The New Communications Technologies: Applications, Policy ...

The NewCommunicationsTechnologiesFifth Edition

The NewCommunicationsTechnologies:Applications,Policy, and ImpactFifth Edition

Michael M. A. MirabitoBarbara L. Morgenstern

With a Foreword by Mitchell Kapor

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To our families.

To the men and women of the Space Shuttles Challenger and Columbia and all their fellow travelers.

May their dream live forever in the minds, hearts, and works of the present and all future generations.

Foreword xi

Preface xiii

I Foundation 1

Chapter 1: Communication in the Modern Age 3Basic Concepts 3Systems Approach: Electromagnetic

Pulse Biometrics 8Conclusion 11References/Notes 12Suggested Readings 13Glossary 14

Chapter 2: Technical Foundations of Modern Communication 15Basic Concepts 15Digital Technology 18Advantages of a Digital

Communications System 21Disadvantages of Digital

Communications 25Standards 26References/Notes 28Suggested Readings 29Glossary 30

Chapter 3: Computer Technology Primer 33Hardware 33The Microcomputer 35Computer Software 38Printers and Local Area Networks 43Conclusion 45References/Notes 46Suggested Readings 47Glossary 48

Chapter 4: Computer Technology:Legal Issues, Y2K, and Artificial Intelligence 49Legal Issues 49Y2K 51Artificial Intelligence 52References/Notes 55Suggested Readings 57Glossary 58

II Information Transmission 59

Chapter 5: The Magic Light:Fiber-Optic Systems 61Overview 61Applications 63Conclusion 65References/Notes 67Suggested Readings 67Glossary 68

Chapter 6: Satellites: Operations and Applications 69Satellite Technology 69General Satellite Services 75Direct Broadcast Satellites 77Satellites, Journalists, and the News 80Conclusion 83References/Notes 85Suggested Readings 88Glossary 89

Chapter 7: Satellites: NewDevelopments, Launch Vehicles,and Space Law 91Future Satellite Technology 91Launch Vehicles 94Space Exploration 99References/Notes 102Suggested Readings 104Glossary 106

Contents

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viii CONTENTS

Chapter 8: Wireless Technology and Mobile Communication 107Wireless Systems 107Mobile Wireless Services 108Cellular Telephone and Personal

Communication Services 108Conclusion 113References/Notes 114Suggested Readings 116Glossary 117

III Information Storage 119

Chapter 9: Information Storage:The Optical Disk and Holography 121Optical Disk Overview 121Nonrecordable Media 122Recordable Media 125Other Issues 128Holography 130References/Notes 132Suggested Readings 132Glossary 133

IV Production Technologies 135

Chapter 10: Desktop Publishing 137Hardware—The Computer,

Monitor, and Printer 137Scanners 139Digital/Electronic Still Cameras 140Software 141Desktop Publishing Guidelines 143Applications 144Conclusion 145References/Notes 146Suggested Readings 147Glossary 148

Chapter 11: Desktop Video and Multimedia Productions 149Multimedia 149Desktop Video 152

Applications and Implications 157Production Considerations 159References/Notes 161Suggested Readings 162Glossary 163

Chapter 12: The Production Environment: Personal Computers, Digital Technology,and Audio-Video Systems 165Production Equipment and

Applications 165Digital Recording 168Information Management and

Operations 172Conclusion 175References/Notes 175Suggested Readings 176Glossary 177

Chapter 13: Digital Television and Digital Audio Broadcasting 179High Definition Television 179Digital Audio Broadcasting 185References/Notes 187Suggested Readings 189Glossary 190

Chapter 14: The Production Environment: Colorization and Other Technology Issues 191Colorization 191Image Manipulation 192Multimedia Legal and Broader

Implications 193Virtual Reality 194Electronic Music 197Paperless Society 198The Democratization and Free

Flow of Information—Maybe 200

Conclusion 201References/Notes 203Suggested Readings 204Glossary 205

CONTENTS ix

V Information, Entertainment, &Communications Services 207

Chapter 15: The Cable and Telephone Industries and Your Home 209Video-on-Demand 209The Entertainment-Information

Merger 210Conclusion 214References/Notes 215Suggested Readings 216Glossary 217

Chapter 16: Teleconferencing and Computer Conferencing 219Teleconferencing Introduction 219Videoconferences 219Audioconferences 221Other Considerations 221Personal Videoconferences 223Advantages of Teleconferencing 223Computer Conferencing 224Conclusion 227References/Notes 227Suggested Readings 228Glossary 229

Chapter 17: Information Services:The Internet and the World Wide Web 231Introduction 231Other Systems 232World Wide Web 233Internet and Web Growth 235Other Considerations 240Conclusion 245References/Notes 246Suggested Readings 248Glossary 250

VI The Law 253

Chapter 18: E-Mail and Privacy 255Federal Case Law 255Federal Legislation 258State Legislation and Case Law 259Conclusion 260

References/Notes 261Suggested Readings 262Glossary 263

Chapter 19: First Amendment and Online Obscenity 265The Communications Decency Act 265Child Online Protection Act 269Filtering 271International Response to Online

Obscenity 274The V-Chip and the First

Amendment 276Conclusion 278References/Notes 279Suggested Readings 281Glossary 282

Chapter 20: Other First Amendment Issues: Libel, HateSpeech, Cyberstalking, and Copyright 285Introduction 285Online Libel 285Hate on the Internet 291Cyberstalking 295Copyright 296Conclusion 302References/Notes 302Suggested Readings 305Glossary 307

Chapter 21: New Technologies:Wiretapping, Privacy, and Related First Amendment Issues 309Wiretapping and Encryption 309Surveillance Beyond the Year 2000 312The USA PATRIOT Act 313Conclusion 315References/Notes 316Suggested Readings 317Glossary 318

Afterword 319

Index 323

The accelerating pace of innovation in technology over the past several decades hasbrought about profound changes, perhapsnowhere more than in the information andcommunication media which pervade ourlives. I am tempted to say we live in a trulywired world, except that the pace of devel-opment in wireless local area networks andadvanced cellular transmission is renderingthe actual presence of wires increasinglysuperfluous. Whether wired or wireless, welive in a connected world, whether we wantto or not. Being disconnected and anony-mous is less and less an option.

The audiovisual media of radio, television,movies, and music are increasingly beingcreated, stored, produced, and distributedthrough digital means with profound impacton the choice and experience of consumersand the economics for content creators andproducers. A new medium, the Internet,has become indispensable for electroniccommerce, social interaction, and the deliv-ery of news, information,and entertainment.

All this has profound implications in thecivic sphere as well—for our privacy andfreedom of expression as citizens.The FirstAmendment of the Bill of Rights guaranteesfreedom of the press and freedom of expres-sion. As A.J. Leibling famously observed,“freedom of the press belongs to the person

who owns one.” In today’s world, in whichevery personal computer can be a digitalprinting press (as well as a recording studioand duplication factory), it is not alwayssimple to distinguish Constitutionally pro-tected acts of expression from commercialinfringement. Nor is it easy to decide howfar the government is justified in increasingsurveillance on its citizens in the name ofnational security.

It is therefore all the more importanttoday that people be well informed aboutthe social and legal issues arising out of newmedia technology. In this new edition, Pro-fessors Mirabito and Morgenstern continueto provide a comprehensive account of thetechnical bases of modern information andcommunication technology and its appli-cation. Equally important, the reader willbenefit from their significantly increasedfocus on the critical social and legal issuesarising out of new technology. The NewCommunications Technologies makes a valuablecontribution to our understanding of theforces shaping our lives in the twenty-firstcentury.

Mitchell KaporCofounder Electronic Frontier Foundation(www.eff.org)Chair,Open Source Applications Foundation

Foreword

xi

WHAT’S NEW

Readers who are familiar with The New Com-munications Technologies will see a number ofchanges in the fifth edition, including the following:

• Chapters have been updated to explorenew applications and technological trends.

• Topics have been updated where appropriate.

• The chapters contain new illustrations.• The chapters have been reorganized to

enhance the subject flow.• Legal discussions have been expanded,

with topics ranging from First Amend-ment issues to copyright and privacy.This is one of this edition’s most impor-tant improvements. The legal discussionsalso cut across social and political issues.For example, in Chapter 1 we discusshow biometric technology is used tocreate more secure identification systems(e.g., to restrict access to a computer’sdata) and how these systems can have animpact on our individual privacy.

It is also important to note the WorldTrade Center tragedy plays a central, butsometimes hidden, role in certain scenarios.For example, this event has given birth tonumerous government initiatives to combatterrorism. But while this may be the articu-lated goal, some individuals believe there are attendant civil liberty implications. Itappears this is a growing challenge broughtabout by new technologies: the same toolsused to protect our freedom have the potential to curtail our freedom. As communicators,it’s important to be aware of these issues aswe make determinations as to a techno-

logy’s appropriate or inappropriate use andapplication.

What’s UnchangedAs in previous editions, the book still ex-plores new technologies from a broad per-spective. This includes the convergencefactor—the relationships among differentfields and how developments in one area canaffect developments in another area.

Applications and underlying conceptsalso remain a focal point. The latter is par-ticularly salient.Although new products maybe introduced, fundamental principles mayremain unaltered. Thus, by learning the concepts now,you may be able to work withnew applications well into the future.

THE POTENTIAL READERSHIP

The book is appropriate for communi-cations technology courses in TV/radio,communication, journalism, and corporatecommunication departments. It can alsoserve as a primer for graduate courses in thesame departments and as a supplementarytext for legal, public relations/advertising,management, and instructional technologycourses.

The book may also prove useful to com-munications professionals, including jour-nalists, who want to gain a broad overviewof the field. We also hope it will appeal tothose who are interested in the communica-tion revolution and its impact.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

As with the first edition, we want toacknowledge those pioneers, those individ-

Preface

xiii

xiv PREFACE

uals,who helped launch the communicationrevolution itself.

Our students deserve thanks for theirwillingness to serve as sounding boardswhen new material was introduced and forproviding us with valuable feedback.We alsowant to thank the readers whose commentsabout the various editions proved insightful.

We also appreciate the ongoing efforts and support of Ayn Miralano, our col-leagues, and the numerous individuals at dif-ferent companies who responded to photorequests.Thank you all.

Mitchell Kapor was also gracious enoughto write the book’s Foreword. We deeplyappreciate his taking time out of a busyschedule for this project. As the founder ofthe Lotus Development Corporation andcofounder of the Electronic Frontier Foun-dation as well as the Chair of the OpenSource Applications Foundation, Mr. Kapor’s

experience spans the technological, legal,and economic arenas.As one of the “sparks”of the communications and informationrevolution, he shares many importantinsights.

The editorial and production staffs atFocal Press also helped make this book areality.The fifth edition is a milestone for us.The New Communications Technologies hasbeen in publication since 1990, and we areparticularly grateful to a number of individ-uals that we had the pleasure and privilegeto work with over the past 13+ years.They include our first editor, Phil Suther-land, Marie Lee, as well as the editor of this edition, Amy Jollymore. Amy has beenextraordinarily gracious and insightful inguiding the book’s design. We would alsolike to acknowledge the valuable contribu-tions of Kyle Sarofeen, this edition’s produc-tion editor.

Figure P.1The newcommunicationstechnologies have alteredthe way we can gainaccess to information.For example, you cannow explore theworld—such asStromboli and its activevolcano—via theInternet. (Courtesy ofJuerg Alean andStromboli.net.)

PREFACE xv

DISCLAIMER

Some of the companies and products mentioned herein are trademarks or servicemarks. Such usage of these terms does notimply endorsements or affiliations. Adobeproduct screen shots reprinted with permis-sion from Adobe Systems, Inc. The com-pany’s Premiere®, Photoshop®, PageMaker®,and Acrobat®, programs are covered invarious chapters.

We also mention the New York Yankees atdifferent points in the book when exploringa given topic.While this does not imply anendorsement or affiliation, we will admit weare fans of the most storied team in theannals of professional sports. This is, ofcourse, a personal opinion . . . and just somefood for thought.

IFOUNDATION

Much has been written about the com-munication revolution—some of it realistic,some of it not.Years ago, authors predictedthat we would be using videophones, thatsatellites would create worldwide commu-nications nets, and that we would be watch-ing 3-D television and using personalcomputers (PCs). Although all of these predictions have not fully materialized,many have. Sophisticated satellites ring theglobe and PCs have forever altered the waywe work.

We are clearly living during a commu-nication revolution. New and existing tech-nologies and applications are shaping thecommunications industry and society. Forexample:

• The latest generation of PCs can producesophisticated multimedia presentations.

• Optical disks offer increased storage andproduction capabilities.

• Telephone lines are channels for vastinformation pools.

• Satellites can serve as personal communi-cations platforms.

Yet despite this revolution, some changesare actually evolutionary. As we’ll discuss inthis book, these changes include the upgrad-ing or modernization of an industry’s infra-structure. Consequently, the communicationrevolution can actually be viewed as a mixof revolution and evolution—the influx ofnew and the enhancement of older prod-

ucts. Together, they have brought aboutmassive changes in the world around us.

Chapters 1–3 provide a foundation forthe exploration of these topics and changes.These chapters introduce key concepts aswell as explore digital and computer tech-nologies and applications, the driving forcebehind many of the technological changeswe see today.

BASIC CONCEPTS

The Communications System: AnExtended DefinitionA communications system is one such concept.It provides the means by which information,coded in signal form, can be exchanged.If we decide to telephone a friend, the communications system would include thetelephone receivers, the telephone line, aswell as other components.We use a varietyof communications systems to exchangeinformation. As covered throughout thisbook, they range from satellites to under-water fiber-optic lines.

In the context of this book, the term com-munications system also has a broad definition.(That is, it isn’t limited to a description of information exchange systems.) It alsoincludes the communications tools we use,their applications, and the implications thatarise from the production, manipulation,and potential exchange of information.

1 Communication in theModern Age

3

4 THE NEW COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES

InformationInformation can be defined as a collection ofsymbols that, when combined, communi-cates a message or intelligence. When youwrite a note to a friend about the New YorkYankees, you combine letters and numbersto convey your thoughts or ideas, a messagethat has meaning to both of you.The com-bination of the letters W-o-r-l-d S-e-r-i-e-sis not just a collection of letters: It representsa concept.1

In our communications system, this infor-mation may be coded in a standardizedform: in an electronic or electrical signalanalogous to the coding of information bythe printed letters and, ultimately, words inthe note.

Next, the information can be relayed viaa telephone line, satellite, or other commu-nications channel. After it is received, it canbe decoded or converted back into its orig-inal form.

This series of steps follows the traditionalmodel of a communications system devisedby Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver.Thesystem consists of an information source, atransmitter, a channel to deliver the infor-mation, a receiver, and a destination. We’ll

discuss noise, another element, in the nextchapter.

Information as a Signal. When coded insignal form, information—a person’s voice ora video camera’s view of the Grand Canyon—is also compatible with communicationsequipment. For example, the camera’s pic-ture can be transmitted, stored, or altered bycomputer.

The communications system is also quiteflexible in the representation of informa-tion. For example, in a fiber-optic system,light conveys information. In optical storagemedia (such as CDs and DVDs), a laser’slight is used to retrieve information. We’llcover these topics in Chapters 5 and 9,respectively.

If you’re interested in reading a moredetailed explanation of what constitutes in-formation, see the books by Shannon andWeaver and by Rogers listed at the end ofthis chapter.These books also cover the his-torical and technical elements of informa-tion theory and the mathematical theory ofcommunication and information.

Information: An Extended Definition.Information extends beyond the definitionused in the general communications indus-try. Information is not just television pro-grams, telephone conversations, and moviesstored on digital versatile disks (DVDs).Information can also take the form of pic-tures manipulated by a computer that high-light details of the human body. Informa-tion can also take the form of a library ofbooks stored on optical disks or stockmarket facts that can be accessed at homewith a computer.

Information can also be viewed as a commodity. Traditionally, a television pro-gram has a financial value that varies accord-

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Figure 1.1PC software can be usedin ergonomic design—the practice of developingequipment and systemsaround people. Suchsoftware can also createimages suitable for otherapplications. (Courtesyof Biomechanics Corp.,HumanCad Division;Mannequin.)

Communication in the Modern Age 5

ing to its ratings.The information generatedby nontraditional tools is also valuable.Com-panies use the telephone system to sell finan-cial data to computer owners. Televisionnetworks purchase images created by remotesensing satellites to shed light on nationaland international news events.

Finally, information can be equated withpower. If you know how to use a computer,you will be able to tap a greater wealth ofinformation than a nonuser will, giving youa political or economic edge.

Information Society. Some technologicaldevelopments, including the notion thatinformation can be equated with power,have contributed to the creation of an information society. Even though this term has become cliché, it is nevertheless an accurate one. The information society isdriven by information, be it the latest inter-national news needed to keep abreast of avolatile world market or the creation ofdatabases that can be accessed by computers.The information society has also creatednew job categories, such as web designerswho use computers to create Internet sites and technical specialists who are hiredto retrieve information from computer databases.

The information society has also influ-enced the U.S. economy.We are becoming anation based on service rather than manufac-turing. Tubing and steel plants have givenway to the service industry. Hospitals, banks,and computer information companies fallinto the latter category. For many businesses,using and processing information are inte-gral elements of the services they offer. Stillother companies produce the tools neededto sustain this information-based society.Meanwhile, new highways are constructed.But instead of carrying cars and trucks, thesenew “information highways” relay informa-tion to our work sites and homes.

Implications of the CommunicationRevolutionThe new information and communicationstechnologies have also profoundly affectedour social structure, and there is a growinginterdependence among technology, infor-mation, and society. And new technologieshave raised a series of ethical questions. Asdescribed later in Chapter 10, we can nowuse scanners (devices that input graphicinformation to a computer) to copy some-one else’s work.

In another scenario, some people are afraidthat automation will accelerate the loss ofjobs.This idea is typically linked to the beliefthat our society is becoming increasinglydehumanized as the market is flooded withcomputers and computer-controlled systems.

The communication revolution has alsogiven birth to a global social class. In thepast, distinctions between social groups weretypically influenced by economic, political,and educational factors. These same forcesare present, but our information society maymake these distinctions even more pronou-nced.This is especially true if you do not haveinformation- and computer-managementskills.

Look at the world around you. Banks are shifting to computer-based teller sys-tems, and communications lines are the keysto information pools. But unless you know

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Figure 1.2Software and hardwaredevelopments provide uswith new tools tomanipulate audio andvideo information.(Courtesy of SonicFoundry; Sound ForgeStudio.)


political, or educational resources to partic-ipate in the information age, may be simi-larly affected on a broader scale.

This situation presents us with a paradox:More people have access to informationthan at any other time in human history, yetentire slices of our society may not be ableto partake of this information bonanza as weaccelerate toward a world in which infor-mation is a lifeline.

Yet the communication revolution doeshave numerous positive implications. Thesame computer systems that some peoplefear can improve medical treatment throughenhanced imaging techniques. Other com-puter systems help individuals with physicalhandicaps to better communicate with theworld around them. It can also be arguedthat more people have greater access to in-formation today than ever before, despite itsunequal distribution.

The new technologies also have societalimplications. While one of the book’s focalpoints is technology’s applications, the otheris the communication revolution’s fallouts,ranging from ethical to legal to political considerations.These considerations play keyroles in defining our information society.The next section serves as an introduction tosome of these topics, which are discussed atgreater length in subsequent chapters.

Other Factors

Convergence of Technologies. The commu-nication revolution accelerated the conver-gence of technologies and applications. Asdescribed in Chapter 11, powerful PCs,when combined with appropriate hardwareand software,have created integrated desktopvideo systems.These tools allow us to createvideo productions. By combining this capa-bility with desktop publishing and otherapplications,we are able to be more than justmedia consumers. We also become produ-cers and editors.

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Figure 1.3This drawing highlights the interrelationships between photonics technology and itsvarious fields. As stated in the caption, “photonics—the technology of generatingand harnessing light and other forms of radiant energy whose quantum unit is thephoton.The range of applications of photonics extends from energy generation tocommunications and information processing,” some applications of which will becovered in the book. (Courtesy of Photonic Spectra; Diane L. Morgenstein inPhotonics Spectra.)

how to tap these resources, you may join the ranks of the “information poor” and lack the skills necessary to compete for jobsthat require computer proficiency. Entirenations, which may not have the economic,


This newfound capability also has aes-thetic implications. Simply stated, the techni-cal capacity to create a project does not supplantunderlying aesthetic principles.

The Democratization of Information. Thecommunication revolution has also pro-moted the free flow of information.You canuse a desktop publishing system to print anewsletter, and, when combined with otherequipment, to keep the world communityapprised of fast-breaking political events.

This concept has also been extended toother media. As outlined in Chapter 17, anelectronic democracy can be supported byholding electronic meetings between groupsof people thousands of miles apart. A keyelement in this process is providing broad,affordable access to the system.

Economic Implications. The communica-tion revolution has economic implicationsand can affect entire industries. In theUnited States, one issue is concerned with“spectrum allocations.”We use the spectrumas a means to relay information. In oursociety, this capability also has an economicfallout.

Intellectual Property. The new communi-cations technologies raise intellectual propertyquestions as well, which are essentially the“rights of artists, authors, composers anddesigners of creative works.”2 These ques-tions include the electronic copying ofanother’s works as well as copyright andpatent issues.

A related factor is the malleability of information. In our current system, infor-mation can be readily manipulated. While this capability can be used for creative purposes, it also highlights a problem: thesame family of tools that can create a graphicor other product can be used to copy it ille-gally. Because computers and other suchtools are ubiquitous, it’s also impossible and,

in most cases, undesirable to monitor theiruse. For example, such monitoring couldlead to censorship. Copyright laws addressthese issues, and violators can be prosecuted.The difficulty, however, may lie in enforcingthe laws.

There’s also a problem with recognizingintellectual property as actual property. Tomany people, intellectual property is intan-gible. You could spend a year creating acomputer program that fits on a CD. On the surface, it may not look like much,just a single disk you can hold in your hand. But in reality, it may represent the“product of the creative intellect”—that is,intellectual property, another form or typeof property.3

First Amendment Issues. The new com-munications technologies have also raisedFirst Amendment questions that are coveredin different chapters. The following are anumber of such questions:

• Should an electronic information servicebe treated as a publisher or a distributor?

• What legal measures can help ensure that First Amendment rights are sup-ported and nurtured?

• How do you reconcile First Amendmentrights with potential censorship?

• Has global censorship become moreprevalent?

Privacy. As our communications systemsbecome more sophisticated, so too does thepotential to invade our privacy, as covered inthe next section of this chapter. Other facetsof this topic are subsequently explored inlater chapters.

Other Issues. Our information societywill also be influenced by other factors.Willteleconferencing and telecommuting reducehuman communication to a machine-do-minated format? Do computers dehuman-

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ize the creative process? Or do they extendour creative capabilities by helping us totransform an idea or vision into an actualproduct?

SYSTEMS APPROACH:ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSE AND BIOMETRICS

To wrap up this chapter, it’s important todiscuss one technique the book uses to ex-plore the communication revolution: a sys-tems approach.4 Although you can examineindividual applications and implications, youshould also explore related areas to gaugeinterrelationships and their impact on theoverall communications system. Withoutthis broad perspective, you may be lookingat an incomplete picture. Two examplesillustrate this point.

Electromagnetic PulseOur society’s vulnerability to world eventshighlights the importance of a systemsapproach. It also points out the interdepen-dence between technology and our infor-mation society. In brief, our information and communications infrastructure could becrippled and silenced by a single high-altitude nuclear explosion.5 This paralysiswould be caused by a powerful electromag-netic pulse (EMP), a by-product of a nuclear detonation.

Scientists have observed this phenome-non during weapons tests. They have sub-sequently used simulations to gauge the vulnerability of electronic components, equ-ipment, and systems that could be affectedby such a pulse, with the goal of developingprotection mechanisms.

A step in this process was the FederalEmergency Management Agency’s(FEMA’s) program to protect radio stations

in the Emergency Broadcast System (EBS)and other communications centers. Theo-retically, if a nuclear burst ever paralyzed ourcommunication capabilities, the protectedEBS stations would be activated to supple-ment the damaged channels. A potentialproblem, however, is the receiving device.Topick up a broadcast, you may have to relyon a portable, battery-operated radio, whichis one of the few modern electronic devicesthat may not be “readily damaged” by the EMP.6 But many modern radios areactually part of a stereo system, which mayitself be damaged. If not, there is a goodchance the power plant that supplies theelectricity to run the stereo would not function.

Thus, as a society that depends on and isdriven by information, the very tools we useto create, manipulate, and deliver this infor-mation would be disrupted, if not renderedinoperable, by a nuclear explosion.The issueis multifaceted, and a broad systems per-spective enables us to examine it from dif-ferent angles. We can also cover the keyimplications both inside and outside thecommunications field.

In keeping with this approach, it’s alsoironic to note that vacuum tubes are rela-tively impervious to EMP effects. But in ourcontemporary communications system, suchtubes have been universally replaced by solidstate chips, one of an EMP’s favorite snacks.Thus, as our communications system wasmodernized, it was also made more vulner-able to world events and, potentially, torandom acts of terrorism.

Biometric Systems

Biometrics, by their nature, are generally inconsistentwith anonymity.Yet the starting point for privacy is theability of citizens to go about their business freely andunobserved.

—Malcolm Crompton, Australia’s thirdFederal Privacy Commissioner7

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The importance of adopting a systemsapproach is also illustrated by biometrics.Biometrics can be defined as the “automaticidentification of an individual based on[his/her] physiological . . . traits.”8 Examplesof biometric systems include fingerprintidentification and voice recognition systems.Some biometric systems compare and sub-sequently match the unique characteristicsof a person’s eyes to stored information.

One goal of biometric systems is to verifya person’s identity without using passwords.In another application, law enforcementagencies have employed biometric technol-ogy in an attempt to identify criminals oncity streets, in airports, and in other locales.In the wake of the World Trade Centerattacks, the widespread adoption of suchsecurity and identification measures hasbeen offered as a partial solution to thisproblem.

We have actually seen biometric systemsin use for years in the movies. Often, a char-acter places his or her hand on a sensor nextto a locked door.The sensor then scans thehand for specific characteristics and opensthe door upon identification.

However, biometric systems didn’t entermainstream society until the late 1990s andearly 2000s. A common example is a smallunit that scan fingerprints and compare the data against stored information.Targus, acompany that specializes in computer acces-sories, recently introduced such a unit forunder $125 for portable and desktop com-puter systems.With this device, you can limitother users’ access to your computer, muchlike you would use a password to restrictaccess.

The field of biometric technology callsinto focus the collision between technolog-ical developments and their societal impli-cations.As such, it should be explored from a broad perspective to accurately gauge itscurrent and potential impact. Thus from asystems perspective, biometric technology

carries with it a broad range of technical,legal, and ethical implications.

Technological Implications. Electronic bio-metric systems employ various technologiesand tools. For example, facial recognitionsystems involve “the use of a highly au-tomated computerized process to measureangles and distances between geometricpoints on the face—eye corners, the nostrils,the ends of the mouth—to identify an individual.”9 A typical system is composedof a camera that is linked to a computersystem running specialized software. Aphoto taken with the camera is processed sothat it is compatible with the computer.Next, the computer’s software controls theidentification process to determine whetherthe photo matches the individual’s photostored in the computer’s database.

Some organizations and critics have ques-tioned the technological accuracy of thesesystems. The American Civil LibertiesUnion (ACLU), for one, contends that suchsystems may be inaccurate. In one trial usein Tampa,Florida, a facial recognition systemwas set up to help police at a specific locale.However, during this trial run, the systemproduced a number of false matches (that is,individuals were not properly identified).10

In essence, while this type of system maywork well in a controlled environment, itmay not work as well in the real world.Lighting conditions may not be optimal or

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Figure 1.4Biometric SystemOperation.This diagramhighlights, in asimplified form, abiometric system’soperational steps.


the angle in which a given individual is “shot” may make proper identification difficult.

Other critics have questioned whatwould happen if the information in thedatabase is compromised or inaccurate.11 Ifsuch stored information is compromised, itwould be analogous to an individual steal-ing your password to gain access to yourcomputer. Once a password is compro-mised, the door to your private informationis unlocked. Likewise, biometric systems aredependent on the quality of the stored data.Information may be inaccurately keyed, or,from a technological standpoint, it may havedefects (such as a poor-quality photo of asuspected criminal stored in a database).

Legal Implications. Such technologicaldevelopments produce legal implications,such as privacy concerns.While a biometricsystem may help identify criminals, what is the cost in regard to privacy? Is the technology too invasive? Or does it have alegitimate law enforcement role if usedappropriately? Such systems pose importantFourth Amendment implications.12

Ethical and Political Implications. Bio-metric technology raises an ethical, and,by extension, a political question. Since bio-metric systems can be used for identificationpurposes, the data they generate can trackan individual’s movements from place toplace over time.According to the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), this has seriousimplications since a “society in which every-one’s actions are tracked is not, in prin-ciple, free. It may be a livable society, but would not be our society [current U.S.society].”13

Broader Implications. From a system’s perspective, biometric systems should alsobe viewed as components of broader

information-based initiatives that raise addi-tional questions. In a position paper aboutTotal Information Awareness (TIA), a govern-ment-sponsored program that would pur-portedly compile volumes of personal, me-dical, and, potentially, biometric informationabout U.S. citizens, the ACLU states:

Virtual dragnet programs like TIA . . . are basedon the premise that the best way to protectAmerica against terrorism is for the governmentto collect as much information as it can abouteveryone.14

According to the ACLU, these informa-tion pools would have a detrimental effecton privacy and could be used for moni-toring our buying habits and for other commercial enterprises.The ACLU says thiswould “represent a radical departure fromthe centuries-old Anglo-American traditionthat the police conduct surveillance onlywhere there is evidence of involvement inwrongdoing.”15 By weighing this factor withother surveillance capabilities, some criticsbelieve Orwell’s notion of “Big Brother”may become a reality.

It is also important to note this issue is somewhat fluid. For example, SenatorRussell Feingold introduced legislation (theData-Mining Moratorium Act of 2003) to“immediately suspend data-mining in theDepartment of Defense and the Departmentof Homeland Security until Congress hasconducted a thorough review of Total Infor-mation Awareness and the practice of data-mining.”16 Data mining, in this context,refers to a comprehensive computer searchfor a particular commodity. In this case, thatcommodity is information itself.

Much like the ACLU and EFF’s view-point the concern was over privacy andother matters.The Act did, however, recog-nize technology’s role in combating poten-tial terrorist activities. The key question was how broadly this tool would be used

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without the appropriate constraints and, ulti-mately, Congressional oversight and review.

Supporters and an Update. While the TIAprogram has critics, others believe it andrelated programs do not put our personalprivacy at risk. Such supporters contend thatprivacy measures were integrated in the TIAwhen it was created. According to onereport, the TIA will keep “the protection ofcivil liberties at its forefront while providinga valuable tool for investigating suspectedterrorists and improving communication.”17

The TIA program was also renamed theTerrorism Information Awareness program.Supporters believe this name more accu-rately reflects the program’s original intent:to participate in antiterrorism activitiesrather than collecting information aboutordinary U.S. citizens.18 Thus, from a pro-ponent’s perspective, such new technologiesand their applications actually protect andenhance our “open society” as well as ourfreedom.

However, despite assurances from TIAsupporters, the U.S. House and Senate votedto impose operational limitations and to eliminate funding for the TIA program,respectively.While a joint conference sessionwill make the final determination, privacyissues and the government’s slow response tosuch concerns helped trigger this reaction.19

Summary. Biometric technology has nu-merous applications and implications. Muchlike the EMP, we must explore the topicfrom a broad systems perspective to fullyunderstand its applications and societal im-pacts. If we only examine one facet of thefield, such as its technological developments,we ignore other key issues.

A systems approach can also help generate aninformation pool so we can ask pertinent ques-tions about technologically driven issues. In the

case of the TIA and similar initiatives, thesequestions include:

• Where do you draw the line betweenprotecting an individual’s rights and en-suring that a law enforcement agency canconduct its work effectively?

• How do you strike a balance between aprogram’s accountability and the need forflexibility in a rapidly changing worldorder?

• How do you prevent the misuse of col-lected data?

• Are there safeguards to correct errors(such as innaccurate data)?

• Can the same technology base that en-hances our lives provide a governmentwith unprecedented power and tools todelve into our private lives?

These and other similar questions are diffi-cult to answer. Nevertheless, they are ques-tions that are relevant to any free society.

CONCLUSION

This chapter has served as an introductionto the new technologies universe and someof the implication raised by the communi-cation revolution. The next chapters focuson more specific topics and will follow a preset pattern. When relevant, we willdiscuss the technical underpinnings of agiven technology,which will help us exploreand understand its applications.This knowl-edge may also prove valuable when decid-ing whether a technology could be used fora specific application and, possibly, for devel-oping applications that are as yet undiscov-ered.We will then examine the implicationsraised by the technology and its applications.

Finally, it is important to repeat a point raisedin the Preface: While new products may beintroduced and new implications may sur-

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face, fundamental principles may remain thesame.The same scenario can play out in thesocial, political, and legal fields. For example,the TIA may not be an issue five years fromnow. Nevertheless, the underlying forcesthat drove the program’s design as well asproponents’ and opponents’ arguments mayremain. Thus, if you understand these con-cepts now, you may be able to work withtheir implications well into the future,regardless of the program’s name.

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Figure 1.5A computer-generatedimage of Mount St.Helens.You can usecomputers to createrealistic and surrealisticviews of the earth andother worlds. (Softwarecourtesy of VirtualReality Laboratories;Vista Pro.)

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Frederick Williams, The New Communica-tions. (Belmont, CA:Wadsworth Publishing Co.,1984), 9.

2. Westlaw, Intellectual Property Database,downloaded.

3. “Patents:Protecting Intellectual Property,”OE Reports 95 (November 1991), 1.

4. For more information, see Ervin Laszlo,The Systems View of the World. (New York:George Braziller, Inc., 1972).

5. A single nuclear explosion could theoret-ically blanket the United States and parts ofCanada and Mexico. It could disrupt the countries’ communications infrastructure evenif the weapon did not cause any direct damage.

6. Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, TheEffects of Nuclear Weapons. (Washington,DC:U.S.Government Printing Office 1977), 521.

7. Malcolm Crompton, Australia’s ThirdFederal Privacy Commissioner,“Biometrics andPrivacy:The End of the World as We Know Itor the White Knight of Privacy?,” downloadedfrom http://www.biometricsinstitute.org/bi/cro mptonspeech1.htm.

8. Anil K. Jain et al.,“Biometrics: PromisingFrontiers for Emerging Identification Market,”Computer 33 (February 2000), downloaded.

9. Roberto Iraola, “Dedication to the SmallTown Attorney: New Detection Technologiesand the Fourth Amendment,” South Dakota LawReview, 47 D.D.L. Rev. 8, downloaded fromLEXIS.

10. American Civil Liberties Union,“Drawing a Blank: Tampa Police RecordsReveal Poor Performance of Face-RecognitionTechnology,” Press Release, January 3, 2002,downloaded from www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=10210&c=39&Type = s.

11. Mandy Andress, “Biometrics at Work?”InfoWorld 22 (May 28, 2001), 75.

12. Please see Roberto Iraola, “Dedicationto the Small Town Attorney: New DetectionTechnologies,” for an in-depth discussion aboutFourth Amendment Implications for a varietyof identifications systems, including those thattap biometric technology.The Fourth Amend-ment itself is more fully defined in this book’se-mail chapter, Chapter 18.


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13. See Electronic Frontier Foundation,“Biometrics Who’s Watching You?,” down-loaded from www.eff.org/Privacy/Surveil-lance/biometrics.html. Basically, how muchsurveillance is too much surveillance?

14. American Civil Liberties Union, “Q&Aon the Pentagon’s ‘Total Information Awareness’Program,” downloaded from www/aclu.org/Privacy/Privacylist.cfm?c=130.

15. Ibid.16. Congressional Record, “Statements in

Introduced Bills and Joint Resolutions,” January16, 2003 (Senate), pp. A1071–S1085, down-loaded from www.eff.org/Privacy/TIA/feingold-s188.php.

17. Michael Scardaville, “No OrwellianScheme Behind DARPA’s Total InformationAwareness System,”WebMemo #175, Novem-ber 20, 2002, downloaded from www.heritage.org/Research/Homeland/Defense/wm175.cfm.

18. “Executive Summary: EFF Review ofMay 20 Report on Total Information Aware-ness,” downloaded from www.eff.org/Privacy/TIA/20030523_tia_report_review.php.

19. Dan Verton,“Senate Votes to Kill Antiter-ror Data Mining Program,” Computerworld ( July18, 2003), downloaded from www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/privacy/story/0,10801,83205,00.html?nas=AM-83205.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Balaban, Dan.“Should Smart Cards Carry TheirOwn Biometric Sensors?” Card Technology(November 2001), 24–28; Paul Festa. “AllEyes on Face Recognition.” (March 26,2003), downloaded from http://zdnet.com.com/2100-1105-99111.html; J.R. Wilson“Airport Security Designs Revolve AroundBiometrics.” Military & Aerospace Electronics 13(September 2002), 15–23.These publicationsexamine biometric systems and their applica-tions. A smart card is a credit-card–sizedinformation system that may include personaland financial data as well as a built-in finger-print biometric sensor.You insert the card ina reader, touch the sensor with your finger,and are subsequently identified via a storedprint.

Carter, A.H., and members of the ElectricalProtection Department. EMP Engineering andDesign Principles. Whippany, NJ: Bell Tele-phone Laboratories, Inc., Technical Publica-tion Department, 1984; John R. Pierce,Chairman, Committee on ElectromagneticPulse Environment; Energy EngineeringBoard; Committee on Engineering and Technical Systems; National ResearchCouncil. Evaluation of Methodologies for Estimating Vulnerability to Electromagnetic PulseEffects. Washington, DC: National Academy

Press, 1984. These publications examine different elements of the EMP issue.The firstprovides a good overview of the creation andtechnical implications of an EMP as well asdifferent equipment and protection schemes.The second covers a wide range of subjects,including the role of statistics in trying topredict potential equipment and system failures.

Inglis, Andrew F. Behind the Tube. Boston: FocalPress, 1990; National Telecommunicationsand Information Administration. Telecommu-nications in the Age of Information. NTIASpecial Publication 91–26, October 1991;John V. Pavlik. New Media Technology. Boston:Allyn and Bacon. 1996; Lenore Tracey.“A Brief History of the CommunicationsIndustry.” Telecommunications 31 (June 1997),25–36. These publications provide excellentcoverage of the communications industry andvarious issues.

Mazor,Barry,“Imaging for Biometrics Security:The Impact of the Privacy Issue.” AdvancedImaging 17 (August 2002), 10–11. A round-table discussion of industry experts about theprivacy issues raised by biometric systems.See the ACLU and EFF web sites(www.aclu.org and www.eff.org) for addi-tional information about biometric systems


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and their legal implications. Also see www.heritage.org for what may be, at times,oppos-ing viewpoints.

Rogers, Everett M. Communications Technology.New York:The Free Press, 1986.An excellentreference and resource, this book examinesthe history of communications science, thesocial impacts of communications technolo-gies, and research methods for studying thetechnologies.

Shannon, Claude, and Warren Weaver. The Mathematical Theory of Communication.Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949.

The book about information theory. Also see Ramachandran Bharath. “InformationTheory,”Byte 12 (December 1987), 291–298,for a discussion of the information theory;and Edward Tufte. Envisioning Information.Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, for an indepthexamination of the visual representation ofinformation.

Telecommunications Act of 1996, 104th Con-gress, 2nd session, January 3, 1996.

Vonder Haar, Steven.“Censorship Wave Spread-ing Globally,” Inter@ctive Week 3 (February12, 1996): 6.

GLOSSARY

Biometrics: The automatic identification of anindividual based on physiological traits orcharacteristics, including fingerprints.

Communications System: The means by whichinformation, coded in signal form, can beexchanged. In the context of this book, thecommunications system also encompasses thecommunications tools we use, their applica-tions, and the various implications that arisefrom the production, manipulation, andpotential exchange of information.

Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP): A by-product of anuclear explosion; a brief but intense burst of

electromagnetic energy that can disrupt and destroy integrated circuits and relatedcomponents.

Information: A collection of symbols that, whencombined, communicates a message or intelligence.

Information Society: A society driven by the pro-duction,manipulation, and exchange of infor-mation.Information can be viewed as a social,economic, and political force.

Intellectual Property: The rights of artists, au-thors, and designers of creative works; theproducts of the creative intellect.

This chapter introduces the technical elements that are the foundation of ourmodern communications system. It is also acontinuation of Chapter 1, but concentratesmore on technical information and digitalcommunication.

The chapter concludes with a discussionof the importance of technical standards.Standards can promote the growth of acommunications technology and industry.If standards are not adopted, the industry’sgrowth could be hampered.

BASIC CONCEPTS

The TransducerA transducer is a device that converts oneform of energy into another form of energy.When you talk into a microphone, it con-verts your voice—sound or acoustical energy—into electrical energy, or in more familiarterms, an electrical signal. A speaker, also atransducer, can convert this signal back intoyour voice.

The “spoken words,” the sound waves, canalso be considered a natural form of in-formation, information that our senses can“perceive.”1

A transducer can convert this category of natural information, among others, intoan electrical representation. The transducer

acts as a link between our communicationssystem and the natural world.

Certain transducers can also be consid-ered extensions of our physical senses.They can convert what we say, hear, or see (forexample, a camera) into signals that can beprocessed, stored, and transmitted.2

The Characteristics of a SignalIf a microphone’s operation were visible,we would see what appears to be a series ofwaves traveling through the connecting line.The waves, the electrical representation ofyour voice, have distinct characteristics.Two that are pertinent to our discussion areamplitude and frequency.

The amplitude is a wave’s height, and in our example corresponds to the signal’sstrength or the volume of your voice. Thefrequency, the pitch of the voice, can bedefined as the number of waves that pass apoint in 1 second. If a single wave passes thepoint, the signal is said to have a frequencyof 1 cycle per second (cps). If a thousandwaves pass the same point, the signal’s frequency is 1000cps.

The frequency, the cps, is usually expressedin hertz (Hz), after Heinrich Hertz, one ofthe pioneers whose work made it possiblefor us to use the electromagnetic spectrum,a keystone of our communications system.Hence, a frequency of 10cps is written as

2 Technical Foundationsof ModernCommunication

15


10Hz. Higher frequencies are expressed inkilohertz (kHz) for every thousand cyclesper second, megahertz (MHz) for everymillion cycles per second, and Gigahertz(GHz) for every billion cycles per second.

Modulation, Bandwidth, and NoiseModulation is associated with, but notlimited to, the communications systems thatare the most familiar to us, including AMand FM radio stations. It can be defined asthe process by which information, such as aDJ’s program, is superimposed or impressedon a carrier wave for transmission.3 A phys-ical characteristic of the carrier is altered toconvey, or to act as a vehicle to carry, theinformation. Prior to this time, it did notconvey any intelligence.

After the signal is received, the originalinformation can be stripped, in a sense, fromthe carrier.We can hear the DJ over the radio.

For the purpose of our discussion, a com-munications channel’s bandwidth, its capac-ity, dictates the range of frequencies and, toall intents, the categories and volume ofinformation the channel can accommodatein a given time period.4

A relationship exists between a signal’s frequency and its information carrying cap-ability. As the frequency increases, so toodoes the capacity to carry information.Thesignal must then be relayed on a channelwide enough to accommodate the greatervolume of information. A television broad-cast signal, for example, has a higher band-width requirement than either a radio or telephone signal.5 Consequently, under nor-mal operating conditions, a standard tele-phone line cannot carry a television signal.

During the information exchange, noisemay also be introduced, potentially affectingthe transmission’s quality. If the noise is too severe, it may distort the relayed signalor render it unintelligible, and the infor-mation may not be successfully exchanged.

For example, if the snow on a televisionscreen—the noise distorting the relayedsignal—is very severe, it may become im-possible to view the picture.

Noise can be internal, introduced by thecommunications equipment itself, or exter-nal, originating from outside sources. Thenoise may be machine generated or natural.

Lightning is one such natural source.Lightning is fairly common and may bemanifested as static that disrupts a radiotransmission.The sun is another source, cre-ating interference through solar disturbancesand other phenomena. Machine-generatednoise, on the other hand, can derive fromthe electric motors in vacuum cleaners orlarge appliances.

When discussing noise relative to a com-munications system, the term signal-to-noiseratio is frequently encountered. It is a powerratio, that of the power or strength of thesignal versus the noise. For information tobe successfully relayed, the noise must notexceed a certain level. If it does, the noisewill disrupt the exchange to a degree depen-dent on its strength. It will have an impacton a communications channel’s quality andtransmission capabilities.

The Electromagnetic SpectrumThe electromagnetic spectrum is the entire col-lection of frequencies of electromagneticradiation, ranging from radio waves to Xrays to cosmic waves. Infrared and visiblelight, radio waves, and microwaves are allwell-known elements and forms of ele-ctromagnetic energy that compose the spectrum.

We tap into the spectrum with our communications devices and use the elec-tromagnetic energy as a communicationstool—a means to relay information. Forexample, radio stations employ the radio-frequency range of the spectrum to broad-cast their programming.

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Technical Foundations of Modern Communication 17

Spectrum space, allocated to televisionstations and other services, can also beviewed as a commodity in our informationsociety. It can generate income, and like oil,gas, and other valuable natural resources, isscarce. In this light, the spectrum has anintrinsic worth and monetary value.

The issue of spectrum scarcity, which hasalso been used as a basis for broadcast regu-lation, is a reflection of our communicationssystem. We cannot use all the spectrum for communications purposes, and the available portions are divided nationally andinternationally.6

New and emerging technologies areexacerbating this situation. The demand is so great that when a small portion of thespectrum opened up for mobile commu-nications services in 1991, the Federal Com-munications Commission (FCC) receivedapproximately 100,000 applications for thisspace in 3 weeks.7

Because the spectrum is such a valuableresource, government agencies called fornew spectrum management policies. Theseincluded imposing fees for spectrum usageand auctioning allocations.

Proponents initially claimed that auction-ing would generate additional revenues,and mechanisms would ensure that thepublic interest mandate, an important regu-latory ideal, would still be met.8 Opponentscountered that auctioning would conflictwith the notion that the spectrum was apublic resource. It was not private propertythat could be bought and sold.

Regardless of the viewpoint, Congressand the FCC embraced auctioning. In thelate 1990s and the early 2000s, the situationalso heated up.Traditional television alloca-tions became a prime target as high defini-tion television (HDTV) and other digitaltelevision services were slowly imple-mented. As described in a later chapter,broadcasters received new spectrum space tohost such services. After a specified time

period, broadcasters would relinquish theold allocation, valuable electronic real estatethat could be auctioned to other users.

It should also be noted that the idea ofselling spectrum space is not a new one. In1964, for instance, Ayn Rand wrote aboutthe broadcast industry that “the airwavesshould be turned over to private ownership.The only way to do it now is to sell radioand television frequencies to the highestbidders (by an objectively defined,open, im-partial process).”9 Rand, an author, philoso-pher, and advocate of capitalism, indicatedthat private rather than public ownership ofthe airwaves would have protected the elec-tronic media from government regulationand would have ensured an open, competi-tive, and free marketplace.

In another twist, some individuals called for switching services: Television should bedelivered by cable, thus freeing the spectrumfor wireless communication. This proposal,also called the Negroponte switch, afterNicholas Negroponte, the director of theMassachusetts Institute of Technology’sMedia Lab, was offered as a potential spec-trum scarcity and management solution.10

This type of switch, though, could not

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Figure 2.1ElectromagneticSpectrum. (Courtesy ofthe Earth ObservationSatellite Company,Lanham, MD.)


take place overnight. Over-the-air televisionis also “free.” Will we still receive free pro-gramming if it is relegated to a cable-baseddelivery system?

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY

Digital technology has fueled the develop-ment of new communications lines, in-formation manipulation techniques, andequipment. Preexisting communicationschannels and devices have also been affected.It is one of the communication revolution’sdriving forces.

Analog and Digital Signals: AnIntroductionMany communications devices, such as tele-phones and microphones, are analog devicesthat create and process analog signals. Asstated by Simon Haykin in his book Com-munication Systems,“Analog signals arise whena physical waveform such as an acoustic orlight wave is converted into an electricalsignal.”11

For a microphone, this signal, an electri-cal representation of your voice, is said to be continuous in amplitude and time. Theamplitude, for example, can assume an enor-mous range of variations within the com-munications system’s operational bounds.The signal is an “analogue” (analog); that is,it is representative of the original soundwaves.As the sound waves change, so too dothe signal characteristics in a correspondingfashion.

A digital signal, in contrast, is “a noncon-tinuous stream of on/off pulses. A digitalsignal represents intelligence by a code con-sisting of the sequence of discrete on or offstates . . .”12 A digital system uses a sequenceof numbers to represent information and,unlike an analog signal, a digital signal isnoncontinuous.

Digital and analog signals, and ultimatelyequipment and systems, are generally notmutually compatible.This mandates the useof analog-to-digital and digital-to-analogconversion processes.They help us to use amixed bag of analog and digital equipmentin the overall communications system.Thiscapability is crucial. Digital information hascertain advantages, and the conversion pro-cesses allow us to tap these advantages evenwhen using a microphone or other analogdevices.13

Different elements of our communica-tions structure are also somewhat based onan analog standard. The conversions allow us to integrate digital technology in thissystem.

Finally, different categories of informa-tion can be represented and consequentlytransmitted over the appropriate channels, inboth analog and digital forms. An analogaudio signal, for instance, can be convertedinto a digital representation and subse-quently relayed.

Analog-to-Digital ConversionIn an analog-to-digital conversion, the analogsignal is converted into a digital signal.Binary language is the heart of digital com-munication. It uses two numbers, 1 and 0,arranged in different codes, to exchangeinformation.

The 1s and 0s are also called bits, from thewords binary digits, and they represent thesmallest pieces of information in a digitalsystem. They are also the basic buildingblocks for a widely used digital informationsystem, pulse code modulation (PCM). Asimplified description follows.

Pulse code modulation is a codingmethod by which an analog signal can beconverted into a digital representation,a digital signal.14 PCM information consistsof two states, either the presence or the

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absence of a pulse, which can also be ex-pressed as “on” or 1 and “off ” or 0.

When the analog signal is actually digi-tized, it is sampled at specific time intervals.Rather than converting the entire analogsignal into a digital format, it is sampled orsegmented, and only specific parts of thesignal are examined and converted. Enoughsamples are taken, however, to obtain a suf-ficiently accurate representation of the orig-inal signal.

The samples are then compared to, forillustrative purposes, a preset scale composedof a finite number of steps.The steps repre-sent different values or amplitudes the orig-inal analog signal could assume.15 A sampleis assigned, in a sense, to the step thatmatches or is closest to its amplitude. Each

step, in turn, corresponds to a unique wordcomposed of binary digits (for example, 11or 01).

A sample is then coded and representedby the appropriate word. The word can berelayed as on and off pulses, and when theinformation reaches the end of the line, thereceiver detects it. Ultimately, a value corre-sponding to the original analog signal at thesampling point has been transmitted sincethe word represents a known quantity. (Note:For more specific details, see the books andarticles at the end of this chapter.)16

Morse code functions in a similar fashion.Information, a message, is coded as a series ofdots and dashes. Following its relay, an oper-ator can reconstruct the original messagesince the code represents a known value.

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Figure 2.2A PCM operation.Thediagram has beensimplified for illustrationpurposes.The twosampling points havebeen indicated bysamples 1 and 2 (A).Sample 1 is 2.8 voltsand is assigned to thenearest step, 3 volts.Sample 2, 1.1 volts, isassigned to the neareststep, 1 volt. Based onthe chart (B), thesamples are coded as1–1 and 0–1,respectively.The result isthe PCM signal (C).


Sampling and Frequency. The samplingrate, which is the number of times theanalog signal is sampled per second, is cen-tral to the reproduction process.The primarygoal of sampling is to reflect accurately theoriginal signal through a finite number ofindividual samples.

A survey conducted to predict the out-come of a presidential election can serve asan analogy. A sample of individual votersrepresents the voting population just like thesamples of the analog signal represent theoriginal signal.

The sampling rate is based on a signal’shighest frequency in a given communica-tions system. If a signal is sampled at a ratethat is at least twice its highest frequency,the analog signal could be accurately repre-sented.This is called the Nyquist rate.

For a standard telephone line, the com-munications channel carries only frequen-cies below 4kHz, and the sampling rate is8000 samples per second. Enough samplesare generated to reproduce the analog signaland a person’s voice. Note that higher sam-pling rates can also be employed.

Steps. In many communications systems,when the analog signal is digitized, it is gen-erally coded as either 7- or 8-bit words. Arelationship exists between the number ofbits in a word and the number of steps: Asbits are added, the number of steps that canrepresent the analog signal increases in kind.

With an 8-bit-per-word code, essentially256 levels of the signal’s strength can be rep-

resented.Derived from the binary system, an8-bit code is the equivalent of two to theeighth power (2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2 ¥2). A different combination of eight 1’sand/or 0’s represents each step.

An increase in the number of steps canlead to a more precise representation of the original signal. Certain communica-tions systems and data also require a largenumber of steps, and consequently levels,for an accurate representation. Neverthe-less, they’re limited in comparison with therange an analog signal could assume.

Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-AnalogConverters. For the purpose of our dis-cussion, the analog signal is converted intoa digital format by an analog-to-digital con-verter (ADC). Once the coded informationis relayed, it can be reconverted into theoriginal analog signal by a digital-to-analogconverter (DAC) to make the signal com-patible, once again, with analog equipmentand systems.ADCs and DACs act as bridgesbetween the analog and digital worlds.

The Transmission. After the analog signalis sampled and coded, the final transmissioncan be composed of millions of bits. In one format, the telephone industry has em-ployed an 8 bit-per-word code when theanalog signal is digitized, and a telephonecon-versation can be transmitted at the rateof 64,000 bits per second (64 kilobits/second). Other digitized analog signals sim-ilarly generate high bit rates.

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ADC DAC

Figure 2.3An ADC and DACoperation. An analogsignal is converted into adigital domain via theADC, and back intoanalog, with the DAC.


This high volume of information poses aproblem for some communications systems.They may not have the capacity to transmitthe information, and special lines are used.One such line is the T1 carrier. It can trans-mit 24 digitally coded telephone channels at a rate of 1.544 million bits per second(1.544 megabits/second).This data stream isalso composed of bits that ensure the data’sintegrity and satisfy other technical andoperational parameters.

The T1 line is one of the workhorsechannels of the communications industry,and transmissions take place both inside andoutside of the telephone system. It is also aflexible standard and can integrate voice anddata so one communications channel cancarry different types of information. It canalso accommodate video.17

ADVANTAGES OF A DIGITALCOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Digital communications equipment andsystems have numerous advantages. Thesefeatures have and will continue to providethe impetus for their continued use andgrowth.

Computer CompatibilityOnce digitized, a signal can be processed bya computer. The capability to manipulatedigitally coded information, such as a videocamera’s pictures, is central to the video production industry and other industries.

For a camera, the video signal, an electri-cal representation of the light and dark variations, the brightness levels of the scenethe camera is shooting, is converted into adigital form.The digital information repre-sents picture elements (pixels); a number ofsmall points or dots that actually make upthe picture.18 In a black-and-white system,a pixel assumes a specific level or shade of

the gray scale.The gray scale refers to a seriesor range of gray shades and to the colorsblack and white, all of which compose andreproduce the scene. A pixel is representedby a binary word that is equivalent to a levelof this scale.19

The actual number of gray levels is deter-mined by the number of bits assigned to aword. If too few bits are used, only a limitednumber of gray shades will be supported,and the image may not be accurately reproduced.

Once the picture has been digitized, itcan be computer manipulated. A specialeffect can be created, or in a science disci-pline, picture qualities and defects can beenhanced and corrected—an unfocusedpicture can be sharpened.

Information in digital form also lendsitself to mass storage, and the informationcan be duplicated, as is the case with videocopies, without generation loss. Both topicsare covered in later chapters.

MultiplexingDigital and analog signals can be multi-plexed; that is,multiple signals can be relayedon a single communications line.The signalsshare the line and, thus, fewer lines have tobe constructed and maintained.

Two advantages offered by multiplexingare its cost and labor-saving properties. Infrequency-division multiplexing (FDM), a

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Figure 2.4The visual effect ofreducing the number ofgray levels in an image.


communications line is divided into separateand smaller channels, each with its ownunique frequency. For a telephone system,the various signals are assigned to these sepa-rate channels, processed, and relayed.

In time-division multiplexing (TDM),time, not frequency assignments, separatesthe different signals. A TDM scheme canmake for a very effective relay when con-ducted in the digital domain.An example isthe T1 line as employed by the telephoneindustry.

The T1 system is digital in form, but the typical telephone receiver and parts ofthe local telephone system work with analoginformation.This requires the analog signalto be digitized. Briefly, groups of signals, thedifferent conversations, are divided intosmaller pieces for transmission. Each signalis relayed a piece at a time, in specific timeslots.20 This digital multiplexing system isfast, efficient, and clean, with regard to thesignal’s quality. It can also be controlled andmonitored by computers with all the at-tending advantages—computer accuracy andspeed.

Integrity of the Data WhenTransmittedA relay may necessitate the use of a re-peater(s), which with an analog signal,strengthens or amplifies the signal as ittravels along the transmission path. But the

signal may be “. . . degraded in this processbecause of the ever-present noise . . .”21

Noise can also accumulate, and the signal’squality can progressively deteriorate.

Digital systems are not similarly affected.Instead of boosting a signal, the pulses are regenerated. New pulses are created andrelayed at each repeater site. This processmakes a digital transmission much hardier.Adigital transmission is also less susceptible tonoise and interference in general, furthercontributing to its superior transmissioncapabilities.

This factor led to the adoption of a digitalrelay by the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA) during the 1964Mariner 4 mission to Mars. Mariner 4 pro-vided us with the first close-up views of theplanet, and the digital relay helped preservethe information’s integrity as it traveledthrough millions of miles of space.22

Flexibility of Digital CommunicationsSystemsDigital systems are flexible communicationschannels that can carry information rangingfrom computer data to digitized audio andvideo. In an all-digital environment, analogsignals, such as those produced by tele-phones, would be digitized, whereas com-puter data, already in digital form, would beaccommodated without this type of pro-cessing. A digital configuration would alsoeliminate the use of a conventional modem,even though a special adapter may be re-quired to connect a computer, for example,to the line.

The modem, an acronym of the wordsmodulator and demodulator, is used to relaycomputer data over a standard telephoneline. It converts a computer’s informationinto a form that complies with the techni-cal characteristics of the line. At the otherend, the information is reconverted by asecond modem.

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Figure 2.5The Mariner 4 spaceprobe. As described inthe text, Mariner 4helped pioneer theexploration of Mars.(Courtesy of theNational Space ScienceData Center—NSSDC.)


In the early 1980s, typical consumer andbusiness data relays were conducted at 300-to 1200-bits-per-second speeds.Contempo-rary relays greatly exceed this figure andequate to more efficient and cost-effectiveoperations.23 Nevertheless, modem-basedrelays are limited, and users want to gainaccess to more information in shorter timeperiods. The changing nature of the infor-mation itself is accelerating this process.Earlier relays were generally text-based.Yousat in front of a monitor, typed a command,and depending on the relay’s speed, watchedthe requested information slowly fill thescreen.

This text-dominated stream has evolved.It is now composed of text, audio and videoclips, graphics, animations, and other datatypes. More pointedly, this new informationrequires higher capacity and faster commu-nications channels—broadband communica-tions systems or highways—that support the high-speed delivery of information andentertainment services to consumers andbusinesses.

One goal is to break through bottleneckscaused by

• slower communications channels,• the ever increasing data load, and• data intensive media types (e.g., video).

A complementary goal has been to developcost-effective communications systems thatare flexible, can integrate different informa-tion on a single line, and are easier to set-upand use.

An example of an earlier platform ornetwork, which taps the telephone infra-structure and satisfies certain of these crite-ria, is the Integrated Services DigitalNetwork (ISDN). The ISDN “can bethought of as a huge information pipe,capable of providing all forms of communi-cations and information (voice, data, image,signaling). . . . It is an information utility

accessible from a wall outlet . . . with avariety of devices able to be simply pluggedand unplugged.24

As envisioned, pictures, computer graph-ics, and data would be exchanged with thesame regularity and ease with which a tele-phone is used for conversations. The com-munication process would also be moretransparent. Just like a car or telephone istypically used without thinking about theunderlying technologies, a range of infor-mation would be easily relayed withoutcalling in a computer or communicationsexpert.

While the idea is good, ISDN technologywas not universally embraced.The problemsranged from standards and pricing issues toavailability.

But the rapid growth of the Internet,covered in a later chapter, helped fuel thedevelopment of more consumer/generalbusiness-oriented systems, which generallyembody these goals. In one example, cablecompanies developed a cable-based deliverysystem, where a computer taps the Internetthrough a cable link and a cable modem.Telephone companies, for their part, intro-duced Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) sys-tems by using “existing telephone lines todeliver Net [Internet] data at speeds up to50 times faster than a 28.8 Kbps modem.”25

Different DSL flavors exist, but the upshotis that we can now relay and receive infor-mation at faster rates over our telephonelines.26 The satellite industry is also a playerin this field.With the proper configuration,you can gain access to the Internet througha satellite relay, even though the telephoneline may be used for the information requestin one configuration.

While a given application may still not befully transparent, in regard to its implemen-tation, DSL and cable-based systems are the high-speed Internet/information deliv-ery vehicles of choice for general consumerand business use. In many instances, they can

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also be “plug and play” processes—you at-tach or plug the device in, and you may beable to use the application with a minimumof fuss.27

It is also important to note two otherdevelopments:

1. ISDN applications are still widely used in the business world to support variousapplications.28 However, the originaldream of creating a flexible informationpipeline is actually more apropos to theInternet and its complementary commu-nications systems.

2. We still use conventional modems. Theyare valuable tools, particularly if you don’thave access to a high-speed link or if youare travelling and have to contact yourhome or office. Geographical restric-tions (distance) also play a role in this sit-uation, and it may not be possible toestablish a link between a customer and atelephone company’s central office forDSL or other telephone-based services. Inthe case of a cable operation, a high-speedlink may not be supported, or if you livein a rural area, you may not have accessto cable. High-speed links are also moreexpensive than conventional modem-based operations.

Finally, the modernization of a nation’stelecommunication infrastructure is crucial.As stated, information is a commodity.Thecountry that can create an efficient nationaland international information platform willhave a decided advantage when competingin the world market.

Cost EffectivenessAs digital equipment is mass produced and manufacturing costs are reduced, digitalsystems become increasingly cost efficient to build and maintain.They’re also generallymore stable and require less maintenancethan comparable analog configurations.

This superior stability and durability ispartly due to the integrated circuit (IC).AnIC is a semiconductor, a solid-state devicethat is one of the driving forces behind ourinformation and communications systems.In essence, the IC is one of the much talkedabout chips that helped launch the commu-nication revolution.

The creation of the IC chip had an enor-mous impact on technology. For example,instead of wiring thousands of individualcomponents to build a piece of equipment,a single chip is used. If the equipment mal-functions, only one chip may have to be re-placed, and it is easier to isolate componentfailures.

But ICs are not without their own set ofproblems. Initial development costs may behigh, and until the chips are mass produced,the early units can be expensive. The chipsalso tend to be vulnerable to static chargesand power surges. If exposed to such anenvironment, a chip’s operational capabili-ties may be temporarily or permanently disrupted.

Political issues may also have an impact.In one example, the price of computermemory chips soared during the 1980s.The Reagan administration tried to protectAmerican chip manufacturers from Japanesecompetitors, and a short-term outcome ofthis political maneuvering was a jump inchip prices.At one point, a single, commonmemory chip was more expensive than anounce of silver.

The 1990s witnessed a similar situa-tion. Small, portable computers fitted withliquid crystal display (LCD) panels becamepopular. A group of American manufactur-ers subsequently charged the Japanese withdumping inexpensive panels on the market,and a tariff was levied on such imports tohelp support American manufacturers.

Although the tariff could have helpedmanufacturers in the long term, there was aconsequence. Imported computers already

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fitted with the displays were exempt fromthe tariff, and American computer compa-nies threatened to move their manufactur-ing facilities offshore to avoid the additionalfee.29 Thus, government intervention led tounforeseen circumstances.

DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITALCOMMUNICATIONS

With any technology, there are disadvan-tages as well as advantages. Digital technol-ogy is no exception.

Quantization ErrorThe digitization process may introduce aquantization error if not enough levels areused to represent the analog signal. If, forinstance, a video system is governed by a 2-bit word code, only four colors would bereproduced. The original analog signal andscene would not be accurately represented.To correct the problem, the number of levelscan be raised. But since this may increase therelay and/or storage requirements, a com-promise is usually made between thesefactors and the accuracy of the digitizationprocess.

Dominance of the Analog World and StandardsWe live, to a certain extent, in an analogworld. Many forms of information, besidesthe devices and systems that produce andrelay information, are analog.These includetelephones, televisions, and radios. Thisnecessitates the use of ADCs and DACs.

Public InvestmentThe public investment issue must also be weighed. An overnight switch to an all-digital standard would necessitate the

immediate replacement of our telephones,television sets, and radios or the use of specialconverters. The same principle applies tocommunications organizations. The indus-try’s retooling would cost billions of dollars and would disrupt both industry andsociety.

Thus, the change to a digital standard hasgenerally been evolutionary rather than rev-olutionary. As described in different chap-ters, many of the new technologies and theirproducts will be integrated in the currentcommunications structure, which may easethe impact of their introduction.

A case in point is the recording industryand the compact disk (CD) market. If an individual owned a turntable and largerecord collection, an overnight switch to aCD format would have made the originalsystem obsolete. The old records, the LPs,were not compatible with a CD player, andthe owner may not have been able to pur-chase additional records.

Accordingly, CD players and disks wereintegrated in the industry. Companies beganmanufacturing CD players while maintain-ing their conventional equipment lines.The record industry likewise supported thenew medium but continued to producevinyl LPs.

As more CD players were sold, the CDmarket expanded. Record companies in-creased their CD production and curtailedtheir vinyl lines.This trend accelerated, andthe digital format, along with audiocassettes,dominated the industry. But because theprocess was somewhat gradual, the industrywas not disrupted. Owners did not sufferimmediate losses, and equipment manu-facturers continued their support of LPsystems, albeit at a reduced level (a similarscenario is playing out in the consumervideotape and DVD markets).

Other factors do play a role in the accep-tance of a new technology.This may includewhether a product is cost effective when

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compared with the product it is replacing.For the CD, a player’s cost fell over a rela-tively short time.

Another potential factor is whether aproduct has certain advantages over preex-isting ones. For the average user, the CD sat-isfied this criterion, which contributed to itspopularity.

Finally, while the gradual integration of anew technology and its products may havebenefits, it may not always be the best tech-nological solution. In one case, the issue ofbackward compatibility chained the colortelevision standard to the past, to the detri-ment of a picture’s perceived quality. Similarconcerns were raised that this scenario couldhave been played out in the development ofa new television standard, as discussed inChapter 13.

On the one hand, a bold, technologicalstep forward, free of past constraints, couldrevolutionize elements of the communica-tions industry.The downside, though, couldbe industry disruption and the public invest-ment factor.

STANDARDS

This final section is devoted to the idea ofstandards, another central concept that willresurface in future chapters. Simply stated,standards are a series of technical parametersthat govern communications equipment andsystems.The standards dictate how informa-tion is generated, stored, and exchanged.TheSociety of Motion Picture and TelevisionEngineers (SMPTE) and other national andinternational organizations have been en-gaged in this task.

A standard’s influence can vary. Some aremandatory and legally enforced. Other stan-dards are voluntarily supported or may be defacto in form. Various technical and eco-nomic forces may generate industry-widesupport for the latter, thus helping to avoid

the chaos that would arise if multiple stan-dards were adopted.

The idea of allowing an industry to adoptits own standards, especially in the tele-communications industry, had also be-come more prevalent. In the view of theNational Telecommunications and Infor-mation Administration (NTIA) in a 1991 document,

[t]he task of standards-setting is best left to theprivate sector. . . . We recognize that there may berare cases where FCC or NTIA action to expe-dite the standards process could be justified. . . .Government intervention could include media-tion among conflicting interests or a mandate toindustry to develop standards by a time certain[sic], leaving the actual development of standardsto the private sector. . . . Any intervention, how-ever, should be limited to cases where there is aspecific and clearly identified market failure, andwhere the consequences of that failure outweighthe risk of regulatory failure (i.e., forcing the res-olution of a standard too early in the developmentof a technology).30

The private sector, industry, should havethe freedom to develop appropriate stan-dards in an open market. But according tosome individuals and agencies, if standardsdo not emerge—to the detriment of a tech-nology and an industry—then governmentintervention may be appropriate. The adoption of this regulatory stance could be important for new products that have tocompete in a marketplace with establishedcompetitors.

The standards issue is vital for severalreasons. First, if standards didn’t exist, itwould be almost impossible to develop anelectronic communications system and tofoster the idea of equipment compatibility.Without standards, the telephone and tele-vision you buy may not be compatible withthe local telephone system and televisionstation.

Second, standards can promote thegrowth of a communications system. If a

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standard is adopted, both manufacturers and consumers can benefit. A manufacturerwould be ensured that its television setwould work equally well in New York Cityand Alaska.The consumer would be willingto purchase the set for the same reason.

There can also be multiple standards inthe same industry and, depending on thecircumstances, they may not adversely affectits growth.The parallel development of theBeta and VHS videotape formats serves as anexample. While incompatible, they createdtheir own market niches, despite VHS’semergence as the de facto consumer standard.

The presence of two strong standards ina market may also accelerate an industry’sgrowth.The competition may spur a manu-facturer to introduce improved equipmentto gain a larger market share.

Although multiple standards could bebeneficial, this is not always true.This factorcould have a devastating effect on an orga-nization that is introducing a new applica-tion in a competitive field. In one case,competing standards may splinter a small,initial market.

Third, an accepted standard helps guaran-tee that a piece of equipment you buy todaywill generally not be replaced by a new and incompatible device tomorrow. While developments do take place and equipmentmay become obsolete, this process may begradual. This protects industry and the consumer.

It is also appropriate to point out thatobsolescence does not necessarily meanincom-patibility.An older video camera maynot have all the latest technological “bellsand whistles,” but it may still be compatiblewith your system.

There’s a point, though, at which a stan-dard may be replaced by another, as was the case with the 1/2-inch black-and-whitevideotape recorder (VTR). In the 1970s, thisportable VTR and companion camera werepopular with video artists and schools. The

system was easy to use and affordable. But itbecame obsolete. The equipment and gov-erning standards were superseded.

Fourth, standards have an impact in theinternational video markets. For example,the industry has been dominated by incom-patible standards: NTSC, SECAM, and PAL.A program produced under one system must undergo a conversion process to makeit compatible with another system.31 Thisarrangement has posed some problems forthe international market. It creates a road-block in the exchange of programs and addsto a program’s overall cost.

Thus, even though the adoption of asingle standard might have fueled a country’sdomestic video industry, the variety of standards became a hindrance.This problemhas assumed a greater degree of importance as the communications industry becomesincreasingly international in scope, in keep-ing with the automotive, computer, andother major industries.

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Figure 2.6A fallout of the digitalrevolution is theintroduction of cost-effective digital tools.These include portablevideo editing systemsthat can support a high-quality output.


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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Frederick Williams, The New Communica-tions (Belmont, CA:Wadsworth Publishing Co.,1984), 133.

2. Ken Marsh, The Way the New TechnologyWorks (New York:Simon and Schuster,1982),26.

3. Herbert S. Dordick, Understanding ModernTelecommunications (New York: McGraw-HillBook Publishing Co., 1986), 32.

4. Technically speaking, the bandwidth is thedifference between the highest and lowest fre-quencies (that is, the range of frequencies) acommunications channel can accommodate.The term bandwidth is likewise applied to thesignals that are relayed over these channels.Notealso that a time factor plays a role. In essence, acommunications channel can accommodate orrelay a specific volume of information in a giventime period based on the channel’s capacity andthe noise present on the line.

5. For example, it has a greater informationcontent.

6. For example, in the United States, gov-ernmental agencies/services may also receiveallocations.

7. “Al Sikes’s Grand Agenda,” New York Times(June 2, 1991), Section 3, 6. Note: All over-the-air communications systems do not requireFCC allocations.Commercial over-the-air lasersdiscussed in a later chapter fall in this category.

8. Basically, the public would still be servedby various types of programming, such as newsand public information shows.

9. Ayn Rand, “The Property Status of Air-waves,” The Objectivist Newsletter 3 (April 1964),13; from the reprint of The Objectivist Newslet-ter,Vols. 1–4 (New York: The Objectivist, Inc.,1971).

10. Gary M. Kaye,“Fiber Could Be Winnerin the Battle for the Spectrum,” Photonics Spectra25 (November 1991), 79.

11. Simon Haykin, Communication Systems(New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983), 6.

12. Tom Smith, Telecabulary 2 (Geneva, IL:abc TeleTraining, Inc., 1987), 28.

13. The analog information is converted intodigital information, as described in the nextsection.

14. Bernhard E. Keiser and Eugene Strange,Digital Telephony and Network Integration (NewYork: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.,1985), 19.

15. William Flanagan, “Digital Voice andMultiplexing,” Communications News (March1984), 38E.

16. Thanks to Jim Loomis, director ofTelecommunications Facilities, Ithaca College,for his suggestions for this section.

In a more detailed look at this process, threephases are completed. In the sampling phase, theanalog signal (continuous in time and ampli-tude) is sampled.This creates a pulse amplitudemodulation (PAM) signal.The amplitudes of theindividual and discrete PAM pulses correspondto the variable amplitude of the original analogsignal at the sampling points. Thus, the am-plitudes of the PAM pulses are continuouslyvariable, like the original signal. In the nextphase, the quantization stage, the PAM pulses are assigned to the nearest steps or levels inreflection of their amplitudes. This phase converts the wide range of amplitudes to a finite and limited number of amplitudes orvalues.The final phase is the coding process.Thesamples are coded in binary form. Conse-quently, the original analog signal, which is continuous in time and amplitude, is made non-continuous by the sampling and quantizationphases.

In this type of system, the information is alsocomposed of pulses with identical amplitudes.This is a reflection of PCM information wherethe amplitudes do not convey the information.

17. The T1 line is only one of a digitalfamily of lines.

18. Arch C. Luther, Digital Video in the PCEnvironment (New York: McGraw-Hill BookPublishing Co., 1989), 51.The picture is orga-nized in memory as a series of pixels. Note: Forspecific technical details, see Frederick J. Kolb,Jr., et al., “Annotated Glossary of EssentialTerms,” SMPTE Journal 100 (February 1991),122.

19. The level, in turn, is delineated by thebrightness value of the corresponding section


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of the original scene now represented by the pixel.

20. In this particular configuration, digitizedinformation from 24 channels is transmittedone after the other on the line. The informa-tion is organized in a grouping (frame). Fol-lowing the transmission, the 24 channels areseparated. For details, see Tom Smith, Anatomyof Telecommunications (Geneva, IL: abc TeleTrain-ing, Inc., 1987), 107.

21. Henry Stark and Franz Tuteur, ModernElectrical Communications (Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1979), 162.

22. Michael Mirabito, The Exploration ofOuter Space with Cameras (Jefferson,NC:McFar-land and Co., 1983), 30. Note: Digital commu-nications systems similarly played an importantrole in later missions. Digital tools were alsoused to enhance and manipulate the picturesproduced by a spacecraft’s camera system afterthe data were received on Earth.

23. The terms bits per second and baud areassociated with a modem’s relay speed.There aredifferences between the two, however. For adetailed discussion, see Brett Glass, “Buyer’sAdvisory,” InfoWorld 13 (October 21,1991),147.

24. Don Wiley, “The Wonders of ISDNBegin to Turn into Some Real-World Benefitsas Users Come On Line,” Communications News( January 1987), 29. Please see Bill Baldwin,“Integrating ISDN Lines for Financial Users,”Telecommunications 25 (June 1991), 34, for morespecific information about ISDN systems,including its data rates: “Basic Rate Interface

(2B + D): two 64 kilobit/second B channels forinformation (for example, voice) and one 16kilobit/second D channel for signaling andcontrol information. Primary Rate Interface(23B + D): 23 64 kilobit/second B channels andone 64 kilobit/second D channel. For Europe,the Primary Rate Interface is 30B + D.”

25. Michelle V. Rafter, “Users, Start YourModems,” The Industry Standard 2 (October 11,1999), 16.

26. This includes, in a trial operation of BellAtlantic’s Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line(ADSL) service, the delivery of video informa-tion. Please see Salvatore Salamone, “HigherData Speeds Coming in Plain Phone Lines,”Byte 21 (January 1996), 37, for details.

27. In reality, this may not always be the case,and you still may have to configure your computer to properly function.

28. This includes, as described in a laterchapter, videoconferencing.

29. “Dropping the Color LCD Tariff WillSave Jobs,” PC Week 9 (February 10, 1992), 76.Note: American chip manufacturers experi-enced a recovery during the early 1990s (forexample, a consortium of companies formed topromote research and development).

30. NTIA, Telecommunications in the Age ofInformation, NTIA Special Publication 91–26,October 1991, xvi.

31. The standards are national in origin andhave been used by different countries. Foranalog systems they are United States, NTSC;England, PAL; and France, SECAM.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Berst, Jessie. “The Broadband Contenders.”Downloaded from ZDNET; Linden de-Carmo. “Packet Protector.” Emedia Magazine(November 2001), 36–42; Michelle V. Rafter.“Users, Start Your Modems.” Telecom 2(October 11, 1999), 116–121. Coverage ofDSL systems, and for the deCarmo article, animplication for an Internet-based application(video streaming as described in the Internetchapter, Chapter 17).

Bigelow, Stephen J. Understanding Telephone Elec-tronics. Carmel, IN: SAMS, 1991. A compre-hensive overview of the telephone, from basicconcepts to digital and network operations.

Clement, Fran. “Digital Made Simple.” Instruc-tional Innovator (March 1982), 18–20; BillGibson. “Sampling Rates.” (from The AudioPro Home Recording Course), down-loadedfromwww.digitalproducer.com/2002/01_jan/features/01_14/artistprosampling.ht.


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Good primers about digital information,signals, and the digitization process.

Cosper, Amy C. “One-Way Data Traffic OverDBS Satellites.” Satellite Communications 21(May 1997), 32–34. Satellite data relays(including the Internet).

Edwards, Morris. “What Telecomm ManagersNeed to Know About Europe ‘92.”Communi-cations News (June 1991), 64–68. An earlierlook at European communications systems.

Haykin, Simon. Communication Systems. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, 1983, 408–428.Technical descriptions of PCM and multi-plexing operations, among other communi-cations topics.

McLachlan,Wayne.“Analog Video 101 and 102for All.” SMPTE Journal 110 (March 2001),151–157. An excellent overview of analogvideo (broadcast) and technical issues on theroad to a digital standard.

“Radio Wave Propagation.”Hands-On Electronics(November/December 1985), 32–38, 104. Aprimer on how a radio wave can travel fromits source to the receiver.

Rogers, Tom. Understanding PCM. Geneva, IL:abc TeleTraining, Inc., 1982. One of a seriesof abc TeleTraining publications. This par-ticular publication provides an excellentoverview and explanation of PCM.

Streeter,Richard.“Is Standardization Obsolete?”Broadcasting (February 9, 1987), 30. A briefarticle about the importance of standards.

Tropiano, Lenny, and Dinah McNutt. “How toImplement ISDN.” Byte 20 (April 1995),67–74. ISDN growth and setting-up a connection.

Winch, Robert G. Telecommunication TransmissionSystems. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Anexcellent examination of telecommunica-tions systems and their operation.

GLOSSARY

Analog Signal: A continuously variable andvarying signal. Many of the communicationsdevices and systems we are most familiar with, such as telephones and conventionalradio stations, produce and process analogsignals.

Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): An ADCconverts analog information into a digitalform. ADCs work with DACs to bridge thegap between analog and digital equipmentand systems.

Binary Digit (bit): A bit is the smallest piece ofinformation in a digital system and has avalue of either 0 or 1. Bits are also combinedin our communications systems to createcodes to represent specific information values.

Channel: A communications line. The path orroute by which information is relayed.

Communications Channel Bandwidth: A commu-nications channel’s bandwidth, its capacity,dictates the range of frequencies and, to allintents and purposes, the categories and

volume of information the channel canaccommodate in a given time period.

Digital Signal: A digital signal is noncontinuousand assumes a finite number of discretevalues. Digital information is represented bybits, 1s and 0s.

Digital Subscriber Line: A high-speed and high-capacity communications link used byconsumers and businesses.

Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC): A DAC con-verts digital information into an analog form.

Electromagnetic Spectrum: The entire collectionof frequencies of electromagnetic radiation.

Frequency: The number of waves that pass apoint in a second.The frequency of a signalis expressed in cycles per second or, morecommonly, in hertz.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): Adigital communications platform that couldseamlessly handle different types of infor-mation (for example, computer data and voice).


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Modem: The device used to relay computerinformation over a voice-grade telephoneline. A modem is used at each end of therelay.

Modulation: The process by which informationis impressed on a carrier signal for relay purposes.

Multiplexing: The process whereby multiplesignals are accommodated on a single com-munications channel.

Picture Element (Pixel): A pixel is a segment ofa scan line.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): A digital codingsystem.

Standards: The technical parameters thatgovern the operation of a piece of equipmentor an entire industry.A standard may be man-dated by law, voluntarily supported, or de factoin nature.

T1 Line: One of the workhorse and importantdigital communications channels. Informa-tion is relayed at a rate of 1.544 megabits/second.

Transducer: A device that changes one form ofenergy into another form of energy. Trans-ducers are the core of our communicationssystem and include microphones and videocameras.

The computer played a pivotal role in laun-ching the communication revolution.This isparticularly true of the microcomputer, alsoknown as the personal computer. The PChas made it possible for us to complete jobsranging from designing spreadsheets to cre-ating graphics for a news show.

PCs have also influenced a new genera-tion of audio and video equipment. Asdescribed in later chapters, PCs, other com-puter systems, and microprocessors havetouched almost every phase of the produc-tion process.1 Consequently, this chapterserves as an introduction to computer tech-nology and its complementary communi-cations applications. It also provides a found-ation for exploring the computer’s roles atwork, at home, and at play. But before webegin, three points about terms and othermatters, as used by the book, must be made:

1. The generic term personal computer (PC)is used for Apple’s Macintosh series(Macs) as well as IBM PCs and clones(e.g., Compaq, Dell, etc.).The Amiga alsofalls under this generic term.2

2. The terms data and information are used ashas been defined by Alan Freedman in his valuable reference work The ComputerGlossary. Information is “the summariza-tion of data. Technically, data are raw facts and figures that are processed intoinformation. . . . But since informationcan also be raw data for the next job orperson, the two terms cannot be precisely

defined. Both terms are used synony-mously and interchangeably.”3 This bookfollows suit.

3. When appropriate, specific computer pro-ducts may be used to describe applica-tions.They simply serve as springboards toexplore these topics.

HARDWARE

PCs are equipped with a number of com-ponents. Some of the important ones, formsof which may be used by other computersystems, are discussed in the following subsections.

MemoryA computer’s memory is its internal storagesystem and workspace.The most important

3 Computer TechnologyPrimer

33

Figure 3.1Contemporary softwarehas simplified numerousoperations. In this case,you can tap a PC-basedHelp System to quicklyfind information about aprogram’s features andoperation. Simply movethe cursor to a term andclick a mouse button—the linked information(the description)—appears. (Softwarecourtesy of AdobeSystems, Inc.;Photoshop.)


memory is random access memory (RAM).A program and the data generated during awork session are stored in RAM.These mayinclude a word processing program and aletter you are writing to a friend.The RAMworkspace is also considered a temporarystorage area. Once the computer is turnedoff, the program and letter are cleared frommemory and cannot be recalled unless theywere previously saved on a permanent stor-age system.

Contemporary PCs are generally fur-nished with 512 or more megabytes (MBs)of RAM.A computer must also be equippedwith a specific quantity of RAM to run agiven program, and many operations areenhanced if additional memory is available.4

Central Processing UnitThe central processing unit (CPU) is thecomputer’s brain. It also dictates the type ofsoftware the computer can run and affectsthe computer’s overall data processing speed.Additional performance factors include the computer’s storage system, bus speed,and the use of graphics accelerators andother auxiliary systems. The former canspeed-up the graphics creation process.

Expansion BoardsSome computers are designed with internalslots that can be fitted with expansionboards or cards.The cards support basic fun-ctions, such as generating a monitor’s display,or enhance the computer’s operation.Theymay be required or they may supplementand complement built-in capabilities.

A video display or graphics card for anIBM PC, for instance, dictates various tech-nical parameters. These include the resolu-tion of graphics and alphanumeric informa-tion as well as the number of supportedcolors. Alphanumeric information encom-

passes alphabetic and numeric characters(letters and numbers). Other cards can serveas internal modems, and as covered later,video editing components.

Portable computers, described in the next section, similarly benefit from expan-sion products. In most cases, they are fittedwith PCMCIA slots. Small credit card-sizedcards, called PC cards, are inserted in theslots and can support data communicationsand other operations.

Data StorageDifferent systems can be used to store your data once the computer is turned off.Common examples include floppy,hard, andremovable disk drives, all of which are gov-erned by magnetic principles.5

Floppy disks were once the primary soft-ware distribution vehicle. Programs storedon one or more disks would subsequently beinstalled on the PC. However, CD-ROMshave largely superceded floppy disks in thisapplication. CD-ROMs and other opticalmedia are discussed in Chapter 9.

Hard drives are the most common andpopular data storage system. Contemporarydrives can store gigabytes of data andsupport fast storage and retrieval operations.As covered in the multimedia and videoproduction chapters, specialized systems are used in video editing and other, data-intensive tasks.

Inexpensive, removable magnetic storagesystems were widely adopted in the latterhalf of the 1990s. Although they had existed for years, newer and cost-effectivemodels, which could even potentiallyhandle demanding video applications, were introduced.

In operation, a removable system func-tions much like a floppy. Once a cartridgeis filled with data, it is replaced. But unlikea floppy, removable cartridges are true massstorage devices with fast, data access times.

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Computer Technology Primer 35

MonitorsA monitor is the computer’s display com-ponent, and different standards exist in thePC world. These include the VGA (640 ¥480 resolution) and Super VGA (800 ¥ 600+ resolution) standards.

A key development in the PC market isthe advancement of display technologies.The average monitor’s size and correspond-ing viewing area is increasing. So too is theresolution, that is, an on-screen image’sapparent sharpness. Contemporary graphicscards and monitors are also easier on theeyes. They produce a higher resolutiondisplay with less flicker to help reduce eyestrain.

A graphics card may also speed up oraccelerate certain software operations. It isalso equipped with its own memory, whichhas an impact of the number of colors it may support and other performance characteristics.6

At this time, 24-bit systems are an indus-try standard. The 24-bit figure refers to “adisplay standard in which the red, green, andblue dots that compose a pixel each carry 8 bits of information, allowing each pixel to represent one of 16.7 million colors.”7

Basically, instead of working with a limitedpalette or range of colors, 24-bit systems can gain access to millions of colors. (Theactual number of on-screen colors, how-ever, is lower than 16.7 million.) Visually, apicture is more vivid. When used with ap-propriate software, a landscape with cloudsor other image may appear to be lifelike orphotorealistic.

A controversy also surrounded the use oftraditional CRT monitors, which produceelectromagnetic fields.Concerns were raisedthat emissions could play a role in miscar-riages, birth defects, and cancer. But the datahave been conflicting and inconclusive.Thefrequencies that concern us are very low fre-quency (VLF) and extremely low frequency(ELF) emissions. Much of the research has

focused on the magnetic field, and studieshave been conducted to determine its effecton the human body.

Until this issue is finally resolved, it maybe wise to take some elementary precau-tions.You can buy a nonemission display, oras became the trend in the mid-1990s, amonitor that conforms to strict emissionstandards.

An example of the former is an LCDpanel, formerly relegated to notebook com-puters. In the early 2000s, LCD monitors fordesktop PC systems flooded the market.Their size increased as prices fell.

While CRT monitors still have someadvantages as of this writing (e.g., lowercost), LCD units have become a popularoption. They weigh less and have a smallerfootprint and larger viewing area than com-parably sized conventional monitors.8

THE MICROCOMPUTER

Prior to the PC era, the computer industrywas dominated by mainframe and mini-computer systems. Both may still be used byorganizations with multiple users and exten-sive processing needs. But the PC is now afixture in almost every market.

The PC’s popularity can be partly tracedto the introduction of the original, widelyavailable, IBM microcomputer in 1981.People were already familiar with IBM pro-ducts, and the corporation’s entry in thisfield legitimized the PC in the eyes of thebusiness community.

Other factors that contributed to theindustry’s growth over the years include

• the production of more advanced models;• powerful software that filled specific

needs;9

• the PC’s low cost in comparison withother systems, which helped extend com-puter processing to a broader user base;and

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• falling PC prices as PCs became moresophisticated.10

The computer industry is one of the fewmanufacturing areas where this type of priceversus performance ratio prevails—to ourbenefit.

Portable Personal ComputersBesides desktop PCs,manufacturers produceportable, battery-operated notebook com-puters. Contemporary models are equippedwith high quality color displays, internalmodems, network connections, enhancedsound capabilities, and a CD-ROM or otheroptical drive. Another possible feature is adesktop docking station, which providesadditional expansion capabilities.

In keeping with the downward or minia-turization trend in the PC world, portablecomputers are becoming smaller and lighteras their processing power increases. Thesesystems have spawned even smaller comput-ers, including handheld units of varyingcapabilities.

Although this miniaturization trend will continue, there are, at least for the nearfuture, size constraints.These may have moreto do with the human-PC interface thanwith the capability to design ever smallercomputers. In general, as keyboard andscreen sizes decrease, their effectiveness, atleast for the operator, may decrease in kind.A partial solution may lie in adopting pencomputing, speech recognition, and other,more advanced interfaces.

Human-Computer InterfaceAs stated, one consideration in using a computer is the human-computer interface:how we communicate with and control thecomputer. On one level, interfaces are the

hardware tools we use. They range from keyboards to graphics tablets to virtual realitysystems, in which we can actually becomepart of a computer-generated world.

Software is the other level, the drivingforce behind human–computer interfaces.Acomputer’s operating system provides thebasic link; other software families are dis-cussed in later chapters.11

The most common interface is the key-board. Alphanumeric and function keys areused for control and software operations.You can type a command, press two keys to magnify an on-screen graphic, and type aletter with a word processing program.12

A second category supplements and complements the keyboard. A mouse, forexample, is a small device that is interfacedwith the computer and sits on a desk.As youmove the mouse, a cursor on the monitor’sscreen moves correspondingly. In one appli-cation, you use the mouse to select a com-mand listed on a pull-down menu.You high-light the specific command, click a mousebutton, and the command is carried out. Amouse also functions as a drawing tool forgraphics software.

A more effective device for this task is the graphics tablet, a drawing pad typicallyinterfaced with an electronic pen.You canliterally sketch a picture in freehand, amongother options. Some configurations providevery fine degrees of control when combinedwith specific software.

The touchpad, another interface, worksmuch like a mouse. As implied by the name, a touchpad is a small, sensitive pad(physical area).You can use your finger withthe touchpad to emulate mouse functions.

Another interface is the touch screen.Unlike a mouse or graphics tablet, you inter-act directly with the monitor. The touchscreen enhances this process, eliminating theuse of a manual tool. In a standard applica-tion,a menu with a list of commands appears

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on the screen.You select the command bytouching the screen at the appropriate loca-tion. In a sample application, consider aninteractive computer program for a museum.When you touch the museum’s rooms,which are displayed on a monitor, the ex-hibits at each location are listed.

The touch screen can be an intuitiveinterface because you do not have to learnhow to use it. Simply touch what you want,and the hardware and software complete thetask.

Another human-computer interface usesa pen metaphor, pen-based computing. Inone configuration, you hold a computermuch as you would hold a clipboard. Butinstead of writing on paper, you write on aflat-panel display with a pen. This inter-face can simplify routine jobs. The expressmail/package industry, for one, uses elec-tronic forms and pen-based systems. Asdeliveries are made, people working in thefield can check off boxes on forms and fillin other information. The data are thenstored and can be transferred to a centralcomputer.

Future pen-based systems may also drawon the idea of an electronic or eBook. It can be rapidly updated, annotated with yourown notes, and integrated with graphics.13

Like a touch screen, this type of interface isintuitive since we are using a familiar com-munication form, basically an electronicversion of paper.

Additionally, portable computers, includ-ing a new generation of tablet PCs, can recognize handwriting and special markingsused for editing.14 These devices marrycomputer technology with the convenienceof using a pen and paper, but now, they’re inan electronic form.

A system’s processing capabilities rangefrom that of a traditional notebook com-puter to small, handheld units that are typi-cally used for storing addresses, short mes-

sages, and similar data.The latter, called Per-sonal Digital Assistants (PDAs), becamepopular in the early 2000s.While they lackthe processing capabilities of larger com-puters, they can be fitted with small colorscreens, keyboards, and even still videocamera devices.

PDAs can also communicate with adesktop computer for data exchanges, andwhen properly configured, can be used fore-mail and connecting to high-speed com-munications networks without the use of acable (wireless networking). In some cases,PDA functions, and even certain PDAs,have been combined with cellular tele-phones (cell phones).15 As such, the PDAbecame a comprehensive information andcommunications tool—you could use it toprocess information and for voice/data communication.

Another element of the human–com-puter interface touches on ergonomic de-sign, the philosophy of developing equip-ment and systems around people, that is,making equipment conform to an operator’sneeds, and not the other way around. Desks,chairs, monitors, and keyboards are typicalcomputer equipment influenced by ergo-nomic design.

Sound designs can help prevent some of the problems associated with workingwith computers. With carpal tunnel syn-drome, your wrist can be damaged throughrepetitive keyboard motions. It can be alle-viated, or possibly even avoided, by ergo-nomically sound keyboard and desk designs.Adopting good work habits can also help.Maintain a good sitting posture, and take abreak every hour.

The latter can also reduce eye fatigue, ascan proper light placement and intensity. Ahigh-resolution display/board combination,which may also produce less flicker as aresult of a high screen refresh rate, can like-wise help.

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE

For organizational purposes, software can bedivided into two categories: general releaseprograms, the focus of this section, and pro-grams geared for specific communicationsapplications. The latter include hypertextand multimedia authoring software.

Operating Systems and Graphical UserInterfacesThe operating system (OS) is the mostimportant piece of computer software. Itcontrols the computer as well as specific dataand file management functions.

MS-DOS, for example, emerged as a stan-dard in the PC market through the wide-spread integration of IBM PCs.16 MS-DOSsupported a text-based interface. Keywordswere typed to carry out various functions.

A graphical user interface (GUI), in con-trast, uses a visual metaphor. Popularized byApple and its Macintosh line, Apple helpedestablish what we now associate with a GUI:

• A pointing device, typically a mouse;• On-screen menus;• Windows that graphically display what

the computer is doing;

• Icons that represent files, directories, etc.;and

• Dialog boxes, buttons, and other graphi-cal widgets that let you tell the computerwhat to do and how to do it.17

A windowing operation generates multi-ple windows, one or more framed work-spaces on the monitor’s screen.Windows canbe moved, resized,or removed.Windows canenhance file copying and other procedures,and you can switch between programs withthe click of a button. A program is run ordisplayed in its own window.

An icon is a small picture, a pictorial representation of, for example, a disk drive.Instead of typing a command to display thedrive’s files, you click on the icon. Instead oftyping a command to delete a file, you movethe appropriate icon to another icon, typi-cally a trash can.

Apple’s popularization of the GUI carriedover to other PC platforms. Different prod-ucts have sported GUIs, including MicrosoftCorporation’s Windows family.18 In fact,Apple was involved in a multiyear lawsuitwith Microsoft over an intellectual propertyissue. Apple contended that Microsoft bor-rowed the look and feel of its GUI whenMicrosoft developed Windows.

Database and Spreadsheet ProgramsA database program can organize a consul-tant’s client list, the titles of a radio station’scarts, and other information. Song titles, forinstance, can be filed under a singer’s nameor even under the types of music a stationplays.

Once stored, the information can beorganized and manipulated. You can alsodefine and explore the associations betweeninformation categories. For the radiostation, these associations can include thesales staff, their clients, and appropriate sales figures.

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Figure 3.2Human-computerinterfaces allow us toexplore new techniques,in this case, the potentialto create an animatedfigure based on anindividual’s movements.(Courtesy of Polhemus, Inc.)


A database may also accommodate graph-ics. Visual and textual information can bemerged. In one application, a specificationsheet that highlights a house’s features maybe integrated with a picture of the site.This configuration would enable a realestate company to maintain a written andpictorial database of houses on the market.

A spreadsheet program, in contrast, is primarily a financial tool. Data are enteredvia a table format, in columns and rows, andare tabulated and manipulated through aseries of built-in mathematical and financialfunctions.

With a spreadsheet, you can rapidly finishjobs that would normally require hours tocomplete, as may be the case when it is usedas a forecasting tool. As various figures on the spreadsheet are changed to reflect higheradvertising rates, for example, all the perti-nent figures are automatically recalculated.

A spreadsheet may also support a graph-ing capability. The data are portrayed as aline graph, pie chart, or other form.Viewingdata in this fashion may make it easier to discover “hidden” relationships. The samegraph may also create a more powerful pre-sentation. You can now “see” the numbersinstead of just rows and columns on a page.

Word Processing ProgramsA word processing program is used to writeletters, news stories, and many other types of documents. Some programs are alsoequipped with a mail merge option, whichis used to merge a mailing or address listwith a standard form letter.

