ORIGIN OF THE MERINOI

SHEEP .

A PA PER REA D B EFORE THE B OSTON SOCIETY OF N A TURA L H ISTORY .

B Y GEORGE WM . B OND .

IT is strange that the origin of the race of sheep which is most

prized the world over, and of which its native country , Spain ,

is justly proud , should be entirely unknown . In the absence

of knowledge , various theories have been handed down to us .

Some suppose its origin dates too far back to be traced , or that

it is a peculiar race , indigenous to Spain . The more generalbelief is , that it is the result of a cross made by the Moors

with sheep imported by them from A frica y in the eighth cen

tury , and from time to time afterwards , with the native sheep

that they found in Spain . Others believe that i t was created

by crossing the black and colored sheep of Spain , so well knownwhen the Roman Empire was in its glory , with White rams im

ported by the Saracens from the East , in order that they might

have the material required for theirwhite garments .

The idea that it is an indigenous race is based upon the

accounts given by Pliny , Columella, and Strabo , who flourished

at the commencement of the Christian era . They state that

the.

Romans obtained beautiful wool from B oetica , and Turde

tania m Spain , and Tarentum , in Italy. Mr . Youatt , the

most popular modern writer on sheep , in a note upon the

ancient Spanish races , very satisfactorily , I think ,

'

shows that

the wool which Rome in those days obtained from Spain was

that of the colored sheep referred to above . None of the

ancient writers speak of any wh ite wool having come from

that quarter . It is true that Columella tells us that his uncleobtained white rams from A frica , but nowhere speaks of any

white wool of his uncle’

s race having beenimported into Rome .

Nor can Strabo have referred to any such , as he probablydied before the day of the said uncle of Columella . He says

“ Of the races, the M ilesian, Calabrian , and A pulianwere considered

best for us ; and, of these, the Tarentinewere the best. Now, the Gal

lican are the most valuable ; and chief of these, the A ltinates. The

2

white color is the best, as also it is the most useful ; because many th ings

are made from it which cannot be from the others . There are also

other kinds of considerable value, - black and dark - colored , wh ich

abound i n Italy, at Pollentia, in B oetica, at Corduba ; also in A sia,

reddish , which they call eruth rous .

’

B ut there are also other varieties

in this kind of sheep ; for when wild rams of admirable color were

b rought to the city of Cadiz from the neighboring part of A frica, to

be used in gladiatorial exh ibitions, like other beasts, my uncle,M .

Columella, a man of rare talent and an illustrious farmer, purchased

them, placed them in his fields,and put them to h is choice sheep , after

taming them. These first brough t forth hairy lambs, but of the color

of the father, Which afterwards were themselves put to Tarentine

sh eep, and produced rams with a more del icate fleece. From these

again, whatever was conceived retained the softness of the mother, and

the color of the father and ancestors. On this account Columella said,

whatever characteristics there migh t be in beasts returned in a mi ti

gated form through the grandson . To th is proposition I may return .

Therefore, there are two kinds of sheep, soft,and hairy. If you

want white wool, always choose the wh itest males ; since dark are often

born from white ; wh ite are never generated from red or black .

Columella, lib . V11. 1 .

Pliny and Strabo both say that the wool grown in the neigh

borhood of Tarentum and Canusium was the best ; next , that of

A pulia ; and , third , that of M iletus and Laodicea .

Strabo say s , that formerly the best for cloths often were

obtained from Turdetania ; but now that of far exceeding beautycomes from A sia , from the country of the Corax1 , whence breed

ing rams are purchased at a very high price .

*

The sheep of Tarentum were undoubtedly of the Colchican

breed , and were imported by the Greeks when that was a Gre

cian colony . A ccording to Pliny , they were called Greek ; and

Strabo tells us that in Greece the same race abounded , and was

sometimes called Tarentine . The Tarentum wool is describedas long and smooth . The Colchican wool is still beautiful forits whiteness , a quality which must have been appreciated by

the Romans as well for their white togas as for their superiority

The Coraxi were a warlike race, living at the foot of Caucasus, near

Colch is .

3

for receiving brilliant dyes . The A pulian wool , Youatt says ,

was of very short staple . Martin says the Greek sheep were

of two very distinct varieties one had wool smooth and long ;and the other had a short , wavy wool . The first , of great delicacy , which it was difficult to save from degeneracy . These

two characteristics are still found in the wool of different racesof Greece , though little of the Colchican character now comes

from there . The A pulian wool may have been of a race

similar to that which now comes from Salon ica and A drianople ,but more probably like that ofM iletus .

It is not probable that the sheep of Colchis and those of

M iletus and Laodicea were materially different from those now

found in those countries ; and to- day the wools bear about the

same relation to one another in beauty and fineness which they

did when these Roman writers described them . There was , of

course , such difference as should have arisen from the superior

care bestowed upon them, far greater than that bestowed on

sheep in modern times . The practice of clothing the sheep

undoubtedly tended to make the wool finer though , as admitted ,

it made the Tarentine a very feeble race . Experiments in

clothing sheep , made in later times , show both of these same

results . In Young’

s A nnals of A griculture, quoted by

Youatt , it is stated The improvement in regard to the quality of the wool was very great , and fully justifies the accounts

handed down to us by ancient writers of the advantages of

that practice .

Columella describes the wool of Tarentum as fine , long ,

lustrous , and soft . A ll these characteristics it IS reasonable to

suppose the Colchican wool , thus improved, to have possessed .

There is no reason to believe , from any statemen ts of these

writers , that the Roman praises of the Spanish wool referred toany other than the fine- colored wools of that country ,

*or that

any of the wools with wh ich they were familiar equalled in

fineness and beauty that of the merino race. The term beauty

in speaking of wool , is purely relative and is given to that best

See what is before quoted from Columella .

4

known by any people as most perfectly adapted to the uses

they themselves would make of it . Chambon , an oft-

quoted

French author, in 1 8 10 , quotes Daubenton, the distinguished

introducer of the merino sheep into France , as saying that the

wools of that race are the most precious known after those of

Syria . He probably obtained his ideas of the Syrian woolsfrom some of the ancient writers before referred to . Chambon

also excepts those of the Usbeck Tartars , wh ich Olearius says

surpass all others . This Olearius describes as grayish and

long , curled at the ends with little white ringlets , and is nu

doubtedly the same as is now imported on skins , and known

and admired under the name of A strachan fur . This shows

how little reliance can be placed on comparative statements

made at a time and under circumstances with which we are not

familiar .

The next theory , and th at most generally accepted , is that

the merino race was introduced by the Moors , by importingrams fi om A frica . Th is view is held by such distinguished

writers as Lasteyri e, Tessier , Weckhei lin , Elsner , Janke ,

Martin , Sanson , Moll , and Youatt ; but it is generally admitted

that no sheep of A frica have been known which had woolresembling the merino , and many of these writers th ink that

these rams were imported to improve the Churros , or coarse

sheep of Spain . M 0 11 and Guyot say It is neverthelesstrue , that the A frican sheep has never shown in its fleece , woolfine and extra fine , the essential qualities of the merinos of

Spain . On the other hand , it is very similar to the wool of

the Churros sheep ; and much of the common wool of Spain

at this day so closely resembles the wools of Morocco that it

requires an expert to distinguish them . Still , it is impossibleto say , that , under a new climate, crossed with the Tarentine

sheep carried to Spain by the uncle of Columella , who is the

first person recorded as havmg 1mported A frican rams , the

beautiful merino race may not have been produced but such a

result is contrary to the convictions of nearly all those who

have studied the progress of development of sheep races .

Youatt and oth er writers admit that th is_was a very feeble race .

5

It is thus seen that th ere is no evidence to support the first

proposition ; viz . , that the merino is a race indigenous to Spain ,

and further , that , in the absence of such evidence , nearly all the

recognized authorities in such matters have come to the con

clusion that it is a race which was created by the A rabs ; al

though all who refer to the character of the A frican sheep

admit that no race has been known in that country which pro

duced wool with the characteristics of the merino , and no one

adduces any evidence to prove such an origin , while some of

the most distinguished admit that there is no such evidence .

There is an old legend to the effect , that , when the A rabs

first came to Spain , finding there nothing but black and coloredsheep , and wanting white wool for their shawls , they importedwhite rams from the East to cross with them . The A rabian

sheep were known to be covered with a very coarse hair ; and

th is theory of the origin of the merino seems to have found

few advocates .

E . Martin , a French writer ,— in what year I cannot tell ,as his book bears no date , —shows the reasonableness of this

theory among others , and I therefore transcribe it .

These details upon the principal varieties of the common race of

Europe are sufficient to assign to it a medium rank between the races

whose fleeces resemble hair and the Spanish race called merino, which

is particularly distinguished from all others by the abundance and

beauty of its wool . This race—of which the origin is unknown, and

which we shall call the Spanish race, because the date of its existence

in this country goes back certainly to the M iddle A ges presents in the

form of its head and the size of its bones sufficiently striking resem

blance to the races of A frica and A sia for it to be regarded as prob

able‘

that it has the same country as these races, and that it was only

transported into Spain in the progress of civilization and commerce, at

an epoch the record of which has not been preserved.

This opinion- which is very generally spread without any author

having b rough t sufficient evidence to prove it, and which some persons

combat, observing that they have no knowledge that there exists in

A frica or A sia any similar race—we may regard as very probable

from various considerations connected with this subject, wh ich we prooecd to state .

6

The people who inhabited A siaM inor,and who had carried all the

industrial arts to the highest degree of perfection, possessed, even

before the rise of civilization with the Greeks, different varieties of

sheep, whose wool was of a very h igh price, and employed to manu

facture the most beautiful tissues . These varieties,which were trans

ported in to Greece at the epoch of its civilization, penetrated soon into

the southern parts of Italy, where the Greeks had established manycolonies ; and, as they had been nourished th ere for many ages at the

epoch when the dominion passed to the Romans , these last designated

under the name of the Greek race the particular race of sheep which

they found in the Greek colonies of Italy.

The'

Greek race comprised two very distinct varieties, as before

quoted . The one bore a wool glossy and long ; the other, short and

crimped or undulated . The first, of great delicacy, wh ich it was diffi

cult to prevent from degenerating, was kep t constan tly covered, and

requ ired mul tipl ied and minute care ; the second demanded equal ly

great care , although it was not customary to clothe it, and it could

only be kept with advantage in the best cultivated pastures . Far

more exacting, it required choice pastures, and fodder composed of

cultivated grasses ; and it was only by the aid of the mos t select

nourishment. its degeneracy could be prevented .

Th is variety, of which the wool was undulating and very fine, had

a thick - set body with a considerable weigh t under a smal l volume, and,

as far as we can judge, presented the strongest traits of resemblance

with the race that is called tod ay the Spanish . A ll th is makes it

credible that it should be the primitive source of the merino ; and that

it is the original race of A sia wh ich the Greeks went to find in . Col

chis, whence they brough t their rams during many ages, and wh ichthe Romans finally called the Greek race, and which has preserved

itself in the pastures of Spain without experiencing any remarkable

change .

if

The certainty wh ich one has that a similar race existed formerly in

A sia , in Greece, and in Italy, and the proof that one has that it also

existed in Spain, whence the Romans brought for a long time rams,

andkwhere it had without doubt been transported by the Tyriansfl

'

renders the Opinion extremely reasonable wh ich considers the Spanish

Martin here confounds the races ; for that wh ich he says resembles the

Spanish race, evidently was not th e Colchican, but the A pulian , which more

resemb led the Milesian or Laodicean.

1“ Of this we find no evidence .

race the same as this ancient race of which we speak ; and th is opin

ion wil l not be less probable when, instead of referring the introduc

tion of the merino in Spain to the epoch of the commercial powers of

the nations, we trace it only to the times of the A rabs . There would

be nothing astonish ing in effect if that race, which in consequence of

the devastations of barbarians was extinguished in Greece and Italy

and in all of the countries of Europe which possessed it, should have

been preserved yet some time in A sia, its first birthplace, and should

have been transported into Spain by the A rabs when they established

their rel igion, their arts, and their customs in that country.

”-Martz

'

n,

B étes c‘

l Lame, p . 36.

Heinrich Janke expresses the same opin ion , if any thing more

strongly ; ale but neither give any evidence in support of this

theory .

M . Payéré de Cére , who was a distinguished agriculturalistemployed by the French government in 1808 to bring 600

merinos to Spain , in a

.

note to h is history of that importation ,

says , as evidence against their having been introduced by the

Moors , One circumstance wh ich has been recorded by his

torians destroys all probab ility of this supposition , in apprising

us that in the n inth cen tury the caliphs of Persia and A frica sent

to Charlemagne a quantity of Span ish wool , as a present

worthy , on account of its extreme beauty , to be offered to a

great prince .

”

So far from this being an argument against it , it seems to be

in its favor. The Moors may ,then , for a century , or nearly

that time , have established and have been improving the race

and the excellence to wh ich in that time they had brought the

it Now,had the Moors b rough t here from the East the fash ion of wh ite

clothing, wh ich was made of the wh ite wool of A rab ia and Southern A sia, i t is

not surprising that they should h ave endeavored to change to wh ite the black

sheep that they found all over Spain ,tha t they m igh t in th is coun try fur

n ish themselves with their accustomed wh ite mantles . So it must have been the

Moors who, by importing white rams from the East, in troduced white woo l into

Spain, and thus a t the same time, th rough th is crossing , have laid the founda

t ion of the nob le race of merino sheep, wh ich has p rocured for th is land in

modern times such marked ce leb rity—Transla ted from Der Woolproduw

tion unserer Erde, &c ., von Heinrich Janke, B reslau, 1864, p . 50.

8

fibre would for its novelty have made it more likely to have

been selected for a present to the greatest ruler of the age .

In less than half a century from the introduction of mermos

int-o Saxony , an improved race was established , which Spainnever equalled .

In the absence of direct evidence , perhaps some facts which

can be weighed in the scales of modern “

science may help to

elucidate this long - vexed question .

Darwin , in his work on A n imals and Plants under Domesti

cation ,

”speaks of the Mauchamp race of sheep in France as

an accidental race . It originated from a hairy lamb wh ich ,

when its first hair was shed , had a long silky fleece , with very

few undulations and of great brilliancy . Having often heard

of the birth of. such hairy lambs in merino flocks in various

localities , I concluded that there must be some general cause forsuch offspring , and that Mr . Graux

’s was not an accidental case ;

but one under some general law , and therefore not properly tobe called accidental . Such lambs are generally regarded as

monsters and valueless and to Mr . Graux alone , in his day , is

due the honor of having persevered in the creation of a new

race. To all sheep naturally belong the double covering of

hair and wool . The merino sheep is undoubtedly an an imalwh ich , by some accidental or intentional treatment , has lost itshair. Traces of it are almost always to be found in the foetal orinfant state , but it is generally lost before the third month of

its existence and it is said that , when such sheep are carried into

the Torrid Zone , that after a few generations , if neglected , theylose their wool‘ and regain their hair .

* It is therefore not at all

unnatural that at times lambs should be, born which retain it ;

especially if it should be found that , from one ancestral type ,however remote , they were in a great degree entitled to it .

M . Lefour, a recent French writer on the sheep, thus describes

the Mauchamp , and gives his testimony to the frequent occur

rence of such hairy lambs

In Darwin,A nimals under Domestication,

i . p . 124,

“ Dr. Nicholson of

A n tigua informs me, that after the third generation the wool disappears from

th e whole body , except over th e loins, and the animal then appears like a goat

with a dirty door-mat on its back .

”

10

age, 50 kilograms ; the y earlings, 40 to 45 kilograms ; the ewes. 30 to

35 kilograms . The rendition of the wool in grease, is five to six for

a hundred pounds live weigh t, producing th irty- three per cent of mer

chantable wool .

This wool, which, in consequence of the small quan tity produced,

has not a commercial value, has been sold at 7 to 8 F . per k ilogram,

washed 0 11 the back . The peculiar cha racter of the Mauchamp wool

1s a certain brilliant lustre and a silky touch . It is not completely

straigh t, but presents four to six undulations to th e centimetre . The

fineness of fibre is equal to that of the common merino .

“ The fleece is moderately close, clear, and even- flowing in many

subjects ; the staple is pointed ; and the fleece requires some care lest

it should deteriorate upon the animal . The fibre leaves noth ing to

des ire for elasticity and suppleness ; and in working, it is generally

mixed with oth er wools, and then forms an excellent wool for warps .

Its rendition in combing is h igh , and many manufacturers—MM .

B ietry, Fortier, Davin —have employed it with success, in the manu

facture of shawls and lustre stuffs .— Lefour, Le Mouton

, p. 151 .

To Mr . Davin belongs the credit of having established , bypersevering experiments , the h igh character and value of this

race.

Some time since , a sample of wool was sent to me by a gen

tleman in New York , for an Opinion as to what it really was .

He received it as A rabian wool ; but this was doubted . I at

once saw that it _was such as should grow on A rabian sheep ,

ralsed under favorable circumstances . It had the appearance of

very coarse hair ; but under that was found a straight , s ilkywool , of marvellous beauty , almost exactly resembl ing the woolof the Mauchamp sheep . Th is I stated , and showed to you by

specimens some time since . I have now obtained some skins of

the same race , wh ich are here upon the table , one of wh ich

shows only coarse hair, on a casual observation ; another shows

a little wool ; and the third in some parts appears remarkably

woolly and beautiful, and under the hair of each of them is found

such wool . The wool has .very few undulations , but is exceed

ingly fine fine even as

'

the choicest Saxony and very brilliant :The specimens which have been measured under the microscope

1 116

to of an inch in diameter . I regret that I can

1 1

find no description of the race of sheep from wh ich such skins

come. These skins , I find , known to the t i ade as white

heads , and others known as black heads , are well known to

the leather trade and both kinds frequently come to this port from

the Red Sea . Dr. Fitz inger very accurately describes the blackheads , but says noth ing of the o thers . The white skins are

invoiced Mecca ; ind the b lack , Yemen . A gentleman from

Salem,M r. Emerton , extensively engaged in trade with John

B ertram , Esq , to A den and Zanz ibar, hearing through \ Ir.

Rice , the United S tates A ppi aiser at this por ,t of my inte1 est in

these sheep , very generously , on the suggestion of M 1 . Rice ,

brought out last summer a pair of the Yemen sheep , supposing

it to be the race wanted . They are similar , have the same

coarse hair and fine wool but , coming from a very hot country ,

have but little of it , and frequently lose the wool entirely .

These sheep , with two lambs , are now in the Zoological Garden ,

at Philadelphia , where experiments can be made with them ,

which may prove of great scientific interest .

A s D r. Fitz inger says , there is nothing in their size and form

very d ifferent from the common merinos , except their blackheads, and a great deposit of fat upon the rump and tail .Whether the Mecca (wh ite head) sheep have this same fatty

deposit , I knew not .

In endeavoring to ascertain , from one of our A ustralian Visitors

to the Centennial Exposition , whether any of the l\’Iauchamp

sheep existed in A ustralia , as I had seen lustrous fine woolswh ich came from there , I learned from h im t hat M r . J . L .

Currie , of S t . Kilda , near Melbourne, had from a hairy lambcreated a race similar to what I described the Mauchamp to

be .

I immediately opened a correspondence with that gentleman ,

and herewith present h is letters as strong confirmatory evidence

of the theory that I had founded upon the resemblance betweenthe Mauchamp and the A rabian .

1 2

EILDON , GREY STREET, ST . KILD A (VICTORIA ), Dec . 12,1876 .

GEO . WM . B OND,Esq .

D EA R SIR ,— I have now the pleasure to reply to your letter of

July 20th , and also to intimate that I have handed to BIr. D . Sherry

a small package of samples taken from my flock of s ilky or lustre

merino . You will observe a want of uniformity in the samples, wh ich“

can only be corrected by a long course of careful selection . A mong

them, you will find one from a“ lamb six mon ths old, which is very

similar to the samples you were k ind enough to send me from the

A rab ian sheep and wh ich would, in some degree, bear out the theory

of reversion . Instances are very frequent of lambs, at an earlier age,

having a quantity of coarse hair ; but I do not remember ever having

seen one retain it so long, and to such a marked degree .

The lamb is of the ordinary merino type . I have put it aside for

inspection next shearing time, and will then have pleasure in reportingto you, and sending a sample .

A nd now with regard to the first appearance of the silky type. I

must go back to the h istorical introduction of the merino sheep into

the A ustralian colon ies .

B riefly, th is occurred towards the end of the last century, and the

source from wh ich they were derived was a small flock, presented by

the king of Spain to George III. of England,—I believe the highest

type of the breed .

A few of both sexes were procured, by a Captain M cA rthur, and

introduced into A ustral ia ; and from that source all the best flocks now

in existence in the colonies are sprung .

A bout th irty years ago, I was fortunate enough to procure ten rams,

of very h igh class, from this flock . A fter this, I occasionally observed

cropping out a peculiar sheep , with a brigh t, silvery, delicate- look ing,

lustrous fleece, straigh t and long in the fibre, showing a most marked

peculiarity,— the wool being more l ike del icate, fine, lustrously white ,

silky hair. In classing the ewes for breeding purposes, these were

generally rejected, on account of their delicate a ppearance and sup

posed del icate constitution . A t last it occurred to me that it migh t be

worth while to see if any thing could be made of them ; and, about ten

years since, on the appearance of a ram with this characteristic very

decidedly marked, I collected a few ewes, and put h im with them .

The samples sent are from the progeny of this coupling.

The result, so far, has been the establishment of a breed with very

marked characteristics; viz . , a long, lustrous, straigh t wool, a heavier

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15

larity between my lustre and the M auchamp, that one particular ewe

of mine migh t have stood for the picture of the Mauchamp ewe in the

A merican Cultivator wh ich you sent me,so striking is the likeness .

J . L . 0 .

ST . KILD A ,Nov . 1

,1877.

GEO . WM . B OND ,Esq .

DEA R SIR , I herewith send you some sample locks of wool , which

I doubt not will be of some in terest to you ; also, an extract from a

late paper, giving information about the introduction of the merino into

A ustralia . I hope ere long to be able to send you a full h istory. Hav

ing shown my correspondence with you to a gentleman here well qual

ified, he has undertaken to collect all the information on the subject,with a view to having placed upon record an event of such importance,

and which has proved th e foundation of the material wealth and prog

ress of A ustral ia . I procured a good deal of information , wh ich I

intended for you ; but, on showing it to him,he asked me to let him

have the use of it for a time.

If he carries out his intention, I will forward you the complete work

if not, I will send you what was intended for you, and which I have

referred to in a previous letter.

I have been moving about very much of late, and have mislaid your

last letter, which I consequently cannot reply to, and in wh ich I think

there was some query requiring an answer. I have an impression that

it had reference to the lustre sheep, and the origin of my flock on the

female side .

With regard to the lustre, the experiment is little more than com

menced ; for, though the original ram showed the character in a marked

degree, I had to select ewes for h im, many of wh ich showed little

beyond having unusual length of staple . On both _ sides, male and

female there is yet the disturbing influence of throwing back ; and th is

can only be set righ t by time and care . The basis of all sheep-in

A ustralia, excepting the pure descendants of the Spanish introduced

byM cA rthur,— amounting, I believe, to not more than a few thousands,—is the Spanish merino ram upon the nondescript ewe imported from

here, there, and everywhere, about the end of the last century. I

have an impression that in your last letter you asked for information

on this point . I regret that nothing has been seen of the hairy lamb .

If in existence, he must have turned up during the shearing, just aboutfinish ing.

I send you under separate cover a photograph of the best style

16

of A ustralian merino ram. He was sold in A ugust last at 270

guineas.

I have sent you various newspapers some time ago, which I trust you

have received ; and you may calculate upon my sending you every th ingon th e subject of the merino sheep and wool that appears to me to be of

any consequence .

I am, dear sir, y ours faithfully,

JOHN L. CURRIE .

The reference to the A rabian sheep as the supposed parent

type , in the absence of more exact knowledge of the sheep itself,is based upon the wool alone , and may not be conclusive ; but itdoes render it not improbable that the A rabs imported these or

similar sheep into Spain . A s before stated , the skins here shown

have varied proportions of wool and hairs . It is possible thatthe A rabians , in the days of their glory , may have , like the

Tarentines , taken such care of their sheep as to have cultivatedthe wool to an extent entirely to overcome the hair . That , at

an early date , they did clothe their sheep , there can be no doubt

for Pliny says that the best coverings which the Tarentines

had were the same as were common with the A rabs . A t all

events , migh t not such a cover, if used , have rendered the hair

unnecessary for the comfort of the an imal , and consequently intime it have been lost .We do not know whether this Mecca sheep has the fat deposit

on the rump , &c . If it had , it would be noth ing strange if,

when the sheep lost the hair which had been its outer protec

tion , this oily matter should have been diverted to the skin , to

furnish the abundant supply of yolk ; which , with the merino

sheep , forms a crust that renders the fleece impervious to water

and dampness ; and , according to Elsner , enables it to exist in

all climates .

*

In a note to a report of a Commission of the Société Royaleand Centrale d’

A griculture, upon A rgali and fat- tailed sheep ,

p . 18 , it is stated , The deposit of fat 18 said to be a provision

against times of short nourishment ; and , on 1 emoving the sheep

to where this IS unnecessary , it becomes obliterated .

9" Die Vaterlandisehe Schafzucht, p . 2 .

17

In Darwin ,i . 124 , Pallas says , The fat - tailed Kirghiz ian

sheep , when bred for a few generations in Russia , degenerate ,

and the mass of fat dwindles away .

S ince some of the correspondence with M r . Currie has been

published , I have heard of several instances of hairy lambsamong

‘

choice merino flocks in this country .

I present these facts and theories for your consideration ,

hOping that it will lead to further investigation and study of the

subject , not alone for its interest in determining the origin of

the merino race , but also , if proved , as one of the most interest

ing evidences on record of the tendency of animals to reversion

to an ancestral type , however remote it may be . A s , if the

merino was indeed descended from the[

A rabian ,these re

peated cases of A tavism among them (showing that to have

been their origin ) go back eleven centuries , and for an untoldnumber of generations of so short - lived an animal as the sheep ;

such a number with the human race would probably reach

back beyond the date given for the creation in the chronologyof the Mosaic record .

Nor is it alone in a scientific View that the evidence here pre

sen ted is in teresting . It shows that all these many years our

sh eep-

growers have had the means of improving their flocks ,

which th ey have overlooked and thrown away , when they have

slaugh tered lambs which apperead to them unsightly . Mr .

Currie tells that he had done so for years and, when at last hetried the capability of his hairy lambs , he produced a race so

fully recognized as superior to any other in‘ A ustral ia that at

the annual sale of rams at Melbourne , in 1876 , one of his lustrerams sold for 355 guineas ; and , in 1877, one for 270 guineas ,

and the whole twenty- five which he offered , brought an average

price of n inety- four guineas fifteen shillings . The average for

1876 was sixty- nine guineas fifteen sh illings . No other flock

approached these prices .

ale

These probab ly were not all of the lustre merino .

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[From the Proceedings of the B oston Society of Natwra l Hi story ,

Vol . XII, D ecember 2,

SOME OB SERVA TIONS ON THE FA UNA OF MA DEIRA .

B Y FR A NCIS HffiRI‘OWN , M .D.

We h ave In the Library of the Natural History Society but few

references to th e Fauna ofMadeira and the islands lying in its neigh

borhood ; and until th e present year , we h ave had no specimens

from th e island in our cabin ets . I therefore propose to give some of

the results of investigation by naturalists wh o h ave resided in , or

h ave visited th e islands , as well as those listswh ich are at my com

mand, of the animals in the various departments of Zoology .

Perhaps no region distant from th e usual route of tourists h as been

so thorough ly worked up as Madeira, for it h as been for many years

the resort of invalids, especially from England , and many of these

being scien tific men ,h ave passed a part of th e hours of their com

pulsory tarry on the island in study ing nature ; and though our own

library is destitute of works on the subject , very many h ave been

written on it , and can be found in th e libraries of th e Old World .

Th e situation of the Island of Madeira renders th e nature of its

fauna, as well as of its flora , somewh at an equivocal one . B eing in

lat . 32° north of the Equator, it lies between the temperate and trop

ical regions , and its animals are ty'

pical of both ; those, in fact, of the

countries bordering on the Mediterranean basin , both of Europe and

A frica , and of the Canary Islands . Situated , moreover , at a distance

of nearly four hundred miles from the A fi'ican coast , it possesses but

few species wh ich are pecul iar to th e island itself.

