A ccord ing to P ia g e t (194 7) t h i s o c c u r s w h en th e c h i ld is a b le to

d i s t in g u i s h b e tw e e n s l q n i f i e r s , w h ic h a re th e in te rn a l r e p r e s e n ta t i o n s ,

s u c h a s an im age o r a w o rd , th a t s t a n d s for some a s p e c t o f r e a l i t y w h ic h

58

m ay b e p r e s e n t or a b s e n t , r e a l o r im a g in e d , and th e s i g n i f i c a t e s , w h ic h

a re th e o b j e c t s or c o n s t r u c t s s y m b o l iz e d .^ W h ile th e y o u n g e r c h i ld 3

c a n u s e a few ru d im e n ta ry s i g n i f i e r s , he d o e s not r e c o g n iz e th em a s

s u c h . The o ld e r o r h i g h e r - l e v e l c h i ld i s a b le to e v o k e in te rn a l ly an

a s p e c t o f th e w orld w h ic h is not p e r c e p tu a l ly p r e s e n t , a n d to re c o g n iz e

t h a t t h i s i s w h a t h e i s d o in g . P ia g e t fu r th e r d i s t i n g u i s h e s tw o k in d s of

h i g h e r - l e v e l s ig n i f i e r s , th e sym bol a n d th e s i g n . S ym bols a re th e

p r i v a t e , p r im ar ily n o n v e rb a l s ig n i f ie r s w h ic h th e c h i ld c a n n o t s h a r e .

S ig n s a re th e la rg e ly v e r b a l s ig n i f ie r s w h ic h h ave a c q u i r e d a s o c ia l

m e a n in g an d a l lo w th e c h i ld to c o m m u n ic a te w ith o th e r p e r s o n s . But th e

you ng c h i ld f in d s t h e s y s te m o f r e a d y - m a d e c o l l e c t iv e s i g n s in a d e q u a te ,

s i n c e th e y a re i n a c c e s s i b l e an d h a rd t o m a s te r , a n d th e re fo re t h e s e

v e r b a l s ig n s w i l l r e m a in u n s u i ta b le fo r a lo n g t im e . H e n c e , th e c h i ld

w i l l r e q u ire " sy m b o lic p la y or im a g in a t iv e p l a y , th e p u r e s t form of

e g o c e n t r i c a n d s y m b o l ic th o u g h t , th e a s s im i l a t i o n o f r e a l i t y t o th e s u b ­

j e c t ' s ow n i n t e r e s t s a n d th e e x p r e s s io n o f r e a l i t y th ro u g h th e u se of

Im a g e s fa s h io n e d b y h im s e l f [p . 12 7 ] . "

M a rg a re t L o w en fe ld (1935) h a s p o in te d ou t t h a t c h i ld r e n a re u n ab le

t o a r t i c u l a t e th e i r e x p e r i e n c e s s in c e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e a d if fe re n t

2The b r ie f d i s c u s s i o n o f P i a g e t ' s t h e o ry h a s b e e n c o n d e n s e d from

H . B. R obinson a n d N . M . R o b in son , The M e n ta l ly R e ta rd e d C h i ld : A P s y c h o lo g ic a l A pproach (New York: M c G r a w -H i l l , 1966).

3T h is In c lu d e s th e c h i ld from b i r th t o tw o y e a r s d u r in g th e f i r s t

s e n s o r im o to r p e r io d in t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f i n te l l i g e n c e .

59

b a s i s th a n th o s e of a d u l t s . For e x a m p le , fo r t h e young c h i ld th e s e n s e s

o f s m e l l , t a s t e an d to u c h a re m uch more im p o rtan t th a n t h o s e o f h e a r in g

a n d v i s i o n . T h e re fo re , th e a d u l t , w ho i s d e p e n d e n t on h e a r in g a n d

v i s i o n , c a n n o t im ag in e w h a t th e c h i ld i s e x p e r i e n c in g . T h is is a

s im i la r p o s i t io n a s t h a t o f P ia g e t w h e n he d i s c u s s e s th e n e e d of c h i ld re n

t o a s s i m i l a t e e x p e r i e n c e s a t th e i r ow n l e v e l . As n o ted p r e v io u s ly ,

P ia g e t d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n sy m b o ls w h ic h a re th e p r iv a te , p r im a r i ly

n o n v e rb a l s ig n i f ie r s w h ic h th e in d iv id u a l c a n n o t sh a re a n d s ig n s w h ic h

a re l a r g e ly v e rb a l s i g n i f i e r s w h ic h h a v e a c q u i r e d a s o c ia l m e a n in g . The

m e a n s b y w h ic h a c h i ld p r o g r e s s e s from th e p r iv a te to th e s o c i a l s ig n i f ie r

m ay v e r y w e l l be t h a t o f p la y e x p e r i e n c e s . H a r t l e y , F ra n k , a n d

G o ld e n s o n (1952) s t a t e th a t th e v a lu e o f p l a y e x p e r i e n c e s may be th a t

" th e y t a k e an in te rm e d ia te p la c e b e tw e e n th e i n a r t i c u l a t e , s u b je c t iv e

im p r e s s io n s and th e s t r u c tu r e d la n g u a g e a n d p r e s c r ib e d c o n d u c t o f a d u l t

s o c i a l c o m m u n ica tio n [ p . 1 8 ] ."

I f w e now turn t o B u r l in g h a m 's (1961) d i s c u s s i o n of th e d e v e lo p ­

m en t o f la n g u a g e in th e b l in d c h i ld , it b e c o m e s a p p a re n t th a t an

e m p h a s i s is p la c e d o n v e r b a l iz a t io n b e fo re the n e c e s s a r y , p re v io u s n o n ­

v e rb a l d e v e lo p m e n t o c c u r s . A ccord ing to B urlingham , it a p p e a r s th a t

b l in d c h i l d r e n , a f t e r a n i n i t i a l d e l a y , p ic k up s p e e c h q u ic k ly a n d by th e

t im e t h e y r e a c h n u r s e ry s c h o o l ag e th e y s p e a k f lu e n t ly a n d h a v e la rg e r

v o c a b u l a r i e s th a n s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

60

T his i s o n e o f th e s p h e re s t h a t m o th e rs e n c o u r a g e . S p eech p r o ­v id e s a lo n g e d - fo r c o n ta c t t h a t th e m o the rs h a v e m is s e d . T hey have l a c k e d th e r e s p o n s e to th e i r g la n c e an d to th e i r f a c ia l e x p r e s s i o n s . S p e e c h not o n ly m a k e s up for t h i s b u t a l s o r e a s s u r e s th e m o th e r t h a t he r c h i ld i s n o t b a c k w a rd a s w e l l a s b l in d . . . [p . 136].

Burlingham c o n t in u e s th a t w h ile c h i ld r e n n o rm ally im ita te t h e i r m o th e r 's

s p e e c h a n d t h i s l e a d s to no d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n th e i r c o n c e p ts a n d th e i r

m o th e r 's b e c a u s e th e v i s u a l im p re s s io n s w h ic h a re v e rb a l iz e d a re sh a re d

b y b o th , t h i s d o e s n o t o c c u r w ith th e b l in d c h i ld a n d m o the r . The m other

o f th e b l in d c h i ld m ay in m any c a s e s , c o n tin u e to v e rb a l iz e b a s e d on

v i s u a l im p re s s io n s w h ic h th e b l in d c h i ld c a n n o t s h a r e , r a th e r t h a n o f fe r ­

ing to the c h i ld w o rd s b a s e d on h i s w o rld o f s o u n d s , t a c t i l e p e r c e p t i o n s ,

a n d body s e n s a t i o n s . W h ile in t h i s w a y , th e w o rd s v e rb a l iz e d b y th e

c h i ld a re n o t c o n n e c te d to h is own s e n s o r y e x p e r ie n c e a n d l a c k th e

e m o tio n a l s t r e n g th n e e d e d to in c o rp o ra te t h e s e w o rd s into th e c h i l d ' s

v o c a b u la ry in a n in d e p e n d e n t m e a n in g fu l w a y , th e w o rd s d e r iv e e m o t io n a l

m ean ing b a s e d on th e m o th e r 's p l e a s u r e an d p r a i s e fo r h i s a c h ie v e m e n t .

"The b l in d c h i ld w h o l e a r n s th e m o th e r 's l a n g u a g e t a k e s an e a s y w a y out;

t h a t i s , he a p p e a r s to a c q u ire u n d e rs ta n d in g w h i le in r e a l i t y he a c q u i r e s

o n ly w ords [p . 136]. "

L ow en fe ld (1 963 , p . 248) r e f e r s to th e d i f f ic u l ty of th e b l in d c h i ld

t o a c q u ire a d e q u a te w ord c o n c e p t s . C u ts fo r th (1932) s tu d ie d " v e rb a l

u n r e a l i t y , " t h a t i s , le a rn in g to nam e th in g s w i th o u t h a v in g a n y r e a l

e x p e r ie n c e o r id e a of th e m , an d fo u n d t h a t th e b l in d c h i ld re n u s e d v i s u a l

c o n c e p ts w h e n o th e r s e n s o r y c o n c e p t s b a s e d on f a m il ia r e x p e r i e n c e s

c o u ld h a v e b e e n u s e d a n d w o u ld h a v e b e e n m ore m e a n in g fu l . A l a t e r

s tu d y b y N o la n (1960) in d ic a te d t h a t v i s u a l l y o r ie n te d v e rb a l is m w a s no

lo n g e r th e p rob lem d i s c u s s e d by C u t s f o r th , d u e , p o s s ib l y , a s s u g g e s te d

b y L ow enfe ld (1 9 6 3 , p . 2 4 9 ) , t o m odern m e th o d s of in s t r u c t io n b rough t

a b o u t b y C u t s f o r t h 's f in d in g s . H o w e v e r , H a r le y (1963) d id f ind th a t

v e rb a l is m c a u s e d b y th e l a c k o f c o n c r e t e n e s s and f i r s t h a n d e x p e r ie n c e

c o n t in u e s to b e a n im portan t p ro b le m . H a r le y s t a t e s th a t " a s th e b l in d

c h i ld b e c o m e s s c h o o le d in v e rb a l i s m s (words a n d c o n c e p ts to w h ic h he

c a n a t t a c h in s u f f i c i e n t e x p e r i e n t i a l r e la t io n s ) he m ay o f ten a c c e p t v e rb a l

d e s c r ip t io n s o f o th e r s in s te a d o f g a in in g th e n e c e s s a r y im p re s s io n s from

c o n c re te e x p e r i e n c e s th rou gh h i s s e n s e s [p . 9 ] . The i te m s u s e d in the

s tu d y w ere i te m s e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o a l l t h e c h i ld re n in v o lv e d . T hey

w ere so fa m i l ia r t h a t a s i x - y e a r o ld s u b je c t w a s a b le to d e f in e a l l o f

th e m , y e t th e o l d e s t b l in d c h i ld o f fo u r te e n c o u ld n o t a c c u r a t e ly id en t ify

tw e n ty - fo u r o f th e tw e n ty -n in e o b j e c t s r e p r e s e n te d by th e w o r d s .

H a r le y s t a t e s t h a t " if in te l l ig e n c e c o n s i s t s p a r t ly o f th e a b i l i t y to

o rg a n iz e c o n c re te m a te r ia ls in s p a c e a n d t im e so a s to c a r ry o u t d e f in i te

a im s , a n d if t h e a b i l i t y to o rg a n iz e c o n c re te m a te r ia l s d e p e n d s to som e

e x te n t on p a s t e x p e r ie n c e w i th t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , l im i te d c o n ta c t w i th th e

e n v iro n m en t s h o u ld h a v e som e e f f e c t upon m e a su re d in te l l ig e n c e o f t h e s e

b l in d c h i ld r e n [ p . 2 6 ] . "

62

Rubin (1964) i n v e s t i g a t e d the a b i l i t y o f th e c o n g e n i ta l ly b l in d to

a b s t r a c t a s m e a su re d by a s e r i e s o f t e s t s in c lu d in g p a r t s o f th e W AI3,

P r o v e r b 's T e s t and th e Kohn T e s t o f Symbol A rran g em en t. Ke d e f in e d

a b s t r a c t i o n a s "the a b i l i t y to co m preh en d r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d to r e a c t ,

no t m e re ly to c o n c re te o b j e c t s , bu t to c o n c e p ts an d a b s t r a c t s y m b o ls ,

o r t o d i s c e r n common e le m e n t s in m is c e l l a n e o u s s t im u l i [p . 2 3 ] , " H e

c o n c lu d e d th a t th e re w a s an in d ic a t io n o f a d e f i c ie n c y in th e a b i l i ty of

th e c o n g e n i ta l ly b l in d s u b j e c t s to a b s t r a c t .

C r e a t iv i ty

As p re v io u s ly n o t e d , P ia g e t (1962) d e s c r i b e s p la y a s h av in g

" so m e th in g o f th e c re a t iv e im a g in a t io n . . . [ p . 1 6 2 ] ." L eiberm an

(1965) s tu d ie d th e r e l a t io n b e tw e e n c h i l d r e n ' s p l a y f u ln e s s a n d th e i r

c r e a t i v i t y . She found a s ig n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n p l a y f u ln e s s a n d

a b i l i t y on s e v e r a l c re a t iv e t a s k s . W a l la c h a n d Kogan (1965) found t h a t

w h e n c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s w e re g iv e n in a s i tu a t io n w h e re th e s u b j e c t s w e re

f re e d from u s u a l t e s t p r e s s u r e s an d th e t e s t s w e re a p p ro a c h e d in a g a m e ­

l ik e m a n n e r , c re a t iv i ty s c o r e s d if fe red from c o n v e n t io n a l t e s t s c o r e s .

T hey c o n c lu d e d th a t c r e a t iv i ty i s so m e th in g d i f fe re n t from c o n v e n t io n a l

in te l l ig e n c e a n d th a t a p la y fu l a t t i tu d e i s n e c e s s a r y for th e c re a t iv e

p r o c e s s .

S u tto n -S m ith (1967) p r e s e n t s th e v ie w p o in t th a t

63

w h en a c h i ld p l a y s w i th p a r t i c u la r o b j e c t s , v a ry in g h i s r e s p o n s e s w i th them p l a y f u l ly , he in c r e a s e s th e ra n g e o f h i s a s s o c i a t i o n s for th o s e p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t s . In a d d i t i o n , he d i s c o v e r s m any more u s e s for t h o s e o b j e c t s th a n he w o u ld o t h e r w i s e . Some o f t h e s e u s a g e s m ay b e u n iq u e to h im s e l f a n d m any w i l l be " i m a g i n a t i v e , " " f a n t a s t i c , " " a b s u r d , " a n d p e rh a p s " s e r e n d i p i t o u s . " P re s u m a b ly , a lm o s t a n y th in g in th e c h i l d ' s r e p e r to i r e o f r e s p o n s e s or c o g n i t io n s c a n th u s b e c o m b in e d w ith a n y th in g e l s e for a n o v e l r e s u l t , th o u g h w e w ou ld n a tu r a l ly e x p e c t r e c e n t a n d in te n s e e x p e r i e n c e s to p la y a s a l i e n t r o l e . W h ile it i s p ro b a b le t h a t m ost o f t h i s a s s o c i a t i v e an d c o m b in a to r ia l a c t i v i t y i s of n o u t i l i t y e x c e p t a s a s e l f - e x p r e s s i v e , s e l f - r e w a r d in g e x e r c i s e , it i s a l s o p ro b a b le th a t t h i s a c t iv i t y i n c r e a s e s th e c h i l d ' s r e p e r to i r e o f r e s p o n s e s a n d c o g n i ­t io n s so t h a t if h e is a s k e d " c r e a t iv i ty " q u e s t io n s in v o lv in g s im i la r o b j e c t s a n d a s s o c i a t i o n s , he i s more l ik e ly to be a b le to m ake a u n iq u e {that is c re a t iv e ) r e s p o n s e . T hat is to s a y th a t p la y i n c r e a s e s th e c h i l d ' s r e p e r to ire o f r e s p o n s e s , a n in c r e a s e w h ic h h a s p o t e n t i a l v a lu e (though no in e v i ta b le u t i l i ty ) fo r s u b ­s e q u e n t a d a p t iv e r e s p o n s e s [p p . 1 0 1 -1 0 2 ] .

S u t to n -S m ith h y p o th e s iz e d th a t c h i ld re n w o u ld sh o w a g r e a t e r r e p e r to i r e

o f r e s p o n s e s for t h o s e t o y s w ith w h ic h th e y h a d p la y e d a g re a t d e a l th a n

for th o s e to y s w i th w h ic h th e y h a d p la y e d l e s s ; o r more s p e c i f i c a l l y ,

b o y s a n d g i r l s w o u ld h a v e a g r e a te r r e p e r to i r e o f r e s p o n s e s w ith o b j e c t s

o f th e i r own s e x th a n fo r o p p o s i te s e x o b j e c t s . T h is p ro v ed to b e th e

c a s e a n d s in c e th e n u m ber o f r e s p o n s e s w e r e no t r e l a t e d to i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

S u t to n -S m ith in te rp r e te d th e r e s u l t s a s a n e x a m p le o f th e w a y In w h ic h

r e s p o n s e s d e v e lo p e d in p la y may be pu t to a d a p t iv e u s e w h e n th e re is a

d e m a n d . M ore g e n e r a l ly s p e a k in g , a n In d iv id u a l w ho i s c a p a b le o f a

w id e r ra n g e o f a d a p t iv e r e s p o n s e s m ay b e b e t t e r e q u ip p e d to f a c e s i t u ­

a t i o n s o f c r i s i s . T h i s , a n d I t s r e l a t io n to th e b l in d c h i l d , h a s b e e n d i s ­

c u s s e d u n d e r t h e t o p ic o f e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r .

64

T h ere h a v e b e e n no s t u d i e s s p e c i f i c a l ly c o n c e rn e d w ith the

c r e a t iv i ty o f th e b l in d c h i l d . A n n e -M a r ie S a n d le r (1963) s t a t e s o f b l in d

c h i ld re n s h e h a s o b s e rv e d t h a t " th e i r a c t iv i t y d o e s n o t a p p e a r to l e a d to

th e sa m e c r e a t i v i ty a s in th e s ig h te d c h i ld . T hey sh o w im p o v e r ish m en t

o f t h e i r in n e r l i f e , w h ic h l e a d s to th e r e l a t i v e 'e m p tin e s s* of th e b l i n d ,

so o f te n d e s c r ib e d in th e l i t e r a tu r e [p . 3 5 9 ] , " S in g e r a n d S tre in e r (1966)

s p e a k c o n c e rn in g b l in d c h i ld r e n o f t h e i r l a c k o f e x p lo ra to ry b e h a v io r ,

w h ic h b e h a v io r " p ro v id e s th e b a s i s for n o v e l a s s o c i a t i v e c o m b in a t io n s

t h a t b e c o m e th e food o f f a n t a s y [p . 4 8 1 ] . " M cAndrew (1962) found th a t

th e b l in d w e re more r ig id a n d f e a re d v e n tu r in g in to s t r a n g e t e r r i to ry a s

e x e m p l i f ie d b y th e s t a te m e n t : “I o n ly know how to m ake w h a t y ou

t a u g h t me [p . 3 7 6 ] ."

E m otiona l D e v e lo p m e n t

T he ro le o f p la y in e m o t io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t h a s b e e n w id e ly a c c e p te d

a n d m uch h a s b e e n w r i t te n c o n c e rn in g th e in v o lv e m e n t o f p la y b e h a v io r

in th e e m o t io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h i ld r e n . A xline (1947) s t a t e s t h a t

" p la y i s th e c h i l d ' s n a tu r a l m edium of s e l f e x p r e s s io n a n d th u s o f f e r s th e

c h i ld a n o p p o r tu n ity to p l a y o u t h i s a c c u m u la te d f e e l in g s o f t e n s i o n ,

f r u s t r a t i o n , in s e c u r i ty , a g g r e s s i o n , f e a r , b e w i ld e rm e n t , c o n fu s io n

[p . 1 6 ] . " I s a a c s (1950) d e s c r i b e s th e d e e p m e a n in g found in th e c h i l d ' s

p l a y .

65

If w e w a tc h . . . [ the ch ild ] w h en h e i s free to p l a y a s he w i l l , th e c h i ld sh o w s u s a l l t h a t h e is w ish in g an d f e a r in g , a l l t h a t he i s po ndering o v e r a n d a im in g to d o . He sh o w s u s w h a t th e g ro w n ­u p s a re to h im , w h a t a t t i t u d e s he p e r c e i v e s in th e m , w h a t h is f e e l in g s a re a b o u t th e m , a n d w h a t a re th e h a p p e n in g s in th e p h y s i c a l w orld w h ic h s t i r him to s e e k u n d e rs ta n d in g an d c o n tro l .I t i s th rough h i s p la y t h a t th e c h i ld t e l l s u s m ost a b o u t h i s n e e d s o f g row th [p . 4 8 ] .

M a k e b e l ie v e p la y h e lp s th e c h i ld

a c h i e v e in ner b a la n c e an d harm ony th ro u g h th e a c t iv e e x p re s s io n o f h i s inner w o rld o f f e e l in g s and im p u l s e s , a n d of th e p e o p le th a t d w e l l in h is in n er w o r ld . . . . W h en h e c a n , th ro u g h th e h ap p y c o o p e ra t io n of o th e r c h i ld r e n , e x p r e s s t h e s e p h a n ta s i e s in a c t iv e p l a y , h i s in n e r t e n s io n is e a s e d a n d a n e w e q u il ib r iu m o f m en ta l h e a l th and h a p p in e s s i s a t t a in e d [p . 6 9 ] .

S la v s o n (1948) f in d s t h a t " th rough p la y th e c h i ld e x p r e s s e s t r a u m a t ic

f i x a t i o n s , c o n f l i c t s a n d h o s t i l i t i e s . . . . The c h i ld a l s o u s e s p la y to

d i s g u i s e g en u in e c o n f l i c t s a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s , o r he m ay u s e p la y to r e la x

t e n s i o n an d a n x ie ty [ p . 3 2 0 ] . "

The l i t e ra tu re is r e p l e te w i th more c o m p le te d e s c r ip t io n s a n d d i s ­

c u s s i o n s of th e in v o lv e m e n t o f p la y in th e e m o t io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t of

c h i l d r e n . The n e e d for th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y i s to p o in t o u t t h a t

p l a y i s t h e m ajor s in g le m ea n s of s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n w i th in th e c h i l d ' s

c o n t r o l , and if t h i s p la y b e h a v io r , no t o n ly in i t s p r im it iv e form b u t in

i t s m ore c o m p lex , i n t e n s e e x p r e s s io n , is no t found to b e u s e d by b l in d

c h i l d r e n , an d if t h e r e is no o th e r s u b s t i t u t e b e h a v io r a v a i l a b l e , w e m ay

s u s p e c t th a t th e b l in d c h i ld m ay b e l a c k in g a n im p ortan t o u t le t n e c e s s a r y

fo r a h e a l th y e m o t io n a l g ro w th a n d d e v e lo p m e n t .

66

It h a s b e e n p re v io u s ly d i s c u s s e d t h a t th e b l in d c h i ld may h a v e

g r e a t e r f e e l in g s o f f r u s t r a t io n , i n s e c u r i ty , b e w i ld e rm e n t an d c o n fu s io n

due in p a r t to h i s p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y b u t a l s o due to e n v iro n m e n ta l

f a c t o r s . If t h i s s h o u ld be th e c a s e , it w o u ld be e x p e c te d th a t he w o u ld

n e e d a g r e a te r o p p o r tu n ity to e x p r e s s h i s f e e l in g s th a n th e s e e in g c h i ld

r a th e r th a n l e s s .

Very l i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n done in th i s a s p e c t o f d e v e lo p m e n t in

th e b l in d c h i l d . H o w ev e r , t h e r e is som e s u g g e s t io n th a t th e b l in d m ay

h a v e som e d i f f ic u l ty in h a n d l in g f e e l in g s o f a g g r e s s i o n .

A g g re ss io n

Burllngham (1961) h a s n o t ic e d a s t r ik in g s c a r c i ty o f free a g g r e s s iv e

e x p r e s s io n in th e g roup o f b l in d c h i ld re n u n d e r h e r o b s e rv a t io n w h e n c o m ­

p a re d to s e e in g c h i ld re n o f th e sam e a g e . She a t t r i b u t e s t h i s in p a r t to

th e b l in d c h i l d ' s g r e a te r d e p e n d e n c y w h ic h l e a d s to f e a r o f ab an d o n m en t

if he w e re t o e x p r e s s h i s a g g r e s s iv e f e e l in g s to w a rd th e p e r s o n on whom

h e i s d e p e n d e n t . In a d d i t io n , th e b l in d c h i ld re n

a re m ade u n e a s y by th e i r in a b i l i ty to c h e c k o n th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n a g g r e s s iv e a c t io n , t h a t im a g in a t io n a t t im e s l e a d s them to b e l ie v e t h a t w h a t th e y h a v e d on e h a s had c a t a s t r o p h i c r e s u l t s , a b e l i e f w h ic h m ay be s t r e n g th e n e d by e i t h e r th e e x c la m a t io n or by th e s i l e n c e o f th e a t t a c k e d c h i l d . T h is fe a r o f a g g r e s s io n is n a tu r a l ly s t r e n g th e n e d by t h e i r m o th e rs ' e x c e s s i v e c o n c e rn a b o u t a n y d a m a g e th a t th e y m ight c a u s e I n a d v e r te n t ly . The m o th e rs ' p ro te c t iv e a t t i tu d e to w a rd t h e i r b l in d c h i ld re n i s m a tc h e d a lm o s t in a l l i n s t a n c e s b y a n a n x io u s n e s s to p re v e n t a n y d a m a g e w h ic h t h e i r c h i ld c o u ld do to o th e r s [pp . 1 3 1 -1 3 3 ] .

67

J e rv i s a n d H a s le ru d (ISSO) s tu d ie d th e r e a c t i o n s o f b l in d a d o l e s ­

c e n t s co m p a red to s ig h te d a d o l e s c e n t s du ring a f ru s t r a t in g e x p e r im e n ta l

s i t u a t i o n . The b l in d a d o l e s c e n t s sh ow ed s ig n i f i c a n t ly more o v e r t

e m o t io n a l e x p r e s s io n s s u c h a s s ig h in g , to n g u e b i t i n g , and so fo r th ,

a n d t h e i r v e rb a l r e s p o n s e s w e re c h a r a c te r i z e d by h ig h in tro p u n i t iv e n e s s

w h i le t h e s ig h te d w e re h i g h e s t in im p un itive r e s p o n s e s . The a u th o r s

c o n c lu d e d th a t

th e a p p a r e n t v o lu b i l i ty a n d la rg e am ount o f o v e r t e m o tio n a l e x p r e s s io n in the b l in d d o no t re d u c e t e n s io n b e c a u s e in a n u n h e a l th y a n d im m ature w a y th e y g e n e r a l ly h a v e in tro p u n i t iv e r e f e r e n c e . The d e s i r a b i l i t y o f prom oting more d i r e c t o u t le t s for t e n s i o n s w o u ld se em in d ic a te d in th e e d u c a t io n of the b l in d [p . 7 5 ] .

J e rv is (1959) c o m p a red th e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f b l in d an d s ig h te d

a d o l e s c e n t s b y m ea n s o f o p e n - e n d e d in te rv ie w s a n d a m o d if ic a t io n o f th e

C h ic a g o C a r d - s o r t . A b re a k d o w n of th e d a ta sh o w e d th a t th e b l in d

a d o l e s c e n t s te n d e d to f e e l l e s s a b le to c o n tro l o u tb u r s t s o f te m p e r o r

a g g r e s s io n th a n th e s e e in g a d o l e s c e n t s . I t r e m a in s to be s e e n w h e th e r

th e b l in d do in du lge in o u tb u r s t s o f te m p e r more f re q u e n t ly or w h e th e r

th e y a r e more c o n c e rn e d a b o u t t h e i r e x p r e s s io n s o f a g g r e s s io n a s s u g ­

g e s t e d b y B urllngham .

Summary

There are references in the literature to indicate that blind

children play le s s than seein g children and that what play behavior is

exhibited is of relatively poor quality. These references deal primarily

68

w ith th e im p r e s s io n s o f in d iv id u a ls b a s e d on o b s e r v a t io n or e x p e r ie n c e

g a in e d from w o rk in g w ith b l in d c h i ld r e n . The o n e s tu d y w h ic h c o n c e rn e d

i t s e l f w i th t h e p la y b e h a v io r o f b l in d c h i ld re n g a th e r e d in fo rm ation from

s e l f r e p o r t s a n d in te rv ie w s o f s e e in g an d b l in d c h i ld re n a n d found th a t

b l in d c h i ld r e n la c k e d i m a g in a t iv e n e s s , f l e x ib i l i t y a n d a s s o c i a t i o n a l

v a r i e ty in t h e i r p l a y b e h a v io r .

The l i t e r a tu r e is r e p le te w i th th e im p o r tan c e o f p la y in th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h i ld re n in s u c h a r e a s a s s o c i a l , e m o t io n a l , and

in te l l e c tu a l g ro w th . If th e b l in d c h i ld is l a c k in g in su c h im portan t

b e h a v io r it m igh t b e e x p e c te d to f in d a d i s tu r b a n c e in th e d e v e lo p m e n t

o f b l in d c h i ld r e n in th o s e a r e a s o f grow th in w h ic h p la y b e h a v io r is

re p o r te d to c o n t r ib u te . The l i t e r a tu r e sho w s t h a t b l in d c h i ld re n do

e n c o u n te r d i f f i c u l t i e s in s o c ia l d e v e lo p m e n t , in a c h ie v in g a n a d e q u a te

s e n s e o f r e a l i t y . In d e a l in g w i th la n g u a g e a n d a b s t r a c t fu n c t io n in g , in

e x p r e s s io n s o f c r e a t i v i ty , a n d in c o n tro l l in g a n d e x p r e s s in g e m o t io n s .

W h ile t h e l i t e ra tu re I n d i c a te s t h a t b l in d c h i ld r e n do h av e d i f f i c u l ­

t i e s in t h e s e a r e a s o f g row th t h e r e i s no e v id e n c e to in d ic a te th a t b l in d ­

n e s s p e r s e i s th e c a u s e o f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , r a t h e r , th e re s e e m s to be

an in d ic a t io n t h a t a dam ag ed p a r e n t - c h i ld r e l a t i o n s h i p m ay in te r fe re w i th

norm al g ro w th . T h is poor r e l a t i o n s h ip m ay b e d u e to a r e j e c t i o n , o v e r t

o r in v e r t , o f th e c h i ld b y th e p a r e n t , or a m ore s u b t l e , u n in te n t io n a l

d is ru p t io n d u e to a la c k o f k n o w le d g e on th e p a r t o f th e p a re n t .

The l i t e r a tu r e a p p e a r s to in d ic a te v e ry s t ro n g ly t h a t p l a y , o f a h igh

q u a l i t y , c o n t r ib u te s to th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e c h i ld a n d if t h i s p la y i s

la c k in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c h i ld w i l l be d i s t u r b e d . I t w o u ld a p p e a r

to be o f p rim ary im p o rtan c e th a t a r i c h , h ig h ly e x p r e s s iv e p la y b e h a v io r

b e d e v e lo p e d , a n d i f n e c e s s a r y " ta u g h t" in i t s a b s e n c e , a n d th a t t h i s

sh o u ld be a t t a in e d b e fo re th e b l in d c h i ld is s t r u c tu r e d in to a n a c a d e m ic

s e t t i n g .

CHAPTER III

PROCEDURE

In tro d u c t io n

The p rim ary o b je c t iv e o f t h i s s tu d y w a s to id e n t i fy th e p la y

p a t t e r n s o f you ng b l in d c h i ld r e n . T h e s e p la y p a t t e r n s w e re r e l a te d

to t h o s e e x h ib i te d by s e e in g c h i ld r e n o f th e sam e a g e . T h is s tu d y d id

no t a t t e m p t to d e te rm in e th e c a u s e s fo r a n y d i f f e r e n c e s in p l a y w h ic h

m ight b e m a n i f e s te d , n o r d id it a t te m p t t o in fe r t h a t a n y d i f f e r e n c e s

t h a t m ig h t be found w e re du e to b l i n d n e s s . An a t te m p t w a s m ade to

a v o id c re a t in g a n a r t i f i c i a l s i t u a t i o n b y a rb i t r a ry m a n ip u la t io n o r

s e l e c t i o n o f th e c o m p o n e n ts o f e i t h e r g ro u p w h ich w o u ld d e s t r o y th e

t y p i c a l n e s s f a c to r a n d , h e n c e , the p r a c t i c a l v a lu e o f th e s tu d y . A lso ,

for t h e s e r e a s o n s i t w a s d e c id e d no t to d e v e lo p a c h e c k l i s t p r io r to

c o n d u c t in g th e e x p e r im e n t in o rd e r to a v o id in tro d u c in g s t r u c tu r e and

b i a s w h e n th e p rim ary o b je c t iv e w a s to a s c e r t a i n a n d id e n t i fy w ha t

e x i s t s n a tu r a l ly a n d to e v a lu a te th e f i n d in g s . In o rd e r to a c c o m p l i s h

t h e s e t a s k s , th e fo l lo w in g p r o c e s s w a s d e v e lo p e d a f t e r c o n s id e r a b le

e x p e r im e n ta t io n .

70

71

P re -E x p e r im e n ta l P rocedu re

S e le c t io n o f th e P o p u la tio n

S p o n ta n e o u s f ree p la y b e h a v io r i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f v e ry young

c h i ld re n w h ic h i s g r a d u a l ly r e p la c e d by g roup g a m e s p la y e d u n d e r

s p e c i f i c r u l e s . T y p ic a l ly , e d u c a t io n p ro g ram s g e n e r a l ly e n c o u ra g e free

d ra m a tic p la y o n ly du rin g n u rse ry s c h o o l p ro g ra m s , a n d to a l e s s e r

d e g re e in k in d e r g a r te n , a n d t e n d t o in h ib i t t h i s b e h a v io r t h e r e a f t e r . It

w a s , th e r e f o r e , d e c id e d th a t th e m o s t f ru i t fu l a g e in w h ic h to in v e s t ig a te

free p lay b e h a v io r w o u ld ran ge from th e t im e w h en la n g u a g e c a p a b le o f

f a i r ly co m p lex c o m m u n ica tio n w o u ld h a v e d e v e lo p e d up to th a t t im e w hen

i t w a s fe l t t h a t f ree d ra m a tic p la y w o u ld b e in h ib i t e d , or r e p l a c e d , by

more s t ru c tu re d a c t i v i t i e s . For t h e s e r e a s o n s , th e a g e ra n g e in c lu d e d in

t h i s s tu d y w a s l im i te d to c h i ld re n b e tw e e n th e a g e s o f four th ro u g h n in e .

The a g e ra n g e s e l e c t e d for t h i s s tu d y s t ru c tu re d th e p o p u la t io n in

s u c h a w a y t h a t th e c h i ld re n b e tw e e n th e a g e s o f s ix a n d n in e w o u ld

g e n e r a l ly be found a t t e n d in g an e d u c a t io n a l p rogram w h i le th e c h i ld re n

from fou r th ro u g h f iv e m ig h t , or m igh t n o t , be a t t e n d in g a n e d u c a t io n a l

program s u c h a s k in d e r g a r te n , n u r s e ry s c h o o l , o r d a y ca re c e n t e r . S ince

t h i s s tu d y i n v e s t ig a t e d b e h a v io r w h ic h i s no t fo rm ally ta u g h t in e d u c a ­

t io n a l p ro g ra m s , th e ty p e o f p rogram in w h ic h t h e c h i ld p a r t i c ip a te d w a s

no t c o n s id e r e d t o In f lu en c e th e p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v io r u n d e r in v e s t i g a t io n .

The e d u c a t io n a l p la c e m e n t o f th e b l in d c h i ld i s g e n e r a l ly d e t e r ­

m ined by th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f v a r io u s p ro g ram s a n d a t t i t u d e s e x i s t in g

72

l o c a l ly in th e c h i l d ' s e n v iro n m e n t . B riefly , t h e s e m ay be s t a t e r e s i ­

d e n t i a l s c h o o l s for th e b l in d ; s p e c i a l c l a s s e s for th e b l in d in p u b l ic

s c h o o l s w i th v a ry in g d e g re e s o f p a r t i c ip a t io n in a c t i v i t i e s w i th se e in g

c h i ld re n ; r e s o u r c e room s in w h ic h th e b l in d c h i ld s p e n d s p a r t of th e day

le a rn in g s p e c i a l i z e d s k i l l s ; a n i t in e ra n t t e a c h e r p rogram in w h ic h a

s p e c i a l i z e d t e a c h e r a i d s th e r e g u la r c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r an d b l in d c h ild

to p a r t i c ip a te in th e r e g u la r c la s s ro o m ; e n ro l lm e n t o f th e b l in d c h i ld m a

r e g u la r c l a s s w i th no s p e c i a l i z e d h e lp ; a n d h o m eb o u n d e d u c a t io n a l

e n d e a v o r s . T here a re no u n i v e r s a l p o l ic i e s w h ic h d e te rm in e th e a s s i g n ­

m ent o f th e b l in d c h i ld in a n e d u c a t io n a l p ro g ra m . In som e c a s e s ,

e s p e c i a l l y in l e s s p o p u la te d a r e a s , lo c a l p u b l ic s c h o o l s c a n n o t su p p o r t

s p e c i a l i z e d p rog ram s for th e s m a l l num ber o f b l in d c h i ld re n in th e com ­

m u n ity , a num ber w h ic h d o e s n o t rem ain a n n u a l ly c o n s t a n t . T h e re fo re ,

b l in d c h i ld re n in th e s e a r e a s w i l l m o st l ik e ly b e fo u n d in th e s t a t e

r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s . On th e o th e r h a n d , so m e a r e a s h a v e d e v e lo p e d

h ig h ly o rg a n iz e d p rog ram s for th e v i s u a l l y h a n d ic a p p e d in t h e lo c a l co m ­

m un ity a n d th e s t a t e r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s m ay a c c e p t o n ly t h o s e c h i ld re n

w i th d i f f i c u l t i e s in a d d i t io n to b l in d n e s s w h ic h c a n n o t be h a n d le d in a

p u b l ic s c h o o l s e t t i n g . B e c a u s e e a c h e d u c a t io n a l in s t i tu t io n s e l e c t s i ts

s tu d e n t b o d y for a d i f fe re n t s e t o f r e a s o n s in o rd e r t o b e s t fu l f i l l i ts

l o c a l l y o r i e n te d fu n c t io n , th e t y p e s o f s t u d e n ts m ay v a ry g r e a t ly from one

in s t i tu t io n t o a n o th e r d e p e n d in g upon th e l o c a l i t y e v e n if t h e y a re th e

sa m e ty p e o f in s t i tu t io n a n d a s a r e s u l t a re n o t r e p r e s e n ta t iv e of a n y

73

p a r t i c u la r ty p e o f e d u c a t io n a l p ro g ram . For t h i s r e a s o n , a s p e c i f i e d

n u m b er , a s a m p le , from e a c h e d u c a t io n a l program h a s l i t t l e m ean ing

p e r se a n d c a n n o t u s u a l ly b e c o m p a red a n d c o n t r a s t e d a s th e p o p u la t io n

in e a c h u n iv e r s e m ay h av e b e e n sk e w e d to b e g in w i th by th e l o c a l

r e q u i re m e n ts for e n ro l lm e n t . It m ust a l s o be r e a l i z e d th a t s t a t e s c h o o l s

for th e b l in d c a n h a rd ly b e c o m p a re d to o th e r " in s t i t u t io n s " s u c h a s

in s t i t u t io n s for th e m e n ta l ly r e t a r d e d , ju v e n i le d e l i n q u e n t s , o rp h a n s

and so fo r th . The b l in d c h i ld r e n a t s t a t e r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o ls d o no t

u s u a l ly re m a in th e re du ring h o l id a y s o r during th e sum m er m o n th s a s

s c h o o l is n o t in s e s s i o n . Some c h i ld r e n , d i s t a n c e p e rm i t t in g , m ay

sp e n d t h e i r w e e k e n d s a t h o m e . C h i ld re n a re p la c e d in r e s i d e n t i a l

s c h o o ls fo r a num ber o f r e a s o n s . In som e c a s e s i t i s th e o n ly e d u c a t io n

a v a i l a b l e , b u t in o th e r c a s e s , t h e s t a t e s c h o o l m ay o ffe r s u p e r io r

s p e c i a l i z e d f a c i l i t i e s an d p e r s o n n e l . T h e re fo re , fo r th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s

s tu d y , e n ro l lm e n t in c e r t a in ty p e s o f e d u c a t io n a l p rogram s w a s no t c o n ­

s id e re d to b e a c ru c ia l f a c to r in th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e p o p u la t io n a n d it

w a s no t d e e m e d e s s e n t i a l t o s tu d y e q u a l num b ers o f c h i ld re n from e a c h

o f th e v a r io u s s e g m e n ts o f th e e d u c a t io n a l p ro g ram . The c h i ld r e n w e re

in c lu d e d in t h i s s tu d y w h e re v e r th e y w e re fo u n d .

