G L IM P S E S

I N T O

THE LIFE OF INDIAN PLANTS

A N E LEME N TA RY IN D IA N BO TA N Y

I. P F L E ID E R E R

TH I RD E D IT I O N,REVI S E D A N D E N L A RG Eq

PUBLIS H ED BY T H E

BASEL MISSION BO O K A N D TRACT D E POSITORY,MANGALORE

1 9 1 6

Copyright registered.

PR INTE D AT T H E BASEL MISSION PRESS,MANGALORE .

PREFACE TO T H E F IRST ED IT ION

S OME years ago I was asked by a number of friendsin Mangalore to help them in the study of Botany. The

romise given at that time led me to compi le this l itt le

fiQuuk , which, I hope, w i l l rouse their interest in the l ife of

cfiflplants they were so anxious to know .

A t the same t ime I was prompted to come forward in

!wri ting a simple book on I ndian Botany by the sad dis

. appointment I felt when I w itnessed the poor and l ifelessin which

'object-lessons on plants were taught in our

e lementary schools. I understood that , if any improvem ent

“

in this subject was to be made, the teachers them

5selves had first to be interested in nature-study. A nd as

3 a treatment of Botany in the old way could not secure

isthe obj ect in v iew , I adopted a course which I was gladmy to find in D R . 0 . S CH ME I L

’

S Manua l of Botany, intended to“

open to any student of ordinary intell igence an under‘3 s tanding of plant-l ife and to enlarge and qu icken in hima sense of that infini te harmony which runs through

f every part of the Creator’

s m arvellous plan of nature,

{5

which would m ake the educationa l va lue of this subjectU’

equal to tha t of any other subject taught in schools.

a“To this end I comb ined the structural description of

fi lants w i th a pla in descript ion of their v ital processes.

fi Fhe technical terms, which so often form the crux of beginF h ers, are reduced to the sm allest number possib le, and

gmany statements are i llustrated by sui tab le cuts. The“i llustra tions m ay also ‘

be supplemented by the coloured

plates of I ndian P lants, published by the Basel M issionBook and Tract D epository, Manga lore, at a verymoderate

IV PREFACE

price, to which reference is made in the text , whereverpossible, and of which the eight coloured pictures found inthe book , are reduced reproductions.

I need . hardly emphasize that in using this m anua l as

a school-book the plants studied are to be put into the

student’

s hand, and that the types described should,i f

the cl imate perm its, be planted in a school garden for the

con tinued observation of the various stages of their l ife.

Many of them may, at least in theWest Coast of I ndia , be

procured in any field, wood, or garden.

The book does not aim at completeness, which is notrequired in a school-book . Yet ,

“

the natural orders select

ed are systematical ly grouped and the characters of the

various classes and divisions are briefly stated, so as to

give the student at once an insight into the classification

of the vegetable k ingdom

Manga lore, 1 908 .I . P .

PREFACE TO T H E SECON D ED IT ION

The present l i ttle volume has in its first edi tion been

more favourably received by the publ ic than I ever ex

pected. I ascribe this success more to the grow ing interest

in the subj ect than to the meri ts of the book itself. A bove

a ll , I beg to offer my sincere thank s to the educationa ldepartmen ts in the S outh and North of I ndia for the k ind

recogni tion of my work .

T he printing of a new edit ion has been taken advant

age of to make some corrections and to introduce new

matter, so as to increase the usefulness of the book . I f I

have erred on the side of excess, I trust my readers w il lfind it easier to el im ina te than to insert.

PREFACE

I am told that the types selected to represent the

several fam i l ies are not common to a ll parts of I ndia .

My personal know ledge of the I ndian flora being more

or less l im ited to the West Coast , I do not know whether

it would be possible to find out type-species suit ing all

parts of this grea t P eninsula . I must , therefore, leave it

to my readers to substitute other types from the number

of genera and spec ies mentioned in each fam i ly.

F or the identificat ion of plants I recommend any one

of the books on the F lora of I ndia named inthe bibl io

graphy, page 280. N airne’

s F lowering P lants of Western

I ndia is particularly useful for residents of theWest Coast.

The nomencla ture and classifica tion have not been

m ateria lly changed and are those of BE N T H A M and

H O O KE R .

I n using this book for school purposes I beg to offerthe fol lowing suggest ions to teachers

( 1 ) The book does not contain a scheme of lessons,but should be used as a storehouse from which the teachermay draw .

(2) The fol low ing curriculum m ay, perhaps, suggest

i tself to teachers of H igh S chools in S outhern I ndiaF irst year — D escript ions of indiv idual plants, such as

L otus, Cotton tree, Mango tree, Bean, Cucumber, S un

flower, B indweed, Chillies, Tumbe, Banyan tree, Cocoanut

palm , Kesu (T aro) , Gloriosa , Banana , R ice, F ern .

S econd year.

— S truc ture and L ife of P lants : L eaf,

R oot , S tem (pp. 1 98

Third year.

-F lora l B iology : F lower, F rui t, and S eed

(pp. 251

F ourth year— F actors determ ining t he l ife and strue

ture of plants :The Wa ter : R oots and their functions . — T ranspiration .

— Il ygrO phytes.

— Xerophyte s . — T ropophyte s . Water and Marsh plants .

V I PREFA CE

TheL ight : A s sim ilation — Thirst for light — Climbers . — P rotectionfrom intens e light .

The S oil : Whether porou s or not,whether manured or not .

Geological formations . — Mangrove . F lora of dunes . — E piphyte s andP arasite s . S aprophyte s and Carnivorous p lants . S ymbiotic p lants .

The A ir: Mechanical and phy sio logical effects of the w ind .

S trength of S tem s . R arification of air in high m ountains .

I am deeply convm ced tha t Botany is pre-em inently

the branch of S cience most fi tted for the young. A nd ifby putting forth this book I have done anything to rousethe interest of those who teach and those who learn forthis noble and pleasurable study, I shal l have been largelyrewarded for my efforts.

Udipi, I . P fleiderer.

O ctober 3 1 st, 1 91 1 .

PREFA CE TO T H E TH IRD ED IT ION

O ne is glad to know that there is an increasing demand

for this book and that the second edi tion is exhausted.

I t is evident that a large'

number of students are

learning Botany by the aid of this book . I hope they

w il l find tha t the many al terations m ade by the au thor

in this ed ition w i l l not only greatly assist them in their

study, bu t also make this subj ect even more a ttractive.

H assan , Mysore S ta te, A B rockbank .

September 1 9 1 6 .

TA B L E O F CON T E N T S

F I R S T P A R T

D E S CR IP T IO N O F TY P E S A N D F A M IL IE S

Pages .

D IV ISION I .

— F LOWE RING P LANT S (P hanerogawnae) 1

Class 1 . D icotyledons

S ub-Class 1 . P olypeta lce

1 0.

1 1 .

1 2 .

1 3 .

so

m

fl

e

e‘

e

w

w

f The Water-L i ly Fam ily (N ymphaeaceae)The Custard A pp l e Fam i ly (A nonaceae)The P oppy Fam i ly (P apaveraceae) .

The Crucifer or Mustard Fam ily (Cruciferae)The Ma l low and Co tton F am i ly (Ma lva ceae)The T ea Fam i ly (Ternstrwmiaceae)The O range Fam ily (R ittaeeae)The Mango (A na cardiaceae)The L egum inosse .

A . T he P eaflower Fam il y ( Papil ionacece)B . The CassiaC. The Mimosa (Mimosece)

The R os e Fam i ly (Rosaceae)The Myrt le Fam i ly (Myrtaceae)The Mangro v e Fam i ly (Rhizophora ceae)T he Cactus Fam ily (Cactaceae)

S ub-Class 2 . Gamopeta lte

1 4 .

1 5.

1 6 .

1 7 .

1 8.

1 9 .

20.

The Coffe e Fam i ly (Rubia ceae)The Comp osite Fam ily (Compositae)The Cucum ber and Gourd Fam i ly (Cucurbitaceae) .

The O li v e and Jasm ine Fam i ly (O leaceae)The D ogbane Fam i ly (Apocynaceae)The Mi lkw eed (A selepiadaceae)The Bindw eed (Convolvulaceae)

V III

2 1 .

22 .

2 3 .

24 .

25 .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

T he N ightshade Fam i ly (S otanaeeae)(a) T he P otato (Solanum tuberosum)

(b) T he Tob a cco P lant (N icotiana taba cum)

(o) O ther N igh tsh a desThe Butterw ort Fam i ly (L entibit lariaceae)The A canthus Fam i ly (A canthaceae)The L abiate Fam i ly (L abia tae)(a ) T he Tumbe P lant (Leucas aspera)

(b) T he Tulasi P lant (O cimum sanctum)

(0) O t her L ab ia tes

The Verbena Fam i ly (Verbenaceae)

S ub-Class 3 . Monochlamydece

26 .

2 7 .

28.

29 .

3 0.

3 1 .

The N ettl e and Fig Fam i ly (Urtica ceae)The Spurge Fam ily (E uphorbia ceae)The Birthw ort Fam i ly (A ristolochiaceae)The L aurel Fam i ly (L auraceae) .

The Mi stl eto e Fam ily (L oranthaceae)The P epp er Fam i ly (P iperaceae)

C lass 2 . M onocotyledons

3 2 .

3 3 .

3 4 .

3 5.

3 6 .

3 7 .

3 8.

3 9 .

40.

The P a lm Fam i ly (P a lmae)The A rum Fam ily (A roideae)The L i ly Fam i ly (L iliaceae)The A maryl lis Fam i ly (A maryl lidaceae)The O rchid Fam i ly (O rchidaceae)The Gire er and A rrowro ot Fam i ly (Z ingibera ceae)The Banana Fam ily (Musaceae)The Grass F am ily (Gramineae)The P ine Fam i ly (Coniferae)

D IVISION I I .

— F LOWE RLE SS P LANT S (Cryptogam ce)

4 1 .

42

4 3 .

44 .

45 .

Ferns (F ilices)Mosses (Masai)Mushroom s and Mou lds (F ungi)L i chens and A lgaeBacteria (S chizomycetes)

TA BL E O F CONTEN TS IX

S E CO N D P A R T

T H E S T RUCTUR E A N D L IF E O F P L A N T S

D IVISION I .

— T H E MINUTE S TRUCTURE A N D VITAL Pages ,

P ROCE S SE S or P LANTS 1 98

1 . The S ingle Cell 1 98

2 . The O rganic S tructure . 200

D IV ISIO N I I .

— T H E S TRUCTURE A N D VITAL P ROCE S SE SO F T H E P ART S or P LANTS

1 . The L eaf .

A . The O uter S tructureB. The Work done by the L eaf

1 . Transpira t ion 0 1 Evapora t ion of

2 . A ssimila t ion of Food3 . Respira tion 2 1 9

2 .

— The R oot 222

A . The Work done by the R oo t and its Main T yp es 2 22

B . The Work of the R oot and its D etailed S tructure 2 24

l . Root s as a Means of keeping t he upper S truc ture in

Posit ion2 . Roots as a Means of A bsorption

The S tem

A . S tem s as Means to spread out the L eaves and

F lowers t o the A ir and the S un

1 . Grow t h and Descrip tion of S tems

2 Buds3 . Direc tion of Grow t h influenced by Gravity and L igh t4 Hab its of S tems

0! S t reng th of S tems

6 . Various Types of S tems7 . Modes of Branch ing8 . Me tamorphosed S tems

B . S tem s as Channe ls for the A scending and the

D escend ing S ap1 . Genera l S truc ture and L ead ing Tissues of S tems

TA BL E OF CONTENTS

The Vascu lar Bundles3 . The Ch annels for the A scending and the Descending S ap4 . T he Covering or P rotect ive Tissue of S tems

C. S tem s as S tores for Fo od in R eserv e .

The F lower

A . The P arts of the F low er and their S tructure

B . The Function of the F low er: P o l linati on1 . Various Provisions for Cross-po l lina tion2 . Pol lina t ion by the A gency of Insect s

3 . and by the W ind

5 . The F ruit and the S eed

A . H ow Fruits are form ed

B . H ow Fruits a l low their s e eds to escap eD ry deh iscen t Fruit sIndeh iscent dry F ruit sF lesh y Fruits

C. H ow the S e eds are di sp ers ed

D . H ow the S e eds produce new p lants

A ppendix .

1 . N omencla ture and Classifica tion of P lants

2 .

— D istribution of P lants

3 .

— Bibliography

F I R S T P A R T

DESCRIPTION OFTYPES AND FAMILIES

D I V I S I O N I .

FLOWERING PLANTS (Phanerogamae).

A l l p lants in this division have stam ens and pistil s , and form seed s .

CL A S S I . D ICO T YL E D O N S

P lants with two seed-leaves . L eaves net-veined . P arts of flow eru sually in sets of five or four. S tem s

,if w oody

,consisting of a

w oody sub stance growing in circle s round a central pith,and sur

rounded by bark .

SUB-CL A S S I .

—~ P O L YP E T A L ZE

P lants general ly with two floral enve lopes : calyx and corolla. P etal sseparated from one another.

I . The Water-L i ly Fam i ly

(N ymphaea ceae) .

A q uatic herb s . F lowers radial . P etal s and stam ens num erou s,in

serted on the receptacle . O vary superior,syncarpou s

,i. e. form ed of

(many ) cohering carpel s .

T he L otus Water-L ily (N gmphrea lotus) .

( P la te N o.

(Kan. N a idile, Tavare . Ma t . Vel lanpa l , N irampa l . Tarn. Vel l amba l , I ndiravacam .

Tel . A l l ikada . S an. S itOtpa l a .)

Many qu i e t tanks and peaceful lakes are adorned by thebeautiful L otu s flower. The broad l eave s spread ing over the

* Plate N o. 6 2 3 of Manga lore series of Coloured P ic tures of Ind ian P lantsand Trees .

2 DICOTYLEDO NS

surfa c e of the wa ter l ike floating shi el d s , and the l ovely flowers,

l ike large whi te floating l il i e s , increa s e the mysteri ous charmtha t a l l stil l wa ters poss es s in the sunshine . No wonder thatmany myths have ari s en about thi s plant , and tha t i t i s almostworshipped by many nati ons!Most plants soon die , if their roots and stem s are kept under

water. Not so the L otu s ; for it l iv es there , and i t s structure i swonderful ly adapted to a l ife in such surroundings .

l . The S tem i s thick and tuber-l ike , wi th many scars whichshow where the l eav es form erly grew . It cre eps a l ong the groundsending forth shoots a t i ts upper end and decaying a t the other.

S uch a s tem i s cal l ed a root- s tock or rhiz om e . It s end s downstout

,l ong roots into the soft mud so tha t i t may not be carri ed

away by any mc" ‘

nts of the wa ter in whi ch i t grows .2. F rom fl“

) ri s e the l ong stalked L eaves, whi ch so

long as they are below the surfac e are rol l ed up w i th their edge sinward . A s soon as

’

the l eav e s reach the surfac e , the stalk cea sesto grow

,and the l eave s unrol l their broad blad es for the sun

and air to play on . To thes e , l ike al l other green plants , theL otus mu st hav e acces s in order to fe ed and breathe . When the

water ri s e s to a higher l e vel,the sta lks

stand vertical ly ; when the l evel sinksl ower, they mov e m ore and more sideways , l ike the ribs of an umbrel la whi chi s being Opened .

If one of the l eave s i s torn off thestem ,

i t wi l l floa t . Thi s i s due to air

chambers in the s talk , which can beea si ly se en i f the l ong stalk i s cut acros s

(fig . The chambers contain bri stl e swhi ch s erve as a m eans of protectionaga ins t the voracious water-sna i l s , whi ch

of the lea f-sta l k of the \Va ter

1 i w ith u rge a im hamberswoul d otherwi s e feed on the l eaf-stalk

a nd brist les w it h in .and s o destroy the l eaves .

The upper sid e of the l eave s i scovered with a wax- l ike substance , so tha t any wa ter whi ch may

fal l on them runs off, as i t would from a duck ’ s back . We may

F ig. l .— Tra nsverse sec t ion

T E E WATER-LILY FAMILY 3

a l so “notic e that the m iddl e of the l eaf, where the sta lk join s it ,

is a l ittl e higher than its edge s which are sl ightly waved . Thi shel p s the wa ter to run off. If the water were to rema in on the

l eave s,i t would hind er the growth of the plant by stepping up

the l ittl e hol es (stomata) , through whi ch the plant absorbs carbondioxid e

,a gas which, w i th the aid of water, the plant is abl e in

the sun-l ight to turn intostarch and thu s ga in the car

bon which form s an e ssentialel em ent in a l l plants .The Opening s in land plant s

are m ore num erou s on the

l ower sid e of the l eaves , butin the L otus they are a l l on

the tep, becau se the l owersideof the l eaf rests on the wa ter,and they wou ld be of no use

on that side . P ut the blad eof a l eaf und er water and

bl ow down the sta lk , and youw il l soon s e e l i ttl e si l v erybubbl e s form on the top-Sid e

F ig. 2 .— Part of the ep iderm is of a lea f

O f the l eaf : this I S the air ( 200 t imes en larged) . S . Stoma ta .

e scaping throughthe stomata .

The air can thu s comm uni cate with the root- stock and the roots .Thi s i s important for the l ife of the plant . E v ery l iving part ofa; plant mu st be acc es sibl e to the oxygen in the air. N ow, the

muddy soil in which the L otus grows , has scarcely any oxygen ,

as i t i s u sed up in decomposing the dead vegetabl e substanc esd eposited there . It is through the air-channel s in the l eaf-sta lkstha t the l ife- susta ining air can penetra t e down to the very rootof the plant .

A nother point about the l eaves is worthy of notic e : the l owersid e i s of a darker col our than the upper

,the reason for thi s

being tha t dark col oured thing s absorb heat better than l ightcol oured ones . (A black coat is much hotter in the sun than a

white one.) N ow the heat rays which accompany the l ight ray s

4 D ICOTYLEDO NS

from the sun woul d pa s s through the l eave s into the water,i f

they were bright green throughout ; but the vi ol et c ol our absorbsthe hea t rays and thu s a s si sts the growth of the plant . Increa seof hea t cau se s qui cker growth.

When the tank in whi ch the L otus grows dri e s up, the l eave sw ith their l ong stal ks sink down in the mud and peri sh. The

plant , howev er, does not di e wi th the l eave s . F or, when the tank

i s fil l ed wi th wa ter aga in, the root-s tock (stem) , whi ch was

hidden in the m ud,begins to Sprout aga in,

and the plant i s thus

perennial .

3 . The F lower al s o floats on the surfac e of the water at

the end of a l ong stal k . The four gre en sepal s form a good

protec ti on to the tender bud on i ts j ourney to the tep,and as

soon as i t arrives there,the sepal s open out l ooking l ike sma l l

boats . Their inner sid e i s the sam e col our as the p eta l s . The selatter are

'

very numerous and grow in a spiral , gradua l lybecom ing smal l er toward s the c entre and a t the sam e time turninginto s tam ens (fig . 3 , 2 I n the c entre i s the ovary or seed-boxb earing a shi eld-l ike s e ssil e stigma . A transverse section of the

ovary ( se e fig. 3,5) Shows tha t i t i s composed of m any l eav es

cal l ed carpel s , which are folded in toward s the flora l axi s and

thu s form s everal cav iti e s in whi ch the se eds ri pen.

The flowers Open after sunri s e and are vi si ted by ins ects whichare attracted by the colour. They , however, only find pol l en ,

as the plant secrete s no honey . T oward s evening the flowerclo se s aga in to protect the d el i cate stigma and the pol l en fromdam p and cold .

4 . The Fruit , a s pongy berry (fig . 3,

ri pens bel ow the

surface of the wa ter. When the s eed s are ri p e and l eav e theberry

,a smal l bubbl e of air under the sl imy mantl e (ca l l ed ari l)

tha t covers the se ed , bring s them to the surface , and the seed sare carri ed wherev er the w i nd and wave s take them unti l thebubbl e burst s . The s eed being hea vi er than wa ter sinks to thebottom and begins to grow to form a new plant which may bea t som e d i stance from the parent one. I n thi s s impl e way the

L otus plant i s enabl ed to spread .

Fig . 3 .— WA TER-L IL Y (N ymphcea lotus) .

2 . Vertical section of flower. 3 . Vertical section of ovary. 4 . Capsule.

5. Transverse section of it. 6. Seed.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

6 D ICO TYLEDO NS

styl e,in i ts upper and inner part . I f a singl e stam en i s pul l ed

out and exam ined w i th a hand lens , a thi ck cap wi l l be noticedon the top of the anther. This i s an extension of the ti s sue

(cal l ed connective) that connects the two ha l v e s of the anther.

F ig . 4 .— T he Custard A pp le (A nona squamosa ) .

It may al so be noticed tha t the anthers are on the outer side ofthe stam en . (S uch stam ens are t erm ed extrorse . The s tamensof the L otus are intrors e .)

The carpel s are fre e from one another (apocarpous) in the

flower, but they are confluent in

THE POPPY FAMILY 7

the F ruit , which represent s an aggregate of many fle shycarpel s , densely packed together and each containing one seed .

The outer sid e of each carpel becom e s hard in the frui t and

form s one of the parts of the hard protecti ve cru st. The seedhas a hard testa whi ch proj ects into the interi or, the grea ter partof which i s fill ed wi th end osperm ,

a nouri shing ti s sue for the

embryo required a t the tim e of it s germ inati on .

A wild growing type of thi s fam i ly i s Uvaria narurn (Kan.

Unam ini ; Ma l . N arampanal ; Tu . P and el) , a straggl ing cl imberwith branches divid ing from the Z igzag-l ike young shoots a t

angl e s of nearly and thu s form ing hooks by m eans of whichthe climber fa stens itsel f to its support . The num erous carpel sare stalked and fre e and becom e scarl et when ripe .

3 . The P oppy Fam i ly

(P apavera ceae) .

H erb s w ith m ilky juice . F low ers radial . S epal s two,petal s four,

stam ens many,inserted on the receptacle . O vary superior, syncarp

ous. S eed s endosperm ous .

The O pium P eppy (P apaver somniferum) .

(Kan . Kasaka se. Ma t . Kagakaga . Tam. Gasagasa. Tel . Gasagasa . S an. Khaskhasa . )

The O pium P eppy i s wid ely cul tivated in Ind ia , becaus e ityi elds “

opium”,which i s an im portant articl e of comm erce .

O pium i s a va luabl e drug which can soothe the greatest pa inand cause sl e ep. It i s obta ined by scratching the unripe capsul e s

(frui t) wi th a. sm al l knife . The m ilky juic e which com e s out

I s al l owed to dry and i s then scraped off the capsul e . I n Chinathi s substance i s smoked in a pipe for intoxica ting purpose s .

The Opium sm oker soon sinks into a ha lf-conscious state in whichpl ea sant dream s com e to him . O n waking up again he i s , however

,very dul l , suffers from headache and so on ; and in order

to get rid of the d i scomfort he aga in indulges in a smoke . To

take effect,after a time

, the dose mu st be increa sed , and thi s

8 D ICOTYLEDONS

sl owly but surely underm ine s the heal th of the smoker unt i l hesinks into an untimely grav e .

l . The S tem and L eaves hav e a blui sh coa t of wax on them,

which,as we hav e seen in the ca s e of the L otu s plant , s erve s as

a m eans of protection aga inst the choking up of the l i ttl e breathing hol e s (stomata) by ra in wa ter. The l eav e s near the rootare larger than those higher up. If it were not so , the upperl eave s would prevent the sunshine from fa ll ing on the l ower onesand m ake them u sel es s for making starch. The upper l eave sa l so l i e clo ser to the stem : thi s s erve s the same purpose . Beside s ,hav ing the large l eav e s low down,

the stem need not be sostrong ; and the l eave s a l so afford shel ter to the root and keep theso il there damper than if they grew a t a height from the ground .

If the stem i s wounded , a milky juic e com es out . This dri esand hardens and so protects the tender cel l s Ins ide from furtherinj ury . The juic e a l so g ives the whol e plant a pecul iar smel land ta ste , whi ch animal s do not l ike and so prevents them fromfeed ing on the l eav e s .

2 . The F lowers, when in bud, have a ca lyx of two greens epal s . The se drop as soon as the flower Opens , and the petal s ,which were crumpl ed up inside , Open out and become qu itesm ooth, and the flower wi th i ts four large , shining , white petal sbecome s v ery conspicuous . Thi s plant , too , secrete s no honey ,ye t i t i s v i s ited by ins ects tha t ea t the poll en which i s producedso abundantly on the numerous stamens . Whi l s t eating theysca tter the poll en du st about , cov ering them sel v e s . The scattered pol l en i s caught by the large shel l-shaped peta l s and keptready for the next ins ec t v i sitor. The upright position of theflower a l so hel p s to prevent the poll en from being spil t and

wa sted on the ground .

The petal s are too weak to carry the weight of the heavyins ects tha t com e to v i si t the flower; another resting place i s ,therefore , provid ed , nam ely the broad-rayed stigma tha t Spread sover the ovary l ike a shi eld . The ins ects which have v i si tedother peppi es and get covered wi th poll en a l ight here and natural ly drop s ome of the pol l en-gra ins thus ferti l i sing the ovul e sor future se eds in the ovary (fig. 5,

THE POPPY FAMILY 9

3 » I f the F ruit is cut across (fig . 5, the structure i sea sily seen . There are num erous wa l l s inside , l ike the rad i i ofa circl e, whi ch,

however, do not qu ite j oin in the centre, and it

i s on thes e wal l s tha t the s eed s grow ,until they are ri pe when

they drop off into the space between the wa l l s . I n order to letthem escape from the capsul e (as the frui t is ca l l ed) , l i ttlewindows open a l l round the top ju st below the stigma (fig . 5, 5

°

F ig. 5 . 1 . O pium Popp y (P apaver somniferum) ,

2 . D ia gram of flower. 3 . Transverse and 4 . vert ica l sect ionof ovary . 5 . Ripe ca psu le. 6 . and 8. Seed . 7 . St amen.

poricida l!) and if the plant i s shaken by the wind , the tinyseed s are thrown about in a l l directions . Bend down one of

the ri pe capsul e s and l et i t go , and you w il l see what happens .We now see a lso why the stalk i s tal l and springy , as the

higher the s eed s are from the ground the further wi l l they besca ttered .

1 0 D ICOTYLEDONS

O ther P oppies.

The Mexican P oppy (A rgemone Mexicana) i s a wel l-known

weed w i th pri ckly white-v eined l eav es and a yel low ju ice in al l

i ts parts . O il for l amps i s extracted from the s eed s . The se edsare al so us ed as a purga ti v e .

F ig. 6 . Corn P eppy ( Papaver I l lura s) .

The Corn P oppy (P apaver R hesus)i s s om etimes grown in

gard ens for i ts beautiful scarl e t flowers . To the farm er the Corn

l ’oppy i s a post , for i t robs the corn of nouri shm ent , l ight and spac e .

THE CRUCIFER O R MUSTARD FAMI LY 1 1

\

4. The Crucifer or Mustard Fam i ly

(Cruciferae) .

H erbs without m ilky juice . F low ers radial,with four sepal s and

four petal s , arranged cros sw ise . S tam ens six,the two outer shorter

,

and the four inner longer. O vary superior,form ed of two carpel s .

F ruit a pod , divided into two valve s by a central fram e to which theseed s adhere .

T he I ndian Mustard (Brassica j uncea) .

(Com pare Rape, P la te N o .

(Kan . S asive. Ma l . Kaduka . Tam. Kadugu. Tel . Avalu . S an. S arshapah,

R aktaj aj i, D undubha )

If you brui s e some Mustard s eeds between two piece s of

paper, a grea s e spot i s l eft on the paper. Thi s i s due to thepres ence of a fatty oil in the s eed , S om e pl ants , l ike the R oseand T ula si hav e another kind of oil in their l eave s which doesnot caus e a grea se spot , but vani shes qu ickly . Thi s kind of oilis cal l ed a “volati l e”oi l and i s g eneral ly the caus e of the scentin flowers . The fatty ” oi l s erves as a food for the young seedl ing.

The Mu stard se ed has a l so a v ola til e oi l which i s v ery pungent and wil l cau se tears to com e to the eyes . It i s thi s o ilwhich protects the s eed from being eaten by birds , and whichmakes the seed u s eful to us as a condiment or m ed ic ine , and iti s for the oi l s in its seed s that the plant i s so comm only grown .

1 . The S tem grows to a height of 4 or 5 feet and spreadsinto

'

many branches .

2 . A s in the P eppy, the L eaves gradual l y becom e smal l eras they grow higher up the stem . I n thi s ca s e , though,

the

upper l eaves hav e qui te a d ifferent shape from thos e which growat the bottom : the upper l eav e s hav e no sta lk s and are l ongnarrow and toothed

, wherea s the latter hav e l ong stalks and are

lyrate , that is, are lobed and hav e the end l obe larger than the

others . (The l eave s of R ape are stem -cla sping which those ofMu stard are not : se e R ape , P late No .

— The l eaves , too ,point upwards

,and if you watch the rain fal l ing on them or

1 2 D ICOTYLEDONS

pour wa ter on them , you w il l see tha t the water is taken t o the

stem and runs down to the roo t.3 . The Root sy stem of the Mustard plant , instead of spread

ing to a d i stanc e in a l l directi ons l ike tha t of,for instanc e

, the

Mango tree , form s a di stinc t tap-root wi th a few thin side-rootsonly . It i s for thi s rea son tha t 'in the Mustard plant the l eave scarry the wa ter to the centre of the root system .

4 . The F lowers of the Mustard plant are bright yel l ow and

F ig. 7 .— F lowerofMustard

(Brassica j uncea ) . O ne sepa l

hav e four s epa l s and four petal s . The

la tter are stalked and grow inside , butal terna te w ith the sepal s . There are si xstam ens , two wi th short filam ents , and four

(insid e) w ith l onger ones

(fig. The centre of theflower i s form ed by an

Ovary wi th a short styl e .

I f cut acros s (s e e d iagram ,

fig. 8) , i t can be seen tha ti t is made of two carpel s

,

and two peta ls are removed .the edge s O f WI I ICII each F ig. 8° D ia gram O f

( 3 t imes na tura l size ) bear a, row O f ovul e s . a Cruc i fer flower.

The bright col our of the flowers , which open a t the same time

F ig . 9 . S il ique of

the Musta rd plant .

k. Ca rpels .

frame.

IV. Centra l

8. Seeds .

(N a t ura l size )

and in large numbers , a ttracts the pa s s inginsec ts to l ook for the honey whi ch i s thereat the ba s e of the stam ens . The insects payfor the kindnes s of the flower in prov id ingthem such a ni c e drink by Spil l ing poll enon the s tigma of the styl e and so fertil i singthe s eeds .

5. The Fruit i s a l ong erect pod formedof two dry carpel s whi ch s pl i t upwards and

outward s from the ba se showing the seed sgrowing on a central fram e (fig. S uch a

pod i s ca l l ed a si lique .

O ther Crucifers.

The fam i ly to whi ch the Mustard plant bel ongs , conta ins a

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1 4 DICOTYLEDONS

more conspi cuous by being col oured dark purpl e at their/

base.

The num erou s s tam ens , so combined wi th the peta l s that theyform a tube covering the ovary and the s tyl e (fig. producelarge quantiti e s of yel low pol len-dust for the ins ects to feed on.

F ig. 1 0. L ongitud ina l sec t ion of S hoeflower

(H ibiscus rosa sinensis) . N a tura l size .

The anthers (which are be stexam ined in flower-buds)are one-cel l ed and kidneyshaped. The l ong styl e growsthrough the tube , form edby the stamens

,and bears

five stigma s abov e everythingel s e

,and they are therefore in

the best positi on to catch the

poll en broughtby ins ects fromany other flowerthey hav e vi si ted . W i tho u t

pol l en the frui t wi l l not set .

and the plant wi l l not bearany s e ed .

3 . The Fruit i s a dry

capsul e (fig . 1 1,4) Of three

cel l s (cal l ed loculi) wi th thes eeds a ttached to the innerangl e s of each c el l (axi l e

plac entati on) . When ri pe,

these cel l s burs t by three vertica l l ines between the partiti ons (l ocul i cida l) , s o as toOpen out the cel l s and exposethe hairy seeds to the~actionO f the wind whichmay carry

them to a di stance . The s e hairs are “ cotton”and it i s on ao

count of them tha t the plant i s so largely cult ivated in a lmost a l ltropica l countri e s . The cotton i s ga thered by hand , dri ed in thesun

, pas s ed through a gin to rem ov e the s eed s and then pre ssed

Fig . 1 1 .

— H ERBA CEOUS COTTON ( Gossypium herbaceum ) .

2 . Vertical section of flower. 3 . Monadelphous stamens. 4. Unripe capsule.

5. Ripe capsule. 6 . Seed . 7 . Section of seed.

T H E M A L L OW A N D COTTON FA M IL Y 1 5

I inery into v ery hard bal e s . The bal e s aré s ent to theI s

,where the cotton i s spun into thread and woven into cl oth.

The cotton

plant i s a l souseful in various other res

p e 0 t s . T h estem s of the

plant yi eld a

good fibre . Thes eed s (fig .

and 7 ) are in

y parts of

away a s a use

l e s s a rt i c l e .

But they can

p

a l ly to m il chCS I ssg fi

t fi e’in

crea s e theflowof the ir m ilk ,for c O t t o 1 1s eeds conta inan O il which i snouri shing.

O ther

Mal lows.

F i g . 1 2 . Bombaac ma la barzcum ,

stripped of it s leaves in the dry sea son .

Many Indianplants bel ong to thi s fam i ly , as the L adies

’F ingers

”(H ibiscus

esculentus) , the S hoeflow er (H ib. rosa sinensis; Kan. D asala

DMa l. Cemparut ti ; T am . Sembarttai ; S an. Japa ; fig .

— the

P ortia Tree (Thespcsia populnea ; Kan. H uvarasi mara ; M a l .

Puparut ti ; T arn. P 1‘

1 varaSu ; S an. Kundah) , the Red S ilk CottonT ree (Bombaxma labaricum ; Kan Kempu buraga ; Ma l .Mul lilavu ;

1 6 D I CO T YL E D O N S

T am . Ilavu ; S an. Purani) , and the White S ilk Cot'

tgyf T ree

( E riodendron anfractaosam ; Kan. Bi l i buraga ; Ma l . Pula) . The

garden shrub H ibiscus schizopeta las has hanging flowers with

cil ia ted petal s ; in H . mutabilis, Changeable Rose, the flowers

change from whi te to red in the cours e of the day ; Rose l le

(H . sabdarz’

fia) has a red fleshy calyx from which j el ly i s made .

A l l of these have capsular fruits l ike the Cot ton plant . Commonwi ld Ma l l ows are S ida carpinifolz

'

a (Kan . Vishakaddi) , S . rhombi

f olia , S . cordifolz’

a , Urena simza ta , A butilon indicum , a l l of

which have indehi sc ent carpel s which,however, separate from

the axi s of the fruit when ri pe . Such fruits are ca l l ed schiz ocarps .

A l l ied F am i lies.

T he Chocol a te T ree (Theobroma ca ca o, P late N o. 627) belongs tthe S tercu l ia ceae, a fam ily nearly allied to the Cotton family . The .

Choco late tree was introdued into India from tropical A m erica . Its\\

gourd-like fruits contain,in their s our pulp

,very bitter seed s

,the s o

called Cacao-beans (fig. 1 3,3 . These are cleaned

,roasted

,and

powdered,and then becom e Cacao or Cocoa, which, m ixed WE I : zrw a r

and flavoured w ith Vanil la, m akes Chocolate .A nother al lied fam ily is the Tilia ceaz, of which we m ention the J u te

(Corchorus capsu lam’

s) , a smal l shrub large ly cultivated lg R eng fi l—Lor

its fibre which is m anufactured into coarse fabrics , such as gunny-bags ,the comm on coarse bags in which the variou s grains are sent tom arket. It grow s wild al so here and there in S outhern India and is

easily recognisable from its globular wrinkled capsules that resembleR udrakshi bead s .

6 . T he T ea Fam i ly

(T ernstroem ia ceae) .

T rees or shrubs. Leave s alternate,simple

, generally leathery ,stipules 0. F lowers radial . S epal s and petal s each five imbricate .S tamens multip le s, of five . O vary superior, three to five-celled .

T he T ea -shrub (Camellia theifera) .

(P la te N o .

(Kan . Cfigida . Ma l . Cfiyaccadi. Tam . Th ay-ila . )

The Tea- shrub i s found wil d in the jungl e s of A s sam , but i s

Fig . 1 3 .— CHOCO L A TE T REE ( Theobroma cacao) .

2 . F lower. 3 . Transverse section of fruit . 4. Seed .

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1 8 D ICOTYL EDON S

A ll ied F amil ies.

A l lied familie s are the D ip terocarpeae to which som e very comm ontree s of our forests belong ; via , the S a l T ree (S horea robusta ; Kan.

A sina mara ; M a l . S é la ; Tel .

salamu) ; the W hite D amm ar

( Va leria indica; Kan . D h1‘

ipada

m ara ; M a l .’

P ayannumaram

Tam . Vel laikunnrikam ) ; H epea

parviflora ; Kan . Bovu ; M a l .

I rubogam ; Tam . Kongu) ; andH opea Wightiana ; Kan . Kar

m ara,H iribogi;M a l . I llapofigu ;

Tam . Karam ) . I n the se tree s( Va leria excepted ) al l or som eof the lobe s of the calyx eh~

large after flowering and act

as w ings for the fruit. H opea

Wig/i tiana is attacked by an

F ig. l 5 .

— W inged fruit of H opea Wightiana . insect producing in the axil s ofthe leaves a fruit-like growth

which contains the larva of that insect .The Ga ttiferce are another allied family

,m embers of which are the

P inn ay O il T ree (Ca lophyl lum inophyl lum ; Kan. S urahonne ; M a l .

P onnakam ; Tam . P unnai) , and G arcinia indica (Kan?

Ra w ahuli,

Murginahu li ; M a l . P unampuli) .

O f the Viola cece (Violet family ) we m ention the pretty little I onidiam sa ffruticosam (Kan. P urusharatna ; Ma l . O rilattamara) , the S w eetV iol et ( Viola odora ta ) and the scentles s W hite V iol et of the Ghats( V. serpens) .

7 . The O range Fam i ly(Rutaceae) .

T rees and shrubs , with alternate leave s dotted with transparentgland s . Flowers radial . S epal s and petal s four or five . S tam ensj oined at theirbase into various groups . O vary superior

,syncarpous .

The Citron (Citrus medica) .

(P late N o.

(Kan. Mada vala . Ma l . Madulafigam . Tam Tel . Madipha lamu . San. Matu langa .)

The frui t of thi s tree i s a berry wi th about ten di vi sions

THE O RA N GE FA M IL Y 1 9

2

(cel lsh under the cov er of a thick l eathery skin which, in its

outer part , conta ins numerous gland s of aromatic oil (P late N o.

6 3 0, 3 . The sour pulp in which the few

seeds l i e,cons i sts of swol l en ha irs fil l ed with

juic e . The aromatic skin as wel l as the sour

pulp are much pri z ed .

The frui ts grow in the l eaf-axil s of ever

green shrubs or smal l trees . Their l eave s area l ternate and el l iptica l andhav e serrate edges . F ig . 1 6 .

_F 10ra lIf you crush them , they sm el l strongly ; for diagram of Citrus .

they are fil l ed wi th tha t v olat il e oil whi chwe have a lready noti ced in the skin of the frui t . H old a l eaf up

to the l ight , andyou se eit s whol e blade dottedwi th oil-glands .

The whi te and fra

grant flowers consi st ofa c up

- shape d , f i v etoothed calyx , a corollawi th fiv e fleshy petal swhich soon drop afterunfolding , and nu

mercu s stam ens whos ebroad filam ents are

j o i n e d i n t o v a ri o u sbundl e s round thepi sti l

(fig .

F rom Citrus medica

various vari eti e s hav ebeen produced by cul

tivation : so the L emon (Citrus medica var. limonum) , the S w eet

L ime (C. med. var. limetta ) , and the S our L ime (C. med. var.

acida) .

O ther plants belonging to thi s fam ily are the O range (Citrusaurantium ; Kau. Kittale ; Tam ,

M a l , S an. N arangam) , the

P ummelo (C. decumana ; Kan. Cakotra , Sakkarekafiji ; Ma l .

Madhuranarakam) , the Bae l Tree (A egle marmelos; Kan. Bela2 *

F ig. 1 7 . F lowers and leaves of the O range t ree( ha l f size) .

20 D ICOTYL EDON Sa

patre ; Ma l . Kuvalam ; T am . Vilvam) , the tree Z anthoxylumR hetsa (Kan. Jimm 1 , Kavate ; Ma l . Cuyitt i ) , andMurraya Koeuigii

(Kan. Karibevu) .

A l l ied F am i l ies.

There are variou s p lants belonging to allied fam ilies which cannotbe fully described here , but deserve a pas sing notice .

T o the L iuece belongs the comm on F l ax P l an t (L inum usita tissi

mum ; Kari . A tasi ; Tam . A liviral ; S ari . A tasi) . This is cultivated

F ig. l 8 .-Common F lax ( L inum usila l issimum) .

a . F lower-bud. F lower. c . Stamens and pist il . d. R ipe ca psu le .

throughout India for the oil contained in its seed s (L inseed oil ) , and

al so for the fibres of its stem . T he s lender stem s bear alternate,smal l

leaves and pretty blue flowers,collected at the end s of the branche s

( fig. T he flowers are composed of each five sepal s,petal s , stamens

T H E ORA N GE FA M IL Y 2 1

(united at their base) , and styles . The fruit is a round capsule,con

taining two 0i seed s in each O f its five cell s .The fibres O f the inner bark or liber of the stem are very tough

and can,therefore

,be u sed for textile fabrics . T O get the fibres , the

p lants are first stripped of their seed s and then steeped in water untilpartially rotten

,when the gummy part of the stem wil l be dis so lved

and the fibres loosened . N ext,to separate the woody portion of the

stem,they are spread to dry and then “broken”

,by which proces s

the wood inside becom es brittle and break s into pieces . The fibre sare then drawn through a comb

,cal led the hackle

,where they are

straightened and freed from dust and othermatters . The fibre,which

is thu s gained , has a fine , silky appearance,and is S pun into yarn

,and

finally w oven into linen cloth in the loom .

T o the Gerania ceae belong the followingThe B il im b i Tree (A verrhoa bilimbi; Kan . Bilimbi ; M a l . Vilumbi ;

Tam . P ilimbi ; H ind. T am arung) . It grow s in the yard s of m any

house s and bears p lantain-like fruits on its trunk . Its leaves aresensitive like those of many leguminous p lants : they fold at night .

T he Garden B a l sam (I mpa tiens

ba lsam ina ; Kan . Gauri-hu) is a verycomm on p lant during the m onsoon

,

and its habits are characteristic of

hygrophilou s plants living in verymoist p laces . T he stalk and leave sare succulent

,tender and covered

with a bluish coat of wax (see page8, Under the tuft O f leaves at

the top the spurred pink flowersgrow as under a protecting roof. I f

you p luck these pretty flow ers for a

bou q uet,they very soon fade . A s

the p lant grow s at a tim e while , andin p lace s where

,water can be Obtained

p lentiful ly,it is not furnished with

those m ean s which tend to check theevaporation of the sap in the p lantso much re q uired by p lants living on “3 1 9 Capsu le of a Ba lsamdry soil ( such as a thick epidermis

,

1 ' W hen Closed 2~E xp lodingsmal l leaf-b lades

,hairy surface

,p .

S O it cannot remain fresh without water and soon fades when p lucked .

I f we touch its ripe seed-ves sel s,they burst with great force and cast

the seed s s om e distance as by an elastic spring (fig. The sam ehappens , if the w ind shakes the plants . Comm on w ild Balsam s areI mpa tiens K leinii (Kan . N irukaddi) and I . chinensis. Their succulent

22 D ICOTYL EDO N S

stem s are so transparent that the ve s se l s conducting the sap can be

seen in them as dark lines when held toward s the light.A very comm on tree‘, whose bark and leave s are in repute as m edi

cines , is the N eem orM argosa T ree (Melia indica ; Kan. Bévina mara ;

M a l . N imbam ; Tam . Vembu ; Tel . N imbamu ; S an . R avipriya) , al s obelonging to an allied order, the M elia cea ’

.

T o the R hamneae belongs Z izyphu s j uj uba (Kan. Bogari) , a smal ltree with three-nerved oval leaves in which the stipule s are m odifiedinto thorns .

O f the Vine Family(A mpel ideae) we m entionThe G rape V ine (Vitis

vinifera ; Kan . D rakshe) .This is a weak shrubwhich, w ith the help of

tendril s growing Opposite the leave s andhom ologons with the main

axis term inating in them ,

seek s support on otherplants and climb s up toward s the light. I t is

cultivated in som e partsO f India and producesthe sweet

,juicy grapes

which are spoken of as

the best fruit of thewholevegetable kingdom . Theyare eaten fresh as dessert-grapes , ordried intorai sins . The chief use

,

however,of this p lant is

the w ine made from the

grape . F or the preparation of w ine the juice isfirst pres sed out . T he

sweet j uice,thus Obtain

F ig. 20. Branch of Gra pe Vine ( Vi l is vinifera ) .

ed;500“becomes CI O Udy’

for innumerable germ s(bacteria) begin to w ork in it . These live in the s oil of the vineyardand are blown by the wind on to the skin of the grapes , and thus com einto the j uice of the grapes al s o . H ere they grow and reproducethem selves rapidly

,and cause an important proces s

,in the liq uid , called

fermentation. T wo new substance s are formed in it,namely alcoho l

THE MA N GO FA M IL Y 2 3

and carbonic acid gas which from tim e to time bursts in bubbles andescapes . By this proces s the sweet juice is gradually changed intoalcoholic wine . This drink has a stimulating effect on the nerves

,if

taken in small q uantities . Its abuse , however, is very injurious to thedrinker’s health and is the source of muchm isery . F or children

,w ine

is alway s injuriou s , even if taken in very small q uantities . — A notherspecies of this genus is Vitis quadrangu laris (Ka n. S anduballi ; M a l .

Caiialamparanda ; Tam . Arugani ; Tel . Vajraval li) . It is common in

hedges and, though a poor-looking and scraggy p lant, is typical of theorder. Its fleshy

,cactus-like

,j ointed stem s point to its habitat being

in dry regions .

8. The Mango Fam i ly

(A na cardia ceae) .

T rees or shrubs , often with milky or acrid juice . L eaves in m ostgenera alternate

,stipules 0. F low ers radial . S epal s

,petal s

,and

stam ens three to five . O vary superior. Fruit a drupe .

T he Mango T ree (Mangifera indioa) .

(P late N o.

(KanfMavu . Ma l . Mavu . Tam . Ma. Tel . Mavi. S an. Catah, amra h .)

Thi s tree grows al l over India and i s not onl y one of her

statel i e st tre es , but a l so produce s one of her best fruits .1 . The Trunk of the tree i s c overed by a dark-gray

,cracked

bark , when old . The young stem ha s a green outer skin,

ca l l ed epiderm i s , such as annual herbs hav e . But as the tree

grows larger, the epiderm i s , not being abl e to stretch,bursts .

It i s now neces sary for the plant to form a new protectiv e cover,which i s done by constantly form ing air and water-tight layersof what are ca l l ed cork cel l s . S om e tree s form a v ery thicklayer of cork , l ike the A ndipunar tree (Cara l lia integerrima) ,0 1 the Spani sh O ak, the bark of which i s the ordinary cork whichi s sold in shO ps . If the cork is thin,

‘

the s tem s hav e a sm oothsurface l ike the Guava , or the Jack tree . The Mango tree hasa thi ck layer of cork whi ch

,as i t thickens , cracks unti l flake s

of bark drop O ff.

24 D ICOTYL EDON S

Under the cork layer i s the inner bar/f , ca l l ed bast, and insidethi s are conc entri c layers of wood . The younger or ou ter

layers of wood are tha t part O f the stemthrough whi ch the sap asc ends from the

roots to the branches . A ny injury to thebark or sapwood may interfere seri ouslyw i th the c ircula ti on of the sap or l e tdi sea s e-fungi enter into the stem . A tree

,

however, has the power of heal ing its

wounds by a rapid growth of cork at theF ig‘

ti l — Tra nsverse sec' edges which gradua l ly cov er the damaged

“on O f the S tem O f thearea . Thi s function i s mad e use of in the

proce ss of grafting mangoes .A sma l l Mango plant , about as thi ck as one

’ s finger,i s grown

from a s eed in a pot , and when -it i s required to m ake a graft ,a sl i c e i s taken out of one s id e of the s tem down as dee p as

the pi th and about an inch l ong . A branch of one of the goodedibl e kinds of Mango of the same thi ckne s s i s treated in the sam eway. Thi s branch and the plant are so placed together tha t theone cut surfac e exactly fits the other. They are then ti ed firm lytogether wi th som e soft twine and cov ered ov er wi th cowdung.

I n a short tim e (a m onth to s ix weeks) the two cut surface s uni te ,when the branch may be cut away a l together from the tree andthe top from the se edl ing

,and the graft Mango can be taken away

and planted .

2 . The L eaves are l ong and narrow . (a ) They are soplaced

on the stem as to a llow each to get its share of light : the re sul ti s tha t the Mango tree g ive s a very dens e shade .

(b) The petioles (l eaf- stalks) , besid es placing the l eave s insuch a position tha t they can get l ight , a l so save themfrom beingtorn when the wind bl ows very strongly , as they are springy . I f

the l eave s were fixed on m ore rigidly,the branche s of the tre e

would ge t broken. A s i t i s,the l eaf sway s from side to sid e and

so e scape s m ost of the wind-pre ssure . I n a sim i lar way,by

bending d own , they a l l ow any ra in-drops fa l l ing on them to dropto the ground from their tapering end s , instead of add ing to theweight the branche s have to hear. The l eaf mu st , however,

Ma ngo t ree.

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26 D ICO TYL EDO N S

act of transpiration and by intense sunl ight . The v ertical

plac em ent of these l eav e s reduces the effect O f heat and l ight .When the l eav e s are mature

,

the tissue s are stra ined , andthe l eaves a s sume the ordinary hori zonta l posi tion .

(f ) The young l eave s ofthe Mango tree are Often red

or copper-coloured. Thi s iscaus ed by a v ery activ e

proce s s of respira ti on or

breathing,which

,as we al l

know , i s m ost activ e a lwaysin young organi sm s . F or

a plant , l ike an animal ,breathes

,that is to say, in

hal e s oxygen in order toburn Ofl som e of i ts carbonand thus produce the hea tnec essary for the vari ouschem i cal proces s e s carri edon in its body to ma inta inits l i fe and to grow .

The

gas produced by the combination of the inhal ed oxygen and the carbon in the plant i scarbonic acid gas, which i s exhal ed (see II . P art , R e spira tion) .

When the l eav e s becom e older, the proces s of breathing becom es slower and the copper-hue disappears from the l eave s ,changing into the ordinary green col our of l eave s . The col ouri s due to l i ttl e green granul e s , cal l ed chl orophyl l * granul e sin the inner c el l s of the l eaf. These granul e s hav e the powerof feeding on the carbonic acid gas circu lating through the

air- s pace s between the c el l s and to form starch under the influence of the sun’ s ray s . Thi s proce ss i s known as “a s sim ilation”

( se e I I . P art,A s s im ilati on) .

F ig. 2 2 .— Young shoot of Mango withpendent leaves.

* F rom Greek chloros , green, and phyl lon, a lea f .

THE MA N GO FA M IL Y 2 7

(g) A nother fact connected wi th the arrangement of the leaves

may be notic ed . They are so placed that, when ra in fal l s , most

of the water i s carri edfrom l eaf to l eaf fromthe centre of

.

the tree toits circumference (com

pare the flow of waterdown a ti led roof) , andi t is on the outside ofthe tree that the youngroots which a lone can

absorb water are mostnum erous . The big

I'oot s cannot do S O

’as

F ig. 2 3 .

— F lower O f the Mango treethey are covered W i th (considera b l y enlarged in size) .

bark . Thi s dri ppingt end s to make the young roots grow outwards to where they

can get water ea si e st . Thi sagain s erve s to give the tree av ery wide root system and pre

vents i ts being blown ov er bystorm s .

3 . The F lowers are smal landgrow in erect panicl es , whichgeneral ly appear in January ,F ebruary or March. The five

s e pal s encl ose five greeni shyell ow peta l s which are a l ternate wi th them . There are five

stamens , one of which only i sperfect . The flower conta ins , inaddition

,a nectary whi ch i s an

organ to secrete honey . You

24 .— Branch of the Mango tree find i t arranged round the ovary

w it h fruits ,and consi sting of five “fle shybodies . The existence of such

a nectary suggests that the flower depend s for fertil i zation on

28 DICO TYL EDON S

a ttracting ins ects . The want of show in individua l flowers ismade up for by placing very large numbers O f flowers cl osetogether.

4 . When the Fruit begins to grow,the stalk of the panicle

i s not strong enough to hold i t erec t , so the frui t hangs down .

E ven so i t woul d never be abl e to nouri sh al l the frui ts whichm ight be expected from the number of flowers . N ature correct shers elf. A s the fru its grow , nouri shm ent i s gradual ly directedinto from one to six of the m o st vigorous fruit s , and the re stdrop O ff gradua l ly .

The ripe frui t i s sl ightly compre ssed and i s beaked, the point

showing where the styl e was. I t c ontains a “fleshy”, palatabl epul p under

\

it s l eathery skin. The pul p sur

round s a woody one-seeded nut wi th a fibrousbeard . I n the m ore inferi or kinds thes e fibre srun right through the pul p

,The whol e fruit

i s j us t a big drupe , l ike a peach or a plum .

5. I f the Seed i s to grow into a new treeF ig 25 — Tran3 ° i t must be carri ed away from the tree whi chverse 89 0mm O f a

here i t , as i t coul d not thrive under the denseshade of the parent tree . Thi s i s providedfor by the d el icious pul p covering the seed

,

attracting men and animals to pi ck i t up and carry it away .

The seed i s protected a t the sam e tim e by a hard shell , formedby the inner part of the fru i t c ov er (pericarp) . We may notic ea further instance of Na ture ’ s care in that the frui t , unti l i t i sri pe

,i s so acid tha t i t cannot be ea ten w i th any pl ea sure . Unripe

seeds do not grow w ell .

Mango d rupe w it hseed .

O ther Mangoes.

The Mango tree has som e re lative s afford ing u s eful frui ts .O ne of thes e i s the Ca shew N ut (A nacardium occidenta le; Kan.

Géru ; M a l . Rugumava ; Tam . Mundirikai ; Tel . Jidimz

’

tmidi‘

S an. QOphahara ; P late an A m eri can tree , brought to Ind iaby the P ortuguese . What i s general ly ca l l ed the frui t i s theswol l en dower- sta lk or rec eptac l e whi ch bears the nut a t the

THE L E GUM I N O S ZE 29

end. Both the juicy stalk and the nut are ea ten. The formeri s v ery pretty , being col oured ei ther a pal e yel low or a bri l l iantred. The seed i s protected by the c el l s in the cover being fil l ed

F ig. 2 6 .— Branc h of the Cashew N ut t ree.

w ith an extrem ely acrid juice . They are,as a rul e

,roa sted be

fore being Opened to get at the kernel s which are edibl e . Thesenuts are exported in large quantiti e s from the Malabar coa st .T he I ndian Marking N ut (Semecarpus anacardium ; Kan.

Gerkayi, kera ; M a l . Cermara ; Tam . Cengotaimaram ; Tel .

Jidiéettu ; S an. A gnimukhi) yi el ds a corrosive black jui c e , u sedby dhobi e s for marking cl othe s .

The frui t of the H og P lum T ree (Spondias mang‘

ifera ; Kan.

A mbata ; M a l . A mbal am ; T am . Kattuma ; T el . A mbalamu ;

S an. Amrataka) i s eaten ,being a substitute for tamarind in

curri es . The tree flowers when it i s leafles s .

9 . T he L egum inosae.

T rees,shrub s orherbs . L eaves very Often compound with stipules .

I nflorescence racem ose . F lowers zygomorphic. S epal s five,petal s

five . S tam ens generally ten,free or various ly combined . O vary

superior,of one carpel . Fruit a legum e with the calyx attached . S eed

exendosperm ous w ith’ thick cotyledons .

80 D ICOTYL EDO N S

Thi s large order i s d ivided into thre e fam i l ie sA . The P eaflower F am i ly (P apilionacece) .B . The Ca ssia F am i ly (Ccesa lpiniece) .C. The Mimo sa F am ily (Mimosece) .

A . T H E P E A F L O WE R F A M I LY (P apilionaceaa) .

The H orse Gram P lant (D olichos biflorus) .