Of the M ammalia the number of species is very small ; with th e

exception of some bats , none are indigenous . Th e wild goats and

swine mentioned by early voyagers were undoubtedly introduced by

vessels ; and the same may be said of the rabbit , black and brown rat

and mouse, wh ich are now abundant . Seals formerly abounded on

th e island of Madeira, but are now rarely met with . They are occa

sionally seen on the neighboring islands . Dr. J . E . Gray , consideringthe species the type of a new genus , has given it the name Helio

p haca atlantica . The B ritish Museum contain s specimens of th e

animal .

Of the birds , but one, a wren (Regulus maderenszs Harcourt) , is

peculiar to the island , and this may be found among th e laurels and

arborescent heaths in the least frequented p arts of the island . A c

cording to the list of Mr . Harcourt, wh ich is copied below from the

A nnals and Magazine ofNatural History for June , 1855, about thirty

206 [December 2 ,

ven as breeding in Madeira, and sixty- eight are considered

simply as'

stragglers from the A fi‘ ican coast . A frican and South

A merican birds are frequently brought to the island by ships touching

there, andmany undoubtedly have‘

escaped and been introduced in

B IRDS B REEDING IN M A DEIRA .

Falco tinnunculus Linn . Kestrel .

Falco buteo Linn . B uzzard .

S trix flammea Linn . B arn Owl .

Turdus merula Linn . B lackb ird .

Sylvia rubecula Lath . Redbreast .

Sylvia atricapilla Lath . B lackcap .

Curruca Heinekein Jard . Variety of B lackcap .

Curruca con spicillata Gould . SpectacleWarbler.

Regulus maderensis Harcourt . Wren .

Motacilla boarula Linn . Gray Wagtail .

A nthus praten sis B ech st . Meadow Pipit .

Fringilla butyraeea Linn , Green Canary.

Fringilla carduelis Linn . Goldfinch .

Fringilla petron ia Linn . Ring Sparrow.

Fringill a tintil lon Webb and B erth . B uff- breasted Chaflinch .

Fringilla cannabina Linn . Greater Redpoll or Linnet .

Cypselus unicolor Jard . Lesser Swift .

Cypselus murarius Temm. Common Swift .

Columba trocaz Hein . Long- teed Wood Pigeon .

Columba. palumbus Linn . Ringdove .

Columba livia B riss. Rock pigeon .

Perdix rubra B riss. Red- legged Partridge.

Perdix coturn ix Lath . Quail .Scolopax rusticola Linn . Woodcock .

Sterna hirundo Linn . Tern .

Larus argentatus B runn . Herring Gull .

Puffinus major Temm. Cinereous Shearwater.

Puffinus anglorum Temm . Manks Shearwater.

Puflinus ob scurus Temm . Dusky Petrel .

Thalassidroma Leach ii Temm. Leach’

s Petrel.

Thalassidroma B ulwerii Jard . B ulwer ’s Petrel .

207 [Brown .

‘

STRA GGLERS .

Cathartes percnopterus Temm. Egyptian Vulture.

Falco nisus Linn . Sparrow Hawk .

Falco subbuteo Linn : Hobby Falc'

on .

Corvus corax Linn . Raven .

Corvus corone Linn . Carrion Crow .

Oriolus galbula Linn . GOIden Orl ole.

Sturnus vulgaris Linn . CommonStarling.

Turdus iliacus Linn . Redwing .

Turdus musicus Linn . Common Thrush .

Sylvia horten sis Lath . Greater Petty‘

chaps.

Troglodytes europaeus Selb .

i

CommOn Wren .

Motacilla alba Linn . Pied Wagtail .

A lauda arvensis Linn . Skylark .

Fringilla chloris Linn . Greenfinch or Grosbeak .

Fringilla domestica Linn . Common Sparrow.

Cuculus canoras Linn . Cuckow.

Musaphaga africana Temm . A frican plantain- eater.

Upupa epOps Linn . Hoopoe.

Merops apiaster Linn . B ee- eater.

A lcedo ispida Linn . Kingfisher .

Hirundo urb ica Linn . House Martin .

Hirundo rustica Linn . Clnmney Swallow.

Hirundo riparia Linn . B ank Maftin.

Caprimulgus europaeus Linn . E‘

u’

ropean Goatsucker .

Columba eenas Linn .

Columba turtur Linn . Turtle dove .

(Edicnemus crepitans Temm. Thi ék knee.

Calidris arenaria Il l . Sanderling .

Vanellus cristatus Meyer. Crested Lapwmg .

Charadrius h iaticula Linn. RingedPlover .

Charadr ius pluvialis Linn . Golden Plover.

Strepsilus interpres Leach . Turnstone .

Ciconia nigra Temm. B lack Stork .

A rdea cinerea Lath . Common Heron .

A rdea ralloides Scop . Squacco Heron .

A rdea russataWagler . B uff- backed Heron.

A rdea purpurea Linn . Purple Heron .

A rdea minuta Linn . Little Heron or B ittern.

A rdea stellaris Linn . Common Heron .

208 [December 2,

A rdea nycticorax Linn . Night Heron .

Platalea leucorodia Linn . Wh ite Spoonbill .Limosa melanura Leisler. B lacktailed Godwit .

Numenius arquata Lath . Common Curlew.

Numenius phaeopus Temm. Wh imbrel .Tringa pugnax Linn . Ruff.

Tringa subarquata Temm. Pigmy Curlew.

Tringa variabili s Meyer . Dunlin .

Tringa cinerea Temm. Knot .

Tetanus hypoleucos Temm . Sandpiper.

Tetanus glottis B echst . Greenshank .

Scolopax gallinago Linn . Common snipe.

Scolopax major Temm. Great or Solitary Piper .

Crex B aill onii Temm . B aillon ’s Crake.

Crex praten sis Selb . Land- rail or Corncrake .

Porphyrio A lleni Gray . A llen ’s Porphyrio.

Gallinula chloropus Lath . Gall inule or Waterhen .

Fulica atra Linn . Coot .

A nser segetum Steph . B ean Goose .

Mareca Penelope Selb . Widgeon .

A nas crecca Linn . Teal .

Sterna n igra Linn . B lack Tern .

Sterna Dougallii Mont . Roseate Tern .

Larus tridactylus Lath . Kittiwake.

Lestris cataractes Temm . Skua.

Colymbus glacialis Linn . Northern Diver.

Sul a alba Temm. Gannet or Solan Goose .

Procellaria mollis Gould . White Petrel .Procellaria pacifica A ud . Pacific Petrel .

Th alassidroma pelagica Temm . S tormy Petrel .

Prion brevirostris Gould . Shortbeaked Petrel .

Th e rep tiles of Madeira are very few in number. The gardens

and vineyards are overrun by two or three species of small lizards ,

two of wh ich I noticed to be A meiva sexlineata and Lacerta Dugesiz’

M . Edw . A t the time of the vintage th ese little animals do a great

amount of injury in the vineyards , ofwh ich , assisted by th e rats, they

are said to destroy nearly one- fifth of the produce, following the ripen

ing fruit up the h ills, and making

.

sad havoc among the maturing crops.

Several species of turtle are caught in the waters adjoining the island ,not unlike those frequently seen by voyagers in th is latitude.

Brown ] 210 [December 2,

month s of January and February are chiefly characterized by the

presence, close along the shores, of th e little Guelro (A therina p reshyter or sand smelt of Madeira , of the common Madeiran h er

ring (C lup ea maderensis) and Sardinh a (Clup ea sardina

the last two being captured principally after violent gales and storms ,when the swollen rivers or torrents carry down much mud into the

The following species occur in great profusion ,more or less ,

throughout the year , but still most plentifully in spring and summer,

viz . ; Garoupa (S erranus cabrilla Cherne (Polyprion cernium

Guv . and Goraz (Pagellus centrodoutus B ezugo (P agel

lus acarue Pargo (Pargus B oga (B ox vulgaris

Cav B ocairaO (Smaris Royeri Ranh osaor Tronbeta

(Lich ia glaycos Ch ich arro or Madeiran horse mackerel (Camus:

Cuvieri) ; B odiaO (Scam s mutabilis) ; and A brodea (Phycis mediterraneus The well known John Dory or Peixe Gallo (Z eus

faber and delicate Red Mullet or Salmoneta (M ullus summ

letus are also taken at all seasons , but more sparingly . The

gray mullet or Tainh a is captured very plentifully throughout th e

y ear, but most abundantly perh ap s in June .

”

Of the insects, eleven hundred and eigh ty-six species are found in

Madeira . A synopsis of th e d ifferent genera, as given by Mr . T.

Vernon Wollaston in his notes , and copied by Mr . Wh ite in his h andbook , is inserted below . Only th e Coleoptera, however, have been

th oroughly investigated . In the elaborate work of Mr . Wollaston ,

en titled Insecta Maderensia ,” he describes four hundred and eighty

three species of beetles ; since the publication of h is work , seventy

two new species have been added , raising the entire number discov

ered to five hundred and fifty- five species. Under twelve primary

sections into wh ich h e divides the beetles , are found the following

number of species z— Rhyncophora, 1 1 1 ; B rachelytra , 95 ; Necro

phaga , 94 ; Geodephaga, 66 : Heteromera, 46 ; Priocerata, 40 ; Cor

dylocerata, 45 ; Phytophaga , 23 ; Pseudotrimera , 22 ; Philhydrida, 1 6 ;

Eucerata , 9 ; Hydradephaga , 8 .

Other interesting data regarding the Coleoptera are thus given by

Mr . Wh ite : The type of this section of the Madeiran fauna is in

th e main Mediterranean and it is th ought to have a greater aflinity

to the fauna of Sicily th an that of any other country wh ich has been

h itherto investigated . A sligh t connection with th e beetles of Ireland

can be traced . One of th e striking features of the Coleopterous fauna

of Madeira is th e absence of numerous genera , and even of who le

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Brown . 1 212 [December a,

spider is quite common among the gardens of Funchal . Two or three

species of M griapoda are very common , even infesting the house'

s.

The freshwater and marine shells have been pretty thoroughly

studied , especially by Mr. Lowe,Mr. Watson , the resident clergyman

of the Scotch Church in Funchal , and by the B arone de Paiva, wh o

h as recently pub lish ed a comprehensive treat ise on the Mollusca of

the Island s of the Madeiran Group . Of the land and fresh water

shells Mr. Lowe enumerates one hundred and fifty- five species ; Mr.

Wollaston reduces the number of true species to one hundred and

thirty- two , of wh ich one hundred and eleven are peculiar to th e Ma

deiras ; five are common to th e Canaries ; four‘

to the A zores ; one to

the Guinea Coast ; and eleven to th e south of Europe. Of the whole

number, s eventy- six species belong to the genus Helix , and twenty

three to the genus Pupa.

1

The marine shells h ave been less careful ly studied . Mr. McA ndrews

gives a list of one hundred and fifty- six species of marine testaceous

mollusca which h e obtained whilst dredging for a few days Off th e

coast of Madeira. The genera most largely represented are Tellina,

Cardium, Lucina , Pecten , Hyaloea , Patella , Trochus , Rissoa , M urex

,

M angelia and M itra . The boldness of the shore and the nature of

the bottom render dredging somewh at diflicult ; there are , h owever ,

situations where it can be successfully performed , and it is from

these few points only that th e specimen s have been obtained .

A ppended to th i s article i s g1ven 3.

LIST OF ' B OOKS A ND A RTICLES ON THE FA UNA,FLORA A ND GEOLOGY OF

M A DEIRA A ND THE A D JA CENT ISLA NDS .

B OWDICH (T. E ”) Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo. 4to.

London , 1 8 25 .

DA NA (J. United States Exploring Expedition . Vol . X . 4to.

Philadelphia, 18 29 .

DA RWIN In h is Monograph on the Cirripedia. 8vo . London ,

1 851 .

GOURLA Y Natural History of Madeira. 8vo. London ,1 8 1 1 .

HA RCOURT (E . Notice of the B irds of Madeira. Proceedings

1 Of the Madeiran land sh ells now in th e cab inet of th e Society , .a large number

were giy on to the writer by M rs . Scott of New York , for some month s a resident

of th e island . Mr . Watson possesses a beautiful and ch oice collection of th e land

and fresh water sh ells ; and so does also Sr . J . M . M oniz, a Portuguese gentleman

in th e employ of th e Government . M r. Moniz often h as collections of the sh ells,

as well as the fern s and oth er obj ects of natural h istory of th e island , for sale .

213 [Brown

of th e Zool ogical Society of London for 1851 . A nnals

and Magazme of Natural 'History for July, 1 853 .

HA RCOURT (E . List of th e B irds of Madeira . A nnals and

Magazine of Natural History, June, 1855.

Sketch of Madeira . 8vo . London ,1851 .

Piscium Maderen sium species qumdam novae, etc . Transac

tions of the Cambridge Ph ilosoph ical Society for 1 836 .

LOWE (R. Primitiae et . Novit ies Faunae et Flora: Madeiras’

et

Portus Sancti . 4to . Cantabrigiee , 1 851 .

Synopsis of the Fishes of Madeira. Trans . Zool . Sec. of

London ,II

,1 73 , for 1 841 .

Supplements to same . Ibid .

, III, 1 , 1849, Proceedings of

th e Zoological Society of London , Vols . VII, VIII, XI and

XIV .

Notices of Fishes newly observed or discovered in Madeira

during 1 840 ,’

4 1 and’4 2 . A nnals and Magazine ofNatural

History, 1 st Sen ,XIII

,390 , 1844 .

A n account of Fishes discovered or observed in Madeira since

1842 . Ibid . ,2d Sen ,

X,49 1 852 .

Cataloga s Molluscorum Pneumatorum Insularum Maderen

sium . Proceedings of Zoological Society of London for 1 854.

Various smaller papers in th e Zoological Journal , A nnals of

Natural History and Proceedings of the Zoological Society

of London .

LYELL (SIR CL) . On the Geology of some parts of Madeira .

Quarterly Journal Geol . Soc . Lond ., A ugust , 1854 .

A Manual of Elementary Geology . Ch . XXIX .

M A SON (J . A Treatise on the Climate and Meteorology of

Madeira , etc . 8vo . London ,1850 .

MCA NDREW On the Geographi cal Distribution p f Testaceous

Mollusca in th e North A tlantic and Neighboring Seas .

1 854 .

B A RONE DE PA IV A . Monographia Molluscorum Terrestrium ,Flu

vialum ,Lacustrium In sularum Maderensium . 4to . Lisbon .

SM ITH (J ) On th e Geology of Madeira . Proceedings Geol .

Soc . Lond . , III, 351 , 1 840—41 .

WH ITE (RH) Madeira, its Climate and Scenery . 2d Ed . 8vo .

Edinburgh , 1 857.

WOLLA STON (S . Insecta Maderensia , being an account of the

insects of the islands of the Madeiran Group . 4to. London ,

1 854 .

Brown ] 214 [December 2 .

WOLLA STON (S . Notes on the'

Entomology of Madeira, in the

A nnals and Magazine of Natural History for 1 858 , 1859

and 18 60 .

On the Variat ion of Species . pp . 1 27—1 32 . 8vo. London ,

1 856 .

Catalogue of the Coleopterous insects of Madeira in

lection of the B ritish Museum. 8vo . London , 1857.

WOODWA RD (S . Manual of the Mollusca . pp . 386- 7. 1 2mo .

London , 1854 .

REM A RKS

UPON

CORAL FORMA T IONS IN THE PA CIFIC

WITH

SUGGESTIONS A S TO THE CA USES OFTHEIR A B SENCE

THE SAME PA RA LLELS OF

TH E C O A S T OF S O UT H A M E R IC A .

BY j osEPH P. COUTHo‘

UY .

Ei tracted from Jour B est Soc Nat Hu t , for January , 1342

B O S T O N

TUT T L E D E N N E T T , P R I N T E R S

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Couthouy on Cora l Formations

origin of the wide tracts of chalk and limestone found in van ,

ous parts of the globe the apparent insignificance and in,

sufficiency of the tiny arch itects that construct these singularedifices when compared with th e stupendous results of their

labor all these are points wh ich have long directed to them

th e research es of the geologist, and given rise to a variety of

theories upon the mode in wh ich such innumerable massesof coral have risen from the bottom of ‘4 th e vasty deep.

The inaccurate statements of early voyagers; relative to therapidity with wh ich coral rose to the surface

,seemed to be in

a measure corroborated by the accounts brough t home by

almost every vessel trading to these regions, of new reefs

springing up as by magic,in themost frequented tracks .

Many were in consequence , induced to regard the coral seasas containing th e rudiments of a new continent, wh ich ,

silently but rapidly, rearing itself above the waste of waters,

was destined, at no very remote period, geologically speaking,to equal in magnitude either of those now existing,

Later, and more systematic examination , h owever has

shown that such an inference was deduced fromvery erroneous

premises; B y observations upon_the depth s of channels inwell known harbors

,and the level of reefs in their Vicinity

by the fact that not the sligh test increase of the coral is perceptible on or around anchors and guns cast upon a reef from

a stranded vessel , and known to have remained undisturbed for

more than h alf a century—and by Similar means of arriving

at an approximation to the truth ; it is now ascertained that

the growth of coral is exceedingly slow .

* The lapse ofmany

I am incli ned to bel ieve that the incremen t of the branching corals, or at

least of certain species , is much more rapid than th at of the sessde oi' encrustmg

genera ; having observed such shells as Pecten,Lima

,Plicatula and Pedum

, of

an inch and a half in length , completely overgrown by the Polyparia, wh i le

their colors and internal polish were scarcely impaired . These were not lodged

as we frequen tly see A rcae and Mytili, in accidental cavities,but for the most

part imbedded at the divergence of the branches . There are specimens exem

pl ifying th i s, now in my possession, and also in the Society’

s collection , in wh ich

the branches are enlarged, and sometimes deflected by their envelopment of

th ese foreign bodies . The rate of increase in such cases,might be approximate ly

ascertained,by experiments upon the t ime requisite for shel ls of this kind to

attain a size equal to the imbedded specimens , which it is very likely were

lodged upon the corals soon after their expulsion from the parent shell.

in the P acific, (yo.

centuries would be requisite for the construction of a solitaryreef

,and myriads of ages must pass before the lateral growth

of the thousands of scattered islets and shoals could extend

itself so widely as to unite them all in one continuous body .

That so many new islands in those seas,were and are still

discovered by almost every navigator, need not excite our sur

prise if we consider their small extent,in general rendering

them mere specks in the ocean,wh ich

,together with their

sligh t elevation , prevents their being visible more than a few

miles under the most favorable circumstances . B y day theyare often concealed by a veil of mist and cloud

,and I have

myself passed with in three miles of one,whose existence

,

owing to this cause , would never have been suspected had we

not previously been well assured of it . During the nigh t es

pecially, in consequence of their being surrounded by deep,

blue water, vessels may , and do, frequently pass within a very

small distance of such perilous spots Without receiving the

sligh test warning of such proximity .

On this subject the facts stated by intelligent , though un

scientific observers,are entitled to our respect and considera

tion,whatever may be our opinion of the inferences they

draw from them.

The Rev . John Williamsf“ late missionary from England

to the South Seas, had bestowed much attention upon the sub

ject of coral formations, among wh ich he spent about sixteen

years of h is valuable life. In h is “ Narrative of MissionaryEnterprise in the South Seas

, p. 49, (l st A m . Ed . ) he oh

serves,“ the rapidity of the coral growth has been egregi

ously over- rated and over- stated . You seldom find a piece

of branching madrepore, of brain, or of any other coral,how

ever deep in the water, above two or three feet in height .

”

A nd again on p . 50,alluding to the formation of new

islands, he remarks, “ I have traditions of the natives on al

most every subject, especially of their formernavigators,wherein every island wh ich has subsequently been discoveredw ith in

MrW. was barbarously murdered in November, 1839, by the cannibals at

Errumanga , one of the New Hebrides, wh ile endeavoring to Open a communi~

cation with them,for the object of i ntroducing some native teachers from Samoa ,

Couthouy on Cora l Forma tions

a thousand miles, is named but in no one of them is there

any mention of,or reference to

,a newly formed island. I

am familiar with one tradition in which there is a genealog

cal account of the reigning family for th irty generations,

wh ich is equally silent upon the subject of new formations.

”

In conversation w ith Mr .W. at Upolu,one of the Samoan

or Navigator Group, but a few days prior to h is death , he

stated that on th e reef bordering that island, there were particular clumps of coral , known to th e fish ermen by names de ,

rived from either some particular configuration , or tradition

attach ed to them,and handed down from generation to gene

ration from time immemorial . B y careful inquiry among the

natives he h ad satisfied h imself th at th ese had undergone no

perceptible alteration since the earliest mention of them . The

testimony of the missionaries,and other foreigners, at the

Tahitian and Hawaiian Islands, some of whom had resided

during nearly forty years with in sigh t of the reefs,confirmed,

as far as it went,th e remarks of Mr Williams . Did the limits

of th is communication permit, many other facts migh t be

adduced,corroborative of th e evidence given by these persons

of the extremely slow increase of the living corals but the

point is perhaps now too generally conceded,to render farth er

details necessary in an article like the present . In connection

w ith th is subject of growth , a few remarks, however, upon

some of the th eories respecting recent coral formations,wh ich

have found supporters among men of science, may not be .

misplaced .

Itwas at one time a very generally received Opinion, foundedchiefly upon th e circumstance that a fathomless ocean laved

the very margin of the reefs that th e coral animals com~

menced their labors at an illimitab le depth , and, governed bya certain instinct or impulse, toiled upward to the ligh t, givingto th eir sub -marine structures the peculiar form th ey exh ibit

,

through the same instinct teaching them that it was the best

adapted to afford shelter from the Violence of wave and tem

pest.

Thus,the windward portion of the reef was supposed to be

that first elevated, presenting a perpendicular face to the

in the P acific, &c.

breakers, and shelving away on the opposite side . Protected

by th is wall, it was though t the polypes next constructed their

edifices at some distance to leeward,wh ich at first rose in a

series ofdetached masses arranged in a somewhat circular form .

B ut gradually th e intermediate spaces were filled up and a con

tinuous chain was thus formed,enclosing a deep, bowl - shaped

lagoon , wh ich , in process of time was also filled up by th e

stony dwellings of the polypes .

Fragments of coral, heaped up by W ind and sea, and cementsed together, formed a ridge of two or three feet elevationabove the level ‘

of the surrounding ocean . Multitudes of

marine birds frequenting the rock to deposit their eggs the

exuvia of crabs and shell- fish on wh ich they fed, the sedi~

ments left in hollows by the heavy and frequent rains grade

ually prepared a ligh t soil for th e reception of th e few seeds

wafted th ither by favoring currents or brough t by stray landbirds these sprang up, and by their subsequent decay added

continually to the depth of soil,— a single cocoa- nut perhaps,

cast upon the beach , germinated, and arriving at maturity, its

seeds in a few years were scattered over the island,wh ich

was then fitted for the abode of man .

That th is is the manner in wh ich the once sterile and

weather-beaten ledge of rocks has been h ere gradually cover

ed with the most luxuriant vegetation , there can be no ques

Perhaps no more striking proof of it can be adduced,

A n instance of the rapidity with wh ich even the largest plants multiplyand spread themselves over the soil in these regions , is afi

'

orded'

in Christmas

Is land, an extens ive lagoon is land,s ituated between about 1° 40’ and 2° lO'

North lat . and 157° 10’ and 1570 50! West long . B y the statement of Capt.

C ook , whodiscovered it in‘

l 777, on the cocoa- nut trees upon the island, (the

number of wh ich did not exceed thirty ,) very little fruit was found ; and in

general , what was found was either no t ful ly grown,or had the juice salt or

brackish so that a ship touch ing there mus t expect nothing but birds , fish and

turtle, and of these an abundan t supply may be depended upon .

In 1837, the English wh ale ship B riton was wrecked on this reef,and h er

Captain, George B enson , with his crew of twen tythree persons , remained up

Wards of seven months on the island, from wh ich they were final ly taken by

an A merican W haler. A ccording to Capt . B en son , there were several large

groves of cocoa-nut trees , one of them contain ing between six and seven hun

dred, and the whole number exceeded two thousand,bearing excellent fruit

,

although many trees had been cut down by the whalers occasionally touch ing

Couthouy on Coral Formations

than the fact that the small number of species of plants foundon these islands previous to th e visits of man

,are all those

whose seeds would bear this mode of transportation, without

injury to th e germinating principle , and belong to an almostequal number of orders

,and sometimes of classes

,whose

primeval soils were widely remote from each other.

B ut th ere is noth ing whatever in the appearance of the

reefs,confirmatory of the supposition that the windward por

tion was constructed anteriorly to th e opposite one . They

have both precisely the same level, present similar inequalities

of surface,and an equally perpendicular wall facing the sea .

The only material difference is, that the elevated fragmentarybeach is in general, as migh t be expected , first formed and

h ighest on the windward side.

B ut even th is is not invariably the case . A t Minerva -or

Clermont Tonnerre Island,wh ich is situated on the southeast

ern skirts of the Dangerous A rch ipelago, in about 18° 26"

South lat . and 136° 30’West long ,and whose greatest extent

is from E . S . E . toW. N. W.

,or nearly in the direction of the

S . E . trade wind ; th e northern shore is the more elevated one .

The southern or windward side of th e lagoon is h ere boundedby a low

,naked line of reef rock

,and several small

,detached

islets . A t Ocean Island,in lat . 28 ° 22

’North

,long . 178 0 30

’

West,near the limits of the N. E . trade wind in th e Pacific,

th e h igh est pomts, and th e only ones in fact above water, are

a ridge some three miles long and no where above ten feet

h igh , at the S . E . extremity of the reef ; and two knollsabout a mile and a quarter in circuit

,on the South skirt of

the lagoon. The reef extends from the S . E . ridge, about

eigh t and a half miles to the N. W. in form of an oval whoseshorter diameter is six miles from N. E . to S . W;

On no part of th is extensive reef,is there any thing to show

that one portion of it is of h igher antiquity than the rest,and

it is on all sides washed by an unfathomable ocean. It can

not surprise us that wh ile so little was known of the habits /

there for Supplies . The turtles , however,appear to have been driven away by

th e intruders, as he caugh t but about twenty, of small s ize,during h is long

stay whereas Capt. Cook procured three hundred during h is brief visit .

in the P acific, &c.

of the saxigenous polypes, reefs of this nature were Supposedto be raised by them from a depth like that found outside.

B ut later and more careful investigations of their habits, haveundeniably proved the incorrectness of this opinion. B y the

concurrent testimony of all recent observers, it is now shown,

that instead of inhabiting such profound depth s, th e reef

building polypes require for their development and support, a

certain degree of ligh t and heat,not penetrating lower than

one hundred and twenty, or at the utmost,one hundred and

thirty feet in any part of the ocean . Some indeed have as

set ted less than half that depth to be the limit of growth , butth is can only be true of particular tracts, as I shall have oc

casion to show in another place .

A nother theory, and one ob taining the sanction of some

distinguished names among the geologists of Europe, was

suggested by the circumstance of nearly all the coral islandshaving a lagoon of variable depth in their centre. From th is

peculiarity it was conjectured that the reefs rested upon the

summit of extinct sub -marine volcanoes, whose craters were

represented by the l agoon .

It cannot be denied that th is hypothesis presents many

plausible features, but still there are some knotty and stubborn

facts for which it fails satisfactorily to account. It is true,

that a knowledge of such enormous craters as those on the

summit of Manna Loa in Hawai i , and Haleakala in Maui,

*

which are estimated at twentyfour and twentyseven miles incircuit

, migh t in a measure quiet the doubts of those to whom

the great extent of some of these lagoons, appeared the ch ief

obstacle in the way of assuming their crateric basis . Yet

although it may be possible that some of the lagoon islands

Hawai i and Maui are the two principal islands of the Hawaiian Group . The

great crater on Mauna Loa,here spoken of

,is on the very summit of the moun

tain , wh ich is little less than fourteen thousand feet h igh . It must not be con

founded with that of Ka lua Pele,or Kilauea

,spoken of by Lord B yron, Ellis,

S tewart, and others . Th is latter is on the S . E . flank of the mountain, about four

thousand feet above sea level , and is at present in full activity . No signs oi

action, other than a faint smoke,have been perceived in the terminal crater for

about fifteen years . The great crater of Haleakala, or“ The House of the

Sun ,”also a terminal one, at an e levation of nearly e leven thousand feet, has

been extinct froma period beyond that reached by the traditions of the islanders .

Couthouy on Coral F ormations

having a circuit of twenty, forty, or even eighty miles, arethus based it is rather startling to assert that such amultitudeof submarine craters

,and of such varied and anomalous con

figuration, were grouped together in so small a space as the

coral archipelago of Polynesia not to mention the still greater number that

,if th is theory is correct, must have existed in

other parts of the Pacific,and in the Indian Ocean, where

similar formations prevail to a great extent. There is,I be

lieve,noth ing analogous to this hypothetical huddling togeth

er of craters in any of the present volcanic regions of th e

globe.