S in c e th e s e x o f th e c h i ld m ay in f lu e n c e th e c o n te n t o f th e p la y

b e h a v io r u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e p o p u la t io n w a s c o m p r is e d o f tw o e q u a l

g ro u p s ; o n e m a le , one f e m a le .

The b l in d c h i ld re n s e l e c t e d for t h i s s tu d y cam e u n d e r th e d e f in i t io n

o f l e g a l b l i n d n e s s a s r e p o r te d b y q u a l i f ie d p e r s o n n e l su c h a s o p h th a lm o l­

o g i s t s o r fam ily p h y s i c i a n s . L eg a l b l in d n e s s w a s d e f in e d a s c e n t r a l

v i s u a l a c u i ty w h ic h d o e s n o t e x c e e d 2 0 / 2 0 0 in th e b e t t e r eye w i th c o r r e c t ­

ing l e n s e s o r a v i s u a l f i e ld l e s s th a n a n a n g le o f 20 d e g r e e s . I t i s

im portan t to e m p h a s iz e h e re t h a t it w a s no t th e p u rp o se of th i s s tu d y to

in v e s t ig a te th e e f f e c t o f b l in d n e s s on p la y b e h a v io r . A p o p u la t io n b a s e d

on th e a b o v e d e f in i t io n , w h ic h u s u a l ly q u a l i f i e s a c h i ld w ith a v i s u a l

im pa irm en t fo r p a r t i c ip a t io n in p rog ram s for th e b l in d a n d a s a r e c i p ie n t

o f m a te r ia l s for th e b l in d , w a s c o n s id e r e d to be s u i t a b le a n d a c c e p t a b l e

for t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

T here Is e v id e n c e t h a t th e b l in d c h i ld o f te n sh o w s a r e ta r d a t io n

upon e n te r in g s c h o o l . H a y e s {1942} a t t r i b u t e s t h i s to th e l a c k o f s t im u ­

la t io n a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s p l a c e d upo n them in t h e i r h o m e s . After p la c e m e n t

in a r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l th e y m ay a d v a n c e r a p id ly , h o w e v e r , it m ay ta k e

s e v e r a l y e a r s . T h e re fo re , th e b l in d p o p u la t io n s e l e c t e d for a s tu d y su c h

a s t h i s , w o u ld in d u b i ta b ly m a n i f e s t a h e a v y w e ig h te d n e s s tow ard a b e lo w

a v e ra g e m e a su re o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . To m a tch th e in te l l ig e n c e of t h e b l in d

c h i ld re n a n d th e s e e in g c h i ld r e n in th i s s tu d y w o u ld r e s u l t in th e i n v e s t i ­

g a t io n o f a n a ty p i c a l or b e lo w a v e ra g e s e e in g g ro u p . To r e s t r i c t th e

b l in d c h i ld re n u n d e r in v e s t ig a t io n to o n ly t h o s e w i th a v e ra g e in te l l i g e n c e

w o u ld r e s u l t in a n a ty p i c a l b l in d g roup s in c e p a s t s t u d i e s h av e sh o w n

th a t th e re is a c o n s id e r a b ly l a r g e r p e rc e n ta g e o f b e lo w a v e ra g e b l in d

75

p u p i l s th a n th e re i s in a co m p a rab le g ro u p o f se e in g c h i l d r e n . * For

t h e s e r e a s o n s th e v a r i a b l e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , w a s c o n tro l le d s t a t i s t i c a l l y .

A nother p o in t to c o n s id e r c o n c e rn in g in te l l ig e n c e i s t h a t s tu d ie s

c o n c e rn e d w i th p l a y b e h a v io r h av e fo und t h a t in te l l ig e n c e d o e s not

a p p e a r to be an im p o r tan t f a c to r in p l a y b e h a v io r w h ile c h ro n o lo g ic a l ag e

(P a r ten , 1933), s e x (S u tto n -S m ith , 1 9 6 7 ) , e x p e r ie n c e (S u t to n -S m ith ,

1967 ) , an d e m o t io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t (A xline , 1947; Erik s o n , 1950; I s a a c s ,

1935; S la v s o n , 1948) h a v e b e e n sh o w n to in f lu en ce p la y b e h a v io r in

som e w a y .

For t h e s e r e a s o n s , b l in d c h i ld r e n w e re e l im in a te d o n ly if th ey

sh o w e d e v id e n c e o f b e in g re ta rd e d to s u c h an e x te n t t h a t t h e y w ould b e ,

o r h a d b e e n , r e f u s e d a d m i t ta n c e to a n e d u c a t io n a l p rogram for v i s u a l ly

h a n d ic a p p e d c h i ld r e n . B lind c h i ld re n o f s c h o o l age e n r o l l e d in e d u c a ­

t io n a l p ro g ra m s , u n l e s s t h e s e p ro g ram s h a d b e e n s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s ig n e d

for m e n ta l ly r e ta rd e d c h i ld r e n , w e re in c lu d e d in th is s t u d y . For th e sa k e

o f c o n t in u i ty a n d b e a r in g in mind th e a b o v e d i s c u s s io n o f t h e in te l l ig e n c e

c o n f ig u ra t io n , a l l t h e c h i ld r e n , b l in d a n d s e e in g , w ere a d m in i s t e r e d th e

S lo s s o n I n te l l ig e n c e T e s t .

*Berthold L o w en fe ld d i s c u s s e d t h e in te l l ig e n c e d i s t r ib u t io n of b l in d c h i ld re n in " P s y c h o lo g ic a l P ro b le m s o f C h ild ren w i th Im paired V is io n , " P s y c h o lo g y o f E x c e p tio n a l C h i ld r e n and Y outh , e d . W ill iam M . C ru ic k s h a n k (Englew ood C l i f f s , N ew J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . ,1963), p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 2 .

7 6

T he num ber o f b l in d c h i ld re n in c lu d e d in t h i s s tu d y , t w e n ty - n i n e ,

w a s found to be a s t a t i s t i c a l l y so u n d q u a n t i t y . E fforts to i n c r e a s e t h i s

n u m b e r , th e b l in d p o p u la t io n b e in g so s p a r s e a n d w id e ly s c a t t e r e d ,

w o u ld in c r e a s e th e t e n d e n c y to in c lu d e in d iv id u a ls w h o s e p r e s e n c e

w o u ld t e n d to sk e w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e g ro u p . I t w a s f e a s ib l e to f in d

a p p ro x im a te ly th i r ty w h o met th e r e q u i r e m e n ts for th e b l in d p o p u la t io n a s

s e t fo r th in t h i s s t u d y .

T he s e e in g c h i ld r e n for th e s tu d y w e re s e l e c t e d a s f o l lo w s . For

e a c h o f th e tw e n ty - n in e b l in d c h i ld r e n , four s e e in g c h i ld re n m a tc h e d for

c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e a n d s e x w e re id e n t i f i e d . From th e tw e n ty - n in e g ro u p s

o f fo u r , o ne c h i ld from e a c h g roup w a s ran d o m ly s e l e c t e d to p a r t i c ip a te

in t h i s s tu d y . T h e s e tw e n ty - n in e s e e in g c h i ld re n w e re in d iv id u a l ly

m a tc h e d w ith t h e i r c o u n te rp a r t in th e b l in d p o p u la t io n .

To su m m a r iz e , th e tw e n ty - n in e b l in d c h i ld r e n s e l e c t e d for t h i s

s t u d y c o n s i s t e d o f a n e q u a l num ber o f m a le s a n d f e m a le s . T h ey w e re

w i th in th e a g e ra n g e o f fou r th ro u g h n in e a n d w e re l e g a l ly b l in d . T hey

w e re o f s u c h in te l l ig e n c e a s t o b e n e f i t from a n e d u c a t io n a l program o th e r

t h a n o n e for th e m e n ta l ly r e t a r d e d . The sa m e num ber o f s e e in g c h i ld re n

m a tc h e d fo r s e x a n d c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e to t h e i r c o u n te r p a r t s p a r t i c ip a te d

in th e sa m e e x p e r im e n t a s t h a t o f th e b l in d c h i ld r e n .

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D e l im i ta t io n of th e p o p u la t io n

For th e p u r p o s e s o f th is s tu d y th e fo l lo w in g c h i ld re n w ere not

in c lu d ed :

1. Blind c h i ld r e n an d s e e in g c h i ld r e n e n ro l le d in i n s t i tu t io n s for

th e m e n ta l ly r e t a r d e d .

2 . Blind c h i ld r e n and s e e in g c h i ld re n e n ro l le d in i n s t i tu t io n s for

th e e m o t io n a l ly d i s t u r b e d .

3 . Blind c h i ld r e n and s e e in g c h i ld r e n u n d e r th e a g e of four or a b o v e

th e a g e of n in e .

4 . Blind c h i ld r e n and s e e in g c h i ld r e n w h o had b e e n re fu se d a d m i t ­

t a n c e in to th e i r t y p ic a l e d u c a t io n a l p rogram s b e c a u s e of d e v ia n t b e h a v ­

io r , for e x a m p le , a b n o rm a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l im p l ic a t io n s . H o w ev e r , th e

b lind c h ild w ho w a s r e f u s e d a d m i t ta n c e in to a p u b l ic s c h o o l b e c a u s e

a d m in is t r a to r s f e l t t h a t th e re w e re no p e r s o n n e l or f a c i l i t i e s to h an d le

t h i s ty p e o f c h i l d , b l i n d , w ou ld not n e c e s s a r i l y be e x c lu d e d from th e

s tu d y . A b lind c h ild r e f u s e d a d m i t ta n c e in to a s t a t e s c h o o l fo r the

b lind o r a d a y s c h o o l p rogram for the b lin d b e c a u s e of s e v e re m en ta l

r e t a r d a t io n or e m o t io n a l d i s t u r b a n c e , w ould be e x c lu d e d from th is s t u d y .

5 . C h i ld re n w ho w e re p a r t i a l ly s e e i n g , t h a t i s by d e f in i t io n , w i th

m ore th a n 2 0 /2 0 0 v i s i o n b u t l e s s th a n 7 0 /2 0 0 v i s i o n w i th c o r re c t in g

l e n s e s .

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T he c a s e reco rd s h e e t

The c a s e re c o rd s h e e t ( se e A p pend ix C) w a s d e v e lo p e d for th is

s tu d y in o rd e r to f a c i l i t a t e th e m a tch in g o f c h i ld re n and the rec o rd in g of

in fo rm a tion for s u b s e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e . E ach s h e e t in c lu d e d n am e ,

a d d r e s s , t e le p h o n e n u m b er , a g e , b i r th d a te and s e x . A c a s e num ber w a s

a s s ig n e d to e a c h c h i ld in o rd e r to in s u re th e c o n f id e n t i a l n a tu re of a l l

d a t a . In a d d i t io n , in fo rm a tio n w a s n o ted c o n c e rn in g th e fo l lo w in g a r e a s .

I . I n t e l l i g e n c e . This c a t e g o r y in d ic a te d i n t e l l i g e n c e , a s d e t e r ­

m ined by th e r e s u l t o f th e S lo s s o n I n te l l ig e n c e T e s t .

II . V is io n . T h is id e n t i f ie d t h o s e c h i ld re n w ith n o rm al v i s io n ,

c h i ld r e n w ho w e re p a r t i a l ly s e e i n g , or c h i ld re n w ho w e re le g a l ly b l in d .

If th e ch ild had n o rm al v i s io n , he w a s e l ig ib le for c o n s id e r a t i o n in the

s t u d y . If th e c h ild had p a r t i a l v i s i o n , he w a s e x c lu d e d from the s tu d y .

In bo th th e s e c a s e s , th i s w ould be the l a s t item on th e s h e e t to be m arked

c o n c e rn in g t h e s e c h i ld r e n . If the c h i ld w a s l e g a l ly b l in d , th e fo llow ing

in fo rm a tio n w a s a l s o r e c o r d e d .

III . P rogram . T h is re fe r red to th e ty pe of e d u c a t io n a l program in

w h ic h the b lind c h i ld w a s e n ro l le d bu t o n ly s o fa r a s i t p e r ta in e d to

r e s i d e n t i a l or n o n - r e s id e n t i a l s t a t u s .

IV. O n s e t o f B l in d n e s s . In fo rm a tion c o l le c te d in th i s s e c t io n

sh o w ed a t w h a t t im e in d e v e lo p m e n t th e b l in d n e s s o c c u r r e d .

V. C a u s e o f B l in d n e s s . S p a c e w a s p ro v ided in th i s s e c t io n to

re c o rd in fo rm ation r e l a t i v e to th e c a u s e of b l i n d n e s s .

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VI. D e s c r ip t io n o f B l in d n e s s . T his w a s b ro k en d ow n to in d ic a te

th e fo llo w in g : (a) t o ta l b l i n d n e s s , (b) l ig h t p e rc e p t io n o n ly , (c) o b je c t

p e rc e p t io n , (d) t r a v e l in g v i s i o n , and (e) o th e r .

VII. S e c o n d a ry D i s a b i l i t y . This s e c t i o n p rov ided s p a c e for th e

r e c o rd in g of a s e c o n d a ry d i s a b i l i t y if one w a s p r e s e n t .

G a th e r in g D a ta for th e S e le c t io n o f th e P o p u la tio n

A fter d a ta fo r th e s e l e c t i o n of the p o p u la t io n w e re o b ta in e d , it w a s

t r a n s c r ib e d on th e c a s e rec o rd s h e e t . T h e s e d a ta cam e from in s t i tu t io n a l

r e c o rd s and p a r e n t s . The S lo s s o n T e s t w a s a d m in is te re d in d iv id u a l ly by

th e w r i te r p r io r to th e e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s i o n .

The E x p e r im e n ta l E n v iro n m e n t/S i te

T his e x p e r im e n t re q u ire d a s e p a r a te room s u c h th a t th e e x p e r im e n te r

and c h i ld w e re c o m p le te ly a lo n e and u n d is tu rb e d d u r in g th e s e s s i o n . The

room a l s o had to be one w i tn w h ic h th e ch ild w a s th o ro u g h ly fa m il ia r and

fe l t a t hom e in s o th a t the c h i ld w a s a b le to r e la x and p la y c r e a t i v e l y .

O b v io u s ly , s in c e t h e s e c h i ld r e n w ere c h o s e n from a w id e g e o g ra p h ic a l

a r e a and a v a r ie ty o f e n v iro n m e n ts , no one room w ould be fa m il ia r to them

a l l . In o rd er to r e t a in a n e n v iro n m en t th a t w a s w e l l know n to e a c h ch ild

and y e t p rov ided a n e n v iro n m e n t w h ic h w a s th e sa m e for a l l th e c h i l d r e n ,

a p a r t i - ro o m (a p o r ta b le e n c lo s u r e m ade o f p a r t i t io n s ) w a s c o n s t r u c te d for

u s e in th i s s tu d y .

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The p a r t i - ro o m w a s an e n c lo s u re w h ic h w a s p la c e d w i th in a room

w i th w h ic h the ch ild w a s fa m il ia r . The room i t s e l f w a s s e l e c te d to be

f ree from d i s t r a c t i o n s s u c h a s p e o p le , t e l e p h o n e s , r a d i o s , an d th e l i k e .

The p a r t i - ro o m d e f in e d a n e n v iro n m e n ta l bou n d a ry w i th in th i s la rg e r room

s o th e c h i ld w a s no t d i s t r a c t e d by an y o b j e c t s w h ich cou ld no t be f e a s ib ly

r e m o v e d , su ch a s l iv in g room fu rn i tu re . The p a r t i - ro o m w a s c o n s t r u c te d

o f l ig h t w e ig h t p a r t i t i o n s w h ic h cam e a p a r t to form p o r ta b le s e c t i o n s .

W h e n lo ck e d to g e th e r a s i x foot by s ix foo t s q u a re th i r t y - th r e e in c h e s

h ig h w a s fo rm ed . In t h i s w a y , w h ile th e c h i ld w a s c o n ta in e d w i th in th e

c i r c u m s c r ib e d a r e a , h e w a s no t rem oved from h is fa m il ia r s u r ro u n d in g s .

The h e ig h t of th e p a r t i - ro o m w a s k e p t p u rp o s e fu l ly low in o rd e r to a v o id

th e f e e l in g of b e in g in a s t r a n g e p l a c e .

T he E x p e r im e n ta l M a te r i a l s

The m a te r ia ls u s e d du ring th e e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s i o n in c lu d ed a

la rg e ca rd b o ard b o x , a w o o d e n d o w e l , a y a rd o f c lo th and a n o n d e s c r ip t

h a t .

T h e s e p lay o b j e c t s w e re c h o s e n to a l lo w th e ch ild th e g r e a t e s t

f reed o m of e x p re s s io n an d to e l im in a te a n y in n a te c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p la y

o b j e c t s , or c l u e s , w h ic h w ould s u g g e s t p a r t i c u la r p la y b e h a v io r . I t w a s

f e l t t h a t th e fo l lo w in g o b j e c t s cou ld be u s e d by c h i ld re n o f a w id e a g e

r a n g e an d by bo th s e x e s to e x p re s s th e i r r e a c t io n s th rough im a g in a t iv e

p la y a c t i o n s . The o b j e c t s w ere v i s u a l ly b lan d in o rd e r to k e e p th e v i s u a l

81

s t im u la t io n to a m inim um . M ora s p e c i f i c d e s c r ip t io n o f th e o b je c ts

w o u ld in c lu d e th e fo llow ing :

The ca rd b o ard bo x , s u c h a s c a n b e found in a n y s u p e rm a rk e t , w a s

la rg e en o u g h fo r a c h ild to f i t i n . This box cou ld be u s e d a s a b o a t , a

c a r , a c r i b , a s p a c e s h ip , a s t o v e , or a c a v e . It cou ld a l s o be u s e d to

drum u p o n , or i t cou ld be ro l le d a ro u n d , k ic k e d , or d e s t r o y e d .

The c lo th h a t had no p a r t i c u la r d i s t in g u i s h a b le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and

cou ld be fo ld e d , c a v e d o r r o l l e d . It w a s e q u a l ly s u i t a b l e a s a cow boy

h a t , a l a d y 's h a t , a s p a c e h e lm e t , or tu rned u p s id e d ow n for u s e a s a

b a s k e t o r p o c k e tb o o k .

The t h r e e - q u a r t e r inch d o w e l w a s th re e f e e t lo n g . I t cou ld becom e

a s w o rd , a b roo m , a p a d d le , o r a n o i s e m ak er d e p e n d in g on th e im a g in a ­

t io n and c re a t iv e e x p r e s s io n o f th e c h i l d .

The c lo th , a p p ro x im a te ly o n e s q u a re y a rd , c o u ld b e co m e an a p ro n ,

a b l a n k e t , a t a b l e c l o th , o r a c a p e a s the c h ild w i s h e d .

The E x p e r im e n ta l P ro c e s s

C o n d u c t in g th e E xperim ent

The o b s e rv e r and the c h ild had b eco m e a c q u a in te d p re v io u s ly du ring

th e a d m in is t r a t io n o f th e S lo s s o n I n te l l ig e n c e T e s t . T h e n , du r ing th e

e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s i o n , th e o b s e r v e r fu r th e r e s t a b l i s h e d a f r ie n d ly r e l a ­

t io n s h ip th ro ugh th e m edium of a b ag o f w o o d e n b lo c k s and s u g g e s te d

th a t th e y (the o b s e rv e r and th e ch ild ) p la y w ith t h e s e on th e f lo o r . T h is

82

f i r s t s e t o f m a te r ia ls w a s u s e d for a p p ro x im a te ly f ive mLnutes d u rin g

w h ic h t im e th e o b s e rv e r so u g h t to d raw o u t th e c h i ld in a m an n e r su c h

t h a t t h e c h i ld fe l t f re e t o a c t iv e ly in i t i a te th e e x p r e s s io n o f i d e a s . The

o b s e r v e r p a r t i c ip a te d in th e a c t io n m aking a d e f in i te a t te m p t to f ree

h e r s e l f from th e ro le o f a n a u th o r i ty f i g u r e . T he c h i ld w a s e n c o u ra g e d

to v e r b a l i z e and ta k e th e in i t i a t iv e a s m uch a s p o s s i b l e .

T h is in i t ia l c o n d i t io n in g p h a s e w a s t e rm in a te d w ith th e s u g g e s t io n

th a t th e c h i ld might w i s h t o p l a y w ith so m e th in g e l s e . At t h i s t im e , the

o b s e r v e r p ic k e d up a n d rem o v ed th e b lo c k s s o th e y w ould no t b e a d i s ­

t r a c t i o n d u r in g the r e m a in d e r of th e e x p e r im e n t . T h en , th e o b s e r v e r

In tro d u c e d th e fu n d am e n ta l m a te r ie l fo r th e c h i ld for p lay w ith in i t i a t in g

t h i s a c t w i th th e s t a t e m e n t , "I h a v e so m e th in g e l s e for you to p la y

w i t h . " The o b se rv e r t h e n g a v e th e c h i ld th e e x p e r im e n ta l m a t e r i a l s , one

a t a t im e , a l lo w in g th e c h i ld su f f ic ie n t t im e to id e n t i fy e a c h o b je c t ;

n a m e ly , th e d o w e l , th e h a t , th e c lo th , a n d th e c a rd b o a rd b o x . W h en th e

c h i ld h a d Id en tif ie d e a c h o b j e c t , th e o b s e r v e r s a i d , "Let me s e e y o u p la y

w i th t h e s e , " a t w h ic h t im e th e o b se rv e r s e t th e tim e for f i f te e n m in u te s

a n d tu r n e d o n th e t a p e r e c o r d e r . T y p ic a l ly , a f t e r th e t im e r h a d b e e n s e t ,

th e c h i ld w a s e x p e c te d to in i t i a t e som e p l a y a c t i v i t y . The o b s e r v e r th e n

a c t e d a s a sound ing b o a r d , com m enting n o n - d i r e c t i v e l y , n e i t h e r show ing

a p p ro v a l n o r d i s a p p r o v a l , or r e s ta t in g w h a t th e c h i ld s a id or d i d . If th e

c h i ld w is h e d th e o b s e r v e r to p a r t i c ip a te in th e p la y , th e o b s e r v e r d id s o ,

b u t o n ly a t th e r e q u e s t a n d s p e c i f i c d i r e c t io n o f th e c h i ld , fo r e x a m p le ,

83

"Sit h e r e , " o r "Say M a m a . " D uring th e s e s s i o n th e o b s e r v e r a n d th e

c h i ld w e re c a s u a l ly s i t t i n g on th e f lo o r , f ree from e x te r n a l d i s t r a c t i o n s ,

a n d th e o b s e r v e r a b s t r a c t l y Jo t te d dow n th e a c t io n s o f th e c h i ld fo r l a t e r

more d e t a i l e d t r e a tm e n t a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n . T h e s e n o ta t io n s w ere c o o r d i ­

n a te d w i th th e t a p e re c o rd e d s o u n d s o f th e s e s s i o n . The p la y p e r io d w a s

t e r m in a te d a f t e r f i f te e n m in u te s by th e o b s e r v e r . H o w ev e r , th e c h i ld

c o u ld t e rm in a te th e p la y p e r io d a t a n y p re v io u s t im e by a b a n d o n in g th e

m a te r i a l s o r b y a v e rb a l s t a te m e n t s u c h a s , "I d o n 't w a n t to p l a y a n y

m o r e ." The t e rm in a t io n t im e w a s n o te d a n d th e e x p e r im e n t c o m p le te d .

I f , h o w e v e r , th e c h i ld w a s u n a b le t o , o r u n w il l in g t o , in i t i a te

p la y in g w i th t h e s e m a te r i a l s b y h im s e l f fo l lo w in g th e in i t i a l p r e s e n t a ­

t io n o f m a t e r i a l s , th e o b s e r v e r s a i d , "W hy d o n ' t y o u m ake a s to ry to go

w i th t h e s e a n d t e l l me a b o u t i t ? " If it a p p e a r e d t h a t th e c h i ld w a s

u n a b le o r u n w il l in g to do a n y th in g a t a l l w i th th e m a t e r i a l s , th e s e s s i o n

w a s t e rm in a te d by th e o b s e r v e r .

C o l le c t in g th e D a ta

T he in te r a c t io n a n d v e r b a l i z a t i o n t h a t to o k p la c e du ring th e e n t i r e

p la y p e r io d w a s r e c o rd e d on t a p e . The e x a m in e r a l s o to o k n o ta t io n s

d u rin g th e p la y s e s s i o n c o n c e rn in g th e a c t io n s o f th e c h i ld w h ic h w o u ld

no t be p ic k e d up b y a t a p e r e c o r d e r . A fter th e p la y p e r io d w a s c o m p le te d

a n d th e c h t ld h a d le f t th e o b s e r v a t io n ro o m , th e o b s e r v e r w ro te dow n

t h o s e g e n e r a l im p re s s io n s r e c e iv e d d u rin g th e p la y p e r io d .

84

H a n d lin g th e D a ta

C o m p ila t io n of C a s e R ecords

The r e s u l t in g d a t a to be a n a ly z e d w e re com p rised of ta p e re c o rd in g s

o f th e s e s s i o n s , b r ie f n o ta t io n s m ade w h i le th e c h ild p l a y e d , g e n e ra l

im p re s s io n s of the p la y s e s s i o n s , and id e n t i f i c a t io n in fo rm a tio n on e a c h

c h i ld o b ta in e d from th e c a s e record s h e e t . The o b s e rv e r re v ie w e d a l l the

in fo rm a tio n on e a c h c a s e , in c lu d in g th e n e c e s s a r y p la y in g b a c k of the

r e c o r d in g s , and c o o rd in a te d th is m a te r ia l in to a n a r ra t iv e c a s e r e c o rd .

I d e n t i f i c a t io n o f B eh av io r P a t te rn s

The n a r ra t iv e c a s e re c o rd s w e re s tu d ie d and b e h a v io r p a t te rn s

i d e n t i f i e d . A c h e c k s h e e t w a s d e v e lo p e d w h ic h s e t fo r th q u a n t i t a t iv e ly

th e s ig n i f i c a n t in fo rm a tio n on e a c h c a s e ( se e A ppendix C ) .

The R e la t in g o f B ehav io r P a t te rn s to th e A pp ropria te H y p o th e s i s

The p lay p a t te r n s w h ic h the c h i ld re n e x h ib i te d co u ld no t be

d e s c r ib e d prior to th e a c t u a l p lay s e s s i o n . H e n c e , t h e s e p a t te r n s w ere

id e n t i f ie d from th e c a s e r e c o r d s a f te r the s e s s i o n s o c c u rre d and th e

r e s u l t i n g in fo rm a tio n w a s e x t r a c te d and r e l a te d to th e a p p ro p r ia te

h y p o t h e s i s , for e x am p le :

H y p o th e s i s I . T h e re is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f fe re n c e in th e c o n te n t of

th e d ra m a t ic p la y o f y o u n g b lind c h i ld re n an d s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

85

In th i s h y p o th e s i s th e fo l lo w in g ty p e of in fo rm a tio n w a s c o n s id e re d :

th e num ber o f d i f f e re n t c r e a t iv e s i t u a t io n s d e v e lo p e d by th e c h i l d , and

th e a c t u a l r o le s and s i t u a t io n s c re a te d w ere l i s t e d and o rg a n iz e d in to

m ea n in g fu l c a t e g o r i e s .

H y p o th e s i s I I . T here i s no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f fe re n c e in th e am o un t of

tim e s p e n t in th e d ra m a t ic p la y of you ng b l in d c h i ld re n and s e e in g

c h i l d r e n .

T h is c o n c e rn e d i t s e l f w ith th e fo l lo w in g : th e t o ta l l e n g th of tim e

th e c h ild w a s a c t u a l l y in v o lv e d in d ra m a t ic p la y , and the le n g th o f tim e

in vo lved in th e lo n g e s t d ra m a tic p la y u n i t .

H y p o th e s i s I I I . T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e in th e co m ­

p le x i ty of th e d ra m a t ic p la y o f y o u n g b lind c h i ld r e n and s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

The fo l lo w in g ty p e of in fo rm a tio n w a s c o n s id e r e d in t h i s h y p o th e s is :

the num ber of d i s c r e t e s u b - u n i t s in tro d u c e d in to th e lo n g e s t d r a m a t ic

u n i t .

H y p o th e s i s IV. T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e in th e in te n s i ty

of th e p e r s o n a l in v o lv e m e n t e x h ib i te d in th e d ra m a tic p la y o f y ou n g

b lind c h i ld re n an d s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

D ra m a tic s i t u a t i o n s w e re r a te d to d e te rm in e th e r e l a t iv e i n te n s i ty

of In v o lv em en t an d c a te g o r iz e d a c c o r d in g ly .

86

D e v e lo p m e n t o f A pprop ria te C o m p ila t io n s

F re q u e n c y t a b l e s

F re q u en c y t a b l e s w e re c o m p ile d from r e s u l t in g in fo rm a tion w h ic h

le n t i t s e l f m o s t r e a d i ly to a n a l y s i s w h en w o rk e d up in to f re q u e n c y t a b le

fo r m a t .

Rating s c a l e

As in d ic a te d in th e p re v io u s p a ra g ra p h r e l a t i v e to h y p o th e s i s IV,

t h e s e d a ta w e re q u a n t i f ie d by u s e o f a ra t in g s c a l e . W hen t h e s e d a ta

h a d b e e n s u i t a b ly c a te g o r iz e d th e y w e re r a te d b y J u d g e s .

M a c h in e D a ta P ro c e s s in g

M e c h a n ic a l ly , th e i tem s th a t h a d b e e n id e n t i f i e d a n d q u a n t i f ie d in

e a c h c a s e w ere d u ly c o d e d for IBM c a rd h a n d l in g . A d e c k o f c a r d s w a s

p ro d u ce d th a t in c lu d e d a s e r i e s o f c a r d s on e a c h c h i l d , a n d from t h e s e

c a r d s c o m p i la t io n s a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s w ere m a d e .

A n a ly s is o f th e D a ta

S t a t i s t i c a l T rea tm en t o f th e D a ta

C h i sq u a re and t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e w e re u s e d w h e re a p p l i ­

c a b l e . I n te l l ig e n c e w a s c o v a r ie d ou t a s a f a c to r .

E v a lu a t io n of M a te r i a l N ot S u ited to S t a t i s t i c a l T rea tm en t

In fo rm a tio n no t s u i t a b l e fo r s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a tm e n t w a s a n a ly z e d and

th e n p r e s e n te d in d e s c r ip t iv e form .

F in d in g s , C o n c lu s io n s and R ecom m enda tio ns

From th e s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a tm e n t and the a n a l y s i s o f the n o n -

s t a t i s t i c a l m a te r i a l , the f in d in g s w e re id e n t i f ie d and c o n c lu s io n s and

re c o m m e n d a t io n s w e re m a d e .

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

In tro d u c t io n

The f in d in g s o f th i s s tu d y a re s e t fo rth h e re in t h i s c h a p te r . The

d a ta p r e s e n te d a r e b a s e d on th e r e s u l t s o f a s e r i e s o f o b s e r v a t io n s of

tw e n ty - n in e s u b j e c t s m ade du ring a f i f t e e n m inute free p la y s e s s io n in

a c c o rd a n c e w i th th e d e s ig n o f t h i s s tu d y a s d e s c r ib e d in d e t a i l in th e

p re c e d in g c h a p te r . The p o p u la t io n , th e r e f o r e , w a s c o m p o s e d of t h e s e

tw e n ty - n in e b l in d s u b je c t s a n d a g roup o f s e e in g s u b j e c t s m a tch ed for

a g e and s e x w h ic h se rv e d a s a c o n tro l g roup w ith w h ic h to com pare and

c o n t r a s t f i n d in g s .

Id e n t i f ic a t io n a n d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

Source o f P o p u la t io n

The tw e n ty - n in e b l in d s u b j e c t s s e l e c te d for t h i s s tu d y cam e from

s e v e r a l s o u r c e s . S e v e n te e n s u b j e c t s (9 m a le s , 8 f e m a le s ) w ere

a t t e n d in g th e W is c o n s in Schoo l for t h e V isu a l ly H a n d ic a p p e d ,

J a n e s v i l l e , W is c o n s in ; th re e s u b j e c t s (m ales) w e re a t t e n d in g the

M in n e s o ta B ra il le an d S ight Sav ing S c h o o l , F a r ib a u l t , M in n e s o ta ; tw o

s u b j e c t s (1 m a le , 1 fem ale) w e re a t t e n d in g the S c h o o l for th e B lind,

88

89

G rand F o rk s , N orth D ak o ta ; s e v e n s u b j e c t s (2 m a l e s , 5 fem a le s )

w e re c o n ta c te d In th e i r h om es u n d e r th e a u s p i c e s o f th e M in n e so ta

D e p a r tm en t o f P u b l ic W e l f a r e , S e r v ic e s for th e B lin d , S t . P a u l ,

M in n e s o t a .

Of th e tw e n ty - n in e m a tc h e d s e e in g s u b j e c t s l iv in g in North D a k o ta

an d s e l e c t e d in th e m anner s e t fo r th in C h a p te r III , a t o t a l o f th i r t e e n

(8 m a le s , 5 f e m a le s ) w ere a t t e n d in g th e M in to E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l ,

M in to , N orth D a k o ta ; te n (5 m a l e s , 5 fem a le s ) w e re a t t e n d in g the

D ray ton E le m e n ta ry S ch o o l, D ra y to n , North D a k o ta ; f iv e (1 m a le ,

4 fe m a le s ) w e re a t te n d in g th e L in c o ln E lem en tary S c h o o l , G rand F o rk s ,

N orth D a k o ta ; a n d one s u b je c t (m ale) w a s c o n ta c t e d in h i s home in

G ran d F o rk s .

P e r m is s io n to c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h in th e W is c o n s in School for th e

V isu a l ly H a n d ic a p p e d , th e M in n e s o ta B raille a n d S ig h t Saving S c h o o l ,

th e Schoo l for th e B lind , an d th e D ray to n an d M in to E le m e n ta ry S c h o o ls

w a s g iv e n b y t h e d i r e c to r s a n d s u p e r in te n d e n t s o f t h e s e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s .

The o b s e r v e r w a s free to s e l e c t a n y c h i ld w ho f u l f i l l e d th e re q u ire m e n ts

s e t down for th e s e l e c t io n o f th e p o p u la t io n . The D ire c to r o f th e D e p a r t ­

m ent of W e l f a r e , S e rv ic e s f o r t h e B lind , S t . P a u l , M in n e s o t a , s e n t a n

o f f ic ia l l e t t e r t o th e p a re n ts o f a p p ro x im a te ly th i r ty b l in d c h i ld re n w i th in

th e S t. P a u l - M in n e a p o l i s a r e a r e q u e s t in g th e i r c o o p e r a t io n in th i s s tu d y

(see A ppend ix E ) . O f th o s e c o n t a c t e d , e ig h t r e s p o n d e d a f f i rm a t iv e ly .

O ne o f t h e s e w a s no t a v a i la b le a t th e tim e of o b s e r v a t i o n s duo to

90

i l l n e s s * L e t te r s r e q u e s t in g c o o p e ra t io n w e re s e n t ou t to th e p a re n ts o f

th e c h i ld re n a t t e n d in g L in c o ln E le m e n ta ry Schoo l ( se e A ppend ix E).

E igh t l e t t e r s w ere s e n t o u t in o rd er to o b ta in th e f ive c h i ld re n in c lu d ed

from L in c o ln E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l . V erbal p e rm is s io n w a s g iv e n for th e

c h i ld c o n ta c te d in th e h o m e .

The Blind S u b je c ts

R e s id e n t ia l an d n o n - r e s id e n t i a l s t a tu s

For th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y th e tw e n ty - n in e b l in d s u b j e c t s w e re

d iv id e d in to tw o g ro u p s : r e s i d e n t i a l , t h o s e l iv in g a n d a t t e n d in g s c h o o l

a w a y from hom e; a n d n o n - r e s i d e n t i a l , t h o s e l iv in g a t hom e b u t a t t e n d in g

an e d u c a t io n program o u t s id e o f th e h o m e . Of th e tw e n ty - n in e b lin d

s u b j e c t s , s ix te e n (9 m a l e s , 7 fe m a le s ) w e re c l a s s i f i e d a s r e s i d e n t i a l ,

w h i le th i r t e e n (6 m a l e s , 7 fe m a le s ) w e re c l a s s i f i e d a s n o n - r e s i d e n t i a l .

Six o f th e n o n - r e s id e n t i a l g roup w e re a t t e n d in g s t a t e s c h o o l s for th e

b l in d on a n o n - r e s i d e n t i a l b a s i s .

O n s e t o f b l in d n e s s

The o n s e t o f b l in d n e s s in tw e n ty - f o u r o f th e tw e n ty - n in e b l in d

s u b j e c t s h a d o c c u r re d du ring a p r e - n a t a l o r n e o n a ta l p e r io d . B l in d n e ss

o c c u r r e d o r w a s id e n t i f i e d in th re e s u b j e c t s r e s p e c t iv e ly ; b e fo re th e ag e

o f tw o , a t th e a g e o f fou r a n d a t th e a g e of s i x . In tw o c a s e s th e r e c o rd s

w e re in c o m p le te a n d th e r e w a s no r e l i a b l e in d ic a t io n o f th e t im e of

91

o c c u r re n c e o f b l i n d n e s s . T h ese f iv e s u b j e c t s w e re a l l in a r e s i d e n t i a l

p ro g ra m .

C a u s e o f b l in d n e s s

The c a u s e s o f b l in d n e s s in th e g roup s tu d ie d and th e f re q u e n c y w ith

w h ic h th e y o c cu rred is p r e s e n te d in T ab le 1.