( P la te

(Kan. R uru l i. Ma l . Kol lu . Tam. Kol lu . S an. Kha lakul a . )

1 . Seed and Germinat ion — The brown l eathery coa t of the

kidney-shaped seed O f H orse Gram i s ca l led the testa . O n its

concave edge there i s a large scar wi th a tiny pit at one end.

S oak the se ed in water for a few hours , wipe the wa ter O ff and

squeez e i t gently : a l ittl e water ooz e s out from tha t tiny hol e .The scar i s cal l ed hilum and i s the plac e of the a ttachment of

the se ed to the pod bym eans of a sma l l cordca l l ed funicle. The

te sta can now be eas i lystripped off from the

soaked seed and,i f care

F ig, seed , be taken to notic e therelati v e posi tion of i ts

a . H ypocotyl . b. Seed

outer markings and the insid e structures of leaves ,

the . se ed , i t wi l l be found tha t the pointedend of a smal l stem is direc ted toward s the tiny hol e whi ch i stermed micropyle. The l i ttl e stem l et , cal led hypocotyl, bears ati ts other end two thi ck la tera l growths , the s e ed-l eave s or cotyle

dons, and between them a tiny bud (plumule) of two folded , v einedl eave s . The s eed

,then

,conta ins und er i ts coat the future plant

in m iniature,the embryo, consisting of the hypocotyl , two cotyl e

dons and the plumul e .To observe the first stage s of the growth of the plant , we

a l low the seed s to l i e steeped in water for a l onger time , say

twenty-four hours . If we now examine them , we find the te s ta

F ig. 28 .

— Seed of the

Bean.

THE L EGUM IN OSE 3 1

spl i t across near the m icropyle due to the expansion of the

embryo and a tiny rootl et makes its appearance ; whi ch a t onceturns downwards foll owing the law of gravity . N owlay som eof these germ ina ting seeds in moi st and l oose earth and watchtheir gradua l growth. The plantl et first establ ishes i ts elf in the

ground by growing a strong ma in root which sends Off tinybranches a l l round . Meanwhil e the hypocotyl al so grows upwardsform ing a hook w i th its two cotyl edons sti l l folded ov er the

plumul e . When the surface of the soil is reached,the hypocotyl

becomes s tra ight , and now the two cotyledons unfol d . Soonafter the first pa ir of Opposite , corda te fol iage l eaves are developed and al l the parts above the soi lgrow green, the plant l et i s now ful lydevel oped and cons ists of rOot , s tem and

l eaves . A s the stem continues growingv igorou sly , one l eaf after ano ther, nowal ternate and trifol iate

,i s devel oped

and the cotyl edons become thinner andfinally fal l off withered .

T hi s p ro c e s s of a

germ ination giv es us

many things to l earn .

(a) If beans or any

other kind of seed are

laid on a dry Spot, they F ig. 2 9 . Germ ina t ion of Horse Gram .

nevergerm ina te . Theydo so only when they are m oistened . But then the questionari ses :

.

why does the mother-plant not furni sh the seed s with thewater necessary for their germinati on at the v ery beginning,

or

why are the seeds a lways so dry and hard when they are pro

duced in the frui t of the mother-plant? I f i t were not so, the

seeds would try to grow as soon as they fa l l on the ground . But

the tiny weak roots coul d not make their way into the hard

ground , nor could they find any nourishment during the greaterpart of the year. F or, at the time when plants general ly ripentheir seeds , the ground is dry and hard , the ra ins being O ver.

3 2 D ICOTYL EDON S

The s eeds tha t had thus already begun to germ inate would simplydie of thirs t and i t woul d be a lm ost impossibl e for a plant toreproduce i ts el f by seeds . I n the cas e of annua l herbs , such as

P ea s and Beans , etc .

,i t would mean the extirpati on of the genu s

in a v ery short time ; for annual herbs are not abl e to l iv eafter flowering and fru iting. A nother advantage of having hard

,

dry s eed s i s tha t anima l s,bird s

,and insects cannot destroy them

so readily as they could i f they were soft .

(b) We hav e noticed that thefirst part tha t come s out of thegerm ina ting seed is the root. There i s a rea son for thi s . The

young plant mu s t be fixed in the ground, when the hook - l ike stem

breaks through the surface of i t . The sid e roots,i s su ing from

the main root,make the mooring so m uch the firm er. The wind

m ay now blow in wha tever direc ti on i t wi l l , i t cannot ov erturnthe plant . The root has al so other work to do . It mu st takein wa ter and nouri shment which i s to be conveyed to the l eav e swhere i t w il l be transform ed into that condition in which i t canbe u s ed by the plant for the bui lding up O f new l eaves . N ow ,

the root must nece ssaril y grow before any other part can do so .

F or then i t wil l be ready fori ts funct i ons and can at Once sendup food to the l eave s when thev are form ed .

(0) The bud being extrem ely tender would suffer injury , ifi t had to_force i ts way up through the soil . So the thick , strongstem bends in such a way that the bud rema ins bel ow whi l s t i trai se s the earth above i t .

(d) A l l the parts of the g erminating seed are entirely col ourl e ss so l ong as they are w i thin the coa t of the s eed and bel owthe surfac e of the earth. They becom e green

,howev er, when they

com e up to the l ight . I t i s the action of sunlight which pro

duces the green colour in the stem s and l eav e s of the plants .

(e) We know that the plant s bui ld up new parts from the

food prepared in the l eave s . lut whenc e d oes the germ inatings eed take the materia l s nec essary to form the root , the stem ,

and

the l eave s , as i t has no l ea ve s to prepare i ts food ? We shal lb e in a position to gi ve an answer to thi s quest ion when we

exam ine the s eed-l ea ve s careful ly . These l eav es are hard and

ful l in the beginning,but gradua lly they becom e softer and softer

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3 4 D ICOTYL EDON S

and hang d own v ertica l ly (fig . 3 1 , We say, the l ea f Sl eepsnow . O n the fol lowing morning i t re sum es i ts orig ina l positi on .

F ig. 3 1 . L ea f O f the Bea n.

I . Posit ion d uring d ay time .

I l . P osit ion a t n igh t .

T he s e m o v em ents , whi chare v ery regular

,are effect

e d b y t h e

swol l en jointca l l ed pa tvi

nus, whi ch can

be observ ed at

the ba se of the commonl eaf- stal k

,as al so on

each of the stalks of

the thre e l eaflets .Wha t does - thi s cu

rions behaviour of the

leafm ean forthe plant?We know tha t the plantstake from the s o i lnourishment which

,dis

solv ed inwa ter,asc end s

to their.

l eav es, where

thewa ter i s evapora tedl eaving the sa l ts of thesoil behind i t in the

l eav es . The work of

thus pumping up new

food to the l eav e s muststep when the evaporation by the l eaves i sObstructed ; and thi s i s

exa ctly wha t takes plac e when dew s ettl e s upon the l eav es .N ow ; i t i s a known fact tha t articl e s la id hori z ontal ly on the

ground have a greater d eposi t of dew than such as hang v ertical ly . It i s therefore ad vantageou s for the l eav es to a s sum e a

positi on whi ch prevent s the dew from covering them and thus

L EGUM IN OS/E 3 5

obstructing the proc ess of evapora ti on which i s so essentia l fortheir growth.

(c) When the heat O f the sun is grea t S O as to caus e m orewater to be evaporated than . the roots can absorb , the l eav es

are a l so seen to a ssum e theirSl eeping”a ttitude . A S theyplace them s elv e s paral l el to

F ig 3 3 .

— Solar ra ys fa l l ing ver

t ica l l y on a CI , but sl anting on

a c, wh ich are both of theRoot of Gram

same lengt h .

w ith nod ules or t uberc les(na tura l size) the sun ’ s rays , they are

C. Cel l of a t uberc le fi l led struck only by a few O fw it h innumerab le bacteria them and at Obl ique angl e s

(fig . cons equently theydo not get S O hot as woul d

be the ca s e , if they were at right angl es to them . Thi s i s another remarkabl e protectiv e arrangem ent .

4 . The Gram plant gathering N itrogen from the A ha — I f you

careful ly pul l a Gram plant out of the Soil , you wi l l notic e num erous nodules on the roots (fig. 3 2) which are not accidenta l , buthav e their own l ittl e functions in the great hou sehol d of Nature .

I n each l i ttl e gra in of earth there are numerous m inute germ s ,cal l ed bacteria . S om e of these have the pecul iarity O f settl ing

3 *

( 1 20 t imes en larged ) .B . Bac teria (800 t imes enlarged) .

3 6 D ICOTYL EDON S

on the tiny root-ends of the plant s of thi s ord er and grow as

para si te s on them ,being nouri shed by their jui c e s . They cau se

thos e parts of the root on whi ch they se ttl e to grow exuberantly ,thu s form ing l ittl e nodul e s or tubercl e s (fig . 3 2 , C and B) on the

roots . N ow , the se bacteria , whi ch are them s elves tiny plants ,hav e the power, unl ike other plants , of taking in , from the air,

ni trogen whi ch i s an e ss ential ingredient of the l iving parts ofplants and wi thout whi ch plant s cannot thriv e . A S other plantscannot take ni trogen from the air whi ch

,indeed , a lways conta ins

pl enty of i t,they mu st take it from the soil through their roots .

Thes e bacteria,then

,take their supply of ni trogen from the

a ir. When, eventual ly , they die , their remains s erve the Gramplant , or any other plants that may be grown in that soil

, as

v ery good manure conta ining , as they do,plenty of ni trogen.

We see here , then, a beautiful reci procity . A t first , the Gramplants a l low the bacteria to settl e on them and to participat ein the food they draw from the soi l and air for them s el ve s . The

guest in return gi ves ni trogen to the ho st .Thi s fac t i s of the grea test importance to agriculture. With

each O I°

O p the farm er takes away from the

field a grea t quanti ty of ni trogen depositedin the seed s and other parts of the crop ,and thi s ni trogen had al l been ga ined fromthe soi l . I f he wants another good cropnext year, he mu s t needs re plac e what hehas taken away , and thi s he doe s in the

shape of manure . I f he a l so grows suchplant s as Gram ,

L entil s , P ea s , e tc ., in the

cropped field s,the se themsel v e s w i l l hel p

F'

. 3 4 — B t te fl -flo er'g u r y w to manure the sod by acting as hosts toof the P ea .

a Ca l yx S tandardthe bacteria which absorb nitrogen from

6 . W ings . at . Keel . the air.

4 . The F lower has som e resemblancet o a butterfly (fig . It i s irregular, but a v ertica l s ectiond ivide s i t into symmetri cal ha l v e s . We cal l such flowers bilatera lly symmetrica l or zygomorphic (from Gre ek zygon, yoke , and

morphe, shape) .

L EGUM IN OSE 3 7

(a) The corolla , supported by a cup-l ike ca lyx with five l ong

points,consi sts of five petal s which are O f a creamy white colour

and which d iffer from one another in Shape and s iz e . The

largest of them i s erect and i s call ed the standard

(fig . 3 4,

becau s e i t stands up above the restand shows its col ours so boldly . It m ight a l sobe cal l ed “ sa il”, for i t answers the purpos e of

one. The wind bl ows it round , S O tha t it a lwaysturns i ts back to bad weather, and s erv e s as

a Shi el d to the del icate parts wi thin . The two

latera l peta l s are ca l l ed wings (fig . 3 4, c) and

the two l ower one s are S O combined that theyform a boa t and are cal l ed the keel . Theseboat-l ike l eav es enclose the stam ens and the

pi sti l (fig . which latter consi sts of a l ongand ha iry ovary and a sty l e . I n bud the peta l sare folded in such a way that the keel i s innerm ost

,the two wings fold ov er the keel , and the

standard enve l ops al l (imbricate aestivation) .

F ig. 3 5 . F lowerof Horse Gram .

(6) There are ten stamens . The filam ents of n ine of themare united to a tube whi ch,

however, i s not j oined at the top .

F ig. 3 6 .— Keel of P ea flower ( 3 times em

larged) . B. Bund le of the 9 comb inedstamens (onl y 4 of the 9 are visib le) .

S t. Sing le stamen . A . A ccess to honey .

8. S ty le w it h st igma and brush .

The filam ent of the tenthstam en l i e s in the Sl i t . Iti s only through thi s Sl i t thatinsects

,attracted by the large

standard and a l so by the

sweet scent the flower exhaleS , can get at the honeywhich l i e s hidd en wi thin the

tube of the filament s . Whil etrying to g et at the innerpartsof the flower they mu st pre ssdown the keel . A t once the

styl e protrud es and touches the body of the vi sitor, which probably has com e from another flower where its hairy body wascovered w ith pol l en

, and the ovul e s are thu s pol l inated . A t the

sam e tim e , by the sudd en j erk of the styl e , the stam ens are

D ICOTYL EDON S

cau s ed to Spill their pol l en on the ins ect whi ch now w ith a new

F ig . 3 7 .— L egume

of the P ea .

c. Ca l yx . 3 . Seeds .

r. Midrib .

b. Ventra l suture.

l oad of pol l en flie s to another flower. N ow,

as the w ings and the keel of the flower are,

by a sort of j oint at their ba s e a ttached to oneanother v ery cl osely and firm ly

,i t require s

considerabl e s trength to press them down S O

as to get a t the honey in the interior. Notal l insects hav e the strength nec essary to dothi s . Bees are strong enough to overcome al lthe di fficul ti e s on their way to the honey , andit i s chi efly by them that thes e flowers are

ferti l iz ed . S om e of them ,it i s true , try to

get a t the honey by a Shorter way. Theybreak in l ike thi ev e s and bite a hol e throughthe flower- l eav e s at the ba s e .

5 . The Frui t (fig . 3 7) i s a pod or legume,

consi sting of a Singl e carpel lary l eaf, whichi s folded inward s in i ts m idrib hav ing the

edges s eam ed together (v entral suture) . The

pod contains severa l seeds in one row ,al l

a ttached al ternately to the two edges of the

s eam of the frui t- l eaf which form the concav eedge of the l egum e . The calyx rema insa ttached to the frui t and i s , therefore , cal l edpersi stent . The point of the pod , m ore or

l e s s wi thered , i s , of cours e , the styl e O f the

flower. When ri pe, the l egum e Spl i ts both a t

the m idrib and at the s eam,thu s d ivid ing

into two hal v e s . There are vari ous modifica

tions of thi s typical l egum e in other generaof the L egum inosze . The l egum e of P ongamiai s ind ehi scent (not s pl i tting ) and one- s eeded ;tha t of Smithia and D esmodium jointed and

when ri pe divid ing into i ts s eparate joints ;Butea and D a l/Jergia have winged l egumes ;and Crota laria infla ted ones , etc .

F ig. 3 8 .— L egume of

Bulea frondosa

L E GUM I N O S fE 3 9

O ther P api l ionaceae or Butterfly-flower P lants.

Thi s tribe i s a v ery large one. We find papil i onaceousplants cul tiva ted in the field s for the fibre of the stem l ike theS unn H emp (Crota laria j uncea ; Kan. S anabu ; M a t. Canaka ;T am . Canal) ; for their nutritious s eed s l ike the Bean (P haseolustrilobus ; Kan; Avare ; Ma l . Ceruvidukol ; T am . E lippayaru) , the

P ea (P isum sa tivum ; Kan. Ba tani) , the Benga l Gram (Cicer

arietinum ; Kan. Kadale ; Ma l . Kata la) , the Green Gram (P ha

scotus mungo; Kan. Uddu ; M a l . Ul unnu; T am . Ulundu) , the

A la sandiBean ( Vigna ca tj ang; Kan. A lasandi; M a l . Kettapayarn;

Tam . Karamani) , the Ground N ut (A rachis hypogaea ; K an. Nelakadal e ; M a l . N el akada laka ; T am . Verkadalai) ; for the dye oh

tained from the l eaves , l ike the I ndigo P lant ( I ndigofera tinctoria;Kan. Nil i ; I ll a l . A vari — P la te No . But we can al so seethem wi l d in the forests , as for instance the Rosew ood (D a l

bergia la tifolia ; Kan. Biti ; Ma l . Vitt i ; T am . Itt i) , which yi eld san excel l ent timber, or the Cora l T ree (E rythrina indica ; Kan .

B ongara ; M a l . Mul lumurika) , w ith i ts beautiful Shining red flo

werS , and S O many others ; whi l ethe creepers W ild L iquorice

(A brus preca torius; Kan . Gur

gunj i ; Ma l .Gufija ; T am .Kunri) ,

and S hankapushpa (Clitoria

ternatea ; Kan ,-Ma l . Sankha

pushpa) adorn our hedge s w i ththe pretty scarl et se eds of theform er and the large blue andwhite flowers of the la tter

B . TH E CA S S I A F A M I L Y

(Ccesa lpiniacece) .

TheT amarindT ree (Ta tl l afi F ig. 3 9 .— F lower of the Tamarind tree.

rindus indicus ; Kan. H uni soP late N O . 651 ) i s a stately tre e with a round crown , culti va ted forits fruit . L eaves evenly pinnate , sensitiv e . I n young leave s

40 D ICOTYL EDON S

large reddi sh stipul e s whi ch becom e scari ous after a tim e and

are Shed . L eaflets ten to fifte en pa ir, Obl ique , Oblong, entire ,emarginate a t the apex , glabrous . F lowers in lax racemes .

40.— Braneh of the Tamarind tree with fruits.

lracts d eciduou s . R ec eptacl e hol l owed . S epal s four. P etal sthree . S tam ens three , connate a t theirba s e and Showing marks of S ix or sev enrud imentary stamens . P od wi th a bri ttl eexocarp, a pul py sour me socarp and eachseed enveloped in a hard endocarp .

The I ndia n L aburnum (Cassia fistula ,

Kan. Kond e ; M a l . Konne ; T am . Kovrai ;

Tel . Relacettu ; S an. S uvarnaka) i s one of

F ig. 4 l .— F |ower of the m ost beautiful j ungl e tree s when in

Cassta o k Ce IYX ful l flower. The fragrant , gold en flowersC‘ Corol la . Long S ta “

hanging d own in l ong , drooping racem es

“a mong. 8 . S terile appear after the firs t ra ins together wi ths t a mens , f , pm”.

the pinnate l eave s whi ch the tre e Shed s inthe cold sea son . S epal s and peta l s each

five . P etal s alm ost equa l,imbrica te in bud and re sted on the

mens . a’

. T he shorter

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42 D ICOTYL EDON S

as w eapons aga inst animal s that would otherwi s e fe ed on them .

P rotection i s a l so afforded by an astringent acid, cal l ed tannin,

F ig. 42 —Branc h of A caciaarabica , with legumes.

contained in the bark. I f the bark i s damaged ,gum tri ckl e s out of i t and covers the wound .

A s the A cac ia tree i s one of the few plants thatgrow in d e serts , i t can make good use of suchm eans of defence .

3 . The F lowers (fig . 4 3 ) are smal l , but aregrouped in round heads . A S the tree flowers ind e sert regi ons and at such a

‘ tim e when there i sno ra in, i t can di s pens e wi th the many arrangem ents by which

,in other plants , the pol l en of

the stam ens i s protec ted aga inst bad w eather.

So the flora l envel ope s (calyx and corol la) are

consid erably reduced (see fig . 4 3 , c and h) , and

the num erous stam ens protrud e w id ely fromthem . I n fact

,the flower-head s l ook yel l ow from

the pol l en only .

4 . The L egumes (P l at e No . 628, 4) are fla t

and narrow and d epressed be tween the s eed s .

5 . Uses for mam— The tree i s us e ful in

F ig . 4 3 . F lowerof t he A ca cia ,

h’

. Ca l yx c. Corol la .

s t. S tamens .

a n. A u thors

71 . S t igma of sty le .

(Muc h enla rged . )

many ways . The wood i s v ery hard and can be empl oyed for

L E GUM I N O S ZE 43

al l purposes for which a hard wood i s re q u ired,s uch as pl ough

shares,knees and ribs of country boats , naveS of wheel s , etc .

The bark is empl oyed in tanning . The pod s form a valuabl efood for cattl e , and the young branches are a favouri te food of

cam el s and goats . The bark yield s a l so gum , which i s an arti cl eof genera l comm erce .

O ther Mimoseae

are the Red-w ood T ree (A denanthera pavonina ; Kan. Manjetti,Manjadi) known for its scarl e t s eeds ; the S oapnut A ca c ia

(A cacia concinna ; Kan. Sige) ; the F ragrant A ca cia (A cacia

F arnesiana ; Kan. P ikjali ; M a l . Karivelam) ; the Ra in T ree

(P ithecolobium saman) ; the Korukapu l i (P . dulce; Kan. Cakli ;T am . Kodukkapuli) ; the S irissa T ree (A lbizz ia L ebbek ; Kan.

Bage ; T am . Vagai) , and E ntada scandens (Kan. H al lekayi) , the

latter a l iana w ith l egum e s of imm ens e Siz e . A notherwel l -known

F ig. 44.— Mimosa pudica . I . Posit ion a t day, I I . P osition a t nig h t , or w hen

or wh en circumstances are favourable . touched .

m im osa is the S ensitive P lant (M imosa pudica ; Kan. N ac ike-gida)so cal l ed from i ts highly s ensitiv e l eaves which fold and bendwhen touched (fig .

“The S ensitive P lants deri ve protecti ve

44 D ICOTYL EDON S

advantages from thes e m ovement s . They Often cover large tractsof land , and graz ing animal s may be often attracted towardsthem by their bright gre en fol iage . But what happens ? The

v ery first plants the animal a pproache s droop the ir temptingl eave s , s ensiti ve ev en to the v ibrat ion of the ground cause d bythe invad er ; and should it step in amongst them , the temptingand jui cy fol iage recede s before i t

,for one plant conv eys the

Shock to i ts neighbours by the touch O f its own l eav es as theydrop. Thu s , wha t was a m oment before a ma s s of tempting

F ig. 45 .— A n “

umb rel la tree”: Poinciana regia .

green l eave s becom e s a lmost instantly in appearance very scrubbyfare for the animal ; whose appeti te expected much better refreshm ent . The stem s are protec ted w ith strong and sharp spines .A nd now

,when they hav e turned down their l eave s out of harm ’ s

way,they pre sent to their enemy for i ts first nibbl e no thing but

prickly stem s,so that shoul d the intrud er not be awed by their

uncanny m ovem ents,but proce ed w i th i ts intenti on , i ts first

m outhful would scarc ely be agre eable after i ts ri cher antici

pations.

”

THE ROSE FA M IL Y 45

Various trees of thi s group form the characteri s tic flora of

desert regions . S ome of them have a pecul iar m ode of growth.

Their crown i s not round l ike that of the Mango tree,but flat

l ike a pa lm-leaf umbrella (catra , fig . It i s thus , indeed ,m ore exposed to the sun ’ s rays

,but i t pre sents its edges to the

scorching w inds instead of a large surface and thereby i s betterprotected from l os s of moi sture by transpirat ion . The effect of theS un

’ s rays i s l es sened by the tre es ’ power of folding their l eav es .

lo. The Rose Fam i ly(Rosa ceae) .

T rees,Shrub s , or herb s . L eaves alternate , stipu late . F lowers

radial . S epal s and petal s each five,imbricate in bud. S tam ens num er

ou s,free

,incurved in bud. Carpel s distinct (apocarpou s ) . Fruit Often

f leshy,and in it s form ation aided by the receptacle .

T he Rose (R osa centifolia) .

(Kan. Gu l ab i. Ma l . P aninirpu .)

The R ose i s the que en of flowers . Its graceful Shape,

beautiful col our, and del i ciou s scent m ake its charm irresi stible .It i s the symbol of youth, of innocence and of beauty . With rose swe decorate our hous e s on festi ve occa sions , and make beautifulthe grav e s of our bel ov ed one s .

1 . The D ouble Rose (R osa centifolia) i s cul ti vated in our

gardens . If a bush wi th doubl e flowers i s not attended to andpruned and m anured , it wil l in course of tim e yield Single flowers .O ne of the Speci e s wi th Singl e flowers i s the H edg e R ose (R osacanina) which in colder cl imate s grows w ild in hedges

2 . The prickles on the S tem are worthy of spec ial notic e .They are Sharp and bent d own (recurv ed) . With their hel pthe weak stem s s eek support on other plants that are strongerthan them s elv e s . But the prickl es are a l so powerful weaponsa ga inst enem i e s

,such as cattl e , which would feed on them

,or

sna il s whi ch woul d crawl up to the t ender l eave s , or m ic ewhich woul d eat the sweet frui ts , cal l ed hi ps

,It may be

noticed that the prickl e s of the R o se are l ike hairs only l oosely

46

fixed on the bark .

D ICOTYL EDON S

They are growths of the Skin (epid erm i s)and differ in thi s re spect from the spine s of the A cacia , which

are m odified stipul e s,

and

a l so from the axil lary Spine sof the L em on tree , which are

modified branchl ets .

A s in the Mango tre ethe finer sorts of Ros es are

graf ted on the wi l d sorts by

F ig. 46 .— Gra ft ing by b udd ing .

buddl ng’ 2 ° by I nsertl ng

the bud of a superior- kindunder the bark of t he inferi or (fig.

3 . The R ose L eaves consi st of a l ong m iddl e rib wi th fiv eor sev en l eaflets , of which two are always Opposite , the m idribend ing in a singl el eaf. S uch l eav e sare cal l ed impari

pinna te, that i s , nuevenly pinna te (com

pare i t w i th a fea.

ther) . A t the ba s eof the l eaf-sta lk are

two stipules whi ch inyoung branche s embrace a youngerl eaf;between the stipul e sof thi s , the nextyounger aga in i scovered

, and so on .

In“ thi s manner theinner, v ery tend erl eav e s are coveredby the outer one s by

F ig. 4 7 .— H ed ge R ose (Rosa canina ) .

l . F lowering branch . 2 . L ong itud ina l section of bud.

3 . O vu le w ith style . 4 . H ip ( fruit) . 5 . and 6 . Seed .

7 . Diagram .

their sheathing stipul e s . The young l eaflets are fold ed and la idtogether l ike the l eav e s of a book . It may a l so be noti ced thatthe young l eave s of som e sorts of R ose s are red coloured . (S ee

Mango , page

T H E ROSE FAM IL Y 47

4 . I n the F lowers of the H edge R os e (fig . 47) we can

di stingui sh first a green cup-l ike receptacl e , conta ining num erous

di stinct pistil s and crowned by five sepal s , five petal s,and

num erou s stam ens . S epal s and peta l s are imbrica te in bud,

and the stam ens bent inward s (incurved) . The cul tivated R osehas

,however, num erou s peta l s , which are form ed by the trans

forma tion of som e of the stam ens . Thi s i s sometim es ea sily seenas some of the petal s in the m iddl e occa sional ly bear pol l en bags .

5. The Carpels are seated d i sunited or free in the holl owedout “fleshy”top of the flower-sta lk , whi ch becom e s a beautiful redcolour when ri pe , and i s mad e up of a soft swee t pul p in ord erto attract birds by whos e m eans the se ed s can be sca ttered

Ruhus el lzpticus.

and w id e To prev ent the seed s being dige sted by the birds thepericarps are thick-wal l ed and are provided wi th prick ly hairsand so are not damaged even if swa l l owed , whi ch i s rather un

l ikely,as the birds do not l ike such hairs .

6 . The S cent of the R ose i s d erived from a vola til e oi l whi chevaporates ea si ly and l eav es no greasy sta in, if appl i ed to paper.

Thi s oil i s extracted from the petal s , by d i sti llation ,and then

sold as a preciou s p erfume , known a s A ttar of R oses .

D ICOTYL EDON S

The R ose fam i ly (R osaceae) i s but l i ttl e repre sented on the

plains of Ind ia . Many fruits,such as the A pple , the P ear

,

the A lmond , the P each, the Cherry , the P lum ,S trawberri e s and

R a spberri e s bel ong to thi s fam ily , but come to perfection only inc ool er cl imates . Rubus ellipticus (fig . R . moluccanus, and

R . lasiocarpus are v ery common on the hi ll s .

I!. The Myrtle Fam i ly

(Myrta ceae) .

T rees or Shrubs . L eaves m ostly Opposite,Simple

,entire

,Often with

glandular dots . F low ers radial . S epal s and petal s four (or five ) each,inserted w ith the numerou s stam ens on the m outh of the hol low re

ceptacle. Carpel s two or m ore adnate to the receptacle . Fruit a berry-O r a capsule .

1 . The Guava (P sidium Guyava ; Kan. P é ral e — fig. 50 ;

P la te N O . A sma l l tree or large Shrub , indigenous in A m erica ,

cul ti vated in m ost tropica l countri es onaccount of its frui t .

S tem wi th smooth and l ight-graybark , whi ch i s Shed in thin Sheets .Young stem s square andwinged . L eav esOpposit e , shortly petiol ed , el l i pti c-oblong,entire , glabrous abov e , pubescent beneath,

nerve s prom inent beneath.

F lowers Singl e or few in l eaf-axil s onShort peduncl e s . S epa l s and petal s fouror five each. P eta l s imbri cate in bud

and dec iduous . S tamens num erous ,bent inward s in bud, and inserted on

the m outh of the hol low receptacl e .

O vary inferi or, encl osed in the receptacl e

,two or m ore-cell ed wi th num erous

s e eds . F rui t 3 . berry , crowned by the

persi stent calyx .

2 . The j amoon (E ugenia j amboF ig. 49 —E ugenia zeylanica .

lana ; Kan. N era le ; T am . Naval ; S an.

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THE MYRTL E FA M IL Y 49

Jambavam ) , a large tre e wi th l ight gray bark . L eaves ell i pticlanceola te , acum inate

,coriaceous ; s econdary nerves running

F ig. 5 1 .— F lower-bud of the

C love ( E ugenia caryophyl la ta ) .

R . Recep ta c le. 0. O vary .

C. Ca l yx . P . Peta ls.

clo sely paral l el and m eeting in one

ju st insid e of, and paral l el to themargin . When held up to the l ightsma l l transparent dots are seen : the seare marks of a v olati l e oi l c ontainedin gland s : when the l eaves are bru i sed ,

the sc ent of tha t O il wil l be noticed .

F l owers in their m orphologica l strueture are l ike those of the Guava ,

the

d eciduou s peta l s and the Sl end er filam ents of the num erous stam ens being

parti cularly noti ceabl e . The lattermake the flowers showy (comparethe flowers of A cacia , page I n

S ta . S tamens. S ty,S te .

florescence cym ose on the previou sT he dots below the epidermis year’ s wood . Fru it a one- s eededdenote sma l l cavit ies conta ining berry edible

aroma t ic resin .

3 S everal speci es of the genusE ugenia are fOpnd on the hil l s ; the commones t in the pla ins areE . corymbosa (Kan. Kuntal a ; M a l .

Neral ) , E . zeylanica (Kan. Gudda

panneralu , fig . 49 ) both yi elding a

very good fuel-wood . The frui t O f E .

ma laccensis (R ose-appl e) i s ea ten , and

from the E . caryophylla ta we obta inthe wel l -known Spic e

,Cl ov es (fig .

4 . The B lue Gum T ree (E uca

lyptus globulus) and other Species ofthe genus E ucalyptus , ind ig enou s inA ustra l ia , are now cul tiva ted in India ,

chi efly on the hi l l s,on account of

the ir rapid growth,producing a great

quantity of fuel . The l eav e s are

Opposite , ses si l e , cordate , glaucousF ig. 52 .

-E uca lyptus globulus .

gray , and hori z ontal in sapl ings , but al ternate , petiolate ,

50 D ICOTYL EDON S

lanceolate-fal cate , green ,and v ertica l in the adul t tree s . The

frui t i s a hard , l eathery capsul e Opening by a l id which fal l s Off

F ig. 5 3 . Memecylon edulc

(flowering twig) .

(circum sc i ss) .

A very comm on Shrubon the hi ll s i s the H il l .

Gooseberry (R hodomyrtus

tomentosa ) .

O f grea t beau ty are the

red flowers of Barringtoniaracemosa (P la te No . 643 )and the large

, whi te flowersof the tree Gareya arborea,

and las t , not l ea st , those of

the Brida l Myrtle (Myrtus

communis)

A l l ied F am i l ies

are the Melastoma ceae, of

which we m ention two handsom e Shrubs

,viz M ela stom a

m a la ba thricwn (Kan . D oddanekkare ; M a l . Kadali) w ith

three-nerved leave s and curiou s ly-j ointed stamens ; and M emecylon

edu le (Kan . A lamar,Mundi ; M a l .

Kayavu ; Tam . Kaya) which, withits clusters of sky -blue flow erson bare branches

,beautifies our

forests in May and June ;the L ythra cece, w ith the beauti

ful tree,

‘ P ride of I ndia’

, (L ager

strazm ia flos regincc

; Kan . Marn

vabala ; M a l . N iruvendé ku ; Tam .

Kodalemukki) ; the common shrubL aw son ia a l ba (Kan . Madaraiigi ;

M a l . Mailaiiei ; Tam . Marudenri)and the P omegrana te (P unica

grana tum ; Ka n . D alimbe ; S a n .

D alika,fig. 50; P late N O . 655) w ith

a leathery,red calyx and u sually

m ore than five sepal s,petal s

,and

F ig . 54 .— L agcrstr(rmia flos regiam

(capsule) .

THE M A N GROVE FA M IL Y 51

carpe l s each. P etal s , like those of L agerstroem ia, crumpled in bud. Car

pels arranged in two tiers,in side the hollow receptacle . Fruit a berry

with leathery pericarp and num erou s seed sembedded in a

“fleshy”,sw eet

,pellucid testa

the Com breta ceae, — w ith the w ell-knownR angoon Creeper (Quisqua lis indica) , and

several useful timber-trees of the genu sT erm in a l ia , e. g., T. tom entosa (Kan . Banapu ;

Tam . Karimardu) with five brown coriaceou sw ings in the one-seeded nut ; and T . panica

la ta (Kan . Maruva ; Tam . P um ardu) w ith a

one-winged nut .

F ig 55 . Termina l ia

12 . The Mangrove Fam i ly tomentosa (winged fruit ) .

(Rhizophora ceae) .

T rees or Shrub s,m ostly in bracki sh water. L eaves Opposite

,

mostly coriaceou s,entire ; stipu les interpetiolar, deciduous . F lowers

radial . O vary inferior. Fruit one-seeded .

The coa sts O f Ind ia and other tropica l countri e s are l ined wi thpecul iarflora cal l ed ‘the Mangrove

’ to whi chbelong s ev era l tree sof the R hizoplwracece, e . g. , Rhizophora mucrona ta (Kan. Kand el) ,and Bruguiera parviflora ,

as wel l as some shrubs of otherfam i l i e s,

via , A vicennia ofilcina l is (Kan. Uprunja) , the Spinou s A ca -nthus

ilicifolius (Kan. H oleeul l i) , and the fern A crostichum aureum .

The pecul iarhabita t of the se plants has cond iti oned their pecul iars tructure .

1 . Xerophi lous and hygrophilous habits of plants — E ven a childknows that One of the conditions for the hea l thy growth of a

plant i s a regular supply of wa ter. There i s a cons tant flowof water in a tree from i ts root up to the l eav es . But thi s flowmu st not be too weak

,or el s e the l eav e s beg in to fade and the

plant di e s . The flow must a l so not be too strong,or el s e the

plant i s overfed , becom e s sickly and final ly d i e s .N ow,

the supply of water i s not the sam e in every place .

P lants growing near a river—Side a lways have water enough todrink ; plants growing on dry ground , however, have v ery l i ttl ewater to feed on . The supply of wa ter i s al so not the sam e at

52 D ICOTYL EDON S

a l l time s of the y ear. There i s pl enty of water for every plantduring the ra iny sea son

,but hardly any during the hot sea son

A gain, plants wi th l ong and deep roots,such as large trees , can

draw water e ven during the ra inl e s s s ea son from springs hiddend eep bel ow ,

wherea s many sma l l plants wi th short roots cannotreach any such re servoir.

P lants that have a rich supply of wa ter at their disposal ,therefore

,genera l ly pos se s s c ertain arrangem ents in the structure

of the ir l eaves and stem s to fac il i tate the transpira ti on of waterat their surface , that i s to say, their structure i s hygrophilous"

( se e “H el p s to promote Transpirati on” in II . P art) . But suchplants as have onl y a scanty supply of water must be very fruga lw ith it

,they mu st reduce the proc e s s of transpira tion to a m inimum

and the ir structure i s sa id to he xerophiloz¢s** ( s ee “Means to cheektoo much Transpirati on in II . P art) P lant s tha t are abl e toadapt them selve s to vari ous condi tions as regard s the supply of

water in the di fferent s ea sons are said to be tropop/n’

lrmsiL

(s eeT eak Tree) .

2 . Xerophi lous struct ure of the Mangrove.“ l f e the

l eave s of a Mangrov e tre e , 6 . g.

,R hizophom mac under a

m i cro scope, we find tha t they are c overed wit ck coat ,

cal l ed the cuticl e , preventing the evaporation of wateraccum ula tedin the c ell s of the e pidermi s . We further find that there are a

number of addi ti onal layers of c el l s fil l ed w ith water bel ow the

epid erm i s of the upper sid e of the l eaf which may be sa id to be areservoir of wa ter. The stomata are d eeply s et in the epid erm i s .

Many of the interi or cel l s conta in a sl imy substanc e The l eave sof the tre e have a d ecidedly xerophi l ous structure like so m any

plants growing in dry place s .A t first sight, thi s fact m us t cau s e som e surpri s e to the

observer; for the Mangrove tree l iv e s on mois t soil , andwe should ,

therefore , expec t a hygrophi l ous ra therthan a xerophil ous structure .

H owever, if we think about it a l i ttl e more , we understand tha tthe Mangrove m ust neces sarily be thus e q uipped . The soil in

F rom G reek hygros ,wet ; a nd pla tes , loving .

“ F rom G reek weros,dry ;

and p la tes , loving. 1 From Greek (ropes , a t urn .

THE MA N GROVE F A M I L Y 58

whi ch the tre e grows i s m oist , but sa lt . I f the tree were to absorba large quant ity of sa l t , the vessel s in both root and stem wou ld beclogged by sa lt , which woul d caus e the d eath of the tree . The

tree must , therefore , reduc e the quanti ty of wat er taken in by theroots t o a m inimum

, whi ch i s effected by dim ini shing the actionof transpiration . The wa terabsorbed i s thu s not freely transpired

,

but retained by the l eav es , and the percentage of sa lt is kept ata low rat e .

The d im inution of the flow of the sap i s requ ired for a s econdrea son . Breez e s are con stantly blow ing on the sea-coa st . (The

heat of the sun ’ s rays warm s the land much more than the sea,

then the hot air on the land ri s e s,and the cool air from the sea

rushes “

in to replac e i t . That i s the ordinary sea-breez e by day.

The revers e takes place at night . The land cool s down muchsooner than the sea

,the warm air overthe sea ri s es and i s replaced

by a stream of air from the land,which we ca l l land -breez e .)

A plant l ike the Mangrove tree tha t i s thus constantly exposedto wind s i s l ikely to wither ea si ly and

,henc e

,mii st be protected

aga inst great a l os s of water by transpirati on .

3 . R0 t ing in themuddy soil . The soil in whi ch theMangrov egrow s i s l oose: and m uddy

,and the tid es continua l ly shake the

plant . The plant has to m eet these unfavourabl e circum stanc esand i s for thi s purpose adm irably provided . It s end s out fromi ts trunk num erou s horiz onta l adv entitious roots whi ch by m eansof v ertical shoots manage to get a firm hold in the soft m ud.

S uch adventitious roots spring even from the branches . Mangroveswam ps thus obtain a pecul iar appearance , especial ly a t low-tid e

,

When the whol e grove seem s to be l ifted over the water, a s ifstanding on stil ts , or l ooks l ike so many spid ers stand ing on theirlong l egs (fig. The water can now flow to and fro und erthe trunks

,ju s t as und er the pi l es of a pier, the stem s rema ining

firm .

4 . Germination of the Seed.— But what happen s w i th the s eed ?

I s it pos sibl e for the germ inating seed to take root in such an

unsteady soil as the beach afford s? P rovi sion i s made a l so forthis difficul ty . S eed s , as a rul e

,take a l ong rest before they

germ ina te . The seed of theMangrove tree, however, is an exception

54 DICOTYL EDON S

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56 D ICOTYL EDON S

arrow and rema ins there upright , the sid e-root s growingqui ckly and fixing the tender

plant in the uns ettl ed soil .

Thus the tend er sheet which

unfold s it s l eav es soon after,i s kept abov e the water.

5. Breathing of theroot s .

E very growingpart of a plantrequires the oxygen of the

air to susta in it s l ife . S o

a l so the root of theMangrov etree . But the muddy soi l i sdesti tut e of oxygen which i su s ed up in the proc es s of decomposing the v egetabl e substances ly ing there . O therplant s that hav e to l i v e undersim ilar cond iti ons such as the

L otus (page 3 ) supply their

roots wi th air by channel s

F ig. 59 .— Bra nc h of a Mangrove t ree (Bruguiera )

w it h fru its . O n the l eft side the flower o f it .

extending from the l eafblades to the extrem est

points of the root . But

s u ch a s y s t em o fchannel s in the stem

woul d not do in the

ca s e of a tree l ike the

Mangrov e , as it wou ldl e ssen the m echani ca lstrength of such a tal ltree with

'

its branches .

H ow ,the n,

c a n the

roo ts of the Mangrov etree breathe? Theysimply throw up l ittleb ra n che s above the

THE CA crUs FA M IL Y 57

water l ev el (fig . 58) conta ining large spaces in them and hol esa t their end s , by which they can get suffici ent air to breathe .

6 . F lowers.— The flowers of the Rhizaphoraeeae are rad ial

l ike thos e of the myrtl'

es , the ca lyx and the corolla beingvariou sly l obed , and the stam ens numbering usua l ly d o ubl e thenumber of the peta l s (fig .

1 3 . The Cactus Fam i ly

(Cactaceae) .

L eafles s,succulent herbs . F low ers u sually radial with indefinite

petal s and stam en s . O vary inferior. Fruit a berry .

Thi s i s an A m eri can fam i ly , but some cactus es , principa l lythe P rickly P ear (Opt mtz

'

a D itlem’

a’

; Kan. Jidegal li, Mul luga l li ;

M aL, T am. N agatali ; T el .

N agajam udu) and the

N ight -flow ering Cactus

(Cereus grandiflom s; Kan.

Kal l i) are v ery wid elynatura l iz ed in India . Theyare desert plants and are

,

accordingly , by the peoul iar structure of theirl eaves and stem s enabledto endure the longestdrought . L eav es , wi ththeir large surfac es , whichal l ow a great d ea l of thewater to evaporate

, are

d i sp ens ed with and be

com e sca l e s whi ch soonfal l off (d eciduous) , — som el ong thorns and s ev era lshort ha irs standing in their axil s . But the Cactus canno t dowithout starch to grow on , and so the thick stem a lways remains

6 0 — O punt ia with five fruit s.

58 D ICOTYL EDO N S

green and d oes the work of the l eav es in the preparati on ofstarch from the air. The moisture

,of which the plant g ets a

very scanty supply , i s stored up, as in a res ervoir, in the fleshy

part s of the st em and evaporat ed v ery fruga l l y , the epidermi s ofi t being thick and a lmost wat er-t ight , the stomata in i t being

F ig. 6 1 . N igh t -flowering Ca c tus ( Ccrcus grandlflorus) .

very few , and the sap becom ing a thick and sl imy fluid whi chdoes not ea sily p as s into va pour. Thu s the plants are abl e tothrive even when everything around them i s dri ed up. Beingthe only succul ent things in the d es erts in which they grow wi ld ,

THE CA c'rus FA M IL Y 59

it is good for them to be protected by sharp Spines and di spens ewi th their l eaves .

There are three di stinct form s of them,nam ely the globular

(fig . 62 , the centra lplant) , the columnar

(fig . 62,to the right) ,

and the l obed or j ointed

(fig . The P ri cklyP ear (Opuntia D illenii)and the night—floweringCereus hav e v ery showyflowers . Their fruit sare soft and edibl e . I n

Mexico the P ricklyP ear i s cul tivated forthe sake O f the CO Chi' F ig. 6 2 .

— A group of Cac taceae .

neal insect that l iveson it and yields a red dye . H ere in India i t is used forhedge s .

L ately a vari ety of O puntia without

prickl es was reared , whichwi l l , perhaps ,enabl e us to make deserts more habitabl e

, if the plant can now be u sed as

fodd er for cattl e .O ne plant , often cal l ed ‘Cactus ’ is

rea l ly a E uphorbia ; it has to l iv e undersim i lar cond iti ons and has develope d the

F ig. 6 3 -Brr/0phyl lum habits and appearanc e of the Cactu sW W W”

(s ee E uphorbz’

acece) .

Bryophyl lum ca lycinum (Kan . Kadubasale) belongs to an alliedfamily

,the Crassu la ceae, and is al so xerophilous in its habits and

structure . A dventitiou s bud s are form ed in the edges of the leaves ,from which young p lants are produced .

60 D ICOTYL EDON S

SUB-CL A S S 2.

— GA MO P E T A L ZE

P lants with two floral envelopes : calyx and corolla . Corolla withunited petal s

,the stam ens generally inserted on it .

14. The Coffee Fam i ly(Rubia ceae) .

T rees , shrubs , or herb s with Oppo site simp le leaves and interpetiolar stipules . F low ers radial . Coro lla tubu lar

,four or five lobed ;

stam ens,as m any

,inserted on the corolla (epipetalou s ) . O vary inferior

O f two syncarpou s carpel s . Fruit a drupe,or a capsule

,or a berry .

S eed s endosperm ou s .

T he Coffee T ree (Cofiea arabz’

ca) .

(P la te N O .

(Kan. Kap

-

hi. Ma l . Bunnu . Tam . , Tel . K ap i.)1 . Coffe e i s the seed of a sma l l tree , cul ti vated in India

,

but a nati v e of A rabi a . Und er cult ivati on the shrub i s genera l lynot a l l owed to grow m ore than six or eight feet high, but if l eftto its elf woul d becom e a sma l l tre e .

The L eaves are oblong and pointed , the m argins being sl ightlywav ed . They are placed Opposit e one another, and in such a

way that ev ery pa ir stand s cros swi s e over the next l ower pa ir

(decussa te) . S O a l so the many branches which are wiry and

spread ing horiz ontal ly . Thi s ensures the advantage O f the stembeing equal ly l oaded . The surfac e of the l eaves i s sm ooth and

shining,a property which prevents too rapid an evapora ti on of

the sap in the l eaves (of . Mango tree , page O bserve a l sothe stipul es between the petiol es of the Opposit e l eav es on eithersid e : they coa l e sc e int o one and are term ed “interpetiola N

’.

2 . The pre tty whi te and rose-tinted F lowers s tand in lit tl ecymose clusters (fa scicl es) in the axil s of the opposi te l eave s andhav e a most d el i ci ous fragrance . Ca lyx sma l l . P eta l s game

petal ous , funnel -shaped w i th a short tube and four to s ev en or

nine Obl ong l obes,twi s ted in bud. S tam ens as many as peta l s ,

w i th lanceola te anthers a tta ched in the m idd l e O f their back

(dorsifixed) to the short filaments whi ch are m serted a t the mouth

THE COFFEE FA M IL Y 6 1

of the flora l tube between the corolla-l obes. O vary inferior wi thtwo one-s eeded c el l s and one bifid s tyl e .

3 . Fruit a two-seeded drupe (comm only , but erroneou sly ,ca l l ed berry) wi th a blood-red fl eshy exocarpcrowned by the persi stent ca lyx , and a hardparchment-l ike (coriac eous) endocarp env elop

ing each seed

(P l a t e N O .

6 3 3 ,

T he s e e d sa re fl a t on

the i r i nn e rsid e wi th a

deep inwardl y c u r v e dgrooveCrush one O f

the s e e d s,

s o l d in the

b a z a a r a s

coffee - beans ,and you wil lfind that thefold s cons i sto f a ho rn ym a s s a n d

F ig. 6 4 .-T he Coffee t ree. that at one

e n d O f t h eseed envel oped by the folds there i s a m inut e embryo . The foldedsubstance

,then i s the endosperm of the se ed .

4 . Cul tivat ion.- The Coflee plant requires a well drained rich

soil,such as i s found in hi l ly fore sts . It grows best in a hum id

cl imate,and fros t i s fa tal to i t . I n hot and dry places Coffee is

succ essfu l ly grown in shade . The plant s are reared from seed ina nurs ery and, when a year or two O ld, planted in their permanentplaces in the plantation genera l ly under partial shade. A s shadetrees , such are preferred as go to enrich the so i l , 3 . g.

, Baa/1mm,

62 DICOTYL EDO N S

P oinciana , S esbam’

a , and other L eguménosre. Coffee being an

exha usting , crop manuring is e s sentia l .5. P reparat ion of Coffee.

— When ri pe , the frui t i s ga theredor shaken on cloths spread under the trees . The “berri e s” are

then pa ss ed between rol l ers,which are s et cl os e enough to cru sh

the fleshy part,but not. so clo se as to cru sh the s eed s . A fter

being crushed the pul p i s wa shed away,and the berri e s

,sti l l

in their skin ,are s et t o dry in the sun . When dry they are again

pa ss ed between rol l ers s et cl oser than before , whi ch now break theskin. The broken skin i s blown away , and the beans are sortedand packed .

The raw beans are greeni sh in colour, and do not sm el l orta st e l ike coffee . When coffee i s wanted , the beans must beroa sted , e.

,plac ed in an iron v e ssel , which i s turned over a fire.

The roa sted beans are then ground to powder, on which boi lingwat er i s poured , and then we get coffee .

Thi s drink has a stimulating effecton the sy stem , or

,in other word s

,it

rous es the nervous sy stem to freshactiv i ty. the s ense of hunger i s sup

pres sed and the desire to sl eep i sdriv en away . Thi s i s due to a sub

stanc e , ca l l ed “Caffeine conta ined inthe Coflee beans . If thi s substanc ei s taken in larger quantit i es , it actsas a poi son ; v ery strong cofi

'

ee, there

fore, produce s pal pitati on of theheart ,

conge st ion of blood in the brain,

trembl ing of the m uscl es and sim i laraffections of the nerv es . Coffee i s nota food in any way, but i s m erely a

E ‘h" O f I xom 'stimulant l ike al cohol .

The front part o f the flora l t ubew it h the fourt h lobe is removed

O therP lants O f the Coffee F anfi ly,

and the ovary is c ut Open .

The S carlet lxora (I xora coccinea;Kan. Kepa la ,

Kisgara ; Ma l . Cetti ; T am . Veddi ; S an. l ’atali) , a

v ery common shrub in the plains , i s a genera l favourite because

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6 4 D ICOTYL EDON S

cilrifolz’

a (Kan. Maradarasina , P O ppili ; M a l . N onamaram ; T am .

N unamaram ; Tel . Mulugu ; S an. D aruharidra) the flowers standin dens e heads on a comm on gl obos e rec eptacl e . The fruits a ll

grow together in one ma s s as they ripen, and l ook as if they

resul ted from a singl e flower (compare frui t of A nana s) form inga mul ti pl e or coll ectiv e frui t .

S om e of the fierc e spinous shrubs in our jungl es are speci e sO f Randia and Canthium . Cinchona , a native of P eru , yi eld sthe va luabl e m edicine , Qu inine .

15. The Compos ite Fam i ly

(Compositae) .

Usually annual herb s . L eave s , as a rule,alternate

,ex stipulate .

Inflore scence a head (capitu lum) O f m any sm all flow ers se s sile on thereceptacle

,surrounded by an invo lucre O f whorled or imbricated bracts

,

the outer florets opening first . F lorets : calyx reduced to scale s orbristle s ; corolla either tubu lar, or ligulate ( strap-shaped ) ; stam ensfive with free filam ents but connate ( syngenesious ) , introrse anthers ,connective produced upward s . O vary inferior. Fruit a dry indehiscent

,one-seeded cas e called achenium

,Often crowned by a tuft O f hairs ,

cal led pappu s . S eed exendo sperm ous .

T he S unflow er ( H elmet/ms annuals) .

(Ka n. I [ott ut irugana . Tam Tel . S firya kant i )

Thi s i s an annual herb from S outh A m eri ca which i s nowcul tiva ted I n gardens al l ov er India . I n som e countri e s

,chi efly

in S outhern R us sia and in the Balkan state s,i t i s al so grown

for i t s se ed s,from whi ch a va luabl e O il i s nad e .

l . The young plants soon devel op into strong and big herbswhich som etim esa ttain a he ight of three yard s . The thick S temi s branched only in i ts upper part . I t form s a tube which i sfil l ed wi th l oo s e pith.

2 . The L eaves are large and corda te . I f a thread be ti ed tothe leaf-s tal k of one of the l ower l eaves and then taken to thesecond , third ,

and s o on,above it , one can c l early se e that the

l eave s are spira lly arranged around the stem (fig. 6 7) so that , ifa smal l plant i s l ooked at from above

,the l eave s appear in the

THE COMPOSITE FA M IL Y 65

form of a rosette . By thi s arrangem ent each l eaf gets the largest

possibl e share of the sunl ight .The . leaves bend down to the ground I V

with their pointed end s , so that the ra in

wa ter fal l ing on them i s conducted outside.

W'ith thi s arrangement the structure of theroots stands in beautiful harmony . The

S unflower plant being a ta l l herb , one

would expect the roots to be long and

strong so as to fix the plant firm ly in theground . But thi s i s not the ca s e . The

side-roots are very short , and do not stretchbeyond the ends of the l eav e s . A s a

compensati on for thi s they are,howev er,

v ery num erous and d iv ided into so manym ent of the leaves round

l i ttl e branches that,if the plant i s taken

stems .

out of the soil , the earth sticks tog etherform ing , wi th the roots , a compact ma s s which can be shaken offonly w i th much diflicul ty. The wat er that i s dra ined off fromthe centre to the circumferenc e of the plant fal l s on the ends ofthe roots just in the sam e way as we hav e seen in the Mango tree

(page w ith one difference , nam ely , that , the l eaves of the

S unflower plant not being clo se together, the rain a l so poursdown w i thin their circumference ; con sequently , we find that thetiny sucking roots are not only arranged in a ring corresponding to the outer circl e of the l eaf-ends , but tha t they are a l sodistributed al l over w ithin that circl e .

3 . The stem and branches bear each on their tip s one largeF lower, which turns i ts face toward s the sun (henc e the nam e) .

I f we cut v ertical ly through such a flower” (fig . we can s eetha t there are rea l ly many smal l flowers placed on one rec eptacl e

(R ) . The whol e i s,therefore , not one flower

,but an aggregat e of

flowers or a head of flowers . H enc e,the order to which the S un

flower belongs i s cal l ed “composite”. Thi s bunch or head of

flowers i s surround ed by sev era l s eri e s of scaly l eaves , imbricatedone above another and cal l ed bracts (B ) , which protect the floretsunder them when in bud. The florets are of two different kind s :

F ig. 6 7 . S pira l arrange

66 D ICOTYL EDON S

those in the m iddl e hav e a smal l yel l owi sh,tubularcorol la. ( tubular

florets 1 . 2 , 3 , wherea s thos e on the margin posses s a corol lastretched out in a l ong, yel l ow tongue (ligula te florets,

F ig. 6 8 .— L ongitudina l sec tion of the h ead of t he S unflower. l 4 Tub ularflorets ;

1 . not yet Opened ; 2 . t he pol len is pushed out of the flower tube ; 3 . the sty leprotrudes and exposes it s two-c left st igma ; 4 . fa ded flowers — L . L ig ula te florets .

B. Bra cts . B. Common recep ta c le . H . Hol low part of recep ta c le and stem .

(a) T ubular florets — The head of a S unflower genera l lyshows florets in vari ou s stages : those in the c entre may be m erebud s then fol l ow one or two circl e s of Opened floret s bearingclust ers of pol l en at the ir tops then com e florets w ith theirforked styl e s v i sibl e ( 3 ) andfina l ly , florets

,which are faded , form

the outer circl e s L et us now exam ine one of the tubularflorets (fig . The ovary we find,

rests in a hol e of the

chaffy receptacl e . I t bears two sma l l scaly l eaves on i t whichrepres ent the ca lyx-l ea v es (C) . I n som e Speci es of thi s order, asfor instance the S ow-thi stl e (Sour/ms oleraceus) , L ettuce (L actuca) ,and in Vernonia cinerea these ca lyx-l eave s crown the fruit , whenri pe , with a fea thery ring of ha irs , ca l led pappus , by which the

wind carri e s the se ed far away . The frui t of the S unflower haveno such pappus .

The corol la of the inner florets i s , as a lready remarked , a

narrow tube . A t its ba s e there i s a ba l l- l ike enlargement , and

THE COMP OSITE FA MIL Y 6 7

the upper part of it ends in five smal l and pointed teeth, ind i”

eating its composition of fiv e connate (gamopetal ou s) peta l s .There are five stam ensins erted on the corol latube , their filam ents are

s eparated , but their an

thers are joined into a

tube (fig . 69 , The

anthers open on their ihner sid e (intrors e) and setthe poll en free . The styl e

(S ty) , whil e s eeking itsway through the v ery narrow t u b e o f t he a n

thers, cannot hel p pu shingup the poll en out of the

tube where the pol l en ao

cumula t e s in smal l clu sters (fig . 69 , Insect sthat vi s it the flower are

sure to rem ove i t w iththeirbodi e s and l egs . A ndthen only the styl e Opensits two-forked stigma in

ord er to receiv e pol l enfrom another flower (fig .