“

It is true,that th e Galapagos have been estimated to

contain from fifteen to eighteen hundred craters,of various

magnitude, but nine- tenth s perhaps of these

,are rather to be

regarded as funnels,or ch imnies

,Composed of scoria, or gravel

and ashes,wh ich are constantly crumbling in and becoming

obliterated merely through the action of the weather ; and

could not have been formed under water at all. It is indeed

very probable that at some remote period of the past, the

agency of internal fires may have been much more powerfullymanifested than

l

at a later day, and the vents therefore much

more numerous then than since the earth received its present

form. B ut admitting' that submarine volcanoes once existed

in the number and limited space‘

required by th is theory ;

there are still one ortwo points that would seem to be fatalto it

,though they appear to have been overlooked by its

advocates.

From the peculiar adaptation of structure in every other

class of animated beings to certain habits and conditions,

analogy would~

certainly lead us to the conclusion, that theorganization of creatures flourish ing so luxuriantly near the

surface,could hardly be capable of supporting th e great pres

sure resulting from “

such a column of water as would rest

upon them at profound depths . B ut besides th is objection ,there was the improbability that beings so frail could exist

equally well , amid temperatures so widely different as those

of the surface of the ocean and its bed or any considerabledepth . In the parallel of 16° South , where the surface tem

perature was 82° Fahr.

,that of six hundred feet below it

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C'outhouy on Cora l Formations

Fahr. Throughout the coral arch ipelago to the eastward of

Tahiti, the surface temperature ranges from 78 to The

same may be said of that in the neighborhood of th e detached

islets, between Tahiti and Samoa to the west . Throughout

th is region, I observed all kinds of coral flourishingin perfection on the outer plateau of the reefs

,at a depth of seven

,

eigh t, and in some cases,as that just cited

,twelve or th irteen

fathoms .

In our own hemisphere, in the vicinity of Eleuthera and

A baco,and also of the S tirrup Keys on the N. E . edge of the

great B ahama B ank ; I have dredged up considerable masses

of Meandrine from a depth of sixteen fathoms,and in sailing

over Salt Key B ank , have seen them,on a calm

‘

day, in twentyfathoms . Th is is probably attributable to the increased temperature caused by the proximity of the Gulf S tream whichhas here a heat of 85° Fahr. The most compact and vigor

ous growth , may, I think , however, be considered as prevailmg, in general , at a depth of from three to eigh t fathoms.

To assume, therefore, that the lagoon islands are based upon

extinct submarine volcanoes,we must also suppose that these

al l had their summits raised to nearly an uniform level,and

that the one best adapted to the habits and development of

the coral animal,an arrangement scarcely with in the bounds

of probability . It is difficult to believe that some two hun

dred or more craters,if they ever exis ted in so narrow a space

as that occupied by some groups containing that number of

lagoon islands, nowhere presented more than one hundred or

one hundred and twenty feet difference of level .B ut granting that all these requisites for the establishment

of th is theory existed ; it offers no explanation of the circum

stance that some of the reefs have, as ascertained by sound

ing, a th ickness of several hundred feet, and of their fossilrepresentatives in the chalk and marine limestone being found

in strata of still greater density. Neith er does it in any way

account for the existence of extensive shore reefs like those ofSamoa, Hawai i and Tah iti ; or of encircling reefs with la

goons between them and the shore,as at Vanikoro and several

of the New Hebrides and Friendly Islands ; or for the im

in the P aczfic, (Sec.

mense barrier reefs ofNew Caledonia and A ustralia, the latterof which

,at a distance of th irty or forty miles from the coast

,

extends in an unbroken chain nearly one thousand miles fromnorth to south . It affords at best, but a very questionableexplanation, of a single variety of structure in these wonder

ful edifices,than which noth ing more forcibly illustrates the

immense results that may ensue from the operation of appa

rently trifling causes, wh en continued unremittingly through

out a long series of ages .

It is my belief that, to a certain extent,the corals are limited

in their range of growth by temperature rather than depth ,

and that wherever this is“

not below 76° Fahr. there,

cceterz'

s p aribus , they wil l be found to flourish as in th e

Polynesian seas accordingly we find that their principal formations are placed with in the tropics, and though I have no

means of ascertaining at th is moment the fact, I apprehend

that in the Indian Ocean,as in

“

the Pacific, the saxigenous

polypes will be found most abundant and at th eir greatest

depths, in a belt comprising about twenty degrees on each

side of the equator.

l

B ut even allowing that they invariably commenced their

structures at the extreme depth of twenty fathoms, it is obvi

ous that no reef would attain a th ickness of much more than

a hundred feet,

‘

before the labors of the polypes must cease

and themselves perish , in consequence of their exposure to the

sun’s rays . The question then naturally arises, how are we

to account for the existence of coral banks, sogreatly exceed

ing this thickness as some are known to do ; if it is thus dis

proved that their polypes build at correspondlng depth s ?

Mr. Charles Darwin,who accompanied King and Fitzroy,

as Naturalist, in their late survey of the southern extremity of

our continent,was led by his examination of a lagoon island,

(the only one I believe on which he landed,) and a compari

son of the observations of h is predecessors on th is subject, to

frame an hypothesis, wh ich appears to offer us a solution of

th is problem,at once satisfactory, simple and rational .

A ccording to the statements lately given by Prof. Lyell , inh is lectures before the Lowell Institute, Mr. D . supposes the

Couthouy on Cora l Formations

great th ickness of the reefs,to have been formed by a gradual

and long continued subsidence of the original shelf of coral ,wh ile the surface was maintained at the same level as at first

,

by the unceasing additions made by the polypes . Carrying

out this principle, he attributes the peculiar conformation of

lagoon islandsto the operation of'

similar causes . That is to

say, .h e considers that'

the site of th ose islands of such a char

acter,now sprinkled over the whol e vast coralliferous belt of

ocean,was once occupied by islands of various elevation, sur

rounded as many of the same class now are,by a fringing or

shore reef ; that as these have slowly sunk , the reef has grad~

ually: receded from the shore,and on their total disappearance

left the lagoon only“

to mark the place of their existence .

Thus the coral islands instead of being looked upon as the

germs of a new'

continent, should be contemplated as the

wrecks,or rath er as beacons

, pointing out wherelie the wrecks

of one,long since

In the deep bosom of the ocean buried.

”

Having personally examined a large number of these

islands,and also resided

“

eight month s among the volcanicclass having shore and partially encircling reefs, Imay be per

mitted to state that my own observations have impressed a

conviction of the correctness of the theory liere advanced by

Mr. Darwin . Indeed without being aware at the time that

such views were entertained by any one else, but failingto discover in any author a satisfactory elucidation of the

apparent anomalies they exh ibited,I was led

,more than two

years ago, by a comparl son of the features presented by the

reefs of Tah’

iti with those of the Dangerous A rch ipelago and

Paumotu Group, (of which I had just enjoyed an opportunity

of examining a very considerable number,) to similar conclusions as to their origin, with those recently published by thatgentleman ; though not to entertain h is opinions respecting

limited and definite areas of subsidence and elevation .

My observations in MS . on this subject are now in the pos

session of the Navy Department at Wash ington ; but not

being permitted to have access to them,I am compelled, in

in the P aczfic, (See.

all the statements made in th is communication, to rely upon

memory alone. I shall in another place, briefly give my rea

sons for believing that the whole of Polynesia is at present

slowly rismg, and proceed, here, with a few remarks suggest

ing themselves at the moment, relative to its former subsi

deuce .

It is not denied that some portions of th is region may ex

bibit certain peculiarities of structure; wh ich , in the present

state of our information we may find some difficulty in recon

ciling with th is theory;

B ut I feel persuaded, that as th is is enlarged, as a greaternumber of facts bearing on the question are brough t together,

and we are enabled to fix with more certainty than can now

be done,the causes of such variations from a general charac

ter,these will nearly if not quite all be found Consistent with

the admission of a principle, wh ich holds out a rational ex

planation of phenomena, inexplicable upon any previous hy

pothesis .

The immensity of the tract, throughout which it is assumed

this subsidence or submergence of land has prevailed, willappear less astonish ing, when we reflect that nearly the wholeof that now elevated above the level of th e ocean bears upon

its surface incontestable’

evidence of having been slowly uplifted from its depth s, and that in some regions, as on the

B altic coast, the process is still going on under our own obser

vation . On the loftiest heigh ts to wh ich man has ascended,

as in the lowest vallies,the

’

presence of beds of marine shellsand other fossils

,attest that there once Were the foundations

of the great deep .

” Even in New Holland,whose animal and

vegetable productions differ so singularly from th ose of all the

world beside,as to leave conjecture itself at fault

,in attempt

ing to account for the fact ; and which a learned German

author,once gravely endeavored to show was the nucleus of

some comet that had come in collision with our planet—even

there,beds of marine limestone

,and marine fossils of the

same genera, and evidently belonging to the same era as those

found in some of the S ilurian rocks of Great B ritain,have

lately been found in large numbers far inland and on the

Conthony on Cora l Formations

highest mountains. On the lower grounds of the coast, in thevicinity of Newcastle

,New South Wales

,there are strata of

clay from sixty to one hundred feet th ick, abounding in ma

rine shells,many of them analogous to

,and some of them

identical with , species at this moment living in the adjacentseas.

It is not unreasonab le to conjecture,that when the existing

lands constituted the bed of an ocean,teeming, as evinced by

their fossil remains,even in. regions now condemned to the

regions of perpetual winter, with forms of animal life peculiarto our tropical seas then the balance of land and water was

preserved by the existence of a broad equatorial continent, orit may have been a number of large islands, whose structure

was ch iefly , if not entirely volcanic . We can then conceive ,

how by one of those stupendous oscillations, wh ich an exam

ination of its various strata, shows the earth ’

s crust to have

experienced at different epoch s as the A lps, the A ndes, and

the Himalayas uprose from the abyss, and age after age con

tinned to raise their aspiring summits to the skies ; the pre

existing lands gradually sank and finally disappeared ; eventhe elder mountain ranges, hiding

“ their diminished heads

beneath the waters ; a few only of the loftiest remaining, likescattered monuments

,in those ancient

“ Titan peaks that overtop the waves,

B eaconing a sunken world .

”

It is a. curious coincidence, if nothing more, and even to those who are not

in the habit of attaching much importance to the signification of names, mayseemworthy of this passing notice , that the appellation of Paumotu

,

”

bestow

ed by the natives Upon the extensive group of lagoon islands to the eastward of

Tah iti,is compounded of Pan , lost or passed away, and Mom

,

”

an island.

They have also an ancient tradition that all th is region was once high land ;but the gods being angered by the inhabitants, caused the sea to rise up and

overflow it, when all perished but one chief and his family, who were saved by

escaping to the top of Raiatea,an island a few leagues to the northwest of Ta

h iti . From these, when the waters partially subsided, the islands were re

peopled . Similar traditions are extant in Samoa and Hawaii . In one of these

the story is precisely that of Deucal ion and Pyrrha, excepting that the rescued

pair raised up a new race by scattering cocoa-nuts instead of stones behind them.

I mention this only as one more instance , in addition to those already well

known, of the w idely spread if not universal belief, in the occurrence of a del

Uge by which nearly the whale of mankind were once destroyed .

in the P acific, (Sac.

Such we may consider the Tahitian, Samoan and other

groups of elevated volcanic islands in Southern Polynesia, 1nterspersed among wh ich are occasionally found lagoon islandsalso. The rocks of the former class

,from New Z ealand to

Tah iti, (and I migh t include most of the Hawaiian islands,two thousand four hundred miles farther north ,) are so near

ly alike in all respects, that on seeing a series of specimens

from each group placed together, any mineralogist ignorantof the fact would ln

_all probability decide that the whole

were collected with in a short distance of each other. Indeed,

it was necessary in packing specimens collected by myself of

the,deeper seated rocks of South New Z ealand

,Tah iti and

Kauai,for me to use great precaution in keeping them sepa

rate as if once mingled it would have been impossible fromany difference of character to identify their several localitiesagainfi

“ May we not be justified then,in assuming th is com

mon character to be some proof of a common age as wel l asorigin for those islands, and an indication at least

,that though

now so widely separated, there was a period when they were

connected together in a grand wholeIt may perhaps be asked

,if th is theory of subsidence be

well founded why is it that the original shore reef does not,

instead of forming a lagoon , present a flat surface, on the total

submergence of 1 the land, extending over the whole area once

occupied by this latter ? B ut this could not possibly occur

unless the submerged island had been of very small extent,and rose almost perpendicularly from the sea. In all the

shore reefs that I have seen , there is a narrow 1nterval of

shallow water between them and the shore,wh ich the wash

of the beach renders too impure and turbid for the growth of

the coral in any quantity . This space would be continuallywidening during the subsidence

, (even were the lateral in~

crease of the coral equal to that upwards, wh ich is doubtful , )by reason of the recession of the mountain side from th e reef

being greater than its perpendicular descent . Thus if we

These specimens are now deposited in the new Patent Oflice at Washington,

and,as I learn ,

are open to public inspection ; so that any one may there easilyconvince h imself of the truth of these remarks .

3

Couthouy on Coral Formations

suppose the face'

of the mountain to have presented an anglewith the horizon of say it is evident that for every

foot of subsidence there would have happened three feet

of recession from the reef ’s original limit . B y the time

it had sunk two thousand feet,allowing as above

,the lateral

and upward growth of the reef to be equal in rate,and that

rate sufli CIent to maintam it a t its primary level,a channel

would thus be formed four thousand feet in width,between

reef and shore. The steeper the mountain,the narrower

would be the lagoon formed by the same amount of subsi

dence and the reverse .

Now th is difference is prec1sely that wh ich is really exh ib

ited by th e encircling and barrier reefs,according to the na

ture of their coasts . In the abrupt and lofty volcanic islandsof Polynesia, the lagoons seldom exceed three fourths

v

of a

mile or a mile in breadth,wh ile on th e gently ascending

coast of New Holland,the reef is in some places fifty miles

from shore .

I shall notice at present but one more feature 1n these

lagoons, wh ich is their small depth , in comparison with what

the assumed subsidence would at the first glance lead us to

expect . B ut the wash fromthe beach,wh ich in every ih

stance under my observation,spite of the protection afforded

by an outlying reef, Was very considerable and the detritrus

of th e reef itself,together with the alluvium deposited by

streams, would be sufficient to raise the bed of the lagoonvery materially . If in addition to this we suppose , what may

well have been the case that there Were intervals of timeduring wh ich the land was stationary, while these causes continned in full Operation , or that any considerable time has

elapsed since a cessation of the subsidence,there is no longer

any difficulty in accounting for this comparative shallownessof the lagoons .

A s the general character and aspect of the low coral islandsis not very clearly understood by some of our number, I

may be pardoned for venturing to occupy a few moments in a

hasty sketch of their structure . Th is seems the more calledfor

,because in the recent course of Lectures delivered for the

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Couthouy on Cora l Formations .

to something more than a mere passing notice of their exist

ence . They may be divided into three classes . The most

common and extensive is that descending from the base of

the central ridge, where it is often so narrow that a person

may spring across with ease,to the sea shore

,where it gradu

ally widens into a plain of a mile or more in breadth , and

constitutes the most fertile and valuable portion of the soil .The ravines of this character are in general th e bed of

streams,fed by mountain torrents and cascades

,of which I

have counted eleven from one point of view,having a fall of

from two hundred to twelve hundred feet, and glittering likeso many veins of burnished silver, on the black face of the

volcanic rock . They are bounded on each side by steep and

frequently inaccessible walls, every crevice and ledge of

wh ich is clothed with the most luxuriant vegetation,and are

generally terminated at their upper extremity by the central

mountain,wh ich rises in a perpendicular barrier of occasion

ally two thousand feet elevation . The only way in wh ich

these central peaks can be reached; is by following up the

securiform lateral ridges, and even this method is not alwayspracticable, on account of the steep and lofty cliffs that rise

from their summits, and frown a stern denial to all further

progress .

It is on the plains at the termination of these ravines,that

the villages of the natives are usually situated and the

voyager who has coasted the shores of Tahiti, can never for

get the Eden beauty of some of these spots. The groves of

orange, whose golden fruitage and snowy blossoms gleamstar- like from a mass of dark verdure ; the intermingling ofthe tall .cocoa

’s graceful , plumelike crest of drooping foliage

th e loftv and wide spreading Vi, (Sp ondias dulcis ,) and B arringtoma

, (B . sp eciosa ,) the rich hues of the bread fruit tree

the deep sh ining green of the broad,bannery leaves of the

plantain the Hibiscus,with its large, gay blossoms of orange

and crimson the coral tree, (E rythrina cora llodendron ,) one

dazzling mass of scarlet flowers ; with a little wilderness oflimes

, guavas, and other trees peculiar to these climes—the

picturesque cabins, peering out here and there from the dense

Couthony on Cora l Formations

vegetation—the wild and gloomy ravines in the rear

, ligh tedup in spots by sparkling waterfalls ; and in the remote back

ground, the fantastic pinnacles of the grandly broken moun

tains,towering up in clear relief against the soft blue tropical

sky—all these combine to form a picture of such transcendant

loveliness as can be scarcely equalled in any other part of the

world .

The second class of raymos is often not to be distinguished

from the first,where it opens on the coast

,but at some dis

tance inland it contracts to a very narrow gorge, of varying

extent,wh ich again opens suddenly into a sort of circus, cc

casionally eigh t or ten miles in compass, but usually from an

eigh th to three- fourth s of a mile in diameter,surrounded

,

except at the outlet,by a lofty and precipitous escarpment, so

as to present exactly th e aspect of a crater whose walls“

have

been riven asunder by some violent convulsion . This structure

of the rav1nes is of more common occurrence in the Samoan

and Hawaiian Islands,than at Tah iti. They are sometimes

dry at bottom,but more frequently form the basins of streams

,

wh ich,flowing through a tract of table land above

,throw

th emselves over a precipice of from one to five hundred feet

in heigh t, and pass out through the narrow gorge to the sea .

A t Upolu th ere is a fine instance of this,in the cataract of

Vainafa,or the broken water. The river

,about seventy

feet wide,and four deep just above the pitch , falls in three

sheets about two hundred feet,into an oval basin

,about three

fourths of a mile in circuit,from which it escapes between

two h igh cliffs,not above twenty yards asunder.

In the following cut it is attempted by different lines, toexh ibit at one View four distinct sections of this class of

ravine,to show the character of its terminating circus .

a Natural section presented at the falls .

b Imaginary transverse section at forty yards below them . The dotted

curve line crossing b near the bottom,represents a large excavation , worn by

th e spray at the foot of the fal ls .

0 . 0 . Similar section at widest part of circus, about one hundred and fifty

yards below the falls .

d . d . d . d . Do . at the gorge where the river enters it from the basin.

‘

in the P amfic, doc.

T he gorge, which in this instance may possibly have been formed by the

recession of the falls , extends almost three- fourths of a mile , and then gradu

ally widens into a common valley, terminating seaward in a broad plain .

SECTIONS OF THE RA VINE A T THE FA LL OF VA INA FA .

A t Hilo, on the Island“

of Hawaii,there is a very beautiful

miniature ravine of this clas s at the cascade of Waianuenue,

(“ the water of the rainbow

,and there are grand examples

of it in the falls of Wailua and Hanapepe in the island of

Kauai,especially in the latter

,which pitch down full five

hundred feet, into a circular basin about one thousand feet

round, h emmed in by walls of alternately columnar and stratified lava

,the only break in wh ich is the narrow outlet for the

stream. If we imagine the rapids of Lake Erie to be a plain ,girt with lofty mountains, with the Niagara flowing through it,

and th is latter narrowed below the falls to one~fourth its pres

ent width , we shall have a very good idea of the ravine under

consideration . Of those similar in form,but having no stream

of water,there is a fine exemplification in the great amph i

theatre at the head of the Nuuanu valley, in Oahu . They

are also to be seen in full perfection, on the north side of the

ridge of Konahuanui,between the Pali

,or precipice of

Nuuanu,and Kualoa. There is one nearWaiahole

,described

by the late Meredith Gairdner, M. D . (in a Sketch of Oahu,

Couthouy on Cora l Formations

published in the Hawaiian Spectator,) as“ very remarkable

for its great depth and narrowness resembling exactly the

section of a n immense ch imney, rising from the heart of the

mountain an effect wh ich is heigh tened by the black colorof the rocks.

If we picture in our minds a ravine of th is description,

having a barrier across the narrow gorge or outlet, we shallthen have an accurate conception of the structure of the third

class . A lthough this doubtless exists in the other islands,I

only met with it at Tah iti . There is one example of it in

the mountain lake of Waih iria,at the head of the Waihara

valley, North of Mairapeh i . Th is lake is about fifteen hun

dred feet above sea level, three- fourth s of a mile in circuit,

and ninety feet deep, bounded on all sides except the south

ern by a wall of rock fromone thousand to fifteen hundred

feet high . To the South‘

it is dammed up by a barrier of

inconsiderable heigh t on the lake side,but on the other de

scending several hundred feet to th e valley, and apparentlyformed by the crumbling down of a large body of rock from

the Western ridge . Th is is the same lake referred to by

B eechy , Tyerrriari and B ennet,and others

,and prior to our

visit was believed by the natives to be unfathomable. There

is a similar pit, except that it has only a small stream at

the bottom,discharging itself by some crevice

,between two

of the lateral ridges of Waritiva. With great difficulty and

some risk I descended perhaps twelve hundred feet into th isravine

,near its commencement, th inking to find an easier

path to the shore but after scramb ling and wading, for near

ly a couple of miles,was to my vexation arrested by a naked

wall of lava,several hundred feet high , wh ich nothing but a.

bird or a lizard could scale . I was thus compelled to retrace

my steps, and toil up once more to the crest of th e ridge. My

guide informed me that in the upper portion of the valley of

A tehuru, leading from Matavai to the foot of Orohena, there

were several of these barred ravines of less extent.

in the Pacific, (Sm.

SECTION OF A RA VINE CLOSED A T B OTH EXTREMITIES, IN ONE OF THE

VA LLIE S RUNNING FROM THE COA ST TO THE B A SE OF WA RITIVA , IN

TA HITI.

04 0 f

"1

a . a . a . Longitudinal section of the ravine .

b. b. Steep lateral ridge, rising to a height of two thousand feet .

The mountains in outline, are from five to eight thousand feet h igh .

It is difficult,satisfactorily, to account for these singular

chasms . That at Waih iria may indeed have been produced

by a landslip blocking up the valley, but the one last men

tioned would rather appear, were it not for the perpendicularity of its terminal walls

,to have arisen from a confluence of

the two great laya streams forming the lateral ridges, as the

rocks are on al l sides in a normal position and of uniform

structure . Or they may be owing to a sudden sinking in of

the crust at the time when the subterranean fires were in ao

tivity . Pits, very similar to them

,but of less extent

,are of

quite frequent occurrence on the black ledge of lava surround

ing the crater of Kilauea. The second class of ravines may,I th ink, generally be referred to ancient craters, one side of

wh ich has been rent apart by earthquakes . In their situa

tions and /outline, in the uniform perpendicularity of their

parietes, and the sub -columnar structure of the lava compo

sing them, they correspond exactly to the craters of the tableland of Manna Loa. In fact, not many years ago, during a

sharp earthquake, a similar outlet, since filled Up near its com

mencement by subsequent overflowings of the lava, wasproduced on the S . W. side of the great crater of Kilauea or

Couthouy on Cora l Formations

Ka lua Pele,and extended if I remember arigh t, some seven

or eigh t leagues to the coast.

B ut to return from th is long digression , to the subject moreimmediately under consideration .

It is obvious that as th e land sinks,and the water reaches

th e base of any ridge, barrier, or mount,a shore reef may be

formed upon or around it,wh ich

,if th e subsidence Continues

,

will, from the Operation of causes already explained, begradually converted into an encircling or outlying one . There

will naturally be intervening channels,in place of some of

the ravines,while on those of a trench - like character and upon

the ruins of ancient craters,will form lagoon reefs and on the

whole being overflown,there will thus be formed a group of

lagoons varying in size and configuration, according as they

rest upon a sunken crater,a ridge , or one of the trench - like

ravines, and surrounded by a common reef,wh ich is traversed

at intervals,as in i ts primary state

,by passages of various

breadth and depth . A nd such,on a large scale

,as I have be

fore observed,is the appearance presented by the Paumotu

groups and dangerous arch ipelagos’

of Polynesia .

A lthough the“

seaward side of the reefs encircling these,

has been described as rising in a perpendicular wal l, yet it

must not be understood,th at by this it is meant

,that we lit

erally step from an unfathomab le ocean,upon the upper sur

face of a reef. Th ey present a succession of terraces or

plateaus, the outer having sometimes twelve or fifteen

fathoms and in one instance,that of B ellinghausen

’s Island

,

fwentyeigh t fathoms of water was found upon it . This low

est plateau is of variable breadth,but I th ink seldom exceeds

one hundred and fifty feet ; declines somewhat rapidly sea

ward,and apparently projects beyond the wal l like a sh elf, as

I have known the lead to fall from twelve fathoms on it,to

two hundred and no bottom,with in a distance of about ten

yards .

These terraces become,as they recede from th e sea

,nar

rower and shoaler, presenting a like declination with the low

est,and having at their extremity an abrupt descent of several

feet . The highest, or last formed differs in its margin forming

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Couthouy on Coral Formations

passing over them,I could compare their appearance to noth

é

ing but a pavement th ickly strewn with bouquets of beautifulflowers.

A t a depth of three or four fathoms,the forms were as man o

ifold as their coloration,some branch ing like beautiful shrub

bery, others spreading out like the most delicate mosses, and

others again resembling beds of saffron , or daisies and ama

ranth s,wh ile in and out of

,above and between the thickets

of these Neptunian gardens, sported thousands of splendidlycolored fishes

,from not more than an inch to two or three

feet in length . A large brigh t scarlet Diacope (D . Tica , Les

son ) a Julis about a foot long, of a rich bluish green , marked

with blood red bands crossing the back to the lateral line, andintersected by others extending from th e opercles to the tail ,(J . quadricolor, Less . ) Serrani, Scari, Glyphisodons, Chaeto

dons,B alistes and Holocentri

,all richly adorned

,were some

of the most conspicuous in the brigh t array. The water was

so transparent that the smallest object on th e bottom could beSeen as distinctly as if it were not three feet from the surface

and gazing down upon the beautiful creatures that tenanted

these coral groves, like Coleridge’s

“ A ncient Marinere ,” I

blessed them unawares although the nextmoment I couldnot avoid wish ing to coax them into my net. A s a drawback

however,upon all this beauty, silently but swiftly, near the

surface, glided in shoals

,the spectral and malignant, “

raven

ing salt sea shark,

”reminding one of satan

’s intrusion of h is

hateful presence amid the bowers of Paradise . So fierce were

th ese tigers of the deep, that they repeatedly seized hold of

the ears as we pulled toward the reef rendering the attempt

to reach by swimming (often the only chance ) a coast thus

sentinelled,rather a hazardous affair.

The solid,massive and encrusting genera of corals wh ich

entermost largely into the composition of the reefs, appear to

flourish best in exposed situations and violently agitated wa

ters . On th e upper plateau the coral has generally a stunted,

dwarfish appearance , and the branch ing genera predominate

over the more showy A strmas . Near its edge, and lining thecrevices

,certain Goniopores, Porites and Pavonias, spread

in the Pacific, doc.

th emselves in thin lamellae but these gradually disappear aswe recede from the surf, and finally abandon the field almost

entirely to the Madrepores . Ill calculated, however, by rea

son of their fragility, to with stand the force of the breakers

that occasionally roll over the whole ledge , even these latterare only found in small detached clusters

, principally in the

little sandy pools and cavities wh ich are scattered over the

surface,their greatest luxuriance being displayed in the clear,

tranquil waters of the lagoon , wh ere they form submarine

thickets of great beauty, many yards in extent .

The major portion of the plateau is encrusted by Nulliporesand a laminar deposition of carbonate of lime. In th is are

imbedded multitudes of Tridacnae,the edges of whose man

tles, as shown by th e gaping of the sh ell,are so gorgeously

colored,that a correct representation of th em would certainly

be though t exaggerated by one who had not seen the originals.

The varieties in th is respect are very numerous, but the most

common are a deep vivid ultramarine blue or green ,with darkorange, purple or golden ocellations and wavy lines interspersed . The marginal papillae are similarly ornamented .

The Tridacna appear like th e Pholades, Lithodomi, & c .,to

secrete a peculiar acid, enabling them to perforate calcareousrocks

,since

,differing altogether in this from the shells imbed

ded in branch ing corals,the situation in wh ich they were gen

erally found, was not caused by the growth around them of

the polyparia, nor by the deposition of calcareous matter.