TABLE 1

CAUSES OF BLINDNESS AND FREQUENCY ENCOUNTERED

C a u s e s of B lin d n e ss RB NRB T ota l

B a t t e n - M a y o u ....................................................... , . . . . 1 0 1C o a te s d i s e a s e ................................................... 0 1C o n g e n i ta l a m b l y o p i a ...................................... , . . . . 0 2 2C o n g e n i ta l c a t a r a c t s ...................................... . . . . . 2 0 2C o n g e n i ta l g l a u c o m a ...................................... 1 2C o n g e n i ta l m y o p i a .......................................... 0 1C o n g e n i ta l n y s t a g m u s ...................................... 0 1M a c u la r d e g e n e r a t i o n ...................................... ................. 1 0 1M a c u la r d y s t r o p h y .......................................... 1 1M a rfa n s s y n d ro m e .............................................. 2 2N e rv e s in b a c k of e y e m i s s i n g ................. , . . . . 1 0 1O p tic n e rv e a t r o p h y .......................................... 4 5R e t in a l a b io t r o p h y ............................................... 2 3R e tin a l b la s to m a ( e n u c l e a t i o n ) ................. , . . . . 1 0 1R e tro le n ta l f i b r o p l a s i a ................................................... 2 0 2U n k n o w n ............................................................... 0 1U v e i tu s o f S t i l l s .............................................. ................. 0 1 1U v e i tu s w ith c a t a r a c t s .................................., . . . . 1 _o

T o t a l ........................................................... . . . . . 16 13 29

92

D e s c r ip t io n o f b l in d n e s s

Of th e s e v e n s u b j e c t s (4 m a l e s , 3 fe m a le s ) w ho w ere t o t a l ly

b l in d , four a t t e n d e d a r e s i d e n t i a l program ; th re e a n o n - r e s id e n t i a l p ro ­

g ra m .

Eight s u b j e c t s (1 m a le , 7 fe m a le s ) w ere a b le to p e rc e iv e l ig h t

o n ly . T hree o f t h e s e a t t e n d e d a r e s i d e n t i a l p rog ram ; f ive a n o n -

r e s i d e n t i a l p ro g ra m .

Five s u b j e c t s (3 m a le s , 2 fe m a le s ) w e re a b le to d i s t in g u i s h

o b j e c t s . Four o f t h e s e a t t e n d e d a r e s i d e n t i a l p rog ram ; one a n o n -

r e s i d e n t i a l p ro g ra m .

N ine s u b j e c t s (7 m a le s , 2 f e m a le s ) h a d t r a v e l l i n g v i s i o n , t h a t

i s , enough v i s i o n to move a b o u t f r e e ly . Five o f t h e s e a t t e n d e d a

r e s i d e n t i a l p ro g ram ; four a n o n - r e s id e n t i a l p ro g ram .

The d e s c r ip t io n of b l i n d n e s s e n c o u n te re d in m a le s an d f e m a le s ,

a n d r e s i d e n t i a l a n d n o n - r e s id e n t i a l s u b j e c t s is p r e s e n te d in T ab le 2 .

S eco n d ary d i s a b i l i t y

F in d in g s r e l a te d to th e p r e s e n c e of a s e c o n d a r y d i s a b i l i ty in d ic a te d

t h a t th re e s u b j e c t s , one r e s i d e n t i a l a n d tw o n o n - r e s i d e n t i a l , w e re c o n ­

s id e re d to be so im p a ire d . D e s c r ip t io n of t h e s e d i s a b i l i t i e s in c lu d e

s p a s t i c p a r a l y s i s , rh e u m a to id a r t h r i t i s , a n d Von W i l l e b r a n d 's a r t h r i t i s .

93

TABLE 2

DESCRIPTION OF BLINDNESS ENCOUNTERED

D e s c r ip t io n

RB NRB T o ta l

T o ta l M F T o ta l M F T o ta l M p

T o ta l b l i n d n e s s 4 2 2 3 2 1 7 4 3

Light p e rc e p t io n 3 1 2 5 0 5 8 1 7

O b je c t p e rc e p t io n 4 2 2 1 1 0 5 3 2

T ra v e l l in g v i s i o n _5 _4 _ 1 _3 _ 1 9 _7 _ 2

T o ta l 16 9 7 13 6 7 29 15 14

The B lind a n d S e e in g S u b je c ts

Age of th e p o p u la t io n

R e la t iv e to th e v a r i a b l e , a g e , th e fo u r te e n b l in d f e m a le s h a d a

m ean a g e o f 8 5 .5 0 m on ths w i th a s ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n o f 13 .2 1 ; th e f i f te e n

b l in d m a le s h a d a m ean a g e o f 8 3 .6 7 m on ths w i th a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f

1 3 .2 5 ; th e fo u r te e n s e e in g f e m a le s h a d a m ean ag e o f 7 9 .8 5 m onths w i th

a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f 2 1 . 8 8 ; an d th e f i f te e n s e e in g m a le s had a m ean

a g e o f 8 7 .2 5 m on ths w i th a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f 1 2 .9 8 . T ab le 3 s e t s

fo rth t h e m e a n s a n d s ta n d a r d d e v ia t i o n s o f th e a g e of th e m a le s an d

f e m a le s in th e b l in d g roup a n d th e m a le s a n d f e m a le s in th e s e e in g

g ro u p . (See A ppend ix F for a l i s t com paring th e a g e s o f t h e b l in d s u b ­

j e c t s w i th th e a g e s o f t h e i r m a tc h e d s e e in g s u b j e c t s . )

94

TABLE 3

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S .D . ) OF THE AGE OF THE MALE AND FEMALE BLIND SUBJECTS AND THE

MALE AND FEMALE SEEING SUBJECTS

C e ll N Age

Blind F e m a le s 14 M e an 8 5 .5 0S .D . 1 3 .21

Blind M a le s 15 M ean 83 .6 7S . D . 1 3 .2 5

S ee in g F e m a le s 14 M e a n 7 9 .8 5S . D . 2 1 . 8 8

S ee in g M a le s 15 M e a n 8 7 .2 5S . D . 1 2 .8 9

I n t e l l i g e n c e of th e p o p u la t io n

R e la t iv e to th e v a r i a b l e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , th e fo u r te e n b l in d fe m a le s

h a d a m ean In te l l ig e n c e o f 9 1 .1 4 w i th a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f 1 7 .0 2 ; th e

f i f t e e n b l in d m a le s h a d a m ean in te l l ig e n c e of 1 0 0 .1 3 w ith a s t a n d a r d

d e v ia t i o n of 1 4 .3 2 ; th e fo u r te e n s e e in g f e m a le s h a d a m ean in te l l ig e n c e

o f 1 0 5 .8 5 w i th a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f 9 .8 9 a n d th e f i f te e n s e e in g m a le s

h a d a m ean in te l l ig e n c e o f 1 0 0 .9 4 w ith a s t a n d a rd d e v ia t io n of 11 . 19.

T a b le 4 s e t s fo r th th e m e a n s a n d s ta n d a rd d e v ia t i o n s of th e in te l l ig e n c e

o f th e m a le s an d f e m a le s in th e b l in d group a n d th e m a le s an d f e m a le s

in th e s e e in g g ro u p .

95

TABLE 4

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S .D .) OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF THE MALE AND FEMALE BLIND SUBJECTS AND THE

MALE AND FEMALE SEEING SUBJECTS

C e ll N I n te l l ig e n c e

Blind F e m a le s 14 M ean 9 1 .1 4S .D . 17 .02

Blind M a le s 15 M ean 10 0 .1 3S .D . 14 .32

See ing F e m a le s 14 M ean 1 0 5 .8 5S .D . 9 .8 9

S ee in g M a le s 15 M ean 1 0 0 .9 4S .D . 1 1 .1 9

A tw o -w a y a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e if th e

in te l l ig e n c e of t h e b l in d s u b je c t s a n d th e se e in g s u b j e c t s d if fe re d

s ig n i f i c a n t ly . R e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t r e l a t i v e to th e v a r i a b l e , i n t e l l i ­

g e n c e , th e re w a s no s ig n i f ic a n t i n t e r a c t io n e f fe c t b e tw e e n m ale a n d

f e m a le , no s ig n i f i c a n t m ain e f fe c t b e tw e e n m ale and f e m a le , b u t th e re

w a s a s ig n i f ic a n t m ain e f fe c t b e tw e e n th e b l in d s u b j e c t s a n d th e s e e in g

s u b j e c t s a t the .0 5 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h ere fo re , s i n c e th e i n t e l l i ­

g e n c e o f th e b l in d a n d s e e in g g ro u p s w a s s ig n i f ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t ,

in te l l ig e n c e w a s c o v a r i e d ou t a s a f a c t o r in an y d i f f e r e n c e d is p la y e d

in p la y b e h a v io r . The sum m ary t a b l e fo r t h i s a n a l y s i s i s sh ow n in

T ab le 5 .

96

TABLE 5

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE TWO-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE INTELLIGENCE OF THE

BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

S o u rc e o f V aria t io n Sum s o f S q u a re s df M ean S q u a re s nr

M a le a n d Fem ale (A) 7 8 .1 3 1 7 8 . 13 .44

Blind a n d See ing (B) 7 8 2 .1 9 1 7 8 2 .1 9 4 .3 6 *

I n t e r a c t io n (AXB) 6 8 0 .0 0 1 680 . 0 0 3 .79

W ith in C e l l s 9 6 9 0 .1 9 54 1 7 9 .4 5

T o ta l 1 1 2 3 0 .5 0 57 XXXX

* S ig n if ic a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l .

C o m p o s i t io n of th e p o p u la t io n b y s e x

As s p e c i f i e d in th e d e s i g n fo r t h i s s tu d y , th e s e x e s w e re e q u a l ly

r e p r e s e n te d in th e b l in d a n d s e e in g p o p u la t io n . O f th e tw e n ty - n in e

b l in d s u b j e c t s , f i f te e n w e re m ale a n d fo u r te e n w ere f e m a le . O f th e

t w e n ty - n in e s e e in g s u b j e c t s , f i f te e n w e re m ale a n d fo u r te e n w e re f e m a le .

A n a ly s is o f th e S t a t i s t i c a l D a ta P e r ta in in g to th e H y p o th e s e s

I d e n t i f i c a t io n of D ra m a tic P lay

In o rder to id e n t i fy t h o s e a s p e c t s o f t h e p la y s e s s i o n w h ic h c o u ld

b e d e f in e d a s d ra m a t ic p l a y , th e n a r r a t iv e c a s e r e c o rd s w e re e x a m in e d

a n d th e p la y b e h a v io r e n g a g e d in w a s o rg a n iz e d in to th r e e c a te g o r ie s :

97

d ra m a t ic , m a n ip u la t iv e , o th e r th a n d ra m a tic a n d m a n ip u la t iv e . In

d ra m a tic p la y a ro le w a s a s s i g n e d , o r im p l ie d , to th e o b j e c t s , to th e

s u b j e c t , o r t o th e o b s e r v e r a n d , in a d d i t i o n , an in d ic a t io n o f som e

a c t io n w a s r e q u i r e d . T h is w a s d e em ed n e c e s s a r y to b e s t fu l f i l l th e

m ean ing o f d ra m a t ic a s d e f in e d in W e b s t e r 's D ic t io n a ry (1966), t h a t i s ,

"fu ll o f a c t io n ; h ig h ly e m o t io n a l ; v i v id , e x c i t in g [p . 5 5 3 ] . " In m a n ip u la ­

t iv e p la y t h e s u b j e c t h a n d le d th e p la y o b j e c t s , b u t in no id e n t i f i a b le w a y

a s s i g n e d a ro le to th e o b j e c t s , to the s u b j e c t , o r t o th e o b s e r v e r . T h u s ,

a s u b je c t w ho s t a t e d , "The b a b y (the s t ic k ) i s w ra p p e d in a b la n k e t (the

c lo th )" a n d m a n ip u la te d t h e s e o b j e c t s w a s d e f in e d a s b e in g in v o lv e d in

d ra m a tic p la y ; w h i le th e s u b j e c t w ho w ra p p e d th e c lo th a ro u n d th e s t i c k

bu t g a v e no in d ic a t io n t h a t t h e s e o b je c t s w e re o th e r t h a n a c lo th an d a

s t i c k w a s d e f in e d a s b e in g In v o lv e d in m a n ip u la t iv e p la y .

Some s u b j e c t s b e c a m e in v o lv e d in b e h a v io r w h ic h w a s id e n t i f ie d

a s p la y b u t w a s no t c l a s s i f i e d a s m a n ip u la t iv e n o r d r a m a t i c . T his

b e h a v io r w a s c o n s id e r e d to b e p la y o th e r th a n m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d r a m a t i c .

Two m ain c a t e g o r i e s w e re id e n t i f ie d ; nam ing o b j e c t s a n d p la y in g g a m e s .

An e x a m p le o f nam ing o b j e c t s fo l lo w s :

I 'm g o ing to m ake b e l ie v e th e h a t is a d o l l , t h e box is a h o u s e , th e s t i c k i s a r o p e . I d o n ' t know a n y th in g e l s e .

S ince th e r e w a s no a c t io n d u r in g t h i s s e q u e n c e , th e s u b je c t w a s not

c o n s id e r e d t o b e in v o lv e d in d ra m a t ic p l a y . G a m e s s u c h a s h i d e - a n d -

g o - s e e k w e re a l s o re c o rd e d a s o th e r th a n m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a tic p la y .

93

T h ere w ere som e s e s s i o n s in w h ic h th e s u b je c t w a s in v o lv e d in

o n e ty p e o f p la y for som e tim e d u rin g th e p la y s e s s i o n , t e r m in a te d th i s

ty p e o f p l a y , a n d th e n b e c a m e in v o lv e d in a n o th e r ty p e o f p la y du ring

th e r e s t o f th e s e s s i o n . An e x am p le of t h i s is a s fo l lo w s:

I ’m g o in g f i s h in g . T h is i s my f i s h in g b o a t . (Child p u ts c lo th in to b o x , th e h a t on h e a d , s i t s in box h o ld in g th e s t i c k l ik e a f i s h in g p o l e . ) I c a u g h t one f i s h . (Turns b o x u p s id e d o w n .S p re a d s c lo th o v e r b o x . S i ts on box an d m o v es th e box a lo n g w i th f e e t . ) T h is is my b o a t n o w . (This a c t io n to o k 5 m in u te s a n d w a s c o n s id e r e d d ra m a tic p l a y . )

(C h ild t a k e s h a t o ff h e a d . T e l ls o b s e r v e r to pu t th e box in th e c o m e r w h ile c h i ld h i t s it w ith th e s t i c k . C h i ld c o n t in u e s h i t t in g th e b o x in v a r io u s p o s i t i o n s . A sk s th e o b s e r v e r to h i t t h e b o x .T h is e p i s o d e to o k 10 m in u te s a n d w a s c o n s id e r e d m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y .)

In t h e s e c a s e s th e s u b j e c t w a s r e c o rd e d a s h a v in g becom e in v o lv e d in

b o th d ra m a tic p la y a n d m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y , o r a n y c o m b in a t io n of

m a n ip u la t iv e , d r a m a t i c , o r o th e r , a s a p p l i c a b l e .

W ith in the b ro ad c a te g o ry o f d ra m a t ic p l a y , s i n g l e , d i s t i n c t

s t o r i e s o r a c t i o n s p r e s e n te d during th e p la y s e s s i o n w ere r e c o g n iz e d .

T h e s e s t o r i e s o r a c t i o n s w e re a b le t o s ta n d a lo n e an d c o n s i s t e d o f an

id e n t i f i a b le b e g in n in g , m id d le , a n d e n d . T h e s e s to r ie s o r a c t i o n , for

th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y , w ere l a b e l e d d ra m a tic u n i ts a n d w e re u s e d a s

a b a s i s fo r q u a n t i t a t iv e e v a lu a t io n o f d ra m a t ic p la y . T h e s e d r a m a t ic u n i ts

d i f f e r e d w id e ly in c o m p le x i ty . An e x a m p le o f a s im p le d ra m a t ic u n it

w o u ld b e : " H e r e 's a m ajor g e n e ra l a n d y o u 'r e on e o f h i s m en . . . Bang,

Bang . . . Y ou 're d e a d . " A more c o m p le x d ra m a t ic u n it i s p r e s e n t e d in

99

A ppen d ix A, Exam ple 23 . T h is d ra m a tic u n i t c o n tin u ed fo r t h e e n t i re

f i f t e e n m inu te p la y s e s s i o n a n d p r e s e n te d a n in t r ic a te s to ry w i th th e

in t ro d u c t io n o f n u m ero u s c h a r a c te r s a n d s e t t i n g s .

The num ber o f d ra m a t ic u n i ts p r e s e n t e d during in d iv id u a l p lay

s e s s i o n s an d th e le n g th o f th e d ra m a tic u n i t s d i f fe re d w i d e l y . D uring

on e f i f te e n m inute s e s s i o n , one s u b je c t p r e s e n te d th i r t y - tw o d ram a tic

u n i t s ( s e e A ppendix B, Exam ple 1). In c o n t r a s t , a n o th e r s u b j e c t p re ­

s e n t e d one d ra m a tic u n i t w h ic h to o k th e e n t i r e f i f te e n m in u te p la y

s e s s i o n (see A ppendix A, Example 2 3 ) . In o rd e r to g e t t h e b e s t sam p le

of e a c h s u b j e c t ' s d r a m a tic p la y for c o m p a ra t iv e p u r p o s e s , th e lo n g e s t

d ra m a t ic u n i t w a s id e n t i f i e d and u s e d fo r s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t . The

th i r t y - o n e lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic u n i ts a re p r e s e n t e d in A ppend ix A.

The H y p o th e s e s C o n s id e r e d

F in d in g s r e l a t i v e to th e h y p o th e s e s a r e h e re w ith s e t fo r th .

H y p o th e s i s I; T h e re is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f fe re n c e in th e c o n te n t o f

th e d ra m a tic p la y o f youn g b l in d c h i ld re n a n d s e e in g c h i l d r e n .

The c o n te n ts o f th e lo n g e s t d r a m a t ic u n i t s o f th e s u b j e c t s who

e n g a g e d in d ra m a tic p la y w ere e x am in e d a n d th e th e m e s e x p r e s s e d

Id e n t i f ie d a n d c a t e g o r i z e d . The th e m e s o f b o th th e b l in d a n d s e e in g

s u b j e c t s f e l l n a tu r a l ly in to t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s ; a d v e n tu r e , d o m e s t i c ,

s p o r t s , w o r ld - o f - w o r k , a n d o th e r . T here a p p e a re d to b e so m e in d ic a t io n

t h a t th e b l in d s u b j e c t s w e re more a w a re o f th e w o r ld -o f -w o rk a s

100

in d ic a te d by th e i r t h e m e s c o n c e rn in g a c o w b o y , d e n t i s t , d o c to r , and

fa rm e r . The s e e in g s u b j e c t s w ere l e s s c o n c e rn e d w ith t h i s a s p e c t of

l i f e a n d e m p h a s iz e d th e d o m e s t ic s c e n e m ore o f te n . T ab le 6 l i s t s the

th e m e s e x p r e s s e d b y b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b j e c t s in th e l o n g e s t d ram a tic

u n i t .

TABLE 6

THEMES EXPRESSED IN THE LONGEST DRAMATIC UNIT BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Blind

A dven tu re

A s tro n a u ts in s p a c e A b r id g e b r e a k s G oing f i s h in g H u n tin g R ocket jo u rn e y

T o ta l 5

D o m e s t ic

S ee ing

A d v en tu re

C a r a c c id e n t M o u n ta in c l im b in g S h o o tin g a g u n — a t s e l f S ho o tin g a gun w h i le in a b o a t S p y / ro b b e r e p is o d e

T o ta l 5

D o m e s t ic

P la y in g h o u s e — g e t t in g d in n e r

P la y in g h o u s e — e v e n in g a c t i v i t i e s

S e q u e n c e o f d a i l y ro u t in e A w a lk a ro u n d a h o u s e

Birth o f a b a b y a n d e f f e c t on fam ily

A m an do ing a v a r i e t y o f horr.e- ty p e a c t iv i t i e s

A m an s le e p in g A m an w a lk in g w i th c a n e P la y in g h o u s e — b a k in g c o o k ie s T ak in g c a re o f b o y / d o l l W o m a n /g i r l go in g to b e d

T o ta l 4 T o ta l 7

101

TABLE 6— C o n t in u e d

Blind Seeing

S p o r ts Sports

P la y in g b a s e b a l l O b s e rv in g a su r fb o a rd c o n te s t

T o ta l 1 T o ta l 1

W o r ld -o f -W o rk W o rld -o f -W o rk

C o w b o y round ing up c a t t l e T e a c h e r a n d p u p ilD e n t i s t f ix ing a c a t ' s t e e t h D o c to r h e lp in g a p a t i e n t D riv in g a t r a c to r a n d a

w h ee lb a rro w

T o ta l 4 T o ta l 1

O th e r O th e r

A d a p ta t io n o f T hree L i t t le P ig s

A nim al pops ou t o f c a g e

Spank ing a fox

T o ta l 2 T o ta l 1

The num ber o f t h e m e s in e a c h c a te g o r y in v o lv e d w a s to o sm a ll to

b e q u a n t i t a t iv e ly a s s e s s e d , h o w e v e r , a n a l y s i s o f th e c o n te n t s r e v e a le d

no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e b e tw e e n th e th e m e s e x p r e s s e d b y th e b l in d a n d

s e e i n g c h i ld re n . T h e r e fo r e , th e h y p o th e s i s th a t th e re i s no s u b s ta n t i a l

d i f f e r e n c e in th e c o n te n t s o f th e d ra m a tic p la y of young b l in d c h i ld re n

a n d s e e in g c h i ld re n is r e t a in e d .

102

H y p o th e s i s II: T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f fe re n c e in th e am o un t of

t im e s p e n t in th e d ra m a tic p la y of young b l in d c h i ld re n an d s e e in g

c h i l d r e n .

T he d a ta w ere e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r n o t th e b l in d and

s e e in g s u b j e c t s d if fe re d in th e am oun t o f t im e sp e n t in d ra m a tic p l a y .

R e la t iv e to th e t o ta l am ount o f t im e s p e n t in d ra m a tic p l a y , th e

tw e n ty - n in e b l in d s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean o f 5 .8 6 w ith a s ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n

of 2 . 1 8 an d th e tw e n ty - n in e s e e in g s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean o f 4 .6 2 w i th a

s t a n d a rd d e v ia t io n of 6 . 2 1 . The a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d t o d e t e r ­

m ine if th e t o t a l am oun t o f t im e sp e n t in d ra m a t ic p la y b y b l in d s u b j e c t s

d i f fe re d s ig n i f ic a n t ly from th e am ount o f t im e s p e n t in d ra m a tic p l a y by

s e e in g s u b j e c t s . R e s u l ts in d ic a te d th a t th e r e w a s no d i f fe re n c e a t th e

.05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . T he sum m ary t a b l e fo r t h i s a n a l y s i s i s show n

in T a b le 7 .

TABLE 7

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN DRAMATIC PLAY BY

BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Source o f V a ria t io n Sums o f S q u ares df M ean S q u a re s F

Blind a n d S e e in g

W ith in G ro u p s

T o ta l

2 2 .3 4

2 2 7 0 .2 7

2 2 9 2 .6 2

1 2 2 .3 4

56 4 0 .5 4

57 XXXX

.5 5

103

T h e d e g re e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e t o t a l am ount o f t im e sp e n t

in d r a m a t i c p la y an d in te l l i g e n c e w a s d e s c r i b e d by a P e a r s o n r o f .0 7 .

T h is c o r r e l a t io n w a s t e s t e d for s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n i f ic a n c e by m e a n s of a t

t e s t . T he t v a lu e o f .5 1 (df = 5 6 ) w a s n o t s ig n i f ic a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t u s in g in te l l ig e n c e a s th e c o v a r ia te

w a s e f f e c t e d . R e su l ts in d ic a te d th a t th e r e w a s no s ig n i f i c a n t d i f fe re n c e

a t th e .0 5 l e v e l w ith a c o v a r i a n t a d ju s tm e n t for in te l l ig e n c e w i th r e s p e c t

to th e t o t a l am ount o f t im e s p e n t in d r a m a t ic p la y by th e b l in d an d s e e in g

s u b j e c t s . The sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s i s show n in T a b le 8 . The

m e a n s a d j u s t e d for the c o v a r i a t e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , r e la t iv e t o th e am ount o f

tim e s p e n t in d ram a tic p l a y b y b lin d a n d s e e i n g s u b je c t s a re show n in

T ab le 9 .

TABLE 8

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN DRAMATIC PLAY BY

BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Source o f V a r ia t io n Sum s o f S q u a res d f M ean S q u a re s F

Blind a n d S ee ing 3 3 .5 6 1 3 3 .5 6 .82

W ith in G ro u p s 2 2 4 8 .4 3 55 4 0 .8 8

T o ta l 2 2 8 1 .9 9 56 XXXX

104

TABLE 9

MEANS ADJUSTED FOR THE COVARIATE INTELLIGENCERELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN DRAMATIC PLAY

BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

C e ll N D ra m a tic P la y

Blind S u b je c t s 29 M e a n 6 .0 3

S e e in g S u b je c ts 29 M e a n 4 . 4 5

The d a ta w e re e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r or n o t th e b l in d a n d

s e e in g s u b j e c t s w ho e n g a g e d in d ra m a tic p la y d if fe re d in th e am ount of

t im e th e y w e re in v o lv e d in th e l o n g e s t d r a m a tic u n i t .

R e la t iv e to th e am ou n t o f t im e in v o lv e d in th e lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic

u n i t , th e s ix t e e n b l in d s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean o f 3 2 5 .9 4 w i th a s ta n d a rd

d e v ia t io n o f 2 8 8 .3 2 a n d th e f i f t e e n s e e in g s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean o f

2 5 8 .3 3 w ith a s t a n d a rd d e v ia t io n o f 3 1 1 . 2 5 . The a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e

w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e if t h e am o un t o f t im e th e b l in d s u b j e c t s w e re

in v o lv e d in t h e lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic u n it d i f f e re d s ig n i f ic a n t ly from th e

am oun t o f t im e th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s w e re in v o lv e d in th e l o n g e s t d ra m a tic

u n i t . R e s u l ts in d ic a te d t h a t th e re w a s no d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l of

s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s is sh ow n in T ab le 10.

The d e g re e o f r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e a m o u n t o f t im e in v o lv e d in

th e lo n g e s t d r a m a t ic u n i t a n d in te l l ig e n c e w a s d e s c r ib e d b y a P e a r s o n r

o f . 0 4 . T h is c o r r e l a t io n w a s t e s t e d for s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n i f i c a n c e b y m e a n s

105

TABLE 10

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVETO THE TIME INVOLVED IN THE LONGEST DRAMATIC

UNIT BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

S ou rce of V aria t io n Sums o f S q u a re s d f M ean S q u a re s T 1i

Blind a n d See ing 3 5 3 8 3 .1 8 1 3 5 3 8 3 .1 8 .3 7

W ith in G roups 2 7 8 3 4 9 7 .0 0 29 9 5 9 8 2 .6 3

T o ta l 2 8 1 8 8 8 0 .1 8 30 XXXX

o f a t t e s t . The t v a lu e o f .22 (df = 29) w a s n o t s ig n i f ic a n t a t t h e .0 5

l e v e l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t u s in g in te l l ig e n c e a s the

c o v a r i a t e w a s e f f e c t e d . R e s u l ts in d ic a te d t h a t th e re w a s no s ig n i f ic a n t

d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l w i th a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t for in te l l ig e n c e

w i th r e s p e c t to th e am o u n t o f t im e th e b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b j e c t s w e re

in v o lv e d in th e lo n g e s t d r a m a tic u n i t . The sum m ary ta b le fo r t h i s

a n a l y s i s i s show n in T a b le 1 1 . The m ean s a d ju s t e d for the c o v a r i a t e ,

i n t e l l i g e n c e , r e l a t i v e t o th e am o un t o f tim e in v o lv e d in th e lo n g e s t

d ra m a t ic u n i t a re sh o w n in T ab le 12 .

The t o ta l am o u n t o f t im e s p e n t in d ra m a t ic p la y by th e b l in d a n d

s e e in g c h i ld re n d u r in g th e p la y s e s s i o n , a n d th e am ount of t im e s p e n t in

th e lo n g e s t d ra m a tic u n i t w e re s u b je c te d to s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . R e s u l ts

in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s no s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e re n c e in th e t im e s p e n t in

d r a m a t ic p la y b y b l in d a n d s e e in g c h i ld r e n . T h e re fo re , th e h y p o th e s i s

106

TABLE 11

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RELATIVETO THE TIME INVOLVED IN THE LONGEST DRAMATIC

UNIT BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Source o f V a r ia t io n Sum s o f S q u ares d f M ean S q u ares F

Blind a n d S e e in g 44494 .00 1 4 4 4 9 4 .0 0 .4 5

W ith in G ro u p s 2 7 6 9 4 7 7 .0 0 28 9 8 9 0 9 .8 9

T o ta l 2 8 1 3 9 7 1 .0 0 29 XXXX

TABLE 12

MEANS ADJUSTED FOR THE COVARIATE INTELLIGENCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME INVOLVED IN THE LONGEST DRAMATIC UNIT BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

C e l l N Time

Blind S u b je c t s 16 M e a n 3 3 1 .2 8

S e e in g S u b je c ts IS M e a n 2 5 2 .9 3

t h a t th e re i s no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in th e am o u n t o f tim e s p e n t in th e

d ra m a tic p la y o f young b l in d c h i ld re n and s e e in g c h i ld re n w a s a c c e p t e d .

H y p o th e s i s III: T here is no s u b s ta n t i a l d i f f e re n c e In th e c o m p le x i ty

o f th e d ra m a tic p lay of y o u n g b l in d c h i ld re n a n d s e e in g c h i l d r e n .

The lo n g e s t d ra m a tic u n i t s w ere fu r th e r d iv id e d in to s u b - u n i t s .

T h e se s u b - u n i t s w e re d e f in e d a s th e e s s e n t i a l i d e a s or a c t io n w h ic h m ade

107

up th e w h o le d ra m a tic u n i t . For e x a m p le , in th e fo l lo w in g d ra m a t ic un it

th re e s u b - u n i t s w e re id e n t i f ie d : " C h e - e . A ro c k e t (the s t i c k ) . C h o o - o o .

Ready to g e t s t a r te d a n d i t ' s g o in g to go s p la s h o ff a n d b a c k d o w n .

W a s n ' t a v e r y , v e ry long t r ip . " In t h i s e x a m p le , th e th re e e s s e n t i a l

a c t io n s w e re found to b e : (1 ) a r o c k e t is r e a d y , (2) it g o e s u p , (3) it

c o m e s d o w n . It w a s d e te rm in e d t h a t c o m p le x i ty c o u ld be q u a n t i f ie d by

th e num ber o f s u b - u n i t s in v o lv e d in th e u n i t , t h u s , th e more s u b - u n i t s

e x p r e s s e d in th e u n i t , th e more c o m p le x th e u n i t .

The d a ta w e re e x am in e d t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r no t th e b l in d and

s e e in g s u b j e c t s w ho e n g a g e d in d ra m a t ic p lay d i f f e r e d in th e nu m ber of

s u b - u n i t s t h e y in tro d u c e d in to th e lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic u n i t .

R e la t iv e t o th e num ber o f s u b - u n i t s in t ro d u c e d , th e s ix t e e n b l in d

s u b je c t s h a d a m ean o f 10 .63 w i th a s ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n of 1 3 .6 1 a n d th e

f i f te e n s e e in g s u b j e c t s had a m e a n o f 18 .93 w ith a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n of

3 3 .9 0 . The a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e if th e n um b er of

s u b - u n i t s in t ro d u c e d in to th e lo n g e s t d ram a tic u n i t b y th e b l in d s u b j e c t s

d if fe red s ig n i f i c a n t ly from th e n um ber o f s u b - u n i t s in tro d u c e d in to th e

lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic u n it by th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s . R e s u l t s in d ic a te d th a t

th e re w a s no d i f fe re n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sum m ary

ta b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s i s sh ow n in T ab le 13.

The d e g re e o f r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e num ber o f s u b - u n i t s in t ro ­

d u c e d a n d in te l l ig e n c e w a s d e s c r i b e d by a P e a r s o n r o f . 0 . T h is

c o r r e la t io n w a s t e s t e d for s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n i f ic a n c e b y m ea n s of a t t e s t .

108

TABLE 13

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER OF SUB-UNITS INTRODUCED BY

BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

S ou rce o f V aria tion S um s of S q u ares df M ean S q u a re s F

B lind a n d See ing 5 3 4 .4 1 1 5 3 4 .4 1 .77

W ith in G ro ups 2 0 1 9 6 .6 4 29 6 9 6 .4 4

T o ta l 2 0 7 3 1 .0 5 30 XXXX

The t v a lu e o f - . 0 3 (df = 29) w a s not s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o v a r i a n t a d ju s tm e n t u s in g in te l l ig e n c e a s th e c o v a r ia te

w a s e f f e c t e d . R e su l ts in d ic a te d th a t th e r e w a s no s ig n i f i c a n t d i f fe re n c e

a t th e .0 5 le v e l w ith a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t for in te l l ig e n c e w ith r e s p e c t

to th e nu m ber o f s u b - u n i t s in tro d u c ed b y t h e b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b je c t s

in to th e lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic u n i t . The sum m ary t a b l e fo r t h i s a n a l y s i s is

sh o w n in T ab le 14. T h e m e a n s a d ju s te d for th e c o v a r i a t e , i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

r e l a t i v e to th e num ber o f s u b - u n i t s in t ro d u c e d in to th e l o n g e s t d ram a tic

u n i t a r e show n in T ab le 1 5 .

S in c e th e re w a s n o s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e in the num ber o f s u b ­

u n i t s in tro d u c e d in to th e lo n g e s t d ra m a tic u n i t s by b lin d a n d s e e in g s u b ­

j e c t s , t h e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e re is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in th e

c o m p le x i ty o f the d r a m a t ic p la y of young b l in d c h i ld re n a n d s e e in g

c h i l d r e n , w a s a c c e p t e d .

109

TABLE 14

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER OF SUB-UNITS INTRODUCED BY

BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

S o u rce of V a r ia t io n Sum s o f S q u a re s d f M ean S q u a re s F

B lind an d See ing 5 7 4 .6 7 1 5 7 4 .6 7 80

W ith in G roups 2 0 1 5 5 .9 3 28 7 1 9 .8 5

T o ta l 2 0 7 3 0 .6 0 29 XXXX

TABLE 15

MEANS ADJUSTED FOR THE COVARIATE INTELLIGENCE RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER OF SUB-UNITS INTRO­

DU CED BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

C e l l N S u b -U n i t s

Blind S u b je c ts 16 M e an 1 8 .0 3

S eeing S u b je c t s 15 M e an 2 4 .5 6

HvD Othesis IV: T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f fe re n c e in th e in te n s i ty

o f th e p e rs o n a l in v o lv e m e n t e x h ib i te d in th e d ra m a tic p la y of young b l in d

c h i ld re n an d s e e in g c h i l d r e n .

Three ju d g e s w e re r e q u e s te d to r a t e th e in te n s i ty o f th e lo n g e s t

d r a m a t ic u n i ts b a s e d o n a one to f ive s c a l e , o n e be in g th e lo w e s t or

l e a s t in te n se s c o r e , f iv e be ing th e h i g h e s t o r m ost in te n s e s c o r e .

110

I n te n s i ty w a s d e f in e d (W e b s te r , 1966) a s " the q u a l i t y o f b e in g in te n s e ;

s p e c i f i c a l ly , (a) ex tre m e d e g re e o f a n y th in g ; (b) g r e a t e n e rg y or

v e h e m e n c e o f e m o t io n , t h o u g h t , o r a c t iv i t y [p . 9 5 4 ] . " Judge 1, m a le ,

h a d an E d .D . in e d u c a t io n w i th a n e m p h a s i s in v o c a t io n a l r e h a b i l i t a t io n ;

Judge 2 , m a le , h e ld an E d .D . in e le m e n ta ry e d u c a t io n w ith a c o n c e n t r a ­

t io n in c h i ld h o o d e d u c a t io n ; Judge 3 , f e m a le , w a s a m o b il i ty in s t r u c to r

fo r the b l in d , w i th a n M ,A . in p e r ip a to lo g y . The lo n g e s t d ra m a tic u n i t s

w e re a r ra n g ed in a random o rd e r w ith n o id e n t i f i c a t io n a s to w h e th e r a

b l in d or s e e in g s u b je c t h a d c o m p o s e d th e u n i t . W h en tw o ju d g e s a g re e d

upon a s c o r e , t h i s sc o re w a s a c c e p t e d . If a l l t h r e e ju d g e s d i s a g r e e d ,

th e m id -s c o re w a s a c c e p t e d .

A P e a rs o n p ro d u c t m om ent c o r r e la t io n c o e f f i c i e n t w a s c a l c u l a t e d to

d e te rm in e th e a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e j u d g e s . The c o r r e la t io n c o e f f i c i e n t

b e tw e e n Judge 1 a n d Judge 2 w a s .8 2 ; b e tw e e n Judge 1 a n d Judge 3 , .4 8 ;

b e tw e e n Judge 2 a n d Judge 3 , . 4 0 . The c o r re la t io n c o e f f i c i e n t s in d ic a te d

t h a t th e re w a s a h ig h c o r r e la t io n b e tw e e n th e r a t i n g s o f Judge 1 a n d

Judge 2 , w h i le Judge 3 d e v ia te d from th e r a t in g s ox Ju d g e s 1 a n d 2 .

The d a ta w e re e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r no t th e b l in d a n d

s e e in g s u b j e c t s d if fe red in th e i n te n s i t y show n d u r in g th e l o n g e s t

d ra m a tic u n i t .

R e la t iv e to th e in te n s i ty s h o w n , th e s ix t e e n b l in d s u b j e c t s h a d a

m ean o f 2 .6 3 w i th a s ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n o f 1 .0 5 a n d th e f i f te e n s e e in g

s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean o f 2 .4 7 w i th a s ta n d a rd d e v ia t i o n of 1 .4 5 . The

I l l

a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s u se d to d e te rm in e if t h e in te n s i ty sh ow n by th e

b l in d s u b j e c t s d u r in g th e lo n g e s t d r a m a tic u n it d i f f e r e d s ig n i f ic a n t ly from

th e i n t e n s i ty sh ow n b y th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s d u r in g th e lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic

u n i t . R e su l ts in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s no d i f f e r e n c e a t the .0 5 l e v e l of

s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s i s show n in T ab le 16.

TABLE 16

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE INTENSITY OF THE LONGEST DRAMATIC UNIT

SHOWN BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

S ou rce of V a r ia t io n Sums of S q u a re s df M e a n S quares F

Blind a n d See ing . 19 1 .19 . 1 1

W ith in G roups 4 9 .4 8 29 1 .7 1

T o ta l 4 9 .6 8 30 XXXX

The d e g re e of r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e i n t e n s i t y show n d u r in g th e

lo n g e s t d ram a tic u n i t a n d in te l l ig e n c e w a s d e s c r i b e d by a P e a rs o n r of

. 0 . T h is c o r r e la t io n w a s t e s t e d fo r s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n i f i c a n c e b y m e a n s of

a t t e s t . The t v a lu e o f - .05 (df = 29) w a s no t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5

l e v e l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t u s in g in te l l ig e n c e a s th e

c o v a r i a t e w a s e f f e c t e d . R e s u l ts in d ic a te d t h a t t h e r e w a s no s ig n i f ic a n t

d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l w ith a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t for in te l l ig e n c e

w i th r e s p e c t to th e i n te n s i ty sh o w n by the b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b j e c t s

112

du rin g th e l o n g e s t d ram a tic u n i t . The sum m ary t a b l e fo r t h i s a n a l y s i s i s

show n in T ab le 17. The m e a n s a d ju s te d for th e c o v a r i a t e , i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

r e la t iv e t o th e in te n s i ty sh o w n d u r in g th e lo n g e s t d ra m a tic u n i t a re show n

in T ab le 18 .