A program has other functions thatenhance the writing process.You can typi-cally move, copy, and delete blocks of text,produce tables, and incorporate graphics,spreadsheet files, and other data on a page.

Most word processing programs canoptionally save data in an international stan-dardized code called the American Standard

Code for Information Interchange (ASCII,pronounced “AH-skee”). Once saved, theinformation can be retrieved by other com-puters and programs. But underlined anditalicized text, as well as other text/docu-ment formatting information, is lost.A pro-gram may, however, be able to import anduse another program’s native files to retainthe formatting.

Web BrowsersIf you are connecting to the Internet, youexplore and interact with this electronicinformation and communications universewith a web browser. As covered in the Internet chapter, Chapter 17, browsers use avisual metaphor, analogous to a GUI, to sim-plify Internet navigational and operationaltasks. Prior to this time, a series of text com-mands were typed to carry out differentfunctions.

Programming LanguagesApplication programs are created throughprogramming languages. A programminglanguage is considered a control language. It

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Figure 3.3Microsoft Excel, aspreadsheet program withenhanced graphingcapabilities. (Courtesy ofMicrosoft Corporation;Excel.)


provides the computer with a set of instruc-tions to perform a series of operations.

Common languages include Visual Basic,Pascal, COBOL, C++, Java, and Ada. Eachlanguage has its own characteristics and istypically geared toward select applications.

Java and COBOL have been widely usedwith the Internet and business worlds,respectively. Visual Basic is the first pro-gramming language many people learn, andmore esoteric languages, such as Lisp andProlog, have been the domain of the artifi-cial intelligence community.19

Ada, a language sponsored by the U.S.Department of Defense, is well suited forcomplex systems.Ada is named after AugustaAda Byron, considered to be the world’s firstprogrammer.20

Graphics ProgramsGraphics programs are used to create acompany’s logo, a rendition of the spaceshuttle, and other drawings. A graphic canalso highlight next year’s car model and canchart the U.S. population growth.

There are different types of graphics programs and formats (e.g.,TIFF and GIF),some of which are introduced in this section.Most programs can also import more thanone format, and it is possible to share filesbetween IBM and Mac platforms.21

Another trend is the convergence be-tween program categories. A single pro-gram may now support multiple functions.Instead of using two or more of the pro-grams listed in this section, a single programmay suffice.

Paint Programs. A paint programaddresses or manipulates the individualpixels on a screen.The pixels can be assignedspecific colors and can be controlled toproduce numerous effects. Applications in-clude manipulating video-based images and computer art, in which an artist paints

with an electronic rather than a traditionalmedium.

The paint program creates bitmappedgraphics. Bitmapping is, in part, the com-puter’s capability to manipulate the individ-ual pixels that make up a graphic. It alsodescribes the method by which the graph-ics information is stored.As succinctly statedby Gene Apperson and Rick Doherty,“Thebitmapped image is represented by a collec-tion of pixel values stored in some orderlyfashion. A fixed number of bits representseach pixel value.The display hardware inter-prets the bits to determine which color orgray levels to produce on the screen.”22

Thus, the values, which essentially are thepixels’ colors, are coded, stored, and eventu-ally retrieved and interpreted by the com-puter to create the graphic.

A paint program offers a selection ofbrush shapes and sizes for freehand drawing.Additional tools can be used to create geometric shapes and for other functions.

You can also control the palette of colors.The number of usable colors can vary fromsystem to system, and you can alter a colorto fit your project. One common method isto select a color and to change its red, green,and blue values by moving R-G-B sliderbars.

Image Editing Programs. An imageediting program’s primary function is that ofan image editor or electronic darkroom.Thissoftware family can be viewed as the wordprocessor of images. Just as you can edit andmove text, a picture can be rotated, rescaled,and manipulated prior to its printing onpaper and/or videotape.

For example, you can use special filters toeither sharpen or blur an image (or selectparts). In one operation, you can throw adistracting background out of focus.Programs also feature color editing and cor-rection tools, paint modules, and possibly ahook to a scanner.

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As is later described, a scanner can digi-tize photographs and other still images,which are subsequently fed to a computer.With this software and hardware combina-tion, a picture can be scanned and thenretouched or altered.

Drawing Programs. A drawing programdoes not address individual pixels. It treats agraphic as a series of individual geometricshapes or objects that can be manipulatedand moved to other screen locations.Graph-ics are vector based, and picture informationis expressed and stored mathematically, notas bitmaps.23

Drawing programs are typically used forcreating ads and illustrations.They also havepowerful text handling tools:Words can havea three-dimensional appearance and canfollow designated nonlinear paths.

Like paint software, drawing programshave their own advantages and applicationareas in which they excel. For example,when a graphic produced by a drawingprogram is enlarged or reduced, the lineswill remain sharp and well defined.24

Computer-Aided Design Programs. Acomputer-aided design (CAD) program issimilar to a drawing program in that itmanipulates geometric shapes. But it hasenhancements that make it a powerful archi-tectural and industrial design tool.

There are two-dimensional (2-D) andthree-dimensional (3-D) CAD programs.The latter can be used to create a 3-D view of a building. The image can then berotated to show the building from differentperspectives.

Initially, 3-D views were generally limitedto wireframe drawings, images composedonly of lines, with no solid appearance.Computer advances broke through theserestrictions, and we can add physical surfacesand solid attributes. In 3-D, the building inour example would look more like a “real”

building and would help the designers tobetter evaluate its physical characteristics.

A program may also have an animationfeature. It may likewise be possible to tieinto another program to reveal the area(s) ofa designed part that may be subject to stress.

Finally, a car part or other informationcould be fed to a series of computer-controlled tools. At this point, an engineer’svision, a drawing on a computer monitor’sscreen, is transformed into the actual physical part by the tool. This function is an element of computer-aided manufactur-ing (CAM), an area closely allied to CADsystems. In many instances, CAD and CAMare linked in a CAD/CAM system.

Animation and 3-Dimensional Programs.An animation can be described as a series of images that, when viewed in sequence,convey motion. We are all familiar with Saturday morning cartoons, such as BugsBunny and the X-Men. With computers,we can now tap animation techniques toproduce our own projects.

Contemporary programs have also sim-plified this process. Some allow you to createpredefined paths that a figure will follow.

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Figure 3.4An image editingprogram can supportspecial effects.The twopictures on the righthave been manipulatedby the software.(Software courtesy ofImage-In, Inc.; Image-InColor.)


You select the number of frames, determinethe starting point, and set up the path ordirection(s) of the movement.The programwill then draw the individual frames, out ofthe specified total, as the object progressesdown the path.

A program may also support other func-tions.You may be able to speed up or slowdown the animation at specific points forsmoother transitions and enhanced realism.Or you may be able to define two distinctshapes and have the software draw the inter-mediate frames so one changes into theother (morphing).

Animations can also be created in 3-D,adding realistic depth. A picture can also bewrapped around a 3-D object, and woodand other textures can be applied.

Programs may accommodate 24-bit im-ages, and you typically have control overlight sources and camera parameters. Lightsources are individual lights that illuminatea scene. The number of lights can vary, ascan their color, intensity, and type.25 Thecamera parameters affect what we see on themonitor. A view could be changed fromwide angle through telephoto and, in an animation, the camera itself could move.

Lifelike animations and still images can be created through ray tracing, a renderingtechnique that “literally traces the paths ofthousands of individual rays of light througha three-dimensional scene via compu-tation.”26 Ray tracing can produce very realistic images with accurate shadows andreflections.

The only penalty associated with raytracing is time. It may take hours to produceor render the final scene, depending on thePC’s capability. But you can initially createthe scene in a faster mode. When finished,the scene can be reviewed, changes can bemade, and the final sequence can then beproduced and saved.

A program may also save an animation asa series of individual frames (files). In oneoperation, they can then be imported by anonlinear editing system, discussed in a laterchapter, where they are processed and usedas an animation.

Presentation Programs. Presentation pro-grams can generate computer-based charts,graphs, and electronic slides. Templates areavailable to format the data or you can createyour own designs. Interactive links may alsobe supported. When you activate an on-screen button, an action is triggered. Thisaction may include playing a digitized audioand video clip.

If you have a series of on-screen graph-ics, you can control the length of time each image is displayed as well as transitionaleffects.27You can also incorporate audio andvideo clips and can typically export the presentation for replay on the Internet—theproject is converted by the software for thisenvironment. In this case, the same presen-tation can be used across multiple distribu-tion venues.

Visualization Programs. Scientific visual-ization is the “ability to simulate or model3-D images of natural phenomena on high

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Figure 3.5Presentation programscan be used to producePC-based slide shows. Aprogram may alsosupport an Internetexport feature—you canalso distribute/play thepresentation via theInternet. (Courtesy ofMicrosoft Corporation;PowerPoint.)


performance graphics computers.”28 Dataare graphically represented, and this visual representation can provide insights into howour world and the universe function.

Instead of looking at pages of numbers, ascientist can view the data graphically. Forexample, while designing a new space plane,airflow and thermal characteristics could be observed.29 Essentially, the visual imagemakes it easier to interpret the data becauseyou actually see, in a sense, the data broughtto life.The invisible is made visible.

Implications. To wrap up this discussionabout graphics programs, it is appropriate totalk about creativity and computer systems.Certain advantages accrue when using com-puter-based technologies. In the graphicsarea, a PC with the appropriate software canhelp you transform an idea or vision into areality, an actual product. It is the marriagebetween the conceptual and the concrete.

The same system can help you reach thisgoal even if you are not a graphic artist.Youmay have an idea for a poster but may not be adept at creating the 3-D letters your project demands.A computer with theappropriate software could help. In this case,the PC is functioning as a tool.You providethe guiding thought, and the PC helps toimplement your idea.

But it is also important, regardless of yourartistic ability, to at least have a basic graspof underlying aesthetic principles relative tothe job at hand. Otherwise, an ad’s message,or other product, could be lost in a maze ofwords and graphics. In another example, youcan use a PC-based system to create a videoproduction. But unless you understandlighting, camera, and audio techniques, thefinal product may lack integrity.

A PC may be helpful, but it does notcircumvent knowledge and aesthetics. A PC could extend your creative vision, butyou still have to supply the imagination andskills.

Finally, this use of computers has raisedquestions. Does a computer dehumanize oractually enhance the creative process? Can tra-ditional and computerized methods coexist?

PRINTERS AND LOCAL AREANETWORKS

A computer system may have componentsother than those described thus far. Theseinclude the printer and a network that linkstwo or more computers in a communica-tions system.

PrintersA printer produces a paper or hardcopy of information. Three types of printers have dominated the general business andconsumer markets, and there’s a fourth cat-egory of important, yet less widely adopted,machines.

The first major category, the laser printer,can produce near-typeset quality documentsand graphics. A small laser is the heart of a printer’s engine, the actual printing device.Other elements include a photoconductordrum, toner particles, which make up the image much like the toner particles of acopy machine, and the paper.

The laser printer helped trigger a pub-lishing revolution. When combined with aPC and desktop publishing program,individuals and organizations had access toenhanced publishing tools. Even though thefinal copy did not equal a commercial pub-lication, it was superior to the typical PCprinter’s output.

The second major category, the ink-jetprinter, uses a reservoir of ink for printing.Its output can almost match a laser printerin certain areas, and ink-jet printers are costeffective and can support color.

The dot-matrix printer, the third cate-gory, was a favorite choice during the earlier

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years of personal computing. It producesalphanumerics and graphics through amatrix of closely spaced dots.They are stillused, even though they have generally beensupplanted by laser and ink-jet models.

The fourth category of printers is theplotter. A plotter uses a series of pens tocreate large-scale architectural and technicalprints, as well as other line drawings. Theoutput can range from plans for a sailboat toa new piece of machinery.

Color printers have also become popular.Most software programs can handle coloroutput, and cost-effective inkjet and laserprinters have been marketed to meet agrowing demand. Printers are further dis-cussed in the desktop publishing chapter,Chapter 10.

Local Area NetworksIn brief, a local area network (LAN) is aninformation and communications systemthat can tie together a group of offices orother defined physical area (e.g., a buildingor group of buildings). It can link PCs sothey can be used to share equipment andexchange information. Printers, data storagedrives, and other devices are included on thenetwork, and program and data files can betapped by the network’s users.

A LAN’s design and implementation isanalogous, in certain respects, to a multiusersystem, in which a central computer is typically connected to terminals.A terminalsimply serves as a keyboard and a monitor,an interface device in this environment,since the central computer performs theprocessing tasks.30

A LAN, like a multiuser configuration,makes it possible to share system resources.The LAN has an advantage, though. In the typical multiuser environment, thewhole system may come to a crashing halt

if the central computer “goes down.” In aLAN, each PC has its own processing capa-bility and may be able to operate indepen-dently if the network is rendered inoperableby equipment failure.This advantage, whenweighed with cost-effective PCs/networkcomponents and other factors, have madethe LAN the networking tool of choice. Awide area network (WAN) extends thesecapabilities over greater geographical dis-tances and can tie LANs together throughdifferent communications channels.31

Operation. A LAN’s topology, its physicallayout, actually dictates how the system istied together.The topology has usually beenbased on a star, ring, or a bus design, and the information flow typically takes placeover twisted-pair, coaxial, or fiber-opticcable.

Twisted-pair cable has the lowest infor-mation capacity, while coaxial cable is ashielded and superior relay line.32 Fiber-optic cable is a newer contender, and one ofits major strengths is a large channel capac-ity. As described in a later chapter, wirelessLANs have also been created.

As the data are relayed through a networkto the various PCs, the nodes, the data mustbe routed to the correct destinations. In thisrespect, a LAN can be considered a super-highway overseen by a traffic cop. Becausemultiple PCs are interconnected, the datarelays and requests must be organized tofacilitate the information flow.

Finally, an important element in this configuration is the server. The server is acomputer that helps manage and control this flow. It also stores program and data files.

In a typical operation, you connect to thenetwork by logging on, which may includeusing a password.At this point, you can gainaccess to the server’s programs. Dependingon the setup, you use either the server oryour PC to store the data files. When

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finished, you disconnect from the networkby logging off.33

CONCLUSION

Computer technology will exert an evengreater influence on the communi-cations field—and inevitably society—asmore sophisticated computers are purchasedby an expanding user base. Prices will con-tinue to fall as technology continues toadvance. This combination of factors willeventually contribute to the remaking of thecomputer world, especially at the PC level.

The refinement of technology has alsoprogressed at a dizzying pace. The pro-cessing, graphics capabilities, and softwaresophistication of the new generation of com-puters represent a substantial design leapover earlier models. Eventually, the charac-teristics that separate the different computerclassifications may blur—it may be difficultto distinguish one computer family fromanother. At this time, the PC matches thecapabilities of computers, including the work-stations pioneered by Apollo Computersand Sun Microsystems, that were once thedomain of engineering and design firms.

However, as our computing capabilitiesare enhanced, so too are elements that couldadversely affect these capabilities. Two ex-amples are viruses and the overall industrialinfrastructure. For the former, the number ofcomputer viruses has been rising. A com-puter virus is a program that attaches itself,in a sense, to other programs. A virus maysimply display a harmless message or, worse,cause valuable data to be lost.

Viruses can be spread by various means,including infected disks inadvertentlyshipped by commercial manufacturers. A

virus may also remain dormant until trig-gered. In 1992, the well-publicized Miche-langelo virus was triggered on Miche-langelo’s birth date. Computers have inter-nal clocks that keep track of the time anddate. When the right date rolled around, ifyour system was infected, the virus couldhave become active.34

For the latter, certain parts of the UnitedStates, particularly California, have sufferedfrom power outages. Besides inconvenienc-ing people, they have a direct impact on aregion’s capability to support a growingcomputer-based society with its voraciousenergy consumption appetite. In response,some companies established their ownpower systems, among other measures.

Other potential risks range from theinternational disruption of computers sys-tems, as exemplified by the Y2K scenario, tothe numerous legal issues and entanglementsborn of computer systems and their appli-cations.These subjects are explored in laterchapters.

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Figure 3.6An example of a housecreated with a 3-DCAD program. Pleasenote the support formultiple views.(Courtesy of AmericanSmall BusinessComputers; DesignCad3D.)


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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. As defined by Anthony Ralston andEdwin D. Reilly, Jr., eds., Encyclopedia of Com-puter Science and Engineering (New York: VanNostrand Reinhold Company, 1983), 969, amicroprocessor is a “computer central process-ing unit (CPU) built as a single tiny semicon-ductor chip. . . . It contains the arithmetic andcontrol logic circuitry necessary to perform theoperations of a computer program.” Micro-processors have been built into audio and videoequipment for different functions.

2. This is due to their popularity. Othercomputer systems are also discussed whenappropriate. These include mainframe and minicomputers.

3. Alan Freedman, The Computer Glossary(New York: AMACOM, 1991), 301.

4. There are also different types of RAMwith different characteristics (e.g., speed).

5. Another system, which employs opticaltechnology, is described in a later chapter.

6. Special cards are also used for specializedapplications (e.g., video editing).

7. “Glossary,” Publish 6 (October 1991): 124.8. The footprint refers to the space a

monitor may occupy on, for example, a desk;a 17-inch conventional monitor may only have a useable 16-inch (or less) viewing area in contrast to a 17-inch LCD monitor.Design/manufacturing factors play into this situation.

9. These include a spreadsheet program asdescribed in a later section.

10. For example, an ad in a December 1982issue of Byte listed an Atari 800 computer,equipped with 16K of RAM, for $689.95,excluding its $469.95 disk drive or other majorcomponents. In the early 2000s, even local com-puter stores were selling IBM PC compatibles,with 512 MB of memory, hard and CD-ROMdrives, and a color monitor, for well under$1000.

11. This includes VR as described later inChapter 14.

12. A keyboard—the way it feels andworks—is also a personal matter.

13. Laurie Flynn, “Is Pen Computing forReal?” InfoWorld 13 (November 11, 1991), 75.Note: Think about your own handwriting.Youmight even have trouble, at a later date, recog-nizing what you wrote on a note.

14. Tablet PCs are suitable for various appli-cations, including those in the medical field.Please see “Tablet PCs Could Boost Tablet Use in Health Care,” by Joseph Goedert, formore information. Downloaded from www.healthdatamanagement.com/html/current/CurrentIssueStory.cfm?PostID= 13782.

15. Cell phones and wireless networking arecovered in Chapter 8.

16. MS-DOS is Microsoft’s DOS product for IBM PCs. It should also be noted that a PCmay be able to support multitasking and otheradvanced functions. Multitasking enables acomputer to run more than one program simul-taneously. Other operating systems haveincluded UNIX.

17. Frank Hayes and Nick Baran, “A Guideto GUIs,” Byte 14 (July 1989), 250.

18. Other GUIs have included IBM’s Presentation Manager.

19. Pascal is another language that manyearlier PC programmers initially learned.Whilestill used, it is not as popular as other languages(as of this writing).

20. Betty A. Toole, “Ada, Enchantress ofNumbers,” Defense Science and Electronics (Spring1991), 32. Note: This issue has a number of articles about the Ada programming languageand can be used to look at its roots.

21. There may,however,be some limitations.22. Gene Apperson and Rick Doherty,“Dis-

playing Images,” in CD-ROM Optical Publishing,Vol. 2 (Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, 1986),134.

23. Corel Systems Corporation, TechnicalReference (Ottawa, Ont: Corel Systems Cor-poration, 1990), 18.

24. At times, it may be advantageous toconvert a bitmapped image into a vector-basedone. There is also some cross-compatibilitybetween software in that a drawing program


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may, for instance, support bitmapped graphics.25. The type may include spot and flood

lights.26. Impulse, Inc., Turbo Silver 3.0 User

Manual, 1988, 17.27. The transitions between slides can range

from dissolves to wipes.28. Phil Neray, “Visualizing the World and

Beyond,” Photonics Spectra 25 (March 1991), 93.29. Jim Martin,“Supercomputing:Visualiza-

tion and the Integration of Graphics,” DefenseScience (August 1989), 32.

30. Multiuser systems are run by a powerfulPC, or more typically, a mainframe or a mini-computer. A mainframe can be categorized as a physically large, powerful, and expensivecomputer that can accommodate numeroususers through a multiuser environment.A main-

frame is equipped with enhanced processingand memory systems physically built into acentral console, the “main” frame. A minicom-puter can be considered a scaled-down versionof a mainframe. It can also support a multiuserenvironment, as can suitably equipped PCs,albeit to a lesser degree than a mainframe.

31. Please see the High Tech Dictionary formore information (//www.computeruser.com/resources/dictionary). This is an excellent re-source for identifying computer terms.

32. Because it is shielded, it is less suscepti-ble to outside interference.

33. Log on and log off are two commands.34. “Information Sheet on the Michelan-

gelo Virus,” compiled by J. M.Allen Creations/Michael A. Hotz, February 17, 1992.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Byte on CD-ROM. Compilations of Bytearticles on CD-ROMs.

Garcia, Emmanuel.“Desktop Visualization Toolsfor Designers.” CADENCE (October 2000),18–29; Mark Hodges. “Visualization SpokenHere.” Computer Graphics World 21(April1998), 55–62; Diana Phillips Mahoney.“Launching a Construction Simulation.”Computer Graphics World 21 (August 1998),60–62; NASA. “New Technologies DriveChanges in Auto Design and Production.”NASA Tech Briefs (April 2001), 18–24;Richard Spohrer. “Making CAD ModelsShine.” Computer Graphics World 21 (January1998), 51–56; J. R. Wilson. “Virtual Proto-typing Is Revolutionizing Aircraft SystemDesign.” Military & Aerospace Electronics 11(February 2000), 1, 26. Different computergraphic techniques, including CAD, and theirapplications. The NASA article also coverscomplementary technologies and their rolein the automotive industry.

Gilster, Ron, and Diane McMichael Gilster.Build Your Own Home Network. NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; John Kincaid and Patrick

McGowan. “When Faced with the OfficeWiring Decision, ‘Let the Buyer Beware.’ ”Communication News (February 1991), 59–61;Jim Quraishi. “The Technology of Connec-tivity.” Computer Shopper 11 (May 1991),187–198;Winn L. Rosch. “Net Gain.” Com-puter Shopper 12 (April 1992), 534, 536–544.Overviews of LAN technology.

Glassner,Andrew S.“Ray Tracing for Realism.”Byte 15 (December 1990), 263–271. Adetailed examination of ray-tracing.

Hodges, Mark. “It Just Feels.” Computer Graph-ics World 21 (October 1998), 48–56; Jeffrey R.Young. “Computer Devices Impart a RealFeel for the Work.” The Chronicle of HigherEducation XLV (February 26, 1999), A23–A24. Interesting looks at human–computerinterfaces.

Mahoney, Diana Phillips. “The Picture ofUncertainty.” Computer Graphics World 22(November 1999), 44–50. Visualization andsome applications.

Pournelle, Jerry. “User’s column.” Byte. Acolumn in the now discontinued Bytemagazine. Jerry Pournelle is a well-known


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science fiction writer and computer expert.His column covered a range of topics for the computer user. As Pournelle might havesaid, this column was and still is “highly recommended.”

Rivlin, Robert. The Algorithmic Image. Red-mond, WA: Microsoft Press, 1986. A richly

illustrated history of computer graphics andapplications.

Webster, Ed, and Ron Jones.“Computer-AidedDesign in Facilities and System Integration.”SMPTE Journal 98 (May 1989), 378–384.The use of CAD software in the televisionindustry.

GLOSSARY

Disk Drive: A data storage device.Electronic Mail (e-mail): Electronic messages or

mail that can be relayed all distances (forexample, over a LAN or around the world).

Graphical User Interface (GUI): A visual, ratherthan text-based, interface.

Graphics Programs: The generic classification for computer graphics software.These rangefrom paint to CAD software, and they excelat certain applications. Paint programs, forexample, are used to create/manipulatebitmapped images. CAD programs are gearedfor architectural/technical drawings.

Human-Computer Interface: The tools we use to work with computers. They range from keyboards to touch screens.

Local Area Network (LAN): A dedicated datacommunications network. It can link com-puters, printers, and other peripherals forexchanging/sharing information, programs,and other resources.

Monitor: A computer’s display component.Multiuser System: A computer that can accom-

modate multiple users, typically through terminals. The computer provides centralprocessing and data storage capabilities.

Personal Computer (PC): A computer typicallydesigned to serve one user.

Photorealistic: A video display card/monitor thatcan produce realistic or lifelike images.

Printer: A device that produces a hardcopy ofthe computer’s information.

Programming Language: A computer languageused to create a computer program, theinstructions that drive a computer to com-plete various tasks.Typical languages includeC, Pascal, and Fortran.

Random Access Memory (RAM): A computer’sworking memory.

Server: A computer that manages and controlsthe flow of information through a network.It also stores program and data files.

The previous chapter introduced us to com-puter technology. This chapter focuses onrelated topics. These include legal issues, apotential millennium nightmare, and artifi-cial intelligence. The latter has implicationsthat cut across technical and philosophicalfields.

LEGAL ISSUES

Software PiracyA challenge facing the computer industry is software piracy, the illegal copying and distribution of software. It is an eco-nomic issue—potential revenues are lost orstolen—and a matter of intellectual propertyrights.A panel convened to examine this sit-uation suggested that the U.S. governmentshould increase its “antipiracy efforts” and“strengthen the enforcement of intellectualproperty rights abroad and in the UnitedStates.”1 The last sentence is a key onebecause pirating is not limited to othercountries. Although there have been crack-downs, led by software industry organiza-tions, piracy is still rampant in the UnitedStates.

Piracy presents a difficult and complexsituation that points out a dilemma of theinformation age. The same tools that cancreate an information commodity can be

used to steal it, in this case, software.2 Thesituation is also exacerbated by the PC’subiquitous presence at work and home.

Legislation can be enacted against piracyto protect intellectual property, but how doyou enforce it? A few major “pirates” mightbe caught, but what of the thousands ofindividuals who may copy software eitherfor sale or, more typically, for personal use?

In response, some companies have ad-opted software or hardware-based protec-tion schemes. An example of the latter isbundling a dongle with a program.A dongleis a small hardware component that plugs

4 Computer Technology:Legal Issues,Y2K, andArtificial Intelligence

49

Figure 4.1A screen shot of anexpert system.Thewindow on the leftshows the code.Thewindow on the rightshows one element ofthis expert system inaction: a question andlist of possible answers.(KnowledgePro screenshot by permission ofKnowledge Garden,Inc.; KnowledgePro forWindows.)


into a PC’s USB or other data port. As de-signed, the software will not work withoutit. Other protection schemes also exist.

Legal issues have also been somewhatexacerbated by the language of licensingagreements, particularly when dealing withmultiple computers in the workplace or aschool. Depending on the situation, yousometimes require legal advice to determinewhat you can and cannot do. Even individ-ual users may be faced with a dilemma. Forexample, if you own a desktop and a note-book PC, can you buy and use a single copyof a program on both computers? Whenupgrading an OS, can you use one copy forboth PCs or do you have to buy two? Haveyou sat down and actually read an agree-ment before using a package?

Years ago, Borland International, a majorsoftware house,had adopted a clear cut licen-sing agreement for its products. It treated aprogram like a book. Multiple people coulduse it,but like a book,only by one person,onone PC, at a time.3

To sum up, software piracy is a majorproblem, especially in an information age,and manufacturers have taken steps tocombat it. However, more can be done. Asindicated by the panel mentioned earlier, theU.S. government can increase its efforts inthis area.4

Education is one way. Intellectual prop-erty may not be viewed as a gold watch,money, or other real property. A commonperception is that you should not stealmoney, but it is all right to copy a disk.

Part of this problem is philosophical.Whilethe legal system may safeguard intellectualproperty, the philosophical element maylack focus.We have to recognize and acceptthe philosophical basis behind the idea ofownership before we follow the legal guide-lines. Otherwise, the only preventive mea-sures are legal, and if they cannot be fullyenforced, the situation will continue.

Finally, note that other types of pirating

affect the communications industry. Theseinclude the illegal copying and distributionof movies and CDs and, as covered inChapter 6,pirating of pay television services.

L Is for LawsuitThe computer industry has also been afertile ground for lawsuits. The softwarearena has been especially hotly contested,and the focus has been on patent and copy-right protections and violations.

In general, “a copyright provides longterm conditional ownership rights in a spe-cific expression of an underlying concept,without protecting the concept itself. Apatent provides relatively short term . . .conditional ownership rights in an underly-ing concept (the patent’s ‘invention’) with-out reference to the particular concept’sembodiment.”5

A highly publicized lawsuit was thedispute between Apple Computer and theMicrosoft Corporation for copyright viola-tions.6 Apple contended that Microsoft’sWindows borrowed heavily from Apple’sGUI in regard to the interface’s “look andfeel.”7

The issue came to a head in 1992.At thattime, most of Apple’s claims were thrownout by U.S. District Judge Vaughn Walker in a series of rulings. This included Apple’sclaim that Windows was “substantiallysimilar to the look and feel of the Macin-tosh user interface.”8 If the ruling had gonethe other way,Apple could have had a ham-merlock on GUI rights and, possibly, futuredevelopments.

With respect to patents, a 1981 SupremeCourt decision, Diamond v. Diehr, openedthe software patent floodgate. A patent canprovide broader and wider protection thana copyright and, as such, is a valuable legaland financial commodity.

Since that time, companies have filed

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Computer Technology: Legal Issues,Y2K, and Artificial Intelligence 51

more patent applications, the U.S. patentoffice has been overburdened, and the hard-ware end of the computer industry experi-enced its own share of lawsuits.The patentprocess is also laborious and expensive,which may shut out individuals and smallbusinesses from this form of protection.

A pessimist might say this escalation ofpatent applications and potential litigationhas a negative impact. If, for instance, thedevelopers of the first electronic spreadsheethad pursued and been granted a patent, theycould have blocked the development of rivalsoftware products.9 This action could havehampered the industry’s growth.

An optimist might contend that legal pro-tection can promote an industry’s growth.There’s a financial incentive for developersto continue their work, license agreementscan be made with other companies, and newproducts can be introduced, to the industry’sbenefit.10 It is, after all, a balancing act be-tween protecting intellectual property whileensuring that a dynamic industry continuesto grow.

Finally, copyright issues cut across theentire information and communicationsarena.The topic will be discussed at greaterlength in a later chapter. Suggested Read-ings for this topic will also be included inthat chapter.

Y2K

For want of a nail the shoe is lost,For want of a shoe the horse is lost,For want of a horse the rider is lost,For want of the rider the battle is lost,For want of the battle the war is lost,For want of the war the nation is lost,All for the want of a horseshoe nail.

—George Herbert11

As the millennium approached, the globalcommunity was faced with a potential time

bomb—the Y2K bug. Early computer pro-grammers worked with hardware andstorage space limitations. To conserve re-sources, programmers used a shorthandmethod of designating dates. Instead ofwriting 1981, or any other such date, onlythe last two digits—81—were used. Butwhat would happen in the year 2000? Acomputer could read the double zero (00)as 1900, thus potentially disrupting com-puter-based operations. In an informationsociety, the results could be catastrophic.

Concerns ranged from air traffic controlfailures to massive power outages to bankslosing financial data.The problem was exac-erbated by embedded technology—hard-ware components in elevators, telecom-munications equipment, and other systemsthat also relied on dates for operation. Froma systems perspective, other key factorsincluded

1. An enormous volume of date-sensitivetransactions help drive our informationsociety.What would happen if they weredisrupted?

2. Programmers worked to solve and fore-stall potential problems. This includedsearching through computer programsand replacing old Y2K-sensitive codewith new code. Programmers in olderlanguages (e.g., COBOL) also became indemand for this operation.

3. Estimates to fix the global problemranged from 1 to 2 trillion dollars.12

4. Organizations had to identify and replaceaffected components (for embedded te-chnology). Banks, power companies, andother organizations also ran tests to eval-uate potential problems and implementedY2K corrections.

5. It was believed that some countries werenot Y2K ready.

6. Legal issues surfaced. The Securities andExchange Commission, for one, issued astatement about public companies and

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their obligation to disclose potential pro-blems.13 Due to Y2K, the new millen-nium promised to be a financial boon forlawyers.

7. The Y2K problem could be likened to arow of dominos. Even if your companywas Y2K ready, what would happen if a key supplier was not? It is also like anEMP—companies and countries werethreatened by electronic paralysis.

8. People responded to the possible disrup-tions of services in different ways. Someindividuals ignored the matter andbelieved the problem would be solved.Still others took a middle-of-the-road ap-proach. They believed there would onlybe minor disruptions. A third group,though, looked back to the Cold War eraand began to stockpile food, water, andother essential supplies.They believed ser-vices would be cut off, and unpreparednational and global economies would beshattered.

The reality of the situation? The year2000 dawned with only minor disruptions.The smooth transition surprised a lot ofpeople. As they watched New Year’s partiestelevised from around the world, they partlyexpected to see the lights go out in differ-ent countries at the stroke of midnight. Itdid not happen.

This led to some charges that the poten-tial problems were actually exaggerated.Themedia were also blamed for “hyping” the situation. It made good news. This wascountered by others who believed theinvestment in time and money actually paidoff. In some cases, it led to the moderniza-tion and enhancement of computer opera-tions, thus paying long-term dividends forthis investment.14

Regardless of the viewpoint, it is inter-esting to note that all this chaos was causedby the placement of two numbers—seem-ingly insignificant—but with monumental,

cascading implications. Much like the nail inthe poem that opened this section.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

This section of the chapter examines artifi-cial intelligence (AI), another computer arearelevant to our discussion of informationand communications technologies.

The AI field is dedicated, in part, to devel-oping computer-based systems that seem-ingly duplicates the most important ofhuman traits, the ability to think or reason.This section serves as a brief introduction tothe field and related topics.15 More detailedinformation can be found in the SuggestedReadings section.

Natural Language ProcessingNatural language processing can simplify thecommunication between humans and com-puters. For example, you may not have tolearn specific command sequences becausethe computer is able to “understand”you.Fora database program, a query for informationcan be phrased in an ordinary sentence.16

Speech RecognitionSpeech recognition, a subset of natural lan-guage processing, allows a computer to rec-ognize human speech or words.You verballyinstruct the computer to perform an oper-ation instead of inputting the instructionswith a keyboard. The system will initiallydigitize your voice, and then it must recog-nize various words before the instructionsare carried out.

To complete the circle, the computercould answer you.At the PC level, a speechsynthesis card can be used with special soft-ware, enabling a blind PC user to, forexample, type on a keyboard, and have thewords subsequently vocalized.17

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This capability can be linked with anoptical character recognition (OCR)system, as examined in the desktop publish-ing chapter, Chapter 10.An OCR configu-ration can recognize text from printeddocuments. The information can subsequ-ently be reproduced in computer-generatedspeech, making the material available tovisually impaired individuals.18

When this operation is viewed with theentire spectrum of speech research, it is animportant achievement. Even at this devel-opmental stage, our productivity is boosted,the human-computer interface becomesincreasingly transparent, and working withcomputers turns into a natural process.These tools can also help individuals tocommunicate their thoughts and ideas in amanner that would have been impossible toachieve a few short years ago.

Expert SystemsAn expert system is a computer-basedadvisor. It is a computer program that canhelp in the medical, manufacturing, andother fields.

The heart of an expert system is knowl-edge derived from human experts andincludes “rules of thumb,” or the experts’real-world experiences.Additional informa-tion sources could encompass books andother documents.

This expertise can then be retrievedduring a consultation. The computer leadsyou by posing different questions. Based onyour answers, in conjunction with a seriesof internal rules, essentially the storedknowledge, the computer “reaches” a deci-sion.19 In one application, the FoundationBergonie, a French research center, devel-oped a system that would “help doctors ingeneral hospitals in the management ofbreast cancer patients.”20 The expert systemprovided doctors with a level of advice thatwould not normally have been available.

Expert systems are valuable informationtools having other applications and can

• help fill an information gap,• support a field where there may be too

few human experts, and• preserve, in a sense, the knowledge and

experience that would otherwise be lostwhen a human expert dies.

Yet despite their advantages, expert systemsare not infallible. Their capabilities arelimited by the quality of the information,the rules that govern the system, and byother criteria.21 There’s also the problem ofworking with a machine.A human expert istypically better equipped to ask the rightquestions to define a client’s situation.Therefore, the human expert may arrive ata superior solution.

Another potential trouble area has beenlitigation. If a medical expert system made a mistake, who would be liable? This ques-tion, the high cost for liability insurance,and other factors, have held up productreleases.22 Other fields could be similarlyaffected, and in an article devoted to thistopic, two pages outlined potential risk areasfor expert system developers and designers.23

Finally, expert systems have been joinedby a related field, neural networks. In brief,“neural network technology,which attemptsto simulate electronically the way the brainprocesses information through its networkof interconnecting neurons, is used to solvetasks that have stymied traditional comput-ing approaches.”24 A network can, for ex-ample, be trained: It learns by example. Aneural network can also work with incom-plete data,much like humans, but unlike tra-ditional computer systems.25

Neural networks have been trained toadjust a telescope to improve its perfor-mance, to handicap horse races, to makestock market predictions, and to recognize a face, even if the expression changes.26 In

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keeping with the communications industry,research has also been conducted to tap aneural network as part of a sophisticated toolfor measuring television audiences’ viewinghabits.

Computer VisionComputer vision can be described as thefield in which a picture, produced by acamera, is digitized and analyzed by a com-puter. In this setup, the camera and com-puter serve as machine equivalents of thehuman eye and brain, respectively.

During this operation, objects in a scenecan be identified through template match-ing and other procedures.27 In templatematching, stored representations are com-pared to the objects in the image.The com-puter identifies the various objects when thetemplates match.

In one application, circuit boards can beexamined for defects. If such a board is iden-

tified, it could be removed from the assem-bly line.28

Various technologies have also been har-nessed to develop autonomous robotic ve-hicles. An autonomous vehicle would alsoprocess visual information, and in opera-tion, could function without direct humanintervention.

An example of an ambitious project is anautonomous rover for space exploration.Equipped with a robotic vision system, thevehicle would be activated on its arrival toexplore Mars or some other planetary body’ssurface.The vision system would provide theonboard computer with information aboutthe surrounding terrain. Based on an analy-sis and interpretation of the information, thecomputer could identify and avoid a poten-tially dangerous obstacle (e.g., a crater) with-out waiting for human intervention.29

This vehicle would be born from theunion of hardware components and a sop-histicated AI program that could process

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Figure 4.2Demeter. Demonstratesthe “automation ofterrestrial agriculturaloperations through theapplication of spacerobotics technology.”(Courtesy ofNASA/SpaceTelerobotics Program.)


information. The integration of computersoftware and hardware may also serve as amodel for vehicles built for use on Earth.These include experimental vehicles thatalready exist and those that may be placedin production.30

Philosophical Implications

I. A robot may not injure a human being, or throughinaction, allow a human being to come to harm.

II. A robot must obey the orders given it by humanbeings, except where such orders would conflict withthe first law.

III. A robot must protect its own existence, as long assuch protection does not conflict with the first orsecond law.

—Isaac Asimov, The Robots of Dawn31

The development and integration of AIsystems in society has philosophical impli-cations. Some AI opponents believe, forexample, that the new generation of intelli-gent machines will eliminate millions ofjobs. There is also the fear that AI systems,including robots, diminish us as humans.Other AI-based systems have also raised thespecter of machines wreaking havoc, as pre-sented in The Terminator, Creation of theHumanoids, Colossus: The Forbin Project, andother movies.Although these concerns maybe legitimate, AI proponents have offeredcounterarguments:

1. The tools of the AI field are just that,tools.An autonomous vehicle will not, forexample, necessarily replace the human

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Figure 4.3A screen shot from theExperTest(R) generalpurpose tester.TheExperTest has been usedas a test developmentbed for PCmotherboards, amongother applications. Bytapping artificialintelligence technology,the system can deliver anenhanced diagnosticcapability, much like ahuman expert.(Courtesy of ArrayAnalysis.)

exploration of the planets, just as expertsystems did not replace doctors.

2. Instead of diminishing our humanity, AIsystems may enhance our lives. Cancerpatients have benefited, and speech recog-nition and synthesis systems can provideindividuals with better control over theirenvironments.

3. The last concern was partly addressed byIsaac Asimov in his “Three Laws of Ro-botics” quoted earlier.The laws cut acrossscientific and science fiction boundariesand could help guide us as we start imple-menting advanced AI products.

To wrap up this discussion, it’s also impor-tant to remember that while the argumentspresented by both camps may have somemerit, we are ultimately responsible for AIsystems and their impact in our lives. If usedcorrectly, AI and other technologies maycontinue to enhance the human explorationof our own world, of other worlds, and, justas important, the exploration of the humancondition.

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Gary M. Hoffman, Curbing InternationalPiracy of Intellectual Property (Washington, DC:The Annenberg Washington Program, 1989), 7.Note: The panel was not solely concerned withsoftware issues.

2. Ibid., 10.

3. Borland International, Turbo Prolog Refer-ence Guide (Scotts Valley, CA: Borland Interna-tional, 1988), C2.

4. See Hoffman,pp.19–24 of Curbing Interna-tional Piracy of Intellectual Property, for a detaileddiscussion of the panel’s recommendations.


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5. Steve Gibson, “U.S. Patent Office’s Soft-ening Opens Floodgates for Lawsuits,” InfoWorld14 (August 17, 1992), 36.

6. Thanks to A. Jason Mirabito, a patentattorney, for his suggestions for this section.

7. Beth Freedman, “Look-and-Feel LawsuitExpected to Go to Trial,” PC Week 9 (February24, 1992), 168. Note: The case also involved theHewlett-Packard Company and its NewWaveproduct.

8. Jane Morrissey, “Ruling Dashes Apple’sInterface Hopes,” PC Week 9 (August 17, 1992),117.

9. Brian Kahin, “Software Patents: Franchis-ing the Information Infrastructure,” Change 21(May/June 1989), 24.This is a sidebar in StevenW. Gilbert and Peter Lyman,“Intellectual Prop-erty in the Information Age,” Change 21(May/June 1989), 23–28.

10. “Patents: Protecting Intellectual Prop-erty,” OE Reports 95 (November 1991), 1. Note:This interview with a patent lawyer provides agood overview of patent law and what can andcannot be patented.

11. Taken from For Want of a Nail by RobertSobel, (London:Greenhill Books,1997), foreword.

12. Barnaby J. Feder and Andrew Pollack,“Computers and 2000: Race for Security,”New York Times CXlVIII (December 27, 1998),22.

13. Jeff Jinnett,“Legal Issues Concerning theYear 2000 Computer Problem: An AwarenessArticle of the Private Sector,” (Internet; down-loaded March 16, 1999).

14. Mel Duvall,“Y2K Payoff: Systems Poisedfor New Projects.” Inter@active Week 7 (January10, 2000), 8.

15. For an introduction to AI’s importantelements, see Barry A. McConnell and Nancy J.McConnell, “A Starter’s Guide to ArtificialIntelligence,” Collegiate Microcomputer 6 (August1988), 243; and John Gilmore,“Artificial Intelli-gence in the Modern World,” OE Reports (May1987): 4A.

16. The Q&A program used such an inter-face. It also had the capability to add words toits vocabulary.

17. A program may even be compatible witha GUI. For example, icons can be described.

Please see Richard S. Schwerdtfeger, “Makingthe GUI Talk,” Byte 16 (December 1991), 118,for more information.

18. Joseph J. Lazzaro, “Opening Doors forthe Disabled,” Byte 15 (August 1990), 258. Note:The article also provides an excellent overviewof PC-based systems for the blind, deaf, andmotor disabled.

19. The representation of knowledge byrules is only one expert system developmenttool.An expert system can also be created witha conventional programming language. A rulecan take the form of:

IF the car doesn’t start ANDthe lights do not turn onTHEN the battery needs charging.

This example is very simplistic, and in a real-world situation, multiple rules would beemployed.

20. Texas Instruments, “French ExpertSystem Aids in Cancer Treatment,” PersonalConsultant Series Applications, product infor-mation release.

21. This includes novel situations where ahuman expert, in contrast, may be able to adaptto the new condition.

22. Edward Warner,“Expert Systems and theLaw,” High Technology Business (October 1988),32.

23. G. Steven Tuthill, “Legal Liabilities andExpert Systems,” AI Expert 6 (March 1991),46–47.

24. Michael G. Buffa, “Neural NetworkTechnology Comes to Imaging,” AdvancedImaging 3 (November 1988), 47.

25. Gary Entsminger, “Neural-NetworkingCreativity,” AI Expert 6 (May 1991), 19.

26. Maureen Caudill, Neural Networks Primer(San Francisco: Miller Freeman Publications,1989), 4. See also Andrew Stevenson, “Book-shelf,” PC AI 7 (March/April 1993), 30, 38, 57,58, for an in-depth review of In Our Own Image,by Maureen Caudill (Oxford: Oxford Univer-sity Press, 1992), a book relevant to this overalldiscussion.

27. Louis E. Frenzel, Jr., Crash Course in Arti-ficial Intelligence and Expert Systems (Indianapo-lis, IN: Howard W. Sams & Co., 1987), 201.


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28. Ibid., 205.29. A neural network could be very appro-

priate in this type of situation, especially sinceit could be trained to avoid numerous obstaclesand deal with novel situations.

30. As described in “Machine Vision,” byJ.R. Wilson, Military & Aerospace Electronics 12(August 2001), 14–18, however, one problem isdetermining what the machine might be seeing.

As Wilson states as an example,“AI for years hasbeen trying to look at what is a cup—does ithave a handle . . . What makes a cup? It holdsliquid, but that is hard to tell by just looking atit. That’s a problem with AI that hasn’t beensolved yet.” p. 16.

31. Isaac Asimov, The Robots of Dawn (NewYork: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1983),back cover.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Benfer, Robert A., and Louanna Furbee.“Knowledge Acquisition in the PeruvianAndes.” AI Expert 6 (November 1991),22–27; Jonathan K. Gable. “An Overview ofthe Legal Liabilities Facing Manufacturers ofMedical Information Systems.” QuinnipiacHealth Law Journal 127, downloaded fromLEXIS; Fiona Harvey. “A Key Role inDetecting Fraud Patterns: Neural Networks.”The Financial Times Limited, January 23, 2002,downloaded from Nexis; Colin R. Johnson.“Neural-Network Expert-System Technolo-gies Tapped to Build Smart-Vision Engine—AI Techniques Automate PC-Board In-spection.” Electronic Engineering Times, down-loaded from Nexis; Jessica Keyes. “AI in theBig Six.” AI Expert 5 (May 1990), 37–42;Dan Shafer. “Ask the Expert.” PC AI 3(November/December 1989), 40, 49; J.C.Smith. “The Charles Green Lecture:Machine Intelligence and Legal Reasoning.”Chicago-Kent Law Review 73 (1998),downloaded from LEXIS. Early to more recent looks at expert systems and neural networks.

Blackwell, Mike, and Susan Verrecchia.“MobileRobot.” Advanced Imaging 2 (November1987), A18–A21; Maureen Caudill. “DrivingSolo.” AI Expert 6 (September 1991), 26–30.A look at autonomous vehicles.

Cleveland, Harlan. “How Can ‘IntellectualProperty’ Be Protected.” Change 21 (May/June 1989), 10–11; Francis Drummer Fisher.“The Electronic Lumberyard and Builders’

Rights.” Change 21 (May/June 1989), 13–21.Earlier looks about intellectual property.

Curran, Lawrence J. “Vision-Guided RobotsAssemble Wheels Parts.”Vision Systems Design7 (September 2002), 17–21. A vision systemapplication.

Frenzel, Louis E., Jr. Crash Course in ArtificialIntelligence and Expert Systems. Indianapolis,IN: Howard W. Sams & Co., 1987. A guideto AI technology and applications.

Godwin, Mike. Cyber Rights. New York:TimesBooks, 1998. Comprehensive coverage offree speech issues, including intellectual prop-erty issues in an electronic age. Also seeKenneth C. Creech, Electronic Media Law andRegulation. Boston: Focal Press, 2000, foradditional information about copyright/communications issues.

The January 10, 2000, issue of Inter@active Weekcarried a series of Y2K articles and variousimplications. Two include: Doug Brown,“Y2K Overseas: What Went Right,” 9 andCharles Babcock, “Spending on Y2K: Wasteof Time or Prudent Investment,” 8–9.

Kavoussi, Dr. Louis R. “NY Doctors UseRobotics in Baltimore Surgery.” Communica-tions Industries Report 15 (October 1998), 23.An example of using robotics in telemedi-cine; i.e., from a distance.

Markowitz, Judith. “Talking to Machines.” Byte20 (December 1995), 97–104; Jeffrey Rowe.“Look Who’s Talking.” Computer GraphicsWorld. 24 (February 2001), 42–45. Speechrecognition technology.


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NASA. “Remote Agent Experiment,” down-loaded from NASA web site; John Rhea.“Report from Washington and Elsewhere.”Military & Aerospace Electronics 9 (October1998), 8, 19. AI and space applications.

United States Government. The Library ofCongress (www.loc.gov/copyright) and the

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (www.uspto.gov) are valuable information resourcesabout copyrights and patents and how to filefor each.

GLOSSARY

Artificial Intelligence (AI): The field dedicated, inpart, to developing machines that can seem-ingly think.

Computer Vision: The field that duplicateshuman vision through a computer and avideo camera system.

Copyright and Patent: A copyright provides pro-tection in the expression of a concept. Apatent protects the underlying concept.

Expert Systems and Neural Networks: An expertsystem manipulates knowledge and can serveas an in-house expert in a specific field.It combines “book information” with theknowledge and experience of human ex-perts.A neural network, for its part, simulatesthe way the brain processes informationthrough its network of interconnectingneurons.

Natural Language Processing: Natural languageprocessing focuses on simplifying the human-computer interface. Rather than using specialkeywords to initiate computer functions, youuse conventional word sequences.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR): After adocument is scanned, an OCR system canrecognize the text.

Software Piracy: The illegal copying and distri-bution of software.

Speech Recognition: A subset of natural languageprocessing, it allows a computer to recognizehuman speech or words.

Y2K: A potential, adverse computer problemcaused by using shorthand notation to repre-sent a year (e.g.,98 for 1998) in computer pro-gramming. Massive financial and personneltime investments helped rectify the situation.

IIINFORMATION TRANSMISSION

The concept of harnessing light as a moderncommunications tool stretches back to thelate nineteenth century. Alexander GrahamBell, the inventor of the telephone, patentedan invention in 1880 that used light to trans-mit sound.1 Bell’s invention, the photo-phone, employed sunlight and a speciallight-sensitive device in the receiver to relayand subsequently reproduce a human voice.

It wasn’t until the twentieth century,though, that the idea for such a tool couldbe transformed into a practical communi-cations system. Two developments helpedbring about this advance: the perfection ofthe laser and the manufacturing of hair-thinglass lines called fiber-optic (FO) lines.Whencombined, they helped create a lightwavecommunications system, a system in whichmodulated beams of light are used to carryor transmit information.

OVERVIEW

Light-Emitting Diodes and Laser DiodesFO technology has contributed to thedevelopment of high-capacity communica-tions lines.A transmission is conducted withoptical energy, beams of light, produced bya transmitter equipped with either a light-emitting diode (LED) or a laser diode (LD).The light is then confined to and carried bya highly pure glass fiber.

Both LEDs and LDs are used in differentcommunications configurations. An LED isless expensive and has generally supportedlower volume, short-distance relays. An LD,like an LED, is a semiconductor, but in theform of a laser on a chip. It is a small, pow-erful, and rugged semiconductor laser that iswell suited for high volume and medium-to long-distance relays. The LD family hasalso served optical storage systems.

The Fiber-Optic TransmissionIn an FO transmission, a beam of light, anoptical signal, serves as the information-carrying vehicle. Both analog and digitalinformation are supported.

In operation, the light is launched or fedinto the fiber. The fiber itself is composedof two layers, the cladding and the core. Dueto their different physical properties, lightcan travel down the fiber by a process calledtotal internal reflection. In essence, the light travels through the fiber via a series of reflections that take place where thecladding and core meet, the cladding-coreinterface.When the light reaches the end ofthe line, it is picked up by a light-sensitivereceiver, and after a series of steps, the orig-inal signal is reproduced.

To sum up, a video camera’s output orother such signal is converted into an opticalsignal in an FO system. It is subsequentlytransmitted down the line and convertedback following its reception.

5 The Magic Light:Fiber-Optic Systems

61


Finally, the fiber, which may be made outof plastic in short-distance runs, is coveredby a protective layer or jacket. This layerinsulates the fiber from sharp objects andother hazards, and it can range from a lightprotective coating to an armored surfacedesigned for military applications.The now-protected fiber is called an FO cable, and itconsists of one or more fiber strands withinthe single cable enclosure.

Advantages. An FO line has distinctadvantages as a communications channel:

1. In comparison with some other commu-nications systems, light—the informa-tion-carrying vehicle in an FO sys-tem—can accommodate an enormousvolume of information.Transmissions arein the gigabit-plus range (billions of bitsper second), and a single 0.75-inch fibercable can replace 20 conventional 3.5-inch coaxial cables.2

2. Fiber-optic lines are immune to electro-magnetic and radio interference. Becauselight is used to convey the information,adjacent communications lines cannotadversely affect the transmission. An FOline can also be installed in a potentiallyexplosive environment where gas fumesmay build up over time.

3. An FO line offers a higher degree of datasecurity than conventional systems. It ismore difficult to tap, and FO lines do not

radiate. A signal cannot be picked up byinstruments unless the line is physicallycompromised.3

4. Information can be relayed a great dis-tance without repeaters. A new genera-tion of LDs and complementary fiber, aswell as sensitive receivers, have made itpossible to relay signals great distanceswithout repeaters. In practical terms, iffewer repeaters are used, building andmaintenance costs are reduced.

5. An FO line is a valuable asset where spaceis at a premium, such as a building’s ductspace for carrying cable. Because fiber iscomparatively narrow, it can usually fit ina space that may preclude the use of con-ventional cable.

Disadvantages. Some factors do, however,limit an FO line’s effectiveness. Like othercommunications systems, there may be a lossof signal strength, which in this case, may becaused by physical and material propertiesand impurities.4 In another example, disper-sion can affect the volume of information a line can accommodate in a given timeperiod, that is, its channel capacity.

The latter can be addressed by usingsingle-mode rather than multimode fiber.The single-mode fiber is constructed with avery narrow core, and the light essentiallytravels straight down the fiber in a singlepath, thus preventing the smearing of pulsesthat comprise the optical signal.5 A single-

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Figure 5.1How a fiber-optic system works.Theelectrical signal isconverted into an opticalsignal, and back,following the relay.(Courtesy of CorningInc.)

The Magic Light: Fiber-Optic Systems 63

mode fiber can also accommodate a highinformation rate and has been the backboneof the telephone industry and other high-capacity long-distance systems.

Fiber is also harder to splice than con-ventional lines, and the fiber ends must beaccurately mated to ensure a clean transmis-sion. But special connectors, among otherdevices and techniques, have facilitated thisprocess.

Another element is the current state ofthe communications industry. Despite theinroads made by FO technology, the overallsystem is still dominated, in certain settings,by a copper standard.This includes the localtelephone industry.

FO components can also be more expen-sive.An FO cable hookup, for example, maybe more expensive than a conventional one.The actual FO line may likewise cost morein specific applications, even though thisprice differential has diminished.

Thus, FO technology is somewhat anal-ogous to digital technology. It has been integrated in the current communicationsstructure.

The prices for LDs and other compo-nents are also dropping, and the growinginformation torrent our communicationssystems must handle may mandate the useof such high-capacity channels.They may bejoined by fiber/coaxial hybrid systems.Notealso that by using compression techniques,the traditional copper plant is still verymuch alive and well.

APPLICATIONS

An FO line is an attractive medium for thevideo production industry. Its lightweightdesign and transmission characteristics canmake it a valuable in-field production tool.Several hundred feet of line, for instance,may weigh only several pounds, and acamera/FO combination can be used at a

greater distance from a remote van than aconventional configuration.6

Fiber’s information capacity also makes itan ideal candidate for an all-digital televi-sion studio. The digitization of broadcast-quality signals can generate millions of bitsper second, and an FO system could handlethis information volume. The line wouldalso fit in a studio’s duct space, which isusually crammed with other cables, and itsfreedom from electromagnetic and radiofrequency interference would be valuableassets in this environment.

Besides these roles, FO systems have beenused to create efficient and high-capacitylocal area networks (LANs). Businesses, hos-pitals, schools, and other organizations arealso designing and implementing their ownFO lines that can accommodate computerdata as well as voice and video.

The telephone and cable industries alsohave a vital interest in this technology.Long-distance carriers have developed extensiveFO networks, and eventually, fiber may beextended to all our homes. Cable compa-nies, for their part, are converting their sys-tems to fiber or, as covered in Chapter 15,fiber/copper hybrid systems.

Fiber can also provide us with high-speeddata highways. As we generate not onlymore information, but more complex infor-mation with each passing year, the commu-nications infrastructure may be hard pressedto handle this data flow. But FO technologywill continue to play a key role in solvingthis problem. It can also support an array ofnew television and information options.

Underwater LinesBeyond landline configurations, AT&Theaded an international consortium thatdeveloped the first transatlantic undersea FOlink between the United States and Europe.The system,TAT-8, is more than 3000 nauti-cal miles in length and was the first trans-

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oceanic FO cable. TAT-8 was designed tohandle a mix of information.When inaugu-rated, it had an estimated lifetime in excess of20 years.7 Even though fiber had alreadybeen used in long-distance land and short-distance undersea operations,TAT-8 was thefirst of a new class of cables. Its installationwas preceded by extensive deep-waterexperiments and trials conducted in theearly 1980s to demonstrate the project’s fea-sibility. Once completed, the findings con-firmed the designers’ expectations:The FOcable and repeater relayed the informationwithin acceptable error rates and transmis-sion losses. This held true even when thesystem was subjected to the ocean’s coldtemperature, tremendous water pressure, andother extreme environmental conditions.

Like other new applications, though, FOlines have had some problems. Certain TAT-8 users, for instance, experienced someoutages from cable damage caused by fishingtrawlers.8 But despite some problems, thetechnology proved its value. In fact, a seriesof planned and existing FO systems mayspan the globe, ringing it with a band oflight.

Fiber-Optic Lines and SatellitesAt first glance, undersea cables and long-distance landlines may appear to be obsoletein light of satellite communication. Yet anFO system has a wide channel capacity, anextended lifetime, and can be cost effectivefor long-distance applications.

An FO line also has certain other advan-tages. A satellite transmission may be sus-ceptible to atmospheric conditions, and aslight time delay is inherent in satellitetraffic.9 An FO link is not subject to theseconstraints.

Fiber may also be a more secure conduitfor sensitive material. A satellite’s broadtransmission area makes it possible for unau-thorized individuals to receive its signal.

Although it could be encrypted for protec-tion, the encryption scheme could bebroken.

Fiber is also well suited for intracity relaysand point-to-point communication (e.g.,New York to Washington, DC). It has beenused for television network news, by thetelephone industry, and in teleconferencingapplications. Various processing techniqueshave also enhanced an FO system’s relay.

A satellite, for its part, can support a flex-ible point-to-multipoint operation that canreadily accommodate additional receivingsites.This may not be the case with an FOsystem where a special line may have to belaid to reach the new location.

Thus, FO lines and satellites actually sup-plement and complement each other onnational and international levels. They alsohave their own particular strengths, and bothwill continue to support our communica-tions needs.

Other ApplicationsFiber-optic technology has also beenadopted for other applications. In themedical field, an FO line can be used incertain types of laser surgery.The fiber canact as a vehicle to transport the intense beamof light to the operating site. In a relatedapplication,fibers serve as a visual inspectiontool in the form of a fiberscope.This device“consists of two bundles of optical fibers.One, the illuminating bundle, carries light to the tissues, and the other, the imagingbundle, transmits the image to the ob-server.”10 Doctors have used such devices topeer inside the human body.

Scientists have also experimented withand have used FO sensors to monitor thephysical condition of different structures. Inone application, fibers have been embeddedin composite materials, which can be usedto create items ranging from airplane partsto, potentially, a space station. Through

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testing, it would be possible to determine ifa structure was subject to damage and unduestress.11

Although the fiber may not be relayingcomputer data, it is still providing observerswith information. As discussed in the book’sopening, this is one of the key features of the communication revolution. Informationwill take new forms and shapes, and in thissetting, the data about a structure’s physical condition does, in fact,convey an intelligence.

All the applications described thus faronly touch on FO technology’s differentroles. It has even been tapped by the aero-space industry to supplement and to poten-tially replace fly-by-wire systems with fly-by-light configurations. In this set-up, con-ventional, heavier wiring would be replacedby fiber for command-and-control opera-tions.The fiber would save weight, and thefreedom from electromagnetic interferencewould lend itself to this environment.12 Theautomobile industry has also explored thisoption.

CONCLUSION

Fiber-optic lines have had an impact on ourcommunications system. On one front, theyhave already supported sophisticated nationaland international telephone connections.On another, they promise to change the waywe view television and, potentially, the waywe receive and use information.

The growth of FO lines can also beviewed as an evolutionary rather than a rev-olutionary development. For example, theinfrastructure is modernized as FO lines andcomponents are integrated, but the currentsystem is not immediately abandoned. Thisfollows the pattern of digital and other tech-nologies and applications.

Current FO systems will also be comple-mented and supplemented by newer, higher

information capacity systems. ProjectOxygen, for instance, called for the designof a transoceanic global system that would“have a maximum throughput of 2.56 ter-abits (2560 gigabits) per second on [its]undersea cable segments.”13 Besides thishigh capacity capability, the system wouldsupport a sophisticated network design thatwould provide users with enhanced con-nection options. On land, a pan-Europeanproject in 17 countries was designed to

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Figure 5.2A medical application offiber-optic technology.(Courtesy of KMICorp., Newport, RI.)


“reach more than 70 cities with 8 millionkm of . . . optical fiber—enough to circlethe globe 200 times.”14

Fiber-optic capabilities will also improve.One driving force is the marriage betweenoptical and electronic components (opto-electronics) and the use of light alone. In oneexample, optical amplifiers can improve anFO system’s performance. The signal couldremain in the optical domain for longer dis-tances, thus reducing the number of regen-erative repeaters.15

A similar development is taking place inthe switching field, where an optical con-figuration would be advantageous.16 In oneapplication, data traffic may be managed bymicroelectromechanical systems (MEMS).One such system could consist of “tiny

moving mirrors [which] are used to deflectbeams of light” to different fibers. Mountedon an integrated circuit, an individual mir-ror may be “smaller than the diameter of ahuman hair.”17 In essence, optical network-ing can lead to the creation of faster net-works with increased capacity.18

In a related application, light may also beused to develop newer, faster computers.Analogous to an optical network, opticalcomputing will make it possible to producecomputers with an enhanced processingcapability.

In sum, these developments are excit-ing—and we have only just begun to taplight’s potential as a communications tool.Its role in our information society cannotand should not be underestimated.

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Figure 5.3Using fiber-optictechnology, surgeons canexamine, in this case, atorn meniscus (knee) forrepair. (Courtesy of Dr.J. Henzes.)


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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Richard S. Shuford, “An Introduction toFiber Optics,” Byte 9 (December 1984), 121.

2. Arthur Parsons, “Why Light Pulses AreReplacing Electrical Pulses in Creating Higher-Speed Transmission Systems,” CommunicationsNews (August 1987), 25.

3. “Optical Fiber Technology: ProvidingSolutions to Military Requirements,” Guidelines(1991), 6.

4. The latter factor, though, has been greatlyreduced.

5. Ronald Ohlhaber and David Watson,“Fiber Optic Technology and Applications,”Electronic Imaging 2 (August 1983), 29.

6. Richard Cerny, “Fiber Optic SystemsImprove Broadcast ENG/EFP Results,” Com-munications News (April 1983), 60.

7. R.E. Wagner, S.M. Abbott, R.F. Gleason,et al., “Lightwave Undersea Cable System,”reprint of a paper presented at the IEEE Inter-national Conference on Communications, June13–17, 1982, Philadelphia, PA, 7D.6.5.

8. Barton Crockett, “Problems PlaguingUndersea Fiber Links Raise Concern AmongUsers,” Network World 20 (August 21, 1989), 5.

9. As described in Chapter 6, a communica-tions satellite is typically placed in an orbit some22,000 miles above the earth.The round-trip toand from the satellite results in the slight timedelay.

10. Abraham Katzir,“Optical Fibers in Med-icine,” Scientific American (May 1989), 120. Note:

A fiberscope may also be incorporated in anendoscope, which provides physicians withremote access to the body regions under obser-vation. The article presents an excellent over-view of this field.

11. Richard Mack, “Fiber Sensors ProvideKey for Monitoring Stresses in CompositeMaterials,” Laser Focus/Electro-Optics 23 (May1987), 122.

12. Luis Figueroa,C.S.Hong,Glen E.Miller,et al., “Photonics Technology for AerospaceApplications,” Photonics Spectra 25 (July 1991),117.

13. “Frequently Asked Questions AboutProject OXYGENTM,” downloaded fromProject Oxygen’s web site.

14. Robert Pease, “Largest Pan-EuropeanNetwork Project to Light Later This Year,”Lightwave (May 2000), 1.

15. Robert G. Winch, TelecommunicationTransmission Systems (New York: McGraw-Hill,1998), 456.

16. Paul R. Prucnal and Philippe A. Perrier,“Self-Routing Photonic Switching with Opti-cally Processed Control,” Optical Engineering 29(March 1990), 181.

17. Robert Pease, “Microscopic MirrorsMay Manage Future Optical Networks,” Light-wave 16 (May 1999), 1.

18. Jeff Hecht, “An Introduction to OpticalNetworking,” Laser Focus World 37 (January2001), 115.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Belanger, Alain.“Broadband Video Goes Main-stream.” Lightwave 15 (November 1998),49–52, 56; Richard Cerny. “Using Fiber inthe Field.” Broadcast Engineering 38 (January1996), 52–60, 64. Coverage of fiber-basedvideo applications; the first article also exam-ines fiber systems in other countries; thesecond article also covers video/field pro-duction applications.

Branst, Lee. “Optical Switches Are Coming—But When.” Lightwave 15 (July 1998), 63–64,68; Jones-Bey Hassaun. “Ecological Meta-phors Color Future MEMS Perspectives.”Laser Focus World 37 (January 2001), 122–230;Jeff Hecht.“An Introduction to Optical Net-working.” Laser Focus World 37 (January2001), 115–120; Jeff Hecht.“Optical Regen-eration Will Be Key for 40 Gbit/s Success.”


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Laser Focus World 38 (April 2002), 75–78; JohnRhea.“Optical Switching: the Military Passeson Photonics but Industry Grabs the MEMSBall.” Military & Aerospace Electronics 11 (Feb-ruary 2000), 19–22. Optical switching andoptical regeneration developments.

Chinnock, Chris.“Miniature Fiber EndoscopesOffer a Clear View Inside the Body.” LaserFocus World 31 (August 1995), 91–94;Abraham Katzir. “Optical Fibers in MedicalApplications.” Laser Focus/Electro Optics 22(May 1986), 94–110. Fiber-optic technologyand medical applications.

Corning Incorporated. Opto-Electronics Group.Just the Facts. Corning, NY: Corning, Inc.,1992;Thomas V.Higgins.“Light Speeds Com-munications.” Laser Focus World 31 (August1995), 67–74; Geoff Snell. “An Introductionto Fiber Optics and Broadcasting.” SMPTEJournal 105 (January 1996), 4–7. Excellentoverviews of FO technology and applications.

Drollette, Dan. “Photonics Defies the Depths.”Photonics Spectra 34 (November 2000), 80–94;Larry R. Marshall. “Blue-Green LasersPlumb the Mysteries of the Deep.” LaserFocus World 29 (April 1993), 185–197; BryanA.Tozer.“Telecommunications Systems Min-imize Laser Risks.” Photonics Spectra 33 (Feb-

ruary 1999), 124–126. Interesting looks atlasers, underwater imaging (for example,active imaging and imaging classes), and lasersafety issues.

Frisch,Tony.“Submarine Fiber Networks Havethe World on a String,” Photonics Spectra 34(November 2000), 96–104; Robert Pease.“Project Oxygen Poised for ConstructionUnder New Strategy.” Lightwave 15 (July1998), 1, 28, 31.An excellent overview of FOundersea cables and their unique underwaterenvironment.

Gaughan, Richard. “Future Computing.” Pho-tonic Spectra 35 (October 2001), 118–122;Lauren P. Silvernail. “Optical Computing:Does Its Promise Justify the Present Hype?”Photonics Spectra 24 (September 1990),127–129. A look at optical computing.

Heath Company. Heathkit Educational Systems-Fiber Optics. Benton Harbor, MI: HeathCompany, 1986. A hands-on introduction tofiber optic technology and systems.

Moore, Emery L., and Ramon P. De Paula.“Inertial Sensing.” Advanced Imaging 2(November 1987), A48–A50; “Fiber Opticsfor Astronomy.” Sky and Telescope (December1989), 569–570. Two nonmainstream fiber-optic applications.

GLOSSARY

Fiber-Optic Line (FO): A hair-thin glass fiberthat can handle information ranging fromvoice to video. An FO line has a widechannel capacity and a superior transmissioncapability.

Laser Diode (LD): One of the more versatilecommunications tools. As an FO system’s

light source, LDs have supported high-speedand long-distance relays.

Light Emitting Diode (LED): Another FOsystem’s light source. LEDs have generallysupported short- and medium-haul relays.

Single-Mode Fiber: An efficient and high-speed,high-capacity FO line.

Satellite communication has become a partof everyday life.We make international tele-phone calls as easily as local calls down theblock. We also see elections in England,tennis matches in France, and other inter-national events with the same regularity asdomestic affairs.

This capability to exchange informationis made possible by satellites. For those of uswho grew up before the space age, satellite-based communication is the culmination of a dream. It stretches back to an era whenthe term satellite was merely an idea con-ceived by a few inspired individuals. Thesepioneers included authors such as Arthur C.Clarke, who in 1945 fostered the idea of aworldwide satellite system. This idea has subsequently blossomed into a sophisticatedsatellite network that spans the globe.

The first generation of satellites was fairlyprimitive compared to contemporary space-craft, and they embodied active and passivedesigns. A passive satellite, such as Echo Ilaunched in 1960, was not equipped with atwo-way transmission system. Echo was alarge aluminized-Mylar balloon that func-tioned as a reflector. After the satellite wasplaced in a low Earth orbit, signals relayedto Echo reflected or bounced off its surfaceand returned to Earth.

In contrast with the Echo series, theTelstar I active communications satellite,launched in 1962, carried receiving andtransmitting equipment. It was an active participant in the reception-transmission

process.As the satellite received a signal froma ground or Earth station, a communicationscomplex that transmitted and/or receivedsatellite signals, it relayed its own signal toEarth.Telstar also paved the way for today’scommunications spacecraft because it cre-ated the world’s first international satellitetelevision link.

SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY

Satellite Fundamentals

Geostationary Orbits. Telstar, Echo, andother earlier satellites were placed in lowEarth orbits. In this position, a satellite trav-eled at such a great rate of speed that it wasvisible to a ground station for only a limitedtime each day. The satellite appeared frombelow the horizon, raced across the sky,and then disappeared below the oppositehorizon. Because the ground station was cutoff from the now invisible satellite, anotherstation had to be activated to maintain thecommunications link; otherwise, it wouldhave been necessary to use a series of satel-lites to create a continuous satellite-basedrelay.The latter would have entailed the de-velopment of a complex Earth- and space-based network.

This problem was solved in 1963 and1964 through the launching of the Syncomsatellites. Rather than racing across the sky,the spacecraft appeared to be stationary or

6 Satellites: Operationsand Applications

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fixed.Today’s communications satellites havegenerally followed suit and are placed in geostationary orbital positions or slots. Simplystated, a satellite in a geostationary orbitalposition appears to be fixed over oneportion of the Earth. At an altitude of22,300 miles above the equator, a satellitetravels at the same speed at which the Earthrotates, and its motion is synchronized withthe Earth’s rotation. Even though the satel-lite is moving at an enormous rate of speed,it is stationary in the sky relative to anobserver on the Earth.

The primary value of a satellite in thisorbit is its ability to maintain communica-

tion with ground stations in its coveragearea.The orbital slot also simplifies this link:Once a station’s antenna is aligned, it mayonly have to be repositioned to a significantdegree when contact is established with adifferent satellite.Prior to this time, a groundstation’s antenna had to physically track asatellite as it moved across the sky.

Based on these principles, three satellitesplaced in equidistant positions around theEarth can create a worldwide communica-tions system. This concept was the basis ofArthur Clarke’s original vision of a globe-spanning communications network.

Finally, note that while geostationary slotsare important, low and medium Earth orbitsare still used.As will be discussed, these mayrange from remote sensing to specializedcommunications satellites.

Uplinks and Downlinks. According to theFCC, an uplink is the “transmission powerthat carries a signal . . . from its Earth stationsource up to a satellite”; a downlink . . .“includes the satellite itself, the receivingEarth station, and the signal transmitteddownward between the two.1 To simplifyour discussion, the uplink refers to the trans-mission from the Earth station to the satel-lite, and the downlink is the transmissionfrom the satellite to the Earth station. Thistwo-way information stream is made possi-ble by special equipment.The station relaysthe signal via an antenna or dish and a trans-mitter that produces a high-frequency mi-crowave signal.

The communications satellite, for its part,operates as a repeater in the sky.After a signalis received, the satellite relays a signal backto Earth.This is analogous to an Earth-basedor terrestrial repeater, but now it is locatedmore than 22,000 miles above the Earth.The satellite

1. receives a signal,2. the signal is amplified,

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Figure 6.1Satellites play a majorrole in thecommunicationrevolution.This artistillustration depicts asatellite that deliverstelevision programsdirectly to viewers, asdescribed in this chapter.(Courtesy of HughesSpace andCommunicationsCompany.)

Satellites: Operations and Applications 71

3. the satellite changes the signal’s frequencyto avoid interference between the uplinkand downlink, and

4. the signal is relayed to Earth where it isreceived by one or more Earth stations.

To create this link, the satellite uses trans-ponders, equipment that conduct the two-way relays.A communications satellite carriesmultiple transponders.

As illustrated by the Intelsat family, thenumber of transponders per satellite class has increased over the years. For example,the original Intelsat satellite, Early Bird, wasequipped with 2 transponders that sup-ported either a single television channel or240 voice (telephone) circuits. The laterIntelsat IV satellites, launched in the early tomid-1970s, carried 12 transponders thatgenerally accommodated 4000 voice circuitsand two television channels.

The newer Intelsat VIII spacecraft areequipped with 44 transponders. Intelsat VIIIcan accommodate, on the average, “22,500two-way telephone circuits and three television channels.”2 Using digital technol-ogy, a satellite could potentially handle over100,000 simultaneous two-way telephonecircuits.

Intelsat VIII is also a hybrid satellite. Itsupports both the C- and Ku-bands. As will be covered, C- and Ku-band satellitesemploy the C- and Ku-band communi-cations frequencies, respectively. Conse-quently, while some satellites employ onlyone band, other satellites support both, pro-viding for a more flexible communicationsplatform.

This design concept was similarly adoptedby later satellites, including Intelsat 906,another hybrid spacecraft, but one equippedenhanced C-band and Ku-band capabilities.Slated to serve Asia, Africa and other re-gions, the satellite supports the relaying ofdata streams, among other informationtypes.3

Parts of a Satellite

Satellite Antennas. An important factorthat influences the satellite communicationsnetwork is a satellite’s antenna design. Asatellite’s transmission is focused and falls ona specific region of the Earth.This receptionarea, the footprint, can vary depending onthe satellite and its projected applications.The footprints can range from global to spotbeams, in descending order of coverage.4

A global beam provides the most cover-age and is used for international relays. Aspot beam falls on a narrowly defined geo-graphical zone, making it particularly effec-tive for major metropolitan areas. Becausethis signal is concentrated in a relativelysmall area, it is also stronger than one dis-tributed to the entire country for cable tele-vision relays. A smaller and less expensivedish could subsequently be used.

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Figure 6.2Example of a satellitetransmission’s coveragearea (global). (Courtesyof Intelsat.)


Satellite Spacing and Antennas. Geosta-tionary communications satellites had tradi-tionally been spaced four degrees or wellover 1000 miles apart in the orbital arc tocreate buffer zones. The zones reduce thechance of cross-interference during trans-missions. If eliminated, an uplink, for ex-ample, which was not tightly focused, couldunintentionally spill over and affect anothersatellite.

In the 1980s, the FCC decided to situatecommunications satellites closer together to open up additional orbital slots. Thisaction was complemented by specifica-tions for Earth-based antennas that satisfiedthe technical demands imposed by this arrangement.5

The plan was devised to address theorbital scarcity problem. As stated, a geosta-tionary slot is an advantageous orbital posi-tion. But the number of available slots isfinite.The region of space that supports thistype of orbit is confined to a narrow beltabove the Earth.

A political consideration also plays a rolein the allocation process. A nation cannotlaunch and place a satellite in any slot itchooses because slots are assigned on aninternational basis through the auspices of the International TelecommunicationsUnion.

The FCC’s program was implemented tomaximize the United States’ orbital alloca-tions. It was also a reflection of the increasedpressure to launch more satellites, whichdemanded the availability of additionalorbital assignments.

It should also be noted that orbital slotshave economic connotations, analogous tothe use of the electromagnetic spectrum asdescribed in Chapter 2. Companies mayspend hundreds of millions of dollars toenhance orbital slots through the deploy-ment of satellites. As covered in a latersection, satellites support numerous revenuegenerating applications. Consequently, a

satellite placed in a desirable slot, that is, onein which it can communicate with a speci-fied geographical area for a given service(e.g., relay television programming), wouldbe a valuable space-based economic asset.

Power System. A satellite’s electricalpower is supplied through the conversion ofsunlight into electricity by solar cells andancillary equipment. Cylindrically shapedsatellites (spin-stabilized) are covered withthe cells, whereas a three-axis stabilizedsatellite uses wings or extended solar panels.6

A communications satellite is also equippedwith a battery system.7

Besides solar cells, satellites use anotherpower source during their 12+ year approx-imate lifetime. A satellite is equipped withexternal thrusters and a fuel supply. Thethrusters, when activated by ground stationcontrollers, emit small jets of gas to helpmaintain the satellite’s station, which is itsposition in its slot. Even though a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be fixed,it actually moves slightly or drifts. Thethrusters correct this drifting.

Once the fuel is expended, however, thesatellite may be lost to ground operators.8

The satellite’s drifting can no longer be cor-rected, and the satellite may become inoper-able even though its other systems may stillbe functional. In view of this situation, a planhas been devised to extend a satellite’s life:Let the satellite drift in a controlled fashion.Because the thrusters are now fired less fre-quently, the remaining fuel can be stretched.

The system’s primary drawback isantenna modifications:The satellite must betracked. But recent designs have made thisprocess simpler and less expensive.9 The up-grade would also be compensated by thesatellite’s longer life.

Finally, while communications satellitesrely on solar energy, spacecraft designed fordeep space and long-term missions haveused radioisotope thermoelectric generators

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(RTGs), that is, nuclear power. The RTGshave extended lifetimes and have providedpower on missions where a spacecraft maybe too far from the sun to tap its energy asa power source.10

Transmission MethodsA satellite’s information capacity is limitedby different factors, as are other communi-cations systems. For a satellite, these includethe number of transponders and the powersupplied to the transmission system. Atypical 36-MHz transponder carried by a C-band satellite, for example, can accommo-date a television channel and a number ofvoice/data channels or subcarriers.

Like terrestrial systems, satellite relays canbe either analog or digital.Various transmis-sion schemes have also been implemented,including multiple-access systems. Multipleground stations can gain access to and“share” a satellite’s transponder.11

Satellite traffic is also increasingly digital,and processing techniques have decreasedthe bandwidth requirement and loweredtransmission costs.An important implicationof this development, digital compression,is making satellite communication availableto a broader user group. By employing compression, an organization can use a por-tion of a transponder for a video relay.12

Although the receiving sites must beequipped to handle this information, thetransmission costs are reduced and the satel-lite can carry additional channels.

Supported applications include thoseoutside of the traditional cable and broad-cast industries. In education, a school couldstart a distance learning network, becausesatellite time would be less expensive. Or aschool could produce a series of satellite-distributed educational programs. If properlyimplemented, it could be an efficient andcost-effective way to share resources and tosupport students.

While it is a valuable tool in the satelliteindustry, compression is not limited to thisfield. It is also a powerful tool that has reshaped whole segments of the communi-cations industry.These include the telecon-ferencing,multimedia, and video productionmarkets, as will be explored throughout thebook.13

C-Band and Ku-Band. Until the early1980s, transmissions in the commercialsatellite communications field were primar-ily conducted in the 4/6 Gigahertz (GHz)range, the C-band. The 4/6 notation indi-cates the downlink and the uplink, respec-tively. Ground stations that receive theirsignals are generally equipped with 10-footto about 15-foot-diameter dishes.

Besides C-band spacecraft, a newer gen-eration of satellite that employs a higher fre-quency range, the K-band, has becomeoperational. The first class of this type ofspacecraft uses the Ku-band (12/14GHz).This has an advantage. C-band satellitetransmissions have been limited in power “to avoid interference with terrestrialmicrowave systems.”14 A Ku-band satellite isnot similarly restricted, and the power of itsdownlink can be increased. This higherpower also translates into smaller receivingdishes and points out a generalization be-tween a satellite’s transmission and a dish’ssize. As the power increases, the dish’s sizecan decrease.

The Ku-band also offers a user more flex-ibility. A dish’s smaller size and a Ku-bandsystem’s freedom from terrestrial operationssimplifies finding a suitable dish site. C-bandsystems are not afforded this same luxury.The possible joint interference and a dish’ssize may make it harder to find a location.15

The Ka-band for satellites, which hasmore recently been adopted, is described inthe next chapter in the context of a satellitethat helped pioneer this new communica-tions tool.

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Very Small Aperture Terminals. Ku-bandtechnology spurred the growth of a satellitesystem that employs very small aperture terminals (VSATs). A VSAT is a compactdish mated with the necessary electronichardware to create a cost-effective commu-nications system composed of a few or nu-merous sites.

VSAT technology has grown in popular-ity.The small dish can be mounted in a con-fined area, and a complete station can becost effective. A VSAT setup also supportsvarious network configurations, informa-tion, and can even service geographicallyremote sites.

A VSAT’s multipoint distribution capabil-ity also highlights a satellite’s key strength.

Unlike point-to-point configurations,where a dedicated line may have to be laidto connect a new site, with a VSAT, you setup a dish and its companion electronics. Italso allows an organization to create its owncommunications network.

In one example, Wal-Mart tapped thistechnology to process credit card purchasetransactions. It is faster and less expensivethan traditional systems.16 VSATs have alsobeen used to distribute press pictures to newsorganizations and to deliver video to K-Martstores.17 In essence, VSATs help large andsmall organizations take advantage of satellitetechnology.

There are, however, some disadvantages ofKu-band systems. This includes a greater

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Figure 6.3NASA’s ACTSSpacecraft showing, asoriginally envisioned, itsvarious components.Thisadvanced communicationsvehicle is described inthe next chapter.(Courtesy of NASA;Lewis Research Center.)


susceptibility to interference created by rain.A severe rainstorm could disrupt a trans-mission to varying degrees.18

GENERAL SATELLITE SERVICES

The U.S. communications satellite fleet con-sists of government and commercial space-craft. Government satellites are used formilitary and nonmilitary applications.Theserange from the creation of a worldwidecommunications net for military installationsto serving as a testbed for new technologies.

On the commercial front, WesternUnion’s Westar I satellite, launched in 1974,was the country’s first commercial satellitedesigned to serve domestic communicationneeds.The FCC, which oversees the privateelement of the satellite fleet, also helped spurthe industry’s growth through its open skiespolicy. Articulated in the early 1970s, thepolicy promoted the commercialization ofouter space with regard to commercial satel-lite communication.

A company that plans to launch andoperate a commercial communications sa-tellite must also seek FCC approval. Otherdetails must then be resolved, including con-tracting with a launch agency and obtaininginsurance against possible losses. The lattercould include the destruction of the launchvehicle (and the satellite) and the satellite’sfailure to activate once it reaches its assignedstation.

The satellite’s emergence as a dominantplayer in the communications field is areflection of its general reliability and its

• wide channel capacity,• capability to handle a mixed bag of

information,• capability to simultaneously reach multi-

ple sites, and• capability to reach areas not serviced by

terrestrial lines.

The last characteristic may be salient forcountries that do not have a developed tele-communications infrastructure or whoseterrestrial telecommunications expansion ishindered by deserts, mountainous regions orother geographical obstructions.

Organizations have tapped this tool byleasing satellite channel space or by con-tracting for a turnkey communicationssystem for a specified fee and time period.Another option calls for leasing transpondertime for occasional use.

Intelsat, Inmarsat, and ComsatThe international market had been domi-nated by the International Telecommunica-tions Satellite Organization (Intelsat) andother organizations. Intelsat was founded in1964 as an international satellite consortium(intergovernmental). Intelsat still owns andoperates a fleet of satellites that supports theinternational distribution of television andtelephone signals and other services.

The Communications Satellite Corpora-tion (Comsat) served as the U.S. representa-tive to Intelsat.This made Comsat a power-ful and far reaching satellite organizationthat supported an array of services.

The International Maritime SatelliteOrganization (Inmarsat) for its part, ex-tended satellite communication to ships atsea, oil drilling rigs, and even remote landsites (mobile communication). Ships, forexample, have established satellite links withland bases through stabilized antennas.

Intelsat and other intergovernmentalorganizations helped foster the growth ofsatellite communication. Nevertheless, inde-pendent organizations, such as PanAmSat,have stepped forward to compete in thisinternational market. While other satellitenetworks served various regions of the Earth,they were generally not viewed as Intelsat’scompetitors.The new private systems were,

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however, competitors for satellite communi-cation traffic.

This development was fueled by new reg-ulatory developments and the rapid integra-tion of satellite technology and equipmenton the world market.19 When Intelsat andother organizations were founded, the satel-lite industry was in its infancy, and consor-tia were partly established to foster satellitecommunication for developed and develop-ing nations.Today, the tools of satellite tech-nology have reached a level of maturity and cost effectiveness where it is possible tolaunch private operations.

In fact, the wave of privatization alsoextended to the intergovernmental satellitearena. For example, Intelsat was privatized in2001. One goal was to eliminate certainrestrictions to enable the organization toengage more effectively in the internationalmarket.20 Inmarsat, for its part, was set up as a limited company in 1999.21 This trend,where private industry rather than govern-ment-controlled organizations or agenciesoffer specified services, is also not unique tothe satellite industry.

TeleportsSatellites can work with terrestrial communi-cations systems. A company’s data may betransmitted over a high-speed landline priorto an uplink and after the downlink. Conse-quently, satellite and terrestrial systems can beinterdependent.The satellite transmission canserve as the long-distance connection, whileterrestrial lines provide the intracity hookup.

This integration of systems has beenexemplified by New York City’s teleport.The Port Authority, Western Union, andMerrill Lynch joined forces to develop asophisticated communications center onStaten Island.A series of ground stations tiedthe teleport to national and internationalsatellites and high-speed lines provided thelocal connection.

Teleports also helped spur the satelliteindustry’s growth. Organizations could sharesatellite facilities to reduce each participant’sfinancial burden. This could make satellitecommunication more economically attrac-tive for organizations that have not yetentered the field.

Similarly, a company’s geographical loca-tion may preclude the building of an Earthstation.22 The establishment of a nearby tele-port would provide the company with thecapability to establish a satellite link.

Satellites and the Broadcast and CableIndustriesSatellite-distributed television programmingis the backbone of the U.S. cable televisionindustry. HBO and other companies uplinkprogramming to a satellite, where it is sub-sequently downlinked and received by cablecompanies.The programming is then locallydistributed to individual subscribers.23

WPIX in New York City, WTBS inAtlanta, and other independent televisionstations also tapped this resource.They haveused satellites to distribute programming,much the same way as HBO.The televisionnetworks also turned toward satellite com-munication. NBC, for example, the first Ku-band network, established a nationalsatellite system that linked affiliate televisionstations. The same technology also helpedgive birth to new networks by providingorganizations with a national distributionvehicle. These developments, and others,follow up on the success enjoyed by thePublic Broadcasting System, a pioneeringsatellite organization.

Satellites and Scrambling. As justdescribed, television programming is dis-tributed by satellite to U.S. cable companies.Once the signals are received, they arerouted to individual subscribers.This distri-bution system is efficient, but creates aproblem for cable companies and program

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providers. Other satellite dish owners couldbypass the local cable company to gainaccess to this programming.

The situation developed into a seriousproblem by the mid-1980s. The TelevisionReceive-Only (TVRO) industry,partly com-posed of companies that manufacture andsupply Earth stations, experienced a rapidgrowth of its consumer business.This was aresult of the FCC’s 1979 deregulation ofreceive-only stations.

Consumer-based TVRO systems, consist-ing of small backyard receive-only dishesand the complementary electronic compo-nents, were purchased by more than amillion Americans. These configurations,which can be called home satellite dishes(HSDs), sprouted up across the country, andpeople were able to watch pay television andother programming for free.

In response, scrambling was inaugurated inthe mid-1980s by HBO—a television signalwas rendered unintelligible unless you hadaccess to a special descrambling device.For cable companies, each site would beequipped with a descrambling unit so theirsubscribers would continue to receive uninterrupted programming. Other servicesjoined the bandwagon, creating a furor inthe TVRO industry. Ultimately, dish ownerswould have to pay to gain access to pro-gramming or use illegally altered decoders.24

One individual became so angry at thissituation that he illegally interrupted HBO’sprogramming on April 27, 1986, and relayedhis own antiscrambling and antisubscriptionfee message:

Good evening HBOFrom Captain Midnight$12.95/monthNo way!Showtime/Movie Channel beware

This satellite pirate, Captain Midnight, waseventually identified as a part-time employeeat a teleport and was subsequently con-

victed.25 Captain Midnight used the tele-port’s facilities to override HBO’s signal, andthe satellite distributed his signal instead.

Eventually, a compromise was reachedbetween HSD owners and the cable andtelevision industries.The owners were gen-erally treated more equitably, on a par withstandard cable subscribers, in terms ofmonthly fees. This initiative, among others,helped to somewhat defuse the situation,but the problem with illegal descramblerscontinued.26

The controversy between these groupsalso clouded a key issue—the vulnerabilityof the commercial satellite fleet. If CaptainMidnight could disrupt HBO’s transmission,other individuals with access to the properfacilities could follow suit. Even though thisgroup’s size may be somewhat limited, thesituation could change as new facilities, bothpermanent and portable, are brought online.

Beyond television programming, finan-cial data and other information vital to theworld community is exchanged daily. Anongoing disruption of these services wouldbe disastrous. Ultimately, the same technol-ogy that advanced our communicationssystem could potentially harm us. In re-sponse, the FCC indicated that securitysystems had to be implemented to protectthe integrity of satellite transmissions.27

DIRECT BROADCAST SATELLITES

As conceived, a direct broadcast satellite(DBS) was a class of spacecraft that wouldinitiate a new communications service.Equipped with a very powerful transmissionsystem, a satellite would operate in the K-band and would bypass conventional mediaoutlets to relay programming directly toconsumers.28 But as will be discussed, thisoriginal concept evolved over the years.

It is also important to note that two DBSconcepts were and still are important: a dish’s

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size and programming choices. Thanks to a powerful transmission and to technicaladvancements, a dish less than 2 feet indiameter could be used. This is in contrastto the typical 7-foot or more C-band HSDconfiguration.

Dish size is a vital concern for DBS companies since a small dish is unobtru-sive, compact, fairly inexpensive, and easy toset up. It is also permanently aligned towarda specific satellite, unlike an HSD dish,which can be moved.

Viewing choices are also important. ADBS company can provide subscribers withmovies as well as television and sports pro-gramming. Current systems, as covered in alater section, can also compete with cableoperations in the delivery of a mixed bag ofprogram options.

Early HistoryDuring the early 1980s, various companiesfloated DBS proposals, some of whichshifted over time. For example, the Satellite

Television Corporation (STC), a subsidiaryof Comsat, planned to use four satellites to cover the United States.29 Because eachsatellite would target only a sector of thecountry (for example, the Eastern timezone), its “focused” signal would help makeit possible to use the smaller dish. But in onemodification, this geographical zone wasextended so the entire country could be serviced in an accelerated time frame.30

Proposed DBS systems were also somewhathandicapped by a limited channel capacity.Weight and power demands had an impacton the number of transponders and chan-nels a satellite could support.31 Conse-quently, five- or six-channel offerings werenot uncommon.

Regardless of the scheme, none of thehigh-power DBS ventures became opera-tional. Different factors contributed to thissituation.

1. The development of a national systemdemanded a large capital investment.Beyond the millions of dollars to build,launch, and maintain the satellites, a ter-restrial support network had to becreated.The latter ranged from local salesand repair offices to an advertising cam-paign to program licensing fees. For someorganizations, the investment was toohigh for an untested and potentially riskybusiness.32

2. The rapid expansion of the TVRO/HSDand VCR industries exacerbated this sit-uation since the consumer market wasalready served by these applications. Infact, more than 40 million householdswere already equipped with VCRs by themid-1980s.33 This was an unfortunatedevelopment for DBS companies sincemovies were slated to be a staple feature.

3. As stated, subscribers would have receivedonly a limited number of channels.Although this may have been acceptableto consumers who lived in areas with few

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Figure 6.4Satellites have played acrucial role in monitoringthe weather. In this shot,Hurricane Fran asviewed by the GOES-8satellite. (Courtesy ofNASA.)


programming options, would consumersin areas served by cable follow suit?

4. The DBS industry could not sustain a suf-ficient level of financial support. It wasalso dealt a severe blow in the 1980s whenSTC suspended its plans. Other com-panies, including CBS, had previouslybowed out of the field. Consequently, ahigh-power DBS system did not materi-alize in the United States.

In contrast, a low-power service was actu-ally created by United Satellite Communi-cations, Inc. (USCI). Instead of constructinga fleet of expensive and untested high-power satellites, a more proven medium-power Ku-band satellite was used. Launchedin 1983,USCI offered subscribers five chan-nels of entertainment programming. Futureoptions included specialized informationservices and bilingual programming.

But despite the advantages of using a lessexpensive spacecraft and beating high-power systems to the punch, financial pres-sures forced USCI to close its doors in 1985.

The Digital OptionOther DBS ventures followed suit, includingone proposed by NBC, Hughes Communi-cations Inc., Cablevision Systems Corpora-tion, and the News Corporation Limited.The plan collapsed, though, in the early1990s.34

Nevertheless, as exemplified by DirecTV,a new generation of DBS systems finallybecame a reality in the same era. Initiated in1994 and owned by the Hughes ElectronicsCorporation, DirecTV had already attractedmore than a million subscribers by 1996.35

Digital technology and processing tech-niques have been tapped to make DirecTVan efficient and comprehensive service.Theseveral channel limitation has been elimi-nated and enhanced audio and video signalscan be relayed.

As of this writing, high-power Ku-bandsatellites deliver well over 100 digital chan-nels. Movies, pay-per-view options, andstandard programming fare are supported,and this programming depth, as well as com-parable pricing structure, makes DirecTVdirectly competitive with cable systems.36

You could also opt for a high-speed datarelay to tap into the Internet. Thus, yoursatellite service could serve as an integratedentertainment and information utility.

SummaryThe attraction of a DBS system is a power-ful one that fuels continued interest in thefield. Consumers can receive an array ofprograms, including ones that may not beotherwise available. The prerequisite tech-nology base has also matured since the1980s, making DBS operations more feasi-ble and, ultimately, fully integrated in theU.S. communications infrastructure. Theysupport individuals in rural areas who donot have broadcast or cable options and offertraditional cable subscribers another choice.

It will be interesting to watch the overallcommunications field as satellite, cable, andtelephone companies compete for sub-scribers.As the latter two industries upgradetheir physical plants, they will be better posi-tioned to contend with DBS systems.

Note also that on the international front,other countries are well versed in DBS tech-nology and continue to draft plans for sophisticated systems. Japan and variousEuro-pean nations are the major contendersin this field.

DirecTV-type services also targeted LatinAmerica during the late 1990s. In one case,Brazil represented a marketing prize. It helda good portion of Latin America’s totalhouseholds, while only “2.5 percent [were]reached via cable television lines.”37

This same environment would also offersatellite companies new challenges. In the

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United States, telephone lines are used forthe return loop and for relaying billinginformation. In countries where universaltelephone service do not exist, other optionshave to be adopted.38

Finally, like other fields, the DBS industryhad to contend with auctions. Bids for avail-able DBS slots surpassed several hundredmillion dollars.39 Similar auctions were heldfor spectrum allocations for other commu-nications services.

SATELLITES, JOURNALISTS, ANDTHE NEWS

Satellite NewsgatheringSatellite communication has revolutionizedanother facet of the television industry—television news. Besides using satellites forstory distribution, television stations canparticipate in satellite newsgathering (SNG),a newer production form.

Wider satellite availability, lower costs, andportable equipment have prompted stationsto create their own remote setups.A stationbuys either a van or truck and a portablesatellite dish. This rig is taken on the road,and an uplink to a satellite is establishedwhen the reporters reach the story’s site.The

transmission is subsequently picked up bythe home television station. This capabilitymakes it possible for the station to conductrelays from distant sites. For example, astation from Seattle,Washington, could sendits satellite rig to Washington, DC, to estab-lish a link between Seattle’s congressionalrepresentatives and their constituents.