Th is was evident at once,from their being in some cases im

bedded in small clusters or masses of coral,wh ich were cut

through by them in such a manner that the parietes of the

cavity exhibited sections of the polyparia, transverse, verticalor oblique, j ust as the Tridacna chanced to have worn its hole .

I have seen the base of large Madrepores, cut in this way, at

the origin of the branches,so that the upper portion of a

branch was on one side of the shell and the lower on the

oth er. The cavity i s usually worn quite smooth , and fits

closely to the shell, there being often but just space left at thesurface for the valves to open about half an inch . They bury

themselves, beaks downward, and the basal margins of the

Couthony on Cora l F ormations

valves parallel with the surface—adhering very strongly bya coarse corneo- fibrous prolongation of muscle. It differs

somewhat from the byssus, properly so called,of the Mytil

acea,which is produced at pleasure by the animal , may be

torn away without injury to it,and terminates in a sort of

receptacle at the base of the foot. Here the fibres proceed

from a thick,conical

,tendinous mass, and though I have rea

son to believe the animal has the power of detach ing itself,yet when it was attempted to pull one away from the rock ,in almost every case

,the whole muscle was torn from the

body, inflicting a fatal wound. I have often pulled them off

in this way and left them on the reef,to see if they would

re -

produce the byssus, but always found them dead the next

day. It is a little singular that the Tridacna,when im

moveably imbedded, should continue to moor by as strong a

cable, as when free upon the surface it is exposed to the rude

assaults of the breakers. The manner in which they become

thus buried,seemed to require a word of explanation, because

this condition has been considered a proof of the rapid ln

crease of the coral,wh ich it was imagined had thus covered

the sh ell subsequent to its attainment of full size, yet during

the animal ’s life .

On all parts of the reef. Crustacea and Echinodermata are

met with in astonishing numbers and variety . The Molluscagenerally speaking, are less abundant as a whole . The poolsand gullies literally seem alive with beautifully painted fishes

a bare enumeration of whose genera would almost fill a page .

A mong these a large spotted Muraena was conspicuous for its

fierceness not less than size . It lurked under stones or in

crevices,and when molested

,instead of retreating, darted

directly at the intruder,and unless promptly avoided

,inflicted

a most formidable bite . It moved w ith exceeding rapidity,

sometimes scuttling over the coral,sometimes making a suc

cession of horizontal leaps from the water,of a couple of yards’

length . I have seen,at the attack of one

,a whole boat’s

crew flying in terror, who would fearlessly chase the numer

ous sharks infesting the edges of the reefs and lagoons, till upto their breast in the water.

in the P acific, (Sm.

Scattered along the plateau are fragments of greatly vary

ing size,thrown up by the surf

,some loose, and affording

shelter to a multitude of small fish,crustacea, & c . , others

forming tabular masses of such magnitude as to render It al

most incredible that any wav‘

e could be sufficiently powerfulto tear them off and transport them to their present locality .

They constitute one of the most remarkable features of thesurface reef at several islands . I have seen it for miles linedwith these nucl ei of future ridges, from a yard squ

'

are,to th irty

or forty feet long by four or five broad,arid averaging three

and a half in heigh t . Their lower portion isWorn by the

water so as to cause the smaller blocks to assume a variety of

fantastic shapes . B y“

the percolation and infiltration of water

charged with carbonate.

of lime,these masses are in general

firmly cemented to th e subjacent coral , and converted into a

very solid limestone,called by seamen

,reef- rock

,

” in wh ich

the original cellular structure is sometimes almost obliterated .

Th is reefm rock appeared to be the basis of the elevated belt“

between the lagoon and sea, in almost every Paumotu that Iexamined . I shall refer to these erratic blocks again, underthe head of re- elevation .

It sometimes occurs that the plateau or surface reef,instead

of extending quite to the beach of coral sand,is separated

from it by a strip of smooth coralline limestone,apparently

formed by cementation of the finer detritus,dipping from 5°

to 70 seaward,and from ten to fifty or sixty yards wide . A

peculiar character in these belts,is the fissures

,wh ich from

one- eigh th to three- fourth s of an inch w ide

,run nearly paral

lel with the beach for one hundred rods together, and some

times cross them at very large angles with it . There are

similar formations along the North coast of Tutuila,one of the

Samoan Group, and in its harbor,Pangopango . They also

occur,but of coarser texture

,on the East coast of Kauai, near

Wailua, where they are from eigh t inches to two feet in

thickness,and are frequently quarried for building materials

,

such as foundations,door- stones

, & c .

To th is limestone shelf, or the surface reef,as the case may

be, succeeds a narrow and rather steep coral sand beach

,be

Couthouy on Cora l Formations

yond wh ich rises the fragmentary ridge, composed of largeblocks of reef- rock

,having their interstices filled with a rub

ble consisting of small fragments of coral,shells

,and Ech ini,

cemented together so firmly as to require a smart hammer

stroke for their separation . It has an elevation of from three

to ten feet,and varies in width

,even on the same island

,from

one hundred and twenty feet to one thousand yards. It is

h ighest on its seaward side,where it rises somewhat abruptly ,

but shelves very gradually towards the low ,sandy shores of

the lagoon . Th ere is rarelymuch vegetation till the summit

is crossed,but thence inland it frequently flourishes luxuri

ently to the very brink of the water. This elevated tract

seldom if ever entirely surrounds the lagoon . I do not re

member having seen a single Paumotu,wh ich had not

,on

one side, a considerable space of low,naked reef

,or detached

masses of rock,over and between which

,the sea at h igh

water broke into th e lagoon . A t Raraka,on the southern

Side , to the westward of the passage between this and the

sea,where the upper plateau is rather narrower than common

,

the ridge was of a character entirely different from what

was observed at any other island,being mostly a h eap of

loose rubble,eigh t or ten feet high , and perhapsa hundred

yards in breadth at the base,nearly assteep on the inland as

on the seaward Slde, and destitute of any trace of Vegetation .

Just inside of th is ridge , were numerous shallow pools of saltwater, ebbing and flowing with the t1de

,and abounding in

Oph iurae, Cidarites, Fistulariaeand A ctiniae. A large species

of Melam’

pus was $6 plentiful among the fragments at the

base of the ridge, that it could be collected by handfuls. B e

yond the pools was a plain of coral,Which I estimated to be

a large mile ac'

ross to the lagoon, but had no opportunity of

ascertaining it by actual measurement . It appeared to have a

very sligh t ascent from the sea,and was tolerably well cloth

ed with trees and shrubs, though the species were few in

number. A few cocoa- trees only were seen ,and those had

,

as th e inhabitants (about thirty Chain Islanders, engaged incollecting pearl shells,) stated, been introduced recently bythemselves.

in the Pacific, lye.

Crossing the plain, wh ich is overrun with a variety of bur

rowing Crustacea, terrestrial Paguri, and on some islands a

species of B irgus, as often found on trees as among stones ;

we emerge from a tangled th icket upon th e ligh t green waters

of the tranquil lagoon . This of course,varies greatly in

extent and depth , and not less in the character of its bed .

Some have the appearance of being very shallow throughout,

the water being, except where darkened by occasional gullies,of an uniform pale , yet brilliant green hue . In oth ers

,there

are large strips and patches toward the centre,where it is

nearly as blue as the surrounding ocean . A t A itoho,one of

the Disappointment Islands, the whole central portion of the

lagoon is of this latter color, as if it were very deep, althoughless in circuit than many others. From the beach of some

,I

have waded out for a couple of hundred’

yards, with the water

deepening almost imperceptibly, over a bottom of fine sand,

with only a few scattered bunches of coral wh ile in others,

their bed is very unequal , full of large and deep pits, and

traversed by gullies several fathoms deep and from ten to

three hundred yards wide, occasioned probably by like irregularities in the submerged land.

A t Serle Island, and several other Paumotus,I observed at

a couple of miles or so from shore, several small islets and

clumps of rock,risi ng above the surface of the lagoon, nearly

as much as its bordering ridge , and apparently encircled bywater much deeper than the average .

It would have been exceedingly interesting , and was certainly of importance in arriving at a correct idea of the struc

ture of these islands,to have ascertained the composition of

such islets ; but the circumstances in wh ich I was placed,entirely dependent on the pleasure of those in whose Opinion

such objects were of merely secondary consequence , and by

whom my every movement was limited and controlled,ren

dered it impossible for me to make an examination so desira

ble . Should they h ereafter be found to consist of volcanicrock , th ey would establish beyond all question the theory of

subsidence first advanced by Mr. Darwin . Should th ey, onthe contrary, be as I suspect, of coralline formation

,th is would

5

Couthony on Cora l F ormations

not by any means,as I conceive

,disprove it, but rather afford

us th e means of determining with some degree of exactitude

the amount of re- elevation that has taken place at such islands .

I was informed by Mr. Samuel Wilson,of Tah iti

,who had

long resided among the Hervey Islands, that at Mangaia,

wh ich is an ancient reef elevated nearly three hundred feet,there are in the central holloytr formerly the bed of the lagoon,many scattered patches of coral rock

,some of them raised to

a h eight of forty feet . A t a certain stage of the elevatoryprocess, it is evident that these patches must have presented

an appearance very similar to the lagoon islets to wh ich I havereferred .

So far from the beach as examined, th e bottom in some

lagoons I h ave found to be a clean coral sand,composed _of

a detritus of coral and sh ells, but in most instances this

was covered to the depth of a foot by an exceedingly fine

wh ite sedimentary paste or ooze,wh ich on desiccation h ad

every character of common chalk,except in being much

more friable . I th ink it is principally formed by the decom

position of flexible corallines and alcyonia, and the softer

Ech inodermata,such as Fistularia and its congeners, all of

which abound in th e lagoons , rather than from that of coralsproper. It may also partly arise from th e excretions of certain

fish es,which feed occasionally on th e tender extremities of

Madrepores , as read ily as on Crustacea,Ech ini

, & c . I once

collected a quantity of these corallines and kept th em in a

jar of water till the muscular and fibrous portions were entire

ly decomposed, when an impalpable sediment was deposited,

in all particulars answering to that obtained from the lagoons .

Not least among the phenomena attracting our a ttention in

these Paumotus,are the channels wh ich in the majority of

them afford a passage from the sea into the lagoon . There is

usually but one of any consequence at each island,though

there are rare instances of the occurrence of three or even

four at different points of th e reef. They are almost invariably situated in the leeward reef

,but th ere are occasional ex

ceptions and deviations from th is general rule , some of wh ich

will be specified presently.

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Conthouy on Cora l F orma tion s

had once been girt by such a wall,the conclusion was not

unreasonable th at the constant pressure of the water, poured

over from the windward side Of the reef,would eventually

form a breach in the weakest portion of its leeward side . B ut

in truth such a condition of things never existed,there being

in most Paumotus to the present day , on one side or other,a

considerable portion of the reef where there is no ridge to bar

th e escape Of the water from the lagoon ,and yet a passage is

found . Nor,as I have said

,is th is always on the leeward

side ; A t Raraka,wh ich is situated in the ful l strength of

the south - east trades,it is on the southern

,or w indward side .

A t C lermont Tonnerre,and Tooa

,th e westernmost Of the

Disappointment Islands,th e entrance

,if any exists

,must be

to windward,as th e coast in that direc tion is very low and

broken,and none was discovered in running down the lee

shore . A t Waterland Island th e opening is in th e eastern or

weath er reef.

Moreover,there are reefs

,like that of Ocean Island

,as yet

wholly submerged , save in two or three small spots, wh ich

are intersected by no less than four canals . A t th is island,

there i s one entrance on th e south - east side,and three about

half a mile apart in the south -west portion of the reef. In

these last,it is worthy of notice that the depth is eigh t or ten

feet greater than that of the lagoon , and th erefore could not

have been excavated by the outward rush Of its waters,as

th is at most could have worn a passage in the reef to the levelOf their bed .

On the other hand,at A itOho, the eastern Disappointment

Island,no passage was met with, in pulling all round the isl

and,although portions of it are so low

,that the surf at h igh

water must break h eavily into the lagoon .

*

A t Rose Island,where

,judging from the drift line on the

beach,th ere is a rise and fall Of about five feet, the entrance

is to leeward,and the same at Christmas Island . Through

all these channels the ebb pours out with great velocity,

This peculiarity , with the apparent great depth of its waters , and its c ircular

outline, render it possible that this lagoon is one of those occupying the s ite of

a submerged crater.

in the P acific, &c.

whether they are on the W indward or leeward side,the water

falling into them from the lagoon and fringing plateau, so as

to resemble a mill racefi“ A t Raraka,six stout oarsmen

,in a

swift whale -boat, were a full quarter of an hour,vainly at

tempting to enter the lagoon, though the passage was not

above seventy or eigh ty yards in length ; and finally succeeded only by tak ing an eddy pointed out by the natives . The

velocity of the current here could not have been less than six

or seven miles an hour, and it was not greater at Rose Island,where the entrance is on the opposite side . The lagoon of

th is latter is however of comparatively small extent .B ut rapid as it is

,this current alone does not account for

the existence of such channels . It is difficult to believe thatthe attrition of the passing water would suffice to prevent

their being closed or filled up by the labors of the polypes ,when we see these flourishing in thegreatest perfection on

the margin of the reef,exposed to the unceasing and far more

violent action of the surf,wh ich is continually tearing Off

large masses Of rock,and driving them toward the beach .

A nd were we at first sigh t disposed to consider their formation

the result of the powerful tides , a closer examination wouldconvince us of error

,by showing that in no portion Of the

reef is the growth of the encrusting and lamellar corals more

profuse than upon the sides (and in some instances the bot

tom also,) Of these very channels . Even the more fragile

Madrepores are to be seen there,though less in size and num

ber than inside .

The tides on the weather side of Christmas Island,wh irl

round it with frigh tful rapidity, so that it is h igh ly dangerousto venture into them with a boat. The surf also

,on th is

side,runs to an amazing height, especially during the spring

tides,rising sometimes

,like that of Guam

,to the altitude of

twenty feet . before it bursts upon the reef. Yet though the

extreme edge of the plateau has been greatly shattered by

th ese tremendous rollers,the polypes are no where more in

dustrious or numerous th an just inside the breakers .

Christmas Island is an exception to th is rule,the ebb current se tting out

moderately , owing probably to the shallowness of the lagoon, and unusual width

of the passages .

Gouthang on Cora l F orma tions

It is anoth er argument against the probability of the reef

passages being produced by the tides, that they are generallydeepest toward the outer margin of the reef

,where the cur

rent is weakest,and shoal gradually as we approach the

lagoon , near wh ose entrance it is most rapid . Moreover,no

accumulation of water would be likely to force a passage

either into or from the lagoon,throug h the reef,against wind

and sea,or even aided by them,

when it could without difliculty flow over it on the leeward side

,till the waters of th e

lagoon were on a level with those of th e ocean . Much lessshould we expect it to scoop out several channels

,and that

too on both sides Of the reef,as we see them in some Paumo

tus . A t Ocean Island,whose lagoon of twentyfour miles in

circuit,h as no less than four entrances, situated as shown in

the accompanying sketch seven - eigh th s of the reef are,even

at low water,overflowed to the depth of two feet or more .

SKETCH OF OCE A N ISLA ND A ND REEF .

if

The figures represent the depth ofwater in fathoms . The dotted lines inside

of the reef indicate coral patches nearly bare at low tide . The arrow denotes

a passage through the reef to the main is land . The other figures exp lain them

selves . The centre Of the island is in 28° 22’ N . lat .

,and 178° 30’ W. long.

The B ritish whale ship Gledstanes , Capt. J. R . B rown, was wrecked on

the reef at midnight of July 9th , 1837. The out here given is reduced from a

in the P acific, doc.

The lagoon is everywhere full of sand -banks and patches

of coral , having only a few inches of water upon them,and

as will be seen by reference to the figures, is not so deep

by from\

ten to eighteen feet as the channels in the reef.

Whatever may be though t of the oth er passages, it is clearthat the one leading to the island is not ow ing to the action

of currents as from its sheltered situation,and the shallowness

of the water between the beach and margin of th e reef,they

are scarcely felt .I cannot

,th erefore, in View of th ese facts

,coincide with

those who entertain the Opinion that the lagoon entrances

were primarily hollowed in the reef by the rush of surpluswaters from the enclosed basin , and have been kept open ever

since by th e tides . If we adopt the doctrine of a generalsubsidence of th e land

,with its attach ed shore reef

,during

which the latter has been maintained at its original level bythe polypes ; it appears to me that the facts admit of an ex

planation more probable , though not covering perhaps every

difficulty .

I believe that these reef channels,in almost every instance ,

originated during the primal condition of the islands,in the

influence of fresh water streams preventing the growth Of the

coral where they emptied themselves . Instances of the same

th ing now happening , are frequent in all the volcanic islandsof Polynesia . I observed especially at the Samoan and

Hawaiian islands,that there were openings in the shore reefs

Opposite the mouths of streams,and sometimes very insignifi

cant ones,wh ich 1 am convinced were caused by the fresh

water acting detrimentally upon the polypes . While the

island remained above the sea,or rather wh ile the stream

continued to flow,the same causes in wh ich it orlgl nated

would keep the channel open . When the subsidence had

reach ed that point at wh ich these causes ceased to operate ,

chart engraved f or the th ird number of the Hawa i ian Spectator, by a native

scholar of the Mission Seminary at Laha inaluna, Maui

,from surveys by Capt.

B rown , who remained upwards of five months on the is land , w ith h is crew .

The only fresh water is what drains through th e sand,

’

attcr the heavy rains .

—l_Haw . Spec . July,

Couthouy on Coral Formations

provided the depth was not too great, the polypes would soon

by the diffusion of th eir gemmules, extend themselves over

th is portion of the reef,the same as elsewhere . A ssuming

the depth of the channel at that period to have been from

twenty to forty feet, and the upward increase of th e coraltherein

,to have been ever since equally rapid with that on

th e reef,it is clear that the original difference of level

,be

tween th is latter and the bed of the channel would remain

unchanged to th is h our,were there no tide whatever setting

in or out. Even supposing that before the action of the fresh

water ceased,the subsidence had been so great that th is dif

ference of level amounted to between two and three hundred

feet, (though it is Very doubtful wh ether such could ever

have been the case,since the amount of elevation from the

deposition of alluvial matter,would in all probability be suffi

icent to counterbalance th e depression by subsidence,) th is

would not invalidate the explanation here suggested .

E? In all the Paumotus that I have seen, these channels are

very narrow,often but a few feet

,and rarely exceeding forty

or fifty yards in width . Even in th e semie encircling reefs of

Tah iti,Samoa and Hawaii

,they are seldom more than a few

rods across . Supposing then the bed of a channel to have

been at any period so far below the surface as to preclude theformation of coral upon it still, in process of time, the lateralincrement would form a bridge across, at th e depth best adapt

ed to the requirements of the zoophytes . During the same

period its width would be considerably contracted at the sur

face,and except in large openings,migh t be wholly closed up .

Instances of these bridged channels are numerous throughout

th e coral islands of Polynesia . It frequently h appens that

th e approach ing shelves have not yet come in contact,and a

crevice from only a few inches to a yard in breadth,is left .

On looking down th is, th e bottom and sides of the ancient

channel are seen as distinctly through the transparent water,as if with in reach of the hand . Such crevices are unusuallyfrequent at Rose Island . A n examination of these has led

me to conclude that the existing entrances into lagoons, areattributable only to their original magnitude having been such

in the P acific, (Ye.

as to prevent their being, as yet, obliterated as others have

been,by the extremely slow growth of the coral ; and that in

the lapse of future ages, they too will disappear, wh en the

lagoons will gradually dry and be partially filled up with

detritus from the neighboring beaches. Possibly, the levelbetween the sea and the

,lagoon of A itoho , to wh ich I have

stated no entrance was seen,may be restored by the water

accumulated during floodtide passing out by subterranean

canals,such as are described above .

It is not improbab le that some channels were produced byother causes than that here mentioned

,such as original in

equalities in the submerged land , or fissures made in the reef

by earthquakes, which we may presume to have been,at a

former period , as frequent in th is region as they now are in

those where volcanic fires are still raging but I am convin

ced that instanceswhere a passage has been cut through a. reef

by the action of tides are of exceeding rarity , if indeed they

occur at all . So long as it is the tendency of water to seek

an uniform level,I cannot conceive how that accumulated in

the lagoon during the flood tide,or from the rolling in bf the

surf,should in flowing out over a reef covered even at low

water to a depth of from one foot to ten fathoms,excavate a

narrow canal,occasionally (as at Christmas and Ocean Islands,)

deeper than the lagoon itself.It is my impression that

.

Prof. Lyell described these chan

nels as invariably situated on the leeward reef ; yet suggested

no cause for their assumed absence on the windward side,ex

cept the inference that as the waterwas forced into the lagoonfrom that direction

,it would naturally seek to escape in an

opposite one ; and at a late meeting of this Society it was

asked why, if his reasoning was not just,such should be the

case .

B ut they are,as I have endeavored to show

,confined to no

particular portion of the reef,though they certainly do occur

most frequently to leeward. Nor will th is, upon reflection,

appear so singular as it may at first be considered . A dmitting

that there were originally as many in the weather as in the

leeward reef,by far the greater number would long since

6

Couthouy on Cora l Formations

have been filled up by fragments broken from the outer mar

gin of the plateau and carried landward by the surf,together

with the drift and wash from the beach of loose coral sandand shingle . Others we may suppose have been obliteratedby the natural increase of the coral

,till

,from both causes,

only one remains here and there . S till there are sufficient to

show us that the formation of these channels cannot with

propriety be attributed to causes that would operate but in a

certain direction,such as we must regard the tide , wh ich can

scarcely be supposed to seek an egress against the continualrush ing in of a powerful surf.Much ligh t would no doubt be cast upon th is and many

other peculiarities in the coral formations we have been con

sidering, by an examination and comparison of the phenomena

presented by those of the A ntilles,the Caribbean Sea

,and

along our southern coasts . In fact,I believe that without

such comparison ,it

' is impossible for a person to arrive at a

full knowledge of the structure of th ese rocks . Those es

pecially, bordering the South coasts of Cuba and Florida,

deserve particular attention,on account of the numerous ca

nals intersecting the extensive reefs,the varied nature of their

lagoons, and the opposite character of their neighboring lands ,wh ich , broken and mountainous in the one case

,are in the

other low ,sandy, and level . I trust that at some future peri

od it will be in my power to examine these interesting forma

tions,with more time and opportunity for th eir study at com

mand,than were enjoyed in my brief and restricted visit to

those in the great coral region of the Pacific .

The conclusions to wh ich I have been led by all the ob

servations made among the coral islands of Polynesia, mav be

summed up as follows z—firstly, that the subsidence was not

continuous, but interrupted by long periods during which theland

,and after its disappearance, the reef, remained stationary,

and the successive terraces were formed ; secondly, that itcontinued, at least in certain places, up to a comparativelyrecent day, and ceased not long after the total submergence of

th e pre- existing land ; th irdly, that there followed an indefi

nite interval of repose, with the reef at a sufficient depth

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Couthouy on Cora l Forma tions

raise them from the bottom,and precisely similar in appear

ance and mineral structure to that constituting the mass of

the neighboring groups of Samoa and Tah iti. A specimen

weigh ing about twenty pounds was picked up in four feet

of water,among small rolled blocks of coral conglome

rate . Th is circumstance appears to afford conclusive evidence

that the main rock of the submerged island must be at no

great depth below the sandybottom of the lagoon, since itwas evidently not long since acted upon by th e surf, the onlyimaginable power wh ich could h ave placed these boulders intheir present situation . A t the same time

,that the islets

are now slowly emerging , is indicated by the whole surface

of the reef,wh ich is so for elevated

,that the corals have

nearly ceased to flourish,and are for the most part covered

with an incrustation of lime,wh ich promises ere long to unite

the whole into an uniform consolidated mass .

That there was an interval of quiescence between the lastepoch of subsidence and that of re - elevation

,is,I think ,

proved not only by the construction of the marginal proj ecting shelf

,wh ich has evidently once existed on the upper

plateau, but by these elevated islands,like Tah iti and others

,

h aving both shore and barrier reefs,which are raised to the

same level,and where a shore reef does not exist

,by the de

tached masses and clusters of living coral that are found at

those islands in only three or four feet of water, and with in a

few yards of the beach , quite equalling in size any that are

found upon the sea reefs,wh ich clusters must both have

grown at a considerably greater depth , and required a longtime to attain their present magnitude .

In the lectures to wh ich allusion has been made,the island

of Tah iti was incorrectly represented in ground plans of itexhib ited

'

by Prof. Lyell, and also described by h im,as sur

rounded by a reef enclosing a continuous lagoon of nearlyuniform width between it and the shore . Of a fact so im

portant in its geological bearings as th e co- existence of a

fringing and lagoon- enclosing reef at th is island , the distin

guished lecturerwas, I presume,not aware

,inasmuch as it was

in no manner alluded to by him. There i s scarce ly any por

in the P acific, (Sec.

tion of the reef wh ich I have not visited, and so far from en

circling the island, the lagoon only exists at intervals , and inmany of these a shore reef runs out so far as to leave buta narrow boat channel between it and the outer one . Some

times it terminates in a cul de sac in other places it communicates with the sea by two passages near its extremities, thus

isolating a portion of the outer reef, and there are parts of the

coast where for miles the two reefs appear to have united,and

there is no intervening canal so that the natives wade from

the beach to the breakers . It would be nearer the truth , to

state that instead of a continuous lagoon, there is a nearlycontinuous fringing reef

, surrounding the island and varying

from a few yards to more than a mile in width , and that the

lagoons merely form canals between th is and the sea reef.

Like the latter,these shore reefs are in general very steep .

There is one in Pappeiti, the principal harbor, forming a sort

of natural pier, alongside of wh ich a vessel can lie in th irty

or forty feet of water,so close that a person may step from

her channels,upon the reef, where it is not more than eigh teen

inches or two feet deep .

The island of Eimeo,lofty and broken like that of Tah iti,

fromwh ich it is distant between four and five leagues, is almostentirely surrounded by a fringing reef, containing occasionalsmall lagoons inaccessible to any thing but a canoe

,and often

having no entrance whatever. The same may be said of

several other islands in the Tah itian group . For th ese reefs

to have formed upon the shore and extended so far as in some

instances to be blended with the outer ones,there must as it

seems to me,have been a long period of rest between the

cessation of subsidence and the re- elevatory process, wh ich itis my belief has been for some time and is still going forward .

For th is belief I now proceed to submit some of the reasons .

A t almost every Paumotu visited,I found the shore of the

lagoon raised from eigh teen to thirty inches, containing im

bedded shells,and corals standing as they grew .

A t Clermont Tonnerre Island,on the North shore of the la

goon, there is a reef two feet above sea level,literally paved

with the shells of Tridacnm, imbedded precisely as in the

Couthouy on Cora l Formations

adjacent submerged plateau, and in a state of perfect preser

vation,even as to color. A t Honden Island, some two hun

dred and twenty miles north -west of th is,a similar raised

ledge borders the lagoon . .A t Raraka, three hundred milesfurtherWest

,on the plain between the windward ridge and

lagoon ,wh ich had a very sligh t ascent inland

,corals both

sessile and arborescent,were met with in a normal position ,

half a mile from the sea,and

‘

at about the same heigh t above

it as the shells at Clermont Tonnerre . A t King’s Island, in

crossing from the leeward beach to the lagoon ,several large

tracts of reef—rock were observed,full of imbedded Tridacnae,

and corals occupying their original locality . S imilar appearances were presented by several other islands

,to wh ich I

cannot refer at present

The surface reef or upper terrace, every where bears evi

dence of having been elevated h igher’

than the natural growthof the corals would raise it, in their scanty number and di

minished size,and the calcareous incrustations now covering

the larger portion of the reef,to the extinction of the polypes .

A t Waterland Island, the leeward reef is quite bare at low

water,and so hold that one may spring upon it from a boat

without wetting h is feet. So trifling is the depth of water

on other reefs, that many arborescent and some even of the

sessile corals, have their superior portions so constantly expos

ed that the polypes are all dead, while below a certain linethey still continue to flourish . In the lagoons, al so, are frequently seen , clusters of Madrepore, whose extremities are

from an inch to a feet above water, wh ich like those on the

terraces could have been constructed by the polypes, onlywhen continually covered by it .