TABLE 17

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE INTENSITY OF THE LONGEST DRAMATIC UNIT

SHOWN BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Source o f V a r ia t io n Sum s of S q u a re s df M ean S q u a re s F

Blind a n d S e e in g .19 1 .1 9 .11

W ith in G ro u p s 4 9 .4 8 28 1 .7 7

T o ta l 4 9 .6 7 29 XXXX

TABLE 18

MEANS ADJUSTED FOR THE COVARIATE INTELLIGENCE RELATIVE TO THE INTENSITY OF THE LONGEST DRAMATIC UNIT

SHOWN BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

C e l l N I n te n s i ty

Blind S u b je c ts 16 M ean 2 .63

S e e in g S u b je c ts 15 M ean 2 .4 7

S in c e th e r e w a s no s ig n i f ic a n t d i f fe re n c e in i n t e n s i t y show n

du ring th e lo n g e s t d ra m a tic u n it b y th e b l in d and s e e in g s u b j e c t s , th e

113

h y p o th e s i s th a t th e re i s no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in th e i n te n s i ty o f th e

p e r s o n a l in v o lv e m en t e x h ib i t e d in th e d ra m a tic p la y o f young b l in d

c h i ld r e n an d s e e in g c h i ld re n w a s r e t a i n e d .

A n a ly s is o f th e S t a t i s t i c a l D a ta P e r ta in in g to th e P lay S e s s io n

In t ro d u c t io n

As p re v io u s ly i n d ic a t e d , in v ie w o f th e d e a th of u s a b le r e s o u rc e

d a ta p r e s e n t ly a v a i l a b l e , it w a s c o n s id e r e d im portan t a t t h i s tim e to

c o l l e c t , a n a l y z e , a n d in te rp re t th e d a ta r e s u l t in g from th e s tu d y from th e

p o s i t io n o f w h a t i s th e s i tu a t io n r a th e r th a n to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r n o t

s p e c i f i c s p e c u la t i o n s a r e , o r a re n o t , s u b s t a n t i a t e d , e x c e p t for t h o s e

p o r t io n s o f th e s tu d y w h ic h len d t h e m s e lv e s to th e form al h y p o th e s e s s e t

fo r th a t th e b e g in n in g of t h i s s e c t i o n . T h e re fo re , th e fo l lo w in g d a ta w e re

c o l l e c t e d a n d a n a l y z e d .

The P lay S e s s io n

Type of p la y b e h a v io r e x h ib i te d

A tw o sa m p le c h i sq u a re t e s t w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r no t

b l in d n e s s w a s in d e p e n d e n t o f th e ty p e of p la y in w h ic h th e s u b je c t s

b e c a m e in v o lv e d a n d in th e n o n - in v o lv e m e n t o f th e s u b j e c t s in p la y .

T ab le 19 sh o w s th e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b ­

j e c t s an d th e f r e q u e n c y o f th e i r in v o lv e m en t in m a n ip u la t iv e p la y .

114

TABLE 19

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOWING THE OBSERVED (O) ANDEXPECTED (E) FREQUENCY OF BLIND AND SEEINGSUBJECTS' INVOLVEMENT IN MANIPULATIVE PLAY

M a n ip u la t iv e P la y Blind S e e in g T o ta l

Yes (O) 9 1 10(E) ( 5) ( S)

No (O) 2 0 28 48(E) (2 4) (24)

T o ta l 29 29 58

d f = 1X2 = 5 .9 2 1*

‘ S ig n if ic a n t a t t h e . 05 l e v e l .

The o b ta in e d c h i s q u a re v a l u e , 5 . 9 2 , w a s s ig n i f ic a n t a t t h e .0 5

l e v e l . T h e re fo re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s i s t h a t no d i f f e re n c e e x i s t s b e tw e e n

th e o b s e r v e d a n d e x p e c te d v a lu e s w a s r e j e c t e d a n d th e a l t e r n a t iv e

h y p o th e s i s t h a t th e tw o v a r i a b l e s , b l in d - s e e i n g a n d in v o lv em en t in

m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y , a re a s s o c i a t e d , w a s a c c e p t e d . It w a s in fe r re d from

t h e s e d a ta t h a t th e b l in d s u b j e c t s b e c a m e more f re q u e n t ly in v o lv e d in

m a n ip u la t iv e p la y th a n th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s .

T ab le 20 sh o w s th e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e b l in d an d s e e in g s u b ­

j e c t s a n d th e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e i r in v o lv e m en t in d ra m a t ic p la y .

115

TABLE 20

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOWING THE OBSERVED (O) ANDEXPECTED (E) FREQUENCY OF BLIND AND SEEING

SUBJECTS’ INVOLVEMENT IN DRAMATIC PLAY

D ram a tic P la y Blind See ing T ota l

Yes (O) 16 15 31(E) (15 .5 ) (1 5 .5 )

No (O) 13 14 27(E) (1 3 .5 ) (13 .5 )

T o ta l 29 29 58

d f = 1 X2 = .04

The o b ta in e d c h i sq u a re v a l u e , . 0 4 , w a s n o t s ig n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5

l e v e l . T h e re fo re , t h e n u l l h y p o th e s i s th a t no d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s b e tw e e n

th e tw o v a r i a b l e s , b l i n d - s e e i n g a n d in v o lv e m en t in d r a m a t ic p la y , w a s

a c c e p t e d . It w a s in fe rred from t h e s e d a ta t h a t th e re w a s no d i f f e re n c e in

th e f re q u e n c y w ith w h ic h b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b j e c t s b e c a m e in v o lv ed in

d ra m a t ic p la y .

T ab le 21 sh o w s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e b l in d an d s e e in g s u b ­

j e c t s a n d th e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e i r in v o lv e m e n t in p la y o th e r th a n d ra m a tic

a n d m a n ip u la t iv e .

The o b ta in e d c h i sq u a re v a l u e , . 1 1 , w a s n o t s ig n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5

l e v e l . T h e re fo re , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t no d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s b e tw e e n

116

TABLE 2 1

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOW ING THE OBSERVED (O) AND EXPECTED (E) FREQUENCY OF BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS* INVOLVEMENT IN PLAY OTHER THAN

DRAMATIC AND MANIPULATIVE

O th e r P la y Blind See ing T ota l

Yes (O) 2 6 8(E) ( 4) ( 4)

No (O) 27 23 50(E) (25) (2 5)

T o ta l 29 29 58

d i = 1XT = . 1 1

th e tw o v a r i a b l e s , b l i n d - s e e in g a n d in v o lv em en t in p l a y o th e r t h a n

m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a t ic , w a s a c c e p t e d . It w a s in fe r re d from t h e s e

d a ta th a t th e re w a s no d i f fe re n c e in t h e freq u e n cy w i t h w h ich b l in d a n d

s e e in g s u b j e c t s b e c a m e in v o lv e d in p la y o th e r t h a n m a n ip u la t iv e a n d

d r a m a t ic .

T ab le 22 s h o w s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e b l in d and s e e in g s u b ­

j e c t s an d th e f r e q u e n c y o f n o n - in v o lv e m e n t in p l a y .

The o b ta in e d c h i - s q u a r e v a l u e , 1 .3 1 , w a s n o t s ig n i f ic a n t a t th e

.0 5 l e v e l . T h e re fo re , th e n u ll h y p o t h e s i s th a t no d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s

b e tw e e n th e tw o v a r i a b l e s , b l i n d - s e e i n g and n o n - in v o lv e m e n t in p l a y ,

117

TABLE 22

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOWING THE OBSERVED (O) ANDEXPECTED (E) FREQUENCY OF BLIND AND SEEING

SUBJECTS' NON-INVOLVE ME NT IN PLAY

No P la y Blind S e e in g T o ta l

Yes (0 ) 5 7 12(E) ( 6 ) ( 6 )

No (O) 24 2 2 46(E) (23) (23)

T o ta l 29 29 58

« - i X* = 1 .3 1

w a s a c c e p t e d . It w a s in fe r re d from t h e s e d a ta th a t th e re w a s no d i f fe re n c e

in th e f r e q u e n c y w ith w h ic h b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b j e c t s d id n o t b e co m e

in v o lv e d in p l a y .

Time in v o lv e d in p la y

The d a ta w e re e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r no t th e b l in d a n d

s e e in g s u b j e c t s d if fe re d in th e am ou n t o f t im e sp e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e p la y .

R e la t iv e to th e am ou n t o f t im e s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y , th e

tw e n ty - n in e b l in d s u b je c t s h a d a m ean o f 3 . 6 6 w ith a s ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n

o f 5 .9 4 a n d th e tw e n ty - n in e s e e in g s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean o f .0 3 w i th a

s ta n d a rd d e v ia t i o n of . 1 8 . The a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d to

118

d e te rm in e if th e am o u n t o f t im e s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e p la y by b l in d s u b ­

j e c t s d if fe re d s ig n i f ic a n t ly from th e am o u n t o f tim e s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e

p la y by s e e in g s u b j e c t s . R e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e re w a s a d i f fe re n c e

a t th e ,01 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s i s

show n in T ab le 23 .

TABLE 23

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN MANIPULATIVE PLAY BY

BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Source of V aria t ion Sums of S q u a re s df M e a n S q u a re s F

Blind a n d See ing 190 .09 1 19 0 . 0 9 1 0 . 4 0 *

W ith in G ro ups 1 02 3 .5 1 56 1 8 .2 8

T o ta l 1 21 3 .6 0 57 x x x x

♦ S ig n if ic a n t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l .

The d e g re e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e am o u n t o f t im e sp e n t in

m a n ip u la t iv e p la y a n d in te l l ig e n c e w a s d e s c r ib e d by a P e a r s o n r o f - . 0 7 .

T h is c o r r e l a t io n w a s t e s t e d for s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n i f ic a n c e by m e a n s o f a t

t e s t . The t v a lu e o f - .5 1 (df = 5 6 ) w a s n o t s ig n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o v a r i a n t a d ju s tm e n t u s in g in te l l ig e n c e a s th e c o v a r ia te

w a s e f f e c t e d . R e s u l t s in d ic a te d th a t th e r e w a s a s ig n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e

w ith a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t fo r in te l l ig e n c e a t th e . 0 1 l e v e l w ith r e s p e c t

119

to th e am ou n t o f t im e s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y b y b l in d a n d s e e in g

s u b j e c t s . The sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s i s p r e s e n te d in T ab le 2 4 .

E x am in a tion o f th e a d ju s t e d m e a n s show n in T ab le 25 w ou ld in d ic a te th a t

th e b l in d s u b j e c t s s p e n t m ore t im e in m a n ip u la t iv e p la y th a n th e s e e in g

s u b j e c t s .

TABLE 24

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN MANIPULATIVE PLAY BY

BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

S ou rce o f V a r ia t io n Sum s o f S quares d f M ean S q u a re s F

Blind an d S ee in g 1 8 6 .1 5 1 1 8 6 .1 5 1 0 .0 2 *

W ith in G ro u p s 1 0 2 1 .8 0 55 1 8 .5 8

T o ta l 1 2 0 7 .9 5 56 XXXX

S ig n if ic a n t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l .

TABLE 25

MEANS ADJUSTED FOR THE COVARIATE INTELLIGENCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN MANIPULATIVE PLAY BY

BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

C e l l N M a n ip u la t iv e P lay

Blind S u b je c t s 29 M e a n 3 .7 0

S e e in g S u b je c ts 29 M e a n - .0 1

120

The d a ta w ere e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r no t th e b l in d a n d

s e e in g s u b j e c t s d if fe re d in th e am ount o f t im e s p e n t in d ram a tic p l a y .

T h ese r e s u l t s w e re d e s c r ib e d u n d e r H y p o th e s i s II a n d in d ic a te d t h a t th e re

w a s no s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .05 l e v e l o f s ig n i f i c a n c e . T a b le s 7 ,

8 , an d 9 , s e t forth th e sum m ary t a b l e s fo r th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , th e

a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e , a n d th e m ean s a d j u s t e d for th e c o v a r ia te i n t e l l i ­

g e n c e r e l a t i v e to th e tim e s p e n t in d ra m a tic p la y by b l in d a n d s e e in g

s u b j e c t s .

The d a ta w ere e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r or no t th e b l in d and

s e e in g s u b j e c t s d if fe red in th e am ount o f t im e s p e n t in p la y o th e r th a n

m a n ip u la t iv e an d d r a m a t i c .

R e la t iv e to th e a m o u n t o f t im e s p e n t in p la y o th e r th a n m a n ip u la t iv e

a n d d r a m a t ic , th e tw e n ty - n in e b l in d s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean o f .55 w i th a

s ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n of 2 .1 8 a n d th e tw e n ty - n in e s e e in g s u b j e c t s h a d a

m ean o f 1 .2 1 w i th a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f 3 . 7 8 . The a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e

w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e if t h e am ount of t im e s p e n t in p la y o th e r t h a n

m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a tic b y b l in d s u b j e c t s d i f fe re d s ig n i f ic a n t ly from

th e am ou n t o f t im e s p e n t in p la y o th e r th a n m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a tic by

s e e in g s u b j e c t s . R e su l ts in d ic a te d th a t t h e r e w a s no d i f fe re n c e a t th e

.0 5 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s is sh ow n

in T ab le 2 6 .

T he d e g re e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e a m o u n t o f t im e s p e n t in p la y

o th e r th a n m an ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a tic an d in te l l ig e n c e w a s d e s c r ib e d by a

121

TABLE 2 6

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN PLAY OTHER THAN MANIPULATIVE

AND DRAMATIC BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Source o f V a r ia t io n Sums o f S q u a re s df M e a n S q u a res F

Blind a n d S ee in g 6 . 2 2 1 6 . 2 2 . 63

W ith in G roups 5 5 1 .9 3 56 9 .8 6

T o ta l 553 .59 57 XXXX

P e a rs o n r o f . 0 9 . T h is c o r r e la t io n w a s t e s t e d for s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e

b y m e a n s o f a t t e s t . The t v a lu e of . 6 8 (df = 56) w a s n o t s ig n i f ic a n t a t

th e .0 5 l e v e l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t u s in g in te l l ig e n c e

a s th e c o v a r ia te w a s e f f e c t e d . R e s u l ts in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e w a s no

s ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e re n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l w ith a c o v a r i a n t a d ju s tm e n t fo r

i n te l l ig e n c e w i th r e s p e c t to th e am o un t o f t im e s p e n t in p lay o th e r th a n

m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a tic b y th e b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b j e c t s . The sum m ary

t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s is show n in T ab le 2 7 . The m e a n s a d ju s te d for th e

c o v a r i a t e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , r e l a t i v e to th e am ount o f t im e s p e n t in p la y o th e r

th a n m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a tic by b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b j e c t s a re show n

in 'T a b le 2 8 .

122

TABLE 27

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN PLAY OTHER THAN MANIPULATIVE

AND DRAMATIC BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Source o f V a r ia t io n Sum s of S q u a re s df M e an S q u a re s F

Blind a n d S ee in g 4 .0 1 1 4 .0 1 .40

W ith in G ro u p s 5 4 9 .5 8 55 9 .9 9

T o ta l 5 5 3 .5 9 56 XXXX

TABLE 28

MEANS ADJUSTED FOR THE COVARIATE INTELLIGENCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN PLAY OTHER THAN MANIPULATIVE

AND DRAMATIC BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

C e l l N O th e r P lay

Blind S u b je c ts 29 M e a n .6 1

S e e in g S u b je c ts 29 M e a n 1 .1 5

Num ber o f v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t te r e d during t h e p la y s e s s io n

The d a t a w ere e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r no t th e tw e n ty -

four b l in d s u b j e c t s ( 12 m a l e s , 12 fem a le s ) w ho e n g a g e d in p la y an d th e

tw e n ty - tw o s e e in g s u b j e c t s ( 1 1 m a le s , 11 f e m a le s ) w ho e n g a g e d in p la y

d if fe re d in th e num ber of v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t t e r e d d u ring a h a l f -m in u te

sam ple t a k e n a t the m id -p o in t o f p la y .

123

R e la tiv e to th e n um b er of v o c a l i z a t io n s u t t e r e d , th e tw e n ty - fo u r

b l ind s u b j e c t s had a m ean o f 1 8 ,5 0 w ith a s ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n of 1 5 .1 0

and th e tw e n ty - tw o s e e in g s u b j e c t s had a m ean of 2 4 .0 5 w ith a s ta n d a rd

d e v ia t io n of 2 5 .2 0 . The a n a l y s i s of v a r ia n c e w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e if

th e num ber o f v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t te re d by b lind s u b j e c t s d u r in g p lay d if fe red

s ig n i f ic a n t ly from th e num ber of v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t te r e d by s e e in g s u b j e c t s

d u r in g p la y . R e su l ts in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s no d i f f e r e n c e a t the .05

l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sum m ary ta b le fo r th is a n a l y s i s is show n in

T ab le 29 .

TABLE 29

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER OF VOCALIZATIONS UTTERED DURING

PLAY BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

S ou rce of V aria t io n Sum s of S q u a re s d f M e a n S q u a re s F

Blind and S e e in g 3 5 2 .9 8 1 3 5 2 .9 8 .7 7

W ith in G roups 2 0 1 9 0 .9 8 44 4 5 8 .8 9

T o ta l 2 0 5 4 3 .9 6 45 XXXX

The d e g re e of r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n the num ber of v o c a l iz a t io n s

u t te r e d du ring p lay an d in te l l ig e n c e w a s d e s c r ib e d b y a P e a rso n r of

- . 0 2 . T his c o r r e la t io n w a s t e s t e d for s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e by m ean s

o f a t t e s t . The t v a lu e of - . 1 6 (df = 44) w a s not s ig n i f i c a n t a t the .0 5

l e v e l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t u s in g in te l l ig e n c e a s the

124

c o v a r ia te w a s e f f e c t e d . R e s u l ts in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s no s ig n i f ic a n t

d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l w ith a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t for in te l l ig e n c e

w i th r e s p e c t to th e num ber of v o c a l iz a t i o n s u t te re d during p lay by the

b lind and s e e in g s u b j e c t s . The sum m ary t a b l e for th i s a n a l y s i s is show n

in T ab le 3 0 . The m ean s a d ju s te d for th e c o v a r i a t e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , r e la t iv e

t o th e num ber o f v o c a l i z a t io n s u t te re d d u r in g p lay by b lind and s e e in g

s u b j e c t s a re sh o w n in T ab le 3 1 .

TABLE 30

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER OF VOCALIZATIONS UTTERED DURING

PLAY BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

S o u rc e of V a r ia t io n Sum s of S q u a re s d f M ean S q u a re s F

Blind an d S e e in g 4 4 0 .5 3 1 4 4 0 .5 3 .9 4

W ith in G roups 2 0 0 9 1 .7 4 43 4 6 7 .2 5

T o ta l 2 0 5 3 2 .2 7 44 XXXX

TABLE 3 1

MEANS ADJUSTED FOR THE COVARIATE INTELLIGENCE RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER OF VOCALIZATIONS UTTERED DURING

PLAY BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

C e l l N V o c a l iz a t io n s

Blind S u b je c t s 24 M e a n 1 8 .0 3

S e e in g S u b je c t s 2 2 M e a n 2 4 .5 6

125

In v o lv em en t o f o b s e r v e r In d ra m a tic p la y r e q u e s te d by c h i ld

A tw o sa m p le c h i sq u a re t e s t w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e if b l in d n e s s

w a s in d e p e n d e n t o f th e r e q u e s t by th e s u b j e c t s for th e in v o lv e m e n t o f the

o b s e r v e r in d ra m a t ic p la y .

T ab le 32 sh o w s th e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e b lind and s e e in g s u b ­

j e c t s and th e f re q u e n c y w ith w h ic h th e s u b j e c t s r e q u e s te d the i n v o lv e ­

m ent o f th e o b s e r v e r in d ra m a tic p la y .

TABLE 32

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOW ING THE OBSERVED (O) AND EXPECTED (E) FREQUENCY OF BLIND AND SEEING

SUBJECTS' REQUEST FOR THE INVOLVEMENT OF THE OBSERVER IN DRAMATIC PLAY

In v o lv e m e n t R e q u e s te d Blind ■ S e e in g T o ta l

Yes (O) 11 4 15(E) ( 7 .7 ) ( 7 .3 )

No (O) 5 11 16(E) ( 8 .3 ) t 7 .7 )

T o ta l 16 15 31

d j = lX* = 3 .9 3 *

* S ig n if ic a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l .

The o b ta in e d c h i sq u a re v a lu e , 3 . 9 3 , w a s s ig n i f ic a n t a t the .05

l e v e l . T h e re fo re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is t h a t no d i f f e re n c e e x i s t s b e tw e e n

126

th e o b se rv e d an d e x p e c te d v a lu e s w a s r e j e c te d and the a l t e r n a t iv e

h y p o th e s is th a t th e tw o v a r i a b l e s , b l i n d - s e e in g and in v o lv e m e n t o f the

o b s e rv e r r e q u e s te d in d ra m a t ic p la y , a re a s s o c i a t e d , w a s a c c e p t e d . I t

w a s in ferred from t h e s e d a ta th a t th e b lind s u b je c t s r e q u e s t e d the in v o lv e ­

m ent of the o b s e r v e r in d ra m a tic p la y m ore f re q u e n t ly th a n the s e e in g

s u b j e c t s .

Roles a s s ig n e d to play materials during the lo n g e s t dramatic unit

A l i s t w a s c o m p iled of th e r o l e s the b lind and s e e in g s u b je c t s

a s s ig n e d to th e p la y m a te r ia l s d u r in g th e lo n g e s t d r a m a t ic u n i t . T h is

l i s t is p re s e n te d in T ab le 3 3 .

E x am in a tio n o f T ab le 33 sh o w s th a t the b lind an d s e e in g s u b je c t s

a s s ig n e d a s im i la r num ber of r o le s to th e s t i c k and c l o t h . H o w e v e r , the

s e e in g s u b j e c t s a s s i g n e d tw ic e a s m any ro le s a s th e b l in d s u b j e c t s to

th e h a t and th re e t im e s a s m any to th e b o x .

D e s c r ip t iv e A n a ly s is of th e P lay S e s s io n s

The s u b j e c t s w e re f i r s t in tro d u c e d to the e q u ip m e n t u s e d w hen

th e y e n te re d th e room w h e re th e s e s s i o n s w ere to t a k e p l a c e . In the

c a s e of the s e e in g s u b j e c t s , t h i s in t ro d u c t io n w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d by

p o in tin g to the v a r io u s p ie c e s of e q u ip m e n t and e x p la in in g th e i r p u rp o s e .

The eq u ip m en t u s e d w a s c o m p rise d o f the p a r t i - ro o m , th e t im e r , and the

t a p e r e c o rd e r . A c q u a in t in g the s u b j e c t w i th th e e q u ip m en t p ro g re s se d

127

TABLE 33

ROLES ASSIGNED TO PLAY MATERIALS DURING THE LONGEST DRAMATIC UNIT BY BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Blind S ee in g

S t ic k S tick

B a se b a l l ba tBottom of w h e e lb a r ro wC lo ckC ru tchF is h in g po leGunHammer Part o f b r idge Part of c rib R ocket Spoon

21

BabyBoyBroomC aneG irlGunH illM anP o le , f lo w er P o l e , s l id in g Road b a r r ie r S tick

111212TI

21113

T o ta l 12 T o ta l 17

C lo th C lo th

ApronAxleBoat s e a t C o v e r of box C o v e r o f c a g e C o v e r o f h o u s e C r ib b la n k e t H e a l in g c lo th P a r t o f b ridge T ow el for s u n b a th in g

B lanketC ap eC lo th e sDirtP art o f bed Part o f p i l lo w P illowT ow el fo r su n b a th in g

222

T o ta l 10 T o ta l 11

128

TABLE 3 3 — C o n tin u e d

Blind f S e e in g f

H a t H a t

C a p , ba s e b a l l 1 Bed 1C a p , h u n t in g 1 Bonnet 1H a t 2 Bowl 1H a t , cow bo y 1 C a p , b a th in g 1H a t , f i s h in g 1 C o v e rs for bed 1W h e e l 1 H at 3

H a t , c o w b o y 1H a t , g a rd e n 1H a t , r a in 1H ole 1P a rt o f b e d 1P art o f p i l lo w 1Swing s e t 1

T o ta l 7 T o ta l 15

Box Box

Boat 1 Bed 4Box 1 Boat

H o s p i ta lH id ing p la c eM anM ovieP la y c r ibR e fr ig e ra to rS tro l le rSwimming poolT ab le

T o ta l 7 T o ta l 20

129

v e ry r a p id ly w i th th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s . They a s k e d v e ry few q u e s t io n s

a n d g av e e v e ry in d ic a t io n of a c c e p t in g the e q u ip m e n t a n d i t s p r e s e n c e

d id n o t b o th e r th e m . D uring th e p la y s e s s i o n s few r e f e r e n c e s w e re m ade

to th e e q u ip m e n t . The p a r t i - ro o m d id w h a t it w a s d e s ig n e d to do; n a m e ly ,

c o n f in e d th e a c t iv i t y a n d e l im in a te d d i s t r a c t i o n s p r e s e n t in the v a r io u s

room s u s e d for th e p la y s e s s i o n s .

For th e b l in d s u b j e c t s , th e sam e v e rb a l e x p la n a t io n s w ere u s e d ,

h o w e v e r , in a d d i t io n to t h i s , th e e q u ip m en t w a s in tro d u c e d to them

t a c t u a l l y . For e x a m p le , th e b l in d s u b j e c t s w a lk e d a ro u n d th e p a r t i - ro o m

fe e l in g th e w a l l s , th e t im e r w a s p la c e d in th e i r h a n d s a n d th e b e l l w a s

m ade to r i n g . The t a p e r e c o rd e r a n d m icrophone w e re a l s o h a n d le d . The

b l in d s u b j e c t s w e re no t hurTied th ro u g h t h i s e x p la n a t io n a n d w e re a l lo w e d

t o e x p lo re a s th e y w i s h e d . In s p i t e o f t h i s , t h e e q u ip m e n t a p p e a re d to

b e d i s t r a c t in g to th e b l in d s u b j e c t s . M any o f th e m w e re u n a b le to c o m ­

p reh e n d th e c o n c e p t o f th e p a r t i - ro o m a n d b e c a u s e of t h i s re fe r re d to it

d u r in g th e p la y s e s s i o n . The c o n c e p t o f a n e n t ry w a y , o r d o o rw a y , t h a t

d id not h a v e a doo r (one c o rn e r o f th e p a r t i - ro o m w a s le f t a j a r a p p ro x i ­

m a te ly tw o fe e t to a l lo w e n t r a n c e in to th e p a r t i - ro o m ) s e e m e d to be

e x tre m e ly d i f f ic u l t for th em to u n d e r s t a n d . A c t iv i t ie s d u rin g th e p lay

s e s s i o n w ere o f te n in tro d u c e d in s u c h a w a y t h a t a n a t te m p t to u s e th e

s p a c e o u ts id e o f th e p a r t i - ro o m w a s d e l ib e r a t e ly w o rk e d in to th e p la y

s e s s io n a n d th e o b s e rv e r h a d to r e q u e s t th a t th e s u b j e c t s r e s t r i c t t h e i r

p la y to th e a re a e n c l o s e d by th e p a r t i - ro o m .

130

E xam ple 9 in A ppendix A s h o w s t h i s d e s i r e to go o u ts id e o f th e

p a r t i - ro o m no t w i th th e in te n t io n o f te rm in a t in g th e p la y s e s s i o n , bu t

r a th e r a s a m e a n s o f com ing to g r ip s w ith a p e rp le x in g s i t u a t i o n . For

e x a m p le , in t h i s s e q u e n c e th e p a r t i - ro o m b e c o m e s a h o u se w h ic h l e a d s

t o p la y in g " o u td o o rs " a n d to g o in g o u t on th e " b a c k p o r c h ."

In th e n e x t e x a m p le , th e c h i ld u s e s a gam e in an a t te m p t t o u s e

th e a r e a o u t s id e o f th e p a r t i - ro o m :

O h , l e t ’s p la y B u tton , B u tton , W h o 's G ot th e B u tton . The s t i c k is our b u t to n . Now I h av e to h i d e . I h a v e to g e t it by th e door a n d y o u h a v e to go o u t and g e t i t .

The n e x t e x a m p le i l l u s t r a t e s a n a t te m p t to b e t t e r c o m p re h en d th e

p a r t i - ro o m :

W h a t 's t h i s ro o m ? T h is room (the p a r t i - ro o m ) .

T h a t 's a room I b roug h t w ith m e . Tust som e b o a r d s .

D id you g e t 'e m ? Is t h i s a l i t t l e p e n ?

Y e s . T h a t 's r i g h t .

In th e n e x t e x a m p le th e c h i ld in c o rp o ra te s t h e p a r t i - ro o m in to th e

p la y s e q u e n c e in o rd e r to u n d e r s t a n d it more fu l ly :

I ’l l pu t on my h u n t in g h a t a n d I ' l l t a k e my g u n a n d go sh o o t a d e e r . Pow ! And h e re c o m e s a r a in s to r m . I t ' s g o in g to ta k e our h o u s e (the box) a w a y . Y ou 're th e roun d h o u s e , s q u a r e , w hole h o u s e .I t ' s g o in g to t a k e it a w a y . W h a t a re you g o in g to d o ?

I d o n ' t k n o w .

I know w h a t to d o . I ' l l t a k e th e h o u s e w i th m e . W hen th e s to rm c o m e s w ho c a r e s . We c a n c a r ry th e h o u s e o u t . Are you s t ro n g en o u g h to c a r ry a h o u s e ?

131

N o . I ‘m n o t . Are y o u ?

N o . 1 d o n 't th in k I c o u ld c a r ry t h i s h o u s e y o u h a v e h e re (the p a r t i - room ). How m any do y o u th in k c o u ld c a r ry i t ? About fo u r?

The n a r r a t iv e c a s e r e c o r d s a l s o sho w t h a t th e re w a s more com ­

m u n ic a t io n b e tw e e n th e b l in d s u b j e c t s a n d th e o b s e r v e r th a n w a s found

b e tw e e n th e s e e in g s u b je c t s a n d th e o b s e r v e r . The d ra m a tic u n i t s in

A ppendix A w i l l a l s o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s . T h e se c o m m u n ic a t io n s w ere g e n ­

e r a l ly in th e form o f q u e s t io n s p o s e d by th e b l in d s u b j e c t s . In som e

c a s e s , th e q u e s t io n s so u g h t in fo rm a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e im m ed ia te

s i t u a t i o n , for e x a m p le :

D id you m ake t h i s bo a rd (the s t ic k ) ? Y e s .

D id you m ake t h i s t o w e l? N o .

D id you m ake th e h a t ? N o .

D id you h a v e t h e s e t h i n g s ? You h a d to m ake t h i s b o a rd . W hend id you m ake t h i s ?

Q u e s t io n s w e re a l s o u s e d to fu r th e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e e n v i r o n ­

m e n t . In th e fo l lo w in g s e q u e n c e , th e c h i ld a t t e m p ts to le a rn a b o u t th e

q u a l i t y o f th e s t i c k :

N o , I c h a n g e d my m in d . I t ' s g o in g to be a g i r l . T h is is g o ing to be a d i f fe re n t k in d o f g i r l . I t ' s go ing to h a v e a h a t on i t . (Child d r a p e s th e to w e l a ro u n d th e s t i c k . ) G ive me th a t h a t . T h a t 'sgo in g to be t h e c o a t bu t i t ' s g o t a h a t on i t . T h e re . H a ! W h a tif I l e a v e go ?

W e l l , w h a t do you t h i n k ?

It (the s t ic k ) w i l l b r e a k . W o u ld it b r e a k ?

132

You c a n t ry it ?

W h a t i f it b r e a k s ?

That's okay,

(C hild l e t s th e s t ic k d r o p . ) The b o a rd d id n ' t b r e a k , d id i t ?

In o n e e x a m p le , th e s u b je c t t r i e s to u s e th e s t i c k a s a c ru tc h , b u t

i s n o t su re how it i s d o n e . A c l a s s m a te in t h i s s u b j e c t ' s g roup u s e s a

c ru tc h w h ic h p ro b a b ly led to t h i s c o n c e rn .

You c a n p re te n d th a t t h e y ' r e c r u t c h e s . Do you do th a t w h en you h a v e c r u t c h e s ? L ike t h i s ?

The fo llow ing e x a m p le sh o w s a s u b je c t u s in g th e p la y m a te r ia ls to

w ork ou t a com m on, e v e ry d a y s i t u a t io n w h ic h h a s n o t a p p a r e n t ly b e e n

u n d e rs to o d fu l ly ;

L e t 's g e t c o lo r s . L e t 's c o lo r to g e th e r . . . I ' l l pu t t h i s th in g a w a y . (C h ild p u ts t h e s t i c k in th e b o x . ) Is th a t th e s t i c k . . . Should t h i s ro l l a ro u n d in i t ? I s t h a t how you m ake y o u r sp o o n s fi t w h e n y o u d o n 't e a t ?

W h a t do y o u m e a n ?

She m e a n s l i k e — m ake it s i t l ik e t h i s h e re n e a r th e e n d . T hen sh e s to p s e a t in g w ith h e r c ream of w h e a t . . . l ik e sh e d o e s t h i s .

You m ean th e box is l ik e a b ig bo w l a n d t h i s (the s t ic k ) is a s p o o n ?

Y e s .

In e x a m p le 1, A ppend ix A, th e s u b j e c t u s e s th e p la y s e s s io n to

g a in in fo rm a tio n c o n c e rn in g w h e e lb a r ro w s an d t r a c t o r s . W h ile q u e s t i o n ­

ing th e o b s e r v e r ab o u t t h e s e o b j e c t s , h e a l s o sh o w s c o n c e rn ab o u t th e

d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n r e a l i t y a n d " m a k e - b e l i e v e " :

133

M y d ad d y b o u g h t a w h e e lb a r ro w . But t h i s one (the one he h a s m ade from th e p la y m a te r ia ls ) i s m ade ou t o f t o y s , i s n ' t i t ? T h is o n e w o n ' t r e a l ly m o v e . R ig h t? If a t r a c to r p u l le d i t , i t w ou ld p u l l to p i e c e s , r i g h t? T h is w h e e lb a r ro w is e a s y to b r e a k .

The b l in d s u b j e c t s a l s o u s e d q u e s t io n s to g a in a s s u r a n c e from th e

o b s e r v e r b e fo re a t te m p t in g a n a c t i o n . S e v e ra l s u c h q u e s t i o n s fo llow :

W h a t s h o u ld I do if I 'm a d o c to r . . . A nyth ing I w a n t?

C an w e p re te n d t h i s i s a gun a n d I 'm sh o o t in g a t you an d I 'm w e a r in g t h i s h a t ?

W h a t 's th e s t i c k fo r? I s it to p la y a b ig d ru m ?

At t i m e s , th e b l in d s u b j e c t s u s e d th e o b s e r v e r a s th e a g e n t in

c a r ry in g o u t a c t i v i t i e s , for e x a m p le :

You u s e th e m tw o th in g s (the h a t a n d t o w e l ) .

W h a t do y o u w a n t me to do ?

You m ake a snow m an w i th t h a t t o w e l . T hen y o u p u t th e h a t on i t . (O b se rv e r w ra p s th e to w e l a ro u n d h e r h a n d . )

E x am in a tion o f th e n a r ra t iv e c a s e r e c o rd s s h o w s th a t v e ry l i t t l e

c o m m u n ic a t io n to o k p la c e b e tw e e n th e o b s e rv e r a n d th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s .

The s e e in g s u b j e c t s r a r e ly a s k e d q u e s t io n s o f th e o b s e r v e r nor d id th e y

re q u ire m uch in th e w a y of a r e s p o n s e . T h is is a l s o b rough t ou t in th e

e x a m p le s o f th e lo n g e s t d ra m a tic u n i t s s e t fo rth in A ppend ix A.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CON CLU SION S, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

In tro d u c t io n

The p u rp o se of th is s tu d y w a s to a s c e r t a i n , by m eans of o b s e r v a ­

t ion d u rin g a n e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n , w h e th e r o r not th e pLay of b lind

c h i ld re n d i f f e re d from th a t o f p e e r s e e in g c h i l d r e n . T w e n ty -n in e l e g a l ly

b lind c h i ld r e n w i th in th e a g e ra n g e of four y e a r s th rough n in e y e a r s w ere

p re s e n te d w i th s p e c i a l p la y m a te r ia l s (a b o x , a s t i c k , a h a t , an d a p ie c e

of c lo th ) d u r in g in d iv id u a l f i f te e n m inu te free p la y s e s s i o n s . The p la y

a c t i v i t i e s d u r in g th is t im e w e re o b se rv ed and d o c u m e n te d . An e q u a l

num ber o f s e e i n g c h i ld re n m a tch e d for ag e and s e x to th e i r c o u n te rp a r t s

w ere s im i l a r ly o b se rv e d an d th e i r a c t i v i t i e s r e c o r d e d . In o rd e r to e s t a b l i s h

a s im i la r e n v iro n m e n t for a l l th e c h i ld re n in v o lv e d , the p lay s e s s i o n s

w ere c o n d u c te d in a p o r ta b le e n c lo s u r e , or p a r t i - r o o m , b rough t to e a c h

l o c a t i o n .

134

135

I d e n t i f ic a t io n a n d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

S o u rc es o f th e p o p u la t io n

The tw e n ty - n in e b l in d s u b j e c t s (15 m a le s , 14 fe m a le s ) s e l e c t e d for

t h i s s tu d y c a m e from th e fo l lo w in g s o u r c e s : s e v e n te e n s u b je c t s

(9 m a l e s , 8 fe m a le s ) w e re a t t e n d in g th e W is c o n s in Schoo l for th e

V isu a l ly H a n d ic a p p e d , J a n e s v i l l e , W is c o n s in ; th re e s u b j e c t s (m ales)

w e re a t t e n d in g the M in n e s o ta 3 ra i l le a n d S igh t Sav ing S c h o o l , F a r ib a u l t ,

M in n e s o ta ; tw o s u b je c t s (1 m a le , 1 fem ale ) w e re a t t e n d in g th e S choo l

for th e B lin d , G rand F o rk s , N orth D a k o ta ; a n d s e v e n s u b j e c t s (2 m a l e s ,

5 fe m a le s ) w e re c o n ta c te d in th e i r h o m es u n d e r th e a u s p i c e s o f th e

M in n e s o ta D e p a r tm en t o f P u b l ic W e l f a r e , S e rv ic e s for th e B lind ,

S t . P a u l , M in n e s o ta .

The tw e n ty -n in e s e e in g s u b j e c t s (15 m a l e s , 14 fem a le s ) s e l e c te d

for t h i s s tu d y cam e from th e fo l lo w in g s o u r c e s : t h i r t e e n (8 m a l e s ,

5 fe m a le s ) w e re a t te n d in g th e M in to E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l , M in to , N orth

D a k o ta ; t e n (5 m a l e s , 5 f e m a le s ) w e re a t t e n d in g th e D ray ton E lem en ta ry

S c h o o l , D ra y to n , N orth D a k o ta ; f ive (1 m a le , 4 fe m a le s ) w ere a t te n d in g

th e L in co ln E lem en ta ry S c h o o l , G rand F o rk s , N orth D a k o ta ; a n d o n e s u b ­

j e c t (m ale) w a s c o n ta c te d in h i s hom e in G ran d F o rk s .

136

The b l in d s u b je c t s

Of th e tw e n ty - n in e b lind s u b j e c t s , s i x t e e n (9 m a le s , 7 fem a le s )

w ere c l a s s i f i e d a s r e s i d e n t i a l , w h ile th i r t e e n (6 m a le s , 7 f e m a le s ) w ere

c l a s s i f i e d a s n o n - r e s i d e n t i a l .

T w en ty four of th e tw e n ty -n in e b lin d s u b j e c t s had b e co m e blind

d u rin g a p r e - n a t a l p e r io d . B lin d n e ss o c c u r re d or w a s id e n t i f ie d in th ree

s u b j e c t s r e s p e c t iv e ly ; b e fo re th e age of tw o , a t the ag e of fo u r , and a t

th e a g e o f s i x . In th e r e m a in in g two c a s e s th e re c o rd s w a re in co m p le te

and th e re w a s no r e l i a b l e in d ic a t io n of th e t im e of o c c u r re n c e o f b l in d ­

n e s s .