On the international front, flyawaysystems have extended satellite communica-tion to regions where standard satellite linksmay not be available or accessible. Accom-modated by a commercial airliner, the sys-tem is stored in trunks and reassembled onarrival. The Cable News Network (CNN)has pioneered the use of such systems tocover world events. These include 1989sTiananmen Square student occupation inBeijing, China, and Operation DesertStorm, 1991s Persian Gulf conflict.40

Operation Desert StormSatellite technology made Operation DesertStorm the first “real-time”war.41 People wit-nessed missile attacks and other events asthey actually occurred. Satellite links alsoprovided reporters with the ability to relayvoice, video, and computer data (newsstories) to their home offices in a timelyfashion. In Vietnam, for instance, satelliteswere generally not available, and footage,shot on film,had to be shipped and processedbefore airing.This led to a time delay.42

But this new found immediacy triggerednegative and positive U.S. responses. In themost publicized case, Peter Arnett, a CNNreporter, continued to file stories fromBaghdad, Iraq, during the war.43 He wascriticized for this action by the VictoryCommittee, a coalition that included theAccuracy in Media organization.44 The crit-icism centered on his reporting while underIraqi censorship. On the flip side, tightrestrictions were placed on the press by theU.S. government and its allies.

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Figure 6.5An SNG vehicle. Notethe portable dish size.(Courtesy of Intelsat.)


Operation Iraqi FreedomThe same region as Operation Desert Stormerupted in conflict in early 2003. But in thisinstance, reporters were “embedded”—inte-grated—with military units. Using satellitesand other technologies, they could filereports from the field as they moved withthe units. At times, proponents and oppo-nents used this information to try to swayworld opinion as to the war’s justice orinjustice. For the media, Ted Koppel hadanother observation:

What’s totally unpredictable, of course, is theimpact that all this coverage will have back athome and around the world. If the campaigndoesn’t go as quickly or as well as anticipated, iffriendly casualties are high, if some of the report-ing is deemed too critical, or if some of the infor-mation proves inadvertently helpful to the Iraqis,the military may quickly rethink the value ofhaving us journalists along.45

These sentiments reflected the mixedaccess the media had in previous militaryactions. But General Tommy Franks, theU.S. commander, indicated he supportedthis concept since it provided, in a sense, asnapshot of the truth—it opened-up apicture window to events as they actuallyunfolded. Franks also stated it was importantin light of the First Amendment.46

This conflict was also the first “Internet”war. Live reports streamed in from reportersto the world’s television sets and computers.Personal diaries and journals on the Inter-net, web logs or blogs, were popular Inter-net fare.The media also used videophones,compact systems that supported videorelays, to send in live reports.47 Live videofrom the Persian Gulf and information fromU.S. and international sources were alsoaccessible on the Internet.

As footnotes to this event,

• Peter Arnett was fired from NBC andNational Geographic for personal com-ments made on Iraqi television in 2003.48

Arnett subsequently apologized for hisremarks.

• In the field, Geraldo Rivera, anotherreporter, left the Middle East for re-vealing inappropriate information in areport.49

• The BBC singled out U.S.–Iraq coverageas so “unquestioningly patriotic and solacking in impartiality that it threatenedthe credibility of America’s electronicmedia . . .”50 The BBC was, for its part,criticized for being “soft” on the Iraqigovernment.51

• The Internet provided a global audiencewith multiple news perspectives frommultiple news sources. While the U.S.and British media, among others, werecharged with certain biases, you couldseek out alternate news pools via theInternet. One potential pitfall, however,was and still is a news source’s reliability.Almost anybody with access to a com-puter and the Internet could post infor-mation to a web site—but how credibleis it?

Questions. The Persian Gulf conflictshighlighted the media’s capability to deliverthe news “as it happened.” Nevertheless,questions were raised about the collisionbetween technology and what should begood reporting. For example,

• What is technology’s impact?• Does good reporting transcend technol-

ogy?• It may have taken more than a month to

receive a news report if you lived some200 years ago. Has the recent immediacyof news altered the news process itself?

• Is a good reporter a good reporter regard-less of the technology that is used?

The answers, or part of them, may be foundin a report that explored the media’s role inOperation Desert Storm. It also applied in

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2003 and, potentially, for the foreseeablefuture. In brief, “technology cannot be anend in and of itself in making sense of war-related events. That, as always, remains thejob of the journalists themselves, with thenew technology facilitating but not replac-ing the task.”52

Remote Sensing and the NewsPioneered in part by Mark Brender andABC, the news media have adopted anothersatellite-based system, remote sensing satel-lites, to support their reports. A remotesensing satellite is a sophisticated spacecraftequipped with high-resolution cameras andan array of scientific instruments. Instead ofbeing locked in a geostationary orbit, a satel-lite can cover the Earth in successive orbits.The pattern is then repeated.

Remote sensing satellites were originallydesigned to examine and explore the Earth.They have helped document the Earth’sphysical characteristics as well as environ-mental changes. The latter include theimpact of deforestation and pollution.

The United States and France initially ledthe world in this field through their Landsatand SPOT satellites, respectively, and newsorganizations subsequently tapped this tool.For example, this type of satellite was aninvaluable resource in the aftermath of theChernobyl nuclear reactor accident. Satel-lite pictures of the site were obtained andreleased by the media. The pictures high-lighted the facility’s damage and helpedprevent a potential cover-up.

ABC News also used remote sensingimages in a special program televised in July1987. The pictures documented variousfacets of the Iran–Iraq war.The same regionwas also under scrutiny during OperationDesert Storm and other operations.

Despite this service’s benefits, all govern-ments, including the U.S. government, werenot happy with this newfound capability.

Since the media could order a photographof a region of the Earth covered by thespacecraft, military maneuvers and other sit-uations, which a government may want tokeep hidden, could be revealed. In theUnited States, the government could haveimposed restrictions on private, domesticremote sensing licenses, via ambiguouslicensing procedures. If implemented, themedia’s access to specific images may havebeen limited.53

This stance, and others, triggered a reac-tion from the Radio-Television NewsDirectors Association (RTNDA) and othermedia groups. It was argued that restrictionsviolated First Amendment rights, and thegovernment’s concern over potential na-tional security breaches was unfounded.Thepress had generally been responsible in theuse of sensitive information in the past and would follow suit with the satellite pictures.

Besides this initial government interven-tion, media organizations were and still arefaced with other problems that may hinderthis investigative tool’s effectiveness. In onecase, a satellite may not be in the correctorbital position to deliver a requested pic-ture immediately. This delay could hamperthe coverage of fast-breaking events.

Nevertheless, the remote sensing field stillholds great promise. New domestic andinternational satellites have been developed,including the deployment of Ikonos in1999, the “first commercial imaging satel-lite.”54 It can produce high-resolution im-ages, and this class of satellite should reducethe response time for pictures. Simplifiedimage manipulation software has also con-tributed to enhanced operations.ABC News,for one, employed such a system duringOperation Desert Storm to generate graph-ics for its programs.

The U.S. government continues to play apivotal role in this field. In one example,the Clinton administration released a policy

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statement about remote sensing licenses.While it somewhat relaxed restrictions, theycould still be implemented.55

In April 2003, the Bush administrationredefined this role. The new Policy, whichsuperceded a 1994 Presidential Directive,provided for more government support forcommercial ventures. Other goals were tostreamline various licensing procedures, toenhance the government’s relationship withthe commercial U.S. remote sensing indus-try, and to give the field a general “boost.”56

However, while implementation detailswere still under development as of thiswriting, it appears the new Policy was stillsomewhat vague in regard to potential gov-ernment restrictions and the news media.This topic is discussed more fully in theConclusion.

CONCLUSION

Satellites helped transform our communica-tions system. In one example, distance is lessof a factor than it was in the past. Satellitesenable us to relay information rapidlyaround the world and to view news andhuman events, such as Tiananmen Square, inreal time. Other applications support remotesensing and the delivery of entertainmentprogramming through DBS companies.

In essence, satellites have provided us witha new set of communications tools. It is alsoimportant to remember that we have onlybeen using these tools for a relatively shorttime. We have only begun to tap theirpotential and, as introduced in Chapter 8,their potential to promote a personal com-munication revolution and, ultimately, theirpotential to better explore our own world.

But this optimistic view could be damp-ened. The remote sensing arena serves as an example of the impact of potential gov-ernment intervention. Barbara Cochran,RTNDA President, wrote an article about

such a scenario, “Fighting the Feds OverShutter Control.” (Copyright by Radio–Television News Directors Association.Reprinted with Permission of theRTNDA.)57 Her words clearly define thisissue, and just as important, the satelliteimages’ inherent power, particularly for afree press.

While written before the Bush Policy, thearticle’s main points may still be valid. If,however, the scenario does evolve, the articlestill provides valuable insights about the col-lision between a new technology, journalis-tic privileges, and the government.

Proposed government restrictions on the use ofcommercial satellite images are unconstitutional.

History was made two months ago when thefirst image from a U.S.-owned commercial satel-lite was beamed back to earth and released to thegeneral public. That image was remarkablebecause, although it was made by a satellite orbit-ing 423 miles above Earth, it showed detail aroundthe Washington Monument so clearly that youcould pick out automobiles on the street.

The technology is nifty, but why should youcare? Because these images can help televisionjournalists tell stories with a graphic reality neverbefore possible and can provide images fromplaces where cameras are forbidden. Satelliteimagery can help you report on major storm

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Figure 6.6Satellite systems haveenhanced ourcommunicationscapabilities and ourability to cover worldevents. In this photo, theimpact of the Kuwait oilfires (e.g., smoke), setduring operation DesertStorm, is evident in thissequence of photos.(Courtesy of the EarthObservation SatelliteCompany, Lanham,MD.)


systems, ecological change or urban sprawl inyour community. Soon you will be able to giveviewers a “fly-through” of your city or the sur-rounding area. With satellite imagery, producerswill be able to show terrain in forbidden territoryor a gravesite indicating a massacre.

There’s one more reason you should care:TheU.S. government has adopted a policy for thesecommercial satellites that would allow the govern-ment to cut off access to images whenever theState Department or Pentagon deems it necessary.The policy is unconstitutional, a violation of theFirst Amendment right of the press to publish orbroadcast without government interference, andRTNDA is leading the fight against this policy.

Until recently, government satellites collectedpictures from space, which were released to thepublic at the government’s discretion. For years,journalists have used weather satellite imagery intheir newscasts to inform viewers and even savelives of those threatened by hurricanes and trop-ical storms. Now Earth imagery is available fromRussia, France and India.When these images arecombined with computer technology, producerscan create much more realistic 3-D graphics thatreplace artists’ sketches and give the viewer thesense of “flying through” a landscape.

Dan Dubno of CBS News says the network hasused satellite imagery in recent months to reporton “everything from the crisis in Kosovo to theGulf War; North Korean nuclear development;the atomic bomb tests in Pakistan and India; theassault on Osama bin Laden’s hideaway inAfghanistan; the 1999 hurricane season; El Nino;and the shuttle launch.”

This evolution in journalists’ use of satelliteimagery brings enormous benefits. Stories can bemore accurate and truthful and can give thepublic access to geographic areas that are politi-cally inaccessible or too expensive to get to.

Now, with the advent of more commercialsatellite companies that will create a business outof making these images widely available, journal-ists will have more opportunities than ever to usethis imagery.

But the choices will exist only to the extentthat the U.S. government permits the imagery tobe made available. And contained in the govern-ment policy for licensing of commercial satellitesis some disturbing language on “shutter control.”

Shutter control is the term for cutting offimaging over a given geographic area for a givenperiod of time. If a satellite is really nothing morethan a camera in the sky, government exercise ofshutter control constitutes prior restraint of pub-lication of images.

U.S. constitutional law puts a heavy burden onthe government if it wants to prevent publication.The First Amendment ensures that the press isfree of government control and restraint. TheSupreme Court has insisted that the governmentmust take its case to a court of law and presentevidence to show why publication should be for-bidden before the fact. In the case of governmentarguing that publication would endanger nationalsecurity, the court has said the government mustshow that publication presents a clear and presentdanger to the national security.

The policy for commercial satellite licensing ismuch broader and more vague than constitutionallaw prescribes. In addition, the policy puts thepower to decide to exercise shutter control solelyin the hands of the executive branch, leaving outthe judiciary entirely.The Secretary of Commercemay invoke shutter control after being informedby either the Secretary of State or Defense that aperiod exists when national security, internationalobligations, or foreign policy interests may becompromised.

No judicial review. No presentation of evi-dence in court. No “clear and present danger”test. Rather, the policy makes the executivebranch of government both judge and jury in the matter. And the causes that could trig-ger shutter control are so broad as to be meaningless.

These conditions for shutter control wereincluded in new rules proposed by the federalgovernment in 1998. RTNDA and the NationalAssociation of Broadcasters filed commentsstrongly objecting to the rules. I also met person-ally with Secretary of Commerce William Daleyto explain our position. So far, the governmenthas not issued a final version.

But in 1998 the dispute was theoretical. Nosatellite had been successfully launched, nocompany was providing imagery to the com-mercial market. That all changed on September24, when IKONOS successfully launched andthree weeks later when it began distributing

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images with a resolution of one meter, or approx-imately three feet. Now, journalists and otherusers have access to imagery with much moredetail than ever before of countries, weathersystems, ecological change, and a host of othersubjects. Other companies with licenses haveplans to launch in the future.

So the question is now a practical one.What ifthe conflict in Kosovo were going on now, withsevere restrictions on reporting and deep involve-ment of U.S.military forces? What would the U.S.government do? Would it prevent the commercialsatellite from photographing Kosovo and the sur-rounding area? Would it prove a national securityimpact, or would the reasons be “foreign policyinterests”? And how would news organizationsreact? Would they try to win the right to argue thecase with the executive branch in court?

At RTNDA, we believe this issue is essential topreserving the right to broadcast material in thepublic interest without prior restraint. A test ofthe government’s role in shutter control is almostcertain to occur in the near future. When it does, RTNDA will be in the forefront on the issue, protecting the ability of journalists touse the best tools available—including satelliteimagery—to tell stories that are accurate, inde-pendent, and in the public interest.

Some observers have noted this issue mayactually be a nonissue at this point in time.

In one case, during U.S. operations inAfghanistan, the Department of Defenseentered an “ ‘assured access’ agreement with. . . Space Imaging, buying all of its satelliteimages of Afghanistan to prevent other usersfrom obtaining them. . . . In this way, formalshutter control never had to be exercised. . .”58 This action prevented the triggeringof shutter control and could set a precedentfor similar situations.

Other factors include the potentialimpact of the Bush Policy and the supportfor shutter control-type initiatives in light ofthe time sensitive nature of certain govern-ment actions. For the latter, some propo-nents believe the government should havethe freedom, when appropriate, to rapidlyinitiate security measures without priorapproval from a federal judge, as some jour-nalists have advocated.59

On the flip side, even if the governmentdoes enter into an “assured access” agreementand does not implement shutter control,could this action be viewed as a different formof information control? The Policy’s actualimplementation must also be fully mappedout to gauge its impact. But from an initialreading of the Policy’s mandates, BarbaraCochran’s concerns may still hold true.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Telecommunications: A Glossary of Telecom-munications Terms (Washington,DC:Federal Com-munications Commission,April 1987),4,14.

2. Intelsat web site, downloaded January2000.

3. Intelsat, “Intelsat 906 @ 64 Degrees E:Expanding the Network of Major Carriers inEurope,Asia,Africa, and Australia,” downloadedfrom www.intelsat.com/globalnetwork/satelites_launches_906.asp.

4. Mark Long, World Satellite Almanac(Boise, ID: Comm Tek Publishing Company,1985), 73.

5. For example, to produce a more focusedsignal.

6. Stabilization refers to the way a satellitemaintains its stability while in orbit. A spin-stabilized satellite rapidly rotates around an axis while the antenna is situated on a despunplatform so it continues to point at the Earth.Three-axis-stabilized spacecraft use gyros tomaintain their positions. Other systems also playa role in this process. NASA has used a three-axis-stabilized concept for many of its outerspace probes. See Andrew F. Inglis, Satellite Tech-nology (Boston: Focal Press, 1991), 32; and


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P.R.K. Chetty, Satellite Technology and Its Implica-tions (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books,1991), 174–179, for more detailed information.

7. It can be used during eclipses.8. Another vital element in the transmis-

sion between a satellite and a ground station istelemetry data.This is essentially housekeepingdata that are relayed by the satellite to indicateits current operational status. In addition, theground station can uplink commands, such asthe aforementioned activation of the thrustersand a possible command to move the satelliteto a different orbit. Thus, depending on itsdesign, a spacecraft is not necessarily locked intoa position once it achieves its assigned slot.

9. Phil Dubs, “How to ‘Recycle’ a DyingBird,” TV Technology 12 (May 1994), 20.

10. A controversy erupted about RTGsprior to the launching of the Galileo spacecraft.Designed to investigate Jupiter and its moonsduring an extended mission, Galileo’s systemsare powered by RTGs. Protesters sought toblock its launch legally. There was a concernover the possible contamination of the Earth ifthe RTGs’ fuel was scattered in a launch disas-ter. NASA and space advocates replied thenuclear fuel was in protective containers. Evenif there were an explosion, the fuel would notbe scattered. Ultimately, the spacecraft waslaunched in October 1989. Robert Nicholsprovides an excellent overview of this issue inhis article “Showdown at Pad 39-B,” Ad Astra 1(November 1989), 8–15. Other, subsequentspacecraft raised similar concerns.

11. Long, World Satellite Almanac, 68. See alsoChetty, Satellite Technology and Its Implications,402–403, for details. Note: Two such systemshave been frequency- and time-division multi-ple access (FDMA/TDMA). They also createda more efficient communications operation.

12. Conversation with Scott Bergstrom,Ph.D., director, Technology-Based InstructionResearch Lab, Center for Aerospace Sciences,University of North Dakota, August 6, 1992.For additional information, see Peter Lambert,“Digital Compression; Now Arriving on theFast Track,” Broadcasting (July 27, 1992), 40–46.

13. Other areas are also discussed at appro-priate points in the book.

14. Andrew F. Inglis, Satellite Technology(Boston: Focal Press, 1991), 30. Note:They sharea frequency range.

15. Satellite Communication Research,Satellite Earth Station Use in Business and Educa-tion (Tulsa, OK: Satellite CommunicationResearch), 18.

16. George Lawton, “Deploying VSATs forSpecialized Business Applications,” Telecommuni-cations 28 ( June 1994), 28.

17. Ibid., 30.18. Long,World Satellite Almanac, 99.Note: At

these higher frequencies, the signal can beweakened, that is, absorbed or scattered by rain-drops. This is analogous to the way the lightfrom a car’s headlights is dispersed and reducedin intensity by fog.

19. Please see “Satellite Communications,”by Carolyn A. Lin, p. 289, which appears inCommunication Technology Update, 8th Ed.(Boston: Focal Press, 2002) for further informa-tion about the regulatory developments.

20. Intelsat, “Four Decades of InspiringAchievement,” downloaded from www.intelsat.com/company/history.asp.

21. Inmarsat,“About Inmarsat,” downloadedfrom www.inmarsat.com/about_inm.cfm.

22. For example, a downtown district.23. The placement of HBO on satellite also

helped spur the growth of urban cable systems.24. Illegal decoders became available when

the supposedly unbreakable scrambling systemwas cracked.

25. William Sheets and Rudolf Graf, “TheRaid on HBO,” Radio-Electronics 10 (October1986), 49. Note: HBO provided the impetus forthe development of the VideoCipher scramblingsystem,originally developed by M/A-Com,Inc.This concept was described in a 1983 HBObrochure,“Satellite Security,” for its affiliates.

26. Please see the Satellite Home ViewerImprovement Act of 1999, available fromwww.fcc.gov, for more information about HSDinitiatives.

27. This included the adoption of an auto-matic transmitter identification system (ATIS).Please see Hughes Communications, Inc.“Staying Clean,” Uplink (spring 1992), 6, fordetails.


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28. The transmission system was on theorder of 150 to 200 watts of power.

29. David L. Price, “The Satellite,”COMSAT 11 (1983), 14.

30. “STC Asks for Modifications in DBSPlans,” Broadcasting (July 23, 1984), 99.

31. Andrew F. Inglis,“Direct Broadcast Satel-lites,” Satellite TV (October 1983), 33.

32. “DBS Ranks Cut in Half,” Broadcasting(October 15, 1984), 75.

33. “Commerce Department Sees BrightFuture for Advertising,”Broadcasting (January 12,1987), 70.

34. “USSB, Hughes Revive DBS in $100Million + Deal,”Broadcasting (June 10,1991), 36.

35. “The Growing World of Satellite TV,”Cable & Broadcasting (February 5, 1996), 59.Note: Stanley Hubbard has been one of themost vocal DBS advocates in the United Statesand started such a service.

36. Hughes Communications, Inc., “DirecTV,” information flyer.

37. William H. Boyer,“Across the Americas,1996 Is the Year When DBS Consumers Benefitfrom More Choices,”Satellite Communications 20(April 1996), 24.

38. Ibid., 26. Note: One option was to uselocal institutions, such as banks, as billing centers.

39. Rich Brown,“DBS Auctions Yield $735Million,” Broadcasting & Cable (January 29,1996), 6.

40. Marc S.Axelrod,“Transmitting Live fromBeijing,” InView (summer 1989).

41. John Pavlik and Mark Thalhimer, “TheCharge of the E-Mail Brigade: News Technol-ogy Comes of Age,” in The Media at War: ThePress and the Persian Gulf Conflict (New York:Gannett Foundation Media Center), 1991, 35.

42. Ted Koppel,“Journalists overseas rely ontheir experience, wits and a host of new tech-nologies,” Report aired on March 17, 2003;downloaded from ABCnews.com.

43. Arnett was a CNN reporter at the time.44. “Group Launches Campaign to ‘Pull

Plug’ on CNN’s Arnett,” Broadcasting (February18, 1991), 61.

45. Ted Koppel,“Journalists overseas rely ontheir experience,” downloaded from ABCnews.com.

46. TV interview between Tony Snow(FOX) and Gen. Tommy Franks; broadcast onFOX News, April 13, 2003.

47. Videoconferencing is discussed in a laterchapter.

48. National Geographic News, “NationalGeographic Fires Peter Arnett,” March 31,2003, downloaded from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0331_030331_arnettfired.html.

49. Rivera drew a rough map in the sand asto his unit’s location.

50. Merissa Marr, “BBC Chief Attacks U.S.Media War Coverage,” Reuters Industry, April24, 2003, downloaded from http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/nm/20030425/media_nm/iraq_media_bbc_dc_4.

51. Ibid.52. Pavlik and Thalhimer, “The Charge of

the E-Mail Brigade,” 37.53. Jay Peterzell, “Eye in the Sky,” Columbia

Journalism Review (September/October 1987),46.54. Karen Anderson,“Eagle Eye in the Sky,”

Broadcasting & Cable (October 12, 1999), 72.Note: In one case, a 10-meter resolution limita-tion was lifted (Ikonos has a 1 meter capability).Other countries have also gotten on the remotesensing bandwagon, including Russia for high-resolution images. See The Commercial SpaceAct of 1997, H.R. 1702, 105th Congress, 2ndsession and the Land Remote Sensing Policy Actof 1992 for information about U.S.policy issues.

55. U.S. Congress, Office of TechnologyAssessment, Civilian Satellite Remote Sensing: AStrategic Approach, OTA-ISS-607 (Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Sep-tember 1994), 114.

56. “U.S. Commercial Remote SensingPolicy,” Fact Sheet, April 25, 2003, down-loaded from www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/remsens.html.

57. “Fighting the Feds Over ShutterControl,” by Barbara Cochran, RTNDA Presi-dent. Copyright by Radio-Television NewsDirectors Association. Reprinted with permis-sion of the RTNDA.

58. Jefferson Morris,“Rand:Satellite ‘ShutterControl’ Not as Big an Issue as Expected,”downloaded from Nexis.


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59. Captain Michael R. Hoversten, “U.S.National Security and Government Regulationof Commercial Remote Sensing from OuterSpace,” 2001 Air Force Judge Advocate General

School; The Air Force Law Review; downloadedfrom LEXIS. Note: The article also provides anexcellent review of the remote sensing field andrelated issues.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Boyer, William. “Across the Americas, 1996 Isthe Year When DBS Consumers Benefit fromMore Choices.” Satellite Communications 20(April 1996), 23–30; Robert M. Frieden.“Satellites in the Global Information Infra-structure: Opportunities and Handicaps.”Telecommunications 30 (February 1996),29–33;David Hartshorn. “Conjuring the Cure forAsian Flu.” Satellite Communications 23(January 1999),24–31;Via Satellite extensivelycovers the international satellite market witharticles such as: Peter J. Brown.“It Takes Twoto Tango . . . Latin America.”Via Satellite XVI(July 2001), 32–43; Nick Mitsis. “AfricaUniting the Continent Through SatelliteTechnology.” Via Satellite XVI (November2001), 36–45; Nick Mitsis. “Asian EconomicTiger Awakens.” Via Satellite XVI (April2001), 20–28. Articles that cover variousinternational satellite issues.

Brender, Mark E. “Remote Sensing and theFirst Amendment.” Space Policy (November1987), 293–297. An excellent review ofremote sensing, journalism, and First Amendment issues, prior to the Clintonadministration.

Careless, James. “Databroadcasting: PushingBoundaries.” Via Satellite XVII (October2002), 28–33; James Careless. “Ka-BandVSATs:Blazing the Next Great Frontier.”ViaSatellite XVI (February 2001), 40–48; PatrickFlanagan. “VSAT: A Market and TechnologyOverview.” Telecommunications 27 (March1993), 19–24; George Lawton. “DeployingVSATs for Specialized Business Applications.”Telecommunications 28 (June 1994), 28–32;Gino Picasso.“VSAT’s: Continuing Improve-ments for a Workhorse Technology.” Telecom-munications 32 (September 1998), 56–57; John

Sweitzer. “The VSAT Ka-Band Configura-tion.” Satellite Communications 23 (October1999), 42–44, 48. Early VSAT developments,applications, the players, and Ka-band systems.

Chetty, P.R.K. Satellite Technology and Its Appli-cations. Blue Ridge Summit, PA:TAB Profes-sional and Reference Books, 1991; Andrew F. Inglis. Satellite Technology: An Introduction.Boston: Focal Press, 1991; Donald Martin.Communication Satellites, 4th Ed. El Segundo,CA:The Aerospace Press, 2000. Satellites andtheir applications.

Communications News. From late 1987 through1988, Communications News ran a series ofarticles devoted to VSATs. These articlesprovide an interesting perspective of thisfield. Includes David Wilkerson, “VSATTechnology for Today and the Future—Part3:Use Private Networks or Leased Services?”(November 1987), 60–63.

Dorr, Les, Jr. “PanAmSat Takes on a Giant.”Space World W-12–276 (December 1986),14–17; “Anselmo, Landman Team Up toTackle Intelsat.”Broadcasting (August 5, 1991),48. Early look at private, international satel-lite networks.

Dubs, Phil. “How to ‘Recycle’ a Dying Bird.”TV Technology 12 (May 1994), 20. An inter-esting look at how to extend a satellite’s use-ful lifetime.

“EOSAT Operations Underway.”The Photogram-metric Coyote 9 (March 1986), 8, 17;“SPOT toFly in October.” The Photogrammetric Coyote 8(September 1985), 2, 4; David L. Glackin andGerard R. Peltzer. Civil, Commercial, and Inter-national Remote Sensing Systems and Geoprocess-ing. El Segundo, CA: The Aerospace Press,1999; NASA.“The Landsat Satellites: UniqueNational Assets.” (FS-1999(03)-004-GSFC),


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downloaded; U.S. Congress, Office of Tech-nology Assessment. Civilian Satellite RemoteSensing: A Strategic Approach, OTA-ISS-607.Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, September 1994. Earlier to morerecent examinations of remote sensing satel-lites, policies, and applications.

Gildea,Kerry.“Lawmakers Put Pressure on DoDto Devise Commercial Imagery Strategy,”downloaded from Nexis; “RTNDA ProtestsImaging Satellite Constraints.” Broadcasting &Cable (August 12,1996),84.Domestic remotesensing restrictions and security concerns (onthe part of the U.S. government).

Nelson, Robert A. “What Is the Radius of theGeostationary Orbit.” Via Satellite XVI (Sep-tember 2001), 80.Brief but excellent descrip-tion of the geostationary orbit and factorsthat necessitate the use of thrusters to main-tain a satellite’s station.

Niekamp, Raymond A. “Satellite Newsgather-ing and Its Effect on Network-Affiliate Rela-

tions.” An AEJMC Convention paper,Radio–TV Journalism Division, August1990. Network affiliates and “their policies insharing news video with their networks andother stations.”

U.S. Chamber of Commerce. “National SpacePolicy Review Remote Sensing,” down-loaded from www.uschamber.com/space/policy/remotesensing2.htm; U.S. Chamberof Commerce. “U.S. Chamber’s Space En-terprise Council Welcomes New NationalRemote Sensing Policy,” downloaded fromwww.uschamber.com/press/releases/2003/may/03-82.htm.The U.S. Chamber of Com-merce’s recommendations for the govern-ment’s role in this field (first article) and itsresponse to the Bush Policy (second article).While the response is positive, there may stillbe gaps that have potential First Amendmentimplications.

GLOSSARY

Active Satellite: A satellite equipped to receivesignals and to relay its own signal back toEarth.

C-Band: A satellite communication frequencyband and satellite class. Commercial C-bandsatellites are the older of the contemporarycommunications satellite fleet.

Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS): A communica-tions satellite that delivers movies and otherofferings to subscribers equipped with com-pact satellite dishes.

Earth Station: An Earth station establishes acommunication link with a satellite. SomeEarth stations, also called ground stations,transmit and receive signals; others onlyreceive signals.

Footprint: The shape of a satellite transmission’sreception area on the Earth.

Geostationary Orbit: A desirable orbital posi-tion/slot for a communications satellite.The

satellite’s motion is synchronized with theEarth’s rotation and appears, to ground obser-vers, to be stationary.This has technical advan-tages for maintaining a communications link.

International Telecommunications Satellite Organiza-tion (Intelsat): A pioneering internationalsatellite consortium. Intelsat supports a broadrange of satellite services.

Ku-Band: A newer satellite communicationband and class.Ku-band satellites also supportmore powerful downlinks and have news(media) applications.

Orbital Spacing: Buffer zones physically separatethe satellites to help eliminate interference.

Passive Satellite: A satellite that does not relay itsown signal back to Earth.

Remote Sensing Satellite: A remote sensing satel-lite scans and explores the Earth with differ-ent instruments, including cameras. Imagescan highlight the Earth’s physical character-


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istics, such as wetland acreage losses. Themedia have also used these satellites to coverpotentially inaccessible regions for news cov-erage, and now there is a new generation ofcommercial imaging satellite.

Satellite Newsgathering (SNG): The process ofusing small, transportable satellite dishes todirectly relay news stories from almost any-where in the field.

Scrambling: A process in which a satellite’s signalis rendered unintelligible. The receiving siteis equipped with a decoder to return thesignal to its original state.

Shutter Control: As described, a “term forcutting off imaging over a given geographicarea for a given period of time.” Shuttercontrol refers to remote sensing satellites andpotential government restrictions.

Teleport: A satellite dish farm.Transponder: The heart of a satellite’s commu-

nications system that acts like a repeater inthe sky.

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT): A smallsatellite dish and the complementary elec-tronic components. A VSAT system can becost effective.

The previous chapter covered satellite fun-damentals. These ranged from basic opera-tions to communications applications. Thischapter focuses on complementary topicsincluding future technologies and launchvehicles.The latter is critical.Without cost-effective launch vehicles, new satellites maynever literally leave the ground. We con-clude with a quick look at relevant space lawand a history of the U.S. space initiative.

FUTURE SATELLITETECHNOLOGY

The plans for the next generation of com-munications satellite have been drafted. Thespacecraft will improve on current designs andcould carry sophisticated on-board switchingand processing equipment. These intelligentsatellites will direct the flow of communica-tions signals, which will help streamline theground network and the establishment ofcommunications links. Such satellites willpotentially reduce the cost to create, run, andmaintain our communications system.

Advanced CommunicationsTechnology Satellite, the Ka-Band, andThree Corner SatThis new generation of spacecraft is exem-plified by NASA’s experimental Advanced

Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS).Launched in 1993, ACTS operates in the Ka-band. Its features range from those justdescribed to a sophisticated transmissionsystem that can support “fixed beams andhopping spot beams that can be used toservice traffic needs on a dynamic basis.A hopping spot beam . . . sends/receivesinformation and then the beam electroni-cally ‘hops’ to a second location. . . .”1 It canrespond to user demands and traffic needs.

ACTS can sustain a high data rate, smallerreceiving antennas can be used, and it is aflexible communications system. Tests havealso been conducted to gauge its perfor-mance.Three representative examples includeISDN experiments, military and medicalapplications, and the capability to quicklyrestore communications services when ter-restrial links are disrupted.2

ACTS was also originally designed toaccommodate an experimental optical com-munications system. Devised by the militaryto produce a secure relay, it was later scrappedfrom the mission. The satellite was actuallyslated to be decommissioned by NASA in2000. However, the Ohio Consortium forAdvanced Communications Technology(OCACT) was established to “oversee thecontinued operation of . . . ACTS for thepurpose of educating students in variousareas of satellite operations and technology,

7 Satellites: NewDevelopments, LaunchVehicles, and Space Law

91


and the continuation of satellite communi-cations research in the Ka-band.”3 Thus,another of the mission’s original goals—thefostering of a collaborative environment be-tween governmental and academic/othernongovernmental agencies—continued.

More pointedly for this chapter, thesuccess of the ACTS mission helped open-up the Ka-band for commercial satel-lite communication. For example, Ka-bandsatellites will benefit from NASA’s workwith spot beam and internal signal switch-ing capabilities.Two targeted applications arethe support of high-speed VSAT configura-tions and Internet service.4

Satellites may also be built with moreautonomous capabilities. One goal is todevelop systems that can process data withless human intervention.

NASA has tapped this capability for terrestrial and space-based applications. Oneproject, the Three Corner Sat (3CS) mis-sion, would reduce the input from groundcontrollers.The onboard software would, inone operation, have “the ability to makereal-time decisions based on the images itacquires and send back only those it deemsimportant . . . Less time will be needed totransmit the data, freeing up power andallowing the spacecraft to concentrate onother important tasks.”5

As the technology base matures, this prin-ciple could be adopted for other space-basedprojects, including autonomous planetaryrovers. It could similarly be used in thedesign of intelligent communications satel-lites and imaging spacecraft with enhancedoperational capabilities.

Yet, while these developments haveadvantages, there are some pitfalls. Theimplementation of any new technology, forinstance, generally entails a financial invest-ment and, potentially, costs that may bepassed on to the customer. Ka-band satellitesare also more vulnerable to rain fade—raincan disrupt a transmission. More sophisti-

cated systems also dictate the constructionof a more complex satellite. This may havereliability implications.6

Finally, it is important to note the com-mercial satellite field is a dynamic one. Re-search continues to enhance current space-craft while companies, sometimes in leaguewith the government, continue to explorenew communications options. One suchcase is the potential broadening of the com-mercial use of another satellite band, the X-band. Primarily relegated to government-based activities (e.g., military use), the X-band represents another frequency that maybe tapped, in one example, to support gov-ernmental initiatives through commercialsatellite systems.7

Smallsats and Space PlatformsBesides an ACTS-type spacecraft, otherdevelopments have and will continue toadvance satellite technology. These includethe launching of smallsats and space platforms.

Smallsats are small, cost-effective satellites.They can be used for remote sensing, creat-ing personal communications networks,and for other applications.8 The bottom-linefigure for countries and organizations is that satellite technology has become moreaffordable. A smallsat is less expensive than a conventional satellite and can be designedand assembled in an accelerated time frame.

These factors are crucial for new anddeveloping applications. As covered inChapter 8, satellite-based personal commu-nication could be supported, in one config-uration, by a satellite series or constellationplaced in low Earth orbit.

Basically, if you have to build and launcha number of satellites to start a service, youcannot spend two or more years to manu-facture a single spacecraft. This is wheresmallsats step in. Instead of building cus-

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Satellites: New Developments, Launch Vehicles, and Space Law 93

tomized satellites, you reuse existing tech-nologies and products. Modular satellite sys-tems, which can accommodate differentspace-based applications, are also employed.9

The process is somewhat analogous tomass production, but there may be a trade-off.The smallsat may not be as sophisticatedor capable of handling as many tasks as itslarger and more costly counterpart. But thismay not be the design goal in creating asmallsat in the first place.

Similarly, the reuse of components ordesign concepts has been extended to outerspace exploration. To save mission costs,commercially produced systems, or a designimplemented on a satellite, for instance,could be used in the production of an outerspace probe.

Finally, a space platform would be a largestructure placed in orbit. It would route ahigh volume of information while occupy-ing only a single slot. A single platformcould potentially replace several contempo-rary spacecraft.

Space Weather and Space DebrisIt is important to note that scientists believesome satellites may be more susceptible tospace weather—for our discussion, adversesolar activity that could damage a space-craft.10 As we move toward more mass produced systems, which may employ com-mercial, off-the-shelf components, they maynot be adequately shielded from radiation.Other solar activities may also harm “tradi-tional” satellites as well. In fact, the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) has developed a “space weatherscale” that tracks the potential damage thatcould be caused by solar originated “geo-magnetic storms.”11

The upshot of these effects? If communica-tions satellites are damaged, our communica-tions system may be affected,and by extension,certain communications capabilities.

Besides natural phenomena, satellites,particularly in low and medium orbits, faceanother hazard.The Earth is surrounded bya “cloud” composed of millions of pieces ofdebris.This space junk, which can vary frompaint particles to radioactive droplets leakedfrom other satellites, poses new challengesfor satellite designers.12 While the possibilityfor a fatal impact is slight, precautions haveto be taken. Organizations have also draftedplans to produce less “polluting” spacecraftand rockets.13 Much like environmentalconditions on certain regions of the Earth,our lack of foresight has had unforeseenconsequences.This time, it is in space.

The problem may also be magnified if anarmed conflict or terrorist attack is extendedto space. Commercial and military satellitescould be potential targets, particularly the

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Figure 7.1The Challenger atliftoff. (Courtesy ofNSSDC.)


newer generation remote sensing and imag-ing satellites. As discussed, these spacecraftcould produce detailed images of a coun-try that may want to shield its activities from view. If a satellite were destroyed inspace, the resulting debris would createanother, potentially harmful, space hazardbeyond the service disruptions and mone-tary costs.

LAUNCH VEHICLES

New launch vehicles and organizations willfuel the growth of the satellite system. In thepast, companies and most nations signedwith NASA for this job, placing a heavydemand on launch vehicles and facilities.This situation looked as if it was going to bealtered in the 1980s. The development ofNASA’s space shuttle and the entry Ariane-space, a private consortium, promised tofacilitate satellite launch operations.

The Space ShuttleThe space shuttle is the world’s first refur-bishable manned or piloted spacecraft.Aftera mission, the shuttle returns to Earth and isrefurbished for its next flight. The spaceshuttle can carry a self-contained laboratory,scientific experiments, and satellites in itshold, the cargo bay. In its latter role, theshuttle initially carries a satellite to a lowEarth orbit where it is subsequently released.If the satellite’s final destination is a geosta-tionary orbit, an attached rocket boosterpropels the satellite to a specified altitude,and it eventually reaches a preassignedorbital slot after maneuvers.

The shuttle’s original promise and pre-mise was to make space accessible and oper-ations cost effective. Yet it was plagued bymechanical and structural problems. Thiswas partly a reflection of the spacecraft’s heritage:

• As a piloted vehicle, it had to support acrew;

• As a multipurpose vehicle, it had tosupport a range of missions; and

• It was refurbishable.

Consequently, the shuttle was a complexspacecraft. While it proved successful inmany ways, its complex design and otherfactors, including refurbishing delays, led tosetbacks. A somewhat burdensome organi-zational hierarchy also hampered the shuttleprogram.

The Challenger Explosion. In February1984, the space shuttle’s credibility as alaunch vehicle received a blow. After itsrelease, the Westar VI satellite’s booster mal-functioned, and the satellite was stuck in a useless orbit. Indonesia’s Palapa-B2, themission’s second satellite, suffered a similarfate.14 A little less than 2 years later, theexplosion of the space shuttle Challengershocked the world.The entire crew was lostin the most devastating tragedy in NASA’shistory. (As discussed in a later section, thiswas followed by the loss of the space shuttleColumbia, in 2003.)

In the wake of the Challenger disaster,and a report released by an investigatorycommission, President Ronald Reagan an-nounced that NASA would generally with-draw from the commercial satellite launchindustry. The frequency of future flightswould also be scaled down, and the shuttle’sprimary role would be to support scientificand military missions.

This directive reflected the president’sattitude toward the government’s role inprivate enterprises and the realization thatan overly ambitious launch schedule con-tributed to Challenger’s destruction.As statedby the commission, “The nation’s relianceon the Shuttle as its principal space launchcapability created a relentless pressure onNASA to increase the flight rate.”15 This

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pressure played a role in the decision tolaunch Challenger under adverse weatherconditions. Other contributing elements,which led to Challenger’s destruction, weredesign flaws in the shuttle’s rocket boosters,as well as possible flaws in the spacecraft’soverall design and the booster refurbishingprocess.16

Various companies subsequently steppedforward to fill the void in the commerciallaunch industry. Even though there wassome prior activity, the list of interestedparties has grown at an accelerated rate.17

Companies adopted existing rockets anddeveloped new unpiloted rockets, expend-able launch vehicles (ELVs). An example ofthe latter was Orbital Sciences Corpora-tion’s Pegasus. Instead of a typical groundlaunch, Pegasus was carried by a jet, released,and then proceeded on its own power.

This class of ELV was developed to liftsmall payloads into low Earth orbits. Theyalso complemented smallsats since they wereless expensive than conventional ELVs.18 Butdepending on the circumstances, a smallsatcould even hitch a ride on a conventionalELV, as part of another payload.19

These innovations will help fuel the smallsat industry. An organization may haveaccess to a smallsat, but without a cost-effective ELV, it may not be able to launch it.Launch costs are also factors in the creationand maintenance of satellite constellations.

The future U.S. satellite launch fleet willinclude the space shuttle and ELVs. Thecommercial sector will use ELVs while thegovernment will also rely on the shuttle.

NASA has helped support this industry byleasing its facilities to private companies andthrough other programs. This support hasbeen timely in light of the stiff competitionAmerican companies will continue to face inthe international satellite launch market.

This mixed fleet has also provided theUnited States with a more balanced launchcapability.When the shuttle program was in

full swing, ELVs were delegated to a sec-ondary role. But they have reemerged fromthe background.

The space shuttle, for its part, will con-tinue to fulfill the role for which it is bestsuited, that of a special utility and researchvehicle.An example of the former was a dra-matic and televised salvage operation.

In 1992, the shuttle Endeavor rendez-voused with an Intelsat VI satellite stuck ina low orbit. After some difficulties, astro-nauts retrieved the satellite, brought it intothe shuttle’s bay, and attached a motor for asubsequent boost to its final geostationaryposition.

Besides contributing to the knowledgebase for recovery missions, some of theshortcomings of simulations were revealed.A simulation, which attempts to duplicatethe conditions of an actual event, was inac-curate in this case. An alternate plan had tobe devised and implemented.

This type of practical experience indealing with novel situations is important for the future of extravehicular space-basedactivities. It also highlighted, at this stage of our technology base, the value of thehuman presence in space. Humans, unlikecurrent robotic devices, can adapt to uniquecircumstances.20

ArianespaceArianespace is a private commercial enter-prise and an offshoot of another Europeanorganization, the European Space Agency(ESA). Arianespace was created in responseto NASA’s earlier domination of the satellite launch industry.21 Arianespace hasaggressively promoted and marketed ELVsand a sophisticated launch and support operation. Its rockets have a flexible payloadcapability and can accommodate heavy payloads.

Arianespace has also maintained a com-petitive price structure, and its launch site in

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Figure 7.2Pegasus launch vehicle.The diagrams highlightits features. (Courtesy ofOrbital Sciences Corp.)


Kourou, French Guyana, is particularly wellsituated to place satellites in geostationaryand other orbital positions. These factors and others contributed to its growing shareof the international launch market whenNASA was still a participant in the field.

Despite its successes, Arianespace has suffered some of its own setbacks. Satelliteshave been destroyed by rocket failures, andthe organization must face a host of new andpotential competitors, including China,private U.S. companies, and Japan.

The Current and Future State of theSatellite Launch IndustryThe commercial launch industry, as indi-cated, experienced a series of upheavals.While it is true that NASA had left the field,companies and other nations have filled thevoid. The increased competition triggeredby NASA’s decision may actually make iteasier, in the long run, for an organizationto launch a satellite. In fact, a report issuedby the Commission on the Future of theUnited States Aerospace Industry, noted that the supply of potential launch vehicleshad actually outstripped the potentialdemand.22

On a bleaker note for the United States,its preeminent position in the satellite man-ufacturing field has been eroding. Duringthe late 1980s to early 1990s, the UnitedStates manufactured 36 communicationssatellites and Europe and Japan built 23.23

Prior to this time, the United States haddominated the industry.

This erosion was somewhat mirrored byother U.S. space initiatives. Mixed signalsabout the viability of the then-proposedspace station were sent to the public andinternational community.The situation wasfurther exacerbated by mishaps, includingthe loss of Mars probes and a technicalproblem with the Galileo, Jupiter mission.24

The overall sentiment was summed up in

the early 2000s in the same Aerospace Indus-try report. It was noted “that a ‘sense oflethargy’has taken over the U.S. space indus-try. Instead of the excitement and exuber-ance that dominated our early ventures intospace, we at times seems almost apologeticabout our continued investments in thespace program.”25

Nevertheless, there were and are somepositive signs.These range from the extend-ed ACTS mission to the development ofenhanced satellite systems. Congress alsorecognized the necessity of supporting a

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Figure 7.3The Ariane 42P, withtwo solid strap-onboosters. (Courtesy ofArianespace.)


strong satellite and launch industry. As stated,“this industry contributed to the U.S.economy, strengthens U.S. scientific inter-ests, and supports foreign policy and secu-rity interests.”26

New Ventures. The United States andother countries have also tried to makespace more accessible and affordable. Oneproposal was the National AeroSpace PlaneProgram (NASP) with its experimental X-30 vehicle.The NASP was slated to pave theway for aerospace planes that could take offand land on conventional runways, attain alow Earth orbit, and be reusable instead ofrefurbishable.27

Much like an airline, the term reusableimplies a quick turnaround time. Unlike the

shuttle, a vehicle could be prepared for itsnext flight without major refurbishing.Thiscapability would save time and money.

The X-30 is also a hypersonic flight vehicle,as are other, more recent NASA techno-logy and flight demonstrators, including theHyper-X series. As envisioned, this newgeneration of vehicle would “routinely flyabout 100,000 feet above Earth’s surface and reach sustained travel speeds in excess of Mach 5, or 3750mph—the point which‘supersonic’ flight becomes ‘hypersonic’flight.”28 Projected applications for suchvehicles, if and when operational, couldinclude retrieving low orbit satellites andservicing the space station.29 Another spinoffis more down to Earth. New airliners basedon this concept could carry passengers

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Figure 7.4Lockheed Martin’s X-33 from different views.(Courtesy of NASA.)


between cities faster, for example, in oneroute from Los Angeles to Sydney,Australia,in 2.5 rather than 13.5 hours.30

The goal of making space more accessible,and the search to replace the space shuttle,has similarly influenced other potentialsystems. One program’s objective, for in-stance, was the development of a reusablelaunch system through a single-stage to orbitrocket.The Reusable Launch Vehicle Tech-nology Program’s objective was to create“technologies and new operational conceptsthat can radically reduce the cost of access tospace. The program will combine groundand flight demonstrations. An importantaspect . . . will be the use of experimentalflight vehicles—the X-33 and X-34—toverify full-up systems performance. . . .”31

Consequently, the goal has been toreplace current launch vehicles, where prac-ticable, with cost-effective reusable systems.The Delta-Clipper Experimental (DC-X)rocket already tested key concepts at theWhite Sands Missile range in the early tomid-1990s.32 This was followed by NASA’scooperative agreement with LockheedMartin to work on the X-33 program. Onestated goal was to “cut the cost of a poundof payload to orbit from $10,000 to $1000,”the magical number that would help makespace realistically affordable.33

It must also be noted that new designsand plans will inevitably be broughtforward. Based on technological, program-matic, and budgetary needs, they will eitherremain images on a computer screen or possibly enter the prototype and productionphases. New initiatives will also includeELVs as designs are generated and existingvehicles are updated and modified to carryheavier payloads.

Finally, Xs made another appearance in1996 in the guise of the X-prize. Borrow-ing a tactic from aviation’s early days whenmonetary prizes were offered to advanceflying, the modern X-prize seeks to “accel-

erate the development of low-cost, reusablevehicles and thereby jump-start the creationof a space tourism industry.”34

As has also been indicated, satellitelaunches are not infallible.Accidents do oc-cur, and a launch vehicle and accompanyingsatellite(s) can be lost. Future launches mayalso be postponed until the accident’sunderlying cause has been determined.Thiswaiting period may be unacceptable to anorganization with a tight timetable.Thus, anorganization may sign contracts with multi-ple vendors to launch its satellites. If oneELV is “grounded,” other satellites couldcontinue to be launched.35 It is hoped,though, that as new ELVs come on line, thenumber of accidents will diminish and thedecades old dream of making space accessaffordable will be realized—not only fororganizations and governments, but also forthe rest of us.

SPACE EXPLORATION

In closing this chapter, it is appropriate toexamine an area related to satellite commu-nication: space exploration.Both fields coin-cide to a certain extent, and space probes aresophisticated communications tools in theirown right. More important, developmentsin this field have had an impact on the infor-mation and communications industries.

As will be discussed in Chapter 14,NASAhelped pioneer image processing techniquesto enhance and correct pictures transmittedby outer space probes. Similar techniqueshave been applied on Earth in the computergraphics and medical fields, among otherapplication areas. The media has also usedremote sensing satellites, originally designedto explore the Earth. Consequently, cross-fertilization can occur between what can be called outer and inner space operations.As such, outer space developments at leastmerit an overview.

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This section also provides a brief historyof NASA and highlights some of the forcesthat have shaped and continue to shape the space program.These include social andpolitical issues and pressures. The sectionconcludes with an overview of legal impli-cations governing space-based activities.

HistoryThe 1950s witnessed the birth of themodern era of space exploration.36 A mile-

stone was the inauguration of NASA onOctober 1, 1958, as the successor to theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronau-tics (NACA). NACA, founded in 1915,helped advance the nation’s aeronauticalindustry through research and related activ-ities. The new agency was given the samemandate and oversight of the civilian spaceprogram.

Some of the space program’s major eventsand influencing factors are as follows:

1.The Soviet Union launches the first arti-ficial satellite, Sputnik 1, on October 4,1957.

2.On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonautYuri Gagarin becomes the first humanin space.The U.S. space program centersabout Project Mercury and its sevenastronauts.

3.President John F. Kennedy commits thenation to landing an astronaut on themoon before the end of the decade(Project Apollo).

4.On January 27, 1967, a fire in the Apollocommand module kills three astro-nauts.37 A Russian cosmonaut loses hislife in the same year.38

5.On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong andEdwin (“Buzz”) Aldrin of Apollo 11become the first humans to walk on themoon, while their comrade, MichaelCollins, orbits overhead.

6.The Apollo program comes to a haltafter Apollo 17 in December 1972,owing to financial considerations andthe changing U.S. social and politicalclimate (for example, the Vietnam War).

7.The 1970s and early 1980s witness othermissions, including the Apollo-SoyuzTest Project (1975), in which a Sovietand U.S. spacecraft dock in orbit, and thedevelopment of the space shuttle.

8.Budgetary constraints and the loss of thespace shuttle Challenger contribute to the dearth of planetary missions from

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Figure 7.5The Hubble SpaceTelescope beingrefurbished during ashuttle mission.(Courtesy of NSSDC.)


the late 1970s until the late 1980s.39 Thepotential lack of appropriations forACTS and other projects could havesimilarly derailed advanced satellite/planetary spacecraft missions.

9.The Galileo probe investigates Jupiterand its moons in the 1990s and theHubble Space Telescope continues itsexploration of the universe from a lowEarth orbit. Both systems, though, havesuffered from performance problems. Arover, controlled from Earth, exploresMars.

10.Space probes explore the Solar System,including Mercury,Venus, Mars, Jupiter,Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, asteroids, theMoon, and the Sun. Only Pluto remainsto be visited by a probe, which maycome to fruition at some future date, ifa proposed mission is launched.

11.The Earth is explored by different satel-lites. For example, remote sensing satel-lites image the Earth for geological, andmore recently, media applications.

12.A new series of spacecraft explore Mars,while an international space stationorbits the Earth.

Finally, as stated, the space shuttle Colum-bia was lost in early 2003. Engaged in a sci-entific mission, the shuttle broke-up duringre-entry in the Earth’s atmosphere. Shuttlepieces and sections were subsequently recov-ered and reconstructed. As of this writing,the best data indicate a piece of foam insula-tion, which ripped off the external fuel tankduring launch, slammed into the shuttle’swing.The impact damaged a section of thewing’s leading edge, which was ultimatelybreached by hot gas during the re-entry.40

This triggered a series of events and, ulti-mately, led to Columbia’s destruction.

A follow-up investigation indicated thatsome shortfalls at NASA might have con-tributed to the loss.They may have includedthe following:

• ignoring safety warnings by experts,41 and• if NASA should have used satellite

imagery or a spacewalk to investigate thewing prior to re-entry since the foamimpact was observed during launch.42

As was the case with Challenger, some indi-viduals called for the cessation of the humanexploration of space since it was dangerous.Others, however, believed the flights shouldand must continue.They extend our knowl-edge and contribute to the centuries-oldhuman exploration of our world, and now,of other worlds as well.43

Legal ImplicationsAs our satellites’ capabilities increase and wedevelop commercial space-based enter-prises, legal issues become more important.Relevant topics already discussed are orbitalassignments, signal piracy, and the role ofIntelsat and competing organizations in the international arena. Additional subjectsinclude the following:

• The UN’s concern about the interna-tional free flow of information and itsbalance; not solely from the developed tothe developing world.

• The international dissemination of databy remote sensing satellites.

• The U.S. media’s use of such images andthe impact of government restrictions andregulations.

• The sociopolitical impact of DBS relays if the signals spill over to a neighboringcountry.44

• The “upward extent” of a country’snational sovereignty—is it 100 miles, orcould it be lower or even higher?45 Howhigh is high? What are the political impli-cations for satellites with respect to theirorbital slots?

• Ownership/property rights in space.Various legal questions remain as to

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Bicentennial Committee covered thisissue in a subcommittee.An outcome, the“Declaration of First Principles for theGovernance of Outer Space Societies,”declared that the U.S.Constitution shouldalso apply to “individuals living in outerspace societies under United States jurisdiction.”47 The document’s draftersbelieved that individual rights, such asfreedom of speech, assembly, and mediaand communications [my emphasis], arefundamental principles that would extendto U.S. space societies, balanced againstthe unique environment afforded byouter space.48

Finally, there are other legal issues beyondthe scope of this book, such as licensingpolicies and procedures for communicationssatellites. For the realm of outer space, there’sa growing body of space law. It is a fasci-nating field, and one that will continue toevolve as we begin to take our first outwardsteps in space.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. NASA, “Advanced CommunicationsTechnology Satellite (ACTS) Hardware,” Infor-mation Sheet, 3.

2. Frank Gedney and Frank Gargione,“ACTS: New Services for Communications,”Satellite Communications (September 1994), 48.

3. OCACT, “Background InformationSheet,” downloaded from www.csm.ohiou.edu.Note: Ohio University plays a major role in theconsortium.

4. Peter J. Brown,“Ka-Band Services: Avail-able in Different Flavors,” Via Satellite XVI(February 2001), 22.

5. NASA,“Artificial Intelligence Software toCommand Mission,” Press Release, May 30,2001, downloaded from http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/whatsnew/pr/010530C.html.

6. James Careless, “Ka-Band Satellites,” ViaSatellite XVI (February 2001), 41.

7. Nick Mitsis, “X-BAND: How InterestedShould the Commercial Sector Be?” Via Satel-lite XVIII (August 2003), 33.

8. Brian J. Horais, “Small Satellites ProveCapable for Low-Cost Imaging,” Laser FocusWorld 27 (September 1991), 148.

9. Amy Cosper, “Crank Up the AssemblyLine,” Satellite Communications (February 1996), 29. Note: NASA has adopted a similar philosophy for some of its outer spacemissions.

10. Sten Odenwald, “Solar Storms: TheSilent Menace,” Sky and Telescope 99 (March2000), 54. Note: The article provides an excellent overview of solar storms and

Figure 7.6The chart highlights thedecline in the U.S.satellite manufacturing(8.5 and 5.5) andlaunch industries (4.1and 1.7).The figuresrepresent revenues andare measured in thebillions of dollars.(Source: Via Satellite,“Strategic Planning andResource Guide,”2002.)

property rights on the moon and othercelestial bodies.46 In one case, would acompany or consortium invest hundredsof millions of dollars to develop a miningoperation if its rights were not clearlydefined?

• Individual rights for space explorersand/or colonists. The U.S. Constitution


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their potential impact, including terrestrial implications.

11. Ibid., 55.12. William J. Broad,“Radioactive Debris in

Space Threatens Satellites in Use,” New YorkTimes (February 26, 1995), 12.

13. Leonard Davis, “Lethal Litter,” SatelliteCommunications (January 1996), 24.

14. Following this mission, the satellites weresubsequently recovered and returned to Earthvia a shuttle.

15. William P. Rogers, Neil Armstrong,David C. Acheson, et al., Report of the Presiden-tial Commission on the Space Shuttle ChallengerAccident (Washington, DC: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1986), 201.

16. Yale Jay Lubkin, “What Really Hap-pened,” Defense Science 9 (October/November1990), 10.

17. The Reagan administration had been aproponent of the commercialization of outerspace, especially in the area of the launch indus-try. See Edward Ridley Finch, Jr. and AmandaLee Moore, AstroBusiness (Stamford, CT:Walden Book Company, 1984), 56–63, for more information.

18. A Pegasus launch would have costapproximately $7 to 10 million versus millionsof more dollars for a standard ELV.

19. Rick Fleeter, “The Smallsat Invasion,”Satellite Communications (November 1994), 29.

20. Note that salvage missions of this natureare limited,at least at this time,to low Earth orbits.

21. The ESA and its member states support a wide range of space activities (for ex-ample, ELV developmental work and spaceexploration).

22. Jeff Foust, “Recommendations Issues for Revitalizing U.S. Space Industry,” SpaceflightNow (November 18, 2002), downloaded fromwww.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0211/19commission/.

23. R. T. Gedney, “Foreign Competition in Communications Satellites Is Real,” ACTSQuarterly 91/1 (February 1992), 1.

24. Despite the mission’s successful deploy-ment of a probe into Jupiter’s atmosphere, anantenna mishap reduced its transmission rate(for example, of photos).

25. Foust, “Recommendations Issues forRevitalizing U.S. Space Industry,” SpaceflightNow.

26. The Commercial Space Act of 1997,H.R. 1702, 105th Congress, 2nd session.

27. U.S. General Accounting Office,“National Aero-Space Plane; A TechnologyDevelopment and Demonstration Program toBuild the X-30,” GAO/NSIAD-88-122, April1988, 14.

28. NASA,“NASA Developing HypersonicTechnologies; Flight Vehicles only Decades Away,” Press Release, July 22, 2002. Release # 02-182, downloaded from http://www.spacelink.msfc.nasa.gov/NASA.News/NASA.News.Releases/Previous.News.Releases/02.News.Releases/02-07.News.Releases/02-07-22.Hypersonic.Technologies.Developed.

29. See Jim Martin, “Creating the Platformof the Future: NASP,” Defense Science (Septem-ber 1988), 55, 57, 60, for more informationabout the NASP program, including potentialmilitary applications. NASP-based vehicleswould not eliminate ELVs since one vehiclemay not be able to perform all functions equallywell.The payload weight and final orbital place-ment (e.g., geostationary) will also help deter-mine the type of launch vehicle that will beused for a given mission.

30. U.S. General Accounting Office,National Aero-Space Plane, 50.

31. NASA Facts OnLine, Marshall SpaceFlight Center, “The Reusable Launch VehicleTechnology Program.”

32. A witness to a DC-X flight (launch/hovering/flight periods), indicated “the landingwas the way God and Robert Heinlein in-tended.” For details, see Marianne J. Dyson, “ASign in the Heavens,” Ad Astra 5 (November/December 1993), 17.

33. “Lockheed Martin Selected to Build theX-33,” NASA Press Release, July 2, 1996.

34. X-Prize brochure, 1996.35. James M. Gifford, “Going Up,” Satellite

Communications 20 (February 1996), 33.36. Parts of this section are taken from

Michael Mirabito, “Space Program,” in TheReader’s Companion to American History (NewYork: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991),


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1013–1014. Houghton Mifflin kindly extendedpermission for its use.

37. Virgil Grissom, Edward White, andRoger Chaffee.

38. Vladimir Komarov. See J.K.Davies,SpaceExploration (New York: Chambers, 1992), 193.Three other cosmonauts, Georgi Dobrovolsky,Vladislav Volkov, and Victor Patseysev, died in1971.

39. Dick Scobee, Mike Smith, EllisonOnizuka, Judy Resnik, Ron McNair, GregoryJarvis, and Christa MacAuliffe.

40. William Harwood, “Foam Impact Cen-tered on Panel 6 of Wing’s Edge,” SpaceflightNow (March 26, 2003), downloaded fromhttp://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts107/030326hearing.

41. “Report: NASA Removed AdvisersWho Warned on Safety,” Reuters (February 3,2003), downloaded from Yahoo.com.

42. William Harwood, “Shuttle Columbiaand Crew Lost,” Spaceflight Now (February 2,2003), downloaded from http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts17/030202columbialost.

43. Space flight proponents supported thecontinued human presence in space, and in one instance, adopted a quote from Teddy Roosevelt: “Life belongs to those who knowthe great enthusiasms, the great devotions; whospend themselves in a worthy cause; who at thebest know in the end the triumph of highachievement, and who at the worst, if they fail,at least fail while daring greatly, so that theirplace shall never be with those cold and timidsouls who have never known neither victorynor defeat.” From Nathan Miller, Theodore Roosevelt (NY: William Morrow and Co., Inc.,1992), 507. Thus, as supporters stated, whilespace exploration can be dangerous, it can also

be a worthy cause. Columbia’s crew: RickHusband, William C. McCool, David M.Brown, Kalpana Chawla, Michael P. Anderson,Laurel Clark, and Ilan Ramon.

44. Stephen Gorove, “The 1980 Session ofthe UN Committee of the Peaceful Uses ofOuter Space: Highlights of Positions on Out-standing Legal Issues,” Journal of Space Law 8(spring/fall 1980), 179.

45. S. Houston Lay and Howard J. Tauben-feld, The Law Relating to Activities of Man in Space(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,1970), 41.

46. Ty S. Twibell, “Legal Restraints on theCommercialization and Development of OuterSpace,” University of Missouri at Kansas City Law Review, (spring, 1997), downloaded fromLEXIS.

47. Nathan C. Goldman, “Space Colonies:Rights in Space, Obligations to Earth,” in JillSteele Meyer, ed., Proceedings of the SeventhAnnual International Space Development Conference(San Diego, CA: Univelt, Inc., 1991), 220.

48. Rights versus the space environmentinclude the right to bear arms, an importantU.S. concept. But in space, where a weaponcould physically compromise the integrity of acolony’s protective shielding, this issue becomesmore complex.The same question applies to thefreedom of assembly and the press, amongothers.This general concept has also been usedas the plot in various works, including Robert A. Heinlein’s science fiction book,The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (New York:Berkeley Publishing Corp., 1968). For moreinformation, see William F. Wu, “Taking Liberties in Space,” Ad Astra 3 (November1991), 36.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Abutaha,Ali F. The Space Shuttle:A Basic Problem.This videotape was produced by GeorgeWashington University,Washington,DC.Thisis a taped lecture conducted by Ali Abutahafor George Washington’s Continuing Engi-

neering Education program.The tape coversshuttle design problems discovered byAbutaha after the Challenger disaster.

Banke, Jim. “Ticket to Ride.” Ad Astra 8( January/February 1996), 24–26; Dr. Peter


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Diamandis. “The ‘X’ Prize.” Ad Astra 7(May/June 1995), 46–49. Space tourismdevelopment and a look at the X-prize andaviation examples.

Boeke, Cynthia. “On the Road.” Via SatelliteXVI (September 2001), 76–79; John Kross.“Fields of Dreams.” Ad Astra 8 (January/February 1996), 27–31; Justin Ray. “Delta 4 Fleet Goes from ‘Medium’ to ‘Heavy’.”Spaceflight Now (November 12, 2002), down-loaded from www.spaceflightnow.com;ReneeSaunders. “Rocket Industry Agenda for theNext Millennium.” Satellite Communications19 (July 1995), 22–24.The U.S. and interna-tional outlooks for spaceports and rockets.

Fleeter, Rick. “The Smallsat Invasion,” SatelliteCommunications 18 (November 1994), 27–30.Smallsats.

Gedney, Frank, and Frank Gargione. “ACTS:New Services for Communications,” SatelliteCommunications 18 (September 1994), 48–54;NASA. “Advanced Communications Tech-nology Satellite (ACTS),” downloaded fromhttp://acts.grc.nasa.gov.The ACTS satellite, areview of its first year of operation, and its influence on other satellite designs.The secondarticle includes retirement information.

Hardin, R. Winn. “Solid-State Lasers Join theSpace Race.” Photonics Spectra 32 (June 1998), 114–118; Walter L. Morgan. “Pass ItAlong.” Satellite Communications 22 (May1998), 50–53. Laser applications in satellitecommunication.

Kerrod, Robin. The Illustrated History of NASA:Anniversary Edition.New York:Gallery Books,1988. A comprehensive and richly illustratedhistory of NASA and the U.S. program.

Lewis Research Center, NASA. ACTS Quar-terly.A Lewis Research Center newsletter thattraces the development, launching,and testingof the ACTS satellite.As a collection, it is an

interesting overview of the birth and life of asatellite, as well as the impact of external forces(for example, budgetary appropriations).

Military & Aerospace Electronics covers newlaunch vehicle/propulsion developments,among other topics. Three articles include:John Keller. “Avionics Innovation MarksNew Space Shuttle.” (April 1997), 1, 7; JohnMcHale. “Electrical Xenon Ion Engine toPower New Millennium Spacecraft.” ( June1997), 1, 33; John Rhea. “Avionics Key inDrive to Cut Space Launch Costs.” (Decem-ber 1998), 1, 8.

NASA/JPL. CASPER. (Artificial IntelligenceGroup).Overview of autonomous space-basedmissions and other information, http://wwwaig.jpl.nasa.gov/public/planning/casper/.

Sky and Telescope. The November 1993 issue had a series of articles/sidebars that focusedon the Hubble Telescope and its repair.An example is Richard Tresch Fienberg,“Hubble’s Road to Recovery,” 16–22.

Space Law. Numerous articles and books coverspace law (the last article covers space debris)and satellite regulatory issues.These include:Carl J. Cangelosi. “Satellites: RegulatorySummary,” in Andrew F. Inglis, ed. ElectronicCommunications Handbook. New York:McGraw-Hill Book Company,1988,6.1–6.9;Ty S.Twibell.“Legal Restraints on Commer-cialization and Development of OuterSpace.” University of Missouri at Kansas CityLaw Review. (spring 1997). (65 UMKC L.Rev. 589), downloaded from LEXIS; AlanWasser. “A New Law Could Make PrivatelyFunded Space Settlement Profitable.”Ad Astra9 (July/August, 1997), 32–35; Christopher D.Williams. “Space: The Cluttered Frontier.”1995 Southern Methodist University Journal ofAir Law and Commerce. May/June 1995 (60 J.Air & Com.1139), downloaded from LEXIS.


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GLOSSARY

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite(ACTS): A NASA satellite that is a proto-type for the future commercial fleet.

Arianespace: A commercial satellite launchagency.

Challenger: The space shuttle that was lost toequipment and systems failures.

Launch Vehicles: Both expendable (ELV) andpiloted vehicles used to launch satellites andspace probes.Two launch organizations haveincluded NASA and Arianespace, and othercountries have either developed, or are devel-oping, their own capabilities.

NASA: The U.S. space agency given themandate to oversee the civilian space and

aeronautical programs. Also the successor tothe NACA.

Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Program:Program designed to create the next-generation U.S. launch vehicle.

Smallsat: A small, relatively inexpensive satellite.Space Shuttle: The world’s first refurbishable

piloted spacecraft. A shuttle can carry avariety of payloads to a low Earth orbit.

X-Prize: Echoing back to an earlier era, a proposed monetary prize to advance reusablelaunch vehicle technology (for example, todevelop space tourism).

Wireless technology comes in differentflavors.As implied by the name, you are notphysically connected with or tied to a com-munications line. One application supportsdata exchanges in a building while anotherextends this relay to another country. Inessence, the wireless industry embraces anassortment of technologies and applicationsyou can tap to solve your communicationsneeds.

For our discussion, we also focus on sys-tems that support mobile business and per-sonal communication.These include cellulartelephones (cell phones), personal commu-nications services (PCS), certain satelliterelays, the virtual office, and wireless localarea networks (WLANS). But before wecover these topics, other wireless systems arequickly reviewed for a full coverage of thisuniverse.

WIRELESS SYSTEMS

Microwave, Laser, and CableMicrowave systems have handled long,short, and intracity relays. A microwavesystem is cost effective and can accommo-date a range of information with a widechannel capacity. Microwave applicationsmay also be easier to implement than fiber-optic or copper-based ones.You do not, for

instance, have the potential problem ofobtaining clearances to lay the cable.

On a negative note, a microwave trans-mission could be affected by heavy rain.AnFCC license has also been required and, asa line-of-sight medium, the transmitter andreceiver must be in each other’s line of view.

Another wireless system uses an infraredlaser to relay voice, video, and computerinformation through the air. It is cost effec-tive and can support a wide and secure com-munications channel.An FCC license is notrequired, and operations could be set up inareas where microwave communication maynot be feasible.1 A laser relay is, however, lineof sight. Smog and other atmospheric con-ditions could also variably affect it.

Wireless technology has also been used by the cable industry.Wireless relays existedfor a number of years under the aegis of the Multichannel Multipoint DistributionService (MMDS).2

Finally, the communication transactionssupported by some of these wireless systemshave been conducted as bypass operations.An organization bypasses, or goes around,the traditional public communications networks.3

Thanks, in part, to the divestiture ofAT&T in the early 1980s, a new dawngreeted the telecommunications world. In-dustry segments once dominated by AT&T

8 Wireless Technologyand MobileCommunication

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became open markets for sales and leasingopportunities.

Companies also became more responsiblefor their own communications systems.Various intracity and intercity links wereestablished that could be more responsive to an organization’s unique communicationneeds.Thus, a company could more readilyreact to new communication demands sinceit used private or leased links.4

The latter concept is a key one. Com-munications systems will conform to ourcommunication needs and not the otherway around.

MOBILE WIRELESS SERVICES

In the context of our present discussion,mobile wireless systems could be viewed as personal bypass systems—the importantconcept for us is mobility.Various techno-logical and social changes have combined to make us a society on the go, a mobilesociety. Our information and communica-tions tools are following suit.

• Powerful notebook computers are smallerand weigh less.

• We conduct business from our cars andcan use the same telephone to call home.

• Cell phones and pagers are no longer rel-egated to only a few professions.

• Satellite-based relays can support every-day communication.

A goal is to free us from physical wires—constraints. As stated by one author when describing such an application, “PCSis a new wireless mobile technology forvoice and data communication to and frompeople, not locations [my emphasis].”5 Conse-quently, we may no longer be bound to aphysical space to communicate or to ex-change information. Communication wouldbe centered on us rather than an office orother site.

CELLULAR TELEPHONE AND PERSONALCOMMUNICATION SERVICES

The cellular telephone industry, a key wire-less player, is a communications fixture. Aspecified geographical region is divided intosmall physical areas called cells, each of whichis equipped with a low-power transmissionsystem.

In a typical operation, as you approach a cell’s boundary while driving, the signalbetween the phone and the transmitter be-comes weaker.At this point, the new cell thecar is approaching basically picks up theconnection.The telephone is then switchedover to a different frequency, to avoid poten-tial interference with adjacent cells. Thisprocedure is automatically completed by asophisticated control network.

Cellular technology has also been inte-grated with portable PCs for remote datarelays. In a related development, digital oper-ations support a cleaner signal, for both dataand voice, and provide for a more secure(private) relay.6

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Figure 8.1An over-the-air(atmospheric) opticalcommunications system.It can accommodate arange of information.(Courtesy of ICS, Inc.)

Wireless Technology and Mobile Communication 109

The cellular technology universe ex-ploded in the late 1990s and early 2000s.New price breaks made it possible to replaceyour conventional home telephone servicewith a cell phone. Features also abound.These range from color screens to Internetsearch/e-mail capabilities to functioning asa worldwide phone. For the latter, differentinternational standards exist. With the ap-propriate phone, you could use the sameunit in more than one country or continent.As briefly covered in Chapter 3, cell phoneand PDA capabilities have also been marriedin some units.

Like the computing field, these techno-logical enhancements did not come with a physical price tag. Earlier phones werevery bulky—you could not fit one in yourpocket unless you wore a trench coat.Newer models, which are also more sophis-ticated, are compact, fairly lightweight, andhave a longer battery life than their prede-cessors.

The last point is important.Taking a pagefrom a systems approach, battery enhance-ments have helped fuel the cell phone, note-book computer, and other markets. Batteriesare now more efficient with enhanced ser-vice capabilities.As such, they contribute tothe continued growth of the portable com-munications market.

While the cell phone picture is rosy, thereare limiting factors. Some may also affectother communications systems and includeinterference created by terrain and human-made obstructions (e.g., buildings). In an-other example, if a company is creating anew network, its initial coverage area maynot be as extensive as an older, but moreestablished, competing system.

Another factor is a potential healthconcern. Analogous to the situation withearlier computer monitors, some expertsbelieve the cell phone is a potential healthhazard. As a transmitting device, the cellphone produces radio frequency (RF)

energy. Critics contend that with extendeduse, a cell phone could cause a biologicaland, potentially, a health effect. Proponentsargue that no such link exists.

A key measurement, which could helpdetermine a cell phone’s potential impact, isthe Specific Absorption Rate (SAR). Accord-ing to the FCC, the “SAR is a value that corresponds to the relative amount of RFenergy absorbed in the head of a user of awireless handset.The FCC limit from publicexposure from cellular telephone [as of thiswriting] is an SAR level of 1.6 watts perkilogram . . .”7 Cell phones are tested andare assigned an SAR rating—as the SARvalue decreases, so too does the possibilityof a potential adverse effect.8

It is important to repeat that, as of thiswriting, a direct link has not been establishedbetween cell phone use and health effects.But since the data are also not conclusive,it makes sense to take some precautions until the facts become clearer.You can, forinstance, select a cell phone with a lowerSAR value. These figures are available ondifferent Internet sites.9 The FCC web site(www.fcc.gov) is another valuable informa-tion resource. Besides offering informationabout RF safety in general, you can look-up your phone’s SAR value by its FCC I.D.number.10 A second option is to keep thephone unit away from your head by using a headset or an earpiece, much like a com-ponent you may use with a portable CDplayer.11 Manufacturers are also designingsafer phones, including two piece unitswhere the transmitting component is at agreater distance from your head.

In a related health issue, cell phone usehas caused numerous car accidents. Somedrivers focus on holding/talking on thephone rather than on road conditions. Inresponse, new regulations have graduallybeen adopted. In some locales, you must usea “hands free” accessory if you want to talkwhile driving.12

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Personal communication services (PCS),for its part, has been defined by the FCC as“a family of mobile or portable radio com-munications services” designed to meet the“communications requirements of peopleon the move.”13 A digital service, the pre-mise, much like the cell phone, has been tosupport mobile, wireless communication.

PCS companies also have some advan-tages over their cell phone competition. Forexample,

PCS licensees have greater leeway to choose thetypes of technologies and services they mayprovide than do cellular carriers. . . . Althoughcellular licensees may also provide alternativetechnologies as well as wireless fixed services, cel-

lular carriers must comply with more detailedtechnical and operational requirements, such asrules regarding mandatory provision of analogservice, licensing, and interference criteria, thatPCS licensees are not subject to.14

PCS companies have another advantage.As the new kid on the block, technologi-cally speaking, a company could use the“newest network and digital technolo-gies.”15 As such, the company was better po-sitioned to tap technological advances andtheir complementary applications since itwas not bound by an existing infrastructure.In fact, one early PCS promotional cam-paign highlighted the service’s digital roots,which would make for a more secure relay,in contrast with its analog cellular competi-tors.16 But over time, cellular telephonecompanies extensively upgraded andenhanced their own networks to level outparts of this playing field.

As of this writing, the average user whoopts for a mobile communication servicemay not even know the type of technologyhe or she is using. In many instances, theterm “cell phone” had become a universalmoniker regardless of the technology base.

Other DevelopmentsThe PCS industry experienced another,somewhat new development. Traditionally,segments of the communications industryhave used the airwaves for free. But to helpdefray the budget deficit, auctions were ini-tiated for specific U.S. PCS licenses. Com-panies paid for the right to use the spectrumallocations.

The international mobile communica-tions industry was also kicked into highergear by the development of advancedmobile wireless—third generation (3G)—systems. Such systems support enhanced services, including high speed data accessand communications devices that could tapterrestrial and satellite networks.17

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Figure 8.2A set-up to test amobile phone’s SARcharacteristics and a plotthat highlights thisinformation. (CourtesyPCTEST EngineeringLab., Inc.)


While spectrum allocation issues havedelayed U.S. operations, they have beendeployed on a broader level in the interna-tional market. In one example, “the launchof a 3G service . . . by NTT DoCoMo inJapan . . . allows users to access the Internetat speeds of up to 384kbps, transmit anddownload video clips, and send large data files quickly.”18 The U.S. market actually received a boost for enhanced wireless systems in 2003 following FCCaction.19

When fully implemented, we may be ableto retrieve a range of data types with international-compatible mobile devices.But will consumers become willing buyerssince enhanced services typically carryenhanced price tags? Or like cell phones,will it take a number of years and reducedrates to promote its broadbased adoption?Or could two markets evolve, basic andenhanced mobile services, analogous to dial-

up modem and DSL/cable modem access?These questions are also pertinent for digitaltelevision and other application areas.

Satellite CommunicationsSatellites are powerful long distance andpoint-to-multipoint communications tools.Satellites also support mobile and personalrelays, and this development is a space-based extension of mobile communicationstechnology.

In one configuration, a series of smallsatellites are launched and placed in lowEarth orbits (LEOs).20 This constellation ofsatellites can provide global coverage whiletheir low altitudes support portable trans-mitters and receivers on Earth. Applicationsinclude data/voice communication oversmall terminals and service for regions thatare not covered by terrestrial communica-tions networks.21

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Figure 8.3A space and earth-basedcommunication operationcan support asophisticated personalcommunications network.The various elements arehighlighted in thisdiagram, including thesatellites and personalcommunications device(subscriber unit; rightbottom hand corner).(Courtesy of MotorolaInc.; Iridium.)


Different companies have stepped for-ward in this field. Iridium, for instance, wasset-up as a multisatellite network that wouldfunction as an interconnected Earth- andspace-based venture—you could talk with afriend half a world away through portable,mobile telephones.22

All in all, it is an interesting concept, espe-cially in light of the history of our satellitesystem. As you may recall, LEO satelliteswere generally abandoned in favor of theirgeostationary counterparts for communica-tions applications.Yet the new generation ofLEO satellites, when properly configuredand coordinated, can deliver certain satelliteservices right into our hands. It is almost like Dick Tracy and the wrist radio come tolife.

But there have been some problems.Competition with established terrestrial sys-tems as well as higher service costs in somequarters (e.g., for a telephone call) havecaused some financial turbulence in thismarket.23 Nevertheless, satellite-based mo-bile services remain a viable communicationoption for various reasons, including the fol-lowing:

• system enhancements have improved andexpanded satellite services;

• a satellite can reach remote and undevel-oped regions;

• by extension, a satellite can support highlyspecialized and targeted market groups(e.g., maritime industry); and

• other initiatives, including the Memoran-dum of Understanding regarding GlobalMobile Personal Communications bySatellite (GMPCS-MoU), have promisedto facilitate international satellite-basedmobile services.24

The upshot of these developments? Overtime, it may become easier and less expen-sive to use a satellite system for mobile andglobal communications needs.

Virtual Office and Wireless Local Area NetworksOrganizations have either experimentedwith or have adopted the virtual office forelements of their workforce.25 If you are asalesperson, you may no longer be confinedto an office. You may be equipped with aportable computer and other informationand communications tools so you can workon the road.The virtual office has also beenconsidered a “variant of telecommuting,”discussed in a later chapter.26 But because ofsome of the virtual office’s wireless possibil-ities, it has been placed in this chapter.

Through the virtual office, a salespersoncan work directly with clients in the fieldand, depending on the application, could tapeither wireless or wire-based communica-tions systems.The former will also becomemore important as they are refined.You canbe untethered, that is, free from constraintsimposed by physical wires and connections.In one sense, your communications toolsbecome as mobile as you.

Besides serving the client base better, avirtual office can help cut real estate costsbecause fewer offices have to be set up and maintained.27 If properly implemented,a company could enhance its productivitywhile cutting costs. The key to success,though, is proper implementation and ad-dressing key issues.These include securing asuitable communications channel, offeringemployee training, and providing clericaland other logistical support.

Companies have also established specialwork sites to provide “an office away fromthe office for transient workers.”28 ForXerox, this meant creating a large work-space where employees could meet, ex-change ideas, and plug-in their PCs whenthey’re not on the road.

A wireless local area network (WLAN),for its part, is just what it sounds like.Youcan tap a LAN’s resources without a direct,physical connection. In one application,

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doctors and nurses working in a hospital can readily gain access to information.29 Inanother application, you can go to a meetingand retrieve pertinent data, or record notes,without physically connecting your PC or other device. Educational institutions arealso using the technology to provide theirstudents and faculty with access to informa-tion throughout a campus.

As of this writing, wireless componentsare more expensive than their wired coun-terparts. But the afforded flexibility is valu-able, especially for applications that demandmobility and for facilities that cannot bereadily wired for conventional LANs.30

It may also be used for locations where you can only install a limited number of data ports, yet must support numerousindividuals.

Another potential concern is security.Since data are relayed through the air, thedata are easier to intercept. While specialencryption techniques may make the dataunintelligible to the average user, other individuals could use software to “sniff ”your network and, subsequently, to break theencryption—the data are intercepted andstolen.31

It is important to remember that a wire-less network’s advantages also make it morevulnerable. But as is the case with otherdatabased applications, stronger securitymeasures are in development.

Wireless technology also became a house-hold tool in the early 2000s. In a typicaloperation, you could use a wireless systemto connect your household computer toyour data network. Like a commercial oper-ation, you could then use your notebook orother computer untethered.

The same era saw the broader introduc-tion of Bluetooth technology. Designed as a cost-effective personal area network,Bluetooth supports comparatively low datarate/short distance communication, poten-tially between an assortment of devices.The

standard has broad industry support,which should lead to equipment interoper-ability.32 Bluetooth technology, embeddedin communications and computer equip-ment, could also make these transactionstransparent to users.

Finally, you may run across the term Wi-Fi or wireless fidelity.Wi-Fi is a more recent,and now popularized name, for a wirelessnetwork that taps the IEEE 802.11 familyof standards.33 There is also a Wi-Fi Alliance,which helps promote and certify equipmentinteroperability.34 One goal is to make wire-less networking ubiquitous in the workplaceand at home.

CONCLUSION

Wireless systems may free you from havingto plug your computer or telephone into anoutlet for certain communications applica-tions. They can also work with traditionalcommunications systems, as may be the casewith a virtual office. Even though you maybe untethered, a conventional telephone line could be used for data relay. In manyways, the wireless and wired worlds arecomplementary.

Wireless technology may also allow youto receive e-mail while in the field and torelay data to your office.You could poten-tially tap into a network, dial a specificnumber, and reach another person,whereverhe or she may be, via a portable telephone.It is like super call forwarding, free of theconstraints imposed by wires, distance, andlocation.

New developments will also continue torefine our wireless systems. In one example,very small cells, called microcells,“are beingdesigned to take care of downtown users oncity streets, and picocells, for inside officebuildings.”35 Essentially, our communica-tions world could be subdivided intosmaller, physical regions (e.g., a building or

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floor in a building) to handle our increasingwireless traffic.

On the flip side, wireless communicationcarries a price. Wireless components can be more expensive, connections can be sporadic, and security concerns continue tosurface.36 Much like earlier computer mon-itors, questions have also been raised aboutcell phones and potential health risks.

From a nontechnical standpoint, wirelesstechnology has another implication. If a callcan be routed to you, and if your homebecomes a workplace, what impact will thishave on your individual privacy? Will the“electronic clutter” become too pervasive?37

Is it necessary to have access to informationat every waking moment? Or do we also require quiet, reflective periods, freefrom distractions, even in a business setting?How do you strike a balance between thetwo?

Finally, the wireless field also illustratesthe interdependence of technological devel-opments.The launching of an Iridium-typenetwork serves as an example.The technol-ogy now exists to build sophisticated smallsatellites that are matched by portable tele-phones and other communications devices.This entire system, in turn, is influenced bythe satellite launch industry. Without cost-effective launch vehicles, the deployment ofa constellation of satellites could be prohib-itively expensive.

Thus, as introduced in Chapter 1, althoughyou can examine individual applications inisolation, it may also be important to explorerelated areas.If you do not,you might miss keyconnections that could have a major impacton an industry’s success. In this example, cost-effective launches may play a role in anIridium-type system’s future. So too does itsacceptance by the targeted user group(s).

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. This has included high-density urban areaswhere physical obstacles and the lack of licenseshave restricted microwave communication.

2. Mark Hallinger, “Wireless Cable Readyfor the World,” TV Technology 13 (July 1995), 1.

3. Dwight B. Davis, “Making Sense of theTelecommunications Circus,” High Technology(September 1985), 20.

4. These also include fiber and copper lines.5. Lou Manuta, “PCS’s Promise Is in Satel-

lites,” PCS (September 1995), 14.6. Robert Corn-Revere, “Cellular Phones:

Only the Illusion of Privacy,” Network World 6(August 28, 1989), 36. Note: Data relays couldalso be intercepted.

7. FCC. “Radio Frequency Safety-CellularTelephone Specific Absorption Rate (SAR),”downloaded from www.fcc.gov.

8. Health Council of the Netherlands,“Mobile Telephones,” January 28, 2002. The

report notes the importance of differentiatingbetween a biological versus a health effect. It alsocovers this issue in a comprehensive fashion.Thereport supports mobile communication propo-nents who believe the phones are essentially safe.

9. Cnet has kept such a list on its site.10. As of this writing, the URL is:

www.fcc.gov/oet/fccid/.The FCC I.D. # is onthe telephone; you may have to remove thebattery to find it.

11. This may, in turn, subject that part of thebody to higher RF energy—but the head hasbeen the primary concern in the typical report.

12. These include headsets with mics fortalking.

13. From an August 1992 FCC Notice ofProposed Rule Making and Tentative Decision;GEN Docket #90–314, prepared by ScottLoftesness, August 25, 1992, downloaded fromCompuServe.


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14. FCC, “Cellular Operations,” Novem-ber 19, 2002, downloaded from http://wireless.fcc.gov/services/cellular/operations.

15. Maxine Carter-Lome, “Cellular in theLead, But Can’t Stay Ahead,” PCS Today (Sep-tember 1995): 8.

16. Harry A. Jessell, “Sprint Unveils U.S.PCS Service,” Broadcasting & Cable (November20, 1995): 47.

17. FCC. “Third Generation Wireless,3G Information,” downloaded from www.fcc.gov/3G/.

18. FCC, “In the Matter of Service Rules for Advanced Wireless Services in the 1.7 GHz and 2.1 GHz Bands,” WT Docket No. 02-353, Notice of Proposed Rulemaking,adopted: November 7, 2002, Released:November 22, 2002, downloaded fromhttp://hraunfoss. fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-02-305A1.txt.

19. “FCC Reallocates Spectrum for New Wireless Services,” Press Release,January 30, 2003, downloaded fromhttp://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-230754A1.pdf.

20. There are also different categories ofLEOs. Part of the distinction has to do with asatellite’s size and relay capabilities (e.g., signalstrength).

21. Orbital Sciences Corporation,“Orbcomm Signs Marketing Agreement in FiveMore Countries,” news release.

22. Jim Foley, “Iridium: Key to WorldwideCellular Communications,” Telecommunications25 (October 1991): 23. Note: The ground-basedsector would handle, in part, billing and the necessary authorization to use the system.Thiswould be provided through gateways.

23. Alan Pearce, “Is Satellite TelephonyWorth Saving,” Wireless Integration (September/October, 1999): 19. Iridium, for one, wentthrough such a financial period.

24. “FCC Proposes Steps to Implement‘GMPCS-MOU,’ Facilitating Satellite Services

while Protecting Against Interference toRadionavigation Services,” Report No. IN 99-9, February 25, 1999, downloaded fromwww.fcc.gov/Bureaus/International/News_Releases/1999/nrin9010.html.

25. Michael Nadeua, “Not Lost in Space,”Byte 20 (June 1995): 50.

26. Osman Eldib and Daniel Minoli,Telecom-muting (Norwood, MA:Artech House, 1995), 1.

27. Patrick Flanagan, “Wireless Data:Closing the Gap Between Promise and Reality,”Telecommunications 28 (March 1994): 28.

28. Nadeua, “Not Lost in Space,” 52.Note: Much like telecommuting, interpersonalcommunication between employees was stillimportant.

29. Elisabeth Horwitt, “What’s Wrong withWireless,” Network World 12 (November 13,1995): 65.

30. Flanagan, “Wireless Data,” 30.31. Sniff refers to monitoring network

traffic. Please see www.webopedia.com/TERM/s/sniffer.html for more information.The webopedia is also an excellent information source about computer/informa-tion technologies.

32. For more information, please see For-mulasys, “The Basics of Wireless,” downloadedfrom www.formulasys.com/Whitepapers/Basics-of-Wireless_Formulasys.pdf.

33. Wi-Fi Alliance, “Wi-Fi Overview,”downloaded from www.wi-fi.org/OpenSection/why_Wi-Fi.asp?TID=2.

34. For more information, you can go to the Alliance’s web site,

www.wi-fi.org/OpenSection/index.asp.35. Robert G. Winch, Telecommunication

Transmission Systems (New York: McGraw-Hill,1998), 363.

36. Horwitt, “What’s Wrong with Wireless,”64.

37. Patrick M. Reilly,“The Dark Side,” WallStreet Journal (November 16, 1992): technologysupplement on “Going Portable,” R12.


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SUGGESTED READINGS

Bernard, Josef. “Inside Cellular Telephone.”Radio-Electronics 11 (September 1987), 53–55,93; Jim Rendon.“It’s Not Just a Phone, It’s aLifestyle.” Mbusiness (May 2001), 52–53. Anearlier overview of this field and one of aseries of articles about cell phone use/devel-opment in Finland, respectively.

Brewin, Bob.“Watch Out for Wireless Rogues.”ComputerWorld 36 (July 15, 2002): 36; JohnMcHale. “Wireless Devices Link Soldiers onthe Digital Battlefield.” Military & AerospaceElectronics (January 2001): 22–25, 29; EllenMessmer.“Feds to Clamp Down on WirelessLANS.” Network World 19 (August 19, 2002):12; Florence Olsen. “The Wireless Revolu-tion.” The Chronicles of Higher Education(October 13, 2000):A59–A62; Marisa Picker.“It’s a Wireless World.” Mobile Computing &Communications 10 (May 1999): 95–101;Jeffrey R. Young. “Are Wireless Networks the Wave of the Future?” Chronicle of HigherEducation XLV (February 5, 1999):A25–A26.Wireless technologies, applications, and implications.

Caldwell, Bruce, and Bruce Gambon. “TheVirtual Office.” Information Week (January 22, 1996): 33–36, 40. Telecommuting,requirements, and is it appropriate for you?

CIT Publications. “A Wireless Decade:A European Survey.” Telecommunications 32(September 1998): 70–79. Comprehensiveexamination of wireless systems in Europe.Individual countries are highlighted.

Dornan,Andy.“Wireless Optics: Fiber Is Cheap,but Space Is Free.” Network Magazine 17(September 2002): 28–32; Michael Fink.“Lasers over Manhattan.” CommunicationsNews (May 1994): 30; Dick Guttendorf.“Flash Gordon Meets Ma Bell.” Communica-tions Industries Report (September 1995): 26.Over-the-air laser communications systems.

Eldib, Osman, and Daniel Minoli. Telecommuting.Norwood, MA: Artech House, 1995.Excellent and comprehensive examination oftelecommuting.

Flanagan, Patrick. “Personal CommunicationsServices:The Long Road Ahead.” Telecommu-nications 30 (February 1996): 23–28; RobFrieden. “Satellite-Based Personal Commu-nication Services.” Telecommunication 27(December 1993): 25–28; Susan O’Keefe.“The Wireless Boom.” Telecommunications32 (November 1998): 30–36. Personal communications services: terrestrial and satellite-based.

Formulasys. “The Basic of Wireless;A White Paper,” downloaded from www.formulasys.com.;Tim Kridel and MegMcGinity. “The Trouble with Bluetooth.”The Net Economy (January 8, 2001): 44–46;Verizon. “How Bluetooth Short RangeRadio Systems Work,” downloaded fromwww.verizon.com. Information about Blue-tooth. The first document also presents anoverview of wireless technology/systems.

Foster, Kenneth R, and John E. Moulder. “AreMobile Phones Safe.” IEEE SpectrumOnline, downloaded from www.spectrum.ieee.org/publicfeature/aug00/prad.html;FCC. “Information on Human Exposure toRadio Frequency Fields from Cellular andPCS Radio Transmitters,” downloaded fromwww.fcc.gov/oet/rfsafety/cellpcs.html;Reuters. “Italian Study Raises ConcernsAbout Mobile Phones.” October 24, 2002,downloaded from http://story.new.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=tory&u=/nm/20021023/sc_nmhealth_mobilephon. Mobile phonesand potential health issues.

Grambs, Peter, and Patrick Zerbib. “Caring forCustomers in a Global Marketplace.” SatelliteCommunications (October 1998): 24–30; Cor-porate Information News Center. IridiumPress Release: “Iridium LLC InvestorsCommit Funding to Ensure Service DuringRestructuring Discussions.” (December 9,1999); Iridium Press Release, “AboutIridium-Our Story” (Corporate Fact Sheet),downloaded from www.iridium.com/corp/iri_corp-story.asp?storyid=2; “Iridium Con-stellation Finishes Launch Deployment.” Ad


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Astra 10 (July/August 1998): 12.A look at theIridium system; from coverage of its opera-tion to its financial restructuring.

Meeks, Brock N. “Spectrum Auctions Pull in$7.7 Billion.” Inter@ctive Week 2 (March1995): 7. PCS auctions.

NTIA, “An Assessment of the Viability ofAccommodating Advanced Mobile Wireless(3G) Systems in the 1710–1770 MHz and

2110–2170 MHz Bands,” July 22, 2002,downloaded from www.ntia.doc.gov. Anexcellent overview of the development of 3GU.S. services and key issues in regard to spec-trum allocations.

Vitaliano, Franco. “How Work BecomesRemotely Possible.” BackOffice (January1996): 43–51. Portable technologies; includesa list of terms.

GLOSSARY

Bypass System: A private/leased communica-tions system that bypasses standard commer-cial and public systems.

Cellular Telephone: A personal communicationstool based on frequency reuse and a moni-toring design.

Microwave and Laser: Two wireless, line-of-sightcommunications systems.

Personal Communications Services (PCSs): Afamily of mobile services designed to meetthe communication requirements of peopleon the move. Computer-to-computer andvoice relays can be supported.

Personal Satellite Communications: A new gener-ation of satellite can deliver personal com-munications services—you are not restricted

by location. In one configuration, satellitesare placed in low earth orbits.

Third Generation (3G) Systems: A newer gener-ation of mobile communications systems that will support enhanced communicationsapplications.

Virtual Office: Instead of working in a tradi-tional office, you are equipped with a PC and mobile communications tools so you canwork/communicate from the field. Sites havealso been designed to serve this workforcewhen not in the field (for example, a placeto plug in your PC).

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): Asimplied, you can tap a LAN’s resourceswithout a direct, physical connection.

IIIINFORMATION STORAGE

The optical disk emerged as an importantinformation storage tool in the 1980s. Apopular application is the compact disk(CD), a small, round disk that stores digitalaudio information in the form of micro-scopic pits.To retrieve this information, youplace a CD in a player.1 A laser subsequentlyreads back or recovers the information.

A laser’s light scans the CD, and its beamis reflected to different degrees, in terms ofits strength, when it passes over the pits andunpitted areas called lands. A light-sensitivedetector picks up the reflected light, anoptical representation of the stored infor-mation.After processing, the final output fora CD is an analog signal.

The CD and other optical disks are alsoconstructed like sandwiches: These includethe information layer with the code of pitsand a reflective metallic layer. The latterenables the read or playback operation.

OPTICAL DISK OVERVIEW

For our discussion, the growing optical diskfamily falls into two categories: nonrecord-able and recordable media. CDs, conven-tional Compact Disk-Read Only Memory(CD-ROM) and Digital Versatile or Videodisks (DVDs) are nonrecordable. WriteOnce, Read Many (WORM) and erasable

systems, including members of the CD-ROM and DVD families, are recordable.

Both categories of disks share some characteristics:

1. Information can be stored in the form of pits, or in erasable systems, throughother techniques.This information is alsodigital, with the major exception of thevideodisk.