69 , It i s a wel l e stablished fact tha t fert il ization i s genera l ly achi evednot by the poll en of the

sam e flower, but by thatof another. S elf-ferti liza

F ig. 6 9 .— Tubu lar florets of Sunflower (5 t imes

en larged) . T he flower-t ube is opened . S c. Cha ffysca le of the receptac le. 0. Ovary . C. Ca l yx .

F . Fil ament . S ly. S ty le. A . Tube of joinedant hers (opened) . S t. S t igma .

honey is secreted .

H . Spot where

t ion general l y produces seeds of an inferi or and degenerated sort .We see in thi s ca s e

, as wel l as in many other plant s , a wonderfulcontrivance for oross-fierl illza tz

'

on (compare Mus saenda , page

(b) L iga la leflorets — I f ins ect s have to render the flower thi svery im portant s ervic e

,they mu st al so be a ttracted by som e m eans .

5*

68 DICOTYL EDON S

The flower contains honey in great quantiti e s whi ch i s secretedat the ba se of the styl e and often fil l s the whol e gl obular partof the tubular florets (fig. 69

, H . ) But a singl e floret wou ld beso inconspicuous that i t wou ld hardly be notic ed by the gu ests

which are so eagerly expect ed . We s ee,now

,

how advantageous i t i s for the plant tha t i ts

“ S .

smal l inconspicuou s florets shoul d be placed together in large number form ing heads of flowers(compare Mango , page The effect of theirbeing clu stered is enhanced by the presence ofthe l igulat e (s trap-or tongue- shaped) florets on

the marg in . We seek in va in for styl es and

stam ens in the s e flow ers : they are st eri l e . But

F ig. 70 — F f uit by a ttracting the useful insects they fulfil the(“ he" iuml fi me purpose for which they were crea ted . E achS unflower(opened)

S . S eed .

l Igula te floret has five nerve s showmg that I t I s

C. Fruit case .

com posed , l ike the tubular florets , of fiv e connat epeta l s , form ing a short tube at their ba s e .

4 . The Frui t , when rip e , d oes not Op en , but rema ins shut .It i s cal l ed an achenium. E ach frui t conta ins one s eed underi ts hard cover. I I I fig . 70 the front ha lf of the fru i t ca s e i srem ov ed showing how the s eed in the ca s e i s connect ed wi th theba s e of the frui t by a smal l cord (cal l ed funicl e) . When the windshakes the ta l l plants one aga inst the o ther, the achenia fa l l andfrom the effec t of the blow are sca ttered around (cf . P eppy, page

The seed conta ins a fat ty oil in its c otyl ed ons which s erve sa s food for the young plant d est ined to grow out of it .

T he Gha t‘

E de lw e iss (A napha lis oblonga) .

Thi s pl ant may be taken a s a type of the flora of high m ounta ins . It i s a sma l l we ed , branched from the root , a l l coveredwith white wool ly ha irs an a lly of the beau tiful A l pineE delwei s s”.

1 . To unders tand i ts s truc ture it i s nec es sary to rem emberthe conditions of the A lpine clima te . The rul i ng influence of

highland s i s the d im ini shed atm ospheric pressure whi ch bring sin i ts tra in a number of secondary cl imatic effec ts .

THE COMPOSITE FA M IL Y 69

The dim ini shed atm ospheri c pres sure i s a lways accom pani edby a decreas e of the tem perature in the shad e and an increa s eof the heat of the radiant sun . It a l so gives ri se to great changesO f t em perature at day and at night . O n the Kudremukh

, a

m ounta in of the Western Ghat s , 62 1 5 feet high, the therm om eterstands in the m onth of A pri l often at m ore than 40

°

C. in the

sunshine and fal l s to 1 4 °0. before sunri s e . A nother effect of the

rarefied air i s the intensi ty of the sunl ight .O wing to it s low t emperature the air cannot hol d so much

water-vapour as the hot air in the pla ins . The vapour ri singwi th the hot air from the pla ins i s c ondensed when i t reache shigher a lt itudes

,giving ri s e to increas ed ra infal l on the moun

ta ins . O n the other hand, the thinner atmosphere contains l es s

vapour and i s oftenexceedingly dry. The

resul t i s rapid changesin the hum idi ty of theair.

The da i ly change sof the . upward and

downward currents ofair cau s e a continua lm ovem ent of the atm oSphere .

The rarefication of

the air, the intense

radiati on, the occa sion

a l dryness of the air,

and the constant wind ,

a l l tend to produc eintens e evaporat i on ,

whi ch ev ery touri st w il lexperi ence : ev erythingdries up rapid ly

, the F ig. 7 1 .— L ea f-roset tes of A napha lis oblonga .

sweat on the skin eva

porates, the skin becom es dry and bri ttl e , and the s ense of thirsti s intensified .

1 “ifl." (l l ‘

v l t‘

p

70 D ICOTYL EDON S

2 . Theflowers of high mounta ins are adapted to their specia l

clima tic conditions. Trees and shrubs are dwarfed , having Short ,gnarl ed and bent trunks wi th di storted branche s and scantyfol iage , partly due to the increa s ed mov ement of the air. H erbsare, on the whol e , xerophi lous , di stingui shed by short stem s forming rosettes

,large root system s

,smal l thick l eav es , often rol l ed

up sideways and downward covering the stoma ta beneath, and

com pl e tely covered by dens e , air-entangl ing hairs, and the

w ithered remains of dead fol iage thi ckly coating the st em s .

Many of thes e low herbs are found huddl ed together l ike a flockof sheep and form ing cu shi ons l ike m os se s , e. g.

,the so-cal l ed

O oty Moss (A napha lis nilgherriensis) . A l l these are ways bywhich the se plants are protec ted from los s of wat er ; and m ostof them can be s tud i ed in A napha l i s .

The flowers of A napha l i s are not brightly col oured as A lpineflowers u sua l ly are, but have scarcely any col our, becom ing brown

and rough when wi thering. Theyare at the to p of the main axi swhi ch ri se s from a dens e ros ette ofl eav e s . L ateral branche s growfrom the ma in stem bearing a l soflower heads and carrying themto a higher l ev el .

The I ndian Cudw eed (Gna

pha lium indicum) , tha t grows on

the hil ls and on the pla ins , i s inmany respects l ike A napha l i s .

O ther Composi tes.

The Com posite F am i ly i s thelargest fam ily of flowering plants ,compri sing about known

speci es from a l l parts of world . But the prO portion of plant swhich can be u sed by man i s compara ti ve ly sma l l . S ome are

us ed in m ed ic ine ; some are aroma tic,abound ing in vola ti l e oi l ‘

a c onsid erabl e number are us ed as sal ad p ot-herbs .They are divid ed into three tribes

F ig. 7 2 . Vernonia cincroa ,the seed s

sca t tered by the w ind .

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7 2 D ICOTYL EDON S

The S unflow er (H elianthus annuus) .

The Chinese S unflow er (Belamcanda chinensis) , a diffuseshrub w i th three-lobed l ea ves and pretty large yel low flowers .

Z innia (Z innia elegans) , M arigo ld (Tagetes erecta) , D ahlia

(D ahlia variabilis) , Cosmos (Cosmos sulphureus and C. bipinna tus) ,al l of them common garden plants .

The A ustra lian D a isy Vittadenia austra lis) , much cul tivated ,and al so run wi ld a t Bangal ore and on the hi l l s .

E c lipta a lba (Kan. Garga ; M a l . Kaiyanni) , a much-

priz edm edicinal weed .

1 6 . The Cucumber and Gourd Fam i ly

(Cucurbita ceae) .

Climbing herb s,with hollow stem s and large , rough, alternate

leaves and lateral tendril s . F lowers radial,unisexual

,yellow orwhite .

P etal s m ore or les s united . O vary inferior,three carpel s

,parietal

placentation. Fruit a berry .

T he Cucumber* (Cucumis sa tivus) .

(Kan. Mu l lusau te . Ma l ., Tam . Mul l uvel larika . S an. Urvaruka,

karka ti.)

1 . Fruit and its Use — The Cucumber i s extensiv ely cul tirated for i ts frui t . A cros s-section through the frui t

,a berry ,

shows three divi si ons , which indica te three carpel s . The carpel sare bent inward to the c entre , where they turn aga in to theperi phery to return once m ore inward toward s the centre bearingon their edges the se ed s and thu s form ing six placenta s wi theach a group of s eed s . The s eed s are embedded in a sticky

,

j el ly-l ike pul p .

2 . Germination — The s eed s tha t fa l l on m oi st ground soonbegin to germ ina te , the sticky flesh round them drying up and

fixing the seed firm ly to the ground . When germ ina ting , thema in root first appears out of the pointed end of the s eed (fig . 75,

and sinks a t onc e into the ground where rootl e ts are soon de

* I f Cucum is sa tivus is not a t h a nd,a ny other of the ma ny c ul tivated kinds of

Gourds, Me lons, or the P um pk in, w il l do eq ua l ly wel l a s anoth er type o f the famil y .

THE CUCUMBER A N D GOURD FA M IL Y 7 3

veloped (fig . 75, A fter tha t , the part of the sta lk between theroot and the seed-bud (hypocotyl) begins to grow , but as the

root is moored in the ground and the seed- shel l s stick firm ly tothe earth, the sta lk becom es a sma l l bow ,

bent upward s (fig . 75,

F ig. 7 5 .— Germ ina t ion of the Cucumb er.

unti l,by its continued growth

,it draws the seed-l eav e s out of the

seed-shel l s . I n thi s proces s the hypocotyl i s a ided by a swell ingjus t above the root whi ch keep s the l ower ha l f of the seed-case

(te sta) down , and di sappears aga in after the cotyl edons are l iberated from the s e ed-ca se . I f some s eed are sim ilarly la id on the

ground , but freed from the sticky ma s s round them , they a l so

germ inate after a short tim e , but as the s eed-shel l s are not gummedto the earth

, the stalk l ifts them up, and as the seed-l eav es can

get rid of their covers only w i th great difi‘icu l ty, the plants may

peri sh. Thi s show s how im portant i t i s for the se ed to beprovided wi th tha t sticky pul p .

The fruit do es not Open by its elf to l et the seed s e scape .F or thi s purpose the hel p of man i s requ ired in the cul tivatedkind s , and tha t of anima l s in wi ld ones . L ike num erous otherplants whose se ed s are d i sp ersed by an imal s , the Cucumber hasa fleshy, edible pulp which a ttracts anima ls, in add ition to thejel ly-l ike pul p . When

,for instance

, a jackal eats Sucha frui t , m anys e ed s , to be sure , wil l be d evoured together wi th the pul p . The

number of seed s,howev er

,being v ery great

,thi s i s not a seriou s

l o ss . O n the other hand,som e seeds w i l l stick to its mouth and

l egs , and wi l l thus be spread far and wide .

74 D ICOTYL EDON S

The seedl ing s show a pecul iari ty , which we hav e alreadynoticed in the l eav es of the Bean (se e page They fold up

their seed- leaves face to fac e a t sunset, and expand them whendayl ight com es aga in. We have l earned the im portanc e of thes em ovements , but here the fold ed seed-l eave s s eem to afford proteot ion to the young shoot between them ,

whi ch being very tender,

m ight be l iabl e to damage owing to the reduction of temperatureduring the night .

3 . The S talk , as wel l as the l eaves , are covered w i th numerous bristly ha irs as a pro tection aga inst animal s . The hol l ow ,

five-edged stem is snccnlent and long,and

,henc e , not abl e to stand

upright . It , therefore , l i e s prostra te on the ground or cl imbswi th the hel p of i ts tendrils. (Thes e w iry appendages ri singfrom near the axi ls of the l eave s are probably metamorphosedbracteol es supporting , as they do , the axil lary flowers .) The

end s of the se tendri l s mov e sl owly , but continuously round , l ikethe hands of a watch. The tim e they require for one circui tdiffers and depends chi efly on the tem perature . If we put a

l i ttl e stick in the way ofthe mov ing tendril , we

can notic e the foll owing .

A few hours after the ti pof the tendri l touche s thestick , it w i l l have form eda sl ing round i t . S ometim e later we sha l l find

the sti ck wound roundsevera l tim es , and in the

cours e of a few days thepart of the tendri l betweeni ts ba se and the stick wil lbe c oil ed up l ike a cork

,w ig of [ ml/a audangnm w ithscrew . The coiling i s

tend ril . a lway s ac compani ed bytwisting,

and s ince the

ba s e and the end of the tendri l are fixed before these proc e ss e stake plac e , the d irections in which the tendri l coil s round must

THE CUCUM BER A N D G OUR D FA M IL Y 75

nece ssari ly be difierent at the two ends . E v ery coil has, there.fore , a turning point in the m iddl e (fig . 76 , x) . I f a tendrilcannot find a support to coil round

,i t produces l ittl e d i sks from

i ts epiderm i s and fa stens to any flat obj ect,or i t penetrate s into

any crevic es . I n thi s way,the creeper fa stens i ts elf to vari ou s

obj ects wi thin its reach,and as the corkscrew- l ike tendril s act

l ike springs, the -wind or any shaking influenc e cannot ea silytear away the plant from i ts support . That part of the tendri lwhi ch holds the support soon hardens , thu s preventing the tendri lfrom sl i pping and l o sing its support aga in .

4 . The L eaves are spira l ly arranged round the stem . But

a s a plant that l i e s or creeps on the ground can receive l ightonly on one sid e of its stem

,a l l i t s l eav e s should be directed to

tha t side . To thi s end the l ong l eaf- stal ks make al l sorts of

turns and twi s ts,thereby placing the l eave s so tha t not one of

them shad es the other.

The l eaves are broad and cordate (heart- shaped) , the largestm ea suring about fiv e inche s eachway. I f we rem ember how suc

cul en t a l l the part s of the plant are and how much water i t therefore requires

,we can ea si ly s ee the advantage the plant d eri ve s

from the largene s s of it s l eaves . L arge l eav es coverm ore groundthan smal l one s ; hence , they prevent evapora ti on of water fromthe soil in a greater m easure than cou ld be done by sm al l er l eave s .

L arge l eav es are l iabl e to be torn by the w ind much m oreea si l y than smal l one s ; and in heart-shaped l eave s l ike thos e ofthe Cucumber the weakest part i s the ba s e . Therefore thi s particular part i s s pec ial ly strengthened : there are fiv e or s ev enstrong rib s i s su ing from the bas e of the l eaf l ike fingers from the

palm of the hand , and two of them form the margin of the l eave sfor a smal l stretch l ike the hem of a garment ;

5.

\

The F lowers ri se singly or in sma l l clusters from the

axil s of the l eave s . The ca lyx and the yell ow corol la are com

bined at their ba s e .~

The corol la form s a five-l obed bel l . So far,

a l l flowers of the plant are a l ike . But if we proceed to exam inetheir s tam ens and p i stil s , we find tha t m ost of the flowers hav eonly stam ens (fig . 7 7

, whi l st som e have only pi stil s (fig . 77 ,

The form er are known as stam inate or mal e flowers , the latter as

76 D I CO TYL E D ons

pi s ti l la te or fema l e flowers . The flowers , then, are unisexua l .

But as both kind s of flowers are on the sam e plants , they are

cal l ed monoecious”‘ plants . Insects carry the pol l en from one

F ig. 7 7 .— Cucu—mis sa tivus. l . St am ina te, 2 . Pistil la te flower ( the front part of

the corol la is removed to sh ow the centra l organs) .

flower to the pi sti l of the other. To a ttract them there i s nectarat the base of the corol la , to reach which they must penetra tefar into the flower, which i s l ined wi th thi ck hairs under whichthe nectar l i e s . I n the act of bus ily se eking after the sweet l iquid ,the insects cannot help touching the ma l e or the femal e organs ,as the ca s e may be , and so ferti l i z e the ovul e s .

O ther Cucumbers and Gourds.

The Gourd s grow wel l in the warm er parts of the earth,

e specia l ly wi thin the tropics . Many of them are cul tiva ted forthe ir eatabl e frui ts , and are very m uch a l ike in their genera lhabits . They can

[

be best di stingui shed by their various frui ts .The comm ones t are the S q ua sh Gourd or Common Gourd

(Cucurbita nnw inia ; Kan. Kumba la ; ill a l . Cakkarakumpa lana ;T am. Kumba lam ) ; the P umpkin (Cucurbita pepo; Kan. Bod ikumba la ; M a l . Kumba lam ; T am . the Wa ter

From Greek monos , one, a nd oihos , a house .

THE CUCUM BER A N D GOURD FA MIL Y 7 7

M e lon (Citrnllas vulgaris; Kan. Baccangayi, Kal langadi ; M a l .

Vattakka ; Tani . Vattakku) ; the Bott le Gourd (L agenaria vulgaris ;Kan. Kahi sore ‘ M a l . Kaippa éuram ; T am. Sura i ) ; the L uffa

(L nfia aca tangnla ; Kan. H ire ; M a l . P iecakam ; Tam . P irku) ; the

S nake Gourd (Trichosanthes anguina ; Kan. P atla ; M a l . P atolam ;

Tam . P udol) ; the Momordica (Moniordica charantia ; Kan.

H agala ; M a l . P ava l ; T am . P aga l) ; the Cepha landra (Cephalandra indica ; Kan. T ond e ; M a l . T ond i ; T am . Kova i) ; the

Common Melon (Cncnni is melo; Kan. Kekkarike bal l i, I bbudlu) .

A llied to the Cucumber Family is the P assion F l ow er F ami ly

( P assiflorece) , likewise climbers with tendrils . S om e of them, 6 . g.,

P assiflora foetida , grow w ild,others , e. g., P assiflora pa lma ta , are

cultivated in gardens for the sake of their peculiar flowers which havea very pretty corona of filiform appendages arising from the tube ofthe calyx .

!The nam e ‘P as sion fl ow er ’was due to resemblances

,

which the my stical Fathers of the Church discovered m ore readilythan we can . The five anthers repre sented the five w ound s of our

S aviour,the trip le style the nail s , the stalk of the ovary the main pillar

of the cros s,and the thread-like corona, the glory round H is head » .

The P apaw T ree (Carica papaya) , P lat e No . 652 , a nati veof A m erica

,i s

another plant bel onging to thi sfam i ly . Theflow

ers are,l ike thos e

oftheGourds, uni

s exual . The two

kinds of flowers,

however, do not,

as a rul e,grow on

the sam e plant,

but on d ifferentplant s . They are Stamina te and Pist il la te flowers of the Pa paw tree .

Zh

o

erefb re’

03 1

1

2

51

Below . two f

zglt

ii

ifigigfe

SZZiiy a cross cut

icecions em ilky sap of the tree has the pecul iar property of m aking raw

m eat tender by partly digesting it .

From Greek di, t wo, and cakes, a house.

78 D ICOTYL EDON S

17 . The O l ive and j asm ine Fam i ly(O lea ceae) .

T rees and shrub s with opposite leave s . F low ers radial .S tam ens two. O vary superior

,of two carpel s .

O f thi s fam ily vari ous specie s O f j a sm ine (J asminnin ; Kan.

Mal lige) are grown in Indian gardens on account O f the swe etscent and the b eauty Of their flowers . They are al l climbingshrubs wi th Oppos i te l eav e s and radial flowers . The stam ensand carpel s are two each.

The sm el l O f som e of the Ja sm ine flowers is particularly strongin the ev ening . They a l s o Open their bl os som s not in the m orning, l ike many other flowers , but in the evening . Thi s i s , surely ,not wi thout good reason . If we l ook at the l ong and narrowtube

, we may conclude that theh oney at the bottom O f the tubecan be Obta ined only by ins ec ts wi th l ong tongues . S uch are

the m oths that fly abou t at dusk . It i s for thi s rea son that theF lowers are white, tha t they open in the evening and exha le such

a strong and sweet scent at tha t tim e , and tha t they bend over and

are not erect l ike the bud s (compare Clerodendi'on) .

The D oubl e Ja sm ine (J asniininn sanihac; Kan. D undumal lige)i s

,l ike the D oubl e R os e , a product O f horticu l ture (se e R ose ,

page O ne of the wi ld speci e s i s J asni inam rigidinn (Kan.

Kadumal lige) .

The Shrub N yctanthes .arbor tristis (Kan. P arijataka ; M a l .

P arijatakam ; T ani . P ava lama l l igai ; T el . Krishti ; S an. P arijata)i s a l so an exam pl e of thi s fam i ly . The l imb of the corol la i swhi te , but its tube i s orange—col oured . The flowers Open at nightand fa l l O ff very freely in the early m orning .

The O live T ree (O lea enropcea) i s not found in India ,but i s

extensiv ely grown in the countrie s round the Med i terranean S eafor the sake O f the excel l ent O il Obta ined from the pul p of i ts frui t .

A n allied family is that O f the L ogania cece tO which the S try chn inetree belongs (S trychnos nnx vom ica ; Kan . Kasarka

,H emmushti ;

M a l . Kanniram ; Tani . E tte ; S an. Karaskarah) . T he tree has shining,Oppo site leaves and greenish flowers . The fruits are like smal l

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'8O D ICOTYL EDON S

a nd extend beyond its branche s . Thi s enabl e s i t to get wa terfrom a greater space than m ost plants O f i ts si z e can .

The S tem of Vinca doe s not grow high, but has num erousl ong branche s , the ti ps of which only are erect . Sma l l plants ,l ike Vinca , general ly have a herbaceous stem which does not la stfor m ore than one sea son . Vinca has a strong woody stem ,

in

which i t can store up food stuff and m oi sture for the tim e O f need .

Thi s stem ,m oreov er, i s covered with a very tough and leathery

bar/c which wi l l not ea si ly a ll ow the m oisture conta ined in i tsinner layers to evapora te . The sap in the stem i s , besides , sl imy ,

and sl imy fluids,as a m a tter O f fact

dry up v ery sl owly (compare Cactus,page

The el l i pti c L eaves O f Vinca are

plac ed Opposite . They are shinyabove and provided wi th a thickepid erm i s , which condit ions reduc ethe evaporation ( s e e Mango , p.

T ouch the l eav e s and you w i l l s e ethat

,though they shine and appear

glabrou s O r sm ooth,there i s a fine

coa t of down a l l round the epider

mis. Thi s a l so hel ps to reduce the

F ig. 80. F lower of Vinc a .

evaporati on .

T he two front lobes and ha l f ot‘

the 2 . The F lowers grow in pa irs inflora l t ube a re removed to sh ow the the axil s O f the l eav e s . The calyx i ss tamens ana the S tyle ’ on the le“ divided into fiv e fil iform s egm ents .

The corol la consi sts of a l ong cylin

drical tube spread ing a t its upper end

into five broad l imbs , whi ch are contorted in bud,but are at right

angl e s to the tube (sa l ver- shaped) when Open . The m outh O f the

tube , tinged with dark crim son ,i s sl ightly ra i sed , surrounded by

a corona of ha irs,and very narrow . But a l ittl e below , the tube

wid ens,making room for five se s s il e stam en s , whi ch form a cone

under which the hourgla s s-l ike stigma O f the l ong and sl enderstyl e i s si tuated . The latter ri se s from the combined ti p of two

a pocarpous seed -ves sel s a t the bottom of the flora l tube (fig .

side : the upper part of the sty lew ith the hourg lass- l ike stigma .

T H E DOGBA N E FA M IL Y 8 1

3 . P ol l inat ion — Between the two se ed-v essel s there i s a

gland on each side which secrete nectary O nly insects wi thl ong tongue s can get the n ectar a t the bottom O f such

'

long

flower-tubes . S uch are c ertain night m oths . They , in theirturn , have to pol l ina te the flowers . The anthers are

‘

inclined

over the flat top O f the style and deposi t their pol l en there .

But thi s part O f the styl e is not receptive . The only part inwhich the styl e can receive pol l en i s the col lar or seam O f the

hourgla s s-l ike stigma,which i s sticky . N ow

, there are fivel i ttl e Openings between the fiv e an

thers through which the insect mu ststretch its tongue into the flower

tube . Whil e doing so, the tonguebrushes against the sticky side s of thestigma and deposit s there any pol l enthat it may have brought from ah

other flower. When the insect drawsits tongue back out of the tube ,it touche s the poll en-ma s se s lyingl oosely on the top of the stigma whichreadily adhere to the s ticky tongue .

fl

S l ' fi i'?ngil tudina l seem“ Of

ora l tube of V inc a . A . A nt hers.

Thu s the'

pol len of one flower is 0, opening between anthers .

carri ed . to the“

styl e of another,and S t . S tigma .

s elf-poll ination i s avoided .

4 . The F ruit consi sts O f two erect and cyl indrical foll icl es,

dehi scing each in 'its v entra l suture. S eed s num erous and smal l .

O therA pocynaceae.

The Corrinda (Carissa spinarum; Kan. Garp,Korinda ; M a l .

Karanta ; T am . Kal i ; T el . Kalivi) i s a commOn shrub , wi thm i lky Juic e , spreading branche s and Opposite , axil lary , oftenforked spines (representing m etamorphosed branche s) . S tipul esm inu te , interpetiolar l ea ves subse ssil e , el l iptic , entire , glabrous ,coriaceou s . F l owers whi te , som etimes wi th a t inge of pink ,fragrant , in cym es P arts of flowers s im ilar to those in Vinca .

F rui t a two-seeded berry wi th a very sticky pul p , edibl e .

82 D ICOTYL EDON S

A lstonia scholaris (Kan. H al e ; Ma l . E rilapala ; Tani . F l ilap

pala i ; Tel . Fdakula ; S an. Jivani) . a large tree wi th a bitterbark va lued in m edicine . Ba se of trunk often buttressed byplank roots ; branche s spreading hori z ontal ly in ti ers of whorl s .L eaves in whorl s of fiv e to ten .

T abernaemontana coronaria (Kan. N andibatlu ; di a l .Tagaram ;T am. N andyavattam ; T el . N andivardhanamu ; S an. Vishnupriya) .pure , whi te flowers , often doubl e , fragrant at night .

A l lamanda ca thartica (Kan. A rasina-hu, S eitana-hu, Kela)

a scrambling shrub w i th large , grote sque , bell shaped , yel lowflowers , cul ti vated I n gardens and run w i ld in many plac es .

The O leander (N eriuni odoruni ; Kan. Kanagilu ; JVI a l .

Kanaviram ; Tam . Karaviram ; Tel . Kasturipatte ; S an diaravirah) ,a poisonou s but beauti ful shrub . L eav e s in whorl s of three .

The P agoda T ree (P luinieria acutifolia ; Kan. Kadusampige ;

Af a l . Vel uttarali ; Tam. l la tta lari ; Tel . A daviganneru) , a decidu

ous tre e wi th swol l en whi te trunk and branche s , ful l O f a stickym il ky jui c e . L eaves lanceolate , acute, in term ina l tufts . F lowering usual ly when out Of l eave s . F lowers fragrant and white ,wi th a pal e yel l ow throat . A nativ e of Mexico , but cul tiva tedin India frOm time imm emorial ; doe s not produce seed .

Gerbera Odollam (Kan. Cand e ; M a l .Uta lam ; T am. Katarali)

grows in sal t swamps , adorning them wi th i ts thi ck fo l iage andi ts large bunche s O f white flowers . The frui t , a drupe , i s , l ikethe cocoanut , beautiful ly adapted for d i spersion by runningwater. When a frui t drops into the wat er, theLOuter pulp decays,the fibrous covering serv e s as a swimm ing bel t and the innerhard covering as a protectiv e coa t for the seed .

19 . The M i lkw eed Fam i ly

(A sc lepiada ceae) .

S hrub s Often twining, usually containing a m ilky juice . L eave sentire

,Opposite . F lowers rad ial ; petal s five , contorted in bud ; s ta

m ens five,inserted on the base O f the corol la . A nthers coherent eu

closing the stigma,filaments in m ost genera connate into a staminal

tube,the end of the style being a broad d isk with the stigmatic surface

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84 D ICOTYL EDO N S

a very strong and u s eful fibre . The soft , white , wool ly tomentumO n the stem and on the undersid e O f the l eaves afford s the plant

protecti on aga inst the w ithering influence o f dry w inds . O wingto thi s and the thi ckne s s Of the epid erm i s , the plant I s , I n spi teof the si z e Of i ts l eav es , in a posi tion to rema in green evenduring the hotte st and dri e st part of the year. L eave s prettylarge , Opposi te , Obl ong-Obova te w i thauri cl ed ba s e and short sta lks .

2 . The Flowers grow in large cymos e umbel s . S epal s fiv e .

Corol la -l obed , bel l-shaped ; l obes va l vate in bud.

O f pecul iar interest i s the s truc ture of the es sential or reproductive organs of thi s flower. Wha t strike s us first when we exam ineit

, are five larg e , wax-l ike , blui sh bodies , curi ou sly recurv ed ,a l ternating w i th the corol la l obe s and radiating from. the stamina l column (fig . 82 , Thes e appendage s form what i s ca l l edthe corona . I f we remove them carefu l ly

,we shal l find in the

cavi ty two seed-v es sels wi th a styl e each. The se , howe ver, are

uni ted at‘

the top and support a five-rayed , flat stigma (fig 82 ,A t ea ch corner of thi s cake -l ike stigma a wiry

,brown body can

be seen,to which two club-shaped pol l en-mas se s are a ttached ,

each of them belonging to two di s tinct anthers . Thi s i s evidentlya contrivance for cro s s-ferti l iza tion by the agency of insects

(compare O rchi d s) . Insects that al ight on the broad stigma of

the s tyl e in s earch of nectar d etach som e of the pol l en-ma ss e swi th the ir feet , and

carry them to an

other flower, whichi s thu s pol l inated .

3 . The Frui t ism ade upof two large,ovoid

,dry fol li cl es ,

each Spl i tting up in

one l ine ( the inneror ventra l suture)

and conta ining numerous fla t s eeds . packed together in beautifulorder. O ne of the two fol l i cl e s i s som e tim es absent by abortion.

E ach s eed i s crowned wi th si lky hair. When ri pe , the fea therexpands l ike an umbrel la , and caught by the w ind ,

may be

F ig. 83 .

— Fol l ic le of Ca lotropzs gigantea .

THE BIN DWEED FA M IL Y 85

carri ed away to a great di stanc e wi th the seed attached to it

beneath. Compare thi s pappus with that found in som e Com posite s (page I n thi s ca se the s i lk floss i s form ed inside thecarpel , wherea s in the Composite s i t i s a growth on the tOp O f

the carpel s .4 . Most of the other A sclepiadaceae are cl imbers . O ne of

them , H em idesmus indicus (Kan. N amadabé ru ; M a l . N annari ;

Tarn. Naunari ; S an. Bhadrava l li) , afford s the so-cal l ed Ind ianS arsapari l la . D aem ia extensa (Kan. Juttuve, P ettatajank ; T ani .

Belaparti) is v ery common and po sse sse s cordate l eav es and

greeni sh flowers .

20. The Bindw eed Fam i ly

(Convo lvu lacew ) .

H erb s,rare ly shrub s m ostly tw ining, with alternate

,ex stipulate

and u sual ly cordate leave s . Mostly tw iners . Many with milky juice .Inflorescence cymo se . F low ers radial . Corolla funnel-shaped

,folded

inward s (induplicate) and twisted (convo lute) in bud. S tam ens five,

epipetalou s,Often of une q ual lengths . O vary superior

,O f two carpel s

,

u sually with two large seed s in each cel l . S eed endosperm ous .Cotyledons folded .

T he E lephant Climber (A rgyreia speciosa) .

(Kan . S amudrapala . Ma l . S amudraj Ogam .)

Thi s i s a huge cl imber, commonly found in thi ckets and

jungl e s , especia l ly near the sea . S tern and l ower sid e of l eavescovered wi th white , si lky ha irs . L eaves large and cordate . Wechoose thi s plant as a type of the l ianas , a nam e giv en to cl imbing and w inding plants in tropica l fore sts .

1 . Why the E lephant Climber cl imbs — P lants canno t l ivewi thout l ight. If we grow any plant in a flower-pot and keep itin a room , it wi l l invariably stretch i ts branche s toward s thew indow ,

eagerly seeking the l ight . I f i t cannot get suffici entl ight

,i t w i l l eti olate , i . e.

, grow whi te from absence O f the

norma l amount O f chl orophyl l in i ts l eav es , and the sta lks becom e unnatural ly l ong , producing sma l l and bent l eave s , but no

D ICOTYL EDON S

flowers . The plant is sickly for want O f the neces sary l ight .A dens e fore st produc e s the sam e eflect . There i s so muchshade tha t hardly any herb can grow in i t . H ow many plant sd ie there for want O f l ight!H ow many se ed s fa l l there to theground and germ inate , but cannot grow further, peri shingm i serably I n the dark thi cket!

F ig . 84 .— T he

running t ip”of A rgyreia .

The s eed of a l iana has to germ inateunder such di sadvantage s and wou ld cer

tainly suffer the same m i serabl e death,i f

i t were not prov ided w i th certa in qual iti e sthat other plant s lack . A bove al l , the

l iana i s di stingui shed by an unu sual lyqu ick growth, by whi ch i t brings its fol iageto the top of tre es in a v ery short tim e .The darknes s and the damp air in the

jungle are advantageou s to quick growth.

It i s as i f the plant in its youth had no

other aim than thi s , and as i f ev erythingel s e about i ts growth was subservi ent tothi s one end: i t does not form many l eav e s ;i t doe s not produce branche s ; the stemdoes not grow in width; i t only grows inl ength. The stem thus becom es so sl enderand weak tha t i t cannot stand upright byits elf. Wha t may now be its fate? Sha l li t yet die in the struggl e for existenc e ?

It would certa inly d ie , i f i t had not the

wonderful abi li ty to use as i ts support thev ery giant tre e in i ts vi cini ty which threatened to be the cau s e of i ts d eath and tochoke i t . The E l ephant Cl imber cl imbsthe tree by winding round i t . The l eafles sti p of the sl ender stem m ove s spiral ly unti lit finds something to gra s p , round whichi t then w ind s in the directi on Opposi te to

that in which the hand s O f a cl ock m ove . I f the stem cannotfind any support , i t sinks down to the ground , striking new roots

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88 D ICOTYL EDON S

of the m idday sun i s too strong not only for young shoots,but

a l so for grown-up plants , and m any of them,therefore

,protect

thems elv e s aga inst i t by fold ing their l eaves at that time (A cacia) ,others by reflecting i t from the shining surfa c e of their l eave s

(Mango) , others aga in by s eeking shel ter in the shad e of other

plants . Thus we find the plants growing in a wood to be arranged in about five different tiers according to their severa l need ofl ight . The ful l sunshine i s enj oyed by the trees and the l iana sat their tops .

‘

L e s s l ight is wanted by shrubs which keep bel owthe tree s and by epiphytic plants whi ch perch on the branche sand trunks of the trees . I n their shad e grow herbs and ferns .Bel ow the se crouch the m osse s and other cryptogams . The low

e s t and darkest plac e i s occupi ed by the fungi , which requirehardly any l ight , l ead ing a para siti ca l l i fe in the l eaf-m oul d or

humus a t the bottom of the fores t .4 . F lowers — O u reaching the top of trees the E lephant

Cl imber a s sum e s another m ode of growth. The tip need no

l onger grow so quickly,for it

has brought the plant up tothe l ight . Branche s are developed and flowers make the irappearance in the axil s of the

l eaves . They are arranged inthree-forked cym es

,supported

by large , whi te,d ec iduous

bracts . The ca lyx consi s ts of

five imbri cated s epal s of unequa l s iz e , and the corolla of five

gam opetal ou s petal s , forming a large funnel or hel l l ight-pink a t

the border and dark-viol e t within. The l obe s are fold ed inward sand twi sted in bud, and the marks of the five folds are v isibl ein the d ifferent col ouring of the corol la . A l i ttl e above the ba s eof the flower-tube ri se five s tamens of unequa l l engths l eavingfive narrow hol e s a t their ba se , the entrance s to a l i ttl e chamberin whi ch we find the ovary tapering into a l ong s tyl e tha t ri s e sw ith i ts two-l obed globose stigma to the l evel of the anthersP ul l the corol la out of the calyx

,and you wil l s ee the l ower

chamber at the ba se of the corol la . The ovary i s surrounded

F ig. 85 .— F lower of A rgyreia .

THE B IN DWEED FA M IL Y 89

and covered by a pad-l ike body s ecreting nectar. Butterflie swhich w i sh to si p from the nectar, mu st need s thrust their tonguesthrough. one of the five narrow . pa s sage s form ed by the bas e s ofthe stam ens , and thus com e in contact wi th the pol l en to poll inate another flower when they go to v i si t i t . T oward s evening

(find the exact hour) the peta l s fol d up l ike the folds of a fan,

their vi sitors having al s o retiredThe fru i t 1 8 a berry w i th four large seeds .

O ther B indweeds.

I pomwa i s a v ery characteri stic genu s of thi s fam i ly . It hasa dry dehi scing fru i t , which di stingui she s thi s g enu s from the

genu s A rgyreia .

The Moon Creeper (I . bona -noac) has long-tubed whi te flowers ,Opening at night .

The N eedle Creeper (I . quanioclit) , a v ery common gardenweed ,

has pm natisect l eav e s , the segm ents being needl e-shaped .

F ig. 86 .— Ip0mcea

ba ta tqs .

The S w eet P ota to P lant (I . ba ta tas; Kan. Sigenasu) is

cul ti va ted for its tuberou s roots . I . eriocarpa (Kan. Mul l ibal li

9 O D ICOTYL EDON S

Tu . Kuduta Tammale) i s often found in H orse-Gram fields, and

I . sepiari a I n hedges , the latter hav ing dark blotches about them idrib of i ts cordate and acum inate l eav es . The Goat

’s-F oot

Creeper (1 . biloba ta ; Kan. A dumbu) i s a xerophi lous creeper on

sandy sea shores . It i s remarkabl e for i ts two-l obed l eaves j oinedon the inner edge l ike Bauhinia (page

E vo lvulus a lsinoides (Kan. Vishnukranti) , one of our lovel i

est flowers in the gra s s , ha s a prostra te stem w i th beautiful,sky

blue,short-tubed flowers . It is a xerophil ous plant covered al l

ov er by long, air-entangl ing ha irs .

2 1 . The N ightshade Fam i ly

(S o lanaceae) .

H erbs or shrubs,many of which are poisonou s . L eave s alternate

,

exstipulate . F low ers radial . Corol la funnel or bell shaped , lobe s five ,folded inward s . O vary superior

,of two carpel s . Fruit a berry or a

cap sule . S eed s num erou s,endosperm ou s .

(a) T he P ota to (Solanum tuberosum) .

(P late N O .

(Kan . Ura lagadde . Ma l . Ura lakilanu . Tam . Ura lak ilangu. H in. Ba tata.)

1 . I mportance O f’

the Tuber.— The part of the P otato plant

m os t often s een by us i s the tuber. Thi s grows in the ground ,but i s not the root of the plant . For

,i f we cl o sel y examine the

tubers , we sha l l find buds , or as they are comm only ca l l ed “ eye s”,and a l so scal e-l ike l eav es whi ch nev er occur on roots , but onlyon parts of the s tem , and we thu s s e e tha t the tuber is only a

swollen stem growing underground. I n ful l-grown pota to es thescal e s are not pres ent

,but there are sma l l curved l ine s under

the eye s . These l ine s are the scars O f the scal e s . . I f the tubersare planted

, new plants may grow out of each of the s e bud s .E ven if one of the

'

la tter i s cut out and planted in the soil , i tm ay grow into a new plant . From thi s it i s evident tha t thetuber i s of grea t importance to the l ife of the l ’ota to plant .

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92 D ICO TYL EDON S

branch. The shoot has no roots at first and must , thairefore, getal l i ts food from the suppl i es stored up in the tube r

,and thi s

cau s e s the tuber to shri v el up and di e , as the food stored in iti s exhau sted . The new shoots in their turn throw out roots andother underground shoots , portions of the latter being fil l ed wi thstarch and swel l ed up to form fresh tubers (fig. A s, in their

F ig. 88.— Sec tion t hrough the Outer portion of a P ota to.

K. Cork-cel l s. S t . Cel l s con ta ining starc h -gra ins ( 1 40 t imesenlarged) . T o the left a sta rch -gra in sh owing its stra tified

structure (500 t imes enlarged) .

uncul tiva ted state , the tubers of the P ota to plant rema in in the

ground and giv e ri s e to a large number of new plants , i t i s of

great advantage to the new genera tion tha t the tubers are produced at the ends of runners , and are thus rem oved to a di stanc efrom the m other plant .We see now cl early tha t the pota to- tuber is a store of foodfor

the new plant. Thi s food consi sts ma inly of s tarch,whi ch i s a l so

one of the principa l food-substances of man. A s the potatotuber contains no noxious properti e s and i s ea si ly Obta ined inlarge q uanti ti e s , i t has becom e one of the chi ef veg etabl es weeat . It i s now cul ti va ted nearly al l ov er the world, but doe snot grow wel l in the tropi c s .

2 . L eaves, F lowers and Fruit — The stem of the P otato plant'

doe s not , as a rul e,grow higher than about one foot and a ha lf.

The leaves are large and interruptedly pinna te , the l eaflets being

THE N IGHTSHA DE FA M IL Y 9 3

not a same s ize and there being smal ler pinnae betweenes. The l eav e s contain a poison whi ch i s a l so

pre sent in bther green parts of the plant and especia l ly inthe berry .

TheF lower, l ike the flower of the Chil l ies or of the Brinjal,

consi s ts of a ca lyx wi th five s egment s , a di skshaped corol la with fiv e l obes

, a l ternatingw ith the s epa l s

,and five yel low s tam ens ,

aga in al terna ting w i th the l obe s of the corol la

(fig . The large pol l en-bags are unitedat their end s so as to form a cone surrounding the pi sti l (P la te No . 622

,5 and The

.

F ig 89 °” F 10 ’ 3 1

anthers Open by pores at their upper ends .d'agra

lzejifizl

fnacem

The Fruit i s a round,green berry. w ith

many seeds in two cel l s (P late No . 622,6 and

9 ) which,however, cannot be depended on to produce plants that

wi l l g iv e fine tubers . They are, therefore , not u sed except bynurs ery men who hOpe to Obtain new vari eti e s .

(b) T he T oba cco P lant (N icotiana tabacum) .

(P la te N o.

(Kan. H ogesoppu . Ma l . P ukayila . Tam. P uga iyila i. H in. T ambaku .)

1 . This plant has com e from Am erica , l ike the P ota to , andi s now cul tivated in many di stri ct s of India .

A l l parts of i t are covered with sticky , glandular hairs whi chkeep O ff anima l s . The very large L eaves decrease in siz e towardsthe upper part , thu s giv ing 'the l ower l eaves the share of sunl ightwhi ch they need for the properexerci se of their functions : You

vertica l ly growing taproot w ith sideThe latter

,however, donot go be

their tendersucking parts ju s t below the tip s of the l eaves . Wesee

°

now cl early. why the l eaves are b ent down. fWhenTEit ra ins ,a l l the water does not run . al ong the. l eaf-sta lks tow-the inner

94 D ICOTYL EDO N S

part of the plant , but a grea t d ea l flows ou twards t ere the

tips of the roots are wa it ing for their nouri shm ent Mangotree

,page The re st goe s into the soi l , where it otected

from evapora ti on and can sink in to the d eeper lying roots .2 . The stem bears at i ts end grea t panicl e s of tubularF l owers,

whi ch are e ither whi te or red. The five stam ens are insertedin the tube of the corolla between i ts l obe s (fig . 90, The Fruitis a capsul e formed of two carpel s (fig. 90

, When ripe, i t Opensin two va lves (fig. 90, 4) to l et . the smal l se ed s e scape .

The cross - section O f a s e ed (fig . 90,7) shows tha t the embryo

is embedded in a separa te ti ssue , ca ll ed endosperm ,which form s

a nouri shing substance for the plantl et when i t begins to grow .

The embryo i s curved .

3 . I n growing the plant for Tobacco the stem is ni pped off

when i t reache s a height of about twel v e inches and i s not al lowedto flower. Why? E vid ently to aid the formati on of the l eav e sout of the materia l that m ight be wa sted in the productionof flowers and s e ed s . When the l eav e s are ful ly grown , the

plant is cut down and l eft in the fiel d for s everal days , afterwhi ch, early in the m orning when there i s stil l dew on them ,

they are remov ed in bundl e s O f forty or fifty l eav es . I f the l eave sare too dry and there i s no dew on them

,wa ter i s sprinkl ed

on the l eaves before remova l . These bundl e s are then put in a

stack where they are frequently rearranged from top and bottomto m iddl e and from m iddl e to outside . D uring thi s process ofcuring a ferm enta ti on by the agency of certa in bacteria takesplace . A fter about two months the l eav e s are ready for smoking ,chewing or making into snuff.

T obacco conta ins a poi son, ca l l ed N icotine, of whi ch a s ingl edrop suffic e s to kil l a dog. Continuous exce ss ive use of tobaccoproduce s heart and bowel di sea s e s , and can bring on the entireruin of the body . For chi ldren tobacco, taken even in smal lquanti ti e s , i s a dangerous poi son.

(c) O ther N ightshades.

The Brinj a l (S olarium nielongena ; Kan Badane ; Ma l . Va l utin‘

a ;

Tam . Va luda lai ; Tel . Vankayi ; H in. Ba ingan) produc es the wel l

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F ig. 9 l .

- CHIL L I P L A N T (Capsicum frutescens) .

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9 6 D ICOTYL EDON S

term inal flower, the stem aga in forking into two b s bel owi t

,and so on . The flowers are sim ilar to these the P ota to

plant (se e page and the fruit i s a l ong,dry berry form ed

of two carpellary deaves .S ev era l speci e s of S olarium are growing wi ld

,and among

them ,the c ommonest , perhaps , i s S . xanthocarpuni , an annua l

weed , prickly a l l over and producing yel low berri e s,as i ts

nam e says .The Thorn-apple (D a tura stranioniuin ; Kan. D attura , Um

ma tta ; M a l . Umma ttam ; T am. Umma ttai ; Tel . Ummetta)i s a common weed wi th a strong,

di sagreeable sm ell . It s largel eav e s are deeply toothed , the two sid es general ly being nu

symm etri ca l . They are spira l ly arranged round the s tem and

i ts num erou s branche s, the forma ti on of which i s the sam e as in

the Chil l i plant . The corol la of the flower form s a large funnelof a pure

,whi te col our. It Opens at nightfa l l and exhal es a

strong smel l which, l ike the whi te colour, attracts m oths whi chtransfer the pol l en from one flower to another. The capsul e sOpen in four va l ves , the ovary being four-cel l ed by the inflectionof the m idrib of each of the two carpel s so as to m eet the placenta .

22 . The Butterw ort Fam i ly(L entibu laria cem) .

Carnivorous , a q uatic and marsh p lants . F lowers zygomorphic. CO

rol la two-lipped and spurred . S tamens two. O vary superior.

T he B ladderw ort (Utricularia stellaris) .

The Bladderwort i s a l ittl e plant wi th yel l ow flowers , floatingin stagnant wa ter and v ery comm on in our tanks and wel l s . Itdoe s not roo t iii the mud nor

'

stretch its l eave s above the lof the wa ter l ike. the L otus and

,therefore,\has to find some the i

means of exi stence .

1 . A bsorption of Water and Mineral Food.— T errestria

’

l plants

suck up water and m ineral f ood by means of their roots . A quati c

plants tha t a re whol ly subm erged in wa ter absorb water on their

THE BUTTERWORT FA M IL Y 9 7

whol e sur the epiderm i s being very thin . D ifferent sa lt s beinggeneral ly Olv ed in water, the plants obtain theirm inera l foodfrom the water they absorb . Thi s being so, they re q u ire no

s pecial organs of absorption,and roots are di spen sed with.

Therefore the Bladderwort cannot exi st in running water, butonly in pool s and pond s w i th stagnant water.

2 . A bsorpt ion of Carbonic A cid Gas — The Bladderwort i sgreen ; which shows tha t i t requ ires carbon dioxide to form starchfor i ts growth. Thi s gas i s found in water a l so

,though in very

smal l quanti ti e s . To get a suffici ent supply of i t , the plant hasto increa s e its surfac e enorm ously by d iv iding the l eaves intohundreds of parts . Take a potato and cut it into m any thinsl ic es : you wi l l s ee how the surfac e of the piece i s thus greatlvincreas ed . The greater the surface of the l eav e s , the more thearea ava i labl e for absorbing food . The l eaves , thu s spl i t intonum erous thread-l ike segm ents hanging down in the water, l ookl ike roots (fig.

The air absorbed by the l eav e s i s col l ected in intercel lularspace s whi ch form inflated bag s a t the ba s e of the branche s .The se hel p to dim ini sh the w eight of the plant and keep i t floating near the surface of the water.

3 . Reproduction— I n order to form seeds the pl ant throwsup l i ttl e sta lks abov e the l ev el of the wa ter, on whi ch two tofour yel l ow Spurred

,labiate flowers are produced (fig . 93

When a pool in which Bladderworts grow dri e s up,they d i e .

Before dying,they speedily make preparations to propagate their

kind by producing flow ers and seed s . But they can do it inanother way a l so : the tip s of the branche s d etach them s el v es fromthe parent plant

,the l eav e s fol ding over the term ina l bud ; they

then sink into the m ud to rest there during the dry sea son ,and

Sprout when the pool i s fil l ed aga in with wa ter.

4 . A Carnivorous P lant . But the plant l eads an extraordi

nary l ife not onl y‘

in so far as it l ives in water, but a l so becau s ei t feeds on animal substance s . It i s a carniv orous plant . T O

ea tch i ts prey i t i s provided wi th curi ous traps , which we sha l lnow exam ine . I f the ordinary Utri cularia

,which has yel l ow

flowers and float s in qu i et waters , cannot be obta ined , the

98DICOTYL EDON S

student mayfinspecie s

of the sam e g t grows

in many padd (

I t i s a

l ov ely,blue-bl ossom ed twiner,

named Utricularia reticula ta ,

w i th a few

inconspicuousl eave s , whi chs ink s i ts roo tsinto the s oftm u d o f the

r i c e - f i e l d .

T a k e i t ou t

v ery careful ly ,wa sh away the

mud,and exa

m ine it . Then

you wi l l find

l i t t l e k n o b s ,here and there ,

of the siz e of a

pepper corn or a

l i t t l e sm a l l e r.

The se knob s are

the traps . Theyare hol low blad

d ers w i th an Opening ,surround ed by a few

ha irs , and shut by a

va lve (fig. 9 3 , K.) thatopens towards the in

terior. L i ttl e sna i l s

and crustaceans that

happen to se ek shelF ig. 9 3 .

— 1 . A flowering branch of tho B la dderwort(Utri culoria slel taris) , gna tura

l size . 2 . Tra p a s t O l‘

I n the se bladd ers ,

seen from w it hou t . 3 . Vert ic a l sec t ion of the tra p can ea sily enter, guid ed( 1 0 t imes en la rged ) . Ii . Va lve . lV. A bu tment .

T wo wa ter a n im a ls a re im prisoned in b l ad der 3 .

by S PCCI R I 8410 t 2th

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1 00 D ICOTYL EDON S

T hese plants find very little food on the rock s, and have 0 deve lop

their variou s organs within a few week s as they cannot livtfwhen therains are over.

T he follow ing are their adaptations for a life under such adverseconditions(a ) Their seeds are extremely sma l l , they fall into the crevice s of

the rock s and germinate when the rains begin .

(b) The p lants rem ain sma l l (one to two inches high) and growquickly, producing flow ers and seed s in a few w eek s

,s o that all is

ended when the rains cease .(c) The want of mineral food is compen sated for, at least in some

of them ,by anima l food. We have seen how Utricularia catches

anim al s and feed s on them . D rosera or S undew (fig. 94) is al s o aninsectivorou s p lant, but has other organs to catch insects . The linearleaves of this tiny p lant seem to be decked with little diam ond s

,re

fleeting the light of the sun like little dew -drop s . T here is a sparklingand shining about them like that of the m ost beautiful brilliant . T hesesparkling diam ond s are little drO ps O f s lim e

, a sticky mas s which can

be drawn into long thread s when touched w ith the finger— secretedby num erou s hairy gland s w ith which the leave s are covered al l

over. What is the use of these gland s ? A swarm of tiny m idge s isdancing over the rock . O ne of them has left its gay society seeking a

re sting p lace . T he shining drop s , seemingly of honey,have allured

the animal to alight on the p lant. In stantly it becom es aware of its

error and trie s to fly away . But alas!its legs stick to the gumm yli q uid

,and if it succeed in setting free one or two legs , in the next

m oment its other parts,head and wings , get again into the fearful

s lim e,and all its desperate struggling has only the re sult that m ore

gland s bend over and fasten on it . This is carried to such an extentthat the whole blade of the leaf occasional ly doubles over. The wholeanimal is now covered w ith the s limy fluid secreted by those gland s .It die s

,and the s oft parts of it are in course of tim e digested by the

l iq uid which is s lightly acid,as can be told by te sting it with

'

blue

l itmu s paper. A fter the plant has thus abs orbed its animal food , theleaf is unfolded

,the hard skeleton of the dead animal soon dries and

is carried away by’

the w ind ; and the gland s shine as before tillanother care les s fly, or a thirsty little caterpillar, or a smal l butterflysits on them and runs into death. L arger insects are not caught , asthey are strong enough to make their e scape from the tentacles of

the plant .

THE A O A N T H US FA MIL Y 1 01

2 3 . The A canthus Fam i ly(A cantha ceae ) .

H erb s or shrub s,w ith decus sate ex stipulate leaves . F lowers zygo

m orphic, generally two-lipped

,bracteate . S tam en s inserted in the

corolla,either four (didynam ou s ) or two. O vary superior

,of two car

pel s . Fruit a capsule,containing a definite number of seed s and Open

ing elastically to ej ect the seed s .

T he A dha toda P lant (A dhatoda casica) .

(Kan. A dusOge. Ma l . A ta l O takarn . Tam. A dadoda i. Tel . A dda saramu . )

1 . Use — A n unattractiv e shrub u sed for fencing,ea si ly taking

root from i ts nodes . Cattl e , ev en goats , do not brows e on i t .They di sl ike its sm el l and its ta ste .

2 . S tem and L eaves.— Internodes pretty long and swol l en

above the nod e s . Glabrou s l eaves oppo site , lanc eolate , acumin

a te, entire , s econdary nerves v ery prom inent .The l ea ves in the long-sta lked spike s som ewhat different from

those be low . I n many plants , e. g. H ibiscus esculentus, we can

observe a gradua l d ecrea se in the s iz e of the fol iage l eaves frombelow to the tOp. I n som e plants the transi tion i s ra ther abrupt .A nd such l eaves tha t grow from the peduncl e of an inflore scenc eand from the axil s of' which flowers or branche s of the inflorescenc e Spring , are termed bracts. Bracts are found in the inflorescence s of m ost plants , but they may a l so be absent . I n the plant sbel onging to the A canthus fam i ly they are a lways present , and

here they are commonly large and conspi cuous . I n the axil s ofthe Opposite bracts of A dhatoda we find sol itary flowers , eachsupported by two l eave s , which are ca l l ed bracteoles.

3 . F lowers — Calyx of fiv e sepa l s . Corolla white , two- l ipped .

Upper l ip of two peta l s , curved forward , lower l ip O f three peta l s .fE stivation imbricate . Nectar-guid es consi sting of red Spots ands treaks on the l ower l ip ; nectary at the ba s e of the flower: a

d i sk round the ovary . S tam ens two,epipeta l ous , ov erhanging ,

w ith their anther cel l s unequa l in siz e and one s l ightly bel owthe other.

1 02 D ICOTYL EDON S

The lower l i p form s a ni c e land ing place for v i siting ins ectswhich when probing the tube for honey , shake the stam ens and

hav e their back powdered over w i th pol l en.

O vary two-c el l ed . S tyl e l ong.

F ig. 9 6 .— A dha toda caszca .

4 . Fruit . — A bil ocular capsul e wi th two smal l se ed s in eachl oculus . It Opens w i th great forc e when ri pe

,and the s ta lks by

which the se ed s are a ttached to the placenta being springy , thes eed s are j erked out and fal l to the ground a t some d i stanc efrom the m other plant .

O ther A canthaceae.

Barleria prionitis (Kan. Mul lugOrante) , a thorny shrub ,m uch branched . Thorns axillary , three -forked , repre sentingm etamorphosed branche s .

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1 04 D ICOTYL EDON S

stigm a bifid . Fruit of four dry, one-seeded nutlets,originating from

two carpel s w ithin the bottom of the calyx .

(a) The T umbe P lant ( L eucas aspera ) .