The c a u s e s of b l i n d n e s s and th e f r e q u e n c y w ith w h ic h th e y o c c u r re d

w ere p re s e n te d in t a b le form (Table 1),

O f th e tw e n ty - n in e b l in d s u b j e c t s , s e v e n (4 m a le s , 3 fe m a le s ) w e re

t o t a l ly b l in d ; e ig h t (1 m a le , 7 fem a le s) w e re a b le to p e rc e iv e l ig h t only;

f ive (3 m a l e s , 2 fe m a le s ) w e re ab le to d i s t i n g u i s h o b je c ts ; an d n in e

(7 m a l e s , 2 fem a le s ) had t r a v e l l in g v i s i o n .

T h ree s u b j e c t s w e re c o n s id e re d to h a v e a se c o n d a ry d i s a b i l i t y .

The d i s a b i l i t i e s in c lu d e d s p a s t i c p a r a l y s i s , rh eu m a to id a r t h r i t i s , and

Von W i l l e b r a n d 's a r t h r i t i s .

The b l in d and s e e in g s u b j e c t s

The s e e in g s u b j e c t s w e re m atched to th e b lind s u b j e c t s r e l a t i v e to

the v a r i a b le a g e a s s p e c i f i e d in the d e s i g n o f th e s tu d y . T h e re fo re , it

137

w a s in fe r re d th a t a n y d i f f e r e n c e s in p l a y b e h a v io r w e re p ro b ab ly not

m e d ia te d by d i f f e r e n c e s in a g e b e tw e e n th e g ro u p s .

R e s u l t s of an a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e in d ic a te d t h a t r e l a t i v e to th e

v a r i a b l e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , th e r e w a s a s ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .05

l e v e l b e tw e e n th e b l in d a n d s e e in g s u b j e c t s . T h e re fo re , in te l l ig e n c e

w a s c o v a r ie d ou t a s a f a c to r in a n y d i f f e r e n c e d i s p l a y e d b y th e b l in d a n d

s e e in g s u b j e c t s in p la y b e h a v io r .

As s p e c i f i e d in th e d e s ig n for t h i s s tu d y , th e s e x e s w ere e q u a l ly

r e p r e s e n te d in th e b l in d a n d s e e in g p o p u la t io n . O f th e tw e n ty - n in e b l in d

s u b j e c t s , f i f te e n w e re m a le s and f o u r te e n w ere f e m a le s . O f th e tw e n ty -

n in e s e e in g s u b j e c t s , f i f te e n w ere m a le s a n d fo u r te e n w e re f e m a le s .

A n a ly s i s o f th e S t a t i s t i c a l D a ta P e r ta in in g to th e H y p o th e s e s

H y p o th e s i s I: T here is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f fe re n c e in th e c o n te n t of

th e d ra m a t ic p lay o f youn g b lind c h i ld r e n a n d s e e in g c h i l d r e n .

The c o n te n ts of th e lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic u n i ts of t h e s u b j e c t s w ho

e n g a g e d in d ra m a tic p la y w ere e x a m in e d a n d th e t h e m e s e x p r e s s e d

id e n t i f ie d a n d c a t e g o r i z e d . The th e m e s o f bo th the b l in d a n d s e e in g

s u b j e c t s f e l l into t h e s e c a te g o r ie s ; a d v e n tu r e , d o m e s t i c , s p o r t s , w o r id -

o f -w o rk , a n d o th e r . T here a p p e a re d to be some in d ic a t io n th a t th e b l in d

s u b j e c t s w e re more a w a r e o f th e w o r ld - o f -w o rk w h ile t h e s e e in g s u b je c t s

w e re l e s s c o n c e rn e d w i th t h i s a s p e c t o f l i fe a n d e m p h a s i z e d th e d o m e s t ic

s c e n e m ore o f t e n .

138

The num ber o f th e m e s in e a c h c a te g o ry in v o lv e d w a s to o s m a ll to

be q u a n t i t a t iv e ly a s s e s s e d , h o w e v e r , a n a l y s i s of th e c o n te n ts r e v e a le d

no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e th em es e x p r e s s e d by the b lind and

s e e in g c h i ld r e n . T h e re fo re , th e h y p o th e s i s th a t th e re is no s u b s t a n t i a l

d i f f e re n c e in th e c o n te n ts of th e d ra m a tic p la y of y o u n g b lind c h i ld re n

and s e e in g c h i ld re n w a s r e t a in e d .

H y p o th e s i s II: There is no su b s ta n t ia l d ifference in the amount of

time spent in the dramatic play of young blind children and s e e in g

c h i ld re n .

The t o t a l am oun t o f t im e s p e n t in d ra m a t ic p la y , and th e am ount of

tim e in v o lv e d in th e lo n g e s t d r a m a t ic u n i t s w e re s u b je c te d to a n a l y s i s .

R e la t iv e to th e to ta l a m o u n t o f tim e s p e n t in d ra m a t ic p l a y , r e s u l t s

in d ic a te d t h a t th e re w a s no d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

T here w a s a l s o n o s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l w ith a c o v a r ia n t

a d ju s tm e n t fo r i n t e l l i g e n c e .

R e la t iv e to th e am ou n t o f t im e in vo lv ed in th e lo n g e s t d ra m a tic

u n i t , r e s u l t s in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s no d i f fe re n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l of

s i g n i f i c a n c e . T here w a s a l s o no s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e re n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l

w ith a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t for i n t e l l i g e n c e .

T h e re fo re , th e h y p o th e s i s th a t th e re is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in

th e am ou n t o f t im e s p e n t in th e d ra m a tic p lay o f you n g b lind c h i ld re n and

s e e in g c h i ld r e n w a s a c c e p t e d .

139

H y p o th e s i s III: T here i s no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in th e c o m p le x i ty

of th e d ra m a t ic p la y of yo u n g b lind c h i ld re n and s e e in g c h i l d r e n .

The lo n g e s t d ra m a tic u n i ts w e re fu r th e r d iv id e d in to s u b - u n i t s .

T h e se s u b - u n i t s w ere d e f in e d a s th e e s s e n t i a l id e a s or a c t io n w h ic h m ade

up the w h o le d ra m a tic u n i t and w e re u s e d to q u a n t i fy the c o m p le x i ty of

th e d r a m a t ic p la y .

The d a ta w ere e x am in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r not th e b lind and

s e e in g s u b j e c t s w ho e n g a g e d in d ra m a t ic p la y d if fe re d in the num ber of

s u b - u n i t s th e y in tro d u c ed in to th e lo n g e s t d r a m a t ic u n i t . R e s u l t s in d i ­

c a te d th a t th e re w a s no d i f f e r e n c e a t the .0 5 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . T here

w a s a l s o n o s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t the .05 l e v e l w ith a c o v a r ia n t a d j u s t ­

ment for i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e re fo re , the h y p o th e s i s th a t th e re is no s u b ­

s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e in the c o m p le x i ty o f th e d ra m a t ic p lay o f y o u n g b lind

c h i ld re n an d s e e in g c h i ld r e n , w a s a c c e p t e d .

H y p o th e s i s IV: T here i s no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in th e i n te n s i ty

of th e p e r s o n a l in v o lv e m en t e x h ib i te d in th e d ra m a t ic p la y of y o u n g b lind

c h i ld re n and s e e in g c h i l d r e n .

T h ree ju d g e s w e re r e q u e s te d to r a te th e in te n s i ty of the lo n g e s t

d r a m a tic u n i t s b a s e d on a one to five s c a l e ; on e b e in g th e l o w e s t or

l e a s t i n t e n s e s c o r e , f ive b e in g th e h ig h e s t or m o s t in te n s e s c o r e . A

P e a rs o n p ro d u c t m om ent c o r r e la t io n c o e f f i c i e n t w a s c a lc u la t e d to d e t e r -

m ine th e a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e j u d g e s . The c o r r e la t io n c o e f f i c i e n t s

140

i n d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s a h igh c o r r e la t io n b e tw e e n th e r a t in g s of Judge 1

an d Judge 2, w h i le Judge 3 d e v ia te d from the r a t in g s o f Ju d g es 1 and 2 .

The d a ta w e re e x am in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r or no t th e b lin d and

s e e in g s u b je c t s d i f fe re d in the i n te n s i t y sh o w n d u r in g the lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic

u n i t . R e su l ts in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s n o d i f fe re n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l of

s i g n i f i c a n c e . T here w a s a l s o no s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e re n c e a t the .0 5 l e v e l

w i th a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t for i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e re fo re , the h y p o th e s is

th a t th e re is no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e in the i n te n s i t y of the p e r s o n a l

in v o lv e m en t e x h ib i te d in the d ra m a t ic p la y of yo ung b lind c h i ld re n and

s e e in g c h i ld re n w a s r e t a in e d .

A n a ly s is o f th e S t a t i s t i c a l D a ta P e r ta in in g to th e P la y S e s s io n

T ype o f p lay b e h a v io r e x h ib i te d

A two sa m p le c h i s q u a r e t e s t w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r or no t

b l in d n e s s w a s in d e p e n d e n t o f the ty p e o f p la y in w h ic h th e s u b j e c t s

b e c a m e in v o lv ed and in th e n o n - in v o lv e m e n t o f the s u b j e c t s in p la y .

The r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e b l in d and s e e in g s u b j e c t s an d the

f re q u e n c y of th e i r in v o lv e m en t in m a n ip u la t iv e p lay o b ta in e d a c h i s q u a re

v a lu e s ig n i f ic a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l . I t w a s in ferred from t h e s e d a ta th a t

th e b l in d s u b j e c t s b e c a m e more f re q u e n t ly in v o lv ed in m a n ip u la t iv e p la y

th a n th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s .

The r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e b l in d and s e e in g s u b j e c t s and the

f re q u e n c y of th e i r in v o lv e m en t in d ra m a t ic p lay d id n o t o b ta in a s ig n i f i c a n t

141

c h i sq u a re v a lu e . It w a s in fe r red from t h e s e d a ta th a t th e r e w a s no

d i f f e r e n c e in th e f re q u e n c y w ith w h ic h b lin d and s e e in g s u b j e c t s b e ca m e

in v o lv e d in d ra m a t ic p l a y .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n the b lind and s e e in g s u b j e c t s and the

f re q u e n c y o f th e i r in v o lv e m en t in p la y o th e r th an m a n ip u la t iv e and

d ra m a tic p la y d id no t o b ta in a s ig n i f i c a n t c h i sq u a re v a lu e . It w as

in ferred from t h e s e d a ta th a t th e re w a s no d i f fe re n c e in the f req u e n cy

w ith w h ich b l in d and s e e in g s u b j e c t s b e c a m e in vo lved in p la y o th e r th a n

m a n ip u la t iv e and d r a m a t i c .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e b lin d and s e e in g s u b j e c t s and the

f re q u e n c y of n o n - in v o lv e m e n t in p la y d id not o b ta in a s ig n i f i c a n t ch i

s q u a re v a lu e . It w a s in ferred from t h e s e d a ta th a t th e re w a s no d i f fe re n c e

in the f re q u e n c y w ith w h ic h b lind and s e e in g s u b j e c t s d id n o t becom e

in v o lv e d in p la y .

Time Invo lved in p lay

The d a ta w e re ex am in ed to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r no t th e b lind and

s e e in g s u b je c t s d i f fe re d in the am oun t o f t im e s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e

p l a y , d ra m a tic p l a y , and p lay o th e r th a n m a n ip u la t iv e and d r a m a t ic .

R e la t iv e to m a n ip u la t iv e p la y , r e s u l t s in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s a

s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 1 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h ere w a s a l s o a

s ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 1 l e v e l w i th a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t for

i n t e l l i g e n c e . E x am in a tio n of th e a d ju s te d m ean s w ould in d ic a te th a t the

142

b lin d s u b je c t s s p e n t m ore t im e in m a n ip u la t iv e p lay th a n th e s e e in g

s u b j e c t s .

R e la t iv e to d r a m a t ic p la y , r e s u l t s in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s no

d i f f e r e n c e a t the .0 5 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . There w a s a l s o no s ig n i f ic a n t

d i f f e r e n c e a t th e ,0 5 l e v e l w ith a c o v a r ia n t a d ju s tm e n t fo r i n t e l l i g e n c e .

R e la tiv e to p la y o th e r th a n m a n ip u la t iv e and d r a m a t i c , r e s u l t s

in d ic a te d th a t th e re w a s no d i f fe re n c e a t th e .0 5 le v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

T h ere w a s a l s o no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f fe re n c e a t th e .05 l e v e l w i th a c o v a r ia n t

a d ju s tm e n t for i n t e l l i g e n c e .

Num ber of v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t te re d d u r in g th e p lay s e s s i o n

The d a ta w e re e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r or no t th e tw e n ty -

fou r b lind s u b j e c t s w ho e n g ag e d in p la y and the tw e n ty - tw o s e e in g s u b ­

j e c t s w ho e n g ag ed in p la y d if fe red in th e num ber of v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t te re d

d u r in g a h a lf -m in u te s a m p le ta k e n a t the m id -p o in t of p la y .

R e la t iv e to th e n u m b er of v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t t e r e d , r e s u l t s in d ic a te d

th a t the re w a s no d i f f e r e n c e a t the .0 5 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . There w a s

a l s o no s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l w ith a c o v a r ia n t a d j u s t ­

m en t fo r i n t e l l i g e n c e .

143

In v o lv em en t of o b s e rv e r in d ra m a tic p la y r e q u e s te d by ch ild

A tw o sam p le c h i s q u a r e t e s t w a s u se d to d e te rm in e if b l in d n e s s

w a s in d e p e n d e n t of the r e q u e s t by th e s u b j e c t s fo r th e in v o lv e m en t o f the

o b s e r v e r in d ra m a tic p l a y .

The r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n the b lind and s e e in g s u b j e c t s and th e

f re q u e n c y w ith w h ich th e s u b j e c t s r e q u e s te d th e in v o lv e m en t of the

o b s e rv e r in d ra m a tic p la y o b ta in e d a c h i s q u a re v a lu e s ig n i f ic a n t a t the

.0 5 l e v e l . It w a s in fe r re d from th e s e d a ta t h a t th e b lind s u b je c t s

r e q u e s te d th e in v o lv em en t o f th e o b s e rv e r in d ra m a tic p lay m ore f r e ­

q u e n t ly th an th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s .

R o les a s s ig n e d to p lay m a te r ia l s d u r in g th e lo n g e s t d r a m a t ic u n i t

A l i s t w a s com p iled o f th e r o le s the b lin d and s e e in g s u b j e c t s

a s s ig n e d to th e p lay m a t e r i a l s du r ing the lo n g e s t d ra m a t ic u n i t . E x am in a ­

t io n sh o w s th a t the b lind an d s e e in g s u b j e c t s a s s ig n e d a s im i la r num ber

o f r o le s to th e s t i c k an d c l o t h . H o w e v e r , th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s a s s ig n e d

tw ic e a s m any ro le s a s th e b l in d s u b je c t s to th e h a t and th r e e t im e s a s

m any to th e b o x .

D e s c r ip t iv e A n a ly s is of the P la y S e s s io n

The b lind and s e e i n g s u b je c t s w e re in tro d u c e d v e rb a l ly and

v i s u a l l y / t a c t u a l l y to th e e q u ip m e n t ( tape r e c o r d e r and tim er) and to the

p a r t i - ro o m prior to the p l a y s e s s i o n . The s e e i n g s u b je c t s d i s p la y e d

144

l i t t l e in t e r e s t in th e e q u ip m e n t and the p a r t i - ro o m co n fin ed th e a c t iv i ty

of the s e e in g s u b j e c t s and e l im in a te d d i s t r a c t i o n s p re s e n t in th e v a r io u s

room s u se d for th e p la y s e s s i o n s . H o w e v e r , th e e q u ip m en t a p p e a re d to

be d i s t r a c t in g to th e b lind s u b j e c t s an d th ey se e m e d to be u n a b le to

co m prehend th e c o n c e p t o f th e p a r t i - ro o m and th e e n try w a y , o r doorw ay

th a t d id no t h av e a d o o r (one c o m e r o f th e p a r t i - ro o m w a s le f t a ja r

a p p ro x im a te ly two f e e t to a l lo w e n t r a n c e in to th e p a r t i - r o o m ) . C o n ­

s e q u e n t l y , a c t i v i t i e s d u r in g th e p la y s e s s i o n w e re o f te n u s e d in s u c h a

w a y th a t a n a t te m p t to u s e the s p a c e o u ts id e o f th e p a r t i - ro o m w a s

d e l i b e r a t e l y w orked in to th e p lay s e s s i o n .

The n a r ra t iv e c a s e re c o rd s a l s o sho w ed th a t th e re w a s more com ­

m u n ic a t io n b e tw e e n th e b l in d s u b j e c t s and th e o b s e r v e r . T h e s e co m ­

m u n ic a t io n s w e re g e n e r a l ly in the form of q u e s t io n s p o se d b y th e blind

s u b j e c t s . T h ese q u e s t io n s a p p e a re d to s e e k in fo rm ation c o n c e rn in g the

im m ed ia te s i t u a t i o n , to fu r th e r u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e e n v iro n m e n t , to work

o u t a com m on, e v e ry d a y s i t u a t io n w h ic h had no t a p p a re n t ly b e e n u n d e r ­

s to o d fu l ly , and to g a in a s s u r a n c e from the o b s e r v e r b e fo re a t te m p t in g

an a c t i o n . T here w e re a l s o t im e s w h en the b lin d s u b je c t s u s e d the

o b s e r v e r a s the a g e n t in c a r ry in g out a c t i v i t i e s .

E x am in a tio n o f the n a r ra t iv e c a s e re c o rd s of th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s

sh o w e d th a t ve ry l i t t l e co m m u n ica tio n took p la c e b e tw e e n th e o b s e rv e r

and th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s . The s e e in g s u b j e c t s r a r e ly a s k e d q u e s t io n s of

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th e o b s e rv e , n o r d id th e y re q u ire m uch in th e w a y of a r e s p o n s e from the

o b s e r v e r .

C o n c lu s io n s

The fo l lo w in g c o n c lu s io n s w e re d raw n from th e d a ta p re s e n te d ;

1 . T here w a s no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e in the c o n te n t , am ount of

t im e , c o m p le x i ty , and in te n s i ty o f th e d ra m a t ic p lay of b lind and s e e in g

c h i l d r e n .

A lthough the a n a l y s i s of th e d a t a r e s u l te d in no s ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­

e n c e in any of th o s e a s p e c t s of d ra m a tic p la y c o n s id e re d in th e

h y p o t h e s e s , th e re is som e in d ic a t io n th a t som e fa c to r w a s p re s e n t c o n ­

c e rn in g th e s e e in g s u b j e c t s w h ic h in f lu e n c e d th e b e h a v io r u n d e r s tu d y .

A p pend ix G d i s c u s s e d th i s in d e t a i l .

2 . The b lind c h i ld re n e n g a g e d in more m a n ip u la t iv e p lay th an the

s e e in g c h i l d r e n .

D uring th e p lay s e s s i o n s , it w a s found th a t th e b lind c h i ld re n

e n g a g e d in m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y , th a t i s , h a n d lin g of the p la y m a te r ia l s w ith

no in d ic a t io n th a t th e o b je c t s w ere g iv e n a m a k e -b e l ie v e r o l e . T h is ty p e

of p la y w a s not o f te n u s e d by the s e e in g c h i ld r e n . S e v e ra l r e a s o n s m ay

be a d v a n c e d for th i s ty p e o f p l a y . M a n ip u la t iv e p lay m ay be a s o u rc e of

p le a s u r e to th e b lind c h ild m aking u s e of th e t a c tu a l s e n s e . Banging on

th e b o x , fo ld in g th e c lo th , sh o v in g th e c lo th in to th e h a t , for e x a m p le ,

m ay a l l c o n tr ib u te to th e s t im u la t io n of th i s s e n s e . A nother r e a s o n for

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th is typ e o f p la y may b e th e a t te m p t on th e p a r t o f the b lind c h i ld to

e x p lo re t h e s e o b j e c t s , w h ic h a l th o u g h v e ry com m on and a v a i l a b l e to a l l

c h i ld r e n , a p p e a re d to be l e s s fa m il ia r to the b l in d c h i ld re n a s in d ic a te d

by th e i r q u e s t io n s c o n c e rn in g the q u a l i t i e s of t h e s e o b j e c t s , s u c h a s ,

" W il l th is board b r e a k ? " It i s p o s s ib l e th a t th e b lin d c h i ld re n w ere

e x p lo r in g t h e s e u n fa m il ia r o b je c t s d u r in g th i s p l a y , w h i le to th e s e e in g

c h i ld re n t h e s e o b je c t s w e re so fa m il ia r th a t no e x p lo ra t io n w a s n e ed e d ,

T h is k ind of a c t iv i t y m ay a l s o h a v e b e e n u s e d a s a m ea n s to c o n ­

t in u e th e p lay s e s s i o n s a n d , h e n c e , c o n ta c t w ith the o b s e r v e r . M a n ip u ­

la t iv e p l a y , u n l ik e d ra m a t ic p l a y , is not a s d e m a n d in g or r e v e a l in g , and

if th e re w ere som e r e t i c e n c e tow ard e n te r in g in to th i s more p e r s o n a l p lay

b e h a v io r , m a n ip u la t iv e p lay w ould offer a m ore s a f e , s t e r i l e a v e n u e by

w h ic h to k e e p from te rm in a t in g th e p la y s e s s i o n . I t w a s n o t ic e a b le u pon

c o n ta c t w i th th e b lind c h i ld r e n th a t th ey w ere i n te r e s te d in th e o b s e rv e r

a s an in d iv id u a l . Q u e s t io n s w e re f re q u e n t ly a s k e d c o n c e rn in g the

o b s e r v e r ' s p e rs o n a l l ife , s u c h a s , "Are you m a r r i e d ? " "Do you h a v e any

c h i l d r e n ? " "W here do you w o r k ? " The b lind c h i ld r e n a l s o f re q u e n t ly

sp o k e in d e t a i l ab o u t th e i r ow n p e r s o n a l l i v e s . T h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s b e g an

im m e d ia te ly u p o n m e e tin g th e b lin d c h ild and c o n t in u e d a f t e r th e p lay

s e s s i o n . In som e c a s e s th e b lind ch ild had in r e a l i t y te rm in a te d th e p lay

a c t iv i t y bu t c o n tin u e d a im l e s s a c t i v i t y r a th e r th a n h av e th e p la y s e s s i o n

c e a s e (see A ppend ix B, E xam ple 2 ) .

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T h is p e rs o n a l in v o lv e m e n t w ith th e o b s e r v e r d id no t o c c u r w ith the

s e e in g c h i ld r e n who e x h ib i te d v e ry l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in th e o b s e r v e r a s an

in d iv id u a l . The few p e r s o n a l q u e s t io n s w e re a s k e d by th e y o u n g e s t

c h i l d r e n . The s e e in g c h i ld re n se e m e d to d e a l w ith th e o b s e r v e r more a s

an a u th o r i ty f igu re th an a s a f r i e n d . T hey fe l t th a t th e p la y s e s s i o n s

w e re " fun " and the c h i ld r e n w e re h a p p y to be th e o n e s c h o s e n , h o w e v e r ,

th e re w a s g e n e ra l ly a r e s t r a i n t w h ic h w a s not p re s e n t w ith th e b lind

c h i ld r e n . T h is m ay be s u b s t a n t i a t e d by the f a c t th a t th e re w a s a

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f fe re n c e in th e num ber o f r e q u e s t s of the b lind c h i ld r e n for

th e o b s e r v e r to becom e in v o lv e d in the p lay s e s s i o n s .

3 . Blind c h i ld re n r e q u e s te d th e in v o lv e m e n t o f th e o b s e r v e r in

p la y m ore f re q u e n t ly th a n th e s e e in g c h i l d r e n .

Blind c h i ld re n m ade m ore a t te m p ts to becom e in v o lv e d w ith the

o b s e r v e r and to in v o lv e th e o b s e r v e r in th e i r a c t i v i t i e s . T h is w a s

id e n t i f i e d by th e q u a n t i t a t iv e a n a l y s i s o f th e p lay s e s s i o n s w h ic h

sh o w ed th a t the b lind c h i ld r e n d id r e q u e s t th e in v o lv e m en t of th e o b s e r v e r

in th e i r p la y a c t iv i t i e s d u r in g the e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s i o n s i g n i f i c a n t ly more

o f te n th a n th e s e e in g c h i ld r e n . In a d d i t io n , the r e s e a r c h e r found th a t the

e n t i r e c o n ta c t b e tw e e n the b lind c h i ld re n and th e o b s e rv e r d e v e lo p e d on a

m uch m ore p e rs o n a l b a s i s . The o b s e rv e r f e l t th a t sh e knew t h e s e c h i ld re n

and c o u ld e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h ra p p o r t w ith th e m . By th e sa m e t o k e n , the

b lind c h i ld re n se em e d to e x p e c t s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h ip w ith the o b s e r v e r .

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C o n v e r s e ly , th e s e e in g c h i ld re n d id no t becom e in v o lv ed w ith the

o b s e rv e r in a n y w a y , th e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e in g so m ew hat s u b d u e d . They

se e m e d n e i th e r to e x p e c t an y th in g nor w a n t a n y th in g from th e o b s e rv e r ,

but w e re a g re e a b le an d w i l l in g to c o o p e r a te .

T h is in v o lv e m e n t o f th e o b s e rv e r by the b lind c h i ld r e n s u g g e s t s

th a t th e b lind c h i ld r e n h a v e found th a t a d u l t s f i l l an im p o rtan t n e e d in

th e i r l iv e s more s o th a n s e e in g c h i ld r e n . Blind c h i ld re n h a v e a b a c k ­

ground w ith e x p e r i e n c e in d e v e lo p in g r e l a t i o n s h ip s w ith a d u l t s o th e r th an

p a re n t s and r e l a t i v e s . T hey h av e beco m e inv o lved w i th a d u l t s w h o se

jo b s h av e b e e n to w o rk w i th th e b lin d c h i ld d i r e c t l y , t h u s , a l lo w in g the

b lind ch ild a s e n s e of im p o rtan c e w h ic h th e s e e in g c h ild w ould not

n o rm ally a c h ie v e in the a d u l t w o r ld . The b lind ch ild is w orked w ith by

m e d ic a l p e r s o n n e l , p s y c h o l o g i s t s , w e l fa re w o r k e r s , h o u s e m o th e r s , and

o th e r v o lu n te e r ty p e w o r k e r s . T y p ic a l ly c la s s ro o m s for th e b lind a re

s m a l l and perm it a c l o s e r t e a c h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h ip . As a r e s u l t , the

b lind c h ild h a s com e to e x p e c t a id and c o n c e rn from a d u l t s , and th u s h a s

e x p e r ie n c e d m ore c o n tro l ove r a d u l t s b e c a u s e of h i s b l i n d n e s s .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the s e e in g c h i ld to th e a d u l t w orld d o e s not

fo llow th is p a t t e r n . A s id e from p a re n t s and r e l a t i v e s , th e re is u s u a l ly

no co m p a rab le c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h ip w i th a d u l t s w h o s e m a in c o n c e rn is

m ak ing th e s e e i n g c h i l d ' s w orld e a s i e r . The c h i l d 's p e e r w orld is so

im p ortan t th a t a d u l t s a re c o n s id e re d o u t s id e r s and no t p a r t i c u la r ly h e lp fu l

nor w e lc o m e . Q u i te p o s s ib l y , th e y m ay be p e rc e iv e d a s d e tr im e n ts

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fo rm u la ting la w s and r e g u l a t i o n s , d o 's and d o n ' t ’s , and g e n e r a l ly

in h ib i t in g th e i r a t te m p ts to e n jo y t h e m s e lv e s .

4 . Blind c h i ld re n found d i f f ic u l ty in u n d e rs ta n d in g the c o n c e p t of

a b o u n d a ry a s i l lu s t r a te d b y so m e of the a s p e c t s o f th e i r p l a y .

The n a r r a t iv e c a s e r e c o r d s in d ic a te d th a t th e b lind c h i ld re n had

d i f f ic u l ty in u n d e rs ta n d in g the p a r t i - ro o m a s d e m o n s tr a te d by th e a t te m p ts

to in c lu d e th e a r e a o u ts id e of th e p a r t i - ro o m in th e p lay s e s s i o n s and in

th e i r f re q u e n t r e f e r r a l to th e p a r t i - r o o m . It is p o s s ib l e th a t th is re a c t io n

m ay h av e b e e n an e x h ib i t io n o f th e in a b i l i ty o f th e b lin d c h i ld re n to

r e a l ly com preh en d the s p a c e a b o u t th e m .

A r e l a t e d a s p e c t of th i s a p p a r e n t in a b i l i ty to co m preh en d s p a t i a l

b o u n d a r ie s m igh t be show n in lo o k in g o v e r the ro le a s s i g n e d by th e

c h i ld re n to th e b o x . W h ile s e e i n g c h i ld re n a s s i g n e d tw e n ty ro le s to the

b o x , th e b l in d c h i ld re n a s s i g n e d on ly s e v e n r o le s to the b o x . T h is may

be a n in d ic a t io n of th e b lin d c h i l d ' s in a b i l i ty to h a n d le s p a c e . The box

and th e p a r t i - ro o m w ere s im i la r in th a t th e y both a c t a s e n c lo s u r e s of

e s s e n t i a l l y n o th in g . The b lin d c h i ld r e n g av e e v id e n c e in bo th in s t a n c e s

o f an u n e a s i n e s s w h e n d e a l in g w i th c o n c e p ts in v o lv in g s p a c e , s p a t i a l

l i m i t a t i o n s , a n d b o u n d a r i e s .

A s im i la r r e a c t io n may be s e e n in th e u s e of th e h a t d u r in g p la y .

The s e e in g c h i ld r e n a s s ig n e d f i f t e e n ro le s to th e h a t , w h i le th e b lin d

c h i ld re n a s s i g n e d s e v e n r o le s to th e h a t . A lthough it m ight be r e a s o n a b le

to e x p e c t t h a t a h a t m ay n o t be a s im portan t to a b lind c h i ld s in c e he may

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n o t be a s a t t r a c t e d to it w i th o u t v i s i o n , e x a m in a t io n o f th e ro le s a s s ig n e d

sh o w s th a t s e e i n g c h i ld re n u s e d th e h a t mo. : o f ten a s o b je c t s o th e r than

a h a t , s u c h a s a b e d , b o w l, h o l e , w h i le th e b lind c h i ld re n u se d it a lm o s t

e x c lu s iv e ly a s a h a t .

An in te r e s t in g o b s e r v a t io n o c c u rre d du ring th e g iv in g of the S lo s so n

I n te l l ig e n c e T e s t w h ic h p o in ts tow ard th is p ro b lem . D uring the t e s t , the

c h i ld re n w e re r e q u e s te d to hold up s o many f in g e rs in l ieu of th e u s u a l

t e s t p ro ce d u re of id e n t i fy in g s o m any a p p l e s . S e v e ra l of th e c h i ld re n

w ho knew th e num ber c o n c e p t in v o lv e d w ere u n a b le to d e te rm in e w hen

th e i r f in g e rs w e re h e ld up in s p a c e . T hey drew a n o u t l in e w ith th e o th e r

hand around e a c h f in g e r th a t w ould be h e ld up to c o m p le te th e num ber

c o n c e p t but w e re u n a b le to h o ld t h e s e f in g e rs u p r ig h t . T h is w ould seem

to in d ic a te d i f f ic u l ty in u n d e r s t a n d in g the v e ry b a s i c c o n c e p t o f .the

r e l a t io n s h ip o f th e i r body to th e s p a c e a round th e m .

The p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t o f th i s In a b i l i ty to co m prehend s p a c e and

bo un d a ry w ould lea d to th e e x p e c ta t i o n th a t t h e s e c h i ld re n w ould e x p e r i ­

e n c e g r e a te r d i f f ic u l ty in m o b i l i ty a t a l a t e r tim e w h e n s u c h t ra in in g w as

b e g u n . D if f ic u l ty in h a n d lin g s u c h b a s i c s p a c e /b o u n d a r y p ro b le m s , or

e v e n the la c k of c o n f id e n c e w h ic h w ould lim it e x p lo r in g s u c h p r o b le m s ,

cou ld lead to d i f f ic u l ty in h a n d lin g th e c o n c e p t of c i ty b lo c k s or b u ild in g

la y o u ts w h ic h a re a l l p rob lem s of s p a c e th a t h a v e to be m a s te re d by the

b lind in o rd e r to a c h ie v e in d e p e n d e n t t r a v e l .

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5 . Blind c h i ld r e n a s k e d q u e s t io n s more f re q u e n t ly th an s e e in g

c h i ld r e n d u r in g p l a y .

The c a s e r e c o rd s sh o w e d th a t b l in d c h i ld re n a s k e d q u e s t io n s more

f r e q u e n t ly th an s e e in g c h i ld r e n . As in d ic a te d in th e f i n d in g s , the

q u e s t io n s g ro uped th e m s e lv e s in to t h o s e s e e k in g in fo rm a tio n and th o s e

a t te m p t in g to e s t a b l i s h c o n ta c t w ith the o b s e r v e r .

It w ould be r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e th a t a s k in g q u e s t io n s w ou ld be a

v a lu a b le d e v ic e fo r b l in d c h i ld re n to u s e in o rd e r to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n .

H o w e v e r , i t w a s f e l t by th e o b s e rv e r th a t w h i le th e q u e s t io n s w ere

a s k e d , the a n s w e r s to th e q u e s t io n s w e re no t o f p a r t i c u la r in te r e s t to th e

c h i l d . T h is w a s e v i d e n t , for e x a m p le , in s u c h c a s e s w h e re a c h i ld

a s k e d q u e s t io n a f te r q u e s t io n le a v in g no o p p o r tu n i ty fo r th e o b s e rv e r to

a n s w e r a n y of the q u e s t i o n s . In th o s e i n s t a n c e s w h e n the o b s e r v e r d id

a t te m p t to a n s w e r a q u e s t io n th e re w a s f re q u e n t ly no fo llow up to th e

r e s p o n s e .

It a p p e a re d th a t q u e s t io n s w e re o f ten u s e d to k e e p open l in e s of

c o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n th e s u b je c t an d th e o b s e r v e r . It is p o s s ib le th a t

th e b lind c h i ld re n h a v e b eco m e a c c u s to m e d to r e c e iv in g a n s w e r s to th e i r

q u e s t io n s w h ic h w e re no t a s u i t a b le re p ly to so m e o n e w ith o u t v i s io n and

th e r e f o r e , for the b lind c h i ld , th e q u e s t io n - a n s w e r t e c h n iq u e w a s no t a

p a r t i c u la r ly e f f e c t iv e m eth od for g a th e r in g in fo rm a tio n . Fu rther i n v e s t i ­

g a t io n in to th is p h en o m e n o n m ay show a u s e o f q u e s t io n s s im i la r to th a t

found in th e v e ry you n g c h ild w ho a s k s q u e s t io n s o f a d u l t s , q u e s t io n s

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a d u l t s find d i f f ic u l t to a n s w e r on th e c h i l d ' s l e v e l . Like the b lind

c h i ld r e n in the s tu d y , th e young c h i ld s e e m s to be s a t i s f i e d w ith any

a n s w e r e v e n if it is no t u n d e r s t o o d .

6 . I n t e l l i g e n c e , a s in d ic a te d by the a n a l y s i s of c o v a r ia n c e

s t a t i s t i c , d id no t e x e r t a n y m e a s u ra b le e f f e c t on th e p lay b e h a v io r

s t u d i e d .

T h o se p o r t io n s of th e s tu d y in w h ic h in t e l l i g e n c e w a s c o v a r ie d out

a s a f a c to r , sh o w ed v e ry l i t t l e c h a n g e in th e r e s u l t s .

Summary

T he c o n c lu s io n s d raw n from th is e x p lo ra to ry i n v e s t ig a t i o n in to the

p la y b e h a v io r of you ng b l in d c h i ld r e n w ere :

1. T here w a s no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e re n c e in th e d ra m a t ic p la y of

b lind and s e e in g c h i ld re n a s m e a su re d by c o n te n t , am ount o f tim e

in v o lv e d , c o m p le x i ty , and in te n s i ty of d ra m a t ic p la y .

2 . The b lind c h i ld re n e n g a g e d in more m a n ip u la t iv e p la y th a n the

s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

3 . Blind c h i ld re n r e q u e s te d th e in v o lv e m en t o f th e o b s e r v e r in

p la y more f re q u e n t ly th a n th e s e e in g c h i ld r e n .

4 . Blind c h i ld re n found d i f f ic u l ty in u n d e rs ta n d in g th e c o n c e p t of

a b o u n d a ry a s i l l u s t r a te d by som e of th e a s p e c t s o f th e i r p l a y .

5 . Blind c h i ld re n a s k e d q u e s t io n s more f re q u e n t ly th a n s e e in g

c h i ld r e n d u r in g p la y .

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6 . I n t e l l i g e n c e , a s in d ic a te d by the a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r ia n c e

s t a t i s t i c , d id not e x e r t a n y m e a s u ra b le e f f e c t on th e p la y b e h a v io r

s tu d i e d .

R eco m m en d a tio n s

The fo l lo w in g re c o m m e n d a t io n s w e re b a s e d on th e n a r ra t iv e c a s e

r e c o r d s , th e s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a , and th e g e n e r a l im p re s s io n s r e s u l t in g from

th e to ta l c o n ta c t w i th th e c h i ld r e n , p r io r t o , d u r in g , a n d a f te r the e x p e r i ­

m e n ta l p la y s e s s i o n .

1. I n v e s t ig a to r s d e a l in g w ith b lind c h i ld re n sh o u ld ta k e in to

a c c o u n t the r e f e r e n c e s in th e l i t e ra tu re in d ic a t in g th a t b l ind c h i ld re n

a p p e a r to r e l a te v e ry w e l l on a o n e - t o - o n e b a s i s w ith a n a d u lt r a th e r th a n

in a p e e r g ro u p s i t u a t i o n . S in c e m ost i n v e s t ig a t i o n s u s u a l ly in v o lv e a

s u b j e c t — a d u l t i n v e s t ig a to r , th e r e p o r t s on b lind c h i ld re n a re p ro b ab ly

n o t p ro d u c in g an a c c u r a t e p ic tu re o f t o t a l p e rfo rm a n c e . It m ight p rove

in fo rm a tiv e to r e p l i c a t e t h i s s tu d y r e p la c in g th e a d u l t o b s e rv e r w i th a

c h ild t ra in e d to t a k e th e ro le p layed b y th e o b s e r v e r in th is s tu d y .

O b s e rv a t io n s o f c h i ld r e n in a m ix e d , in fo rm al p la y g ro u p by th is i n v e s t i ­

g a to r in d ic a te th a t i t is f e a s ib l e to find a c h i ld of a p p ro x im a te ly te n y e a r s

of a g e w ho is m atu re and s e n s i t i v e e n o u g h to u n d e rs ta n d w h a t w ou ld be

e x p e c te d of him and y e t w ho is yo u n g e n o u g h to be a b le to r e l a t e to o th e r

c h i ld re n a s a p e e r .