2. Optical disks are fairly rugged since thestored information is physically protectedfrom fingerprints and scratches.The laseris also focused beneath a disk’s surface at the information layer, so dust and other minor surface obstructions may notadversely affect a playback.

3. A disk is not subject to wear because theplayback is conducted by a beam of light.The same disk can be played multipletimes with no discernible loss of quality.

4. Disks are not indestructible, however. Forexample, deep scratches can affect a play-back. Some older disks may also have amanufacturing defect—corrosion of adisk’s metallic layer.2

5. Optical disks are high-capacity storagemedia. This is partly a reflection of alaser’s capability to distinguish betweentightly recorded information tracks.

6. The different systems incorporate sop-histicated error-detection and checking

9 Information Storage:The Optical Disk and Holography

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schemes to ensure the information’s inte-grity. But the potential impact of errorshas made this process more critical for adisk that stores data than for a CD.

7. Like a hard disk, an optical disk is arandom access device. It provides almost immediate access to the storedinformation.

8. The optical storage field is expanding.Even though some formats may disap-pear, the list continues to grow.

NONRECORDABLE MEDIA

Compact DisksA CD is a long-playing, high-fidelity audiostorage medium, and its excellent soundreproduction qualities are a reflection of itsdigital and optical heritage. Interfering noiseis reduced, and a CD player, equipped witha microprocessor, allows you to quicklyaccess any of the disk’s tracks and to select

a predefined playback order. These func-tions, in addition to a disk’s small size,durability, and capacity have contributed to its popularity with consumers and radiostations.

As described in Chapter 2, the CD indus-try is also governed by an established set ofstandards.This factor played an instrumentalrole in the CD’s widespread acceptance.

The CD has, however, been faced withpotential competitors over the years, rangingfrom digital audiotape (DAT) to MP3players. A DAT player uses digital tapeswhile an MP3 player, through compression,can store and play back music downloadedfrom your computer. Digital audio iscovered in greater depth in a later chapter.

Compact Disk-Read Only Memory(CD-ROM)A CD-ROM is a high-capacity data storagemedium. A CD-ROM, which looks like a

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Figure 9.1We have the tools toproduce professionalquality recordings, whichin this example, includesan audio CD. (Courtesyof Sonic Foundry; CDArchitect.)

Information Storage: The Optical Disk and Holography 123

CD but can store 600+ megabytes of data,is preloaded with information and/or pro-grams. A CD-ROM is also interfaced witha computer via a CD-ROM drive andspecial driver software.

An early CD-ROM release was the electronic text version of Grolier’s AcademicAmerican Encyclopedia. This disk highlightedthe CD-ROM’s storage properties: An entire encyclopedia of some 30,000 articleswas recorded on a single disk, with room to spare. It was also integrated in a PC environment, and word processing programscould retrieve information from the ency-clopedia. More recent encyclopedias alsoincorporate sound,graphics, and animations.

Another interesting earlier disk, whichspawned other releases, was the PC-SIGCD-ROM.The PC-SIG has been a sourceof public domain and user-supported soft-ware (shareware) written for IBM PCs.The programs have covered everything fromcomputer languages to games, and the entirelibrary could fill 1000 or more floppy disks.

This library was transferred to a CD-ROM. This type of application was andremains a valuable one for PC owners, sincethe CD-ROM is inexpensive when com-pared to an equivalent floppy disk library.This factor has made the CD-ROM an idealdistribution medium for computer softwarecollections. Other applications include thefollowing:

• Information pools can be compiledranging from telephone number compi-lations to U.S. street maps.

• Companies have adopted CD-ROMs tocomplement their print lines. For soft-ware, a CD-ROM could hold tutorialsand sample files referred to in the manual.Their size may have precluded their usewhen floppy disks were the primary dis-tribution vehicle.

• Spacecraft images have been made avail-able.Through the National Space Science

Data Center and other sources, you couldexplore Venus and Mars from your arm-chair by viewing information generatedfrom the Magellan and Viking Orbitermissions, respectively.3

• Complex software collections can becreated on a single or multiple disks.This may include a desktop publishingprogram and an extensive clip art collec-tion. Clip art is a library of drawings andpictures you can legally use. An earlierapplication included a bundle of severalthousand images with Corel SystemsCorporation’s program Corel Draw, ahigh-end illustration program.The floppydisk equivalent was approximately 500+disks.4

• The new generation of interactive gameshas a large storage appetite, especially if the games incorporate digital audio,video, or computer animations. CD-ROM media can, however, accommodatethem.

CD-ROMs are also valuable for libraries,which typically face storage and budgetaryproblems. CD-ROMs are cost effective, canbe used with a PC to search for specificinformation, and can save space.

These types of databases have, however,been replaced to a great extent by onlinesystems. In this situation, a library contractswith a vendor to gain access to specific data pools, typically through an Internetconnection.

Compact Disk-InteractiveThe compact disk-interactive (CD-I) wasoriginally designed as a stand-alone unitequipped with an internal computer.5 A goalwas to make a CD-I system attractive to con-sumers since it was self-contained, simple tooperate, and could be used with a televisionset. In one example, a Louis Armstrong diskcould be used with a CD player, but when

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played on a CD-I system, you could alsoview relevant graphics and retrieve informa-tion about Armstrong’s work.6

Photo Compact DiskKodak entered this industry with the PhotoCD system. A disk could store up to 100pictures that could subsequently be used ina compatible CD-ROM drive, or for con-sumers, in a player for viewing on a televi-sion set. The same system could also playaudio CDs.

The capability to play different disks wasan important one and an industry-widedevelopment. Instead of buying multipleplayers and/or PC-based drives, you use onemachine. This is particularly significant inview of the growing number of formats.7

Digital Versatile (or Video) DiskDesigned for commercial and consumerapplications, the DVD was initially headed

for a format war, much like the earlier Betaand VHS scenario. But the companies andmanufacturers that had a stake in this fieldreached a compromise in late 1995.

A DVD’s storage capacity far exceeds a conventional CD-ROM or CD. This capability offers producers and consumersnumerous advantages:

1. Unlike CD-ROMs, high quality audio-video cuts could be used in a game,educational title, or other multimedia production.8

2. It’s a boon for computer data storage—a single disk can replace a collection ofconventional CD-ROMs.

3. Consumers can view movies with sup-port for wide screen television sets,advanced television systems, and otherenhancements.

The DVD also replaced videodisks, thepioneer product of the optical disk family.The videodisk was produced in differentformats, including a discontinued nonopti-cal version manufactured by RCA.Videodisks primarily supported two appli-cations. In the first, the consumer category,high quality movies were distributed. It alsosupported a digital audio signal, even thoughthe picture information was analog. In thesecond category, videodisks were interfacedwith PCs to create a sophisticated interac-tive environment.

While a videodisk was a high quality dis-tribution vehicle for movies, it never reallycaught on in the consumer market—theDVD has. Players range in sophistication,and you can buy a sophisticated Surround-Sound system, with multiple speakers, thatwill produce a high quality audio playbackwhen viewing a movie or listening to a CD.

A DVD’s data storage capability alsoenables producers to bundle additional in-formation with a disk.This ranges from mul-tiple language tracks to additional footage

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Figure 9.2A CD-I disk.The artof the Czars: St.Petersburg and theTreasures of theHermitage. An exampleof the rich pool ofinformation electronicpublishers have tapped.(Courtesy of the PhilipsCorp., photo creditRichard Foertsh.)


that might have been cut out of a movie’stheatrical release. When these features arecombined with a high quality playback that exceeds the typical videotape-basedsystem, DVD players flooded the home and professional markets in the early 2000s.

RECORDABLE MEDIA

Compact Disk-Recordable andCompact Disk-RewritableA CD-Recordable (CD-R) enables you tostore your own information on a disk.TheCD-R is a write-once, permanent medium.After the information is recorded, it cannotbe erased.

The CD-R has two important advan-tages. It is a cost-effective and high capacitystorage medium. CD-Rs can also tap theenormous CD-ROM drive universe. CD-Rs you create can be used with conven-tional CD-ROM players. In one example,you can create or “burn” an audio disk forplayback on a CD player.

In contrast, the CD-Rewritable (CD-RW) functions much like a high capacityfloppy disk. You can reuse a disk multipletimes, storing new and erasing old data.

The price for media and recorders hasdropped over time, making them ubiquitoushome and business fixtures. The softwarethat drives the recording process has alsoimproved. This has enhanced a recording’soperational performance, in both speed andaccuracy.

Magneto-optical (MO) configurations,which employ optical and magnetic princi-ples to store and retrieve data, have also beenmanufactured. Like the CD-RW, it is areusable medium.

Digital Versatile (or Video) DiskThe DVD family, for its part, supports arecordable option in various flavors. They

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include the DVD-R, DVD+R, the DVD-RAM, and the DVD-RW.9 Their primaryadvantage? A storage capacity of 2 or moregigabytes. This capability makes a DVD,which is the size of a CD, a highly portablemass storage medium. You can recordmovies, data, a library of audio-video clips,and complex animations.You can also createan interactive interface a viewer can use forvarious operations.

When designing a typical disk, optionsinclude the following:

• Selecting the audio-video clips (e.g., TVshows or a movie) you want to includeon a disk.

• Creating on-screen menus that can help guide a user through the storedinformation.

• Creating on-screen buttons that are usedto select and view, for example, a scene ina movie.

• Implementing a sophisticated audiodesign.

• Testing the DVD and its links. Using yourcomputer,you can test different functions,through a simulated on-screen DVDplayer, before you spend time/money increating an actual disk.

• Compressing, for instance, the videoprogram that will be stored on the disk.As described in a later chapter, digitalaudio and video information have en-ormous storage appetites. Compressiontechniques help curb this appetite-in thiscase, the original information, which mayhave exceeded a disk’s capacity, can nowfit on the disk.

The software used for these tasks vary incapability, and programs have been releasedfor the home and the professional/corporatemarkets.

In the early 2000s, however, DVD homedesign/recording could still present a chal-lenge. It was, in a sense, a fairly recent

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Figure 9.3A computer-based DVDsimulation used to test adisk you’re designing.DVD authoringprograms can also beused to produce electronicslide shows in additionto storing other media-based information.(Courtesy of SonicFoundry; DVDArchitect.)


merger between new software, drives, com-pression techniques, and media.

In one case, the DVD you just createdmay not have played on a given DVD unit,based on a number of factors.This includedthe media itself, that is, the disks manufac-tured by one company versus anothercompany.10

Another factor was the DVD drive.Initially, a drive may have only supported alimited number of DVD formats. A systemmay have been compatible with DVD-R butnot with DVD+R media. Other drives thatsupported erasable DVD formats may havesupported DVD-RAM but not DVD-RWmedia. The DVD-RAM has been used toback-up data since it has a high storagecapacity.The DVD-RW, for its part, is analo-gous to the CD-RW, albeit with a muchgreater information storage capacity.But likemany other fields, manufacturers worked toimprove the compatibility situation.11

Stand-alone DVD recorders, which arenot connected to a PC, have also be manu-factured, with one goal of replacing VCRs.

As of this writing, the VCR is still a dom-inant player in the consumer market since itcan play and record television shows andother video materials. Most DVD consumerplayers have been play-only devices. Thismay gradually change, though, as newermodels are manufactured and media con-tinue to improve and become more cost-effective.

Finally, it should be noted that anothersystem, the write-once, read many(WORM) drive, has also been manufac-tured.An early permanent storage medium,which included a 14-inch optical disk con-figuration introduced by the Storage Tech-nology Corporation in 1983, a disk couldserve as an archival storage medium.12

An archival and permanent capabilitycould also be important in certain applica-tions, in contrast with an erasable disk. Inone example, a financial institution could

use an optical system to create a permanentrecord of transactions.This could be advan-tageous since the information could not bealtered, and the disk could facilitate a futureaudit.

SummaryRegardless of the optical drive or media,current and future systems provide us withthe means to store large volumes of infor-mation. This is important: Data storagedemands are increasing as the nature ofinformation becomes more complex. Indesktop video and multimedia applications,for instance, 24-bit graphics as well as digitalaudio and video clips can be used. Whiledata compression can be applied, this infor-mation can still be data storage intensive.

The different classes of optical systemswill also continue to coexist.At first glance,a conventional CD-ROM may appear obso-lete in the face of some other configura-tions.But CD-ROMs are cost effective,havea large storage capacity, and a high marketpenetration.

Magnetic media, hard and floppy drives,will also continue to be used. Hard drivesare generally faster than their recordableoptical counterparts, making them a staplefor PC-based video editing systems andother demanding data storage operations.In brief, as you store, edit, and retrieve thevideo through the editing program and thecomputer, the drive must be able to handlethis high data flow.

Fixed storage hard drives can also be less expensive than some recordable opticaldrives, although this economic advantagedecreases as the data storage requirementincreases. Basically, when dealing with massstorage needs, it is cheaper to buy anotheroptical disk than another hard drive.

But as introduced in Chapter 3, remov-able magnetic storage systems have added anew twist to this scenario. Iomega’s widely

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adopted drives, for instance, have a range ofdata storage capacities.When you fill a diskwith information, you simply buy a newdisk rather than a new drive.

The late 1990s and early 2000s also wit-nessed lower prices for CD-Rs and CD-RWs—they fell below the $75 mark. BlankCD-R disks could also cost less than $1each, in contrast with more expensiveremovable magnetic media. DVD drives,though more expensive, similarly benefitedfrom price breaks. Many new PCs, includ-ing notebooks, were also outfitted withrecordable CD-ROM and/or DVD drives.

In essence, each medium has its benefitsand appropriate application areas.While youmay use a CD-R to distribute audio cuts, afixed hard drive may serve to store a videosequence you are digitizing. The media are complementary and, in the end, haveresulted in a cost-effective and flexiblestorage bonanza.

OTHER ISSUES

ConvergenceThe rapid growth of the optical disk field highlights the growing convergencebetween different technologies and theirrespective applications. Products such as theCD-I married computer applications withstandard television technology. A televisionbecame part of a computer-based entertain-ment and educational system.13

Products such as the Photo CD, for theirpart, cut across the traditional and silverlessphotographic fields. Pictures produced asstandard prints or slides could also be storedon a disk and viewed on a television orcomputer. The same pictures could subse-quently be manipulated on a computer.

The convergence factor has even bridgeddifferent application areas. For example, themass storage capabilities of CD-ROMs weremarried to the instant update capability of

online services. A CD-ROM stored datathat would normally require an extendeddownload time, that is, the period of time torelay the information from the company toyou. The online service, for its part, wouldsupply new and updated information.14 Thesame scenario is playing out in certain DVDmarkets where DVD-Internet integration isan important goal and tool.

PrivacyThe storage capabilities of optical mediahave raised privacy concerns. In one case,a potential CD-ROM produced by theLotus Development Corporation triggered apublic outcry. Lotus planned to take advan-tage of a CD-ROM’s storage capabilities andsell a disk loaded with demographic dataabout American consumers. The companyreceived so many complaints, though, thatthe product was dropped from its line.

This example highlights a key issue of theinformation age: an individual’s right toprivacy.Although the new technologies canenhance our communications capabilities,they can also be invasive.15 The availableoptions to protect yourself include con-sumer pressure, employing other emergingtechnologies, and adopting privacy regula-tions, as was the case with the EuropeanCommunity (EC).

The EC had proposed a series of strictregulations governing the collection and dissemination of personal information. Therules recalled the World War II era wheninformation from telephone records wasused for political purposes. The proposedregulations were designed to help protect anindividual’s privacy.16

Although privacy is important, somepeople believed the regulations were toostrict and would impede the flow of infor-mation between countries. A similar situa-tion has prevailed in the United States. Someindividuals, as well as government agencies,

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believe there has to be a balance betweenprotecting an individual’s privacy and thegovernment’s ability to retrieve specifictypes of information. Questions were alsoraised about privacy with regard to e-mailin a business environment.17 This topic iscovered in a later chapter.

Information RetrievalThrough optical media, we can gain accessto entire libraries of information stored ona series of small disks.Yet to tap this infor-mation effectively, suitable search methodsmust be devised.

In one example, a CD-ROM that servesas a database is equipped with software thatfunctions as the information-retrieval me-chanism. Depending on the package, it mayalso allow us to search through the infor-mation in different ways. Some systemsemploy keyword searches while otherssupport more sophisticated mechanisms, in-cluding hypertext.

Hypertext is a sophisticated informationmanagement and retrieval mechanism thatworks in a nonlinear fashion. It cuts acrossmagnetic and optical storage domains, theWorld Wide Web, and other informationsystems. Vannevar Bush, President Roo-sevelt’s science advisor, originally conceivedthe concept for such a mechanism in the1940s.

Hypertext operates in much the sameway that humans think. You may, forexample, use hypertext to conduct researchabout the new communications technolo-gies.While exploring this topic, you see theterm laser diode. Because it is important, thewords are highlighted or underlined in ourhypertext environment, indicating they arelinked to other information. Next, move theon-screen cursor to a word and click amouse button. The linked information issubsequently retrieved and displayed, eitheron a separate page or in a window. When

finished reading, you can return to the orig-inal page with another click of a button.

As you continue, the term semiconductor issimilarly marked. You could then retrieveinformation, through a series of links, aboutsemiconductors, the semiconductor indus-try, and related economic implications.

By following this pattern, you can retrieveinformation in a natural way, that is, the waypeople think.You follow a train of thoughtthat enables you to make associationsbetween diverse topics. In this context,hypertext is no longer just a search mecha-nism. It provides a new way to organize,link, and communicate bodies of informa-tion and knowledge.You can also reveal pre-viously hidden connections between topics.

A hypertext system performs these taskseffortlessly, at least for the user.The variouslinks can also be retraced so you can returnto a given source.

This concept has been extended throughhypermedia systems. The term hypermediahas been associated with multimedia, asubject discussed in a later chapter. Briefly,“multimedia is the integration of differentmedia types into a single document. Multi-media productions can be composed of text,graphics, digitized sound . . . ,” video, andother information. Hypermedia software, inturn, allows you to “form logical connec-tions among the different media composingthe document.”18When you click on a high-lighted term, you may see a picture or heara sound, instead of simply a page of text.

With a hypermedia program, the linksbetween the information, whether textualor graphic, can be represented in differentways. These include highlighted text, textplaced between different symbols, andbuttons. Buttons are visual markers, typicallylabeled, that can help create a more effectiveuser interface.

This searching capability, regardless of thesystem, highlights the power of the PCwhen combined with a mass storage device.

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Instead of looking through different booksand magazines, you can let the PC do thework for you. If the data are stored on a disk,the retrieval process can be simplified andenhanced.

ConclusionOptical disk technology has played animportant role in the communication revolution. As we generate more informa-tion, these disks serve as effective storage anddistribution media. They are also cost ef-fective and can accommodate a range ofapplications.

Some individuals believe high-speedcommunications channels for Internet connections, among other applications, maydoom optical media to extinction. But it’simportant to remember that optical mediaare portable—they can go where you go andwhere there may not be a network connec-tion.You can also deliver high quality videoclips, and even movies, operations that mayeven tax high-speed data lines. In essence,both technologies and their respective applications will continue to coexist for anumber of years.

Finally, as briefly covered in the nextsection, there is another form of informa-

tion storage that taps a laser’s capabilities—the hologram.

HOLOGRAPHY

Holographic techniques were discovered inthe 1940s by Dr. Dennis Gabor. A researchengineer, he won a Nobel Prize in 1971 for his pioneering work as the father andcreator of holography. But the field did notfully blossom until the 1960s.The develop-ment of a suitable light source, the laser,helped provide the key.

Even though it is beyond the scope of thisbook to explore holography’s physical prop-erties, we can still present a working defin-ition. A hologram, a product of holography,can be considered a record of the opticalinformation that composes a scene. It canstore information about a three-dimensionalobject, and unlike a standard photograph,which

records light intensity . . . the hologram has theadded information of phase . . . to show depth.When a person looks at a tree . . . he is using hiseyes to capture light bouncing off the object and then processing the information to give itmeaning.A hologram is just a convenient way torecreate the same light waves that would comefrom an object if it were actually there.19

This capability can be startling. Objectsare quite lifelike, and they may appear to “jump out” of a scene. A standard photograph records a scene from a singleperspective. A hologram breaks these boundaries.

Finally, many holograms are createdthrough a special film and are chemicallyprocessed. But newer techniques have en-hanced this task.

ApplicationsA statue can be recorded as a cylindricallyshaped hologram.20You can see the recorded

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Figure 9.4Some of the navigationaltools supported byhypermedia packages.(Software courtesy ofNtergaid, Inc.;HyperWriter!)


statue as you would the original object—from various views.

The advertising and security fields arealso supported. Attention-grabbing ads canbe produced, and small, inexpensive em-bossed holograms have been placed on creditcards for security purposes.21

Another application area is holographicinterferometry. Unlike artistic endeavors, aconventional hologram is not created. Ra-ther, in one variation, a double exposure ofthe same object is made. During one expo-sure, the object is stationary and at rest. Inthe second, the object is subject to stressthrough the introduction of the physicalforces it may experience in actual use.22

When processed, the hologram willdepict a series of fringes or lines across theobject.They resemble the contour lines ona map. The fringes reveal the small differ-ences between the exposures—the differ-ences between the object while at rest andunder stress.23 Consequently, the hologramserves as a visual map of the areas that maybe deformed or affected by the operation.

Holographic interferometry has been usedto inspect products for manufacturing defects.Metals and other materials have also beensubjected to stress to test for possible flaws.24

Holography has also provided us with theholographic optical element (HOE), a hologramthat functions, for instance, as a lens ormirror.25 HOEs are especially useful when astandard optical component may not fit ormay be too heavy.

In one application, a head-up display, animage of an instrument panel could be dis-played before a pilot’s eyes.The pilot wouldnot have to move his or her head to viewthe instruments.

The holographic field may also bringmassive data storage capabilities to thedesktop.26 In one example, engineers devel-oped “a CD-sized holographic storage diskthat holds on the order of a terabit of infor-mation—a factor of thousands more than aCD.And . . . the disk is quickly searchable—a property that springs naturally from theholographic reading process.”27 Thus, itsunique properties can make a holographic-based system a highly effective and efficientstorage system.

The future may also witness 3-D televi-sion. Experimental work has already beenconducted, and if combined with CD-quality sound, the system would supportrealistic computer games as well as enter-tainment and educational programs.

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Figure 9.5Corrosion monitored: Anexample of holographicinterferometry.Holography can, ineffect, let you visualizethe interior of a pipefrom the outside.Thecircular fringe pattern,due to a small pressurechange, indicatesweakened regions of thepipe wall. (Courtesy ofthe Newport Corp.)


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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Lasers initially store this information on amaster disk. This disk plays a key role in pro-ducing copies.

2. Paul Freiberger, “CD Rot,” MPC World(June/July 1992), 34.

3. Even in early 1992, the price was $20 forthe first disk and only $6 per additional disk ina series.

4. Advertisement, “CorelDraw,” NewMedia,April 1992, back cover.

5. A more sophisticated business model waslater released.

6. CD-Interactive Information Bureau,“CD-I Launches Titles,” CD-Interactive News(January 1992), 4.

7. These include the CD-ROM XA andother formats.

8. Frank Beacham, “Consortium ProposesNew CD Format,” Computer Video 2 (March/April 1995), 10.

9. There are also subgroupings in thesegeneral categories.

10. Ralph LaBarge, “DVD CompatibilityTest,” DV 10 (July 2002), 24.

11. Please see Ralph LaBarge,“The BurningQuestion,” DV 11 (June 2003), 40–46.

12. Storage Technology Corporation, “7600Optical Storage Subsystem,” product descrip-tion brochure. Note: Archival implies the diskand records will theoretically last past a certainnumber of years.

13. As discussed in a later chapter, the estab-lishment of an enhanced and advanced televi-sion standard will only accelerate this trend.

14. Domenic Stansberry, “Going Hybrid:The Online/CD-ROM Connection,” NewMe-dia 5 (June 1995), 37.

15. Caller ID triggered a similar response.See Bob Wallace, “Mich. Bell Offers Caller IDService with Call Blocking,” Network World 9(March 2, 1992), 19, for a description of whyblocking options were adopted.

16. Mary Martin, “Expectations on Ice,”Network World 9 (September 7, 1992), 44.

17. See the e-mail chapter, Chapter 18, forspecific information.

18. Ntergaid, Inc., “HyperWriter,” flyer.HyperWriter (for IBMs) and HyperCard (forMacs) were two pioneer programs that youcould use to create hypertext/hypermedia documents.

19. Brad Sharpe, “Hologram Views,”Advanced Imaging 2 (August 1987), 28.

20. Thomas Cathey, Optical Information Pro-cessing and Holography (New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1974), 324.

21. These holograms would be difficult toduplicate and may have high expertise andphysical plant requirements.

22. Edward Bush, “Industrial HolographyApplications,” ITR&D (n.d.), 30.

23. Cathey, Optical Information Processing andHolography, 324.

24. James D.Trolinger,“Outlook for Holog-raphy Strong as Applications Achieve Success,”Laser Focus/Electro-Optics 22 (July 1986), 84.

25. Jose R. Magarinos and Daniel J.Coleman, “Holographic Mirrors,” Optical Engi-neering 24 (September/October 1985), 769.

26. Tom Parish,“Crystal Clear Storage,” Byte15 (November 1990), 283.

27. “Holographic Disk Is Quickly Search-able,” Laser Focus World 39 (February 2003),13.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Amadesi, S., et al. “Real-Time Holography for Microcrack Detection in Ancient GoldPaintings.” Optical Engineering 22 (September/October 1983), 660–662; P.Carelli, et al. “Holographic Contouring

Method:Application to Automatic Measure-ments of Surface Defects in Artwork.” OpticalEngineering 30 (September 1991), 1294–1298. Holography and the art/art restorationworlds.


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Bell, Alan. “Next-Generation Compact Discs.”Scientific American 275 (July 1996), 42–46;Philip Dodds. “Comparing Oranges andMangoes: Another View of the EmergingDigital Videodisk.” SMPTE Journal 105(January 1996), 46–47; Dave Kapoor. “TheNext 10 Years.”DV 11 (January 2003), 28–34;Ralph LaBarge. “DVD Compatibility Test.”DV 10 (July 2002), 20–29.DVD coverage; theKapoor article covers various, future digitalvideo projections, including the DVD; theLaBarge article is an excellent resource, as ofthis writing, for compatibility issues.

DeLancie, Philip. “Thinking Inside the BoxSmart Set-Tops and Web-DVD Conver-gence.” EMedia Magazine 14 (September2001), 46–52; Philip De Lancie.“UntanglingWeb DVD Playback.” EMedia Magazine 14(February 2001), 40–45; Domenic Stans-berry. “Going Hybrid: The Online/CD-ROM Connection. NewMedia 5 (June 1995),34–40. The convergence of DVDs, CD-ROMs, and online services/the Internet.

Foskett, William H. “Reg-in-a-Box: A Hyper-text Solution.” AI Expert 5 (February 1990),38–45.Traces the development of a hypertextsystem concerned with regulations aboutunderground storage tanks.

Hand,Aaron, J.“Is Holographic Storage a ViableAlternative for Space?” Photonics Spectra 32(June 1998), 120–124; “Holographic StorageDelivers High Data Density.” Laser FocusWorld 36 (December 2000), 123–127. Holo-graphic storage systems and technology.

Higgins, Thomas V. “Holography Takes OpticsBeyond the Looking Glass.” Laser Focus World31 (May 1995), 131–142. Excellent tutorialabout holography.

Ih, Charles S. “A Holographic Process for Color Motion-Picture Preservation.” SMPTE

Journal 87 (December 1978), 832–834. Usingholography as a film preservation system.

Lambert, Steve, and Suzanne Ropiequet, eds.CD-ROM: The New Papyrus. Redmond,WA:Microsoft Press, 1986; Suzanne Ropiequet,ed., with John Einberger and Bill Zoellick.CD ROM Optical Publishing: A PracticalApproach to Developing CD-ROM Applications,Vol. 2. Redmond,WA: Microsoft Press, 1987.Microsoft Press’s two-volume CD-ROMbook series.Although published in the 1980s,they remain excellent CD-ROM and elec-tronic/optical publishing resources.

McCort, Kristinha. “Beyond Aesthetics.”Millimeter 29 (March 2001), 37–41. Design,aesthetic, and material management issues inDVD authoring.

N.A. “Holography Drives Ford Car Design.”Laser Focus World 35 (February 1999), 14–16;R.J. Parker and D.G. Jones. “Holography inan Industrial Environment.” Optical Engineer-ing 27 (January 1988), 55–66; David Rosen-thal and Rudy Garza. “Holographic NDTand the Real World.” Photonics Spectra 21(December 1987), 105–106. Holography andindustrial applications.

Nelson, Theodor. “Managing ImmenseStorage.” Byte 13 (January 1988), 225–238.Adescription of the storage engine of theXanadu project, a model for a new informa-tion storage and management system.

Pozo, Leo F. “Glossary of CD and DVD Tech-nologies,” downloaded. Excellent and com-prehensive listing of terms and systems.

Waring,Becky, and Alexander Rosenberg.“NewCD-ROM Hardware Swells the ConsumerMarket.” NewMedia 2 (May 1992), 12–15.Anearlier look at CD-ROM systems with side-bars on Kodak’s Photo CD system and the roleof game manufacturers in this market.

GLOSSARY

Compact Disk (CD): A prerecorded optical diskthat stores music.The CD player uses a laserto read the information.

Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM):A prerecorded optical disk that stores data.CD-ROM applications range from the dis-


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tribution of computer software to electronicpublishing.

Compact Disk-Recordable (CD-R): A perma-nent, recordable CD system.

Compact Disk-Rewritable (CD-RW): An erasable,CD recordable system.

Digital Versatile (or Video) Disk (DVD): A new,high-capacity optical disk developed in the1990s. Designed for commercial and con-sumer applications, it could replace the homeVCR.

Digital Versatile (or Video) Disk-Recordable (DVD-R): A permanent, recordable DVD system.

Digital Versatile (or Video) Disk-Rewritable (DVD-RW): An erasable, DVD recordable system.

Erasable Optical Disks: A class of optical diskwhere data can be stored and erased.

Hologram: A hologram is a record of the opticalinformation that composes a scene. It can beused for applications ranging from advertis-ing to security.

Holographic Interferometry: A holographic indus-trial application (e.g., for material testing).

Holographic Optical Element (HOE): An applica-tion where a hologram functions as a lens orother optical element.

Hypertext: A nonlinear system for informa-tion storage, management, and retrieval.Links between associative information can be created and activated. This concept has been extended to pictures and sounds(hypermedia).

Optical Disk: The umbrella term for opticalstorage systems.

IVPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

This chapter examines desktop publishing(DTP), an application used to produce new-sletters, brochures, books, and other docu-ments. DTP tools include PCs, software,printers, and scanners. When combined,they create a publishing system that can lit-erally fit on a desktop. DTP also provides uswith an electronic composition tool in thata design is electronically composed.1 Amonitor’s screen serves as a window in thisprocess.

Various factors led to the proliferation ofPC-based DTP systems in the late 1980s andearly 1990s.More sophisticated PCs and com-plementary software flooded the market whilethe laser printer became an affordable option.

HARDWARE—THE COMPUTER,MONITOR, AND PRINTER

ComputerThe hardware end of the typical DTPsystem consists of four major components: amonitor, printer, scanner, and this section’sfocus, the computer.

The Macintosh helped launch the PC-based DTP industry. It was more graphicallyoriented and easier to set up than compara-ble IBMs. A stock Mac, with its softwarelibrary, was also better equipped to handledesktop publishing and graphics applica-tions.When combined, these factors helpedindividuals who were not graphic artists todesign their own projects. Graphic artists, onthe other hand, could now experiment withdifferent concepts.

IBM PCs, for their part, despite someinitial hardware and software disadvantages,eventually emerged as another major forcein this field.Their dominant position in theoverall computer market, and the introduc-tion of new equipment and programs, con-tributed to this development.

The MonitorWhen the DTP was taking off, many peoplestill owned 13 to 15-inch monitors. Whilesuitable for different tasks, they could notdisplay a full page of readable text. In thelate 1990s and early 2000s, 17 and 19-inchmonitors became the norm as did LCDmonitors. As indicated in Chapter 3, inch for inch, LCD monitors yield a largerworking or viewing area than conventionalmonitors.2 Consequently, users now have alarger electronic canvas to design and imple-ment their publications. But despite thisadvantage, one practice still holds true—different viewing modes are used during thedesign process.

In the full-page mode, a page can be dis-played in its entirety to reveal the placementand spatial relationship between graphic andtextual elements. But the page outline isnoticeably reduced in size. Depending onyour set-up, most, if not all, the text may bereplaced by small lines or bars (a processcalled greeking) since the characters areessentially too small to be reproduced on thescreen.

Other modes provide magnified orenlarged views of specific page sections.The

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text can be read, and fine details of the doc-ument’s style can be checked. Special mon-itors have also been manufactured that havegenerated enhanced document views, espe-cially in the full-page mode.

PrinterA laser printer can produce high qualitydocuments. Most printers support a 600+dots per inch (dpi) resolution. In the contextof this discussion, the term resolution refersto the apparent visual sharpness or clarity ofthe printed characters and graphics. Thisworking definition is used throughout thechapter. There’s a relationship between thedpi and a document’s perceived quality. Ingeneral, a higher dpi figure could result in ahigher quality document.

When the first reasonably priced laserprinter appeared in the early 1980s, itcreated a stir in the computer industry.Theprinter could handle some of the printingjobs that had been reserved for traditionaltypesetting equipment. This trend, started by the Hewlett-Packard LaserJet and theApple LaserWriter printers, has continuedunabated.

As of this writing, most if not all printers designed for the general businessand consumer markets share several broadcharacteristics.

1. A printer should be equipped withenough memory to take full advantage ofits printing capabilities. The memoryrequirement increases for a color printer.

2. Various typefaces and fonts are availablefor the printers. The upshot? You candesign a document that fits your publish-ing needs.A typeface is a unique print style.The different characters of a given type-face conform to a style, a set of physicalattributes shared by all the characters.Twoexamples of common typefaces are Hel-vetica and Times Roman.3 A font is a

typeface in a specific size. The size is measured in points, and as the point sizeincreases, so too does the character’s size.As a frame of reference, 72 points equalapproximately one inch.

3. Although the typical printer cannot generate typeset-quality documents, it issatisfactory for creating newsletters, an or-ganization’s in-house magazine, and evena book on a tight production scheduleand budget. High-quality line drawings, aseries of black lines on a white back-ground, can also be printed. These mayrange from a building to an interior viewof an engine that’s slated for a technicaldocument.

4. The typical laser printer cannot supportfull-color output. Its graphics capabilitiesmay also be limited for reproducingblack-and-white photographs. Detailsmay not be sharply defined or too fewgray levels may be reproduced.

Color Printing. Color printers becameincreasingly popular during the 1990s.Theyranged from thermal wax to laser to dyesublimation units.4 The latter two systemscould support a high quality output, but hadbeen comparatively expensive.5

Color laser printers also broke the $1000price barrier.They are generally fast, and forvolume printing, can be more cost-effectivethan other printer types.

However, the ink jet color printer hasmade the greatest impact in the general consumer/business markets. By incorporat-ing various technological improvements,printing quality improved. For example,when a special paper that looks much likeglossy photographic paper is used, inksmearing is reduced.When combined withother factors, an image that can look like a conventional photograph can be produced.Other developments range from inks witharchival properties, so the image won’t fade for a number of years, to specialized

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printers that can support large format prints.

Depending on your needs, you may evenopt for commercial printing. While newhardware and software releases may make iteasier to prepare color images for this task,it is still a complicated process.6 Conse-quently, it is a good idea to discuss a projectwith a commercial printer to obtain the bestresults. You may also decide to leave thework to individuals who are well versed inthis field.7

Finally, color can be an important DTPelement. Color can catch a reader’s eye andcan help convey information more effec-tively.Think of a bar chart showing a radiostation’s ratings versus its competitors.Differ-ent colors may make it easier to differentiatethe information. In another example, colormay produce a more visually appealing ad.

SCANNERS

A DTP project may include photographs,line drawings, and other artwork originallyproduced in hardcopy form.This operationis made possible by using a scanner, a pieceof equipment interfaced with the computer.For example, a black-and-white photographcan be placed on the scanner, much like apiece of paper on a copy machine. Theimage is read or scanned, and the pictureinformation is digitized and fed into thecomputer.

At this point, the image can be manipu-lated with graphics software. It can beedited, the contrast and brightness levels can be changed, and special filters can beapplied.The now altered image can then besaved and imported by the DTP software.

If a hardcopy is produced with our laser printer, a digital halftone method isemployed. Because a conventional printercannot produce true shades of gray and onlyprints black dots on a page, the halftone

method creates gray-level representations orsimulated gray shades.The image is dividedinto small areas or cells.The picture’s variousgray shade representations are subsequentlygenerated by turning dots in these areaseither on or off. This varying density ofblack dots, and ultimately the cells, createsthe various apparent shades of gray through-out the picture.

There is also a balance, especially whenusing a typical PC-based configuration,between the number of gray levels and thepicture’s resolution. As the number of levelsincreases, the apparent resolution drops.8

For desktop color work, the final printquality is affected by proper color registra-

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Figure 10.1Different point sizes.


tion, the quality of the printer, and otherfactors.

The typical scanner supports 256 levels of gray and 24+ bit color. Contemporarysystems also capture an image in a single passor scan.Three passes had been the norm.9

Scanners also come in different flavors.In one example, when desktop units werestill expensive, manufacturers developed lessexpensive handheld scanners.You physicallymoved the scanner down the page tocapture the information.While cost effectiveand suitable for various tasks, there werelimitations.10 Specialized scanners have alsobeen created, including very high resolutionunits geared for commercial printing.

The second component of a scanningsystem is the software—the mechanism bywhich the computer controls the scanningprocess. Pioneered by Ofoto, the latest gen-eration of software can automatically gener-ate higher quality scans or images. Thiscapability also makes the technology moreaccessible.You do not have to be an expertfor general work. You supply the aestheticframework, and the program can help youproduce a better product. Manual adjust-ments and various image-editing functionsare also supported.

In a related area, film/slide scanners arealso popular. Newspapers have used suchsystems to send photographs between local

and international locations. In a typical sit-uation, a roll of film is developed, and ascanner digitizes select film images.They arethen compressed, relayed, and processed atthe home office.11 This system saves timeand has provided for a more error-free relay.

It should also be noted that scannersgeared for the consumer/business marketsmay also support slides and/or negatives.However, they may not match the flexibil-ity and capability of scanners dedicated tothis operation.

Optical Character RecognitionA scanner can also be used with opticalcharacter recognition (OCR) software. In atypical application, scan a printed docu-ment, and the software recognizes the text.The information can then be saved and usedwith a word processing program.

An OCR system can save time and laborbut may have limitations. Only a certainnumber of typefaces may be recognized,and the characters must be legible and fairlydark. Some characters will also be incor-rectly read and must be replaced during anediting session.

To overcome some of these problems, theprogram may support a learning mode.Youteach the software/computer to recognizeincompatible type. More recent packagesalso recognize a wider range of type andhave reduced the number of read errors.

DIGITAL/ELECTRONIC STILL CAMERAS

Images used for a range of DTP and videoprojects are also produced by digital stillcameras. Through the emergence of elec-tronic still photography (silverless photo-graphy), an image is electronically capturedrather than using film.

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Figure 10.2An OCR operation.The text is reproducedin the top of the screen(top window).Thewindow in the left,bottom corner, shows theoriginal scanned text.The learning mode isalso activated so thesystem can be “taught”to identify letters, forexample that werepreviously unrecognized.(Software courtesy ofImage-In, Inc.; Image-In-Read.)


In this operation, film is replaced with a Charged Coupled Device (CCD),or otherelectronic sensor, and memory.12 The imagescan be stored on a variety of media, typi-cally a removable memory storage card.Theimages can subsequently be retrieved by acomputer for processing and/or more per-manent storage.

When first introduced, digital camerasgeared for the consumer market could notmatch a film camera’s cost or film’s resolu-tion. However, as newer models were intro-duced, various factors made digital camerasa hot commodity. These include the intro-duction of professional models that couldactually rival and/or even surpass film’simage quality under certain conditions.13

Other factors are:

• price breakthroughs;• enhanced sensors;• immediacy—like a video camera, you can

immediately view an image;• the computer connection—you can

readily manipulate and store the imagesin your PC;

• a new generation of cost-effective colorprinters;

• cost-effective—film and processing ex-penses are eliminated by the reusable stor-age card; and

• CCDs and other sensors are sensitive to low light, and their characteristics alsomake them conducive for specializedwork, including astronomical pho-tographs.14

On the flip side, digital cameras can stillbe comparatively expensive, particularly atthe professional level. More pointedly, a pro-fessional film camera may be able to operateif its battery dies—you generally don’t havethe same option with an electronic camera.Film has other advantages as well, and likeits electronic counterparts, is also improvingwith new enhancements.15

SOFTWARE

The heart of any DTP system is the soft-ware. Our discussion focuses on two PCprogram categories, word processing andpage composition programs.16

Word Processing SoftwareNewer word processing programs can complete some of the jobs once reserved for DTP software.These include generatingarticles, business forms, and newsletters.

Word processing programs incorporatedifferent functions to assist the writer.Theseinclude the following:

• spelling and grammar checkers;• a macro capability—you complete a com-

mand with one or two rather than mul-tiple keystrokes;

• a what-you-see-is-what-you-get (WYSI-WYG) display on your monitor—as youcompose a page, you visually see itsmargins, graphics, and other elements,you don’t have to wait for the page to beprinted;17 and

• an ability to create tables, charts, andindexes.

A sophisticated word processing programcan handle a range of applications, includ-ing those that do not demand the full powerof a DTP system. A word processing pro-gram can also be easier to use, faster, and canproduce a high-quality output.

Page Composition SoftwarePage composition (DTP) programs alsosupport a WYSIWYG display and an inter-active interface. Like many word processingprograms, as you move a graphic or columnof text, the changes take place in real time.This visual feedback helps you determine ifa page design is satisfactory, and it allows

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you to quickly experiment with different layouts.

DTP software also sports numerousenhancements. For example, text and graph-ics can be accurately placed via alignmentaids, and there are extensive text and graph-ics manipulation modes.The discussion thatfollows provides a general overview of selectoperations.18

Text Manipulation. When you create adocument, the program displays an outlineof a blank page. Next, you can open up oneor more columns for text placement. Textand graphics can also be placed in resizable,movable blocks or frames. For example, youcan create a newsletter that’s formatted likea newspaper. The first page consists of co-lumns of text, assorted illustrations, and thenewsletter’s masthead.

For the masthead, a mouse is used tocreate a long and narrow frame across thetop of the page.An appropriate typeface canthen be selected, as can stylistic elements.These include printing the text with ashadow effect.

A DTP program is also equipped with aword processing module. But you may con-tinue to use your favorite software to typethe text. It may be faster, and you may bemore comfortable with its functions. TheDTP program can subsequently import thisfile.19 When retrieved, it can be placed indesignated columns and spaces.

If the file is large and one column fills up,the text can be routed to another column.The routing can be automatic, or you canmanually designate the next column the textshould fill.

A program can also compensate forediting. As words are added or deleted, thetext flows or snakes from column to columnuntil the proper space adjustments are made.

This control over the text also extends to the physical spacing between individualcharacters and sentences. In kerning and

leading, respectively, the space between spe-cific pairs of letters and between individuallines can be altered. This capability canenhance a document’s appearance and read-ability.

DTP programs can also import differentfile types.These include data from graphics,word processing, and spreadsheet programs.It may also be possible to rotate a line of textand to produce other special effects.

The trend appears to be toward the cre-ation of more self-contained programs. Asmodules are added and refined, the programmay be able to handle more tasks withouttapping other software.20

Graphics Manipulation. Many DTP pro-grams can create simple graphics. But likethe word processing function,you will prob-ably continue to use a dedicated graphicspackage.

Once a graphic is created (for example,an artist’s rendition of a mountain to ill-ustrate an article in our newsletter) it is im-ported. At this point, the graphic can beresized. It can also be cropped, so only aportion of the entire image appears.You canthen move the graphic to other positions,and if supported, wrap text around theimage. Thus, instead of seeing separate anddistinct blocks of text and graphics, they canbe more integrated.

Templates. A DTP program may be soldwith templates.A template specifies the designof newsletters, books, and other documents.21

Instead of spending hours to design a publica-tion, you can use a premade template, whichdelineates the document’s physical appear-ance. Custom templates can also be created,stored, and recalled when necessary.

Besides helping novices, a template can beuseful to people who are in a hurry or whocannot create an effective design. For anorganization, it can also bring a sense oforder and uniformity to reports. A large

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company, for instance, can house severaltemplates or more divisions can producetheir own reports. If a format is not adopted,a report’s structure could vary from divisionto division. This could hinder communica-tion, especially if a document does notpresent the material in a clear and logicalfashion.22 It may also detract from thecompany’s look or corporate identity, rec-ognizable physical attributes that readilyidentify the company to internal and exter-nal parties.

DESKTOP PUBLISHINGGUIDELINES

Now that we’ve covered DTP basics, it’sappropriate to discuss some general guide-lines:

1. Institute a DTP training program.The software may be complicated and havea steep learning curve.

2. A DTP system will not turn everyoneinto an artist.It is simply a tool to present ideasand information more effectively. Paraphras-ing Clint Eastwood in one of his Dirty Harryroles, you’ve got to know your own limita-tions (and strengths). Do what you do best.But if you need an artist or other professional,hire one.You will save time and money andare likely to get a superior final product.

3. Plan and effectively use a page’s whitespace. It can provide visual relief for thereader and serves as a design tool. Whitespace can highlight and focus attention onspecific page elements. This concept alsoextends beyond the DTP industry. It is anestablished technical writing axiom.

4. Pay attention to the basics: grammar,typos, and spelling mistakes. Proofread thedocument after you are finished.Do not try tocatch every kind of mistake in one reading.

5. When designing a document, keep itsimple, if appropriate. Although a DTP

program may support many typefaces andspecial printing effects,do not use them all onthe same page.The document may be difficultto read, and the information may be lost in amaze of fonts and double-underlined text.

6. Read. Hundreds of DTP books andmagazine articles have been written thatcover everything from aesthetics to scanningto tips from professional DTP users. If youare learning how to use a DTP system, it isalso important to practice your craft. Ex-periment with what you’ve learned anddevelop your own style.

7. Explore your software’s other capabil-ities. For example, it may also support doc-ument generation for the Internet and/orother electronic publishing venues. Insteadof printing on paper, you can print to anelectronic medium,thus extending your pub-lishing options via the same program.

As mentioned elsewhere, the samegraphic may also be used for multiple dis-tribution venues, ranging from a print-basedbrochure to a DVD to a web page.Thus, youmay use compression and other techniquesto optimize the graphic for each applicationand environment.

8. Use your imagination.

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Figure 10.3The PageMaker’s DTPprogram. Its Toolbox, isused for drawing,rotating text, and otheroptions (upper leftcorner).The controlpanel, visible at thebottom, can be used toquickly manipulatetext/graphics. (Softwarecourtesy of AdobeSystems, Inc.;PageMaker.)


APPLICATIONS

Personal PublishingPrior to the DTP revolution, if you wantedto publish a book, you generally had twooptions. You signed a contract with either an established publishing house or a vanitypress. For the latter, you paid a publisher for printing and possibly distributing yourwork. DTP systems provide authors with a third choice—to act as your ownpublisher.

As the author/publisher, you are in con-trol of the entire process.You can make last-minute changes and updates, and a standardlaser printer may suffice as the printingpress.A higher dpi commercial unit can alsobe used for the final copy.

In a variation of this theme, you can initi-ate what Don Lancaster has called book-on-demand publishing.You do the work your-self, including the printing and binding. Butinstead of producing an initial run of 500 ormore copies, you print a book only whensomeone orders it.This reduces the up-frontcosts for materials, and each copy could liter-ally be an updated version of the originalbook.23

New authors/publishers do, however, facesome constraints. These vary from individ-ual to individual and may include yourbudget, experience, and DTP system’s levelof sophistication.They’ll have an impact onyour final product.

You must also face the dual problem of promoting and distributing your work.Although the structure for this market isevolving, it may still have to mature toprovide a more established support mecha-nism.You also do not have access to the edi-torial and technical expertise afforded by atraditional publishing house.

Other ApplicationsDTP systems have been employed in otherapplications. These include the publicationof technical manuals, year-end reports, ads,information flyers, posters, and newsletters.They have also been adopted by traditionalmedia organizations because DTP systemscan save time and money.

The New Yorker slowly integrated DTPtechnology in its operation. The move wasinitiated to speed up certain tasks, and asstated, to save money.24 In the newspaperindustry, PCs equipped with the appropri-ate software have been used for photo-graphic preparation and editing.25

Publishing companies have also usedDTP technology. Since DTP systems arecost effective, an organization can poten-tially publish more books and take a chancewith a manuscript geared toward a narrowaudience. DTP may also be applicable forbooks that are regularly updated.

Individuals have also benefited. Besidesbook-on-demand publishing, you can use aDTP system to produce a document, suchas a resume. Just as important, you canrapidly update the document and keep multiple versions—each one potentially tar-geted toward a different type of employer—on your computer.

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Figure 10.4DTP programs may alsoinclude templates orpremade publicationdesigns. In this figuresome of PageMaker’sbrochure options arehighlighted. (Softwarecourtesy of AdobeSystems, Inc.;PageMaker.)


Finally, in a related application, magazinepublishers have created electronic versionsof their products and have placed them onthe Internet.Although the core of the infor-mation may remain unchanged, a conver-sion process is typically used to prep theinformation for this environment.

The Internet and related electronic mediacan offer a publisher additional capabilitiesthrough the use of interactive links, anima-tions, and digital media cuts.A publisher canalso update information in a more timelyfashion and provide in-depth coverage.If space limitations force an article(s) to be cut from the print version, it can possi-bly be electronically housed. Back issues can also be made available, and this servicecould be used to attract new, potential subscribers.

CONCLUSION

The DTP industry is still maturing. Besidesthe developments outlined in this chapter,the industry will benefit from the conver-gence of different technologies and applica-tions.Entire font and clip art collections can,for instance, be stored on CD-ROMs.Thereis also an overlap in the area of graphics software.A computer-assisted design (CAD)program can be used to design a building.In a DTP project, the same program cancreate an illustration.

Advancements in one field can also have animpact on another field in the new technol-ogy universe.Desktop publishing is no excep-tion. Newer, powerful PCs speed up varioustasks,and for DTP,a project can be completedmore rapidly.These same machines can alsosupport sophisticated software that was oncethe domain of larger and more expensivecomputer systems. In one application, DTPusers can correct and prepare large,high reso-lution images for publication.

In two other examples, progress in theoverall laser market will have an impact onDTP systems (e.g., laser printer develop-ment), while the proliferation of networkscould promote DTP-based operations. Anelectronic publishing environment wouldmake it possible for more than one personto retrieve, review, and edit a document.

The concept of networking also cutsacross national and international boundaries.High-speed digital lines can tie officesaround the world in a global communica-tions net. For DTP, you can gain access tothe data stored on other networks, informa-tion can be rapidly exchanged, and ulti-mately important resources can be shared.26

The DTP field has also helped promotethe growth of a personal communications tool.With a DTP system, an information con-sumer can now become an information pro-ducer. Information can also be tailored for anarrow rather than a mass audience, as maybe the case with newsletters, pamphlets, andeven book-on-demand publishing projects.

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Figure 10.5Digital cameras haverevolutionized picturetaking, even in theastronomical field. Inthis case, amateurastronomers have usedinexpensive digitalcameras for imagingapplications.


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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Please see the “Desktop Video and Multimedia Productions” chapter, Chapter 11,for a look at analogous systems for video production.

2. As covered in Chapter 3, a 17-inch LCD monitor has a larger viewing area than a17-inch conventional monitor. For example, aconventional monitor’s cover—the plastic sup-porting/around the tube—reduces the viewingarea. For more information about the differ-ences between monitor types, please seewww.pc.ibm.com/us/infobrf/ibmon.html.

3. You can buy font libraries on CD-ROMs.4. Please see Tom Thompson, “Color at a

Reasonable Cost,” Byte 17 (January 1992), 320,for a discussion of thermal wax units.

5. These printers also produce a continuous-tone output, in contrast to halftone-basedsystems, described in a later section of thischapter. Continuous-tone images look morelike conventional photographs. For specificinformation, see Tom Thompson, “The PhaserII SD Prints Dazzling Dyes,” Byte 17 (Decem-ber 1992), 217.

6. John Gantz, “DTP Is Inching TowardColor, But Don’t Hold Your Breath,” InfoWorld13 (June 10, 1991): 51. See also Janet Anderson,et al., Aldus PageMaker Reference Manual (Seattle,WA: Aldus Corporation, 1991), 76–83, for anexcellent overview of color printing via a DTPsystem.

7. If you decide to go the commercial route,you can use process- or spot-color printing. Formore information, see Eda Warren, “See SpotColor,” Aldus Magazine 3 (January/February1992): 45.

8. Image-In, Inc., Image-In (Minneapolis,MN: 1991), 178. Note: Line drawings are notaffected by this factor.

9. Note: By capturing color and gray-levelinformation, you can take full advantage ofimage editing software; scanning the sameimage multiple times, to produce a coloroutput, has also been used in NASA’s outerspace probes (and missions).

10. Problems could include uneven scans.11. Barbara Bourassa, “Mac Systems Speed

Photo Transmissions,” PC Week 9 (February 17,1992): 25.

12. The sensor may include a complemen-tary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)sensor.

13. This could include lighting and thecamera’s film speed-setting.

14. Digital cameras have, in one sense,helpedadvance amateur astrophotography when com-bined with new telescope/mount designs andcomputer software (for image processing).

15. For the general consumer market, filmstill holds the edge in resolution/contrast range.

16. Besides word processing and page com-position software, another program category hassupported page formatting/design options. Aseries of codes implements a page design. Thistype of program has been written for profes-sional computer typesetting systems and PCs.Aprint preview mode may have also been sup-ported, and this type of program could typicallyhandle difficult formatting jobs.

17. Depending on the system, WYSIWYGmay more aptly be called “what-you-see-is-probably-what-you’ll-get” in the output.There may not be an exact one-to-one correspondence.

18. Note that the terms used can also varyfrom program to program even though the basicconcepts hold true.

19. Most DTP programs can import from abroad range of word processing programs.

20. As described, word processing programshave also been enhanced.One price, though, forthis increased sophistication, may be softwarethat is almost too powerful for simple tasks. Aprogram may also place a higher processing anddata storage demand on the host PC.

21. Virginia Rose, Templates Guide (Seattle,WA: Aldus Corporation, 1990), 3.

22. When working with text, it’s also possi-ble to use a style sheet. In essence, a style sheetdefines the attributes of a document’s different


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elements, such as a headline and body text. Aheadline may be centered and set in a specifictypeface.To use this style, highlight the appro-priate word(s) during editing, select the head-line style, and the text will be automaticallyreformatted.

23. Don Lancaster, “Ask the Guru,” Com-puter Shopper 9 (September 1989): 242.

24. James A. Martin, “There at the NewYorker,” Publish 6 (November 1991): 53.

25. Jane Hundertmark, “Picture Success,”Publish 7 (July 1992): 52.

26. Lon Poole, “Digital Data on Demand,”MacWorld (February 1992): 227.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Aldus Magazine 3 (January/February 1992).Thefollowing articles cover selecting a papertype, the history of paper, and a history ofoffset lithography: Mark Beach.“Paper in theShort Run.” 33–36; Dirk J. Stratton. “Downthe Paper Trail.” 80; Nichole J.Vick.“Oil andWater.” 19–22.

Bishop,Philip.“Crimes of the Art.”Personal Pub-lishing (May 1990), 19–25; Roger C. Parker.“Desktop Publishing Common Sense.”PC/Computing (March 1989): 151–156;“Desktop Quality Circa 1992.” Business Pub-lishing 8 ( January 1992): 23–29; “PublishSpecial Section; 101 Hot Tips.” Publish 7 (July1992): 63–88; Eda Warren.“See Spot Color.”Aldus Magazine 3 (January/February 1992):45–48.While the articles may be older, theyoffer an array of tips, guidelines, aesthetics,and effective design.

Bury, Scott.“Ready to Make the Digital Shift.”Electronic Publishing 25 (February 2001):24–28; Nancy A. Hitchcock. “Making aSplash.” Electronic Publishing 25 (May 2001):42–44; Matthew Klare. “Still Life in Pixels.”Interactivity 4 (September 1998): 11–21;Michael J. McNamara. “Digital Dream WhatMakes This Camera Worth $9,000,” down-loaded from www.popularphotography.com/assets/download/3302003193951.pdf.;Michael D. Wheeler. “Information Process-ing: Law Enforcement Uses Digital Imagingand Storage to Track the Criminal.” PhotonicsSpectra 32 (November 1998): 107–111.Digital /electronic cameras and imaging—overview and applications.

Dearmin, Thomas C. “Commercial PrintingDrives Laser Development.” Laser Focus World37 (January 2001): 195–200; Alex Hamilton.“Pressroom of the Future.” Electronic Publish-ing 25 (May 2001): 29–32. Printing technol-ogy developments.

Eggleston, Peter. “The Future of Color Print-ing: Beyond CMYK.” Advanced Imaging 16(April 2001): 28, 34; Noel Ward.“The Colorof Print.” Electronic Publishing 24 (July 2000):31–38. Printing and color.

Gass, Linda, John Deubert, et al. PostScript Lan-guage Tutorial and Cookbook. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1985.Tutorial on PostScript.

Hitchcock,Nancy A.“How New Digital PapersWill Impact Designers.” Electronic Publishing22 (December 1998): 32–40; Bill Vaughn.“Are We Running Out of Trees.” Aldus Magazine 4 (September/October 1994):32–40. Two looks at paper: design and production issues (e.g., alternative sources/shortages).

Lodriguss, Jerry. “Scanning Deep-SkyAstrophotos.” Sky & Telescope 105 (February2003): 128–134.While the article focuses on astronomical photos, it is also an excellentoverview of image scanning/correction ingeneral.

Pennycock, Bruce. “Towards Advanced OpticalMusic Recognition.” Advanced Imaging 5(April 1990): 54–57; Noel Ward. “DigitalPrinting Goes Mainstream.” Electronic Pub-lishing 24 (February 2000): 32–36.Two desk-top publishing applications.


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GLOSSARY

Desktop Publishing (DTP): A term thatdescribes both the field and process wherebyhigh quality documents can be producedwith a PC, a laser printer, and software. DTPalso implies that you have access to enhancedlayout and printing options.

Font: A font is a typeface in a specific size.Optical Character Recognition (OCR): Either a

stand-alone unit or a software option for a scanner that makes it possible to directly

input alphanumeric information from aprinted page to a computer.

Personal Publishing: Desktop publishing systemsmake it possible for individuals to produce and potentially market their ownwork.

Scanner: An optical/mechanical device that isinterfaced with, and subsequently inputs,graphics or text to a computer.

Typeface: A specific and unique print style.

The term multimedia can describe the inte-gration of graphics, audio, and other mediain a presentation or production.This chapterexplores multimedia authoring softwareused to create such a production. Othertopics include hardware, applications, andaesthetic considerations.

The chapter also covers desktop video(DT-V).1 Analogous to desktop publishing,we can create our own video productions.PCs are an integral element in this processand are used for applications ranging fromediting to creating graphics.

The DT-V and multimedia fields are alsocomplementary. Desktop video tools cancontribute to a multimedia production, andDT-V can be categorized as a component ofthe broader multimedia market.2

MULTIMEDIA

Multimedia presentations are not new.Videodisks and accompanying software haveserved as a multimedia platform for years.But other products and factors, discussed in the sections that follow, have spurred the field’s growth.Other multimedia resour-ces that are not discussed in this chapter,but may also support multimedia applica-tions, include conventional programminglanguages.

Software OverviewIn the context of our present discussion,the focus is on the dedicated multimediaauthoring program. Many are user-friendlysince you do not have to be a programmerto create a finished product. One softwarecategory uses a visual metaphor for this task.A series of icons, representing differentfunctions, is linked to create the presenta-tion.The icons are used as audio-visual andprogram control building blocks—one iconmay play an animation while another maycreate a loop. When reached, a loop causesa series of events to repeat.

Other software categories include menu-based scripting interfaces.With such a pro-gram, commands that perform various func-tions are selected from pull-down menus.Depending on the software, it may also havea complementary programming languagefor more advanced functions.

As you create your presentation, you mayalso be able to use transitional effects.Thesecould include a fade-to-black and a sup-porting audio effect.

Impact. Authoring software has opened up multimedia production to a broader userbase, including the corporate and indepen-dent producer markets. If you are visuallyoriented, you can use visual tools to createa project, much like a desktop publishingdocument.You can import text and graph-ics and create on-screen buttons. These

11 Desktop Video andMultimediaProductions

149


elements can subsequently be moved, re-sized, and linked to other information, or asdescribed, to actions. From another stand-point, it is almost like using a PC-based Colorform set.

Nevertheless, although authoring soft-ware may be easier to use than conventionallanguages, you must still abide by a program-ming convention. To sustain an effectivemultimedia environment, the presentationmust flow logically from event to event.

You should initially draft a set of criteriathat drive the program’s design. Theseshould include the program’s purpose andthe best way to satisfy these goals with yoursoftware’s tools. You must also adhere totechnical and aesthetic guidelines.

Other Capabilities. An authoring programcan also create a highly interactive produc-tion. If you click on a specific area of a grap-hic, an event can be triggered. A digitizedvoice can be heard or a video clip played.

Authoring systems may also be more flex-ible than conventional programming toolsfor specific data handling tasks.The seamless

integration of audio-visual elements in amultimedia production and hardware con-trol are two examples.The key word in thelast sentence is seamless. Unlike a conven-tional language that may require add-on soft-ware modules or special programming hooks,the capability is built-in and fully integratedin multimedia authoring packages.

A program may also extend your pro-duction capabilities to the Internet. Macro-media’s Director, one of the leading mul-timedia production tools, has made it possi-ble to play optimized versions of its projectsin this environment.The same may hold truefor presentation programs. In one example,a computer presentation slated for a groupof investors could similarly be exported andreviewed via the Internet.

Hardware OverviewOptical media have emerged as key multi-media distribution tools.This is a reflectionof their mass storage capacities.

Another important tool is a PC’s audiocapability. Typical applications are playing

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Figure 11.1This shot highlights theintegration betweendifferent softwareprograms to enhance andspeed-up certainoperations. In this case,video editing and DVDauthoring applicationsare integrated tostreamline the productionprocess. (Courtesy ofSonic Foundry;Vegas +DVD.)

Desktop Video and Multimedia Productions 151

music and audio cuts, as well as editing yourown pieces. Unlike a traditional setup whereyou may physically cut and splice tape, youwork with a computer.You can digitize yourvoice, view it as a waveform, and subse-quently edit and alter it.You can also selectan audio effect, such as an echo or reverb,mix your voice with music, and save differ-ent variations of the same piece. In essence,the software provides you with a computer-based audio console.

Sound effects are also common and canserve as an audio cue. For one project, a bell,chime or other sound can provide a userwith feedback confirming the selection ofan on-screen button.

The video display is another considera-tion.The latest video cards can support life-like (photorealistic) images, and in conjunc-tion with the PC and software drivers, mayoffer an accelerated operation.3

Beyond these devices, the primary hard-ware consideration is the computer itself.Multimedia authoring is generally hardwareintensive, regardless of the platform.The PCshould also be equipped with fast, high-capacity hard drives and as much RAM asyou can afford.

At the dawn of PC-based multimediaproduction, Apple and Amiga computerswere well ahead of the IBM PC world withrespect to hardware compatibility. But thescale started to balance with later MicrosoftWindows releases and, in fact, they helpedfuel this market’s growth.

Both computer families support a plug and play capability.The term means what itsounds like.You can theoretically plug in acommon hardware peripheral and yourcomputer will configure the setup for use.While this function works well in manycases, certain peripherals may require addi-

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Figure 11.2PCs, when combinedwith software, can createan audio editing system.You can view an audiosequence andedit/manipulate specificsections.Video may alsobe accommodated toenhance the integrationbetween, for instance, asound track and a videosequence. (Courtesy ofSonic Foundry; SoundForge Studio.)


tional software drivers to operate. In othercases, you may have to scratch and shakeyour head a few times, go to an online helpsite, and drink several cups of coffee beforeyou can get the system to work.4

DESKTOP VIDEO

Desktop video is basically what it soundslike. You can set up a video productionsystem on a desktop. PCs can control videoequipment and are used to create video productions.

Some equipment may be geared for con-sumers, others target professionals, while athird category crosses both brackets (pro-sumer). The equipment’s durability, speed,and sophistication can also vary, based on the intended application, budget, and buyer.Nevertheless, the new generation of hard-ware and software has blurred some of thedistinctions between the professional andconsumer worlds.

As discussed in a later section, this devel-opment also empowers people. Individualsand smaller organizations can now tap intothe power of production tools that wereonce the domain of established mediagroups.

The following subsections cover the basicequipment and software used in desktopvideo applications. Although it is importantto examine the capabilities of individual ele-ments, it is also important to view them asa system.

A component may also have multipleapplications:A PC may be used for creatinggraphics and for editing.

Hardware Overview

Video Capture Cards. A capture systemusually consists of a camera and an interfacedevice.Much like a scanner, the system feeds

motion video and the accompanying audioto a computer.5 This capability makes PC-based digital video production and editingsystems a possibility.

A card’s capabilities can vary. It maycapture high quality, full-screen motionvideo. As covered in the next chapter, thesetypes of cards are used in corporate and professional video production environ-ments. Other cards may only capture infor-mation at a reduced size and frame rate.Thetechnical quality of this information can alsovary.

Edit Controllers. PC-based edit con-trollers are used to control editing VCRs.When you edit a production, selecting,organizing, and joining individual shotselectronically create a story.

Desktop video systems can range fromcuts-only to A/B roll to nonlinear configu-rations. In the first set-up, shots are linkedtogether. In the second, you can make moresophisticated transitions, such as incorporat-ing a dissolve, where one image is graduallyreplaced with the next.These transitions aremore complex and require additional VCRsand other equipment.

In the third environment, you can edit a production using a visual metaphor—atimeline where video clips are arranged insequential order. This topic is discussed indepth in the next chapter.

All in all, an editing system has alsobecome a realistic production option forDT-V users. With the right video camera,you can produce near and, potentially,broadcast quality video. Combine this witha PC-based editing system, and you cancreate programs ranging from commercialsto documentaries.

Musical Instrument Digital Interface. PCscan also take advantage of the MusicalInstrument Digital Interface (MIDI). This

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standard made it possible for electronicmusical instruments developed by differentmanufacturers to communicate with eachother, and ultimately, with computers.

As part of a larger system, MIDI can alsohelp create a powerful composing tool. In a typical application, a computer is linkedwith a synthesizer, an electronic musicalinstrument.This connection is made throughthe PC and synthesizer’s MIDI ports, and aprogram can subsequently turn the com-puter into a sequencer. A sequencer essen-tially is a multitrack machine that can recordand play back multitrack compositions.

You can manipulate the synthesizer’snotes with the PC, since these notes, theevents, are viewed by the computer asanother form of data.The actual sounds arenot recorded, but rather, information detail-ing the performance. The “speed at whichthe key was pressed” is one such piece ofinformation.6

You can also create and edit musical com-positions.A section of a track can be copied,the key can be transposed, and the tempocan be altered. The final piece can then be played back under the control of the PC.

The computer–MIDI marriage offersother advantages. A synthesizer can create arange of sounds that can vary from a harp-sichord to a pulsating tone, a special effectsuitable for a science fiction movie. Theparameters that constitute a sound can alsobe saved on a disk, and it is possible to store,manipulate, and recall entire sound libraries.Collections of premade sounds are also available.

The MIDI revolution was brought aboutby the adoption of the standard in the early1980s. Electronic equipment manufacturersagreed to follow this common standard toenable musicians to link different synthesiz-ers, helping to fuel the growth of the elec-tronic music industry. Previously incom-patible and expensive instruments could

now be interfaced, and musicians werehanded a set of creative tools.

Other Considerations

Compression. The term compression, forour purposes, refers to data compression.Digitized video, audio, and image files canhave enormous storage appetites. By usingsoftware and/or hardware schemes, data canbe compressed and stored more efficiently.Compression is also used in other fields,especially the teleconferencing market, tosupport the relay of audio-video informa-tion over less expensive, lower capacity, com-munications channels.

Compression can be lossy or lossless.7

Lossy means some of the data are lostthrough the compression scheme. For desk-top publishing and certain other applica-tions, this may not be a problem since theloss can be negligible.8 Lossless, on the otherhand, implies there is no loss of data. Loss-less techniques are used in the medical fieldand other areas where data loss may beunacceptable.9

Popular compression options have in-cluded the following:

• Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)• Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG-

1), and by extension MPEG-2, MPEGAudio Layer-3 (MP3), and more recently,MPEG-4.

JPEG and MPEG-1 were originally andnominally geared for still and movingimages, respectively. MPEG-2 has emergedas an important tool for video applications.10

MP3 has been used for audio compression(music files).You can, for instance, downloadMP3 files from the Internet and store themon a CD. You can also purchase a stand-alone MP3 player, a small device that storesand subsequently plays back MP3 files.

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MPEG-4, for its part, is “designed to be usedto deploy complete new applications or toimprove existing ones.”11 More versatile and“flexible” than its predecessors, MPEG-4was introduced on the general market in theearly 2000s.

Compression’s importance also extendsbeyond the multimedia and DT-V fields.The development of efficient standards iscritical for enhanced data relays throughcommunications networks. Both develop-ments, advanced communications systemsand compression techniques, go hand-in-hand. Compression is similarly discussed inchapters covering high definition television,teleconferencing, and the Internet.

For the latter, this includes using, in atypical scenario, DT-V and multimedia toolsto produce video clips slated for Internetdistribution. In one example, the system youmay use for editing a production may alsosupport various Internet-based video deliv-ery options. As stated at other points in thebook, this type of production flexibility alsoequates to additional distribution venuesand the need to convert this information tomeet each venue’s requirements.12

Finally, you may run across the term codecwhen working with audio-video systems.It stands for compressor/decompressor. Inbrief, a “codec is an algorithm, or special-ized computer program, that reduces thenumber of bytes consumed by large files andprograms.”13

Codecs drive the compression/decom-pression processes and help make it possibleto use less expensive and lower capacitycommunications channels for relays and/orto save storage space. Examples includeMPEG-4 and those originally geared for theteleconferencing field.14

QuickTime. The QuickTime architectureor standard,which taps compression’s power,gave the multimedia and DT-V fields anenormous boost. Released by Apple in the

early 1990s, it brought, in part, digital audioand video to the Macintosh at a reasonablecost. Designed to run on most models,QuickTime made it possible for Apple usersto readily tap these resources. For example,playback did not require additional hard-ware, and digital video and synchronizedaudio became an integral component of theoverall Mac system. Multimedia and DT-Vsupport was now a built-in function, not anafterthought or a hardware and softwarekludge.

Since that time, enhanced QuickTimeversions have been released.More importantto the overall market, QuickTime supportsMacs, IBMs, and Internet distribution.QuickTime serves as a representative ex-ample of how this type of standard can beused.

In a typical application, you can capturean audio-video clip via your Mac. Oncesaved, an editing program can manipulatethe clip and accompanying audio.

One package, which illustrates this soft-ware’s capabilities, is Premiere.The programcan join clips using wipes, dissolves, andother transitions. Special creative and imagecorrection filters can also be applied, andanimations, still images, and multiple audiotracks, are supported.

Premiere’s visual interface makes it anintuitive program. Clip sequences can bequickly rearranged, transitions can be addedor deleted, and audio tracks, graphically rep-resented as waveforms, can be manipulated.

Once you complete the project, it can bepreviewed. If it looks and sounds good, itcan be made into a QuickTime movie,where its size and other output characteris-tics can be controlled.

The movie can be used by itself or withother QuickTime-aware or—compatiblesoftware. Instead of importing a still image,you import a movie. Place the movie in adocument, click on it with a mouse, and themovie plays. It can turn a static document

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into a moving one. These characteristicscontribute to QuickTime’s value as a com-munications tool. It can be used withnumerous software packages, and as indi-cated, does not require special hardware forplayback.

Hardware components do, however, havean impact on the system’s performance.

These range from the computer model tothe graphics card to the use of a hardware-based versus a software-based compressionsystem.15

It is also important to examine Quick-Time and other standards from a systemsapproach. When first introduced, a Quick-Time movie may have looked great to a

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Figure 11.3Premiere’s workenvironment.Theconstruction windowshows two clips that willbe edited together.Premiere also supports awide range of functions,including an option toanimate (move) a videoclip. (Software courtesy ofAdobe Systems, Inc.,Premiere.)


computer user. It was cost effective andextended a PC’s production capabilities. Buta person working with video systems mayhave looked at the same movie and won-dered what the fuss was all about.16 Imageswere typically small, and as the movie’s sizewas scaled up, clarity decreased. The frameacquisition and playback rates could also below, which could make motions look jerky(not smooth).

The truth probably lies somewherebetween both extremes. When first intro-duced, PC-based digital video generally didnot match the quality of conventional high-end systems. But they were relatively inex-pensive to implement and could be accom-modated on a network.

Now,using a PC and the appropriate soft-ware, you can create a video production thatcan be published to the Internet or anoptical disk.The quality can also vary, froma partial screen/lower frame rate playback,as was once the norm, to a high quality pro-duction.

It is also important to note that whileQuickTime-type products have improvedwith age, DT-V producers may still workwith some hardware/software limitations.Thus, the digital video you make may be theperfect complement for your presentation,but it may not be suitable for a televisionnetwork.

There is another caveat in this discussion.FireWire-based editing systems proliferatedin the late 1990s and early 2000s.This stan-dard supports a high quality audio-videoinput and output and was matched by fasterhard drives that could accommodate thisdata stream.What is the upshot of this devel-opment? Higher quality video editing,including the production of clips for multi-media projects, became available to abroader user base. But to fully take advan-tage of the standard, you still had to have apowerful computer fitted with the appro-priate components.

ConvergenceWhat it boils down to is a sense of balanceor perspective. Each production environ-ment has its own relative merits and primaryapplication areas.They should all be exam-ined in the context of how they may fit inthe overall communications system.

The convergence factor should also beconsidered.As indicated in different sectionsof the book, we continue to see a conver-gence of technologies and applications,including those taking place in the videoediting market. In this case, the same soft-ware/hardware could be used to produceprogramming targeted for the Internet, aninformation kiosk, a DVD, or a televisionstation.

Videotape: It’s Still HereIn this new world of digital video, A/V-ready hard drives, and optical storage, video-tape is still here. It is a highly efficient andeffective storage medium. For example, fasthard drives have supplemented and replacedtape in different broadcast applications. Butthese systems can still be expensive, and forthe foreseeable future, may not match tape’shigh storage capacity/low cost ratio. Thus,both tape and nontape systems will coexist.Even when hard drives or other data storagesystems become more cost effective, tapemay still be used as an archival medium.Thistopic is covered in more detail in the nextchapter.

Graphics SoftwareGraphics programs contribute to DT-V andmultimedia applications. Besides the typi-cal software, other products are used. Com-puter assisted design (CAD) programs,for example, can serve as illustration tools.American Small Business Computers, cre-ators of the DesignCAD software series, dis-covered that their programs were also used

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for business graphics, technical illustration,and desktop publishing.17

Other software may even be more spe-cialized, and can include:

• programs that create realistic humanfigures;

• programs that generate landscapesranging from Mt. Saint Helens to theplanet Mars to surrealistic scenes createdin your own mind; or

• character generator programs that createtitles that can be overlaid on your video.18

Video ToasterNewTek’s Video Toaster is a product thatspans the professional and nonprofessionalmarkets. Introduced for the Amiga, theToaster raised the level of DT-V productionby a notch.

The Toaster brought professional videoproduction capabilities to the desktop at alow cost. The system functions, in part, as a character generator, frame grabber, and aswitcher. Switchers are used for image tran-sitions. The Video Toaster also supportsdigital video effects, and LightWave 3-D, its3-D graphics program, actually emerged asa cross-platform industry standard.

Depending on the production situation,you may also need a time base corrector(TBC) to take full advantage of these capa-bilities. A TBC “takes the unstable videofrom a VTR and acts as a shock absorber,outputting rock stable video that can beintegrated with other video sources in asystem to maintain good picture quality.”19

TBCs were once out of the financial andtechnical reach of most DT-V users.The sit-uation changed, though, when the Toaster’spopularity and the growing DT-V marketprompted the introduction of inexpensiveTBCs, including internal models that fitinside a PC.

The newest version of the Video Toasterworks with loaded IBM PCs. Loaded, in thiscontext, refers to a fast processor(s), fast and high capacity hard drives, and as muchRAM as you can afford. Like its predeces-sor, it supports multiple functions that are,with this generation, enhanced.

APPLICATIONS ANDIMPLICATIONS

Multimedia and desktop video systems haveemerged as powerful information tools. Inthe business world, a multimedia productioncan make a speech more interesting andinformative through the use of video andother media. This concept has beenextended to teleconferencing and otherfields.

EducationThe educational market is served by multi-media and DT-V products. In one applica-tion, a student can use a multimedia bookthat incorporates sounds and video clips.When combined with hypermedia links, thestudent can explore and experience this new

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Figure 11.4Image editing andgraphics programs playkey roles in desktopvideo and multimediaproduction. In thisexample, an image canbe altered though varioustools, including filtersthat can be used forcreative and imageenhancement/correctionapplications. Other toolsare visible on the leftside of the screen.(Software courtesy ofAdobe Systems, Inc.;PhotoShop.)


world in a nonlinear fashion. The docu-ment’s interactive nature can also help makelearning active.

In the medical field, surgeons could useQuickTime, or another digital video pro-duct, to inexpensively document new tech-niques. Besides a written description, a sur-gical procedure could be annotated withvideo and voice. Digital video additionallyoffers a rapid turnaround time, a reasonablelearning curve through programs such as Pre-miere, and the potential to exchange thesedata over the Internet and optical media.20

Training, Sales, and AdvertisingTraining applications are well suited for DT-V and multimedia. A production couldcover tasks ranging from car engine repairsto basic PC operations.Video clips of a realengine could be used, and the productioncould incorporate an interactive interface.

Store owners are also served. An elec-tronic sales catalog can either replace or supplement a print version, and interactivekiosks where customers can get informationabout products have popped up in super-markets and malls as well as other outlets.

The advertising and public relationsindustries have also benefited. Video clipsand animations can be rapidly generated andused in a presentation. In a related area, asophisticated multimedia system was devel-oped to showcase the city of Atlanta,Georgia. The presentation was used topromote Atlanta as the site for the 1996Summer Olympics.21

Other ApplicationsThe multimedia and DT-V fields have ledto other applications and implications,including the following:

• Video artists adopting DT-V tools.Artistshave used inexpensive video systems for

years. Earlier projects included personaldocumentaries as well as video feedback,where different visual patterns could becreated, controlled, and displayed on atelevision screen. Today, artists can tapsophisticated PCs and video equipment.In essence, video can be captured foreither still or motion displays, images canbe colored, and animations can be produced.

• The emergence of Canon XL videocameras, and other systems, as the tools of choice for independent documentary/movie producers. After shooting, thevideo would typically be edited with aPC-based system.This also includes Appleand IBM notebooks, generally configuredwith FireWire ports and external harddrives connected to the ports. In this set-up, the internal or system hard drivetypically stores the software, and theexternal drive is used to store the audio-video files and the edited piece. An external drive offers another advantage:portability. To work on a different computer, simply disconnect the Fire-Wire cable, move the drive to the othercomputer, and plug in that system’s cable.This feature also enables you to share your files with a friend, colleague, orclient.

• The use of DT-V and multimedia systemsto extend the concept of the free flow ofinformation. Like desktop publishing,production tools are now accessible tomore people.22 These tools have also con-tributed to development of a personalmedia. Instead of everyone receiving thesame information, more personalizedinformation can be created and received.For example, by using a video camera anda computer, we literally become produc-ers and editors. Another implication isthat we can now tap into more individu-alized information and entertainmentpools.

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Various organizations, including MIT’sMedia Lab, have pushed both conceptsbeyond current boundaries.The Media Lab,as directed by Nicholas Negroponte, hasbeen one of the world’s premier researchinstitutes. Besides exploring the conver-gence of different media, personalized inter-active media have been investigated. Twoexamples are personal electronic newspapersand television.23

In this new world, information could be retrieved from different sources and subsequently delivered to you through the assistance of intelligent systems andhuman–machine interfaces. In one setting, acomputer could scan a night’s worth of pro-gramming and then summarize and possiblyreplay the portions that would be of per-sonal interest to you.24

Other developments, including an inter-esting look at this institution, can be foundin Stewart Brand’s book The Media Lab.

Negroponte has also discussed this topic, andhis view of our digital future, in his BeingDigital.

PRODUCTION CONSIDERATIONS

To wrap up this chapter, we should examinesome basic production issues along withbroader, aesthetic issues. For the latter,the growth of the multimedia and DT-Vmarkets may have outstripped the develop-ment of a sound aesthetic base. An exami-nation of traditional film and televisionframeworks can be valuable.

Production ElementsLike desktop publishing, there are somebasic conventions you should follow whencreating a DT-V or multimedia project.These include the following:

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Figure 11.5PCs, in combinationwith video equipment,have provided artistswith a powerful set oftools. A still from“Godzilla Hey,” byMegan Roberts andRaymond Ghirardo(1988).The workcombines digital videoimagery and sound withanalog video synthesis.Produced at theExperimental TelevisionCenter with Amiga PCsand the FB-01 videoframe buffer withproprietary software,designed by DavidJones. (Courtesy ofMegan Roberts andRaymond Ghirardo.)


1. Watch out for too many links. A readercan become lost in a document if thereare too many consecutive links in aninteractive multimedia production.25 Aprototype of the final project, like a sto-ryboard for a television production, canhelp point out potential problems.

2. Know your audience. For example, theinterface for a commercial catalog may be very different than one geared for the general public. The former may be designed to retrieve information asquickly as possible. The latter may havemore visual effects and graphics to holdthe audience’s attention.

3. Remember the old adage “form followsfunction.”This concept should be appliedwhen you design your product.

4. As stated, examine your distributionvenues. Are you going to use a CD-ROM, DVD, or the Internet? The distri-bution medium may, for instance, have animpact on the project’s graphics. For theInternet, you may use compressed and/orsmaller sized graphics to speed-up theinformation relay. Similarly, if you designa CD-ROM product, can it be readilyadapted for the Internet? Does your soft-ware support this option? In one sense,you can now approach production froma systems approach in regard to programdevelopment and distribution.

5. Pay attention to other technical and non-technical needs. Can your product be dis-tributed on multiple computer platforms?Do you have to pay a fee for distributionrights? Are you using any copyrightedmaterials? Do you have permission to usethese materials?

6. Check all your work on a conventionaltelevision or monitor while you areworking. Colors may not be as rich andresolution can be lost.Some programs alsohave an option to help ensure the colorsyou use will technically conform to a tele-vision environment (e.g., NTSC-safe).

7. Do not place titles and other visual ele-ments at the edge of the screen. Theymight be cut off when displayed on atelevision. Similarly, make sure the text isnot too small to read. You should alsoavoid a fancy script typeface. Although afancy typeface might be fine on the com-puter’s display, it might be illegible on astandard television.

8. When recording, do not use old tape.Videotape that has been reused a number oftimes may not give you a clean recording.

9. Be paranoid. Always save your work andback it up—back it up—back it up.

Aesthetic Elements

Element Integration. All the media ele-ments that compose a production should befully integrated, much like a film or televi-sion show. There should be motivation, areason, for using any given element. Do notuse an animation, for example, simplybecause you own animation software. Useone for a specific goal. It can range fromdemonstrating a new piece of equipment toserving as an attention grabbing device.

Preproduction. The issue of what elementsto use can be worked out during a prepro-duction phase, the time before the programis created. The idea is to establish differentcriteria to help guide the program’s design.The preproduction stage also serves a morepractical purpose. It is less expensive to makechanges at this stage than after the program’sfinal assembly.

During the preproduction phase, differentquestions should be asked:

• What is the presentation’s goal?• Who is the potential audience?• What are the budgetary limitations?• What is the best way to satisfy the goal?

For example, should video be used?

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The last question is particularly important.Should you use conventional video orwould a QuickTime clip suffice? This flex-ibility is one of the hallmarks of multimediaproduction.The key again, though, is ensur-ing the presentation’s integrity. Use a toolonly if you have a reason to use it.

Prototyping. Besides a preproductionplan, you may want to prototype a small-scale version of the program.You can try outyour ideas and plan any necessary changes.

A storyboard would also be helpful. A storyboard depicts, in sequential order, themajor events in a production. It can be made of still pictures and may include audio.If the storyboard is computer based, youmay be able to use some of its componentsin the final product. These can includegraphics, animations, and QuickTimemovies.

Enhancement. Once you create your pro-duction, seek ways to improve your craft.Continue producing, watch related mediaproducts, including movies and televisionprograms, and read.

If you are planning a DT-V project, youcan learn how music can be an effectivecomponent by examining its role in certainmovies. Music can heighten the tension ina scene or can serve as a counterpoint towhat we’re watching.This principle, observ-ing for analytical purposes, also applies tolighting, scriptwriting, shooting, editing, andother production techniques.26

Finally, the goal of this process should bethe development of your own style. Yourproduction, whether it’s video art, an elec-tronic catalog, or a multimedia presentation,can have your own personal signature.Withall the tools at your disposal, this should bean enjoyable prospect.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. The typical abbreviation for DesktopVideo is DTV. However, as covered in thedigital television chapter, DTV also representsdigital television.To avoid confusion, DT-V willbe used when discussing desktop video.

2. Tom Yager, “Practical Desktop Video,”Byte 15 (April 1990), 108.

3. David A. Harvey,“Local Bus Video,” Com-puter Shopper (July 1992), 181. Note: Thisconcept can be extended to other computerperipherals to similarly speed up their performance.

4. In some cases, there may be hardwareconflicts between the peripheral you areinstalling and the computer; there may also besoftware incompatibilities. In one example, anupdated version of a video editing program mayrequire an updated version of the operatingsystem to run.

5. When using analog video, the informationis also digitized.

6. David Miles Huber, The MIDI Manual(Carmel, IN: SAMS, 1991), 20. See Jeff Burger,

“Getting Started with MIDI:A Guide for Begin-ners,”NewMedia 1 (November/December 1991),61, for additional information and for a chart thathighlights MIDI’s storage efficiency when com-pared with conventional digitized audio.

7. Bruce Fraser, “Scan Handlers,” Publish(April 1992), 56.

8. The same principle applies to certainvideo production operations.

9. Chris Cavigioli, “Image Compression:Spelling Out the Options,” Advanced Imaging 5(October 1990), 64.

10. Please see Media Cleaner Pro 4 (1999)software manual, by Terran Interactive, for anexcellent discussion of compression schemesand their advantages/disadvantages (for ex-ample, pp. 31–35).

11. Richard Doherty,“The MPEG-4 ProductRoll-Out: Digital Video Poised to Go the Dis-tance,”Advanced Imaging 16 (February 2001), 19.

12. This may include, for instance, usingcompression to make it possible to distribute aclip over the Internet.


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13. Searchnetworking.com. Downloadedfrom http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,sid7_gci211810,00.html.

14. When used in the telecommunicationsindustry—to go from an analog to digital signaland back—codec generally stands for coder/decoder.

15. See Denise Salles and Judith Walthersvon Alten, “Making, Playing, and Sequencing aMovie,” Chapter 7 in Adobe Premiere User Guide(Mountain View, CA:Adobe Systems, 1992), fora comprehensive overview of the latter topic.

16. Ben Calica, “The Clash of the Video and Computer Worlds,” NewMedia 1 (September/October 1991), 58.

17. American Small Business Computers,personal communication.

18. Character generators range from dedi-cated broadcast to PC-based units.

19. Tedd Jacoby, “Old Problems, NewAnswers,” Video Systems (April 1988), 80. Note:TBCs are also used in high-end, conventionalediting systems.

20. Steve Blank,“Video Image Manipulationwith QuickTime and VideoSpigot,” AdvancedImaging 7 (February 1992), 54.

21. Mike Sinclair, “Interactive MultimediaPitches Atlanta Olympic Bid,” Advanced Imaging5 (March 1990), 38.

22. The produced electronic documentsmay present even more powerful messages thantheir paper counterparts.

23. Nicholas Negroponte, speech deliveredat Ithaca College, Ithaca, NY, May 29, 1992.

24. Ibid.25. The same principle applies to web site

designs, among other operations.26. Relevant television programs include

The Twilight Zone and the PBS documentaryThe Civil War. In cinema, the list runs the gamutfrom older classics to more modern films: Bat-tleship Potemkin, Alexander Nevsky, Grand Illu-sion,The Adventures of Robin Hood, Citizen Kane,Casablanca, The Third Man, Psycho, The God-father, Raging Bull, Glory, Braveheart, The Lord ofthe Rings, and Apocolypse Now. As a group, thefilms serve as examples for production and aes-thetic principles ranging from music to lightingto shot composition.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Ashdown, Ian. “Lighting for Architects.” Com-puter Graphics World (August 1996), 38–46.Architectural rendering, graphics, and thevisual importance/impact of lighting (in animage).

Barnett, Peter. “Implementing Digital Com-pression: Picture Quality Issues for Televi-sion.” Advanced Imaging 11 (April 1996),30–33, 88; Richard Doherty. “The MPEG-4Product Roll-Out: Digital Video Poised toGo the Distance.” Advanced Imaging 16 (Feb-ruary 2001), 20–23; Lee J. Nelson “VideoCompression.” Broadcast Engineering 37(October 1995), 42–46;Terran. Cleaner 5 UserManual; Ben Waggoner. Compression for GreatDigital Video. Berkeley, CA: CMP Books,2002. Compression, technical concerns,applications, and techniques. The Cleaner 5

manual is written for the Cleaner software.But it is also a rich information resourceabout compression and compression stan-dards. The Waggoner book is very compre-hensive and includes a companion CD.

Brain, Marshall. “How MP3 Files Work.”Verizon, downloaded from wysiwyg://153/http://www22.verizon . . .r/Articles/article/?articleId=1023; Karl Heintz Brandenburg.“MP3 and AAC Explained.”AES 17th Inter-national Conference on High Quality AudioCoding, downloaded from www.aes.org/publications/downloadDocument.cfm?accessID=14703162000122117. Articlesabout MP3 compression and applications.The Brandenburg article also covers othercompressions standards.

Brand, Stewart. The Media Lab. New York:


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Penguin Books, 1988. As stated in the text,the book provides an interesting look atMIT’s Media Lab.

Computer Graphics World. The journal is anexcellent resource for imaging, computeranimation, and related topics.Three examplearticles are: Jenny Donelan. “Roamin’Ruins.” Computer Graphics World 25 (August2002), 33–34; Martin McEachern. “DoubleHeaders.”Computer Graphics World 25 (August2002), 13–24; Karen Moltenbrey.“Preservingthe Past.” Computer Graphics World 24 (Sep-tember 2001), 24–30.

De Leeuw, Ben. “Moving in Real-Time.” 3DDesign (September 1998), 31–35; Craig Lyn.“Master Series, Part 9: Mapping.” DV(January 1999), 68–69; Eni Oken. “Color.Color Everywhere.” 3D Design (September1998), 53–63;Michael O’Rourke.Principles of Three-Dimensional Computer Animation. NewYork: W.W. Norton and Co., 1995; BarbaraRobertson. “Staying Tooned.” ComputerGraphics World 24 (July 2001), 32–38. Graph-ics theory, techniques, and production;Oken’s article is an excellent color primer.

Hall, Brandon.“Lessons in Corporate Training.”NewMedia 6 (March 1996), 40–45. Corporatetraining and different tools and techniques.

Huber,David Miles.The MIDI Manual.Carmel,IN: SAMS, 1991. A detailed guide to MIDIsystems and operations.

Kelsey, Logan and Jim Feeley. “Shooting Videofor the Web.” DV (February 2000), 54–62.Desktop video techniques for Internet-basedprojects.

Millerson, Gerald. The Technique of Television Pro-duction. Boston: Focal Press, 1990; HerbertZettl.Television Production Handbook.Belmont,CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999.Video production texts. The topics include,depending on the book, field production,editing, shot composition, and aesthetics.

Negroponte, Nicholas. Being Digital. New York:Vintage Books. 1995. A fascinating look atthe possibilities brought about by the com-munication and information revolution.

Ozer, Jan. “Building the Perfect Digital VideoStudio.” EMedia Magazine 15 (August 2002),22–32; Ben Waggoner. “FireWire GetsFaster.” DV 10 (October 2002), 28–32.Desktop video components and a fasterFireWire interface (including FireWire versusUSB for video production applications).

Wallace, Lou.“Amiga Video: Done to a T.” Ami-gaWorld (October 1990), 21–26. An initiallook at the Video Toaster.

GLOSSARY

Authoring Software: Software that can simplifyand enhance the creation of a multimediapresentation.

Compression: Compression refers to reducingthe amount of space required to store infor-mation (e.g., video). Compression can alsospeed up information relays.

Desktop Video: Advancements in video tech-nology have made it possible to assemblecost-effective yet powerful video production

configurations. PCs play a major role in thisenvironment.

Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI): AMIDI interface makes it possible to link avariety of electronic musical instruments andcomputers. The MIDI standard also enablesmusicians to tap a computer’s processingcapabilities.

QuickTime: Apple Computer’s PC-baseddigital media system.

Besides the desktop publishing and videorevolutions, another revolution is sweepingthe broadcast and nonbroadcast productionindustries. It is a revolution based on theadoption of computer and digital technolo-gies.This chapter covers these developmentsand complementary topics.The latter rangefrom convergence issues to digital recording.

PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT ANDAPPLICATIONS

Switchers and CamerasThe switcher has benefited from the inte-gration of computer technology. In brief, aswitcher is used to select the pictures pro-duced by a video facility’s multiple cameras.It also creates visual transitions, can be usedin postproduction work, and serves otherfunctions.

A computer-assisted switcher can help anoperator in these tasks. In one application, acomplex visual effect may be required.Theactions to create the effect can be prepro-grammed, stored, and recalled at the press of a button. This capability, to immediatelyexecute a command in the middle of a pro-duction when time is always critical, is animportant one.

Switcher configurations can also be stored and later retrieved. This optionenables an operator to quickly reconfigurethe switcher for different production situations (e.g., a news show versus a commercial).

The influence of computer technologyalso extends to video cameras and roboticcamera configurations. In the former,various parameters can be set up with acomputer-based control system, to help freean engineer’s valuable time. In the latter,individual camera operators are replaced bya robotic system.Television news and otherproduction situations generally call for setshots. A robotic system may prove accept-able in this environment.

A human operator can monitor andcontrol a system’s multiple cameras withvarious interfaces, including graphics tabletsand joysticks. Stored camera shots and move-ments can also be recalled, which lends itselfto repeatability.1

A robotic system may have some limita-tions. For example, it may not equal thespeed or capabilities of individual cameraoperators.This is an important considerationfor sporting events and other dynamicshoots.There may also be a cost factor, de-pending on a system’s sophistication.

12 The ProductionEnvironment: PersonalComputers, DigitalTechnology, and Audio-Video Systems

165


Digital Special Effects and Graphics SystemsA digital special effects system, also called a digital video effects (DVE) generator,manipulates a digitized picture or video se-quence to create a special effect.2 The finalproduct may be recorded on videotape orused in real time.

A DVE generator can support 2-D and 3-D effects; an example of a manipulation is a compressed television picture. After thevideo signal is digitized and processed, theoriginal picture can be reduced in size andrepositioned on the screen. The originalpicture is still visible, but now it is physicallysmaller. Similarly, you can initiate an on-airzoom—a little “zooms in” to fill the screen.Other, more advanced effects includemanipulation of an image so it appears toflip over, much like a page turning in abook.

You could use dedicated hardware or aPC with the appropriate software for thisoperation. Depending on the configuration,the PC could be less expensive, but you maypay a price in speed and flexibility.3

The same scenario applies to graphicssystems. A PC can create graphics suitablefor a production. This setup could also be

cost effective, accommodate numerous ap-plications, and allow you to tap into the free-lance market, which is the pool of peoplewith PC graphics experience.4

Dedicated hardware, however, has its ownadvantages.A system can handle intricate 3-D images, digitized pictures, and large fileswith a faster turnaround.The latter may becritical for news and other time-sensitiveproductions.

Nonlinear Video EditingComputer and digital technologies have also influenced video editing. As described,editing can encompass the simple joining ofscenes or more complex transitions.A newerform of this application is PC-based non-linear editing (NLE).

In brief, NLE allows you to retrievestored audio-video sequences in randomaccess fashion, much like conventional com-puter data. In a PC environment, the scenesare stored on a computer’s hard drives forlater use.

A linear system, in contrast, is in keepingwith the more traditional editing method.You must search through a videotape to findthe specified scenes.This process ultimatelyeats up more time.

When using an NLE system, the differentaudio-video elements are displayed on amonitor as you assemble the production. Inone set-up, the video material can be repre-sented by video frames, which serve as visualreferences for the scenes.

Some of the characteristics of working inthis environment are as follows:

1. Audio-video is captured and, based onthe system, you can select different options(e.g., audio quality level).

2. The different scenes are selected froman electronic pool or bin and are sequen-tially placed on a time line.The scenes canbe quickly rearranged and/or deleted. For

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Figure 12.1One of the fallouts ofthe communicationrevolution:The ability tocreate sophisticatedproductions with PC-based products.This is ashot from ToddRundgren’s “ChangeMyself,” produced byRundgren using theVideo Toaster. (Courtesyof NewTek, Inc.)