A t Christmas Island, the re- elevation has been so great, that

the lagoon, of sixty miles in circuit, is in no part, at half amilefrom shore . more than three feet deep, has hardly any where

over ten feet of water at h igh tide and is full of still shallower patches, raised reef-rock , and corals . On the south - east

side, numerous lagoons from a quarter of a mile to a

'

couple of

leagues in compass, originally no doubt deep hollows in theprincipal one, have been formed by the elevation of their sur

in the P acific, (Sec.

rounding bed above water. In some of these, though they

have no outlet,the tide continues to rise and fall regularly,

the water passing readily through the porous sand, but the

evaporation is such as to render them exceedingly salt. In

others,the water is entirely dried up, and the bottom covered

with a thick saline incrustation . The intervals between thesesmal l lagoons and hollows , is sometimes the bare coral rock ,but more commonly coral sand and shells, containing an infi

nite number of Ech ini,Spatangi, & c . imbedded . Near the

centre of the island are plains of perfectly level coral rock ,

some of them a mile long by half a mile broad, raised eight

or ten feet above sea level,and covered with about a foot of

black porous earth . The magnitude of these rocks precludesall idea of their having been torn from the reef like the largeblocks of similar composition that line the eastern coast. A

very remarkable character in the structure of th is island isthe unusually great width of the two entrances , it being fulltwo miles, as will be seen by the accompanying sketch . The

fringing reef runs out about half a cable’s length all round

the island,except on the south -west side, where the surf rolls

in directly upon the beach . There is anchorage for sh ips in

from ten to thirty fathoms water on either side of the low,

sandy islet by wh ich the entrances are separatedfi“

The letters A . B . C . D . E. , and the adjoining dark spots, indicate the position

of the smal ler lagoons and dry ho llows .

F. and G. are two h ills of coral sand , about ten feet h igher than the rest of

the island .

H . the low,sandy island between the entrances, which are marked by the

dotted line .

The four trees represent the situation of as many groves of cocoa- nut . The

For the sketch of Christmas Island, and also many of the facts in connexion,

l am indebted to the Hawai i an Spectator, for July , 1838 . This publication,

wh ich was issued quarterly, in a very handsome octave form, at Honolulu, in

Oahu ,and conducted with much ab ility by an association of the fore ign resi

dents, was discontinued at the close of the Jecond year, for lack of patronage .

T his is much to be regretted , as it promised to be the veh icle ofmuch important

information,both of a scientific and general character, relative to Polynesia.

Its p lace is in a measure supplied by a weekly paper entitled The Polynesian,"

established in June , 1840, and ably edited by our townsman and former asso

ciate, J. J. Jarves, Esq .

,but the size of this renders it less valuable than the

Spectator, as a work of reference .

Couthouy on Cora l Forma tions

dark dotted patches in the lagoon , which should be much more numerous,are

sand banks and cora l shallows ; and the b lack spots on the eastern shore,denote

large fragments of reef- rock thrown up by the breakers .

SKETCH or cnars 'rma s ISLA ND.

0 I

1 57 30 .

A t Carlshoff Island, in about 15° 30’ S . lat. and 145° 30'W.

long .,near the north -west side of the lagoon , and a short

quarter of a mile from the sea beach,is a pool of tolerably

fresh water,between fifty and sixty yards round

,and five

feet deep, which appears to have been formed like the dry

h ollows at Christmas Island.

B ut in noth ing perhaps throughout the coral seas,are the

proofs of re- elevation more conspicuous than in the largetabular masses of reef- rock which have been spoken of as

lining the weather shores ofmany Paumotus . A t Serle , Vincennes, (a few miles West of Raraka

,) King’s,Carlshofl

'

,

Honden Tooa,A itoho

,and Dean ’

s orPrince of Wale’sislands,these constitute one of the most prominent features . A t the

in the P acific, (9c.

last named, they are strewn along the coast for upwards of

thirty miles, and some of the masses, as nearly as I couldestimate

,were a hundred feet long. It is not improbable that

the whole coast here may be a reef raised three or four feet.

The enormous size of the rocks in some instances,renders it

almost incredible that any surf could have been sufficientlypowerful , to tear from the reef and remove them to their pres

ent situation

Not having landed here , but only seen these ledges through aglass while coasting the island at a mile ’

s distance,I cannot

of course speak positively on th is question, or as to their exact

size but as regards the latter, any person who has made the

experiment, will admit that in viewing objects on a beach in

th is manner, their magnitude is more apt to be under than

over- estimated. In most cases, however, there is no doubt

but that these blocks are erratic,and original ly constituted

the impending sh elf of the surface plateau, which from their

being torn Off now presents at its edge only a steep slope .

That th is shelf could not have been formed wh ile the plateauwas at its present. elevation, is apparent not merely from the

fact that the surf would prevent its construction,but because

as the appearance of the whole reef testifies,it is not covered

with a depth of water adapted to’

the Operations of th e polypes on such a scale . The fragments must also have been re

moved to the locality they now occupy, wh ile the reef was

at a lower level,since the surf at present scarcely reach es

them except during heavy gales . That a considerable re- ele

vation has taken place since they became fixed where we find

them,is evinced by the manner in wh ich their sides and faces

have been hollowed out by the action of the waves . Had no

change of level occurred,we should naturally expect to see

th e greatest excavation near their union with the subjacent

reef,where they are unceasingly exposed to the flux and re

flux Of the tide,whereas it is frequently near their upper

Gouthang on Cora l Formations

th ird, and a portion Of it above h igh water mark, giving to

th e smaller masses a great variety of configuration ,as may

be seen in the following sketch Of a cluster on the reef at

King’s island

The interrupted line in th is and the preceding cut indicate

the line of h igh water in ordinary tides.

I incline to a belief that the fissures described as existing in

the thin shelves of coralline limestone surrounding some

islands,should be included among the evidences of re- eleva

tion . The character of their stratification shOws that these

were originally deposited on a horizontal plane, and their present dip of 5° or 6

°seaward

,may have been occasioned by

the upward pressure of the submerged summit below th e bed

of the lagoon wh ich would also be likely to cause in strata of

their extent and tenuity, such rents as I have mentioned .

This is certainly the case with similar formations on the east

ern coast of Kauai, whose dip is 10°or 12° so that the edges

of the laminae at their landward termination,crop out a foot

or more above the beach .

Throughout the volcanic islands of Polynesia the tokens Ofrecent elevation are every where conspicuous in a greater or

less degree . A t the Society and Samoan groupsmay be seen

above water at low tide,corals in situ

,whose upper portion

and frequently the entire mass is blackened,and their polypes

destroyed by exposure.

A t the North - west end Of Manua, (the easternmost of the

Samoas,) fragments of coral, whose quantity and size are such

as to render it impossible that they were placed there by other

than natural agency, are to be seen at least eigh ty feet abovethe sea, on a steep hill- side rising

‘

half a mile inland froma low

,sandy plain abounding in marine remains . These

fragments are imbedded in a mixture Of decomposed lava,mould and sand

,and some of them are of such magnitude that

four stout natives could not turn them over. The immediate

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Couthouy on Cora l Formations

found a stratum of sligh tly cemented coral sand,containing

sh ells and Eeh inides of species identical with those new liv

ing in the vicinity. In other places, as on the plain at the

entrance of the Manoa valley, between Honolulu and Waikiki,

the reef is entirely bare, with every hollow and gulley as dis

tinctly defined as they are on the present shore reef. A short

half mile west Of Honolulu ‘

and half that distance from the

sea,at the mouth Of a branch of th e Nuuanu valley, a con

siderable stream flows through a section of th is elevated reef

some twenty feet deep. A mile and a half fartherWest there

is a similar section at the mouth of the Kalih i valley . These

appear to have been anciently passages in the reef,and show

that it is composed of the same genera of corals (principallyPorites) as constitute th e mass of th e recent reef. In the dis

triet Of Ewa , fourteen miles west of Honolulu,on the left

bank Of Pearl river a few rods from its mouth,there is a bed

of oyster shells, twelve feet in th ickness and more than a hun

dred yards in length , whose lowest portion is full five feet

above the sea. They are for the most part entire and in a

fine state of preservation ,the internal polish yet uneffaced and

not tacky or happ an te”to the tongue . They bear a very

close resemblance to our 0 . borea lis,and it is remarkable that

although imbedded with it are found many shells wh ich stillinhabit the adjacent coast in great numbers, the Ostrea is ap

parently anextinct species . It was seen no where else in thePacific

,neither so far as I

i

could ascertain,is it met with either

fossil or recent on any other part of this coast .

FromWaialua on the north -west side of Oahu I received

specimens of a very hard and compact breccia of shells andcoral said to be taken from cliffs of the same material twentyfeet h igh ,

which the description sent with the specimens leftme little doubt

,were the remains Of an ancient cemented co

ral beach .

On th e coasts of Kauai there are frequent elevated beaches.

One of these at Kalih iwai,on the north side of the island,

’

three fourth s of a mile inland,is composed Of a sligh tly cohe

rent conglomerate of coral and sh ells raised about fifteen feet.

A ged natives dwelling in the neighborhood, affirmed to me

I

ih'

the P acific; (See.

that the sea had retired with in their remembrance an eigh th

of a mile,and that in their youth , old men had told them that

they in their boyhood fish ed in canoes at a spot new full onethird of a mile from the sea

,wh ich since that period, as they

forcibly expressed it, ihanauia ha lep o hou,” literally , had

brough t forth the new earth . Four or fivemiles 1West of this,

the river Hanalei,flowing through a plain of the same name

in the district of Waioli,

* displays on its banks rather more

than a quarter Of a mile from the sea,the section of an ancient

beach about five feet h igher than the present one, and com

posed Of materials similar to that of Kalihiwai. This line of

beach extends from the base elevated table land forming theeastern boundary of the plain in a westerly d irection three

miles across to the foot of the lofty ridges of Mamalahoa and

Puiinauekia its limits on the Opposite side following the cur

vature of the h ills to the south,and sometimes almost skirting

them at from the fourth of a mile to a mile from the shore .

The figure below represents a North and South section of the

plain , from just back Of the ancient beach to the sea, on a

scale of inches to a mile,and 10 feet to the inch .

a . Surface soil, twe lve to fourteen inches deep below the old beach , and

eighteen to twentysix inch es deep above it .

b. A decomposed lava ten or twelve feet thick, gradually passing into the

solid rock .

c. A mixture of decomposed lava , surface mould,and coral and shell detritus .

d . A ncient beach o f coral rubble,she lls

,and volcanic earth and sand.

e. A stratum Of l ike materials with c. ten inches th ick at its commencement,

but gradually attenuating as it approaches the sea til l at one- fourth of a mile

from it, it is lost .

Waioli signifies the singing or the joyful water, and is applied to this

region by the Hawai ians , whose names are always not less poetica l than de

scriptive , on account of the numerous glittering cascades that come singing and

leaping down from the lofty mountains by wh ich it is girt on al l sides but the

seaward one .

Gouthang on Cora l Formations

f . A stratum of fine volcanic sand,chiefly comminuted crystals of Olivine ,

and fine coral detritus and shells .

g . Th in laminae,the planes of whose stratification are parallel , formed by a

concret ion of the materials off . and having thin layers Of loose sand interposed .

h . Present beach—coral rubble, shells and sand, chiefly coral detritus .

These laminae were evidently formed by successive hori

zental depositions, but have since been tilted up so as to dip

about 59 north to the sea. Proceeding inland,after passing

the line of old beach,the surface soil is twice the th ickness

of that on the seaward portion of the plain, and rests on the

stratum Of decomposed lava . The layer ofmixed earth , sandand shells

,was no doubt washed from the stratum at the time

wh en the seawas at the Old beach . The bed of sand and

detritus 0 11 which th is mixed layer, and after its disappearance,th e surface mould rests, is full of sligh t inequalities, as if rip

!

pled up by the wind or sea. Probab ly th e“

former was the

real agent after its elevation . In the opinion of several intelligent residents, this plain has been formed merely by longcontinued additions to the beach , but there are several factscontradictory of th is .

From all the evidence I ‘

eonld collect,eith er by personal

Observation or inquiry , it is my belief that the sea instead Of

augmenting the coast, is yearly encroach ingupon it and re-s

gaining its previous loss by elevation . The surf wh ich rollsin from the broad Open bay of Hanalei

,especially during the

winter months with tremendous Violence,must Operate de

structively upon a beach shelving into deep water so abruptly

as th is .

There is a short beach a. mile ‘

and a half perhaps from that

of Hanalei,between the river Lumahae and the

,ridge Of

Pui’

mauekia,which during the winter is sometimes three hun

a

dred yards wide, and is every summer narrowed to twenty or

twentyfive yards , yet no corresponding increase takes placeduring the latter season in the main beach . Yet it is evident

ly the waste of th is which contributes to widen the other,it

being the only one in the vicinity capab le of furnish ing the

material . If the plain was of gradual formation by succes

sive increment, as a natural consequence the surface soilwould be deepest on the inland or Older portion, whereas

in the P acific, aye.

it is of the same th ickness one hundred yards from the sea as

at the ancient line of coast . Moreover, a transverse section

Of both the ancient and modern beaches, exh ibits a ridge

composed of eeral in considerable fragments, entire shells,

Eeh inides, & c . mixed with a rather coarse coralline sand

,and

if the intervening space were merely a succession Of similarbeaches th ere is no reason why it should not be similarly con

stituted . B ut instead of th is it contains only a few scattered

corals in small pieces, the shells in it are small and broken up

and the sand is very fine,much of it being of volcanic ori

gin ; the whole appearing like the finer and heavier particles,now being washed from the beach and carried seaward by the

recoil and undertow of the surf. A dding to these facts that

of the dip northward,of the lower bed of laminar conore

tions,I th ink the plain of Hanalei should be classed among

the instances of elevation by subterranean forces . The man

ner in wh ich the strata of cemented coralline sand are tiltedup in the vicinity of Wailua has already been described . A t

A nahola a few miles North of th is,half a mile from the sea is

a remarkable beach,more than a mile in length , consisting of

a mixture of loosecorals, shells and sand,deposited in very

regular curved strata . From th is and all the other Old beach

es a sandy plain , with a th in coating of soil extends to the

present coast .

That section Of the coast at Kauai,designated by the na

tives as Na Pali, or “ the Precipices , wh ich from Hamakoa

on the North,to Lapa on the West

,extends about twelve

miles in an unbroken,inaccessible wall of sub - columnar

y

lava,

from eigh teen hundred to twentyfive hundred feet high , exh ib

its continuous traces of exposure to the action of th e waves,

several feet above the line of cavities now being worn by the

surf.

A t Molokai, an island a few miles North -west of Maui,Mr.

B . Munn,teacher for the Mission

,assured me that he had seen

masses of coral apparently in their original position , imbeddedin calcareous rocks

,one hundred and even one hundred and

fifty feet above sea level . I suspect, however, that here is

some error,either of calculation or Observation , having seen

Couthouy on Cora l Formations

noth ing on any of the other islands,

to warrant the belief insuch an elevation as th is would indicate . S till from the tes

timony of all the missionaries,there can be no question of the

fact that th ere are really in Molokai raised coral beaches ofheigh t at least equal to those of Oahu and Kauai .

B y the statements of ‘

several persons who have long beenresidents on Oahu

,the elevation th ere is at present going for

ward at a very perceptible rate . Henry A . Peirce,Esq.

,an

A merican merchant who has dwelt at Honolulu for upwardsof sixteen years, and whose high intelligence and habits of

close observation entitle h is opinion on th is point to much re

spect, h as informed me that large portions of the reef on both

sides of the harbor,wh ich at h is first arrival were never un

covered by the sea,have since then risen so much as to be

now bare every tide at low water ; other parts wh ich were

w ith in h is knowledge exposed only at that stage; are now na

ked an hour before it,and the

‘

sea has in the same timerece

ded as much as thirty feet from places! Wh ere canoes were

accustomed to landfi“

It is to be remembered that throughout th is group of islands,earthquakes are of very frequent occurrence

,especially at

Hawaii,the principal one

,and seat of the great volcano of

Kilauea,where several occur almost every year. A t Hilo

,or

B yron’s B ay, about th irty miles North - east of the crater

,dur

ing the month of November,1838

,upwards of fifty sh ocks

were experienced with in eigh t days, and not less than twelvemore counted in a single nigh t . There is another active vol

cano in the Vich is,or Fej ees, and several more in the islands

to the southward and westward of them,nor is it

‘

at all im

probable that throughout the entire extent of Polynesia, theinternal fires are raging below the ocean

’s bed

,and by their

A mong the evidences of the slow increase of corals, alluded to on page 2 ,

w ere included through inadvertence, experiments made at long intervals on the

depth of channels and upon wel l known reefs . These should be set aside , since

it is c lear that such dep th might be increased or diminished by a subsidence or

e levation of the reef, and therefore no correct inference as to the growth of the

corals compos ing it can be drawn from such experimen ts .

in the P acific, (ye.

upward forces constantly tending to elevate the existingislandsfi“

Its hearings on this question, the singularity of the phenomena it records,

and the limited circulation of the work in wh ich it appears, wi ll , I trus t, be

deemed sufficient apologies for introducing h ere the account of an extraordinaryoscillation of the sea, published in the Hawaiian Spectator for January 1838 ,

by T . C . B . Rooke, F . R . C . S .

,a resident of Honolu lu.

‘fl On th e evening and nigh t of the 7th Nov . 1837,a most remarkable commo

tion of the sea was wi tne ssed at Honolulu,in many respec ts similar to that

witnessed at these is lands in May , 18 19 . One inch and a half of rain had

fallen during the previous twentyfour hours th e w ind was fresh from the

Northe ast,squal ly at intervals . The atmosphere was clear and cool

,—Therm .

The B arometer had gradual ly fal len during the four previous days , but

this even ing had again risen to at 6 o’

c lock , when the alarm was given

that the sea was retiring . The firs t recession was th e greatest,- something

more than e ight fee t ; but being unprepared to make observations at the mo

ment,the exact fall was not measured . The reefs surrounding the harbor were

left dry , and the fish aground were mostly dead. The sea quickly returned,

and in twentyeigh t minutes reached the height of an ordinary high tide scarce

ly remaining s tationary , it again reced ed and fe ll six fee t. Th is was repeated

at intervals of twentyeight minutes . On the th ird rising it was four inches

above ordinary h igh water mark,and fel l again six feet four inches . A fter the

fourth rismg , the length of time occupied by the rise and fall varied,and the

rise and fall diminished gradually, but not regularly . A t 1 1 , P. M . the Ther

mometer stood at 74, B arometer wind freshening and frequent showers ;

the ebb now occupied twenty minutes , and the flow ten . A t 1 1 30 it became

calm with constan t rain . Th ermome ter B arometer The ebb and

flow s till continued , occupying the same space of time,but the rise and fall

decreasing . Th is continued during the forenoon of the 8 th . The rapidity w ith

wh ich the water fe ll, varied in different parts of the h arbor. On the East side ,

the greatest rapidity noticed was s ix inches in a minute ; but on th e North,at

one time during the third recession i t fell twelve inches in th irty seconds . A t

no t ime did the water rise h igher than a common spring tide ; but the fall was

about s ix feet below low water mark . The same occurrence is re lated to have

taken p lace in 1819, when the tide rose and fe ll thirteen times in the space of

a few hours . On neither occasion was there any perceptible motion or‘

trem

bling of the earth , or unusual appearance of the atmosphere .

On th e'

leeward side of Maui the same rise and fall took p lace as at Honolulu,

but on the W indward part of the island the sea reti red about twenty fathoms and

quick ly returned in one gigantic wave sweeping every thing before it, houses ,

trees , canoes, and every moveable object exposed to its fury . A t a small V i l

lage , called Kahului,in the district ofWailuku, on the sea re tiring, the amazed

inh abi tants followed it as it receded, eagerly catch ing the stranded fish

,shouting

and hal loo ing W i th pleasure , when sudden ly the s ea rose perpendicularly before

them li ke a precipice, and rushing to the beach , buri ed the assembled multitudes

in the flood,and overflowing the shore

,swept away every house in the vil lage

but one ; the canoes and property of the natives were all destroyed. Happily ,

8

Gout/way on Cora l Formations

B efore closing these imperfect reminiscences, a few remarks

may be added,respecting Matea

,or A urora Island, a coral reef

owmg to the amphibious education of the people , but two liVes were lost here ,

but as the same occurrence happened all along the seaside we shall probab ly

hear of more deaths .

A t B yron’

s B ay , on Hawaii, the same phenomenon took place . A n unusual

number of persons were co llected together attending a protracted meeting, eon

sequently every house was crowded . A t half- past 6 the sea retired at the rate

of four or five knots an hour, reducing the sound ings from five to three and a

half fathoms at the anchorage, and leaving a great exten t of th e h arbor dry .

Hundreds of curious souls rushed down to witness the novelty, when a gigantic

wave came roaring to the shore at the rate of six or eight knots an hour, rising

twenty feet above h igh water mark,and fe ll on the beach with a noise resem

bling a h eavy peal of thunder, burying the people in the flood,destroying

houses , canoes , and fish -

ponds , wash ing away the food and cloth ing of the ih

habitants , large quantities of animals, fire wood

,and timber collected on the

s trand for sale . The cries of distress were horrible ; those in the water unable

to swim among the wreck of houses,and pieces of timber, struggling for their

lives, and those on shore wailing for their friends and relatives . The B ritish

whale ship A dmiral Cockburn was at anchorin the B ay, and to the timely aid

and humane exertions of h er master, (Lawrence ,) and crew , many are indebted

for their lives , but for the assistance rendered by their boats many who were

stunned and insensible would h ave been carried out to sea, and perished, as the

natives had not a single canoe left that would float . Every th ing was destroyed

those who escaped with their lives had neither food nor raiment left. In Ka

nokapa and Kaahelu alone , sixtysix houses were destroyed , and eleven persons

lost their lives , four inen , two women, and five children ; at Waiolama and

Hanna, a woman and child were drowned ; at Kauwale one woman lost her

life . The amount of damage done has not yet been ascertained, nor is it known

how many times the sea rose and fell . Th ere was no shock of an earthquake

felt at Hilo , or elsewhere , although it is ascertained that the volcano of Ki lauea

was unusually di sturbed the previous evening, the fires were suddenly quench ed,

and yawning chasms burst open in previously tranquil places , accompan ied with

vio lent explosions , Inquiri es have been made of masters of vessels who were

to the North and to the East of the islands on the 7th , at various distances, but

none of them noticed any th ing unusual in the sea, or atmosphere . That this

apparent submarine volcanic action has taken place at some distance from the

is lands is proved by the wave striking the di fferent islands simultaneously and

apparently in the same direction ; but at what distance we have no means at

presen t of determining . Perhaps the in ternal fires have found a new vent,

wh ich may be laying the foundation of a new group of is lands in our neighbor

h ood . l t is now nineteen and a h alf years S ince a simi lar phenomenon oc

curred here , but not so violently as the last, nor was i t attended with any loss

of life .

Cases of the sea during earthquakes re tiring for a short time to return W i th

overwhe lming force, are but too famili armatter of h is tory . Such are the wave

which utterly destroyed old Ca llao in 1746 ; that witnessed during the great

earthquake of Lisbon, and more recently, in those which have been attended

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Couthouy on Cora l Formations

From one of the plains on the north side,where there is a

village with some two hundred and fifty inhabitants , a steep

ascent leads to the summit,wh ich presents a broad table land ,

declining a few feet toward the centre,wh ere we may sup

pose the lagoon to h ave been situated . Near th e eastern ex

tremity, a few yards from the bank,are two knolls gently

rising to a heigh t of perhaps forty feet, wh ich I presume to he

remains of the ancient fragmentary ridge, formed when this

table land was the surface reef,the main portion having been

undermined and worn away by the action of the surf on the

South - east or windward side during the period of elevation .

To th is cause,I imagine , is also to be assigned the sloping

form of the island in that direction , wh ile the sheltered lee

ward side has preserved its original sheer descent . The

dense growth of forest,and tangled luxuriance of under

growth , preven ted any minute observation during my hurried

visit,but I recollect that the whole surface of the table land

,

and the ascent of the cliff for eigh ty or a hundred feet belowit,was covered with fragments of coral conglomerate , the

species imbedded in wh ich were the same with th ose found

on the reef below . Indeed,the entire mass of the island is a

reef- rock in various stages of consolidation,the lower portion

approximating to a solid limestone,the cellular coralline struc

ture being in some fragments hardly perceptible, and the

imbedded shells frequently losing their texture,becoming

b lent with the rock,and presenting merely casts .

*

The island appeai s to have been elevated at two successive

periods , between wh ich it remained stationary for a consider

able time as rath er more than h alf way up the cliff is a horizontal belt of deep excavations

,exactly resembling those new

worn at its base by the sea. Th is belt is not absolutely con

tinuous,being interrupted at intervals by spaces where the ao

tion of the water is not discernible . Such,however

,should a

Spemmens of shells in this state are also found occasionally in the tabular

masses o f reef- rock,on the shores of some lagoon islands These frag

ments , l ike the i ock a t Matea , indicate by the ir s tructure that the main body of

the reefs is no t a homogeneous coral rock, but a conglomerate of large p ieces

of coral and she lls,filled in and cemented together by a detritus of similar ma

te rials .

in the P aczfic, (Ye.

third elevation occur, would be the condition of the present

base of the cliff,at wh ich the line of excavation is apparent

only in those portions exposed to the action of the surf.

Viewed from a distance,the belt appears distinctly to divide

the cliff into two nearly equal portions, and in several placeswhere th is latter forms an angle, large perforations are visible

,

which must have resulted from the wearing away of the rock

by the surf.

Thus have I,hastily and at random,

as promised in the

outset,thrown together some o f my reminiscences of these

interesting regions . A t a future day I may be enabled (abandoning the indefinite specifications whose occurrence I am

well aware is too frequent in these remarks,but wh ich under

the circumstances are unavoidable,) systematically to arrange

my observations,and give the details with the minuteness

and precision demanded by the importance of the subject .

S ince the remarks upon the influence of tides upon reef

channels,in a preceding portion of th is communication

,have

been in press, it has occurred to me that in connection with

that topic it will be preper to specify several erroneous asser

tions relative to the tides generally throughout Polynesia ;which derive importance from the name of their authors justly possessing much weight, not less with scientific readers

than the public generally .

Capt . B eechey, in the “ Voyage of the B lossom, part I.

Chap. IX. Lond . Ed . ,speak ing of tides in the harbors of Ta

hiti,remarks

,A t Toanoa

,it is usually low water about six

every morning, and h igh water half an hour after noon, and

attributes this peculiarity to the sea breeze by day, forcing

the water into the harbor,wh ich is a lagoon be tween the reef

and shore ; adding,“as the wind abates

,the water subsides,

and the nigh ts being generally calm,the water finds its low

est level by morning .

Now th e first of these propositions , though strictly true,

is only a partial statement,conveying, and (as is evident

from the context) designed to convey , the idea that th e flood

tide lasts only about six hours,wh ile the ebb continues for

eighteen , from noon of one day till six the next m o r n i r r

Conthouy on Cora l Formations

The second quotation contains a positive mis- statement. In

th e first place, at Toanoa, as in all the harbors of Tah iti and

the other Society Islands, it is full sea regularly twice in

twentyfour hours, and always about noon and midnigh t and

low water about six o’clock

,morning and evening. The mom

ings are calm for perhaps eleven month s in the year, the trade

wind or sea breeze commonly setting in about eleven o’clock

,

and prevailing in its greatest strength from noon till four orfive P. M . It then dies away, and by eigh t or nine P. M .

there is a dead calm wh ich continues till the next forenoon .

Thus instead of the tide being forced into the harbor by

the sea breeze,we find that a great part of the day and all

th e nigh t flood takes place during a calm,wh ereas during

the afternoon,the water ebbs rapidly against the full .power

of the breeze . Even if Capt . B . was correct,in regard to

the duration of the ebb and flood . h is explanation would not

reach the case of those‘

harbors on the leeward side of the

islands,where the trades are not felt

,and yet the tides follow

the same course as those on the opposite side .

In Kotzebue’s account of h is voyage round the world

,he

also has given currency to very inaccurate statements on th is

subject. In h is remarks on Tah iti, we find the followingpassage . Every noon, the whole year round, th e moment

the sun touches the meridian,the water is h ighest, and falls

with the sinking sun,till midnigh t. ”

It would be a difficult matter,to crowd in as few words a

greater number of errors than are here contained . They con

vey a false impression that the“

tides are governed entirely bythe sun ; represent them as diurnal instead of semi - diurnal ,and name as the hour for the daily recurrence of low water,

that when it is actually full sea. Neither is it always h ighwater

,as h e asserts

,

“ the moment the sun touches the

meridian,

”though th is, compared with the rest

,is but a

trivial misrepresentation . So well are the facts I have stated,

known to the natives,whose habit of daily visiting th e reef

to catch fish,wh ich are a principal article of their food , has

made them naturally observant of the tides ; and who to this

day have little idea of our divisions of time that instead of

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Couthouy on Coral Formations

this subject, had he sought to obtain it . The truth is,that

unless retarded or accelerated by occasional storms, the flood

and ebb at these islands, from one year’s end to another

,sum

mer and winter, in breeze and calm,follow the course of the

moon as regularly as do the tides in B oston Harbor. The rise

and fall of the tide,varies in different harbors, from four to

five and a half feet . Having resided for six month s,in the

Hawaiian Group, traversed the four principal islands in vari

ous directions,and beside making careful inquiry of the resi

dents,examined no less than twelve harbors, including nearly

all of any consequence, some of them open roadsteads,others

formed by small bays, and a large proportion by coral reefs I

can speak with some confidence on th is point.