154

2 . I t is s u g g e s t e d th a t fu tu re s tu d ie s of th e p la y b e h av io r of b lin d

c h i ld re n be i n v e s t ig a te d w ith th e in te n t io n of o b s e rv in g g ro ups of b lind

c h i ld re n a t p lay in th e i r n a tu r a l h a b i t a t a t te m p t in g to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n

w h ic h m ight e v e n tu a l ly le a d to th e p o s s ib i l i ty o f d e s ig n in g a s tu d y o f

p lay g ro ups w h ic h l e n d s i t s e l f to s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . I n v e s t ig a t io n of

th e g roup p la y o f b lind c h i ld r e n sh o u ld be c o n s id e r e d o f param ount

im p o r ta n c e . H o w e v e r , th e re a re g re a t d i f f i c u l t i e s in d e s ig n in g s u c h a

s tu d y th a t w ou ld be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s o u n d . W h ile from th e p re s e n t

kn o w led g e a b o u t p lay it is know n th a t s e x and a g e a f f e c t p lay b e h a v io r ,

th e re a re a l s o i n d ic a t io n s (see A p pend ix B, O b s e r v a t io n s a t the F lo rida

S ta te S c h o o l fo r th e Blind) th a t the d e g re e of b l in d n e s s is a l s o a f a c to r

th a t w ould h av e to be c o n s i d e r e d . In v iew of th e s m a l l num ber of

c h i ld re n in v o lv e d , th e i r w id e g e o g ra p h ic a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , the r a th e r na rrow

a g e ran g e in w h ic h s p o n ta n e o u s p lay is m ost im p o r ta n t , the d i f f ic u l ty in

g a th e r in g to g e th e r g ro u p s r e a s o n a b ly m a tch ed for a g e , s e x , d e g re e of

b l i n d n e s s , and s im i la r e n v iro n m e n t , it a p p e a r s im p ro b a b le th a t p r o je c ts

of th i s s c o p e cou ld be h a n d le d by a s in g le i n v e s t i g a t o r . H o w ev e r , to

hold off lo n g e r from g a th e r in g in fo rm a tio n on th i s e x tre m e ly im portan t

a s p e c t of a c h i l d ' s l i fe b e c a u s e o f p rob lem s in d e s ig n s e e m s in c o m p a t ib le

w i th s o c io lo g i c a l a d v a n c e m e n t an d d e t r im e n ta l to th e w e l l b e in g o f the

b l i n d .

3 . P lay sh o u ld be u s e d a s an im portan t to o l by th e c la s s ro o m

teacher. The p la y situation reveals whether or not a b lin d c h ild r e a l ly

155

u n d e r s t a n d s a c o n c e p t b e in g ta u g h t r a th e r th a n s im p ly g iv ing the r e s p o n s e

th e t e a c h e r is lo ok ing fo r . P la y a l lo w s the b l in d c h ild the o p p o r tu n ity to

e x p lo re v e ry b a s i c c o n c e p ts in a w id e v a r ie ty o f a s p e c t s w ith o u t the

in h ib i t in g fe a r o f th e i r b e in g c o n s id e re d r ig h t or w ro n g . Play g iv e s th e

b lind c h ild a s a f e m ean s to b r in g to the s u r f a c e and d e a l w ith f a c e t t e s of

l i fe w h ic h he d o e s not fu l ly u n d e rs ta n d or w h ic h may be t r o u b le s o m e .

T h e se m ay be s im p le q u e s t io n s c o n c e rn in g d a i ly l iv in g w h ich a re no t

be ing a d e q u a te ly a n sw e re d by th e te a c h in g a d u l t a s th e y a re no t r e a d i ly

I d e n t i f i e d .

4 . Blind c h i ld re n n e e d m uch more s p e c i f i c t r a in in g in u n d e r s ta n d in g

the c o n c e p ts o f s p a c e an d b o u n d a r ie s b e g in n in g w ith a thorough k n o w le d g e

o f th e i r ow n body in r e l a t io n to s p a c e . To b e g in a c a d e m ic t ra in in g be fo re

th i s h a s b e e n s a t i s f a c to r i l y a c h ie v e d may le a d t o s u p e r f ic i a l k n o w le d g e

and r e s p o n s e w h ic h a re o f te n a c c e p t e d a s a s a t i s f a c t o r y m a s te ry by th e i r

i n s t r u c t o r s .

5 . The u s e of q u e s t io n s b y b lind c h i ld re n sh o u ld be s tu d ie d in

more d e p th . The b lind c h i ld m ay n e ed s p e c i f i c t r a in in g in d e v e lo p in g a

q u e s t io n in g te c h n iq u e th a t w i l l u n c o v e r for them th e in fo rm a tion th e y

( in d iv id u a ls w h o re ly on s e n s e s o th e r th an v is io n ) n e ed from in d iv id u a ls

w ho th in k and re sp o n d a s i n d iv id u a l s w ho re ly p r im ar ily on v i s i o n ,

6 . M ore o b je c t iv e in v e s t ig a t io n of d ra m a t ic p la y ra th e r th a n

s u b je c t iv e a n a l y s i s of the e m o t io n a l c o n te n t a p p e a r s to o ffer a p o t e n t i a l ly

f ru itfu l a p p ro a c h to f in d ing in fo rm a tio n r e l a t in g to d ra m a tic p lay b e h a v io r .

156

7 . The i n v e s t ig a to r w a s im p re s s e d b y th e d i f f e r e n c e s sh o w n by

in d iv id u a l c h i l d r e n . Some c h i ld re n im m e d ia te ly e n g a g e d in c o m p le x ,

in vo lved d r a m a t ic p l a y . O th e rs v e rb a l iz e d c h e e r fu l ly and c o n t in u a l ly

th roughout c o n ta c t w i th the o b s e rv e r b u t e n g ag e d in no p lay of a n y t y p e .

Some c h ild re n e n g a g e d ve ry q u ie t ly in s e e m in g ly p u rp o s e fu l m a n ip u la t iv e

p la y , w h ile o th e r s re sp o n d e d n e g a t iv e l y . The in v e s t ig a to r w a s u n a b le to

d e te rm in e from i n i t i a l c o n ta c t w i th th e c h ild or d u r in g th e b lock p lay

period w ith th e c h i l d , how th a t c h i ld w ou ld r e a c t d u rin g the rec o rd ed

e x p e r im e n ta l p l a y s e s s i o n . F u rth e r i n v e s t ig a t io n co u ld le a d to th e

id e n t i f ic a t io n o f in d ic a to r s or r e l a te d v a r i a b l e s .

APPENDIX A

LONGEST DRAMATIC UNITS

Key to the Longest Dramatic Units as Presented Here

The longest dramatic units of the play sessions for the blind

and seeing subjects are presented here. Words in parenthesis are explan­

atory in nature and have been added by the writer for the purpose of

clarity. Words in quotation marks Indicate that the child used a notice­

ably different voice when speaking these words. Words in brackets indi­

cate that the writer was not quite sure that the words were fully under­

stood. Underlined words indicate that these words were spoken by the

observer. Spacing has been used to indicate pace. Solid block typing

indicates a rapid pace. Paragraph type spacing serves to indicate a

slower or Interrupted pace. Every attempt in presenting the material

has been made to transmit the mood and flavor of the unit.

The longest dramatic units are presented according to the fol­

lowing system. First, all the units of the male blind subjects are

Included here beginning with the most intense to the least Intense unit.

In the event of equal intensity a descending order of age is used. The

units of the female blind subjects and the male and female seeing sub­

jects are similarly handled.

Key to the code used in presenting the longest dramatic units:

NRB - non-residential blind RE - residential blind F - female M - male S - seeing

156

159Number preceeding parenthesis Indicates

Intensity rating based on a five point scale where 1 is minimum and 5 is maximum.

The number within the parenthesis Indicates age in months.

Longest Dramatic Units1. RB.M.4(92)

I'm going to make something different now. Put the hat like that and the towel and I'm going to put this . . . make believe this is the tire (the hat) and this will be the axle. (The hat is the wheel, the cloth is the axle.) This is a wheelbarrow. A wheelbarrow only has one wheel doesn't it? I made a wheelbarrow, didn’t I? Here is the wheel and here is the axle. Here is where you sit. You sit right in here. And the stick is the bottom part which is right next to the wheel. Can a tractor pull a wheelbarrow?

I think so.

Anyway, you would have to have a four wheel to hitch up to a tractor. (Discusses how many wheels a tractor has,)

I think he's going to pull a wheelbarrow. This wheelbarrow won't move. This wheelbarrow comes apart easy doesn’t it. This hat won’t roll, won't it?

You can try.

It will move a little bit. If I took the axle off the wheel would fall down. (Tries it.) Nope. This cloth fits in the bottom. Would you try to hitch a wheelbarrow to a tractor with children in it?

No. I don’t think so.

I could (drive a tractor). I know how to drive one. I’m [blind?] but I know how to drive one. I could drive one down the lane if there wasn't anything to bump into.

It’s not easy to drive a tractor.

When there's nothing hitched to it. The wheelbarrow's stuck to the floor. The wheelbarrow's going away. Now the wheelbarrow broke. This bottom is supposed to hold it.

I wonder what this stick could hold?

The wheelbarrow moves, doesn’t it?

160

This is our tent, isn't it? Do people sleep overnight in this?(Discuss how the parti-room is made.)

Oh-h. The wheel fell off. Gotta get the axle stuck on the wheel.There it is. Isn't this a fine wheelbarrow? Is this how wheelbarrows are made?

How are real wheelbarrows made?

Out of wood, or metal. Usually they're made in factories.

They're made in factories. Then they’re put in stores and people buyit? My daddy bought a wheelbarrow. But this one is made out of toys, isn't it? This one won't really move. Right? If a tractor pulled It, it would pull to pieces, right? This wheelbarrow is easy to break.They try to back up but they can't. She can't move. She's stuck. Andhere comes the tractor R-r-r-r-r. This is a dang long stick. Isn't this a heavy stick? Michael could pick this up, couldn't he? I could, couldn't I? How much does this stick weigh? Weighs 5 pounds and I weigh more than S. This only weighs 6, I mean 7, eh, 6, 4, 49. I'm 60.I can lift up this stick couldn't I? I did it.

Here we go traveling down the road. R—r-r-r. Doing 500 and she cracks up. Br-r-r-r.

Now they're cutting it up - cutting It up. Grind, grind grind. The wheel-barrow is all grinded up, isn't it? I'll try to make it again.1 don't know if I'll do all the right things - I'll try.

Now I'll get the wheel up. The wheelbarrow's made again. See? Now I . . . Do you work in the big building? Where are you going next? Whatare you doing there? Are you a housemother? Are you a teacher? She'sgoing 200 B-r-r-r-r.

2 . NRB.M.4(88)

I know what to play. (Turns box over so it can be used as a table. Gives observer the cloth.)

Do you want this?

No, you're supposed to cook and you put on your apron.

You want me to cook here? What would you like me to cook?

Some beans together and you stir it up. Here's your spoon. (Child hands the stick to the observer.)

And mash some potatoes. And some jello.

T hera . (O bserver s t i r s w ith th e sp o o n .)

161Put some ice in it. That's fun to make jello and you make the ice melt. That's funny and after a while you put it in the freezer and after a couple of hours we eat it.

Now we can put the dishes on the table. Is it done yet?

Smell's pretty good. Do you think it's done?

Hm-m-m-tn. It sure looks like it's done. (Stirs beans with stick.)Feels all right. Feels like it's done. Might be done after supper.

1 don't know what I'm to do with this hat.

You don't have to do anything with it.

It's done. I have to get the dishes on the table for supper. (Child sets dishes on the table.) Oh, no. We don't have teaspoons. Well, just use our hands. Here's two apples. (Use spoons and eat out of the plates. Takes up glass and drinks.) Fruit juice. We can eat the apples now. (Munch-munch.) Put it away. (Child puts the apple core in a waste basket.)

Now we can have our jello. It's all done. Some in your bowl. (Childserves jello into bowls.) Now some bananas. (Eats jello.) Think I'llhave some more. Do you want some more?

Yes, thank you. That was good jello. (Child serves jello, then eats jello.)

Well, I think I'm going to go to the store. (Puts the hat on and goes over to the corner.)

(Child returns.) Do you know what I brought?What?

A new egg beater. Now tomorrow you won't have to mash the potatoes with the spoon. You can use the egg beater. It's electric. It says cake mix on speed 1; mashed potatoes on speed 7; bread dough on speed 2. There's ten of them. Jello on speed 3; baked beans on speed 4; pudding on speed 5, chocolate; lemon pudding on speed 6. I already said 7 and vanilla pudding on speed 8; ice cream on speed 9; cookie dough on speed 10 .

You can also make other things. You can make different kinds of jello but it doesn't say. But you can make anything but you just have to have it on the speed. If you want it off you don't have to turn it all the way around. There's a little red button and you push and the thing goes all around. And I also brought you a new timer and it goes four hours. It doesn't go around four times. It just goes around once. At home we have one that just goes around.

162

I brought you some boxes of jello and some whip cream. Oh! I didn't say whipped cream but whip cream should be on speed one because whipped cream is pretty soft.

3. NRB.M.4(76)

Now put this blanket back on it (the box) and then put the stick like this. (Under the box.) Could you make this good enough to fit in per­fectly? (Fold the cloth so it fits in the box.)

I want it to be folded so it will go in here just right. Now. If wejust had a doll we could play mother and father. We could make believelike in the Neighborhood of Mr. Lee and Mr. Rabbit.

Well. I wonder what we can use this for. (the stick) I know. We can use it as one of those rocking cribs. Rock the baby to sleep. (The box rolls back and forth over the stick.) Pretend there's a clock right there. (On the wall.) What time is it?

Six o'clock in the morning.

Well. Pretend it's night time.

It's eight o'clock.

Well. Let me see if the baby’s eyes are closed. Yah, they're closed.We can leave him alone. Lift up the crib so we don't wake him up. Hey,I think the crib should go a little bit by the wall. That's a better place. Isn't it? No, not real close because we might hit the wall. Pretend this is a real denty one. This is our house and we don't want our house all dented up.

Well, let's pretend this is the bedroom right here and this is our bed­room. Right here and this is the kitchen and right here is the living room. Let's watch T.V. for a while. Pretend we have a machine that tells us what channels are on (T.V. Guide?). Right here is the button. Oh, oh. The Channel 11 was the one that had the good movie and wemissed it. Oh, no. That's right. What - I've got to press the buttonand see if Channel 4 is there. Well. We have our favorite movie on there, don't we? Oh, it's on! Let's turn the T.V. on. Click. The movie. Pretend that it's . . . What day should we pretend it is?

Friday night is kind of nice.

How about Saturday? You see, that's the day our favorite movies are on. After this movie on Channel 3 is our favorite movie. Right?

Oh. I think one of those products to wash our good clothes are on. I have made a few myself of one of those real good clothes washing stuff. You remember that stuff I did?

163

Oh, that's right! I forgot to get that movie of that brand new beer I Just invented. Let's have a drink of that good beer. Wow, that's good isn't it? I'll climb in the kitchen. Do you want to drink it out of a bottle or a glass?

I like the glass.

Well. You'll have a bottle and a glass. (Pours bottle beer into glass.) Here. Oh. That's right. I forgot to buy the tables didn't 1?

Well. Make sure my beer doesn't get gone because I'm going to find some tables. Remember those tables that are in the garage? (Sets beer down. Goes to entrance. Makes believe he is lifting tables.)

Ugh. Ugh. That's mighty heavy. Can you come out and help me? There. Pretend we have one of those channel selectors like that one (in his house). Here, just press the button. Well. We'll put the channel selector on the table*

Nice to have tables.

Oh, we forgot to get the chairs, didn't we? Should I go take a peek out in the garage and see if they've got stuff there? Ug. There are some chairs over there. Here. (Gives observer chairs.)' Say, I think . . . Let me go look if we have any food left. You know yesterday our food was just about gone.

What! I'll look in the cupboards now. There is no food in the frig.

Oh, goodness.

All there's left is beer. (Looks into cupboards.) Nothing. Pretend there’s a store here. (Walks to entrance, reaches for bags.) Ugh.Help me with these bags. Wow.

We sure have a lot of food. (Hands packages of food to observer.)

We'll pretend there's a storeroom downstairs. Well, there's a lot of whiskey too. Pretend there Is a bar downstairs like we do in our base­ment.

Is that it?

That's all. (The packages of food.)

4. RB.M.3(82)

(The child calls out “ding dong" and strikes the stick on the ground. The observer then performs the action. Later on the observer is told to call out the actions while the child performs.)

164Do-eng, do-eng, ding dong. Time to get up.Ding dong, ding dong.Time to go to bed.Ding dong. Time to get up.Ding, dong. Time to go to school.Ding, dong. Time to go home.Ding, dong. Time to eat lunch.Ding, dong. Time to go back to school.Ding, dong. Time to go back . . .Ding, dong. Time to go to bed.Ding, dong. Time to get up.Ding, dong. Ding, dong. Time to get back.Ding, dong. Ding, dong. Time to eat breakfastDing, dong. Time to go to school.Ding, dong. Time to come home.Ding, dong. Time to eat lunch.Ding, dong. Time to go to school.Ding, dong. Time to come home.Ding, dong. Time to . . . eat supper.Ding, dong. Time to watch T.V.Turn the T.V. on. Santa Claus is on T.V.Ho, ho.Merry Christmas.Ding, dong. Time to go to bed.Ding, dong. Time to go to bed.Walt till it's time to get up. It's not time yet.Ding, dong. It's time to get up. Put your clothes on. Ding, dong. Time to eat breakfast.Ding, dong. Time to go to school.Time to go to school. Keep going, keep going.You* re at school.Now do you're work.Ding, dong. Time to do your work.Ding, dong. Singing time.Singing time ain't over.Singing time ain't over yet. Keep singing.Ding, dong. Time to go out to recess.Put your coat on, go outside, walk outride.Okay,Ding, dong. Time to go in. Don't run - walk.Now time to eat lunch.Ding, dong. Time to eat lunch.Ding, dong. Time to watch T.V.I forgot to say breakfast.Ding, dong. Time to eat breakfast.Ding, dong. Time to go to school.Don't run, walk.Ding, dong. Ding, dong. Time to ah - come back to school. I forgot to tell you.Ding, dong. Time to e a t lu n ch .D ing, dong. Time to go back to sc h o o l.

165

Ding, dong. Time to come home from school.Ding, dong. Time to clean the room.

Let's play house. You're the mom and I'm the dad. Okay, I'm going to the store.All right, dear.

We need milk, cereal and we need crackers.

The crackers are all gone?

Do you think we should buy them?

Oh. I think we should buy them.

I got the crackers and cereal and milk and the bread.

And the bread, fine.

They didn't have any more bread.

No more bread?

Well, I've got to have the stick.Ding, dong. Time to clean the house. Why don't you have the clock?

Ding, dong. Time to go to bed.

Ding, dong. Time to get up.

Ding, dong. Time to eat breakfast.

No, time to get dressed.

Ding, dong. Time to eat breakfast.

There, my breakfast is all gone.

Ding, dong. Time to go to school.

(Cr-r-r-r-r steers car to school.)

Are you driving to school?

Yes, I'm driving. Ee-r-r-r-r-r. (Puts on brakes.)

Ding, dong. Time to do your work.

All done.

Ding, dong. Time for recess.

No. Ding, dong. Ding, dong. Time for singing.

Ding, dong. Time for singing.

166

5. NRB.M. 3(61)

(Child puts hat on head. Uses stick as a baseball and bats make-believe ball over the make-believe fence. Catches ball when it comes back. Con­tinues this game, saying very little. Takes the hat off. Reaches into his pocket for a make-believe dime. Puts the dime into a make-believecoke machine attached to parti-room wall. Presses one of the holes inthe parti-room. Reaches for a can of coke. Removes tab top. Drinks down the coke* Takes up the bat and begins to hit the ball again. Falls down trying to catch the ball. Presses the buttons for more coke. This time presses about ten of the holes. Gathers up ten cups and drinks them all down. Bats ball and runs around the bases. Except for occasional grunts, ohs and wows, there is little speech. The action, however, is accurate.)

"[ . . . at the curb marshall]" (It is difficult to understand this brief interlude from the ball playing sequence. All the child's speech was not intelligible.)

(Returns to ball playing sequence. Uses one hand on bat.) My wrist broke. I'm going to slide. (Runs and slides around bases. Bats ball again. Takes stance, rubs hands like baseball player. Gets more pop.) Which one should I push? I'll push this one. (Drinks the pop.) I'llput it all in my mouth at one time.

6. RB.M.1(107)

Here goes Apollo 12 . . . Here go the three astronauts up in space . . . 10-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1 Blast off! , . . Then they go out and say, "I'm going to go out and scout around." And the thing busted and they for­got about the rocket ship. "We're on the moon. Hey, where's the rocket ship? Let's jump dawn. Y^-i-kes!"

7. RB.M.1(77)

It's a bridge and if you stamp on it it will bust through and you'll fall in the water.

8 . R B .F .4(75)

I'll pretend this is a blanket, (the cloth) I'll put a blanket on the floor and pretend that it's your bed. You have to sleep on it because it's . . . say you're taking a tan. All right . . . now . . . lay down and taka a nice tan.

167

I *m taking a tan, now.

On the towel? Do you see some sun?

Yes, It’s very warm.

Yah. How do you spell sun? S-U-N? Where's the stick?Here it is.

Now. What could you do with this stick? Pretend that you're walking with it?

You could.

I'll try it. See this is what we could do. You could go like this.(Uses stick as a cane) Like that. You can pretend that they're crutches. Do you do that when you have crutches? Like this?

(Observer helps her use the stick like a crutch) This way.

Now, let's say you have crutches. You have to walk with crutches.Let's say you have a sore foot and I have to bring you to the hospital. (Holds observer by the arm.) "Oh, you have to go to the hospital."Here's the hospital. Now I'm the doctor and I have to fix you up. I have to doctor you up. Let's see. "Are you sick today? Do you have a sore foot?"

Yes, I have a sore foot.

"Let's see it." Ahh - Well . . . What should I do if I'm a doctor . . . Anything I want?

Y es.

Okay, I can get some . . . ah . . . a little thing . . . a little stick . . . I mean not the stick . . . I mean a towel . . . Where's the towel?I have to rub that little thing, (rubs the sore leg) "Now, is it better now?"

Feels pretty good.

Oh, i t does?

You're a good doctor.

Yah . . . A h-h-h w e l l . What tim e i s your fo o t going to be b e t t e r , huh? When i s i t going to be b e t t e r ?

When do you think, doctor?

168

Well . . . I don't know . . . Tomorrow it might be, "You'll have to stay at the hospital all day. Every day I have to rub your sore."

Now. Let's see. You have to get out of the hospital. Okay. Here's the towel for the tan.

I'll spread the towel on the floor.

0ht yah. You have to spread It flat. Do you want me to take a tan with you?

9. RB.F.3(100)

(Bangs stick on floor) I'm going to build a big house. Now I wouldlike you to tell me what I will make . . .

Why, you made a big house.

Oh not I will be making one. What's . . . Where's your tape recorder?

In the back.Right here?

Let's lust play.

Just play? (As if she had forgotten what she was doing.) Oh! I've gotto make the . . . (bang, bang) come here and see the house.

Okay. Where's this house.

Here.

Oh, fine.

We're In the house. (Just an area within the parti-room so designated.)

Okay.

Now this is the upstairs of the house. See? You may go upstairs and do what you want.

Okay. I'll go up.

Okay. And I'll go up. (Observer and child walk around the parti-room.) (laughs) Come up. This is the upstairs. Come here. (Walks around touching the walls of the parti-room.) Now, I'll show you where the bed is. Oops, there are some more steps and then that's all. Watch out, (walks around parti-room). Now this is where you go and play outdoors. Oops! There you are. (Bumps into observer who is standing in opening of parti-room which serves as door. This now becomes a battle of getting

169to the door before the child who wants to duck out.) This is our bed­room right here. (Tries to step out and reach the couch near the parti- room.) I'm going downstairs (walks around). Here is the basement.Now, I'll show you where this bedroom is. Walt. Where's that couch over there?Which couch.

Outside here. I'll go up there and see where it is. Is Diane here with us?

No. Just the two of us.

Do you have a sister? I do. (Tries to get out of the roam.)Stay in the room.

All right. Now let's talk and I'll say where you go out. Now you can go wherever you want to go. Where do you want to go, outside or Inside?

I want to go inside.

All right. You go in and I'll take the end and this is our back porch (the doorway - again child starts sliding out the door). Right here."You must never go in there. You might fall and hurt yourself."(Speaks with a low, adult voice, enunciates distincly, almost theatri­cally, and with authority.) Right here we'll go in the back. Now how would you like to make a tower again?

I put the blocks away.

And is this door open or closed?

There isn't any door, it's .lust an empty space.

An empty space? (The room is explained to the children before play is begun and they are free to examine it prior to play.) There's not a space here. I want you to come here and I'll show you . . .

10. RB.F.3(87)

You know what we could do? I could put the box like this (on its side) and I could get in it and take this apart (the flaps) and you could say, "Who's in there?" Would you like to do that? (Moves the box - the stick falls,) Wow it dropped.

Okay. I'll get in and you put that over. Okay? (The towel covers the child in the box.) Maybe the hat won't fit in. (Child squeezes into the box.)

170

(Observer places the towel over the opening of the box.) There you*re all covered up*

Not my shoe. Now you gotta come. Say* "Who is in there." (Observer peeks in the box.) No. You keep it shut.

Who is in there.You say* "Who is in there." (wolf-like voice)

Who is in there.

"It's me." (in a little voice)

Who is me.

Me by my chiny chin chin.

Say, "I'll huff and I'll puff and I'll blow you're house in." (wolf-like voice)

I'll huff and I'll puff and I ’ll blow your house in.

(Child giggles. Observer huffs and puffs.)

Will I have to go away?

Yes. (Observer moves away.)

Hello* Mrs. Tait* (Child pops out of the box) Look'it, my house is still fixed. (Cloth is still in place over box.) See you can make strong houses for anyone.

Yes* I guess you can.

I said you could.

I didn't make that houre* did I?

Yes you did, but we'll pretend I really made it. Okay.

11. NKB.F.3(72)

I'm going to give the kit a check up - "Meow" - "Come here." The check up - He needs his teeth fixed. Now I ’m going to turn the chair. "Here you go cat." It doesn't run. It's just a paper. I won't drill with the drill because the drill isn't here. "I'll just take you for a little bit of a ride and then you're done* cat." Here I go. "I'll just take you three rides." (Shoves the box around.) Whoop, crash. The chair busted down. No good. This box is no good. I'm going to throw it away out the window. (Picks up the box and throws it.)

171

12. NRB. F .2(79)

I'm going fishing. This is my fishing boat. (Child puts cloth into box, the hat on head, sits in box holding the stick like a fishing pole.)

I caught one fish.

(Turns box upside down. Spreads cloth over box. Sits on box and moves the box along with feet.) This is my boat now.

13. RB.F.2(71)

I'm going to get down in the box and I'm to put the towel - I'm goingto be your mouse then . . . you come to see me.

You're going to be my what?

My mouse and you're going to come and see me.

I'm a mouse?

No, I'm going to be your little animal and you're going to see me, okay? And then when you come you go (knock, knock) and when you knock on my door like this (knock, knock) then I jump up and boo and you getscared and go back over there, okay? (Child is in the box, coveredwith the cloth.)

(Observer knocks, looks in the box.)

Boo! Yowe. Let's do it again. I like that. Cover me up again, (knock) Oh!

14. NRB. F. 2(100)

Can we pretend this is a gun and I'm shooting at you and I'm wearing this hat? And I put you in my box and 1 carry it home and I put this cloth over you?

Do you want me to get in?

Can you get in?

I don't know. I can get in a little bit.

(Child giggles as observer tries to get In the box.) Here's your old blanket. You can put it on. Oops.

Now you're carrying me home?

172I don’t think I can carry you. Do you think so?

You can make believe though.

I'll try to. I can get my stick and carry you home. Wah. (Child giggles.) Can't move ya. Ooh-oh. Take you on my bus. My box I mean. Isn't this fun pretending? Do you pretend at home?

15. SB.F.2(72)

I look like I'm going to pretend I'm a cowboy. Did you ever see how they pretend on television? Why don't you be the cowboy? ( P u t s the hat on the observer's head.)Do you want me to do something?

Pretend you're rounding up some cattle.

Do what?

Just pretend you have a rope and swing it around.

Why don't you show me? (Child demonstrates.)

Let's pretend we're going to hop on the horse, (jumps up and down)When you get tired you can stop.

16. RB.P.1(103)

Che - e. A rocket (the stick) Choo-oo. Ready to get started and its going to go splash off and back down. Wasn't a very long trip.

17. S.M. 4(85)

(During this sequence "the man" usually meant the stick. When the stick was used for another object "the man" was imaglnery.)

The man is wearing a blanket, (cloth) The man is looking for some­thing on the ground. The man is lying down in a pool, (box) The man is going to slide on the pole (stick) into the pool, (box) The man is playing hide and go seek. He's counting to ten. The boy was bad and he*B sitting in the corner. This man is ramming the stick into the wall. Now the man is playing 10 o'clock, 2 o'clock. Now the man is going to blast off the hat like a [not understandable] and the hat will go far away. Now he's going to play with guns. Now he's hiding in the box. Now the man is climbing up the pole and he's going to go to the top. Now the guy is pulling to get on the stick and he's going to ride down. Now he's going to walk across the stick. Now the guy is going

173

to jump on the blanket* (cloth) Now the guy is going to walk down the hill.

18. S.M. 3(61)

Here's the hat. (Child gives the hat to the observer.)

I'll have this stick.

You can have this. (Child gives the cloth to the observer.)

I'll have this, (the box)

This is my boat (the box) and this is my gun. (the stick)

I gotta get in. I won't fit in. (Child sits in box.)

Pow. Pow. Pow. (Shoots gun into space.)

My gun fell into the water. I'm shooting the water now. I'm shooting the water out of the gun.

Ya-y. The bullets are coming over. (Child ducks down into the box.)

Pow. I shot the swing down.

Pow, pow. You know what I shot? You know where I shot a hole? (Points to wall.) Right there. If you had another stick like this you could stick it in (the hole) and you could screw it in, and if you put another stick in there (opposite wall) and a stick over here, then you could swing on that. (Child describes an exercise bar.)

My gun fell in there. (The child had gotten out of the box to demon­strate. The stick had been left in the box. Child again gets into box.)

I'm B leep in g . Z-z-z-z-z.

I shot the light on. Pow. Pow. Pow.

I'm shot. (Child slumps down into box.)

19. S.M.1(105)

(Child puts hat on uses stick as a cane and walks.) "A man walking with a cane."

17420. S.M.1(89)

(Child puts the hat on top of the stick and places the stick in the box.)

Here's a man. He doesn't look very fancy. I can make him fatter.(Wraps cloth around stick.) He's sleeping. X have to cover up his toes. His feet are down there now. (in the box) He's snoring in bed. He's too tired. Boy. There're too many men in here.

21. S.M.1(78)

(Holds stick like a rifle.)

Put your finger in here and go pow. (Shoots into space.) And go like this and you put it on your finger and then you have a gun and shoot your toe off. (Points the stick at toe.)

22. S.M.1(68)

(Child puts hat on head. Takes up stick and moves it sharply up and down in a striking motion.)

I'm spanking. I'm spanking a [box].

Spanking a box?

I'm spanking a fox. (Rubs leg with cloth.)

(After listening to the tapes of this session, the observer still felt that the word sounded more like box the first time than fox.)

23. S.F.5(104)

(Child puts on the hat, wraps the cloth around like a cape, and uses the stick as a cane. During this time the child dramatized all actions.)

I'm pretending I'm a spy and I'm dressed up like an old lady. Now I'm in my hideout and I take out all my money. Now I'm going out to a lady's house and I'm going to say, "I'm real poor and I want some money." And she's going to give me some money.

Now I go up to a man. And he's looking at me and he's a policeman and he got me and he said, "Give me the money." And I said, "No." Then I had to give him the money. So I gave him the money and he got me in jail and I didn't know what to do and I had to stay in there and stay in there. So then once he let me go so I didn't rob any more and the lady came and said, "You're not poor anymore so give me my money back." And I said, "The police have my money." So she went to the police and she got the money.

175Then all the people came back and they went to the policeman and got their money. And then X was watching T.V. and somebody knocked on the door. X went to see who it was. Xt was an old man who asked for some money and I said, "Are you dressed up like that just to see if you can get some money?*' And he said, "No, I'm really an old man." And so I took away the cape, and I took away the hat, and I took away the cane and it was this guy the police was trying to get so I turned him in and I got some money. And I put on my hat and put-on my cape and X had my kitten and I put him in the box. Then I went and X didn't steal any­more money and X was just walking around and people would say, "There's the villain, there's the villain." But the police didn't go after me because he knew I had already been captured and he let me go again.And so then X went back to my hideout and took off my cape and my hat and I gave the kitten my coat.

And then something knocked at my door, (apprehensive) And X went to the door and it was my sister. No, my brother and he asked me what Xwas doing. And X said, "Nothing." And he asked me where I got thecat. And I said I bought it with all the money I got from the police. So I put on my hat and I told him the rest of the story and he said, "Well, mom and dad may get mad 'cause you did that." And I said,"Don't tell them. Do you promise?*' He said, "I promise." So he didn't tell them but I told them and they didn't get mad at me.

So, 1 put on my hat and coat and started walking and everybody shouted again, "There he is, there he is." But X kept on walking, kept on walking. I went up to town to the store and X bought some stuff and then I got some cat food and I got back to my house and gave my cat thecat food and he ate it all up. And so then there was this little dogscratching at my door. So I opened the door. I said, "Come in little dog." And the dog came in. He was a frisky dog like a Chihuahua. And then we kept him and named him Chink because that's our little dog's name. The cat - he didn't go after the cat and they slept together. Then 1 had to go up town to buy some dog food and cat food so they wouldn't get hungry. So I went up to town and got a whole bunch of catfood and then I went back home. I put down my stick, took off my hat,and gave them the dog food and the cat food. And they ate it all up.And then they went to bed to go to sleep. It was time to go to sleep.So I went to sleep.

And I heard knocks at the door. 1 heard something knocking at the door. I didn't know what to do. X got up and I went - X took a flash­light. I went out but I couldn't see anybody. But there was someonethere and they were taking the money I got from the police in mydrawer. So I went down there. Hurried up. I sneaked up and I said, "Watch out." Then I was going to shoot him. And X said, "Give me my money back" and I called the police. And I told them that they were the guys who were trying to steal my money so the police came and got him. And the cat and the dog got out. And they left. So I had to puton my hat and I had to go look for them. And I didn't know what to do(breathlessly) because they were - They should come. So I ran. X took my stick and I ran out in the cold and it was snowing. I had to run

176and run. And finally I saw them. They were under this tree. So I took them In my arms (tenderly), took my stick and 1 went back home.And when 1 went back home I said, "How come you ran away?" And they didn't say anything. And so the - I took them and I put them in the box and I put the cover over them so they wouldn't get cold. Then I went back to sleep, took my blanket. Then I just sat and sat because I didn't have nothing to do. I woke up and I couldn't get to sleep. So1 got up. Took my hat and my coat and went outside* I just went for along, long, long walk. 'Cause 1 didn't have nothing to do.

Then in the morning when It was time to go to work and 1 had to go to leave for town and I took off my hat and I was so sleepy. And then I didn't know If I should drive because I was so sleepy. I took my dog and my cat and held them in my arms. I put the cat in the hat and wrapped the dog in the blanket. I took them and took my stick and put them back in the box. I put on my hat and I put on my coat and therewas this guy and he escaped and he was robbing money again and thepolice thought it was me. I took my box - so I had to get out - so I took my box and I left. And I came to this little house where nobody lived. I lived here. And then my cat and my dog liked it here so Ilived here all my life and then the police never found me except forone day when this little old lady came to the door and she knocked.And I said, "Come in little lady, come in." And she said, "I lost my little doggie." And so I said, "Well, here goes nothing." And 1 put on my hat and my coat and I went to look for her little dog while she babysat my cat and my dog. But she was a spy. (secretively) And she took off her hat and she went up to my drawers and she got all my money. And then when I came home she was gone. And I looked in my drawers for the money but I couldn't find the money and she took my dog and cat.So I had to put on my coat and go get the lady and then 1 saw it. That must be the lady that escaped from jail. So I hurried after her and I knew that even though I was a robber I had to go and catch other rob­bers. So I went and 1 looked and looked at houses. And sometimes ladies got mad and threw me out because 1 knocked at doors. So I kept on going and I saw this tiny weeny little old house and she was a little old lady and went and I peeked in the house and there was the lady. So 1 went back in the house and I said, "Lady give me my dog and cat and my money." And she gave me the dog and she gave me the cat and she didn't give me the money. And 1 said, "Well lady, if you're not going to give me the money just wait." So I went home and I called the police and told them I had found the lady and that she had stole mymoney. So the police said, "I'm coming right over. What house doesshe live at?" And I said, "Well, I'll go with you." And so the police came and knocked at my door because I told him where my house was. And I said, "Come on and I'll show ya." And so we went and we went over to the lady's house and we sat there.

24. S.F.5(97)

And you could have - and if this was a rain coat - A man could be going to the office and he could be wearing a ralnhat like thie. (The stick

177is the man, the hat Is the rainhat, the cloth is the raincoat.) And the box we could use for an office and when he came in and he would have to - or this could be a bus (the box) and he could sit on the bus. And he could go in there and start working in his office. At night time the bus would be waiting for him and he could go back home again.

And you could use this if you just had like this. You could use this and just wrap the baby up and pretend. (The stick is the baby, the cloth is a blanket.) This guy - pretend like this lady with a bonnet on - she could pretend if she was carrying the baby and she could put it in the cradle and she came home and she took off her hat and she was giving the baby the bottle and then she would rock the baby in the cradle and then if she didn't have any dishes you could pretend this was a cupboard or a refrigerator (the box) and this lady could go in there and this lady would have - and she could go and get the baby bot­tle and she could go and feed the baby the bottle.

And you could have this elevator (the box) and if it (an arrow printed on the box) were pointing up and if it were pointed down that meant it was going down. And if a lady wanted to go that way (up) or that way (down) she could just tell the man and he would just point the arrow and it would light up on the ceiling maybe and you could pretend like a square light if it were pointed that way it would go that way and if it were pointed that way it would go that way. And they could come and go to any elevator and the closest light to the nearest elevator and you know you're going to the nearest elevator.

And you could use this as a hospital. Then that hospital that would go like this (the box tipped on it's side) and if the lady - if she would have to go - she was coming in for an appointment. And her husband was going to see her in the hospital. And then the lady and he took off his hat and his coat. And real quick you could say that she was laying in the bed and I always make believe at home because it's easier than making a great big mess. If you want to make something and if you start looking for something then you won't have enough time to play.And you can play that this is cut lower (the box) and this is a little table and the hat is hanging up on something and he could be sitting dawn or standing and they could be talking and then he had to go out because it wasn't visiting hours and he had to put on his coat and then he put on his hat and he left and went out of the building and went home. Then he took off his coat and he got dressed for home and he sat and watched television on it. And like my dad, he always falls asleep on the couch and he could pretend and his kids came and covered him up and then they straightened up the house and they put his hat here and they put him in bed and they put his coat up by his hat. And he woke up and he went and he was really hungry and so his daughter and he had to work so his daughter she got his breakfast. She was real old - not real old but she was in high school so she could make breakfast and supper and everything. And so, while her mother was in the hospital - so she had to go to her mother in the hospital again. So she ate a quick breakfast and then he had to go and she was coming out of the hospital. So he hurried up. He took her dress and coat 'cause they

178were going on to out to dinner. So he went out and she cane out. And she had a bonnet with her and they went to this dining place and they sat down and they are - And then they sat down and they watched the movie and this was a movie (the box) and they left to eat and there was a screen in there and it was a good cowboy movie and they loved cowboy movies and they stayed there and they ate popcorn and they went when it was over to see the next show, the preview, but it was the same show and then when they were going out there was a mat that says "Come in." And when they came out the woman had to go to the hospital again. So she went back to the hospital and the man went home and she went in again and she came out again and the - he said she was going to have a baby so then she went into the hospital and the next day she had a baby so she was still in the hospital. And then after a while they let her seethe baby and this thing was over the bed like a vanity and then theybrought the baby into her and she wanted to see the baby real bad and then her husband came in again and he wanted to see it too. So he wassitting down, put his hat - he was sitting over there. And then thenurse was getting the baby ready and she had to give him his breakfast and then she brought it in and put it by the mother and then the man hehad his hat in his hand and he came up and he said, "Oh, what a cutelittle baby." And then the mother said [not intelligible] and then the mother got out of the hospital and the baby was still in the little bedin the carriage father had brought and then the mother carried the babyall the way home and then she put him in the cradle and if she just stepped on it there was a thing and she could roll it and she could rock it and roll it all around.