The Production Environment 167

many individuals, this visual metaphor hasmade the editing process more accessible. Itcan also lead to more creative freedom.Youcan rapidly experiment with edit points, dif-ferent shot arrangements, and other produc-tion elements.

3. Transitions between the scenes areselected from an options list.At some point,if you want to delete a transition, it is a simple operation, much like deleting aphrase with a word processing program.

4. High-end systems may complete, andyou may be able to view, dissolves and othertransitions in real-time. Less sophisticatedsystems may require several or more secondsto complete or render a transition.Hardwareacceleration, versus software-only systems,can be an important factor in this process.

5. You can generate titles and tap a PC’sgraphics capabilities. A graphic or anima-tion, which you create, can be imported andused. You can also manipulate the audiotracks and add music.

6. You can print (record) the productionto videotape; the quality is affected byvarious technical considerations.5

7. NLE systems flooded the market bythe late 1990s and early 2000s. The finaloutput improved while prices dropped.Both factors helped open the field to moreusers. Newer systems could also accommo-date multiple video formats.These develop-ments were fueled by the following:

• faster PCs• new software/compression capabilities• cheaper memory and hard drives• the adoption of FireWire and other

standards

FireWire facilitates the connection andlinkage of, for our current discussion, dif-ferent production equipment and PCs.6 Thisstandard also supports a fast data transfer rateand enables you to create a link with a singlecable. Newer video cameras, including thosebased on the Mini-DV standard, are also

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A

B

Figure 12.2The latest generation of NLE systems provide editors with powerful tools. In thesescreen shots are tools to analyze and correct video sequences. In (A) the colorcorrection capability can be used to match the video shot with different cameras.(Courtesy of Sonic Foundry;Vegas 4.0.)


equipped with a FireWire port. If you don’town a deck, you can use the camera itself toexport recorded sequences to the PC. Onceedited, you can use the camera to recordyour project.7

8. Although PC-based NLE systems arevaluable, some factors should be taken intoconsideration:

• Install as much memory as you canafford.

• Be prepared for occasional lock-ups.System freezes can occur.

• Digital video has a high storage over-head, and to work efficiently and effec-tively, you may have to buy more drivespace than you anticipated. Follow thissimple rule of thumb:When you thinkyou have enough storage, you’ll prob-ably need more.

• Although NLE systems can speed upcertain tasks, such as rearranging scenes,others may be slower. Depending onthe system, the latter include generatingcertain transitions and effects.

• Even though the visual interface cansimplify the overall editing process, thesoftware may have a high learningcurve.

• Can the system handle the quality ofvideo as well as the format required foryour applications? Can the programconvert a video clip, for instance, toformats compatible with DVD andInternet distribution or do you have touse another program?

• Does the company have a good tech-nical support policy?

• Pay attention to aesthetics. Editing isstill a craft that must be learned andpracticed.The same concept applies tocolor correction. The editing systemmay support powerful color correctiontools that can improve and enhance avideo sequence’s technical and visualqualities. But much like editing, proper

color correction techniques should belearned and practiced for their appro-priate use.

Audio Consoles and EditingAudio equipment has also been influenced by computer and digital technologies. A computer-assisted audio console, for ex-ample, can help an operator to manipulatesound elements. As covered in the previouschapter, your voice or other audio piece canbe digitized, edited, and manipulated. In this production environment, you can takeadvantage of random access editing and thevisual representation of the audio sequenceas a waveform on a monitor.This set-up pro-vides you with aural and visual clues to helpyou quickly identify edit points.

For facilities with limited budgets, thisapplication is supported by professionalquality audio cards that work with PCs.Complementary software enables you toproduce multitrack projects that can berecorded on tape, a hard drive, or othermedia.You can also create a sequence anduse it in a video-editing project.

You can also buy a portable digitalconsole for field and in-studio work.Thesesmall consoles may pack a powerful digitalaudio punch:“The new breed of console hasjust about everything needed to capture,edit, master, and burn audio masters, all condensed into one portable console.”8 Inessence, you can literally carry an audiostudio, which can perform a series of sophis-ticated functions, in your hands.

DIGITAL RECORDING

Why Digital?Digital audio and video systems have certainadvantages over their analog counterparts.Chapter 2 covered some of these character-

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istics, which include a more robust signal.Asignal’s quality is also preserved after multi-ple generations, unlike a typical analog sys-tem where the output suffers as you pro-gressively “go down” a generation.

Audio Recording and PlaybackA digital audiotape (DAT) machine canrecord and play back digital tapes.The audioquality is equal to a CD, and the informa-tion can be stored on a compact cassette.DAT’s recording and operational character-istics have made it particularly attractive toprofessionals. Studio and field machines havebeen designed, time code can be supported,and the output is excellent.

The consumer market, though, has beena different story. On face value, DAT systemsshould have been a success. Yet variousfactors combined to create a flat U.S. con-sumer response. For example, the recordingindustry claimed consumers would makeCD-to-DAT copies, that is, digital-to-digitalrecordings, thus potentially reducing CDsales. Protection schemes were subsequentlyproposed, including the Copycode system.In practice, a DAT machine would shutdown if it detected a special “notch” in pre-recorded media. But this system wasdropped because it did not work all thetime, and some individuals indicated itaffected a playback’s quality.9 When thisfactor was combined with the threat of litigation against manufacturers who soldunmodified machines, the result was the flatmarket.

But this picture has somewhat improved.DAT equipment has been embraced by elements of the audio industry and audio-philes.10 A royalty and new protectionscheme also defused the somewhat con-tentious atmosphere. Nevertheless, as of thiswriting, DAT has failed to achieve a broad-based U.S. consumer acceptance.11

In the 1990s, Sony introduced a newdigital audio format, the MiniDisc (MD).The equipment line has included a compactrecording system with random access capa-bility, digital quality sound, and compensa-tion for physical jarring. Other models werelater released for the professional market,including a unit that could replace the tra-ditional cart machine, a common fixture inmost professional facilities.12

Digital cart systems have also appeared onthe market. Audio can be stored, much likecomputer data, for the immediate playbackof different audio cuts.You can also tap yourexisting PC, if equipped with a high qualityaudio card, for this application.13 Install thesoftware, and you are greeted by virtualmachines—on screen representations of thisequipment.You can use your keyboard andmouse to subsequently control and playbackthe audio cuts.

What are the advantages? Random andimmediate access to the different audio

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Figure 12.3Using software, you cancreate sophisticated audiocompositions tocomplement aproduction—in this case,SurroundSound mixingtools. (Courtesy of SonicFoundry;Vegas 4.0.)


tracks, computer control for playback, cost-savings for cart machines and media (carts),and the reliability afforded by this environ-ment.14 Your system may also be enhancedthrough a software rather than a hardwareupdate (e.g., replacing expensive equip-ment), as would be the case with a conven-tional system. This last advantage may alsohold true for other computer-based systemsas well.

Video RecordingAs indicated at the beginning of this section,one of the advantages of a digital VTR is its high-quality, multigenerational capability.Two earlier formats include D-1 and D-2.

Other digital formats, and complemen-tary equipment, have subsequently beenproduced. These include DVCAM andDVCPRO, two competing formats fromSony and Panasonic, respectively.The Mini-DV, another format, emerged as a prosumerstandard supported by different manufactur-ers. Mini-DV systems also became popularprofessional tools. Cameras, for instance, arecompact, produce a high quality output, and

sport FireWire ports and multiple shootingmodes (e.g., wide screen).

Tapeless SystemsTapeless systems have also become popular.For our purpose, this term is an umbrellaphrase. It describes equipment that does notuse tape as its primary recording and/orplayback medium. These include NLE sta-tions equipped with fast hard drives andvideo servers. A video server is essentially ahigh speed and high capacity informationprocessing/storage device analogous infunction to a traditional server used in aLAN environment.

Advantages In one application, a servercan playback a television station’s ads.Tradi-tionally, a setup was expensive to maintain,prone to mechanical failure, and could be a complex mix of VTRs and a roboticcontrol system. A server, which can requireless maintenance and operator supervision,can replace this mechanical configuration.These devices can be more maintenancefree and can run with less operator supervi-sion.15 The end result would be a more cost-efficient station.

A tapeless environment has also beenextended to other areas. In one application,Avid helped introduce a disk-based camera forfieldwork. Instead of recording video on tape,it is recorded on a removable drive that can bemarried to a digital editing station.Thus, youcan quickly go from a shoot to editing to on-air.In a similar application,portable hard drivesallow you to record and then directly interfacewith an NLE system for postproductionwork.16 Other cameras support optical record-ing media instead of tape.

When viewed from a broad perspective,tapeless systems have other advantages:

1. Tapeless systems are less prone to physi-cal breakdowns. There may be fewer

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Figure 12.4A PC-based virtual cartsystem can replacemultiple, traditional cartmachines.The virtualcarts are displayed onthe left; the differentmusic cuts, which aresubsequently loaded inthe carts, are displayedon the right. A cart canbe started at the press ofa key and can be playedsequentially,automatically. (Softwarecourtesy of BroadcastSoftware International;WaveCart.)


mechanical components and parts to wearout (e.g., a VTR’s heads).A newer gener-ation of equipment may also sport con-trols similar to those of traditional VTRs,thus, facilitating their acceptance andoperation in a production environment.17

2. Tape is prone to wear and tear. Whenreused, defects, which can adversely affect aplayback, may surface. A tapeless system’splayback quality should remain unchanged.

3. The quantity of consumables, includingreplacements VTRs and tape, will bereduced.18

4. A tapeless system can simultaneouslyserve multiple users. In a typical scenario,the same video clip could be accessed bytwo editors to compose different stories.19

In sum,new systems are making their wayto the market while the performance ofexisting systems have been enhanced. Thevariety of products and their capabilities alsooffer new production options. These rangefrom the use of optical media and harddrives for recording video in the field to thecreation of storage systems that may supportone or multiple users.The latter may includeusing storage area networks (SANs) andother systems.

What is the bottom line? We now haveaccess to a diversity of storage media forshooting and postproduction work that,when used appropriately, can enhance theworkflow across an organization. It is alsoimportant to remember that the develop-ments in one field may have an impact onanother. In one example, as network technology is enhanced, be it through thecommunications line itself or other compo-nents/software, it will have an impact in theaudio-video production field. Finally, pleasesee the Suggested Readings section fordetailed information about SAN-basedtechnology/products and other storageoptions.

Disadvantages Despite its advantages,there are some limiting factors as we migratetoward a tapeless environment:

1. Sectors of the broadcast industry are stillheavily invested in a tape-based standard.Because an overnight switch would betoo expensive, the changes will mostlikely be evolutionary. The technologybase is also too new for some users—ithas not met the test of time.

2. Technical limitations, including potentialsoftware problems, must be ironed out.20

Basically, if there are software failures,whole systems could be rendered inoperable.

3. System redundancy must be considered.If a single VTR breaks in a traditionalsetup, another unit could easily replace it.In contrast, how effective are the server’sbackup and replacement capabilities?

4. Depending on the application, mediacosts may still be comparably high fortapeless systems.Videotape and other tapeformats are cost effective, especially inview of their storage capacities. Harddrives, for instance, cannot as yet matchthis capacity-to-cost ratio.

Consequently, tape will still be used foran undetermined time. This is especially true for smaller stations with limitedbudgets.

We may also see tape/tapeless hybrids inthe interim. In one example, servers used forvideo-on-demand applications may be sup-plemented by tape systems.The server couldstore frequently requested and timely infor-mation while other programming could bearchived on tape.When requested, it wouldbe transferred to the server and delivered.Data tape, rather than videotape, may also beused for archival purposes.21 Ultimately, inthis type of environment, we could draw onthe relative strengths offered by both tech-nologies and media.22

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INFORMATION MANAGEMENTAND OPERATIONS

Computers have been adopted for informa-tion management and control operations.These include scriptwriting, newsroomautomation, and computerizing a station’straffic and sales departments. Even thoughthese tasks may not be as visible as the pro-duction end of a facility, they are nonethe-less vital.

Scriptwriting, Budgets, and NewsA critical job in any production facility isscriptwriting. The script is the heart of a

program, and scriptwriting software hasbeen released to support this function. Thesoftware can help free you from numberingscenes, formatting dialogue, and other time-consuming mechanical chores.The softwarecompletes these functions, and you can con-centrate on writing.

A program typically supports a standardtwo-column television script and other for-mats. It may also link specific column sec-tions. If changes are made, the correspond-ing audio or video section tags along.

The scriptwriting process can be furtherenhanced through supporting programs. Inone instance, software can be used to createa storyboard, essentially a road map of a pro-duction. A storyboard can help you visual-ize the final product, and it may even bepossible to use short digital video clips withother media.

Other specialized and general release pro-grams are also widely used. For budgets,spreadsheets can track business expenses,crew fees, travel and postproduction costs,and equipment rentals. Another optionincludes the use of CAD programs for facil-ity design.

For news, computer technology hashelped transform the traditional news de-partment into an electronic newsroom. By inte-grating hardware and software, different tasksare enhanced. For example, wire servicestories can be fed directly to a computer.This information can be retrieved, printed,and saved.

A news department can also establish anelectronic news morgue.23 As part of a net-worked operation, reporters and editors cangain access to current and past stories.Digital video clips and other informationcould likewise be accommodated, particu-larly as compression techniques improve.

This digital vision, where information isnetworked and is readily accessible, couldfacilitate the overall production and newsprocesses. Digital video workstations, for

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Figure 12.5Multiple videotapeformats have coexistedfor years.This includesthe S-VHS (right) andthe newer, high qualityMini-DV formats (left).Note the size difference.


instance, could enable journalists, who mayhave traditionally worked in a text-basedenvironment, to tap into video and relatedresources. For facilities with limited person-nel, the same individual could write and edit the story, potentially all on the samedesktop.24

Depending on the manufacturer andpackage, other applications could be sup-ported. These include an interface to thestation’s production facilities where thenewscast’s text could be fed to a prompterand a closed captioning setup. A prompter isa device used by on-air talent to maintaingood eye contact with a camera whilereading news copy. Closed captions are thenormally invisible subtitles for programmingthat can be displayed on a television setthrough a special decoder.

Consequently, a product can be usedalone, as may be the case with a newswire

service feed to a single PC. In anothersetting, an integrated system that links thenewsroom with the production end can becreated. In fact, this principle has beenextended to tie various pieces of equipmentin a central control network. It could poten-tially encompass the entire facility.25

Operations and InformationManagementVarious media organizations have adoptedcomputers for marketing research.Arbitron,for one, has served the broadcast industry foryears. The company has tapped computertechnology to speed up the delivery ofinformation to client stations and to supportdifferent audience measuring techniques.The company even investigated an artificialintelligence-based passive system that couldidentify viewers without prompting.26

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Figure 12.6Computers play a keyrole in the broadcastindustry. In thisexample, they are usedto produce shots forweather forecasting.(Courtesy ofAccuWeather Inc.)


Besides Arbitron, companies have sup-ported telephone surveys with software. Inbrief, questionnaires could be designed andthe data collected and analyzed to reveal the audience’s characteristics. In one typicalapplication, these new insights could be usedto attract a specific demographic group.

Programming, Traffic, and SalesSoftware can also be used as an organiza-tional and managerial tool. A package cangenerate a detailed list of a day’s program-ming events and can handle other jobs. Aradio station serves as an example.

In one application, a program can supporta music library, essentially a sophisticateddatabase. Depending on the system, songscan be cross-referenced, coded according totheir tempo and intensity, and linked to agegroup and demographic appeal codes.Thesedata are useful in attracting specific audi-ences. Similarly, the software may help a

program director to devise the music rota-tion schedule—the list of songs playedduring the day.

Programs have also accommodated trafficduties. Log maintenance is an essential task,and computers have sped up this process.

A program could also automate thescheduling of commercials, and sales forceperformance could be evaluated in differentcategories.An accounting package may thenbe used to complete a comprehensive sys-tem that could cover everything from musicrotation to commissions. Accounting soft-ware performs a multitude of billing, payroll,and projection functions.

Other packages and hardware supportstation automation—running a station witha minimum of human intervention. Systemscan range from sophisticated to PC-basedoperations that can automatically play aseries of prerecorded songs and commercialsfor a local radio station. In one application,once programmed, an educational station

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Figure 12.7An example of a virtualset—a computergenerated set that couldbe used for a newsprogram. Powerfulcomputers and softwarehave made it possible tocreate customizedenvironments that mayotherwise be impossibleto build (e.g., moneyand time constraints).(Courtesy of Evans andSutherland. Copyright2000, Evans andSutherland ComputerCorporation.)


with a limited student staff could remain onthe air even during the summer and holi-days.

CONCLUSION

The broadcast and nonbroadcast worldshave been influenced by computer anddigital technologies. Some of these effectshave included the following:

• the introduction of new audio systems• the widespread adoption of digital and

tapeless recording systems• the birth of the electronic newsroom• the ability to create amazing visual effects• the impetus for an all-digital production

facility

The last item can be considered an evolu-tionary process. Digital equipment initiallyhad to operate in what was an analog sea,and an all-digital plant would reverse the sit-

uation—for example, a video camera’s signalwould be immediately digitized. This pro-cess would streamline certain operations andcould help preserve a signal’s integrity.

In view of its superiority, engineers aredesigning such digital facilities. This devel-opment also complements the creation of afully integrated facility that can tie differ-ent equipment and systems in a centralizedcommunications and control network. Al-though stand-alone systems will continue tobe used, the trend is to unite these elements,as may be the case with an automatedstation.

But even though these tools are power-ful, they still require human input. For agraphics system, this may be the creativeability to visualize a graphic and the skill andaesthetic judgment to execute the finalproduct.

All of these developments have “pushedthe envelope.” Only this time, it is a creativeenvelope, and one whose potential may beunlimited.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Robert Saltarelli, “Robotic CameraControl: A News Director’s Tool,” SMPTEJournal 100 (January 1991), 23.

2. DVE is a registered trademark of NECAmerica, Inc.

3. You also need an interface to transfer thedigital information from the computer to, forinstance, a VCR.

4. Linda Jacobson, “Mac Looks Good inVideo Graphics,” sidebar in “Macs Aid Corpo-rate Video Production,” Macweek (December 3,1991), 40.

5. These include the system’s capabilities, thequality of the video, and the compression ratio(if relevant) when the video is captured.

6. Frank Beacham, “Camcorders TakeAnother Great Leap,” TV Technology 13(November 1995), 1.Note:The standard has alsobeen enhanced and has moved to a multigen-

erational status, as has the USB connection. Butunlike the current USB standard, FireWire isdesigned to accommodate a high and sustaineddata rate and flow—as is the case with a videoproduction environment.

7. Using the camera for these tasks can,however, have an impact on its operational life-time—the extra wear and tear.

8. Andre Rocke. “Reduce Your Drag.”Videography 28 (January 2003), 22.

9. Brian C. Fenton, “Digital Audio Tape,” Radio-Electronics 58 (October 1987),78.

10. An audiophile, like a videophile,demands the best performance from equip-ment—in this case, audio equipment.

11. Part of the problem is the lack of soft-ware, prerecorded music tapes. For details, seeJenna Dela Cruz,“Digital Audiotape,” in August


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E. Grant, ed., Communication Technology Update(Boston: Focal Press, 1994), 259.

12. Ken C. Pohlmann, “Digital I/Os Addedto Sony’s Latest MD,” Radio World 19 (March22, 1995), 4.

13. There are also dedicated audio systemsdesigned for this application.

14. These include the elimination of tape—via the cart—breakage and media replacement.

15. Claire Tristram, “Stream On: VideoServers in the Real World,” NewMedia 5 (April1995), 49.

16. This has included the DTE Technologyline of drives that were compatible with avariety of NLE systems.

17. Please see Mark J. Foley, “VTR Killer,”Videography 28 (April 2003), 22 for an exampleof such a system.

18. Chris McConnell, “Curt Rawley: AvidAdvocate for a Disk-Based Future,” Broadcasting& Cable (April 3, 1995), 64.

19. Avid, “Server Control Production,”Across Avid 2 (Issue 1), 6.

20. Peter Adamiak et al., “Digital Servers,”Broadcasting & Cable (April 3, 1995), insert, S-3.

21. Mark Ostlund, “Multichannel VideoServer Applications in TV Broadcasting andPost-Production,” SMPTE Journal 105 (January1996), 11.

22. Claire Tristram, “Bottleneck Busters,”NewMedia 5 (April 1995), 53.

23. The idea of security is an important onesince a newsroom computer, like any othercomputer, may be vulnerable. The electronicnewsroom should also be equipped withbackup systems to maintain at least a basic levelof operation in times of emergency, when theautomated system may be rendered inoperable.For information, see William A. Owens,“News-room Computers . . . Another View,” sidebar inJames McBride, “Newsroom Computers,” Tele-vision Engineering (May 1990), 31.

24. McConnell, “Curt Rawley: Avid Advo-cate for a Disk-Based Future,” 65.

25. Conversation with Basys AutomationSystems, October 1992. Note: A still store“stores” images for later retrieval and display.

26. The Arbitron Company, “At Arbitron,These Technologies Aren’t Just a Vision,They’reReality,” brochure.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Braverman, Barry. “Understanding YourCamera’s CCD.” DV 11 (March 2003),22–30; Ken Kerschbaumer. “SONY PushesTapeless ENG.” Broadcasting & Cable (Febru-ary 10, 2003), 1, 38.The first article is a com-prehensive overview of CCD-based camerasand production techniques.

Broadcast Engineering is an important publicationfor the broadcast industry. Sample articles thatcovered various issues include: Steve Epstein.“The Advantages of Tape.” 39 (February1997), 100–102; David Hopkins. “DigitalEffects Systems: Moving to Software-BasedOpen Systems.” 39 (February 1997), 88–92;Robert Streeter and Thomas Drewke.“NBC’s Newsroom CommunicationSystem.” 44 (August 2002), 74–76; TomTucker. “Audio-to-Video Delay Systems forDTV.” 40 (November 1998), 82–85.

Chan, Curtis. “Advances in DAT Recorders.”Broadcast Engineering 36 (August 1994),34–40; John G. Garrett. “Really RemoteAudio.” DV 10 (July 2002), 42–50; DaveHansen. “Broadcast and Production AudioConsoles.” Broadcast Engineering 44 (Septem-ber 2002), 58–66; A look at DAT—early tomore recent systems—and other audio concerns.

Christiansen, Mark. “Creating Realtime 3DGraphics for Broadcast.” DV 8 (May 2000),46–54; Francis Hamit. “Imaging and Effectsat Star Trek: New Universes to Conquer.”Advanced Imaging 10 (April 1995), 22–24;Barbara Robertson. “The Grand Illusion.”Computer Graphics World 21 (January 1998),23–34; Barbara Robertson.“Reality Check.”Computer Graphics World 24 (August 2001),24–32; Roger Thorton. “Paintbox Re-Born


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for the Modern Age.” Videography. 27(December 2002), 52–56. Computer graph-ics and special effects.

Christiansen,Mark.“The Theory Behind Color.”DV 9 (August 2001), 36–44; Jim Farmer.“Observing China’s Cable TV Market.” CTI12 (March 2001), 24–31; Steve Hullfish andJaime Fowler. Color Correction for Digital Video.Berkeley, CA: CMP Books, 2003; OliverPeters. “And You Thought It Was a SimpleDecision!” Videography 28 (January 2003),40–44. Miscellaneous topics; the color correc-tion book provides a comprehensive and prac-tical view of this field and complementarytechniques. It includes a companion CD.

Davidoff, Frank. “The All Digital Studio.”SMPTE Journal 89 (June 1980), 445–449;Arielle Emmett. “Better Calling by Design.”CustomerInterface 14 (November 2001), 21–23; Christian Mitchell.“Planning New Facil-ities.” Broadcast Engineering 43 (May 2001),68–73; D. Nasse et al.“An Experimental All-Digital Television Center.”SMPTE Journal 95(January 1986), 13–19; Michel Prouix andRandy Conrod. SMPTE Journal 104 (Sep-tember 1995), 582–587. Early to more recent(including digital) studio design; the Emmettarticle covers call center design—but certainfeatures are also applicable for productionfacilities (e.g., ergonomic furniture).

De Lancie, Philip. “Storage Scenarios.” DV 11(April 2003), 38–43; Ken Paulsen. “Prospec-tive for Global Storage Networks.” TV Tech-nology 19 (June 13, 2001), 34–36; GregReitman. “Streaming Video with StorageArea Networks.”SMPTE Journal 110 (August

2001), 517–522; Storage Network IndustryAssociation (www.snia.org). Informationabout SANs and other storage systems/pro-duction applications; the SNIA web site alsofeatures white papers and other informationabout SANs systems.

Douglas, Peter. “Automating Master Control forMultichannel.” Broadcast Engineering 40 (April1998), 106–111; Ken Kerschbaumer.“Reshap-ing Broadcasting.”Broadcasting & Cable (October14,2002),30–36.Automation systems.

Houston,Brant.Computer-Assisted Reporting.NewYork:St.Martin’s Press,1996;Stevan Vigneaux.“Digital News Gathering on a Desktop.”Broadcast Engineering 35 (September 1993),50–56. Practical guide for learning computer-based tools for journalists and nonlinearediting, production, and news operations.

Ostlund, Mark. “Multichannel Video ServerApplications in TV Broadcasting and Post-Production.” SMPTE Journal 105 ( January1996), 8–12; Karl Paulsen.“Servers Found onVideo Menu.” TV Technology 14 (February 9,1996), 44–45, 65;Todd Roth.“Video Servers:Shared ‘Storage’ for Cost-Effective RealtimeAccess.” SMPTE Journal 107 (January 1998),54–57; Claire Tristram. “Stream On: VideoServers in the Real World.” NewMedia 5(April 1995), 46–51.Video server applicationsand operations.

Reed, Kim. “FireWire’s Future.” DV ( January1999), 35–44. Excellent look at FireWire.

Yamanaka, Noritada et al. “An IntelligentRobotic Camera System.” SMPTE Journal104 (January 1995), 23–25. Intelligent roboticcamera systems enhance operations.

GLOSSARY

Audio Console: The component that controlsmicrophones, CD players, and other audioequipment.

Computer-Assisted Editing: The process of usinga computer to help streamline and enhancethe editing process.

Digital Audiotape (DAT): A recordable digitaltape system that can match a CD’s audio

quality. DATs have also been used for com-puter data backups.

Digital Effects Generator: A production compo-nent that digitizes and manipulates images toproduce visual special effects.

Electronic Newsroom: A newsroom equippedwith computers for newswriting, creatingdatabases, and other functions.


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Graphics Generator: The component that is usedto create computer graphics. The graphicscan be produced either with special dedi-cated stations or PCs.

MiniDisc (MD): A newer digital audio system.Nonlinear Video Editing (NLE): Allows you to

retrieve stored video sequences in randomaccess fashion, much like conventional com-puter data. In a PC environment, the scenesare digitized, and a visual interface is used forediting.

Switcher: The video component that is used toselect a production’s camera and videotapesources. It can also be used in postproductionwork and may incorporate computer tech-nology.

Tapeless Systems: An umbrella phrase describingequipment that doesn’t use tape as theprimary recording and/or playback medium.

This chapter focuses on digital television(DTV), an application designed to producean enhanced television display. High defini-tion television (HDTV), which can fallunder the DTV designation, has been a goalof companies and countries for years. Thechapter concludes with an overview of ananalogous system geared for radio, digitalaudio broadcasting (DAB).

HIGH DEFINITION TELEVISION

High definition television was touted as thenew premier television standard. Its displaywould visually approach the quality of film,and the system would support an enhancedaudio signal.1

An HDTV set would also have a 16:9aspect ratio, that is, the ratio between ascreen’s width and height. In contrast to aconventional 4:3 configuration, an HDTVscreen would present a more powerfulimage to viewers.

The push for HDTV, which was includedunder the Advanced Television (ATV) des-ignation, stemmed from a natural process:the improvement of technology and thegrowth that takes place in any industry.Thetrend toward larger television screens accel-erated this research. In general, as the screensize increases, the picture quality decreases.But HDTV and other digital systems canprovide enhanced displays.

Background

Japan and CBS. The Japan BroadcastingCorporation, NHK, has been one of theworld leaders in the HDTV field, and its personnel conducted breakthrough research.This included experiments to test technicaland nontechnical parameters, such as therelationship between the number of lines in a picture, the optimum viewing distancefrom a screen, and the screen’s size. Forexample, viewers judged the quality of tele-vision pictures composed of different lines ofresolution from various distances.2 Theseconsiderations were then weighed againstbandwidth limitations and other factors.

NHK also developed HDTV equipmentand held trial HDTV transmissions in itsown country and the United States.

In the United States, CBS was an earlyHDTV supporter. The company promoteda two-channel, 1050-line componentscheme, in contrast to NHK’s 1125-lineconfiguration. The CBS operation was alsodesigned for a DBS relay. A 525-line signaland enhanced picture information wouldhave been carried in two separate channels.A receiver would have combined both toproduce a 5:3 HDTV display.3 For viewerswithout HDTV receivers, the single 525-line channel would have been converted forviewing on conventional sets.

The work conducted by NHK, CBS,and others helped spur the HDTV field’s

13 Digital Television andDigital AudioBroadcasting

179


growth.This development has also been anevolutionary one, with a minor revolutionthrown in to boot. The evolutionary phaseencompassed an emerging infrastructurebuilt to support HDTV productions andrelays.The revolution was the birth of an all-digital system.

Global Issues

“He who controls the spice, controls the universe.”—From the movie version of Dune.

During the 1980s, attempts were made tocreate an international standard. There wassome progress, but technical, political, andeconomic issues stood in the way. Oneproblem was a concern that Japan wouldgain an edge if its HDTV system dominatedthe industry. By extension, the situationcould have affected consumer electronicssales.

For Europe, manufacturers believed theirhome markets could have been swamped by Japanese-manufactured HDTV goods.4

Other issues stemmed from the EuropeanCommunity’s overall goal to promote European technologies and programming.

In the United States, official support wasinitially given for a standard based on Japan’ssystem. But this support faded as theprospect for a global standard faded.5

Another factor was the American semi-conductor industry.To some, HDTV repre-sented this industry’s future, since HDTVsystems would be heavily tied to semicon-ductor technology.6 The semiconductorindustry claimed that if the United Stateswas not a leading HDTV manufacturer, thecountry’s overall semiconductor industrycould suffer and, by extension, PC anddependent markets.

Thus, an international consensus couldnot be reached. It was feared the countrythat dominated this industry would have ahammerlock on a multibillion-dollar busi-ness and related industries.

This concern and perception is bestsummed up by the line that opened this

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Figure 13.1Engineers set up theencoding room at thefoot of the transmissiontower at WRC-TV/Washington inpreparation for the firstover-the-air digitalHDTV simulcast, inSeptember 1992.(Courtesy of theAdvanced TelevisionResearch Consortium;AD-HDTV.)

Digital Television and Digital Audio Broadcasting 181

section, from Dune, Frank Herbert’s classicscience fiction work: “He who controls thespice, controls the universe.” Only in thiscase, the spice was HDTV.7

United States

History. Much of the focus and regulatorymaneuvering in the United States has beenon the terrestrial system, over the air broad-casts. This is a reflection of the system’sunique status. Unlike cable or anotheroptional service, terrestrial broadcasts arefree. Even though the industry is supportedby commercials, we do not pay a set fee toview the programming.

The FCC accelerated the development of HDTV operations in the late 1980s andearly 1990s. In a 1988 decision, for example,the agency supported, at least for terrestrialtransmissions, a configuration that wouldconform to existing channel allocations andwould be backward compatible.

An HDTV relay also packs in moreinformation than a standard relay. For theUnited States, it would exceed, under nor-mal circumstances, current 6-MHz channelallotments. Thus, various organizations at-tempted to develop a system that operatedwithin these constraints.

In one example, the David SarnoffResearch Center supported its upgradableconfiguration, the Advanced CompatibleTelevision (ACTV) system. Under ACTV-I,an enhanced picture, but not one equal tothe 1125-line standard, would have beenrelayed over existing channels. At somefuture date, an augmentation channel, asecond channel with enhanced information,would have been integrated in the system(ACTV-II) to produce a higher qualitypicture.

Related issues have included the differ-ences between the broadcast, cable, andsatellite industries. Limited spectrum alloca-

tions translated into tight channel require-ments for broadcasters. Cable and satelliteoperators had more flexibility and couldlaunch, as another option, HDTV pay services.

Evolution and Revolution. The FCCrefined its decision in the early 1990s byannouncing its support for simulcasting. Inthis operation, a station would continue torelay a standard signal. The station wouldthen be assigned a second channel for anHDTV relay. This approach was viewed by some as having an important advantageover using an augmentation channel. Withsimulcasting, the new system would not be tied to the NTSC standard.Thus, a supe-rior, noncompatible standard could be developed.8

The final piece to the puzzle was addedwhen the FCC, led by Chairman AlfredSikes, encouraged the development of adigital system. If successful, this configura-tion would have advantages over analogoperations.

Consideration was also given to a flexiblestandard that could handle future growth.Three terms were associated with this philosophy: scalability, extensibility, andinteroperability.

In a scalable video system, the aspect ratio,number of frames per second and the number ofscan lines can be adjusted . . . to the requirementsof the individual picture . . . or viewer’s choice.Extensibility means that a new television systemmust be able to operate on diverse display tech-nologies . . . and be adaptable for use with new,higher resolution displays developed in the future.Interoperability means a television system canfunction at any frame rate on a variety of displaydevices.9

Basically, part of the deliberation processwas the consideration of a standard thatcould accommodate different configurationsand enhancements.

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In preparation for this development,several proposed terrestrial systems werescheduled for testing by the Advanced Television Test Center. Following the tests,the FCC was slated to select a standard inearly 1993, which was subsequently movedto a later date.

The FCC was also working on a terres-trial broadcast timetable.This covered itemssuch as the length of time conventionalbroadcasts would be supported.

But many broadcasters were not happywith these decisions. Since DTV would bea new ball game, both producers and con-sumers would have to buy new equipmentto play HDTV.10 The cost would be partic-ularly painful for small market stations, evenwith eventual price reductions as equipmentbecame widely available.

Other broadcasters, at this time, were dissatisfied with the FCC’s timetable andmandate. It was proposed the second alloca-tion could be used for digital multichanneltelevision relays, or possibly, for interactiveand/or data services. The goal was toprovide broadcasters with additional pro-gramming options so they could bettercompete with cable and satellite services.Eventually, HDTV relays could be phasedin.

The Mid-1990s: A New Name and Stan-dard. After this initial work, a standard wasfinally hammered out, which now fell underthe DTV designation. It was recommendedto the FCC as the U.S. digital televisionstandard.11 As summed up in an FCC document,

The Commission proposed adopting, as the tech-nology for terrestrial broadcast in the UnitedStates, the Advanced Television Committee(ATSC) DTV standard. . . . The proposed stan-dard is the culmination of over eight years of workby the federal Advisory Committee on AdvancedTelevision Services (ACATS), the ATSC, theAdvanced Television Test Center (ATTC), and the

members of the Grand Alliance [an “alliance”of initial HDTV competitors that joined forces]. . . . The technology provides a variety of formatsthat will allow broadcasters to select the oneappropriate for their program material, from very high resolution providing the best possiblepicture quality to multiple programs of lower res-olutions, which could result in more choices forviewers. Even at the lower resolutions, the rec-ommended system represents a clear improve-ment over the current NTSC standard. Therecommended system also permits transmission oftext and data.12

The proposed standard’s video compressionwas based on MPEG-2. A relay would alsosport an enhanced audio output.

For the broadcast industry, a station wouldnot be locked into a single format. Therewas an option for “multiple simultaneous”standard definition or digital television(SDTV) relays. While not true HDTV, astation could accommodate multiple feeds.13

A Funny Thing Happened on the Way toHigh Definition Television. Zero Mosteland a supporting cast helped make A FunnyThing Happened on the Way to the Forum a hitplay and movie. In 1996, the computer andfilm industries, among others, helped bringthe standards adoption process to a crashinghalt.The proposed standard ran into a tech-nical roadblock.

As stated by FCC Chairman ReedHundt, who also expressed his own concerns,

. . . the dedicated and hard-working members of the Advisory Committee tried in good faith toproduce a consensus standard. Unfortunately, theydid not succeed. Important players in two hugeAmerican industries—Silicon Valley and Holly-wood—object strongly to some elements of thestandard. These groups support much of theGrand Alliance’s work . . .

But the failure to reach consensus over theinterlaced format and the aspect ratio [my emphasis]has led to a time-consuming and important

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debate in which all advocates are making seriouspoints.14

It was a contentious atmosphere. Opponentsindicated, for instance, that scanning andaspect ratio incompatibilities would hamperthe marriage between computer and televi-sion products and would have an impact onthe film industry. Supporters countered thatthe other industries were included in thestandards deliberation process. More point-edly, this was essentially a television broad-cast standard—the broadcast industry shouldtake the lead.15 Other contributing elementsincluded the Dune factor, convergence, andthe government.

• Dune factor:Which industry was going tocontrol the flow of “digital media cominginto the home,” basically, who was goingto control the spice?16 This had broadeconomic implications for broadcastersand computer manufacturers, amongother players.

• Convergence: What were once separateentities, such as the broadcast and com-puter industries, were now competing aswell as collaborating with each other.Because multiple industries had an inter-est in DTV, it became the game ball totoss about.

• The government: The U.S. governmentwas seemingly unwilling to grapple withthis “hot potato.”The FCC was divided,and since it was an election year, it wassuggested the Clinton administration didnot want to anger any particular group bytaking sides.17

In late 1996, however, a consensus wasreached. As described in a Broadcasting &Cable article, the “deal called for the adop-tion of the Grand Alliance standard minusthe controversial picture formats that haddivided the industries.”18 Basically, the coreof the original proposal was retained. But

now, the broadcast and computer industries,among others, could support differentdisplay formats (e.g., different types of scan-ning). The deal helped clear the road fordigital television.

Other ConsiderationsOther key issues have shaped the DTV land-scape. Examples include the following:

1. Regular HDTV broadcasts began inthe United States on April 1999, on TheTonight Show.19 Only special programming,including coverage of John Glenn’s launchon a space shuttle mission, were broadcastprior to this time in HDTV.20

2. The number of hours of DTV pro-gramming is increasing with each passingyear. According to the National Associationof Broadcasters (NAB), by early 2003, 97%of U.S.TV households could receive one ormore signals.21

3. Although much of the media focus hasbeen on over the air broadcasting, othermedia outlets can deliver digital program-ming, potentially on an optional basis andon a more flexible timetable. DirecTV, forone, helped pioneer the delivery of digitalsignals to consumers.

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Figure 13.2An HDTV display.Note the size and shapeof the screen comparedwith the typical TV incurrent use. (Courtesy ofthe Advanced TelevisionResearch Consortium;AD-HDTV.)


4. A 2002 GAO report indicated thatmany Americans were vaguely, if at all aware,of the DTV transition.22 Consequently, asbroadcasters hurled toward this digitalrealm, many Americans were not comingalong for the ride—if they knew that it evenexisted. This did not bode well for a quickand widespread adoption, at least during theearly years of the DTV rollout. This situa-tion was exacerbated by consumer confu-sion over “true” HDTV and DTV units and programming.23

5. Stations would stop their analog trans-missions at a designated date.24 A stationwould subsequently surrender its secondchannel for release for other services. Astation could receive an extension, however,based on market conditions.25

Money is also a key player in this scenario.As envisioned, portions of the recoveredspectrum space were slated for the auctionblock.

6. The FCC adopted different measuresto help speed-up DTV integration. Forexample, the Commission proposed thatDTV tuners, which would receive over the air broadcasts, would be required for 13-inch and larger TV sets. A timetable wasestablished for the plan’s gradual implementation.26

But various consumer groups and manu-facturers were against this measure. TheConsumer Electronics Association, for ex-ample, indicated that many Americans re-ceived their programming through cable orsatellite—a tuner would not be necessary inthese cases. A tuner would also make a setmore expensive. Even though costs woulddrop over time, the added expense could bea financial burden.

7. One or more obstacles may havedelayed a station’s DTV implementationtimetable. They ranged from monetary—topay for the conversion—to problems withthe broadcast tower. The latter included bad weather, which would interfere with

working on a tower, be it a new or an exist-ing structure.27

8. An DTV system could have numerousnontelevision applications. A display couldbe attractive for videoconferencing activi-ties, as described in another chapter.A satel-lite could also deliver signals to special movietheaters equipped with large,high-resolutionscreens. The programming could includemovies, concerts, and sporting events.

Stations could also support datacasting—using their channels to handle “everythingfrom broadcasting stock quotes to down-loading an electronic catalog.”28 As demon-strated in early 2000, stations could “createweb sites with multiple streams of video andbroadcast them to PCs over their DTVchannels.”29 Stations could also support, asdescribed, multiple SDTV relays of moreconventional programming.

9. The United States was not alone inDTV developments. In Europe, for instance,a new satellite-based service, Euro1080, wasproposed in the early 2000s. One applica-tion called for delivering programs to suit-ably equipped theaters or electroniccinemas.30 But as has been the case with theUnited States, progress for global terrestrialDTV operations was mixed.

10. Ultimately, the central question as toDTV’s success lies in consumer hands. Doesthe average consumer want DTV? Is theaverage consumer willing, for instance, topay a substantially higher price for trueHDTV sets?

Japan could serve as an example. Whenfirst introduced, only a limited number oftrue and expensive HDTV sets were sold.In contrast, an enhanced definition wide-screen system was more successful. Conse-quently, is HDTV that critical?31 Or is animproved picture, on a wider screen, a moreimportant factor for consumer acceptance?

This scenario has been supported in someU.S. studies. In one case, it is believed thatsome consumers could opt for a less expen-

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sive alternative to buying an HDTV set.Thiscould include using a set-top converterboxes rather than an HDTV set.32

11. In a related area, will PCs be used forentertainment and information program-ming? Will the PC, or television set for thatmatter, emerge as the core of an advancedhome entertainment and informationcenter?

ConclusionAs of the early- to mid-2000s, the DTVfield was in a fluid state. While there weremajor advances, the widespread adoption ofHDTV sets, for instance, remained some-what unfulfilled.The problems ranged frombroadcast station implementation delays toexpensive HDTV sets to lackluster con-sumer demand. Other issues include:

• Copyright concerns: Broadcasters, forone, supported an anti-copying or piracysystem (broadcast flag) to prevent the dis-tribution of digital programming via theInternet and other conduits. In contrast,opponents believed such a system wouldinfringe on consumer rights.

• Cable companies carrying DTV programming.33

• The charge that most stations were oper-ating low rather than high power “DTVfacilities.”34This had technical (e.g., recep-tion problems) and other implications.

• Even more acronyms to remember.Whenreading further about DTV, you may runacross the term DTT—it simply meansdigital terrestrial television.

DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING

HistoryMuch like DTV, companies and govern-ments worked to improve radio and relatedaudio systems.What is the bottom line? To

enhance radio program delivery/qualityand, if possible, to bring it to the digital age.

Pioneered in Canada and Europe, digitalaudio broadcasting (DAB) can deliver a CD-quality audio relay. This was extended to asatellite-based operation, a satellite digitalaudio radio service (SDARS), which wouldserve car owners, among others, through aroof-mounted antenna.35

A frequency allocation (L-band), grantedduring a 1992 World Administrative RadioConference, was initially supported. But the United States backed another plan sincethis allocation was already used for otherservices.

The National Association of Broadcasters(NAB), for its part, was cautious in itsapproach toward the technology. It “recom-mended that any domestic inauguration ofDAB be on a terrestrial only basis, withexisting broadcasters given first opportunityto employ the technology.”36 Broadcastersshould be given the first crack at this tech-nology, not potentially competing services.

This recommendation stemmed fromtwo related concerns. The first was that asatellite-delivered service could adverselyaffect the broadcast industry. The secondconcern was localism—an SDARS opera-tion could not match a conventional radiostation’s public interest commitment to thelocal community.37

In contrast, companies that proposedsatellite-delivered services indicated therewere numerous benefits. National program-ming could supplement local radio broad-casts. Listeners with limited radio choices

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Figure 13.3Side-by-side comparisonsof standard and HDTVsets. Note the aspectratio and size differences.(Courtesy of theAdvanced TelevisionResearch Consortium;AD-HDTV.)


could also have a broader selection, whilepay services and narrowcasting could besupported. A complementary terrestrial andsatellite system could likewise develop.

Other factors also played a role in thisprocess.This included work on in-band on-channel (IBOC) systems. Briefly, specialtechniques could make it possible to relaydigital programming using existing alloca-tions. This configuration could accommo-date, at least in terms of spectrum space, thecurrent radio broadcast industry. Much likeDTV, it could also provide stations with anupgrade path to digital relays.38

By the mid-1990s, little had changed onthe domestic front. U.S. efforts were stillunfocused even though the internationalcommunity had, with some reservations,adopted the Eureka-147 DAB standard.39

The debate between radio broadcasters andsatellite operators also continued, especiallyin light of the FCC’s decision to allocatespectrum “for a satellite-based industry.”40

But the FCC also repeated its support forlocal broadcasters.

Update

1. In late 1999, the FCC began a rule-making procedure to explore the possibleways to initiate digital audio broadcasting.The goal? To create a digital broadcast paththat terrestrial station owners could follow.The criteria would include the capability tolaunch enhanced audio services without dis-rupting the current infrastructure.

2. The FCC investigated and approved ahybrid IBOC system in the early 2000s.41

Developed by the iBiquity Digital Corpo-ration, its HD radio technology providedbroadcasters with a digital option whilemaintaining their current infrastructure.More pointedly, it provided for an efficientspectrum use plan that could deliver

higher quality broadcasts. As stated by theFCC,

The iBiquity IBOC system is spectrum-efficientin that it can accommodate digital operations forall existing AM and FM radio stations with noadditional allocation of spectrum. The NRSCtests show that both AM and FM IBOC systemsoffer enhanced audio fidelity and increasedrobustness to interference and other signal impair-ments. Coverage for both systems would be atleast comparable to analog coverage. Consideringthat iBiquity’s IBOC systems achieve these objec-tives in the hybrid mode, in which the relativelylow-powered digital signal must coexist withmore powerful analog signals, we expect thataudio fidelity and robustness will improve greatlywith all-digital operation.42

Much like DTV, analog and digital broadcasts would coexist. New receiversequipped with the proper componentswould subsequently receive the digitalsignal. Potentially, this path could lead to theimplementation of an all-digital radiobroadcasting system.Analog relays would bephased-out and additional services, whichwould tap this digital capability, could beintroduced.43

3. Satellite-based systems also made a bigmove in the early 2000s.XM Satellite RadioIncorporated, for instance, offered an arrayof digital channels through two geostation-ary satellites and a supplemental repeaternetwork.44You could listen to music rangingfrom rock to classical and jazz by using asmall receiver and antenna.As an option,youcould purchase a portable system that couldbe transferred between cars and likewise beused in the home. You could also order anew car with satellite radio capability.

Unlike a broadcast station, the XMservice was more like cable or satellite tele-vision—you paid a subscriber fee for theservice.When first introduced, it was under$10 a month.

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ConclusionThe DAB arena was volatile. Different pro-posals were floated to offer broadcasters adigital option, much like their televisioncounterparts. For some, a key factor wasproviding broadcasters with a tool tocompete with their satellite-based competi-tors. The latter, for their part, offered con-sumers a new, high quality service, whichcould provide national coverage with abroad range of music programming options.As was the case with DTV, however, thequestion was one of consumer acceptance—would enough individuals buy a systemand/or become a subscriber?

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Figure 13.4A view of DTVdevelopments. A GAOsurvey asked thequestion: If there wasn’ta government mandate,when would your stationbegin DTV broadcasts?The answer: Manycurrent DTV stationsreported they wouldhave “broadcast digitallyby the end of 2002. . . most transitioningstations . . . would havebegun broadcastingdigitally much later. . .”; some stationswould not initiate DTVbroadcasts. CurrentDTV stations arerepresented by the firstbar for a given year;transitioning stations bythe second bar. (Source:GAO Reports, “ManyBroadcasters Will NotMeet May 2002Digital TelevisionDeadline,” GAO-02-466, April 23, 2002.)

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Technically speaking, it may not equalfilm’s resolution.

2. Tetsuo Mitsuhashi, “Scanning Specifica-tions and Picture Quality,” NHK Technical Mono-graph 32 (June 1982), 24.

3. CBS/Broadcast Group, “CBS Announces a Two Channel Compatible Broadcast Systemfor High-Definition Television,” press release,September 22, 1983.

4. Elizabeth Corcoran, Scientific American 266(February 1992), 96.

5. Even though there may not have been anofficial agreement, elements of the internationalproduction community did embrace the pro-duction standard.

6. “EIA Sets Itself Apart on HDTV,” Broad-casting (January 16, 1989), 100.

7. Spice, also known as melange, was a rareand valuable substance.

8. “FCC to Take Simulcast Route toHDTV,” Broadcasting (March 26, 1990),39.

9. Frank Beacham, “Sikes: A New Ballgamefor HDTV,” TV Technology 10 (May 1992), 3.

10. “HDTV: A Game of Take and Give,”Broadcasting (April 20, 1992), 6.

11. Chris McConnell,“Broadcasters Arm for

ATV Fight,” Broadcasting & Cable (October 21,1996), 6.

12. FCC, News Report No. DC 96-42;“Commission Proposes Adoption of DigitalTelevision Broadcast Standard,” MM DocketNo. 87-268, May 9, 1996.

13. Richard Ducey, “An Overview of theAmerican Digital Television Service Program,”Paper, downloaded from www.nab.org.

14. Reed Hundt, Chairman, FCC, “A NewParadigm for Digital Television,” September 30,1996, downloaded from www.fcc.gov. Note: TVuses an interlaced format; computers use a pro-gressive scanning process.

15. Frank Beacham, “Pressure Builds forDTV Compromise,” TV Technology 14 (October25, 1996), 27.

16. Ibid.17. McConnell,“Broadcasters Arm for ATV

Fight,” 7.18. “DTV Standard: It’s Official,” Broadcast-

ing & Cable (December 30, 1996), 4.19. Kristine Garcia, “Heeere’s HDTV,”

Digital Television 2 (May 1999), 1.20. Paige Albiniak, “HDTV: Launched and

Counting,” Broadcasting & Cable (November 2,1998), 6.


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21. NAB, “11 New Stations on Air withDTV,” Press Release, March 3, 2003, down-loaded from www.nab.org/newsroom/pressr1/1303.htm.

22. Phillip Swan, “Give Us Some Credit,”Electronic Media Online, downloaded fromwysiwyg://4/http://www.emonline.com/technology/121602give.html.

23. Jennifer Davies,“The HDTV RevolutionWill Be Televised; But Will Anyone Be Watch-ing,?”The San Diego Union-Tribune (December 2,2001, Sunday), downloaded from Nexis.

24. The year 2006 as of this writing.25. Please see the following for details: FCC.

“FCC Initiates Second Review of DTV Tran-sition,” Press Release, January 27, 2003, down-loaded from http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-230562A1.doc.

26. FCC. “FCC Introduces Phase-in Plan for DTV Tuners,” Press Release, August 8,2002, downloaded from http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_pubic/attachmatch/DOC-225221A1.pdf?date=020208.

27. GAO Reports, “Many Broadcasters WillNot Meet May 2002 Digital Television Dead-line,”GAO-02-466,April 23,2002,downloadedfrom Nexis.

28. Glen Dickson, “Getting Together OverData,” Broadcasting & Cable (March 27, 2000), 9.

29. Harry A. Jessell, “Broadcasting’s KillerApp?,”Broadcasting & Cable (March 27, 2000), 10.

30. “Is HDTV Finally Coming to Europe,”TV Technology (January 30, 2003), downloadedfrom www.tvtechnology.com/dailynews/one.php?id=837.

31. Mario Orazio,“HDTV: Hot Dang-TotalVideo,” TV Technology 13 (December 1995), 25.

32. Marcia L. De Sonne, “HDTVs-It’sWhere the Buyers are Consumer Interest, Set

Availability, Set-Top Converters,” downloadedfrom www.nab.org.The National Association ofBroadcasters web site is a rich resource forbroadcasting topics, including DTV.

33. Edward O. Fritts, “Broadcasters’ Break-through Year,” Speech to the NAB ATSCAnnual Membership Meeting, March 11,2003, downloaded from www.nab.org/Newsroom/PressRel/speeches/031103.htm.

34. Broadcast Engineering, “Broadcastersand FCC Mismanaged DTV Transition, Con-sumer Federation Says,” downloaded fromhttp://editorial1.industryclick.com/microsites/index.asp?srid=11266&pageid=6952&siteid=15&magazineid=158&srtype=1#dtv.

35. Carolyn Horwitz, “DAB: Coming to aCar Near You?,” Satellite Communications(October 1994), 38.

36. NAB.“Digital Audio Broadcasting,”Broad-cast Regulation 1992;A mid-year Report, 140.

37. Ibid., 142.38. Conversation with FCC, October 1992.39. “U.S. DAB on the Slow Track,” Radio

World 19 (December 27, 1995), 37.40. Alan Huber,“FCC Lays Groundwork for

Satellite Radio,” Radio World 19 (February 8,1995), 1.

41. Downloaded from www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/digital/index.html.

42. FCC, Digital Audio BroadcastingSystems and Their Impact on the TerrestrialRadio Broadcast Service, MM Docket No.99–325, October 10, 2002, downloaded fromhttp://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attach-match/FCC-02-286A1.doc.

43. This may include SurroundSound.Please see the iBiquity web site for additionalinformation; www.ibiquity.com.

44. XM Satellite Radio Inc., “GeneralFAQ,” downloaded from www.xmradio.com.


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SUGGESTED READINGS

ATSC. Like the FCC, this is a rich resource forthe digital television standard. (www.atsc.org)Example documents have included: “A/53ATSC Digital Television Standard” (Septem-ber 16, 1995) and “A/54 Guide to the Useof the ATSC Digital Television Standard”(October 4, 1995).

Beacham, Frank. “Digital TV Airs ‘Grand’ SoapOpera.” TV Technology 14 (August 23, 1996),1, 8; Frank Beacham. “Pressure Builds forDTV Compromise.” TV Technology 14(October 25, 1996), 1, 27; Chris McConnell.“Broadcasters Arm for ATV Fight.” Broad-casting & Cable (October 21, 1996), 6–7, 12.The digital television standard controversy.

Boyer, William H. “Don’t Touch that Dial.”Satellite Communication 22 (May 1998),44–47; Peter J. Brown. “Satellite Radio.” ViaSatellite 16 (November 2001), 18–24;MelanieReynolds. “DAB Firms Tune in for ProductLaunch.” Electronic Weekly, downloaded fromNexis; Lucent Digital Radio.“Submission tothe National Radio Systems Committee.”January 24, 2000, downloaded fromwww.nab.org.; Lynn Meadows.“AT&T PullsIBOC from DAB Tests.” Radio World 20(October 16, 1996), 1, 11; XM Radio.www.xmradio.com. DAB and SDAR devel-opments and the XM Radio web site has arange of documents outlining its satellite-based service.

Brown, Peter E. “PC OEMs Look to DTV asPanacea for Home Market Ills.” Digital Televi-sion 2 (November 1999), 16; John Rice.“What Flavor Is Your DTV?” TV Technology16 (November 30, 1998), 28. PCs and DTV.

Davies, Jennifer.“Unclear Signal;HDTV’s SizzleMay Fizzle as Cost and Marketability InhibitGrowth.” The San Diego Union-Tribune(December 2, 2001), downloaded fromNexis; Jimmy Schaeffler. “HDTV’s ComingBut Obstacles Remain.” Satellite News(October 21, 2002), downloaded; TanjayTalwani. “FCC:This Time We Mean It.” TVTechnology 20 (July 10, 2002), 1, 8; SanjayTalwani. “FCC Mandates DTV Tuners.” TVTechnology 20 (September 4, 2002), 1, 12.DTV developments.

deCarmo, Linden.“Checkered Flag.” eMedia 16(May 2003), 34–41. Comprehensive reviewof the broadcast flag (copy protection) sce-nario; includes web site resources.

Ducey, Richard V.“An Overview of the Amer-ican Digital Television Service Program.” Apaper written by an NAB Senior Vice Pres-ident. An excellent look at the developmentof the U.S. DTV system.

FCC. The FCC is a rich resource for HDTV,DAB, SDAR, and related documents(www.fcc.gov). Example documents have in-cluded: Commission Begins Final Step in theImplementation of Digital Television (DTV).MM Docket No. 87-268, July 15, 1996; andIBOC Digital Radio Broadcasting for AMand FR Radio Broadcast Stations.

Freeman, John. “A Cross-Referenced, Compre-hensive Bibliography on High-Definition andAdvanced Television Systems, 1971–1988.”SMPTE Journal 101 (November 1990), 909–933; David Strachan. “HDTV in NorthAmerica.” SMPTE Journal 105 (March 1996),125–129; U.S. Congress, Office of TechnologyAssessment. The Big Picture: HDTV and High Resolution Systems. OTA-BP-CIT-64Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, June 1990. Comprehensive coverage of HDTV developments, particularly theearlier years.

Hallinger, Mark. “Globally, DTV Struggles toBreak Through.” TV Technology 21 (March19, 2003), 12, 16; “TV Transitions from aGlobal Perspective.”Broadcasting (October 15,1990), 50–52. DTV and a global perspective,earlier to more recent years.

TV Technology. “Mario Orazio” writes anongoing column that covers a wide range oftopics, including those related to HDTV.

Whitaker, Jerry. DTV The Revolution in DigitalVideo. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. Acomprehensive look at DTV history anddevelopments; includes an overview ofimaging system principles.

Zou,William Y.“SDTV and Multiple Service ina DTV Environment.” SMPTE Journal 107(October 1998), 870–878. Review of SDTVelements.


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GLOSSARY

Advanced Television (ATV) Systems: A genericname for higher definition television configurations.

Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB): A CD-qualityaudio signal that could be delivered to sub-scribers by satellite or terrestrial means.

Digital Television (DTV): A generic designationfor digital television systems.

High Definition Television (HDTV): The fieldconcerned with the development of a new

and improved television standard. Superiorpictures will appear on a wider and largerscreen; both digital and analog configurationshave been developed.

Satellite Digital Audio Radio Service (SDARS): Aradio programming service delivered bysatellite to, for instance, cars equipped with aspecial receiver and small antenna.

We have explored production technologiesthat have influenced industry, and through arippling effect, society. This chapter exam-ines representative examples of such tech-nologies as well as important applicationsand implications.

COLORIZATION

Colorization is the process in which a black-and-white movie is manipulated by com-puter to produce a colorized version of theoriginal film. Black-and-white televisionprograms have also been affected.

In brief, when NASA started the explo-ration of the Solar System, thousands of photographs of other worlds were trans-mitted to Earth.They were fed to computersand subsequently underwent image process-ing. This operation had two primary goals:image correction and enhancement. If apicture was marred by noise and other defects, they could be eliminated or mini-mized. Enhancement techniques helped anindividual to better interpret the photo-graphic data. In one setup, an image’s contrast could be altered to highlight a char-acteristic of a region of Mars.

Cost-effective and powerful computersextended image processing to a broader user

base. Physicians processed X rays to revealpreviously invisible details. Astronomers ad-opted a technique called pseudocoloring.

In a black-and-white image, differentregions of a galaxy or other celestial objectmay be reproduced as almost identical grayshades.This may make it impossible to visu-ally discern its physical characteristics.1 Thisis where computer processing steps in. Weassign colors to the different gray shades,which are then reproduced in the appropri-ate colors. This image will highlight theobject’s physical features because they arenow represented by different and contrast-ing colors.2

Image processing has also influenced thecommunications industry.The product maychange, but the intent is essentially the same:to manipulate a picture for a specific pur-pose. In this case, for a desktop publishingproject or for colorization.

Yankee Doodle DandyStarting in the 1980s, the colorization tech-nique was applied to black-and-white films.Movies such as It’s a Wonderful Life andYankee Doodle Dandy were colorized to thecheers and jeers of supporters and oppo-nents alike.3

14 The ProductionEnvironment:Colorization and Other TechnologyIssues

191


Colorization is a multifaceted task. Avideotape copy of the film is created, and inone step, colors are assigned to appropriateobjects in a frame. If possible, the colors cor-respond to those used when the movie wasshot. A computer eventually processes thefilm, frame by frame, and a colorized versionof the original is generated.4 A former grayhat and jacket may emerge as yellow andblue.

Colorization proponents indicated theprocess would introduce older, and possiblyclassic movies, to new generations ofviewers. If you grew up with color films andtelevision, would you be willing to watchblack-and-white products? Colorizationalso did not harm the original film, and you could still watch the black-and-whiteversion.

Opponents countered that colorizationshould be halted for aesthetic and ethicalreasons. Although a company may have thelegal right to colorize a film, a distortedversion of the original may be created.Colors may bleed, the lighting and makeup,which were originally designed for a blackand white medium, are altered, and physicaldetails may be lost.5

But a more salient point is the ethicalissue of altering another person’s work.According to many artists, including FrankCapra who directed It’s a Wonderful Life, noone has the right to change a film or anotherpiece of art. The artist’s original vision andthe work’s integrity are destroyed.

Finally, ask yourself this question—even ifcolorization is flawless, would this make theprocess acceptable?

IMAGE MANIPULATION

Computers have also been used to mani-pulate advertising and news images. Theproblem with the second scenario is thepublic’s perception. People generally believea news photograph portrays reality, an eventas it occurred. By altering the image, thepublic’s trust could be broken.

But image editing and manipulations arenot new phenomena.The photographic pro-cess itself, in which you select a specific lensand compose a shot, is a form of editing.Image manipulations are also establisheddarkroom fare.

Nevertheless, the new electronic systemsraise these processes by a notch. It is noweasier to manipulate an image, and the pre-requisite tools, such as a PC and graphicspackages, are readily available.

In one example, you can take a picture of a site and electronically add a proposedbuilding. In another example, you can takea picture of a swamp and electronically alterit to make it look like prime real estate.Although each manipulation produces anew image, there are differences in thecontext of our discussion. If the first pictureis created as part of an environmental impactstudy, and is clearly labeled as a simulation,not many people would have a problemwith it. In fact, it can actually provide aservice. But if you do not label the swamp

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Figure 14.1The Shoemaker-Levy/Jupiter collision.Computers play acentral and critical rolein producing images ofcelestial events that wecan subsequently viewand study. (Courtesy ofNSSDC/HST ScienceTeam.)

The Production Environment: Colorization and Other Technology Issues 193

for what it is, that’s when problems startcropping up.

Newspapers and magazines with readyaccess to even more sophisticated systemshave been guilty, at times, of essentiallyturning swamps into valuable land. In twoexamples, National Geographic and the St.Louis Post-Dispatch, respectively, moved apyramid in one scene and eliminated andreplaced a can of soda in another.6 On facevalue, a can of soda may not be that impor-tant.Yet in the context of this photograph,it had a specific meaning in regard to theindividual pictured in the photograph.

It also raised other questions. What elsecan you remove, add, or replace in otherimages? Will a government manipulate apicture to portray an event not as it oc-curred, but as it wants it to appear? Whatabout abuses with legal evidence and thepotential manipulation of video imagery?Do digital still cameras exacerbate the situation since their output is already in amore malleable form than a traditional film camera?7 In essence, because a digitalmanipulation could be very hard to detect,if at all, an individual’s ethical standards maybe one of the only safeguards you have andcan trust.8

MULTIMEDIA LEGAL ANDBROADER IMPLICATIONS

Legal ImplicationsMultimedia and desktop video productionshave legal implications. In a patent infringe-ment lawsuit over hip prostheses, forinstance, a firm created an interactive pre-sentation that depicted how the devicesworked. The goal was to show the devicesin action and to make the informationaccessible and interesting to the jury.9 Theactual production process included usingscanned images, image editing software, andanimations.

Animations and computer graphics havealso gained a wider acceptance in the court-room. In one example, a court indicated that“animations were no different than drawingsthat were used by experts to illustrate theirtestimony.As long as the animation is a ‘rea-sonable representation,’ there is no barrier to using such techniques in court.”10 Inessence, computer graphics and other com-puter-generated materials are being viewedmuch like traditional illustrative tools usedby expert witnesses.

Computer graphics and animations havealso been used to recreate real-life events. Inone case, an animation of a roller coasterdepicted the G-forces an individual wouldbe subjected to during a ride.The data weregathered by instruments and incorporated in the animation to show how these forcescaused a rider to suffer a stroke through aruptured blood vessel.11 Other cases haveranged from pinpointing the causes of firesto depicting how automobile and aircraftaccidents could have taken place.

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Figure 14.2Computer manipulation,in this instance, isperforming a valuableservice: revealing thepotential impact of aproposed physical plantalteration. Note the topphoto of the existingcondition and the bottomphoto that depicts theproposed changes.(Courtesy of David C.Young/YoungAssociates-LandscapeArchitecture.)


Exploring the WorldAs you know, the world is an intricate andrapidly changing place.Volumes of informa-tion are generated with each passing hour,and we must cope with this continuousinformation stream.To make matters worse,much of this information is difficult to comprehend.

Graphics, animations, and audio-videoclips can help solve this problem by distill-ing a mountain of information into a moreaccessible form. For a report that examinesthe growth rate of urban centers, a series ofgraphics could potentially replace pages ofcensus material.

Multimedia and desktop video produc-tions can also be used to explore complexevents. In one example, a series of graphicsand animations has depicted the StrategicDefense Initiative (SDI), also known as “StarWars.” This satellite-based plan, proposedduring the Reagan administration, was thecore of a multilayered defense system. Themissiles, satellites, and other components,which all played a role in the SDI plan, werebrought to life via the computer.

Animations made it possible for viewersto at least grasp how the system would theoretically function. The interactions

between the different SDI elements werealso depicted in a dynamic fashion. Withonly a text-based description, this informa-tion would not have been conveyed as effec-tively. The subject may have been toodifficult to comprehend.

But despite this positive attribute, there isan inherent danger in converting a largeinformation base, especially about contro-versial and intricate subjects, into a series of images. The real-world situation may beportrayed in too simplistic a manner. Or thegraphics and animations could be manipu-lated to promote a particular point of view—possibly a distorted view of the facts.

Because we tend to believe what we see,a production that effectively uses mixedmedia could be misleading. We also gener-ally do not have an opportunity to refute theinformation on a point-by-point basis, as isthe case in a courtroom situation. In court,expert witnesses could be called, and theinformation could possibly be challengedand rebutted.

Finally, the potential to present an alteredview of the real world becomes an evenmore pressing concern in light of a virtualreality system’s capabilities, as covered in thenext section. A computer-generated world,designed and controlled by a human opera-tor, could serve as an analog for real-worldsituations. Closer to home, news picturesand other images can be manipulated andaltered with a computer.

VIRTUAL REALITY

On the Threshold of a DreamVirtual reality (VR) is a footnote to manyof the book’s topics. The implications alsocut across technological, social, and ethicallines.

In brief, VR can be defined as a display andcontrol technology that can surround a person in

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Figure 14.3Computer graphics,animations, and the law:from a case involving an aircraft accident.(Courtesy of FTICorporation, Annapolis,MD.)


an interactive computer-generated or computer-mediated virtual environment. Using head-tracked head-mounted displays, gesture trackers,and 3-D sound, it creates an artificial world ofvisual . . . and auditory experience.With a digitalmodel of an environment, it creates an artificialplace to be explored with virtual objects to bemanipulated.12

As just described by Michael W. Mc-Greevy, a virtual reality pioneer, you can usea system to enter into and interact with acomputer-generated environment.The pass-age to this realm can be through differentVR platforms.

In the configuration we’re probably themost familiar with, you wear special“goggles” to view the computer-generatedimages and a glove to navigate through andto interact with this environment.13 Realis-tic sound may also be a key element, andhead motions are tracked so the scene shiftsas you move your head.

Outfitted with this equipment, the realworld can be blocked out as you are fedimages of a room. You can move throughthis space with a gesture of your hand.Youcan also grab and move objects and eventurn wall switches on and off. The objectscan act as they would in real life. But in this reality, the action is taking place in avirtual world, the world generated by thecomputer.

ApplicationsAs of this writing, there has not been ageneral consumer/business VR killer-app—that is, an application that would makevirtual reality systems an everyday tool,much like spreadsheet and word processingprograms helped establish the PC as a main-stream business tool. Nevertheless, numer-ous applications have been developed andsupported. Representative examples includethe following:

1. Telepresence. Telepresence is the“ability to interact in a distant environmentthrough robotic technology.”14 In one ex-ample, NASA has experimented with re-mote robotic systems, controlled by distantoperators, for space-based construction andrepairs. Instead of simply pressing buttons to carry out commands, the robotic devicebecomes a natural extension of its humanoperator.

2. Teleconferencing. With conven-tional teleconferencing, which enables youto hold an electronic meeting, you may onlysee another individual on a monitor.15 In avirtual reality setup, your virtual imagecould shake hands with your counterpart’simage in Yankee Stadium, a tropical beach,or another computer-generated environ-ment.The Internet2, as described elsewhere,may help extend this concept to an onlinesetting, particularly for collaborative work.

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Figure 14.4A virtual reality outfit.(Courtesy of NASA,Ames Research Center.)


3. Architecture and Prototyping.Youcould walk through a building before it isconstructed, so you could judge the design’seffectiveness, and if necessary, make modifi-cations.This may be one of the closest sen-sations to living in a building, to try it out,before it is built.A VR system could also beused to help design buildings that betteraccommodate the needs of individuals withdisabilities (e.g., someone who uses a wheel-chair).16 Similarly,VR could be used in cardesign and other virtual prototyping. In oneexample, an engineer would

sit on a real seat with a steering wheel in front of him. Wearing a head-mounted display (HMD), she can see the interior’s layout and evaluate visibility and accessibility of various components. The cup holding positioning may be tested by having a real coffee cup in hand . . .By tracking the tester’s head and hand position,it’s obvious if she can easily see and reach the cup holder.17

If there’s a problem, it could be changedand retested. This capability speeds-up thedesign process.

4. Medicine. The medical applicationsare numerous. A surgeon could practice aprocedure with a virtual patient while amedical student could take a tour throughthe human body. In a more specializedapplication, VR has been used to study adisease’s molecular structure and “to designdrug molecules which could shut down itsdefense systems.”18 The setup allowed theresearchers to see, and in a sense, to experi-ence the data in new ways. The data werenot simply viewed on a flat, conventionalmonitor.

5. Education. Applications include themedical tour, meeting historical figures, andinvestigating an ancient city or even theSolar System.

6. Personal Freedom. This is a potentVR application. You could assume a newidentity or explore another world and other

environments that you may never be able toexperience in real life.

7. Other Applications. Other applica-tion areas include military war games, en-hanced scientific visualization, art, and vir-tual sex. If you like video games, you couldbe in for the ride of your life since you couldbe immersed in the action.19 The same sce-nario may also hold true for sports—as youpedal a bike, your representation would fol-low suit in a virtual environment.20

While not strictly VR, virtual sets havebeen adopted by the broadcast industry.Instead of building elaborate and expensivesets, computer-generated environments areused.You can also tap into effects and capa-bilities you may not be able to match witha “real” set. CBS news, in fact, touted thisfeature in its 1996 presidential election coverage.

Like the book’s other topics, virtual realityraises ethical and social questions. In onecase, a VR configuration could be used fortorture. In other examples, some individualshave claimed that VR may have a powerfuladdictive and “intelligence-dulling” power as well as an insulating quality.21 If we userealistic simulations, for instance, could webecome desensitized to a war in the realworld where real people die? In essence,could war turn into a VR game?22 Inanother situation, will people be able tostrike a balance between the virtual and thereal world? Other questions and concernsexist as well.

Summary. Like other technologicallydriven fields, VR’s tools will continue tomature. The equipment should becomelighter, more mobile, and less expensive.Thegraphics quality should also improve, inresponse to a current complaint, while feed-back developments should keep pace. Youmay experience a physical response similarto the one you get when you pick up a realball or other object.

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Building on contemporary systems, youmay also enter a room, much like theholodeck in the Star Trek television series.In this setting, you would be unencumberedby equipment. As portrayed in differentepisodes, a fine line may also emergebetween what is reality and what is a virtualreality.23

If VR is used appropriately we may all, asis stated in the Moody Blue’s album title thatopened this section, be on the “threshold ofa dream.”

ELECTRONIC MUSIC

In the entertainment field, the proliferationof electronic musical instruments has led toits own controversy. Musicians, for instance,used a New York Times’ ad to protest a budgetary and/or profit-related move inwhich a synthesizer replaced eight stringplayers. The musicians had played for aBroadway production, and the ad read, inpart:

If the producers . . . really believed that a synthe-sizer sounds as good as real string instruments,they could have used the synthesizer to play thestring parts from the beginning! But they knewthat real strings sound better, so they hired eighttop-notch string players to enhance the produc-tion—that’s what they wanted theater critics tohear!24

This incident is not isolated and, in fact,somewhat resurfaced in 2003. This time,producers wanted to set a lower minimumfigure for the number of musicians thatwould be required for a given show.

The key points for our discussion are thesound’s quality and the human presence. Inthe former, the musicians argued that realstrings sound better than a synthesizer. Asimilar argument has been waged betweenCD (digital) and high-end LP (analog) proponents.

In the latter, we all have expectations fordifferent events.When you see a play wherean orchestra is central to the production, theexpectation almost calls for a conventionalorchestra. It is part of the ambience, at least,as we currently perceive it.

Yet this perception could change. Al-though we may object to electronic instru-ments in certain circumstances, this situationmay be the norm for the next generation.

Until that time, technological changeswill continue to conflict with traditionalstandards. But a balance may eventually be

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Figure 14.5The STAR*TRAKRF wireless motioncapture system. It cancapture the motion oftwo performers in three-dimensional space.Interfaces of this type enhance ourhuman–machinecapabilities. In oneapplication, you couldcapture a golf swing ordance steps for variousapplications. (Courtesyof Polhemus, Inc.)


reached. In the music world, both electron-ically and traditionally generated music have value. They can coexist, when usedappropriately.

PAPERLESS SOCIETY

A paperless society is a product of differenttechnologies and applications.They run thegamut from optical disks to the Internet tomultimedia productions. In brief, in a paper-less society information is increasinglycreated, exchanged, and stored in an elec-tronic form. It is also a society that is nolonger dependent on paper for writing and storing memos, checks, and other documents.

BenefitsA switch to a paperless society could havesome benefits:

1. We would witness the creation of anenhanced communications system. Informa-tion could be read, stored, and retrieved

with the accuracy and control afforded by a computer.

New software tools are helping to makethis goal a reality. For example, documentscan be transported across multiple computerplatforms and used without an arcane con-version process. This makes the technologysomewhat transparent to the user.

2. Physical space would be conservedbecause information would no longer besaved on bulky paper. Environmentally,fewer trees would be cut down for paper,and less waste material would be generatedto further clog our landfills.

3. Electronic publications could bequickly revised. This is an important factorfor industries with rapidly shifting technol-ogy bases that necessitate the continualupdating of manuals.

4. The advent of cost-effective opticalrecording systems opens up electronic pub-lishing to more people. If you have a massstorage demand, but not a mass distributionrequirement, a DVD or CD recorder mayprove useful.We can also establish our ownweb sites.These developments have, in turn,made it possible to exchange graphically-rich information.25

5. A paperless society could save money.Checks could potentially be eliminated,saving banks handling and associativecharges.26 The Internet has accelerated thisprocess through e-commerce and otherfunctions.

6. Information in an electronic form iselastic. It can be stored diversely and com-municated through different retrieval mech-anisms. Digital clips and other informationcan also work together, as in a multimediapresentation.

7. A PC’s processing power can be uti-lized to conduct data searches. Instead offlipping through hundreds of pages to finda Sherlock Holmes’ quote, use a PC. Loadin the appropriate CD-ROM, type in akeyword, and the PC can find the line.

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Figure 14.6An example of a sceneyou can now generate,and more importantly,can explore with yourPC: Olympus Mons onMars. (Software courtesyof Virtual RealityLaboratories;Vista Pro.)


Depending on the interface, you may alsodiscover complementary information.

Or you can use the PC to find a term.Click on the word and bring up the defin-ition in a window. You could also searchthrough an on-screen table of contents,bring up a passage in one window, andretrieve and then view a graphic or even adigital clip in another.27

8. A paperless society affords you accessto an almost unlimited informationresource. By utilizing the Internet, you canexplore this ever expanding data pool andlearn about King Arthur, view the latestspace telescope images, and communicatewith a friend who lives half a world away.

9. A paperless society can speed up yourwork.You may be conducting research aboutprivacy. In this electronic environment, youcould use a search mechanism to locate rele-vant information. If available online, youcould have it in a matter of seconds.

PitfallsDespite the benefits, a paperless society does have potential pitfalls. Paper is a betterchoice for some uses. Newspapers, books,and other paper documents are cost effec-tive, easily mass produced, and can be readalmost anywhere. People are also used toworking with paper.

Paper can also speed up certain jobs, suchas quickly scanning through a stack of booksand magazines. While you can somewhatduplicate this process with a computer, youmay face hardware and software constraints,especially if you have a small monitor.Youmay only be able to read small chunks ofinformation rather than the broad sweepsyou can take-in by quickly scanning apage(s) in a book(s).

Electronic information systems, for theirpart, call for machine-dependent operationsto store, retrieve, and exchange information.If standards are not adopted, technical

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Figure 14.7New software has madeit possible to exchangedocuments acrossdifferent platforms.Acrobat helped pioneerthis application,particularly at the PClevel.The full document(right) and individualpages, represented byicons (left), provide easyaccess to the information.The document is aWhite House report tohelp secure cyberspace, asdocumented in theInternet chapter.(Software courtesy ofAdobe Systems, Inc.,Acrobat.)


roadblocks may impede this informationflow.28

Paperless or electronic resources can alsobe relatively expensive. Like a thirsty swim-mer in an ocean, you may be surrounded bya sea of information, but may not be able touse it.You may lack the prerequisite knowl-edge, skills, or money.

This scenario brings up two questions. Ifinformation is reduced to an electronicform, will it be readily accessible? What is a realistic timetable for the technology totrickle down to all levels of society? Apaperless society also has privacy implica-tions. E-mail concerns, as later described,may only be the tip of the proverbialiceberg.

THE DEMOCRATIZATION AND FREE FLOW OFINFORMATION—MAYBE

The production technologies have con-tributed to the democratization of informa-tion.With the correct outfit and skills, youcan publish a newspaper, magazine, video, ormultimedia project. This capability impliesthat information cannot be controlled byonly a select group of people or by the government.

Established media organizations could becensored or even shut down. But it may beimpossible to completely shut off the flowof information. There may be too manydesktop publishing and video systems, copymachines, VCRs, the Internet, and otherproduction and distribution mechanisms.

This concept has been put to the test ondifferent occasions, including the abortedAugust 1991 coup in the Soviet Unionwhen Mikhail Gorbachev was deposed.Boris Yeltsin and his support group useddesktop publishing and other communica-tions tools to keep the Russian citizens andthe world community apprised of events.

The free flow of information, during thistime, contributed to the coup’s eventual collapse.29

The democratization of information alsohas a personal connotation. Using sophi-sticated communications tools, you couldlaunch your own company for, say, desktoppublishing or serving Internet customers.

You could also present your personalideas in the open marketplace via a letter,political broadside, or video production.Youmay only attract a small audience. No onemay even agree with you.But in the contextof our discussion, is this important?

Potential Problems: MediaConcentration and OwnershipWhile there are more tools and communi-cations channels to “voice” your opinion,some organizations have great concern overincreased media concentration—fewer compa-nies and individuals now own or controlmore newspapers, television stations, andother major media outlets. If there are fewerowners, the diversity of programmingchoices and viewpoints could be affected.This is particularly crucial for news cover-age since the mass media are still a staplenews source.This situation would be exac-erbated through cross-ownership where dif-ferent types of media companies may havea single owner.30

Michael Powell, an FCC chairman, was amajor proponent for relaxing rules that gov-erned such options.At an April 2003 meet-ing, he stated

Change is now inevitable.A digital migration hasbegun taking us from the old world—marked byanalog technologies, narrowband infrastructure,and the monopoly regulation model—to the new world; marked by digital technologies,broadband infrastructure and a broader mindedview of regulation, informed by listening to technology more than lobbyists. The changes

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brought forth by digital life will finally force achange in the decades old outlook of communi-cations policy. . . . As I have said, in the old world governments are central and monopolistsare central. The most important thing technol-ogy is doing is placing consumers and citizensmore squarely in the driver’s seat of choosing and controlling their personal communicationsspace.31

In this new information order, “old style”regulation may no longer be beneficial, thus,the push to relax the rules.

But as stated, critics contend that despiteour new information and communicationsoptions, the diversity of news offered by the mass media may suffer. In the words ofone publisher, “People ought to be scared to death when you have a handful of bigbusinesses that are getting bigger, that aregoing to control all the conduits of infor-mation . . .”32

CONCLUSION

To sum up, all the topics have commonthreads.They:

• are the offspring of video, image, optical,printing, and audio processing/manipula-tion technologies;

• have influenced society; and• have raised important questions.The most

pressing issues are related to news imagemanipulation and the democratization ofinformation.

For the democratization of information,the communication revolution has presentedus with powerful tools. We have becomeinformation producers and are now moreensured of the free flow of information.Youcan censor a newspaper, but can you shutdown thousands of DTP/video systems?

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Figure 14.8A sophisticated electronicbook. Multiple viewsand hypertext links maybe supported, includingin this case, a link to aprogram that illustratesthe theorem mentionedin the text. It may alsobe possible to create yourown electronic notes.(Courtesy of ElectronicBook Technologies, Inc.)


There is the old joke about the censor-ship police knocking on your door.With thenew technologies, some believe there maybe too many doors. But by tapping into thenew communications and information tech-nologies, can more of these doors now bewatched?

For the news media, does increased mediaconcentration and cross-ownership reducethe diversity of information? For a democraticsociety, if the diversity of voices is potentiallycurtailed,what are the implications?

Finally, technological developments haveraised eyebrows about another applicationand its implications. Can people still trustyour reporting? How do you know what is real and what is fabricated? Once you lose the public’s trust, can it ever be fullyrecovered?

This has also raised an incident withanother application.As outlined in the edito-rial from Broadcasting & Cable, it has seriousimplications. “Box of Virtual Chocolates,”by John Eggerton (Deputy Editor) andHarry Jessell (Editor), Broadcasting & Cable.Reprinted with permission by Broadcasting &Cable. Originally appeared in the January 7,2000 issue, p. 150.33

On the subject of believing. It sure isn’t seeinganymore.

When Forrest Gump first came out, some of usdidn’t know actor Gary Sinise. The filmmakersdidn’t show him from the waist down until afterhis character’s legs had been amputated, so wethough the actor was likely an amputee. He isn’t,of course. It was computers that removed his legs, just as they had put Tom Hanks into GeorgeWallace’s schoolhouse door speech and Kennedy’s White House. In an age when com-puters can put anything into a picture or take it

out, the distinction between reality and specialeffects is as blurry as the virtual images are sharp.That is why we reacted so viscerally to the quotefrom the director of the CBS Evening News to the effect that virtual insertion technology has“applications that I think are very valid and lendthemselves perfectly to news, such as obscuringthings you don’t want in the frame [my emphasis].”

Now CBS News executives are saying that theyare going to be careful in how they use the videoinsertion technology and so far they have been.They have used it only to post their logo in strate-gic places. . . . They haven’t distorted events inany substantive way, although they have the dis-tinction of being the only news organization toshow Times Square as it wasn’t at the dawning ofthe millennium.

Nonetheless, we believe that the best policyregarding video insertion is not to use it duringnewscasts.Viewers must be able to trust that video,especially live video, is the real thing. . . . No lessa CBS executive than former president FrankStanton had this to say on the subject, on theoccasion of presenting a First Amendment awardto Walter Cronkite in 1995:

“Digital technology opens a Pandora’s box.The options are startling and tempting. No

longer will it necessarily be that what you see iswhat you get. Ultimately it will be easy and inexpensive to fake the picture. And virtuallyundetectable. Consider the temptations and theburden these developments will put on the pro-ducer, the television reporter, and his organiza-tion. The Forrest Gumps of the evening newscould have a field day. And the public could bethe loser. The audience will not know who orwhat to believe.”

We join Mr. Stanton in urging news depart-ments everywhere to consider the temptationsand their consequences. It may be impossible toput the digital genie back in the bottle, but whenthe news business becomes about obscuringthings, we’re all in trouble.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. The shades look too similar.2. The processed image is a false color image.3. An analogy can be drawn with the Sistine

Chapel restoration. Some critics claimed thisprocess altered Michelangelo’s original work;others stated it was a cleaning and restorationprocess.

4. Steve Ciarcia, “Using the ImageWiseVideo Digitizer: Part 2: Colorization.” Byte 12(August 1987), 117. Note: As part of the process,a new print has been made, which may actuallyhelp preserve a copy of the film.

5. You may notice a label that appears on acolorized product: “This is a colorized versionof a film. . . . It has been altered without theparticipation of the principal director, screen-writers, and other creators of the original film.”From Village of the Damned, aired on TBS,1995.

6. Jane Hundertmark,“When EnhancementIs Deception,” Publish 6 (October 1991), 51.

7. Ibid. Film cameras add an additional stepto computer processing. The film must bedeveloped and the negative, slide, or print (pro-duced, for instance, from the negative) must bescanned.

8. Don Sutherland, “Journalism’s ImageManipulation Debate: Whose Ethics WillMatter?” Advanced Imaging 6 (November 1991),59.

9. Charles Rubin, “Multimedia on Trial,”NewMedia 1 (April 1991), 27. Note: This casewas settled out of court. Opposing lawyerswould also have objected to the use of the presentation.

10. Jon L. Roberts,“The Digital Image Pro-cessing in Courtroom Forensics: IncreasinglyAdmissible at Last,” Advanced Imaging 15 (May2000), 25. The article also covers admissibilityguidelines and the shifting role of the judge asa “gatekeeper” for determining a computer-based image or sequence as evidence.

11. Carrie McLean,“Houston Lawyer Makesa Case for Computer Animation in the Court-room,” Presentation Products 5 (May 1991), 18.

12. Michael W. McGreevy, “Virtual Realityand Planetary Exploration,” paper presented at

29th AAS Goddard Memorial Symposium,March 1991,Washington, DC, 1.

13. “The Future Is Now,”Autodesk (1992),32.14. Linda Jacobson, “Virtual Reality: A

Status Report,” AI Expert 6 (August 1991), 32.15. Teleconferencing is discussed in another

chapter.16. Ben Delaney, “Where Virtual Rubber

Meets the Road,” AI Expert,Virtual Reality 93:Special Report (1993), 18. Note: This specialedition of AI Expert focuses on the virtualreality field/applications.

17. Ben Delaney, “Virtual Prototyping: VRGoes to the Factory.” www.gate.com ( July2000), 26.

18. Elliot King, “The Frontiers of VirtualReality and Visualization in BiochemicalResearch,” Scientific Computing & Automation( July 1996), 20.

19. Early video game users had a taste of thispotential through Mattel’s Power Glove for theNintendo system. Please see Howard Eglow-stein, “Reach Out and Touch Your Data,” Byte15 (July 1990), 283–290 for more information;other articles described how to interface thePower Glove to a PC.

20. In one setup, as you pedal a stationarybike, you would travel through the virtual envi-ronment. Please see Ben Delaney,“VR Applica-tions Take the Tedium Out of Indoor Exercise,”Computer Graphics World 24 (July 2001), 48–52.

21. Howard Rheingold, Virtual Reality(New York: Summit Books, 1991), 355.

22. For example, many of the bombing runsin Operation Desert Storm, as portrayed ontelevision, took on the appearance of a videogame. See Rheingold, Virtual Reality, 357–362,for some of the implications.

23. Tom Reveaux, “Virtual Reality GetsReal,” NewMedia 3 (January 1993), 34.

24. Advertisement, “Grand Hotel:The Rip-Off,” New York Times (November 3, 1991),Section 4, 7.

25. In the past, such information may havegenerally been text-based.

26. This includes check maintenance anddelivering checks, if relevant, to customers.


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27. Louis R. Reynolds and Steven J. Derose,“Electronic Books,” Byte 17 (June 1992), 268.

28. There is also an archival issue. If you usea proprietary system, and the company goes outof business, what do you do if your systembreaks?

29. See Richard Raucci,“Overthrowing theRussians and Orwell,” Publish 6 (November1991), 21; Howard Rheingold, “The Death ofDisinfotainment,” Publish 6 (December 1991),40–42, for additional information about thisevent and similar incidents, such as the 1989Tiananmen Square uprising. Rheingold’s articlealso touches on other implications.

30. Consumer Federation of America,“Democratic Discourse in the Digital Infor-mation Age: Legal Principles and EconomicChallenges at the Millennium.”

31. Remarks of Michael K. Powell, Chair-man Federal Communications Commission,“Hear Ye, Hear Ye Read all About It!” At theAssociated Press Annual Meeting and GeneralSession of the Newspaper Association ofAmerica Annual Convention, April 28, 2003.

32. Broadcast Engineering, “FCC’s PowellSays Newspapers Will ‘Fare Well’ Under Own-ership Changes,” downloaded from http://editorial1.industryclick.com/microsites/index.asp?srid=11266&pageid=7018&siteid=15&magazineid=158&srtype=1#cap.

33. John Eggerton and Harry Jessell, “Box of Virtual Chocolates,” Reprinted with per-mission by Broadcasting & Cable. Originallyappeared in the January 7, 2000 issue, p. 150.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Baxes, Gregory A. Digital Image Processing. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, 1994; RichardBerry and James Burnell. The Handbook ofAstronomical Image Processing. Richmond,VA:Willmann-Bell, Inc., 2002. Two excellentbooks about image processing. The Berrybook covers astronomical image processingbut many of the concepts are applicable forother application areas.

Benedikt, Michael, ed. Cyberspace: First Steps.Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1991;Howard Rheingold. Virtual Reality. NewYork: Summit Books, 1991. Though older,excellent introductions/discussions about thetopic.

Berry, Richard. “Image Processing in Astron-omy.” Sky and Telescope (April 1994), 30–36;Chris Scher and John O’Farrell. “ImproveYour Astrophotos by Combining Images.”Sky and Telescope (October 1999), 135–139.Overviews of image processing, PC-basedastronomical applications, and relevant software.

Bove, Tony. “On Location.” NewMedia 7 (Sep-tember 1997), 40–45; Mark Hodges.“VirtualReality in Training.” Computer Graphics World

21 (August 1998), 45–52; Diana PhilipsMahoney. “Better than Real.” ComputerGraphics World 22 (February 1999), 32–40;NASA. “Alternative Engineering: HowVirtual Reality and Simulation Are Chang-ing Design and Analysis.” NASA Tech Briefs25 (June 2001), 16–24; Elizabeth M.Wenzel.“Three-Dimensional Virtual Acoustic Dis-plays.” NASA Technical Memorandum103835, July 1991. Various VR applicationsand issues.

Chouthier, Ron.“Glossary of Image ProcessingTerminology.” Lasers and Optronics 6 (August1987), 60–61; Susan Wels. Titanic. New York:Time Life Books, 1997. Image processingissues: a glossary of image processing termsand the history/fate of the Titanic; includesinformation about imaging techniques usedto capture pictures of the ship.

Emerson, Toni et al. “Medicine and VirtualReality: A Guide to the Literature.” HITLTechnical Report No. B-94-1, downloadedfrom http://kb.hitl.washington.edu/kb/medvr/medvr.html; Elliot King. “The Fron-tiers of Virtual Reality and Visualization inBiochemical Research,” Scientific Computing


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& Automation (July 1996), 20–22; M. RussellTaylor II and Vernon L. Chi.“Take a Walk onthe Image with Virtual-Reality MicroscopeDisplay.” Laser Focus World 30 (May 1994),145–149.VR medical applications; the onlinedocument is a comprehensive and excellentbibliography on the topic.

Ganzel, Rebecca. “Digital Justice.” Presentations13 (November 1999), 36–48; Jerry W.Jackson. “Case-Making Courtroom CarCrash Visualization.” Advanced Imaging 7 (July1992), 48–51; Andrew Lichtman. “ForensicAnimation.” Amazing Computing 6 (January1991), 42–44, 46–47; Samuel R. Rod “3DMeasurement & Reconstruction for Crime& Accident Investigation.” Advanced Imaging15 ( July 2000), 15–17; Erica Schroeder. “3DStudio Gives Crime-Solving a New Twist.”PC Week 9 (March 9, 1992), 51, 58. Court-

room imagery, types of other imaging appli-cations, and animation use (in a courtroom).

Kuchwara,Michael.“Strike Shuts Down Broad-way Musicals.” AP, March 9, 2003, down-loaded from www.yahoo.com. Informationabout the musician’s strike of 2003.

Reveaux, Tony. “Virtual Set TechnologyExpands.” TV Technology 17 ( July 28, 1999),14; David A. Tubbs. “Virtual Sets: Studios ina Box.” Broadcast Engineering 40 (November1998), 90–92. Overviews of virtual setsystems.

Wylie, Philip. The End of the Dream. New York:DAW Books, Inc., 1973. See pp. 162–165 fora precursor look at a virtual sex-type setup.The book, a science-fiction novel, primarilyfocuses on environmental issues and theEarth’s potential future.

GLOSSARY

Colorization: The process by which color or“colorized” versions of black-and-whitemovies are produced.

Democratization of Information: New communi-cations tools contribute to the free flow ofinformation in society. The implications?More people can now be information pro-ducers, and it may be harder to institute cen-sorship on a broad scale. But there arepotential limiting factors, such as media con-centration and cross-ownership.

Image Processing: The field and technique inwhich an image (for example, created by a

video camera) is digitized and manipulated.Typical operations include image enhance-ment and correction.

Paperless Society: A society in which informa-tion is increasingly created, stored, andexchanged in an electronic form.

Photograph and Image Manipulation: The manip-ulation of photographs for, in one example,electronic retouching.A potential problem isthe alteration of news images.

Virtual Reality (VR): A computer-generatedenvironment in which a user can interactwith and/or manipulate various elements.

VINFORMATION, ENTERTAINMENT, &COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

As described, fiber-optic (FO) lines mayserve as the backbone of digital-based enter-tainment and information systems. Theycould feature interactive and conventionaltelevision programming, stock market quotes,and additional services. These offerings canbe supported by cable and telephone compa-nies (telcos). The satellite industry is also aplayer in this field.

VIDEO-ON-DEMAND

A goal of the communications industry is to provide viewers with more control overprogramming choices, whether it is a tele-vision show or a new optional service. Aterm associated with this development isvideo-on-demand (VOD).

In brief,VOD, which comes in differentflavors that sport different features, and canbe thought of as enhanced pay-per-view(PPV).With PPV, you’re charged a set fee toview a movie, concert, or special event.

VOD expands this capability by support-ing a more diverse and tailored program-ming pool. In one configuration, VODcould function much like a video rentalstore.You select the programming you wantto see when you want to see it.There couldalso be a library of movies, old televisionseries, and other programming. Interactivecontrols, which would function much likethose on a conventional VCR, could also be

featured.1 This also means you can save andview the program at your own leisure notjust when the program is initially delivered(e.g., via a cable system).

VOD also reflects a fallout of the newcommunications technologies. As describedin other chapters, rather than serving themass audience, individual needs could nowbe satisfied. In one sense, the communica-tion revolution could be viewed as a personalrevolution.

Another key issue centers on the playersin this arena. Cable and satellite companiesare not the only options, and the telephoneindustry has emerged as a major contender.But it was a somewhat tortuous legal paththat led to this development since the telcoscould not initially offer VOD and otheradvanced services.

For example, as part of the ongoing eval-uation of the consent decree that led to thedivestiture of AT&T, Judge Harold Greene,the architect of this decision, barred theseven regional holding companies fromoffering various information services. Thecompanies were created after the breakup ofAT&T, and the restrictions were adopted toprevent the telephone industry from domi-nating the new, emerging information infrastructure.

But political pressures and other factorsled to a relaxation of the original decisionin the late 1980s and early 1990s. Thisopened the door for the telcos to supportinformation services, such as electronic

15 The Cable andTelephone Industriesand Your Home

209


Yellow Pages and, potentially, to enter thevideo market.2

Another major step was video dialtone(VDT).3 In 1992, the FCC modified its rulesto allow telephone companies to competein the video arena. One provision called forthe support of a “basic platform that willdeliver video programming and potentiallyother services to end-users” on a commoncarrier, that is, a nondiscriminatory basis.4 Inessence, the telcos could now carry videoprogramming, with certain restrictions.5

Since the telcos had deep financialpockets and subscribers bases (homes withtelephone connections), competing indus-

tries did not relish this decision. Otherdevelopments followed that further ex-panded the telcos’ options, including the1996 Telecom Act.6 For this discussion, fourpoints merit our attention:

1. Support was provided for the prolifera-tion of set-top boxes described in thenext section.

2. Cable companies could enter the tele-phony business.

3. Existing VDT policies and rules wererepealed.

4. Rules for an Open Video System (OVS)were outlined.They could be consideredan extension to the original VDTconcept.7

The last provision was designed to helprelax the guidelines that restricted the broadtelcos entry into the video field.8

THE ENTERTAINMENT-INFORMATION MERGER

QubeThe idea of providing customers with morecontrol over their viewing choices did notbegin in the 1990s.The Qube cable televi-sion service, launched in Columbus,Ohio, inthe 1970s, let subscribers tailor their cableservice to match their viewing requirements.

Its most unique characteristic was an in-teractive capability. After a speech deliveredby then-President Jimmy Carter, for instance,Qube subscribers participated in a televisedelectronic survey.The subscribers registeredtheir answers to questions via keypads andthe results were tabulated.9

Similar viewer response programs wereproduced in other areas, and the system had the capability to support a PPV option,information services, and electronic transac-tions.The latter could encompass shoppingand banking at home. Even though Qube

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Figure 15.1When first implemented,the typical connectionbetween a home userand aninformation/communica-tions service was thetelephone line. Asdescribed in earlierchapters and in thischapter, competingcommunicationschannels, with a range of new services, haveentered the picture.