(Kan. T umbe . Ma l . Tum pa . Tam. T umba i . San. R udrapushpa .)

Thi s plant appears w ith the ra ins everywhere , near roads,

ditche s, hedges , and flowers as l ong as there i s any m oi sture in

the ground .

1 . A ccommodat ion t o

Condit ions — The Leaves

are oblong-l inear, distautly serra te , sl ightlypubescent

, and d ecussate

, i . e. ,they are so

arranged tha t everypair stand s cros swi s eOver the next l owerpa ir. S O are a l so them any branches . Thi safford s the advantageof the stem being e q ua lly l oad ed .

It we compare Tumbeplants thatgrow inmoistand shady places w i thsuch as grow in dry andsunny places, we sha l lfind tha t the formerhave a lways larger andm ore d el ica te l eave sthan the la tter. We

Tumbe (L cuca s a spcra ) .

Shal l l earn som ethingfrom thi s fact .

Those plants which are growing in the shad e of a tre e ,natura l ly ge t l es s sunl ight . Their l eave s mus t , therefore , be

‘

larger so as to get a greater q uanti ty of the l ight tha t i s not s ointense . A sma l l am ount of the intens e sunl ight , whi ch can be

THE L A BIA TE FA M IL Y 1 05

obta ined by the smal l , nearly l inear l eav e s of the specim ensgrowing uncov ered , i s m ore than suffici ent for their growth.

F urtherf thdse in shady and m oi st plac e s w il l , i f plucked , fad em uch sooner than the other kind . Why? S ince the plac e wherethey stood is a lways m oi st , they need not be econom ical withwater and their l eave s are

,therefore

,large and tender. They

lack the vari ous m eans of checkingthe evaporation of water, such as a

thick epiderm i s , a sma l l surface , etc .

(Contra st it wi th Cactu s , p .

The sam e w il l be found, if plants

growing on a rich and a poor soil are

compared . The differenc e in thi sca s e i s , however, cau sed principal lyby the quant ity of food the plantsare abl e to extrac t from the soi l ;hence the root- system of tho se growing in the rich soil wi l l be found tobe m uch larger than tha t of plants

a a

F ig. 9 9 . Transverse section

t hroug h a c y l inder, stra igh t(w it h dot ted l ines) and bent (w it ht h ick l ines) . 1 11 the st raigh tc y l inder a l l edges are equa l l y

which grow in a poor soi l . long ; in the bent one the inner

2 . The S tem has not only tobear i ts own w eight and tha t of the

edge (a ) is shortened and the

outer one (a’) leng thened .

bra nches wi th their l eave s , but it mu st a l so be able to resi stthe bending , twi sting , and breaking influences of the w ind . I f the stem i sbent by a rush of wind to one sid e , thepart s on that Sid e O f the stem toward swhich i t i s bent wi l l be pre s sed together,wherea s the other Side wi l l be stretchedby the tension exerted on i t . Them idd l epart wi l l na tural ly suffer l ea st (fig .

Therefore the sides of the stem should beF ig 1 00-” Transverse 89 0mm

strongest. N ow , if the stem of the plantof'the stem of a L abia te p lan t ,L amium a lbum (40 t imes

en larged ) .

i s cut acros s (fig . it wil l a t oncebe seen tha t thi s i s rea l ly the ca s e .

There are four bund l e s of strong fibresa t the four corners of the stem whi ch thus becom es q uadrangular.

1 06 D ICOTYL EDO N S

A nd as e very archi tect i s careful to make his work as strongas pos sibl e wi th the l ea st am ount of ma terial , S O we see here al sotha t the m iddl e part which,

as we hav e seen , has not to contributeanything toward s the strength O f the stem , remains hollow or

filled with sof t pith only.

Moreover,as a matter of fact , i t i s easi er to break a l ong

tube than a short one We , therefore , find the stem of the plantdivid ed into m any Short pi ece s by nodes at the parts from wherethe l eav es i s sue . Thes e nod es are s ol id. The pi ec es betwe enthe nodes are term ed internode s .

3 . The F lowers are arranged in opposi te cymo se fa sci cl e son the node s of the upper part of the stem s . Ca lyx funnel

shaped , obl ique -mouthed , w i th ten

Short teeth and as m any nerv e s .Corolla bilabiate . The l ower l i p i sbroad

,three-l obed

, and form ing the

conspicuou s part of the flower, at

tracting by its m i lk-white col ourins ects , which know quite wel l thatflowers usual l y conta in sweet honey .

I f you pul l out O ne of the flowers andF ig» 1 0 1 — Ve l‘ ti0a 1 86 0ti0n of t he suck i t

, you wi l l find tha t there rea lflower O f Tumbe (“w a s

fl

ipem ) ’ ly i s a tiny drop of honey in each.

onl y two stamens a re V is i b le .

The upper l ip I S much smal l er and

Shel ters , under i ts ha iry hood orhelm et,four stamens O f which the

two exteri or ones are a l i ttl e l onger than the two interior ones .I f you now put a

pencil into the throat ofthe flower

,the stam ens

w i ll sl ightly prOtrude

from their shel teredpl ac e and rub thems el ves aga inst the penc il . The sam e thing F ig. 1 02 .

— L ip-flower of S a lria ,

and bee.

happens when a bee orother ins ec t thrusts i ts probosc i s into the flower-tube to fetchthe honey

,The stam ens bend forward and d eposi t their pol l en

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1 08 D ICOTYL EDON S

keep pace with its expenditure . Thi s happens when the plantripens its numerou s seeds , each of whi ch requ ire s ri ch food . Itcan be observed tha t the aroma of the plant i s l essa t the tim eof flowering and fructification .

P lants growing in the shadehave much l e s s of thi s volatil e oilthan plants growing in open place s .The shade compe ls the plant toenlarge i ts fol iage , and thu s necessitates a much larger expenditureof food stuff, so tha t m uch of i tcannot be stored up for the future .

S uch plants do,therefore , not

flower so readily as plant s in

Open places .I n addition to the glandular

ha irs,the surfac e of the whol e

plant i s covered by wool ly ha ir.

Thi s c oa t of ha irs reduces evapora ti on by interfering with the freecirculati on of air on the surfac eof the l eaf, which we shal l understand from a l i ttl e experim ent .Moi sten two sponge s of equal si z eandput them on the sam e plac e fordrying , but wrap a piece of cl othround one of them . We sha l l findtha t the covered Sponge keeps its

m oi sture longer than the other. H ow d oe s thi s happen‘

9 F romboth Sponges wa ter-vapo ur ri ses , but the vapour under the cl o thcannot e scape so fre ely as from the uncov ered Sponge , and sothe rate of evapora tion i s sl ackened . P reci s ely the sam e happensw i th two l eave s of whi ch one i s gl abrous or uncovered and the

other ha iry or downy . E xce ss iv e l oss of moi s ture through the

epid erm i s would caus e the plant to wi ther, as it would not bein a posi ti on to make up for thi s l o ss by the sucking action of

the roots .

F ig. 1 04 . T he Tu la si P lan t( O cimmn sanctum) .

THE VERBEN A FA M I L Y 1 09

(o) O ther L abiates.

Thi s family i s but poorly repres ented in the tropics . Theyare chi efly found in the northern tem perate z one

, where theythri ve best in a dry, sunny si tuation l ike m ost aromatic plants .

S om e comm on Ind ian Speci e s are, bes ide s L euca s and Tulasi ,S w eet Ba sil (O clmam basilicum ; Kan. Kamakasturi ; M a l . Rama

tula si) , and the D og T ulasi (O clmam canum) .“L avender and S a lvia for their flowers , and Co leus for

fol iage , are old -fa shioned favourite s in gardens ; but perhapsthe swee t herbs of the kitchen-gard en are sti ll better knownM int, T hyme, Marj oram , Rosem ary, S avory.

25. The Verbena Fam i ly

(Verbena ceae) .

P lants resembling those belonging to the L a bia tre. The distinctionof the two fam ilies lies in the structure of the ovary . The VerbenaF amily has a four-celled ovary originating al so from two carpel s

,but

with a terminal style . Fruit m ostly a drupe or a berry .

The T eak T ree (Tectona grandis) .

(Kan . Tegu , S agEni. Ma l . Tekku. Tam . T é kku . Tel . Teku . H in . Sagvan . S an. Teka .)

l . Trunk andWood— The T eak tree i s one of the most u sefult imber-trees of Western India . Its wood

,being fairly hard and

very durabl e , i s e special ly u seful for shi pbui ld ing . It al so con

tains an oil which preserves the na il s driven into i t .I f the trunk i s sawn through, a number of concentri c circl e s

c an be seen on the s ection. The se are found a l so in m ost othertrees and are ca l l ed annua l rings, as one ring i s general ly form edin a year (fig . 2 1

,page They consi st of a lternate layers

of soft and hard wood . Thi s may be tested with the point of a

knife . The soft wood i s form ed d uring the rapid and luxuriant

growth of the tree in the m onsoon ,when the tree i s cov ered

with i ts enormou s l eave s and there i s plenty of m oisture , andthe l eaves are absorbing large quanti ti es of carboni c ac id gas

1 1 0 D ICOTYL EDON S

from the air. The hard and dark rings of wood,however

, re

present the cessati on of growth during the cold and dry sea son ,

when the tre e drop s a l l i ts l eav e s and s tretche s i ts bare branche stoward s the braz en sky . We can , therefore , e stimate the age of

the tree by count ing i ts rings : for every dark , hard ring corres

pond s to a dry s ea son , and every l ight , soft ring to a ra iny sea son.

Trees of thi s cla s s (D icotyl edons) add cyl inders of wood to

their trunks ev ery year. Thi s additi on of wood i s not made inthe c entre of the trunk , bu t under the bark . I f the bark i sstri pped off a t the tim e when the tre e i s growing vigorou sly , wea lways find a sticky watery fluid betwe en bark and wood . Thisi s the sap contained in tender cell s whi ch are d ivid ing rapid ly .

The wood on the outside of the stem is l ighter col oured thanthat in the c entre

,which i s golden yel l ow when freshly cut . The

layers are ca ll ed sapwood and heartwood respectiv ely . It i s inthe outer part of the wood , and not in the ol d wood in the m iddl eof the tre e , tha t the sap flow s up from the root s to the tip s ofthe branche s to produce there , together w i th the food taken in

by the l eave s , new l eav es , flowers and frui ts .A s new layers are formed one by one everyyear

,the older layers cea s e to take any

activ e part in the l ife-work of the tree ,and harden . The hardest and most durabl ewood i s the heartwood which being gradua l ly impregnated by the wa ste produc tsform ed in the course of the growth of thetree , becom e s denser and d enser.

2 . The L eaves of the T eak tre e are

v ery large . They are opposite, and everypa ir of l eav e s stand s cro s swi s e to the nex t

F ig. 1 05 ._P 0m 0n of a

pa ir (decussa te) . I n thi s way the l oad of

net -veined lea f. m . S t rongthe grea t l eav e s is evenly d i s tributed , as

m idrib. n .Side-rib .

in the L abiata'. \Ve can a l so s ee tha t thestem s of young branches are q uadrangular

and channel l ed, and tha t they have large q uadrangular pi th.

The l eave s are very rough on their upper s id e . The l owersid e i s cl othed w ith d ens e st el lat e , gray or tawny ha irs . They

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1 1 2 D ICOTYL E D ON S

of the l eaf. Thi s can be be st obta ined by keep ing the l eaves inwater for a m onth or two.

3 . The Teak Tree a tropophi lous* P lant — From the observati onswe hav e mad e above we l earn that the T eak i s adapted to thevari ous cond itions of the cl imate . The Mangrov e (page and

the Cactu s (page 57) are xerophi l ous in their s tructure , t . e.,they

posse ss vari ou s c ontrivance s to check the transpirati on of wa ter.

O ther plants , l ike the Garden Bal sam (page have a hygro

philous structure , characteri sed by large l ea ves wi th a thin epid erm i s to a l l ow the wa ter to evaporate freely .

The T eak combine s the two type s . It i s hygrophi l ou s at onetim e , via ,

the m onsoon producing large and num erou s l eaves totranspire large quanti ti e s of water, and growing luxuriantly ;and xerophi l ous a t another tim e , viz the dry sea son ,

d im ini shingthe proces s of transpira ti on by shedd ing its l eave s and stoppingits growth. O ther tre es that shedtheir l eaves in the dry s ea son are

the S ilk Cotton tree (Bombax,

p. 1 5) the P agoda tree (P laznterta ,

p . 82) and the Cora l tre ethrlna , p .

We cal l such plantstropophil ous . The sam ei s observed in m ost tree sgrowing in cool erclima te s .There

,i t i s during winter

tha t pl ant s cannot obtainwa ter, becau s e , thoughthere i s pl enty of i t inthe ground, i t i s froz en.

A nd a s they can obta innothing or a lmost nothing

,

”f f— A “m ic“of “1 0

Ti ak ”00 ( Toclona gram lcs ) .they cannot spend m uch.

Much red ucedTherefore they shed theirl eave s in the beginning of winter, andbecom e xerophil ous . Wa ter

* From the G reek lrepo, to t urn .

THE VERBEN A FA M I L Y 1 1 3

becomes ava ilabl e for them aga in in spring , so they take on theirgreen and rich fol iage in summ er and becom e hygrophilous .

4 . Thel F lowers of the T eak tre e are smal l , but clustered inlarge , whit e panicl e s overtopping the green fol iage , and thusmaking the tree c onspicuou s a t the t im e of flowering (compareMango , page They are white and star- l ike , the corol lahaving five or six equa l l obes . The number of the stam ens i sthe sam e as that of the corolla-l obes . The styl e i s Singl e and

has a two-cl eft stigma .

5. The O vary i s four-c el l ed and grows , under the protectionof the inflated calyx , into a very hard , bony nut covered with a

fur- l ike coat of branched ha irs .

O ther Verbenas.

O ne of the comm onest Verbena s i s the L antana (L antana

aculea ta ; Kan. N atagida ; M a l . A rippu) , a straggl ing Shrub withSquare , prickly stem s and pretty orange flowers arranged insmal l heads . Birds eat the frui t and spread the seed widely . It i s anative of A m erica

,but has run w i ld nearly everywhere in Ind ia ,

and i s a perfect curse to planters by the way in which it Spread sin al l d irections d estroying other growth. It i s often used as a

hedg e plant . The pink or whit e L antana i s L . indica . It hasfew or no prickl e s .

The Cha ste T ree negando; Kan. L akki ; I ll a l . Indrani ;S an. N irgundi) i s a ta l l shrub wi th gray fol iage , cov ered w ithSi lvery down on the l ower sid e and bearing sma l l , l i lac flowersin panicl e s . The aroma noticed in the l eave s of the L abiatae

(page 1 07) i s found a l so in thi s plant .S ta chytarpheta tndz

’

ca has l ong spike s of blue flowers .P remna integrifolia i s a strong-smell ing shrub w ith shining ,

ovat e l eav es and greenest white flowers in large panicl e s .A nother very comm on genu s of thi s ord er i s the Clerodendron

of whi ch som e Specie s hav e a remarkabl e contrivanc e to excludeself-pol l ination.

To study thi s we may exam ine either Cleroalendron oolahtle,

a common garden-creeper with a white,inflated ca lyx and a

1 1 4 D ICOTYL EDON S

crim son corol la ,or Clerodendron tnf ortana tam (Kan. I ttevu ;

Ma l . P eragu) , a hand som e under- shrub with d ecussate , large andcordat e l eav es . The crect pani cl e s O f it s whit e flowers at tract

night-moths not onl y by

their pa l e colour, but al soby their sweet sm el l whi chi s Spec ia l ly strong bynight . I f variou s flowersare compared , i t wi l l b eseen that som e hav e theirfour stam ens stra ight andthe styl e bent down , whereas others hav e the styl estra ight , but the stamens

sty le bent back 2 . Posit ion on second evening : curl ed ' The S tam ens are

sty le st ra ig h t andstamens c urled .Stra ight in flowers thathave recently Opened (fig .

1 07 , I ) , and curl ed in such as have already been Open for one

or two days (fig. 1 07 , N ow,a moth that com es for nectar to

a newly Opened flow er cannot but touch the anthers hanging on

the l ong , hori z onta l stam ens , w i th the l ower sid e of it s wing swhi l e i t hovers in front of the flower thrusting i ts l ong tongue intothe flora l tube . A fterward s , when i t go es to a flower whi chOpened the previ ous night

,it mu s t touch the sty l e O f i t and thu s

bring the pol l en O f the first flower to the styl e O f the second.

There i s absolutely no possibil ity O f sel f-poll inati on.

A s the flower of thi s plant a ttracts night-moths to ava il itsel fof their servic e s

,so d oes the frui t at tract birds by the black col our

of i ts four drupe s and the red col our of the calyx which enlargesand redd ens as the frui t ripens . The bird s ea t the fle shy frui tand d i s pers e the s e ed .

F ig. 1 07 .— F lowerof Clerodendron inforlana lum .

1 . Pos it ion on fi rst evening : S tamens stra igh t ,

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1 1 6 D ICOTYL EDON S

there i s form ed a large bal l of c olumns,in the shade O f which

there i s suffici ent Spac e for a vi l lage . Thi s power of form ingroot s in the air al s o expla ins a strange thing, via ,

Banyan treesgrowing on other trees and strangl ing them . They are not. parasitic l ike the L oranthu s O n Mango tree s , for they do not striketheir root s into the ti s sue O f the tree to prey on it s juic e . Whathappens i s thi s : birds may drop a s e ed O f the Banyan tree O n

another tre e , where it begins to grow as an epiphytic "! plant .

I t form s root after root . Thes e d esc end the stem O f the tree to

F ig— T he Banyan t ree (F icus benga lensis) .

the ground,becom e stronger and stronger, and final ly hug i t to

d eath. I n fact , genera l ly speaking , the Banyan l eads an epiphyt icl ife in it s youth

,and becom e s a terrestrial plant only after some

years .2 . The large , el l iptic L eaves O f the Banyan tree are downy

beneath,shining above , and covered with a very thi ck ep iderm i s s

* From G reek ept , u pon,and phylon, a p la nt .

Fig . 1 09 .— BA N YA N T RE E (F icus benga lensts) .

l . F lowering branch . 2 . L ongitudinal section O f fig. 3 . 4. 5. 6 . Single pistillate flowers fromwithin the fig.

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1 1 8 D ICOTYL EDO N S

compos ed of a receptacl e,l ike that of the Sunflower, w ith num er

ous flowers or frui ts re sting on i t . The rec eptacl e,however, i s

not fla t , but form s a hol l ow bal l , l eaving a sma l l Opening at the

top . The l ittl e flowers wi thin the fig contain e ither one stamenor one pi sti l each, and each i s surrounded by a m inute flora lenv elope , cal l ed perianth* , w i th thre e to five s egments (fig . 1 09 , 3

H enc e the plant i s grouped under the monochlamydeousyplant s .

The stam inat e flowers are genera l ly plac ed a t the top O f the fig,

and the pistil lat e ones at the bottom . The inconspicuou snes s ofthe flowers woul d point at pol l ination by the agency of the w ind

(see II . P art , P oll ination) . But the fig i s pollina ted by insects . A nd thi s i s done in the fol l owing way.

When we cut figs of the Banyan tree Open,

we v ery often find numerous grubs in them and

som etimes al so l i ttl e wa sps . The

latter must have ent ered throughthe hol e at the top of the fig. Theylay their eggs in the ovul e s of

pi sti llate flowers . I n a short timegrubs grow from the se eggs and

ev entua l ly becom e wa sps again ,

and when they l eav e the fig , theycover them sel v es with the pol l en

dust of stam inat e flowers near the hol e ,and thus, when v isiting another fig , ferti liz ethe pi sti l lat e flowers of the latter. The

sam e happens in the fig of the Cul ti vatede F ig tree ( se e fig.

4 . The Figs become scarl e t and ripenin the cold weather. They are a welcom efood formany bird s , bats and other anima l s ,

F ig. 1 1 0. L ea f of whi ch in their turn ,di spers e the se ed s ov er

Peepu l ( F icus rel igiosa ) . ft wid e area .

From G reek pert , abou t ; and a nthos , a flower. TF rom Greek monos , s ing le,a nd chlamys , a c loak .

THE N ETTL E A N D F I G FA M IL Y 1 1 9

O ther F ig Trees and N ettles.

The ‘

S a’cred P eepul (F l t/

”MS religiosa ; Kan. A ralim ara ; M a l .

A rayal ; T am. A racamaram ; T el . R avicettu ; S an . P ippala ,

A cvattha) i s one of the sacred tree s of the H indus . The sacred“Bo tree” of Buddha was a P eepul . Its l eav es are not roundish

,

l ike tho se of the Banyan tre e , but are drawn out in l ong, narrowpoint-S . When i t rains we can see tha t the water drip s from thes epoints . A nd i t i s good that i t i s so. Water runs off easier froma point than i t would from a blunt end, and the sooner the l eafi s dry, the better for the tree . (Why?) Many tree s hav e s im ilarly pointed l eaves , but none to such perfecti on as the P eepultree . The pe ti ol e s being very l ong , the l eaves are shaken by

F ig 1 1 1 .— Branc h of the Cu l tiva ted F 1 tree

( F icus carica ) w it h a lea f and two figs.

the gentl e st bre ez e and cause a ru stl ing noi s e whi ch has givenri s e to many superstitious bel i efs . The tree atta ins a v erygreat age. The age of a fam ou s P eepul tree at A nuradhapura ,

in Ceyl on , was sa id to hav e been 2 1 47 years in 1 852 , and mu stbe ov er 2200 years now .

- The frui t of the Country F ig T ree

(F icus glomera ta ; Kan. A ttimara) i s ed ibl e . It grows in dens ecl usters on the trunk or branche s . Its l eaves are often cov eredw i th gal l s .

1 20 D ICOTYL EDON S

There are m any other spec ie s of F i cus bel onging to India .

The m ost important of the rest i s the Cultiva ted F ig (F icuscarica ; Kan.

-os e fruitform s an important part of the

food of man and beast in the countri e s round the MediterraneanS ea , where the tre e is grown

abundantly , and produc es a

superior kind of fruit .A v ery important represen

tative of thi s fam i ly i s the j ackT ree (A rtocarpus inte

yrifolia ; Kan. H ala su ;M a t. P i lava; T am.

P alaeu ; T el. P ana sa ;S an. Skandaphala) . The

mal e catkins,not much

larger than a man’ s

thumb and envel opedin bud in large deciduous sheaths , fal l O ff

carica . 2 . P art of recepta c le w it h pist il l a te anda f t er fl ow e ri ng ; the

3 . stam ina te flower.fem a l e o n e s c l o s e l ypacked on the out sid e

of a l ong rec eptacl e , grow to be a huge fru it , to bear which thetwig s of the tre e would not be strong enough ; they grow on the

trunks and ma in branches (fig . The imm ens e fruit , thel arge st edibl e frui t in the world

,sometim e s a tta ins a weight of

sixty lbs . The oi ly seed s are enveloped in fle shy covers whichrepres ent the tubular perianths . The thin thread-l ike growthsbetwe en the singl e frui ts are steri l e flowers . The ti p s of the

perianths are hard , and appear on the outer side of the frui tl ike Spines or tubercl e s . It i s a. pecul iari ty of sev era l tropica ltree s the Country F ig tree and the Chocola te tree) , tha tthey ha ve their flowers and fruits not a t the ends of their twig s ,bu t on their stem s . Thi s agre e s with the fact that such tree sha ve a l so a thin bark thro ugh which bud s can easily break .

F ig. 1 1 2 . 1 . Vertica l section of the fi g of F icus

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1 22 D ICOTYL EDON S

i s largely grown both in A sia and in S outhern E urope for i tsl eave s and edibl e fru i t .

A nother repres entati ve of the Nettl e fam i ly i s“the H emp

P lant (Cannabis sa tiva ; Kan. Bangi ; Ma l . Kancavu ; Tani . P angi ;T el . Ganjayi ; H in. Ganja) . The fibre O f the steni of H emphas been u sed , for ages , in the manufacture of rope and cordage ,canva s and sackcl oth. The plant i s a native of Centra l A sia ,and has digi tate l eav e s and dioecious flowers

,the staminate flow

ers being on one plant and the pi sti l la te on another. From the

green parts of the plant a disagreeabl e smel l proce eds , whi ch can

stupefy a man . O n thi s d ep end s a l so the use of the narcotic orintoxi cant bhangi and ganja, (in A rabic hashish) , cons isting of thetop l eav es and tender parts of the hem p plant ; they are dri ed and

ei ther smoked in pipes , or chewed l ike tobacco,or mad e into a

confection and eaten, or drunk in a di ssol v ed form . Thi s in

toxicant renders m en” excitabl e and quarrel som e and di sposed

to acts of v iol enc e . It i s from thi s la tter temperam ent tha t theuse and m eaning of our word assassin (A rab . haschaschin

ha shi sh- eaters) hav e m ost probably ari s en.

27 . T he S purge Fam i ly( E uphorbia ceae) .

T rees,shrub s

,or herb s , u sual ly containing a m ilky j uice . L eaves

alternate , u sually stipulate . F lowers,as a rule

,inconspicuous , uni

sexual (monoeciou s or dioecious ) . F loral envelope often wanting or

simple , som etim es double . O vary superior, u sually three-celled , formed O f three carpel s . Fruit capsular ; the carpel s u sually separatingfrom a persistent axis , or drupaceous . S eed s endospermous .

T he Castor-O il P lant (R icinus communiS ) .

(Kan. A udl a , H ara lu. Ma l . Cit tam anakku . Tam . Ama nakku . Tet . A m udala .

I lm . E ra ndikéj had. )

1 . Use.— A large annua l herb , often cul tivated for the O il

in i ts s eed s , whi ch i s highly va lued in m edicine , and otherwi seu s eful for lubricating m achinery , dres sing tanned hid e s , forl ighting

,for soap and cand l e -m aki ng .

THE SPURGE FA M I L Y 1 2 3

2 . The Seed and its Germinat ion — The s eed has a hard and

m ottl ed tes ta , whi ch Shows at its thinner end a whit i sh growththe caruncl

'

e cov ering the m icropyl e . Break the te sta and you

wi l l find the se ed encl o sed in a Second m embranous cover, thetegm en . R emove thi s as w el l

,and l ook for the embryo : you

wi l l find the end of the hypocotyl (rad icl e) a t tha t end wherethe m icropyl e and the caruncl e w ere s een , and, abov e the hypocotyl , the rest of the embryo , cotyl edons and plumul e , not bentas in the Bean , but perfectly straight . Beside s , the cotyledonsare not thick but papery , and surrounded by a white oil y sub

s tance , the endosperm .

N ow , when we go to sow the se ed and study its germ ination ,

the first s ign of the growing plant i s a smal l hook , just as i t was

F ig. 1 1 4 . Seed of Castor-O il p lant .

in the ca se of the Gram s eed (page Thi s hook ends at one

side in a root , which soon fixes the plant in the soil , and at the

other side in the s eed , inwhichthe co tyledons remain buried forsom etim e . When they are drawn out , they aremuch larger and thickerthan before , have a green hue and often a sl imy substance on theirl ower Sides . The te sta i s new empty and the endosperm i svani shed . What has happened i s thi s : the cotyl edons haveabsorbed the fatty endosperm by their l ower and outer s ide and,at i ts expens e

,hav e dev el oped the root , enlarged the hypocotyl

and a l so thems el v es ; the plantl et i s now establ i shed in the soi l andable to Obta in i ts nouri shm ent from the ground and the air bymeans of i ts root and i ts green l eave s . I n a short time theplumul e a l so grows and develops stem and fol iage- l eave s , which,

howev er, d iffer consid erably in shape from the s eed- l eaves .

1 24 D ICOTYL EDON S

3 . S tem and L eaves — S tem and l eaf-stalk s are cov ered wi tha blu i sh-whi te substance . S tem often channel l ed and hol l ow.

L eave s a l ternate , pel tate , sti pulat e . But the st ipules deciduous ,l eaving a scar a ll round the stem . Blade round , palmately l obed

F ig. 1 1 5 .— T he CaStor~O il p lant ( ll icinns communis) . l . Branch , wit h m a le

and fema le flowers . a . L eaves. (7 . S tamen . c. Fema le flower. d. L ongi

tudina l and e. transverse sec tion of fruit .

the l obe s coars e!s erra te and acum inate . I ’etiole wi th twoY

large gland s a t the ba se .4 . F lowers in term inal panicl es , composed of fa sc i cl ed cyme s

of uni sexua l flowers . Usua l ly a l eafy branch springing from

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1 26 D ICOTYL EDON S

A sthma P lant ; Kan. Nene akki soppu) . E . nivulia i s a xero

philousi

succu lent w i th a mi lky sap, and hav ing the genera lappearance of a

chandel i er (fig.

It i s out

of l eav es duringthe greater part

of the year, butwith i ts persi stentstipul e s on , whichare modified intoSharp Spine s s eated ou the tuberc l ed nodes in five

spira l l ine s upthestem . The beaut iful garden plantP oinsett ia pu l

cherri ina w i ths c a rl e t bra c t s ,and the S lipper

P lant (F edilan

thus tithyma loi

des) have Sim i larflowers .A third type of

flowers i s s een inthe genus P hyl lanthus, where the flowers are not uni ted intohead s , and hav e perianths just l ike the Ca stor plant , but theyhav e two ovul e s in each c e l l of the ovary , wherea s the Ca storhas only one. The A w la T ree (P h. emblica ; Kan ,

Fl a t , T am .

Nell i) i s a d eciduous tree,w ith gray bark peel ing off in couch

l ike sca l es and w ith hard red wood showing the m edul lary ray svery c l early on a s ection. The branchl e ts are j ointed , and bearbifarious l inear l eaves , so that they are som etim e s erroneouslytaken for pinnate l eaves . Its fruit i s an ed ibl e drupe . P h. nirnri

(Kan. Nela-nel l i) i s a sma l l weed found commonly in the ra ins .

F ig. 1 1 6 .— E uphorbia niva l ia .

THE B IRTHWORT F A M IL Y 1 2 7

28. The Birthw ort Fam i ly(A risto lochia ceee) .

Climbers . L eaves alternate , ex stipu late . F lowers regular or zygom orphic

,perianth tubular

,anthers six, se s sile , inserted round the bas e

of the stigm a. O vary inferior,of S ix carpel s . P lacenta parietal . S eed s

endosperm ou s .

T he I ndian Birthw ort (A ristolochia indica) .

(P la te N O .

(Kan. I éva ra -bé ru . Ma l . P erum a runnu . Tam . I éuravé r. S an .

l

A higandha.)

Thi s i s a smooth cl imber, grow ing in the thicket

v

of jungles .The l eav e s are variabl e in shape : l inear, ovate , or obovateObl ong , and have rounded or auricl ed ba s es

,and their petiol e s

serve as tendril s in support of the winding stem .

The flowers tha t ri s e in the axil sin sma l l racem es exhibi t a pecul iarstruc ture . The dark green perianthi s tubu lar, form ing a. gl obular cavitya t i ts ba se and a brown tongu e at itsupper end. I f we Spl i t the tube open ,

we find in the kettl e-l ike cav ity thebroad end of the pi st il crowned w i tha s ix-l obed stigma . R ound the ba s e ofthe stigma there are six ses sil e anthers.

I n fresh flowers we'find bri stl e s inthe narrow flora l tube pointing downward s to the cavi ty .

S uch a pecul iar flower can bepoll inated only in a pecu l iarm anner.

Sma l l m idges attracted by the sm el lof the flower enter into the cav ity .

I f they com e from other (older) flowers

,they bring pol l en with them and

brush i t aga inst the stigma ,which in A ri stol ochia ripens before

the stam ens . The jui cy wall s of the pri son in which the ins ectsare caught giv e them nouri shm ent . A fter about two days thest igm a shrinks , bu t the anthers a t the ba s e of i t Open and let

F ig. 1 1 7 . L ongit ud ina l sect ionof flower of A ristolochia .

1 . Before pol l ina t ion,2 . a fter pol l ina t ion.

1 28 DICOTYL EDON S

the pol l en fa l l . The insect s are powdered over and ov er withthe pol l en when they mov e in their l i ttl e trap. S imul taneously

the ha irs in the narrow tube , whi ch hithertoprevented the ir escape , begin to shrivel , andal l ow the ins ects a pas sage out . The ins ectsnow crawl out of their pri son and vi sit another flower. The pol l inat ed flower, howev er,now covers the entranc e into i ts cav i ty bylaying the tongue-l ike l imb of its perianthright over it , in order to prev ent insects fromv isiting them again .

The fruit i s a S ix-val v ed capsul e , spl ittingalong its partition-wal l s , so that the six carpel scom e quit e fre e of each other (s epticidal) .

The Open frui t thu s l ooks l ike a gracefull i ttl e ba sket suspend ed from the cl imber.

I n the A m erican spec i es A . yiyantea , which i s grown in Indiangardens , the perianth i s a lm ost large enough to form a bonnetfor a child .

A n allied fam ily is the N yctayinere w ith two wel l-known gardenspecies

,nam ely

,the M arv el of P eru , M ira bilis dichotovna , which

opens its flow ers at four o ’clock,

and B ougainv il l ea specta bilis,

a spinous climber with inconspicuou s flowers surrounded by largecarm ine bracts often erroneous ly taken for the petal s .

F ig. 1 1 8 .- Fruit 0

A ristolochia .

29 . The L aurel Fam i ly(L aura ceae) .

A rom atic trees and shrub s . L eave s ex stipulate,entire

, gland-dotted .

F low ers radial . P erianth tubular,consisting of two series of three

leaves . S tamens in two ormore whorl s of three leaves each,filaments

flattened,anthers Opening by valves . O vary of three carpel s , one

cel led . Fruit a drupe .

T he Cinnamon T ree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) .

(P la te N o .

(Kan. D fil é ini. Ma l . Karuva . Tam . L avangapa t t a i. Tel . L avaflgapa t ta . H in. D aléin . )

The Cinnamon tree grows wi ld on the We stern Ghat s , and i scul t ivated in Ceyl on for it s bark which i s a v ery val uabl e Spic e .

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1 3 0 D ICOTYL EDON S

of three peta l s each. The stam ina l l eav es are arranged in fourwhorl s of three l eav e s each a l ternating w i th one another

, the

thre e outer whorl s producing ferti l e stam ens witho four-cel l edanthers Opening by valve s , and the inner whorl form ing a nectaryof three arrow—Shaped stam inode s . O vary one-c el l ed. Frui t adark purpl e drupe , supported by the enlarged perianth.

3 . The Bark of the tree i s aroma tic,and has becom e a v ery

im portant and va luabl e arti cl e of comm erce . The bark of

branches whi ch are two or three years old is the best . Theyare then of the siz e of an ordinary cane . The branches are cut

,

stripped of their l eav e s,after which the bark i s peel ed O ff w ith

a knife . A fter removing the outer part of the bark , whichhas a

very bi tter ta ste , the Inner part of i t i s careful ly dri ed , when i tturns brown and curl s up into li ttl e roll s .Why i s the wholebranch ou t when only the bark is wanted ?

Woul d it not be m ore econom i ca l to take away the bark and

a l l ow the branch to grow and add new bark for another time ?

A s we know from our l e sson on the T eak tre e , the sap of thetree circulate s in the inner layer of the bark and in the out erlayer of the wood . I f these are destroy ed , the circulation fromthe root to the branches i s stopped

, and the branchmu st di e . Wecould not possibly , therefore , expect the branch to grow aftertaking away its bark .

A l l ied P lants.

The T rue L aure l, L aurus nobilis, i s a plant of the temperatez one . Cam phor i s obta ined from Cinnamomuin ca inphora .

To thi s fam il y bel ong s a l so Cassytha filiformis (Kan. Belubal li ; Ma l . Akacavalli ; T am . Kottan ; Tel . P acitige) , a l eafle ss ,yel lowi sh-green twiner tha t runs ov er hedge s in a tangl ed ma s s .I f we exam ine it

,we find tha t i t has no roots in the ground

(henc e the v ernacular names l) , but that there are swel l ings inthe thread -l ike stem wherever i t com es in contact wi th the planton whi ch i t i s cl imbing . F rom the se swol l en parts roots com e outwhi ch break through the bark of the hos t , from whi ch the guestsucks up it s nouri shm ent . S uch plants are ca l l ed parasites.

*

F rom G reek para , beside, a nd s ilos ,food .

THE M ISTL ETOE F A M IL Y 1 3 1

A n al lied fam ily is the N utm eg family (Myristica cece) , of which theN u tm eg T ree (Myristica fragrans ; Kan . Jayi) is generally known .

Its w el l-known seed has a red lacerate aril growing from the hilum,

and an Oily , ruminate endosperm .

3 0. The M istletoe Fam i ly

(L oranthaceae) .

P arasitic shrub s . L eaves Often fl e shy . P etal s four to eight, freeor united . S tam ens as many and opposite to the petal s . O vary inferior

,one-celled and one-seeded . Fruit a berry or drupe .

The L oranthus (L oranthus lonyiflorus) .

(Kan. Bandanige, Badanike. Ma l . P ul lunni.)

1 . P arasi tes and E piphytes.— Certain plant s grow on trees

,

hav ing l eav es and flowers d ifferent from thos e of their hos ts ,growing out of their branches l ike twigs , as if they were graftedon them . The v ernacular nam es

,general ly g iven to these plant s ,

m ean what in E ngl i sh.

i s ca l l ed Such plants inserttheir root s into the stem s of the plant s on whi ch they settl e andderi v e their nouri shm ent from the juice of the host .

P ara si tes mu st be cl early d i stingui shed from epiphytesxfThe latter settl e al s o on branches of other trees , but hav e theirroots only on the surface of their bark provid ing their food forthem selv es . Such plants are

, e. g., P hilodendron 8p , F icus sp .

,

som e O rchid s , many Moss e s and som e F erns , such as the giganti c P olypodium quercifolium with i ts oak-l eav ed scale ov er the

bearded rhiz ome.

2 . The L oranthus P lant a P arasite — N ow, if you exam ine

the roots of a L oranthus plant , you wi l l find that i t penetra tesright into the interior part of its host . It must , therefore, beconsidered as a para si te .

But how did the L oranthus plant obta in i ts lofty plac e on the

branch of a tree? Certain birds are fond of i ts juicy berri e s ,

* S ee footnote on page 1 3 0. 1: F rom Greek epi, upon , and phyton, a plant .

1 3 2 D ICOTYL EDON S

and as these berri e s have a clammy substance , the s eeds oftenstick to the beaks of the birds and are thu s carri ed away bythem . When they happen to rub their beaks on a bran ch, the

s eed sticks to i t and germ inate s there ev entua l ly , the tiny root

F ig. 1 2 l .— Ep iph y tes on a tree : l ’hilodcm lron cannw/ol iam , and F icus sp.

making its way into the s oft bark until i t c om e s to the hardwood-cyl ind er in the interi or of the branch through whi ch it

cannot pierc e . S id e-roo ts are then devel o ped which cre ep a l ongthe wood and below the b ark send ing out add i tiona l verti c alroot s into the interior (fig . A S the host grow s , thes e roots

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1 3 4 D ICOTYL EDON S

is observed now and then : the growth of a S andalwood tree is af

fected when a tree in its vicinity l s felled,which show s that the

S andalwood tree has lost a s ource of its nourishm ent.3 . L eaves and Flowers.

— L oranthus lonyiflorus“

i s the

comm onest of the num erous Indian speci e s of thi s genu s , and

i t i s frequently found on Mango trees. Its leav es are l ea thery ,opposit e , and extrem ely variabl e in Shape , the Side-nerve s beingobscure . F lowers l ong,

in one-Sid ed racem es . Calyx Short andtruncate . Corol la curved , l ong-tubed ; tube scarl e t , or orange ,or pink ; l obes fiv e , l inear, reflexed, green or yel l ow . S tam ensins erted on the petal s , Oppos ite to them , with l inear anthers .

O vary inferior, one-cel l ed wi th one ovul e . F rui t a pulpy berry ,crowned by the ca lyx .

L oranthus layenij erus is a spec ies that sends out aeria l rootswhich creep a l ong the branches of the fo ster-plant and formsuckers . The flowers of thi s speci es are supported by coloured ,bel l-shaped involucre s .

3 1 . The P epper Fam ily

(P iperaceae) .

A romatic herbs or shrubs . L eaves entire . F lowers achlamydeous,

minute,in catkin-like spike s . O vary one-cel led . S eed s endospermou s .

T he P epper Vine (P iper niyrum) .

(Kan. O l lémena sina -ba l l i. Ma l . Kuru-mu l agg. Tam. Milagu . Tcl . Savyamu .

H ind. K ala-m iridi.)1 . Thi s i s a large Cl imber requ iring the support of other

tree s . It cl imbs,however

,not l ike the Bean by winding round

its supporter, or l ike the Cucumber by u sing tendril s for thi spurpose , but with the help of sma l l cl inging roots whi ch growfrom the swol l en node s of the sl ender z igzag s tems , windinground their support l ike l i ttl e cord s , and contrac t after som etim e so that the cl imber i s drawn cl os e to the tre e , and fa stenedto i t , as wi th a thousand l i ttl e fingers . They do not penetra teinto the tree , and hence the P epper vine i s not a para site .

Beside s thes e adventi ti ous roots , the P epper v ines hav e , l ike

THE P E P P E R F A BTI I IY 1 3 5

ordinary plant s , proper roots in the ground . I f these are cut,

the plant wi thers , unl es s , on i ts way up the tree towards thel ight

,the

,

plant has found nouri shing earth in the crev ices and

holes of the tre e , in whi ch ca s e , the cl inging roots may becom efeeding roots , changing their function .

2 . The L eaves are a l ternate , stipulate , ovate entire , and

hav e three or m ore basa l nerves , whi ch stand out prominentlyat the lower surfac e .

The wood of many cl imbing plant s i s not arranged in con

c entri cal continuou s cyl indrica l tubes , as it i s in the ca s e of m ostother plants (see T eak tree , page

I n the P epper plant thewoody ti ssue of i ts stem i s s eparated by broad m edul lary raysinto wedge-shaped ma ss e s .

3 . F lower and Fruit . — Whenthe plant has a scended the tree

,

and so reached a point where it

gets m ore l ight, its stem l eav es thetrunk of the tree

,and produce s no

m ore adventitiou s roots,but form s

flower-buds opposi te the l eave s .The flowers are arranged on l eafOpposed (se e Grape Vine , p .

hanging spike s , and are v ery smal l ,w i thout any regular ca lyx or

corolla . They are uni s exual , i . e.

,

bear either s tam ens or pisti l s , butnot both together. Be sides , one

plant has onl y stam inate , and an

other only pi sti l late flowers . Such plants are ca l l ed dimcious.

The stam inate flowers hav e two stam en s only , and the pistillateone s hav e a one-cel l ed and one- seeded ovary . The frui t i s a

berry which becom es red when rip e . S eed endospermous .4. Use — The plant i s grown for the fru i t , which i s u s ed as

a condim ent . Black pepper i s the unripe,dri ed berri e s ; white

pepper, the same al l owed to ripen,w i th the pul py coat removed .

F ig. 1 2 3 . e Pepper Vine( Piper nigrum) .

1 3 6 MO N O O O TYL E D O N S

The p ungent taste and sm el l of the pepper corn i s due to an

aromatic oi l . The sam e substance i s a l so notic eabl e in its l eav e s ,but to a l e s s er degre e .

The propaga ti on of the P epper vine i s effected by m eans ofmature branche s . The se are layered , i. e.

,bent d own into the

ground,and when they take root

,they are s evered from the

parent vine , planted out in shad e , and tra i l ed on to tree s .5. A near a l ly of the P epper vine i s the Betel-L eaf P epper

(P iper Bette; Kan. Vilyada-ba l l i ; M a l . Tambulam ; Tam . Vetti

laikkodi ; T el . Tamalapaku ; H in. P an) , Its l eave s are chewedw ith l im e and the not of the A reca pa lm .

CLA SS 2 .

— MONOCOTYLED ONSP lants with one seed-leaf

,u sual ly remaining enclosed in the germ i

nating seed , and feeding 0 1 1 the endosperm . S tem s not separable intopith

,w ood and bark

,but consisting of fibro-vascularbundles

,scattered

in the cel lu lar tis sue,with a firm ly adherent rind outside . L eaves on

sheaths,u sual ly parallel-veined . F loral parts general ly in sets of three .

3 2 . T he P a lm Fam i ly

( P a lmae) .

S tem w oody,unbranched . L eave s pinnately or palmately d ivided

petiole broad -based . F lowers radial,in panicles or Spikes , w ith large

sheathing bracts . P erianth u sual ly six-leaved in two whorl s , stamenssix in two whorl s . O vary of three carpe l s . Fruit a drupe w ith a

fibrous covering.

T he Cocoanut P a lm (Cocos nucifera) .

( P la te N o.

(Ka n. T engina -m a ra . Ma l . Tetra . Tam . T eflgu . Tel . T enkayl cet tu .

l l in. N ara l kej had. S an. T rina raj a .)

The Cocoanut P a lm i s a tree found only in tropica l c ountri e s ,and there grows best near the seacoas t .

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1 3 8 MON OCOTYL EDON S

1 . Its sl ender, cyl indrica l S tem,and the tuft of l eav e s w i th

which i t i s crowned , i s so d ifferent from the appearance of othert re es that e very one a t onc e understands that the CocoanutP alm bel ongs to a cla s s of plants quite different from that whi chm ost other tree s belong to .

2 . Monocotyledons and D icotyledons compared— A genera l

c ompari son of the Cocoanut tree w ith, for instance , a Mango treewi l l make the characteri s tic fea ture s of the new cla s s

,ca l l ed

Monocotyl edons , di stinc t and cl ear. Beginning wi th the root,

we find that the Mango tre e has a thick and stem -l ike taprootw ith numerous side-roots , wherea s the root of the Cocoanut P a lmc ons i sts of many sim i lar, thread-l ike or fibrous roots .

The trunk of the Mango tree i s stout , grows thicker and thicker as i t grow s ol der, and i s , a t a certain height , divided into manybranche s . The stem of the P a lm tre e i s sl ender, does not increa sein girth as i t grows older, and never branche s . The latter factexpla ins why the stem need not grow in girth, for i t has not tobear such a great l oad as the Mango tree. A n exam inat ion of

the s ection of the s tem w i l l Show thatthere are no annua l z ones in the woodti s sue , but that the substanc e of the stemi s l ike a bundl e of stick s cl osely boundtogether (fig . The out sid e of thetrunk i s not covered wi th bark, but con

si sts only of the v ery hard outer layerof the wood its elf. Young stem s ofm onocotyl edons have an epiderm i s , i . e.

,

F ig' m m) "a thin c el lularcoating l ike that of l eav es .

ora monO CO tyledonous S tem'

The absenc e of the bark prOper suggeststha t there i s not such a thing as the cambium ring in the stemof the P a lm tree . The sap circula tes in the tibro-va scular bundl esdi stributed throughout the stem . The cel lular ti s sue — the pithof the inner part i s l oos er

,and conta ins fewer va scular bund l e s

than that of the outer part,whi ch

,with i ts d ens ely packed ring

of bund l e s , protects the inner part from dam age , eva porati onand changes of tempera ture . Many plants of thi s cla s s , e. y.

,

the Bamboo and other Gra s ses,have even hol l ow st em s .

T H E PA L M FA M I L Y 1 3 9

The nam e “m onocotyledons by which thi s new clas s i s known,

and to whi ch the P a lm s , L il i e s , Gra s se s and O rchid s bel ong ,refers to another pecul iarity of theirs , nam ely to the fact thattheir seeds hav e onl y one l eaf, the cotyl edon ,

wherea s the plantsthat fa l l under the cla s s of dicotyl edons hav e two seed-l eave s .A nd thi s cotyl edon rema ins enclo sed in the germ inating seed , asan organ for the absorpti on of the endosperm s tored in i t .

There are a few m ore points that characteri se the monocoty

ledons among which we wil l m ention only thes eThe peti ol e s of their leaves hav e either sheaths or broad ba ses ,

and their blades are general ly para l l el-veined . Theflora l leavesare m ostly in s ets of three , wherea s the dicotyl edons hav e netv eined l eav es and the floral parts in s ets of four or fiv e .

3 . L eaves - We have s een tha t in the Cocoanut P alm a

crown of m ighty , feathery l eave s wave s on a sl ender stem,which

can reach a very considerabl e height ; and the w ind i s,therefore

,

abl e to exerci s e its ful l force on the l eav e s . Thes e are excep

tional ly large , som etime s sixteen feet l ong , and if their blade swere entire , as they are, indeed , in their undevel oped , foldedbud-state , the w ind would certa inly tear them into pi eces or up

root the whol e tre e . But the Cocoanut P a lm can withstand thestrongest s torm

,as its huge l eave s are Sl i t into segm ent s by the

the rupture of the ti s sue at the edge s of the folds , forming

pinna te, i . e.

, feathery l eaves , whi ch l e t the wind pa s s between thepinnae

,and S O l es s en it s pressure . Besides

,the l eave s are cov ere d

wi th such a strong and hard epidermis that no vehem ence of the

la shing tropical ra ins can do them any harm .

The tuft at the end of the stem contains twel v e to twenty-fourleave s . A S general ly every month one leaf is produced and one is

dropped, the number of them doe s not increa s e . The ba s e of thel eaf- stalk i s broad and stem-cla sping, and the fal l en l eav es l eav ea v ery di stinct scar on the stem

,by counting whi ch the age of

the tree may be e stimated .

4 . Cul t ivat ion — Cocoanut tree s are commonly planted indeep pi ts when they are one or two years old. It i s se veral yearsbefore the tree grows to any height . D uring these first years thetrunk i s formed til l i t atta ins its ordinary w idth. A t the sam e

1 40 MO N O COTYL EDON S

tim e , the l eav es enlarge one by one unti l they hav e approximatelythe siz e of thos e of ful l -grown tre es . Num erous fibrous rootsare being produced to fix the tre e firm ly in the soil . -When i thas thu s gradual ly a ttained the si z e O f a ful l -grown tree , as

regard s the girth of the trunk and the tuft of l eav e s , i t at la stbegins to ra i s e its el f, andhenceforth c ea s e s to grow in wid th. By

planting it in a pit , a strong hold in the s oil i s secured . L a ter on,

adventit i ous roots Spring from the trunk higherup,holding the tree

l ike the rO pes of a flag-staff. The pit i s fil l ed up and di sappears .

5. F lowers — O ut of the axil s of the l eave s spring the muchbranched inflorescences which are a t firs t protected by a hugespathe (fig . 1 26 , The spathe i s torn Open in l ongitud ina l l ine sby the swel l ing flowers wi thin. It rema ins a l ong tim e at the

ba s e of the giganti c inflore scence , which i s a fle shy panicl e divided into num erou s drooping Spikes

,crowded wi th uni s exual

flowers . S uch a form of infloresc enc e , in which the flowers arecl osely arranged round a fleshy axi s and the whol e surroundedby a large l eaf (Spathe) , i s termed spadix . I t i s found in the

P a lma', A roideae and P andanaceze ,whi ch fam il i e s are

,there

fore,som e times grouped as Spadiciflorae. The rapid devel opm ent

of the Spad ix i s only mad e possibl e by a ri ch flow of sap fromthe trunk . Thi s expla ins the obta ining of palm-wine by cuttingthe spad ix ,

The flowers are uni sexua l, i. e.

,both s exe s grow on the sam e

plant . They are pl ac ed on the branche s of the s padix in sucha way that the ma le flowers grea tly outnumber the fema le ones,

and a l so so tha t the fema l e flowers are a lways near the bas e ofthe panic l e and the ma l e ones a t the end. It i s good that the

fema le flowers are situa ted a t the lower end of the panicles, for, if

the heavy nuts were suspend ed by a l ong sta lk , they could ea si lybe d etached by the wind — The stam ina te flowers

,which can be

picked up in large numbers a t the foo t of every frui t-bearingCocoanut tree , as they drop after flowering , consi st of thre esma l l er s epal s and three larger peta l s

,al l being horny and straw

coloured . The S ix stam ens are a l so arranged in two whorl s ofthre e and three . The pisti l la te flowers are m uch larger thanthe stam ina te ones . They consi s t of six imbricating peta l s and

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THE PA L M FA M IL Y 1 4 1

a thre e- cel l ed p isti l , but the peta l s are broad ,and increa s e w i th

the growth of the egg -shaped ovary , forming a large , cup- shapedbas e fO I ‘o tll 'B rip e nut .

6 . The Fruit i s a drupe . I ts covering i s twofold , — a fibrousm a s s outs id e

,the exocarp , and a shel l as hard as stone in the

interior,the endocarp . Break the latter and you wil l g et the

kernel , which i s the seed, form ed like a holl ow bal l , and conta iningthe m inute embryo in i ts pul p and a m ilky substanc e in i ts cavi ty .

F ig . 1 2 7 .— T he Cocoanut w it h part of the fibrous covering removed . T o the righ t

the sh el l or endocarp (S .) opened,sh owing the kernel (K3 ) , the embryo (E .) and

the m ilk

The pulp and the milk, the endosperm of the seed, form thefirstnourishment of the seedling .

But the v ery tender seed-bud i s evid ently too weak to pushits elf through the hard shel l . H ence that pa rt O f the shel l whi chi s imm ed iately over the embryo or germ i s so thin that it canea sily be pierced by the tend er sprout . O f the three carpel s , ofwhi ch the ovary i s c omposed

,only one devel ops and form s a

germ ,and we see the trace s of the other two in the two other

hard eyes which every cocoanut posses se s . Moreover, the germ ,

a nd w i th i t thes e hol es in the shel l, are a lways at

'

that end of

1 42 M O N O O O T YL E D O N S

the nut where i t i s fa stened to the s ta lk . The fibrou s cov eringi s l east dev el oped at this Spot , and can be easi ly broken throughby the s eedl ing.

When the s eed i s a l lowed to germ ina te , the cotyl edon enlargesand gradua l ly fil l s the whol e cavity of the s eed , form ing a spongygl obular whi te body , whi ch, in cours e of time, eats away the

kernel . The plant nouri shed thereby form s a bulbou s body out

side the shel l , from whi ch roots and l eav es grow .

The fa tty oil conta ined in the kernel i s the chief food of theyoung plant . Mixed wi th water, the oil soon be come s rancid . Iti s partly to prev ent the oil becom ing thus spoi l ed tha t the nut

require s a strong covering . Thi s furni shes,of cours e

, al so a v ery

good protec ti on aga inst enem ies tha t are covetous = of the sweetfruit

,and protects the s eed from harm when i t fal l s from the tre e

to the ground . I f the nu t fal l s by chance into the sea , the porousou ter part of the cov ering enabl e s i t to floa t , and the nut can

then be carri ed by the wav e s and sea-currents to a d i s tant i slandwhere i t may strike root . I n thi s way the l onely , deserted cora lreefs of the S ou th S ea may hav e come into the posses sion of thismagnific en t P a lm tree .

7 . The Cocoanu t P a lm i s not only one of the m ost beau ti ful,

but al so one of the most useful trees tha t adorn the coa sts of tro

pica l countrie s . The s tem i s u s eful for timber; the l eav es areu sed for thatching hous e s , their ribs for making broom s ; the

s oft bud of the young plants furni she s a pala tabl e v egetabl eby tapping the s ta lk of the inflore scence a jui c e i s obta ined ,from which by fermentati on palm-wine (teddy) i s made , and

which,if unfermented , yield s a good sugar when boil ed down ;

the m iddl e part of the covering of the frui t yi elds a v ery use

ful fibre, out of , which rope s are made

,which pos se s s a high

power of resis tance to the acti on of wa ter; out of the hard shel lthey make drinking ve ssel s

,spoons

, etc ; the kernel has a del ici ons taste and form s part of the da i ly food of the peopl e ;an oil of good q ua l i ty i s obta ined from the kernel ; the refuseform s a food for ca tt l e ; the m i lk O f the fruit i s a del ic iousbev erage : there i s hardly any part of thi s tre e whi ch i s not ofsom e use to man .

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M O N O CO TYL E D O N S

THE PA L M FA M IL Y 1 45

The spadic es of both,ma l e and femal e trees , are cut , and the

sap which flow s out of the wound is drunk as toddy,or m ad e

into j aggery .

'

The toddy intended for jaggery i s drawn in l im ecoat ed pots , then boil ed , and thus converted into jaggery .

The trunk of the tree i s u s ed for rafters . The frui t can beeaten . The leave s are u s ed for many purpose s , l ike those of theCocoanut P a lm .