25. S.F.4(96)

Play beach and the beach is over there* That's what we lay on*(Spreads the cloth on the floor in one corner of parti-room. Childputs the hat on her head.) And that's the cap. The bathing cap and wesit down and watch the people swim. Now the people say and they swim on it, what do you call it? (Child is describing a surfing contest. Observer was able to understand this only later on during the session.)And they say who fell down and they see who comes back first. Some­times somebody falls down and they break their nose or something.

(Child looks across the parti-room as if observing action.) And there one fell down. He's still down in the water. Now he's on the board again. Wow. Two fell down. They hit each other. One's back on the board. Where is the other one? He's staying down there. He must be drownded.

Now three fell down. Look at that big wave come over. It's going to come on top of them.

Are they all right?

Ya. But that one still didn't cone up. There's one over there coming in. Nov four fell down. There's one so far that never fell down. He

179must be glued on to the board.

One Is still down there. Probably the crabs got him.

Now that one we thought was pasted onto the board fell off, too. Boy, now three fell off. The waves covered them all up.

Now they're back on the board. Now that one we thought was pasted on got off again. The one is over there. The surfboard is caught on a rock. He better get on the stone and get the surfboard off it and start going again.

One all ready broke. Now he'll have to ride on a half one.

Can he do It?

I wonder. Now that one fell off again. That one we thought was pasted on the surfboard fell off again. I think he needs cement. How would he get it off when he goes to bed? Now three fell off again. Two of them hit together. Their surfboard broke. That one that was in half got hit again. Now he has no more surfboard. He has to get on with a partner. There, he got on with someone else. Seems like he has a broken nose. That one is going out. It isn't his turn yet. He's tak­ing another surfboard. And there's a girl going. Probably his girl friend. Girls don't know too much about surfing. She might drown.She fell off. Look's like she's going to walk under the water. Ya. She's walking under water. Oh. She made it up. Now all she needs is a surfboard because that one went away. Oh, there's her boyfriend.Now they have three on a surfboard. They're probably going to sink.Now that one fell off. Now he's swimming back. I wonder if the sharks are going to get him. He's in the lead with three people on. Oh. Now he's sunk. Now an ambulance is coming - swimming. He drownded. Hey that other one is standing up. He better lay down or he'll fall off the surfboard.

The other one is going backwards. He'll probably never come to shore. Look at them. There are three in a row coming up. They're the leaders. That guy over there with the surfboard on the rocks never got going.

Now one more mile. He should make it. Oh. He fell off. There's a wave coming. Some surf guys are under the wave. Three in a row fell off that time. They're trying to go over a wave.

26. S.F.3(78)

It's a boy. (the stick) A doll. (The hat is on the stick, the cloth is wrapped around the stick. The child rocks the boy doll. Puts him carefully to bed. The hat is upside down on the towel and the stick is placed in the hat.)

180

He's standing on his head. (Child wraps the hat in the cloth. Putsthis on top of the stick.) He put a pillow on his head. (Puts stick on floor with one end on the pillow.) Now he's sleeping on it.

A cowboy. (Puts hat on stick tucking up one side of the hat.)

He's eating. (Hat is upside down making a bowl. Stick is placed side­ways in hat indicating a head in the bowl while child makes eating noises.)

(Smoothes cloth on floor* puts hat on the cloth. Covers hat with the cloth.) I'm making his bed. (Opens up covers. Places stick in bed. Covers stick.) Now he's in bed. He's going to play in his play crib. (Puts stick In the box.) Put on his cap. (the hat) Put on his clothes, (the cloth) Now I'm all ready. I'm ready to go to the costume party. (Stick walks around back to the box.) Knock. Knock. (The doll knocks on the door.) "Who's there?" "It's Tom." "Hello Tom. Come in."

Now he’s home again. (Takes off his clothes.) He's got to go to bed. He's got a new bed. (the box) It's a little small. (The stick doesnot fit in the box.) Now he's in bed. (Covers the box with thecloth.) Wake up.

27. S .F .3(77)

We could play house with the hat and you could be the mother if you want and wear the hat. And this could be your hat. And this could be the garden and you punch it (the stick) down into the ground to make one of those things that have to hang on to something - like the flow­ers hang on to.

Oh, a stick in the ground that vines grow on?

Yes. They have to hold on to this. Put chat right here. (Child setsthe stick against the wall.) If it will stay up. Okay. (It does.)We could be cooking. You could make cookies. I'll be helping too. We need Borne chips because we can make chocolate chip cookies. And nuts. And we need some brown sugar and sugar and lard. You know that kind of lard stuff.

Like butter or margarine?

Yes. And that would be all and we can start making them and put them in the oven. This is the pan. (Puts spoonfuls of cookie mix on cookie sheet.) Now we can turn on the oven. Now we've got to wait. Oops, now they're ready. (Takes cookie sheet out of the oven and child and observer pretend to eat cookies.) Are they good? My brother hates peas. He just hates them. There's two more left. Just enough. (Child takes one cookie, observer takes the other.)

181Now let's start cleaning house. We could sweep. I'll clean up and you can sweep. I've got to put the stuff away. I'm putting the baking stuff away. Clean off this. (Clears flour, crumbs, etc. off kitchen counter while the observer pretends to sweep floor.) And put it in the garbage. There now put that in the garbage. You can stop sweeping now.

The box is in the way now. Let's put it away. (Places box in the cor­ner of parti-room.)

28. S .F .2(70)

(The stick is placed on the ground. It is a road barrier.)

Now, this will be another and it's right in the middle of there. Some­body dropped that hole. (This refers to the hat placed upside down in front of the barrier. The hat is the hole.) See, here comes a car - Er-r-r-r. (Hand imitating car crashes into hat and over the barrier.) Goes right into the dirt (the cloth placed in back of the barrier) because he couldn't see and now it's in the dirt. It's a ring you go around in. (Child refers to the hat.) It's a playground thing, you know.

(The observer was confused by this change and wasn't sure if she heard correctly.) That's what the car bumped into?

Something like a swing set you know. Then you go in the hole you know. And then you play house and then this is your fort. (Uses fingers on the hat to dramatize activities.) And you go tipping over and thereare no windows. And it goes right into it - crash. And then you climbup on the house, and it goes boom - the house.

29. S .F .1(99)

Can't think . . .Oh, that's your desk (the box) and the teacher. This is the desk and you're sitting at the desk and the teacher is teaching and you write. And you're at your desk still and she's doing arithme­tic . . . ha . . . I can't: even say it . . . well, math . . . and you go to the board and write 5 plus 5 equals what. (Observer acts out child's directions.)

30. S .F .1(84)

Now she's (the stick) got to go to bed again. (Child puts the stick inthe box.) Now she's got a pillow (the cloth) and now the covers, (thehat.) Now she's snoring Z-z-z-z-z.

31. S .F .1 (84)

(Child puts hat on.) I'm pretending to be a mountain climber. (Puts on the cloth as a cape. Carries the stick.)

APPENDIX B

EXAMPLES OF PLAY SESSIONS

Example 1 .

Hey, you can be . . . ah . . . the Indian and I'll be the cowboy. Now here's my gun (the stick). Ba-a-a. Ba-a-a. (Laughs) Stick'em up.You're under arrest. Ba-a-a . . . Ba-a-a. (Shoots observer) I kill­ed you after you were under arrest.

Here's a major general and you're one of his men. Bang, bang. You're dead.What's this? (Picks up the cloth.) Here comes a ghost. (Holds upthe cloth.) See that thing? It’s a ghost. Bang, bang. It shot you.

A rocket ship (the stick) and then you take off . . . 1 0 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 2-1 Blast off! Then a toraedo hits it . . . whee-e, crash.

Now you can be the rocket ship and I'll be the tornado. (Observer counts down.) Another dead rocket ship . . . yikes . . . crashes . , . three men . . .

I'm going to go up to Mars . . . Blasts off and goes over here (edge of parti-room). We're going to go over the cliff. Wheel (stick drops). . . here's Mars . . . crashes . . . now he's ready to blast off up here on Mars (roars). He says (man in the rocket ship), "Oh, a tornado is coming from Jupiter." Crash. That's about the end of that. Guys got killed.

Now what should I do . . . They're all going to smash (stick is rocket) into that (the hat) . . . It's quicksand. He comes down. Yikes!

You can be the lady and I'll be the cub scout. (He gives observer the hat to put on.) I'll be the cub scout - eh - I'll be the boy scout. Here, you can use the stick (as a cane). "Do you need a little help across the street?” Okay, here the light turned red - eh - green (laughs). Okay, now you're across the street. Tornado’s going to hit, jump down! We're dead. Except the ghost. He lived through it. The ghost lived through it.

Let's see now . . . I think I'll have a cannon fight. There are going to be Indians out there and a cannon here. (Uses the box and the stick to make a cannon.) Let's see what should you be . . . an Indian and you're caught. "Give up or I'll shoot her." We give up. Bang, bang.I shot her. Rat-ta-ta. Killed them all and I shot you again. Bang.

184

/

185

I'm alive. Now you're one of the bad guys . . , and again . . . Bang. Now I killed all the Indians,

Now you're one of the men again. You're going to be a bad guy.Stick'em up. Bang.

Now you're a lion* Sit down. Bang. You're dead.

Now it's a machine gun. It's a spy thing . . . there are German Nazisout there . . . eh-eh-eh. Now you're one of our guys. Here Nazis. Rat-ta-ta.

That would be a mountain (points outside of the parti-room) and there are Indians up in it and we're in the fort. You can be a corporal and then the Indian jumps down. Hey, there's a tornado coming, Indian.Get out of here. Jump on my gun and I'll throw you out. My gun broke. Yipes! The tornado's hitting. You know what? We're dead.

Here comes a cyclone . . . here comes a hurricane . . . We're in aship. We're dead.

Now, here comes a cyclone. We're on land . . . we're in a fort. Getdown! We're okay . . . You're dead and I'm okay. Now it's going to bea tornado again. I'm down. I'm dead. You're dead.

Now here comes a moving hat with a stick on it. Ah-h-h-h, The stick came off . . . Bang, bang, bang.

Then this thing comes floo-oo-tlng around, (the cloth)

Now I'm going to fight some bad guys. You're one of them. Here’s your gun. You're dead. I'm dead . . . no, I'm just wounded, I'm alive.Now you're one of the prlsloners again. Going to give up? We give up. Bang. Killed you already. Tornado's going to hit. Get down! You're dead. Here comes a hurricane. You're dead again. Here comes acyclone and we're in the fort. Hey, my guns flying away. Bang. Itkilled you. Nice boy, we're not going to kill you (pats the stick).

Here comes a spear from the bad guys. Yow! Right into you. You're dead.

Let's see. What should we have now? Here comes a plane . . . Bang.It kills me. It kills you. Nov you're alive again.

The missile takes off . . . another rocket ship. You can be the rocket ship. Cyclone hit . . .

Now here comes a ghost. It attacks the ship and kills all the men in it. Takes the gun along. Stick'em up. Rat-ta-ta. Stick'em up. Hi. Ra-ta-ta. Now he puts it on here (the parti-room wall). Okay.

186

Now you can be an Indian squaw. Stick'em up. I'll kill her if you don't give up. We give up. Bang. Bang.

You Indian, me white man. You naughty, me nice. Will you give up?Bang, bang.

Plane's going to hit you. Bang . . . hit you . . . got you in the back.

Here comes a German tank. It burst through the wall {of the parti-room). Here it comes. Got you. You can get up again. Bang. You're dead.Get up. Bang. You can get up. Bang. There are no more tanks now but there's a tornado coming. Got me, got you.Here goes Apollo 12 . . . Here go the three astronauts up in space . . . 1 0 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 Blast off! . . . Then they go out and say, "I'm going to go out and scout around." And the thing busted and they for­got about the rocket ship. "We're on the moon. Hey, where's the roc­ket ship? Let's Jump down. Yi-i-kes!"

Now we're going to shoot down some bad guys. You're the bad guy and I'm the good guy . . .no, you're the good guy and I'm the bad guy.Give up . . . Bang. Give up or else we'll kill her. Bang. More tor­nadoes. Here comes one . . .we're dead.

Example 2.

(Child examines objects very carefully. Feels the cloth all over and looks at it closely.)

Tomorrow I go home. Today's the fourth day of the week, tomorrow will be the fifth and there's two more days added but that's not the week, that's the weekend.

I want to see what's at the end of the pole. Hey, there's a little hole right here, like a little crack right there. (This is the rough end of the pole where it had been sawed off.)

If there was a stand for it . . . You know what you could make out of this? Well, you could put it in the stand. Put the towel on the top of the pole and then the hat.

Well, why don't you do it?

Okay. I'll have to hold it up.

Do you want me to hold it up?

I can hold it. Like this, see? I can hold it. I'll take the blanket - like that . . . Did Scott play with this? He told me he played with the

187blocks and made a tower and knocked It down.

This the last day you're going to be teaching?

Yes.

Oh. Scott told me that and I didn't know - might be - he tricks me.

Let's see now . . . There now, it's all done. Look'it. Hey, maybe it looks like a cowboy standing. You put cowboy hats on them. Hands right here . . . the feet are right here. It looks like a pogo stick . . . You've got to balance . . .

I'm going to put the towel around. How many more minutes left?

You don't have to play if you don't want to.

I'm always playing.

Too bad Steven is nine. I'm eight now, pretty soon I'll be nine. Do you know when my birthday is? It's November 24th.

You can put your hands in here. (Child is holding the stick up with the towel wrapped around It. He tucks one hand up under the cloth touching the top of the pole.)

I like these, right here. I want to see which one falls and put this one back in the box. Is that all how far it will go in? (the stick in the box) If you cut it here it would go In. All the way . . . If you cut it here (a little longer) it would go in. If you cut it here (still longer) it won't go in.

(The child takes the hat, fondles it very carefully, feeling the brim and smoothing it out.)

I'm going to make sure there are no wrinkles in this. I'm going to make sure everything is all popped out - no wrinkles in.

We'll soon go back to the classroom. Will it be three o'clock when we get back? It will be about two thirty maybe. They'll all be coming for milk. I probably won't get milk, will I? Because we get milk at two thirty.

Oh, yes. She'll probably save it for you.

What if you set this hat on a snowman? If you make one outdoors. We could. We don't need no hat for our snowman.

About five minutes left.

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You don't have to play If you don't want to.

I like to. After this we go back to the classroom.

Yes, and I’ll see that you get your milk.

I probably will. It’s always there waiting for me. Or else I could have milk at supper - about three glasses full. I can drink that much. I'm only nine pounds already and fifty-one inches. They weighed me al­ready. Rhonda weighs more than I do but I'm still tougher than she is. You can tell by my hands. They’re so rough. 'Cause Artie picks on me. His middle name is Artie C. Bangs.

About three more minutes left.

I’m going to spread this blanket out. (Spreads cloth very tenderly, smoothing it out carefully.)

This I'll have to fold up. (He folds the cloth up very carefully.) I think I'll fold it some more and see how it looks. I'll fold it this way.

APPENDIX C

CONFIDENTIAL

Case No.Name

Address

First Middle Last^Telephone

Age:

I. Intelligence

Birthdate Sex: M FNo. Day Y r.

II. Vision

a. Normal

b. Partially seeing

c. Legally blind (If checkedplease continue below:

III. Program

a. Residential

b. Non-residential

IV. Onset of Blindness

a. Pre-natal, neonatal

b. Two years or before

c. After 2 years of agecircle one:

3 4 5 6 7 8

V. Cause of Blindness

VI. Description of Blindness

a. Total blindness

b. Light perception only

c. Object perception

d. Travelling vision

e. Other

VII. Secondary Disability

a. Yes (If yes, describe)

b. No.

190

191

CHECK SHEET

I. Type of Flay Behavior Exhibited

a. Manipulative play

b. Dramatic play

c. No playd . Other_____________________________________________________

II. Time Involved in Play (minutes)

a. Manipulative play

b. Dramatic play

c. Other_____________________________________________________

d. Total

III. Number of Vocalizations for Minute at Mid-point of Play

a. Number of vocalizations

IV. Involvement of Observer in Dramatic Play Requested by Child

a. Yes

b. No.

c. No dramatic play

V. Number of Dramatic Units per Play Session

a. Initial units

_____ b. Repetitive units

c. Total number of units per play session

VI. Length of Time Involved in Longest Dramatic Unit

a. Seconds

VII. Number of Discrete Sub-Units Within the Longest Dramatic Unit

a. Number of sub-units

VIII. Materials Used in Dramatic Flay Session

a. Stick

b* Box

c. Cloth

d. Hat

IX. Materials Used in Longest Dramatic Unit

a. Stickb. Stick and box

c. Stick and cloth

d. Stick and hat

e. Stick, box and cloth

f. Stick, box and hat

8* Stick, cloth and hat

h. Stick, box, cloth and hat

i. Box

J. Box and hat

k. Box and cloth

1. Box, hat and cloth

m. Cloth

n. Hato. Cloth and hat

X. Intensity of Longest Dramatic Unit

a. 5 - High

b. 4 - Medium high

193c. 3 - Medium

d. 2 - Medium low

e. 1 - Low

XI. Number of Materials Used In Longest Dramatic Unit

a. 1

b. 2

c. 3

d. 4

XII. Roles Assumed by Child During Dramatic Flay Session

XIII. Roles Assigned to Observer During Dramatic Play Session

XIV. Roles Assigned to Materials During Play Session

a. Stick c. Cloth

b . Box d. Hat

XV. Content of Dramatic Play Units

APPENDIX D

OBSERVATIONS AT THE FLORIDA STATE SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF AND BLIND

Sandy*Sandy, age six, is an attractive, gentle girl of average intelli­

gence. She is not strong physically and must he continually guarded

against falling and bruising herself. The other children are aware of

her physical problem and quickly help her when she needs it. They are

never rough with her during play. She is totally blind.

Observation 1.Sandy is sitting on the floor with her legs spread out In front

of her. She is singing quietly to herself. She is playing with blocks around her. She searches around for them, places them on top of each other. She continues to do this, discarding anything that she encoun­ters that is not a block. She puts a block on top of the tower; the tower falls down. She shows no emotion but quietly spreads the blocks around her. Her head rocks back and forth. Talking or singing to her­self, she starts to build a new tower. Martin comes by and grabs ablock. Sandy says, "Stop it," and goes on building. Tom approaches and touches her leg. She says, "Stop it," and continues to build. (5 minutes)

Observation 2.Sandy is playing with blocks while sitting on the floor, legs

stretched out in front of her. She is singing a little song to herselfwhile building a tower with the blocks. She has now placed six blockson top of each other. Tom comes over and says to Sandy, "Give me the blocks." She reaches for one near Tom and says, "I need this one, all right, Tom?" (Four children are playing with blocks in this corner. Three of these are engaged in parallel play, that is, they are talking together and show interest in what each one is doing but their block building is done on an individual basis. The fourth child, Clarissa, is playing with blocks also but she is separated from the group slightly and pays no attention to the group.) Sandy is talking to Ellen. Her head is rolling back and forth slowly. There is an argument

*A11 names used are fictitious.195

196

going on between the three children concerning the blocks. Sandy says something to the effect that anyone can play with the blocks. Ellen stretches over to Sandy, claps two blocks together and gives them to Sandy. Sandy takes them and gives them to Tom. She now reaches around for a block. She picks up a block shaped like a train and puts that up on top of the tower. She continues to feel around the floor and finds a small bulb-shaped block. She lets that one slip from her fingers.She continues searching with her fingers and says to Ellen something like, "She's talking to blocks." (This discussion was carried on between the three children. "She" may have referred to Ellen who was muttering to herself or to the observer who was speaking into the tape recorder.) Tom says, "You can't talk to blocks." Sandy continues try­ing to build her tower with odd shaped blocks. Part of the tower falls down but she says nothing nor shows any emotion. Ellen gives Sandy six blocks. Sandy says, "Oh," and passes them to Tom. (5 minutes)

Observation 3.

Sandy is playing with Martin. Martin has wrapped Cindy in a blanket. Now he unwraps her and moves away. Sandy says, "Tell me where that big . . . Eh-h" and stops. "Not in the closet." She walks around to where the blocks are. She says, "Where's that big horsie, Ellen? The one that's not broken?" She tries to tie her belt. Ellen does not say anything immediately. After a minute Ellen says, "Come here, Sandy," and reaches for her hand. Sandy says, "Come here and show me where it is quick." Ellen takes her over to the horse. "Get on quick," she says in a conspirator's voice. Sandy has trouble get­ting on the horse. She manages to get her leg over the horse. She tries to tie her belt, drops it and rocks on the horse a few times.She tries again to tie her belt, gets off the horse and tries to tie it again. She is unable to do it. She climbs back on the horse and rocks back and forth. "Come here, Ellen," she calls. Ellen is on the other side of the room. "Come here, Ellen. Let's give Martin something. He is crying because they won't give him the blanket." (Actually Martin is crying because he bumped his head.) Ellen does not answer. Sandy looks in the closet for something to give Martin so he will stop crying. Sandy reaches for a pillow but puts it back. "Martin. Martin. Martin. Don't cry." Tom gives the blanket to Sandy and says, "Here's something." Sandy takes it and tries to give it to Martin. "Here, Martin." (5 minutes)

Observation 4.

Sandy is sitting on the couch. She has a toy telephone on her lap. She is singing very quietly to herself while she tries to un- tanle the telephone cords. She drops the telephone and says, "Hey-ey- ey," when she hears the ball bouncing. She gets up and walks around. She comes back and says, "Mrs. Tait," and complains because she cannot get the ball. She walks over to Tom who has the ball and says, "Hurry up and give it to me." She can hear the ball bouncing. She stands

197

rubbing her eyes. She says to Martin, "You won't let me play with the ball." He runs away from her. She follows. She hears Jimmy's voice and goes up to him. He is saying, "Beep, beep, beep, beep." She tries to catch him but finds Tom instead who is playing with the ball and follows him. Jimmy comes up to her and tickles her neck. She hits him with her hand. Then she walks toward Tom who is bouncing the ball.She bumps into him and holds his arm. He says, "Turn me loose, Sandy." She walks away toward some chairs and sits on one. Tom bounces the ball and it hits Sandy. "Stop that," she says. She stands making little fluttery noises with her lips. The ball accidentally brushes against her. She says, "Stop, stop. You hit me." (S minutes)

Jimmy

Jimmy, age six, is a slight, agile boy of average intelligence.

His vision has recently been corrected with glasses to a point where he

is reading large type print.

Observation 1.

Jimmy is standing in the kitchen cabinet sticking his head out of the hole where the sink usually goes. He is talking and playing with Sandy. They are pushing each other (gently) talking together. He whispers into Sandy's ear. She does not hear him and says, "What, what, what?" Jimmy says to Sandy, "Quit saying, 'What, what*’" He pats her on the back gently and says again, "Quit saying 'what, what, what.'"He climbs on top of the kitchen cabinet and grabs the basin. Sandy holds on to the basin. He says, "Sandy." and grabs the basin gently from her. He holds it over her head like a hat, laughs and puts the basin back. Sandy tries to lift the basin out of the sink. Jimmy wants it back in place. He says, "?ut it back, Sandy, Sandy wandy."He forces it down. He holds the basin down in the sink while Sandy puts her arms over his shoulders and attempts to take the basin out of the sink. Jimmy climbs over the kitchen cabinet and runs over to the other side of the room to the rocking horse. He rocks back and forth.He looks back over his shoulder and sees the boys playing with the ball. He gets off the horse and walks into the middle of the game saying,"I'm playing, I'm playing." "No," says Martin. "Yes, Martin," says Jimmy. Martin agrees and the three boys become involved in a ball game. Martin, across the room, is the leader. Tom and Jimmy are on the other side of the room. Martin tells Jimmy to get in back of Tom, possibly with the idea of taking turns. Martin throws the ball and Jimmy and Tom run for it. Tom gets the ball and throws it to Martin. Jimmy Jumps up and down in place waiting for his turn. He is supposed to get in back of Tom. Martin throws the ball across the room. Jimmy jumps out, catches it and throws it back across the room. He hip hops in place laughing. The ball comes to him again. Jimmy and Tom scramble for it. Jimmy does not get it. He jumps up and down in place,

198

laughing, while Tom throws the ball. He hops around in small circles, laughing, jumping, clapping his hands. He grabs the ball, bounces it, catches it, throws it back over his head. He jumps around laughing, runs after the ball again. He bounces the ball across to Martin who says, ’’Throw it." (5 minutes)

Observation 2.

Jimmy is playing dodge ball. He is telling all the children to get in the center. He is holding the ball. "In, in. Everybody in, in." Then he skips back to position and says, "Here I go." He kicks the ball and jumps around. "Clarissa, Clarissa," he calls and hops up and down. Martin comes up with Sandy and they talk about the game. Jimmy takes Sandy by the hand to his position near the window and lets her stand there. "I'll kick it first," he says. "I'll kick it like this - Zoom." He kicks the ball across the room. Then he holds Sandy around the neck and tickles her gently. He says something like, "My doggy, my doggy," and tickles her around the neck again. Ue stops and says, "Clarissa's out, Tom's out." "Okay, Clarissa." Clarissa is in the game again. Jimmy says, "I hit him, pow." and demonstrates. He kicks into the air and turns around. "Poom. Get in Clarissa." Sandy and Jimmy play together with a revolving bar placed across the window. The ball rolls toward Jimmy. He says, "Okay, Tom’s out." Jimmy runs for the ball, kicks it. "I got Clarissa out lots of times," he tells the observer. He gets the ball and says, "Martin's out." Martin says, "No." Jimmy says, "Yes, you are. Yes, you are. You got hit by the ball. You’re out. Yes you are. Yes you are because I hit you with the ball. Yes I did. I certainly did. You're out of the game." He chants, "tty dog it me, dig it." Looks at the observer speaking into the tape recorder. "Mrs. Tait's talking to herself." Martin comes up and says to Jimmy, "I know what to play." Jimmy says, "I know, too."He gets down on the floor. "Let's play gym," he says. He gets up. "Jumping Jack," he says and starts to jump clapping his hands over his head. He chants, "Jump, jump. Do your daily exercise. L-2-3-4." The other children join him. Then he goes down on the floor and does push ups. (5 minutes)

Observation 3.

Jimmy is playing with Martin and Sandy and a large blanket. Martin and Sandy are holding the ends of the blanket. Jimmy plunges through the middle of the blanket pulling on it. Martin drops on the blanket. Jimmy laughs. Sandy and Jimmy pull Martin while he clings to the blanket. Jimmy pulls Martin across the floor. Then he jumps on top of Martin. Martin gets up and Martin and Jimmy have a tug of war with the blanket. Jimmy bumps into the rocking horse. He says, "Aha," and gets on it. He rocks back and forth and says, "I can ride this horse without even holding on," which he does. He gets off the horse and runs over to the children playing with the blanket. He gets cov­ered by the blanket but runs sway. Now he sees the ball. He grabs it

199

saying to Tom, "Do you want to play kickball?" He puts the ball into position for a kick. He calls to the observer, then kicks the ball, dances around in circles, gets back into kicking position. Runs and kicks the ball. He now sees the children playing with the blanket. lie jumps onto the blanket trying to pull it from Martin. He lets go of the blanket, runs after the ball. Hits the ball, hits the blanket.Gets ready to kick the ball. He calls out, "Mrs. Tait, watch how hard I can kick it." He kicks the ball and runs after it trying to get it before Tom. (5 minutes)

Observation 4.

Jimmy is playing with two halves of a large plastic ball, jacks and three red jack balls. He has the jacks in the comer. The two halves of the large ball are next to the wall, one on each side, form­ing an alley way. He takes the small red ball, moves back about three yards away and throws the whole handful of balls into this alley way hitting the jacks. He then goes up to the corner, picks up one half of the plastic ball, placing it about two yards from the other half still near the wall. Humming to himself, he places a line of jacks between the two halves of the ball. He steps back and gently rolls several of the small balls toward the jacks. He calls out, "Mrs. Tait," indicat­ing that the observer should watch him. He gathers the balls and throws them forcefully against the line of jacks. He gathers the balls, lies flat on his stomach and throws the balls, knocking the jacks about. (5 minutes)

Ellen

Ellen is a slim, fairly attractive girl who exhibits stereo­

typed behavior quite frequently, eye rubbing, rocking, etc. She mut­

ters quite often to herself. There seem to be undercurrents to her play which the observer could not always comprehend. Her intelligence

is considered to be below average.

Observation 1.

Ellen Is sitting on the floor playing with blocks near three other children. She crawls back looking for more blocks against the wall. She picks up a small wooden train, part of the block set, and says, "This is a funny thing." She has blocks in two hands and returns to her original position. She calls, "Sandy." Sandy is one of the children playing near her. She plays with the blocks setting them on edge at right angles. "I do not want any little blocks," she says. Sandy gives her a small blue object. Elian says, "I do not want any

200

little blocks," and throws it away. Sandy reaches over and gives her another little block. Ellen says, "I said, 'I do not want any little blocks, and throws it down. She says, "Give them to Tom. Tom wants little blocks." She feels around the pile of blocks trying to find large blocks. She can only find small ones. She picks up four small blocks and goes over to Tom. "Tom, here," she says and puts them on the floor. Sandy says, "Let me have them," and she tries to grab them. "I'll give them to Tom," Sandy says. Ellen takes then back, lifts them, drops them, and picks them up again. "1 am giving these all to Tom," she says, "I don't want small blocks." She drops then, picks them up, puts them in one hand, then the other, takes one block and pounds it on the floor. "Here," she drops them on Tom. Then she moves back to her original position and plays with her pile of blocks. (5 minutes)

Observation 2.

Ellen is sitting on the floor with Sandy and Tom. The three children are talking together. Ellen puts some blocks into the bag and gives the bag to Sandy to give to Tom. Tom dumps the blocks on the floor. Ellen leans over and plays with Cindy's shoelace and feels the leather of Cindy's shoe. Ellen gets up and walks over to the toy kitch­en which is in the comer nearby. She squats down in front of the cab­inet and feels around In it. She takes out a plastic block and dish, throws them back in and shuts the cabinet. She reaches around for the bag in which the blocks came and puts the blocks back into the bag.Tom complains about his lack of blocks. Ellen says, "Okay, Tom," opens the bag and gives one block to Tom. Then she gives the bag to Sandy.Tom says that the bag contains blocks. Ellen says, "No, it's not.It's trash." Sandy dumps the blocks out. Sandy says, "What a sur­prise." Ellen feels what Sandy is making with the blocks. Then she says to Sandy, "I'm so sorry. I have to steal some of your blocks." Ellen moves around in a small space on her hands and knees feeling the blocks near Sandy. Ellen whispers into Sandy's ear. She jumps up and down on her knees. Sandy says, "Ellen," in a tone of astonishment or surprise. Ellen says, "Tell Tom what X said." (The three children are all sitting very close to each other.) Ellen sings a phrase of a song while pounding on the floor with a small block still on her hands and knees, "Mr. rabbit, Mr. rabbit . . . " She repeats the song. Sandy talks to her. She tells Ellen to tell Tom. Ellen goes up to Tom on her hands and knees and sings the song to him. (5 minutes)

Observation 3.

Ellen is playing with the blocks. Sandy and Jimmy are also there. Ellen is talking to Jimmy. She is bent over feeling the vari­ous pieces of the block set. She sits down. Now she is picking up all the unusual pieces, the cones, the bulb-like objects. She sits back, picks up the plastic bag, feels around in the bag, finds a small wooden car and takes it out. She drops the bag. "One of you bit sty horsie,"

201

she sing songs. She continues to feel these objects. Now she puts one block down and one block at right angles to it. She tries to put another block on top of the horizontal one but the vertical block falls. She says, "Oh, no." Martin says he is going to get something. She calls out to him, "It's broken. It's broken." She feels around for more blocks. Jimmy says something to her, a sort of doggerel, which she finds funny. It must have naughty overtones because Sandy tells him to stop. Ellen laughs. She giggles every time Jimmy says this.She is still feeling around the floor and touching a variety of blocks. She finds the bag again. "Ah-h-h. Do you know what Diane saying?" she says to Sandy or Jimmy. Jimmy says his little rhyme again. She says, "Ooh." She jumps up, falls down flat on the floor laughing. She takes the bag, jumps up and down on her knees, pounds the bag on the floor, jumps up and down, pounds the bag, kicks her feet in back of her, jumps up and down on her knees and slaps the bag with outstretched hands. (5 minutes)

Observation 4.

Ellen is sitting on the floor with her legs stretched out. She is holding a purple Easter egg music box and is turning the handle lis­tening to the music. Sandy has some blocks and is saying, "Blocks for sale, blocks for sale." Ellen says, "I want some." She continues sit­ting and turning the music box handle. She gets up and finds a small cradle with a doll in it. She takes the doll out, sets it on the floor and then puts the cradle over her arm. She sings out, "Cracky c o m for sale." Tom comes over and holds the cradle. Ellen says, "You're not a baby." Then she says to Tom, "Now you get in here." Tom puts the doll in the cradle. Ellen says, "No, don't put her in there* You get in yourself." She finds a piece of plastic material used as a blanket in the crib. Repeatedly sings, "Cracky c o m for sale." Tom puts the blanket over her hair, rubs it around. Ellen tries to get it off.Then sits hunched over giggling and chanting. Tom and Ellen tussle (good naturedly) over a musical egg. Ellen sings, "Hot potatoes for sale." Tom leaves. Ellen now chants, "Crocodiles for sale," then "Blankets for sale," and she takes the doll blanket and wraps it around her like a bib. (5 minutes)

Tom

Tom is a quiet gentle boy. He is able to perceive light and

while his mobility is quite good he is limited when playing with the

boys, Jimmy and Martin, who have quite a bit more vision. His intelli­

gence is considered to be below average.

202

O bservation 1.

Tom is on the floor playing with blocks near Sandy. Sandy is giving him blocks. "Do you want more blocks?" she says. She puts one in his hand. He sits there feeling the blocks. He has been making a sort of train in the sense that one block is put in front of the other lengthwise. He is not talking to Sandy, however, they are aware of each other and Sandy talks to him occasionally. He continues playing with the blocks. Sandy takes his hand and shows him what she has built. Tom makes no comment but says, "I need more blocks." He searches with his hands around him for some more. "I know what I'm going to build," he says and begins to build something. It looks like a platform on the floor with one block standing upright on one side and another on the other side. Sandy talks to him but he does not answer. He crawls over to find more blocks. Ellen, who is also playing with blocks nearby, calls, "Tom." Tom goes over to her and feels the block object that she has made. He goes back to his original spot but he needs more blocks. Sandy says, "I'll get you some." She gives Tom some blocks. (5 minutes)

Observation 2.

Tom is on the floor playing with blocks. He is putting one block in back of the other forming a row of blocks. He is quiet, not talking, sitting close to Sandy. He feels around in front of him (scoots forward on hands and knees about one yard) for more blocks. He finds a plastic bead, touches it but it rolls away. He finds one block and goes back to his original position. In doing this he messes up his structure accidentally at first and then purposefully. (This was done with little show of emotion, a sort of stirring motion.) He puts two blocks on top of each other building a tower-like structure. He is bent over, knees to ground, head very close to the blocks. He is very careful about placing the blocks and tries to get them even. He works very slowly and carefully. The tower, however, remains crooked. Ellen has passed some more blocks to Sandy in the plastic bag which Sandy in turn passes on to Tom. He dumps them out of the bag onto the floor. Ellen giggles, "Tom doesn't know what it was." Tom says, "Yes, it was the blocks." Ellen says she played a trick on him. The tower made with three blocks falls down. (This interchange between the three children began with Ellen. She has put a surprise in the plastic bag for Tom. She calls it a bag of trash. Tom does not care for this joke. All contact between Tom and Ellen goes through Sandy. Whether this is part of an arrangement decided upon yesterday in a similar sit­uation and carried over to today cannot be determined.) (5 minutes)

Observation 3.Tom is sitting on the floor near Sandy. They are playing with

blocks. Now he is picking up blocks, scooping them toward him In a

203

random quick movement. He builds a similar train-like structure as he did yesterday. He is speaking quietly to himself. He takes an odd­shaped block and tries to use it in several positions. He puts it down and scatters everything around quietly. He walks around to the other side of the room where the boys are. He walks into Clarissa who has a chair near the closet. (She is looking for the jacks and wants to climb on the chair to look around on the top shelf.) Tom says, "What are you doing?" He kneels in front of the closet, reaches in, picks up a toy iron. Clarissa bangs two objects together making a loud noise. Tom sits on his heels, holds a hand to his ear and says, "Wow." He picks up another plastic object and feels around in the closet. Calls, "Hey, Clarissa." She has walked away but comes back. "Hey, Clarissa. You all play with this." He stands and holds it as Clarissa joins him. They both handle the toy. It is a toy that makes a noise when a string is pulled, however, it makes no noise presently. Clarissa puts it back. Tom returns to the closet and feels around in it. He feels the objects, mostly broken pieces of toys. A block falls out of the closet. Tom throws it back in and shuts the door. He moves over to the next closet on his hands and knees where Clarissa is. both children are reaching into the closet. Clarissa picks up a push-pull toy dog. Tom and Clarissa feel the dog. Tom feels the legs. Clarissa manipulates the ears. Then Tom picks up a plastic dish, puts it back, and says, "I gotta go." He starts running around looking for Martin who is playing with the ball. Tom goes back to Clarissa and says, "Close the door, Clarissa." Martin is nearby and Tom says to Martin, "Let's play kick- ball." "Move," Tom says to Clarissa, "move." He gets into position.He says, "Come on, come on," to Martin. (5 minutes)

Observation 4.

Tom is chasing Martin who has the ball. They have previously been fighting for it. Tom is chasing Martin but very slowly. He says, "I don't feel like running." His hand is trailing along the closets. (The closets are in the center of the room forming an island in the middle.) Tom is slowly walking around them following Martin. He is complaining to Martin. He stands still while Ellen and Martin tussle over the ball. Tom calls, "Mrs. Tait. Martin." He continues walking in circles around the closets with his hand trailing along the closet doors. He finds Ellen and grabs her thinking it is Martin. He says, "Oh," realizes his mistake and continues walking around the closets calling Martin. He continues calling the observer and Martin periodi­cally. Martin is teasing Tom, keeping always just ahead of him. Mar­tin is jumping around and then sneaks up in back of Tom and says, "Woo. Woo." Tom turns around. Ellen says, "Tom, come here." He goes over to Ellen and she gives him a toy metal pan. Tom continues walking around the closet calling, "Martin." He throws the pan at Martin. Meanwhile, Martin becomes interested in something else and Tom gets the ball. Tom bounces the ball against the wall. Martin grabs the ball. Tom tries to get the ball from him. Martin kicks and screams quietly, a sort of "Ee-ee." Tom says, "1 want the ball." Martin says, "You're

204

not getting it." Tom grabs Martin around the waist and they drop to their knees. Martin clutches the hall to his stomach, Tom is on top of Martin. (5 minutes)

Martin

Martin is an active, aggressive, well-developed boy. He seems

to become Involved with the other children in the group and likes to

tease them. He is very kind to Sandy and thinks of her welfare when­

ever coming and going to the playground. He has enough vision to move

about quite freely. He is considered below average in intelligence.