A ll my visits to islands in coral arch ipelagos having beenvery brief, I am unable to state what is the course of the tides

among them,but incline to believe that at the detached Pau

motus,they obey the usual laws . On landing a second time

at B ellinghausen’s Island

,wh ich is about two hundred and

seventy miles West of Tahiti,I found the reef quite bare, at

the same h our that it was overflowed on my . first visit,some

month s previous . A t th e full and change of the moon,the

rise at Ocean Island is about twentytwo inches,wh ile at

Christmas Island it is five feet,but th e tides on both are nor

mal,by the accounts of those who have been wrecked and

resided on them for several month s.

I hasten to terminate th ese discursive remarks, (already ex

tended far beyond what was contemplated at the commence

ment,) by offering a few suggestions relative to a subject

wh ich it appears to me has by no means received, hitherto,

an attention commensurate with its importance . I allude tothe temperature of the ocean in its influence upon the growth

and geograph ical distribution of corals .

It is a remarkable fact, and one for which I am not aware

that any explanation has been offered,that wh ile in the Paci

fic and Indian Oceans,coral abounds every where between

the tropics for a space of about six thousand leagues fromEast to West

,it does not exist on the West coast of South

A merica (at least South of the eigh th parallel of latitude , ) nor

in the P acific, (90

do we meet with any coral islands within the whole space of

nearly eigh t(hundred leagues to the westward of it .

Even at .the Galapagos, situated directly upon the Equator,

there are no traces of a coral reef. This absence of coral

formations in portions of the same parallel in which their

most profuse display is i gpresented , has ”by some been referred

to tone of those inexplicable, apparent caprices of .nature, be

yond man’s.ability to fathom,

analogous to the well- knownfact

,t hat certain classes .of plants wh ich . flourish luxuriantly

in the .other hemisphere, will not thrive at all in situations and

climates seemingly in every respect adapted to their growth ,

in our own . In the A tlantic,it is my impression that the

same absence of coral characterizes a large portion of the South

A merican coast, and the outlying intertropical islands , suchas Trinidad

,Martin Vas, and Fernando Noronha ; wh ile it

abounds in the same parallels North of the line, among the

A ntilles, and even in the latitude of 32° we find a very

siderable group of coral reefs,and islands of coral limestone .

A t the Cape Verde Islands,and I think th e Canaries also

,

we have again an entire absence of such formations,although

the former are 17degrees nearer the Equator than B ermuda.

On the East coast of South A merica,thismay perhaps be

attributed partl y to the immense bodies of fresh water poured

into the A tlantic from those great streams, wh ich rolling in

turbid floods through a course thousands o fm iles in length ,emp ty themselves at various points from .near the Equator to

the latitude of It is well known to wh at an astonish ing

distance their waters are carried along the coast,

.unmingledwith those of the ocean

,and l oaded with a fine

,impalpable

mud . Th is must unquestionably be .high ly deleterious to

the coral polypes, if not suflicient to .utterly prevent th eirgrowth , as they require .the purest ocean water for their suc

cessful developement .B ut I ampersuaded, after a careful e xamination of the facts,

that the absence -of coral on the other side of the continent,

and in th e wide space between it and the low islands of

Polynesia, it is to be attributed to the prevalence of cold cur

. rents. wh ich proceeding northward from the Polar regions are

9

Couthouy on Cora l Formations

perceptible the whole distance from Cape Horn to Callao, andI presume muc further to the north m a temperature of the

ocean too low r the existence of the coral animals, and thatin a similar low temperature we are to seek for the cause of

their absence at the Cape Verde Islands. I have already al

luded to the greater heat on the southern part of our coast and

the B ahamas, produced by the vicinity of the Gul f S tream.

A like / temperature prevails along the southern shore of Cu

ba,and the islands in its Vicinity, and . though unable to speak

positively, from having no data,as to the B ermudas

,I have no

doubt from their proximity to the Gulf S tream,that they are

washed by an equally . warm sea. Now let us glance for a

moment at the facts bearing on th is question, in regions situ

ated in corresponding parallels o f latitude,Where no coral

formations exist. A t Valparaiso, ih lat. of 33° South,and

thence as far as the 20th paral lel, in the month of November,

the surface temperature of the ocean near the coast has been

found to range from 58 ° to 60° at Callao,in the lat. of

from 58 ° to and thence in a North -Westerly direction to

the Galapagos, to increase gradually to 68 ° and A mongthese islands, at the same season

,its average was not above

and at some of them it did not/ exceed B ut leavingthese islands and proceeding

'Southfi west,we find it steadily

rising, till .on the skirts of the Dangerous A rch ipelago it is upto 78 ° and nearly 20° higher than on the coast in the

same parallel . A nd here we enter upbn the coral formations.

A mong the Paumotus,the field of their most lavish display,

the temperature varies from 77°to at Tah it

’

iiffrom 77° to

and about the same at the - large groups to the West of it.

A t the Hawaiian Islands, lying between 22 ° North

latitude,it is as h igh sometimes as

In our own hemisphere, among the A ntilles, B ahamas, andalong the southern coast of Florida

,I have found the tem

perature of the water near the shore,at different seasons, from

78 ° to and in all these regions coratireefs abound.

A t the Cape Verde Islands, and in the neighborhood of

Trinidad,Martin Vas

,and Fernando Noronha

,it falls to 69°

and 71° and these islands,as was before remarked

,are en

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collection of facts, bearing on a particular subject, s omethingis elicited leading to important conclusi ons in regard to (others,having at. first sigh t

a-no connection with it .

Wh ile convinced in my own mind of the truth .of athe ;sngf ,

gestions here offered in regard to th e absence o f coral forma

tions in certain regions, I feel conscious also that the‘

data

upon wh ich they rest,though certainly presenting a strong

case as far as theyextend, areafter all but limited i n compar

ison with those still deficient . I submit them for'

what theyare worth . What th is may be , time and more extensive oh

servation must determine . Claiming only to have at leastsough t amore rational method of accounting for the peculiarities h ere pointed out

,than that of supposing th em altogether

fortuitous,I shall rejoice if the end show th at ‘I have ,c_ontri:

buted in the sligh test degree, or in a single point of zview,

'

to

the advancement of the great object .to which we are all

according to our Opportunities, devoted .

In the operations of Nature or rather of Deity, there!is

noth ing the result, of blind chance, and th ough there may be

particular ph enomena wh ich in our present ignorance of the

laws controlling them we .are unable to explain .it is not the

less certain that these laws really exist, and that patient‘

ré

search will yet be rewarded by th eir discovery . The day

will come , and we may hope is even now dawning upon u s,

wh en error and misconception shall vanish ‘

before the advance

of science as the morning mist from the strength of the noon

tide sun ; wh en w1th the clouds dispersed wh ich yet partiallyobscure even the brigh test intellect, the veil shall be liftedfrom Nature ’

s most secret mysteries, and those things wh ich

we now behold but as“through a glass, all re

vealed in the clear effulgence of immutable ITruth .

ERRA TUM . P. 13, line next to the botton, for S i lurian,”read Cambrian.

”

CON TR IB UTION S

TO THE

MYOLOGY OF TA CHYGLOSSA HYSTRIX

ECHIDNA HYSTRIX (AUCT . )

J. w. FEWKES , PH . D .

[From the BULLETIN OF THE ESSEX INSTITUTE , Vol . 9, Nos . 7, 8, 9 ]

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1 12

head and tongue of this animal . This auth or gives threefigures of the tongue , and the lingual muscles , but doesnot make mention of other important muscles of the

head , as those of the j aw , . the Masseter , the Pterygoid ,Temporal and the Digastric .

From the similarity in function of the tongue , in the

A nt Eater and Tachyglossa , it would be a cause of won

der if the myolOO'

y of the head of the A nt Eater byOwen did not prove of the greatest value . A lthough thed ifference in systematic pos ition between these two animalsis great , the muscles of the tongue , at least , are in many

respects quite alike .

In the valuable paper on the Myology of the Ech idna

Hystrix by St . George M ivart (Trans . Linn . Soc. ,

the muscles of the head and neck were only in part described . The specimen , from which the dissection wasmade , had its head destroyed in a trap,and on this ao

count he failed to make out the myology of these parts .

From the character of the mouth and face of Tachy

glossa ,'

we should expect that the muscles of these partsof the head would be wanting or very slightly developed .

I have been unab le to discover any trace of the differentfacial muscles , Orb icularis Oris , Depressor A ngulis Oris ,Zygomaticus Major and M inor . In the tough skin , which

covers most of the b ill , in advance of the orbital foramen ,

there are muscular fibers , which may represent these , ando ther facial muscles . To determine their homologies ,

however , would be a very difficult task .

The muscles of the j aw are the Temporalis , the Masse

ter , Pterygoideus Externus , and Pterygoideus Internus .

To these may be added a D igastricus , which , like the

same muscle in many other forms , passes directly fromits origin to its insertion , without passing under the slipat the hyoid bone .

1 13

M . Temp oral is .

Th is is small and fan- shaped , and arises from the wholeinner surface of the posterior part of the orb ital foramen .

It is inserted into the coronoid process of the lower max

illary bone . The front margin of th is muscle may be seen

through the orbital foramen , just back of the eye . The

insertion at that part of the j aw , wh ich corresponds to the

coronoid process , is directly above that of the most superficial slip of the Myloglossus . The length of the muscleis about 10 Its function is sum lar to that of the Temporalis in human anatomy .

M . M as seter .

The Masseter is a small muscle of almost quadrangularshape , with a muscular origin and insertion . Its anterior

margin is slightly shorter than its posterior , wh ich l iesdirectly under the curved tube of the ear (meatus audi

torius externus) and the distal portion of the Sternomastoideus . The muscle arises from what corresponds

to the lower edge of a zygomatic process . This origin

begins about half an inch in advance of the anterior edge

of the orbital foramen , and extends directly backwardfor about an inch . It is inserted into a curved line cor

responding with a sigmoid notch , extending from the

coronoid process to the angle of the j aw . The length of

the insertion is about the same as the length of the ori

gin .

There are two Pterygoid muscles , wh ich are wellmarked , corresponding with the Pterygoideus Externusand Pterygoideus Internus .

M . Ptery goi d eu s Externu s .

The Pterygoideus Externus is a larger muscle than

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those of the head , wh ich has been already mentioned .

Wh en the Temporal is is removed , the Pterygoideus Ex

ternus at its upper part is plainly to be seen through theorbital foramen . This is brought about by the fact thatthe muscle extends forward , from its insertion to its ori

gin , under the Temporalis .

The Pterygoideus Externus arises from a ridge on the

orbital foramen , just posterior to the orbit of the eye ,

and beneath the Temporalis . It 1s 1nserted into the anterior part of that portion of the condy le , where a l ittleprojection is formed for that purpose , and also the wholeinternal surface of the condy le of the j aw . This latterpart of the insertion is muscular , wh ile the former is tendinous . The origin throughout is by muscular fibers .

M . Ptery goid eu s Internu s .

The Pterygoideus Internus is of a quadrate form ,and

shorter than the Pterygoideus Externus . It has both

origin and insert ion by muscular fibers . It arises in

advance of the origin of the Pterygoideus Externus , from

the walls of the skull . It is inserted into the inner side

of the lower maxillary bone , Opposite the insertion of the

M asseter , extending from the angle of the j aw, to the

point directly under the coronoid process .

M . Digastricu s .

Thehomologue of the Digastricus is very well shown

on a superficial dissection . It arises from the temporalbone , directly in front of the Open ing of the meatus audi

torins externus, on the under side of the skul l . Its ori

gin is by muscular afibres . From its origin it extends to

its insertion on the posterior aspect of the angle of the

j aw , posterior to the ridge , upon which the Masseter finds

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1 16

tongue , change the action in a way which wil l be ex

p lained further on .

M . Sterno - g lossus Inferior .

This muscle acts together with the Sterno-

glossus Supe

rior . They both also unite to form th e round musclementioned above . It arises with the Sterno-

glossus Su

perior , from the under S ide of the sternum , and is insertedinto the base of the posterior part of the tongue . It is

very small , with numerous slips of insertion . A slip fromthe muscle , or a smal l one .bound up with it and the

Sterno -

glossus Superior, becomes a separate muscle ,'

pass

ing from the larynx to the tongue , and may be known as

a .Laryngoglossus .

M . M ylogl ossus .

The Myloglossus is a very comp licated muscle and may

conveniently be divided into two parts . The first and

most superficial part is very thin and arises from the raphe

in the middle line , midway between the rami of the lower

j aw .

The origin from the raphe is ofv course rconnected withthe deeper parts of the Myloglossus . The superficial portion is inserted into the lower maxillary bone , just belowthe Coronoid process , by means

'

of a small tendon . This

part of the muscle is fan shaped . A second p art of the

Myloglossus is much larger , and more important than theone already mentioned . It arises from a common raphe,

with its fellow of the opposite Side , along the mid- line of

the throat , together with an M . A nnulus Inferior. It is

inserted upon the under Side of the Skull , in a line extend

ing from the anterior portionof a sty loid region , to a pointunder the angle of the j aw. The length of the attachmentto the skull is 20 In addition to these two parts of the

1 17

Myloglossus there is posterior to them al l , a muscle quitedistinct , which may be a portion of the Myloglossus . I

have , however, described it as an M . Stylo-

glossus .

The function of the Myloglossus muscle is to combine

with the annular muscle , yet to be mentioned , in pressingthe posterior part of the tongue , against the roof of the

mouth . The Myloglossus is mentioned by Duvernoy as a

Mylohyoid .

M . S ty lo- g lossus .

Intimately connected with the M . Myloglossus , more es

pecially with its deeper and larger portion , is a Styloglossus . It forms a distinct muscle from the preceding .

It arises from the stylo- hyal cartilage at its upper and proximal end ; and forms with its fellow of the

‘opposite Side , a

loop extending to its insertion , in a median raphe behind

the Myloglossus , and , superficial to it .

Near its origin it is tendinous . It broadens and flattensas it nears its insertion . Its orlg in 1s j ust back of the ear

tube (meatus auditorius externus) above the origin of the

Stylo- hyoideus . The length is about 35m . The functionof this muscle IS , In part to pres s the posterior portion of

the tongue against the roof of the month . In that it actswith the Myloglossus it may also serve to draw the wholedental portion of the tongue backward , combining its func

tion with that of the Sterno-

glossus . It is then an oppo

nent of the Genio-

glossi Postici , and the Genio-

glossi .

M . A nnulus Inferior .

The Myloglossus and Styloglossus act as circular mus

cles of the throat . J ust below the Myloglossus we find a

second circular muscle , the A nnulus Inferior . This is a

broad , thin muscle arising from the raphe, in connectionwith the more superficially placed muscles , and embracing

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the Sterno-

glossus . It is inserted by a strong attachment ,forming the back of the tong ue . In front of the hyoid

bone , the muscle has a loose , membranous portion , which

in advance of the stylo- hyal forms a part of the back of the

mouth . The object of this ‘

muscle , is to press the base of

the tongue against the roof of the mouth .

It also may , by b inding against the Sterno-

glossus , form

a firm attachment for the Sterno-

glossus , on the posterior

part of the tongue . The S terno-

glossus may then act to

draw th is part of the tongue backward . When the base

of the tongue is brought against the roof of the mouth ,

the Genio-

glossi and the Sterno -

glossi act in different directions , drawing the tongue back and forth .

M . A nnulu s Intimus .

A second circular muscle below the A nnulus Inferior

binds down the Sterno-

glossus to the Pharyngo-

glossus .

It appears to be simp ly a continuation and enlargement of

the proper circular muscles of the tongue . It has an ori

gin from the lateral aspect of the back of the tongue , andalso from the base and median , ventral line . It forms a

loop , through wh ich the Sterno-

glossus acts , firmly binding it in place .

Three pai r of muscles serve to draw that portion of the

b ase of the tongue , which is armed with teeth , forward .

They belong to the same layer as the Genio-

glossi , and the

lower seems to be continued into them . Of these threemuscles one is inserted into the outer of the base of

the tongue , above the A nnulus Intimus . Two also are sit

uated on the inner S ide of the origin of the same muscle .

To these muscles , I g ive the names M . Genio-

glossus ,

Posticus Externus , and M . Genio -

glossus Posticus Internus .

B elow the last mentioned muscle , there is a continuation

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120

M . Rectu s Cap itis Posticus M inor .

This muscle is much larger and broader than theRectusCap itis Posticus Major. A s in the human subject , it liesin the triangle between theRectus Cap itis Posticus Major,and the midline of the neck . It is a broad flat muscle ,with origin and insertion muscular . It has a curved origin

from the posterior rim of the atlas , and is inserted into theocciput in a curved ridge , just back of, and below the in

sertion of the‘

Sp lenius . It is relatively much larger ,when compared with the Rectus Capitis Posticus Major,than it is in man .

The Rectus Capitis Posticus Major is very small and , except from its apparent homology to this muscle , does not

merit the name which has been app lied to it .

M . Ob l iquu s Cap itis Inferior .

This muscle is large and of irregular trapezoidal form.

It has a muscular origin from the Side of the spine of the

axis , throughout its entire length , and also from the Spine

of the third"

cervical vertebra . Its insertion is also muscular into the lateral process , along its whole length , andopposite the origin of the Ob liquus Superior .

M . Ob l iquus Cap itis Sup erior .

This muscle is smaller than the M . Ob liquus Inferior.

It h as a muscular origin from the transverse process of theatlas , and is inserted just beh ind and above the opening of

the Meatus A uditorius Externus into the Skul l . This in

sertion is just above ' that of the M . Rectus Cap itis A nti

cus M inor . Mivart says , The Rectus Cap itis PosticusMajor and M inor, as -well as the Obl iquus Capitis Superior and Inferior are all normal , but the Obliquus Supe

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rior is large , thick and strong , q I am not mistaken ,

the Superior and Inferior Obliu s are not normal , andthe Superior Oblique , I Should not designate as large ,th ick and strong .

MU S C LE S OF TH E N E CK .

M . S terno-M astoid eu s .

T he Sterno-mastoideus is a long muscle of uniform size ,nowhere of any great width . It arises , with its fellow ,

on the midline of the outer surface of the manubrium . It

is inserted by a flat tendon , into the side of the Skull ,in what may correspond to a mastoidal region . Its

length is about four inches , and its width about one h alfan inch .

Owen says that in the Ornithorhynchus it is a doub lemuscle on both ' sides , one portion being superficial to an

other , deeper seated part .

Each portion arises separately from the ep isterum and

is separately inserted into the mastoic region .

In Tachyglossa I find no such condition nor does Mi

vartmakemention of it in the Specimenwh ich he dissected .

M . S terno- h y oi d eu s .

I th ink that the M . Sterno- hyoideus and M . Sternothyroideus may have been confounded by Mivart with theM . Sterno-

glossus , wh ich is one of the most marked mus

cles of the neck , and intimately connected with these two .

Such a mistake would be a very natural one , if the insertions were destroyed , as they must have been in the Spec

imen , wh ich he dissected . He says the Sterno- hyoid is

continued up , under the larynx , and appears to be contin

ued on , into the Hypoglossus as in Ornithorhynchus . I

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am also inclined to doubt such a condition , and it seems

h ighly probab le to me that the Hypoglossus is in real itya muscle , wh ich I describe as M . Myloglossus , not following in that respect , Duvernoy , who calls it a Mylohyoid .

M . S ty l oh y oi d eu s .

A Stylohyoideus muscle is largely developed . It arises

just behind the base of the tube of the meatus auditoriusexternus , by means of a tendon , and spreads out forminga flat muscle on the median line of the neck . A long the

median line there is a slight groove and raphe. In its

anterior portion , the muscle is simply joined , with its

fellow of the opposite side . Farther back it is joined tothe hyoid bone itself.

M . S ty loth yroi d eus .

The Stylothyroideus is a small , delicate muscle , whicharises from the stylohyal bone and runs down back of

and paral lel with the stylohyal and epihyal , and is in

serted into the thyrohyal on its posterior and upper bor

der . This insertion is tendinous . The origin from the

stylohyal is muscular . The length of the muscle is 17mm .

M . Hy oth yroid eu s .

A broad flat hyothyroid muscle , of quadrangular Shape

arises from the posterior edge of the thyrohyal and the

epihyal , and is inserted into the thyrohyal along the proj ection extending ob liquely from the process , above the

insertion of the Stylothyroid muscle . It is from 8 - 10mm

long , and 6mm

. broad .

M . Genio -h y oid eu s .

The Genio -hyoid is well marked and answers the de

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124

eral parts of the fourth to the seventh cervical vertebrae,and in part by fibres from the first dorsal vertebrae . A n

other origin is tendinous from the - midline of the neck

upon muscular fibres of the other side , and not from the

processes of the cervical vertebrae . This portion com

bines with the other origin and is inserted by a broad

aponeurosis on the occiput on a line above the insertion of

the Trachelo Mastoid , extending forward ob liquely to themiddle line of the top of the Skull . The fibrous insertiongets shorter and Shorter , and on the medial line of the

head it becomes muscular .

‘

M . Sp len ius Cap itus Inferior

Just below the preceding we find another large , flat

muscle which may be a part of the Sp lenius Capitis , or a

new muscle , Sp lenius Cap itis Inferior .

It arises from the median dorsal process of the axis,

and is inserted directly below by a muscular and some

what tendinous insertion into the occiput , from the median

line to the neighborhood of the insertion of the Trachelomastoid , and a little beh ind it . B oth muscles are large ,th in and wel l marked .

M . Laryngogl ossus Sup erior .

The Laryngo-

glossus Superlor forms the back part of«the muscular mass just in advance of the hyoid bone

(base hyal , epi hyal) and also of the larynx . It extendsfrom the back -of the base of the tongue to the larynx .

Its origin is intimately b lended with that of the Laryngoglossus Inferior . The length of the muscle is about 20

m.

Laryngo- glossus Inferior .

This muscle lies inside of the Laryngo-

glossus Supe

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rior and just posterior to the Sterno-

glossus Superior ;

it is very easily seen when the neck is opened from the

ventral side . A thin superficial muscular layer covers

more or less of the inner part of the head between the

rami of the lower j aw and the front of the insertion of the

Sterno hyoid . It is inserted on the inner Side of the lfiwer

j aw below the insertion of the Temporal and in advance

of the Masseter .

DEEPER MUSCLES or THE P A NNICULUS CA RNOSUS .

The whole back and sides of the animal are covered

with a th ick cutaneous muscular mass , in wh ich are em

bedded the spines . This is known as the PanniculusCarnosus . Its fibres are inserted into the bases of the

spines , and by th is means the spines , are elevated or de

pressed . The Panmculus is firmly united with the Skin ,

and is th ickest upon the sides of the body . A S it ap

proaches the head and extremities the Panniculus becomesmuch th inner , and the direction of the muscular fibres

more uniform . The Panniculus is firmly attached to thehead and ulna . Passmg from the inner surface of the

Panniculus Carnosus to different parts of the fore- leg and

neck , we find certain deeper portions of the muscle , whichI have deemed worthy of a description , and name .

M . D ermo D orsi Cervi cal is .

The Dermo Dorsi Cervicalis is a long thin muscle ,forming , with its fellow of the opposite Side , an irregularellipse upon the back . Its breadth 18 not uniform ; its

posterior and anterior ends are broader than the middleportion . The muscle arises from the eighth , ninth and

tenth vertebrae and ribs , and from the A poneurosis of the

posterior trapezius . The origin of the fibres nearest the

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midl ine of the back , is about from a median line,and is by a S lip wh ich is joined to the eleventh rib .

The muscle is inserted into the Panniculus Carnosus of

the neck , spreading into a fan- Shaped portion and alsounited with its fellow of the opposite Side .

Fibres of this insertion run down on the Sides of the

neck . The width of the Dermo Dorsi Cervicalis is aboutmm Its length is 150Th is Dermo Dorsi Cervicalis is probab ly homologous

with those concentric fasciculi of muscles , which Owenmentions in Erinaceus , and have the same function , on lymore limited in nature .

M . D ermo F lexor A nteb rach ii .

The muscle which M ivart identifies as the posterior partof the Latiss imus Dorsi , I consider as simp ly one of thosedeeper layers of the Skin muscle .

I do this , because , although its origin is the same , or

nearly the same as that of the Latissimus of man , its in

sertion is very d ifferent . Moreover at its upper edge it

is sligh tly separated from the anterior part of the Latissimus , by the Dermo Dorsi Cervical is already mentioned .

This muscle is of a triangular shape and quite long . It

arises by digitations from the eighth to the th irteenth rib ,

and is inserted along the A ntibrachium , where it uniteswith the Flexor Carpi Ulnaris . The function of thismuscle is to help flex the fore- leg , and is thus an opponentof certain other cutaneous muscles to be described . These

muscles wh ich act as fiexors of the fore- leg , are p eces

sarily large , considering the fossorial hab its of Tachy

glossa .

M . D ermo B rach ial is A nterior .

This acts with the Dermo Flexor A ntebrachn as a flexor

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in the neck , even to the median line . The deepest of thedermal extensors of the fore- leg , is the Dermo ExtensorB rachialis Intimus .

A bove it , having a common insertion into the fore- arm

and an origin below the Dermo Extensor B rach ialis IntimuS , about 15m . distance , are muscular fibres distinctfrom the former . They form a flat muscle of about thesame width as , and shorter than the Dermo ExtensorB rachialis Intimus . It may be called the Dermo ExtensorB rachialis Inferior . .A bove th is there is a third extensor,Shorter and broader than the others . Its origin extendsup under that of the Dermo Extensor B rachialis Inferior,and it has a common insertion with the last mentionedmuscle , and may be known as the M . Dermo Extensor

B rach ialis Superior. It is the most superficial of all the

layers of the skin muscles which act as extensors of the

fore- limb . A bove it , however , the direction of the mus

onlar fibres of the Panniculus is the same as that of themuscles already described .

M . D ermo Cervi ci s Triangul ari s .

This inuscle is of a broad , thin , triangular shape , and

connected at its insertion with the Dermo Extensor B rach

ialis . It arises from the midline of the back, above the

anterior part of the Trapez ius, and joins its fel low of the

opposite side . Its connection over the neck is by means

of a th in aponeurosis . It is inserted along with the other

dermal muscles of the fore- limb , into the front edge of

the ulna . The longitudinal muscle of the Panniculus ,which covers the fore- arm , has the same insertion . From

it a well marked Slip can be separated having an insertion

into the Panniculus , alongside another muscle wh ich ex

tends over the external tube of the ear . Its position is

such that it is eas ily confounded with the muscles of.

the

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ear . A ll the deeper muscles of the Panniculus Carnosusare quite large , and easily to be seen when the great superficial covering of the animal is removed . 0 11 the h ind

leg there is a muscle , wh ich , from its similarity to the M .

Dermo Flexor A nteb rachii, both . in its orig in and inser

tion , I have considered as a Sk in muscle . It is described

by M ivart as . a M . Glutens Maximus a I have called itthe Dermo Flexor Cruris .

M . D ermo Flexor Crur is .

This is quite a large , broad , and elongated muscle , whicharises from the aponeurosis , connected with the sacral andlast coccygeal vertebrae. Its posterior margin is uni

ted with the under - surface of the Panniculus Carnosus .

The muscle passes downward , narrows and thickens , « and

ends in a broad , fiat tendon , which is inserted into the

lower part of the posterior surface of the tib ia , on theperoneal aspect , and also into the anterior port1on of the

same , where it blends more or less with the Tibialis A h

ticns , and other muscles of the leg .

The Similarity of th is insertion to that of the Dermo

Flexor A ntebrach ii into the ulna , .18 very marked . In a

part of the origin , too , it resembles the cutaneous muscleof the fore- leg , S ince both arise from the Panniculus ; the

one wholly , the other in part . The muscle wh ich M ivartcalls the Gluteus Medius , I think may be better knownas the Gluteus Maximus . He even indicates that thismuscle , the Glutens Medius , may be a part of the musclewh ich he calls the Gluteus Maximus , and which I consider

a cutaneous muscle and name the Dermo F lexor Cruris .