O ther P a lm s are the maj e sti c T a lipot or F an P a lm (Corypha

umbraculifera ; Kan. Srital i) , which form s a huge,term ina l ih

florescence once in i ts l ife , and di e s after the se ed s ‘

ripen ; theA reca P a lm (A reca ca techu ; Kan. A d ike ; S an. T ambulam) , the

most Sl ender and el egant of Indian P a lm s,

“ra i sing its gracefulstem and fea thery crown l ike an arrow shot d own from heaven”

(H ooker) . The nut i s ea ten wi th betel l eav es .From the s tem of the Ma labar S ago P a lm (Caryota urens ;

Kan. Ba ini ; H in . I nd) a sago i s Obta ined . Thi s i s the starchstored up in the soft c el l s of theStem ,

preparatory to the production of flowers and s eeds beforethe tree di es . It i s a l s o a v erylofty and nobl e P alm ,

the greathanging clusters of flowers andfruits being very notic eabl e , andresembling a huge hors e-tail .The l eaf-stal k make s a fa irfishing rod

,the fibre of the spathe

a good l ine . T oddy is al so extracted from the peduncl e of

the inflorescence , in the same

way as from the Cocoanut andP almyra .

What the Cocoanut P a lm i sto India ,

theD a te P a lm (P hoenix

dactylifera ; Kan. Karj I‘

I ra) i s toA rabia . I ts frui ts, that ri penin A ugust , com e to us at Chri stmas tim e .

F ig. 1 2 9 . The Ra t tan Cane Pa lm(Ca lamus rotang) .

1 46 M O N O O O T YL E D O N S

The W ild D a te P a lm (P hoenix sylvestris ; Kan. I eala) growsin many parts of India . I ts l eave s are used for mats

,and the

fle shy axi s of the infloresc ence y i eld s a kind of teddy.

A nother Pa lm,fairly comm on in our jungl e s , i s the Ra ttan

Cane P a lm (Ca lamus rotang; Kan. Betta) . The m idrib of the

pinnate l eaf O f s ome speci es i s produced in a v ery long sl enderdrooping flagel lum

,re sembl ing the sl ender la sh of a whip. Thi s

i s arm ed w i th recurved thorns on the under- s ide . The flagel lafa sten the l eafy shoot of the R attan s tem to the branche s of

j ungl e tree s . When the tops O f the la tter are reached , the l eafl e s s part of the stem gl ide s d own , as the shoot grows , and hangsfrom the branche s of the tre es in huge Sl ings . The stem of the

R attan can thus reach the enorm ous l ength of m ore than s ev enhundred feet — The Cane i s spl i t and manufactured into num erous articl es of uti l i ty . The shinI ng outer coa ting of the R attanCane i s a secretion from the plant , and consi sts m ostly of a

m inera l substance,ca l l ed s il ex

, whi ch i s nearly the sam e as

q uartz . By bending the Cane it come s off in l i ttl e,thin, trans

parent flakes .

3 3 . The A rum Fam i ly(A ro ideae) .

P erennial acrid herbs . L eave s alternate,net-veined

,often variegat

ed . F lowers unisexual,m onoecious

,se s sile

,sm al l

,arranged on a

spadix w ithin a Spathe . P erianth u sual ly nil . S tamens two to S ix.

O vary one to three-celled . Fruit a berry

T he T aro P lant (Colocasia antiquorum) .

(Ka n. Kesu. Ma l . Cémpg. Tam . Sima ikilangu . )

Thi s plant i s an inhabitant of shady and m oi s t plac es . It i soften cult iva ted for the l eaf stalks and tubers , whi ch are eatenas vege tabl es .

1 . The pel tate , arrow-head L eaves ari s e , not from a stem ,but

from a trunca ted tuber,and are, therefore , ca l l ed rad ical . They

are large and glabrous (having no ha irs) . A s they grow during

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1 48 M ON OCOTYL EDON S

The spadix of Coloca sia appears a t the end of the ra iny sea son .

It differs from that of Ca ladium in having the spike prolongedbe) end the stam ens into an acute , yell owi sh club which bears no

flowers , and s erv e s as a m eans of a ttractinginsects on whi ch the plant d epends for theferti l ization of i ts ovul e s (figs . 1 3 1 ,

Be side s thi s appendage and the large ,yell ow s pathe surround ing it

,ins ect s are

a l so enticed by :

(a ) a strong smel l of the spadix , whi ch i s d i sagre eabl e te us

,but doe s not s eem to be so

to the m idge s tha t v i si t the flowers ;(6) the nectar, s ecreted by the stigm a s

of the pi stil s , and the copious pol len of the

stam ens , constituting food for them , and

(c) the high tempera ture in the gl obularenlargement of the spathe at i ts l owerpart , caus ing them to seek refuge there .

3 . A fter flowering , the spa the fadesand nothing rema ins of the whol e Spad ix

,

except the l owerpart , where the pi stil s ri peninto a clus ter of Berries whi ch are eatenand di spers ed by birds .

F ig. 1 3 1 . 4 . A fter thi s the whol e plant wi thers F ig

S pa thf’ and

and peri she s , excepting the Tubers, inS pam" re

f?“

spad ix of ed shewm g

which pl enty of feed is stored up for the spad ix w ith

ant iquarian next s ea son . When the ra ins begin aga in,

P is til la te a nd

(5”h'm tum l thes e plants are among the first to cov er S t

ylin

g"

fi lm ) .the ground wi th the ir fre sh green .

— I twe“

i s al so through thes e tubers that the plant i s propaga ted . L ikethe l

’eta te ,

i t throws out l ong underground shoots , the runners orsto lons

, porti ons of them being fi l l ed wi th s tarch and swel l ed up

to form fre sh tubers , whi ch eventual ly grew into s epara te plants .

O ther A reideze .

A nother wel l-known s peci es of thi s order is A loca sia macrophiza (Kan. Marasanigc) , the giganti c tubers of which are

THE VERBEN A FA M IL Y 1 49

ea ten,after the acrid and poi sonou s juice

,characteri stic of the

fam i ly , i s driven off by the process of cooking. P othos scandens

(Kan . A ‘d ike bal l i)a c l i m b e r w i t hsm a l l l anc eol a tel eaves and w ingedpetiol e s ; Rhaphidophora pertusa

(K a n . K a ndedi

bal l i) wi th largeholes in its l eav es ;A risaema tortuosum (the

S nake-L i ly) , wi th the appendage of its spadix curved eutward and then back over the spathe . P istia

stra tiotes, a smal l herb floatingon sti l l watershav ing ros ettes of wedge-shaped l eav es .

F ig. 1 3 3 .

— Spa dix of

A risaema tortuosum .

F ig. l 3 4 .— Root-end of P andanus .

A l l ied F am i l ies.

T h e S c r e w - P i n e

(P a n d a nu s t ec t oriu s;

Kan . Kédage ; M a l .

Ké taki ; S an . Ké taki)belongs to the P anda

na ceae. It is often p lanted fer fence s on accountof its spinou s leaves ,which are also used formatting. The spines areon the m argin,

as w el l ason the under-side of them idrib , and the leavesare arranged in three

l 50 MON OCOTYL EDON S

Spiral s up the stem . L ike the Mangrove tree , it form s numerousadventitiou s roots from the lower part of its trunk

,which look like

artificial prop s . A t the end of these roots,root-caps can be seen very

distinctly . T he male flowers, growing on a long, penduleus spadix ,

enclosed within large , leaf -like , ye llow bracts , yield a most delightfulfragrance . T he fruit borne on s eparatetree s (dioeciou s ) is, sim ilar to the pineapple

,a collective fruit consisting of

united,fibrou s drupes .

T he D uckw eed Family (L emna ceae)is another al lied family . The Comm on

D u ckw eed (L emna globesa ; Kan .

N irata) is a m inute,scale-like

, greenwater-plant

,kept horizontally on the

surface of stagnant water by one long,

vertical root hanging in the water. The

p lant flowers rarely,and is chiefly prepa

F ig. 1 3 5.

— Duckweed (L emna) . gated by side-shoots is suing from the

mother p lant. They multip ly at sucha rate that whole pond s becom e covered with them

, as with a greencarpet

,in a very short tim e .

3 4. The L i ly Fam i ly

(L iliaceae) .

P erennial,

u sual ly bulbous herbs with parallel-veined leave s .F lowers radial . P erianth regular, six-leaved in two whorls . S tam en ssix in two whorl s . O vary superior, form ed of three carpel s . Fruita three-cel led cap sule .

T he G lory L ily (Gloriosa superba) .

(Kan. Karad i-kannu,Sivaéakti-ba l l i. Ma l . Mé t tdnni. Tam . Kanda l .S an. A mra t a , l laripriya . )

1 . TheGl ori o sa i s one ef eurmost beautiful ornamenta l plants .“D uring

‘

the ra ins you find i t shooting in the lanes , borderedthickly by huge E uphorbia and A loe, or in bamboo-thickets .The grac e of i ts form ,

am ids t the stout and ugly plant s wi ththeir fierc e thorns and spikes

, and the gai ety and warmth of

i ts flowers amids t the sul l en and cold gray of the surroundingshave , no doubt , given cause to the superb name the flower bears .”

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1 52 MON OCO TYL E D O N S

with scarl et ti ps a t first ; as they grow older and older,they

become darker and darker crim son and bend more and more

back . Vi si ting insects find honey in a hol low lengitudina‘i furrow

in the m iddl e and at the ba s e of each petal . They suck it bythrusting their l ong tongue into the nectary , whi l e hovering infront of the flower, and beating the s tamens with their wings .When they vi sit another flower, they thu s carry the pol l en of the

first flower ov er to the sty l e of the s econd . We now understandtha t i t i s advantageous to the plant to have i ts s tyl e thus bentl ike a kne e and’

placed in one plane w ith the stam ens ;4 . The S tamens and the P ist i l are unu sual ly large in thi s flower,

and s erve us as good specim ens for the s tudy of the se organs .It m ay firs t be noti c ed tha t the stam en s a l so are arranged

in two whorl s , a l ternating wi th one another and wi th the peta l s .E xamine som e stam ens in one of the green buds . We find tha tthey consi st each of gtwo parts , a filam ent and a head . The

head , ca l l ed the anther, i s grooved both a l ong the fac e and the

back . Thes e groov es d iv ide the anther intotwo l obes

,right and l eft . If we cut the un

ripe anther tran svers ely , we sha ll se e twobags fil l ed with a fine yel l ow powder, the

pol len. When ripe , the two anther-bags spl i tup a long their edge s , and a l low the pol len to

F ig. 1 3 8._D iagm m

be removed by insec ts , as we hav e s een above .

of ovary of Gloriosa .

The ti s sue , connecting the two hal ve s of theanther i s cal l ed connectiv e . The anther i s

fixed on to the filam ent in i ts back (dorsifixed) and can beturned round (v ersatil e) .

The e ss ential part of the pi sti l i s a knobl ike v e s s el

,cal l ed ovary , on the tep of the

flower-stalk . I n Gl orio sa the ovary consi stsof thre e l eave s or carpel s , whi ch fold in and

uni te a t their edges in the axi s , so tha t thereare three holl ow c ell s to hold the ovul e s , which F ig . 1 3 9 .

_D iagm mcan be seen when the ovary i s cut transv erse of L il y flower.

ly. E ven these three carpellary l eav es a l ternate w i th the three stam ens of the inner whorl . S o we find tha t

THE L IL Y FA M IL Y 1 53

the whol e flower cons i sts of fiv e whorl s of three l eav e s each,

which a lways a lternate wi th those of the neighbouring whorlThe ovul es are a ttached to the s eam s of thecarpel s , and appear inthe transv ers e s ection

(fig . 1 3 8) as axillary

growths (axil e placenta tion) . The tip s of thethree carpel s unite together, and taper intoa sl ender styl e whichaga in betrays i ts thre efold na ture by a threeparted st lgm a F ig. 1 40. The Wh ite L ily

(L il ium candidum) .

O ther L i l ies.

The fam i ly of the

L il ies to which the Gl oriosa belongs , i s much cel ebrated in poetry .

The White L ily (L iliuin candiduin,fig. growing in temper

ate cl imate s , i s the embl em of puri ty .

O ther plants belonging to thi s fam ily are the O nion (A llium

cepa ; Kan. N irul li ; M a l . I ru l l i ; T am . Trul l i ; Tel . N irul li ; H in.

P yaj) ; the Garlic (A llium sa ticuin; Kan. Bel lul li ; M a l ., T ani ,

Tel . Vel l ul li ; H in. L a sun) ; the L eek (A lliuin anipeloperasuin) ;the D ragon T ree, Cordyline termina lis, w ith cepper

u coloured

l eav es,crowded tog ether at the tep of a thin cyl indri ca l stem

,

and panicl e s of smal l purpl i sh flowers ; Smilax macrophylla ,

a pri ckly cl imber wi th two t endri l s at the ba s e of i ts l eaf- stalks ,and theW ild A sparagus (A sparagus sarmentosus; Kan . H alavu

makkalatayi ; M a l . Cadavé likilanu ;‘

Tain . Oattiravé ri ; Tel .

Cal lagaddal u) . The latter has a bundl e of '

many l ong tuberou sroots . Its del ica te

,

cl imbing stem has thorns turned d ownwards

(necessary for cl imbing , compare R ose , page 45) and i ts l eav esare reduced to m inute scal es , from the axi l s of which green l eafl ike organs grow , which are hom ol ogou s wi th branche s and havethe function of - l eaves . The white flowers are sma l l but num er

1 54 MON OCOTYL EDON S

ous, and form racem e s from the axi l s of the l eaves. The frui ti s a red berry .

The Bulb of the Onion de serve s our sp ecial notice.

5 It i s asl ittl e a root in the botani ca l s ens e of the word as i s the tuber

of the potato . Cut it through and you

wi l l find a flat sol id m a s s a t’ i ts l ower

end,from whi ch fibrous roots and

a number of concentri c,ov erlapping,

succul ent sca l e s and l eaves (often wi tha flower-bud in the c entre) are developed. This sol id substance evidentlyi s the stem of the plant , and the whol ebulb i s jus t a bud. The soi l in whichthe bulb i s hidd en prev ent s l os s of

moi s ture by tran spira ti on , and so its

l ife is pre served through the hot s ea son,though the upper parts , l eaves - and

flowers , al l wi ther and di e . The outerscal e s of the bul b are dry (scari ous)

a nd form an additi onal protecti v e coa t over the inner juicy l eave s .H ow the bu lb represents a food-store of the O ni on for i ts

growth in the com ing growing sea son and is thu s enabl ed to takean early advantage of the favourabl e s ea son , i s explained on

pp . 9 1, 92 in the description of the P otato plant. A nd thi s i s

the rea son why many of the bulb or tuber-born plants , e.g.

,the

T hunder- l i ly (Z ephgranthes) , Crinum ,Urginea , Iphigenia , Curcuma

and Curculigo, are am ong the firs t flowers in the new s ea son .

F ig. 1 4 1 .— L ong itudina l sec

t ion of the bulb of an O nion .

3 5. The A maryl l is Fam i ly(A maryl lida ceae) .

H erb s very much like the L ilie s . O vary interior.

T he A sia tic Crinum (Crinum asia ticuin) .

( Kan. Vishamungu l i. Ma l . Velut tapela t al i. Tam . T uda ivficn. Tel . Kesari cet tu .

S an . V ishamanda la .)

Thi s i s a perennial and evergreen herb wi th a large el ongated

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1 56 MON OCOTYL EDON S

F ig. 1 4 3 . T he

A merican A loe(Agaveamericana ) .

l of na t . S i ze .

account of i ts thorny l eaves .I ts growth i s v ery sl ow . Itrequire s about ten to fifteenyears unti l i t i s ful ly grown.

But then a high scap e withhundred s of pal e , yel l owflowers grows sudd enl y out ofthe l eaf-rosette , to the heightof ten to twenty-five feet .A fter the s eed s are ri pe , thewhol e plant d i e s off. E re

thi s event takes place , however, num erous shoots i ssue ,l ike offspring , al l round theroot—stock . The A gav e wasimported into Ind ia from

A m e ri c awhere i t inhabitsthedry

deserts of thetropi ca l and

subtropica lz one . By i tss u c c u l e n tl eaves , whichare cov eredby a l ea theryepidermi s i ti s w el l sui ted for such0 l i m a t e s

(c o m p a r eCactus , page

— A verystrong toughfibre i s ob

tained fro mthe l e a v e s .

THE A MA RYL L IS FA M IL Y 1 57

O ther W il d A maryll id s are Crinum ensifolium (Kan. Boggikanda) , comm on on swam py riv er banks throughout India , and

Curculigo s orchioi

des (Kan. N ela tale) ,a l ittl e plant , w i thabout three shortl eav es from a vertica lroot-stock andyell owstar-l ike flow

ers, appearingin June .

S om e of theA m a ry l l i d 8ha v e v e ryh a n d s o m eflowers andarepri z ed in gardens , e. g.

,the

A m aryl lis wi th i ts large , redflower-be ll s ; the E ucharis

L ily (E ucharis grandiflora)w i th fragrant , whi te flowers ,embel li shed by a fleshy mem

brane wi thin the perianthstre tching from filam ent tofilam ent and form ing a cup

‘

the white P ancratium a l sowi th i ts six stam ens united by a fine m embrane ; and the pretty ,ros e T hunder-L ily (Z ephyranthes rosea) .

A fam ily closely related to the A m aryllids is that of the Bromelia cea ’

to which the P in e -A ppl e (Bromelia ananas — P late N o. 656) belongs .The sw eet and tastefu l fruit — a collective fruit — con sists of num erousfl owers and bracts , al l grown together in a m as s . The crown of

leaves,which look s s o out of p lace

, growing apparently out of the

fruit,belongs really to the flow erles s top of the spike, and is capable

of developing into a fresh plant — T he fibre of the leave s is u sed , andthe p lant is often grown for. fences .

A nother allied fam ily is the Y am F am il y (D ioscorea ceae) . Theyhave stem s twining from left to right, and cordate ordigitate , palmatelynet-veined leave s, in whose axil s often brown tubers are borne . T he

L il y .

1 58 MON OCOTYL EDON S

F ig. 1 45 .— T he P ine-A pp le (Breinel ia ananas) .

1 of na tura l size.

tubers of som e Specie s (D ioscorea sa l iva ; Kan. Kuntagenasu ; D .

a la ta ; Kan . Tunagenasu ; and others ) are edible .

3 6 . The orchid Fam i ly(O rchidaceae) .

P erennial herbs with zygom orphic conspicuous flowers . P erianthwith six petal s arranged in two whorl s ; the three sepal s of the outerwhorl m ore or les s alike , in the inner whorl the two lateral petal s alikeand narrow

,the lower (lip) large , lobed , and spurred . S tam en and

style united into a column opposite to the lip, the pol len in two mas se s .O vary inferior

,of three carpel s , twisted . Fruit a cap sule with many

seed s . P lacentation parietal . — E ither terrestrial with tuberous rootsand annual

,simple stem s

,or epiphyte s with perennial stem s and

branches,thickened and shortened into a bulb-like mas s (pseudobu lbs) .

T he Round-leaved H abenaria (H abenaria rotundifolia) .

(Kan. N ela tavare, O reletava re.)

1 . When the ra ins begin to moi sten the ground after thel ong drought from O ctober to May in Western India , the ter

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1 60 M ON OCOTYL EDON S

plants growing on dry soil and during the dry s ea s on . The

l eaves are dark-

green, whi ch is l ik ewi se referabl e to the habitat

F ig. l 47 — F lower sp ike of

H a benaria rolandi/ol ia

(2 t imes m agnified) .

of the plant . D ark-coloured things ,we know , absorb m ore heat thanl ight-coloured ones . The higher thetemperature of the l eav e s of a plantri s e s , the more abundant is the

evapora tion and hence the growth

( se e II . P art , Transpira tion) . The

dam p surroundings , which na tural lycheck the evapora tion, are thu s com

pensated for by the dark colour of

the l eav e s .The thi ck

,fibrous roots which

Spring from the stem immediatelyov er the tubers , are few and smal l ;they are suffici ent for the supply of

water from the soil which i s constantly hum id during the t im e of i tsgrowth.

3 . A Sl ender, l eafles s stem , ca ll edscape , about six inche s high, ri s e sfrom the radica l l eaves and l ifts thefew F lowers over the t ips of the gra s saround i t . They thus becom e vi sibl eto pas sing insects which have to

fertil iz e them .

E ach flower i s a ttached to wha tseem s to be a short twi s ted flower-stalk ri sing from the scapein the axi l of a '

conspicuous bract , but i t i s real ly the ovary ,whi ch can be proved by cutting i t through and thus laying theovul e s insid e bare .

The perian th i s compo sed of two sets of three l eaves each.

T he m idd l e peta l of the outer s et and the two upper or la tera lpeta l s of the inner s et are bent together and form a hood toprotec t the inner organs . The two other outer petal s are expand er!, and the m idd l e petal of the inner set , general ly ca l l ed

THE ORCHID FA M IL Y 1 6 1

the l ip , i s d ivided into thre e narrow l ob es and drawn out into a

l ong,sl ender s pur. Cl o s e to the entranc e to the spur we find

the stigf’

na of the pisti l w i th a s ticky surface , and above i t , thes e ssi l e stamen which conta ins two pol l en-ma s s e s in a pouch each°

these look l ike two smal l clubs , and end in a gummy di sk bel ow ,

cov ered under a smal l , knob- l ike

proj ection .

Thi s very pecul iar structure ofthe O rchid-flower i s ful ly unders tood onl y when we study the

m ode of its pollina tion by bees.

The flowers are sma l l , indeed ,but theirwhi te colour makes themv i s ibl e as they are ra i sed by theirstem s abov e the ir surroundings .A bee seeing them al ights 011 the

the w it h drawa l of it , 2 . one or two

expanded under- l i p whi ch affords m inutes a fte

'

rwa rds ,

a convenient landing place . Itthen stretche s its probosci s into the spur in s earch of nectar.

Ju st at the entranc e to the spur are the proj ections whichconta in the sticky disks of the poll en-clubs under sma l l l ids .A s the ins ect touche s the se wi th i ts head , they break up, and

a t once the s ticky disks s ettl e on the forehead of the insec t .O n l eaving the flower, the pol l en-ma ss e s are drawn out of theirpouche s , and the bee fl ie s away w i th them . I f thi s proce s s isim itated

‘ by gently ins erting a pointed penci l into the spur and

withdrawing it , one can see tha t the clubs which are erect inthe beginning bend forwards after a m inute or two (fig.

The same happens , of cours e , when the pol l en-clubs are on the

head of the bee . When it thus vi si ts another flower, the pol l enma ss e s must touch the stigma of i t

,and thi s wi ll detach some

or al l of the pol l en from the bee ’ s head . The flower i s thu sferti liz ed .

4 . The Fruits are capsul e s conta ining numerou s powderyseed s which are shaken out and di spers ed by the wind when thecapsu l e s spl i t into Six va l v e s .

F ig . 1 48 .

— Pol len-ma sses a t the

end of a pencil : 1 . immed ia tel y on

MON OCOTYL EDON S

O ther O rchids.

The O rchid F am i ly com pri se s m ore than five thousand=Species .Many of them hav e very showy flowers . They flouri sh largely inthe hi l l tracts of India

,and as they do not get suffici en t l ight

on the ground in a forest , they frequently s ettl e on the trunksand branches of tre es . They are, howev er, not parasitic , preyingon the ju i c e of the tree s , l ike the L oranthu s , bu t s imply throwout cord -l ike aerial root s by whi ch they a ttach them sel v es to the

F ig. l 49 .— A h O rc h id (Ca ttleya Sp. )

grow ing on the bark of a tree,with

pseudo-bulbs gof na tura l size) .

bark . They fe ed on the dust bl own by the wind into the fi s sure sof the bark , and on the ra in and dew fa l ling on them . S uch a

habi ta t m us t be unfavourabl e , indeed , during the rainl e s s s ea son ;but in many genera of the O rchid s thi s i s c ompensa ted for bythe l ower j oints of the stem s or l eave s becom ing much thickened

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1 64 M ON OCO TYL EDON S

stock . Thi s underground stem thus creeps a l ong under the soilproducing fre sh buds every year, s lowl y m oving away from the

spot where the form eir plantgrew and thu s a lways s e ekingfresh,

unus ed soil . The old

porti on marked w i th the scarsof w i thered plants decays

,and

as the sid e-buds simi larly creepa l ong in Opposite d irec ti ons , independent plant s are producedev entua l ly . The branching of

the root- stock is,therefore , a

means of vegeta tive propaga tion,

and thi s i s by no m eans an un

important one as the Ginger plant rarely flowers to produc e seed .

2 . L eaves — The Ginger plant grows during the monsoon and

so does not requ ire a protecti v e coat of hairs on its stem and

l eave s (cf . H abenaria, page or other m eans of checking the

proces s of evapora tion,such as a l im ited surfac e of the l eaf

blade s . It can ,therefore , dev el op large and l ong leaves . The

l eave s , l ike al l the other parts of the plant , conta in the v olatil eoi l , which we have noti c ed in the root-stock , tha t gives them a fine

aroma when brui s ed .

3 . The F lowers appear not on the l eafy stem ,but are pro

duced on s eparate scape s that ri s e from the root-stock , a l i ttl eremov ed from the l eafy stem . They form a spike a t the tep of

the scape , being supported and protected by imbricated , concavebracts .

The perianth of the flower i s tubular and has a doubl e border of thre e l obe s each. Within the perianth there are six “l eav e s”

in two sets,bel onging to the stam ina l s eri e s ofwhich,

however, onlyone bears an anther. O f the re st two are reduced to m inute te eth,

nestl ing around the base of the sty l e , wherea s one i s enlarged toa viol et

,petal- l ike l i p

,and two are found as short te eth or l obe s

at each sid e of the l i p . The anther-bearing stam en i s drawnout into a purpl e sheath cla sping the upper part of the s tyl e ,whose funnel-shaped stigma ov ertops a l l part s of the flower. The

F ig. 1 50 — Rh izome of G inger (Z ingibero/ficina le) . 5of na tura l S ize.

THE BA N A N A FA M IL Y 1 65

angem ent of these inner organs cl early shows tha t s el f-poll ination i s impossibl e .

O ther Plants of the Ginger and A rrowroot F am ily.

Many plants of thi s and the a l l i ed fam i ly Marantaceae are

u s eful as food stuffs , spic e s , and dye s . A rrowroot flour i s madefrom the root-stocks of Maranta arundinacea and of Curcuma

anguslifolia (Kan. Kuve ; T am. Kuka i) .

The se ed s of Cardamom (E lettariaCardamomum ; Kan. E lakki ; M a l . F lam ;H in . E leni) are u sed a s spic e s . The

root-stock of T urmeric (Curcuma longa ;Kan. A risina ; M a l . Manua l ; T am.

Ma i'

ical) yi eld s a comm on dye .

Garden plants are Costus, Costus

speciosus (Kan. P ushkaram fi la ; M a l .

Oannakkuva ; T am . Koshtam) , a m ostel egant-looking plant , remarkabl e fori ts spira l ly a scending stem and the two

whi te glo ssy peta l-l ike stam ens , besid ewhich the three sma l l red s epa l s and

the thre e whit e petal s proper Sink intoinsignificance ; and the ludian S hot (Canna indica ; Kan. Ke1ahu'

M a l . Katuvara ; Tam . P uvalai) .

I S L — F lower of Ceslus

Speciosus .

3 8. T he Banana Fam i ly

(Musa ceae) .

H erb s very much like the Z ingiberaceaa,differing chiefly in the arrangem ent of the petal s and stamens .

T he Banana or P lanta in (Musa paradisiaca) .

( P la te N o.

(Kan . Bale . Ma l . V i la . Tam . V ala i. Tel . A ra ti. H in. Kel i. San. Ka da l i. )

1 . S tem and L eaves. The stem , form ed from the sheaths ofthe l eav es , tightly rol l ed round each other, a tta ins a height of

1 66 M ON OCOTYL EDON S

from fifte en to twenty feet . The l eav e s spring from a shorttuberous root-s tock , which buds out at its sid es . A s a ma tterof fact , the Banana plant is jus t a much el onga ted bulb,

’

the

sca l e s and l eav es form ing not a gl obos e body as in the onion ,

but a l ong cyl inder (cf . Bulb , pageThe l eaves are very large, six to eight fee t l ong and two feet

broad . I n bud they are roll ed up from one s ide . They woul doffer much re si stanc e to the wind , the pre ssure of whi ch the weakstem coul d hardly wi thstand . To prev ent the plant being thusoverturned , na ture corrects hers el f in a V ery simpl e mannerthe l eave s hav e a s trong

,fle shy m id-rib, from whi ch the v eins

run to the margin a t right angl e s , and they split readily when

swayed by the wind; the l eaf n ew acts l ike a pinnate l eaf, thevarious parts l etting the wind pas s betwe en them , and thu s l es s ening the resi stance (cf . Cocoanut tree , page The m id-rib

and the stem-cla sping sheath contain num erou s large caviti es ,the re sul t of the v ery qu ick growth of the plant , there beinghardly time enough to provide the food s tuff requ ired to form so

much sol id ti s sue .

2 . F lowers — The flowers are borne on a l ong scape runningthrough the l eaf-sheaths as a whit e cyl ind er. It incl ines downward by its own weight in a graceful curve . The flowers are

arranged in whorl s or clusters , and each whorl of flowers i sprotected under an ovate , concav e , l eathery bract ( spathe) ,crim son on the inside and wi th a pal e bloom on the outs ide.

E ight or m ore of thes e , nearest the bas e of the huge , droopingpanicl e , embrace a doubl e row of t en to sixteen flowers whi chare ferti l e . With the maturi ty of each succ ess ive row of flowers ,the spathe recl ine s and fal l s off

,and the fru i t appears . The rest

of the whorl s — and they are v ery num erous expand in succ ess ion for two or three m onths , and conta in simi lar doubl e rowsof flowers whi ch,

howev er,do not bear frui t , but fa l l wi th their

s pa the s .The perianth consi sts origina l ly of six petal s arranged in two

whorl s (compare L il i e s , A maryl l id s , O rchid s and Z ingiberaceee) .

The three outer sepa l s and two petal s of the inner whorl areuni ted into a tube w i th a sl i t throughout i ts l ength, in whi ch the

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THE BA N A N A FA M IL Y 1 6 7

t fi r‘aird petal of the inner whorl i s s eated . The five t eeth of thefloral tube betray its compositi on . The stam ens are ordinari lyhire’ ° fin o number, the sixth being abortive . P l enty of nectar i ss ecreted from the ba s e of the flower, and bee s are often seenswarm ing about the flowers to fetch the nectar and

, in return,to

fertilize the flowers . The stam ens of the flowers in the eight orm ore first whorl s are steril e

,wherea s their large pistil s , crowned

w ith a clammy stigma, are fertil e . Inv ersely , the pi sti l i s steri l e

and the s tam ens are ferti l e in the flowers at the tip of the Spike ,which

,therefore , are dropped after flowering .

3 . The wel l-known Fruit i s an oblong berry , com posed of

thre e carpel s tapering a t each end,and of a fl eshy consi stency

(fig. 1 52 , The num erou s s e eds in it are usua l ly not devel oped .

The plant i s , therefore , not propaga ted by seed s .With the production of frui t the growth of the plant cea se s .

The l ife-tim e i s from nine m onths to three years , and undergood conditions ord inari ly about a year. D uring thi s short tim ethe P lanta in develops into that stately and magnific ent plant , a

phenomenon whi ch i s uniqu e ev en in the tropics . The plant i s ,therefore

,highly esteem ed by the H indu s as the embl em of pl enty

and ferti l i ty ,_and i s , as such, in constant requ i sition at theirmarriage s and other festival s for ornamenting the entranc e of

hous e s and templ es .Beside s the fruit

, whi ch i s eaten in m anyways , and a l so dri edand made into flour, the fibre s of the sheaths and of the l eaf-stalksare u sed . Th e l eav e s are u s ed by Brahmans instead of pla te s .

4 . I n the l ife- story of thi s plant,which has been cult i va ted

for ages , we see a great abnorma l i ty . The seeds of the plant are

not properly developed. Thi s i s the re sul t of man’ s interferenc e

w ith the natura l growth of the plant , as can be observed in thewi ld speci e s , via , M . sapientum,

or in Musa superba , a plant oftengrown in gard ens for its gigantic , ornam ental l eave s . The fruitof thi s kind bears num erous black seed s embedded in v ery littl e

pu l p , which produce hea l thy plan ts . By constantly preferringand s el ecting sorts w ith ri cher pu l p and pay ing no a ttent ion tothe seeds which were u s el e s s to man and not neces sary for re

production , a vari ety was eventua l ly obta ined which produced

1 68 MON OCO TYL EDON S

nothing but pul p in the frui t . (Compare the inferi ori ty of the“

7 7

seed s of the P otato plant , page

3 9 . The Grass Fam i ly

(Gram ineae) .

H erbs (except the Bamboo) , with a j ointed , hol low ,leafy stem

,

cal led culm . L eaves entire,straight-veined , sheathed . F lowers

glumaceous , i. e. , consisting of dry and scaly g lumes. S tam ensgenerally three (six in R ice) . O vary crowned with two feathery styles .

Fruit one-seeded,iii

dehiscent,dry. S eed s

endosperm ou s,m ealy

and often nutritiou s .

T he R ice plant

(O ryza sa tiva) .

(P la te N o.

(Kan. Bha t ta . Ma l . A ri.

S an. Vrihi. )

1 . I mportance.

R i c e i s the principa lfood of about one

third of the pepula

ti on of the world ,and i s

,therefore

,

the most u s eful andm ost important of

a l l c erea l s . I t i sfound wi ld in s ome

parts of India ,but

has from tim e imm em orial been cul tiva ted throughout thewarm er regi ons of

the world . Whatbread i s to the peopl e

of the tempera te z one , boil ed ric e i s to tho s e of warmer countri e s .

F ig. 1 53 . T he R ice p lant ( O rg/3 a sa l iva) .

1 . F lowering p l ant . 2 . Seed l ing. 3 . F lower. 4 . Gra in .

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1 70 MON OCOTYL EDON S

of sheathed rudimentary l eave s pointing upwards — the plumul e,

and another structure pointing downward — the rad icl e . The

rema ining part whi ch encl ose s plumul e and radicle\

andr adj01ns\ c

the endosperm mu st morphol ogica l ly b e considered as the cotyl edon , though in shape and function i t i s v ery different from the

c otyl edons in the Gram . O n account of its shi eld-l ike shape ithas been cal l ed scutel lum .

I f the se ed i s sewn , i t wi ll be seen ,as in the Gram ,

tha t therootl et of the embryo makes its appearance first .But , wherea s the root of the Gram el ongate s forming a tap

-root from whi ch s ide-roots are thrownoff, the radicl e of the young P addy plant c ea se sgrowing,

and send s forthnumerousrootsfrom sma ll

shea ths a t the ba s e of the s eed form ing a bundleof fibrou s roots . Meanwhi l e the bud of the

plantl et grow s upward s pi ercing the earth or

m ud lying ov er i t, with its spear-l ike point .

R i c e i s sewn in wet land . A fter a few days ,thin blade s peep out of the muddy water. I f

we pu l l up one of them, we sti l l se e the seed

hanging on the l ower end of the young plant .But the hu sk s are new empty . The l i tt l e P addy

plant has u s ed up the contents for feeding itstiny roots and blades . F rom thi s we l earn tha tthe mea ly substanc e whi ch fill ed the s eed , mu stbe of the sam e importance to the young R ic eplant as the thi ck seed-lobes of the l ’ea seedare to tha t plant . It i s a deposit of nourishing

ma tterfor the support of the young plant in its

first stages of growth, and thi s food i s absorbed

-Sw . Sh.

F ig. 1 57 .~ L ong i

t u'

dina l sec tion of

a Gra ss-cu lm .

g. C. F ul l growna nd t. C. t enderpa rt of an inter

node . N . N od e .

Sh. Sh eath of a

lea f . Swe l

l ing of the lea fsh ea t h above the

node.

by the inner fac e of the cotyl edon .

I t conta ins about of starch and of

a lbuminoides (substance s l ike thewhi te of an egg) .

A S the se two stuffs consti tute the e ssentia l partsof human food ,

we can und erstand why ric e i s s o va luabl e to man .

3 . S tem.

in smal l se ed-bed s,are taken up and planted out aga in.

A fter som e tim e the l ittl e plants , sown cl oselyI f thi s

PTHE GRA SS FA M IL Y 1 1 1

were not done the plant s would choke one another. Thi s proces sal so force s the plant to form m ore num erous and stronger roots

whi ch are hel pful for a‘

rich crep.

A dventitious roots grow freely out

of the l ower node s of the stem .

The plants soon produc e stem s ,ca l l ed culms, usual ly thre e to four

fee t l ong . A l though they are v erythin

,they are strong enough to bear

the weight of their l eave s and thatof the gra in in the panicl es . Theyare elastic and,

when blown to and

fro by the wind , sufier no injury . A s

in the s tem s of the L abiatae (p .

i t i s the outer part of the stem that 51?

suffers the greate st pres sure whenbent . Those plants , therefore , hav ethe four edgesof their s tem s strengthened by strong fibres . I n the gra s sculm a round tube i s form ed by suchstrong fibres . The ti s su e in the

m iddl e disappears , as it has to bearno pres sure wh en bent : the ca lm is

hol low. O nly the nodes are solid and

div ide the culm into various part s ,ca l l ed internode s . Thi s s erve s tostrengthen i t . That part which i sto suffer the greatest t ens ion

,nam ely

the base of the cu lm, has its nodes

nearest together in order to make itstronger at that particular part .P addy has its roots under water;

F i 1 58 — L ono itudina l sect ion ofand the se mu st be suppl i ed With

a foungCrass-du lm . The stem (SM

(se e L otus , p . which i s done by air w ithits leaves andinflorescenee (F L )chambers and canal s running through grow s under t he Pr°te°t i°n O f the

the tissue of the stem and of the L . L igu le (N a tura l S i ze .)l eaf- sheaths.

1 72 MON OCOTYL EDON S

Leaf. E ach l eaf consi sts of two qu ite different part s , theshea th the blade. Where both join , there i s a sm al l mem

braneous appendage , cal l ed the l igule. The

sheaths ari s e from the nod es and form tube sprotecting the stem . I f a young P addy plantis cut l engthw i s e

, as in the i l lu stration fig.

1 58, the sheaths wi l l be s een to form a ca s e,

in whi ch the stem (S t ) , the younger l eav es ,and a l so the flower-bud s (F l ) are enclosed .

Thes e part s are so extrem ely tender that evena feebl e bre eze cou l d break or the heat of thesun scorch them . The shea ths of the ol derl eav e s that ri s e above them thu s form a

protection to these tender parts. O nly whenthey hav e attained suffici ent strength

,they

grow out of their protecting cover. Besides,

they afford the culm more support , which itrequ ires v ery much, as tho s e parts of i twhich l i e imm ed iately over the nodes continueto grow for a l onger period . Thi s i s a pecu

liarity o f the gras s-culm . We know that the stem s and sta lk sof other plants grow onl y a t their ends ; the stems of the Grasses,however, grow aboveevery nodeand thu s l engthen out tel e scopi cal ly ,a fact which expla ins why Gra s s plants general ly have such a

rapid growth. A bamboo stem , for instanc e , has been known to

grow three feet in twenty-four hours .The blade is linear and wav e s l ike a flag in the wind . Conse

quently the wind m eets w i th no resi stanc e from i t and cannotea si ly ov erturn the plant . The nerves or ribs of the l eaf run

in para llel lines from the ba s e to the tip of i t , in accordanc ew ith i ts l inear struc ture (fig .

The l igul e between the sheath and the blade prevent s thera in-water running down the l eav e s from ent ering under the

shea th and thus rotting the tend er parts of the cul in .

I f the l eaves are drawn swi ftly through the hand , they cut .

Thi s i s due to the pre senc e of silica , a substance , whi ch cons titutes som e of the hard est stone s l ike q uartz and fl int , and i s

F ig. 1 59 .— The t ip of

a Gra ss b lade .

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1 74 MO N o T YL E D O N S

flower in order to make it open in prOper time . It wou ld bequite u sel e s s for it to Op en during the ra in ,

for the rain wouldwa sh the flower-dust awar and the pi sti lcould not be ferti l iz ed . The two l odicul e s swel l when the sun shine s warm lyon the flowers and pres s the gl um e ssl ightly Open ,

so that the s ix stam enscan protrude their anthers . The windthen takes the pol l en and carri e s i t tothe next flower

,which catche s it readily

w i th i ts fea thery styles. A fter thi s theanthers fa l l off

,the l odicul e s shrink , and

the glum es cl o se aga in ,l ike two l id s , and

under their prot ect ion the frui t ri pens .The hu sks rema in on the s eed even whenthe latt er drO ps from the plant . Theykee p the s eed ni c e and dry. When i t i ssewn in wet land and has absorbed m ois

F is 1 6 1 — T he flower of the ture , the hu sk s ke ep the m oisture wi thPadd y pl ant ‘ T he gl umes in them

‘

for the growthof the embryo evena re removed so a s to shew the

two lodic u les and the inner,

when the 801 1 becom e s (l l ’y for a Whl le.

reproduc t ive organs . 6 , the s eed -bed tothe granary thi s plant i s surrounded

by a host of enem i e s,aga ins t whom the cu l tiva tor has to wage

war: numberl e s s i l l -weed s e. g.

,the much-dread ed I sc/iremum

rugosum,m i sappropriat e it s l ight , space , and food in the fi eld ;

para si tic F ungi,of which R ust , Smut and Bunt may chi efly be

menti oned , s e ttl e on cu lm,blad e and flower; grubs and other

larvae of s everal ins ects feed on i ts roots ; birds and other animal seat away the ri pening gra in ; and even in the godowns rats ,white-ants , the gra in weevil

, and other uninvited gue sts can doa great d ea l of damage to the stored ri c e .

O ther Grasses .

1 . Whea t (Triticum vulgare, P lat e IT

O . 6 26 — Kan. ( iodiMa l . KO tampam : Tam. Gediim a i ; Tel . Gedhumalu) . A m ong thec erea l s , cultivated in India ,

Wheat com es next in importanc e to

THE GRA SS F A MIL Y 1 75

R ic e . It yi eld s a fine,white flour, whi ch i s u s ed for baking

bread and for preparing starch.

2 . Ma ize or I ndian Corn (Z ea mays, P late N o. 6 3 1 — Kan.

Mekkejola ; M a l . P ontié éolam ; Tam . Mokkaicolam) i s of A m ericanorigin

,but i s now largely grown in Ind ia . A s the few roots

d ev el oped under the ground are not sufficient to fix the robus tculm , wi th i ts l ong , ribbon-l ike l eav es , strong enough in the

ground , the l ower part of the stem form s adventiti ous roots ,(P late 625, fig . whi ch

,l ike the ropes of a flag

-stafl,hold i t

firm ly . Unl ike a l l other gra s s es , Mai z e i s m onoecious . The

mal e flowers (fig . 2 , 3 , 4 , 5) are at the top of the plant in a large

panic l e , the fema l e (fig. 6,7) are produc ed l ower down in the

axil s of the l eav es and form dense Spike s , encl o sed in num erou ssheaths whi ch protec t the cov erl e s s pi stil late flowers . But as

the stigma mu st be exposed to the wind the styl e s are

drawn out into l ong filam ents , which protrude from the top of thesheath l ike a l ong , si lky ta s sel . The large , m ostly y el l ow gra insare dens ely packed on a thick core

,thu s form ing what i s known

as a cob .

Ma i z e i s a good food for men and dom estic animal s . The

sta lks are valuabl e as fodd er, especial ly when the cobs are d i sposed of in the green s tate .

3 . O ther Cerea ls grown in India are

lndianM il let (S orghum vulgare; Kan. Bilejola ; M a l . Colam) ;Barley (H ordeum hexasticham ; Kan. Javegodi ; Tel . Yavalu ;

S an. Yava) ;O ats (A vena sa l iva ; Kan. Tokégodi) ;Ragi (E leasz

’

ne coracana ; Kan. Ragi) ;L itt le Mil let (P anicam miliaceam ; Kan. Bagara) ;I ta lian M illet (P . ita licam ; Kan. Navane) ; andP anicum framenlaceam (Kan . Same) .

4 . S ugar-cane (S accharum ofi cz’

naram,P late No . 6 3 1 .

Kan. Kabbu ; Ma l Karimbu ; T am . Karumbu ; Tel s é eruku ; H m.

Ganna) . Thi s plant i s indigenou s to Ind ia and yi eld s a higherproporti on of sugar than any other plant cul t iva ted for sugar.

The perennial root-stock produc es numerou s,sol id culm s growing

to a height of ten feet which bear tufts of l eav es and a spreading

1 76 MON OCOTYL EDON S

pani cl e of glumaceous flowers (fig . 1 62,2 and 3 ) at their end.

'\s the old l eave s fal l off, and l eav e scars , the node s of the culm s

F ig. 1 6 2 .— The Suga r-ca ne (S a ccharum ol ficinarum)

1 . F lowering cane . 2 . P a rt of panic le . 3 . Sing le flower.

4 . C ulm , showing sol id consistenc y and node.

b e c ome v i s i b l e .

The internode s (fig .

1 62,4) are often

stri ped wi th vari ou sShades of red and

green .

The cane s are out

before flowering , as

the juic e i s then in

greate s t perfecti on .

They are div es tedof their l eave s and

of their top s,which

conta in l i ttl e or no

sugar, and are thencrushed in the sugarm i l l so as t o obta int he s w e e t j u i c e .

Thi s i s m ixed wi thl im e

,boil ed down

,

clarified , and thencool ed

,and taken to

the market as refined sugar.

5. B a m b o o

(Bambusa arandiu

acea ; Kan. Biduru ;

M a l , Tam. Mungil ;

Tel . Veduru ; H m. lha sa) . — 1 . The larger type of thi s genu sgrows either in isola ted clamps (fig. or in extensiv e fore sts ,a l l owing no other tree s to a s sociate wi th i t . The smal l er Specie sare found as underwood scattered in the fores ts .

2 . The num erous S tems of a Bamboo clump (fig . 1 6 3 ) springfrom a large underground stem . I n sandy and dry soil theya tta in a height of about ten feet

,but in muddy soil they may

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1 78 MON OCOTYL EDO N S

node s are set wi th a ring of num erous adventiti ou s roots,which

when they d o not reach the earth sometim e s turn into spikes .The upper part of the culm bears branche s i s suing from the node sin s em i-whorl s . When thes e are young , they point upwards andenabl e the stem to find it s way up through the thicket ; whenold

,they Spread

,bend down

,and l ean on any s tem s bel ow them .

When the w ind m ov e s the culm s , they rub agains t one anotherand produce a groaning sound whi ch i s fam i l iar to peopl e whol ive near bamboo-thi ckets

3 . I n A ugust and S eptember Young S tems appear from the

root- stock . The rapid i ty of their growth is a stoni shing . The

rate of i t can be a sc erta ined by taking m ea surem ents ev ery day.

The se tender culm s produc e,at their node s

,imperfect l eav e s , via ,

sheaths wi th no blad es, which s erve as protectiv e cov ers . When

the internod e s are ful l-grown these becom e u s el e s s and drop .

The l eav e s at the end s of the culm are com pl ete . These , tooare shed in the dry s ea son , a pecul iar feature in the Bamboo ,unl ike other gra s s e s .

4 . The F lowers are produced in branched spikes clusteredround the nodes. They are genera l ly m onoecious . S tam ens s ix .

S tyl e wi th a fea thery stigma . Bamboo s flower rarely . But whenthey flower, they do so throughout the whol e di stri ct at the sam et im e . It has be en observed tha t thirty-two years laps e from one

flowering y ear to the next ; forthe years 1 804 , 1 83 6 , 1 868 and 1 900have been the y ears when the Bamboo was in flower during thel a st c entury in S outhern Mahra tta , Kanara ,

Malabar and Coorg .

A fter flowering the root- stock seem s to be entirely exhausted ,and produce s but sma l l and weak culm s . S l owly but. gradua l lyits vigour i s restored so tha t only after the lapse of thirty- twoyears flowers and s eed s can be produc ed aga in.

The Uses of the Bamboo are nearly a s manifold as thos eof the Cocoanu t tree . The stem s are u s ed for bui ld ing hous es ,shed s , bridges , for m anufacturing a l l sorts of furniture and

household artic l e s ; young s prouts are eaten a s v egetabl e , and

the s eed s a fford a nutri ti ous food l ike ri c e .

6 . S pinifex (Sptnifex squarrosus ; Kan . I tavana gadda) .

1 . H abi tat — E very one who has onc e strol l ed a l ong the

THE GRA SS FA MIL Y 1 79

sandy sea shore of India i s wel l ac q uainted w i th the Spiny , blui shgra s s S pinifex and its Spherica l inflorescences. S pinifex som etim escovers the O uter dunes in innum erabl e , apparently i sola ted tufts .O n closer exam ination i t w il l be found that they are not singl ebut connected with one another by hori z onta l runners hidden

F ig. 1 6 4 .— Dunes wit h Spinifex squarrosus.

und er the sand , as thick as a goos e-quil l or a finger. Thes eproduce roots and sid e-shoot s at their nodes . The l eav es owe

their pa l e c ol our to a thick coat of wax.

2 . A daptat ions — S pinifex i s wel l adapted to its pecul iarhabitat . The fixati on of the plant in the l oose subsoi l

,the

supply of wa ter under adverse circum stance s,the constant battl e

aga inst the sea-bre ez e to which it i s exposed,as w el l as the tak

ing advantage of thi s very breez e for the d i spersal of it s se eds,

are shown to great perfecti on in thi s plant .

1 80 MON O COTYL EDON S

(a) F ixing in the sell — Not only are various stocks con

nected w i th one another by strong runners , but they are a l sostrongly fixed in the sand by num erous , d eep roots which som etim e s atta in the l ength of ten fe et and m ore .

(0) S upply of wa ter.-The roots penetrat e the sandy soi l in

every direction and reach a d epth where the Soil i s a lways wet .

Thu s the plant i s suppl i ed w i th wat er. But that water i s sa l ti sh.

I f much sal t i s absorbed , the growth of the plant i s hindered

(s ee Mangrov e,pag e The l eaves , therefore , hav e not only

a large water- storing ti s sue in them ,which keeps the s olution of

sa l t at a low percentag e , but they are a l s o protected aga inst agreat l o s s of wat er through transpiration by m eans of that blu i shcoat of wax spreading ov er the epid erm i s .

(c) The plant and the wind— S uch a xerophil ous structure i s

a l so necessi tated by its constant exposure to strong breez es .F or the same rea s on it m us t b e strongly rooted in the l oos e sand ,as se en a bove . A S the plant s are not tal l , the w ind can do

them very l ittl e harm . O n the contrary , they take advantageof the wind in l etting it tear off the mature gl obular frui ts fromtheir dri ed s tem s . Rol l ing and danc ing , the frui t-bal l s are

carri ed away over the smooth sandy pla in , dropping one seeda fter another on their way. By and by

,the bri stl es between

which the seed s l i e, are worn away , and they are final ly buri ed

und er the sand w i th the res t of the s eed s .7 . T he D istribution of the Grasses.

— We have se en thatthe greater part of the food of man i s d eri v ed from plants bel onging to the fam il y of the Gras se s . I t i s , therefore , no matterof a stoni shm ent to l earn tha t the Gra s se s , such as R ic e , Wheat ,Mi ll ets

,cover the larger part of our cu l tivat ed area s . Gra s s e s

form the extensi ve m eadows Spread out overhi l l s and da l e s ; theyi nhabi t the soft swam ps as wel l as the beaten ground of the ways id e ; they thriv e in the cool Shad e of j ungl e s and on the

scorched hea th,on the sandy soil of coa s t tracts and on the rocky

ground of m ounta ins,in the arcti c z one under snow and i c e , as

we l l as in the torrid z one under the parching heat of the sun ;

they form the extensive tracts known as the P ra iri es in NorthA m erica

,the P am pa s and L lano s in S outh A m erica ,

and tho

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1 82 FL OWERL ESS PL A N TS

D I V I S I O N I I .

FLOWERLESS PLANTS (Cryptogamae).

T hese are p lants w ithout flowers . They m ultip ly by Spores , seedlike cell s , that contain no s eparate germ like the seed s of the floweringp lants .

T he chief clas se s of this division are: the Ferns,p lants with distinct

s tem s and leave s and w ith vascular bundles ; the Mo s se s,al s o with

distinct stem s and leave s,but Without vascular bundle s ; the Fungi,

w ithout distinct stem s and leaves .

41 . Ferns (F i l i ces) .

Most of the F erns l ive on Shady and mo i st ground . O ne ofthe'commonest on the West Coast of Ind ia i s the creeping Ma iden

ha ir F ern (A diantam ca iala tani ; Kan. Oelukondi, Anekivi)whi ch we can find on every wa l l and rock during the m onsoon.

l . S tem — The stem of thi s Ma id enha ir F ern i s a sma l l,creep

ing root- stock,just on the surface of the soi l wi th a bundl e of

sm a l l,

fibrous root s . I n the ra inl e s s s ea son the plant wi thersdown to i ts t iny stem in which i ts l i fe i s perpetuated .

2 . Its L eaves or fronds , as they are ca l l ed in ferns,are

exceed ingly thin and tender. The plant s d o not require a thicke piderm i s on their l eav es to l e s sen the glare of the l ight. or tored uc e the action of evaporati on ; for they grow during the

m onsoon,when the sun i s m ostly screened behind cl oud s and

there i s a lway s suffici ent m oi sture for their growth,both in the

soi l and in the a ir.

The tend erne s s of the l eave s,however

,inv ol ves the danger

of their being torn by the w ind . Thi s i s som ewha t avoid ed bythe divi s i on of the l eave s into a number of smal l s egm ents : thel ea ve s are pinna te, and the l eaflets becom e sma l l er a s they getfarther away from the ba s e of the petiol e .

FERN S 1 83

When the l eave s grow out of the root- stock , they are rolled up,the very d el icate part s of the young l eaf-blad e being ins id e and thes trong and ha iry l eafsta lk out side . Whenthe latter unrol l s its elf

,it first pu shes a

s id e the l eaf—m ou ld thatmay l i e over i t , and

then gradua l ly Spread si ts soft and thin blad eto the l ight . A peoul iarity,

of the frond s ofthi s plant i s that theyend in a l ong ta i l whichbends down , s eekingthe ground ,

and strike sroot to produc e a new

young plant at i ts tip

(fig .

3 . Reproductive Or

gans— The l eaves , d e

veloped at the end of

the m o n s o on ,ha v e

smal l growths on the

m argin of the l owerS i d e of the l e a f l e t s

(fig . They are

green at first , but soonbe com e brown and then l ook l ike w ithered

F ig. 1 6 5 .— Creep ing Ma idenh air Fern (A diantam

cauda tum) .

F ig. 1 6 7 Sect ion t h rough thefruit -c luster of A d iantum Show ing

A d ian tum w it h fruit-c l usters . t he spore-capsu les .

fringes . I f we exam ine these growths , we find in them clusters

1 84 FL OWER L ESS PL A N TS

of brown capsul e s , each about the Si z e of a gra in of sand . A

lupe or,sti l l m ore , a m i croscop e wi l l Show that the capsul e s

hav e the form of a biconv ex l ens , wi th a ring of thickened cel l s .If they are gently hea ted on a dry sl id e ov er a Spiri t-lamp and

then quickly observed , we can noti c e how the ring of margina lc el l s i s suddenly stra ightened and thu s cau se s rupture of the

thinnest point of the ring , and how it recovers its origina lcurved posi ti on wi th a sudd en j erk , by whi ch the spore s in thecapsul e are forcibly thrown out . Thi s can only happen in dry

weather when the w ind can dispers e the s eeds . The Spores areso m inut e and l ight that the wind can carry them far and w id eto places at a di stanc e from the m other-plant

, where they s ettl eand

,under favourabl e circum stance , i . e. ,

at the beginning ofthe fol l owing monsoon , dev elop into fresh, l i ttl e p lants , whi ch,

however, are qui te unl ike the m other-plant . F or they produc eno stem s and fronds , but hav e a m inute , l eaf-l ike body on which

the es sentia l organs.

of

reproduc ti on ,m al e and

femal e,grow . I f we

sow the Spore s on dampearth and keep themm oi st and Shel teredfrom d irect sunl ight ,theywill germinate, and

after a few weeks thesurfac e of the soi l wi l lb e found covered wi thsmal l , green ,

flat bodie s ,each of which i s an

0.

4.lo

) 8‘

l he flowe i bea t ingtype (ca l led indimdual hale fern ,P ro t h a l l i um ) of a

‘

F ern .