Prior environment and an antagonistic attitude may account for this.

Observation 1.

Martin is playing ball (a large ball) with Jimmy. Jimmy is on one side of the room, Martin on the other. Jimmy kicks the ball and Martin runs after it, falls, grabs the ball, runs back to place and kicks the ball to Jimmy. Martin then runs and grabs the ball from Jim­my. Jimmy says, "Give it to me." Martin says, "No, it's my kick." He bounces the ball and calls out, "Kick, it's my kick." He kicks the ball to Jimmy and Jimmy kicks it back. Martin grabs the ball and holds it next to his stomach. Jimmy and Martin tussle for the ball. "Let go," says Martin. They pull and Jimmy gets the ball. "You cheat, you cheat," calls Martin. He stomps his feet and points to Jimmy, "You cheat." Martin is angry and sits in the chair. Then he sees the ball, runs after it and smiles when he gets it. Jimmy and Martin continue their active game of kickball. Jimmy kicks the ball and it bounces near the children playing with the blocks. "Give me that ball," Martin says and grabs it. No one answers him. He bounces the ball, returns to his position and kicks it to Jimmy. Jimmy misses the ball and Mar­tin laughs and claps his hands and jumps up and down. He catches the ball with outstretched arms. He kicks it as it bounces and it hits Jimmy on the head. Now Jimmy is angry and runs up to Martin and throws the ball at Martin. Martin gets the ball and kicks it out of the play­room. (5 minutes)

Observation 2.

Martin is playing ball with Jimmy, Martin gets the ball, puts it in place on the floor, backs away, runs forward and kicks the ball. He claps his hands and hops around. He kicks the ball as Jimmy sends it to him. He jumps up and down, claps and runs after the ball. He falls on his knees. He kicks the ball and It rolls. "Man," he says.

205

He is hot and sweaty and opens up his shirt. The ball cones his way again. He kicks it and hits the observer. "Excuse me, Mrs. Tait," hesays. He kicks the ball again. It bounces back and forth. He kicksit, misses it and it rolls away. He runs after it and falls to the floor. He kicks the ball, jumps up and down, and claps his hands."Four for me," he says. He runs after the ball again, kicks it andclaps his hands. Clarissa comes up and says, "May I play?" Martinsays, "No," and laughs. He kicks the ball and laughs when Jimmy misses it. Clarissa says, "I want to play ball." Martin says, "Get in back of me." He kicks the ball and runs after it but gives Clarissa a chance to get it but she cannot see the ball. Martin gets the ball and says, "Walk away, Clarissa." She walks away and stands against the wall. Martin runs after the ball and falls on it. He says, "Clarissa, move, move. Go by the chair." Then he says, "I have sixty," and jumps up and down and claps. Then he says, "Seventy," and hops and skips.He puts his hand on his mouth and hops around to his original position. The ball bounces, and Clarissa says, "Let me kick the ball." "No," says Martin. Clarissa says again, "Let me kick the ball." "No," says Martin, then, "Your turn to kick, Clarissa." (5 minutes)

Observation 3.

Martin is by the group playing with the blocks. He is next to Ellen, Sandy and Jimmy. Martin is talking to Jimmy. Martin is holding the ball and looking at a little toy ccwboy. He is looking at it very closely. He also has a big plastic airplane. He puts the cowboy on the ball. It falls off. He says to Jimmy, "Let's do (something)." Hereaches over, lifts Ellen's dress and says laughing, "Oh, Ellen." Nowhe turns to Sandy. He puts his cowboy on top of Sandy's block tower.He knocks down some of the tower. Sandy says, "See, what you made me do?" "What did I make you do, Sandy?" He has a block. He puts the cowboy on the block. "If you come close to this house, he'll shootyou," he says to no one in particular. He is stretched out on thefloor now still holding the ball. The ball rolls away and Martin raises up to get the ball but lets it go and picks up the airplane. He tries to put the cowboy into the airplane. He takes the nose off the airplane and puts the cowboy in the r.c£e of the plane. He gets up stillholding the cowboy. He walks around the room, comes up to Tom and says,"Shoots you," pointing the cowboy at Tom, Then he runs and gets the ball that Tom is playing with. He puts the soldier in his pocket and tussles with Tom for the ball. He says, "Don't fight over this ball."He gets the ball and dribbles it around the room, while Tom chases him. They both are giggling. Tom grabs Martin around the waist. Martin calls, "Mrs. Tait, Mrs. Tait." He laughs and sing songs, "Hey, Mr. Crooked." Tom follows Martin around the room trying to get the ball.He hangs on to Martin. Martin calls, "Mrs. Tait, Mrs. Tait. Tell Tomto stop. Stop Tom, stop." (5 minutes)

206

O bservation 4.

Martin is playing with the ball. He bounces it around the rood,throws it against the wall, chases it. The ball bangs against the plas­tic seahorse on the floor making a noise. Martin picks up the seahorseand looks at it* He finds an airplane nearby and picks it up. He triesto dribble the ball while holding on to the airplane. Then he sits on the ball and scoots up to Sandy while sitting on the ball. She is play­ing a game, calling out, "Who wants sweet potatoes?" Martin calls out, "Who wants a jet?" The children nearby call, "I do." Jimmy comes over and gets it. Sandy says, "A baa baa." Martin says, "A baa baa, you won't." He moves away bouncing the ball. Sandy continues the game, calling out, "Who wants a butterfly?" Martin comes back, picks up a block and makes believe he's eating it. He says, "I do," and grabs the plastic bag with the blocks in it. He tries to eat the bag. Sandy pulls it away from him. He calls out, "Mrs. Tait, Mrs. Tait." Then he finds the plastic butterflies that were in the plastic ball. He turns them around and says, "Who wants a butterfly? A real butterfly?" He gives them to Sandy. Sandy says, "It's not a real butterfly." Martin says, "It is." He walks away dribbling the ball. He now finds half of the plastic ball which is filled with jacks and the jack balls. He kicks it and all the jacks spill out and the balls go flying. "Ah ha," he says lying down on the floor. He takes a jack and spins it, looking at it closely. He says, "I'll take all these jacks." Clarissa is there. She wants some jacks. Martin says, "I'll keep them all." Cla­rissa says, "No." Martin says, "I will." Jimmy comes up and talks to Clarissa. Jimmy has the two halves of the ball. He has put the jack balls into the plastic ball and shakes them up and down. Martin says, "Put the jacks in there." He starts to put the jacks into the plastic ball. Jimmy says, "No." Martin again says, "Put the jacks in there." Jimmy says, "Okay." He opens the ball and puts the jacks in. Then Jimmy closes the ball and shakes it up and down, the jacks rattling about. Martin laughs and says, "Shake it up." (5 minutes)

Clarissa

Clarissa is a rather large, plump, awkward girl. She is able to

see objects when held up to her eyes. She seems to be an outsider in

this group, playing frequently by herself. The boys show more annoyance

toward Clarissa than toward the other girls. Clarissa is considered to

be of average Intelligence.

Observation 1.

Clarissa i s sitting on the floor playing with the blocks. She puts the blocks in place working slowly but at a constant pace, picking

2 0 7

up whatever block comes to her hand and placing it next to another.She calls, "Mrs. Tait, Mrs. Tait, look what I made." She reaches over to Sandy who is playing with blocks near her and says, "See what I made?" She takes Sandy's ana so she can feel her blocks. "I made all these blocks." Sandy moves them slightly, "Oh, oh, you messed it," but this is said quietly without anger. She reaches for the bag to see if there is anything in it. Then she says to Martin as he comes by, "Look what I made." She picks up a block, looks at it closely, puts it down. She picks up the first block and puts it down. She realizes that the blocks have windows painted on them. She searches for another block, looks at it very closely holding it up to her eye, nose almost touching. She continues looking for the blocks with windows painted on, keeps these and discards the rest. She puts all the blocks down, goes back to her original piece of work, messes it up and says, "Vho wants all these blocks?" in a sing song voice. (5 minutes)

Observation 2.

Clarissa is trying to play with the boys who are playing ball. She keeps saying, "It’s my turn." The ball comes near her. She tries to beat Martin to it. "I'll get it," she says, but she can't find it. She stands quietly for a while. She runs over and says to the observer, "They won't let me get the ball." She says to Martin, "Martin, Let me get the ball." he is on top of the ball. "Martin, you won't let me get the ball." She follows Martin. She now says, "Jimmy, can I play?" She follows Jimmy and Martin around the room. The boys now let her play. Martin takes her by the shoulders and positions her in the mid­dle of the play area. She says, "I want to play football." Clarissa stands and waits while Jimmy and Martin organize a game of dodge ball. They round up Sandy and Tom and put them in the middle. Clarissa is standing quietly, perhaps listening. Jimmy and Martin are trying to decide if Sandy should play or not. They say very nicely to her, "You better stay out," and lead her to a chair. Martin returns to Clarissa and shows her where to stand. Clarissa stands there quietly. The ball is rolled and hits Clarissa. She is out of the game. She runs after the ball. She runs back to the closet, opens the closet and sort of droops over the door, subdued. Martin comes back to Clarissa. He puts his arm around her shoulder, she puts her arm around his waist, tie brings her into the circle again. She pushes her way through and says, "Now let me." She holds on to Cindy's dress, talks to her quietly.She turns and holds on to Martin's shirt. "I'll be catching," she says, "I'll be catching." "No," says Martin. She follows him trying tocatch the ball. She gets into the center of the ring, runs back as ifto avoid the ball, however, the ball has not been thrown. She standsthere with the other children jumping up and down, waving her hands andcalling, "Yea, yea." She listens to Martin talking to the children.She reaches for the ball when it comes past. Tries to get it from Mar­tin. She pulls him around the waist and they have a tussle. (5 minutes)

208

O bservation 3.

Clarissa is over by the kitchen corner. Now she walks over to the blocks, stepping on them. She picks up one, then puts it down.She is walking around rather aimlessly. She is looking for the jacks. She goes to the rocking horse and looks under the horse. Tom bumps into her. She doesnrt say anything. She kneels down by the blocks, looking them over. She touches one red block (the jack ball is red). She moves around on her hands and knees. She stands up and looks on the window shelf. She stoops and looks under the couch. There is a large ball under the couch with two plastic butterflies in the center of the ball. The butterflies rotate in the ball when the ball moves. She picks up this ball and looks at it closely. She turns the ball slowly looking at the butterflies. She is trying to get into the but­terflies. She pokes her finger into the center split. She is in a kneeling position, working on this ball trying to get the butterflies out. She feels the antennae on the butterflies. She turns the stem that they are fastened onto and continues to feel the body of the but­terflies. She is not saying anything. She crawls away from the couch continuing to play with the butterflies. She looks under the couch again. Tom comes up to her. She says to him, "Did you see it?" He feels the butterflies briefly but says nothing. She gets up and walks into the other children. (5 minutes)

Observation 4.

Clarissa is sitting on the floor near the window. Jimmy is also there. Clarissa wants some balls and jacks. Jimmy has them all in the plastic ball. He gives two balls to Clarissa. She is sitting with her legs outstretched. She talks to Jimmy. She gives him one ball back. She takes some jacks in her hand, throws them out and then tries to bounce the ball. Meanwhile, Jimmy has given her all the jacks. She says to him, "I don't need all of them. Who wants some of these jacks?" Jimmy says, "I don't." She says, "Put them all in there." She takes them and puts them in the big ball. Jimmy and Clarissa are sitting close together. She takes the jacks and spreads them over the floor.She touches each one with her finger. She sneezes and gets her arm all wet. Then she says to Jimmy, "Here put these back again." Then she gives him some more jacks. She now has five jacks left. She takes the ball and bounces it on the floor with the right hand. With the left, she picks up the jacks. She comes up to the observer and says, "I need a kleenex." She blows her nose in the kleenex, walks around rubbing her nose with the kleenex. She goes out the door and puts the kleenex in the basket outside the playroom. She comes back in and sits down with her legs spread out. She spreads the jacks on the floor between her legs. (5 minutes)

APPENDIX E

STATE OF MINNESOTA Department of Public Welfare Centennial Office Building St. Paul, Minnesota 55101

December 23, 1969

Dear Mr. and Mrs.

Mrs. Perla Tait, a representative of Ohio State University, is inter­ested in studying the play activity of 4 through 8 year old blind chil­dren, and she has requested permission to study children of this ageknown to our agency. Minnesota State Services for the Blind is inter­ested in cooperating with Mrs. Tait as she proceeds with her study because it is anticipated that the results will be beneficial not only to professional persons serving blind children, but to you as a parent and to the blind child.

We cannot release your name to Mrs. Tait unless you grant us permis­sion. If you are willing to have your child participate in this study you should know that she would see your child probably in your home for approximately one half hour on January 15 or 16, 1970 at an appointed time.

In order that we can arrange an appropriate schedule for Mrs. Tait, would you please call Mrs. Yvonne Wheat of our staff at 221-2092, and inform her of your decision to participate or to decline participation.

Thank you for your courtesy in this matter.

Yours truly,

/s/ C. Stanley Potter

C. Stanley Potter, Director State Services for the Blind and Visually Handicapped

CSP/JOK/yw

210

211

GRAND FORKS PUBLIC SCHOOLS

Grand Forks, North Dakota

Office of the Assistant Superintendent

March 26, 1970

Mrs. David Tait313 Northwestern DriveGrand Forks, North Dakota

Dear Mrs. Tait:

Your research proposal was approved for implementation inthe Grand Forks School District last evening. Several conditionswere made, however:

1. Written parental permission must be secured.2. Students should participate during non-school hours.

Your efforts should occur in Lincoln School. Mr. Wayne Peterson serves as Principal of Lincoln School.

With best wishes, I remain,

Sincerely yours,

/s/ Garold Bergquist

Harold Bergquist Assistant Superintendent

jmcc: Mr. Peterson

212

Dear _____________________ :

Assistant Superintendent, Dr. Harold Bergquist, has informed me that the Committee on Research of the Grand Forks School District has given me its official approval to conduct research in the Lincoln School. I will be working in conjunction with Mr. Wayne Peterson.

Briefly, this study concerns itself with comparing the play be­havior of young blind children with that of young sighted children. I n order to do this I observe children playing with simple objects which I bring with me to the school. This play session will take place dur­ing the regular recess time at Lincoln School. The children I have worked with so far have enjoyed the experience.

I have randomly selected children within a particular age group and have drawn your child's name to be Included In the study. Naturally the names of children participating in the study will not be included in the final analyses.

It appears that studies such as this may lead to an increasedunderstanding of young children. Your permission for __________________to participate will assist in bring this about. In order to facilitate your reply, a check sheet has been included with a stamped, addressed envelope. Your cooperation will be appreciated.

Yours truly,

P. £. Tait (Mrs. David H.)

A p ril 21 , 1970

Please include my child, _______________as a Lincoln School participant in this research project.

Please do not include my child,________as a Lincoln School participant in this research project.

Signature - Parent or Guardian

APPENDIX F

61637275767782858888909298

TABLE 34

COMPARISON OF THE AGES IN MONTHS OF BLIND AND SEEING SUBJECTS

Males Females

Seeing Blind Seeing

61 71 7068 72 7577 72 7778 74 7880 75 7982 77 8485 79 8485 85 9289 87 9392 93 9693 100 9793 100 9999 103 102105 108 104107

215

APPENDIX G

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA PERTAINING TO THE MINTO AND DRAYTON SEEING SUBJECTS

In t ro d u c t io n

This s u b d i v i s i o n w a s c r e a t e d in o rder to d e te r m in e w h e th e r or not

t h e sc h o o l s i t u a t i o n in w h ic h the two major s o u r c e s of s e e i n g s u b j e c t s ;

n a m e ly , M in to and D ra y to n , had a n e f f e c t upon p l a y b e h a v i o r . T h i r te e n

o f the s e e i n g s u b j e c t s (8 m a l e s , 5 fem a le s ) a t t e n d e d the M in to

E lem en ta ry S c h o o l ; t e n o f the s e e i n g s u b j e c t s (5 m a l e s , 5 fem a le s )

a t t e n d e d the D ra y to n E lem en ta ry S c h o o l . T h ese c o n s t i t u t e d the m ost

d i r e c t l y c o m p a r a b l e g ro u p s , and h e n c e , the d a ta from t h e s e w e re s u b ­

j e c t e d to fu r th e r s c r u t i n y . The r e m a in in g s i x s e e i n g s u b j e c t s cam e from

th e Grand Forks a r e a and w ere n o t in c lu d e d in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a n a l y s i s

b e c a u s e t h e y c o n s t i t u t e d a y o u n g e r a g e group and t h u s w e re not s u i t a b l e

fo r d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n w i th the c h i l d r e n of M in to a n d D ray to n r e l a t i v e to

p l a y b e h a v io r .

Age of the p o p u l a t i o n

R e la t iv e to the v a r i a b l e , a g e , the th i r t e e n M in to s u b j e c t s had a

m e a n age of 9 1 . 5 4 m on ths w i th a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t i o n o f 9 . 7 9 ; the ten

D ray to n s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean a g e of 8 1 . 5 0 m on ths w i t h a s t a n d a rd

217

2 18

d e v i a t i o n o f 2 4 . 8 0 , T ab le 3 5 s e t s forth the m e a n s and s ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n s

of th e a g e of the M in to and D r a y to n s u b j e c t s .

TABLE 35

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S . D . ) OF THE AGE OF MINTO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

C e l l N Age

M in to 13 M e a n 9 1 .5 4S . D . 9 .7 9

D ra y to n 10 M e a n 8 1 .5 0S . D . 2 4 .8 0

An a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w a s used to d e te r m in e if the age of the

M in to s u b j e c t s d i f fe red s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the a g e of the D ray ton s u b ­

j e c t s . R e s u l t s i n d ic a te d t h a t r e l a t i v e to the v a r i a b l e , a g e , th e re w a s no

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t the . 0 5 le v e l b e tw ee n M in to and D ray ton s u b ­

j e c t s , T h e re fo re , it w a s i n f e r r e d from th e s e d a t a th a t any d i f f e r e n c e s in

p l a y b e h a v i o r w e re p ro b a b ly n o t m ediated by d i f f e r e n c e s in a g e b e tw e e n

th e g r o u p s . The sum m ary t a b l e fo r th is a n a l y s i s i s sho w n in Tab le 36 .

I n t e l l i g e n c e of the p o p u l a t i o n

R e la t i v e to th e v a r i a b l e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , the th i r t e e n M into s u b j e c t s

had a m e a n i n t e l l i g e n c e of 1 0 5 . 4 6 with a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t i o n of 1 3 .4 1 ;

the t e n D ra y to n s u b j e c t s h a d a m ean in t e l l i g e n c e of 9 9 .4 0 w i th a

219

TABLE 36

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVETO THE AGE OF MINTO AND DRAYTON SU3JECTS

Source of V a r ia t ion Sums o f S q u a re s df M e a n S q u a re s F

M in to and D ray ton 5 6 9 . 5 6 1 5 6 9 .5 6 1 . 79

W ith in G ro u p s 6 6 8 3 . 7 5 21 3 1 3 .2 7

T o ta l 7 2 5 3 .3 1 22 XXXX

s ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n of 8 . 8 5 . T a b le 37 s e t s for th the m e a n s and s ta n d a rd

d e v ia t i o n of the i n t e l l i g e n c e o f th e M in to and D ray to n s u b j e c t s .

TABLE 37

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S . D . ) OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF MINTO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

C e l l N I n te l l i g e n c e

M in to 13 M e a n 1 0 5 ,4 6S . D . 1 3 .4 1

D ray ton 10 M e a n 9 9 .4 0S . D . 8 .8 5

An a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d to d e te r m in e if the i n t e l l i g e n c e

of th e M in to s u b j e c t s d i f f e re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the i n te l l i g e n c e of the

D ray ton s u b j e c t s . R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d th a t r e l a t i v e to the v a r i a b l e , i n t e l l i ­

g e n c e , th e re w a s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t the .0 5 l e v e l b e tw e e n M in to

220

and D ray to n s u b j e c t s . T h e r e fo r e , it w a s in ferred from t h e s e c a t a th a t a n y

d i f f e r e n c e s in p lay b e h a v i o r w e re p r o b a b ly not m e d ia t e d by d i f f e r e n c e s in

i n t e l l i g e n c e b e tw e e n the g r o u p s . The sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s is

sh o w n in T ab le 3 8 .

TABLE 3 6

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE INTELLIGENCE OF MINTO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

Source of V ar ia t ion Sums of S q u a re s df M e a n S q u a re s F

M in to and D ray to n 2 0 7 .6 3 1 2 0 7 .6 3 1 .52

W i th in Groups 2 8 6 3 .6 9 2 1 1 3 6 .2 7

Tota l 3 0 7 1 . 3 1 2 2 XXXX

C o m p o s i t io n o f th e p o p u la t i o n by s e x

A two s a m p le ch i s q u a r e t e s t w a s u s e d to d e te r m in e w h e t h e r or not

the M in to g ro u p of s u b j e c t s and the D ra y to n group of s u b j e c t s d i f f e red

s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t i v e to the c o m p o s i t i o n of the g ro u p s by s e x .

The o b t a in e d c h i s q u a r e v a lu e w a s not s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .0 5 l e v e l .

M e m b e r s h ip in the M in to g ro u p and in the D ray ton g roup w a s in d e p e n d e n t

of s e x a s i n d i c a t e d by a c h i s q u a r e of . 0 2 . T ab le 39 sh o w s the r e p r e ­

s e n t a t i o n of m a l e s and f e m a le s in th e M in to and D ray ton g r o u p s .

221

TABLE 39

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOW ING THE REPRESENTATION OF MALESAND FEMALES IN THE MINTO AND DRAYTON GROUPS

Sex Blind S e e in g T ota l

M a le 3 5 13

Fem ale 5 5 10

T ota l 13 10 23

% - i y r = . 0 2

A n a ly s i s of the S t a t i s t i c a l D a ta

Type of p lay b e h a v io r e x h ib i t e d

A two w a y c h i s q u a r e t e s t w a s u s e d to d e t e r m i n e if th e s c h o o l

s i t u a t i o n ; n a m e ly , M in to a n d D ra y to n s c h o o l s , w a s i n d e p e n d e n t of the

type of p l a y in w h ic h the s u b j e c t s b e c a m e in vo lv e d and in th e n o n ­

in v o lv em en t of th e s u b j e c t s in p l a y .

Tab le 40 s h o w s the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n the M in to and D ray ton

s u b j e c t s and the f r e q u e n c y of t h e i r inv o lvem en t in m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y .

The o b ta in e d c h i s q u a r e v a l u e , . 0 2 , w a s not s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .05

l e v e l . T h e re fo re , the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s th a t no d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s b e tw e e n

the two v a r i a b l e s , s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n and the i n v o lv e m e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e

p l a y , w a s a c c e p t e d . It w a s in fe r red from t h e s e d a t a t h a t the re w a s no

222

TABLE 40

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOWING THE OBSERVED (O; ANDEXPECTED (E) FREQUENCY OF MINTO AND DRAYTON

SUBJECTS' INVOLVEMENT IN MANIPULATIVE PLAY

M a n ip u la t i v e P lay M in to D ray ton T ota l

Yes CO) 0 1 1CE) ( 0 . 6 ) ( 0 .4 )

No (O) 13 9 2 2(E) (12 .4) C 9 .6 )

Tota l 13 10 23

df = 1 X2 = .02

d i f f e r e n c e in the f r e q u e n c y w i th w h ic h M in to a n d D ray to n s u b j e c t s

b e c a m e invo lved in m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y .

T ab le 41 sh o w s the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n the M in to and D ray ton

s u b j e c t s and the f r e q u e n c y of t h e i r in v o lvem en t in d r a m a t i c p l a y .

The o b t a in e d c h i s q u a r e v a l u e , 7 . 1 5 , w a s s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .01

l e v e l . T h e re fo re , the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s th a t no d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s b e tw e e n

th e o b se rv e d and e x p e c t e d v a l u e s w a s r e j e c t e d and the a l t e r n a t iv e

h y p o t h e s i s t h a t th e two v a r i a b l e s , s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n and th e inv o lvem en t

in d ra m a t i c p l a y , a r e a s s o c i a t e d , w a s a c c e p t e d . It w a s in ferred from

t h e s e d a ta tha t th e s u b j e c t s a t t e n d i n g the D ray ton s c h o o l b e c a m e more

223

TABLE 41

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOWING THE OBSERVED (O) ANDEXPECTED (E) FREQUENCY OF MINTO AND DRAYTON

SUBJECTS' INVOLVEMENT IN DRAMATIC PLAY

D ra m a t ic Play M into D ray ton T o ta l

Yes (0) 2 8 10(E) ( 5 .7 ) ( 4 .3 )

No (O) 11 2 13(E) C 7 .3 ) ( 5 . 7 )

Tota l 13 10 23

df = 1 Xz = 7 .1 5 *

* S ig n i f ican t a t th e .01 l e v e l .

f r e q u e n t ly invo lved in d r a m a t i c p lay th a n th e s u b j e c t s a t t e n d i n g the

M i n t o s c h o o l .

Tab le 42 s h o w s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the M in to an d D ray ton

s u b j e c t s and the f r e q u e n c y of t h e i r i n v o lv e m e n t in p l a y o t h e r t h a n

m a n i p u l a t i v e and d r a m a t i c .

The o b ta in e d c h i sq u a r e v a l u e , 4 . 0 8 , w a s s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .05

l e v e l . T h e re fo re , the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t no d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s b e tw e e n

th e o b s e r v e d and e x p e c t e d v a lu e s w a s r e j e c t e d and the a l t e r n a t i v e

h y p o t h e s i s th a t the two v a r i a b l e s , s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n and in v o lv e m e n t in

p l a y o th e r than m a n i p u l a t iv e and d r a m a t i c , a r e a s s o c i a t e d , w a s a c c e p t e d .

224

TABLE 42

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOWING THE OBSERVED (O) AND EXPECTED (E) FREQUENCY OF MINTO AND DRAYTON

SUBJECTS’ INVOLVEMENT IN PLAY OTHER THAN MANIPULATIVE AND DRAMATIC

O th e r P lay M in to Dray ton T o ta l

Yes (0) 6 0 6£E) ( 3 .3 ) ( 2 . 6 )

No (0) 7 10 17(E) ( 9 .6 ) ( 7 .3 )

T o ta l 13 10 23

df = 1 X2 = 4 . 0 8 *

* S ig n i f ic a n t a t the .0 5 l e v e l .

It w a s in fe r red from t h e s e d a t a t h a t the s u b j e c t s a t t e n d i n g the M in to

s c h o o l b e c a m e more f r e q u e n t ly invo lved in play, o th e r t h a n m a n ip u la t iv e

and d r a m a t i c t h a n th e s u b j e c t s a t t e n d i n g the D ray ton s c h o o l .

Tab le 43 s h o w s the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n the M in to and Dray ton

s u b j e c t s and the f r e q u e n c y w i th w h ic h th ey d id not b e co m e invo lved in

p l a y .

The o b t a i n e d c h i sq u a r e v a l u e , 1 . 1 3 , w a s not s i g n i f i c a n t a t the

.05 l e v e l . T h e r e f o r e , the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t no d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s

b e tw e e n the tw o v a r i a b l e s , s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n and the n o n - i n v o lv e m e n t in

p l a y , w a s a c c e p t e d . It w a s inferred from t h e s e d a t a t h a t th e re w a s no

225

TABLE 43

CONTINGENCY TABLE SHOW ING THE FREQUENCY OF MINTOAND DRAYTON SUBJECTS' NON-INVOLVEMENT IN PLAY

No P la y M in to D ray ton T o:a l

Yes (O) 5 1 6<E) ( 3 .4 ) ( 2 . 6 )

No (O) 8 9 17(E) ( 9 . 6 ) ( 7 .4 )

Tota l 13 10 23

df = 1 X2 = 1 .1 3

d i f f e r e n c e in th e f r e q u e n c y w i th w h ic h M in to and D ra y to n s u b j e c t s did

not b e co m e inv o lv e d in p l a y .

Time in v o lv e d in p lay

The d a t a w ere e x am in e d to de te rm in e w h e t h e r or no t M in to and

D ra y to n s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e d in th e am ount of t ime s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e

p l a y .

R e la t iv e to the am ount of t ime s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y , the

th i r t e e n M in to s u b j e c t s h ad a m ean of .0 w i th a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n of .0

and the ten D ray ton s u b j e c t s had a m ean of .01 w i th a s ta n d a rd d e v ia t i o n

of . 3 2 , T a b le 44 s e t s for th t h e s e m e a n s and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s .

226

TA3LE 44

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S . D . ) RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN MANIPULATIVE PLAY BY MINTO

AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

C e l l N M a n ip u la t iv e Play

M in to 13 M e a n . 0 0S . D . . 0 0

D ray to n 10 M e a n . 0 1S . D . .32

The a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d to d e te r m in e if the am ou n t of

t im e s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y by M in to s u b j e c t s d i f fe red s i g n i f i c a n t l y

from the a m o u n t of t ime s p e n t in m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y by D ray ton s u b j e c t s .

R e s u l t s i n d ic a t e d t h a t th e re w a s no d i f f e r e n c e a t the .05 l e v e l of

s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sum m ary t a b l e for th i s a n a l y s i s i s sh o w n in T ab le 4 5 ,

TABLE 45

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN MANIPULATIVE PLAY

BY MINTO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

Source of V ar ia t ion Sums of S q u a re s df M e a n S q u a re s 4 .

M in to and D ra y to n

W i th in G roups

T o ta l

.06

.9 0

.9 6

1 .06

21 .04

22

1 .3 2

2 2 7

The d a t a w e re e x a m in e d to d e te r m in e w h e t h e r or no t M in to and

D ra y to n s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e d in the a m o u n t of t ime s p e n t in d ra m a t i c p l a y .

R e la t iv e to the a m o u n t of t ime s p e n t in d r a m a t i c p l a y , the t h i r t e e n

M in to s u b j e c t s had a m e a n of .38 w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of .9 6 and

th e ten D ray ton s u b j e c t s had a m ean of 9 .3 0 w i th a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

of 7 . 3 8 . T ab le 46 s e t s forth t h e s e m e a n s and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s .

TA3LE 4 6

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S .D . ) RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN DRAMATIC PLAY 3Y MINTO

AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

C e l l N D ra m a t ic Play

M in to 13 M e a n .38S . D . .96

D ray to n 10 M e a n 9 . 3 0S . D . 7 .3 8

The a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d to d e te r m in e if the a m o un t of

t im e s p e n t in d r a m a t i c p l a y by M in to s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from

th e am ount of t ime s p e n t in d ra m a t ic p l a y by D r a y to n s u b j e c t s . R e s u l t s

i n d i c a t e d th a t the re w a s a d i f f e r e n c e a t the . 0 1 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

The sum m ary tab le fo r t h i s a n a l y s i s i s sh ow n in T a b le 4 7 . E x am in a t io n

of m e a n s sh o w n in T a b le 46 would i n d i c a t e th a t the D ra y to n s u b j e c t s

e n g a g e d in more d r a m a t i c p l a y than th e M in to s u b j e c t s .

228

TABLE 47

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVETO THE TIME SPENT IN DRAMATIC PLAY BY

MINTO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

S o u rc e of Var ia t ion Sums of S q u a r e s df M e a n S q u a r e s F

M i n t o a nd D ray ton 4 4 9 . 2 6 1 4 4 9 . 2 6 1 8 .8 3 *

W i t h i n G roups 5 0 1 . 1 8 2 1 2 3 . 8 7

T o ta l 9 5 0 .4 3 2 2 XXXX

♦ S ig n i f ica n t a t the .0 1 l e v e l .

The d a t a w e re e x a m in e d to d e te r m in e w h e th e r or no t M in to and

D ra y to n s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e d in the am ou n t of t ime s p e n t in p l a y o th e r t h a n

m a n i p u l a t i v e and d r a m a t i c .

R e la t iv e to th e a m o u n t of t im e s p e n t in p lay o th e r t h a n m a n ip u la t iv e

an d d r a m a t i c , the t h i r t e e n M in to s u b j e c t s had a m ean of 2 . 6 9 w ith a

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f S . 50 and th e ten D ray to n s u b j e c t s had a mean o f .0

w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of , 0 . T a b le 48 s e t s forth t h e s e m e a n s and

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s .

The a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d to d e te rm in e if th e amount of

t im e s p e n t in p l a y o t h e r t h a n m a n i p u l a t i v e a n a d ra m a t ic by M in to s u b ­

j e c t s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e a m o u n t o f t ime s p e n t in p lay o th e r

t h a n m a n ip u la t iv e a nd d r a m a t i c by D ra y to n s u b j e c t s . R e s u l t s in d ic a te d

229

TABLE 48

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S . D . ) RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN PLAY OTHER THAN MANIPULATIVE

AND DRAMATIC BY MINTO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

C e l l N O t h e r P lay

Minto 13 M ean 2 .69S . D . 5 .50

D ray to n 10 M e a n 0 . 0 0S . D . 0 . 0 0

t h a t t h e r e w a s no d i f f e r e n c e a t t h e .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . The

sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s i s sh o w n in T ab le 4 9 .

TABLE 49

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE TIME SPENT IN PLAY OTHER THAN MANIPULATIVE

AND DRAMATIC BY MI&TO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

Source of V a r ia t ion Sums o f S q u a r e s d f M e a n S q u a r e s F

M in to a n d D ra y to n 4 0 . 9 7 1 4 0 . 9 7 2 . 3 7

W ith in G ro u p s 3 6 2 . 7 7 21 1 7 .2 7

T o ta l 4 0 3 . 7 4 22 XXXX

230

N um ber of v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t t e r e d du r ing th e p l a y s e s s i o n

The d a ta w e re e x a m in e d t o de te rm in e w h e t h e r or no t M in to a n d

D ray to n s u b j e c t s who e n g a g e d in p la y d i f f e r e d in che number of v o c a l i z a ­

t i o n s u t t e r e d dur ing a h a l f - m in u t e s a m p le t a k e n a t t h e m id -p o in t o f p l a y .

R e la t iv e t o t h e nu m b er of v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t t e r e d , the e ig h t M in to

s u b j e c t s (5 m a l e s , 3 f e m a le s ) h a d a m ean of 7 . 1 3 w i th a s t a n d a r d

d e v ia t i o n o f 6 . 3 3 a n d th e n ine D ray to n s u b j e c t s (4 m a l e s , 5 f e m a le s )

h a d a m ean of 3 9 . 11 w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v ia t i o n of 2 6 . 8 4 . Tab le 50 s e t s

fo r th t h e s e m e a n s a nd s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s .

TABLE 50

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S . D . ) RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER OF VOCALIZATIONS UTTERED

BY MINTO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

C e l l N V o c a l i z a t i o n s

M in to 8 M e a n 7 .1 3S . D . 6 .3 3

D ray ton 9 M e a n 3 S .1 1S . D . 2 6 .8 4

The a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s u s e d to d e te r m in e if th e nu m b er of

v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t t e r e d b y M in to s u b j e c t s dur ing p l a y d i f fe red s i g n i f i c a n t l y

from th e num ber of v o c a l i z a t i o n s u t te r e d b y D ra y to n s u b j e c t s d u r in g p l a y .

Results indicated t h a t there w as a difference at th e .0 1 l e v e l of

231

s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sum m ary t a b l e for t h i s a n a l y s i s l s show n in T a b le 51.

E xam ina t ion of th e m ea n s sh o w n in Table 50 w o u ld in d ic a t e t h a t t h e

D ray to n s u b j e c t s u t t e r e d more v o c a l i z a t i o n s dur ing p l a y ihan t h e M in to

s u b j e c t s .

TABLE 51

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO THE NUM3ER OF VOCALIZATIONS UTTERED BY

MINTO AND DRAYTON SUBJECTS

Source o f V a r ia t io n Sums o f Squa res d f M e a n S q ua res p

Minto a n d D ra y to n 4 3 3 3 . 1 7 1 4 3 3 3 .1 7 1 0 .7 5 *

W ith in G ro u p s 6 0 4 5 . 7 7 15 4 0 3 .0 5

T o ta l 1 0 3 7 8 .9 4 16 XXXX

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t the .0 1 l e v e l .

C o n c l u s i o n s

E x am in a t io n of th e f i n d in g s in d ic a te d t h a t th e Minto a n d D ra y to n

s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y in t h e i r b e h a v i o r du r ing th e r e c o r d e d p lay

s e s s i o n s . T h e s e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s are l i s t e d h e re w i th :

1. The D ray to n s u b j e c t s e n g a g e d in d r a m a t i c p lay more f r e q u e n t ly

t h a n t h e M in to s u b j e c t s .

2 . The D ray to n s u b j e c t s invo lved t h e m s e l v e s in d ra m a t i c p l a y for

a l o n g e r p e r io d of t im e t h a n t h e M in to s u b j e c t s .

232

3 . The M in to s u b j e c t s e n g a g e d more f r e q u e n t ly in p lay o t h e r t h a n

m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a t ic t h a n th e D ray ton s u b j e c t s .

4 . The D ra y to n s u b j e c t s u t t e r e d more v o c a l i z a t i o n s during p l a y

t h a n th e M in to s u b j e c t s .

Review of t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e M in to s u b j e c t s

t e n d e d to ho ld t h e m s e l v e s a lo o f dur ing the p l a y s e s s i o n s to a g r e a t e r

e x t e n t t h a n th e D ray to n s u b j e c t s . W hile the M in to s u b j e c t s a p p a r e n t l y

d id not w i s h to becom e in v o lv e d in d ram a t ic p l a y , t h e y a l s o d id no t w i s h

t o r e f u s e t o c o o p e r a t e . H e n c e , t h e y com pl ied w i t h th e r e q u e s t of th e

o b s e r v e r b y e n g a g in g in p l a y o t h e r th a n m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a t i c ; s u c h

a s , g u e s s i n g g a m e s . - B e c a u se th e M in to s u b j e c t s v o c a l i z e d i n f r e q u e n t ly ,

t h i s p l a y o th e r th a n m a n ip u la t iv e a n d d ra m a t ic d i d no t se rv e the sam e

fun c t io n a s t h e m a n ip u la t iv e p l a y o f th e b l ind c h i l d w h ic h cou ld be

i n t e r p r e t e d a s a n a t t e m p t to c o n t i n u e the c o n t a c t w i th th e o b s e r v e r .

The M in to a n d D ray to n s c h o o l s were b o th in s m a l l , ru ra l c o m ­

m u n i t i e s l o c a t e d in th e sam e g e n e r a l a r e a . In t h e M into s c h o o l t h e

e l e m e n t a r y c l a s s r o o m s w e re of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n , e a c h g ra d e h a v in g

one t e a c h e r . In th e D ray ton s c h o o l , the f i r s t t h r e e g r a d e s w ere t a u g h t by

s e v e r a l t e a c h e r s a n d t e a c h e r ’s a i d e s in o n e , l a r g e , o pen c l a s s r o o m . It

w a s f e l t t h a t t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e M in to s u b j e c t s d e m o n s t r a t e d

a r e s e r v e d r e a c t i o n to th e o b s e r v e r b e c a u s e o f b a c k g r o u n d e x p e r i e n c e s

b a s e d on th e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r a s th e pr imary a u th o r i ty f i g u r e . The

o b s e r v e r w a s more o p e n l y a c c e p t e d b y th e D ra y to n s u b j e c t s a s a n o th e r

o n e of s e v e r a l a d u l t s s h a r in g a u th o r i t y . T h u s , th e D ra y to n s u b j e c t s may

b e t h o u g h t of a s a p p ro x im a t in g more c l o s e l y th e b l in d s u b j e c t s 1 p e r c e p t io n

o f a d u l t s a s a u th o r i ty f i g u r e s .

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