The Cable and Telephone Industries and Your Home 211

later abandoned its ambitious plans, it actually helped define the concept of anintegrated entertainment and information utility.

ImplicationsFor our purpose, an integrated entertain-ment and information utility implies that a single company may provide you withentertainment and information services.Youmay use your television for conventionalviewing,VOD, retrieving an electronic tele-vision viewing guide, and other activities.The same delivery mechanism may alsosupport an Internet hookup. These broadservice categories could be grouped underthe interactive television umbrella where theviewer interacts with the service throughthe television set. This would be analogousto using a computer keyboard as you surfthe Internet when trying to find andretrieve certain information.

This type of system could become areality through cable, telephone, or otherlinks. For example, experimental VOD oper-ations were launched, and during the early-to mid-1990s, the cable and telephone in-dustries rushed in to support different levelsof this application. At the same time, theyexperimented with new information deliv-ery methods.

It is also important to stress digital tech-nology’s role in this endeavor. It will helpsupply the television programming to poten-tial customers through, in one case, videoservers.

Another element is the convergencefactor.Numerous companies, as well as tech-nologies and applications, will have animpact on this infrastructure’s growth. Forexample, new technological developmentsand a competitive marketplace have played a role in inter- and intra-industry mergers.Software companies have also joined withbroadcast entities, and cable and computer

companies have becomes partners with tele-vision equipment manufacturers.

This sector of the communications indus-try is a complex mix of services and com-panies.The rest of our discussion focuses onpotential players, the key issues that must beaddressed, and the questions that are, as ofthis writing, still unanswered.

Issues and Questions

1. True or real-time VOD and otherinteractive services require either:

• Enhanced television converter boxes.Thenew generation of set-top boxes (STBs)resemble computers in terms of theirsophistication and user interfaces, andvarious computer companies have con-tributed to this development.The plannedoperations call for STBs that could handledata, digital video, and other information.In this scenario, the STB functions as aninterface to these enhanced services.

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Figure 15.2An advantage of a fiber-optic line is its greatinformation carryingcapacity. Newdevelopments in thisfield, led by companiessuch as Corning, haverevolutionized the waywe use and relayinformation. (Courtesyof Corning, Inc.)


A related factor is the ability of manu-facturers to create a flexible technologybase—an STB should be readily exten-sible by accommodating new serviceswithout major retooling. In one case,could a new service be initiated througha software update delivered by, for in-stance, the cable company to the box?10 IfSTBs have to be regularly replaced,this would raise the cost of subsequentservices.

• Your television set could potentiallyhandle enhanced services without anSTB.The Cable and Consumer Electron-ics Industries filed a Memorandum ofUnderstanding that outlined an agree-ment for the manufacturing of a newgeneration of plug and play televisionreceivers. Unlike current systems, con-sumers would now “be able to plug theircable directly into their digital TV with-out the need of a set-top box.”11 As envi-sioned, this development would simplifythe adoption of new services, includingdigital television operations.

For our discussion, the focus is on thepotential viability of enhanced services. Itdoes not matter if it is delivered throughan STB or a new digital receiver. In fact,it should also be noted the adoption of anew generation of television receiversmight not eliminate the need for exter-nal hardware in specific cases and forcertain services.12

2. A cable company must have thechannel capacity to support new entertain-ment and information services. In one setup,

• A fiber/coaxial hybrid system could beconstructed. Fiber could form the trunkline with coaxial cable being used inother parts of the system.

• Fiber could be directed to a curbside ter-minal where multiple subscribers wouldthen be connected by standard cable.13

• Sony and other companies are develop-ing new delivery systems, which tap thecurrent cable infrastructure and STBs, todeliver enhanced services.14

3. Even though it appears the trend maybe for the eventual implementation of all-fiber systems, the timetable is still unknown.The cost for a full switchover would be ex-pensive and, as described, fiber/coaxial hy-brids and/or data compression may provesuitable, at least in the interim.

Digital compression can also increase thenumber of channels a cable system couldsupport. Consequently, instead of building anew FO plant, a coaxial plant may be ableto handle more advanced services.

But this switchover, be it based on tele-phone or even cable technologies and sys-tems, may mandate the adoption of eithernew STBs, television receivers, or other con-version devices. The cost can vary, and toachieve a wide market penetration, it mustbe somewhat competitive with currentpricing structures.

4. The development of an integratedentertainment and information utility hingeon the growth of information services.Thiscould mean videoconferencing, support formultimedia presentations, and Internetaccess.

As described in Chapter 17, the Internetis an ever-widening information pool thatsubscribers can tap into via various com-munications channels. It is also one of thewild cards or unknown factors in our discussion.15

Some important issues include

• Will a company, which is your Internetservice provider, also support your televi-sion entertainment needs?

• Will an Internet “hook” convince sub-scribers to switch to a full-service com-pany that may offer a high-speed Internetlink, television programming, and

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other communications and informationoptions?

• Will we generally continue to use multi-ple companies for television, telephone,and information service deliveries?

• What role will the Internet ultimately playin this development? As will be covered inother chapters, the Internet can be usedfor delivering information ranging frommusic clips to video programming.As thetechnology base is enhanced in tandemwith the information delivery systems(e.g., DSL-based operations), will theInternet emerge as the VOD medium ofchoice? What of other information andentertainment services?

5. New and emerging technologies willcontinue to shape the way we gain access toand use this rich information mix. In oneexample, digital television systems can de-

liver enhanced pictures and sounds to ourhomes. When combined with VOD, yourliving room could be converted into amovie theater. Digital television has alsopromoted the merger between televisionand computer-based technologies. In es-sence, could your computer serve as yourtelevision-viewing device?

In another example, consumers have pur-chased personal video recorders or PVRs.Much like a computer stores data, a PVRrecords and stores television programs forreplay. But unlike the ubiquitous VCR,a disk-based PVR has some advantages,including the ability to simultaneouslyrecord and playback programming. On theflip side, PVRs are more expensive thanVCRs and have some other shortcomings,including, as of this writing, a limited marketpenetration.16 Nevertheless, could a futureand enhanced PVR enable us to store hours

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Figure 15.3Three of the players thatwant to deliverinformation and possiblyentertainmentprogramming to yourhome: satellite, cable, andtelephone companies.


of high-quality video and audio program-ming that we could view at our own leisure,archive for future use, or exchange with ourfriends? What of the copyright implicationsfor the use of such information?

It should also be noted that PVR func-tions could be incorporated in an STB. Inone example, Motorola introduced such asystem in the early 2000s.17

6. What are the television and satelliteindustries’ roles in this endeavor? Televisionstations may be positioned to offer con-sumers multiple entertainment channels,data, and information services. Satelliteoperators, on the other hand, have alreadysurpassed the cable and telephone industriesin certain respects. DirecTV has relayed dig-itally compressed television programming toits subscribers, and it can support an Inter-net link.

The satellite industry also has two majoradvantages. First, it may be easier to upgradea service. Once a subscriber owns a dish,technical changes may be software basedand/or through STB enhancements. Cableand telephone companies may have to addi-tionally retool their physical plants.

Second, like DirecTV, a satellite-basedcompany does not have to be tied to anexisting, and possibly antiquated, communi-cations infrastructure. Thus, it could takeadvantage of new technological develop-ments. Cable and telephone companies thathave serviced a given region for years, andmay have a sizable investment in currentfacilities, may not have the same luxury.

7. A related question is that of software—in this context, the television/movie pro-gramming. If your company plans to offer aVOD service, do you have access to a rangeof program options? As of this writing, thetelephone companies are not as well placedas their competitors.There is also a questionof public perception. Cable and satellitecompanies have established consumer basesfor television services.Will this factor influ-

ence consumers as they choose their VODplatform of choice? Or if a subscriber iscomfortable with using the Internet througha DSL-based operation, will this individualturn to a telephone company for service ifthe programming options were sufficient?

8. Another factor may be the initiationof more cooperative ventures between dif-ferent industries.18 New technological de-velopments and accompanying applicationswill also be introduced.

9. Technically, how many years will ittake for the necessary technologies to reachsmaller markets? Are the changes inevitable,as is the case with most industries where aphysical plant is modernized over time, orwill some companies balk at the additionalexpense?

10. Although specific demographicgroups may quickly adopt VOD or otherentertainment and information services, thequestion about broad consumer acceptanceis still unanswered. How much money arepeople willing to spend for such services?Can they be sustained by targeting selectsubscriber groups via narrowcasting?19

11. The concept of a VOD system hasbeen extended to other environments. Inone case,VCRs used for playing movies incertain hotels have been replaced by ahybrid digital/analog system.A similar or alldigital system could also be used for corpo-rate training, linking information kiosks indepartments stores, and delivering collegelectures.20 What future applications could be accommodated? Will they help create aniche market for VOD if the general con-sumer market fails to materialize?

CONCLUSION

The communications industry is undergoinga series of rapid changes.As indicated, com-panies and individuals must contend with acomplex mix of current and potential ser-

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vices.We could gain access to VOD and theInternet through our cable, telephone, orsatellite connection. But there are still ques-tions, especially for the consumer market.

Will people be willing to spend additionalmoney for these services? If broad consumeracceptance is not achieved, should projectsbe abandoned? Will it take time for peopleto accept and use these services, that is, willit be a slow, but sure, growth pattern? Orshould companies focus more on nichemarkets?

There are also new developments andapplications that could have an impact onthis field. In one example, the FCC initiatedan inquiry about delivering broadband ser-vices via power lines—Broadband Over PowerLine (BPL). According to the FCC, BPL

can provide consumers with the freedom to access broadband services from any room in thehouse without adding or paying for additionalconnections by simply plugging a BPL deviceinto an existing electrical outlet. BPL may be able to provide an additional means for “last-mile” delivery of broadband services and mayoffer a competitive alternative to digital sub-scriber line (DSL) and cable modem services.This will also enable access to communicationsservices in rural and remote areas of the country.

In addition, BPL systems can be used by electricutility companies to more effectively managetheir electric power networks.21

Basically, you could tap into broadbandservices by plugging a device into an elec-trical outlet. Demonstrations have alreadybeen held, and if widely adopted, BPL couldhave a major impact in the telecommunica-tions industry. But as has typically been thecase with many new services, particularlyone in a highly competitive market, it alsomay unleash a flood of policy, technical, andmarketing questions.22

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Figure 15.4The percent of U.S.households withcomputers by designatedyears. (Source: NTIAand ESA, U.S.Department ofCommerce, using U.S.Bureau of the CensusCurrent PopulationSurvey supplements.)

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Richard L.Worsnop, “Pay-Per-View TV,”CQ Researcher 1 (October 4, 1991), 743.

2. Steve Higgins, “NYNEX, Pacific BellTout Electronic Information Services,”PC Week9 (March 9, 1992), 67.

3. VDT, used in the context of computersystems, is a video display terminal. For this specific discussion, though, it represents videodialtone.

4. FCC, CC Docket 87–266, July 16, 1992,Local Telephone Companies to Be Allowed to OfferVideo Dialtone Services; Repeal of StatutoryTelco-Cable Prohibition Recommended to

Congress, downloaded from CompuServe,October 1992. Note: There had been a call fora VDT-type option for a number of years.

5. Harry C. Martin, “Telcos Offer Video Services,” Broadcast Engineering 34 (September1992), 8.

6. The Telecom Act is discussed in differentchapters of this book.

7. Chris McConnell,“FCC Begins Work onTelecom Act,” Broadcasting & Cable (February19, 1996), 15.

8. If a telco opted for this framework, itwould be free of certain regulations, but would


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have other restrictions. See “OVS: Other Doorto Cable Entry,” Broadcasting & Cable (February12, 1996), 54, by Michael Katz, for additionalinformation.

9. Edward Meadows, “Why TV Sets DoMore in Columbus, Ohio,” Fortune (October 6,1980), 67.

10. Please see “Future-Proofing Set-TopBoxes,” by David Barringer, downloaded fromwww.nab.o rg/conven t i on s /nab2002/proceedings/dtvreceivers3.pdf.

11. FCC Press Release. “FCC SeeksComment on Cable-Consumer ElectronicsAgreement on ‘Plug and Play’.” January 10,2003, downloaded from www.fcc.org.

12. Sanjay Talwani, “Cable, CEA Agree onPlug-and-Play.” TV Technology 21 ( January 8,2003), 15.

13. Larry Aiello, Jr., “Bring Fiber Home,”Guidelines (1992), 7.

14. “Rites of Passage: Sony Lays DownCable’s Future,” eMedia 16 (May 2003), 10.

15. Please see Chapter 2 for a discussionabout high-speed communications systems/Internet access issues.

16. Mark Schubin, “Taper in Gout,” Videog-raphy (December 2002), 18.

17. “Motorola Launches HD, PVR-Integrated Digital Cable Set-Tops,” TV Technol-

ogy, downloaded from www.tvtechnology.com/dailynews/one.php?id=1102.

18. For example, New York Telephone andLiberty Cable Television, a wireless operator inManhattan, developed a plan to deliver pro-gramming while Blockbuster Video teamed-upwith two companies to develop a system todeliver VOD programming via the Internet.Please see Rich Brown, “New York Connectsto Video Dialtone,” Broadcasting (October 12,1992), 38 and Edward B. Driscoll, Jr., “VideoOn Demand,” Smart TV 5 (spring 2001), 53–56,for the respective details.

19. Narrowcasting targets defined subscribergroups in contrast to producing, for example, atelevision program geared for a broad-based—a general—audience.

20. Claire Tristram, “Stream On: VideoServers in the Real World,” NewMedia 5 (April1995), 50.

21. FCC, “FCC Begins Inquiry RegardingBroadband Over Power Line (BPL),” PressRelease, April 23, 2003, downloaded fromhttp://hraunfoss. fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-233537A1.doc.

22. This may include potential interferenceissues.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Anderson, Lesley. “Interactive TV’s NewApproach.” The Industry Standard 2 (October11, 1999), 60, 62; Richard V. Ducey.“A NewDigital Marketplace in Information andEntertainment Services: Organizing AroundConnectivity and Interoperability,” down-loaded from www.nab.org; Michael Grotti-celli and Ken Kerschbaumer. “Slow andSteady.” Broadcasting & Cable 131 ( July 9,2001), 32–42. Excellent overviews of inter-active television services and various issues.The last article includes sidebar features, suchas the necessity of the broadcast industry toconduct surveys to monitor audience behav-

iors vis a vis interactive programming wantsand desires.

“Breakup of the Bell System.” CommunicationsNews (September 1984), 98–99; KevinTanzillo. “Flood Gates Open.” Communica-tions News (January 1989), 48–51, 65.The firstarticle describes the divestiture of AT&T;the second looks at the industry five yearslater.

Broadcasting & Cable. Broadcasting & Cable mag-azine has chronicled the telcos’ entry in thevideo market. Sample articles, prior to the1996 Telecom Act include:“Bell Atlantic SeesTelevision in Its Future.” (May 8, 1989), 30;


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“Telco’s Army Poised for Assault on TVEntry.” (October 3, 1988), 38–47.

Brown, Peter.“Digital Set-Top Boxes—Slow toShine.” Digital Television 2 (May 1999), 1, 28,49; John Healey. “All Set for Advanced Set-Tops?” Broadcasting & Cable (April 27, 1998),48–54; Joe McGarvey. “Competition HeatsUp Early Digital Set-Top Market.” Inter@ctiveWeek 2 (January 16, 1995), 26–27; Kyle Popeand Scott Collins. “The New Killer App.”[Inside] (December 12. 2000), 63–68. Anoverview of set-top boxes, PVRs, and relatedissues.

FCC. CS Docket No. 96–46. March 11, 1996.Implementation of Section 302 of the Telecommu-nications Act of 1966. Open Video Systems.Everything you want to know about OVS.The introduction also provides a goodoverview of video dialtone and its repeal bythe 1996 Telecom Act.

Gall, Don, and Mitch Shapiro. “Fiber-to-the-Home—Why Not Now?” Lightwave (May2000), 18; Robert Israel. “Video Un-Demand.” Telecom 7 (April 2, 2001), 47–54;Reed Majors. “Television from the Tele-phone.” Broadcast Engineering 44 (August2002), 24, 26. The articles explore relatedtopics—issues concerning the use of fiber-optic lines to connect with home users; DSLissues including its role as a VOD carrier; theInternet as an information/entertainmentprogramming vehicle and the telcos’ role inthese ventures.

Telecommunications Act of 1996, 104th Con-gress, 2nd Session, January 3, 1996. Sectionsof the Act have an impact on some of thischapter’s applications.

GLOSSARY

Entertainment and Information Utility: A com-pany that will deliver entertainment pro-gramming and information services. A pre-cursor of such a system was Qube, a cablesystem in Columbus, Ohio.

Telecommunications Act of 1996 (1996 TelecomAct): Comprehensive legislation that hasinfluenced the communications industry.

Two-Way Cable: An interactive, two-way cablesystem.

Video Dialtone (VDT): VDT permitted telcosto participate in the video marketplace. It wassuperseded by the 1996 Telecom Act.

Video-On-Demand (VOD): VOD can beviewed as enhanced pay-per-view. At onelevel, you could gain access to and view amovie or program from a central library atyour convenience.

Video Server: A high speed and high capacityinformation processing/storage device gearedfor a video relay. Applications include VODand commercial playbacks (by a televisionstation).

TELECONFERENCINGINTRODUCTION

In Chapter 1 you wrote a note to a friendabout the New York Yankees.Now,you wantto celebrate another World Series win.1 Doyou write another note, use the telephone,or hold a personal videoconference so youcan also see each other?

The latter falls under the umbrella termteleconference. A teleconference is an elec-tronic meeting between two or more sites.It can range from an audioconference,where you hold an interactive conversation,to a videoconference, where video informa-tion can also be exchanged.

Another type of meeting, a computerconference, is an extension of the systemspresented in the Internet chapter, Chapter17. A computer conference can range froman exchange of pictures between two peopleto dedicated networks. It is placed in thischapter for organizational purposes, and forour discussion, the focus is on its electronicmeeting characteristics.

VIDEOCONFERENCES

There are different types of videoconfer-encing. In a two-way videoconference, youcan hear and see each other through ca-meras, monitors, microphones, and speakers.In a one-way videoconference, the infor-

mation exchange is a one-way audio andvideo delivery system. But there’s an optionfor interaction through a telephone or a faxconnection. In a typical meeting, a partyreceiving the information could ask ques-tions by telephone.2

Videoconferences have also been eithermotion or nonmotion. Motion impliesmovement, but the capabilities vary.You canappear on a television screen in a lifelikemanner. Or your motions may be jerky, andthe picture quality may be poor.

In a nonmotion videoconference, a seriesof still images is relayed. Even though thevisual element is not lifelike, an audiohookup could support a conversation.

Regardless of its form, a meeting can beheld over satellites, telephone lines, andother communications channels.A companymay also own a private teleconferencingnetwork, or a public room could be rentedfor the occasional meeting.

Two-Way VideoconferenceIn a two-way videoconference, the variousparties can see and hear each other, and itsprimary advantage lies in the replication ofa face-to-face meeting. The participants orconferees can react to each other’s body lan-guage; valuable visual clues in interpersonaltransactions.

A room can also be designed with thisgoal in mind. For example, the table where

16 Teleconferencing andComputerConferencing

219


the conferees sit can be shaped to maximizetheir view of the room’s monitors. Theobject is to promote good eye contactbetween the different parties.3 Strategicallyplaced cameras can produce various shots ofthe conferees, and an additional camera(s)can shoot graphics and other supportingmaterials. Proper lighting and acoustics arealso important.

Before the development of dedicatedfacilities, a meeting may have been ham-pered by inadequate equipment and designconsiderations.A large office may have beenconverted into a videoconferencing roomby simply adding the necessary communi-cations equipment.Thus, lighting and otherproduction considerations, the humanelement that would have made people morecomfortable, may have been overlooked.

Another past and current problem has todo with the notion of appearing on camera.Some people get nervous or may think avideoconference is an unnatural way tocommunicate.

Finally, two-way videoconferences hadgenerally been used for point-to-pointmeetings, uniting two sites. But advancesmade it possible to take advantage of a multisite capability, and this has become a

popular option. You can see and talk withpeople scattered across, in one case, thecountry.

One-Way VideoconferenceThe one-way videoconference, which hasalso been called business television amongother names, is typically relayed via satellitefrom one location to multiple sites (point-to-multipoint). One-way videoconferenceshave generally been analog, but digital com-pression techniques, when combined withsatellite delivery, have made for effectiverelays. In these situations, though, the picturequality may be more of a concern than witha two-way setup, where a lower qualityimage, but a higher compression ratio, maybe more acceptable.4

In a typical application, the audio andvideo information can be a one-way streamfrom a corporate headquarters to its branchoffices. These sites may communicate backwith a telephone or other hookup for ques-tion and answer periods and discussions.

In light of its point-to-multipoint capa-bilities, dedicated videoconferencing net-works have supported the one-way vide-oconference and organizations that leasesatellite time and the prerequisite facilities.5

One-time or occasional videoconferences,also called special events or ad hoc video-conferences, have also been held.

This electronic meeting’s power has beenvividly demonstrated in medical videocon-ferences. Through this real-time process,doctors can view a new surgical techniqueperformed at another site.

Nonmotion VideoconferenceIn a nonmotion videoconference, stillimages are delivered over voice-grade orfaster channels. The relay time can vary,depending on the communications line andthe image’s resolution, and either dedicated

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Figure 16.1A teleconferencing setup.Note participants in thisroom (foreground) andthe shot of a conferee at another location(background screen).(Courtesy of U.S.Sprint.)

Teleconferencing and Computer Conferencing 221

or PC-based configurations have been used.

A nonmotion videoconference has someadvantages. A system can be relatively inex-pensive, and the transmission cost could bereduced to that of a telephone call. It is alsosuitable for situations where visual informa-tion must be exchanged, but not necessarilymoving pictures. These have included Xrays, other medical imaging output, andillustrations for the medical and educationalfields.

The former, an element of the telemedicinemarket, is particularly well suited for remotegeographical locations. If a doctor is notavailable, pertinent information can berelayed to a distant hospital for review. Inanother scenario, an aging population andtoo few doctors and specialists have madetelemedicine a potential ally. Applicationsmay include setting-up a monitoring systemin a patient’s home as well as high-speedrelays where complex data could be rapidlyexchanged.6

It should be noted that telemedicine alsoembraces motion videoconferencing,among this chapter’s other categories. Themilitary is also experimenting with systems,originally pioneered by NASA, to remotelymonitor the medical status of their person-nel.7 This type of development may beextended to civilian applications.

AUDIOCONFERENCES

An audioconference can be thought of as an extended telephone conversation. Butinstead of talking with only one person, youmay be talking with several or more people.In this operation, multiple sites can be con-nected through a teleconferencing bridge.

An audioconference is a satisfactory com-munications tool in many situations. It is rel-atively inexpensive and is supported by itsown array of equipment, including a micro-

phone that may serve several people througha 360-degree pickup pattern.

Audioconferencing can also handle nu-merous applications. It can create an inex-pensive communications link between ajournalism class and a sports reporter, whomay live and work 200 miles away. It canalso support business meetings and nationalpolitical campaigns.

The primary criterion for adopting audio-conferencing, or one of the visual systems, isan organization’s needs. In many cases anaudioconferencing link may suffice.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

The teleconferencing field has grown overthe years. In fact, it surged in the early 1990swhen product and service sales for thevideoconferencing sector alone rose from$127 million to $510 million in 1987 and1991, respectively.8 An accelerated growthpattern has been projected through thetwenty-first century, particularly in theaudio and Internet-based arenas. Some ofthe reasons for this growth are in the fol-lowing subsections.

StandardsA standard, H.261, also known as Px64, hasresulted in a level of compatibility betweenmanufacturers to help facilitate the flow ofinformation.9 Other standards promotedvideoconferencing’s growth over communi-cations channels ranging from the ISDN(H.320) to the “plain old telephone system”(POTS).10 Even though we’re hurlingtoward a digital world, the analog telephoneinfrastructure is still important. By video-conferencing over standard telephone lines,you could tap the large, existing network.11

The most dramatic growth, however, isfueled by H.323, which “uses the Internetto send and receive data . . . H.323, a set ofstandards for multimedia conferencing over

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packet-based networks, describes the . . .equipment and services required for multi-media conferencing.”12 This developmenthas also fueled the use of a company’s inter-nal network for such operations, with somepossible system changes and enhancements.

However, a problem can arise once youleave your internal (e.g., a company) net-work and connect with the public Internet.The company-run network typically has agreater quality-of-service control (QoS).QoSrefers to the “ability to define a level of perfor-mance in a data communications system.”13

In essence, while a videoconference maylook great within your company, once youleave this environment, the quality coulddeteriorate.Other factors also play a role,andby using special third party networks and op-tions, the overall quality could be enhanced.

Another important factor has been theintroduction of more flexible, dual-modesystems, that are H.320 and H.323 compli-ant. In one case, a company with an invest-ment in ISDN-based systems could alsoextend its capabilities with this type ofequipment.14

TransmissionsThe industry has benefited from lowertransmission and equipment costs. It is lessexpensive to hold a videoconference, andthe quality has improved.

It is also easier to hold a meeting. Newequipment, standards, and an improvedcommunications infrastructure have madethis application more user accessible andtransparent.These include faster communi-cation channels and systems that are easierto set-up and use than their predecessors.Enhanced compression techniques also playa vital role in this development.

FlexibilityTeleconferences can handle more types ofinformation. In one case, computer and

conventional videoconferencing capabilitieshave been married. In a multimedia video-conference, graphics and computer data canbe exchanged, documents can be electroni-cally annotated, hard copies can be printed,and simplified interfaces can be set up.15 Thegoal is to provide users with the same toolsthey might use in a face-to-face meeting.

Teleconferencing is also becoming moreflexible as the industry continues to mature.Organizations can rent public rooms toexperiment with videoconferencing or foroccasional use. Satellite and fiber-opticrelays are now widely available and networksaccommodate domestic and internationalrelays.16

A company can also use a portable andless expensive roll-about unit to hold a vide-oconference. This unit can be moved fromroom to room and eliminates the need fora dedicated facility. However, its aestheticelements could be enhanced if the unit isused in a board or conference room withthe proper lighting and acoustical treatment.

The InternetThe Internet is expanding at a dizzying paceand, as stated, this environment can supportteleconferencing. One pioneering product,CU-SeeMe, offered users a low-cost video-conferencing option via a PC.17 The qualitywas poor, compared to television standards,but it did provide the Internet communitywith an inexpensive teleconferencing tool.

More important, this type of productpointed the way to more sophisticatedapplications. In short, the Internet has em-erged as the world’s largest teleconferencingenvironment.This is particularly true as newtechniques, that support real-time audio-video relays, are developed and widelyadopted.

The Internet will also emerge as a morepotent teleconferencing tool with the wide-spread implementation of Internet2.18 This

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environment supports enhanced audio-video relays and conferences and, at somefuture date, could help make videoconfer-encing as ubiquitous as making a telephonecall. But as described in the next section,this development in the personal videocon-ferencing arena, which for our purposesfocuses on personal/home rather than busi-ness use,will also depend on a human factor.

PERSONAL VIDEOCONFERENCES

Videoconferencing has come to the desk-top. In the early 1990s, a number of desktopconfigurations were introduced. Thesedevices can trace their origins to AT&T,which experimented with the Picturephonetransmission standard and the Picturephone,its hardware component.

The Picturephone was a compact desktopunit that incorporated a small televisionmonitor, camera, and audio components.Even though it was a pioneering service, itdid not catch on in either the business orprivate sectors. The transmission and hard-ware costs, a Picturephone user’s possiblereluctance to appear on camera, and theinadequate reproduction of printed docu-ments hampered sales.

Since 1964, when AT&T publiclydemonstrated a video telephone at theWorld’s Fair, newer products have beenintroduced.19 These include consumer-oriented nonmotion units, which relayedstill black-and-white images over telephonelines, and newer motion systems.

The latter have ranged from PC-based tostand-alone desktop models. Analog anddigital transmission schemes have been sup-ported, and consumers and businesses havebeen targeted.

While personal videoconferencing maybe inevitable, the time frame for its broadacceptance is unknown. The quality, as ofthis writing, may still be unacceptable to

some users, and the human factor must beconsidered.20

New transmission lines, as outlined inprevious chapters, may support faster relays,and equipment costs may continue to fall.But systems geared for the consumer mayrun into the same problem faced by theoriginal Picturephone—many people maynot want to appear on camera.Think of theway you use the telephone. When talking,are you always attentive? Or are you alsoworking on a computer, eating, watchingTV, or as indicated in research that evaluatedthe Picturephone, reading, doodling, or evenyawning?21 While you could use a system ina voice-only mode, would the person you’retalking to be insulted?

This type of system calls for a differentmind-set. It may only be fully acceptedwhen a generation of children actuallygrows up with the technology, and it is a partof their everyday lives.At that time, appear-ing on camera will just be old hat.

ADVANTAGES OFTELECONFERENCING

As a communications tool, teleconferencinghas advantages, regardless of its form.

1. It can promote productivity. By linking an organization’s offices, meetings can beheld either as needed or on a regular basis.With a private setup, a company couldalso meet on short notice to respond tocrisis situations.22

2. Employee morale can be boosted. Man-agement can use a teleconference to keepemployees informed about relevantevents.

3. Guest lecturers have electronically metwith classes while businesses haveengaged consultants, especially those whomay be unable to travel to a given site.

4. Reducing travel can save time and money.

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Your job may call for extensive traveling,which normally entails a drive to theairport, waiting and flight time, anotherdrive to the meeting point, and the returnflight. This itinerary may then be repeated.In today’s world, this wasted time andenergy are two resources that can never berecouped. The financial cost can also be prohibitive.

Teleconferences can help alleviate theseproblems. If an electronic meeting could bearranged between East and West Coastoffices, the same information could poten-tially be exchanged through a teleconfer-ence, rather than a series of trips.

But teleconferencing will not eliminateall travel. Face-to-face communication isstill important. For example, if you are learn-ing how to use a complicated piece of equip-ment, an on-site seminar may be appro-priate. Some people also prefer face-to-facemeetings. Or at the very least, the firstmeeting is conducted in person, whichcould be followed up by teleconferences.

Another advantage is that, as with busi-ness travel, you could save time and moneyby conducting a job interview via a tele-conference.You may also be able to inter-view more candidates.23

In sum, the teleconference is emerging asanother tool that organizations and individ-uals can tap into to improve their commu-nication capabilities. These advantages alsoextend to the international market. Sincemany companies are now global in scope,teleconferencing can help unite these geographically distant sites. This capabilitycannot be overemphasized because inter-national considerations continue to play anintegral role in domestic operations.

The development of PC-based and inex-pensive teleconferencing outfits, which maybecome standard office and home fixtures,may also change this meeting from a specialto an everyday event. Faster and more cost-effective communications channels, withnew hardware/software releases, may accel-erate this trend.

COMPUTER CONFERENCING

The term computer conferencing candescribe a computer-based meeting. For ourdiscussion, a conference can range from anexchange of pictures to dedicated networksthat may link multiple domestic and inter-national users (e.g., via the Internet).

In one application, a PC-based configu-ration could unite national real estateoffices.An office in Denver could send pic-tures of houses to the New York branch forreview by a client.A telephone conversationcould supplement this exchange.

Computer-based systems can also supportconferencing.An advantage of this operationis its availability. Scattered groups of peoplecan gain access to the system, and thecompany provides the prerequisite organiza-tional and communications infrastructures.In a different setting, an organization mayopt to create its own internal network.Meetings can be rapidly convened and avariety of information can be exchanged.

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Figure 16.2More transparent andeasier-to-use controlinterfaces, such as theone depicted, hassimplifiedteleconferencingoperations. (Courtesy ofVideoTelecom Corp.)


In one growing application area, individ-uals can collaborate on a document throughdata conferencing. People share the same filefor editing.When working on complex pro-jects, this capability could speed up and helpsupport the writing process.24 In this light,it could be viewed as an interactive exten-sion of e-mail.

Hardware and software have also sup-ported computer conferencing in real- andnonreal-time situations. Real-time, in thiscontext, implies that information can be sentand received as you interact with the systemand other people. The nonreal-time ele-ments may encompass a series of longermessages, a central database of information,and a record of comments all the confereescan see.

TelecommutingComputer conferencing can also be heldbetween an individual and an organization,as is the case with telecommuting. As de-fined by Osman Eldib and Daniel Minoli,telecommuting is “the ability of workers toeither work out of their homes or to onlydrive a few minutes and reach a complex in their immediate neighborhood where,through advanced communication and com-puting support . . . they can access their cor-porate computing resources and undertakework.”25 As further described by Eldib andMinoli, telecommuting can also be associ-ated with the virtual office, covered in an-other chapter.

For our present discussion, if you are atelecommuter, you can work at home andmaintain contact with the office by com-puter.You can be an employee, a consultant,or a chief executive officer.

Telecommuting is becoming a popularwork option. It can, for example, be cost and time efficient. Think about your owncommute, especially if you have to travel on

an overextended highway or mass transitsystem.26 Telecommuting would reduce thefrequency of, or possibly eliminate, this dailysubway, bus, or car trip.

Telecommuting also gives you moreoptions. You could choose to live furtheraway from work or take a geographically in-accessible job.

Telecommuters may also be more pro-ductive and experience a higher level of jobsatisfaction. There are also correspondingsocial benefits, such as fuel savings, air-pollution reduction, and potential child careimprovements.27

Several factors have combined to maketelecommuting a viable alternative. Theseinclude faster communications lines, the pro-liferation of PCs, and the information age.A job in the information sector couldpotentially be completed at home.

Yet everyone is not happy with this development.

You may be uncomfortable with thiswork environment, and there is a potentialfor abuse—you could be treated as a con-tract worker instead of a salaried employeewith its attendant benefits. Lower wages mayalso be earned. You could be cut off fromthe “informal communication channels” andbe “less well integrated into an organiza-tion’s structure and culture.”28

Another issue flared-up concerning workat home safety conditions. The U.S. LaborSecretary wrote a letter to an employerstating that “companies have the sameresponsibilities for employees working athome as in the office.”29The letter was with-drawn after criticism from the business com-munity. But it did draw into focus twocontrary viewpoints:

1. An employer should be liable for safe,working conditions in an employee’shome. The goal is to essentially providethese employees with the same rights asthose who work in a traditional setting.

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2. Since any employer does not have directcontrol over an employee’s home, such aregulation would be unfair and impossi-ble to enforce. It could also curtail thefield’s growth.30

A final question focuses on anotherissue—does telecommuting help reduce hu-man communication to a machine-domi-nated format? This could have an adverseeffect on the socialization process since theinterpersonal relationships we develop atwork may play an important role in ourlives.

Isaac Asimov, the late science fictionwriter and science authority, painted aninteresting portrait of such a society. Com-munications technologies have contributedto the birth of a rigid social structure wherepersonal human contact is avoided. InAsimov’s world, even casual meetings areconducted through lifelike 3-D visualrelays.31

Could our own society be similarlyaffected? What if telecommuting is weighedwith other technologies that enable us toshop at home, to create sophisticated homeentertainment centers, and to view amuseum’s collection via the web?

EducationThe concept of telecommuting has alsobeen extended to education.You can regis-ter for a distance education course, whichmay be delivered by computer or a video-conference, among other options. Like“real” school, you are assigned a teacher andtextbooks. But instead of taking notes inclass, lectures can be downloaded, and yourteacher may be available for electronic officehours.

Students can also expand their courseoptions since geography and time do notlimit them. If you do not live near a school,and work during the day, it may still be pos-sible to pursue a degree. Instructors for theirpart, can reach a broader student body andcan tap into the Internet and other elec-tronic resources when designing a course.

Similarly, the Internet has emerged as animportant conduit for this application.Various tools, including the WebCT soft-ware package, support real-time interactionin meeting rooms as well as a range of datatypes ranging from documents to digitalmedia clips.32

Courses can also be delivered by com-pressed video. This set-up more accuratelyduplicates a classroom situation since youcan see and interact with an instructor. Butit does carry a price. Much like a video-conferencing room, you have to set-up asuitable environment with monitors, micro-phones for student responses, and possibly,a document camera and computer. An in-structor may also have to learn how to teachto a camera/monitor in addition to otherprep work.

This concept has also been applied to theInternet.You can utilize this environment todeliver audio and video information to stu-dents located at distant sites through inex-pensive webcams.

• Connect the webcam to your computer.• Go online to the appropriate site.

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Figure 16.3An example of avideoconferencing roomused for applicationsranging from holdingcourses to interviews tomeetings.The monitorsare used to display theparticipants at othersites; microphones areplaced on the tables foreach participant.(Courtesy of MarywoodUniversity.)


• You can now see the instructor on yourmonitor as he or she views you.

One of the downsides, as of this writing,may be the image’s small size and limitedquality. But like similar applications, fastercommunications lines, enhanced compres-sion methods, and hardware/software im-provements will improve a relay’s quality.

The use of these tools is not solely limitedto educational institutions. Companies haveadopted the equipment and techniques tosupport, in one application, employee train-ing. Besides reaching what may be a geo-graphically scattered sales force, this en-vironment can help ensure that individualsin different locations can “train simultane-ously, eliminating knowledge lag betweenvarious far-flung sites.”33 In essence, a com-

pany’s personnel will receive the same train-ing at the same time.

CONCLUSION

Teleconferences and computer conferenceshave emerged as potent communicationstools.They serve organizations, and throughpersonal videoconferencing, may have animpact on our daily lives.

We may also have direct contact withsuch systems through telecommuting and bytaking electronic courses. Although bothapplications are not without their faults, theymay enable us to work at a geographicallyremoved site and to attend a class that may,just a few years ago, have been impossible totake.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. FYI—As of this writing, the Yankees havewon 26 World Championships; a major leaguebaseball record.

2. Bill Dunne, “Screening the ConfusionOut of the Different Types of Videoconferenc-ing,” Communications News (November 1985),34.

3. David B. Mensit and Bernard A. Wright,“Picturephone Meeting Service: The System,”in Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications:Applications, Technologies, and Human Factors(Madison, WI: Regents of the University ofWisconsin, 1982), 174.

4. Clarke Bishop et al.,“Compressed DigitalVideo for Business TV Applications,” Communi-cations News (December 1991), 40.

5. A network can support educational andbusiness applications, among other options. Seethe International Teleconferencing Association,“ITCA Teleconferencing Definitions,” Guide toMembership Services, brochure.

6. Laura Robinson, “Japan’s New Telemedi-cine Momentum: Imaging Opportunities?,”Advanced Imaging (May 1999), 15.

7. John Rhea, “Telemedicine Ties into Tactical Communications Infrastructure,”Military & Aerospace Electronics 8 (April 1997),11–13.

8. The International Teleconferencing Asso-ciation, “Business Television Private NetworkMarket Reaches $606 Million,” press release,February 1992, from a survey by TRI and IFCResources, Ltd., of 100 companies respondingto the impact of videoconferencing on theiroperations.

9. “Video Communications Comes of Agewith H.261 Standard,” Communications News(February 1991), 10.

10. Andrew W. Davis, “Videoconferencingvia POTS Now: Proprietary Codecs andEmerging Standards,”Advanced Imaging 10 ( June1995), 32.

11. Note: The quality may be lower.12. Catherine Murphy, “The Megaconfer-

ence,” Syllabus (August 2000), 27.13. TechEncyclopedia. QoS, downloaded

from www.techweb.com/encyclopedia/defineterm?term=QoS.


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14. Two manufacturers of such equipment,as of this writing are: Vtel and Polycom atwww.vtel.com and www.polycom.com, respec-tively. You can visit their web sites for moreinformation.

15. Conversation with VideoTelecom Cor-poration, summer 1992, developer of such ateleconferencing system.

16. Sprint Communications, “Sprint Meet-ing Channel-Rates and Services,” brochure.

17. Davis, “Videoconferencing Via POTSNow,” 36.

18. Please see the Internet chapter,Chapter 17, for more information about Internet2.

19. Patrick Portway, “The Promise of VideoTelephony Made in 1964 Finally Is Being Ful-filled at Reasonable Prices,” CommunicationsNews (February 1988), 35.

20. Elliot M. Gold, “Trends in DesktopVideo and Videophones,” Networking Manage-ment (May 1992), 46.

21. Howard Falk, “Picturephone andBeyond,” IEEE Spectrum (November 1973),48.

22. The International Teleconferencing Asso-ciation, “Business Television Private NetworkMarket.” Brochure.

23. Since you saved time and money.24. Herman Mehling, “The Ties that

Unbind,” Information Week (November 6, 1995),58.

25. Osman Eldib and Daniel Minoli,Telecom-muting (Norwood, MA: Artech House, Inc.,1995), 1.

26. Ibid., 4.27. Since a parent works at home.28. Robert E. Kraut, “Telecommuting: The

Trade-Offs of Home Work,” Journal of Commu-nication (summer 1989), 43.

29. Fran Calpin, “Work at Home Injuries,”The Sunday Times, Section C, (February 20,2000), 1.

30. Ibid.31. Isaac Asimov, The Naked Sun (New York:

Ballantine Books, 1957), 46.32. WebCT is used to create interactive,

online courses.33. Tracy Mayor,“E-Learning:Does It Make

the Grade,” CIO 14 (January 15, 2001), 114.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Carr, Sarah.“Is Anyone Making Money on Dis-tance Education?” The Chronicle of HigherEducation (February 16, 2001), A41–A43;Peter A. Concelmo. “Business TelevisionBlossoms with Distance Learning.” SatelliteCommunications 21 (October 1997), 20–30;Kim Kiser. “Ready for Lift Off.” Online-Learning 5 (April 2001), 38–42. Distancelearning applications; the first article alsoexamines how educational institutions havemeasured their distance education programs’financial success (or not).

DeMaria, Michael J. “Making Your BandwidthCount.” Network Computing 13 (October 21,2002), 85–88; Bob Doyle. “How CodecsWork.” New Media 4 (March 1994), 52–55.Technical information about holding a video-conference and a description of codecs/compression, respectively.

Fritz, Mark. “Light Waves.” EMedia Magazine(November 2001), 44–52. An excellent andcomprehensive review of videoconferencingtrends and technical implementations.

Halhed, Basil R., and Lynn D. Scott. “Video-conferencing Terminology.” Video Systems18 (May 1992), supplement, 8–10. A list and accompanying definitions of the moreimportant terms in the videoconferencingfield.

Kames,A. J., and W.G.Heffron.“Human FactorsDesign of Picturephone Meeting Service.”Apaper presented at Globecom ’82, sponsoredby the IEEE, in Miami, FL, November 29 toDecember 2, 1982. A review of an AT&Tvideoconference service.The paper also dis-cusses the tests that were conducted to judgethe system’s effectiveness as a communica-tions tool.


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Lundsten, Apryl, and Robert Doiel. “DigitalVideo Growing.” Syllabus (August 2000),12–16; “Collaborative Video ConferencingServices over Internet2:Concept and Prelim-inary Service Description.” White Paper ofthe Internet2 Digital Video ConferencingSubcommittee;November 9,2000. Internet 2and teleconferencing applications and issues.

Nisenson, Kyle. “Tune in to IP Videoconfer-encing.” Network World 15 (September 21,1998), 43–45; Christine Olgren. “Trends inthe Use of Teleconferencing Illustrate theWide Variety of Applications That It Offers.”Communication News (February 1988), 22–26.Two articles about teleconferencing; thesecond article presents an interesting view ofthe state of the industry in the late 1980s.

Schooley,Ann K.“Allowing FDA Regulation ofCommunications Software Used in Telemed-icine: A Potentially Fatal Misdiagnosis?”Federal Communications Law Journal (May1998) 50 Fed. Com. L.J. 731, downloadedfrom LEXIS; Delbert D. Smith. “DistantDoctors.” Satellite Communications 22 (May1998), 32–40; Jon Surmacz. “Long DistanceMedical Call,” downloaded from www.darwinmag.com. Telemedicine and legalimplications.

Videconferencing Cookbook,V. 3. This onlinedocument is an excellent source for video-conferencing information and related topics.It can be accessed at www.videnet.gatech.edu/cookbook.

GLOSSARY

Audioconference: A form of a teleconference. Inan audioconference, individuals at two ormore sites can speak to and hear each other.

Computer Conference: A meeting conductedthrough computers that can support theexchange of information ranging from textto graphics.

Motion Videoconference: A motion videoconfer-ence can duplicate a face-to-face meeting.In a two-way, motion configuration, forexample, the participants can see and heareach other.

Nonmotion Videoconference: A nonmotion video-conference supports the relay and exchangeof still pictures.

Personal Videoconferencing: Personal videoconfer-encing is a general term that describesdesktop videoconferencing systems.

Telecommuter: An individual who works athome and maintains contact with the officeby computer.

Teleconference: An umbrella term for the variouscategories of electronic meetings and events,ranging from audioconferences to video-conferences.

Videoconference: A teleconference wherein, asimplied by the name, video or visual infor-mation is exchanged.

INTRODUCTION

Jules Verne’s Around the World in Eighty Days describes Phineas Fogg’s momentousjourney. Today, we can complete the sametrip in seconds via the Internet. In brief, theInternet can be described as a global datahighway. You can travel on this electronicroad to exchange information with sitesscattered across the globe.

The Internet can trace its roots to the late 1960s. It started as a U.S. governmentproject, the Advanced Research ProjectsAgency Network (ARPANET). Designed,in part, to experiment with and to demon-strate decentralized computer networking,ARPANET eventually evolved into theInternet structure.1

The Internet also remains a decentralizedentity. It can be viewed as a collection ofindependent computer systems that no oneindividual or organization owns. It is almostlike the Wild West; an information frontierwithout boundaries that is primarily gov-erned by technical standards.2

The Internet is also an evolving network.New information pools become available as additional computers are linked to it.Internet contributors include governmentagencies, profit and nonprofit organizations,educational institutions, and individuals.Youcan read government documents, send andreceive e-mail, browse through the Libraryof Congress, join discussion groups, and visitpersonalized information sites.

Internet-based operations have also virtu-ally eliminated geographical and time-basedconstraints. You can retrieve informationfrom around the world, 24 hours a day. Inan earlier demonstration of this capability,we witnessed the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 as it collided with Jupiter during thesummer of 1994. This once in a lifetimeevent created a scientific and public sensation that was particularly felt on theInternet.

As comet fragments slammed into theplanet’s atmosphere, images were made avail-able and were retrieved from Internet sites.The demand was so great that primary andeven mirror sites, which stored duplicateimage files, were overwhelmed by requests.One estimate placed the number of down-loaded images at the two million mark in arelatively short time.3

Prior to the Internet, this level of acces-sibility was not possible. But now you canassemble your own image library and par-ticipate in the event in almost a real-timesequencing, that is, as it unfolds.

The collision also demonstrated how theInternet could work with more traditionalcommunications venues.The PBS televisionstation WHYY ran a live program that tied an Internet link with “satellite dishesand a videophone to bring together multiple images and experts for an inter-active program shared with other PBS sta-tions around the country.”4 The differentmedia provided viewers with a broad over-

17 Information Services:The Internet and the World Wide Web

231


view of this event in addition to expert commentary.

OTHER SYSTEMS

Before we explore the Internet, it is impor-tant to note that it is not the first or onlyelectronic information resource. Two pre-cursors were teletext magazines and video-text systems.

A teletext magazine is an electronic pub-lication delivered to a television set via a television signal.5 Composed of text andgraphics, it typically featured news,sports,andother stories. Subscribers generally receivedthe same information, and the only optionwas the page you viewed at any given time.

Teletext services only achieved limitedsuccess in the United States. Competingtechnical standards, cost factors, and otherissues contributed to a flat market.6 Theywere, however, more successful in Englandand other countries.

In contrast with a teletext service’s oneway information stream, an interactivesystem performs as the name implies. Youcan interact with the system to request andreceive specific information and services.

This family can also be divided into twogeneral classifications: videotext and PC-based operations. For our discussion, PC-based systems describe both dedicated andmore consumer-oriented,AOL-type opera-tions. The former also targets narrow sub-scriber groups with specialized informationpools.

Videotext and PC-Based OperationsA videotext service is a graphics-oriented,interactive operation.You could tap a data-base of thousands of frames or pages ofinformation through its two-way capabili-ties and a telephone line, the prevalent com-munications channel for such two-waysystems.

An easy-to-use interface and hookup havedistinguished a videotext service. Con-sumers were the primary target,and differentterminals were developed for this connec-tion. A typical configuration consisted of akeypad, decoder, and television set.7

These services also helped pioneer sim-plified user interfaces, gateway options togain access to computers outside of the hostsystem, and the inclusion of Information Pro-viders, an organization that contributed in-formation to a database. An airline, for in-stance, typically provided flight, seating, andpricing information.8

Like the teletext industry, the U.S. video-text industry failed to mature. But thesystems found wider acceptance in othercountries.These included Prestel (England)and Telidon (Canada).

In contrast,AOL, CompuServe, and othercontemporary PC-based counterparts weremore successful. A partial explanation maylie in the targeted user groups. For example,earlier PC-based systems were gearedtoward more focused audiences, people whowere willing to pay for a service for specificreasons.This principle was particularly truefor dedicated systems that were designed for

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Figure 17.1An index page of ateletext magazine.(Reprinted by permissionof ELECTRA, a partof Great AmericanBroadcasting; Electra.)

Information Services: The Internet and the World Wide Web 233

lawyers and other select groups with desir-able information pools.9

Evolution. As of this writing, PC-basedsystems coexist with the Internet for variousreasons, including the following:

• PC-based systems typically support pro-prietary information pools and may makeit easier to navigate the Internet to locatespecific information.

• Certain information may be available viathe Internet and not through these sys-tems. Consequently, you may use both tomeet your information needs.

• The Internet’s popularity made it thecenter of a fierce competition in the mid-1990s. AOL and other companies subse-quently rushed to offer their subscribersInternet access, especially access to theWorld Wide Web (WWW), or web, forshort. In these cases, you could “have yourcake and eat it too”—you could gainaccess to the proprietary services/infor-mation and the Internet.

During the same general time frame, anelectronic cottage industry was also born.Entrepreneurs recognized that some peopleactually wanted Internet access without theother offerings provided by AOL-type orga-nizations. Thus, they launched companiesthat primarily served as communicationsconduits. If you owned a PC and modem,they provided the hookup and necessarysoftware.

These companies also helped open upcyberspace to more people. Cyberspace, aterm popularized by William Gibson’sscience fiction work Neuromancer, can bedescribed as a computer-generated environ-ment or world where you can interact withother people and work and play. The cre-ation of cyberspace also spawned a collec-tion of complementary words and activities.A March 1994 CompuServe Magazine article

presented such a list, most of which are self-explanatory. A sample includes Cyberart,Cybergames, Cybersex, and Cyberschool.10

Finally, one of the most successful interac-tive information systems to date has beenFrance’s Teletel.To promote this national ser-vice and to lower printing costs, the tele-phone directory was installed on the network.The government subsequently distributedfree Minitel terminals to French citizens.These factors contributed to its impressivegrowth.

For more information about teletext,videotext, and PC-based services, please seethe references in the Suggested Readingssection of this chapter.

WORLD WIDE WEB

IntroductionThe web is a product of the Swiss-basedCERN research center. Pioneered by TimBerners-Lee to help facilitate the exchangeof information, its popularity had soared bythe mid-1990s.

As outlined by Eric Richard, the webcould be described as “a collection of pro-tocols and standards used to access the infor-mation available on the Internet . . . [whichis] the physical medium used to transportthe data.” The web has been primarily de-fined by three standards:

URLs (Uniform Resource Locators), HTTP(HyperText Transfer Protocol), and HTML(HyperText Markup Language). These standardsare used by WWW servers and clients to providea simple mechanism for locating, accessing,and displaying information available throughother common network protocols. . . . However,HTTP serves as the primary protocol used toretrieve information via the Web.11

In essence, the web can be viewed as anoverlying net that, as described by Richard,is used to mine or gain access to the Inter-

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net’s information pools.12 You actually travelacross the web via a browser, software used tovisit different sites and to conduct otheractivities. These can include engaging inbusiness, searching online catalogs, conduct-ing financial transactions, retrieving scien-tific data, and reading movie reviews.

Prior to the web,you typed a series of com-mands to gain access to information and toconduct other Internet-based operations. Inthe case of the File Transfer Protocol (FTP),you initiated a sessions by typing ftp, followedby an electronic address.Once connected,youcould use keywords to retrieve files, such asthe aforementioned comet images.Additionaltools include telnet and gopher.13

For some, these tools made the Internet areadily traversable environment. For others,the Internet was still a hostile territory thatyou could only cross with a handful ofinstruction books, a series of arcane com-mands, and a prayer.

But the second perception greatlyimproved with the web’s growth. Unlikemost traditional Internet tools, you couldexplore the information universe with soft-ware that sported an intuitive interface.As atypical user, you could throw the instructionbooks away.

HTML and URL. The HTML specifica-tion is used for document formatting anddesign. It employs tags to format text and todelineate a document’s appearance. In twoexamples, the ·PÒ and ·HÒ tags, respectively,mark a new paragraph and a text headinglevel (on-screen text size).

HTML is also used to embed links toother documents and Internet services.14

These links, and the web’s underlying struc-ture, are based on a concept you are alreadyfamiliar with, hypertext.You navigate acrossthe web, retrieving information and visitingnew sites, via this tool.

The URL, for its part, is an addressingsystem. It can identify a document’s loca-

tion. A typical URL is http://www.ac.anyschool.edu/newcomm.html. When youactivate its link, you will retrieve thenewcomm.html document at the ac.anyschool.edu site.15 Three of the letters specify,in this case, an educational (edu) rather thana commercial (com) or other type of orga-nization/institution. As you create a webpage, you can forge links to other informa-tion by using URLs embedded in your document.

Browsers and Search Engines. As indi-cated, you explore the web with a browser,a graphical rather than a text-based tool.Analogous to a graphical user interface(GUI), you use a mouse to point to andselect different functions. But with the web,you can retrieve information or travelaround the world. It is a visual interface that also supports graphics and other visualinformation.

Different browsers have been released.Mosaic, a product of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA),helped define this software field. It alsohelped make the web the Internet’s hot spot.As of this writing, Netscape and Microsoft’sInternet Explorer dominate the industry.16

But regardless of the system you use, theygenerally share some common elements:

• Drop-down menus with commands.• Hypertext link ID system. Hotspots

or links are color coded for easy identification.

• A point and shoot interface like GUIs.Tocomplete an operation, move the cursorand click a button.

• Navigational buttons you can activate togo, for instance, back to the previous link(e.g., a different document and/or website).

• An option to view a page’s underlyingHTML code.This is a good way to learnhow to create your own documents.

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• Extensibility:As the web evolves and newmedia types are introduced (e.g., audioformat), your browser should be able toaccommodate them through “plug-ins”—software that extends your browser’s capabilities.

Using this tool, you can electronicallywander around the web for days looking forspecific information. Web search mecha-nisms can help by identifying and locatingresources. You can find government docu-ments or locate a site that covers Phil Ochsor another folk singer.

One of the most popular search mecha-nisms has been Yahoo. A comprehensiveservice, Yahoo features a keyword searchoption as well as broad subject categoriesthat can facilitate this operation. Othersystems have supported queries in the formof a question.You type a question, and basedon its criteria, potential web sites that“answer” the question are listed for yourperusal.17

Another popular search engine is Google.It sports an enhanced searching capabilityand user interface that can speed up a search.

INTERNET AND WEB GROWTH

Some FactorsSeveral reasons for the Internet’s growth arelisted in the following subsections.They alsoprovide a framework and an historical per-spective for tracking this infrastructure’stechnological maturity.

Interface. The web has provided userswith a familiar and intuitive interface. PCowners are already familiar with GUIs and,as indicated, graphical browsers extend thismetaphor to the Internet.

Browsers also help make Internet accesstransparent. Like a telephone, you do nothave to think about or fully comprehend theweb’s underlying technologies or structureto use it.

Real-Time Interaction. The web’s real-time interaction can save time. Prior to theweb, you generally relied on file descriptionsto identify data. The problem? If this information was inaccurate or imprecise,you may have spent valuable time to retrievea file that was actually unsuitable for yourpurpose.

With the web, you may be able to listento and view specific data types, such as agraphic, before downloading. Most sites usesmall, low-resolution “thumbnails,” picturesthat are linked to larger, higher resolutionimages, as visual guides. You look at athumbnail, and if it suits your needs, youretrieve its counterpart with the click of amouse button.

Similarly, audio and video retrievalbecame a real-time event.Real-time, for thisdiscussion, signifies you do not have todownload an entire file before you can hearor see it (e.g., video).18

Various products support this streaming ofvideo and audio information over the Inter-

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Figure 17.2Percent of U.S.households with Internetaccess for 1998, 2000,and 2001. (Source:NTIA and ESA,U.S. Department ofCommerce, using U.S.Bureau of CensusCurrent PopulationSurvey supplements.)


net. They range from streaming appliances,or self-contained units that may simplify anoperation, to PC-based systems. As of thiswriting, Apple Computer, Microsoft, andRealNetworks are dominant players in thePC market.Their respective players provideusers with the software to view this infor-mation, among other media types.The othermajor components in this process are aserver, which “delivers streams to audiencemembers,” and an encoder that “convertsraw audio and video files into a format thatcan be streamed.”19

The actual content, the programming,could be stored on a computer and subse-quently retrieved and viewed by multipleusers. In this case, as described in a priorchapter, audio and video depositories couldbe created and subsequently tapped by userson an on-demand basis.

In another setting, a meeting could beviewed live—as it actually occurs.The latteris also emerging as a new production formwith new rules of the game.As an indepen-dent producer, you will also have to be com-puter savvy and work through some of themedium’s potential shortcomings.This mayinclude a limited channel capacity that, inturn, may have an impact on the videos per-ceived quality.

Regardless of the system, the capability todeliver real-time audio and video is animportant achievement. Additional applica-tions include the following:

• The launching of Internet-based radiostations. In one scenario, a radio stationcan simultaneously distribute its pro-gramming via the Internet.Although theaudience is limited to online users, youcan reach the international communitywith this mechanism. Web surfers, fortheir part, can pick and choose the mate-rials they want to hear and view.20

• Advertising and running movie and tele-vision promotions.

• Online demonstrations.• Delivering electronic news and entertain-

ment.• Online training/education.• Teleconferencing.

In a related application, the Internet hasbeen utilized for “telephone” conversations.You can talk with a friend with your PC,microphone, and special software, allwithout long-distance telephone charges.Although this capability was a boon formany users, telephone companies, as youmight guess, were not as enthusiastic aboutthe application.

It is also important to note the parallelbetween audio and video distribution viathe Internet and early PC-based digitalmovies. Some video producers may haveinitially wondered what the fuss was allabout with QuickTime and other products.The on-screen size was small and the picturequality was poor.

However, as the technology-basematured, they became important video andmultimedia production tools.The same sce-nario may play out for real-time web ser-vices. Even though the video quality can besomewhat limited, particularly when amodem/telephone line connection is used,the potential remains. High-speed commu-nications channels and enhanced compres-sion schemes will accelerate this trend.

More sophisticated tools have also beendeveloped to take advantage of this Internetcapability. Besides dedicated software/hard-ware that can convert a video program to astreaming format, other components, in-cluding newer generation NLE systems, canhandle this process. There typically is anoption to export an edited production forweb-based distribution.You may also be ableto convert your program for recording on aDVD.As stated elsewhere, the same softwaremay support multiple distribution venues—you can reach a wider audience.

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Finally, an intellectual property questionremains with regard to using audio andvideo clips (e.g., Internet radio and tele-vision stations). How do you monitor thelegal use of this information?

HTML Authoring and Java. Most peopleare able to create HTML-based documents.If you’re comfortable with macros forspreadsheets and have access to a word pro-cessing program with an ASCII option, youcan create web publications.All you need isthe prerequisite Internet link.21

New tools have also simplified web pageconstruction.Dedicated authoring programshave been introduced and modules havebeen released for desktop publishing andpresentation programs. Essentially, with theright software, your project can be publishedand distributed across the print and elec-tronic domains.

Additional Internet enhancements, in-cluding those spearheaded by Sun Microsys-

tems, Apple, Microsoft, Netscape Commu-nications, and others, have also made the weba more flexible environment. One develop-ment has been Sun Microsystem’s Java pro-gramming language.

Using Java, you can write applets, pro-grams that “can be included in an HTMLpage, much like an image can be included.When you use a Java compatible browser to view a page that contains a Java applet,the applet’s code is transferred to yoursystem and executed by the browser.”22

Applications range from animations tointeractive ads.23

Although Java may have required pro-gramming skills when introduced, newerproducts have simplified the developmentprocess. Java and related products also sig-naled an important stage in the Internet’smaturation. Starting as a text-based infor-mation and communications channel, itgradually emerged as a robust and flexiblesystem. Much like the first PCs, which

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Figure 17.3An example of a webdesign program. Notethe toolbar, to gain accessto different functions, onthe left side of thescreen. (Software courtesyof Websitepros;NetObjects Fusion.)


evolved into today’s sophisticated machines,the Internet has evolved into a sophisticatedmultimedia engine.

Similarly, other tools have extended a webpage’s visual design. Flash, for one, is used tocreate and distribute web-based animationsand movies. The latest releases also supportvideo playback.

Other software products, which may haveoriginally targeted CD-ROMs or othermedia for distribution, may now also sup-port the Internet. As indicated in the mul-timedia chapter, Chapter 11, this includesDirector, a popular multimedia develop-ment tool.

But this capability does raise a productionquestion. Based on their file size, the samegraphics you may use for a CD-ROM maynot be suitable for Internet distribution.

Many individuals still use a telephone/modem link to the Internet.Thus, a graphicthat may load quickly on a computer via aCD-ROM may take too long to load via the

Internet.The upshot? You can use the samegraphics but may have to reduce the filesizes through compression. More pointedly,when you work with graphics and otherinformation, it’s important to keep finaloutput(s) in mind—are you creating aproject solely for the Internet? Will it alsobe distributed on a DVD?

Virtual Reality Modeling Language. TheVirtual Reality Modeling Language(VRML) introduced virtual reality conceptsto the Internet. As discussed elsewhere,conventional virtual reality systems could beused to enter into computer-generatedenvironments.You could explore computer-generated cities, another planet, the humanbody, or a museum’s collection.

Geared for limited-capacity communica-tions channels,VRML extended this frame-work to the Internet. While there are limi-tations versus a more conventional setup, it

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Figure 17.4An example of a webdesign program. Ashighlighted you can also examine a page’sunderlying structure andcomponents. (Softwarecourtesy of Websitepros;NetObjects Fusion.)


has provided the Internet with a visual thirddimension.

This capability can accommodate differ-ent applications. Real estate agents can takeprospective clients on a tour of a building.You can also set up a museum with links.Asyou pass through a door to another room,you could be hyperlinked or connected toa new document, and for this type of appli-cation, a new virtual environment.24

Exhibits could also be rotated to highlightdifferent pieces, and new “rooms” could be added. Unlike a conventional museum,which has limited exhibition space, a virtualmuseum could readily extend its displaycapacity.

A VRML-type interface, when combinedwith the web’s ubiquitousness, could alsosupport other operations. In one potentialapplication, photographs from a future spaceprobe could be used to produce a flight over Mars or other planetary body. Using aVRML-type system, these data could bequickly released to thousands of interestedarmchair astronomers and explorers via theweb and could possibly be complementedby a more immersive environment.25VRMLand similar systems can also help make theInternet a richer multimedia environment.

Cottage Industry and Advertising. Theweb has promoted the growth of an elec-tronic cottage industry. Participants includeservice providers who may offer web access,web page designers, and advertisers.

As a visually driven environment, the webcan be an ideal advertising platform. Smallads may greet you when you navigate to a site, and an ad could tap into the web’sinteractive capabilities. In the latter, a computer company’s home page may serveas a launching point to retrieve additionalproduct data. You could also utilize Java,VRML, and other capabilities to produceexciting ads—you are not restricted to astatic, print layout.

Other options include support for adeeper information pool, potentially reach-ing a larger audience, and setting up feed-back mechanisms through forms. So, if youare the New York Yankees, besides listinghome games, you can present team infor-mation and audio-video sequences.

Yet despite these benefits, the web doespose a unique challenge. Unless an ad isincorporated on a regularly viewed page,like an ad placed on a search mechanism’shome page, people may not get to see it.When you read a magazine, you may scanthe ads as you flip through the pages. Thesame scenario generally does not play outon the web.You typically have to seek a site.Thus, one suggestion for advertisers hasbeen to make their sites interesting stoppoints and to offer interactive games andother incentives.26

On a more positive note, the web doesenable large and small companies to engagein this form of advertising. This can helplevel the playing field for reaching potentialclients. But this field can shift with the ebband flow of technology.

Larger companies also have a fundingadvantage. They can load their web siteswith the latest technological advancements.More in line with traditional advertising,they can also place ads on other strategicweb pages and hire the best graphic artists.

But a key fact remains unchanged: TheInternet provides individuals with a plat-form to launch and advertise their owncompanies. Like other fields, technological developments can also trickle down to make them more accessible to the averageuser.

For example, for a modest fee, or even forfree, as has been the case with various“hosting” companies, you can establish apersonal web site.Whether or not someoneactually visits is another matter. It dependson your site’s contents and perceived value.Even if it only has a few “hits” or visitors,

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you can still utilize this communications andinformation tool to present your ideas.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

The Internet and web have raised additionalconsiderations. These range from heavytraffic concerns to security to censorship.

Channel Capacity and ImplicationsThe availability of high-speed communica-tions lines is a critical issue for Internetusers. Many are tied to standard modem/telephone line connections. This has implications.

Relay times are increased. While surfingthe web, you may find a QuickTime file youwant to retrieve.You click a mouse to startthe procedure, and with a conventionalmodem, you can probably finish lunch bythe time the file is downloaded. A faster

modem might help, but depending on thefile’s size, you may still have time for at leastcoffee.

There’s also an impact on the type of datayou can use. As outlined, the web supportsreal-time audio and video. But the commu-nications channel still imposes restrictions,including a reduced frame rate and a lowerquality image.You could, however, alleviatethese problems with a DSL, cable hook-upor other high-speed line.27

By the mid- to late-1990s, you may alsohave experienced a general Internet slow-down.The cause? Overburdened equipmentand communications lines, more frequentgraphical and audio-based relays, and anexpanding user base.

As outlined in an early report, it was esti-mated that Internet traffic exceeded 30 ter-abytes of data a month, equal to “30 million700 page novels.”28 The end result? Longerretrieval times and possibly not gettingaccess to specific sites.Various solutions were

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Figure 17.5A web design programmay feature templates—much like a desktoppublishing program—tofacilitate a web page andsite’s design. In the caseof NetObjects Fusion,you can select one ofmany such templates.(Software courtesy ofWebsitepros; NetObjectsFusion.)


offered.These ranged from the creation of atwo-tiered Internet structure, one of whichwould have supported an access fee forenhanced services, to providing infrastruc-ture support through advertisements.

Another solution has been to create anenhanced communications and informationnetwork. Internet2, among other initiatives,is a consortium using high performance networks to help develop “advancednetwork applications and technology . . .”that may eventually find their way to thebroader Internet community.29 While notdesigned to replace the Internet, Internet2may advance the way we use this type oftool, particularly in the realm of digitalvideo, developing sophisticated online col-laborative environments, and deployingadvanced display techniques.The latter may include virtual reality-type systems andapplications.30

SecuritySecurity is another important Internet issue.This has encompassed providing security forcompanies to prevent break-ins and forfinancial transactions.

Firewalls and Disruptions. Firewalls andother techniques can help safeguard yourdata. A firewall is “a barrier placed betweenyour network and the outside world toprevent unwanted and potentially damagingintrusion of your network.”31 Firewalls canblock out unwanted visitors and help main-tain a system’s integrity. But like any otherprotection scheme, it should be viewed asonly a component of a broader securitysystem. You may also determine who getsaccess privileges to specific data pools.32

Firewalls also protect a company from thepotential intrusion of its own employees.BellSouth, for one, set up an intranet envi-ronment, an internal Internet-like systemthat could be used for data sharing.To help

protect this data, firewalls have separated itsdifferent operating units.33

Organizations face another potentialsecurity breach.While not new, the Internetcommunity received a warning shot acrossit electronic bow in early 2000. Some of its“hottest” sites were temporarily disabled.Individuals using special software essentiallyoverloaded different computer-based systemswith information, thus causing the down-time. Legitimate users could not enter thesites, causing revenue losses, including adver-tising revenue. This is analogous to lossesexperienced by a radio or television stationif it goes off the air. In response, companiestightened their security and the FBI wascalled in to help.34

This type of security breach has reper-cussions—the Internet has become a com-mercial boomtown. It was a time whenelectronic business ventures exploded, andthe Internet served as a vital communica-tions and information conduit.What wouldhappen if this conduit was disrupted? Wouldcertain industries be disrupted, even tem-porarily? If so, what would be the cost?

Other Security Issues. In the wake of theWorld Trade Center attack, more individu-als called for tighter security for the Inter-net and our overall communications andinformation infrastructure.While there werenew initiatives, it must be noted the gov-ernment and industry had been working onthis problem for years.

For example, as stated in a U.S. GeneralAccounting Office (GAO) Report,

To address concern about protecting the nation’scritical computer-dependent infrastructures fromcomputer-based attacks and disruption, in 1998,the President issued Presidential Decision Direc-tive (PDD) 63. A key element of the strategy outlined in that directive was establishment of the National Infrastructure Protection Center(NIPC) as “a national focal point” for gatheringinformation on threats and facilitating the fede-

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ral government’s response to computer-based incidents.35

It is a daunting task. It requires a well-trained technical staff and a coordinatedeffort, potentially across multiple govern-ment agencies, private industry, and theinternational community.

This concept of protecting our electronicinfrastructure was extended by the NationalStrategy to Secure Cyberspace.36 It is a part ofa broader plan that called for the protectionof critical national assets and fell under theNational Strategy for Homeland Security.37 Itsstrategic objectives were to

• Prevent cyber attacks against America’scritical infrastructures;

• Reduce national vulnerability to cyberattacks; and

• Minimize damage and recovery timefrom cyber attacks that do occur.38

The plan called for a combined govern-ment and private effort to secure cyberspaceand proposed

I. A National Cyberspace Security Res-ponse System;

II. A National Cyberspace Security Threatand Vulnerability Reduction Program;

III. A National Cyberspace Security Awar-eness and Training Program;

IV. Securing Governments’ Cyberspace;and

V. National Security and InternationalCyberspace Security Cooperation.39

The last point, for instance, called forheightened international cooperation tosecure the United States and the globalnetwork.

While applauded in some quarters, ques-tions were raised about the plan’s potentialeffectiveness and impact. In one case, secu-rity experts agreed the document height-

ened the general awareness about security.But the recommendations for certain provi-sions were ambiguous, among other issues.40

A broader question, which concerns thistopic as a whole, focuses on the actualdamage cyberterrorism could cause.41 While aterrorist attack could physically destroy apower plant or lead to a loss of life, a cyber-attack would, as previously described, mostlikely result in a disruption of service. It is amatter of the degree of impact. In fact,“many dislike the term ‘cyberterrorism.’Ambiguity over its definition—and, there-fore, which threats are real . . . —has con-fused the public and given rise to countlessmyths.”42

In essence, the term cyberterrorism andthe specter of a threat may be overblown incontrast to actual physical attacks.The hyper-bole may also hide a more potent threat, theuse of the Internet as a communications toolto support terrorist activities.43 It may also bea new variation of the old saying,“the pen ismightier than the sword.” But in this case, itcould be an electronic pen that could be used toguide a more potent sword.

What it comes down to in the end isthis—the communication revolution hasinfluenced what we now consider to be vitalassets. As discussed in Chapter 1, the pro-duction, manipulation, and transmission ofinformation drive our world. The Internetand the other roads and tools we use tosustain this system have become key ele-ments of our national and internationalfabric and infrastructure. Yet as raised bysome individuals, this concern should alsobe weighed against other, more physicalthreats, which may actually cause a greaterloss of life.

Sales and E-Commerce/E-Business

Commercial Transactions. For our discus-sion, the Internet serves as an infrastructure

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that can support transactions ranging fromstock trading to sales. It is also the world’slargest shopping mall and communicationsand information network.

Large and small companies offer Internetusers a vast array of products and services.The Internet’s accessibility, ubiquitous na-ture, cost-effectiveness, and freedom fromgeographical and time constraints, play keyroles in this development.

Banks also became players in this field. Atraditional bank could reduce its overheadand reap substantial profits by creating avirtual bank, in essence, an electronic bankor a bank without walls. But individualswho conduct business over the Internethave to be assured their credit informationwill remain secure and private.44 Otherissues include digital cash and signature ver-ification schemes.

Internet-based auction companies, suchas Ebay, have also flourished.As a subscriber,you could electronically bid on productsranging from cars to ancient coins to toys.You could also sell your own products for afee.The cottage industries described in thechapter are also part of this emerging world.

Two terms are associated with the use ofthe Internet for business, e-commerce ande-business. E-commerce “generally refers tobuying and selling over the Internet. . . .E-business has a wider meaning, encom-

passing e-commerce but generally using theInternet and the technology behind it toconnect business processes over the Inter-net.”45 Some relevant activities include thefollowing:

• providing service,• promoting brand awareness,• extending market reach,• distributing information,• delivering distance learning,• managing business partners, and• launching a web-based business.46

Besides a business selling services/prod-ucts to individuals and consumer(s) (B2C),which is the way we normally think aboutInternet business, operations include busi-ness to business (B2B) functions—companiesselling their services/products to other com-panies. Together, they help compose a ra-pidly growing sector of the internationalfinancial market, and one in which revenuesare expected to be measured in the trillionsof dollars during the early years of thetwenty-first century.47

Finally, it may be appropriate to wrap up this section with a quote that defineshow these transactions may affect us all—some noticed, others unnoticed, on a dailybasis.

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Figure 17.6NetObject Fusionsupports a web sitemanagement option.Each icon represents apage, providing thedesigner with a visualmap of the overall site.The icons, and relatedpages, can also be rapidlyedited, moved, ordeleted. (Softwarecourtesy of Websitepros;NetObjects Fusion.)


. . . real economic and social transformation is not just about far-reaching multimillion orbillion-dollar investments or grand schemes forgenerating new products and new wealth. It is also made up of . . . everyday events that often gounnoticed [my emphasis]. It is about connection,discourse, and commerce that occurs in whatsociologist Manuel Castells describes as “grass-rooted networks” and the “back alley of society.”48

Take a moment to think about this the next time you buy a camera, magazine, orYankees baseball card from Ebay and theInternet.

Monty Python and PrivacyAnother Internet item may be familiar toMonty Python fans: spam, or more precisely,spamming. An important online attractionhas been Usenet newsgroups, basicallyspecial interest or discussion groups. By1995, there were approximately 14,000 suchgroups, and the Internet has provided a doorto these discussions.49

In April 1994, a law firm posted an ad forits services to thousands of newsgroups, thepractice of spamming. According to manyusers, this action violated Internet etiquetteor “Netiquette.”This triggered an avalancheof flames or hostile electronic responses.

Spamming has a number of implications.First, the messages can contribute to theever-growing Internet traffic jam. Second, ithas led to the development of cancelbots,programs that automatically erase messagesthat are posted to multiple newsgroups.Cancelbots, in turn, raised First Amendmentquestions. Did anyone have the right tocurtail spamming, or as some individualshave claimed, to hamper free speech?50

Third, the 1994 incident highlighted otherInternet-related issues. These included theuse of mail bombs, large messages designedto clog-up your electronic mailbox, andother censorship topics.

Privacy issues also became a primaryconcern:

• How do you ensure that other people arenot monitoring the sites you visit? In oneexample, your computer may be infectedwith spyware—software that you are notaware of but may be sending back infor-mation about the sites you visit. Whilebrowsing the Internet, spyware may“infect” your computer without yourknowledge or consent.Thus, as you con-tinue site hopping, this information iscollected and may be sold to third parties(e.g., as an advertising tool). It is analo-gous to a survey, but in this case, yourbrowsing preferences are recorded. Youcan actually remove spyware from yoursystem by using other software that iden-tifies and cleans your system—thespyware is eliminated.51

• Another privacy tool is to use a servicethat provides you with anonymous brows-ing. One such operation has been Anony-mizer.52 You could select various privacyoptions, including one that would shieldyour Internet identity. The actual URLsyou visit may also be scrambled so they areunintelligible to other individuals.

• You can permanently erase Internet-based information that details the sites youvisit and other data.When you erase infor-mation from your hard drive, it couldpotentially be recovered through softwareand/or hardware tools.A browser may alsostore information about your Internettravels that you may not even be awareof—in various directories or folders.

Consequently, software has been writtento locate and permanently erase this infor-mation as well as help ensure that other datacannot be recovered once erased.53 Thelatter is, for instance, particularly crucial forgovernment agencies and organizations thatwork with sensitive information.

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Much like a commercial enterprise, afirewall is also an important tool for indi-vidual users, particularly if a computer isconnected to the Internet through DSL orcable-based systems. Besides providing ahigh-speed connection, these systems maybe on all the time, making the computer anattractive target to individuals who mayhijack the system for their own use. Basi-cally, your Internet connection can providesomeone with an open door to your com-puter. It may be used without your knowl-edge for various activities, and a firewall canhelp prevent this from happening.54

In sum, when you roam the Internet, yourun a gauntlet of challenges. These rangefrom spyware to viruses. But there is help inthe form of hardware/software that can helpprotect your privacy. It should also be notedthat legislative initiatives have been pro-posed with this goal in mind.

CONCLUSION

The Internet remains an evolving system. Itis also a challenging topic to cover since it literally changes every day. Taking thesefactors into consideration, several general-izations can still be drawn.

The Internet will continue to grow inimportance as a premiere information andcommunications system. It has provided uswith a tool to conduct research, to launchnew business ventures, and to exchangeinformation.

It’s continued growth should also be fueledby faster communications channels. Thisenhanced capability will enable us to com-municate faster with a wider variety of data.

It is also important to view the Internetas a focal point for the convergence of dif-ferent communications companies/channelsand technologies. The former includes the

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Figure 17.7A graphics program may help you produceoptimized images for theweb. Photoshop has anoption that depicts, inone case, an image’sappearance in anappropriate web-basedformat using differentcompression levels.(Software courtesy ofAdobe Systems,Photoshop.)


telephone, satellite, and cable industries.Thelatter range from streaming audio and videodata to VRML to applications that have notyet left the drawing board.

It is this last feature that makes the Inter-net so exciting. As its driving technologiesare refined, it becomes possible to supportnew applications.

It may also be possible to receive andview your television programming via thesame communications channel and devicethat you use to surf the Internet. As anelement of this diverse information mix, theInternet may contribute to the creation ofan integrated information and entertain-ment system.

In one example, the Internet may becomethe world’s largest distribution center formusic and video. As described, MP3 andother compression schemes have made itpossible to relay music over the Internet. Asthese technologies are refined, we may beordering our music via the web in addition togoing to music stores.The same scenario mayplay out for movies—they may be retrievedover the web and/or other distribution tools.

We may also be gaining access to Internet-based resources through wirelesstechnologies. In one case, a cell phone maynow offer you wireless Internet access, anda key development was the Wireless Appli-cation Protocol (WAP). Using a cell phoneor other WAP-ready device, you could tapinto this resource. While the options wererudimentary when first introduced, thepromise offered by 3G-based services wouldgreatly extend these capabilities. Please seethe wireless chapter, Chapter 8, for moreinformation about 3G services.55

Another factor, covered in a later chapter,is the Internet and censorship. While theInternet is the world’s largest informationconduit, censorship in the United States andabroad could limit the access to certain typesof information. In the United States, forexample, provisions in the 1996 Telecom Actwould have had an impact on the informa-tion we could receive. Cuba, China, andother countries, for their part, have tightInternet controls in place.56

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. See Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Com-munity (New York: Addison-Wesley PublishingCo., 1993), for an in-depth look. Note:ARPANET was also a reflection of the ColdWar. The United States was concerned that anuclear conflict would sever traditional com-munications/information ties, thus the impetusfor an ARPANET-type environment.

2. It could almost be categorized as anorganism or artificial life. It is growing and ishost to other organisms (e.g., cancelbotsdescribed in a later section).

3. J. Kelly Beatty and Stuart J. Goldman,“The Great Crash of 1994:A First Report,” Skyand Telescope 88 (October 1994), 21.

4. Adam Gaffin, “Comet’s Impact Felt onInternet,” Network World 11 (July 25, 1994),65.

5. They have been distributed as part of atelevision signal’s Vertical Blanking Interval(VBI). Note: During the television scanningcycle, the electron beam initially scans the odd-numbered lines and when it returns to scan theeven-numbered lines, a period of time elapsesin which the beam is blanked or turned off.Thisis known as the VBI. All the lines in a tele-vision frame do not contain picture informa-tion.Teletext magazines have been inserted in aportion of the approximately 21 “empty” lines,the VBI, of a television signal.


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6. Joseph Roizen, “Teletext in the USA,”SMPTE Journal 90 (July 1981), 603. U. S. stan-dards were World System Teletext (WST), basedon British operations, and the North AmericanBroadcast Teletext Standard (NABTS) devel-oped through the combined efforts of CBS,the Canadians, and the French. Domestic supporters included Electra and Keyfax (WST)and EXTRAVISION (NABTS). The Britishservices were Ceefax and Oracle.

7. Stand-alone terminals were also devel-oped; systems in England and Canada, forexample, were also geared toward business.

8. Prestel, press release, August 29, 1983.9. LEXIS is an example of such an informa-

tion pool. It is a legal database with court cases,law journal articles, and other information.

10. Cathryn Conroy et al., “All ThingsCyber,” CompuServe Magazine (March 1994),10–21. Note: Cybersex encompasses a range ofactivities, including interactive conversationswith other people.

11. Eric Richard, “Anatomy of the WorldWide Web,” Internet World (April 1995), 28.

12. Peter Kent, “Browser Shootout,” InternetWorld (April 1995), 46.

13. The telnet tool enables you to log on toa remote computer. You’re not limited to filetransfers and can fully interact with the systemas though you’re on-site. Gopher is a menu-driven system that combines, in part, FTP andtelnet capabilities.Telnet and FTP are still usedas of this writing.

14. Robert Jon Mudry, Serving the Web(Scottsdale,AZ:The Coriolis Group, 1995), 109.Note: These other services have included FTP,gopher, and telnet.The protocols that drive theweb also have applications on other types ofnetworks.

15. The http designation indicates the doc-ument is on a web server.Other addresses mightbe, for example, for FTP sites.

16. Note: Other browsers also exist.17. One such popular site has been ask.com.18. Real-time also implies that a radio

station’s programming, for example, is simulta-neously distributed and can be listened to overthe air and on the web.The term live may alsobe associated with the function.

19. Steve Mack, Streaming Media Bible (NewYork: Hungry Minds, 2002), p. 33.

20. A web surfer is analogous to a cable tele-vision surfer.

21. For more sophisticated operations,though, you may need programming expertise.For example, you can create a document witha form, but you may have to write a cgi scriptto actually tap into this information. Or youmay be able to use a premade script that couldbe downloaded from the Internet.

22. 1995 Sun Microsystems web site, down-loaded from http://java.sun.com.

23. See Dan Amdur, “The Scene Is Set forMultimedia on the Web,” NewMedia 5 (Novem-ber 1995), 44, for such an example (fantasy baseball).

24. A paper by David Raggett, Hewlett-Packard Laboratories, “Extending WWW toSupport Platform Independent Virtual Reality,”downloaded.

25. An immersive environment would moreclosely model a traditional VR set-up.

26. Ron Maclean, “New Game Rules,”American Advertising 2 (spring 1995), 9.

27. This includes satellite. Please see FrankBeacham, “DirecTV Offers On-Ramp to theNet,” TV Technology 13 (September 1995), 1, foran earlier look at this application.

28. Mark John, “Cybergridlock Feared,”Communications Industries Report 12 (August1995), 9.

29. “Frequently Asked Questions AboutInternet2,” downloaded from http://www.internet2.edu/about/faq.html.This includes theuse of a new protocol, IPv6. Please see the Sug-gested Readings section for more information.

30. Internet2 Health Sciences, downloadedfrom http://www.internet2.edu/resources/infosheethealth.pdf. Note: A virtual reality system could also be used for online collaboration.

31. John Bryan, “Build a Firewall,” Byte 20(April 1995), 91.

32. Peter Kolsti, “Firewalls Keep Users fromKicking Your Apps,” Network World 12 (Novem-ber 13, 1995), 61.

33. Steven Vonder Haar, “Firewalls Addressthe Threat Within,” Inter@ctive Week 3 ( January


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29, 1996), 23. Note: Intranets became a growingmarket in their own right.

34. Rutrell Yasin, “Cyberterrorists Crash Web Party,” InternetWeek (February 14, 2000),66.

35. GAO,“Critical Infrastructure ProtectionSignificant Challenges in Developing NationalCapabilities.” Report to the Subcommittee onTechnology,Terrorism, and Government Infor-mation, Committee on the Judiciary U.S.Senate. GAO-01–323.

36. Drafted and released in late-2002/early-2003.

37. Please see the National Strategy for thePhysical Protection of Critical Infrastructuresand Key Assets; www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/physical.html.

38. The National Strategy to Secure Cyber-space, downloaded from www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/executive_summary.pdf.

39. Ibid.40. Dennis Fisher, “Cyber Plan’s Future

Bleak,” eWeek (February 24, 2003), 18.41. Cyberterrorism in this context refers to

an attack on the Internet or other network formalicious purposes.

42. Robert Lemos. “What Are the RealRisks of Cyberterrorism.” Special to ZDNet.August 26, 2002, downloaded from http://zdnet.com.com/2100–1105–955293.html.

43. Ibid.44. Peter Noglows, “Virtual Tellers: Internet

Bank to Open,” Inter@active Week 2 (October 9,1995), 53.

45. Scott Bury,“The e-Business Explosion,”Electronic Publishing 24 (February 2000),24.

46. Martin C. Clague, “Understanding e-Business,” In Renewing Administration (Boston,MA: Anker Publishing Co., Inc., 1999), p. 47.

47. Ibid., p. 59.48. Blake Harris, “Training in the New

Society,” Government Technology (May 2001), 8.49. Joel Furr, “The Ups and Downs of

Usenet,” Internet World (November 1995), 58.50. Laurie Flynn, “Spamming on the Inter-

net,”New York Times (October 16,1994), SectionF-9.

51. As of this writing, Ad-aware by Lavasoftis one such free spyware tracking/disinfectingtool.The URL is www.lavasoft.nu.

52. For more information, the web site iswww.anonymizer.com.

53. An example of such a program has beenCyberScrub. CyberScrub has offered options toerase Internet-based tracking information aswell as to permanently delete data so it couldnot be recovered; www.cyberscrub.com.

54. As of this writing, there are commercial/free software firewalls.An example of a popularfree program has been ZoneAlarm; a commer-cial version is also available; www.zonelabs.com.

55. For more information about WAPdevices, see “How Wireless Internet Works,” byJeff Tyson, downloaded from http://www22.verizon.com/about/community/learningcenter/articles/displayarticle1/0,4065,1087z1,00.html and www.cnet.com. In Cnet, search forcell phones or WAP for this information.

56. Michael Hatcher, Jay McDannell, andStacy Ostfeld, “Computer Crimes,” AmericanCriminal Law Review, summer, 1999 (36 Am.Crim. L. Rev. 397), downloaded from LEXIS.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Teletext,Videotex, and PC-Based SystemsConnelly, Terry. “Teletext Enhances WKRC’s

Local News Image.” Television/Broadcast Communications (October 1983), 52–58. Anoverview of the Electra teletext magazine.

France Telecom Intelmatique. Teletel traffic data, downloaded from France Telecom Intelmatique.

Harrison, David. “Lexis-Nexis Moves to theWorld Wide Web.” Inter@active Week 4(October 13, 1997), 42–43; Kevin Jones.“The French Evolution Comes to the Web—Slowly.” Inter@active Week 5 (November 30,1998), 25.Two traditional services and Inter-net implications.

“Knight-Ridder Pulls Plug on Viewtron.”Broadcasting (March 24, 1986), 45.


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Martin, James. View Data and the InformationSociety. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1982; C. D.O’Brien et al., “Telidon Videotext Presenta-tion Level Protocol: Augmented PictureDescription Instructions: CRC TechnicalNote 709-E.” Ottawa, Canada: Departmentof Communications, 1982. Excellent sourcesabout earlier interactive/videotext systems.

Morgenstern, Barbara, and Michael Mirabito.“Educational Applications of the Keyfax Tele-text Service.” Educational Technology 8 (August1984), 46–47. Examines some of the educa-tional applications of a teletext magazine.

Rayers, D. J. “The UK Teletext Standard forTelesoftware Transmissions.” In InternationalConference on Telesoftware. London: The Insti-tution of Electronic and Radio Engineers,1984.Explores telesoftware technical issues—using a teletext magazine to distribute com-puter software.

Tenne-Sens, Andrej. “Telidon Graphics andLibrary Applications.” Information Technologyand Libraries 1 ( June 1982).

The InternetAmerican Advertising. Vol. 2 (spring 1995). This

issue covers advertising and the Internet.Includes Ron Maclean. “New Games NewRules,” 9–12.

Baldasserini, Mario. “Playing with Fire.” Com-puter Shopper (June 1995), 606–608; StevenVonder Haar. “Firewalls Address the ThreatWithin.” Inter@ctive Week 3 (January 29,1996),23. Coverage of firewalls. The last articleexamines firewalls within an organization.

Bielski,Lauren.“Image-Enabling E-Commerce:TrueSpectras’s Mission and Technology.”Advanced Imaging, 28–30; Eric Chabrow. “E-Services.” Information Week (November 13,2000), 46–62; Eugene Grygo.“B-to-C Com-panies Are Extending Their Reach.” InfoWorld( July 31, 2000), 37; Marcelo Halpern. “NotAll E-Signatures Are Equal.”CIO 14 ( January15, 2001), 54, 56; NASA. “Power Struggle.”NASA Tech Briefs 25 ( June 2001), 14; DavidThompson. “The Social Engineering ofSecurity.” eWeek 18 ( June 11, 2001), 25, 28;Debby Young. “Meter Readers.” CIO 14( January 15, 2001), 100–104.Various e-busi-ness/commerce issues; the NASA article con-

cerns new power supplies, a critical issue inrespect to the Internet/computer users (whoare major electrical consumers).

Bowen, Cathy. “Security Takes Center Stage.”Card Technology (November 2001), 39–47;James Cope. “Distributing IT ResourcesAcross Multiple Locations Could Make It Easier to Recover from a Disaster.”Computerworld 36 ( July 15, 2002), 38–39;Robert Lemos.“Security Pros: Our DefensesAre Down.” Special to ZDNET News.September 10, 2002, downloaded fromhttp://zdnet.com.com/2100–1105–957219.html; U.S. Government. “National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace.” For the executivesummary, please see www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/executive_summary.pdf (you can alsosearch the site for the complete document).Various security issues.

Bridis, Ted. “Virus Overwhelms Global Inter-net Systems.” Yahoo Press, AP, downloadedfrom www.yahoo.com; The Industry Standardcovered the “attacks” on Internet sites. Twoarticles from the February 21, 2000 issue are:Elinor Abreu. “The Hack Attack,” pp. 66–67and Polly Sprenger. “Go Hack Yourself,”pp. 68–69.

Coco, Donna. “A Web Developer’s Dream”Computer Graphics World (August 1998),54–58; S. D. Katz. “This Is Deep VirtualReality Comes to the Web.” Millimeter 28(November 2000), 96–102. Presenting AMidsummer Night’s Dream over the Internetvia VRML and the Web and 3-D graphics,respectively.

Cox, John. “It May Be Immature, But FansClaim Java’s No Jive.” Network World 13(March 18, 1996), 1, 14–15. A look at Javaand an early evaluation.

Dodge, John. “Can the Internet Let FreedomRing in China?”PC Week 16 ( June 14,1999),3; Leslie Pappas.“The Long March to Cyber-space.” The Industry Standard 3 (February 21,2000), 134–139. Internet issues and China.

Duffy, Daintry.“Why Do Intranets Fail.” Darwin1 (November 2001), 57–62; Jeffrey Schwartzand Richard Karpinski.“Intranets Grow Up.”InternetWeek (December 21, 1998), 17.Intranets; Daintry’s article also cover Intranetcosts.


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Flynn,Laurie.“Spamming on the Internet.”NewYork Times (October 16, 1994), Section F-9.Spamming and a Q&A session with LaurenceCanter and Martha Siegel; Joshua A. Marcus.“Commercial Speech on the Internet: Spamand the First Amendment.” Cardozo Arts andEntertainment Law Journal 1998. (16 CardozoArts & Ent Lj 245),downloaded from LEXIS.Censorship and the Internet.

John, Mark.“Cybergridlock Feared.” Communi-cations Industries Report 12 (August 1995), 9;Brock Meeks. “Commerce Dept. StudyHighlights Unequal Access.” Inter@activeWeek 2 ( July 31, 1995), 12. Earlier Internetviews about too much traffic, a possible two-tier system, and access issues.

Kening, Dan. “A Connected Electorate.”CompuServe Magazine 11 (September 1992),35; John McKeon. “Examining the Net’sEffect on the ‘96 Elections.” CommunicationsIndustries Reports 12 (August 1995), 1, 6. APC-based system/the Internet and politicalapplications/implications.

Mack, Steve. Streaming Media Bible. New York:Hungry Minds, 2002; Gus Venditto. “InstantVideo.” Internet World (November 1996),85–101; Jeff Sauer. “Streaming Appliances Do the Dirty Work.” EMedia Magazine 14(September 2001), 36–45; Ben Waggoner.

“Streaming Media.” Interactivity 4 (September1998), 23–29. Media streaming, earliersystems, and new developments. Mack’sStreaming Media Bible is highly recommendedand provides a comprehensive examinationof this application.

McCandish, Stanton. “EFF’s Privacy Top 12,”downloaded from www.eff.org/Privacy/eff_privacy_top_12.html. Overview of stepsto protect your identity/privacy in regard tothe Internet.

Mulqueen, John T. “Latin America Online:Overcrowded Field?” Inter@active Week 7(August 14, 2000), 56; NTIA. A NationOnline: How Americans Are Expanding TheirUse of the Internet.Washington, DC, February2002, downloaded from www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/dn/index.html; Robert N. Wold.“Europe’s Pursuit of Internet and BroadbandRevenues.” Via SatelliteVI (September 2001),36–44. World and U.S. Internet expansionand use.

Plsern, Florence. “Internet2’s Network AdoptsNew Protocol for Addressing and PackagingData,” downloaded from http://chronicle.com/free/2002/08/2002081601t.htm;www.internet2.edu. Internet2 informationand the Internet2 web site.

GLOSSARY

Browser: Software used to visit different websites.

Cyberspace: A term popularized by WilliamGibson’s science fiction work Neuromancer,cyberspace can be described as a computer-generated environment (or world) where youcan interact with other people and work andplay.

Firewall: A barrier typically placed betweenyour network and the outside world toprevent unauthorized entry.

HyperText Markup Language (HTML): Thebasic language for creating web documents.If you are comfortable with macros for

spreadsheets and have access to a word pro-cessing program with an ASCII option, youcan create web publications.

Java: A language that extends the web’s capabilities.

Real-Time Audio and Video Retrieval: The abilityto hear/see a file without having to com-pletely download it.

Spamming: If you are a Monty Python fan, afunny skit (spam, spam, spam . . .). If not, theact of posting an ad, for example, to thousandsof newsgroups or sending e-mails advertisinga product. This can trigger an avalanche offlames—hostile electronic responses.


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Streaming: Delivering real-time audio and videoinformation via the Internet.

Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML):Introduced virtual reality applications to theweb.

Web Search Mechanisms: Software tools used toidentify and locate web-based resources (e.g.,keyword search).

World Wide Web (WWW): A product of theSwiss-based CERN research center, it waspioneered by Tim Berners-Lee to help facil-itate the exchange of information. You usethe web to travel across the Internet and toretrieve and exchange information rangingfrom text to digital video.

VITHE LAW

The United States has a rich tradition ofprotecting an individual’s privacy rights.This protection can be traced to the FourthAmendment, which guarantees

the right of the people to be secure in theirpersons, houses, papers, and effects, against unrea-sonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio-lated, and no warrant shall be issued, but uponprobable cause, supported by Oath of affirmation,and particularly describing the places to besearched, and the persons and things to be seized.1

California, Washington, and some otherstates also provide privacy guarantees within their constitutions. In California, forexample, “All people by nature are free andindependent and have inalienable rights.Among these are enjoying and defendinglife and liberty, acquiring and possessing, andprotecting property, and purchasing andobtaining safety, happiness, and privacy.”2

Based on the intent found within suchdocuments, legislation has been enacted toprotect our privacy rights. But over the pastseveral years, new communications tech-nologies have led to a potential deteriora-tion of these privileges. In response, federaland state courts have been asked to examineand interpret relevant law. Of particularconcern is the area of privacy and human-to-computer and computer-to-computercommunication, which includes e-mailprivacy.

FEDERAL CASE LAW

The Fourth Amendment provides protec-tion to individuals in narrowly defined sit-uations, but it does not guarantee employeeprivacy in the workplace or in their e-mail.Fourth Amendment protection is only af-forded if the employee has a reasonable ex-pectation of privacy. This expectation mustbe balanced against the employer’s right tocontrol, supervise, and maintain workplaceefficiency.