' A . Prot h a l l ium from the(1 (l 1 l llower side . a r. Fem a le , a n . Ma le orga ns . rh.

an eve O P S 1 086 0 1 ”

Roots . U. Proth a l l ium w it h a young fern grow ing gans O f reproduction .

from a fert il ized ovule . I) . F irs t lea f, a nd w . root It 18 fI'O IH the s pore sof t he spore-bea ring oth er type of the plant .

resul t l ng from the(A bou t 8 t imes enla rged . )

fertil ization of the fe

m al e organs tha t the firs t type of the plant ari s e s . F erns,

therefore , pass through two successive sta tes, one of them being a

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1 86 FL OWERL ESS PL A N TS

and s ea ted margina l ly : in D ava llia, Trichomanes, and H ymeno

phyl lam ;— in continuous l ines on each side of the m id-rib and

F ig. 1 70.— P olypodium qaerci/ol iam , epiph y t ica l

on the branc h of a tree .

covered : inB lechnamj— linearand

sca ttered over theunder surface andcov ered : in A spleniam and A thy

riam ; gl obose ,m ostly on thebacko f l e a f-n erv e s ,w i th or w ithou ta cover: in A spidinm andN ephro

diam ; — s t e ri l eand ferti l e frondsare di stinct : in

A cros ti chum ;

the frui t—clusterscov er only the

u pper parts of

ferti l e frond s : inO smu nda , Cya

thea and A lsophilaare arborescent .Much ri cher

in F erns was theearth in ages goneby

,when m any

F erns grew as larg e a s trees, the a tmosphere being then m uch

damper and warm er than now . The fa l l ing stem s of such tre eferns were floa ted together by m ighty stre ams , carri ed away tothe sea

,and buri ed under sand and mud. The rema ins of these

plants,thu s being shu t out from the a ir

,could not rot

,but were

sl owl y changed into coa l . The im pres s ions or ca s ts of l eavesand stem s of F erns can be d i s tingui shed in m any pi ec es of c oa leven now ( s e e fig.

MOSSES 1 87

5. A l lied groups of plants are the Wa ter-F erns (H ydro

p terides) , the S elaginel la s (Selaginellacete) , and the Club-Ma sses

(L ycopodiagece) . A repres entativ eof the Wa ter-ferns i s Marsilia ,

a

pretty creeping plant w i th quadrifol iate , fold ing l eav es , common inric e-fields and Sha l l ow ponds . TheS elaginel la s are recogni z ed bytheir m any-branched stem s cov ered by sm al l a l t ernat ing l eav es .

They Spring up durmg the mon

soon betwe en F ern s and Mos s e son earth wa l l s . The Club-m oss i sl ikewi s e a deni z en of m oi st so il .S elaginel la and Club-m oss hav et erm ina l clusters of Spore-ca se s

,

wherea s Marsi l ia has them hidden near the root .

A l l thes e fam il i e s , tog ether with the F erns,form one large

d ivi si on of the cryptogam s , cal l ed P teridophyta .

F ig.— A piece of coa l w ith ’ t he

impression of a Fern .

42 . Mosses (Musci) .

1 . Their Mode of L iving - The Mos se s l i v e in large groupsor col oni e s and form beautiful , green carpets on m oist rocksor on hum i d and shady ground , and fanta sti c ornam ents on thetrunks and branche s of tree s .

The fronds of the Maidenha ir F ern , as we ha v e seen , are not

in a positi on to l iv e during the dry s ea son. A s they are unpro

tected aga inst drynes s , they have to wither and can continu etheir l i ves only through spores or through their root-stocks ,which bring forth new frond s ih ' the foll owing rainy sea s on .

Moss e s,however

,are so cons tructed tha t their l eave s Simply fold

and shrivel up during dry days and recov er aga in after any

refreshing shower of rain.

2 . S tructure — A Mos s plant consi sts of a short stein, decaying Sl owly a t its l ower end and continua l ly growing at i ts upper,l eafy end. It has no preper roots ; but the l ower end of the

1 88 FL OWERL ESS PL A N TS

stem i s cov ered w ith a growth of brown ,fel t- l ike hairs (fig .

which penetrate e soi l and act l ike root-ha irs , absorbing waterand food substanc es .

The L eaves a t the upper end ofthe stem are of smal l Si z e and simpl eform . They are often arranged inspira l s . A s they are v ery num erousand as Mos s plants grow together incol oni e s

,the rain water tha t fal l s on

them i s not onl y absorbed by the

l eave s in large quantiti es , but i t i sal s o retained in the Space s betweensingl e plant s and between their l eave sand stem s .

L eave s and stem s , when exam inedunder a m icro scope , are found to becompos ed only of cel l s . They conta inno vess el s at a l l . H ence they are

term ed Cellular P lants. A ll the

plants whichwe ha v e hi therto notic edconsi st of c el l s and ves sel s

,and are ,

therefore , ca l l ed Vascular P lants .

If a group of Mosse s , say of H a irm oss (P olytrichum commune) , i s examined

,we shal l find

(a) som e s pecim ens w ith m erel ya bud

,c om posed of young l eave s ;

(b) other specim ens bearing , at

their upper end,cup

-l ike ro s ette s ofl eav e s , whi ch a s sume a bright-redd i sh col our and protect the m inutereproductiv e organs (fig . 1 72 , to thel eft) ;

(c) other spec im ens aga in hearing a t their ti p s l ong-sta lkedspore-capsul e s , which we shal l new study a l ittl e cl o ser (fig. 1 72 ,

to the right) .

3 . The Spore-Capsule Both F erns andMos se s are reproduced

F ig. 1 7 2 . fla ir-Moss

( Polytrichnm commune) .

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1 90 FL OWERL ESS PL A N TS

upwards and l ift the m embrane over the brim of the v e s sel . I f

the wind then shakes the capsul e s on their ta l l,brown sta lks

,

their contents pour out, and a cloud of yel l owi sh or greeni sh

powder (the Spore s) i s carri ed away to som e spot where a new

col ony of Mos s e s may new spring up.

4 . D istribution and Classificat ion of Mosses . — The Mos se s are

more conspicuou s in the mounta inou s parts of India than in the

pla ins . Thos e in the pla ins are dwarfed as the conditions theredo not favour their regular growth. They com e during the

monsoon and w i ther wi th the ce s sati on of

rain . The commonest in the low land s areGarckea ,

growing on the earth, about hal fan inchhigh

,and hav ing the s pore-capsul e

hidden in the term ina l l eav es of the stalk ;T1 yophila , growing chi efly on laterite rockswi th v ery short stem s and sl ender Sporecapsu l e s about one inch high; Ca lymperes,on the bark of trees , v ery Short and re

producing i ts el f by form ing bud s from the

tips of its l eav es ; F issidens, a m inute plant wi th F ern- l ike prostra te l eav e s . The comm onest hil l Mos ses are terrestrial P olytricham, P ilopogon, P ogona tum,

and the epiphytic Thamnium,

P enz igiella ,Meteoriopsis, P apillaria , etc . A n al l i ed group of

plants are the L iverworts (H epa ticcc) whi ch,together with the

l eafy Mos se s (Musci) , form the div i sion Bryophyta .

5. I mportance of the Mosses in the H ousehold of N ature.

Mosse s play a very im portant part in the hou sehold of Na ture .

F irst of a l l , the Mos se s are am ong the first settlers on bare rocks .

Being v ery smal l plant s they content them sel v e s wi th the smal le st am ount of earth, col l ected in the cre vic e s or unev en parts ofrocks ; the old parts of the Mos s es d i e off , form v ege tabl e m ould ,and thu s continua l ly increa se the l i ttl e amount of humus inwhich they rooted a t first . They thu s gradua l ly form a soil inwhi ch other, m ore highly d evel oped plants can grow .

We have se en tha t Mosse s g enera l ly grow not as Singl e plants ,but in groups

,thus form ing extensive

,soft cushi ons . The se

cushi ons absorb and reta in . the ra in-wa ter like sponges and give

F ig. 1 75 .— Garckea .

MUSHROOMS A N D M OUL DS 1 9 1

it ofi‘

very slowly. Thus the riv ers and stream s a re kept supplied wi th wa ter throughout the year, and the val l eys throughwhich they flow are rend ered ferti l e . Mos se s genera lly l iv e together with tree s and are ab undantly found in forests

,the shade

and dam pness of which are advantageous to their growth. I n

versely they help to keep the groundfrom drying up too soon, and

thu s are u s eful to the tre es which shel ter them .

The se facts hel p us to und erstand why the keeping up of

fore sts i s so beneficia l to a country . They repres ent a re servoirof water, whi ch i s fil l ed when i t ra ins , and gi ve s the wat er sl ow lyoff to the rivul e ts and stream s , thu s watering cul tivated land swhen there i s no ra in ,

43 . Mushroom s and Moulds (Fungi) .

T he Mushroom (A garicus) .

(Kan . A l imbe,N ayikode )

1 . The Mushroom forming the Fruct ification of a Fungus .The Mu shroom i s a pa l e , soft substanc e , rem inding one of a

d im inu tiv e umbrel la , w i th a short,stout stem and a large , hori

zon ta l head , at the under- s ide of which num erous v ertica l plate s ,radiating from the s tem , can be di stingui shed . I f the head of a

mature Mushroom i s la id on a she et of whi te paper for a few

hours , the paper wil l be covered w i th the dark powder of

m inute spores , produc ed between the lam inated parts of the head .

A s l ong as the spore s are not m a ture,those del icate parts are

covered and protected from the effects of bad weather by a veil ,which la ter on breaks away from the stem and l eav es a ring-l ikescar on i t (fig .

2 . The Mycel ium.— The Mu shroom grows from a dens e net

work of whi te filam ents , ca l l ed the mycelium . The latter l ive sund er the soi l and grows continua l ly , wherea s the Mushroom sproduced by it here and there are short-l iv ed and peri sh as soonas they hav e strewn out their spores . The whol e may, therefore ,be compared , e. g.

,to a Mango t re e bearing numerous frui ts

which are dropped when they are rip e . The mycelium is the

1 92 FL OWERL ESS PL A N TS

fungus proper, and the Mushrooms are merely the fructifica tions.

The plant lives under the soil ; the fructifica tions, however, are

raised above it in order tha t the wind may disperse the spores .

F ig. 1 76 .— T he poisonous

Toadstool ( Agaricusnruscarias) .

3 . I ts Mode of L iving — L ik e theroots of higher plant s the filam ents of

the myce l ium perm eate the soi l in everydirection and draw their food from i t .But

,as we have s e en on different occa

s ions , the roots of plants take up onlywa ter and sa l t s . The s e substanc es ri s einto the upper parts of the plant andare there , together wi th the carbon obtained, from the carboni c acid gas of

the air, conv erted into al l those sub

stances from which the body of a planti s bui l t up. Thi s work i s done by thechl orophyl l in the presenc e of sunl ight .

But there i s not the least trace of chlorophyl l in a fungus .The Mushroom i s , therefore , obl ig ed to take its food up in a readymade form ; and i t find s thi s in the decaying animal or v egetabl ematter of the soi l in which i t grows . It i s a saprophytic plant.

Mushroom s can,therefore , grow only in place s where such

d ecay ing matter i s found . They doa l so not require any l ight for theirgrowth, l ike plants with chl orophyl l ,and henc e can be found in the darke st plac es .

4 . I mportance of the Fungi in theH ousehold of N ature — A s we hav ea lready s een, the Mushroom s d ecayvery soon and thus convert the anima lor v egetabl e substanc e s on whichthey grow , into nouri shing m a tterfor other plants . They m ay,

there

F ig. 1 7 7 .-t 0 1 1 1 ( 1 wit h m yce l ium

and fruc t itiea t ions ( 1 00 t imes

enl arged ) .fore , be consid ered a s hel p s to accel erat e the proc e ss of decay , and are thus of grea t servic e to theanimal and vegetabl e world .

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1 94 FL OWERL ESS PL A N TS

pens e of the a tmosphere , and the m oisture and dust which it

bears to them . I n cours e of tim e they make the hardest rockhabi tabl e for higher organi sm s , and thu s Show

,once~more, tha t

in nature the smal l e s t thing s are often of the greate st importance .

45. Bacteria

(S chizomycetes) .

A . The S tructure of the Bacteria.

1 . These plant s are the sma llest organisms known . Manyof them are so smal l tha t of them arranged end to end

would not m ea sure m ore than an inch. If exam ined under them i croscope , it i s found tha t each of them i s made up of one c ell .They a s sum e various shape s : som e appear l ike gl obul e s , som el ike short sti cks , others are l ong and straight , others , again ,

Spira l ly wound . They are genera ll y cal l ed “bacteria”or“bacil l i”,

word s m eaning st ick s or l i ttl e rods .2 . Under fav ourabl e conditions they multiply by splitting in

two. A nd they multiply at such an enorm ous rate tha t , i f theconditions rema ined favourabl e , one such m inute thing woul d inthe cours e of l e s s than S ix days swel l to a ma s s larger in bulkthan the earth i tsel f. Thi s i s

,of cours e , nev er possibl e , for the

food they requ ire for their ince s sant mul tipl i cation woul d soonfa il . But we can s ee from thi s exam pl e the trem endous ra te a twhich they increase . I f the cond itions under which they l iv ebecome unfavourabl e , they a s sum e a shape tha t enabl es themto l i e pa s sive unti l the conditi ons aga in becom e favourabl e forthe continuation of their l ife .

3 . We have seen how smal l these plants are, and we can now

understand that dry Ba cteria can be ea si ly whirl ed up by thew ind and carri ed away thousand s of m i l e s . A s invi sibl e dustthey are present everywhere in the a tmosphere , and re turn to theearth when the air becom e s ca lm .

B . The A ctivity of the Bacteria.

1 . The Bac teria,l ike the F ungi , lack chl orophyl l ; they are,

therefore , dependent upon ready-made nouri shm ent , animal orvegetabl e , which they obtain easi e st in decaying ma tter.

BA CTERIA 1 95

(a) A Simple experim ent w i ll , however, soon teach us thatthey do more than m ere ly feed on decaying ma tter. We taketwo gla s s fla sks w i th a l i ttl e water, into which we put som e animal

substanc e . Then we c l o s e both fla sk s wi th a l oos e wad of cottonwool . The contents of one fla sk we l eav e undi s turbed , but theother one we boi l for s om e time , so that the Bacteria in i t may

be kil l ed . The Bacteria canno t re si s t the tempera ture of boil ingwater any m ore than other organi sm s . A fter a day or two we

sha l l find the contents of the unboil ed fla sk begin to decay , thatin the other one rema ining una l tered . But if we rem ove thestepper from i t , so tha t any Bacteria from the air can enterinto it

,decay sets in here l ikewi se . Thi s Shows that the Bacteria

do not only l iv e on decaying substances,but tha t they are a l so

the cause of decay. I n other words , there would be no decay on

the earth without the Bacteria .

(b) S uppose the latter were the ca s e . Mil l ions of corps e sof animal s and plants woul d cover the earth without decaying .

Thi s woul d re sul t in the destructi on of v egetabl e l ife , as plantscoul d not find the required food in the soi l which i s produced bysuch decay . A nd in consequence of the de struction of v egetabl el i fe a l so the an ima l s could no l onger exi st . It is the Bacteriawhich caus e decomposition and thu s are the chi ef cause of theeternal cycle of ma tter in na ture.

(0) I n thi s connection we may consider a v ery importantthing referring to agri cul ture . E ach time the cr0p is removedfrom a field , a large quantity of nitrogen ,

deposited chiefly inthe s eeds , i s taken away from the field toge ther w i th othernouri shing el em ents of the soil . The plants are not abl e toabsorb from the air the ni trogen which they cannot do w i thout .It must , therefore , be re stored somehow, and thi s is done bymanuring the field . If

,however, fre sh manure i s used , plants

wi l l not grow well , and often die . The albuminoids conta inedin fresh manure must be rend ered solubl e in order to be ofuse to plants . Thi s i s done by the Bacteria in the soil bydecomposing them . M anure is thus, by the agency of Bacteria,

transformed into such a sta te tha t it can be used by the plants as

nourishment.

1 9 6 FL OWERL ESS PL A N TS

(d) P lants are,as has be en just remarked

, not abl e to taketheir supply of nitrogen from the airwhi ch has such an abundantquanti ty of i t (about c erta in Bacteria form

,howev er

, an

exc eption . They grow as

para si tes on the roots of theL egum inosae and form no

du l e s on them (of . P ea , pageThese nodul es

, whensqueez ed , throw out a stickyflui d whi ch real ly consi sts ofinnum erabl e Bacteria thatcan be readi ly rec ogni z ed un

der a powerful m i croscope .

The Bacteria tha t form these

nodules, are able toderive their

nitrogenousf oodfrom the a ir,

which higher vegeta tion i sunabl e to do . The largerthe quantity of root-nodul e s

,

the greater the am ount of

nouri shm ent deri v ed from theF ig. 1 7 9 .

— Root air and stored in the soi l .“0d“‘es O f the P ea

The advantage of growingp lant (na t ura l S ize) .C. 08 1 1 of t uberc l e P ul se s , S unn-H emp or otherfi l led w it h innumer L egum inosae, to recoup theable 8 3 0mm “20 land , i s expla ined by the

t im es enlarged ) .B . Bac teria ( 800 t imes en la rged ) . pecul iari ty O f these plants °

2 . Certa in otherBacteria

produce , in the substanc es on whi ch they l iv e , a chang e whichi s not ca l l ed decay , but fermenta tion (cf . page A ga in,

if

toddy or wine i s a l l owed to stand Open for a few days , i tbecomes sour. Thi s i s a l so due to the action of som e Bacteria.

S im ilarly i t i s the Bacteria which turn m ilk sour or Spoi l boil edric e and v egetabl es . By the a ction of Bacteria the fibres ofS unn-H emp (Crota laria) are l oo sened ; and al so the pecul iarflavour of Cocoa and Tobacco i s due to the influenc e of thes el ittl e organi sm s whi ch caus e fermenta tion .

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S E CO N D P A R T

THE STRUCTURE AND LIFE OF PLANTS

D I V I S I O N I .

TheMinuteStructure andVital Processes of Plants.

l. - THE S INGLE CEL L1 . The i l lustra tion of the vertica l s ec tion of a l eaf

,as s e en

under a m icroscope , Shows that the l eaf of a plant doe s not consist. of a homogeneou s m a s s l ike iron or gla s s , but of s ev era l

F ig. I S L — Tra nsverse sec tion of a lea f, to show it s compositionof cel ls .

sm a l l parts , cal l ed Cells, which l ike the stone s of a wa l l , constitute the whol e . L ike the l ea f, the other parts of a pl ant , via ,

root , st em , flower, and frui t , are a l l compos ed of c el l s .

T H E SIN GL E CEL L 1 99

2 .

'Most plants are‘ thu s composed of numerous Cel ls. But

many of the l ower cla s s es (e. g.

, Bacteria) consi st of a single cell

each. The se plant s are genera l ly v ery smal l .

3 . The S ize and Shape of the cel l s vary greatly . I n the

Bacteria the l ength of one i s l e s s than -001 0m,in the fibre of

F lax and the ha ir of the Cotton- s eed it extends over 4 cm . TheirShape may be Spherica l (as in the pol len gra ins) , or cubica l

, or

brick- shaped (many epi derm i s c el l s) or cyl indri c, or tapering

towards both end s l ike a torpedo (as the ba st c el l s of most plants) .

4. I n som e ca s e s a numbef of c el l s standing one over theother in a row hav e the parti tions which separate them remov ed

,

and thus form a tube or a Vessel , Open al l through.

P lants, then, are built up of cells, or of cells and vessels, the

la tter origina ting from cells.

5 . The cel l cons i sts of a c el l-wa l l and the cel l-c ontents,

which when young i s ca l l ed Protoplasm. Thi s i s a v i scid , ni tro

genou s substanc e , capabl e of absorbing moi sture , _of expanding ,of forming fre sh c el l s by divi sion,

and of m oti on : i t i s endowedwith life. The c el l s are the workshops in whi ch al l the secretand wonderful Operations of the plant-l i fe are carri ed on .

6 . By the act ivi ty of the protopla sm c erta insubstanc es areproduced , which are of great importance to the l ife of the plant .S ome of these are gre en granul e s , ca l l ed Chlorophyl l , whi ch g ivethe plants their green hue. The chl or'oph

'

yl l-granul e s hav e thepower of form ing starch under the action of sunl ight out of carbonic acid gas and wa ter absorbed by the plant .

7 . Besides , the cel l s conta in a fluid , cal l ed the Cell -Sap, inwhich sugar, acid s (Ci tron) , sa lt , and other substances are diss olv ed . Thi s sap ri ses from c el l to cell

,perm eating through the

c el l-wal l s from the root to the tep of the tree . The protoplasmform s various substanc es out of the cel l-sap, which are eitherpa s sed a l ong to any point of activity where their presence i sneces sary for the growth of the plant ; or they are stored up in

the ti s su es of the plant for future use. I n thi s way starch, oilyand fatty m atters , and gra ins of protein are form ed and stored .

200 STRUCTUR E A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

2 .

— THE ORGA N IC STRUCTURE

1 . P lants whi ch consi st of single cells, l ike the Bact eria , can

be compared to s ingl e men who l i v e for them s el v es and hav e todo everything a l one , such as gathering of food , buil ding of hous esto l ive in

,defending themsel v e s aga ins t enem i e s and s o on .

So s ingl e c el l s have to do al l the functions es s ential for l i fethey hav e to absorb their food and digest i t , to excrete wa s tesubstance s , to g uard aga inst advers e c ircum stanc es , and to re

produc e their kind .

2 . P lants consi sting of various cells, however, are l ike a state ,in whi ch the different labours conduc ing to the welfare of the

communi ty are d iv ided . A s in the state c erta in ind iv idual s (farm ers) are occupied in obta ining food for a l l , others (craftsm en)in supplying the publ ic w i thhouse s and cl othes , others (m erchants)in the d i stribution and circulat ion of food and articl e s , and

others (soldi ers) in the ma intenanc e of order and in the defenceof the common-weal , so the vari ous cel l s of a plant are as

signed d ifferent functi ons and form a wel l -organi sed sta te .3 . They are a l so Special ly fitted for their s ev era l spec ial

purposes , and groups of them thu s form organs for the vi ta lOpera tions of the plant .

The s e organs are not equa l ly d ev el oped in a l l plants . S om ehave a higher, and s ome a l ower organi sati on , We shal l news tudy the vari ous organs of the plant , a s we find them in theirl eaves , roots , stem s , flowers

,and frui ts .

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202 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

plant s . They are characteri sti c of c erta in fami l i es, e. g.

,the

Mal vac eae , L egum inosae , R ubiac eae ,E uphorbiaceae . S uch sti pul es

may a l so be m odified and appear as thorns, as

for instance in the A cacia .

2 . The Blades of L eav e s exhibi t variousChara cteristics

(a) A s to the arrange

ment of their ribs or v eins .If we exam ine the l eav es of

Gra s se s or L i l i e s , we Shal lfind tha t the v einsrun para l l el or al

most paral l el to them id-rib in one direc

ti on from the stalkto the tip . The ve

nati on of such l eav esi s sa i d to be para l lel .The v e ins in m o stdicotyl edons

7suCh

tree wit h reticul a teda s the T e a k a nd veins (reduced) .

Banyan , form a kindof network ; they are ca l l ed net-veined (re ti culated , fig .

If the Side nerv e s branch off from the mid-rib a l ternately or

Opposi te l ike the ha irs of a feather, we ca l l the l eaves featherv eined or pinna tely veined (A dhatoda) . If they radiat e from the

ba s e of the l eaf as the fingers from the pa lm of the hand , thel eav e s are digi ta tely orpa lma tely veined (Ca s tor) .

(b) A s to their general form : S om e are linear (H emidesmu S ) ,

som e oblong (Mango) , s ome elliptic (Vinca) , and some orbicular

(Jujube) . If the broad est part of the blade i s bel ow i ts centre ,the l ea f may be lanceola te (Gl oriosa) , or ova te (Banyan) ; if,

howe ver, the blade i s broad er near i ts a pex,i t i s oblanceola te

(Crota laria retusa) , or obova tc (Ca shew) .

(c) A s to their base : acute (Mango) , narrowed (T eak) , corda te

(Betel) , reniform (H ydrocotyl e) , auricled (CalotrOpis) , sagitta te

(L imnophytum) , hasta te (Typhonium ) .

F ig. 1 84 .— P iece of the

lea f of a d icoty ledonousF 1 — S t ipula telea f of P ea

THE L EA F 203

(d) A s to their apex : acumina te (P e epul) , acute (Mango) ,obtuse (Ca shew) , retuse (Crotalaria retu sa) , mucroua te (Cae sal pinia) .

(e) A s, to theirmarginen t ire (J a c k) , denta te

(Cl erodendron) , serra te

(R ose) , creua te (H ydroco

tyl e) , sinuate (Momordicacharantia) , angled (L uffa) .

(f ) I f the inci sionsare de ep,

but do not e'xtend ha l f-way to the midrib we ca l l them lobed

(Urena loba ta) , if they

go m ore than hal f-way :

pinua tifid, or palma tifid

(Jatropha multifida) , and

when they go a lm ost tothe mid-rib : pinnately orpalmately partite (Manihot uti li s s im a) .

(g) If the inci sionsare so deep that the bladei s divided into s everaldi stinct leaflets , we speakof compound l eav es in

contradistinction to s impl e

F ig. 1 85 .— (a) S h a pe, (b) A pex ,

(c) Bases of leaves .

l eave s . The pinnatifid leaf then becomes pinnate (Cl i toria) , and

F ig . 1 86 .—Margin of leaves : 1 . Denta te ( toot hed) ; 2 . serra te ; 3 . crenate ;

4 . sinuate ; 5 . pinna tifid ; 6 . bipinna t ifid ; 7 . pa lmat ifid.

the palmatifid, pa lmate (S i lk Cotton) . I f the pinnate l eaf has a

t erm ina l l eaflet , i t i s oddly or impari-pinna te (Rose) , if not ,

204 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES OF PL A N TS

ev enly or pari-

pirma te (P ea) .

F ig. 1 87 .

— P innate leaf ofC l itoria t erna tea .

A re the l eafle ts (pinnae) aga in

F ig. 1 88 .-Trifolia te leavesHorse Gram .

divided , we hav e doubly pinnat e or bipinna te (A cacia) and thre etim es or tripinna te (Moringa) l eave s .

F ig. 1 89 . D ig ita te lea f of theS il k Cot ton tree.

A n interruptedly pinnatel eaf i s found in the P ota toand Tomato .

A compound l eaf, of threel eafle ts maybe ei therpinnately tri fol ia te (H ors e Gram) ,or pa lmately tri fol ia te (BaelTree) .

(h) A s to their surface

whi chmay be smooth(Mango)or rough (Jack) , glabrous :

fre e from ha irs (Shoeflower) ,orha iry (T ula si) ; glaucousw i tha coating of wax (P O ppy)or glandular (S undew) , or

viscid : sticky (Cl eom e) . A

ha iry surfac e i s said to be

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206 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

If we repeat the experiment wi th the thread , described on

I .

F ig. 1 9 1 .— S pira l inserEac h lea f

of a turn in I ,t ion of leaves .

t akes 71,

I I .

and in I I .

The stem ofE l ephantopus

(Kan. N e l amué é ala) i s soshort that thel eav e s appearto grow a l l

from onepoint ,S u ch l e a v e sare also ar

ranged in spi

ra l s ; they formwha t i s cal l eda radica l leafrose t te a nd

s h0 w v e ry

page 65, we Sha l l see tha t those se em inglyirregular l eav e s are arranged ,

on the stemin spira ls. With the hel p of the threadit i s a l so ea sy to find out how many turnsare necessary to get to a l eaf which is

exactly above the first , and whi ch of the

number of l eav e s it is. Thu s we countfive l eave s on two turns in the ca s e of theJack tree , or in the Shoeflower; each l eaf,therefore , takes O f

’

a turn or makes anangl e Of 1 44° w i th i ts neighbouring l eaf.The arrangem ent of l eav es i s in thi s ca sedenoted by the fraction 2

. Gra sse s and5

L i l i e s hav e their l eav es general ly in the

2, positi on ; other common posi tions are thoserepresented by the fractions and 3

plainly that the l eavesso arranged al l ow one

another theirdue Shareof l ight . F ig. 1 9 2 .

— L ea f-rosotte of E leph antopus.

L E A F 207

4 . The conv ent iona l way of describing l eave s i s to beginwith their arrangement on the stem , then to cont inue with the

descript i on .of the l eaf-stal k and the stipul es , then to s tatewhether i t i s Simpl e or compound and to proceed to it s genera lshape , its ba s e and apex (if distinctive) , its margin ,

surface,

tex ture , v enation and col our.

5. Metamorphosed L eaves.— The l eav e s of one and the

sam e plant are by no m eans alway s al l of the sam e shape . A S

they answer different purpose s,they are m odified in shape . The

ma in function of the'

foliage l eave s is, as we sha l l se e hereafter,the absorption of gaseou s food from the air. N ow , the seed

leaves, to begin with the firs t l eafy structure of a plant , hav e tosupply food to the young plantl e t , and such food may be storedin the seed- l eaves them s elv es (H ors e Gram ,

p . 3 0) or in a s eparateti s sue of the seed

, the endosperm , which the se ed-l eav e s hav e toabsorb (Ca stor, p . 1 23 , Ma i z e , p . 1 69 , Cocoanut , p . Theirshape , is therefore , such as to su i t these specia l functions and

often w id ely differs from the shape of the fol iage l eaf of thesanua rflant

Then , there are the l eav es of the lower parts of the stemwhich are often rudimentary . Thus , for instance , in the Bamboothey cons i s t only of the sheaths of the fol iage l eav es . I n the

underground stem s of the O nion, the P otato, the Canna and

s im ilar plant s they are sca ly. We find such sca ly l eaves in theresting buds of woody stem s as wel l , andhere they represent thel eave s at the ba se s of fresh shoots .

A ga in , the bracts, l eav e s found on the flower stalk , mu st beconsidered modified l eav es . They differ from fol iage l eave s ins iz e , shape and sometim es in col our al so (see A dhatoda , p. 1 01 ,

S unflower, p . 64 , Bouga inv il l ea , p .

The modification of l eaves finds another express 1ou 1 11 thoseplants , in which two kinds of fol iage l eav es occur on the sam estem , as for instanc e in E m il ia sonchifol ia , where the lowerfol iag e l eav es form ing a l eaf-ros ette are s tal ked and round ,wherea s thos e higher up on the stem are s ess il e and lyrate withauric l ed ba se s .

Specia l iz ed form s Of l eaves are

STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES OF PL A N TS

(a) the tendrils in the P ea , in Gl ori osa , in Smi lax and in

Cucumber, growths tha t hav e to a s si st the s tem in cl imbing,

(b) the thorns in A cacia , or in Jujube , the se growths beingm etamorphosed stipul e s , and s erv ing as instrum ents of defenceto the plant aga ins t the a ttack of herbi vorous anima l s

,

(c) the bladders of Utricularia ,whi ch are traps by m eans

of which the plant ca tche s smal l animal s on which i t fe eds .

B . T he W ork done by the L ea f .

l . T ranspira tion or E vapora tion of Wa ter.

(a) The Fact that P lants evaporateWater can be proved by anexperim ent . P lace some fre sh twigs of a plant under a bel l -jarin the sunshine . A fter a Short tim e we shal l find a deposit ofmoi sture on the inner Sid e of the gla s s . A nother bel l-jar wi th no

plants und er it,similarly plac ed

in the sunshine,has no such

deposit of moi sture . F rom thi swe draw the conclusi on tha tplants transpire or evaporatewa ter in the form of wa tervapour.

(b) H ow can this Transpirat ion take place? — A carefulexam ina ti on of the surfac e ofl eave s shows tha t there are

many tiny Opening s which,l ook

ed at through a mi croscop e

(fig . appear l ike l i ttl e

1 9 3 P a rt of the surface ofmouths , and are therefore ca l l ed

a lea f . 3 , S toma ( 200 t imes en larged) . stoma ta (from the Greek stoma ,

m outh) . S om e l eav es have themon both sid e s

,but m ost only on the und er sid e . (The L otus

plant cannot but hav e them only on the upper side . Why?Compare page Thes e Openings l ead to hol low space s , cal l eda ir-cbmnbers , in the interi orof the l eave s ( se e fig . 1 81 on pageThe stoma ta are the “ga te s”of these cavi ti e s

,through which a

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2 1 0 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES OF PL A N TS

forests . I n each plant an invi sibl e stream of wa ter ri se s, as it

were , from the ground to increa s e the ocean of the atm osphere,

afterwards to com e down aga in to the earth as ra in.

The amount of evapora ti on vari e s wi th certa in circum stanc e s .I n the first place , i t d epend s on the tempera ture : the warmerthe air is and the hotter the l eav e s becom e under the rays of thesun

, the m ore rapid wil l be the action of transpiration. S econdly ,when the w ind blows and carri e s away the air round the l eav es ,

whichare saturated wi thvapour, bringing dryandthirsty air ready to take in vapour from them ,

the amount of evaporati on wi l l natural ly begreater than when there i s no wind . Thirdly ,cl othes drymuchm ore Sl owly during the monsoonthan when the dry land -wind blows . F or the

sam e reason plant s wil l evaporate much morewater indry weather than in the monsoon. Whenthe air i s saturated wi th moisture , e. g. ,

in the

cool m orning of a monsoon day, no wa ter can

F ig" ”ML — A

flm P be evapora ted from the l eav e s . Som e plants , as

( “w a ter 00m gTaro Ma i z e , Bamboo , are abl e topres s the wa ter out from l i ttl e pore s at the tipsand edges of their l eav e s . The se drops of wa ter

hanging from the tips of the l eav e s shoul d not be m i staken fordew-drops .

(e) H elps to promote Transpiration— A s the evaporati on of

water through the pore s of the l eav e s i s of such great importanceto the plants

, we find many arrangem ent s in the plant-worl d bywhi ch thi s proce ss i s enhanced when l ikely to prov e u s eful tothe plant .

P lants that grow on shady and moi st places have large leaves,as a rul e , and genera l ly v ery num erous stomata . Their l eave sare

, besides , v ery tend er, tha t i s to say, their epidermis is so thin

tha t wa ter can pass not only through the pore s ( stomata) , butal s o through the wa lls of the surf ace cells.

We can som etime s se e dark spots or blotche s on the l eave sof som e plants , such as some A roidea} or T urmeri c . By virtue ofthe se dark-coloured spots the leaves are enabled to absorb more hea t

from the lea f ofColocasia .

THE L EA F 2 1 1

than if they were green throughout . (A dark coat feel s warmerthan a bright one.) S im ilarly , the l eav es of the L otu s plantare col oured dark-purpl e on their under sid e .Many plant s , l ike the Bean and almost al l L egum inosae , have

the curious habi t of folding their leaves a t night. Thi s , again ,

i s an ingeniou sdevic e to prev ent dew fromcovering themand thu s choking the pores ,so that the ao

ti on of trans

piration may

not suffer (seepageO therplants ,l ik e the O piumP eppy and CO

locasia ,possess

a bloomy coat

of a waxy sub

stance on theirl eav e s S O thatthey are not

wetted , andthe

proces s of eva

pora tion may

not be interrupted.

Most l eave staper into a

point insteadof hav ing a

blunt end. Thi s enabl e s them to become dry soon after the

ra in cea se s , as the ra indrops fal l ea si ly to the ground from suchtapers .

F ig. 1 95 .— The S il k Cotton t ree in the dry season : lea fless

bu t fruit-bearing .

2 1 2 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PRO CESSES O F PL A N TS

P lant s that grow under favourabl e conditions of wa ter-supplyare termed H ygrophytes.

(f ) Means to check t oo much Transpirat ion.—.Too much

transpirati on , i . e.

,too great a los s of water i s

,on the other

hand , dangerous for the l ife of a plant . P lant s,which hav e to

l ive on very dry soil , or are exposed to the scorching heat of thesun or to the parching influenc e of dry winds

, or which for

many months mu st do w i thout a drop of ra in,mus t needs hav e

some m eans of reducing the action of transpiration .

A bove a l l , we noti c e that the l eav e s of such plant s have a

v ery limited surf ace (cf . L euca s , page and are som etim e sreduced to m ere spines or sca l e s (Cactu s , page 58 ; Ca suarina ,page S om e plants drop their l eav es entirely during the

the dry s eason (T eak , page 1 1 2 ; S ilk Cotton tre e , fig . 1 95) toprev ent lo s s of moi sture by evaporati on .

A nother kind of protec tion from the sc orching hea t of thesun i s the vertica l position of l eav es , as is seen in many tree s of

A us tra l ia , of whi ch the E uca lyptu stree i s one. Instead of holding theirl eav es flatly or horiz onta l ly , as tree sgenera l ly do, s o as to catch ev eryray O f sunl ight , they avoid the hea tas much as pos sibl e by holding themedgeways to the l ight . S im i larlysom e other plants , l ike O xal i s (K an.

P ul lampunise ; I ll a l . P ul iyaral ; S an.

Cukrika) fold the ir l eave s at m iddaywhen the sun shines hotte st .

Vari ou s plants that l i ve on dry

i and rocky soil,s tore up in theirfieshg

F is “H i — 80W P a ys strik ing stems and leaves every drop of wa terthe w e d a t “g“ “ gm am! they can get when ra in fa l l s , and l i veh ea t ing it m uch more than the s paringly on i t during the l ong per

iods of drought which may la s t forthree - q uarters of the year. S uch

plant s are the Bryophyl lum (Kan . liadu -ba sa l e) , the A gave

(Kan. Anekattali) , and many S purge s and Cactu se s . A number

l ines a h or a c w h ic h l ie more in

the d irec t ion of the sun’

s ra ys .

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2 1 4 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

1 gram of pota s sium ni tra t e , 0 5 gram of sodium chl ori de,0-5 gram

of calc ium sulpha te , 0-5 gram of magnes ium sul phate and 0-5

gram of cal cium phospha te , in 1 000 gram s of di stil l ed wat er,and add one or two drop s of iron chl orid e . If a s eedling

, say of

P ea ,i s nurs ed in thi s food- soluti on

,i t wi l l b e found that i t grows

heal thily and e ven dev el op s flowers and s e ed s . But if one or

the other of the m ineral s i s om i tt ed, the growth wi l l be stunted

and dwarfed . If, for instance , there be no iron in the soluti on ,

the l eav e s and the stem of the plant w i l l become pal e yellow ,

but they turn green when a drop of l iquid containing iron i sadded to the solution .

The m inera l s thu s absorbed wi th the wa ter ri s e to the l eav es ,and are there a s sim i lated to form elabora te food for the formationof new structures .

1 1 . A BS O RPTIO N O F CA RBO N BY THE L EA VES .

(a ) Source of Carbon in Carbonic A cid — The greater part ofthe plant-body consi s ts of carbon (charcoa l i s carbon) . The

plant nouri shed in the food-solution ,as described abov e , coul d

not deri v e i t from the water. It m u st , therefore , hav e had someother sourc e of carbon supply .

A tmospheri c air a lways contains , m ore or l e s s , (0-03 — 0

carbonic acid gas, a com pound of carbon and oxygen, and givenO fl from the lungs O f anima l s and m en

,and from the burning of

wood and coa l . Thi s i s the source of the carbon supply . The

l eave s absorb the gas, and becau s e there i s so l i ttl e of it , eachtree needs to Spread out an imm ens e amount of fol iage , s o thati t may drink in al l the carbonic ac id gas tha t can poss iblybe obta ined .

S om e v ery instructive e videnc e i s furni shed by a smal laquarium . I f animal s

,e special ly fish

,a l one be kept , i t wi l l b e

found nece ssary to renew the water da i ly , or the animal s wi l lsoon d i e . I f

,however

,som e wa t er-plant s are introduced , the

sam e water m ay be kep t in for months , and the anima l s wi llcont inue hea l thy , thus showing that animal s soon m ake the waterfata l to them s el v e s

,and that plants re store and m a inta in the

balance,ev idently taking from the water what the anima l s gi v e

to i t , viz . , ca rboni c acid gas.

THE L EA F 2 1 5

That l eav es absorb carbonic a cid gas, we shal l l earn from a

simpl e experiment . Take a bunch of fresh green l eav es of a

wat er-plant, say Utricularia ,

and place i t under a funnel ina v e ssel fill ed w ith fresh Springwater. O ver the m outh of the

funnel plac e a te st-tube fil l edwith water. Then expo s e theapparatus to s trong sunl ight .A fter a v ery short time you wi l lsee bubble s ari s e from the l eaveswhich are col l ected at the tO p

of the te st-tube , as i s Shown inthe figure . When al l the wat erin the tes t-tube has been di splac ed

,we shal l cl o se it w ith the

thumb,take it out and introduce

a gl owing chi p , which wi l l at

once burn v ery act i vely : the tubeconta ined oxygen gas. Thi s gaswas evolv ed by the l eave s underthe water. They absorbed thecarbonic acid gas, di ssolved infresh Spring water, and reta ined F ig. 1 9 7 .

— A b sorp t ion of carbonic a cid

onl y the carbon O f i t , s ettingga s and set ting free of oxygen by

fre e the oxygen. That thi s ex

planation i s c orrect , i. e.

,that the oxygen s et free i s deri ved from

the decomposi tion of the carboni c acid gas and not from the

water, m ay be proved by cont inu ing our experim ent . The evol u

tion of Oxygen gas w il l b ec om e l e s s and l e s s unti l i t c ea se s altogether. Thi s can only be due to the exhaustion of carbonicacid in the water.

We know now that plants possess thepower of absorbing carbonic

a cid gas through their leaves and of deriving from this gas the

carbon which they require for the construction of their body.

(h) O nly the Green P arts of. P lants absorb Carbonic A cid.- I t

must , howev er, be borne in m ind that not al l plant s hav e the

a wa ter~pl ant .

2 1 6 STRUCTUR E A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

power of thu s feeding on the carbonic acid gas in the air. I t

i s only the green plants (nam e plants tha t are not green l) , and

only the green parts of the se that can feed on the carboni c acid

gas in the air. If we repea t the above experim ent wi th a potatotuber, no oxygen w i l l b e gi ven off. The gre en l eav es are

,there

fore,the most importan t organs for nouri shing the plants . P lant s

whi ch are repea tedly robbed of their l eav es , as for instance,by

the ravages of caterpi l lars , becom e sickly and di e .

(0) The Presence of S unshine is required - The green parts ofplants can absorb carbon only under certa in circum stances . They

require sunshine for the ir action. If we place the apparatus of

the experiment , described above , in a dark pla c e,there wil l be

no forma ti on of bubbl e s , and there can, therefore be no absorptionof carbon . A t night a l so thi s proce ss cannot take plac e .

The fact tha t plants require light for their l ife,explains nu

m erens fea tures of the structure of plant s : The green part of theplant s are placed in the l ight ; stem s and branches , the supportsof the green l eav es , ri s e above the ground ; cl imbers bring theirl eaves from the shade below to the l i fe-g iving light abov e ; manyj ungl e plant s that would not get suffici ent l ight on the darkshaded ground hav e a s sum ed the habi t of perching on the branchesof tree s where they have a chance of getting m ore l ight ; thel eav e s them s el v e s are general ly dark-green on the ir upper surfac eand whiti sh on the lower one ; the inserti on of the l eaves in the

stem i s a lways such tha t a l l of them get their due share of light ;thos e placed a t the ba s e of a stem are in many ca s e s larger,l ong-petiol ed and flatly expos ed to the l ight , thos e above , sma l land pre s sed toward s the stem (Mustard

,L adi es ’ finger) ; i f the

stem i s weak and straggl ing (Cucumber, page the petiol e sby twi s ting and bend ing them s elv e s , a s sum e such a position as

to place every l ea f in the l ight ; and large l eav es are oftend ivid ed into smal l er parts s o as to l e t the l ight pa s s throughtheir hol e s to any l ea ve s tha t grow bel ow them .

(d) The I nner S tructure of the L eaf : Chlorophyl l and P hotosynthesis .

- I n ord er to und erstand better the manner in which l eave sabsorb their food , we mu st exam ine the inner structure of them .

The i l lustrati on on p . 2 1 7 shows the vertica l s ec tion of a l eaf as

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2 1 8 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

surfac e . It i s in thes e green granul e s that the al l -im portantwork i s done or decomposing the carboni c acid gas into it s constituents, carbon and Oxygen ,

and of form ing new, substance s ,which are u s ed as food by plants in the sam e manner as animal suse the ma terial s they eat . Thi s proce s s i s cal l ed photosynthesis

(or carbon-assimila tion) . To a l low the air to reach the inner

parts of the l eaf, there are the stoma ta (S .) on the und er surfaceof the l eaf, which l ead into the s paces between the cel l s of thespongy t i s sue . A nd as the wa l l s of c ell s , in which the chemi ca lchange s are going on ,

are exc eed ingly thin,they require protec

tion . Thi s i s afforded by the epiderm i s .

(e) The Substances formed by Photosynthesis or A ssimi lat ion.

The products of thi s process , tha t is, of converting the raw

food from the soi l and the air into food nece s sary for bui ldingup new t i s sue in the plant , are chi efly two ,

nam ely , starch and

protein . O f these the more im portant i s starch, a compound ofcarbon,

hydrogen,and oxygen . Thi s substance abounds wi thin

F ig . 1 9 9 . Sta rc h in Potato .

the cel l s of many parts of vari ous plants in the shape of distinctgra ins

,as in the potato and al l cereal gra ins , and i s al so the

princi pal consti tuent of arrow-root and sage . P rotein i s necessary for the formati on of l i fe -substanc e of the plant , the protopla sm (se e page and i s a compound of nitrogen . O therorgani c product s form ed in the cel l s , the l ittl e laboratori e s of

THE L EA F 2 1 9

the plants , are grape-sugar, found abundantly in a l l sweet fruits,

cane-sugar, found in Sugar-cane , cellulose, a carbohydrate l ikestarch and Sugar, of which the c el l -wa ll s are bui l t , oils andfa ts,comm on in seed s (Ca stor-O il , Gingi li) , a lka loids wi th eitherm ed ic ina l or poi sonous , or stimula ting properti es (Coffee , Tea) ,and acids (Citron and many frui ts) .

The products prepared in the cell s of the l eav es , are thencarri ed through the rib s and the sta lk of the l eaf and throughthe stem to wherever their pre sence i s requ ired . They are a l sostored up in the stem ,

in tubers,in bulbs , in roots

,and eSpeci

al ly in the s eed s, as a re serve of material for future use.

(f ) Importance of Photosynthesis in the H ousehold of N ature.

Considering that by the absorption by plant s of carbon dioxideexhal ed by animal s the balance of the consti tuent parts of theatm ospheri c air i s mainta ined , and stil l m ore tha t by thi s proces sfood i s prepared not only for the growth of plants , but al so forthe ma intenanc e of al l animal and human l ife on earth, we un

derstand of what imm ens e importance the process of photosynthe si s i s in the hous ehol d of Nature . We can safe ly say thatwi thout carbon-a ssim i lation by plant s there would be no organi cl ife

,and wi thout the l ight of the sun there woul d be no photo

synthe s i s and,therefore

,no l ife 01 1 earth.

3 . Respira tion.

(a) P roof of the Fact that P lant s absorb Oxygen and set free

Carbon D ioxide - P lants , l ike animals, absorb oxygen and give

off carbonic acid gas, which proce ss i s known as respiration.

Thi s cannot u sual ly be observed at the tim e when the process ofa s sim i lation takes place . I t i s , howev er, v ery evident in part stha t are not green and in al l parts at night . Take

,for instance ,

two narrow-necked gla s s bottl e s of equal s iz e and fil l one of

them one-third with germ inating s eeds of Benga l gram or flower

buds . A fter about a day ins ert a l ighted taper. I n the emptybottl e the taper wi l l go out after it has burnt a littl e whi l e , i. e.

,

until the oxygen contained in the bottl e i s us ed up by the burning taper. I n the other one the taper goes out at once , showing

220 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

tha t there i s no oxygen in the bottl e . The latt er must havebeen absorbed by the growing seed s which gav e off carboni c acidinstead .

(b) N ecessi ty of Respiration - L i ving plants hav e to do workof vari ous d e scriptions : they l ift their part s aga ins t gravi tation ,

they force their roots through hard soil and Often break up ev enma sonry work , they grow and form new cel l s , they m ov e t endrilsand pre ss wind ing stem s agains t their supports . Work a lwaysne ed s a supply of energy , just as in animal s or in an engine .The source of power underlying the work of animal s i s d eri vedfrom their food , the use of which i s connected wi th their re spirati on by which carbon is burnt and hea t i s produc ed . S O i t i sw ith plants a l so , though their work may be sl ow and ea sy , and

hence the ne ed of such energy l es s than in animal s .I n the gre en parts the acti on of respirati on a t day cannot be

shown as they a s sim ilat e under the influenc e of sunl ight morevigorou sly than they respire . They rather appear to exha l eoxygen. We hav e , therefore , to distinguish stri ctly between A ssimila tion and R espira tion. While in the process of assimila tion

green plants a lone, and only in the light, decompose carbonic acid

and give of oxygen, al l plant-organs, without exception, both by day

and by night take up oxygen and give ofi'

carbonic acid.

When the action of re spiration is vigorou s , e. g. ,in young leave s ,

or in wounded one s,it is indicated by a red hue (see Mango , Cinnam on) ,

due to a red colouring matter,cal led erythrophyll * . T his pigment is

al so pre sent in flowers and fruits coloured red or blue , according as

it is dis solved in an acid or alkaline cel l-sap. It appears , too , in oldleaves

,painting the fo liage of northern forests with that charm ing

red before they drop their leave s .I f plants or parts of them are depri v ed of oxygen and the

act ion of re spira ti on is thus checked , they are hind ered in theirgrow th

,become sickly

,or peri sh. Thi s can often be noti c ed in

pot-plants or frui t-trees which are planted too d eeply and cov eredwith too m uch earth. Their roots cannot ge t the re q uired air for

re spira tion . Conversely , the l oosening of the upper crust of soi li s advantageou s to mom to a l l ow the air free acces s to the roots .

* From Greek erythros ,red, and phyl ton , a lea f.

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222 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PRO CESSES O F PL A N TS

2 . T H E R O O T

A . The W ork done by the R oot and it s Main T ypes.

1 . A plant d eri v e s its raw food partly from the air (Carbondioxid e) and partly from the s oi l (water and m inera l sa l ts) .H enc e one part of i ts body , the shoot , rise s abov e the groundinto the air, wherea s its other part , the root

, grows downwardinto the soi l to absorb wa ter and minera l sa lts .

But in orderthat the ov er-ground parts of a plant may not

be thrown ov er by the w ind,the plant must be firmly anchored

in the soil . A nd thi s is another functi on of the root .2 . A s we can

see in the germ inating seed of a

hors e gram (p. 3 1 )theroot tha t form sthe continuationof the hypocotyl ,the main or tap

root, w ork s it sw a y v e rt i c a l l yi n t o t he so iL

Branching fromF ig. 202 . Ma i n root

w it h M em o“, of I t there issue szdeThorn-app le .

7’

00l8 in al l direc

t i on s , m o re or

l e s s slanting or even horizontal ly .

It may be noticed , e. g.,in the

swoll en root of the Carrot , tha t suchside-roots are arranged in v ertica lrows , and that the epiderm i s of them a in root i s rent where the s ideroots i s sue . A s the sid e-roo ts growand d iv id e into finer and finer roots , the whole soil wi thin the

reach of the plant i s traversed by hundred s and thousand s ofrootl ets .

F ig. 203 .- Carrot. T ap

-root ofCa rrot w it h sma l l side-roots .

THE ROOT 2 2 3

3 . I n gra s se s and other m onocotyl edons the ma in root soonperi she s

, and then adventitious roots, produced from the l owe st orany one of the l ower nodes of the stem

,

take up the functi ons of the ma in rootand it s Side—roots . Such adventi tiou sroots may be form ed from other partsof the plant a l so , e. g.

,from underground

F ig. 205 .— Para sitica l

root of Mist letoe.

stem s (Canna , L otu s ,P otato) , from stol ons

(H ydrocotyl e) , fromcreeping stem s (I pomaea batata s) , frombranches (Banyan) , from out stem s (L antana ,

R ose) , or in certain plants even from l eav es

(Bryophyllum , Begonia) .4. Som e types of roots do not penetrate

into the soil . A s clinging roots they fas tenthe plant to its support (P epper, P othosscandens) ; as aeria l roots they absorb theatm ospheric m oi sture (several epi phytica lorchids) ; as parasitica l roots they sink theirsuckers into the ti s sue of the fo ster plant ;

F ig. 204 .— F ibrous roots.

and as brea thing roots they help the Mangrov e trees to get oxygenfor the i r roo t s in the

marshy soi l in which theycannot breathe .

5. I n s om e p l an t sroots becom e storingplacesfor food material and are

then sw o l l en . S o the

thickened tap-root of theCarrot and of the Radish,

orthe swol l en adv entiti ou sroots of A sparagu s , of theSweet P otato , and the

bulbou s roots of som eterre strial orchids (H abenaria rotundifol ia , p.

F ig. 206 .— Th ickened side-roots of A spara gus.

2 24 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

B . The W ork of the R oot and its D etail ed S tructure.

1 . Roots a s a Means of keeping the upper

S tructure in P osition.

K

(a) F ind som e heal thy plants of about the same s iz e , and

cut the main roots of them about ha lf an inch bel ow the surfacew ithout di sturbing the side-roots . I t wi l l be necessary to supportthe stem s now by tying them to a stick thrust into the groundbe side them . _Thi s shows tha t the ma in root is be st sui ted toanchor the plant firm ly . Tree s having sha l l ow ,

spreading -rootsand no di stinct tap-root s are easi er uprooted than those with a

straight deep root . I n prOpertion as the upper structure of a

plant grows , i t i s expos ed to the wind , and the m ore a plant i s

F ig . 207 .— P lank-roots of the Goldmohur tree ( Poinciana regia ) .

exposed to the force of the wind , the firm er i t must be rooted inthe soil .

(b) But side-roots have the ir u s es as s trengthening supportsa s wel l , and m ay be com pared to the rO pes of a flagstaff tha thav e t o keep the flag pol e in posi ti on. The way in which huge

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22 6 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PRO C E SSES O F PL A N TS

roots of the Banyan tre e . H uge root-caps of a seri e s of scariouslayers wi l l be seen on the end s of the thick adventit iou s roots ofP andanus .

(e) Growth of T ap-root influenced by Gravity — We hav ea lready seen that the tap-root grows v ertical ly down into theground and that thi s i s of grea t advantage to the plant . I n

ord er to find whether the tap-root always grows d ownward , weshal l make an experiment : we

take a few soaked seeds in whi chthe root s hav e already appeared ,and put them in various positi onson moi st soi l cov ering them with a

tumbl er. A fter twenty-four hours ,we find the root-tips changed intheir direct ion and turned down

2 ward s . I f we now di sturb themso that som e point upwards , otherssideways , and so on ,

and exam inethem after a time , they wi l l be found to hav e turned downwardaga in. Thi s shows tha t each main root persi sts in growing downwards . I f i t m eet s wi th obstacl e s in its way, i t re sumes it soriginal c ours e immediately after pas sing them .

By experiment i t has been found tha t the downward directi onof the main root i s d eterm ined more by grav ity than by any otherinfluenc e , as l i ght and m oi sture . We therefore say, the ma in root

i s geotropic .

I n the same m ea sure as the geotropi sm of the ma in root i san advantage to the plant , i t i s good that sid e-roots grow in a

slanting orhori z ontal direction and are influenced by other force s

(s ensit i vene s s to m oi sture) .

F ir . 2 1 0.

— Geotropism of root .

D

2 . Roots a s a m eans of A bsorption.

The ma in function of the root s i s the absorption of wa ter and

l i q uid food . I n order to understand how roo ts absorb wa ter fromthe soil , we mus t firs t know what the soi l i s and how wa ter exi stsin the soil .

THE ROOT 2 2 7

(a) The S oil, and how Wa ter exists in the soil . When a wel li s dug or the foundati on of a house i s la id , we can se e that theso il has difierent layers. The topmost layer i s m ostly a thin

gra ined layer of earth, m ore or l es s black , conta ining humus ,i. e.

,d ecayed organi c matter. Then fol l ows the sub- soil with l e s s

humus and larger pebbl e s or pi ece s of rock , and beneath tha tthere i s sol id rock ; i t may be laterite , as on the West Coast ofIndia ; or Grani te and Gnei s s , as in the Ghats ; or vu lcanic rocks ,as in the D eccan ; or any other of the various kinds of rock . By

the m echanica l action of water and w ind ; the changes of temperature ; the chem i ca l action of air and wa ter; and the action of

plant-roots and burrowing animal s the rock , where i t l i e s bareand open,

i s broken up and wea thered,and soi l i s produced .

The parts of which surface soil exi st s can be found by thefoll owing experim ent . P ut som e garden soil into a smal l ba sinwith water, and stir i t wel l . The l ighter substance s now cometo the surface of the wat er: they are chi efly vegetabl e moul d andother decayed organic matter (humus) . Take the humu s ofl.

N ow pour the rema ining muddy water into another ba sin l eavingthe heavy and hard parti cl e s in the first basin , and a l l ow the

water in the second ba sin to evaporate : a crust of clay remains .Wa sh the remainder in the first ba sin aga in and again : the hard

particl e s wi l l be found to consi st ma inly of sand . The mainparts then of which the surface soi l consi sts are vegetabl e mould ,clay and sand .