It certainly has many resemblances to the Gluteus M axi

mns , and if I am right in my interpretation of the musclewh ich lies partly above, it , the Dermo Flexor Cruris , isthe homologue of the Gluteus Maximus . If, as M ivart

130

suggests , that is the case , the muscle described by him as

a Glutens M inimus is in real ity a Gluteus M edius and

M inimus comb ined . I think there is every evidence thatsuch is the case .

My dissection of the manns of Tachyglossa differs con

siderably from that which M ivart describes and figures .

In the first p lace , he states , that of the five smaller tendons , formed by a division of the great tendon of the

Flexor Communis D ig itorum, all , with ,the exception of

that to the thumb , are bound down by a ligament .In the specimen wh ich I dissected , the tendon of the

pollex passed under a ligament , Similar to that of the

other ' digits The A bductor Pollicis , which Mivart describes as Some muscular fibres wh ich arise from the

Trapez ius , and are inserted into the radial Side of the

Pollex , was in my specimen a well developed muscle .

M . F lexor B revi s Po ll ici s .

A well developed muscle of uniform size , representsin function a Flexbr B revis Poll icis . It arises from the

comb ined flexor'

of the wrist (Flexor Communis Digitornm) , on the radial Side of the flexor tendon of the

pollex . It separates from this tendon , passes parallelwith it , and is inserted into the radial Side of the pollex,

p roximally placed to the insertion of the tendon of the

pollex , wh ich comes from the Flexor CommunisDigitorum .

Its origin from the tendon of the Flexor Communis Digitornm , recalls to mind the orig in of the same muscle inhuman anatomy , from the annular ligament .

M . Flexor B revi s D igi torum .

The Flexor B revis Digitorum is represented by a smal lmuscle below the plantar fascia . It arises from a bone

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B y carefully dissecting out the Lumbricales , they maybe found , each pair with an origin on the under side at

the point of bifurcation of the tendons , to the appropriatedigits . Their size is uniform.

Mm . Interossei .

The results of my d issection of these muscles d ifferfrom those obtained by M ivart . Two small muscles arise

from the th ick tendon of the Flexor Carpi Radial is , andpass to each side of the distal phalanx of the pol lex. They

are inserted by small tendon—

s one on the radial and the

other on the opposite side of the phalanx. Two musclesvery much resemb l ing these , but larger, arise from the

base of the metacarpal bone of the index, and are insertedin a Similar manner to the former,into the distal phalanx of

the index . These Insertions are also by small tendons onthe radial , and opposite surface of the index . A nother

pair, d iffering from the preceding , by being more widelyseparated , and not at all connected at the base , as in the

case of those of the index and pollex, arise from below theos magnum, and have an insertion into the distal phalanxof the third digit . A smal l interosseous muscle arises

on the radial Side of a strong tendon , passing obl iquelyacross the palmer region of

_the manns . It is inserted

into the radial surface of the distal phalanx, of the fourthdigit . The oblique tendon , near wh ich , this interosseousmuscle lies , is a continuation of the Flexor Carp i Ulnaris .

M ivart mentions another interosseous muscle of the

fourth digit which I have been unab le to make out . A s

it lies directly under the pair of Lumbricales , which hemissed in his dissection , or at least has not described , Isug gest that he mistook a a bricalis , for an Interosseousmuscle . Situated superficially to the great tendon of the

133

Flexor Communis D igitorum, there is a smal l bundle of

muscular fibres , not mentioned by M ivart, which I am inclined to look upon as an anomaly . It arises from the

surface of the common tendon , ashort distance before itsdivision , and passes downward between the tendons of theindex and middle digits where its insertion is lost in con

nective tissue and could not be made out by me .

M . Teres M inor .

M irait says th is muscle appears to be wanting , unlessrepresented by a portion of the Deltoid . I find it wellrepresented in a short thick muscle , which arises from the

outer surface of the scapula , just at its base and above the

glenoid cavity . Th is origin is by muscular fibres . It is

inserted into the whole surface of the humerus , betweenthe insertion of the Teres Major, the ridge running down

from the lesser tuberosity of the humerus , and the head

of the humerus itself.

M . Levator C loacae.

A small , thin muscle passes from the under side of the

cloaca, to the transverse processes of the coccyx . It

arises just back of the ischium and above the origin of

the Ischio Coccygeus , and passes downward and joins itsfellow of the opposite Side , j ust behind the base of the

clitoris . Its function appears to be to raise the cloaca ,which is about an inch in diameter and runs paral lel withthe caudal vertebrae, and beneath them.

M . Isch io Coccygeus A nterior .

Just in advance of the Isch io Coccygeus , we find a wel lmarked muscle , more or less tendinous at its insertion, andmuscular at its origin .

134

It arises from the transverse processes of the coccyx justIn advance of the Ischio Coccygeus , and is inserted on the

upper edge of the pelvis , on the posterior upper edge of

the base of the circular ridge , wh ich encloses and formsthe acetabulum .

The Rectus Capitis A rticus Major , and the Rectus Capitis A rticus M inor , the Scalenus , the Complex and the an

terior part of the Trapez ius have all been correctlydescribed by Mivart. The same is true also of the Tra

chelo -mastoid .

Constrictors of the oesophagus are wel l developed .

Two of these are well marked .

M . Constri ctor Sup erior .

"

Th 1s constrictor is the largest of al l . It is a broad , flat

muscle , wh ich arises from the whole length of the hyal

bones above the thyrohyal . The muscle is inserted into a

med ian raphe along the front of the neck . Intimatelyconnected with th is Constrictor Superior is a flat muscle ,

which from its posit1on and character ,'

I have identified as

a Stylo -

pharyngeal . It arises by a broad origin above

the Superior Constrictor , z'

. e. , between this muscle and

the neck , and is inserted into the med ian raphe b lend ingwith the same constrictor . The Superior Constrictor may

thus be regarded as representing both the Superior and

Inferior of A nthropotomy . A nother constrictor of the

oesophageal region arises from the thyroid cartilage , justabove a Crico thyoid , and is inserted into the median

tend inous raphe of the back of the oesophagus . It is

smaller than the Superior which has been a lready men

tioned

S till lower down , below this constrictor , we have a

small muscle wh ich arises from the same tend inous rapheof the oesophagus , and extends dovs

'

fnward under the pos

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136

M . Dep ressor A urem .

A Depressor A urem is much more developed than the

A ttollens A urem . It arises from the Panniculus and ex

tends upward to an insertion with the A ttollens A urem

on the p inna .

MUSCLES OF THE EYE .

The muscles of the eyes of the specimen wh ich I dis

sected were in a very poor cond ition . I was able , _how

ever, to d istinguish two recti muscles and one oblique ,which was possibly an internal oblique . This last was ofmuch greater size and breadth than the others . Their

origins and insertions were normal , differing but little fromthose of ordinary mammals .

137

EXPLA NA TION OF PLA TES .

PLA TE 1 .

FIG. 1 . View of th e superficial muscles of th e h ead and neck .

a , Sterne-glossus . b, (Esophagus . c, Trachea. d, Sternum . e

, Styloglossus. f .Myloglossus . g , Styloph ai yngeus . h . S tylohyal . i , Superficial p ortion of the Myloglossus . j , Temp oralis . k , Gen ie -

glossus posticus . l , m, S terne mastoi

deus . 71 , Ear tub e . 0 . Masseter. p ,

'

A nnulus inferior . q , Sub lingual gland . r .

A orta. 3 , Gen ie -glossus posticus Externus . t, Genioglossus p osticus internus .

u , v, Gen ie g lossus . w, Thyrohyal . x , Pharynx . y, P terygoideus Externus .

FIG . 2. Palmar surface of the manns with the common fl exor tendon cut and

h eld b ack over the toes .

a , A dductor polh cis . bbb, Lumbricales . c.Tendon of theFlexor communis digi

torum . oooo. Interossei .

FIG . 3. Pterygoideus Externus .

a , Coronoid process . b. Line of insertion of th e Masseter. c, A ngle of the j aw.

d , Condyle . e, P terygoideus Externus .

FIG . 4. Muscles of the eye .

eu, Recti . b, Longus palpebrarum. c, Ob l iquus internus . d , Levator palpeb rao

rum.

PLA TE II.

FIG . 1 . Dermal muscles of the foreleg .

a , Dem o dorse cervical i s . b , Dermo Extensor brach ialis inferior. 0 , Dem o

Extensor brach ial is intimus . d , Derme Extensor b rach ial is superior. e, Dermo

b rach ialis p osterior. f , Dermo-brach ialis anterior . g , Dermo fl exor antebrach ii .

h , Trapez ius . i , Panniculus carnosus . j , Ceraco-brach ialis . k. Posterior p ortion

of trapezius .

FIG . 2 . D eeper muscles of th e neck and h ead .

a , A nnulus intimus . b , Myloglossus . c. Stylo—pharyngeus . d , Sterne mastoideus . e, Ph arynx. f , Sty lohyal cartilage . g , D igastricus . h ,Masseter. i , Super

ficial portion of myloglossus . j , k , Genie glossi postici . p , A nnulus inferior.

FIG . 3 . Flexor muscles of the foreleg .

a , Flexor brevis poll ieis . b, Dermo flexor anteb rachn . c, Flexor carp i ulnaris .

d , Corace-brach ial is. e, Bicep s . f, Flexor communis digitorum. q , Latissimus

dorsi. h . A nconeus (i ) .

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[From the Proceedings of th e Boston Society of Natural H istory,

June7, 1871 13

NA TURAL HISTORY

OF THE

MA RIA S SOCORRO.

A NDREWJ. GRA YSON .

B O S T ON :

PRES S OF A . A . KINGM A N .

1 8 71 .

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A ll th e material from Col . Grayson’

s papers is indicated by in

verted commas .

“ Thi s b eautiful group of Islands, forming the subject of th e presentarticle, is situated about seventy mil es west of San B las

,and about

ninety or one hundr ed miles south of Mazatlan,in lat . 21é

onorth ,

and long. 1 06§O west . Th ey are respectively named

,Maria Madre,

th e north ern and largest ; Maria Magdalena, the middle, and second

in size ; Cleafa, th e most south ern, and smaller ; and also San

Juanito, wh ich is th e small est lying at the northwest extremity of

Maria Madre. Deep and narrow passages separate th em all, except

San Jnamto,wh ich 1s connected wi th Maria Madre by soundings of no

great depth . They range nearly south east and northwest . Withthe exception of th e h acienda of

'

Don A ndres Somilara, to wh om the

Island of Maria Madre h as been leased by th e original grantee, theyare entirely uninhab ited .

Th is hacienda, consisting of a few .rude huts for the laborers, and

a larger one for the Mayordomo, is situated on th e east side Of Maria

Madre, and h as been but recently established for th e pur

pose of

cutting and Shipping th e fine timber th ere abounding, as well as for

th e cultivation of cotton and oth er products .

To th ese Islands I h ad long contemplated a visit, and at length

an opportunity offering, I sailed from the port of Mazatlan

, on the

third day of January, 1 865, with a friend, upon a very small schooner

of only fifteen tons. Imagine our discomfiture wh en we found her

decks crowded with thirty persons, all Mexicans, men , women and

chi ldren , together with the little worthless dogs whi ch always aecom

pany th e lower class of natives wherever they go . They were

bound to San B las, the vessel only touching at th e Islands to dis

ch arge some provisions for Don A ndres. We started with a fair

breeze from northwest, which is th e usual, or trade, wind of th is

season .

The following morning was deligh tfully clear and calm, and the

sea remarkably tranquil . Th e Islands appeared in sight in the dis

tance, as if rising from th e .sea, like phantom clouds,and the scene

was enlivened by numerous sea birds sailing lazily over th e water, or

resting in large flocks upon its glassy bosom. Large turtles laysleeping upon th e calm surface, and upon the back of each , a bird of

th e gannet Species was standing like a sentinel .

“ A tur tle was harpooned by one of the crew, as it lay immediatelyin our track, and soup for all who had an appetite was served from

5

th e captured priz e. Large flocks of sea ploverl were flying over and

ligh ting upon the sea, busy feeding upon th e animalculae or diminu

tive sh ell s floating on th e surface. I regretted th at it was out of my

p ower to secure specimens of these birds, as h aving seen th em fre

quently before wh en th e sea was calm and always far from land, I

wish ed to know them better ; but we h ad not a small boat to go after

th em if shot . Gannets were quite abundant following a sch ool of

porpoisef A few gulls and tern s were flying about, also th e dusky

petrel, whi ch is always common in th ese latitudes.

A s the day advanced we gradually neared th e Islands, and their

magnificent forests were slowly unfolded to view, th e ever green foli

age extending to th e water’

s edge and densely covering h ill and vale.

A bout sunset, we anchored in calm water,in a crescent sh aped nook,

a cab le’

s length from th e shore, fronting the small settlement of the

timber cutters, a canoe came out to us and in it we went ash ore,

happy to be released from th e miserable craft and crowd in which

convenience or comfort was out of th e question . We landed with

out difliculty , (th ere being no surf) , upon a beautiful sh ingly’beach ,

over which was scattered sh ells and snow white coral in profusions

We were received with a considerable degree of suspicion on the

part of th e proprictor, Don A ndres Somilara,and it took some time

to_satisfy him of the object of my visit . He may justly be called

Lord of th e Isle, being th e pioneer to th is primitive region .

“Maria Madre is about fifteen miles in length , by ten or twelve in

width . A t th e extreme southern end th ere is a salt pond yielding

an abundance of salt for exportation , but at present no attention is

paid to it . Th e salt is crystallized or formed by th e flow and ebb of

th e tide, which filters through a narrow sand ridge dividing it from

th e sea. The pond, wh ich is clean and free from brush and weeds, is

about three- fourth s of a mile long and a hundred and fifty yards

wide . Maria Magdelena is twelve miles in length and nine or ten in

width ; it is unoccupied and covered with a grand forest of fine tim

b er. Th e immense cedar (Cedrela odorata) grows in great abun

dance ou thi s island, not h aving been disturbed by th e wood cutters.

Th is tree makes the finest l umber in the world . It is also common

to th e coast of Tierra Caliente . Cleofa, the smallest of th e three

islands, is also well wooded and h as a good little~port . A ll th ese is

lands, except Jnanito, are covered with a dense forest from th e water’

s

1 Prof. Baird suggests th at thesewere probably Phalaropes (P ,fulicarius). Ed .

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8

th ey are gradually becoming decomposed, are soft and easily broken .

Vast ma sses of fossil shells, cemented compactly together, form in

many places th e upper strata. Many of them appeared identical

with fresh shells found upon the shore.

“ I discovered no in dications of volcanicphenomena . Pumice

stone is found in some localities near th e beach , but its rounded and

water-worn appearance shows it to ‘h ave been drifted there by th e

waves of the ocean . In fact th e regularity of th e strata and th e

general physiognomy, especially of the largest island, shows that they

probably h ave not been subject to any remarkable con‘

vulsions.

“ Th e island of Socorro, about two hundred and 'fortymiles west of

th e Marias, wh ich is about th irty miles in length and fifteen in width,

presents a very different aspect . Its formation is entirely volcanic

and its strata tilted and thrown into every position, and its high and

peaked mountains p1 ove it to h ave undergone severe convulsion s.

“ B ut the Tres Marias seem to h ave risen gently and gradually

from th e sea, nearly 1n the sh ape they now present, with th e excep

tion of t he ravines and creek b eds formed by th e natural courses of

th e water from copious ram s . In ascending th e elevated p lateau

upon the north ern and south ern end of Maria Madre from th e sea

sh ore, we find th e country to b e as flat as a tab le for several‘miles in

extent , covered with larg e trees and rank vegetation . Thi s horiz on

tal formation of the underlying strata retains th e moisture 1n the

earth through out th e dry season . It is my Opinion, from various 1ndi

cations, that bituminous coal exists in thi s island .

Good water is found by sinking a well fifteen or twenty feet . In

th e latter part of the dry season , I saw young and tender plants

growing luxuriantly. Th e cotton and tobacco planted by Don

A ndres continued fresh and green throughout the dry season, and of

very large growth , also melons, squashes, bean s, etc ., without irriga

tion . The sh elly debris and vast amount of decaying vegetable mat

ter h ave created an exceedingly rich and prolific soil .

“How many centuries after th e islands made their appearance

ab ove ocean’

s waves it has taken to prepare a soil for its present

form of vegetab le and animal life, can only be left to conjecture or

th e scientific geologist to determine .

The climate 1s h ealthy, and fi cc from malarious influences. The

usual northwest trades, wh ich are almost constant and of mode1 ate

force, serve to cool the air, making a temperature both regular,

balmy and pleasant during the year .

9,

“ In the dry season heavy dews are frequent, the drops of which

I have often seen the birds sipping, for want of other means of

quench ing their thirst, there being but few oj as de agua (springs) .Thus we see in th ese islands a little world, whose creation seems

to be comparatively modern, and whose fauna and vegetation are in

many respects peculiar to itself.

Th e following list will represent the birds found upon these

Islands. I include no species but those actually seen by me . In a few

instances only, when I supposed the birds to be new, I h ave given their

natural hi story more in detail .

B IRDS OF THE TRES MA RIA S .

VULTURIDJE.

1 Cath artes aura (Linn ) . Turkey B uzzard ; Sopilote.

Thi s widely distributed species is common upon the Islands,

wh ere it is a con stant resident, or a visitor from th e main_land .

None of the Vulturidoe 1s so well known thr oughout Mexico and the

United States as th e Turkey B uzzard .

I did not see th is b ird upon the Island of Socorro. Perhaps the

Islands of ‘Th e Tres Marias form its extreme western range.

FA LCONIDJE.

2 Polyb orus audub on ii Cass. Caracara Eagle ; Quelele.

The Caracara Eagle, or h awk vulture, po ssesses the qualities of

both th e hawks and th e vultures, and it is rather difficult to decide

byl its h abits and manners to which it more closely approximates. In

general a ppearance it_resembles th e h awk, and although it subsists

mainly on dead animals and oth er offal, it does sometimes capture

young birds, lizards, snakes and land crab s . It generally carries its

prey in its beak , but I h ave also seen it bearing off i ts food, as the

h awks'

do, in th e claw .

“ It walks with facility on th e ground, and I have often met with

it in the thick woods, walk ing about'

ln search of snakes and lizards.

It 1s very docile, frequenting the vicinity of towns and ranches, and

sometime seen in company with th e B lack Vulture (Cathartes

atratus) .

Th e'

Caracara Eagle is quite abundant in the TresMarias, which is

perh aps its greatest western range .

2

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1 2

In a memorandum attach ed to C91. Grayson’

s note, Prof. B aird

suggests that the h awk seen by C01. Grayson was’

probably Hyp o

triorchz’

s aurantius. A s one of th at species was afterwards obtained

at th e Marias by C0 1. Grayson, Prof. B aird’

s conjecture was doubtless correct .

STRIGIDE .

9 . S trix p ratincola B p .

“ The B arn Owl .“ I did not see th is owl on the Islands, but often heard at nigh t its

well known hi ssmg scream . It is common through out Mexico, as

also in all temperate North A merica.

10 . A th ene cun icularia (Molina) .

“ B urrowing Owl ; Lechu

gacillo .

A few individuals of this species inh abit th e Marias Islands, per

h ap s wandered from th e main land . Whi le making a passage from

Cape San Lucas, Lower Califorma, to Mazatlan, one of these little “

owls came on board, so much fatigued as to be easily captured . Th is

is some evidence of its migrating propen sities.

PSITTA CID’

E .

11 . Ch ry sotis levail lantii

Gray. Yell ow-h eaded Parrot ;

Loro

This large and handsome parrot is peculiar to the Islands, where

it is very abundant, but is not' found upon th e main land in thi s part

of th e country. In th e evenings th ey may be seen in flocks or pairs,

flying very h igh, going to some part lof the island to roost . Th ey are

so tame and unsuspecting as to be easily taken, simply by putting a

running noose upon th e end of a slender pole and slipping it gently

over th e head wh ile it is busy feeding among th e b ranch es of the

trees. Th ey breed in the hollows of large trees like all the species .

The wood cutters sell th em to vessels touch ing there for timber,

doubtless of late some of th em are taken to Europe and oth er parts

of th e world .

A lthough thi s species was not found by C01. Grayson in the

n eighborhood of Mazatlan,it is not uncommon in southwest Mexico,

at Tehuantepec, wh ence specimens were sent by Prof. Sumichrast ;

it also inh abits middle and eastern Mexico .

12 . Psittacul a cy anop y ga De Souance.

“ Love B ird ; Cata

lina.

”

14

The natives ensnare them in the same manner as the yellow

h eaded parrot .

With all its resplendent dress, as is characteristic of such b irds,

its love song is not melodious. The simple and rather hoarse repeti

tion of coa, coa, coa, is heard in the spring of th e year, and h om thi s

note it h as received its name by the natives . Most of the time it is

silent, remaining stationary upon the branch of a treewith its h eadslowly turning from side to side, obviously hunting for some insect

concealed undera leaf or th e fruit upon which it feeds . Wh en such

objects are descried, it darts upon it something like the Fly- catch ers.

Like th e parrots, it nests in the hollows of tall trees ; its fligh t is

short and undulating.

“Description of a fresh specimen . B ill pale yellow. B are space

around th e eye or eyelids red . The entire upper part of this species,

with the neck and upper part of breast, are of a rich lustrous metallic,

golden green, more intense on th e rump , with occasionally coppery

reflections, especially on th e scapulars .

The forehead , Sides of h ead, ch in and throat are dull black, with

m some ligh ts) a greenish sh ade.

Th e wing coverts are finely mottled black and white . Th e quills

dark brown ,with th e outer webs edged with whi te. The entire

underparts are of a rich carmine red . Th e feath ers with concealed

white just below th e red . A whi te, crescent sh aped collar separates

the green of the breast fi'

om th e carmine. The outer three . tail

feath ers are white for most of their length , and dusky towards the

base, especially on th e inner web s for about th e terminal inch , th e

whi te is pure elsewh ere, finely barred transversely or dotted with

black , th e two middle feathers are greenish coppery, abruptly

tipped for about an inch with black, the remaining ones are similar,

but with more of a violet tinge. Feet, pale brownish . Iris brown .

The colors of females are much duller though otherwise s imilarly

marked .

Dimensions of the Tres Marias’

bird taken fresh . 6 Total

length , alar‘

ext tail, 6 in . 9 Total length , 1 2 ; alar

ext . , tail, 7 in .

CA PRIMULGIDE .

14 . Ny ctid romus alb icol l is “ Tres Marias’

Night

Hawk ; Caballero.

”

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16

woods ; it also lays its eggs upon the ground, with but little preten

sion to forming a nest . It is entirely solitary in its habits, ramblingabout in th e woods in search of various kinds of seed upon which it

sub sists, and occasionally uttering its peculiar coo oo rr.

Our table was often well supplied with this delicious game. The

flesh is nearly as whi te as th at of the quail, very tender and juicy.

”

17. Columb a fl avirostris (Wagl) . Th e B lue Pigeon ; Pata

gonia

This 13 the largest of our pigeons, and abundant in the Marias,

as well as in some localities on the main land . It is gregarious and

frequents large forests, feeding upon various kinds of berries, acorn s,

etc ., etc. It migrates from one part of the country to another in

small flocks. In some season s of th e year the flesh of this bird h as

a bitter, dis agreeable taste, caused by some species of berry or small

bitter acorn upon which it sub sists.

Total length of male, alar ext . 24 in . ; tail, tarsus,

1 - 5 ; middle to end claw, bill, white at tip, red at base ; space

around the eye red ; feet, p'

urplish red .

“ General appearance. Slaty blue, tinged upon the lesser wing

coverts and upper part of neck and back with rufous, with sligh t

metallic lustre, second and third primary longest ;—tail shghtly

rounded and broad .

18 . Ch amsep el ia p al lescens B aird .

“ Little Ground Dove ;

Cocochita.

These birds are not very abundant in th e Marias, but upon th e

main land th ey are quite common , also found at Cape San Lucas,

Lower California .

On'

my h asty visit to Socorro Island,‘

I saw several small doves

th at seemed to be of thi s variety, but I was unable to procure a.

specM en ,in consequence of a Sh ort stay, and sudden depar turefrom

th at Island . Thi s species, unlik e th e larger ground dove, builds its

nest on th e low branch of a bush or cactus.

“ Total length , 7 in . ; alar ext ., 1 1 ih . ; tail, bill , brownish

black , ligh ter below ; iris, yellow ; feet, flesh color ; nails brown ;

tail sligh tly rounded .

”

TURDIDE .

I

19 . M elanotis caeru lescens (Swain ) .

“ B lue Mocking B ird ;

Mulato .

“ One of the most abundant as well as interesting song birds of

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28

th e Mexican anaconda is sometimes met with . Various species of

lizards are abundant, among wh ich a very long one, two feet in

length , known as th e iguana, is very common ; scarcely a hollow

tree in the woods but is occupied by some venerable hermit of thi s

species, who may be seen basking ln th e balmy air just in front of hi s

door, into which h e darts wh en you approach too near. They are

all h armless. Th is species appears to be different from those found

upon the main land .

‘

Of Sh ells, th ere is but one variety of land shells, which , however,

exists in great abundance . It has six whorls, —increasing regularly,

streaked longitudinally and irregularly with white and bluish h orn

colored stripes,—average length , two inches . I found many of these

shells during th e dry season, in hollow trees and knot holes ; in this

situation I always ob served that th e sh ell itself h ad closed its door

with a gummy sub stance, evidently intended to exclude th e .dry

atmosphere, thus hibernating until the rains awakened th em again

from th eir winter sleep .

NOTE . A bout half past ten o’clock P . M .

, Jan . 25,1 865

,an unusual large

andmagnificent meteor passed over the Island, in a north east direction, exploding near the surface of the water

,about twenty miles distant. There were two

or th ree very loud reports, not unlike the bursting of bomb sliells, accompanied

with a rush ing sound, caused perhaps by its passage through th e air. Th e

Island was brill ian tly illuminated for a few seconds during its passage over, the

altitude of wh ich did not seem to be very great .”

EXPLORING EXPED ITION TO THE ISLA ND or Soconno, FROM

MA ZA TLA N ,MEXICO . B Y A . J. GR A YSON .

“ Socorro is the largest of the group known as th e “Revil lagigedo

Isles, and is situated in Lat . 1 8°35

’

and Long . It is about

twenty- eigh t or thirty miles in length and twelve in width ; its great

est altitude feet ; the shores are bold and rocky, and as there

are no sand beach es, to make a landing in any of its coves, even in

calm weath er, is attended with great difi‘iculty if not danger.

The entire island is rent and torn by volcanic action, to such a

degree as to render travelling in the interior very laborious.

Th e “ Revillagigedo Islands were so named by Capt . Collnett, in

1793 , in honor of theMexican Viceroy. Capt . Collnett was commander

of the B ritish vessel captured by the Spaniards at Nootka Sound ln

29

1788 or 1 789, and carried to San B las as a prisoner, wh ere hewas con

fined some time, but was released by order of the Viceroy, then in

the City of Mexico .

Th e Island now called Socorro (Succor) was discovered byHernando de Guxalvo in 1533, and was by h im named Santo To

mas,”wh ich name it bears on all

’

th e ancient maps and charts. It

derived its present name from th e timely reliefwhich it afforded to a

sh ip’

s crew suffering severely with the scurvy, wh o were completely

restored to health by the use of th at valuable antiscorbutic, the

prickly pear, wh ich was found in abundance on th e Island . Th is

was in the latter part of th e last century .

On th e second day of May, 1 867, about 5, P. M .,we sailed from

the port of Mazatlan on board the sloop Repub licana, of twentyfive tons

, commanded by Capt . Garcia, a Mexican .

My companions were my'

son, Edward Grayson , and my Mexican

servant, Christob al , a boy of fourteen years, to assist me in makingmy collections of Natural History, etc. A Mr . A nderson accompa

nied th e expedition, representing oth er parties, for the purpose of

examining th e Islands as to their utility for farming and oth er pur

poses ; my object being to make a more thorough research of its

natural h istory, than I h ad done on a previous visit . The wind beingfair but ligh t, we made a good offing by dark, and h eaded for Socor

ro Island . A t 1 2 M . of the 3d, Lat . 22°

Long. the mer

cury was 85° Eh . in th e cab in, and very warm on deck, there being

no sh ade . On th e 4th we sigh ted th e Tres Marias Islands, bear

ing south of us. We continued four days in sigh t of these Islands

at a distance of th irty miles from th em, with calms and ligh t winds .

We amused our selves fish ing, in wh ich we had considerable success,

there being soundings for some distance northwest from these

Islands. A small green humming b ird paid us a visit, of the species I

found abundant on the Islands when I was there three years ago,

and excited our astonishment th at it sh ould venture so far from its

green retreats ; it remained but a few moments, apparently examin

ing our vessel, when it suddenly departed for its island home.