According to the reasonableness standard,the search and seizure of an employee’sprivate workplace property must also be rea-sonable at its inception and in scope. An e-mail search is justified at inception if thereis a reasonable belief the search will provideevidence of employee workplace miscon-duct or if the search is required to retrievenoninvestigatory work-related material—for example, your supervisor accesses someroutine work reports from your e-mail on aday you are sick.3

An e-mail search is reasonable in scope if“the measures taken are reasonably relatedto the objectives of the search.”4

Two-Prong TestA two-prong test must also be conducted.First, a subjective expectation of privacymust exist. This is your belief that you are entitled to a reasonable expectation of

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privacy with regard to your briefcase, per-sonal mail, and other workplace personalitems, including e-mail. Second, there mustbe an objective expectation of privacy.Society must agree that your perception isreasonable.5

The reasonableness of a search must alsobe judged by the search’s intrusiveness. Inone example, the federal courts have ruledthat no reasonable expectation of privacyexists in workplace situations where thereare extensive security precautions (e.g., at amilitary site).6 In contrast, a warrantlessbody cavity search for suspected workplacemisconduct is not reasonable because it isvery intrusive.7 Therefore, a search of em-ployee items, including their e-mail, is acomplex issue.

Precedent and Stare DecisisThe paucity of federal e-mail cases has led privacy advocates to cite other, relevantFourth Amendment cases.8 The cases discusswhether employees have a reasonable ex-pectation of privacy in their desks, file cab-inets, wastebaskets, and similar workplaceitems. If they are afforded a reasonabledegree of privacy protection, this couldestablish precedent for e-mail.

Precedent is defined as an established ruleof law set by previous courts, deciding a caseinvolving similar facts and legal issues.9

Another legal concept that comes into playis stare decisis. Stare decisis ensures that similarcases will be decided in a similar way.10 Soprecedent sets the standard—privacy lawprotects your private wastebasket.Stare decisisthen guarantees that similar wastebasketprivacy cases will be decided in the sameway.

Based on these two legal concepts, e-mailprivacy advocates claim the following:

• A line of Fourth Amendment cases serveas precedent for extending workplace

privacy protection to an employee’s e-mail.

• Workplace e-mail should be afforded thesame privacy protections other workplaceitems currently enjoy.

Cases

O’Connor v. Ortega (480 U.S. 707.1987).One such case,which could serve as a prece-dent, was O’Connor v. Ortega. The U.S.Supreme Court ruled that Dr. Ortega, aphysician who was a state hospital employee,had a reasonable expectation of privacy inhis desk, file cabinets, and office.They werenot shared with other employees and onlycontained personal items.

The Court decided this case on FourthAmendment grounds. It ruled that state hos-pital administrators had violated Ortega’sprivacy rights. They failed to meet therequirements of the reasonableness standardwhile investigating possible work-relatedmisconduct.11

In brief, hospital administrators were con-cerned about Ortega’s management of thehospital’s psychiatric program. They subse-quently placed him on leave and launchedan investigation. At this time, the adminis-trators searched Ortega’s office, removedsome items, and subsequently used them inan administrative hearing that resulted inOrtega’s firing. He responded with a lawsuitagainst the hospital.

In deciding the case, the Court recog-nized the need to fairly balance theemployee’s legitimate right to privacyagainst the employer’s need to supervise,control, and maintain the workplace’s effi-cient operation. However, the court alsoruled that a search must be reasonable at itsinception and in scope. In the Ortega case,the Court ultimately ruled that Ortega hada reasonable expectation of privacy in hisworkplace items.12

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Following this logic, an employer wouldviolate an employee’s rights if private, work-place e-mail was accessed without any priorsuspicion of work-related misconduct or ifthe search was more intrusive than neces-sary. Any evidence of work-related miscon-duct/criminal behavior, which had beenobtained in this manner, would be inadmis-sible in an administrative or judicial pro-ceeding (e.g., to fire the employee).

Richard Schowengerdt v. General Dynamicset al. (823 F. 2d. 1328. 944 F. 2d. 483.1987).Richard Schowengerdt was a civil engineeremployed by the U.S. Navy to work on highsecurity weapons and projects. In light oftheir sensitive nature, random workplacesearches and other extensive security pre-cautions were taken. Nevertheless, followinga routine search of his office and desk,Schowengerdt filed suit claiming he had anobjective reasonable expectation of privacyin his workplace.

The court disagreed stating that employ-ees knew about the “tight security pro-cedures and the ongoing surveillance.”13

Therefore, the measures taken to guaranteethe facility’s security would negate anyobjective expectation of privacy.

Based on this case, it appears that if theemployer has a policy informing employeesthat their e-mail may be read, accessing itwould only be legal for monitoring pur-poses. It would be illegal in narrow circum-stances, such as access by an unauthorizedperson.

Michael A. Smyth v.The Pillsbury Company(914 F. Supp 97. 1996). In 1996, thefederal courts finally heard cases specificallyinvolving workplace e-mail privacy. InSmyth v. Pillsbury, the U.S. District Court forthe Eastern District of Pennsylvania ruledthat an employee who used the company’sprivate, internal e-mail system to communi-cate “inappropriate and unprofessional com-

ments” to his supervisor, did not have a rea-sonable expectation of privacy in his e-mailmessages. He had been terminated for thisaction.14

The court also ruled that the company’sright to prevent inappropriate, unprofes-sional, or illegal comments and activity, out-weighed the employee’s workplace e-mailprivacy interest.15 This decision serves as aparticularly strong endorsement of employerrights—Pillsbury’s company policy statesthat employee e-mail communication isconfidential and privileged. Nevertheless,the court still held that Pillsbury had theright to monitor internal employee e-mail communication.16

John Bohach et al. v.The City of Reno (932F. Supp. 1232. 1996). Another federal case specifically involving workplace e-mailprivacy is Bohach v. the City of Reno. UnlikeSmyth v. Pillsbury, the Bohach case involveda public employer, the Reno, Nevada PoliceDepartment.

Two police officers used the department’sAlphapage message system to exchange information that was later used in an internalinvestigation against the officers.17 They filedsuit against the police department in federalcourt on the grounds that the storage,retrieval, and disclosure of the messages vio-lated their right to workplace e-mail privacy.18

The court ruled that while the two offi-cers may have believed their messages wereprivate, no reasonable expectation of privacyin their workplace e-mail messages existed.19

This decision was based on

1. The system automatically recorded andstored all messages.

2. Officers were informed that all messageswould be logged and that some types ofmessages were prohibited on the system.

3. Message recording was considered a partof the “ordinary course of business” for apolice department.

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4. As the service provider, the police depart-ment was free to access its system mes-sages and use them as they saw fit.20

Thus, the court held the officers did nothave a reasonable expectation of privacy intheir public, workplace e-mail messages.

Richard Fraser v. Nationwide Mutual Insur-ance Co. (135 F. Supp. 2d 623. 2001). InFraser v. Nationwide, the court examined thelegality of accessing workplace e-mail com-munication that has been retrieved by anemployer after being received and discarded.Nationwide Insurance agent Richard Fraserfiled suit against his employer claiming theretrieval of his workplace e-mail from post-transmission storage violated the Pennsylva-nia Wiretap Act as well as the FederalWiretap Act and the Stored Communica-tions Act.21

Nationwide executives searched thecompany’s server for Fraser’s e-mail. Theybelieved he had written and sent false andlibelous communications to insurance re-gulatory agencies and to Nationwide’s com-petitors. The search produced such infor-mation, and Fraser was subsequently fired.Upon termination, Fraser sued Nationwideon numerous grounds, including the accusa-tion that retrieving his e-mail violated theFederal Wiretap Act which protects unautho-rized “interception” of electronic communi-cation and the Stored Communications Act which protects “access” to electroniccommunications while in electronic storage.Nationwide responded by claiming the Actsdid not protect e-mail that had been sent,received and discarded.22

Judge Anita Brody of the U.S.District Court for the Eastern District ofPennsylvania ruled in favor of Nationwideon the grounds that Fraser’s e-mail was inpost-transmission storage. Judge Brody ruledthe Wiretap Act and Stored Communica-tions Act only protected electronic commu-

nications that was in the process of beingtransmitted.Therefore, no objective reason-able expectation of privacy in Fraser’s e-mailexisted.23

Case Law Summary as It Relates to E-Mail.The courts provide the employer withcertain advantages in the employer–employee relationship. If an employer candemonstrate the place of business, includingoffice files and computer systems, are easilyaccessible to coworkers, customers, andothers, the employee does not enjoy a rea-sonable expectation of workplace privacy.This includes e-mail.

However, if an employer accesses anemployee’s e-mail, this action would consti-tute a search and, thus, the employer mustmeet the reasonableness standard. Since anemployer has the right to supervise a busi-ness and see that it is efficient, a searchwarrant does not have to be obtained to gainaccess to routine, noninvestigatory businessinformation.

In essence, although the Fourth Amend-ment provides protection in certain nar-rowly defined situations, it does not guar-antee your privacy in the workplace, or asof this writing, your e-mail.

FEDERAL LEGISLATION

Beyond federal case law, privacy advocateshave been concerned about legislative ini-tiatives. One problem has been the legalsystem’s inability to keep pace with techno-logical developments.

For example, Congress enacted Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and SafeStreets Act in 1968 to protect certain privacyrights. But it became apparent, especially inthe 1980s, that the act was not comprehen-sive enough. It only provided protection for wire and oral communication and theaural interception of voice communication.

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Human-to-computer communication andcomputer-to-computer communication werenot protected.24

Recognizing the gap, Congress passed theElectronic Communications Privacy Act of1986 (ECPA) to eliminate some of the loop-holes.25 But while the ECPA does apply to public e-mail, private e-mail is not protected.

A public e-mail system functions muchlike a public telephone company and enablesyou to send and receive messages.26 If sucha company illegally discloses a message’scontent to unauthorized individuals, it canbe sued. In contrast, a private, internal e-mailsystem, such as one set up by a company,only has to guarantee that “unauthorizedparties cannot gain access to your e-mail.”27

STATE LEGISLATION AND CASE LAW

A body of state legislation and case lawexists that specifically addresses e-mailworkplace privacy.28 In California, forinstance, section 630 of the California PenalCode states:

The Legislature hereby declares that advances . . .have led to . . . new devices and techniques for the purpose of eavesdropping on private com-munications and that the invasion of privacy resulting from the continual and increasing use of such devices . . . has created a serious threat tothe free exercise of personal liberties and cannot be tolerated in a free and civilized society.29

E-mail that was illegally accessed could fallinto this category. Code violations wouldrender any illegally obtained informationinadmissible. However, the California codesupports the legitimate use of the latesttechnologies, which could include accessingan employee’s e-mail, if a legal searchwarrant had first been obtained.30

With regard to case law, one relevantexample is Alana Shoars v. Epson American

(No. 073234. Super. Ct. No. SWC112749.1994). A court examined state lawand the state constitution to determine if anemployer could legally access, print out, andread an employee’s workplace e-mail.31

Alana Shoars was hired by Epson to teachemployees how to use the company’s e-mailsystem to communicate with externalparties via an MCI setup. Shoars issued per-sonal passwords to each employee and toldthem their e-mail would be consideredprivate communication.But Epson manage-ment did not share Shoar’s viewpoint aboutconfidentiality. Employee e-mail was fre-quently accessed, printed out, and read.

When discovered, Shoars confronted hersupervisor and demanded the practice bestopped. He threatened to have her fired ifshe continued to pursue the matter. Shoarsrefused and was fired. She then filed suitclaiming that Epson’s actions violated theCalifornia Penal Code and the CaliforniaState Constitution.

Epson management claimed they did notviolate the law. Employees were providedwith computer tools to tie their internal e-mail system with MCI’s operation. Thismeant that messages were automaticallylogged and downloaded to Epson’s com-puters (for example, for troubleshooting).

More pointedly, Epson claimed its super-visors had to scan and read through thisinformation as a part of the support process.Thus, Epson argued the law had not beenviolated.

After hearing the arguments, the courtruled in Epson’s favor.The company had notengaged in illegal tapping or unauthorizedconnections with a telephone line. Thecourt further held the act of downloadingmessages, as practiced by the company, didnot constitute a violation. It similarly ruledin favor of Epson on other grounds.

A more recent state workplace e-mailprivacy case, Restuccia v. Burk Technology, Inc.(5 Mass. L. Rptr. 712. 1996), was heard by

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the Massachusetts State Court in 1996.32

This case involved two employees who werefired by a private employer, Burk Technol-ogy. The company contended the firingswere based on the content of their internalworkplace e-mail messages and for theexcessive use of the company’s e-mail sys-tem33 The employees subsequently filed suitin state court on the grounds that accessingand reading their workplace e-mail messagesviolated the Massachusetts wiretappingstatute.34

The Burk Technology e-mail system hadbeen created for internal communicationbetween employees and required the use ofa password. Employees had not been toldtheir messages were automatically saved orthat e-mail messages could be accessed bycompany personnel. Furthermore, BurkTechnology did not have a company policyprohibiting communication of nonbusinessmessages via the e-mail system. But it didhave a written policy prohibiting excessivesystem use.35

The Massachusetts State Court eventuallyruled that an employer’s accessing andreading of e-mail messages, which hadautomatically been saved, did not violate thestate wiretapping statute. The court furtherheld this practice fell under the “ordinarycourse of business” exemption clause and as such constituted protected companyaction.36

Finally, in a 1999 case, McLaren v. Microsoft(No. 05-97-00824-CV, Tex. App. LEXIS4103), a Microsoft employee was suspendedand subsequently fired for sexual harassmentand inventory irregularities. Bill McLarensubsequently sued Microsoft for invasion ofprivacy after company officials decrypted hisprivate password, and retrieved and readinformation in his “personal” file folders.McLaren claimed an objective reasonableexpectation of privacy in this case. Eventhough the files in question were on his

work computer owned by Microsoft, theinformation was obtained from materialplaced in his e-mail “personal files folders.”

The court ruled that Microsoft’s interestin preventing inappropriate, unprofessionalor even illegal activity over its e-mail systemoutweighed McLaren’s privacy claim.There-fore, the court ruled that McLaren did nothave an objective reasonable expectation ofprivacy in his workplace e-mail.37

CONCLUSION

Online privacy is afforded protection undervarious federal and state constitutions andlegislation, but it is not fully extended to theworkplace. Once you become an employee,much of this protection is lost or at least sig-nificantly diminished.

For example, most employer privacyguidelines prohibit “unauthorized parties”from accessing and disclosing employee e-mail and other personal workplace effects.The employee is also protected from anunreasonable and warrantless search. Anemployer, however, has sweeping powers tomonitor and disclose an employee’s e-mailwithout prior knowledge or consent.

While an employee’s expectation of e-mail privacy is shaky at its best, two avenuesof protection may be passwords and ad-dresses. In the former, employees are as-signed private passwords; thus the expecta-tion of privacy exists. In the latter, if e-mailis addressed to a specific individual, thesender believes the message will be sent tothat person alone.

But employers have disputed these contentions.The hardware and software re-quired to use e-mail are company owned—these tools are subject to company review.An employer also has a legitimate right tosupervise employee work, including e-mail,for quality control.

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Federal and State ResponseE-mail privacy supporters have filed suit infederal and state courts on the grounds thatemployer monitoring of e-mail violates thelaw. Specifically, federal courts have beenasked to decide if this practice violates theFourth Amendment.

To-date, the federal courts have declinedto extend such protection to workplace e-mail. Most constitutional scholars predictthat future Fourth Amendment protectionwould only be extended to workplace e-mail in cases where obvious abuses exist.

State courts have generally followed suit.Like federal court, most scholars maintainthat privacy protection would only beafforded in extreme circumstances. Work-place privacy advocates also claim thatfederal and state legislation should offersome protection. However, as of this writ-ing, they have provided limited protection at best.

Federal and state law have also made a dis-tinction between a public employer (e.g.,the government) and a private employer.Generally speaking, if you work for a publicemployer, you have slightly more privacyprotection. A private employer has moreleeway and can provide significantly lessprotection.

Employer CodeIf an employer has expectations for em-ployee use of company property, including

e-mail, formal guidelines should be draftedand distributed (e.g., each party’s legal/ethical responsibilities). When designingsuch policy, the employer should also definethe workplace privacy that will be affordedto the employee, regardless of the commu-nication form.

For example, does existing companypolicy provide privacy protection to an em-ployee’s paper files, desk drawers, and voicemail? If so, how does it compare with theprivacy afforded to e-mail? If e-mail hasbeen singled out for special treatment, theemployee should be informed.38

Workplace privacy should also meet the needs of both the employer and theemployee. But it can be a very fine line.Anemployer has a right to monitor a business.But the employee has a right to expect apositive and secure workplace. If, forinstance, e-mail is going to be monitored,the employee should be warned. The leastintrusive method of obtaining the desiredinformation should also be used.This accessshould be limited in scope, and the employershould preserve as much of the employee’sprivacy as possible.

In conclusion, individuals have privacyprotection on the federal and state levels.But in reality, much of the protection is illu-sionary once you become an employee.Until a body of law is created that is morefavorable to employee privacy rights, yourworkplace e-mail will be subject to em-ployer monitoring.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Constitution, Amendment IV.2. California Constitution,Article I,Section I.3. New Jersey v.TLO. 469 U.S. 325. 1985.4. United States v. Charles Katz. 389 U.S. 347.

1967.5. Ibid., 359.

6. Richard Schowengerdt v. General Dynamics et al. 823 F. 2d. 1328. 944 F. 2d. 483. 1987.

7. Gerald W. Shields v. David Burge et al. 874F. 2d. 1201. 1989.

8. Cases have, however, been heard (unlikethe time of this book’s third edition).


9. Black’s Law Dictionary (St. Paul, MN:WestLaw Publishing, 1979), 1059.

10. Ibid., 1261.11. O’Connor v. Ortega. 480 U.S. 717.12. Ibid., 717.13. Richard Schowengerdt v. General Dynamics

et al. 823 F. 2d. 1328. 944 F. 2d. 483. 1987.14. Michael A.Smyth v.The Pillsbury Company.

914 F. Supp. 97. 1996, downloaded fromwww.Loundy.com.

15. Ibid.16. Ibid.17. John Bohach et al. v. the City of Reno.

932 F. Supp. 1232. 1996, downloaded fromLEXIS.

18. Ibid.19. Ibid.20. Ibid.21. Richard Fraser v. Nationwide Mutual Insur-

ance Co. 135 F. Supp. 2d 623at 1/2. 2001, down-loaded from LEXIS.

22. Ibid., 5.23. Ibid., 1.24. Steven Winters. “Do Not Fold, Spindle

or Mutilate: An Examination of WorkplacePrivacy in Electronic Mail,” Southern California

Interdisciplinary Law Journal 85 (spring 1992),45–46.

25. Electronic Communications Privacy Actof 1986. 100 Stat 1848. Section 2510, 1.

26. Electronic Communications PrivacyAct. viii.

27. Ibid.28. California Constitution, Article I,

Section I.29. California Penal Code, Section 630.30. California Penal Code, Section 631.31. Alana Shoars v. Epson America, Inc. No B

073234, Calf. Super. Crt. No. SWC112749.32. Jenna Wischmeyer. “E-Mail and the

Workplace,” 1998, downloaded fromraven.cc.uKans.edu.

33. Ibid.34. Ibid.35. Ibid.36. Ibid.37. Bill McLaren v. Microsoft. No. 05-97-

00824-CV, 1999.Tex. App. LEXIS 4103. 1999.38. Electronic Mail Association. Access to and

Use and Disclosure of Electronic Mail on CompanyComputer Systems:A Tool Kit for Formulating YourCompany’s Policy (September 1991), 1.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Case LawBonita Bourke v. Nissan Motor Corporation in

U.S.A. (B 068705. Super. C. 1993).Bonita Bourke v. Nissan Motor Corporation in

U.S.A. (No.YC003979).Cameron v. Mentor Graphics (No. 716361. Cal.

Spr. Ct.).Francis Gillard v. Schmidt (570 F. 2d. 825. 1978).Fraser v. Nationwide Mutual Insurance Co. (135 F.

Supp. 2d 623. 2001).Lacrone v. Ohio Bell Co. (182 N.E. 2d. 15.1961).McLaren v.Microsoft (No.05-97-00824-CV,1999

Tex. App. LEXIS 4103).National Treasury Employee Union v.William Von

Raab (489 U.S. 656. 1989).O’Connor v. Ortega (480 U.S. 709. 1987).Ray Oliver v. Richard Thornton (466 U.S. 170.

1984).

Rhodes v. Graham (37 S.W. 2d. 46. 1931).Roach v. Harper (105 S.E. 2d. 564. 1958).Alana Shoars v. Epson American, Inc. (No. 073234.

Super. Ct. No. SWC 112749. 1994).Samuel Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Asso-

ciation (489 U.S. 602. 1989).Watkins v. Berry (704 F. 2d. 577. 1983).

Federal and State LegislationComputer Security Act of 1987. 101 STAT.

1724. P.L. 100-235. 1988.Electronic Communications Privacy Act of

1986. 100 STAT. 1848. P.L. 99-508. 1986.Privacy for Consumers and Workers Act.

Hearing. S. 984. 1993.Title III Wiretapping and Electronic Surveil-

lance. 82 STAT. 211. P.L. 90-351. 1968.

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Journals, Magazines,and Online DocumentsAmerican Management Association Interna-

tional. “Electronic Monitoring and Surveil-lance: 1997 AMA Survey.” 1997, downloadedfrom www.cybersquirrel.com.

Barlow, John Perry.“Electronic Frontier: Bill O’Rights.” Communications of the ACM (March1993), 21–23.

Baumhart, Julia. “The Employer’s Right toRead Employee E-Mail: Protecting Propertyor Personal Prying,” LABLAW 8 (fall 1992),1–65.

Boehmer, Robert. “Artificial Monitoring andSurveillance of Employees: The Fine LineDividing the Prudently Managed Enterprisefrom the Modern Sweatshop.” Dickinson LawReview (spring 1992), 593–666.

“Current Legal Standards for Access to Papers,Records, and Communications.” 1999,downloaded from www.cdt.org.

CyberSpace Law Center. “Workplace PrivacyBibliography.” 1998, downloaded fromwww.cybersquirrel.com.

Electronic Mail Association. Access to and Useand Disclosure on Company Computer Systems:A Tool Kit for Formulating Your Company’sPolicy. September 1991.

Electronic Mail Association. Protecting ElectronicMessaging:A Guide to the Electronic Communi-cations Privacy Act of 1986.

Tuerkheimer, Frank. “The Underpinnings ofPrivacy Protection.” Communications of theACM (August 1993), 69–73.

Witte, Lois. “Terminally Nosy: Are EmployersFree to Access Our Electronic Mail?” Dickin-son Law Review (1993), 545–573.

GLOSSARY

Electronic Communications: Any transfer of signs,signals,writings, images, sounds, or data trans-mitted via wire, radio, electromagnetic, pho-toelectronic, or photo-optical systems.

Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA):This act was passed in 1986 to close someregulatory loopholes that existed in theOmnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act.This protects the acquisition of the contents ofany wire, electronic, or oral communicationvia an electronic or mechanical device.

Objective Expectation of Privacy: Society agreeswith an employee that he or she has a rea-

sonable expectation of privacy in workplaceitems.

Precedent: An established rule of law set by aprevious court deciding a case involvingsimilar facts and legal issues.

Stare Decisis: Similar cases should be decided ina similar way.

Subjective Expectation of Privacy: The right toexpect that personal workplace items such asa briefcase, personal mail, desk, files, andwastebaskets will not be subject to an un-reasonable employer search. T

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The new communication technologies andtheir applications have raised constitutionalquestions, including the First Amendmentimplications of regulating online obscenity.Relevant legislation and case law concern-ing various aspects of this issue are discussedin this chapter.

For online obscenity, the main focus is theCommunications Decency Act (CDA) andthe Child Online Protection Act (COPA).Background information is presented first,followed by an examination of relevant caselaw.

THE COMMUNICATIONSDECENCY ACT

In early 1995, U.S. Senators James Exon (D-Nebraska) and Slade Gorton (R-Washington) sponsored the CDA to regulateonline sexual content.According to SenatorExon, this legislation, which was later incor-porated in the 1996 Telecom Act, was nec-essary. Some individuals were using onlineservices to communicate with childrenabout inappropriate sexually oriented topics.Some adults were also offended by the sex-ually explicit material that was available overthe Internet.1

In the past, sexually explicit speech was regulated on the basis of consent. Forexample, the 1934 Communications Actonly regulated nonconsentual sexual speech

that was unwanted by one of the parties.2

But the CDA made no distinction betweenconsensual and nonconsensual speech. Itcriminalized all obscene, lewd, lascivious,filthy, and indecent communication distrib-uted via a telecommunications device. Thislaw also placed the regulatory burden onproviders and services.3

The CDA’s ConstitutionalityThe CDA was challenged in court on constitutional grounds. In 1996, two lowercourts held portions of the CDA unconsti-tutional. CDA opponents indicate the actwould have a chilling effect on computercommunication. Chilling implies that athreat of regulation may make you thinktwice about providing what may be inap-propriate information. In this case, you maynot post some questionable material onlinebecause you thought it might be illegal—communication is stopped before it canactually take place. In this light, it could beviewed as a form of censorship.

Critics also contend the CDA wouldcreate a new “measuring stick” to determineif a message was obscene. Under the CDA,only material judged appropriate for chil-dren would be permitted online.4

Another concern was the targeting ofobscene as well as indecent speech. Indecentspeech is defined as nonobscene languagethat is sexually explicit or includes profan-

19 The First Amendmentand Online Obscenity

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ity.5 Although most First Amendment scholars agree that obscene speech is notprotected, there is no precedent for deny-ing constitutional protection for indecentspeech. In fact, the Supreme Court has ruledthat indecent speech is protected.

In the precedent-setting case, Miller v. California, nonobscene speech was ruledconstitutional. Only language that appeals toprurient interests is patently offensive, andlacks serious literary, artistic, political,and scientific value is prohibited.6 Indecentspeech does not fall within this definitionand has been protected by the First Amendment.

Furthermore, in Sable Communications ofCalifornia Inc. v. Federal Communications Com-mission, the court ruled that sexual expres-sion, which is indecent but not obscene,was protected. For example, the ability of achild to potentially retrieve a sexually ex-plicit telephone message does not rendersuch speech unconstitutional.7

Internet Regulation and the BroadcastModel. When a new communicationform is born, Congress and other bodiesmust determine if and how it will be regu-lated. In this process, established communi-cation systems may be examined as re-gulatory models.

For the Internet, the broadcast industryserved as one example. Broadcast regulationhas been based, in part, on the spectrumscarcity theory—since the spectrum is finite,only a limited number of individuals couldreceive a license.Thus, FCC involvement inthis arena could, depending on your view-point, be considered a legitimate use ofpower.

But when applied to computer commu-nication, critics contend the scarcity argu-ment is not valid. As described in previouschapters, the Internet and online servicesconstitute a vast and rapidly growing infra-structure. Essentially, “whenever you add a

computer to the Internet, you increase theInternet size [sic] and capabilities.”8

A similar principle applies to the perva-sive medium theory, which argues that thebroadcast industry could be regulated sincemessages are “thrust” on a sometimes unsus-pecting audience. But like spectrum scarcity,this regulatory stance may not be valid incomputer-based systems.

Computer communication on the Inter-net, for instance, requires you to take anumber of affirmative steps to retrieve in-formation. “Exposure to the content is pri-marily driven by choice with little risk ofunwitting exposure to offensive or inde-cent material.”9 Consequently, the broadcastmodel may not be a valid Internet regula-tory model even though it was used toexplore such options.

Internet ConcernsOne key factor, which provided impetus for Internet regulation, was a concern thatsome Internet material may be inappropriatefor children. But CDA critics indicated theonline community was developing blockingand screening software and options. Parents,teachers, and other responsible adults wouldbe able to control the material childrencould retrieve.10

In one case, Cyber Patrol functioned byproducing a “CyberNOT” list of objection-able sites, and it organized questionablecontent into categories. In the violence andprofanity entry, obscene words and commu-nication that encouraged extreme crueltyagainst any animal or person were included.Sites with these characteristics would beplaced on the list and minors would beblocked from entering.11

The Case: American Civil Liberties Unionv. Attorney General Janet RenoThe CDA gave the U.S. Attorney Generalthe authority to investigate and prosecute

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The First Amendment and Online Obscenity 267

any party in violation of the act’s indecencyand patently offensive provisions. Specifi-cally, the indecency provision (Section 223)states:

. . . any person in interstate or foreign commu-nication who, “by means of a telecommunica-tions device, knowingly . . . makes, creates, orsolicits” and “initiates the transmission” of “anycomment, request, suggestion, proposal, image or other communication which is obscene orindecent, knowing that the recipient of the communication is under 18 years of age,” shall be criminally fined or imprisoned.12

The patently offensive provision (Section223)

. . . makes it a crime to use an “interactive com-puter service” to “send” or “display in a manneravailable” to a person under age 18, “anycomment, request, suggestion, proposal, image, orother communication that, in context, depicts ordescribes, in terms patently offensive as measuredby contemporary community standards, sexual or excretory activities or organs, regardless ofwhether the user of such service placed the callor initiated the communication.”13

In response, the American Civil LibertiesUnion (ACLU) and other plaintiffs filed suit in federal court to halt the provisions’enforcement. They requested a temporaryrestraining order (TRO), and Judge RonaldBuckwalter of the U.S. District Court forthe Eastern District of Pennsylvania, granteda limited TRO.

The grounds? The terms “indecent” and“patently offensive” were unconstitutionallyvague and required interpretation. Follow-ing this action, a panel of three judges from the Third Circuit Court of Appeals was convened to examine this case. AttorneyGeneral Janet Reno agreed not to investi-gate or prosecute violators until the judgesrendered their decision. The court saidReno could file charges for violations in thefuture, if the provisions were found to beconstitutional.14

Some case highlights are as follows:

1. The government said the ACLU wasoverreacting to the CDA’s language sincespeech would only be restricted in narrowcircumstances. The government cited sup-porting factors. For example, a telecommu-nications facility/service would not be inviolation of the CDA if it acted in good faith and took “reasonable, effective, andappropriate actions to restrict or preventaccess” to inappropriate materials by aminor.15

2. The ACLU did not dispute thatobscene, pornographic, and harassing material was inappropriate on the Internet.It argued the CDA reached too far and violated the First Amendment since it“effectively bans a substantial category ofprotected speech from most parts of theInternet.”16

3. The government indicated that“shielding minors from access to indecentmaterials is the compelling interest support-ing the CDA.”17 According to the court,“whatever the strength of the interest thegovernment has demonstrated in prevent-ing minors from accessing ‘indecent’ and‘patently offensive’ material online, if themeans it has chosen sweeps more broadlythan necessary . . . , it has overstepped ontorights protected by the First Amendment.”18

The court then had to answer the question:Did the government overstep it bounds?

4. What may be objectionable to oneperson in one city may not be objectionableto another person in another city. Angels inAmerica, for instance, a play about sexualityand AIDS, may be unacceptable in certaincommunities. But the play won two Tonyawards and a Pulitzer Prize, and some adultscould view it as appropriate material forolder minors.19

If introduced online, however, this same material would fall under the CDA’spurview. Other nonobscene material,

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ranging from certain National Geographicphotographs to sculptures to textual des-criptions, could follow suit and would besubject to the “CDA’s criminal provisions.”20

5. The ACLU had to demonstrate it waslikely to prevail on the case’s merits. If thecase went to court, the ACLU would mostlikely win.

6. The ACLU had to convince the courtthat if the TRO were not granted, irrepara-ble harm would occur. Citing past case law,the ACLU claimed halting protectedspeech, even for a brief time, constitutedirreparable harm.

7. Past courts have ruled that criminaliz-ing protected speech has a chilling effect on the speaker’s freedom of expression, alsoresulting in irreparable harm.

8. The ACLU had to establish that aTRO was in the public’s best interest. Citingpast case law, it was alleged that an openmarketplace of ideas and the preservation ofprotected speech are always in the public’sinterest.

The RulingThe court eventually ruled the CDA wasoverly intrusive, and the government’s claimof a compelling interest in restricting thesematerials from children was outweighed bythe right to free speech.21

Criminal prosecution resulting from aviolation could also subject the contentprovider to public damnation and wouldcreate a financial hardship. In fact, contentproviders could back away from question-able material out of fear of prosecution if they make a mistake as to what con-stitutes indecent and/or patently offensivematerial.22

The terms indecency and patently offensiveare also inherently vague. The governmentcould not identify the specific communitystandards that would be used to judge ques-tionable online material.23 The court further

noted that Congress could have supportedthe development of blocking software, thusplacing the decision-making process in thehands of parents and educators.

Congress could have also followed a well-traveled path by looking toward the printmedia for guidance. Nonobscene, but indecent and/or patently offensive booksand magazines, are available everywhere.24

The government, however, is not primarilyresponsible for controlling a minor’s expo-sure to these materials.The decision makingrests squarely on the shoulders of adults.

The court also indicated that the Internet“may fairly be regarded as a never endingworldwide conversation,” and the govern-ment cannot use the CDA to “interrupt thatconversation.As the most participatory formof mass speech yet developed,” the Internetmerits the highest level of protection.25

Furthermore, while the lack of govern-ment regulation “has unquestionably pro-duced a kind of chaos, . . . The strength ofthe Internet is that chaos. Just as the strengthof the Internet is chaos, so the strength ofour liberty depends on the chaos and . . .the unfettered speech the First Amendmentprotects.”26 Thus, the court held the inde-cency and patently offensive provisions ofthe CDA unconstitutional.27

The court granted the TRO andinstructed Attorney General Janet Reno,and other parties, that they were “enjoinedfrom enforcing, prosecuting, investigating,or reviewing any matter” concerning thesematters.28

The Attorney General subsequentlyappealed the case and in June 1997 the U.S.Supreme Court heard Reno et al. v.AmericanCivil Liberties Union et al (117 S.Ct. 2329.1997). In a 7–2 decision with Justice JohnPaul Stevens writing for the majority,the Supreme Court upheld the lower court,finding the indecency and patently offensiveportions of the CDA violated free speechprotected by the First Amendment.29

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Justice Stevens wrote, “We are persuadedthat the CDA lacks the precision that theFirst Amendment requires when a statuteregulates the content of speech. In order todeny minors access to potentially harmfulspeech, the CDA effectively suppresses alarge amount of speech that adults have aconstitutional right to receive and address toone another.”30

The Court found those portions of theCDA unconstitutionally vague, overbroad,and not sufficiently narrowly tailored basedon the fact that,“. . . the scope of the CDAis not limited to commercial speech or com-mercial entities. Its open-ended prohibitionsembrace all nonprofit entities and individu-als posting indecent messages or displayingthem on their own computers in the presence of minors.The general, undefinedterms ‘indecent’ and ‘patently offensive’cover large amounts of nonpornographicmaterial with serious, educational or othervalue.”31

CHILD ONLINE PROTECTION ACT

Despite this strong endorsement of freespeech, Congress passed the Child OnlineProtection Act (COPA), also known as“CDA-II,” in October 1998. COPA wasmore narrowly drawn than the CDA. Nev-ertheless, free speech advocates still opposedit on First and Fifth Amendment grounds.

COPA made it a crime to permit anyoneunder the age of 17 to access materials,which were construed as harmful to minors,from the web. Any communication, image,recording, or information that was obscene,or met other criteria, would fall under thisaegis.The latter included materials that:

• “the average person, applying contem-porary community standards, would findpandering to . . . prurient interests”;

• depict “. . . in a manner patently offensivewith respect to minors, an actual or sim-ulated sexual act . . . or a lewd exhibitionof the genitals . . .”; and

• “taken as a whole, lacks serious literary,artistic, political, or scientific value forminors.”32

Additionally, an individual who “devotestime, attention, or labor to such activities[e.g., making such materials available tominors], as a regular course of . . . trade orbusiness, with the objective of earning aprofit . . .” would be liable.33

An individual, however, who acted ingood faith to restrict minors from accessingproscribed online material,would be exemptfrom prosecution.This would require the useof a credit card, adult access code or otherreasonable identification scheme.34

In sum, COPA would apply in the fol-lowing situations:

1. When material harmful to minors isknowingly communicated.

2. When the communication is made forcommercial purposes.

3. When the material is communicated viathe web.

4. When you are the person actually postingthe illegal material.

It should also be noted that COPA wouldstill permit adults to receive “illegal” mate-rials.This would be possible through the useof one of the aforementioned identificationsystems.35

ObjectionDespite COPA’s built-in exemptions, theACLU, the Electronic Frontier Foundation,and other parties, filed suit before the U.S.District Court for the Eastern District ofPennsylvania in November 1998. Theyrequested a TRO to halt enforcement of

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COPA. Much like the CDA, U.S. DistrictCourt Judge Lowell A. Reed, Jr., had toanswer pertinent questions. These includedthe following:

• Based on the presented information, wasit likely that the ACLU and the othersuing parties would win if the case wentto trial?

• Would less harm result by granting theTRO or by denying it?36

After deliberating, Judge Reed granted a preliminary TRO against governmentenforcement of the COPA. The TRO was initially granted for 14 days and thenextended for an additional 2 months untilrelevant testimony could be heard.37

The CaseThe ACLU argued COPA was unconstitu-tionally vague under the First and FifthAmendments. It was also overbroad, createdan economic and technological burden foronline speakers, would chill speech, and vio-lated speech protected for minors. AttorneyGeneral Reno and the Justice Departmentcountered and argued that COPA was constitutional. It was narrowly tailored,only targeted materials harmful to minors,and would not prevent adults from gainingaccess to such materials through a techno-logically and economically feasible identifi-cation system.38

Eventually, Judge Reed ruled the govern-ment had failed to show that COPArequired the least restrictive means availableto prevent access to materials that wereharmful to minors. Furthermore, “Theplaintiffs’ . . . fears of prosecution underCOPA will result in the self-censorship oftheir online materials in an effort to avoidprosecution, and this court has concluded. . . such fears are reasonable given thebreadth of the statute.”39 Reed concluded by

writing that no one, including the govern-ment, has an interest in enforcing an uncon-stitutional law and that the public is notserved by the enforcement of such a law.40

Based on this rationale, Judge Reed formallygranted a TRO against enforcement of theCOPA (February 1, 1999).

The Attorney General appealed the caseand it was heard by the Third Circuit whichaffirmed Judge Reed’s decision but for anentirely different legal reason.41 The court ofappeals ruled that COPA was unconstitu-tionally overbroad because it depended onthe use of “contemporary community stan-dards” (the views of the average person inthe community) to determine if materialwas harmful to minors.

Since the online universe has no specificgeographic boundaries, the court reasonedthat any material could be classified asharmful to minors if the standard of themost “puritan communities in any state”42

were used. The language of COPA wouldchill speech and would lead to the potentialdeletion of vast amounts of protected mate-rial.43Therefore, the court of appeals allowedJudge Reed’s injunction to stand. The Attorney General appealed the ThirdCircuit’s decision and the U.S. SupremeCourt agreed to hear Ashcroft v. ACLU.44

In a narrow decision, the Supreme Courtruled that this use of contemporary com-munity standards, in and of itself, did notviolate the First Amendment.45 The Justicesalso stated they would not examine otherlegal questions concerning COPA’s consti-tutionality because the Third Circuit had not yet done so. Consequently, the SupremeCourt sent the case back to the court ofappeals to answer all relevant legal questionsconcerning COPA’s constitutionality. In themeantime, Judge Reed’s injunction againstenforcing COPA remained intact.46

In March 2003, following the instructionsof the Supreme Court, the Third Circuitreexamined COPA (ACLU v. Ashcroft. No.

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99-1324. 2003).The court of appeals had todetermine if the U.S. district court’s prelim-inary injunction against COPA constitutedan abuse of judicial discretion or an obviouslegal error.47

The court of appeals did find that thegovernment has a compelling interest inprotecting minors from harmful materials.But COPA’s provisions were not narrowlytailored to achieve this goal.48 The court also

• indicated that COPA’s requirement toprevent minors from accessing harmfulmaterials, “automatically impacts nonob-scene, sexually suggestive speech that isotherwise protected for adults”;49

• examined the use of the term “minor.” Itcited that no distinction is made betweenmaterial inappropriate for an infant, a fiveyear old or someone about to turn 17;50

• examined COPA’s definition of the term“commercial purposes.” COPA “imposedcontent restrictions on a substantialnumber of ‘commercial,’ nonobscenespeakers in violation of the First Amend-ment.”51 The court added that COPA’saffirmative defenses for accessing mater-ial, such as requiring the use of a creditcard or adult personal identificationnumber, would likely deter many adultsfrom accessing content harmful to minorsthus chilling speech for adults;52 and

• indicated that COPA failed to employ theleast restrictive means to protect minorsfrom harmful material (e.g., blocking and filtering software).53 COPA’s lan-guage also constituted overbreadth sinceit “places significant burdens on web pub-lishers’ communication of speech that isconstitutionally protected as to adults andadults’ ability to access such speech.”54

In conclusion, the Third Circuit ruledthat the district court did not abuse its judi-cial discretion or commit a clear legal errorin granting the preliminary injunction

against COPA, since the ACLU would likelysucceed on the merits in establishing thatCOPA was unconstitutional.55 Therefore,the court of appeals affirmed the issuance ofa preliminary injunction.56

Other IssuesWe should note that the CDA was not theonly online obscenity case.While the CDAran into a roadblock, partly due to its in-decency and patently offensive provisions,other obscenity regulations still apply. To-date,most of these online criminal obscenitycases have involved online interstate trans-portation (from one state to another state)of child pornography and have been decidedby lower courts.

The most highly publicized case is UnitedStates v. Robert and Carleen Thomas. Husbandand wife, Robert and Carleen Thomas, wereconvicted of federal obscenity charges (18U.S.C. Section 1462/1465, 1996) in theU.S. District Court for the Western Districtof Tennessee.They used their bulletin boardsystem to transport obscene computer files from California to other states.The re-cipients included an undercover agent in Tennessee.57

The Thomas’ appealed, and the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit agreed toreview the case. After careful scrutiny of the lower court decision, the Sixth CircuitJudges ruled the convictions should stand.58

FILTERING

A sidebar online obscenity issue also arose.Should mandatory software be installed onpublic library computers to block access toInternet sites with sexually explicit content?Various library boards installed or consid-ered installing blocking software to preventminors from accessing various categories of speech including, “hate speech, criminal

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activity, sexually explicit speech, adultspeech, violent speech, religious speech, andeven sports and entertainment.”59

The ACLU, the American Library Asso-ciation, and others have opposed such soft-ware use. They believe that library com-puters provide links to diverse and globalinformation, which is subsequently madeavailable to all segments of the Americanpublic. This includes users who might nototherwise have access to the Internet.60

Recent statistics indicate that 60% of the nearly 9000 U.S. public libraries provideInternet access to their patrons. A Nielsensurvey further reveals that many peoplespecifically go to the library to use the Inter-net.61 In many instances, users opt to goonline because it affords them more privacywhen accessing information on assistedsuicide and other, sensitive and controversialtopics.

Library blocking software opponentsgenerally agree that children should not beable to gain access to sexually explicit infor-mation, but believe that parents, teachers,and librarians should guide their Internetuse—not restrictive and oftentimes flawedfiltering software.62 Proponents includelibrary boards, the American Family Associ-ation, parents, librarians, and politicians.63

They indicate the Internet can provideinformation, images, and chat rooms that areinappropriate for minors—the online world can be a dangerous place for children.Theybelieve that blocking software could helpprotect minors from these pitfalls.

Cases and CongressThe first case to examine the constitution-ality of using blocking software on publiclibrary computers was heard in 1998 by theU.S. District Court for the Eastern Districtof Virginia. In Mainstream Loudoun et al. v.Board of Trustees of the Loudoun CountyLibrary, Judge Leonie M. Brinkema had to

decide if the library board policy requiringmandatory blocking of child pornography,obscene material, and material harmful tojuveniles, violated the First Amendment.64

Citing ACLU v. Reno, the precedent-setting online obscenity case, Judge Brinkema ruled that this policy was uncon-stitutional for these reasons:

• The policy was not narrowly tailored.• There were less restrictive options to

prevent minors from accessing onlinesexually explicit material.

• The policy restricted adults from obtain-ing materials that were deemed inappro-priate for children.65

The Loudoun County Library Board considered appealing the decision, but theACLU convinced them that their policy wasunconstitutional. Instead, the board devel-oped a new policy which allows both adultsand minors to use either a filtered or anunfiltered computer.66 While the ACLU hasalso convinced other library boards not toimplement blocking software, library com-munities in some states continue the prac-tice of library computer Internet filtering.

Congress has also played a role in this controversy through filtering and blockingsoftware bills. Finally, in December 2000,Congress passed the Children’s Internet Pro-tection Act or CIPA.CIPA required librariesand schools that received federal funding fortelecommunications expenses, to install fil-tering software on computers used by adultsor children. Congressional intent was to block access to online obscenity and childpornography for adults and for children under the age of 17. Children would also bedenied access to material deemed harmful tominors but protected for adults. Authorizedlibrary/school representatives could, how-ever, unblock a given computer if it wasbeing used by an adult for research or otherlegitimate purposes.67

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After its passage, the American LibraryAssociation (ALA), the Multnomah CountyPublic Library, and other groups challengedCIPA’s constitutionality. These parties filedsuit in U.S. District Court for the EasternDistrict of Pennsylvania in 2002 citingseveral legal flaws in CIPA’s language.68 Thesequence of events is as follows:

1. The district court had to determine ifcurrent filtering technology would blockonly the prescribed, and not other, onlinematerial.69

2. After examining different filteringsystems, the court ruled the current gen-eration of programs could not meet thiscriterion.70

3. The court indicated the government didhave a compelling interest in protectingchildren under the age of 17 and otherswho use public libraries, but the courthad to decide if the use of filtering soft-ware was the least restrictive method ofachieving CIPA’s goals.

4. The court determined there were lessrestrictive methods of denying access tothese materials. Thus, the court held theCIPA was unconstitutional.71

5. It should be noted the court did not speakto the issue concerning schools andschool libraries accepting federal fundingfor computers.

The government appealed the lowercourt decision and due to the language ofCIPA, the appeal went directly to theSupreme Court for review.

In June 2003 the Supreme Court handeddown a 6–3 decision reversing the lowercourt on the grounds CIPA’s filteringrequirement did not violate the FirstAmendment. Writing for the Court, ChiefJustice Rehnquist said filtering porno-graphic and other web sites harmful tominors, did not halt freedom of expressionbecause, “A public library does not acquire

Internet terminals in order to create a publicforum for web publishers to express them-selves, any more than it collects books inorder to provide a public forum for theauthors of the books to speak.”72

Rehnquist also said public libraries mustrender decisions concerning which tradi-tional publications are “suitable and worth-while material” for their collections andmust be permitted to make similar decisionsconcerning the appropriateness of materialfrom the Internet.73

In response to the lower court’s claim filtering would result in overblocking, theSupreme Court said “such concerns are dispelled by the ease with which patronsmay have the filtering software disabled.When a patron encounters a blocked site, heneed only ask a librarian to unblock it or (atleast in the case of adults) disable the filter.”74

The Court likewise concluded the con-stitutional rights of public library patronswere not violated by the filtering require-ment but instead, the requirement onlyserved to ensure public funds were spent fortheir authorized purpose.75

It should be noted, however, while Jus-tices Breyer and Kennedy were among thesix who voted to reverse the lower court,each wrote a separate opinion explainingwhy they did so.This is significant becauseboth Justices voted, in part, on the assump-tion public librarians would unblock filteredsites for adults without delay.76

Justices Stevens, Souter, and Ginsburg castdissenting votes for similar reasons. JusticeStevens, for example, said CIPA was uncon-stitutional because,“[a] federal statute penal-izing a library for failing to install filteringsoftware on every one of its Internet-accessible computers would unquestionablyviolate the First Amendment.”77

In sum, the decision in this case marks thefirst time the Supreme Court has upheld the constitutionality of legislation designedto restrict Internet content.Unlike the CDA

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and COPA, the Supreme Court held CIPAdid not violate the First Amendment. TheACLU and other civil liberty groups dis-agree with the Court’s decision and hopeCIPA’s constitutionality will be revisited ifunblocking filtered sites for adults doesn’toccur. Such a problem could make JusticesBreyer and Kennedy reconsider their judi-cial stance on the constitutionality of CIPA.

In addition to federal legislation, morethan half of the States have enacted or con-sidered state Internet censorship legislation.To-date, federal courts have struck downvarious Internet censorship laws, but thefuture of such legislation is unknown.

INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TOONLINE OBSCENITY

CompuServeBesides the United States, other countrieshave developed their own rules governingsexually explicit online material. For anonline company, this situation has become alegal nightmare. If an operation is interna-tional in scope, how do you comply witheach country’s laws?

For example, in December 1995,the German government informed Com-puServe that a number of its sexually oriented newsgroups contained materialsthat were unsuitable for children and vio-lated German law. A German prosecutorinsisted that CompuServe block this accessin Germany.

CompuServe informed the German government it was not responsible for, and had no authority over, a newsgroup’s con-tent. Nevertheless, CompuServe’s employeesworking in Germany were threatened witharrest if blocking was not initiated.78

CompuServe’s CEO had to decide if heshould comply with German law or keepthe newsgroups and risk his employees’potential arrest. In the end, lacking the

technological means to isolate Germanusers, CompuServe was forced to block ac-cess to these newsgroups for all its subscri-bers. Basically, German obscenity standardswere globally imposed.79

To some individuals, the German gov-ernment’s decision was an echo of its past, atime when publishers were ordered to haltdistribution of certain information based onits content. Some saw the German prosecu-tor’s action as a “digital book-burning” withglobal implications.80 “What could havebeen the most democratic medium in theworld all of a sudden becomes the lowestcommon denominator of what is acceptableto all governments.”81

The Germans denied they forced CompuServe to block the newsgroups andclaimed they simply informed the companythat local German law would be enforced.They also said they were not trying to maketheir standard a global legal standard.

CompuServe was criticized for its actions.Some individuals believed the companyshould have anticipated this problem. It hadmore than a million non-U.S. users and ahistory of similar problems with Germanyprior to the 1995 incident.82

Given this past history, critics claimed thatCompuServe and other U.S. online servicesshould have been prepared for this latestlegal salvo. CompuServe’s lack of insight was costly, and its technicians were underpressure to quickly find a solution to thisproblem.

The Case. While CompuServe blockedthese newsrooms until suitable parentalcontrol software could be deployed, theChief German Prosecutor indicted FelixSomm, the Managing Director of Com-puServe, Germany, in 1997. The charge?—allowing the trafficking of violence, childpornography, and bestiality via variousCompuServe newsgroups during 1995 and1996.83 These indictments mark the first

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time that Western authorities have filedcharges against a commercial online servicebased on the content of material the servicedid not create.84

In May 1998, Somm was found guilty on13 counts of assisting in the disseminationof pornographic writings and for negligentdissemination of publications morallyharmful to youths (People of Munich v. FelixSomm).85 The court ruled that Somm hadviolated German law that criminalizesmaking “. . . ‘simple’ pornography (softcorenudity) available to children and ‘hardcore’(child pornography and bestiality) availableto anyone, . . . and with allowing the dis-semination of Nazi, neo-Nazi materials, andviolent computer games . . . in Germany.”86

Judge Wilhelm Hubbert found Sommguilty on all 13 counts of complicity,handing down a two year suspended jail sentence with probation. CompuServeappealed the conviction, and in November1999, a three-day hearing was convened inMunich.87

At this time, Chief Judge Laszlo Emberreversed the lower court overturningSomm’s conviction. He ruled that, at thetime of the violation, CompuServe did nothave the technology to block the publica-tion of the cited material.The judge furtherheld that Somm had done all he could andhe was merely a slave to his parent company.Finally, Judge Ember cited Germany’s newlyenacted Multimedia Law as an additionallegal rationale for reversing Somm’s convic-tion since it would only hold a serviceprovider legally liable for material if theyhave the technical capability to block it.88

Other CountriesOnline censorship of obscenity, pornogra-phy, and other controversial material has notbeen restricted to any one country or partof the world, however. Government controlover online content is a global problem.

For instance, France was the site of an-other Internet censorship case that occurredin 2000. Members of the French Union ofJewish Students filed suit in French courtagainst Yahoo for allowing Nazi memora-bilia to be sold over Yahoo’s Internet auctionsite. Under French law, displaying suchmemorabilia is illegal, and the French court(Tribune de Grande de Paris. LICRA v.Yahoo!, Inc. No. RG 00/05308. November2000), subsequently ordered Yahoo to blockaccess to the site in France.

Yahoo executive Timothy Koogle wasalso personally accused of justifying and displaying the memorabilia of those com-mitting crimes against humanity.While thecourt found Koogle not guilty, had he beenconvicted, the punishment would have been5 years in prison and a U.S.$50,000 fine.Prior to the conclusion of the trial, however,the prosecutor requested that Koogle not be punished even if he was found guilty.Nonetheless, the French had censored theInternet in their country and had put anAmerican executive on trial because of thecontent of his company’s web site.89

Various other governments are attempt-ing to control user access to sexual, politi-cal, and religious online information.

In Saudi Arabia, despite the existence ofprivate ISP’s, all Internet traffic must gothrough government servers that filter sitesdeemed “harmful to Islamic values.”90 Iranhas mandated the use of filters to blockaccess to web sites with sexual, religious, andpolitical content. In one case, medical students cannot gain access to sites that con-tain information concerning the humananatomy.91 Burma law requires computerowners to declare that they have a com-puter. Failure to do so can result in a 15-year maximum prison sentence.92 Syria bansInternet access to all “individuals.”93

Internet access in China has also beentightly controlled. Users are monitored, andaccording to Chinese law, are expected to

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register with government authorities. Vio-lations are treated seriously with possibleimprisonment. For instance, in 1999, a com-puter technician received a two-year jailsentence for providing a dissident web sitewith the e-mail addresses of 30,000 Chineseonline subscribers. Chinese officials havealso shut down 300 cybercafes to keep usersfrom accessing controversial information.94

In Turkey, an Internet user received a 10-month suspended sentence for using anonline forum for criticizing the police fortreating a group of blind protesters roughly.Russian authorities, for their part, are devel-oping a plan that would monitor all infor-mation sent via the Internet within Russianborders.95

In sum, proposed and adopted Internetregulation is an international situation—from the United States to Russia. It is alsoironic. For the first time in human history,millions of individuals can readily exchangeideas and information by tapping into theInternet and other information sources. Butnow, government regulation may stifle thisfree and open forum.

THE V-CHIP AND THE FIRST AMENDMENT

Another technology with content cen-sorship implications is the V-chip. As isdescribed earlier in this chapter, the govern-ment is concerned about the availability ofmaterial harmful to minors. However, theInternet is not the only source of such material.Television and cable programmingoffer children and adults alike a wealth ofsexually oriented and violent content. Basedon this fact, the Clinton Administration wasinstrumental in influencing the broadcastand cable industries to implement technol-ogy that would enable a parent to electron-ically block out specific programs, channels,or time slots. This technology, dubbed the

“v-chip” (violence chip), was extremelycontroversial because of its potential forabuse.

BackgroundThere have been public outcries about vio-lence in the media for years. For example, itis estimated that American children witnessthousands of televised murders and acts ofviolence by the time they’re 14 years old.96

Studies have also pointed to a significantcorrelation between viewing violent pro-gramming and committing violent acts.97 Inone case,“children exposed to violent videoprogramming at a young age have a highertendency for violent and aggressive behav-ior later in life than children not so exposed. . .”98

Congress addressed this issue as a part ofthe 1996 Telecom Act. The television andcable industries were expected to designtechnology that would give adults controlover a child’s television viewing options.

V-chip proponents applauded the newtechnology and claimed it empowered theviewer, particularly the parents of youngchildren. They also claimed that it did notviolate the First Amendment because it wasanalogous to the use of a remote control orto parental decision making.99

But opponents were troubled by potentialFirst Amendment abridgements. Program-ming would have to be rated for the v-chiptechnology to work. Ratings categorieswould also have to be created, and programswould have to be appropriately slotted.

The television and cable industries had todevelop a “voluntary” ratings system thatwould identify violent, sexually oriented,and indecent programming inappropriate for children. Programming would not berated however, based on political or religiouscontent.100 If they failed, the FCC woulddevelop its own guidelines, based on the rec-ommendations from an advisory committee

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composed of parents, industry representa-tives, and others. The committee would bepolitically balanced and would representdiverse viewpoints.101

FCC intervention was not necessary,however, since the television and cableindustries created guidelines prior to thedeadline. In March 1998 the Commissionformally adopted the “TV Parental Guide-lines” and a multicategory content ratingssystem was developed.The system includedthe following categories: TV-Y (all chil-dren),TV-7 (older children),TV-G (generalaudience), TV-PG (parental guidance sug-gested),TV-14 (parents strongly cautioned),and TV-MA (mature audience).102 In addi-tion to developing a multicategory contentratings system, the industries also agreed toprovide on-screen ratings icons and establishan oversight monitoring board.

Broadcasters were supposedly caught offguard about the v-chip. Industry representa-tives claimed that the amount of violent andsexually oriented programming aired by thecommercial networks had actually declined.They supported this contention with aUCLA study that was conducted on theindustry’s behalf.103 The industry had alsoearmarked monies to develop acceptable v-chip alternatives without requiring the useof a program ratings system.104

In operation, a program would be rated,and this information would be placed in thetelevision signal’s VBI.105 When the programis received by a viewer’s television set, thechip would determine if that particularprogram content had been blocked.106

Finally, the actual cost of the plan’s implementation was disputed. According to Congressman Edward Markey (D-Massachusetts), who was instrumental in the1996 Telecom Act’s final design, a televisionset could be equipped with a v-chip devicefor $1. He also indicated that like the closed-caption chip, v-chip technologywould eventually get cheaper.107

Markey’s contention were contested bythe Electronic Industries Association (EIA),a trade organization for television set man-ufacturers.The EIA indicated that “the chipcould add as much as $72 to some low-endtelevision sets ($20 to $50 for additionalmemory capability and another $10 or morefor channel-blocking capabilities).”108

MonitoringBecause the v-chip plan called for a ratingssystem, programming had to be monitoredand assigned to certain categories.109 Oppo-nents indicated that this system violated theFirst Amendment.There was also a practicalconcern.110 Unlike the film industry, whichonly has to rate some 700 to 800 films ayear, thousands of hours of television pro-gramming would have to be evaluated.111

Some questioned the networks’ capabilitiesto evaluate so much programming. Con-gressman Markey indicated the networkshad the capability and also suggested thetelevision and cable industries shouldexamine the Motion Picture Association ofAmerica’s (MPAA) film ratings system.112

The V-Chip and “Other” Programming.The television and cable industries becamealarmed at the “snowball” effect associatedwith the v-chip ratings plan. Initially, legis-lation called for regulating “violent” contentonly. However, the Act’s actual languageexpanded this scope and also encompassedthe regulation of “violent, sexual, and inde-cent material.”113

This type of regulatory “creep” con-cerned First Amendment advocates. Butduring a meeting between the televisionindustry and President Clinton, news andsports programming were exempt from theratings process.114 For journalists, this wouldprotect their rights to make story contentdecisions. It also made legal sense.Any moveto expand v-chip jurisdiction to include

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news program content would never with-stand constitutional scrutiny.115

Congressman Markey agreed with thisanalysis and indicated that controlling news-room decisions was not the Act’s intent.116

He also promised to protect First Amend-ment rights, but insisted that a viewer’srights, parents and children in particular,must be given equal protection.117

More ominously, though, at least in theeyes of v-chip opponents, was his opinionthat news programming was too violent:

I don’t think anyone will deny that the rule ofthumb in too many newsrooms in the UnitedStates is “if it bleeds, it leads.” Too many news-rooms use that as their guide because they thinkit might draw more viewers, in the same way that other drivers slow down when they see a car crash on the highway.118

Based on this viewpoint, could regulationbe extended to news in the future? Thisstatement also has the potential to “chillspeech.” A broadcaster may think twicebefore airing an important but violent story.

In 1998, the FCC formally adopted theratings system developed by the televisionand cable industries. The TV-G (GeneralAudience) category, for instance, indicatedthat,“Most parents would find this programsuitable for all ages . . . most parents may letyounger children watch this program unat-tended . . .”119 the rating would appear onthe television screen and would trigger thev-chip.

Some proponents hailed this develop-ment as an empowering tool that wouldplace television control back in the hands of consumers and parents. There were,however, two categories of opponents. The

first group thought the ratings were toodiluted—they did not provide adults withenough detailed information.

The second group viewed this entire sce-nario as a First Amendment violation. Asone writer put it, “the thought of putting adevice in every television set in the countrywith an umbilical that can lead back to thegovernment, scares the hell out of us.”120

Finally, other issues are still unresolved.Will future legislation be more restrictive?Although news is currently exempt, will thishold true down the road? As was the casewith the 1996 ratings, which didn’t satisfynumerous critics, would the ratings systembe a moving target that could change everyfew years?

CONCLUSION

As is evident, the issue of online obscenityand the First Amendment is multifaceted.On one hand, there is the compelling needto protect children. On the other, how doyou do so while safeguarding other users’First Amendment rights? In the case oflibraries, the answer may lie in the develop-ment of enhanced filtering software and theimplementation of a dual standard system—one that would keep the software “on” forchildren and, potentially, turned “off ” foradults.

The next two chapters explore other FirstAmendment issues.They range from cyber-stalking to hate speech.

In one sense, the Internet can be viewedas a marvelous window to view and exploreour universe. But for some individuals, thiswindow can be shattered through its inap-propriate use.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Brock Meeks, “The Obscenity ofDecency,” 1995, 1, downloaded.

2. Ibid.3. Telecommunications Act of 1996. P.L.

104–104, 66.4. Electronic Frontier Foundation, Constitu-

tional Problems with the Communications DecencyAmendment:A Legislative Analysis, June 16, 1995,downloaded from http://www.eff.org/.

5. Ibid.6. Miller v. California. (413 U.S. 15. 1973).7. Sable Communications v. Federal Communi-

cations Commission. (492 U.S. 115. 1989).8. Electronic Frontier Foundation, Con-

stitutional Problems, 4, downloaded fromhttp://www.eff.org/.

9. Ibid.10. American Civil Liberties Union v. Attorney

General Janet Reno, U.S. District Court EasternDistrict of Pennsylvania, June 11, 1996. No.96–963. No. 96–1458. 14.

11. Ibid., 16.12. Ibid., 3.13. Ibid., 3.14. Ibid., 215. Ibid., 4.16. Ibid., 33.17. Ibid., 31.18. Ibid., 33.19. Ibid., 32. Note: 25% of all new HIV cases

in the United States occur in the 13- to 20-year-old age group.

20. Ibid., 32. Note: This section was con-cerned with the community standards/vague-ness issue.

21. Ibid., 35.22. Ibid., 36. Note: The speaker was also

charged with the responsibility for screeningpotentially inappropriate online material.Therefore, content providers would have beenrequired to decide what would constitute inap-propriate materials for minors.

23. Ibid., 37.24. Ibid., 37.25. Ibid., 65.26. Ibid., 66.27. Ibid., 65.

28. Ibid., 65.29. Reno et al. v.American Civil Liberties Union

et al. 117 S.Ct. 2329. 1997, downloaded fromwww.aclu.org.

30. Ibid.31. Ibid.32. American Civil Liberties Union et al. v Janet

Reno et al. No. 98–5591. February 1, 1999. U.S.District Court Eastern District of Pennsylvania,downloaded from www.aclu.org.

33. Ibid.34. Ibid.35. “ACLU Files Suit Challenging the

Child Online Protection Act,” Tech Law Journal, October 23, 1998, downloaded fromwww.techlawjournal.com.

36. American Civil Liberties Union v. JanetReno. No. 98–5591. U.S. District Court EasternDistrict of Pennsylvania, November 20, 1998,downloaded from www.aclu.org.

37. Ibid.38. ACLU v. Reno. No. 98–5591. February

1, 1999, downloaded from www.aclu.org.39. Ibid.40. Ibid.41. Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union.

No.00–1293 at 8.2002,downloaded from LEXIS.42. Ibid.43. Ibid., 9.44. Following the 2000 presidential elec-

tions, John Ashcroft replaced Janet Reno asAttorney General.

45. Ibid., 22.46. Ibid.47. Ibid., 20, 21.48. Ibid., 22.49. Ibid., 23.50. Ibid., 26.51. Ibid., 32.52. Ibid., 35.53. Ibid., 44.54. Ibid., 47.55. Ibid., 21.56. Ibid., 54.57. United States v. Robert Thomas and Carleen

Thomas 1996 WL.30477 at 1. Sixth Circuit Ten-nessee. January 29, 1996.

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58. Ibid.59. ACLU. Cyber-Liberties. “Censorship in

a Box: Why Blocking Software Is Wrong for Public Libraries,” 1998, downloaded fromwww.aclu.org.

60. Ibid.61. Ibid.62. Ibid.63. Ibid.64. Mainstream Loudoun v. Board of Trustees of

the Loudoun County Library. No. 97-2049-A.1998, Tech Law Journal, downloaded fromwww.techlawjournal.com.

65. Ibid.66. ACLU. Cyber-Liberties. “Censorship

in a Box: Why Blocking Software Is Wrong for Public Libraries,” 1998, downloaded fromwww.aclu.org.

67. Children’s Internet Protection Act. Pub.L. 106–554.

68. American Library Association et al. v. UnitedStates. No. 01–1303/No. 01–1322. 2002, down-loaded from LEXIS.

69. Ibid., 5.70. Ibid., 6.71. Ibid., 9.72. United States v. American Library Associa-

tion et al. 2003 U.S. LEXIS 4799 at 11. No.02–361. 2003, downloaded from LEXIS.

73. Ibid.74. Ibid., 12.75. Ibid., 14.76. United States v. American Library Associa-

tion et al. case Syllabus at 2/3, downloaded fromLEXIS.

77. Ibid., 15.78. Christopher Stern, “CompuServe Shuts

Down Sex After German Protest,” Broadcasting& Cable (January 8, 1996), 69.

79. Steven Vonder Haar, “Censorship WaveSpreading Globally,” Inter@ctive Week 3 (Febru-ary 12, 1996), 6.

80. Ibid.81. Stern, “CompuServe Shuts Down Sex

After German Protest,” 69.82. Ibid.83. In the Name of the People Judgment

of the Local Court Munich in the CriminalCase v. Somm, Felix Bruno. Local Court

[Amtsgericht] Munich. File No. 8340 Ds 465 Js 173158/95.1998, downloaded fromwww.cyber-rights.org.

84. Stuart Biegel. “Indictment of Com-puServe Official in Germany Brings VolatileIssues of Cyber-Jurisdiction Into Focus.”UCLA Online Institute For Cyberspace Law and Policy. 1997, downloaded fromwww.gse.ucla.edu.

85. People v. Somm.86. Andrew Gelman.“Sting Time for Com-

puServe in Germany: Online Service HeadIndicted for Pornography.” 1997, downloadedfrom www.excitesearch.netscape.com.

87. “Update: CompuServe Ex-Official’sPorn-Case Conviction Reversed,” AssociatedPress. November 17, 1999. Cyber-Rights &Cyber-Liberties (UK), downloaded fromwww.Cyber-Rights.org.

88. Edmund L. Andews. “German CourtOverturns Pornography Ruling Against CompuServe,” New York Times on the web, November 18, 1999, downloaded fromwww.NYTimes.com.

89. BBC. “Yahoo Boss Cleared Over NaziSite.” February 11, 2003. 1–2, downloaded.Note: The U.S. judicial system ruled that theFrench court did not have jurisdiction in this case.

90. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. “20Enemies of the Internet.” August, 1999, 3,downloaded.

91. Letters of Protest and Press Release. “20Enemies of the Internet,” downloaded fromwww.rsf.fr/uk/.

92. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. “20Enemies of the Internet.” August 1999, 2,downloaded.

93. Ibid., 3.94. Letters of Protest and Press release. “20

Enemies of the Internet,” downloaded fromhttp://www.rsf.fr/uk/.

95. Special Issues and Campaigns. Freedomof Expression on the Internet, Human RightsWatch, 1999, downloaded from www.hrw.org.

96. U.S. Congress, Telecommunications Actof 1996, 104th Cong., 2nd session, section 551( January 3, 1996).

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97. Barri Lazar,“The V-Chip: Censorship orTechnological Miracle,” unpublished paper,April 23, 1996, 14.

98. Telecom Act, section 551.99. “Why the Markey Chip Won’t Hurt

You,”Broadcasting & Cable (August 14,1995),11.100. Telecom Act, section 551101. Ibid.102. FCC, “Commission Finds Industry

Video Programming Rating System Accept-able:Adopts Technical Requirements to EnableBlocking of Video Programming [the v-chip].”Report No. GN 98-3. March 12, 1998.

103. Christopher Stern, “Face-off on the V-Chip,”Broadcasting & Cable (October 2,1995),19.

104. Ibid.105. See footnote 1, Chapter 17, for VBI

definition.106. The set would be equipped with this

function.107. Art Brodsky, “The V-Chip Moves

Toward Reality,” Broadcast Engineering 37 (Sep-tember 1995), 81.

108. Ibid.109. “Why the Markey Chip Won’t Hurt

You,” 11.

110. Ibid.111. Sarah Haag, “The V-Chip: Censorship

or Technological Miracle?,” unpublished paper,April 23, 1996, 8.

112. Kent R. Middleton and Bill F. Cham-berlin, The Law of Public Communication (WhitePlains, NY: Longman Publishing, 1994), 354.Note: The MPAA “rates films as, for example,‘G’ for general audience and ‘R’ for restrictedto those under 17 unless accompanied by aparent/guardian.”

113. Telecom Act, section 551.114. Christopher Stern, “Valenti Pledges

Government-Free Ratings,” Broadcasting &Cable (April 8, 1996), 14. Note: The meetingtook place shortly after the Act’s passage.

115. “Why the Markey Chip Won’t HurtYou,” 12.

116. Ibid., 15.117. Ibid.118. Ibid., 12.119. NAB web site, downloaded 12/96.120. “Why the Markey Chip Won’t Hurt

You,” 15.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Case LawAmerican Civil Liberties Union v.Ashcroft. No. 99-

1324.Third Circuit Court of Appeals. March6, 2003. 1–53, downloaded from LEXIS.

American Civil Liberties Union v.Attorney GeneralJanet Reno. No. 96-963. No. 96-1458. U.S.District Court for the Eastern District ofPennsylvania. June 11, 1996.1–76, down-loaded from LEXIS.

Ashcroft v.American Civil Liberties Union. No. 00-1293. U.S. Supreme Court. May 13, 2002.1–22, downloaded from LEXIS.

Miller v. California. 413 U.S. 15. 1973. 1–25,downloaded from www.bc.edu.

Tribune de Grande de Paris. LICRA v.Yahoo!,Inc. No. RG. May 22, 2000. 1–2, downloadedfrom www.juriscom.net/.

Tribune de Grande de Paris. LICRA v.Yahoo!,Inc. No. RG 00/05308. November 2000.1–21, downloaded from www.juriscom.net.

United States v. American Library Association. No.02–361. June 23, 2003. 1–17, downloadedfrom LEXIS.

United States v. Robert Thomas and CarleenThomas. 1996 WL. 30477. Sixth Circuit Ten-nessee. January 29, 1996, 1–68.

Legislation, Journals, Magazines, andOnline DocumentsACLU.“ACLU v. Reno, Round 2: Broad Coali-

tion Files Challenge to New Federal NetCensorship Law.” October 22, 1998. 1–2,downloaded from www.aclu.org.

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GLOSSARY

Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA): Thisregulation required federally funded publiclibraries to install filtering software on com-puters to block Internet material that waspornographic or harmful to minors.

Children’s Online Protections Act (COPA): Thisregulation prohibited Internet content thatwas harmful to minors.

Chilling Effect: Any regulation or threat of reg-ulation that makes the speaker think twiceabout providing information that might beconsidered inappropriate by some. In such asituation, the speech is halted before it everhas a chance to be heard.

Communications Decency Act (CDA): This regu-lation was a part of the Telecom Act of 1996.

ACLU. “ACLU v. Reno, Round 2: Internet Censorship Battle Moves to the AppealsCourt.” April 2, 1999. 1, downloaded fromwww.aclu.org.

ACLU. “ACLU v. Reno, Round 2: RejectingCyber-Censorship, Court Defends Online‘Marketplace of Ideas’.” February 1, 1999,1–2, downloaded from www.aclu.org.

ACLU. Civil Liberties. “Online Censorship inthe States.” 1998, 1–4, downloaded fromwww.aclu.org.

ACLU. “Federal Court Rejects GovernmentCensorship in Libraries, Citing Free SpeechRights of Patrons.”May 31, 2002, 1–2, down-loaded from www.aclu.org.

“ACLU Files Suit Challenging the Online Protection Act.” Tech Law Journal.October 23, 1998, 1, downloaded fromwww.techlawjournal.com.

ACLU. “Violence Chip:Why Does the ACLUOppose the V-Chip Legislation CurrentlyPending in Congress.” ACLU FreedomNetwork. 1996, 1–7, downloaded fromwww.aclu.org.

Biegel, Stuart. UCLA. Online Institute forCyberspace Law and Policy. “Indictment ofCompuServe Official in Germany BringsVolatile Issues of Cyber-Jurisdiction intoFocus.”April 27,1997,1–3,downloaded fromwww.gse.ucla.edu.

Bitol. Solange. “The V-Chip: Point-and-ClickParenting.”March 16, 1998, 1–2, downloadedfrom www.freedomforum.org.

Boles, Garry. “Online Obscenity: Decency by Law.” Inter@ctive Week 2 (April 10,1995), 15–16, downloaded from http://gort.ucsd.edu.

Cantom, William. FCC. “RE: CS Docket No.97-55.” September 10,1997, 1–6, down-loaded from www.freenix.fr/neitizen.

Children’s Internet Protection Act. Pub. L. 106-554. 1–22, downloaded from www.ifea.net.

Crocker, Steven. “The Political and SocialImplications of the Net.” July 5, 1994, 1–14,downloaded from http://textfiles.group.

Electronic Frontier Foundation. ConstitutionalProblems with the Communications DecencyAmendment: A Legislative Analysis. June 16,1995, 1–10, downloaded from www.eff.org.

Elmer-Dewitt, Philip. “On a Screen Near You:Cyberporn.” July 3, 1995, 1–3, downloadedfrom www.academiclibrary.com.

Federal Communications Commission.“The V-Chip: Putting Restrictions on What YourChildren Watch, Even When You’re NotThere.” 1–3, downloaded from www.fcc.gov.

Freedom Forum Online. “Justice DepartmentAppeals Ruling That Blocked Enforcementof COPA.” April 5, 1999, 1–2, downloadedfrom www.freedomforum.org.

“Loudoun Library Board Decides Not toAppeal Filtering Decision.” Tech Law Journal.April 21, 1999, 1–3, downloaded fromwww.techlawjournal.com.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Free Liberty. “20Enemies of the Internet.”August, 1999, 1–5,downloaded from www.rferl.org.

Reuters. “Judge:Yahoo Not Bound by FrenchNazi Ban.” November 7, 2001, 1–2, down-loaded from http://news.cnet.com/.

Steiner-Threlkeld,Tom,and Brock Meeks.“FreeSpeech Defenders Rally in Cyberspace.”Inter@ctive Week 2 (March 13, 1995), 36–37,59–60,downloaded from http://gort.ucsd.edu.

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It controls the use of obscene as well as inde-cent material online.

Indecent Material: Nonobscene language that issexually explicit or includes profanity.

Obscene Speech: Language that appeals to pruri-ent interest, is patently offensive, and lacks

serious literary, artistic, political, or scientificvalue.

Spectrum Scarcity: Theory based on the beliefthat since the electromagnetic spectrum isfinite, only a limited number of individualscould receive a license.

INTRODUCTION

The online universe is an important part of our information and communicationsinfrastructure. Yet with the growing list ofapplications and information pools, there arepotential legal hot spots. Therefore, besidesexamining online obscenity as described inChapter 19, it is also important to exploreother First Amendment issues includingonline libel, hate speech, cyberstalking andcopyright.

ONLINE LIBEL

Internet service providers (ISPs) offer e-mail, Bulletin Boards, electronic news re-ports, and other services to customers. Butwhat happens when a third party uses anISP’s service to make libelous remarks? Isthe ISP legally responsible for defamatoryremarks it did not create? Over the pastdecade, numerous courts have examined thiscomplex legal question and a body of lawconcerning online libel exists. This chapterwill provide a historical roadmap of suchcase law.

Determining the culpability of an ISP forthird party libelous remarks requires twoelements:

• defining online libel and• determining if an online service should

be treated as a distributor or a publisher.

But before we begin, three terms, as usedin this chapter, must be defined.

• Libel: Any expression that damages yourreputation within the community, causesothers to disassociate themselves from you,or attacks your character or professionalability.1

• Publisher and Distributor: The Com-puServe and Prodigy cases, covered in thenext section, reflect how online libel hasbeen handled. A critical point was deter-mining if a service was either a publisher(originator) or an information distribu-tor. A publisher of a libelous remark islegally responsible for the act.A distribu-tor is not legally responsible if it was madeby a third party without the distributor’sknowledge or consent.2

Cases

CompuServe. In Cubby Inc. v. CompuServeInc., the U.S. District Court for the South-ern District of New York (19 Med. L. Rptr.1525. 1991), had to decide if CompuServe

20 Other FirstAmendment Issues:Libel, Hate Speech,Cyberstalking,and Copyright

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had acted as a publisher or distributor oflibelous material. Specifically, was Com-puServe legally responsible for remarks pub-lished by a third party in Rumorville USA,a component of the Journalist Forum?Rumorville was a daily, electronic newspaperincluded on the forum.

CompuServe independently contractedwith a third party to “ ‘manage, review,create, delete, edit, and otherwise control thecontents’ of the Journalism Forum ‘in accor-dance with editorial and technical standardsand conventions of style established byCompuServe.’ ”3 Furthermore,

• CompuServe had no contractual or directtie with the forum or Rumorville.

• The third party accepted full responsibil-ity for Rumorville’s content.

• The setup made it technically unfeasiblefor CompuServe to monitor Rumorvilleprior to its uploading.

• CompuServe did not receive money forRumorville or pay a fee for its inclusion onthe service.The only fee was the standardsubscriber charge.4

In presenting its case, CompuServe didnot question whether the statements werelibelous. Rather, it argued that like a newsvendor, bookstore, and library, it was a dis-tributor and not a publisher. Based oncurrent law, CompuServe could not belegally responsible for the libel committedby its independent contractor unless itplayed an active part in the libel.5

Cubby, in turn, alleged that CompuServewas a publisher and was responsible for pub-lishing the libel. Based on the language ofCianci v. New Times Publishing Co. (639 F.2d.54), anyone who repeats or “republishes” theoriginal libel is considered a publisher whois equally guilty and can also be sued.6

The court disagreed and found thatCompuServe should be treated as a distrib-utor. It compared CompuServe’s services to

an electronic, for profit library that providedits subscribers with access to numerous pub-lications.The court further held that it wasimpossible for CompuServe to be aware ofthe content of all its information services.

For instance, although CompuServe candecline to carry a publication, once it doesdecide to carry one, it has little or no editor-ial control over its content.This is especiallytrue when the publication is part of a forumthat is managed by an unrelated company.

CompuServe has no more editorial control overa publication than does a public library, book-store, or newsstand, and it would be no more feasible for CompuServe to examine every pub-lication it carries for potentially defamatory state-ments than it would be for any other distributorto do so.7

The court cited Smith v. California (361U.S. 147) and other cases as precedents. InSmith, the U.S. Supreme Court struck downa law that would hold a bookstore ownerlegally responsible for carrying an obscenebook even though the owner was unawareof the book’s content. “Every booksellerwould be placed under an obligation tomake himself aware of the contents of everybook in his shop. . . . And the bookseller’sburden would become the public’s burden,for by restricting him the public’s access toreading matter would be restricted.”8 Con-sequently, the court found that CompuServehad acted as a distributor and not a pub-lisher. As such, it was not guilty of libelingCubby.

Prodigy. In Stratton Oakmont et al. v.ProdigyInc. (63 USWL. 2765. 1995), the New YorkSupreme Court examined whether Pro-digy was the publisher or distributor of theonline libel of Stratton Oakmont, Inc. Spe-cifically, did Prodigy act as the publisher ofthe online libel that appeared on Money Talk,a financial investment and informationresource?

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Other First Amendment Issues: Libel, Hate Speech, Cyberstalking, and Copyright 287

The court was also asked to determine ifMoney Talk’s board leader (BL) had acted inan official capacity as Prodigy’s representa-tive. BLs sign an agreement with Prodigythat spells out their responsibilities.These in-clude an obligation to work with membersusing the service and to follow Prodigy’sprocedures.

Stratton Oakmont also claimed thatProdigy promoted itself as a service thatexercised some degree of editorial control.For example:

Users are requested to refrain from posting notesthat are “insulting” and are advised that notes that harass other members or are deemed to bein bad taste or grossly repugnant to communitystandards, or are deemed harmful to maintaininga harmonious online community,will be removedwhen brought to Prodigy’s attention; the Guide-lines all expressly state that although “Prodigy iscommitted to an open debate and discussion onthe bulletin boards, . . . this doesn’t mean thatanything goes.”9

Prodigy also employed a software systemthat prescreened bulletin board content for offensive material. BLs could also use an emergency deletion function.10 Conse-quently, because Prodigy exercised thisdegree of editorial control, StrattonOakmont asked the court to declare thecompany a publisher and not just a dis-tributor. As a publisher, Prodigy would belegally responsible for repeating or repub-lishing the libel originating on Money Talk. In its defense, Prodigy claimed thecourt ruling in Cubby v. CompuServeset a precedent. It should be treated as a distributor.

In reaching its decision, the court dis-tinguished the CompuServe case from theProdigy case on three points:

1. CompuServe had no opportunity tomonitor their boards’ content prior to distribution.

2. CompuServe had not promoted itself asa service that exercised Prodigy’s type ofeditorial control.

3. Prodigy used an automatic screening pro-gram and designed BL guidelines.11

Based on these factors, the court ruledthat Prodigy was a publisher of the libel and was legally responsible. According to the court, Prodigy “has virtually created an editorial staff of Board Leaders who have the ability to continually monitor incomingtransmissions and in fact do spend time cen-soring notes.”12

The court further held that Prodigy’s ownpolicies, technology, and personnel decisionswere responsible for the service’s classifica-tion as a publisher. Its choice to gain thebenefits of editorial control also “opened itup to a greater liability than CompuServeand other computer networks that make nosuch choice.”13

The court then turned its attentiontoward deciding if Money Talk’s BL had acted as Prodigy’s agent, for the purpose ofthe libel.The court said, “Where one partyretains a sufficient degree of direction andcontrol over another, a principal-agent relationship exists.”14 Because Prodigy re-quired BLs to follow their guidelines andperformed administrative duties, the courtruled the BL was Prodigy’s legal agent.

The 1996 Telecom ActThe Prodigy decision had a chilling effectin the online community, even thoughProdigy was differentiated from Compu-Serve by its operational guidelines.The 1996Telecom Act, however, included a “GoodSamaritan” blocking and screening clauseconcerning offensive material:“No provideror user of an interactive computer serviceshall be treated as the publisher or speakerof any information provided by anotherinformation content provider.”15 An infor-

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mation content provider is an informationproducer.

Similarly, a provider (e.g., Prodigy) or a user would not be legally responsible for“any action voluntarily taken in good faithto restrict access to or availability of mater-ial that the provider or user considers to beobscene, lewd, lascivious, filthy, excessivelyviolent, harassing, or otherwise objection-able, whether or not such material is con-stitutionally protected . . . .”16 This is exer-cising editorial control.

Libelous remarks, another key point, aresaid to fall within the “otherwise objection-able material” clause of this section of theact. If this holds up, legal scholars, mediaorganizations, and public interest groupshave indicated the Prodigy decision wouldbe overturned.17

In sum, the “Good Samaritan” defensemay have prevented Prodigy from beingpunished for trying to police its service thatis acting as a publisher. To encourage thistype of behavior, Congress also refused tohold Prodigy and other such companies toa higher standard than companies that donot police their services.18

However, despite this defense, an on-line service that was aware of a libelous re-mark and intentionally and/or recklessly“repeated” or “republished” it, would not be protected. An online service could alsobe held legally responsible for any libelousstatement that it originated.

Cases. Since the passage of the 1996Telecom Act, online libel cases have beenheard by federal and state courts. Threeimportant federal cases are Kenneth M. Zeranv. America Online (958 F. Supp. 1124. 1997.129 F. 2d 327. 1997), Sidney Blumenthal et al.v. Matt Drudge and America Online (992 F.Supp. 44. 1998), and Christianne Carafano v.Metrosplash.com (No. CV 01-0018 DT. 2002.2002 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 10614). Zeran v.AOLwas heard by the U.S. District Court for

the Eastern District of Virginia and by theFourth Circuit Court of Appeals. The casewas appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court butwas not accepted for review.19 Blumenthal v.Drudge and AOL was heard by the U.S. Dis-trict Court for the District of Columbia andwas appealed to the District of ColumbiaCircuit Court.20 Carafano v. Metrosplash.comwas heard by the U.S. District Court for theCentral District of California and is await-ing appeal before the Ninth Circuit Courtof Appeals.21

Zeran v.AOL. In Zeran v.AOL the districtcourt had to decide if America Online(AOL), a service provider, could be heldlegally responsible for libelous remarks madeby a third party against Kenneth Zeran. AnAOL subscriber, posing as Kenneth Zeran,advertised the sale of tee shirts and otheritems that contained slogans praising themurder of the 168 Oklahoma City bomb-ing victims. This offensive online message,which included Zeran’s home telephonenumber, was posted without his knowledgeor consent. Zeran became aware of themessage when he began receiving abusiveand threatening telephone calls from out-raged AOL users.22

Upon discovering the message, Zerancontacted AOL demanding its promptremoval and a retraction identifying him asthe victim of the online hoax.AOL deletedthe message but refused to post a retrac-tion—this did not fall within companypolicy. Unfortunately for Zeran, additionalnotices of a similar nature continued toappear on AOL for several more days andthe threatening telephone calls continued.23

Zeran responded by suing AOL for negligence. He claimed that AOL failed toadequately respond to the online hoax afterit was contacted. He also contended thatAOL was legally responsible for the libelousmessage posted by an unknown third partyon its service.24

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Zeran based his legal claim on Virginiastate law that permits legal action against the distributor of libelous material if theinformation provider knew or should haveknown of its existence. AOL, on the otherhand, argued to the court that the 1996Telecom Act preempted Virginia state libellaw and as such, no service provider couldbe held legally responsible for the libelousremarks of a third party.25

After considering each party’s complaint,the U.S. district court ruled in favor of AOLon the grounds that treating the serviceprovider as the publisher of the online libelviolated Section 230 of the Telecom Act.Zeran responded by appealing the case tothe Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals.26

On appeal, Chief Judge Wilkinsonaffirmed the decision of the lower court,holding that, “by its plain language, Section230 creates a federal immunity to any causeof action that would make service providersliable for information originating with athird party user of the service.”27 Thus, theFourth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld thelanguage of the 1996 Telecom Act, and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to acceptthe case for review.

Blumenthal v. Matt Drudge and AOL. In1998, another important online libel casechallenging the 1996 Telecom Act was heardby a federal court. The case involved topClinton aide Sidney Blumenthal, politicalreporter Matt Drudge, and AOL, the serviceprovider for Drudge’s electronic reports.28

This case is of particular importance since itmarks the first time the courts have exam-ined Section 230 in a case where the onlineservice provider paid the content providerfor its information.29

Blumenthal filed suit against MattDrudge and AOL for allegedly libelousremarks made in the Drudge Report. AOLsubsequently removed all the remarks from past editions of the Report, which were

stored in its electronic archives, and Drudgeretracted the story.30 Nevertheless, Blumen-thal proceeded with the lawsuit.

Blumenthal contended that AOL was alsoresponsible since:

• The company was more than a mereservice provider. Drudge was paid a flatmonthly royalty payment of $3000 byAOL for his online reports.31

• The remarks did not come from anunknown person sent over the Internetanonymously.32

• “AOL reserves the right to remove, ordirect [Drudge] to remove, any contentwhich, as reasonably determined by AOL. . . violates AOL’s . . . terms of service.”33

AOL responded by filing a court motionto have itself dismissed from the suit.This would leave Drudge solely responsiblefor the allegedly libelous remarks. CitingSection 230 of the 1996 Telecom Act, AOLargued that as a service provider it wasimmune from third party remarks.34

U.S. District Court Judge Paul Friedmangranted AOL’s request for dismissal from thesuit, but included an opinion that was highlycritical of AOL. Friedman clearly agreed,however, that the language of Section 230protected AOL from liability. He wrote thatCongress had provided,“. . . immunity evenwhere the interactive service provider has anactive, even aggressive role in making avail-able content prepared by others.”35 SidneyBlumenthal appealed Judge Friedman’sdecision but agreed to settle the case in May2001 due to staggering legal bills.36

Carafano v. Metrosplash.com. Followingthe court’s decision in Zeran and Blumen-thal, legal scholars and the online commu-nity assumed that the final chapter had been written on Section 230 and Internetcompany immunity. However, a 2002 casedecided by the U.S. District Court for the

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Central District of California may haverekindled the old debate.

In Carafano v. Metrosplash.com, ChristianneCarafano, an actress with the stage name“Chase Masterson” (Star Trek: Deep SpaceNine), filed suit against Metrosplash.com and its dating site, Matchmaker.com. Thegrounds for the suit included invasion ofprivacy, misappropriation of the right topublicity and negligence.37

An unknown third party posed asCarafano and posted her name, photograph,contact information, and false and defama-tory sexual information about her.Matchmaker.com had designed an extensivequestionnaire that all members, includingthe third party posing as Carafano, wererequired to answer. This individual’s infor-mation was subsequently posted withoutCarafano’s knowledge. This triggered ob-scene messages, and Carafano responded byfilling the lawsuit.

The lawsuit specified that based on thequestionnaire’s answers and profile, whichwere then posted, Matchmaker.com was an information content provider partiallyresponsible for the libel. In response, Match-maker.com claimed immunity under Section230.

After review, the court dismissed all theclaims.38 However, Judge Dickran Teviziandelivered a potentially devastating blow to Internet companies when he ruled thatMatchmaker.com was not protected underSection 230 because it had acted as an infor-mation provider and was partially responsi-ble for the third party’s libelous actions. Asof this writing, the case is on appeal beforethe Ninth Circuit (March 2003).The court’sdecision could have key First Amendmentimplications for Internet companies undercertain circumstances.

State Cases. Three other online libelcases, Kempf v. Time, Inc. (No. BC 184799.California. 1998), Ben Ezra,Weinstein & Co.

v. America Online (No. 97-485. N.M. 1999),and Alexander Lunney v. Prodigy Services Co.et al. (250AD 2d 230. N.Y. 1994. 99 N.Y.Int. 0165. 1999) were heard in 1998 and1999 by state courts.

In Kempf v. Time, a California court dis-missed a libel suit against the service pro-vider,Time Inc., on the grounds that it wasnot involved in creating or developing thelibelous content in question and was, in fact,protected according to the language ofSection 230 of the 1996 Telecom Act.39

In 1999, a New Mexico court decidingBen Ezra, Weinstein & Co. v.AOL, ruled thatas a service provider, AOL was not legallyresponsible for false and libelous onlineremarks concerning the company’s financialsituation. The court, citing Section 230 ofthe 1996 Telecom Act, ruled in AOL’s favorstating it had Internet Service Providerimmunity.40

Later in 1999, the Court of Appeals ofNew York heard Lunney v. Prodigy. JudgeRosenblat, writing for a unanimous court,upheld a lower New York state court’s dis-missal of an online libel suit against Prodigyon the grounds that it was not the “pub-lisher” of vulgar and threatening e-mailmessages sent to a third party by an imposterusing Alexander Lunney’s name. The NewYork Court of Appeals based this decisionciting Section 230 of the CommunicationsDecency Act.41 Lunney appealed the deci-sion to the U.S. Supreme Court but the Justices refused to hear the case, letting theCourt of Appeals decision stand. (2000 U.S.LEXIS 3037.) Other state cases have alsobeen heard upholding Section 230.42

SummaryAs of this writing, since the passage of the1996 Telecom Act, courts have upheld theimmunity protection afforded to InternetService Providers based on the language ofSection 230. However, the end result of an

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ongoing challenge before the Ninth Circuitis yet unknown. The current blanket pro-tection for Internet Service Providers mayhave created a mixed bag of benefits, de-pending on which side of the fence you areon. Thus far, a company has been pro-tected from carrying libelous statementsmade by a third party. On the flip side, someindividuals believe the clause has removed all responsibilities from a company, even if its policies permit the removal of content,as was the case with AOL. The decision of the Ninth Circuit may answer these questions.

HATE ON THE INTERNET

OverviewAs was the case with online libel, hate onthe Internet also presents a First Amend-ment dilemma. Hate crime is a seriousproblem in America. In 2001 alone, over12,000 individuals were victims of a crimebecause of their race, ethnicity, nationalorigin, religion, sexual orientation or gen-der.43 Even more disturbing, however, is theease with which the Internet has madeonline terror just a mouse click away.

In response to the proliferation of suchcrimes, 42 states and the District of Colum-bia have enacted hate crime statutes thatprotect victims to varying degrees. How-ever, no single, comprehensive federal lawspecifically aimed at protecting victims aga-inst all categories of hate crimes exists.Thismakes dispensing uniform justice for hatecrimes impossible.44 Instead, prosecutorshave been forced to rely on specific sectionsof a host of federal laws when hate crimeshave been committed.45

For instance, under 28 USC 994, TheHate Crimes Sentencing Enhancement Act,anyone convicted of a crime against an indi-vidual because of his or her actual or per-ceived race, color, religion, national origin,

ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation or dis-ability, will receive an increased sentence.46

18 USC 245 is also frequently used toprosecute hate crimes. Section 245 “allowsfor the prosecution of whoever, by force orthreat of force, willfully injures, intimidates,or interferes with, or attempts to injure,intimidate or interfere with any person orclass of persons because of his or her race,color, religion or national origin.”47 How-ever, it should be noted that hate crimesbased on sexual orientation, gender, ethnic-ity or disability are not punishable under this law.

This “gap” in federal protection hasprompted congressional action in the formof hate crime prevention bills over the pastseveral years. One such legislative example,HR 80, entitled The Hate Crime Preven-tion Act of 2003, was being debated by the108th Congress.48 If signed into law, the Actwould close this gap and provide com-prehensive federal protection against hatecrime.

This Act is based on the legal premise thathate crimes and their threat, violate inter-state commerce in the following ways:

• An individual who is the target of a hatecrime may be forced to move across statelines to escape becoming the victim ofviolence.

• The perpetrator of a hate crime may acrossstate lines to commit hate-motivated violence against the victim.

• The perpetrator may use articles, includ-ing computers that have traveled in inter-state commerce, to commit a hate crime.

In regard to the hate crime and commu-nications technology, this book’s focus, aperson who receives bias-motivated threat-ening e-mails may feel forced to move acrossthe country, may leave their job or refuse tobuy a home. Moreover, the instrument usedto perpetrate the threat, the computer (as

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well as the communication by computer)has traveled in interstate commerce. Specif-ically,HR 80 criminalizes the offense if,“thedefendant or victim travels in interstate orforeign commerce, uses a facility or instru-mentality of interstate or foreign commerce,or engages in any activities affecting inter-state or foreign commerce.”49

Finally, if HR 80, or a similar future Act,is signed into law, full federal protectionagainst bias-motivated hate crimes will exist.Victims will no longer be forced to dependon inadequate federal and/or state statutesto receive justice.

E-Mail Based CasesIn the absence of such federal protection,only a few Internet hate crimes have beenprosecuted. Some examples are given in thefollowing subsections:

U.S. v. Richard Machado (U.S. Dist. Crt.Central Dist CA. No. 96-00142.AHA).Richard Machado, a naturalized citizen fromEl Salvador, was a 19-year-old student at theUniversity of California until he was dis-missed for failing grades. While at the uni-versity, Machado blamed Asian students fora number of problems and, he even adopted“Asian-hater” as his e-mail name. Onceexpelled, Machado used a campus computerlab and e-mailed racially motivated deaththreats to 62 Asian-American students.Machado also concluded the e-mail messageby saying if each individual did not imme-diately leave campus permanently, he wouldmake it his life career to find, hunt down,and kill them.50

Machado was subsequently chargedunder the language of 18 USC 245 for violating the civil rights of his victims.Machado’s e-mail death threats violated afederally protected activity, namely, the rightto attend school without the fear of death.Prosecutors alleged that Machado victim-

ized these students based on their race,ethnic, and national origin.

During the pretrial stage of his prosecu-tion, Machado admitted that his e-mail messages constituted threats and he wouldhave been afraid if he had received such amessage. But during the U.S. district courttrial, he changed his stance and said that the e-mail messages were simply a joke notmeant to be taken seriously. The prosecu-tion called nine of the victims to testify,however, and they indicated they feared fortheir lives.

After listening to the testimony, the jurywas at a stalemate and could not reach averdict. This forced the Judge to declare amistrial.

The U.S. Attorneys’ Office decided toretry Machado.The end result was a guiltyverdict and 1 year imprisonment followedby a 1-year period of supervised release.Thisverdict made Richard Machado the firstperson convicted under federal law formaking bias-motivated hate threats via theInternet.51

U.S. v. Kingman Quon. A second viola-tion of 18 USC 245 occurred when King-man Quon, a young Chinese-Americanman from California sent bias-motivateddeath threats via e-mail to Hispanic-Americans at Cal State Los Angeles, XeroxCorporation, the IRS, and other institu-tions. Quon’s e-mail message used de-meaning racial slurs and said he hated theHispanic race and wanted them to die. Heconcluded his message by saying that he wasgoing to come and kill them.

Quon was subsequently identified, ar-rested, and charged with violating hisvictim’s federally protected rights to enjoyemployment and attend school regardless oftheir race or ethnicity. Quon’s victims saidthey believed the threats were legitimate,and they feared for their lives. Quon admit-ted the e-mails were intended to intimidate

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his victims, who were targeted because oftheir national origin.