N ow , how does wa ter exist in the soil ? Take thre e flower-pots .F il l the first wi th pure sand , the s econd with pure clay , and thethird wi th good garden soi l . P our wa ter in each of the pots .Which of the thre e reta ins m ost wa ter? The

‘

pot wi th clay doesnot a l l ow the water to percolat e ; the one fil l ed wi th sand absorbsthe water quickly and after a short tim e the water tri ckle s throughand runs out from the hol e at the bottom of the pot . But in the

third pot , conta ining a m ixture of sand,clay and humus , water

soaks well and i s reta ined be st . A ccording to the proporti on ofsand and clay m ixed in garden soil

,the degree of its power of

retaining water vari e s .O f great importance to the fertil i ty of the soi l i s the question ,

1 5 *

228 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

how long is the soil able to reta in its moisture. Moi s ture i s evaporated from the surface . But the rate of evaporation i s v ery smal lwhen the surfac e i s loos e or cov ered by fal l en l eav es or hay.

A nother part of the water sinks deeper and deeper, and, in a

c erta in depth, form s what may be ca l l ed ground-water, when a

layer i s reached tha t does not al l ow the wa ter to percola te .

(b) E xplora tion of S oil by R oots f orMoisture — The fac t tha troots fol l ow up and grow toward s m oist places , i s general lyknown . Thi s is strikingly i l lustrated by keeping a flower-potwat ered dai ly in the neighbourhood of a tree . The roots of thetree wi l l be found to penetra te the hol e a t the bottom of the pot

and invad e the pot . We thus se e that side-roots are sensitivefor

moisture, or in other words , tha t they grow stronger towardsmoi st parts

'

of the soi l than in the direction of dry soil .There i s , howev er, a great difference in the way in which

vari ous plants explore the s oil for moi sture . S ome grow theirtap

-roots right down and fetch their water from the deep; in otherplants the tap-root doe s not grow vigorously , and their sid e-root sk eep near the surfac e

,feeding on the surfac e m oi sture . The

form er may be ca l l ed deep-

ground-feeders, and the latter surf ace

feeders. The differenc e between deep—ground -fe eders and surfac efeed ers i s notic ed in a coffee-plantation ,

where cofl’

ee-plants ,which are surfac e-feeders

, are not harm ed in any way by thepresenc e of the large shade tree s in their vicini ty , as thes e aredeep—ground feeders and do not interfere with the supply of

m oi sture to the coffee shrubs . Ca suarina trees , to m enti onanother exampl e

, are surface-feed ers,and henc e the growth of

annual s near such tre es i s greatly ham pered .

The extent to which the roots of many plants spread in thesoil i s beauti ful ly suited to the way in which the ra in-wa ter i sconducted down to the soil by the l eav es . I n s ome ca s e s , as in

the Carro t and other plant s w i th swol l en roots , the l eav es conductthe ra in water towards the c entre of the pl ant , where it runsdown the stem to the tap-root . S uch tap—roots have only smal lsid e -roots . I n other plants (sec Mango tree , page 2 7) the wat eri s cond ucted from l eaf to l ea f toward s the periphery of the treeand there fal l s to the ground ; and in the se plant s the end s of

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2 3 0 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L P R O CE S S E S or P L A N T S

ha irs than separat e the mud particl e s from the hairs . N ow

what may the function of the s e root-ha irs be ?Take a t est-tube and fil l i t w ith a saturat ed lotipn of sa lt or

sugar, stained red by eos in . Clos e i ts m outh by m eans of m oi st

parchm ent paper, taking care that no air bubbl es are l eft in the

test-tube . Thi s apparatu s i s now imm ersed in a di sh wi th rainwater. A fter about twenty-four hours i t wi l l be observed thatthe parchm ent paper i s bul ged out consid erably and that thera in-water i s red, thus indica ting not only that some of the rainwater mu st hav e pas s ed through the parchm ent paper increa singthe quanti ty of l iquid in the te st-tube

,but a l so that s ome of the

red sa l t s olution mu st hav e pas s ed out . H owever, the fact that.the parchment paper i s bulged out shows tha t the quantity of

l iqui d that has pa ssed into the t est-tube i s larger than vice versa .

Thi s physica l phenom enon i s ca l l ed O smosis. It must be sa idthat the experim ent wi l l be succ e ssful only if the two l iqu id s ares eparated by a porous wal l

,and if they are of different d ensiti es .

L et us now apply the law underlying thi s phenom enon to wha twe hav e l earnt of the root-hairs . The root-hairs

,the wal l s of

which are porou s m embranes , conta in an acidul ous l iquid , whi chmay be prov ed by m eans of l i tmu s paper in which a root-ti pw i th root-hairs i s s q ueez ed . Moreover, each parti cl e of earth i ssurrounded by a film of moi sture . The pres ence of such moisturecan be Shown in the foll owing way : heat dry earth in a flat

di sh,placing a gla s s pla te over the di sh. A fter a Short time the

m oi sture contained in the earth and dis si pat ed by the heat wi l lbe found hanging from the gla s s plate in drops . I f the earthi s thoroughly dri ed

,and the sam e experim ent repeated after the

earth has been expos ed to the atmosphere for some time , moi sturem ay again be d i sc overed on the gla s s-pla te .

“N ow , thi s m ois turepa s se s through the wa l l s of the root-hairs , and a smal l quanti tyof the acid insid e the c el l s pa s s e s out and helps to d i ssolv e them inera l s of the earth. The q uanti ty of m oi sture absorbed bythe root-ha irs being great er than the q uanti ty of l i q uid secretedby them

,the root-hairs becom e turgid . I n the same way the

l i q uid food i s pa s s ed on from cell to c el l in the body of the plant ,the c el l s high up being fill ed w i th a. denser c el l-l i q uid than those

THE RO OT 2 3 1

below,owing to the action of transpiration . I f there i s a defici

ency of m oi sture in the soil , and the l os s of m oi sture in the c el l sof the uppgr struc ture cannot be mad e good by the ri sing flow

of l iquid , the turgor of these c ell s wil l be dim ini shed . The

c el l s cea se to be stiff and becom e l imp , and the whol e plantor at l ea st thos e parts which are not stiffened by woody cel lwa l l s

,wi l l fade .

A plant wi ll a l so fade , if i t i s transplanted and care i s nottaken to l eave the root-ends undi sturbed . Thi s i s expla ined bythe fact that the plant d epri ved of its roo t-hairs cannot absorbm oi sture from the soi l .

(at) M anuring and R ota tion of Crops. A S we hav e seen on

page 2 1 3 , the m ineral s absorbed by the roots are nitrogen ,

sul phur, phosphorus , kal ium ,

natrium,ca l c ium

,Si l icium

,mag

nesium and iron. A l l plant s do not feed on exactly the sam ee l em ents . Moreov er

,som e require m ore of one, and others m ore

of another el em ent . But al l requ ire a large quanti ty of ni trogen,

whi ch they derive from various ni trogenous sal ts . N ow ,farmers

who year after year grow plant s on the sam e field s , must take

pains to manure their fields,if their creps Shal l not deteriorate .

F or,with the crO p they rem ove a great quantity of raw plant

food from the soi l , so that the soi l become s poorer and poorer inthe material s ava i labl e for plant-growth. The manure us edordinarily i s decaying or decay ed animal and v egetabl e sub

stance s . S inc e the vari ous requ irem ents of different creps hav ebeen inv estigat ed sci ent ifical ly

,manuring can be econom i sed

by the use of artificia l manure and richer creps can be s ecuredthereby

A S s ome plants require more or l e s s of a particular el ementthan others , and strike their roots more or l ess deep in the

ground,the farm er can rota te his crops, that i s to say, if paddy

and pul se s , for instance , are grown in a certain field one year,they are foll owed up the next year by sugar-cane , and so on,

com ing back again to paddy ev entua lly .

2 3 2 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES or P L A N T S

3 . THE STEM

The work of the stem can be said to be threefold . It has1 . to support the branche s and l eave s , and to spread them

out to the air and the sun ;

2 . to carry the sap from the roots up to al l parts of theplant , and to bring the elaborate food,

form ed in the green part sof the plant , down to the points where growth takes plac e ;

3 . to serve as a food-store for use of the plant in the future .

A . S tem s as M eans to spread out the L eaves and

F low ers to the A ir and the S un .

We hav e l earned tha t the inner ce l l s of l eave s are workshopswherein the plant prepare s ma terial s for the construction of itsbody . A s thi s can onl y be done under the influenc e of sunl ight ,and a l so as carbon can only be taken from the air

,i t fol lows

tha t the l eav e s must be freely Spread out to the sunl ight and tothe air. The sam e i s nece ssary for the flowers a l so in orderthat they may be pol l ina ted by the agency of insects or the windso as to produc e fruit . S tem s , therefore , ri s e up, and, in manyca s es , form branches on whi ch they support a grea t number of

l eave s and flowers .

1 . Grow th and D escription of S tem s.

The topm o st end of the stem consi sts of v ery tend er cel l swhich, by di vi s i on ,

m ul ti ply a t a quick rat e . S tem s , therefore ,grow there in l ength, and we ca l l thes e point s points of growt/z.

A s the stem grows,l eaves are d eveloped on its Sid e s . The places

where the l eaves ri s e are o ften swol l en and are,therefore , denoted

nodes, the parts between the nod es being ca l l ed internodes. The

internod e s are of d i fferent l engths in different plants : they are

genera l ly l ong in gra s s e s,but short in plants form ing l eaf-rosette s

( see I ‘ilephantO pus, p .

The internod e may be fil iform z thread- l ike (H ors e Gram) ; orsuccul ent fle shy (I ia lsam) ; or nod ose swol l en a t the nod es(A dha toda) ; or tuberose z swol len l ike a tuber (Knolkohl) ; or

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2 3 4 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCE SSES O F PL A N TS

3 . D irection of Grow th influenced by Gravity and L ight.

(a ) By gravity— P lant a few germ inating seed s of H ors e

Gram in vari ous positions , some w i th their hypocotyl up, othersw i th their hypocoty l down , and others again wi th theirhypocotylhori z onta l : the stem s of al l these plant s wi l l invariably ri s ev ertica l ly up when they grow . O bserve a cocoanut tree thrownov er by a storm : i ts sheet w i l l ra i se its head stra ight up, aftera time . P lant cuttings Of Croton in a slanting positi on : the newshoots wi l l grow upright S tem s

,as a rul e

,grow erect

,even on

Sl oping ground . Thi s i s due to gravity . Gravi ty caus es such

stem s that are di sturbed in their natura l v ertical growth to grows tronger on their l ower s ide ti ll they rega in their original d irecti on of growth.

The main root grows in the Opposite directi on of the stemfoll owing the law of gravity sim ilarly . The ma in root i s , therefore , sa id to be geotropic , and stem s are nega tively geotropic.

The branches of a tree cannot grow stra ight up l ikewi se ;owing ma inly to the influence of l ight , they grow obl iquely or

ev en hori z ontally .

(b) L iy/zt . S tem s plant ed near a hous e d o not grow straightup,

but incl ine away from the hous e towards the l ight . L ightcau se s the Shad ed part of a Shoot to l eng then , more than the partexposed to i t

,and thu s the direction of growth i s changed . A

plant. growing free in the open air i s expos ed to the l ight a l l

round in the sam e d egree,and henc e al l parts of the s tem grow

e q ual ly,and the stem becomes erec t .

I toots,on the other hand , Show the Opposi te tendency . I n the

hanging roots of the banyan tree , for instance , it may be notic edthat they bend toward s the dark side , i. e.

,away from the l ight .

S tem s are,therefore

,ca l l ed Iceliolropic, and roots nega tively

leeliotropic.

4. H abits of S tem s.

Most s tem s are erect (S unflower, Mango) . But some are weakand l i e on the ground ra i sing their heads gradual ly : ascendent

(D esm od ium tri q uetrum ) ; or S O weak as to l i e flat on the ground

T H E STEM 285

procumbent or prostrate (E volvulu s al sinoides) . Creeping stem sa l so l i e prostrate on the ground , but form roots from their node s

(Ipomoea biloba) .

O ther weak stem s a ssume the habit of climbiny other plantsin the Shad e ofwhichthey grow

,and thu s

ra i s e the ir fol iage tothe l i fe-giving l ight .F rom the vari ousm ethods by whichthey cl imb , they canb e c l a s s i f i e d a s

foll ows1 ~ R OM-012771087 3 ; F ig. 2 1 2 .

— Tendrils a t the lea f-tipe. g.

,the P epperVine ; of Gloriosa superba .

thes e produce l i ttl eclinging roots on the l ower side of their stem s , i . e. ,

on tha t

turned away from the l ight , to a ttach them sel v e s to the supporting t ru nk of a

2 3 6 STRUCTURE A N D V ITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

3 . Twining Climbers— The stem s of the se cl imbers wind

round their supports , som e in the direc tion in whi ch the hands ofa watch m ove (Yam) , and others in the Opposi te directi on (Bindw e eds

,Shankapushpa) . I f unwound and turned the other way,

F ig. 2 1 4 .— Tendril of L u/fa a cutangula .

the young parts wi l l insi st on fol lowingtheir original direction.

4 . S cramblers, e. g.,the R o se , theWi ld

A sparagu s , L antana,Bouga inv ill ea

,etc .

These cl imbers stretch their tips throughthe hol e s O f the thicke t in whi ch they grow ,

and then Open the ir branche s wi d e S O thatthey may not gl id e down . H ooks and

Spines are Often mad e use of to the samepurpose .

A comm on feature of the se cl imbers i stheir q uick growth and the absence of

F

l eaves and branche s a t their ti ps,ca l l ed

forerunning tips (see page

5. S trength of S tems.

A S the s tem wi th i ts heavy l oad of l eaves,flowers and frui ts ,

high up in the air, i s subj ec ted to the bending , pul l ing and

ig. 2 1 5 .— Tw ining stem of

A rgyreia speriosa .

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2 3 8 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

(page To a c erta in degree ev ery plant i s enabl ed to protectitsel f against the d e struct iv e stres s of the wind : by m eans of

the ir petiol e s they plac e their many l eav es in any direction the

w ind bl ows , and thus e scape m ost of the wind-pres sure ; l ongl inear leav es

,as thos e of the Gra s s fam i ly , wav e l ike a flag in

the wind without Opposing i t ; large l ea v e s as those of theCocoanut tre e are Sl i t into numerous s egment s to a l l ow the windto pa s s through ; the P lantain a l l ows the w ind to tear i ts broadblade into many piece s for the sam e purpos e . I n Spite of al lsuch means there remains a grea t dea l Of pre ssure to which a

stem i s subj ected , and it fol l ows tha t , to bear up aga ins t thi s pressure , it m ust be Special ly strengthened . H ow much the s trengthof a s tem i s stra ined , can be seen in the culm of a R ic e plant , which,

with a diam eter of five m i l l im etre s at i ts bas e, grow s to a l ength

of one thousand fiv e hundred m i l l im etres ; i t i s indeed marvel lous to s e e tha t thi s sl ender s tem w ith i ts heavy load of l ea v esand gra ins i s not broken when the wind blows at it. What ,then,

makes the stem of thi s or any other plant strong enoughto hol d its own aga inst the weight of the whol e plant which

presse s it downward , agains t the bending stres s of the wind , whicht end s to break i t , a nd aga inst the pul l ing power of the windwhich tends to uproot the plant?

F irst of a l l , i t i s the thi ck-wal l ed woody cells whi ch not onlymake up the greater part of the trunk of a tree , but are a l sopre sent in the annua l s tem s of many herbs . O f equa l importanc eto the s trength of the stem are the bast-cells, commonly knownas fibres , whi ch are to be found in the inner bark of the stem sof dicotyl ed ons (se e F lax , page 20) as wel l as in the fibrousbundl e s O f m onocotyl edons (p. The strength wi th which thefibre s of plant s iii

'

general res i s t any pul l i s equal to that of thebest wrought-iron and,

in certa in plants , ev en exc eed s that ofsteel .

The arrangement of these cel ls in the s tem i s something tha tmakes every student of Botany marvel a t the wi sdom di splayedin the works of nature . The principl e s of archi tecture , which man

took many centuri e s to di scov er, after many trial s , are here exhibited in their simpl e origina l beauty . I n the descri ption of the

THE STEM 2 3 9

culm of a R ic e plant we hav e s een that the s id e s of the stem are

exposed to the greate st stre ss and the m iddl e portion to thel ea st ; hence the culm i s holl ow to sav e materia l and the sidesare strengthened by a cyl inder of strong fibres . S imi larly thestem of the L abia tae and many other plants have the ir fourcornersstrengthened by strong cel l s . The strength of beam s i s prOpertiona l to the breadth and to the square of the depth. Thi s rul ei s il lustrated by the edgewi se placem ent of l eaf-ribs , e. g.

,in the

T eak , or of plank-roots (s e e fig . I f other plants are examined in thi s respect , we always find that , though the position oftheir fibres may be m od ified , they a lways answer the fundam enta l

princi pl es of architectura l structure .

When the crown of a tre e i s shaken and the stem i s bent bya storm , the roots hav e to su sta in an enorm ous pull , just l ikethe cabl e s tha t are u s ed to keep a ves sel a t anchor. I f suchcabl es were untied and their sev eral strands were made to holdthe Shi p , they woul d be easily torn one by one by the m ovementsof the ves sel . A S they are united into cables , the pul l whichwoul d tear the Singl e strands i s equa l ly distribut ed ov er everyone of them

,and thu s the cabl e i s abl e to w ithstand it . Thus

in roots we find the woody and ba st-c el l s crowded together inthe m iddl e

, which make s them strong like cabl es . S imilararrangements are found in the cl imbing stem s which are a l soexposed to strong pull s .

6 . Various Types of S tem s.

The greater the l oad of l eav e s a stem has to bear, the strongermu st be i ts structure . H erbs are com parat iv ely smal l plants of

a year’ s growth,or of perennia l growth,

i f their undergroundparts rema in al ive at the tim e when their overground shoot s

peri sh. Suchherbs have soft orherbac eou s stem s . H ol l ow stem s ,articulated by sol id and swol l en nodes

,as we find them

,in

Gra s ses , are term ed cultus. I f a stem consi st s of one l ong internode only

,andbears no l eave s but flowers only at it s tep, as in Cri

num ,it i s ca l l ed a scape. The s tem that does not die a t the end O f

a s ea son ,but la sts for years

,becom es woody . I f such a woody

stem branches off from the ground , i t i s cal l ed a shrub (Ixora

2 40 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

c occinea) ; if i t has a di stinc t woody trunk , scarcely branchingfrom the ba s e and of consid erabl e Siz e , we cal l i t a tree (Mango) .

The P a lm type has an unbranched , cyl indrical , woody stem witha crown of large l eave s . L ianas, a gain ,

are woody climbers

(E ntada scandens) .

7 . Modes of Branching.

The axi s of a plant term inate s in a bud which el ongates and

grows l eave s on i ts Sid es . I n the axil of each l eaf an axi llarybud i s dev el oped , which may or may not grow into a branch.

Thi s i s the normal growth of a phanerogamou s plant , and i s cal l edmonopodia l . I n som e cryptogam s (e. g.

,S elaginel la) the growing

point i s regularly forked after a Short stretch. Thi s m ode ofbranching i s termed dichotomous .

F ig ,2 1 7 .

—'l

‘

he Um brel la tree I ’om cia na regia .

A ty p ica l exampl e of i'nO ii O pO dial growth i s the P ine tree of

c ool er cl ima te s or the beauti ful tree l I opea parvifiora (Kan. Bhogi ,T n. Bovu) of the West Coa st of India . The crown of these trees

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242 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

The l eafy crown of the tree thus becom es a hol l ow Shape supported by the bare branches like an umbrel la wi th it s ribs .

8. Metamorphosed S tems.

S tem s sometimes have Special funct ions other than thos ementi oned on page 2 3 2 , and in such ca s e s their structure and

Shape are general ly sui ted to their Special functions .The leaf-like swollen stems of O puntia (p . 57) for exampl e ,

take over the functi on of the l eav e s which are absent during thegreater part of the year. A t the sam e time they form a storeof water and food . S imi lar structure s are found in s evera lSpecie s of the Cactu s and S purge fam i l i es .

A S stolons and runners they are a m eans of vegetati ve prepa

gatien. Thes e are branche s wi th l ong internode s creeping a l ongor under the ground and Shooting out roots a t their nodes , thusform ing new sta tionsa t a di stance from the mother plant . The

l

F ig. 2 1 9 . S tolons of H ydrocolyle.

i l lustration (fig. 2 1 9) shows a plant , common on the brink of

paddy-fields . The strong plant in the m iddl e i s the motherplant , whi ch has sent out hori z ontal runners or s tol ons form ingyoung plant s from their nodes . O ther exampl e s of stol ons are

S pini fex (p . 1 79) and P otato (p .

THE STEM 243

I n F lacourtia s epiaria , R and ia ,

‘

Canthium ,Cari ssa and a

number of Sim i lar Shrubs found in the jungles, axil lary branche sare m odified into thorns or Spines , and form a

m eans of protection from damage by herbivorous animal s .I n the P assion-flower branches are changed

into tendrils for cl imbing . The tendri l s ofthe vine are the endsof the main shoots

(see p. thos eof A ntigonon are the

sta l ks of the infiere sc ence .

By m eans of underground shoots per

ennial herbs are enabled to l ive during the adv ers e season .

The three chi ef types of such stem s are(a) the R oo t- stock or Rhi z ome (Canna , Ginger) ,(b) the Bulb (O nion) ,(0) the Tuber (P o tato)The R oot-stock or R hizome (se e Water- l ily

,p . 4 ; Ginger,

p . 1 64) i s e ither a Short vertica l s tock w i tha crowded l eaf-rosette as in E l ephantopus ,or a hori z onta lly creeping s tem of m onopo

d ial growthas in mostF e rn s, o r

o n e o f

sympodia lg row th a s

in Ca n n a .

E x a m i n e,

for in stancethe creepingrhiz om e

of Canna and notic e the brown scari ou s sca l e s covering i t , thickadventitious roots growing from i ts l ower part and breaking

1 6 *

F ig. 2 20. Spine of

F la courtia sepiaria .

F ig. 2 2 1 .

Root-stock of “l a ter-L il y .

F ig. 2 2 2 — Rh izome of Ginger. F ig. 2 2 3 .— Bu lb of O nion .

244 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

through the scal e s . Its axi s suddenly turns up and gives ri s eto an overground shoot. whil st the creeping stem i s c ontinued in it s origina ld irection by a new branch-Shoot , Side-shootsa l so being given off occa si ona l ly .

The Bulb (s ee O ni on, p. 1 54) i s a flat ,

sol id stem w i th large succul ent overlapping scal e s and l eave s .

The Tuber (se e P otato , p . 9 1 ) i s a

fleshy , roundi sh ma s s wi th sma l l scal e s

(or scars of such) and sma l l buds in theiraxil s . S om e tubers , e. g.

,of Taro , hav e

F ig . 2 2 4 .

one bud only at the ir apex.

Tubers of Pota to.

B . S tem s as Channels for the A scending and

the D escending S ap.

We have heard of the water-current from the root upwardsto the l eaves where the water and the m ineral substance sd i s solved in it are u sed for the formation of starch and otherma teria l required for the bui ld ing up of ti s sue s . We have a l sol earned that the superfluous wa ter i s evaporated through the

l eaves . H ence there must be a continuou s upward flow of wat er.

O n the other hand , we hav e seen that the substances elaborated in the l eaves cannot remain u s el e s s in the cel l s of the

l eaves,but mus t be carri ed to those plac es where new ti ssue i s

form ed,such as the ti ps of the roots . H ence , there must be a

continuous downward flow of l i q uid food stuff.

We sha l l,there fore , now proceed to make a study of the

stem as a channel for the a sc ending and d esc ending sap.

1 . Genera l S tructure a nd L eading T issues of S tems.

A transverse secti on of a herbaceous s tem , exam ined bym eans of a hand -l ens

,exhibi ts the fol l owing l ead ing tis sues : I n

the outer l ayer of c el l s (fig . 225, E ) we recogni z e the epidermis

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246 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PRO CESSES O F PL A N TS

2 . The Vascular Bundles.

These consist of two parts : an inner part made up of s trong,

woody vessels, and an outer part mad e up of both sof t and hard

bast c ell s .The stem s of older (dicotyl edonous) plants are stronger than

thos e of young plants . Whi l e they grow in girth, their woodyv e s sel s increas e in number so that by and by the woody partsof the s evera l va scular bundle s coal e sc e and form one woody

body enclos ing som e of the pithy cel lularti s sue . S im i larly the fibrou s outer partsof the different bundl e s uni te into one

cyl inder, genera l ly denoted bark . Between

the se two ti s sues there i s a tender tis sue,

the cambium cyl inder, whi ch l ike the tenderti s sue in the growing point of the tip of.

F ig . 2 2 6 .— Sect ion of

the stem and of the root i s capabl e of

the tzunk of a MangO tree form ing fresh ce l l s by divi sion . A nd,

showing the l igh t a lbur indeed,i t i s due to the activi ty of these

b

iio

aitiisoia

ii’

$2 cel l s tha t stem s grow in girth: new cell s

inner laym ,the pit h in

are added from the cambium cyl inder boththe centre, and med ul lary towards the interior cyl inder O f Woodyrays S fretcmng from the v essel s and toward s the exterior cyl inderbark I nto the centre of

the wood.

of rind . (S ee al so pageThe fibre-va scular bundles of mono

cotyl edons having no cambium,the se plants do not increa se in

girth.

3 . T he Channels for the A scending and the‘

D escending S ap.

(a ) The A scending S ap— The water-current cannot asc end

in the heart-wood , the c el l s of whi ch are general ly impregnatedw i th wa ste produc ts , such as gum and tannin ,

and therefore impermeabl e . The dark heart-wood i s thus made durabl e and

resi sts the a ttacks of fungi which would o therwi s e cau s e thewood to d ecay . Thi s property makes tha t part of the wood not

only u seful for the carpenter,but a l so strong enough to support

T H E STEM 247

the m ighty weight of the branches above the trunk . S om e trees,

indeed , do not conta in such heart-wood , as will be seen in the»

White D ammar ( Va leria indica ;

Kan. D hupa) , and,therefore , be

com e hol l ow when old , the deadwood being de stroyed by fungi .

Thewater-current does not ri sein the bark al so , as can be shownby removing a ring of bark froma branch: the l eaves above thewound remain for a time as freshandgreen as tho se bel ow thewound .

If,howev er, the fresh wood bel ow

the bark (alburnum) were rem oved and the bark al lowed to stand ,the l eaves and al l the partsabove the cut would peri sh.

Thi s shows that the sap

ascends only in the a lburnum

consi sting of Ve s s el s throughwhich the sap can easily pa ss .

(b) The D escending S ap.

The organi c compounds formedin the l eaves

,of water and

carbon,have to be distributed

to the place s where they are

requ ired , via , the growingpoints — the tip s of stem s and

roots,flower-b uds , frui ts , seeds ,

,4,

the cambium cyl inder,and al l

F ig. 228 .— A ring of bark removed other place s O f growth. What

from a stem, A . as it a ppears in the first the l eav es elaborat e i s mostlyyear, B. a s I t a ppears a fter 2 years.

a b the ba rk stripped off,

above a theStarch‘ 13 1“Starch cannO t pass

stem is swol len by the descending from cel l to c el l through the

b 0 dry bark , below ed the stem ha s cel l-wa l l s . It i s,therefore ,grown in size due to the sap, des

cending from branc h e.

turned Into a q u Id, i . e.,Into

grape-sugar, which ea sily goesthrough thin m embranes l ike cel l -wal l s . Besides starch

,nitro

F ig. 2 2 7 L ong itudina l section of

a wood y stem .

H . W. Heart -wood .

A . A lburnum .

The arrows showthe way of the

a scend ing sap.

248 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

genous compounds are formed in the l eaves . Thes e too have tobe conv eyed to the growing points . So the question ari s es whichway they take to descend from the l eave s to their. respecti v edestinations . F irs t they travel from c el l to cel l to the v eins ofl eaves , and thenc e through the l eaf-stalks to the inner bark ofthe stem. A branch from whi ch a ring of bark down to thecambium layer i s removed (fig. 228) wil l show that the made-upfood does not travel in the

‘

wood in which the sap a sc ends . Ifthat branch i s examined after one or two years , i t will be seenthat the stem above the out has increas ed in siz e and tha t therei s a round swe ll ing imm edia tely above the wound . Thi s i s dueto an accumulation of food , the pa s sage of which was arre sted bythe cut . E v entual ly the part of the wood which i s la id Openw il l probably be destroyed by parasi tic organi sm s , so that thewhol e of the branch above i t di es .

The upward wa ter-current, then, travels through the younger

layers of wood neighbouring the bark, and the downwardflow ofelabora ted food travels in the inner bark adjoining the wood. Be

tween both of them there is the cambium layer where, with the sap

from the ground and with the starch from the leaves, new wood is

formed.

4. T he Covering or P rotective T issue of S tems.

(a) The E pidermis.— A s we hav e s een a lready on page 245,

young stem s are covered over by a thin coat of cel l s , call edepiderm i s , the surface of which can be of the different descriptions shown on page 204 . The prick les of the R ose , of Rubus ,and L antana are a l so growths of the epiderm i s . Thi s protectiv ecovering i s suffici ent for herbaceous and annual stem s . Wheni t become s older, ,

as in woody stem s , the epiderm i s breaks up and

fal l s off in thin shreds .

(b) The Cork — But before the epiderm i s i s shed, a new

protec tive cov ering i s prepared beneath the epiderm i s by the

formation of cork out of the outer cel l s of the rind , which obta incorky wal l s and gradual ly d i e off. The inner cell s remain activeand constantly supply new cork-cel l s to replac e those sca l ing off

on the outside . I f the layer of cork-cel l s i s thin ,the surface of

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250 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PRO CESSES O F PL A N TS

can be seen on the surface of cut branches , on which the growthform s rounded lumps of bark on the cut surface . I f the cut i ssomewha t di stant from the axi s from which the branch was produced, the sap cannot ri s e in the l eafles s stump , and hence thebark gets dry and dies and the wound cannot be covered over.

C. S tems as S tores for F ood in R eserve.

The l eav e s of a plant in activ e Operati on manufacture morefood than can

' be us ed up imm ediately . The surplus of foodi s

,therefore , laid up for any future emergency .

1 . S torage in Trees— The storage in trees i s general ly not

preserved in special growths , but in numberl e ss l ittl e cel l s a longthe way which the descending sap trav el s , viz , in som e cel l s ofthe inner bark , as a l so in certa in cel l s extending from the cambiumright to the centre of the tree

,through the wood-ti s sue . These

rows of cel l s , whi ch are cal l ed medullary rays, appear as Sil v eryrays when a woody stem i s cut through transv ersely . The foodin res erve i s used by trees in different ways .

(a) S om e trees,l ike the T eak , shed the ir l eaves in the dry

sea son. Most of the tree s do the sam e during winter in coldcountri e s . They begin to grow again w i th the return of the

ra ins here , or of spring there , and are in a v ery Short tim e .re

clothed with their beautiful foliage, as i f by a m iracl e. Thi swonderful change i s onl y made possibl e by the trees ava il ingthems elv e s of the ready-made food d eposi ted in their stem s , whichi s

,when requ ired again

,carri ed to the buds where the plant

has, as if by foresight , prepared the future l eav e s , and, in someca s e s

,even flowers in m inia ture

,before it. dropped i ts l eave s .

(b) A t the tim e of flowering and fruit-bearing the consump

ti on of food i s s o grea t that a prev ious storage of i t i s an

absolute necessi ty . S om e tree s do not bring forth frui t everyyear

,perhaps becaus e the am ount of food stored in one year

d oes not suffic e and they require severa l y ears ’ storage to produce their seed s . A n instanc e of thi s kind i s the ShrubS trobilanthe s growing on the sl opes of the Ghauts and genera l lyflowering after the laps e of s even or twel v e years .

THE FL OWER 251

O ther common exampl e s of such multiennia ls, which l ikeannual s di e after fruiting , are the A m erican A l o e (p . the

F an P alm ( p . the Malabar S ago P alm (p . and the

Bamboo (p .

2 . S torage in H erbs.— We now know how trees lay up a

store of food in the ir stem s . There are a l so many herbs tha tare abl e to do it . A nnual herbs may lay up som e food unti lthey produce s eeds at the end of the season , when they consum ethe whol e storage and di e .

Biennia l s , such as Carrots , store up food in their root s , bywhich the flowers and frui ts of the fol l owing year are nouri shed .

P erennia l herbs , however, do not die at the end of a s ea sonor two,

but l et the parts which are abov e ground wither duringthe advers e sea son to Sprout again from their underground part swhen the rainy sea son reappears . These undergro und stem s

(rhi zomes , bulbs , and tubers) hav e stores of food in them fromwhich their buds deriv e their first nouri shm ent when they burstinto l eaves .

4 . THE FLOWER

We genera l ly l ook at the flowers as bright and beautifulobj ects intended to be a source of pl ea sure to us ; but they are

created with a different purpose . E very l iving thing on thi s earthm eets at one time oranotherwi th i ts destroy er, D eath. To perpetuate its kindor speci es i t i s , however, endowed w iththe power of reproducti on . Thi s workis done in plant s by theirflowers. Theyproduce seeds , from whi ch

,under favour

abl e conditi ons , new plants of the sam ekind spring up. A nd we shal l see thatev erything about the flower i s subser

vi ent to thi s one aim .

Many plants are abl e to prepagatethem s elves a l so in otherways than by their flowers

, as for instancethe H ydrocotyle by runners , the P otato by tubers , the O nion by

F ig. 2 3 0.— S h oots arising

from the ed ges of the lea f ofBryoph y l lum ca l ycinum .

252 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

bulbs , the L otus plant by the branche s of i ts rhiz om e , the

Bladderwort by detached segm ent s of i ts stem , the Bryophyl lumby sprout s ri s ing from i ts l eave s , etc . I n al l these. ca se s someparts of the plant , other than its flora l parts , detach themselv esfrom the mother-plant and becom e new independent plants .Thi s kind of reproduction i s cal l ed vegeta tive, as compared withsexua l reproduction by m eans of flowers and s eeds .

A . The P arts of the F lower and their S tructure.

1 . P arts.— The flower i s a short shoot wi th i ts l eaves

arranged in whorl s or spiral s . A complete flowerhas four whorl sof l eaves whi ch from outside to the c entreare ca l l ed s epa l s (form ing the calyx) ,petal s (form ing the corolla) , stam ens , andpi stil s . (The s tamens are Often in two

whorl s , as in the Glory L i ly,som etimes

al so in more than two whorl s,as in the

L otus ; s epa l s , p etal s , or pisti ls are sometimes al so in m ore than one whorl .) Ifone of those four l eaf-whorl s i s absent

,

the flower i s cal l ed incompl e te .

The function O f each O f the four kind sof flora l l eav e s i s different . The two externa l rings hav e to protec t the interna lones in their unri pe stat e . The corol la

,

serves as a m eans for the attraction ofF ig, parts 0 1nsects, ina smuch as i t is viv id ly coloured .

a complete flower: ca l yx, The two internal rings , again, are thecorona

’S tamens’ and organs of s exual propagati on , the stamens

producing pol l en , and the pi sti l s s eeds .H ence the calyx and the corolla are the une ssential

,but stamens

and pi sti l s the essentia l parts of a flower.

‘

2 . I ncomplete F low ers. or ev en both of the flora lenvel opes may be absent . S uch a flower i s ca l l ed monochlamy

( l eons,if there i s only one envel ope , as in Ca stor; and achlamy

d eons , if both are absent , as in P epper. I f one O f the e ssential

pistil .

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254 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

4 . F lora l D iagram .— N ow

,i f we draw four or five con

centric c ircl e s and mark the hori z onta l s ections of the s ev era lflora l l eave s in their correct relatiye positions ,we obta in s om ething l ike the ground plan of the

flower, and what in Botanyi s ca l l ed the floral diagramO f that plant . The conv emtional way in whi ch the

different parts Shoul d bedrawn i s Shown in the ad

j oining i l lustration. A s thes eI diagram s show at a glance

F ig. 2 3 5 .

— I . Dia gram of a radia l flowerthe n um b e r a nd re l a t i v e

mm H ’ D

f

i

izir

ein

zpo

e

f

a;z ygomorph i c

po siti on as wel l as the cohesion and adhesion of the

different floral parts, they are very us eful to a s tudent of

Botany .

5. The Receptac le. If a flower i s cut l ongitudinal lythrough i ts c entre , and the parts of the section are drawn , we

obta in s om ething like theel evation of thes t ruc t ure O f

tha t flower, as

shown in fig.

2 3 6 . T h i Sdiagram doe snot exhibit thenumber or co

hesion,but the

relativ e adhesi on of the s evera l flora l parts,and

,in particular

,

i t shows their position in relati on to the floral receptacl e . Thi si s the more or l es s enlarged top of the flower- stalk . Take , forins tance , the flower of a I ’oppy or of a Custard A ppl e , and makesuch a longi tudinal secti on . You w i l l find tha t the s epal s

,the

peta l s , the stam ens , and the pi s til , a l l re st on the Sl ightly bulgedsurfac e of the receptacl e . I n the Custard A ppl e thi s receptacl e

F ig. 2 3 6 .— Position of ova ry : 1 . superior, 0 inferior

3 . h a l f-superior.

THE FL OWER 255

grows with the fruit . and become s the cone-Shaped centra l partof the ripe fruit . The rec eptacl e O f the S unflower become s alarge , flat disc supporting not only one, but a col l ection of flowers .N ow

,imagine the brim of thi s flat di sc turned up S O as to form

a cup, and you have the Shape of the receptacl e , as it appearsin a fig

,supporting many smal l flowers , or in the Guava ,

the

R ose,or the P oinciana supporting one flower only . These three

la tter flowers differ, howev er, as t o the adhesion of the Ovary tothe rec eptacl e , and as to the duration of the receptacl e . I n the

Guava the rec eptacl e adheres to the ovary so completely thateven their suture cannot be di scerned . It grows w ith the ovary ,and becom es part of the pul py pericarp O f the guava fruit . The

cup-l ike receptacl e of the R ose conta ins severa l free carpel s in

it s cavity , which do not adhere to the wal l s of the rec eptacl e .

The receptacl e i s a l so durabl e and becom e s the red,tough wa ll

of the wel l-known R os e-frui t , attracting bird s whi ch scatter theseed s . I n P oinciana ,

fina l ly,the holl ow receptacl e i s Open and

contains one free,stalked o vary . The receptacl e takes no part

in the formation O f the frui t,and fades w ith the flower.

The Gl ory L ily and Crinum have smal l and flat receptacl es .

But the ovary i s superi or in Gl orio sa, as the other flora l l eave s

spring from the receptacl e and bel ow the origin of the ovary ,wherea s the ovary of Crinum i s inferior

,the ovary only origin

at ing from the receptacl e and the rema ining flora l parts formthe top of the ovary .

6 . T he F lora l Covers : Ca lyx and Coro l la — I f thereare two d i stinc t flora l covers , the outer whorl of l eav es , whi chare genera l ly sma l l and green

,i s cal l ed calyx , and the inner

one corol la . The calyx i s formed of sepal s , the corol la of

petal s . I n sev era l flowers (L il iaceae , Amaryl lidaceae, O rchidaceae ,

P almeee) the two flora l env elopes are coloured al ike , and are

about the same Siz e : they are termed perianth as a whol e .

The Sepal s of the ca lyx may be free (poly or chori-sepalous) ,as in the L otus , or connate =

grown together (gamosepa l ous), asin T ulasi . A s far as symmetry i s concerned , the calyx may beradia l or zygom orphic . The latter i s Often the cas e in P apili onaceae and in L abiatae . I t i s then termed bilabiate = two-l ipped .

256 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

The calyx may a l so be Spurred , and then it I S Often col oured ,as in the Ba l sam .

We find the same conditions in the corolla . The flowers of

the L otus , the Mustard, the Shoeflower, the R ose , the P oinciana

are choripeta l ous . Their petal shav e a lways m ore or l e s s l ongsta lks

,ca l l ed claws . Gam opetalous

are the flowers of Ixora , Vinca ,

T obacco,A rgyre ia ,

and T ula si .Their crowns a s sume many shapes

,

as O f a tube ( the tubular diseflowers of the S unflower) , or of a

funnel (Bindweeds) , or of a bel l

(A l lamanda) , or of a m outh w ithF ig. 2 3 7 .

— F lower of P ea dissec ted two l ip s (L abia tw’A canthaceae) .

in

to its various pa r

ts : S t . S

tandard .

Choripetal ous and zygomorphi cll’ . W ings. K. k eel . C. Ca l yxof which the front part is removed .

are the butterfl-Y

'Shapedflowers O f

the P apil i onaceae, gamopetal ous

and zygomorphic thos e of the L abiatae . The flowers of theConv olvulaceae are gam O petalou

‘

s and radia l,those O f the Ma lva

ceee are chorip etalous and radial . The two whorl s O f a perianthmay combine and form one tube , as in Crinum and E uchari s L ily .

I n order to protect effic i ently the inner es sential organs , thes epal s and petal s do , as a rul e

,al ternat e , one wi th the other S O

that the gap between two s epal s i s clos ed by a petal , and in

v erse l y. I n

bud,moreover

,

the s e f l o ra lc o v e r s a r e

variously ar

ranged . The

modc O f their farrangement F ig. 2 3 8 zlfls t iva tion O f peta ls .

in rela ti on toone another i s cal l ed azstiva tloa . Thi s m ay be valvate (sepal sof Shocflower) , or imbrica te = overlapping (P oinciana , R ose) , or

contortcd z twistcd (P eriwinkl e) , or pl ica te= folded (A rgyreia) .

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258 STRUCTUR E A N D V ITA L PR OCESSES O F PL A N TS

stam ens are free, but their syngene siou s anthers cohere and

form a tube .

(0) Fi lament — The fila

m ent s may be long as in

Crinum,or Short as in Ixora ,

or absent as in A nona . R arely the filam ent i s flatt ened ,as in L otu s . I n the L abiataeand in som e A canthaceee

there are four stamens intwo pairs of differen t l engths ;in the Crucifers we find s ix

F ig.— F lower sta lnens, four l onger and two F ig. 24 1 .

— F lower of a

O f CO mpositee shorter; in the Bi l imbi tre e Cruc ifer : four longer andfi lam ents free two shorter stamens.fiv e stam ens are l ong and

five Short .

(d) Connect ive.— The connectiv e i s fixed to the filam ent

u sual ly by its ba s e (basifixed) , but in som e flowers, as in Gl oriosa ,

by the m iddl e of it s back (dorsifixed) . I n the latter ca se thefilam ent becom e s v ery thin at i ts end, and the heavy anther can

freely swing on i t . Thi s i s advantageous to the plant whi ch i svi s ited by night-m oths (se e pol l ination) . Usua l ly , the pol l en-bagsare attached to the broad frontal sid e s of the c onnectiv e ; in theL abiatae , howev er, they are placed at their ends (s ee S al v ia ,

page I n s om e flowers,again

,the connective i s produced

beyond the anther ; in the Composita: i t end s in a triangularflap; in the A nonacefe in a round cap.

(e) A nthers — The ways in which the anther-bags Open(dehi sce) to l et the pol l en escape , are al so d ifferent in different

plants . Comm only they dehi sc e in two l ongi tudinal rents , therent beginning at the upper end. The sl i ts becom e so wid e andthe poll en proceed s s o richly from the two bag s that the pol l enbecom es one lum p . I n the P otato the anther-bags Open by poresat their upper ends ; in Cinnamon by val ve s . I n the O rchi sesthe pol l en cohere s and form s a dense m a s s .

F ina l ly,i t may he remarked that the anthers in som e flowers

Open toward s the centre (S unflower) , and in others toward s the

a nth ers (e) united .

THE FL OWER 259

outside I n the form er ca se they are cal l ed intrors e ,in the latter extrorse .

(f ) F al len — The colour O f the pol l en change s from brightyel l ow to orange or red and, in som e plants , i t is even black .

I f we put pol l en

gra ins into water,they absorb so muchof i t that they burst .The sam e happens , ifthey are exposed torain or dew whil e ontheflower. H ence, the

F ig. 2 42 .— A grain of pol len pol l en i s protected

ofCucu

gbita max

’

nna (magn ifrom damp in manyed 480 t imes) .

f l o w e r s . I f w e

Sprinkle som e pol l en-gra ins ov er a drop ofv ery weak sugar and wa ter, they do not burst ,but throw out l ong threads . Thi s i s whatthey a l so do when they are brought on the

sticky end of the pi stil . The thread grows downward betweenthe ti ssue of the pi sti l unti l i t com e s to an ovul e , whi ch i s thenferti l iz ed

,

8. T he P istil.

(a) P arts — The chi ef part of the pistil i s the s eed-box or

ovary, conta ining tiny seed s or rather ovul es, which are destined

to b ecom e seeds , when the fru i t ri pens after ferti l ization . Thi scan only happen when the pol l en is brought into contact withthe ovul e s . H ence , the ovary tapers at its upper end into a moreor l e s s sl ender pillar, the style. T o enable the styl e to hold fa stthe poll en-grains that happen

'

to fa l l on i t , i ts end, the stigma,

i s provided with t iny warts or ha irs , whi ch som etimes make itlook l ike v el v et (Shoeflower) , and al so w ith a sticky l iquid , whichexudes from the surfac e of the stigma . S om e stigma s (P addy)are feathery . S om e flowers

,l ike the L otu s , have no styl e ; the

stigma i s then sa id to be ses s il e .

(b) Ovary— The ovary is made up of one or s ev eral fruit

l eav e s or carpel s (from Greek karpos z fruit) . The l ine in which

F ig. 24 3 .

Fertiliza tion of ovu le.

260 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

the edge s of a carpel lary l eaf are joined i s termed its v entra lsuture . It i s there tha t usual ly the ovu l e s are a ttached al ternately, one right

,the other l eft . The m id-rib of thef carpel lary

l eaf i s i ts dorsa l suture . S uch i s the structure of an Ovary tha tconsi sts of a Singl e carpel , as the P ea . T ake any l eaf, preferablya lanceola te one, bend i ts edges over the m id-rib so that theycome together

,and you produc e som ething not unl ike a pea pod.

I f there are sev eral free or apocarpous carpel s , they are arrangedei ther radial ly or sp ira l ly on the receptacl e (Vinca ,

Cl emati s ,Uvaria) . I n m any case s , howev er, the carpel s are connate and

form a syncarpous ovary , which contains one cav ity or c el l (al socal l ed loculus) .

H ere the two

edges of eachcarpellary leafdo not j oin to

g e t hen b u t

touch those o f1 2 3 ' the neighbour

T h 0 s’

st s f oneF i g 2 44 S truc ture of ovary 1 e ova ry 0 n 1 0

1 11 g c a rpe l s ,carpel lary l ea f (P ea ) . 2 . I t I S composed of 3 carpel s(G l oriosa ) . 3 . Many carpels form the ovary (Poppy) .

fi ght a l ld l eft :as in theO rchi s

or al so in the P oppy . I f the edge s of each carpel do j oin one

another, they m eet al l in the c entre O f the ovary , which thusbecomes d ivid ed into two (Chil l i) , or three (Gl oriosa) , or as

many cel l s or l ocul i as the ovary i s com posed of carpel s . The

ovul es are u sual ly attached to the edge s of the carpell ary l eaves ,where a di stinct growth,

cal l ed the placenta , i s formed . I n a

many-c el l ed ovary the,

pl ac entati on i s axi l e , and in a one-cell edovary tha t i s c omposed of s ev eral carpel s , i t i s usua l ly pari eta l

(from L atin paries z wal l ) . I n a few ca se s , however, the Seed sare not attached to the edges of the carpel s , but to a pi llar- l ikegrowth in the c entre of the ovary , thus form ing a c entral placenta

(e. g. ,in A ntigonon ,

Ba sel la) .

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262 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

their l ong tongue s into the flower-tube to obtain the nectarhiddenin i t s depth. Whi l e thu s hov ering in front Of the flower theytouch the anthers of the four stamens that protrude from the

flowers . The style of thes eflowers is bent back in a

l ong downward arch. The

m oth wi l l then m ove on

to another flower whichm ay ha v e O p e n e d the

previou s night and now

has it s stam ens curl ed upbut the style straight, sothat the moth cannot helptouching and thu s pol l inating it wi th the poll enof the flower from whi chi t cam e .

(6) We have foundanother contrivance to

F ig. 246 . F lowers of C lerodendron .

avoid self-pol lina tion In

1 . F irst posit ion of stamens and style. the O l ‘ChIdS (page2 . S econd posit ion of the Same. where the pol l en-ma s s es3 . Mot h visit ing the flower of

Clerodendm n .

are I n separate pouches,

and can only be remov edby a bee whi ch carri e s them to another flower to pol l inate it .

A s cros s-pol l inati on i s advantageous to the plant , and as the

plant i s unabl e to m ov e , i t requ ire s some a s si stance to carry thepol l en from one flower to another. Thi s i s obta ined from ins ectsor from the wind .

2 . P o l lination by the A gency of I nsects.

(a) What the plant s can offer to their gues ts.— The convey

anc e of the pol l en from one flower to anotheri s not done byanima l s purposely or voluntari ly . They pay the plants vi si tsfor their own sake only . But whi l e Obta ining some benefit fromthe plants they

, in their turn,unconsciously render them a v ery

they seek and find in the flowers i s first of al l a sweet ju ic e ,call ed nectar. (It is not honey , but becom e s honey in the bodyof the bee .) Thi s sweet l iquid i s s ecreted by certa in gland sform ing the nectary which may bel ong to any of the floral parts ,calyx , corolla , stam en, pisti l or rec eptacl e (cf . Gl ori osa ,

Mango ,A ri stolochia , Bindweed) . I n addi tion, there are '

often streaks ordots upon the corolla po inting the way to the nectar; such

nectar-

guides are S een,for instance

, in the Mango. The nectari s genera l ly hidden away in the depths of the flower

, and the in~

s ect mu st , therefore , ei ther be furni shed w ith a lOng tongue , l ikebutterfl i es and moths

,

or m u st a ctual ly geti ts body right into thecorol la

,l ike the bee .

The humbl e bee,for in

stanc e,when vi si ting

alabiate flow er,a l ights

on the l ower l i p O f theF ig. 2 4 7 . Bee y isiting the flower of Sa lvia .

corol la ,which i s ad

mirably su i ted for a landing plac e . The weight of the insectna tural ly bears the flower down , and, as the bee pushes i ts bodyinto the throat of the flower to reach the nectar at the bottom

,

i t s back com es in contact w ith the anthers and rubs off som e ofthe pol l en . Thi s i s unconsc iously carri ed to the next flowervi si ted , and som e i s rubbed off by the s tyl e .

Beside s nectar, many flowers offer them their pollen as food .

S ev era l flowers po sses s no nectar a t al l,but instead of i t pl enty

O f pol l en in their num erou s stam ens (P eppy,R os e) . These flowers

are erect and hav e the,shape of Shel l s or cups

,so tha t the

fa l l ing dust m ay not be Spi lt and l o st (pageS om e flowers offer their vi s itors nic e and snug hom e s to l iv e

in for a whi l e (A roideae, A ri stol ochia) ; and the Banyan tree ev ena l l ows the sma l l m idges that can enter the l i ttl e Openings of thefigs , to lay their eggs in the figs (page

(b) H ow the plants at tract visitors. (1) CO L OURS .— The petal s

O f the flowers are usua l ly brightly col oured , and are readily

2 64 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

se en from a distanc e . If the corolla i s inconspicuous , the

bracts may becom e col oured , as in Bouga inv ill ea . I n Mussaenda(Kan. Bel l ott i ° Merl . Vel lila)one calyx-l obe is much enlargedand l ooks l ike an ordinary l eaf

,

but i s white . F l owers tha tOpen in the ev ening and mu st

,

therefore , be pol l ina ted by nightm o ths , are generall y white or

pa l e , so as to be ea si ly seen inF ig. 2 48 . frondosa .

‘

T hethe ILWI l Igll iS (Ja smine , Crinumlarge w h i te lea f 1 8 one of the five

of the ca l yx ,

Cl erodendron, Nyctanthes ,( i i) I N F L O R E SCE N CE S .

_ L arge

flowers , as tho se of H ib i scus , can be d i sc overed by vi si ting insectseven i f they are Singl e ; but sm al l flowers becom e conspicuousonly i f they are grouped together in greater numbers . S ucha group of flowers i s term ed an inflore sc ence . The ma in armsof the inflorescence i s denoted peduncle, and the sta lk s supportingthe flowers pedicels . The l eav es , from the axil s of which the

pedic el s i s sue,are smal l er than the fol iage l eav e s of tha t plant ,

and are cal l ed bracts. The epi calyx of the Ma lva ceae

(p .

the involucre of the Com positae (p . the spathe of the P a lm emand A roidece (p . 1 40 and 1 47) and the glume s of the Graminez

‘

e

(p . 1 7 3 ) are m od ificati ons or special iz ed form s of bracts .There are a great many of various inflorescenc es , which,

however,can be referred m a inl y to two type s . I n one type

, the

racem ose or indefini te type,the m ain axi s i s stronger than any

of the sid e axes ; in the other, the cym os e or definite type,the

m ain axis i s shorter and weaker than the sid e axi s . Thus theracemose inflorescenc e i s a m onopod ium ,

and the cymose ihflorescence a sympod ium (se e page

(d a ) R acemose inflorescences.— H ere the princi pal axi s goe s

on el onga ting and give s off branches bearing flowers . The flowersa t the l ower part of the peduncl e are first devel oped and

,there

fore,Open earl ier than the upper ones . (Thi s i s Shown in the

i l lustra ti ons by the vari ous siz e s of the circl e s denoting the

flowers .)

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266 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PRO CESSES O F PL A N TS

the sam e d irection or in a l t ernate d irections . Cymos e inflorescences may be studi ed in I pomaea

,Cl erodendron

,Ixora

, and in

9 7"

10F ig . lu g . 2 50.

F igs . 2 54 — 2 56 represent c ymes .

the L abiatafl

I n Ixora the pedic el s are much reduced

,

so that a fascicle of

flowers i s form ed . The

L abia tae hav e sma l lfa sc icl es in the axil s of

their Opposi te l eav e s , thu s form ingcym ose whorl s or verticels. Racem ose and cymos e inflorescencesmay sometim es be found in com

bination , as for ins tance , in Cl erodendron infortunatum .

(i i i) S C E N T S . - S t rong a nd

various sc ents are a l so great hel p sto a ttract ins ects . The bee- tribe

and butterfli es are special lya ttracted by the sweet sc entof R os es , P ea s , etc . ; and the

powerful sc ent s em itt ed bysuch flowers as the Ja sm ine .T o b a c c o , a nd Cri n um ,

a s

evening com e s on,t end to

gui de the nocturna l mothsto them .

S om e t im e s the o d o u rsu sed to a ttrac t ins ects (fl i es)are the reverse of pl ea sant

to us. A s an ins tanc e the N ux-vom ica tre e may be m entioned ,or A ristolochia gigantea (Kan. l latkfili huvu) .

S centl e s s flowers usual l y hav e som e equiva l ent form of a ttraeti on

,such a s gaudy colours

,abundance of pol l en ,

or the grouping of a number of sma l l florets ; wherea s inc onspicuous flowers

(Viol et) are often endowed w i th a parti cularly strong sm el l .

Fig . 257 .— F RUITS .

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268 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

The out er part (exocarp) may be smooth and shining, as in

the Chi l l i ; or glaucous , as in the Mango ; or cov ered with stinging hairs , as in Mucuna pruriens (Kan . I

layisonagu y alda l . N ayi

kuruna) ; or prickly , as in the Thorn-appl e . A l l thes e qua l iti e sserve as protections from damp or from the aggres si ons byanimal s

,or they are a m eans for the a ttraction of animal s whi ch

would scatter the s e ed s .The m iddl e part (mesocarp) i s fibrous in the Cocoanut , but

soft and jui cy in many other frui t s . The pulpy ma s s remains,

however,sour or bitter during the period of growth and swe etens

only when ri p e . Thi s qua l i ty,l ikewi s e

,s erve s as a m eans for

the scattering of the seeds by animal s .The inner part (endocarp) in the s e frui ts i s hard like stone ,

ca l l ed pyrene , and form s a very strong protectiv e cov ering to

their se eds . I n other fru i ts i t form s a skinny m embrane l iningthe inner cavi ty of the fru i ts in whi ch the seeds rest , or the

partitions of the fru it , as in the O range .

2 . T he S eed. Whil e the s e eds grow and re q uire nouri shm ent , they are attached t o the placenta by a cord , cal l ed funicle.

When they are m ature, the funicl e wi thers , and a scar, cal l edhilum,

i s l eft on the s e ed .