Quon plead guilty to the charges andreceived a 2-year prison sentence. Further-more, upon release from prison, Quon wasprohibited from using a computer for aperiod of 1 year. Kingman Quon’s sentencemarked the second time that an individualhad been incarcerated under federal law forusing the Internet to make bias-motivatedhate threats.52

Ryan Wilson and ALPHA HQ. In thiscase, Secretary of Housing and UrbanDevelopment (HUD), Andrew Cuomo,used the language of the Fair Housing Act(42 USC 3617) to protect Bonnie Jouhari,one of his employees. Jouhai assisted indi-viduals embroiled in housing discriminationdisputes. She was also white, had a bi-racialdaughter and was a highly visible, antihateactivist in Philadelphia.

A local Philadelphia man, Ryan Wilson,became aware of her activities. Using hisweb site, ALPHA HQ, he posted or placedfor review:

• death threats against her;• Jouhari’s photo with accompanying racial

slurs;• an animated picture of Jouhari’s office

exploding; and• a message that read, “Traitors like this

should beware, for in our day, they will behung from the neck from the nearestlamppost.”53

Soon after the ALPHA HQ posting,Jouhari was subject to threatening telephonecalls, slashed car tires, Ku Klux Klan flyerson her car windshield, and dead flowersthrown in her yard. Jouhari and her daugh-ter feared for their lives.

In response, Jouhari filed charges withfederal, state, and local law enforcementagencies.But she was not able to obtain legal

protection, and thus, she fled the State andmoved half way across the country forsafety’s sake.54

Meanwhile, the Pennsylvania AttorneyGeneral, Michael Fisher, filed a complaint in state court for Jouhari on the grounds thatthe ALPHA HQ death threats violated astate civil statute against ethnic-orientedintimidation. A permanent injunction,which barred the posting of threats againstBonnie Jouhari or any other human rightsemployees working in the state of Pennsylva-nia, was subsequently granted.55 Followingthe state’s action, Ryan Wilson removed theweb site and no further action was taken.

The Justice Department also investigatedJouhari’s complaint. But it made littleprogress and HUD was told they couldpursue the incident. At this point, AndrewCuomo charged Ryan Wilson as the head of ALPHA HQ, with violating HUD’s FairHousing Act, creating the first federal civilrights case targeting a web site. Cuomocharged that the bias-motivated deaththreats on the web site violated the FairHousing Act by:

1. Preventing Jouhari from being able toperform her job, which was to enforcethat very Act.

2. Making her feel unsafe in her own home.

A HUD Administrative Law Judge con-vened a hearing, and Ryan Wilson choosenot to attend. The Judge held that hisabsence was an admission of truth concern-ing the charges. After reviewing the facts,the Judge also ruled that Ryan Wilson haddiscriminated against Jouhari under Section818 of the Fair Housing Act. Jouhari and herdaughter were subsequently awarded $1.1million in damages.Wilson was also requiredto pay over $55,000 in fines to HUD.56

Nevertheless, Bonnie Jouhari and herdaughter were still forced to flee their home,leaving their family and friends because of

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an Internet hate crime and its underlyingphilosophy.

The Nuremberg FilesIn 1995, a computer programmer, NealHorsley, created an anti-abortion web site.The home page featured a line of red blooddripping down the page and a Nazi Nurem-berg Trial scene with an abortion doctorsitting in the witness chair.57

Horsley called his site the “NurembergFiles” in light of the 1940’s Nuremberg trialsin Germany. According to Horsley, manyNazi murderers escaped conviction, at thetime, because of the lack of evidence. Incontrast, his site would provide the neces-sary evidence to convict abortionists of massmurder if and when abortion became illegal.

While pursuing this goal, Horsley col-lected extensive dossiers on over 200doctors who performed abortions through-out the United States. The data were thenmade available to anyone who accessed his web site. The information included names,“wanted posters” style photos, homeaddresses, social security numbers, licenseplate numbers, names of spouses and chil-dren, divorce records, fingerprints, and sur-veillance photos and videos. He obtainedthe information from various U.S. anti-abortion informants. Several anti-abortionactivists who sent the “wanted posters” toHorsley for his web site also had print copiesmade and distributed.

The site also listed page after page of thenames of doctors nationwide, who performabortions. The names of doctors not yetkilled or wounded appeared in black print.The names of wounded doctors appeared ingray print. Doctors, who had been mur-dered, had a line drawn through their nameshortly after they had been killed.

The doctors whose names appeared onthe web site lived in constant fear for theirlives. They believed that the web site, in

effect, encouraged people to kill or harmthem. Most had FBI and/or local lawenforcement protection 24 hours a day andwore bulletproof vests. At least five of thedoctors on the list were either killed orwounded.58

Finally, some of the doctors and PlannedParenthood filed a lawsuit against the anti-abortion activists who made the “wantedposters” and against the Nuremberg Filesweb site, which also posted the threatening“wanted posters.” Neal Horsley was notnamed in the lawsuit, however.The case wasPlanned Parenthood of the Columbia/Willamette Inc. et al. v. American Coalition ofLife Activists et al.59

The U.S.District Court heard the case forthe District of Oregon and pitted doctorsand abortion clinics against an anti-abortiongroup with a past record of threatening,and encouraging others to commit, actualviolence against abortion providers. This case was a civil suit with 8 jurors who hadto determine if the printed and on on-line “wanted posters” constituted protectedspeech (speech permitted under the FirstAmendment) or a “true threat” to the tar-geted doctors.60

The plaintiffs claimed the “wantedposters” violated the Freedom of Access to Clinics Entrances Act (FACE) and theRacketeering Influenced and CorruptOrganizations Act (RICO). FACE prohib-its, “whoever by force or threat of force or by physical obstruction, intentionallyinjures, intimidates, or interferes with, orattempts to interfere with . . . anyone whoprovides or obtains reproductive services.”61

RICO prohibits an “organized conspiracyto commit or attempt to commit extortionor coercion resulting from fear due tothreats to do bodily harm . . .”62

The plaintiffs asked that the defendants’actions be punished in two ways. First, theyrequested a permanent injunction againstfurther distribution of the printed and the

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online “wanted posters.” Second, they askedthe jury to award them compensatorydamages (out-of-pocket expenses) and pun-itive damages (meant to punish and make anexample out of their actions).

The defendants claimed the “wantedposters” in both print and online form constituted free speech and were protectedunder the language of the First Amendment.

The jury found in favor of the plaintiffson the grounds that the “wanted posters”did constitute a true threat to abortionproviders and therefore, did not constituteprotected speech. Based on this conclusion,a permanent injunction against the printand the online “wanted posters” wasgranted. The injunction did not ban theNuremberg Files web site completely. Onlythe “wanted posters” were banned.The juryalso awarded the plaintiffs $109 million indamages.63

The defendants appealed the case to theNinth Circuit where a panel of three judgesoverturned the district court on FirstAmendment grounds. The Judges said thatthe anti-abortionists activist could not beheld legally liable because the “wantedposters” did not directly authorize orthreaten violence. Planned Parenthoodrequested an en banc hearing (a hearing by aquorum of all the Judges in the Circuitinstead of the normal panel of only 3 Judges)by 11 Judges of the Ninth Circuit Court ofAppeals, which was granted. In a split 6–5decision, the en banc court ruled the “wantedposters” were not protected speech underthe First Amendment because they did con-stitute illegal threats against abortion pro-viders. However, they ordered the U.S.district court Judge to reduce the amount ofmoney awarded for punitive damages.64

Finally, in December of 2002, the anti-abortion activists asked the Supreme Courtto hear the case. The Supreme Court hasfirst asked the Solicitor General TheodoreOlson to file a brief expressing the Bush

Administration’s views on the issue. Nofurther action has occurred as of thiswriting.65

CYBERSTALKING

In addition to hate on the Internet, otherissues continue to crop up. Online stalking,called “cyberstalking,” for example, hasbecome more prevalent. As implied, youcould be the target of harassing e-mail andan individual who follows you around incyberspace—impersonating you in a chatroom to incite other members to react to typically volatile information. As thetarget, you could receive hostile e-mailresponses.This is only the tip of the prover-bial iceberg.

You should also think about how you usee-mail. It has, to a great extent, become theelectronic/written equivalent of picking upa telephone. But now, you can reach tens,hundreds, or even thousands of sites andpeople at the push of a button. Cyberstalk-ers have tapped this capability to harass andthreaten others.

Another factor is e-mail’s anonymity. Asstated in a government report, “whereas apotential stalker may be unwilling or unableto confront a victim in person or on thetelephone, he or she may have little hesita-tion sending harassing or threatening elec-tronic communications to a victim.”66 Geo-graphical and time elements are also re-moved, and you can sign-up for free e-mailwithout any verification on the company’spart.

Another factor is this crime’s fairly recentappearance. In some cases, a local lawenforcement agency may be ill equipped(training-wise) to handle the situation. Inresponse, cyberstalking support groups haveappeared on the Internet.

But legally, what can you do? As of 2002,41 states had cyberstalking laws that specif-

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ically criminalized stalking via the Internet,e-mail or other electronic means.67

However,

• victims of cyberstalking in states withoutspecific laws remain unprotected;

• even if the victim lives in a state with acyberstalking law, legal protection is notguaranteed; and

• while some federal protection may existunder Title 18 Section 875 of the U.S.Code, the majority of cyberstalking inci-dents cannot be prosecuted based on thelaw’s language.

For the latter, the language of Section 875may appear to provide federal legal pro-tection against cyberstalking: “whoevertransmits in interstate commerce any com-munication containing any threat to kid-nap any person or any threat to injure theperson or another, shall be fined under this Title or imprisoned not more than 5years or both.”68 But in reality, unless a spe-cific, direct threat is made, the law does notapply. If the cyberstalker harasses or terror-izes the victim but does not make a specific,direct threat (e.g., I’m going to kill you),Section 875 cannot be used to protect the victim. Since most cyberstalking inci-dents fall into the harassment category, acomprehensive federal cyberstalking law is necessary.

COPYRIGHT

As was the case with online stalking, copy-right in regarding the Internet also presentsa First Amendment dilemma. As described in Chapter 4, a copyright protects certainintellectual property classes. This section of the book expands on this preliminaryinformation.

IntroductionUnder the terms of the Copyright andPatent Clause of the Constitution (Article I,Section 8), Congress has the authority toregulate “Intellectual Property,” thus provid-ing copyright protection for the authors ofvarious creative works. The first federalcopyright law in the U.S. was enacted in1790 to protect authors of books, maps, andcharts. Since then, Title 17 of the UnitedStates Code has been revised numeroustimes to reflect the evolving issues sur-rounding copyright law.69 For instance, leg-islative and judicial action have been takento protect materials that are available via theInternet.

Legislative ActionInternet copyright legislation that hasincreased the protection of an author’s work include the No Electronic Theft Act,The Digital Millennium Copyright Act(DMCA), and the Sonny Bono CopyrightTerm Extension Act (CTEA).

No Electronic Theft Act. The No Elec-tronic Theft Act, signed into law by Presi-dent Clinton in December 1997, closed aloophole in the illegal distribution of soft-ware. Criminal infringement would occurwhen a party infringed on a copyright in awillful manner for commercial advantage orprivate financial gain.70 But this was not aprerequisite for infringement. Infringementwould also occur if, during any 180 dayperiod, one or more copies of a copyrightedwork having a retail value of more than$1000 was illegally reproduced or distrib-uted via electronic means, regardless if theparty committing the action gained fromthe infringement.71

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act.The Digital Millennium Copyright Act

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(DMCA) was created in the late 1990s.Twoimportant sections for our discussion are thesections:

• World Intellectual Property Organization(WIPO) Copyright Treaties Implementa-tion Act and

• Online Copyright Infringement LiabilityLimitation Act72

The WIPO section of the Digital Mil-lennium Copyright Act guarantees adequatelegal protection and legal penalties againstcircumvention of effective technologicalmeasures employed by authors to controlthe use of their work. Manufacturing andtrafficking in such technology is prohibitedas well.73

The WIPO can trace its roots to interna-tional treaties ratified in 1998 by the UnitedStates and 120 other United Nations’ coun-tries. The treaties were written to protectcopyright works fixed in traditional andnontraditional mediums.What was the goalof the treaties—to further develop rightspreviously established by the terms of theBerne Convention and a World Trade Organization agreement.74

The new Act would more securelyprotect a copyright owner’s right to repro-duce, communicate to the public, and adapttheir work. Copyright owners were alsogranted the right to prohibit the commer-cial rental of their computer programs and musical recordings and to make their work available online, among other stipulations.75

The Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation section of the Act wasdesigned to encourage service providers and copyright owners to work together todiscover and deal with online copyrightinfringement. The Act also gives serviceproviders a clearer picture of their legalresponsibilities.

Service providers are also protected fromcopyright infringement liability if theysimply transmit information over the Inter-net. However, they are required to removematerial from a web site if copyright in-fringement is apparent.76

This section of the Act also containsstrong language to protect copyright ownersagainst potential abuses that could arise from the latest technological advancements.For example, it criminalizes any interferencewith antipiracy measures built into com-mercial software.77

The Sonny Bono Copyright Term ExtensionAct. The Sonny Bono Copyright TermExtension Act (CTEA) concerned the duration of copyright protection for theauthor(s) of a creative work and was signedinto law by president Clinton in October1998.The Act extended a copyright’s dura-tion for works created on or after January1978. Under the CTEA, the protection wasextended

• from the life of the author plus 50 yearsto the life of the author plus 70 years;

• from 75 years to 95 years from the dateof publication, or 120 years from the dateof creation (whichever expired first), forworks made for hire (corporate works);and

• from 75 years to 95 years for works pub-lished before January 1, 1978.78

While this legislation brought the UnitedStates in line with European Union (EU)provisions, it was highly controversial.Opponents claimed Congress did not havethe authority to grant such extensions.TheCTEA would also keep copyrighted worksfrom passing into the public domain whereanyone could use them, thus violating thepeople’s First Amendment right to freedomof expression. Based on these legal grounds,

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the Sonny Bono Copyright Term ExtensionAct was challenged in Federal Court inEldred v. Ashcroft.79

After winding its way through the lowerfederal court system, Eldred v. Ashcroft washeard by the Supreme Court in January2003. In a 7–2 decision, the Court upheldthe constitutionality of the Sonny BonoCopyright Term Extension Act (CTEA).Writing for the majority, Justice Ruth BaderGinsburg said Congress had the authority toextend copyright duration and this did notviolate First Amendment free speech rights.Justice Ginsburg wrote that, “The CTEA isa rationale enactment; we are not at libertyto second-guess congressional determina-tions and policy judgments of this order,however debatable or arguably unwise theymay be . . . Accordingly, we cannot con-clude that the CTEA . . . is an impermissi-ble exercise of Congress’ power under theCopyright clause.”80

To sum up, the No Electronic Theft Act, Digital Millennium Copyright Act, andthe Sonny Bono Copyright Term ExtensionAct were written, in part, in response to the new technologies and their applications.It is also an evolving field, as electronic services, including those on the Internet as described in a later chapter, continue toevolve.

Judicial ActionCase law has also been decided based oncopyright infringement issues. In Playboy v. Frena and Playboy v. Hardenburgh, forinstance, bulletin board services (BBSs) ille-gally posted copyrighted photographs fromPlayboy magazine.

A BBS is an electronic communicationssystem that generally predates web sites.They are used for distributing informationand can serve as communications conduitsfor people who dial into their web sites viamodems.

In each instance, the service provider hadnot obtained copyright clearance to post the photos. Playboy sued and the courtsruled that Playboy had the exclusive rights to display the works. Therefore, copyrightinfringement had occurred.81

In another case, Sega v. MAPHIA, a BBSowner knowingly and intentionally offeredsubscribers access to Sega video games andthe hardware to copy the games. Based onthese facts, the court found in favor of Sega,holding that copyright infringement hadoccurred.82

In a different vein, a student who oper-ated his own BBS made software, valued inthe millions of dollars, available to his sub-scribers. He was sued in federal court by thegovernment. But the court ruled he couldnot be held legally liable for copyrightinfringement since he had not charged hissubscribers for the software.The aforemen-tioned No Electronic Theft Act, which waspassed at a later date, has since eliminatedthis loophole.83

In Tasini et al. v. New York Times et al., thecourt examined the posting of copyrightedarticles of freelance writers on electronicdatabases and/or CD-ROMs without anauthor’s permission and/or additional pay-ments. The case was heard at the U.S. Dis-trict Court and the Court of Appeals levelwith two different outcomes.

The U.S. District Court ruled in favor ofthe New York Times and the other publishers.The Court indicated the additional publica-tion of the works did not constitute copy-right infringement. However, on appeal,the circuit court overturned this decisionholding that posting the works via the Inter-net and/or on CD-ROMs was an additionaluse.Without the author’s consent, it consti-tuted a copyright infringement.84

The New York Times appealed the decisionto the Supreme Court (New York Times v.Tasini. No. 00201. 2001). In a 7–2 decision,the Court affirmed the Second Circuit,

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ruling that “Both the print publishers andthe electronic publishers . . . have infringedthe copyrights of freelance authors.”85

Entertainment Industry and Copyright

Introduction. The technology that hasrevolutionized a consumer’s ability to ille-gally copy protected music has resulted inlitigation.Three representative cases includeRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) v. Diamond Multimedia Systems (180F.3d 1072, 1999), UMG Recordings et al. v.MP3.com, Inc., (92 F. Supp. 2d 349, 2000),and A&M Recordings, Inc., et al. v.Napster, Inc.,(284 F. 3d 1091, 2002).

RIAA v. Diamond. The RIAA, represent-ing the major record labels, control 90% of the U.S. distribution market. It filed suitin federal court to halt the manufacture and distribution of Diamond Multimedia’sportable music player, the “Rio.” As de-scribed in a previous chapter, this type ofsystem is used to playback MP3 files.86

The RIAA filed suit on the grounds thatRio violates the language of the AudioHome Recording Act of 1992 (17 USCsub-ch. B, Section 1002 [a][1] and [a][2])“because it does not employ a Serial Management System (SCMS)” that sends,receives, and acts upon information about the generation and copyright status of the files, it plays.”87 For the latter, Rio does not incorporate a copy protectionsystem.

Diamond Multimedia argued the AudioHome Recording Act did not apply to Riofor two reasons. First, the Act regulates“digital audio recording devices,” and Riowas not such a device. Second, while Riodid employ the use of a hard drive for filestorage, hard drives were exempt from theAct.88

The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals,affirming the lower court, held that “Rio isnot a digital recording device subject to therestrictions of the Audio Home RecordingAct of 1992.”89

UMG Recordings v. MP3.com. UMG v.MP3.com was a pioneer case that focused on the distribution of copyrighted music viathe Internet and fair use. This new and rampantly developing legal issue questionswhether or not the distribution of copy-righted music via the Internet violates fairuse. Fair use is the “limited copying of copy-righted work, usually done for ‘productive’purposes such as news reporting, criticism,and comment.”90

MP3.com purchased “tens of thousands”of UMG, Sony, Warner Brothers, and theother plaintiffs’ CDs and subsequentlycopied them to its server without priorauthorization. (These companies held theCD’s copyright.)91 But to gain access to thisinformation, subscribers had to prove theyalready owned a CD version by eitherinserting their CD in their computer’s CD-ROM drive or by purchasing a copy of the CD from a cooperating online musicretailer.92 At this point, the subscriber coulddownload the file(s) from MP3.com and“store, customize, and listen to the record-ings contained on their CD’s from anyplacewhere they have an Internet connection.”93

Thus, MP3.com extended a subscriber’s useof his or her recordings (contained on theCDs they owned).

MP3.com indicated its system fell underthe legal umbrella of fair use. UMG and the other plaintiffs strongly disputed thisclaim and stated that MP3.com was simply “re-playing for the subscriber converted versions of the recordings it copied, withoutauthorization, from plaintiffs’ copyrightedCDs.”94

The court, in examining the merits of thecase, considered the four factors of fair use:

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1. The purpose/character of the use (com-mercial versus educational/nonprofit);

2. The nature of copyrighted work;3. The amount/substantiality of portion

used in relation to copyright work as awhole; and

4. The effect of the use on the potentialmarket for or value of the copyrightedwork.95

The court subsequently determined that:

• On point 1, there was no dispute that thepurpose of the use was commercial.

• On point 2, the works were “creativerecordings,” not “factual description”works that might enjoy fair use pro-tection, thus negating the fair use defense.

• On point 3, there was no dispute theentire copyrighted works were used.Therefore, fair use did not apply.

• On point 4, MP3.com’s actions violatedthe plaintiffs’ right to license their copy-righted musical recordings to others forreproduction.96

Based upon these reasons, the court ruledthe “defendant’s fair use defense is indefen-sible and must be denied as a matter oflaw.”97 Finally, in another legal proceeding(2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 17907. Novem-ber 2000), Judge Jed S. Rakoff orderedMP3.com to pay UMG and the other plain-tiffs, $53,400,000 in damages plus courtcosts and attorneys’ fees.98

A&M Records v. Napster (284 F. 3d 1091.2002, 239 F. 3d 1004. 2001, 2000 U.S.App.LEXIS 18688. 2000, 2001 U.S.Dist.LEXIS 2186. 2001, 2000 U.S. Dist.LEXIS 20668. 2001, 114 F. Supp. 2d 896.2000, 2000 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 6243. 2000).The most high profile court case aboutaccessing copyrighted music from the Inter-net is A&M v. Napster. College student

Shawn Fanning’s music files service,“Napster,” became a household word.

Napster’s creators claimed their goal wasto provide the online music communitywith an innovative way to gain access to avast number of music files. In brief, the Nap-ster system enabled a user to search for,request, and download MP3 files. Userscould also play a downloaded song and par-ticipate in a Napster-sponsored chat room.99

The music industry was stunned by theease and efficiency with which Napster en-abled users to download copyrighted musicwithout actually purchasing CDs. Napster’sdisregard for copyright law, and its potentialeconomic impact, sent shock waves throughthe music industry.

In response, 17 record companies went tofederal court to obtain an injunction againstNapster on the grounds that the service violated copyright law.This lawsuit was thebeginning of years of extremely complexcourt decisions sending the case back andforth between the U.S. District Court forthe Northern District of California and theCourt of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.

The record companies claimed the following:

1. Napster was guilty of direct copyrightinfringement, which occurs when a per-son directly copies, performs or violatesthe copyright owner’s exclusive rightswithout obtaining permission to do so.

2. Napster was guilty of contributory in-fringement. This occurs when the copy-right violator has knowledge that theyhave caused a third party, or has con-tributed to a third party’s, infringement.

3. Napster was guilty of vicarious infringe-ment. This occurs when the right andability to supervise a third party copyrightviolator’s actions exists and when thesupervising party benefits from theinfringement.100

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Napster countered these accusations byclaiming that:

• It was protected under the terms of fairuse (Section 107 Copyright Act).

• It was protected under the terms of the “Safe Harbor” clause, which protectsInternet Service Providers (Section 512DMCA).

• It was protected under the language ofthe Audio Home Recording Act (17USC. Subchapter B. Section 1002).

• It was protected against prior restraintunder the First Amendment.101 Priorrestraint in this case would mean denyingusers access to all songs including thesongs of an unsigned artist. Likewise,access to Napster’s New Artist Program,message boards and chat rooms wouldalso be denied, all before a final decisionconcerning Napster’s legality occurred.102

After numerous complex rulings andmodifications by the District Court and the Court of Appeals, the follow conclusionswere reached:

1. Napster was liable of direct, contributory,and vicarious copyright infringement.

2. Napster’s service was not protected by thefair use provision.

3. Napster’s protection according to the SafeHarbor clause must be further considered.

4. Napster does not fall under the protec-tion of the Audio Home Recording Actbecause music on hard drives does notconstitute digital music recordings.

5. Napster and it’s users were not subjectedto a denial of their First Amendmentrights.103

The Ninth Circuit subsequently upheldan injunction against Napster’s continuedviolation of the copyrights held by therecord companies. The Ninth Circuit,however, modified the injunction on the

grounds that it was constitutionally overbroad.104

The modified injunction, “obligatesNapster to remove any user files from thesystem’s music index if Napster has reason-able knowledge that the file contains plain-tiffs’ copyrighted works. Plaintiffs, in turn,must give Napster notice of specific infring-ing files. For each work sought to be pro-tected plaintiffs must provide the name ofthe performing artist, the title of the work,a certification of ownership, and the name(s)of one or more files that have been availableon the Napster file index containing theprotected copyrighted work.”105

In the wake of this court decision,Napster, while in the process of trying to design a legal service in alliance withGerman music company Bertelsmann, wentbankrupt. Bertelsmann later tried to buyNapster but a U.S. Bankruptcy Courtdenied their bid.106

But in March 2003, a Santa Clara-basedCD-burning software company, Roxio,purchased Napster’s web site and IntellectualProperty.107 Roxio plans to relaunchNapster as a legitimate service offering usersthe ability to pay a per-song individual feeas well as a monthly subscription-baseddownloading service. Roxio negotiated forthe right to license the music of the top fiverecord companies, which would subse-quently be available through its newservice.108

In another twist, Apple computer intro-duced its iTunes Music Store in 2003.Designed much like the Roxio service, Macusers could download songs for $.99 each.You could browse a large selection and sub-sequently download your choices. However,there was a copyright protection scheme.Asdescribed by Apple, “The iTunes MusicStore is fast and convenient for you, and fairto the artists and record companies. In a nutshell, you can play your music on up tothree computers, enjoy unlimited synching

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with your iPods [Apple player], burn unlimited CDs individual songs, and burnunchanged playlists up to 10 times each.”109

When first launched, the service became animmediate hit.

Linking, Deep Linking, and Framing. Asindicated in the Internet chapter, Chapter17, you can gain access to informationthrough links. But is linking, especially deeplinking, legal?

Deep linking is the practice of linkingfrom one web site to another web sitebypassing the linked site’s home page.Thusthe user may not view this page, which mayinclude legal and privacy information and,in some instances, advertisements.

Early deep linking cases have been settledout of court without definitively spellingout if this practice violates copyright law.(See: Ticketmaster v. Tickets.com and Ticket-master v. Microsoft).110 The same scenarioplayed out for other cases when the act ofproviding a link to another site has gener-ally not been considered a violation. (SeeShetland Times, Ltd. v. Dr. Jonathan Wills andZetnews, Ltd., 1996. Ticketmaster v. Microsoft,No. 97-3055 DDP. D. Cal.April 1997. Tick-etmaster v.Tickets.com, 2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS4553. D.C. Cal. 2000.)

But in 2003, the courts handed down twoimportant decisions further clarifying thesepractices. (Ticketmaster v. Tickets.com. U.S.Dist Crt. Ctrl Dist. CA. 2003 U.S. Dist.LEXIS 6483. March 6, 2003; and Leslie Kellyv. Ariba Soft Corp. No. 00-55521. DC No.CV-99-00560. GLT. July 9,2003.) In Ticket-master v. Tickets.com, the court ruled thatlinking does not violate copyright law.111 In

Kelly v.Ariba Soft,112 the court held that deeplinking in the form of “thumbnail” links(small versions of larger images) constitutedfair use of a copyrighted work.113 Futurecase law will serve to develop a body of lawmore capable of answering such complexcopyright questions.

Another copyright issue closely associatedwith linking is framing.Through framing,

• you may gain access to a different website; but

• you may not realize you are retrievinginformation from this new site (e.g., siteB), since it may appear to be a compo-nent of the original site (e.g., site A).114

Through framing, the other site’s appear-ance, (site B) has been visually altered (i.e.,it may not be viewed as a stand-alone page).This alteration has raised a legal question.Does such an action create a derivativework, thus violating the copyright law?115

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the online universe has provided users with a host of new com-munication tools. But the technologicaladvancements have come with a price.Thesame tools that can be used to send an e-mail to a friend or allow you to search theInternet for vast amounts of information,can also result in death threats, cyber-stalking, and copyright infringement. Asdescribed in the chapter, this fact has re-sulted in a large body of legislative and judi-cial action.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Kent Middleton and Bill Chamberlin. TheLaw of Public Communication. (White Plains,NY:Longman Publishing, 1994), 70.

2. Cubby Inc. v. CompuServe Inc., U.S. DistrictCourt for the Southern District of New York(19 Med. L. Rprt. 1527. 1991).


3. Ibid., 1526.4. Ibid., 1526.5. Ibid., 1528.6. Ibid., 1527.7. Ibid., 1528.8. Ibid., 1528.9. Stratton Oakmont et al. v. Prodigy Inc.,

Supreme Court of New York (63 USWL. 2767.1995).

10. Ibid., 2767.11. Ibid., 2767.12. Ibid., 2770.13. Ibid., 2770.14. Ibid., 2772.15. Telecommunications Act of 1996, 71.16. Ibid.17. Kenneth Salomon and Todd Gray,

“Online Content Liability,” American Council ofEducation, February 14, 1996, 6.

18. Ibid.19. U.S. Supreme Court. Cert. Pet. 97–1488.

1997.“Zeran v.America Online,”Tech Law Journal,1998, downloaded from www.techlawjour-nal.com.

20. “Judge Friedman Grants Summary Judgment to AOL in Defamation Case,” TechLaw Journal, April 24, 1998, downloaded fromwww.techlawjournal.com.

21. Christianne Carafano v. Metrosplash.com.2002. U.S. Dist. LEXIS 10614, downloadedfrom LEXIS.

22. Kenneth M. Zeran v. AOL. 958 F. Supp. 1124. 1997, downloaded fromwww.Loundy.com.

23. Ibid.24. Ibid.25. Ibid.26. Kenneth M. Zeran v.AOL. 129 F 2d 327.

1997, downloaded from www.Law.Emory.Edu.27. Ibid.28. Sidney Blumenthal et al. v. Matt Drudge and

AOL. 992 F. Supp. 44. Tech Law Journal, 1998,downloaded from www.techlawjournal.com.

29. “Judge Friedman Grants Summary Judg-ment to AOL in Defamation Case,” Tech LawJournal, April 24, 1998, downloaded fromwww.techlawjournal.com.

30. Ibid.31. Ibid.

32. Sidney Blumenthal v. Drudge and AOL,downloaded from www.techlawjournal.com.

33. Ibid.34. Ibid.35. Ibid.36. Howard Kurtz. “Clinton Aide Settles

Libel Suit Against Matt Drudge—At a Cost.”Washingtonpost.com. May 2, 2001. C01, down-loaded from www.washingtonPost.com.

37. Carafano v. Metrosplash.com. 2002 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 10614, downloaded from LEXIS.

38. The reason did not pertain to ourpresent discussion.

39. The Perkins Coie Internet Digest.“Defamation,” 1999, downloaded fromwww.perkinscoie.com.

40. Ibid.41. Alexander Lunney v. Prodigy. 99 N.Y.

Int. 0165 at 3. 1999, downloaded from LEXIS.

42. See: Stoner v. Ebay. No. 305666. Sup. Crt.CA. 2000, Schneider v. Amazon.com No. 46791-31. 31 P. 3d 37.Wash. Ct.App. 2001, Doe v.AOLNo. 97-2587 So. 3d 385. 4th D. Ct. App. Fla.2001.

43. FBI, Department of Justice. “HateCrimes Fact Sheet.” November 25, 2002. 1,downloaded from www.FBI.gov.

44. Christopher Wolf. “Racists, Bigots andthe Law of the Internet.” July 2002, 3, down-loaded from www.gigalaw.com.

45. 18 U.S.C. 245, 42 U.S.C.1983, 18U.S.C.241, 18 U.S.C.242, 18 U.S.C.247, 42U.S.C.3617, 28 U.S.C.994.

46. Sentence would be increased by one-third; the “normal” punishment for assault is 3 years imprisonment. Hate-motivated assaultwould result in a 4-year sentence.

47. 18 U.S.C.245.48. H.R. 80. Hate Crimes Prevention Act

of 2003. January 7, 2003, downloaded fromhttp://thomas.loc.gov/.

49. Ibid., sect. 4[2][B].50. Department of Justice. United States

Attorneys Office. Central District of California.Thomas Mrozek. May 4, 1998. 1, downloadedfrom www.FBI.gov.

51. Machado appealed a complex proceduralmatter not related to the facts of the case.The

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Ninth Circuit (195 F. 3d 454. 1999) affirmedthe lower court, however.

52. Department of Justice. U.S. AttorneysOffice. Thomas Mrozek. June 28, 1999, 1,downloaded from www.FBI.gov.

53. Secretary v. Wilson. United States ofAmerica Department of Housing and UrbanDevelopment. Office of Administrative Law Judgesv.Ryan Wilson.HUDALJ 03-98-0692-8. July 19,2000, 4, downloaded from www.HUD.gov/.

54. Ibid.55. Pennsylvania Office of the Attorney

General. Michael Fisher. “Fisher Sues HateGroup for Terroristic Threats on the Web.”October 20, 1998, 1–2, downloaded fromwww.attorneygeneral.gov/.

56. Secretary v. Wilson. HUD, downloadedfrom www.HUD.gov/.

57. The Nuremberg Files, downloaded fromwww.abortioncams.com/atrocity/.

58. Planned Parenthood et al. v.American Coali-tion of Life Activists et al. 945 F. Supp. 1355. U.S.Dist. LEXIS 16387 at 1/2. 1996, downloadedfrom LEXIS.

59. Planned Parenthood et al. v.American Coali-tion of Life Activists et al. 945 F. Supp. 1355. 1996,23 F. Supp. 2d 1182. 1998, 1999 U.S. Dist.LEXIS 4332, 244 F. 3d 1007. 2001, 268 F. 3d908. 2001, 290 F. 3d 1058. 2002, 2002ES. App.LEXIS 13829. 2002, 123 S. Ct. 715. 2002,downloaded from LEXIS.

60. Planned Parenthood v.American Coalition ofLife Activists. 945 F. Supp. 1355, 1996, down-loaded from LEXIS.

61. 18 U.S.C.248.62. 18 U.S.C.1962.63. Planned Parenthood v.American Coalition of

Life Activist. 290 F. 3d 1058. 2002. U.S. App.LEXIS 9314, downloaded from LEXIS.

64. “Appeals Court.” Alameda Times-Star(Alameda, CA). May 17, 2002, 1/2, downloadedfrom LEXIS.

65. Planned Parenthood v.American Coalition ofLife Activists. 123 S. Ct. 715. 2002, downloadedfrom LEXIS.

66. U.S. Department of Justice, 1999 Reporton CyberStalking: A New Challenge for LawEnforcement and Industry, downloaded fromwww.usdoj.gov.

67. Harry A.Valetk. “A Guide to the Mazeof Cyberstalking Laws.” July 2003, 2, down-loaded from www.gigalaw.com.

68. 18 U.S.C. 875.69. Kent Middleton, Robert Trager, and Bill

Chamberlin. The Law of Public Communication.(Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Publishing Co.,2002), 216.

70. No Electronic Theft Act. Pub. Law105–147. 111 Stat. 2678. 1997, downloadedfrom www.GSE.UCLA.Edu.

71. Ibid.72. H.R. 2281. Bill Summary and Status

from the 105th Congress. October 28, 1998,downloaded from http://thomas.loc.gov/.

73. Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Pub.Law 105-304. October 1998, downloaded fromhttp://thomas.loc.gov.

74. Kent Middleton et al., The Law of PublicCommunication. (Boston, MA: Longman Pub-lishing, 2000), 224.

75. Ibid., 225.76. The Digital Millennium Copyright

Act. UCLA, Online Institute for CyberspaceLaw and Policy, downloaded from www.gse.UCLA.edu.

77. Ibid.78. Sonny Bono Copyright Term Exten-

sion Act. Pub. L. 105–298, 11 Stat. 2827,Section 101–106, downloaded from www.techlawjournal.com.

79. Eric Eldred v. John Ashcroft. 123 S. Ct. 769.2003, downloaded from LEXIS.

80. Ibid., 783.81. Playboy Magazine v. George Frena. 839 F.

Supp. 1552. 1993. Playboy Magazine v. RussHardenburgh. 982 F. Supp. 503. 1997.

82. Sega v. MAPHIA. 857 F. Supp. 679. 1994.83. United States v. David LaMacchia. 871 F.

Supp. 535. 1994.84. Jonathan Tasini et al. v. New York Times et

al. 972 F. Supp. 804. 1997. Jonathan Tasini et al.v. New York Times et al. 192 F. 3d 356. 1999,downloaded from LEXIS.

85. New York Times Co. Inc., et al. v. Tasini et al. No. 00201 at 3. June 2001, downloadedfrom LEXIS.

86. Recording Industry Association of America(RIAA) v. Diamond Multimedia Systems. 180

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SUGGESTED READINGS

Case LawA&M v. Napster. 284 F. 3d 1091. 2002. 1–8. 239

F. 3d 1004. 2001. 1. 2000 U.S. App. LEXIS18688. 2000.1. 2001 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 2186.2001.1–6. 2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 20668.2001.1–7. 114 F. Supp. 2d 896. 2000.1–45.2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 6243. 2000.1–15,downloaded from LEXIS.

Carafano v. Metrosplash.com. No. CV 01-0018DT. 2002, 1–27, downloaded from LEXIS.

Cubby v.CompuServe, U.S.District Court for theSouthern District of New York 19 Med. L.

Rprt. 1527. 1525–1533 1991, 1–12, down-loaded from LEXIS.

Eldred v. Ashcroft. 123 S. Ct. 769. 2003, 1–78,downloaded from LEXIS.

Lunney v. Prodigy et al. 250 AD 2d 230.NY 1994. 99 NY Int. 0165. 1999. 2000 U.S. LEXIS 3037. 1–12, downloaded from LEXIS.

Miller v. California 413 U.S. 15. 1973, 1–40,downloaded from LEXIS.

New York Times et al. v.Tasini et al. No. 00201.2001, 1–43, downloaded from LEXIS.

F. 3d 1072 at 2. 1999, downloaded from LEXIS.

87. Ibid., 3.88. Ibid., 4.89. Ibid., 8.90. Kent Middleton, William Lee, and Bill

Chamberlin. The Law of Public Communication.(Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Publishing Co.,2003), 235.

91. UMG Recordings et al. v. MP3.com, Inc. 92F. Supp. 2d 349 at 2. 2000, downloaded fromLEXIS.

92. Ibid.93. Ibid.94. Ibid., 2/3.95. Ibid., 3/4.96. Ibid., 4–7.97. Ibid., 9.98. Ibid., 1.99. A&M Records v. Napster. 2001 U.S. Dist.

LEXIS 2186 at 3.2001,downloaded from LEXIS.100. A&M v. Napster.114 F. Supp. 2d 896,

2000,downloaded from LEXIS; and Middleton,Trager, and Chamberlin. The Law of Public Com-munication. (Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Pub-lishing Co., 2002), 232.

101. A&M v. Napster. 114 F. Supp. 2d 896.2000, downloaded from LEXIS.

102. Ibid., 36/37.103. A&M v. Napster. 114 F. Supp. 2d 896.

2000, downloaded from LEXIS.

104. A&M v. Napster. 284 F. 3d 1091. 2002,downloaded from LEXIS.

105. Ibid., 10.106. “Last Remains Auctioned Off.” Online

Reporter. Gale Group, Inc. Business and Indus-try. 2002, 1, downloaded from LEXIS.

107. Ibid.108. Reuters. “Napster Set to Return.”

February 25, 2003, 1, downloaded fromwww.CNN.com.

109. Downloaded from www.apple.com/music/store/shop.html.

110. Margaret Smith Kubiszyn. Perkins Coie Online Document. 1, downloaded fromwww.perkinscoie.org/.

111. Ticketmaster v.Tickets.com. U.S. Dist. Crt.Ctrl. Dist. CA. 2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 6483 at7. March 6, 2003, downloaded from LEXIS.

112. Note: Ariba Soft changed its nameduring the court proceedings and is nowDitto.com.

113. “Appeals Court Lifts ‘Black Cloud’ onDeep Linking.” Washington Internet Daily.Vol. 4,No. 131. July 9, 2003, 1, downloaded fromLEXIS.

114. Perkins Coie. “Framing.” 3, down-loaded from www.perkinscoie.org/.

115. Ibid.

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Planned Parenthood et al. v. American Coalition ofLife Activists et al. 945 F. Supp. 1355. 1996,1–57. 23 F. Supp. 2d 1182.1998, 1–24. 1999U.S. Dist. LEXIS 4332.1–45. 244 F. 3d 1007.2001, 1–17. 268 F. 3d 908. 2001, 1–3. 290 F.3d 1058.2002, 1–90. 2002 E.S. App. LEXIS13829.2002, 1–4. 123 S. Ct. 715. 2002, 1,downloaded from LEXIS.

RIAA v. Diamond Multimedia. 180 F. 3d 1072.1999, 1–15, downloaded from LEXIS.

Stratton Oakmont et al. v. Prodigy Inc., SupremeCourt of New York 63 USWL. 2765–2773.1995, 1–4, downloaded from LEXIS.

UMG et al. v. MP3.com 92 F. Supp. 2d 349. 2000,1–7. 200 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 17907. 2000, 1–2,downloaded from LEXIS.

U.S. Department of HUD. Office ALJ. v.Ryan Wilson. HUDALJ 03-98-0692-8.July 19, 2000, 1–35, downloaded fromwww.HUD.gov.

U.S. v. Machado. U.S. Dist. Crt. Cntrl. Dist. CA.No. 96-00142.AHA.1-5, downloaded fromLEXIS.

U.S. v. Quon. 1999. (Guilty Plea: No trial).

LegislationComputer Security Act of 1987. P.L. 100–235.

101 Stat. 1724. 1724–1730.Fair Housing Act. 42 U.S.C. 3617.

3601–3619, downloaded from http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com.

Freedom of Access to Clinics Entrances Act. 18 U.S.C.A 248. 1–2, downloaded fromhttp://new.crosswalk.com.

Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2003. HR 80.108th Congress. 2003, 1–5, downloaded fromhttp://thomas.loc.gov/.

Racketeering Influenced Corrupt Organiza-tions Act. 18 U.S.C. 1962, 1–123, down-loaded from http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com.

Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act.Pub. L. 105–298. 11 stat. 2827. sect. 101–106,downloaded from www.techlawjournal.com.

Telecommunications Act of 1996. P.L. 104–104.1–76.

Journals, Magazines, and Online DocumentsAmalfe, Christine A., and Kerrie R. Heslin.

“Court Starts to Rule on Online Harass-ment.” The National Law Journal. January 24,2000, downloaded from LEXIS.

Brown,Peter.“Is Hollywood Holding Its Breathon Copyright Protection.” Digital Television 2(May 1999), 44.

CNN.com. “Napster Set to Return.”February 25, 2003, 1, downloaded fromwww.CNN.com.

Crocker, Steven. “The Political and SocialImplications of the Net.” July 5, 1994, 1–14.

DiLeleo, Edward. “Functional Equivalency andIts Applications for Freedom of Speech onComputer Bulletin Boards.” Columbia Journalof Law and Social Problems (winter 1993),199–247.

Faucher, John.“Let the Chips Fall Where TheyMay: Choice of Law in Computer BulletinBoard Defamation Cases.” Davis Law Review(summer 1993), 1045–1078.

Godwin, Mike. “Internet Libel: Is the ProviderResponsible?” Internet World (November/December 1993), 1–3.

Godwin, Mike. “Libel, Public Figures, and theNet.” Internet World. (June 1994), 1–4.

Jones, Christopher. “Digital Media Is SpinningToward a Distribution Revolution,” NewMe-dia 9 ( June 6, 1999), 26–34.

Labriola, Don. “Getting Through the MediaMaze.” Presentations 8 (September 1995),23–29.

Lewis, Anthony. “Staving Off the Silencers.”New York Times Magazine December 1, 1991,72–75.

Roberts, Jon L.“A Poor Man’s Guide to Copy-rights, Patents and Trade Secrets.” AdvancedImaging 9 (September 1994), 13–14.

Valetk, Harry A. “A Guide to the Maze ofCyberstalking Laws.” July 2002, 1–2, down-loaded from www.gigalaw.com/.

Wolf, Christopher.“Racists, Bigots and the Lawof the Internet.” July 2002, 1–3, downloadedfrom www.gigalaw.com/.

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GLOSSARY

Administrative Law Judge (ALJ): A judge thatpresides over a federal administrative agencyhearing (e.g., FCC, FTC, and HUD).

Chilling Effect: Any regulation or threat of reg-ulation that makes the speaker think twiceabout providing information that might beconsidered inappropriate by some. In such asituation, the speech is halted before it everhas a chance to be heard.

Cyberstalking: Stalking a person(s) via the Internet, e-mail or by other electronic means.

Hate Crime: Any crime perpetrated against aperson(s) because of his or her actual or per-

ceived race, color, religion, national origin,ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation or disability.

Indecent Material: Nonobscene language that issexually explicit or includes profanity.

Interstate Commerce: Trafficking, trading, ortransportation of persons or property be-tween or among States (e.g., transportinggoods between New York and Ohio).

Libel: Any expression that damages your repu-tation within the community, causes othersto disassociate themselves from you,or attacksyour character or professional ability.

True Threat: A serious, direct threat of violence.

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In addition to the online legal issues ex-amined in previous chapters, the use ofcommunications technologies to performsurveillance functions is of equal impor-tance.While criminal and terrorist activitieshave been monitored for years, the privacyimplications remain a major source of con-troversy. Of particular concern is the collat-eral damage caused when individuals notunder investigation are caught in the sur-veillance net and don’t realize it. In sum, thischapter will examine the various issues surrounding the legal “tug of war” betweenthe need for security versus the need forprivacy.

WIRETAPPING AND ENCRYPTION

IntroductionIn the past, the structure of the telephonesystem made it easier to wiretap someone’stelephone line. But the introduction ofdigital communication, fiber-optic systems,and encryption techniques, where informationis rendered unintelligible without the pro-per decoding mechanisms, have made elec-tronic eavesdropping more complicated.For most people, the added security iswelcome news. But for law enforcementagencies, their job has become more com-plicated. Consequently, different legislationhad been floated to ensure an agency’s con-tinued access to this information, potentially

through an electronic back door, whichwould allow an agency to gain access to thetargeted information.1

Elements of the business community andother organizations have been opposed tothis type of legislation on privacy and eco-nomic grounds.Although a court order mustbe obtained to initiate wiretapping, as hasbeen the practice, legislation may make thecommunications network more susceptibleto illegal wiretapping.The system would alsobe more open to potential government andnongovernment abuses. Ultimately, insteadof using technology to build a more securecommunications system, which could carryvoice as well as computer transactions, itcould potentially be compromised.

A network could also be more expensiveto build, and a manufacturer would have tocontend with more red tape. Other con-cerns center on the stifling of technologicaldevelopments and international implica-tions.2 As other nations developed moresecure networks, U.S. systems could be bur-dened by this organizational hierarchy and acommunications structure that could bevulnerable to government and potentiallyillegal eavesdropping.

The government, for its part, has de-fended its stance in the name of law enfor-cement and national security.The prosecu-tion and conviction of a criminal/terroristcould hinge on, for instance, recorded tele-phone calls.The inability to tap into this and

21 New Technologies:Wiretapping, Privacy,and Related FirstAmendment Issues

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other forms of information would hindersuch an operation.

Finally, friction over encryption enteredthe international market.Tight export stan-dards made it difficult for U.S. companies tocompete in this arena. Legislative initiativessought a balance between individual/busi-ness rights and law enforcement/nationalsecurity concerns.3

WiretappingIn 1994, the Communications Assistance forLaw Enforcement Act (CALEA), was signedinto law.The CALEA was partly born froma government concern—as stated, sophisti-cated communications technologies wouldsignificantly hinder the government’s abilityto conduct legal surveillance activities. Butthe ACLU, The Electronic Privacy Infor-mation Center, and other public interestgroups, questioned the CALEA’s potentialFourth Amendment privacy implications.4

In brief, telecommunications carriersmust guarantee they can isolate and inter-cept all wire and electronic communication,once proper legal authority has been ob-tained.5 The CALEA also requires carriersto deliver intercepted communications andcall identifying information to the govern-ment. The FCC also has the authority tocreate rules establishing technical standardsin accordance with the Act’s assistance capa-bilities requirements.6

It should also be noted that the De-partment of Justice and FBI petitioned theFCC to expand their capabilities to gather surveillance information. This request wasstrongly opposed by public interest groups.7

Despite this opposition, however, the FCCadopted rules granting the FBI additionalpowers. In response, the U.S. Telecom Association and others, argued the FCC had exceeded its statutory authority byexpanding the type of call identifying in-formation that carriers had to make acces-

sible to law enforcement agencies (e.g., call forwarding).8

The Court of Appeals for the District ofColumbia Circuit agreed, in part, with thislegal challenge in United States et al. v. FederalCommunications Commission et al. (227 F. 3d450.2000). Based on the ruling, these sections of the FCC’s CALEA order werevacated or struck down.The requirement toprovide law enforcement with the locationof wireless telephones was, however, upheld.Therefore, the FCC had to redesign itsCALEA Order to reflect this ruling.9

EncryptionThe Clinton Administration took a hard lineapproach to the domestic and internationaluse of encryption technology. There wereconcerns that

• law enforcement and national securityagencies would be significantly hinderedin their criminal and terrorist investiga-tions and

• foreign enemies could use the technologyand its applications against the UnitedStates.

This led to the adoption of restrictiveencryption policy.

But business, industry, and academiaopposed this stance, and legislative effortsdesigned to relax encryption restrictionswere drafted. Eventually, these efforts helpedbring about a policy shift, and a liberalizedviewpoint was adopted.

President Clinton issued an ExecutiveOrder transferring the responsibility for regulating encryption technology from theDepartment of State to the Department ofCommerce. The Order also amended theexisting Export Administration Regulations(EAR). The goals of the new policy weretwofold: to support law enforcement/na-tional security and to promote user privacy

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New Technologies: Wiretapping, Privacy, and Related First Amendment Issues 311

and electronic commerce.10 The policy wasdesigned to accomplish these tasks in variousways.

1. All mandatory technical reviews of en-cryption products would be concluded inadvance of their sale.11

2. The postexport reporting system wouldbe significantly simplified.12

3. A process would be created for the gov-ernment to review strong encryption pro-ducts13 that could then be exported tononterrorist nations.14

4. A new category of products, “retailencryption commodities and software,”was created. Products falling under thisheading, which were available over-the-counter, by telephone sales, and throughother mass sales means, could be exportedand re-exported to any nonterrorist end-user.15

5. An “open source” approach to softwaredevelopment was adopted, leading to un-restricted encryption source code thatcould be exported or re-exported with-out review, as long as licensing fees or royalties were not involved. (Note: Otherrestrictions may also apply.)16

6. Telecommunications and ISPs were per-mitted to use any encryption product,“to provide encryption services, includ-ing public key infrastructure services forthe general public.”17

This evolutionary process continuedunder the Bush Administration. In 2002,U.S. policy was brought in line with theEuropean Union, Japan, and other trade and security partners. The modification permitted the export and re-export of en-hanced mass-market encryption products,following a 30-day review process. Once thereview had been completed, no postexportreporting was required.18

Finally, in January 2003, the Departmentof Commerce announced an additional

modification. This change allowed for theexport of general-purpose microprocessors“used worldwide in technology and com-mercial applications such as personal com-puters and cell phones.”19 No license wasrequired to export such products unless theywere going to

• terrorist countries,• military end-users, and/or• end-users in countries that pose national

security concerns.20

Cases concerning the constitutionality of the U.S. encryption policy have beenheard. These are included in the followingsubsections.

Karn v. Department of State. The DistrictCourt examined if the State Departmenthad jurisdiction over the export of a dis-kette containing cryptographic software.The court held that under the terms of theArms Export Control Act, Karn was notentitled to a judicial review of the legalityof State Department jurisdiction over suchsoftware.The court further held that even ifthe cryptographic software was considered“speech,” controlling its export would notviolate the First Amendment because theregulation was content neutral, narrowly tai-lored, within the government’s legitimateinterest to control the export of defense arti-cles, and was based on a rational premise.21

In response, Karn appealed the case to theWashington, DC Circuit. In the interim, thepresident issued the aforementioned Execu-tive Order. Based on this change, the courtof appeals remanded, or sent the case back,to the district court for judicial considera-tion in light of the new encryption rules.22

Bernstein v. United States. The case was heard on appeal from the U.S. Dis-trict Court for the Northern District ofCalifornia to the Ninth Circuit. The case

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examined the constitutionality of theDepartment of Commerce policy, whichmade it illegal to export encryption pro-grams of a certain sophistication, withoutfirst securing a license from the department.The policy also prohibits the posting of suchprograms on the Internet since proscribedgroups could subsequently download them.

The Ninth Circuit, in a 2–1 decision,upheld the lower court decision that saidgovernment prohibition of the export ofstrong encryption violated the First Amend-ment.23 Bernstein could legally post hisencryption program’s source code on theInternet without obtaining permission.Senior Ninth Circuit Judge Betty Fletcherconcluded that code is free speech andshould be afforded the same full FirstAmendment protections guaranteed for tra-ditional language.24 However, in response to grave concerns by the government, theJustice Department requested that the casebe heard en banc by a panel of 11 Court ofAppeals judges from the Ninth Circuit.25

It was remanded, instead, to the U.S. Dis-trict Court for the Northern District ofCalifornia in 2000.To-date, Bernstein, whofiled additional judicial complaints to thedistrict court in 2002, still awaits a responseto his legal challenge.26

In sum, while legislative initiatives con-tinue to establish a legal framework for sur-veillance and encryption law, case law willbe heard in an effort to interpret the intri-cate details of such legislation in new andlegally unique circumstances. As in other situations where technological advancescome into contact with the law, numerouslegal questions remain.27

SURVEILLANCE BEYOND THE YEAR 2000

As had been the case with CALEA in the1990s, the new millennium ushered in even

more troubling technological advancementswith privacy implications.Two controversialsurveillance applications are the FBI’s Car-nivore (DCS1000) system and Congres-sional Legislation in the form of the USAPATRIOT Act.

Carnivore/DCS1000

Introduction. While most people use theInternet for legal purposes, it also functionsas a powerful communications tool for thoseengaged in organized crime, drug traffick-ing, espionage, and terrorism. This was theimpetus for the creation of the FBI’s Carni-vore, also called DCS1000, program.28

Carnivore is an e-mail/electronic com-munications surveillance program that re-quires Internet Service Providers (ISPs) toattach a box to their networks so the FBIcan monitor the traffic that passes throughtheir facility.29 Much like wiretapping a tele-phone to gain access to conversations forlaw enforcement applications, Carnivorefollows suit with e-mail and can analyzemillions of messages per second.

Critics. According to the FBI, Carnivoreonly captures the information the agency is legally authorized to collect. This con-tention has been challenged by civil libertygroups, members of Congress, and otherssince Carnivore has access to all the traffic,including the electronic communicationsbetween individuals who are not underinvestigation. They indicated that Carni-vore’s technical capabilities could be abused,and as a consequence, they question if inno-cent electronic communications could alsobe archived for review at some later date.30

Critics were also troubled by the Carni-vore program’s breadth.While the FBI mayonly be interested in one person’s electronicactivities, the system intercepts all e-mail/electronic communications.The ACLU, for

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one, compared this action to sending FBIagents “into the post office to rip open eachand every mailbag in search for one person’sletters.”31 The ACLU also indicated that“Carnivore is like the telephone companybeing forced to give the FBI access to all the calls on its network when it only haspermission to seek the calls for one of itssubscribers.”32 It is also unnecessary sinceISPs currently provide law enforcementagencies with information if a court orderis issued.33

Supporters. The FBI subsequently de-fended the use of Carnivore/DCS1000.According to the agency, procedural safe-guards to protect privacy rights were imple-mented.These included the establishment ofa judicial review process, and the system wasdesigned to “surgically” intercept and onlycollect legally authorized e-mail and otherelectronic communications.34 For example,

• A high-level Justice Department offi-cial must initially approve Carnivore surveillance.

• Carnivore can only be used for specifi-cally identified felony crimes and if theFBI can show probable cause for doingso.35

• The FBI Carnivore request must meetcertain criteria, including the identifica-tion of the offense(s) being committedand a description of the type of commu-nication to be intercepted.36

• The FBI must demonstrate that a stan-dard, less intrusive means of gathering theinformation, would not work or wouldbe too dangerous.

• If judicial approval for Carnivore surveil-lance is granted, the Order is limited to30 days.

• Progress reports must be submitted to thejudge.37

Conclusion. In light of our sophisticatedcommunications systems, law enforcementagencies must have access to sophisticatedsurveillance tools. Yet, when Carnivore’sexistence became public knowledge, therewas an immediate backlash, including thepositions articulated by the civil libertiesgroups.

In response, the Justice Departmentagreed to allow the Illinois Institute of Technology to conduct a technical review of the program’s surveillance capabilities. Agoal was to determine if Carnivore couldoperate without violating privacy rights.38

But the study’s results were inconclusive,and as of this writing, distrust over Carni-vore’s use continues.This is particularly truein light of the privacy concerns raised byother planned and existing government initiatives.39

As stated elsewhere in the book, it is alsoa balancing act. How do you provide a lawenforcement agency with the means to gain accessto information while ensuring that an individual’scivil liberties and privacy are protected? It is a dif-ficult question to answer, but one that iscrucial in any democratic society.

THE USA PATRIOT ACT

Following the horrific terrorists attacks inthe United States on September 11, 2001,Americans as well as most of the rest of theworld, were stunned by the vulnerability ofthe United States within its own borders.The ensuing grief and fear of future terror-ist activity lead governmental officials topropose, and the majority of the Americanpublic to tolerate, the potential reduction ofcertain civil liberties.

For example, Congress drafted legislationthat significantly expanded the informationtracking and gathering powers of variousgovernment bodies. The outcome was theenactment of the “Uniting and Strengthen-

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ing America by Providing Appropriate ToolsRequired to Intercept and Obstruct Terror-ist”(USA PATRIOT) Act of 2001 (TheUSA PATRIOT Act. Pub. L. No. 107–56).

Despite the major modifications of exist-ing law, the legislation was speedily passedwith very little discussion. In fact, PresidentGeorge W. Bush signed the Bill into law onOctober 26, 2001, just 7 weeks after thenational tragedy.

In the past, privacy law concerning thetracking and gathering of communicationswas designed to strike a balance betweenprotecting an individual’s rights whileallowing government authorities to identifyand intercept criminal communications.Based on the degree of “intrusiveness”caused by these activities, varying degrees ofprivacy protection were provided. Theseguarantees were spelled out in Title III ofthe Omnibus Crime Control and SafeStreets Act of 1968 and in Chapter 121 and206 of Title 18 of the U.S. Code.40

Title III provided the highest level ofprivacy protection, making it illegal for gov-ernment authorities to eavesdrop on face-to-face, telephone, computer or other formsof electronic communications in nearly allinstances.A narrow exception to this restric-tion enabled law enforcement to request acourt order from a “high-level” JusticeDepartment official to secretly track andgather such communications in “serious”criminal cases. If granted, these court orderswere narrow in scope and required notifi-cation of the surveillance once the orderexpired.41 Chapter 121 provided less privacyprotection than Title III, followed in turn,by Chapter 206.

The USA PATRIOT Act, which is 342pages long, alters the degree of privacy pro-tection afforded to communication by gov-ernment authorities.42

Specifically, the act expands tracking andgathering capabilities involving:

• Search warrants: that authorize the searchand seizure of property consisting of evi-dence of the commission of a crime, con-traband, or items used in the commissionof a crime.

• Wiretaps: that constitute electronic eaves-dropping by government authoritiesbased on a court order.

• Subpoenas: that compel a party to appear,give testimony, and produce required documents.

• Pen register and trap and trace orders: thatauthorize the collection of incoming andoutgoing telephone numbers from a spe-cific telephone.43

Furthermore, the Foreign IntelligenceSurveillance Court, a secret court empow-ered to grant U.S. intelligence agencies with the authority to conduct surveillanceof foreign nations and U.S. citizens underspecial circumstances, has similar expandedcapabilities.44

Tracking and Gathering of DomesticCommunication by Law EnforcementIn operation, the USA PATRIOT Actallows the government to:

1. Collect information about the webbrowsing, e-mail, and person-to-personactivities of Americans, including individ-uals who are not under criminal investi-gation. A judge located anywhere in theUnited States must simply be “notified”and agree that such surveillance mayresult in obtaining information relevantto an ongoing criminal investigation.45

2. Obtain stored voice-mail with only asearch warrant.

3. Obtain pen register and trap and traceorders for electronic communications,including e-mail.46

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4. Employ sneak and peak warrants thatenable law enforcement agencies to sur-reptitiously enter homes and other privateareas to search and inspect items or evi-dence. In some instances, physical prop-erty and electronic communications canbe seized. Notice of such a search couldbe delayed for an undetermined period oftime.47

5. Conduct surveillance of “computer tres-passers” through ISPs, universities, ornetwork administrators without a judicialorder.48 An example of a “computer tres-passer” could be someone downloadingcopyrighted MP3 music files.

Foreign Intelligence Investigations andthe USA PATRIOT ActUnder the terms of the USA PATRIOTAct, certain prior restriction on gatheringforeign intelligence information within U.S.borders have been relaxed.According to thelanguage of the Act, the government has theauthority to:

1. Share information gathered in the processof conducting a domestic criminal inves-tigation (e.g., Grand Jury testimony andwiretaps) with intelligence bodies.49

2. Conduct roving surveillance of a suspect’swire or electronic communications, con-cerning the actions under investigation,regardless of the suspect’s location. Forexample, a roving wiretap would allowthe interception of communications asthe individual moves from phone boothto phone booth.50

3. Obtain a surveillance or a search ordereven if gathering foreign intelligence isonly a “significant” reason for such arequest rather that “the” reason.51

4. Obtain pen register and trap and trace orders for e-mail and telephonecommunications.52

5. Obtain access to “any tangible item” (e.g.,a letter or a diskette) without a courtorder.53

6. Obtain nationwide search warrants fordomestic or international terrorist inves-tigations making it easier to “venue shop”for a court most likely to grant therequest.54

In sum, no one can deny that Americansand America was changed forever on Sep-tember 11, 2001 and expanded governmen-tal powers have been one result. But thisscenario also raises critical questions—howdo you strike a constitutional balance be-tween the need to protect the public and the need to preserve civil liberties? Thisanswer is particularly important in light of potential legislation, including USAPATRIOT II that could expand the USAPATRIOT Act’s provisions.The answer mayalso enhance, or could potentially curtail,our civil liberties.55

CONCLUSION

Conducting wire and electronic monitoringto thwart criminal and terrorist activity is alegitimate use of surveillance and relatedcommunications technologies. However,careful vigilance is essential to ensure theindividual privacy rights of those not underinvestigation. Continued legislation andjudicial oversight may be necessary if pri-vacy safeguards are to be maintained.

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REFERENCES/NOTES

1. ABC News, “FBI Pushing for EnhancedWiretap Powers,” Transcript from Nightline,show #2870 (May 22, 1992), 3.

2. Sam Whitmore, “Drop a Dime and StopSome Spooky Legislation,” PC Week 9 (May 18,1992), 100.

3. U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy, “Leahy Intro-duces Encryption Communications PrivacyAct,” News Release. Senator Patrick Leahy.March 5, 1996, p. 1. Downloaded from http://leahy.senate.gov/text/press/199603/19960305.html.

4. Surreply Comments of the ACLU, theEPIC, the EFF, and Computer Professionals forSocial Responsibility, Before the Federal Com-munications Commission, CC Docket No.97–213,downloaded from www.aclu/Congress.

5. CALEA. 47 USC 1001–1010. Tech LawJournal, downloaded from www.techlawjournal.com.

6. FCC. FCC Proposes Rules to Meet Tech-nical Requirements of CALEA, CC DocketNo. 97–213. October 22, 1998, downloadedfrom www.FCC.gov.

7. Surreply Comments off ACLU, EPIC,EFF, and Computer Professionals.

8. U.S.Telecom Association et al. v. FCC et al.2000 U.S.App. LEXIS 19967 at 2, downloadedfrom LEXIS.

9. Ibid.10. “BXA Encryption Export Regulations.”

January 12,2000,1,downloaded from www.eff.org.11. Ibid.12. Ibid.13. Note: U.S. identified terrorist nations

have included Libya and North Korea amongothers.

14. BXA.“Encryption Export Regulations.”January 12, 2000, 1, downloaded fromwww.eff.org.

15. Ibid., 3.16. Ibid., 2.17. Ibid., 4.18. U.S. Department of Commerce. “U.S.

Encryption Export Control Policy FrequentlyAsked Questions.” June 6, 2002, 2, downloadedfrom www.bxa.doc.gov.

19. U.S. Department of Commerce. “NewRegulation Streamlines Export Controls.”Com-merce News. January 14, 2003, 1, downloadedfrom www.bxa.doc.gov.

20. Ibid.21. Karn v. Department of State. 925 F. Supp.

1. 1996.22. Karn v. Department of State. No. 96-5121.

January 21, 1997, 1, downloaded from LEXIS.23. Bernstein v. Department of State. U.S. Dist.

Crt. No. D. CA. No. C–95–0582MHP, down-loaded from www.eff.org/.

24. Bernstein v. United States. 97–16686.CV–9700582.1999.

25. Electronic Privacy Information Center.“EPIC Alert.” Vol. 6.16. October 12, 1999, 3,downloaded from www.epic.org/.

26. Electronic Frontier Foundation. MediaAdvisory. “Professor Pushes for RevisedEncryption Regulations.” January 7, 2002,downloaded from www.eff.org/.

27. In another case, the court examined theconstitutionality of State Department regula-tion controlling the use and transfer of sophis-ticated encryption software. The court ruledthat according to the language of the ExportAdministration Regulations, the State Depart-ment’s policy did not abridge the First Amend-ment since it only controlled the distribution ofthe encryption software itself and did notimpact on ideas concerning encryption. See 38.Junger v. Christopher/Junger v. Daley. 8 F. Supp. 2d708. 1998.

28. Note: The FBI, because of the name’snegative connotation, changed Carnivore’sname.

29. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) provideusers with Internet access.

30. ACLU. “Letter to Reps. Canady andWatts on the FBI’s E-Mail Surveillance System,‘Carnivore’.” July 11, 2000, 2, downloaded fromwww.aclu.org.

31. ACLU. “Urge Congress to Stop theFBI’s Use of Privacy-Invading Software.” Jan-uary 5, 2003, 1, downloaded from ACLU.

32. Ibid.33. Ibid.

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34. “FBI Carnivore Diagnostic Tool.” State-ment of Dr. Donald M. Kerr, FBI. Before theHouse of Representatives Committee on theJudiciary. July 24, 2000, 1, downloaded fromwww.fbi.gov/.

35. Ibid.36. Ibid.37. Ibid.38. Erich Luening. “Don’t Be Fooled:

DCS1000 Still a ‘Carnivore’ at Heart.”ZDNET. February 8, 2001, 1, downloaded fromhttp://zdnet.com.

39. Please see Chapter 1 for more details.40. Charles Doyle. “The USA PATRIOT

Act: A Sketch.” Congressional Research Ser-vice. Order Code R21203. April 18, 2002, 2,downloaded from www.house.gov/.

41. Ibid.42. Ibid.43. Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF).

“Analysis of the Provisions of the USAPATRIOT Act That Related to Online Activ-ity.” October 31, 2002, 5, downloaded fromwww.eff.org.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid., 2.46. Congressional Research Service. 2,

downloaded from www.house.gov/.47. Center for Democracy and Technology

(CDT). “Anti-terrorism Legislation GuttingPrivacy Standard Becomes Law.” Policy PostVol.7, No.11. October 26, 2002, 1, downloadedfrom www.cdt.org.

48. Ibid.49. Center for Democracy and Technology.

“Summary and Analysis of Key Sections of USAPATRIOT Act of 2001.” 2. October 31, 2001,downloaded from www.cdt.org.

50. Ibid., 3.51. Congressional Research Service, 3.52. Ibid.53. Ibid.54. Center for Democracy and Technology.

“Summary and Analysis of Key Sections of USAPATRIOT Act of 2001.” 8, downloaded fromwww.cdt.org.

55. David Cole. “What PATRIOT II Pro-poses to Do.” Georgetown University LawCenter. (February 10, 2003), downloaded fromLEXIS.

SUGGESTED READINGS

ACLU. “Urge Congress to Stop FBI’s Use ofPrivacy-Invading Software.” January 5, 2003,1, downloaded from www.aclu.org.

Center for Democracy and Technology. “Anti-terrorism Legislation Gutting Privacy Stan-dard Becomes Law.” October 26, 2002. vol. 7No. 11, pp. 1–4, downloaded from www.cdt.org.

Department of Commerce. “BXA EncryptionExport Regulation.” January 12, 2000, 1–5,downloaded from www.eff.org.

Department of Commerce. “U.S. EncryptionExport Control Policy: FAQ.” June 6, 2002,1–9, downloaded from www.BXA.doc.gov.

Department of Commerce. “New RegulationStreamlines Export Controls.” January 14,2003,1,downloaded from www.BXA.doc.gov.

Doyle, Charles. “The USA PATRIOT Act: ASketch.” Congressional Research Service.

April 18, 2002, 1–5, downloaded fromwww.house.gov.

Electronic Frontier Foundation. “Analysis of the Provisions of The USA PATRIOT Actthat Relate to Online Activity.” October 31, 2002, 1–15, downloaded from www.eff.org.

Electronic Privacy Information Center.“Appeals Court to Review Bernstein CryptoDecision.” October 12, 1999. Vol. 6.16, pp.1–4, downloaded from www.epic.org.

Electronic Privacy Information Center. “TheUSA PATRIOT Act.” October 31, 2001,1–10, downloaded from www.epic.org.

Kerr, Donald.“FBI Carnivore Diagnostic Tool.”Statement of Dr. Donald M. Kerr before theHouse of Representatives Committee on theJudiciary. January 24, 2000, 1–2, downloadedfrom www.cdt.org.

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USA PATRIOT Act. Pub. L. No. 107–56. 107thCongress.2001, 1–91, downloaded fromhttp://216.110.42.179/docs/usa.act.final.102401.html.

United States Telecom Association et al. v. FCC et al. 2000 U.S. App. LEXIS 19967. 1–23,downloaded from LEXIS.

GLOSSARY

Carnivore/DCS1000: A powerful online e-mail/electronic surveillance program requiringISPs to attach a box to their networks so theFBI can monitor vast volumes of trafficpassing through the ISP’s facility.

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court: Secretcourt composed of seven judges housed inthe Department of Justice. The court meetsin secret and authorizes secret surveillancerequests.The court does not publish its ordersor opinions or provide any public record ofits decisions. The subjects of surveillanceapproved by the court are unaware of theinvestigation.

Pen Register and Trap and Trace Order: Authorizesthe collection of incoming and outgoing tele-phone numbers from a specific telephone.

Roving Wiretap: Allows interception of com-munications, as the individual under investi-gation moves from place to place such asfrom phone booth to phone booth.

Search Warrant: Authorizes the search andseizure of property consisting of evidence ofthe commission of a crime, contraband, oritems used in the commission of a crime.

Sneak and Peak Warrant: Enables law enforce-ment agencies to surreptitiously enter homesand other private areas to search and inspectitems or evidence. In some instance, physicalproperty and electronic communications canbe seized. Notice of the search could bedelayed for an undetermined period of time.

Strong Encryption: Encryption method using avery large number for its cryptographic keymaking it much more difficult to illegallybreak the encryption code.

Subpeona: Compels a party to appear, give tes-timony, and produce required documents.

Wiretap: Electronic eavesdropping by govern-ment authorities based upon a court order.

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This afterword is a general summary and ex-plores some potential technological trends.

On the political front, the Internet couldnurture an electronic democracy while pro-viding access to vast information resources.Optical media will serve as information andelectronic publishing sources in their ownright.

PC developments will blossom, and newsystems may sport GUIs and other interfacesthat will make the human–computer linkeven more transparent. Speech recognitionand wireless systems may also play promi-nent roles in this field, and when appropri-ate, could even be extended to everydayappliances.1

The convergence between technologieswill continue, and the resulting synergy willbe fertile ground for new products andapplications. One such area is the conver-gence between computers and audio-videoequipment, as is the case with the HDTV/digital television market.

Entire communications systems may besimilarly influenced. As introduced in anearlier chapter, we are witnessing the devel-opment of integrated information andentertainment highways. This may bematched by a growing number of intra- andinterindustry mergers.

Digital technology will continue to playa key role in our future information andcommunications systems.But as described atdifferent points in this book, the analogworld is still very much alive.

Personal media options will also grow. Byusing desktop publishing and video systems,we become producers and not just con-sumers. This facet of the communicationrevolution cannot be overstated. We nowpossess a remarkable set of personal com-munications tools.You can let your imagi-nation soar as you create a 3-D graphic, andyou can gain access to tailored informationand entertainment pools.

By extension, our communication op-tions will deepen, especially in the area ofwireless systems.We may also hold a video-conference from either the office or home.For more people the home may, in fact,become their offices.

Information will remain an importantresource. As our information society ma-tures, the production of, and the demandfor, information will increase. We’ll alsodevelop new ways to manipulate and usethis information. The tools include exist-ing and newer configurations (e.g., virtualreality) that may use faster communicationsand information highways (e.g., Internet2).

But despite this growth of the informa-tion sector, it’s also important to rememberthat heavy industries are still vital—some-one has to make the steel and other prod-ucts we use.

The integration of and the correctbalance between an information and indus-trial base could help propel a countrytoward the future. If the balance is lost, acountry’s economy could suffer.

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OTHER ISSUES

Some people believe the new technologiesmay be too much of a good thing.Will elec-tronic clutter become too pervasive? Howdo you strike a balance between the needfor quiet, reflective periods and your com-munications and information requirements?

With the possible proliferation of virtualreality systems and the Internet’s growth,will people become more divorced fromreality? What of potential electronic addic-tions and obsessions? Will more peoplespend more time online than in the realworld? Are we catching a glimpse ofAsimov’s future world in our presentsociety?

While this may appear to be a remotepossibility, think about the potential. TheInternet can give you access to an almostunlimited and ever-changing data pool.Some people have likened this potentialaddiction to smoking. But instead of onemore cigarette, there may be one more website to visit. And there may always be onemore web site.

Although current and projected applica-tions are exciting, they must also be exam-ined with a dose of reality. One of theproblems with predictions is that they oftenremain predictions even after a number ofyears. In one classic example, artists andauthors in the 1950s and 1960s painted abright picture for the space program. Moonbases would be sprawled over the lunarsurface, and huge space stations, much likethe one portrayed in 2001:A Space Odyssey,would orbit the Earth. But many of thesepredictions have not materialized. Part ofthe problem was the lack of money.Anothermay have been the technical and/or politi-cal inability to transform these visions intoa reality.

The same sequence of events could affectthe new communications technologies.Although PCs can serve as educational

tools, will schools be equipped with enoughsystems to make a difference? Even thoughwe will have greater technical support tomaintain the free flow of information, willgovernment regulations intercede?

The First Amendment and its attendantrights will also be challenged and furtherdefined for the electronic media. In onecase, it has been suggested that CDA-typeacts could be forestalled by taking reason-able means to protect children from poten-tial, electronic online abuses. This couldinclude, when properly implemented, filtersthat would prevent children from gainingaccess to certain web sites.

But as has been covered, constitutionalquestions are raised when mandatory block-ing is adopted. Consequently, how do youreconcile the two viewpoints—the vitalimportance of protecting children whilepreserving the free access to information?Are more narrowly tailored regulations, intandem with appropriate safeguards, theanswer? In one earlier library dispute, com-puters were made available with andwithout filtering software. Another factor isparents and educators assuming greaterresponsibility in helping their children tonavigate the Internet. In the end, this maybe the most important and potent force tohelp ensure a child’s safety.

In essence, technological changes willcontinue to clash with the legal system. Insome cases, technological developments willoutstrip the law’s ability to react to thesechanges.

Some people also believe the legal systemmay overreact. As covered in Chapter 6, doyou introduce tighter controls on imaging,which some have categorized as vague anda First Amendment violation? Or do youwork with the media in regard to nationalsecurity issues?

As an employer, you may have to makeyour own hard decisions. Do you adopt apublished e-mail policy? Or do you use the

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Afterword 321

legal system, as of this writing, to monitoryour employees at your discretion?

Other ethical and legal questions willloom ever larger. Pertinent topics includeintellectual property, digital image manipu-lation, and privacy.

Finally, it is important to remember thatcertain new technologies and their applica-tions are like the proverbial double-edgedsword. As has been explored at differentpoints in this book, one side may be used tofight terrorism and to provide us with moredetailed information about rapidly changingworld events.The other side, however, mayprovide a government with the means tocurtail its citizens’ freedom.

As stated in the Preface, the same tools usedto protect our freedom have the potential to curtailour freedom.As communicators, it’s importantto be aware of these issues as we make deter-minations as to a technology’s appropriate orinappropriate use and application.

Figure A.1The disk mounted onthe Voyager spacecraftthat may eventuallycarry information aboutEarth to a distant star;it’s potentially one of ourfirst calling cards toanother world. (Courtesyof NSSDC.)

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. For wireless technology, this couldinclude linking a television set in the net-work. For a completely wireless home,your future coffeepot may similarly be

tied-in, so the computer controlling yourhome’s functions could turn it on beforeyou get home from work.

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A&M Records v. Napster, 300–302ABC, 82Academic American Encyclopedia, 123Ada, 40Advanced Communications Technology

Satellite (ACTS), 91–92Advanced Compatible Television (ACTV),

181–182Advanced Television (ATV), 179Advertising, Internet, 239–240ALPHA HQ, 293–294American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)

biometrics and, 9. 10Carnivore/DCS1000 and, 312–313Child Online Protection Act and, 269–271Communications Decency Act and, 266–269filtering and, 271–274

American Small Business Computers, 156Amplitude, 15Analog signals, 18–21Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC), 18–20Animation programs, 41–42

legal issues, 193–194AOL, 232, 233, 288–289, 290Apollo Computers, 45Apperson, Gene, 40Apple Computer, 38, 50, 137, 138, 154, 236, 237Arbitron, 173Arianespace, 95, 97Arnett, Peter, 80, 81ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects

Agency Network), 231Artificial intelligence (AI)

computer vision, 54–55expert systems, 53–54implications of, 55natural language processing, 52speech recognition, 52–53

ASCII (American Standard Code forInformation Interchange), 39

Ashcroft v. ACLU, 270Asimov, Isaac, 226AT&T, 63, 107–108, 209, 223Audio

consoles and editing, 168digital, 168–170

Audioconferences, 221Authoring software, 149–150

Bandwidth, 16Batteries, for cell phones, 109BBC, 81Being Digital (Negroponte), 159Bell, Alexander Graham, 61Ben Ezra, Weinstein & Co. v. AOL, 290Berners-Lee, Tim, 233Bernstein v. U.S., 311–312Binary digits, 18Biometrics, 8–11Bits, 18Bluetooth technology, 113Blumenthal v. Matt Drudge and AOL, 289Bohach et al. v. The City of Reno, 257–258Bono, Sonny, 297–298Borland International, 50Brand, Stewart, 159Brender, Mark, 82Broadband, 23Broadband over power line (BPL), 215Browsers, 39, 234Bush,Vannevar, 129Bush administration, 83, 85, 311Byron, Augusta Ada, 40

Cable industrychanges in, 209–215satellites and, 76wireless technology used by, 107

Cablevision Systems Corp., 79Cancelbots, 244Capra, Frank, 192Capture cards, video, 152Carafano v. Metrosplash.com, 289–290Carnivore/DCS1000, 312–313C-band satellites, 71, 73CBS, 179CD-I (compact disk-interactive), 123–124, 128CD-R (compact disk-recordable), 125, 128CD-ROMs (compact disk-read only memory),

34, 121, 122–123, 128CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable), 125CDs (compact disks), 25–26, 122, 127

Index

323

324 INDEX

Cell phones, 108–109Censorship

See also Obscenity, onlineV-chip, 276–278

Central processing unit (CPU), 34Challenger, 94–95, 100Charged coupled device (CCD), 141Child Online Protection Act (COPA) (1998),

269–271Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA)

(2000), 272–274Chilling effect, 265Clarke, Arthur C., 69, 70Clinton administration, 310Clip art, 123CNN (Cable News Network), 80COBOL, 40Cochran, Barbara, 83, 85Codec, 154Colorization, 191–192Color printers, 138–139Columbia, 94, 101Communication revolution, impact of, 5–8Communications Act (1934), 265Communications Assistance for Law

Enforcement Act (CALEA) (1994), 310Communications Decency Act (CDA) (1995),

265–269Communications system, defined, 3Communication Systems (Haykin), 18Compatibility, computer, 21Compression, 127, 153–154CompuServe, 274–275, 285–286Computer-aided design (CAD) programs, 41,

156–157Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), 41Computer conferencing, 224–227Computer Glossary, The (Freedman), 33Computers

hardware, 33–35, 137–139interfaces, 36–37micro-, 35–37personal computers, use of termsoftware, 38–43, 141–143vision, 54–55

Comsat (Communications SatelliteCorporation), 75, 78

Convergencedesktop video, 156optical disk/media, 128of technology, 6–7

Copyright protection, 50–51, 296–302Copyright Term Extension Act (CTEA) (1998),

297–298Corel Systems Corp., 123CRT monitors, 35Cubby Inc. v. CompuServe Inc., 285–286CU-SeeMe, 222Cyber Patrol, 266Cyberspace, 233Cyberstalking, 295–296Cyberterrorism, 242

Datacompression, 127, 153–154defined, 33integrity, 22storage in computers, 34technology, 18–21

Database programs, 38–39Data-Mining Moratorium Act (2003), 10Delta-Clipper Experimental (DC-X) rocket, 99Democratization of information, 7, 200Desktop publishing (DTP)

applications, 144–145digital still cameras, 140–141guidelines, 143hardware, 137–139scanners, 139–140software, 141–143

Desktop video (DT-V)applications, 157–159compression, 153–154convergence, 156graphics software, 156–157hardware, 152–153legal issues, 193–194production issues, 159–161QuickTime, 154–156Video Toaster, 157

Diamond Multimedia, 299Diamond v. Diehr, 50Digital audio broadcasting (DAB), 185–187Digital audio systems, 168–171Digital audiotape (DAT), 122, 169–170Digital cameras, 140–141Digital communications

advantages of, 21–25disadvantages of, 25–26

Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)(1990s), 296–297

Digital signals, 18–21

INDEX 325

Digital special effects, 166Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), 23Digital television (DTV), 183–185Digital-to-analog conversion (DAC), 20Digital video effects (DVEs), 166Digital video recording, 168–169, 170Direct broadcast satellites (DBS), 77–80DirecTV, 79, 214Disk drive, 34Doherty, Rick, 40D-1 and D-2 formats, 170Dongle, 49–50Downlinks, 70–71Drawing programs, 41DVCAM, 170DVCPRO, 170DVD-R (digital versatile/video disk-

recordable), 125, 127DVD-RAM (digital versatile/video disk-

random access memory), 125, 127DVD-RW (digital versatile/video disk-

rewritable), 125, 127DVDs (digital versatile/video disks), 121,

124–127

Earth station, 69E-business, 242–244Echo satellites, 69Economic issues, 7, 24Edit controllers, 152Eldib, Osman, 225Electromagnetic pulse (EMP), 8Electromagnetic spectrum, 16–18Electronic Communications Privacy Act

(ECPA) (1986), 259Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), 10Electronic music, 197–198Electronic newsroom, 172–173E-mail, privacy and, 255–261Emergency Broadcast System (EBS), 8Encryption, 309–312Endeavor, 95Entertainment and information

copyright issues, 299–302merger of, 210–215

Ergonomics, 37Ethical issues

biometrics and, 10colorization and, 192democratization of information and, 7, 200image manipulation and, 193

European Space Agency (ESA), 95Exon, James, 265Expansion boards, 34Expendable launch vehicles (ELVs), 95, 99Expert systems, 53–54

Facial recognition, 9FBI, 312–313FCC (Federal Communications Commission),

17broadband over power line and, 215Communications Assistance for Law

Enforcement Act and, 310digital audio broadcasting and, 186high definition television and, 181–183media ownership, 200–201personal communication services and, 110satellites and, 70, 72, 75, 77specific absorption rate and, 109telephone companies and video service and,

210television program ratings and, 276–277

Federal Emergency Management Agency(FEMA), 8

Feingold, Russell, 10Fiber optics (FO)

advantages of, 62applications, 63–66disadvantages of, 62–63transmission, 61–62

File Transfer Protocol (FTP), 234Filtering, 271–274Fingerprints, scanning of, 9Firewalls, 241FireWire, 167–168First Amendment issues, 7

cancelbots and, 244Carnivore/DCS1000, 312–313copyright protection, 50–51, 296–302cyberstalking, 295–296hate speech, 291–295libel, 285–291remote sensing and, 82–83USA Patriot Act (2001), 313–315V-chip, 276–278wiretapping and encryption, 309–312

Flash, 238Fonts, 138Footprint, 71Fourth Amendment, 255, 256–258Framing, 302

326 INDEX

Franks, Tommy, 81Fraser v. Nationwide Mutual Insurance Co., 258Freedman, Alan, 33Frequency, 15–16

Nyquist, 20Frequency division multiplexing (FDM),

21–22

Gabor, Dennis, 130Galileo, 97, 101Geostationary orbits, 69–70Gibson, William, 233GIF, 40Google, 235Gorton, Slade, 265Graphical user interfaces (GUIs), 38Graphics card, 35Graphics manipulation, 142Graphics software, 40, 156–157Graphics tablet, 36Greeking, 137Greene, Harold, 209Grolier, 123

Hard drives, 34Hardware

computer, 33–35, 137–139desktop video, 152–153multimedia, 150–152

Hate Crime Prevention Act (2003), 291Hate speech, 291–295Haykin, Simon, 18HBO, 76, 77Hertz, 15–16Hertz, Heinrich, 15Hewlett-Packard, 138High definition television (HDTV), 179–185Holographic interferometry, 131Holographic optical element (HOE), 131Holography, 130–131Home satellite dishes (HSDs), 77HTML (hypertext markup language), 234,

237–238Hubble Space Telescope, 101Hughes Communications Inc., 79Hughes Electronics Corp., 79Human-computer interface, 36–37Hundt, Reed, 182–183Hypermedia, 129Hypertext, 129

iBiquity Digital Corp., 186IBM, 35, 38, 137, 151Image editing programs, 40–41Image manipulation, 192–193In-band on-channel (IBOC) system, 186Indecent speech, 265–266Industrial infrastructure, 45Information

defined, 4–5, 33democratization of, 7, 200management, 172–175retrieval, 129–130as a signal, 4

Information society, 5Information storage

holography, 130–131optical disks, 122–130

Inmarsat (International Maritime SatelliteOrganization), 75, 76

Integrated circuits (ICs), 24Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN),

23, 24Intellectual property, 7

software piracy, 49–51Intelsat (International Telecommunications

Satellite Organization), 71, 75, 76Interfaces, 36–37International Telecommunications Union, 72Internet

See also Obscenity, onlinedevelopment of, 231e-business, 242–244entertainment and, 212–213growth of, 235–240hate speech, 291–295libel, 285–291privacy issues, 244–245regulation of, 266security issues, 241–242teleconferencing and, 222–223traffic capacity, 240–241

Internet Explorer, 234Internet2, 195, 222–223, 241Iomega, 127–128Iridium, 112

Japan, 179Java, 40, 237–238JPEG ( Joint Photographic Experts Group),

153

INDEX 327

Ka-band, 91–92Kapor, Mitchell, xiKarn v. Department of State, 311Kempf v. Time, Inc., 290Keyboards, 36Kodak Co., 124Koppel, Ted, 81Ku-band satellites, 71, 73

Lancaster, Don, 144Languages, programming, 39–40Laser angioplasty, 65Laser diodes (LDs), 61Lasers, use of infrared, 107Launch vehicles, 94–99Lawsuits, 50–51LCDs (liquid crystal displays), 24, 35, 137Legal issues

See also Obscenity, onlinebiometrics and, 10Carnivore/DCS1000, 312–313copyright protection, 50–51, 296–302cyberstalking, 295–296e-mail and, 255–261hate speech, 291–295libel, 285–291multimedia and desktop videos and, 193–194satellites and, 101–102software piracy, 49–51USA Patriot Act (2001), 313–315wiretapping and encryption, 309–312

Libel, online, 285–291Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 61Linking, 302Local area networks (LANs), 44–45

fiber optics in, 63wireless, 112–113

Lockheed Martin, 99Lossless compression, 153Lossy compression, 153Lotus Development Corp., 128Low earth orbits (LEOs), 111–112Lunney v. Prodigy Services Co., 290

Macromedia, 150Mainstream Loudoun et al. v. Board of Trustees of

the Loudoun County Library, 272Mariner 4, 22Markey, Edward, 277, 278McGreevy, Michael W., 195

McLaren v. Microsoft, 260Media Lab, 159Media Lab, The (Brand), 159Media ownership, 200–201Memory, computer, 33–34Metrosplash.com, 289–290Microcomputers, 35–37Microsoft Corp., 38, 50, 151, 234, 236, 237Microwave systems, 107Miller v. California, 266MiniDisc (MD), 169Mini-DV, 170Minoli, Daniel, 225Mobile wireless services, 108–114Modem, 22–23, 24Modulation, 16Monitors, 35, 137–138Mosaic, 234Motion videoconferences, 219Motorola, 214Mouse, 36MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group),

153–154MP3.com, 299–300MP3 player, 122, 153MS-DOS, 38Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service

(MMDS), 107Multimedia, 129

applications, 157–159authoring software, 149–150hardware, 150–152legal issues, 193–194production issues, 159–161

Multiplexing, 21–22Multiuser system, 44Music, electronic, 197–198Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI),

152–153

Napster, 300–302NASA, 22

Advanced Communications TechnologySatellite (ACTS), 91–92

Challenger, 94–95, 100Columbia, 94, 101history and highlights of, 100–101telepresence and, 195X-30, X-33 and X-34 flight vehicles, 98,

99

328 INDEX

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA), 100

National AeroSpace Plane Program (NASP), 98National Association of Broadcasters (NAB),

183, 185National Center for Supercomputing

Applications (NCSA), 234National Geographic, 193National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), 93National Telecommunications and Information

Administration (NTIA), 26Natural language processing, 52NBC, 76, 79Negroponte, Nicholas, 17, 159Negroponte switch, 17–18Netscape Communications, 234, 237Neural networks, 53–54Neuromancer (Gibson), 233News Corporation Limited, 79NewTek, 157New York Times, 298–299NHK, 179No Electronic Theft Act (1997), 296Noise, 16Nonlinear video editing (NLE), 166–168,

170Nonmotion videoconferences, 219, 220–221NTT DoCoMo, 111Nuremberg files, 294–295Nyquist rate, 20

Obscenity, onlineChild Online Protection Act, 269–271Children’s Internet Protection Act, 272–274Communications Decency Act, 265–269filtering, 271–274international response to, 274–276

O’Connor v. Ortega, 256–257Ofoto, 140Ohio Consortium for Advanced

Communications Technology (OCACT),91–92

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act(1968), Title III, 258–259

Operating systems (OS), 38Operation Desert Storm, 80Operation Iraqi Freedom, 81Optical character recognition (OCR), 53, 140

Optical disk/mediaconvergence of, 128information retrieval, 129–130nonrecordable media, 122–125privacy issues, 128–129recordable media, 125–127

Orbital scarcity problem, 72Orbital Sciences Corp., 95

Page composition software, 141–143Paint programs, 40PanAmSat, 75Panasonic, 170Paperless society, 198–200Patent protection, 50–51PC-SIG, 123Pegasus, 95Pen-based computing, 37Personal communication services (PCS), 110Personal computers (PCs)

See also Computersbased operations, 232–233use of term, 33

Personal digital assistants (PDAs), 37Personal publishing, 144Personal videoconferences, 223Personal video recorders (PVRs), 213–214Photo CDs, 124, 128Phototyping, 161Picturephone, 223Pixels (picture elements), 21Planned Parenthood of the Columbia/ Willamette

Inc. et al. v. American Coalition of Life Activistset al., 294–295

Playboy v. Frena, 298Playboy v. Hardenburgh, 298Plug and play, 151–152Powell, Michael, 200–201Presentation programs, 42Printers, types of, 43–44, 138–139Privacy issues, 7

e-mail and, 255–261Internet and, 244–245optical media and, 128–129USA Patriot Act (2001), 313–315wiretapping and encryption, 309–312

Prodigy Inc., 286–287, 290Production equipment, 165–168Programming languages, 39–40

INDEX 329

Prototyping, 196Pseudocoloring, 191Pulse code modulation (PCM), 18–19

Qube, 210–211QuickTime, 154–156

Radio-Television News Directors Association(RTNDA), 82, 83–85

Rand, Ayn, 17Random access memory (RAM), 34RCA, 124Reagan, Ronald, 94RealNetworks, 236Remote sensing satellites, 82–83Reno, Janet, 266–269, 270Resolution, 138Restuccia v. Burk Technology, Inc., 259–260Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Program,

99RIAA v. Diamond, 299Richard, Eric, 233Robotic systems, 165

Sable Communications of California Inc. v. FederalCommunications Commission, 266

St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 193Sampling rate, 20Satellite digital audio radio service (SDARS),

185Satellite newsgathering (SNG), 80–83Satellites, 64

active, 69antennas, 71applications, 75–77communications and, 111–112direct broadcast, 77–80fundamentals of, 69–71future for, 91–94launch vehicles, 94–99legal issues, 101–102organizations, 75–76passive, 69power system, 72–73remote sensing, 82–83space debris and weather, impact of,

93–94space exploration, 99–102spacing of, 72

transmission methods, 73–75use of, in news and wars, 80–83

Satellite Television Corp. (STC), 78Scanners, 139–140Schowengerdt v. General Dynamics, 257Scrambling, 77Scriptwriting, 172Search engines, 235Security issues

Internet and, 241–242wireless technology and, 113

Sega v. MAPHIA, 298Server, 44Set-top boxes (STBs), 211–212Shannon, Claude, 4Shoars v. Epson American, 259Signals

analog, 18–21characteristics of, 15–16digital, 18–21

Signal-to-noise ratio, 16Sikes, Alfred, 181Smallsats, 92–93Smyth v. The Pillsbury Co., 257Society of Motion Picture and Television

Engineers (SMPTE), 26Software

graphics, 40, 156–157multimedia and authoring, 149–150piracy, 49–51for scanners, 140types of, 38–43, 141–143

Somm, Felix, 274–275Sony, 169, 170Space

debris, 93–94exploration, 99–102platforms, 93shuttles, 94–95weather, 93–94

Spamming, 244Specific absorption rate (SAR), 109Speech recognition, 52–53Spreadsheet programs, 39Spyware, 244Standards, 26–27

teleconferencing, 221–222web, 233

Stare decisis, 256

330 INDEX

Storage. See Information storageStorage Technology Corp., 127Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 194Stratton Oakmont et al. v. Prodigy Inc., 286–287Streaming, 235–236Sun Microsystems, 45, 237Switchers, 165Syncom satellites, 69–70Systems approach, 8

Tapeless systems, 170–171Targus, 9Tasini et al. v. New York Times, 298–299TAT-8, 63–64Technology

biometrics and implications of, 9–10convergence of, 6–7

Telecom Act (1996), 210, 246, 265, 276,287–288

Telecommuting, 225–226Teleconferencing, 195

advantages of, 223–224audioconferences, 221flexibility, 222Internet and, 222–223standards, 221–222transmissions, 222videoconferences, 219–221, 223

Telemedicine, 221Telephone industry, changes in, 209–215Teleports, 76Telepresence, 195Teletel, 233Teletext magazines, 232Television

digital, 183–185high definition, 179–185satellites and, 76V-chip, 276–278

Television Receive-Only (TVRO), 77Telstar satellites, 69Templates, 142–143Terrorism

cyber, 242increasing vulnerability to, 8security issues, 241–242USA Patriot Act (2001), 313–315

Terrorism Information Awareness, 11Text manipulation, 142Three Corner Sat (3CS), 92

Third generation (3G) systems, 110–1113D programs, 41–42TIFF, 40Time, Inc., 290Time division multiplexing (TDM), 22T1 line, 21, 22Total Information Awareness (TIA), 10–11Touchpad, 36Touch screen, 36–37Transducer, 15Transponders, 71, 73Typefaces, 138

UMG Recordings v. MP3.com, 299–300Underwater fiber optics, 63–64United Satellite Communications, Inc. (USCI),

79USA Patriot Act (2001), 313–315U.S. v. Kingman Quon, 292–293U.S. v. Richard Machado, 292U.S. v. Robert and Carleen Thomas, 271Uplinks, 70–71URLs (uniform resource locators), 234

Vacuum tubes, 8V-chip, 276–278VCRs, 127Very small aperture terminals (VSATs), 74–75Video, digital, 168–169, 170Videoconferences, 219–221, 223Video dialtone (VDT), 210Videodisks, 124Video-on-demand (VOD), 209–215Videotext, 232–233Video Toaster, 157Virtual offices, 112–113Virtual reality, 194–197Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML),

238–239Viruses, computer, 45Visual Basic, 40Visualization programs, 42–43

Weaver, Warren, 4Web browsers, 39Western Union, Westar I satellite, 75Wide area network (WAN), 44Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity), 113Wilson, Ryan, 293–294Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), 246

INDEX 331

Wireless local area networks (WLANs),112–113

Wireless systemsmicrowave, laser, and cable, 107–108mobile, 108–114

Wiretapping and encryption, 309–312Word processing software, 39, 141World Wide Web (WWW), 233–235Write once, read many (WORM) drives, 121,

127

X-band, 92XM Satellite Radio, 186X-prize, 99X-30, X-33 and X-34 flight vehicles, 98,

99

Yahoo, 235, 275Y2K, 51–52

Zeran v. AOL, 288–289

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