The se ed consi sts of the embryo and

its protective coats . The outer coat , ca l l edtesta ,

has, by the Sid e of the hilum ,a smal l

hol e, the micropyle, by whi ch the pol l en

tube entered the ovul e for fertil izat ion

(pag e The te sta i s usual ly hard ,som etimes pos ses sing proj ecti ons into the

interi or (“rum inating testa”) as in the Nutmeg and in the

Custard A ppl e,sometimes d evel oping appendages for di s semina

ti on,as in Madar

, Bignonia ,and L agerstroem ia . I n the P om e

grana te i t i s jui cy . A growth of s pongy ti s su e i s found on the

te sta of certa in seed s . I f i t appears round the m icropyl e , as in

the Ca stor- oi l s eed,i t i s ca l l ed caruncle ; if i t origina tes from

the attachm ent of the funicl e,i t i s termed aril (Nutmeg) .

The inner coat,c al l ed tegmen,

i s absent in many seed s . Itmay be seen in the Ca stor-oi l s eed

F ig. 2 58 . Seed ofHorse gram (enla rged) .

THE FRUIT A N D THE SEED 269

The embryo i s the young plant , consisting of a Short stem

(hypocotyl) wi th s eed l eaves (cotyledons) and a m inut e bud (plumule)at its upper end

,and a m inute root (radicle)

a t i ts l ower end. The hypocotyl rema ins y

short in the Mango and in the P ea,but

l engthen s out in the FrenchBean,H ors e gram

,

Castor,Cucumber

,and m any other s eed s ,

when they germ inate . The cotyl edons m ayF is 2 59 — S eed of

be thick and stored w ith plant-food (H ors ethe Bean : a . Ra d ic le.

b. Cot yledons .

gram , Bean) , or thin (Ca stor) . They m ay a pl umule ,

a l so beflat (Bean ,Ca stor) , -or fold ed ( I pomaea) .

The number of the cotyl edons marks two large clas ses of theflowering plants

, via ,the d icotyledons and the m onocotyl edons .

F ig. 2 6 0. Endospermin the seed of Maiz e.

I n the m onocotyl edons the cotyl edon has a

cyl indrical shape Sheathing the stem and itsbud

, and devel oping at the Side adj oining theendosperm

,of which we shal l sp eak presently ,

into a shi eld-l ike structure as in Ma i z e,or

into a gl obular body as in the Cocoanut .

J‘

H ere, as wel l as in many dicotyl edonou s

plants,the cotyl edons have the function of

absorbing a food - substanc e , which form s a

s eparate ti ssue w i thin the s eed coats,

and

that i s the endogperm . (S ee germ ination of Cas tor s e ed,of R ic e ,

and of Cocoanut .) S eeds conta ining endosperm are t erm ed

F ig. 2 6 1 . Ca stor seed .

endospermous , and thos e in which endosperm i s not present ,exendospermous. E xendospermous seeds have the food-substance

2 70 STRUCTURE A N D V ITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

necessary for the growing se edl ing packed in their cotyl edons ,which thus become swol l en . The food-substance ei ther containedby the cotyl edons or by the endosperm i s al s o uti l ized for foodby man , as wel l as by many anima l s .When the seeds are mature and their germ s in a po si tion to

l iv e a l one,they mu st l eav e the protecting cov ering (pericarp)

and be di spersed , so as not to germ ina te j us t under or near them other-plant where the young plant s woul d simply suffer fromher shade , and fromthe fact that she had u sed up som e of thesuppl i e s of m inera l food availabl e

,and that they woul d hav e a

hard struggle for l ife w ith one another. The germ s or young

plant s mu s t,therefore

,be so constructed as to be abl e to go on

a l ong journey w i thout peri shing . They are in thi s state in theripe seed . When ful ly form ed , they ceas e to be watery , theplac e formerly occupi ed by water being new fil l ed with starch or

oil,and the se ed-coat — becom es hard .

Many seeds , i t i s true , do not end their j ourney in.

a v erysui tabl e place , but d ie by hundred s and thousands for want ofc ongenial surroundings , and i t i s for thi s rea son that such largenumbers of seeds are produced .

B!H ow fruits all ow their seeds to escape.

I n order to enabl e the Seed s to start on the ir journey , thefruit whi ch had to protect them during the peri od of their growthand ri pening , must s et them fre e . Thi s i s done in various ways .A ccording to the nature of the peri carp frui ts are divided into :

(a) dry frui ts , in which the pericarp i s m embranous , l eathery ,or woody ; they either Open natura l ly (dehi scent frui ts) to l etthe s eeds out , or they rema in unopened (indehi sc ent frui ts)(b) fleshy fruits , in whi ch the peri carp i s ei ther partial ly

(drupe s) or whol ly (berri e s) pul py .

D ry dehiscent fruits.

The simpl e st form of thi s kind i s a capsul e originating froma singl e carpel and bearing the seeds at i ts ventra l suture . If

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2 72 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L P R O cE S S E S O F PL A N TS

( s epta) , A ristolochia

I ndehiscent dry fruits.

The se may be one-seeded or

m any-s eeded . A one-s eeded frui ti s the grain of R i ce or Ma i z e : in

thi s the thi n p e ri c a rpcl o sely adheres to the s eed .

F ig. 2 6 6 . Sept ic ida l I l lc a psu le of A ristoloch ia .

the achenium or nut

the s eed i s fre e from the

pericarp , which may be l eathery as in the

S unflower, or stony as in the H az elnut . I f

such a one- seeded indehi sc ent dry frui t possesse s a m embranous appendage to its peri

carp , as in Butea frondosa F ig. 2 6 8 .

or in A ilanthes exc el sa , i t i s A Chenium O f S un“

ca l l ed a S amara. Many-s eeded

F ig. 2 6 9 . S a ma ra

of B utea frondosa .

flower (Opened ) .P . Peric arp . 8 . Seed .

dry I ndehi s

c ent frui ts are characteri stic of

some fam il i e s . They are ca l l edschizocarps, becaus e when ripeeach carpel wi th it s s e ed separate sfrom i t s neighbouring carpel s , a s

in S ida (Malvacezc) and in Tula si

(L abiatzc )

F leshy F ruits.

S uch are the drapes, in whichthe s eed or the s eed s are encl osedin a hard shel l each. The Mango

or the Cocoanu t i s a one-s eeded drupe , the Co ltea fruit a two

s eed ed one,and the fruit of the P almyra palm a three- se eded one.

andGloriosa , septicidal . I n the P eppy

and O sbeckia the capsul e s Open by

pore s at the tOp: they are poricidal ; and in P ortulaca a l id i s de'

tached from the pod by circumscissdehiscion .

T H E FRUIT A N D THE SEED 2 7 3

Berries have no stony endocarp , and their seeds are encloseddirectly by the pulp. The number of the c arpel s forming the

berry i s two in Chi l l i , three in Banana ,five I n P apaw . The

Chi l l i and Banana have axil e , and the P apaw pari eta l placentation.

0. H ow the seeds are dispersed.

It i s not enough tha t fru it s should a l l ow their seeds to escape .

If they fall down and begin l ife again directly under the l eave sof the parent plant , they cannot , as already stated , get suffici entl ight and air, but finding only a soi l from whi ch a great d ealof the plant-food had a lready been extracted by the motherplant , they mus t s tarve . To ensure the di spersion of the se edsover a wide area ,

vari ous wonderful provi sions are made . A s

the plants cannot m ov e of them se lve s , they often make use ofthe agency of running water, of wind , animal s and birds

,and

wi th their help undertake longjourneys to distant countries , and

even cros s oceans .

(a) D ispersed by mechani

ca l contrivances.— S om e plants

conta in wi thin themselv es the

m eans necessary to scatter the

seeds . Thi s i s in some ca se s a

Spring apparatus by which the

se eds are thrown away from the

parent plant , as I n the capsul e s ofthe A canthaceae or in the Ba l sam s .“ The s eed-pod i s general ly in a

state of tension,due to the gradua l

drying up of the ti ssue . Then a

puff O f Wind’ a Sl ight bl ow ’ 01

‘ even1 . c losed , 2 . exploding and sca tter

a change in the a tm ospheric con ing the seeds.

dition of the air,gives the final

impetus , cau sing the pod to burst wi th such force that seeds arethrown out in al l directions (Brightwen)

F ig. 2 7 1 .— Ca psu le of a Ba lsam

2 74 STRUCTURE A N D VITA L PRO CESSES OF PL A N TS

I n other ca se s , the s eeds are furni shed with awns, as in manyGra s ses. E ach awn i s thickly set with bri stl e s which al l ow the

awn to m ov e only in one direction . A s these are, s ensitive tomoisture , the difference in the amount of . moisture in the air

l engthens and contracts them ,S O that the s eeds attached to them

are sl owly but surely drawn away many inches .

(6) D ispersed by w a ter. — Many wa t er-plants have s eedsor frui ts which float . A n air-bubbl e i s a ttached to the s eed of

the Water-l i ly which caus e s it to ri se to the surface . The

cocoanut is prov ided wi th a strong,but l ight covering, and,

i f i tfal l s into the sea

,i t may be carri ed by the wav es hundreds of

m i l es . H ow many seed s tha t fa l l to the ground during the hotseason are washed away by the torrents of ra in of the burstingmonsoon and landed on a Spot far away from the mother-plant ,the hard seed -shel l s protecting the tender germ w i thin from

destruction lCarried by the w ind.

— Thew inged fruit s of so many treesare v ery wel l known ,

suchas H opea Wightiana (Kan.

Karmara ; I VI a l . I lapongu ;

Tam . KO I’

Igu) or Butea frondosa ,

in which the ca lyx , orthe pericarp i s enlarged and

2 7 2 — Winged fruit of F ig. 2 7 3 .— W inged seed of

H opea W igh t iana . S tereospermum .

become s a wing in the frui t . I n S tereospermuin (Kan. P urul i ;

M a l . P atiri ; Tam . I ’adiri) the winged appendage bel ongs to thes eed . The fruits of many Compositze and the se ed s of theA scl epiadacea a re provided w ith si lky or feathery ha irs (cal l ed“ pappus” in Compositze) , which catch the wind and a l l ow the

se ed to be borne away even by the gentl e st breez e . I n some

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2 76 STRUCTUR E A N D VITA L PROCESSES O F PL A N TS

provided by the mother-plant . It can be Observed in ev erygerminating s eed , how the supply of food i s gradua l ly exhaustedas the plant grows . A nd it la sts just l ong enough for the youngplant to form roots and green l eaves by which to obta in itsnouri shm ent d irect from the soil and air. (S ee germ ination ofH orse Gram p . 3 1 , of Cucumber p. 7 3

,and of R ic e p.

A P P E N D I X

1 . Nomenclature and Classification of Plants.

1 . S pecies. The fact that plants , reared from the seed sof a m other-plant , are l ike each other and l ike the parent

,i s

fam i liar to ev erybody . Thu s plants that Spring from the seedsof a Banyan tree becom e Banyan trees aga in,

and such as Springfrom Cucumber-se eds becom e Cucumbers . A l l such plants , therefore

, which appear to have sprung from the sam e parent,and

agree w i th each other in al l essentia l parts , constitut e a species.

There i s , however, som e variation in the developm ent of thevarious parts of plants belonging to the sam e speci es , that iscaused by differences of soil , cl imat e , and other conditions . I n

id entifying plant s beginners mu st , therefore , di stingu i sh betweeness ential and accidental variations (cf . Tumbe , page The

fol l owing extract from S ir Jos . H O O KER gives the chi ef causes ofsuch variations

A bright l ight and Open Situation ,particularly at consider

abl e el evations , wi thout too much wet or drought , tends toincrease the Siz e and heighten the col our of flowers in proportionto the stature and foliage of the plant . Shad e , on the contrary ,especia l ly w ith rich soi l and suffici ent m oi sture , tends to increa sethe fol iage and draw up the stem ,

but to dim ini sh the number,Siz e , and col our of the flowers . A hot cl imate and dry situationtend to increase the hairs

, prickl es , and other productions of theepiderm i s

,and to Shorten and stiffen the branches . Moisture in

a rich soil has the contrary effect . The neighbourhood of the

sea , or a sal ine soil or atm osphere , im parts a thi cker and moresuccul ent consi stenc e to the foliage and a lmost ev ery part of theplant , and appears not unfrequently to enable plants , usual lyannual , to l ive through the winter.

2 78 A P P E N D I x‘

2 . Genera . We have s een that the Banyan tree (F icusbenga lensis) consti tute s a speci e s . If we muster the v egetabl ekingdom , we can easi ly find other trees which resembl e theBanyan tree in most important points of structure , such as the

P e epul tree or the Country F ig tre e . S uch plants form one

genus, viz .

,the genus “ F icus

3 . The S cientific N omenc la ture of plant s is ba sed on thi sCla s sification into speci es and genera . Thus the Banyan treei s known as F icus benga lensis and the P eepul tree as F icus

religiosa , the common first nam e “F i cus” denoting the genu s ,and the second “benga lensis

”or “rel igiosa ”

,the speci es .

P lant s have , of cours e , popular names al so ; but as thesevary not only in vari ous countri e s , but even in different parts ofthe sam e country , and as different plants are a l so cal l ed by thesam e nam e in different parts of a country , such popu lar nam esare us el e ss for students of botany . H ence sci entific names

,

d erived from L atin and Gre ek , are appl i ed to plants , by whi chthey are known to al l educa ted people of the worl d .

4 . Fam ilies, Classes, etc.— S everal genera whi ch agree in

c erta in marked characters , const i tute a fam i ly , and s everal fam il i e s sti l l larger di vi sions . I n this manner we hav e grouped :

the genera of Gos sypium ,H ibi scus , Bombax , etc .

, under thefamily of Mal vaceae ;

the families of Ma l vac eae , Cruciferae , L eguminosae and othersunder the sub-class of P olypeta lae plants wi th s eparated petal s) ;

the sub-classes of polypetalous , gamopetal ous ( = O f unitedpetal s) and m onochlamyd eous plants ( = having a singl e insteadof a double flora l cov er) under the class of D icotyl edons ;

the classes of dicotyl edonous and monocotyl edonous plant sunder the division of Phanerogam s

and the two divisions of phanerogamous and cryptogamousplants under the Vegetable

'

ingdom.

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280 A PPEN D IX ‘

3 . Bibliography.

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I N D E X T O VE RN -A CUL A R N A ME S

A cva t tha 1 1 9 .

i dadoda i 1 01 .

A dkebilu 87 .

A da luhara lu 1 25 .

A daviganné ru 82 .

A dda saramu 1 0 1 .

A d ike 1 45 .

A dike ba l l i 1 49 .

A dumbu 90. 2 1 8.

A dusoge 1 01 .

A gnimukhi 2 9 .

A bigandha 1 2 7 .

A jj imul lu 1 03 .

A ksgavani 1 3 0

A la, 1 1 5 .

A lamar 50.

A l asandi 89 .

A l imbe 1 9 1 .

A livira l 20.

A l l ikada 1 .

A manakku 1 2 2 .

A mbal am 2 9 .

A mbalam u 2 9 .

A mba ta 2 9 .

A mra h 2 3 .

A mra ta 1 50.

A mrataka 29 .

A mudala 1 2 2 .

A nanas 1 58 .

A napparuva 87 .

Aneka t ca la i 1 55 .

A neka t t al i 1 55 . 2 1 2 .

A nekivi 1 82 .

A nj’

ura 1 20.

A t acamaram 1 1 9 .

A ra le 1 3 .

A ra limara 1 1 9 .

A rasina -hfi 82 .

A ra ti 1 6 5 .

A rayal 1 1 9 .

A rdhapra sadana 7 1 .

A ri 1 6 8.

A rippu 1 1 3 .

A risina 1 6 5 .

A rkah 83 .

A rkamu 83 .

A rkkam 83 .

A rugani 2 3 .

A sina -m ara 1 8 .

A ta lo'

takam 1 01 .

A ta si 20.

A t ta éakka 5.

A t tamaram 5 .

A t t imara 1 1 9 .

A ud la 1 2 2 .

A valu 1 1 .

A vare 3 9 .

A vari 3 9 .

B accangayi 7 7 .

Ba dane 9 4 .

Badanike 1 3 1 .

Bagaru 1 7 5 .

B age 4 3 .

Ba ingan 9 4 .

Ba ini 1 45.

Bale 1 6 5 .

Bana pa 5 1 .

Bandanige 1 3 1 .

Bandba 2 3 3 .

Bangi 1 2 °Barbfirah 4 1 .

Ba tani 3 9 .

Ba tata 90.

Batkol i hfivu 2 6 6 .

Belapart i 85.

Belapa tre 1 9 .

Bé lika l l i 1 2 5 .

Bel lott 1 6 3 2 6 4 .

Bel lu l l i 1 5 3 .

Beluba l l i 1 3 0 .

Bet ta 1 46 .

Bévina m ara 2 2 .

Bhadrava l l i 85 .

Bh asa 1 7 6 .

Bha t ta 1 6 8.

BhGgi 2 74 .

Biduru 1 76 .

Bile l a 1 7 5 .

Bil i buraga 1 6 .

B ilimbi 2 1 .

Bit i 3 9 .

Bogari 2 2 .

E 6gi 2 74 .

Boggi-kanda 1 57 .

Bond ula 9 5 .

Bovu 1 8 .

Bfidikumba l a 7 6 .

Bunnu 60.

é abuku , Ca suarina 1 8 1 .

Cadavé l ikil anu 1 5 3 .

Cagida 1 6 .

Cakkarakumpa lafia ( 6

(3 5 i 43 .

Ca‘

kotra 1 9 .

Ca l lagadda lu 1 5 3 .

Canaka 3 9 .

Cana l 3 9 .

Cana lamparanda 2 3 .

Candana maram 1 3 3 .

Cande 82 .

Cannakkfiva 1 6 5.

Cappara badane 9 4 .

Cat t iravé ri 1 5 3 .

é ayaccadi‘

1 6 .

Cé lukondi 1 82 .

Cemparut ti 1 5 .

(369m 1 46 .

Céngota imaram 29 .

282

Cé rmara 2 9 .

Ceruku 1 7 5 .

Ceruvidukdl 3 9 .

Cet t i 6 2 .

Ciriyat u 7 9 .

Cit tamanakku 1 2 2

Cdlam 1 75 .

Cophahara 2 8.

Cukrika 2 1 2 .

Cunthi 1 6 3 .

Cfitah 2 3 .

Cuyit t i 20.

D alcin 1 2 8 .

D alcini 1 28 .

Dalika 50.

D alimbe 50.

D aruharidra 6 4 .

Dasa la 1 5.

D a t t'

ura 96 .

IN DEX T O VE R N A CUL hR NA MES

D hfipada mara 1 8. 247 .

Dodda-nekkare 50.

Dodda R a tnagandhi 4 1 .

D rakshe 2 2 .

D undubha 1 1 .

D unduma l l ige 7 8 .

Tildakfila 82 .

Ekka 83 .

Blaéi 1 6 5.

E lakki 1 6 5 .

Blam 1 6 5 .

Bl ilappa la i 82 .

E l ippayaru 3 9 .

E ra ndikejhad 1 2 2

E rikku 8 3 .

Bril apala 82 .

E rfippa kaita 1 55 .

E rum a it takk é l i 95 .

E t te 7 8 .

Gary 8 1 .

Gasaga sfi 7 .

Gauri-hfi 2 1 .

Gé rk é yi 2 9 .

Gé ru 2 8 .

G6dhuma lu 1 74 .

G6di 1 74 .

G6duma i 1 7 4 .

Guddapannéra lu

G ulab iG anja 3 9 .

Gurgunj i 3 9 .

H aga la 7 7 .

H akkarikepa lya 7 1 .

H a lasu 1 20.

H a lavumakka la t ayi

22 3 .

Hale 82 .

Halemara 205 .

H a l lekavi 4 3 .

H ara lu 1 22

H aripriya 1 50.

Ha t t i 1 3 .

H é luka sa 7 1 .

H emmusht i 78.

Hire 7 7 .

Hirin i 1 8 .

H ogesoppu 9 3 .

H olecul l i 5 1 . 1 03 .

H ongara 3 9 .

H ot tut irugana 6 4 .

H unise 3 9 .

H urul i 3 0.

Huva rasi m ara 1 5 .

I bbudl u 7 7 .

l éa la 1 46 .

I l lapongu 1 8 . 2 7 4 .

l la t ta lari 82 .

I l avu 1 6 .

I l ikivi 7 1 .

I hé i l oa.

ind 1 45 .

I ndirfivficam l .

I ndrfini 1 1 3 .

1 55 1 6 3 .

I rub6gam 1 8 .

iru lu 1 5 3

l éuravé r 1 2 7 .

l évara -béru 1 2 7 .

I t tévu 1 1 4 . 26 1 .

I t t i 3 9 .

K abbu 1 7 5 .

Kagakaga 7 .

Kacum avu 28 .

Kadayrige 7 1 .

Kada le 3 9 .

Kada l i 50.

K ada l i 1 6 5Kadubasa le 59 . 2 1 2 .

Kadugu 1 1 .

Kaduka 1 1 .

Kfiduma l l ige 7 8.

Kfidusampige’

82 .

Ka l l i sBre 7 7 .

Ka ilipacura ni 7 7 .

Ka iyanni 7 2 .

I i filfi-mirié i 1 3 4 .

Ka l i 8 1Ka l ivi 8 1 .

Ka l langadi 7 7 .

Ka l l i 57 .

Ka l yfinapficum 7 6 .

Kamaka st'

firi 1 09 .

Kanagilu 82 .

Kanaviram 82 .

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284 I ND EX T O VE R N A CUIJA R NA MES

Mul langi z R adish 1 3 .

Mu l l iba l l i 89 .

Mul lilav lo

i 1 5 .

Mu l luga l l i 57 .

M ul l ug6rante 1 02 .

Mul ugu 6 4 .

Mul lumurika 3 9 .

Mu l lusa ute 7 2 .

Mu l l uvel larika. 7 2 .

Mund i 50.

Mundirika i 28.

Mfingil 1 7 6 .

Murginahul i 1 8 .

N aéike-g ida. 4 3 .

N agajamudu 57 .

N figa t é l i 5 7~ O l lémena sina-b a l l i 1 3 4 .

N a idile 1 'O ndelaga 2 42 .

N a l la tumma 4 1 °

O reletavare 1 58.

N amadabéru 85.

N andiba t l u 82 .

N andivardhanamu 8

I Crila ttamara 1 8.

N andyfiva ttam 82 .

N anné ri 85 .

N ara l kejhad 1 3 6 .

N a rampana l 7 .

N firangam 1 9 .

N fitagida 1 1 3 .

N fiva l 48 .

N avane 1 75 .

N ay i hakka rike 7 1 .

N fiyikode 1 9 1 .

N a vikuruna 2 6 8 .

N ayisonagu 2 6 8 .

N ayitu lasi 7 1 .

N elabé vu 1 03 .

N elaca lu 3 0mm 9 9

N e lakada laka 3 9 .

N elakada le 3 9 .

N olamucca la 7 1 . 2 06 .

N e Ia -nc l l i 1 2 6 .

N ol a t é le 1 57 .

N ela t z’

w a re 1 58 .

N e l l i 1 2 6 .

N one akk i S O ppu 1 2 6 .

N éra l 49 .

N é ra le 48.

N ilavépu 1 03 .

N il i 3 9 .

N imbam 2 2 .

N imbamu 2 2 .

N irz'

impa l 1 .

N iré ta 1 50.

N irgundi 1 1 3 .

N irm ul l i 1 03 .

N irukaddi 2 1 .

N iru l l i 1 5 3

N iruvendéku 50.

N 6namaram 6 4 .

N uné m aram 6 4 .

P aé itige 1 3 0.

P’

adiri 2 3 5 . 2 74

Padma 5 .

P aga l 7 7 .

P a laéu 1 20.

P i n 1 3 6 .

P ana i 1 43 .

Pana sa 1 20.

l ’ é ndel 7 .

P angi 1 2 2 .

P aninirpu 45 .

P a rcngim u l aku 9 5 .

P iirijfita 7 8.

P arij fita ka 7 8 .

P é rij at akam 7 8 .

P a ru tt i 1 3 .

l ’ fita li (3 2 .

Pa t iri 2 7 4 .

Pa t la 7 7 .

P a tfilam 7 7 .

P a t t i 1 3 .

P fiva l 7 7 .

P a va la ma l l iga i 7 8 .

P ayannuma ram 1 8 .

P é t akkali 95 .

P é ra l 1 1 5 .

P é ra le 48.

P eragu 1 1 4 . 2 6 1 .

P erumarunnu 1 2 7 .

Petakha li 9 5.

P et ta taj ank 85 .

P iécakam 7 7 .

P ikj al i 4 3 .

P ilavu 1 20.

Bilimb i 2 1 .

P ippa l a 1 1 9 .

P irku 7 7 .

P onnakam 1 8 .

P ont iééolam 1 75 .

P oppil i 6 4 .

P udol 7 7 .

P uga iyila i 9 3 .

P ukayila 9 3 .

P fila 1 6 .

P ul iyara l 2 1 2 .

P ul lampunise 2 1 2 .

P ul luoni 1 3 1 .

P fima rdu 5 1 .

P unampu li 1 8 .

P unarahu l i 1 8 .

P unna i 1 8.

P fiparut t i 1 5 .

P firani 1 6 .

P urul i 2 7 4 .

P urushara tna 1 8

P ushkaramfila 1 6 5 .

P ushpaké sisa 9 9 .

P fivfila i 1 6 5 .

P fivara éu 1 5 .

P yaj 1 5 3 .

R ag i 1 7 5 .

R a ktnj fij i 1 1 .

R fima tu las i 1 09 .

R a tnagandhi 4 1 .

R fivana gadda 1 78 .

R fivii‘et tu 1 1 9 .

R a vipriya 2 2 .

R é lacet tu 40.

I ND EX T c?VERNA CUL A R NA MES

R é shm ikamba li-gida 1 2 1 .

R udrapushpa 1 04.

D

S adama l lige 7 9 .

Saa i 1 09 .

S é gvfin 1 09 .

S ahadévi 7 1 .

S akkarekafij i 1 9 .

S é la 1 8.

S i l amu 1 8 .

S alme 1 7 5 .

S amudran am 85 .

S amudrapa la 85 .

S anabu 3 9 .

S anduba l l i 2 3 .

S anké évara 4 1 .

Sankhapushpa 3 9 .

Sannagundu hu l lu 9 9 .

S arshapah 1 1 .

S asive 1 1 .

Savyamu 1 3 4 .

Seit ana-hii 82 .

Sembart ta i 1 5 .

S é vant ige 7 1 .

Sige 43 .

S igena su 89 .

Sima ikila'

ngu 1 46 .

Sié irapa tra 9 9 .

S itapha l a 5 .

SitBtpa la 1 .

Siva éa kt i-ba l l i 1 50.

Siva Tu la si 1 07 .

S kandapha l a 1 2 0.

SBnt 1 6 3 .

S rigandha mara 1 3 3 .

Srit é li 1 45 .

Subha 5 .

S urahonne 1 8.

S i na i 7 7 .

Sfiryakant i 6 4 .

S uvarnaka 40.

Své tasn'assu 9 9 .

285

T ad 1 4 3 .

T agaram 82 .

T akkal i 9 5 .

T é lam 1 43 .

Tal i 1 43 .

T ama l apaku 1 3 6 .

T amaruug 2 1 .

Tambahu 9 3 .

T ambfilam 1 3 6 . 1 45 .

Tat i 1 4 3 .

Tavare 1 .

Tegu 1 09 .

Teka 1 09 .

T ékku 1 09 .

Teku 1 09

T éna 1 3 6 .

Tengima -mara 1 3 6 .

Tengu 1 3 6 .

T efikayiéea u 1 3 6 .

Th a y-ila 1 6 .

TBkégBdi 1 7 5 .

Tonde 7 7 .

Tond i 7 7 .

Tginaré ja 1 3 6 .

T udaivé cr 1 54 .

Tu lasi 1 07 .

T umbai 1 04 .

Tumbe 1 04 . 1 94 . 1 96 .

T ampa 1 04 .

Tfinagenasu 1 58 .

V é gai 4 3 .

V ajrava l l i 2 3 .

V i l a 1 6 5.

v ala i 1 65 .

Va l uda l ai 9 4 .

Va lut ina 9 4 .

Vankfiyi 9 4 .

Va tah 1 1 5.

Va t t fikka 7 7 .

Va tt fikku 7 7 .

Veddi 6 2 .

V eduru 1 7 6 .

Vel la ikunnrikam 1 8 .

Vel l am ba l 1 .

Vel l finpa l 1 .

Vel lila 2 6 4 .

Vel lul li 1 53 .

Vel ut tapol at ali 1 54 .

Velut tara l i 82 .

V émbu 2 2 .

V érkada l ai 3 9 .

Vett il aikkodi 1 3 6 .

V il umbi 2 1 .

Vilvam 20.

V i lyada-ba l l i 1 3 6 .

Vishakaddi 1 6 .

Vishamanda la 1 54 .

Vishamungu l i 1 54 .

V ishnukrant i 90.

V ishnupriya 82 .

Vit t i 3 9 .

Vr'

ihi 1 6 8

A brus preca torius 3 9 .

A but ilon indic um 1 6 .

A cacia arab ica 4 1 . 204 .

208.

concinna 43 . 202 .

Farnesiana 4 3 .

fragrant 4 3 .

Soapnut 4 3 .

A canthaceee 1 0 1 . 205 . 2 53 .

256 . 258. 2 7 3 .

A canth us il icifol ius 5 1 .

1 03 .

A ch lam ydeae 252 .

A crostic h um 1 86 .

a urum 5 1 .

A denanthera pavinona 4 3 .

A d ha toda vasica 1 01 . 202 .

207 . 2 3 2 . 257 .

A d iantum cauda t um 1 82 .

1 85 .

A eg le marmelos 1 9 .

A erna lana ta 205 .

A garicus 1 9 1 .

muscarius 1 9 2 .

A gave america 11 9. 1 55 .

1 56 . 2 1 2 .

A gera t um conyzoides 7 1 .

A ilanthes excelsa 2 7 2 .

A la sandi Bean 3 9 .

A lbizz ia L ebbek 4 3 .

A lgae 1 9 3 .

A l lamanda ca t ha rtica 82 .

2 56 .

A l l ium ampelopera sum

1 5 3 .

cepa 1 53 .

sa t ivum 1 53 .

A lmond tree 48.

A loca sia m acrorh iza 1 48 .

I N D E X

integrifol ia

arundinacea

A loe, A merican 1 55 . 1 56 .

2 1 2 . 2 5 1 .

A lsoph ila 1 86 .

A lstonia schol aris 82 .

205 . 248 .

A mary l lidaceae 1 54 . 2 55 .

A mary l l is 1 57 .

A mpel ideee 2 2 .

A nacard iacea : 2 3 .

A nacard ium occidenta le2 8 .

A nanas 2 6 7 .

A naph a l is nilgherriensis

70.

ob longa 6 8. 6 9 .

7 1 . 2 1 3 .

A ndipunar 2 3 .

A ndrograph is panicu la ta1 03 .

A neilema nudiflorum 9 9 .

A ng iosperm s 1 8 1 .

A nona squamosa 5 . 2 57 .

258 . 2 59 .

A nonaceze 5 . 2 58.

A ntigonon 2 43 . 2 6 0.

A pocynaceae 7 9 .

A pp le tree 48 .

A rach is h ypogaea 3 9 .

A rec a catec h u 1 45 .

A rgemone mexicana 1 0 .

A rgyreia spec iosa 85 2 3 3 .

2 3 6 . 2 56 .

A riszema tortuosum 1 49 .

A ristoloch ia gigantea 1 2 8 .

2 6 6 .

A ristoloc h ia ind ic a 1 2 7 .

2 45 .

A ristolochiacew 1 2 7 .

A roidem 87 . 1 46 . 2 1 0 .

A rrowroot Famil y 1 6 3 .

2 1 8.

A rtocarpus1 20.

A rum Fam il y 1 46 .

A sc lepiadaceae 2 74 .

A sparagus sarmentosus

1 5 3 .

A sparagus, wil d2 3 6 .

A spid ium 1 86 .

A sp lenium 1 86 .

A systa sia violacea 1 03 .

A t h yrium 1 86 .

A vena sa t iva 1 75 .

A verrhoa bil imbi 2 1 .

A vicennia offic ina l is 5 1 .

A w la tree 1 2 6 . 2 48.

B abu l A ca c ia 4 1 .

Bacteria 1 94 . 1 99 . 200.

Bael tree 1 9 . 204 .

Ba lsam Garden 2 1 . 2 3 2 .

256 . 2 7 6 .

Bamboo 87 . 1 7 6 . 207 . 2 1 0.

2 5 1 .

Bambusa

1 7 6 .

Banana Fam il y 1 6 5 . 2 7 3 .

B anyan tree 1 1 5 . 202 .

26 3 .

Ba rleria prionit is 1 02 .

Ba rley 1 7 5 .

Barringtonia ra cemosa 50.

Basel la 2 60.

Basil , sweet 1 09 .

Bauh inia 4 1 .

BeanA la sandi 3 9 .

Begonia 205. 2 2 3 .

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288

Commel inaceae 9 9 .

Composita‘ 6 4 . 258 . 2 65 .

2 6 7 . 2 74 .

Coniferee 1 8 1 .

Convolvu lacea: 85 . 2 56 .

Cora l plant 1 2 5 .

tree 3 9 .

Corch orus capsu laris 1 6 .

Cordy l ine term ina l is 1 5 3 .

Corn,I nd ian 1 7 5.

Corrinda 8 1 .

Cory pha1 4 5.

Cosmos b ip inna t us 7 2 .

su lp hureus 7 2 .

Cost us Speciosus 1 6 5.

Cotton Fam il y 1 3 . 1 99 .

A merican 1 3 .

Herba ceous 1 3 .

Indian 1 3 .

tree 1 3 .

R ed Sil k tree 1 5 .

203 . 2 1 1 . 2 1 2 .

\V11 ite Silk tree

1 6 . 2 1 2 .

Crassu lacea ; 59 .

Creeper, Moon 89 .

N eed le 89 .

Goat’ s Foot 90.

Cfinum

2 6 6

Crin um ensifol ium 1 5 7 .

Crota laria j uncea 3 8 . 3 9 .

ret usa

Croton p la nt s 1 25 . 2 3 4 .

Cruc ifers!) 1 1 . 2 58 . 2 7 1 .

Cryptogamw 1 82 .

C uc umberFam ily 72 . 2 0 1 .

208 . 2 6 9 .

C ucum is sativus 7 2 . 7 6 .

me lo 7 7 .

Cucurbita m axim a

pepo 7 6 .

umbra cul ifera

asiatic um 1 54.

2 3 9 . 2 55 . 2 56 . 258 . 2 6 4 .

IN DEX

Cucurb itaceae 7 2 .

Cudweed , Ind ian 70.

Cupressus g l auca 1 8 1 .

Curc uligo orchioides 1 57 .

Curc uma angust ifol ia 1 6 5 .

longa 1 6 5.

Custard-A pp le Fam il y 5 .

tree 5 . 205 .

254 . 2 6 8 .

Cya thea 1 86 .

Cypress, Goa 1 8 1 .

pilul ifera 1 2 5 .

t iruca l l i 1 2 5

E uphorb ia ceae 1 2 2 . 2 02 .

Evolvulus a lsinoides 9 0.

Exacum b icolor 7 9 .

E c l ip ta a l ba 7 2 .

Ede lweiss,Cha t 6 8 .

E lder 2 1 9 .

D aem ia extensa 85 .

Da h l ia varia b ilis 7 2 .

D a isy,A ustra l ian 7 2 .

Da lberg ia la t ifo l ia 3 8. 3 9 .

Damma r, Wh ite 1 8. 247 .

Datura stram onium

Dava l lia 1 86 .

Dendrob ium barba tu l um

1 6 3 .

Dendroca lamus giganteus1 7 7 .

Desmod ium 3 8

7)

2 3 3 I 2 3 4 .

D icoty ledons l . 202 . 2 3 8.

2 45 . 2 46 . 26 9 .

D ioscorea 3 3 .

a la t a 1 58.

sa t iva 1 58 .

D ioscoreaceee 1 57 .

D iospyros embryOpteris

2 3 3 .

D ipteroc arpeoe 1 8 .

Dogbane Fam il y 7 9 .

Dol ic hos bifiorus 3 0.

Dragon tree 1 5 3 .

Drosera ind ica 9 9 . 1 00.

Burma nnii 9 9 .

D uckweed , common 1 50 .

E leph ant C limber 85 .

E leph antopus scaber 7 1 .

206 . 2 4 3 .

E lettaria1 65 .

E leusine coracana 1 7 5 .

E mil ia sonch ifol ia 7 1 . 207 .

Entada scandens 4 3 . 2 3 9 .

Epi

iph y tes 1 3 1 ,E riocau lonaceee 9 9 .

Cardamomum

Eriodendron an l'

ra c tuo

sum 1 6 .

Ery thrina indica 3 9 .

Euca l yptus g lobul us 49 .

2 1 2 . 249 .

E uch aris grandifiora 1 57 .

E ugenia caryophyl l ata 49 .

corymbosa 4 9 .

j am bolana 48 .

ma l acccnsis 49 .

zey l anica 48 . 49 .

E uphorb ia n ivul ia 1 25 .

1 26 .

F erns 1 82 . 2 3 3 . 2 4 3 .

Water 1 87 .

F icus a sperrim a 205 .

benga lensis 1 1 5

carica 1 1 9 . 1 20.

glomera ta 1 1 9 .

rel ig iosaF ig Famil y 1 1 5 .

tree, c ultivated 1 1 9

1 20. 2 6 7 . 2 7 5 .

Country 1 1 9 .

li‘

il iccs 1 82 .

F issidens 1 9 0.

F l a courtia sepia ria 2 4 3 .

1 9 9 .F lax , common 20 .

2 88 . 2 5 3 .

A sh-coloured7 1 .

‘

Tleabane,

Purp le 7 1 .

F lowering P lants 1 .

F lowerless 1 82 .

Four-o’c lock p lant 24 1 .

G amopeta lae 60. 256 .

Garcinia indica 1 8 .

morel la 2 3 3 .

Garckea 1 90.

Gardenia 6 3 .

Garlic 1 53 .

Gea ster 1 83 .

Gentiana ceae 7 9 .

Geraniaceee 2 1 .

Ginger Famil y 1 6 3 .

p lant 1 6 3 . 2 4 3 .

G ingily 1 03 . 205 . 2 1 9 .

G leichenia 1 85.

G loriosa superba 1 50. 202 .

208 . 2 3 5. 258. 2 60.

2 6 3 . 2 72 .

Glory L i l y 25 3 .

2 55 .

Gna p ha lium indicum 70.

7 1 .

Gol d Mohur t ree 4 1 . 2 24 .

Gooseberry , Ca pe 9 5 .

Hil l 50.

Gossypium arboxeum 1 3 .

Barbadense 1 3 .

herbaceum 1 3 .

Gourd Fam i l y 7 2 .

Bot t le 7 7 .

common 7 6 .

Snake 7 7 .

Squash 7 6 .

Gram ,Benga l 3 9 . 2 1 9 .

Green 3 9 .

Horse 3 0.

26 8.

Gram ineae 1 6 8 . 26 4 .

Grape Vine 2 2 . 2 3 5 . 24 1 .

IN DEX

Grass Famil y 1 68 . 202 .

Ground N ut 3 9 .

Guava 48 . 255 . 257 . 2 6 7 .

Gut tiferfe 1 8 .

Gymnosperms 1 8 1 .

I mpa tiens ba lsam ina 2 1 .

c h inensis 2 1 .

Kleinii 2 1 .

Indigo p lant 3 9 .

Indigofera tinctoria 3 9 .

I nfiorescences cymose 26 5.

racemose 26 4 ,

Iris 2 54 .

Ixora coccinea 6 2 . 201 .

2 3 9 . 258. 2 6 6 .

Ixora scarlet 6 2 .

Kandel ia R heedn 55 .

Knolkohl 1 3 . 2 3 2.

Korukapu l i 43 .

H abenaria rotundifolia(round -leaved) 1 58. 2 2 3 .

Ha zelnut 2 7 2 .

Heliant h us annuusH emidesmus ind icus 85 .

202 .

Hem p p lant 1 2 2 .

S unn 3 9 .

H epa ticee 1 90.

Herbs 2 3 9 . 25 1 .

Hevea brasil iensis 1 25 .

Hibiscus escu lentus 1 5 .

mutab ilis 1 6 .

rosa sinensis 1 5.

26 1 . 26 4 .

sabdarifia 1 6 .

schizopeta lus 1 6 .

Hippocra tea Grahamn

2 3 5.

H og P l um tree 29 .

Hopea parviflora 1 8. 240.

W igt iana 1 8. 2 7 4 .

Hordeum1 7 5 .

Horse Gram plant 3 0. 201 .

204 . 207 . 2 3 2 . 2 3 4 .

Hydrocot y le 202 203,

242 . 2 5 1 .

H ydrOpterides 1 87 .

H ygrophila Spinosa 1 03 .

hexastichum

Hygroph y tes 2 1 2 .

Hymenop h y l lum 1 86 .

H yopbila 1 90.

2 6 5 .

Ionid ium1 8.

I pom fea ba ta tas 89 . 2 2 3

b iloba ta 90. 2 3 5 .

bon-nox 89 . 2 6 6 .

2 6 9 .

suffruc ticosum

J ack tree 1 20. 203 . 204 .

206 . 2 3 3 248 . 2 6 7 .

J amoon 48 .

Ja smine Fam il y 7 8. 257 .

26 4 . 2 6 6 .

J a sminum rigidum 7 8.

sambac 7 8 .

J a tropha curcas 1 2 5.

mu l tifida

J uj ube 202 . 208. 2 3 3 .

J usticia gendarussa 1 03 .

procumbens 1 03 .

L ab ia tae 1 03 . 205. 2 3 3 .

2 3 9 . 253 . 258.

2 6 6 . 2 6 7 . 2 72 .

L aburnum ,Indian 40.

L ac tuca sa t iva 7 1 .

L ad ies’ Fingers 1 5 . 2 1 6 .

2 7 5 .

L agenaria vulgaris 7 7 .

1 9

290 I ND EX

L agerstrmmia flos reginae50. 2 6 8 . 2 7 1 .

L amium a lbum 1 05 .

L antana a cu lea ta 1 1 3 .

ind ica 1 1 3 . 2 2 3 .

2 3 6 . 2 48 .

L aunea pinna tifida 7 1 .

L a uraceae 1 2 8 .

L a urel Fam il y 1 2 8 .

true 1 3 0.

L aurus nobil is 1 3 0.

L avender 1 09 .

L awsonia a lba 50.

L eek 1 5 3 .

L eguminosa} 2 1 1 .

2 6 7 . 2 7 1 .

L emna g lobosa 1 50.

L emnaceae 1 50.

L em on 1 9 .

L ent ibularia ceee 9 6 .

L epidaga this prostra ta1 03 .

L ettuce 6 6 . 7 1 .

L eucas a spera 1 04 . 2 1 2 .

L iana s 85. 87 . 240.

L ich ens 1 9 3 .

L il iaceae 1 50. 202 . 206 .

2 55 .

L il ium cand id um 1 5 3 .

L il y,E uc h aris 1 57 . 209 .

2 56 .

G lory 1 50 ,

Snake 1 49 .

Thunder 1 57 .

W h ite 1 5 3 .

L ime, sour 1 9

sweet 1 9 .

L im nanth em um ind icum7 9

L imnophytum 20"

L inc io 20 . 203 .

L inum usitatissim um 20,

Mara nta a rundina ceze 1 6 5 .

L iq uorice , w il d 3 9 . Mara ntaceio 1 6 5 .

L iverworts 1 9 0. Ma rgosa tree 2 2 .

L oganiaceae 7 8.

L 0phospermnm scandens2 3 5 .

L orant liaceae 1 3 1 .

L oranthus l ageniferus1 3 4

longiflorus 1 3 1 .

1 3 4 . 2 75 .

L ot us,Egypt ian 5 .

S a cred 5 .

V Va ter-L il y

2 1 0. 2 2 1 . 2 52 .

2 55

L uffa. a cutangula 7 4 . 7 7 ,

203 . 2 3 6 .

L c persic um escu lentum9 5 .

L ycopodiaceae 1 87 .

L ygodium 1 85 .

L ythraceze 50.

M acaranga ind ica 1 2 5

Ma dar 83 . 26 8 . 2 7 1 .

Ma idenh a ir F ern 1 82 .

Ma ize 1 6 9 . 2 1 0.

2 6 9 . 2 7 2 .

Ma l low Fam il y 1 3 .

Ma lva ceae 1 3 . 202 . 2 56 .

257 2 6 4 . 2 7 2 .

Mangifera ind ica 2 3 .

Mango Fam il y 2 3 .

t ree 2 3 . 20 1 . 202 .

"05

2 28 9 3 3 . 2 4 1 .

2 46 .

2 7 2 . 2 7 5 .

Mangrove Fam ily 5 1 .

2 2 3 .

Manihot G la z iovn 1 2

Iv

I

Oh—t

5 .

util issim a 1 25 .

Marigol d 7 2 .

Marj oram 1 09 .

Marking N ut,Ind ian 2 9 .

Marsilia 1 87 .

Ma rvel of Peru 1 28.

Melastoma ma laba thri

cum 50.

Mela stomaceae 50.

Mel ia indica 2 2

Mel ia ceae 2 2 .

Melon,common 7 7 .

W'

a t er 7 7 .

Memecylon ed u le 50.

MeteriO psis 1 90,

Meyenia erec ta 1 03 .

Mil let , l ndian 1 7 5

I ta l ian 1 7 5 .

L it t le 1 7 5 .

Mil kweed Fam il y 82 .

Mimosa Fam il y 3 0. 4 1 .

pud ica 4 3 .

M im oseae 3 0. 4 1 .

Mint 1 09 .

Mirab ilis d ic h otoma 1 28 .

2 4 1 .

Mist letoe Fam il yMomord ica charant ia 7 7 .

203 .

Monoch l am ydeae 1 1 5 . 2 52 .

Monocoty ledons 1 3 6 . 20 1 .

2 3 8 . 245 . 26 9 .

Morinda critifol ia 6 3 .

Moringa 204.

Morus ind ica 1 2 1 .

Moss,Ha ir 1 88O oty 70.

Mosses 1 87 . 1 90 .

C lub 1 87

Mou ld s 1 9 1 .

Mucnna pruriens 2 6 8.

Mu l berrv 1 2 1 . 2 6 7 .

Murraya Kmnigii 20.

Musa pa rad isia ca 1 6 5 .

sapient um 1 6 7 .

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292

P innay O il tree 1 8.

Piper Betle 1 3 6 .

P iper nigrum 1 3 4 .

P ipera ceee 1 3 4.

Pist ia stra t iotes 1 49 .

P isum sa t ivum 3 9 .

Pithecolob ium du lce 4 3 .

sam an 4 3 .

P lanta in 1 6 5 . 2 3 8 .

P lum tree 48 .

P l umieria acu t ifol ia 82 .

Pogona tum 1 90.

Poinc iana regia 4 1 . 44 .

24 1 . 2 55 . 2 56 .

2 6 5 .

Poinsettia pulcherrima

1 26 .

P ol ypeta la: 1 ,

Pol ypodium q uerc ifolium1 3 1 . 1 85 . 1 86 .

Polytric hum commune

1 88 .

Pomegrana te 50. 2 6 8.

Pongam ia 3 8.

P oppy Famil y 7 .

2 57 . 260.

2 7 2 . 2 7 5.

Corn 1 0.

Mexican 1 0.

O pium 7,

Portia tree 1 5 .

Portu laca.

2 7 2 .

Pota to 90. 204 . 207 . 2 1 8.

2 2 3 . 244.

2 5 1 . 2 58 .

Creeper 2 3 5 .

Sweet 89 . 2 2 3 .

Pothos sc andens 87 . 1 49 .

P remna integrifol ia 1 1 3 .

Prick l y Pear 57 .

Pride of Ind ia 50.

l’ sidium G uyava 48 .

P teridophyta 1 87 .

IN DEX

P teris 1 85 .

P ulses 2 9 . 2 3 1 .

P ummelo 1 9 .

Pumpkin 76 .

Punica grana tum 50.

P urging N ut 1 2 5 .

lasiocarpus 48.

moluccanus 48 .

R ungia parviflora 1 03 .

R utaceze 1 8 .

m ucrona ta

Quisqua lis indica 5 1 .

R a dish 1 3 . 2 2 3 .

Rag iRa in Tree 4 3 .

R amphicarpa

9 9 .

Randia 6 4 . 2 4 3 .

Rangoon Creeper 5 1 .

Ra pe 1 3 .

Raphanus sa t ivus 1 3 .

longifiora

Raspberry 48 .

R ed-wood t ree 4 3 .

R hamneae 2 2 .

R haphidO phora

1 49 .

Rh izophora5 1 . 52 .

Rh izophoraceae 5 1 .

pertusa

R hodomyrtns tomentosa

50.

Rice plant 2 3 8 .

2 3 9 . 2 6 9 . 2 72 .

R icinus communis 1 2 2 .

Rosa canina 46 .

Rosa cent ifol ia. 45 .

R osaceaz 45 . 48.

Rose 45 . 203 . 205. 2 2 3 .

2 3 3 . 25 3 2 55 .

2 6 3 .

c h angeab le 1 6 .

doub le 45.

H edge 46 .

F am il y 45 .

Rose-A pple 49 .

Rosel le 1 6 .

Rosemary 1 09 .

Rosewood 3 9 .

Rubber Tree , Ceara 1 25 .

2 48.

P ara 1 25 .

R ubiaceaa so. 202 . 205 .

Rubus el liptic us 47 . 48

248 .

S acc h arum officinarum

1 75 .

S a ffiower 7 1 .

S a l tree 1 8 .

S a lvia 1 06 . 1 07 . 1 09 .

2 58 . 2 6 3 .

Sanda lwood 1 3 3 .

Santa l um a l bum 1 3 3 .

S a pium insigne 1 2 5. 2 6 5 .

Sarsa paril la,Ind ian 85 .

Savory 1 09 .

S c h izomycetes 1 9 4 .

S c rophularineae 9 9 .

Sedges 2 3 3 .

S elaginel lacem 1 87 . 240.

S emecarpus anacard ium29 .

Sensitive P l ant 4 3 .

Sesamum ind icum 1 03 .

2 57 .

Shankapushpa 3 9 . 2 3 6 .

S hoeflower 1 5 . 204 . 205 .

206 . 2 2 1 . 2 59 .

2 6 1 . 2 6 4 .

Shorea robusta 1 8 .

S hot , Ind ian 1 6 5 .

S id a carpinifol ia 1 6 . 2 7 2 .

cord ifol ia 1 6 .

rhombifol ia 1 6 .

Sil k Cot ton t ree, R ed 1 5 .

203 . 2 1 1 . 2 1 2 .

D o. W h ite 1 6 . 203 .

S irissa tree 4 3 .

S l ipper p lant 1 2 6 .

S milax m acroph y l la 1 53 .

208 .

S mithia 3 8.

S oap nu t A ca cia 4 3 .

S olanaceae 90.

S olanum m elongena 9 4 .

t uberosum 90

xanthoc arpum 9 6 .

S onch us olera ceus 6 6 7 1

S orghum vu lgare 1 75 .

S ow -t h ist le 6 6 . 7 1 .

Sphaeranthus ind icus 7 1 .

2 01 .

S p inifex squarrosus 1 7 8.

2 42 .

S pondia s mangifera 2 9 .

S purge Fam il y 1 2 2 . 2 1 2 .

2 42 .

S tach yta rpheta1 1 3 .

S tercul iaceoe 1 6 .

S tereO Sperm um 2 74 .

S trawberry 48.

S trobilanth es 1 03 . 250.

S trychnine tree 7 8.

S tryc hnos nuX vom ica 7 8 .

2 6 6 .

S ugar-cane 1 7 5 .

S undew ,Indian 9 9 . 1 00.

204 .

S unflower 6 4. 72 . 207 .

209 . 2 2 5 . 2 3 4 . 2 55 . 2 56 .

2 58 . 2 6 1 . 2 6 4 . 2 7 2 .

S unflower Ch inese 7 2 .

S unn Hemp 3 9 .

Swert ia c h ira ta 7 9 .

T abernaemontana corona

ria 82 .

Tagetes erect a 7 2 .

Tam arind tree 3 9 .

indica

I N DEX

~Tamarindus ind icus 3 9 .

Ta pioca 1 2 5 .

Taro p l an t 1 4 6 . 20 1 . 2 1 0.

Umbrel la Tree 44 . 2 40.

Urena loba ta 203 . 2 75 .

sinua ta 1 6 .

Urticaceae 1 1 5 . 1 8 1 .

29 3

Utricu laria stel laris 9 6 .

208. 2 1 5 .

Uvaria narum 7 . 2 60.

W a ter-L il y Fam il y 1 . 2 4 3 .

W hea t 1 74 . 257 .

X erophyt-es 2 1 3

Y am F amil y 1 57 . 2 3 6 .

T ea Fam il y 1 6 . 2 1 9 .

sh rub 1 6 .

Teak tree 1 09 . 202 . 2 1 2 .

2 3 9 . 2 50.

Tec tona grandis 1 09 .

Term ina lia panicu la ta 5 1 .

tomentosa 5 1 .

T ernst rcem iaceae l o

Th amnium 1 90.

Theobroma cacao 1 6 .

Thespesia populnea 1 5.

Thorn-app le 9 5 . 9 6 . 22 2 .

2 57 . 2 6 8.

Th unberg iaTh yme 1 09 .

T il plant 1 03 .

Tilia ceae 1 6 .

Toadstool 1 9 2 .

Tobacco plant 9 3 . 2 56 .

2 6 6 .

Toma to 9 5. 204 .

Tra descant ia 2 2 5 .

grandifiora

Tric homanes 1 86 .

Tric hosant hes anguina 7 7 .

Trit icum vu lgare 1 74 .

Trium fet ta 2 75 .

Tu la si,D og

p lant 1 07 . 204 .

205 . 2 72 .

Tumbe p lan t 1 04 . 2 7 2 .

2 7 7 .

Turmeric 1 6 5 . 2 1 0.

T yphonium 202 .

V anda R oxburghu 1 6 3 .

Vanil la planil'ol ia 1 6 3 .

Va scu lar plants 1 88.

Va teria indica 1 8. 24 7 .

Verbenacea!1 09 .

an thelmintica

7 1 .

c inerea 6 6 . 70.

7 1 . 2 7 5 .

V iola odora ta 1 8.

serpens 1 8.

Vernonia

Violaceae 1 8 .

V iolet F am il y 1 8. 26 6 .

Sweet 1 8.

W h ite 1 8.

V igna ca tj ang 3 9 .

Vinca rosea 256 .

2 60. 2 70.

V ine Fam il y 2 2 . 2 4 3 .

Viscum a lbum 1 3 3 .

Vitex negundo 1 1 3 .

V it is quadrangu laris 2 3 .

vinifera 2 2 .

Vit tadenia austra lis 7 2 .

Z an t h oxy lum R hetsa 20.

Z ea ma ys 1 7 5.

Zeph yrant hes rosea 1 57 .

Z ingiber offi c-ina le 1 6 3 .

Zingiberaceae 1 6 3 .

Zinnia elegans 7 2 .

Zizyphus juj uba 2 2 .

The numbers of P lates m enti oned in‘

the text of this bookre fer to the

MA NGA LORE SERE IS

O F

IIIILIIUIIEII PIIITUIIES IIF INDIAN PLANTS ANII TREESF O R O B T E C T L E S S O N S

S ize : 1 4 X 1 6 inches .

These P i ctures have be en drawn from nature and containp erfectly col oured d esigns of the grown-up p lants as w el l as of

their l eav es,blossom

, fruit , s e eds , etc .

,s om e of them in consider

ably enlarged siz e . T he followmg are

A cacia,Banyan

,Chil l i and T om ato

,Choco late , Cinnam on ,

Citron,Co coanut (double sheet) , Coffe e , Cotton,

Ind ig o,L otus

,

Maiz e and S ugar-cane , P lantain, P otato , R adish andR ap e,R ic e and

Whea t T ea,Tobacc o

,Jack

,Mango

,P almyra .

- R egular F low ers,

Irregular F low ers,R oots and S tem s

,

‘

F rui ts,P o l l inati on

,Frui ts

and S eeds,H ors e Gram , T amarind Tre e , P ine -app l e , Custard -app l e

T ulasi P lant,P apaw P lant, Ca shew N ut

, , Guava and P om egranate .

P rices

S ingle she et,1 4 X 1 6 inches , unm ounted each A s. 4/

D o . m ounted on c l oth,w i th ey e lets 8/

D oubl e she e t,28 X 1 6 inches (Cocoanut) , unm ounted 8/

D o . m ounted on c loth,with ey e l ets R e. 1 .

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Celestial Globes

I n two sizes, w ith straight axis

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Relief Terrestrial Globes

Show ing at a glance both the P hysical features

and P ol it ical div isions of the E arth.

ReliefWall Maps

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