The blackbilled terns were numerous on these soundings, as well as

guillemots, petrels and gannets. Occasionally a tropic bird (Phaeton)came around with its long tail feath ers glistening against the sky.

B ut none of th ese birds came near enough to be shot . With our

scoop net we procured a number of floating sea snail sh ells, buoyed

upon th e surface of th e water by means of a th in substance full of

30

l ittle air cells, wh ich resembles sea foam. Th e shell is very fragile,

h as three whorls, and when disturbed ej ects'

a purple fluid ; we saw

many of these sh ell s floating on th e sea in calm weath er, between

th e Marias and Socorro Island . On the 9th th e Tres Marias Islands

h ad disappeared below the horizon . Numbers of black- billed terns

fly around to- day of wh ich we sh ot and prepared two specimens ; at

1 2 o’

clock M ., Lat . 20

° Long . 108 9 , th e mercury stood at 86 Fh .

in th e cabin . From this time forth the voyage was very monotonous,

until the 14th , when we at last sighted th e Island of Socorro, at

half past 6 P .M ., bearing west, my son being th e fir st to see it .

“ B y thi s time the wood for cooking purposes h ad entirely given

out and our provisions were also getting low,—we ~h ad neither

pickles nor vinegar, nor dried fruit nor vegetables of any kind ; nothing

but dried beef and h ard bread, with a little coffee and tea, and all on

h and would not last more th an twenty days even with strictest

economy at th at, notwith standing according to the ch arter contract,

th ere was to be provisions for two month s . B ut I came to the de

termination, th at if we reached the Island,I would live upon fish

before leaving it until the object which brough t me there had beenaccompli sh ed .

“ For four days, th e Wind h eaded us off from the Island most

provokingly, or rather from a landing place . We first endeavored to

go around the north side, but found it too difficult on account of

head winds ; we then tried th e south and after beating against the

wind and a strong current, finally reached the cove marked on the

ch art as Cornwallis B ay. In th is cove, I had been two years previ

ously.

“ A lthough it is a very unsafe anchorage, yet it is the only place

we could find fit to come to anch or, in whi ch we migh t lay with any

show of safety. The sh ores of this cove are rough and rocky, upon

wh ich th e sea breaks in the calmest weath er . There is no beach to

land upon , instead ofwh ich , at its head, are heaped up round water

worn stones, and its sides are bold and precipitous. We did not see

wh en sailing nearly all around thi s Island,any beaches or a better

place to land than th is little cove, which opens broadly to the

southwest .

“ On the 1 9th of May, seventeen days from Mazatlan,we ran into

th is little bay with a fair breeze, and deligh ted with the green trees

at th e h ead of the cove and th e song of birds among them . B ut th e

captain appeared to feel a great deal of uneasiness at the general

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33

i s cut a thick milky sap flows freely, and very soon becomes con

gealed, whi ch would doubtless form caoutchouc ; it bears a fruit re

sembling small green apples, and also contains a profusion ofmilky

fluid . Th is fluid is poisonous to the skin ; some of th e party were

poisoned by it . These are th e largest trees upon th e Island, and the

largest of them would not“

measure quite three feet in diameter at

the root ; but th e branches which commence near th e root are long,

and horizontally inclined toward the ground , th e leaves are ovate

and smooth , of a delicate green color, the fruit also smooth, contains

clusters of hard seed inside the pulp , the flowers are without petals

or fragrance . Specimens of th is tree, together with all the plants

collected and packed up , were unfortunately left beh ind . Other

shrubs and plants found upon the Island are of a scrubby nature.

A mong th e branch es of th e trees around our camp, the little warbler

(Parula) and a busy, happy little wren, sing from morning till nigh t .

The new mocking bird, too, occasionally gives us a touch of hi s melo

dious song, sometimes imitating the scream of the B uleo montanus,

and the pretty parakeets with theix; grass green plumage are chatter

ing and whi stling all through the grove . Numbers of the little towh ee

finch (P ip ilo) th at pointed out the water to Cristobal, came around

us picking up th e crumb s of hard bread thrown to them,and drink

ing and bathing in a basin of water placed on the ground for their

special use. A ll these birds were remark ably tame they confidingly

came around us, and seemed to be as much pleased with our society

as we were with th eirs.

“ Our camp was now put into systematic order . We constructed

seats of boxes, and out of th e hatch covering of th e sloop we made

convenient tables, also swinging sh elves for drying specimens upon .

The stove was put up for cooking, and an excellent fish (called bythe Mexicans cabreca) , was caugh t with book and line, just as neededfor th e table . This species is very abundant and fat, some of th e

largest would weigh from ten to twenty pounds ; th ey are oblong in

sh ape, with large mouth , and of mottled brown and grey color, swim

near th e bottom and are very voracious. Th ere are several oth er

species in great abundance, some of whi ch are very pretty. One

kind is of a brilliant b lui sh green color ; another species resembles

th e gold fish . Many of th ese fish are new to me, and may be to sc i

ence, but I was unprepared for preserving specimens of this nature

for th e want of alcohol .

“ A s our small stock of provisions would soon be exhausted, we

5

34

came to the conclusion that fish would be our principal means of

sub sistence ; under these circumstances, however, we were in good

spirits, and went to work as th ough noth ing h ad happened, in mak

ing collections and exploring th e Island .

Th e climate is very uniform and balmy, in the shade the th er

mometer varying only from 70° to 75° Pb

,and almost a constan

‘

breeze from the west or northwest . On the 21 st we went some di s

tance exploring and hunting. My son discovered th e signs of the

hogs, a pair of whi ch I left here two years ago, from the number of

tracks large and small seen , th ey have increased . Th is was a happy

di scovery, as we could now h ave lard to fry our fish . He captured

a very small owl and a new dove, both new species I think . I found

th e country exceedingly rough and barren of trees, with th e excep

tion of a few scattering ones in th e gorges, though otherwise cloth ed

with low brush , of a species of wormwood, also coarse grass and

weeds ; these, combined with th e sh arp volcanic stones, made my progress tedious and irksome . I found no indications of mammals of any

kind , and no new species of birds other than th ose found in our little

green cove . Sh ot two h awks (B uteo montanus) and returned late in

the evening very much fatigued .

May 22 . Preparing specimens all day. We captured all th e

b irds, with a few exceptions, by means of a running noose fixed to

th e end of a slender pole, which is cautiously slipped over the we

tim’

s h ead, and with a sudden jerk th e bird is secured alive ; thi s

extraordinary mode of catching birds I learned from the Mexicans

on th e Tres Marias Islands. A bout one o’

clock in the nigh t I was

awakened’

by my dog growling and showing signs of uneasiness,

wh en I h eard some large animal walk ing around among th e leaves

and brush . I remained quiet, endeavoring to make out wh at it could

be it made a circle around our camp as if to get th e wind of us. I

at length h eard it blow,which I recognized at once to be that peou

liar snuff generally made by the hog family on certain occasions of

alarm. Il

was soon satisfied as well as gratified, of th is fact, for on

calling to h er familiarly, she came fearlessly into camp , and to my

j oy proved to be the same black sow that I h ad left here only a pig

two years ago, and equally as tame now as th en . Sh e seemed to be

glad to see us,welcoming, as it were, the return once more of hu

man beings to h er lonely h ome. She h ad grown to be a large hog,

very fat, and far advanced in pregnancy. She remained with us con

stantly during our stay and gave a domestic appearance to our camp .

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36

towards the mountain peak th at stands near the centre of th e

Island ; these gulches are very rocky and enclosed with precipices on

both sides. I descended with some difli culty into this valley, for th e

purpose of going up one of th e gorges mentioned ; th ey h ad a fresh

green appearance in their narrow windings, in wh ich water migh t be

found ; and wh ere th ere is water, th ere would be found most likelythe objects of my research ; I ob served th e small ground dove

(w emep elia?) passing up th ese gulch es, may be to some watering

place.

“ On attempting to explore these wild and mysterious regions, I

found the difficulty too great, on account of the tangled brush and

th e rank coarse grass th at grew among it ; th ere were also many

strange looking h oles, wh ich h ad th e appearance of having once

been the ven ts of an interior fire,now extinct . Th e ground sounded

hollow,as I stumbled. over th ese places, and a horrible sen sation

came over me as I though t of th e danger of falling through into

some dark cavern , from the gloomy depth s of which th ere could be

no return to ligh t . With th ese ob stacles surrounding me, the idea

of penetrating thi s gorge was abandoned for th e present . B efore

again ascending th e ridge I set fire to the grass, for the purpose of

clearing away th ese impediments, and would at another time make

th e attempt with a better chance of success. Th e fire soon spread

with great rapidity, “

making clean work of brush and grass . Im

mense column s of black smoke ascended to th e clouds and might be

seen fifty miles at sea, were a vessel with in th at distance. On again

reaching th e summit of th e ridge I proceeded on my course up the

mountain, making myway th e best I could over the rough ground . I

had become very much heated and out of breath, there was no shade

to invite repose, the scenery around looked dry, hot and wild in th e

extreme . I met with but few solitary birds, such as the little ground

dove, mocking bird and little wren, and these had a gloomy, listless

look, conformab le to th e sombre solitudes, which could call forth no

song from these silent creatures ; indeed, scarcely any animal life

could be seen ; sometimes a small blue lizard basking on the rocks, or

a solitary grasshopper started from the grass, was all the livingthings to be encountered in my rambles of th at day. In my route

up th e mountain, and upon an adjacent ridge, I beh eld a large and

isolated rock , which h ad so strange an appearance th at I was led to

examine it more closely. A t a distance it looked like a part of a

broken wall of some vast ruin . A mile or so of tedious walking

37

brough t me to it, when I found it to be about sixty feet h igh , forty or

fifty feet in length , and only about ten feet th ick at base, standing

perpendicular upon its edge and perh aps welded to a solid mass of

th e same formation below the surface of the earth where it stood .

On examining its rough exterior I found it to be glazed over the en

tire surface, as if but recently taken seeth ing from some huge melting

furnace ; thewhole mass had the appearance of a large block of

dull , yellowish porcelain, equally as h ard and flinty in places a sligh t

tinge of pink was perceptible .

“ From th is point an extended view of the wild scenery lay before

me with its broken and rent forms of gulches, fissures, ridges and

rude h eaps of black rocky scoria . The lava path s could be dis

tinctly traced, running to th e sea . Some very curious forms are

produced in the jagged rocks th at stand like sentinels along the

rock- bound shore . One of th ese is the “ Old ~man of th e rocks,”at

th e extreme south east point of our little bay. Th ese rocks are ex

ceedingly sh arp and rough , extending some distance into th e sea,and

making a very dangerous reef. Upon one of these isolated rocks is

the colossal figure of a robust man in a sitting position, with arms

folded and head thrown back , gazing forever upon th e eternal sea,

wh ilst the breakers are dashing furiously against its pedestal .

While resting near th ese rocks, my eyes suddenly rested upon a‘

dark speck to th e northwest . I was soon satisfied after a second

look, th at it was a sail, and apparently h eading towards the Island

with a good breeze. The smoke wh ich I had raised and now spread

far and wide h ad doubtless been seen . I started to camp as fast as

the nature of th e ground would permit, in order to signalize h er

should sh e come near enough to our cove . I felt,however, indiffer

ent as to her coming in, as I h ad not satisfied myself of the full and

complete exploration of the Island, and I was not quite ready yet to

B y th e time I reached th e camp none of my companions had

seen her, although sh e h ad arrived abreast of our cove,five or six

miles off, and under full headway was sailing past . Signals of smoke

was made as soon as possible, by firing th e dry grass on th e sur

rounding h ills, whi le my son Edward, with a wh ite flag, ran out on

the extreme point of rocks. The sigh t of th is flag brought h er to.

'

Sh e came with in about three miles and sent a boat to see what we

wanted . Th e sea was very rough and was breaking furiously in the

cove. A s the little boat neared the shore, I felt the chances of

38

getting off in her very doubtful ; the only place that we could em-r

b ark was a bluff point of rocks, upon which we had made the fir st

landing, but the'

waves were now breaking against thi s with great

force . The boat, however, came near thi s point, and wh en an oppor

tunity offered, her stern was backed up to the rocks. Eddi e, sup

posing th e mate, who was in th e stern, wish ed to come ashore to

make some arrangements about taking us off, reached him hi s h and

to assist him in jumping ashore, but instead of doing so he pulled my

son into the boat, and one of our sailors jumped in after h im. She

pulled off immediately to keep clear of th e breakers

“ The mate th en informed me th at the bark was the A . A . Eldridge

from San Francisco, bound for Valparaiso, and that he would return

for the rest of us. I went to camp and packed up such things as

could be taken off. B ut after th e boat returned the mate told me

he would not take th e smallest package in th e boat, and if our lives

were saved we ough t to be th ankful . Upon th ese conditions I hesi

tated about going, but as my son was already on board th ere was no

alternative ; especially as he, the mate, said he would not return

again, fearing to lose th e little boat . The idea of going to Valpar

aiso was out of the question, but I would not be separated from my

son,‘

and so determined to go, th e mate crying out th at h e would only

give us five minutes to decide . There was no time to be lost, and

unavoidably leaving everything behind, we jumped into the frail

boat ; th e sea was growing more stormy, and amid the roar of

breakers, h eightened by the thundering of the waves into a cavern,

we pul led out of th e cove to the bark . Captain A bbott (her cap

tain) treated us with genuine hospitality, and I sh all always remem

ber h im with grateful feelings. He agreed to land us on th e Tres

Marias Islands. I prevailed upon him to send the boat for some of

my th ings left beh ind wh ich I prized th e most, particularly the Natu

ral Hi story collections. B ut wh en the boat returned nothing could

be brough t off but th e two boxes of specimens ; the little boat came

near being stove against the rocks in thislast attempt .

Thus th e expedition was suddenly and unexpectedly brought to

an end . It was my intention , h ad we not been wrecked, to h ave

spent a much longer time in examining this as well as the adjacent

Island—but “ diis aliter visum. Darkness had now begun to shut outfrom view the lessening shores

,as we sped on our course to th e

Marias. Th e mountain and clouds were brightly illumined by the

flames of the burning grass and brush , wh ich h ad spread in every

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44

with the specimen . Th e plumage of th e sexes are about the same,immature birds grey on the upper parts, th e color of bill and feet,

“ Inhabits th e region about th e Revil lagigedo Isles, h ave not met

with it elsewh ere . A nother species, nearlyanswering to th e de

scription of Sula bassana, is found in large numbers about th e Tres

Marias and upon the Island of Isabella ; they breed upon the rocks

and on the sand of thi s little Island, they lay but one egg—white,

and nearly the size of a goose egg, both parents assist in

incubation .

13 Sula p i scator“ B ooby, or B obo.

Shot near Socorro A common species in the tropical Pacific.

B reeds on the rocks.

Some species of thi s genus are very difficult to determine satis

factorily ; th e Socorro exampleswere examined by Prof. B aird, who

states that they are probably the species above named, as they agree

quite well with the descriptions given of them .

PELECANIDZE.

14 . Pelecanus fuscus Linn .

“ B rown Pelican .

A mong the papers relating to Socorro, I found th e description

given below of a new lizard, by Prof. E . D . Cope on communicating

with h im concerning it, h e replied th at no account of it had ever

been published, consequently it now appears for the first time .

DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMON LIZA RD OF SOCORRO .

B Y E. D . COPE .

Uta auricul ata Cope.

Scales above minute, except six carinate, dorsal rows, of which

the median of each three is larger than th e others ; these increase

towards the rump and diminish anteriorly. A bdominal scales

smooth , in twenty- three rows. A dorso- lateral, dermal line on each

side is covered by rounded scales larger th an those of the adjacent

regions. Two pair supranasal plates ; four internasals, the posterior

large as the rest combined, and equal anterior division of th e two,

into wh ich th e prefi'

ontals are divided, and wh ich lie on each side of

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From the Fourteenth A nnual Report of theRegents of theUniversity,

CONTRIBUTIONS”

P A L E O N T O L O G Y .

Being someof theResults of Investigationsmade during theyears 1859 and

JA MES HA LL .

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OB SERVA TIONS

Upon some new and oth er speci es of Fossils , from the

rocks of Hud son -river group Of Oh io and the Western

States ; With‘

descriptions .

[Continued from page 121 of th e 1 3th A nnual Report of th e Regents of the University on the

S tate Collections of Natural History .

ORTHIS JA MESI (new species ) .

HELL transverselysemi ell ipti cal hinge line equalling, or a little

greater th an the wi dth of the shell below ; the length a littlemore than half the width

, and sometimes nearly twothi rds .

Cardinal extremi ties compres cate or

rounded. Dorsal valve conv s,wi th a

shallowoften scarcely defined le h inge

line sligh tly ri si ng towards i s not incurved ;

area narrow, but distinctly de broad , and show

ing a narrow process which ri the plane of the

area . Ventral valve much e rds the beak the

Sides somewhat flattened , and the middle sometimes a l i ttledepressed towards .the front ; the beak slightly arcuate, andthe wide area nea1 ly flat andmoderately incl i ned backwardsforamen large , and extending to the apex .

SURFA CE marked by twenty to twenty - four S imple, stronglyrounded ,

sligh tly arching p rimary striae, which , by intercalati ons of secondary striae, are often increased to twice that

number On th e margin .

Often the stri ae are Simp le throughout , and , when well preserved , are always marked by fine thread like concen tricstriae,and towards the margin by a few lamellae of growth .

This spe0 1es , 1n general form, resemb les 0 p liCateZla ,but the area is

much larger, and extends to thesalient cardinal extremities ; while 111

[A ssemb ly , No.

90 [A SSEMBLY

that species the extremities are usually rounded,and the Shell a little

rounded below .

Geologicalformation and locality. In the calcareous shales of the age

of the Hudson-river group near Cincinnati, Ohio . Collection of S . T.

CA RLY.

ORTHIS CLYTIE(n .

SHELL larger than medium S i ze , Semiellip tical , the length and

breadth about as 4 to 5, or as 7to 9 , p lane - convex or concave

convex h inge- line less than the greatest width of the shell ;

cardinal extremit i es rounded . Dorsal valve flat or concave ,

with a longitudinal depression along th e centre cardinal arealinear , not incurved . Ven tral valve moderately convex , some

times more elevated or subangular along the middle towardsthe b eak area narrow , longitudinal ly striated , and extendinglittle more th an two- thirds the width of the shel l ; foramenwide ; b eak scarcely incurved . Muscular impressi on deep lydivided i n the middle of the inner division of each lobe , more

deep ly impressed , and extending two- th irds the length of the

shell from the beak ; the outer portions flabellate , and mar

g ined by an elevated ridge ; the whole interior surface granu

lose , and th e visceral area margined by a th ickened elevation ,

wh ich becomes , in old Shel ls , a defined ridge . The striae are

shown along the inner margin .

In the dorsal valve the inner surface is finely striato-

granulose ,and outside of the submargi nal ridge the stri ae are stronger.

The muscular impression is comparatively small , distinctlycircumscribed , with central ridge , th in prominen t cardinalp rocess , and strongly defined dental fossets and corresponding

Crural processes .

The surface is finely and”

somewhat evenly Striated ; the striaeon the ventral valve often more prominent than those on the

dorsal valve.

This is a very well-marked and distinct Species , which , in the deeply

b ifid muscular impression, differs from any other Species known to me

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92 [A SSEMBLI

markings : It is ventricose, and very . differently marked

from 0 . billx, wh ich occurs in the same formation .

Geologicalformation and locality . In the shales of the Hudson - river.

g roup in Oh io and Tennessee.

CYCLONEMA B ILIX (CONRA D) .I

Since th e preceding descrip tion was written ,Mr . S . T. CA RLY

of Cincinnat i h as p laced in my h ands a series'

of specimens’

of

the above speci es ; or,more properly, Specimens which are

usually referred to C. bi lix. These'

were collected at various

altitudes i n th e sh aly limestone from the river l’

eveli

'

a

'

t Cincin

nati , to beds wh ich are 700'

feet ab ove that hori zon .

'

A lthoughI

‘

am ab le to indicate differences in the individuals,and those

from the greatest alti tude present Some marked peculiari ties, sti llI am at this time unab le ‘

to pomt out'

characters wh ich cant

-

ber

relied upon for specific di sti nction .

'

More extensive collectionsmay prove th at there are three species within

'

thevertical “

rangeof 700 feet . A careful col lection of these forms

, whether theymay prove to be of distinct species or only varieties

,will be of

great interest in Showing the influence of time,and the gradual

ch anges which the ocean bed may h ave undergone during the longperiod of quiet accumulation of seven hundred feet of fine sedi

ments , every foot of which i s filled with the remains Of these

former creations . We are already aware that in the upper beds

of th is extensive group ,th ere is an accession of several species

of B raChiop‘

odawhich are unknown in the lower beds .

NOTEON‘

THEGENERA BELLEROP-HON; B‘UCANIA CARINAROPSIS,AND- CYRTOLITES.

( See Vol . I, PalfN . York . )

PICTET ,in h is = very fvaluable work Tm zl é de Paléon

'

tologfie

,

has (united , under: .th e .Genus B ELLEROPHCN (Montfort) , the typicalform of that zg enus , together with . B UCA N IA Y

'CA R INA ROPS ’IS and;

CYRTCLITES . It is true th at the principal distinctive feature of

the Encanta is the open umbilicus , showing th e volutions togetherwith an exterior carina along the dorsal line , corresponding to a

ch annel on the inner Side ; and the,lip terminating i n a deep

Sinuosity ,and usually abrup tly expanded ; wh ile the lateral and

posterior parts of the lip , are often much ( th ickened , as i s shown

in fnearly all th e rgood spe cimens of B u l roosti ‘

of D’ORB i e NY , a

lower rsilur-ian form. from Tennessee . S ince th is .type i s wel lknown ,

I Sh all not a t presen t contend for th e generic distinction ,

be lieving th at it wil l'

ult imately b e found t

a useful,

desi gnation .

The Genus ICA R iNoRoPS i s 'was founded upon the! ex ternal . ch ar

acters , presented by,

'

a few specimens . These are,the usually

attenuated Sp i re, the abrupt lyf expand

-ing body volution , and

sh allow'

cav ity , giving“

the Shell. .a'

patel-loi d aspect . To th is may

be added the character (perh aps not constant ) of an attenuatedcarina upon the dorsum . The shells are usually th in .

The interior of the establi sh ed speci es has not been deter

mined,and I do not know whether or not they present differences

from the ordinary B el lerofl wn ,

A mong some collections presented mo me some time since by ,

Prof. SA FFCRD , State Geologist. of Tennessee , and'

many othersmore recently received (Oct . 1 860) from Mr . S . S . LYON of Jeffer

sonville , Indiana ,are several specimens having the form and exte

rior character of th ose Specimens referred to CA RIN A RCPS i s . The

outer or body wh orl beyond the columella for nearly half a volut ion is extremely expanded , the first volutions contracted and

forming a very inc'

onsiderabl e proportion of.the whole . In these

specimens the cavity presentsu a r kind of sep tum ,as in CREPI

94 [A S SEMBLY

D‘

ULA , extending from the posterior Side one- th ird the distanceacross the cavity . Th is sep tum is marked on the lower side

by a strong carina, and is concave above ; the margin a litt lethickened as if from the folding over of the Shelly laminae, andposteriorly spreading over the volution behind in a callosity , likemany of the B ELLEROPHON . This sep tum is a very peculiar feature and , taken together with other characters , I conceive to be

of sufficient importance to warrant the separation from B ELLERCPHON . Should th is prove to be identical with those which I havedesignated as CA R INA ROPS IS

, that generic term will h ave precedence ; but Should th is important character not be found in th oseforms , I propose for those new under “

consideration the generie

name of PHRA GMOSTOM A ,from the sep tum with in the aperture.

CA RINA ROPSIS (PHRA GMOSTOMA ) CYMBULA

VOLUTIONS about two ,enrolled in the same p lane , very abrupt ly

expanding beyond the first volution , whi ch is. minute widthof the aperture more than twice as great as the depth of the

cavity ; length of the septum about half asgreat as the width ,

longitudinally carinate on the lower side and p lane concaveabove , the posterior lip , not reflected over the sp ire ; The dor

sum is marked with an elevated band , scarcely carinate, having sometimes a faint. groove in the centre and one on each,

Side. Striae of growth wel l defined , indicating ,a deep sinus, at .

the anterior margin .

This species is sometimes distorted , and the small Sp i re broken or

eroded,when it very much resemb les a CREPiDULA . One specimen ,

when

entire,has had an aperture at least an inch and a half in diameter.

Geologicalformation and locality . In strata associated with Cyrteleles

ornatus,and other fossils of the Hudson- river group ,

on the Ohio river

below Louisville . From Mr. S S . LYON .

CA RINA ROPSIS (PHRA eMoe MA ) CUNULA E (n .

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96"

extending usually more than ha lf the ent1re length , and leavinga.shallow cavity between the ou ter shell and the partition

‘

which

sometimes extends nearly to the margins on either side, b ut is

occasionally contracted by the -1junction of the septum with the

outer s hell‘

at a d1stance from th e margin .

I conceive t hat these forms are quite distinct from the B ELLE

ROPHON while,in the character and sub stance of the she ll , I ca n

see no reason to unite them with the CLEODORA . I therefore pre

fer for‘ them the generic n ame « Offl oLIODERM A .

CLIODERMA (new genus ) .

SHELLS more or less arcuate , somewhat calyptraef0 1m, subtrian

gular or oval , with the apex marginal and incurved in the

same plane , not known to be convolute , carinate upon th e back ,

abruptly and broadly expanding , with the anterior margi n

sinuate ; interior concave , much wider than deep . A concave

shelly partiti on covers the posterior half. or more of the cavity .

Sub stance of the shell of moderate th ickness , lamellose, withsurface lamellose- striate parallel to the exterior margins or

lines of growth . Shells heretofore referred to CLEODORA ,

SPIR IFER , &c.

SHELL arouate ; apexmuch incurved exterior '

fo'

rm'

ovate- triana

gular the‘

sides ,’

from'

the”apex to the

‘

m1ddle, somewhat

straigh t or sligh tly concave, rounded below,with a deep

sinuosity in front . Dors'

um strongly carl nate,the sub stance

of the shel l being b ent abruptly Outward,so th at t he carina

tion affects the form of th e internal cavity .-Shell partition

extending from the‘

apex two thirds the length of the shell,

regularly concave on the exterior side,and without apparent

‘

ca‘

rina’

on the lower side . Surfa'

ce strongly lamellose Striate .

Width about one inch and a half nearly the same length .

OLIODERMA CA NA LI

‘

CULA TA (n .

SHELL subovate , tr1angular, subarcuate the sides nearly straigh t ,or sometimes a little concave from the apex to the middleof the shell or below : apex moderately incurved; Dorsum

abruptly and strongly carinate from the apex ; the carina

gradually expanding towards the front , which 1s deep lysinuate ventral partition extending more than halfway fromthe apex to the front . In terior cavity shallow ,

modified by

the form of the carina . Surface marked by flattened l'amellosestriae

,which are parallel to the margin and abruptly arching

backwards on the carina.

‘

In the best preserved specimens there is a shallow groove or depres

s ion parallel to the lateral marg ins , and apparently along the line of

junction between the outer shell and the partition ; but as none of the

specimens are entire, the relations of this feature are'

not fully deter

mined .

CLIODERMA UNDULA TA n .

SHELL subcircular or broadly subelliptical , moderately and

equally convex ; length and width about as eleven to twelvemargin curved from the apex ,

and broadly rounded in front ;apex short , and but moderately incurved central carina un

known ; the ventral partition extending more than half wayfrom the apex to the front of the shell

, but apparently uniting

with the shell considerab ly within'

the lateral margins ; visceral cavity very shallow. Surface marked by strong concentricundulations

,wi th finer parallel striae .

This species is distinguished from the two preceding by its nearly

orb icular form,little extension of apex, rounded postero

- lateral marg ins,

and broad undulations of surface .

'

Geological formation and locality. In Trenton limestone at Water

town,N . Y.

[A ssemb ly, No.

as

OLIODERMA[

AKNA TIEORMIfi

Tellinomya anatiformis : Pal . NewYork , Vol . I, pa . 154, pl . 34, f. 7

[This spemmen .isl

essentl ally acas t, with little of the shell remaining ,

s the appearance

acteris due to distortion f1 o11n pressure, and partly to the imp erfect

separation of the specimen fromthe adheringI

rock . The divergent

gr1o0 1‘

7es a1 e apparently caused by the thickening at the junctionof the"

Ventral partition with the outer shell . The Species is extremely b read,1a

‘

J'

nd the posterie- la

’

teral margins ‘are much expanded . A smal l portionaof theushell towa1ds the apex shows a sh arp dorsal carina .

1 1

Delthyris exp ansus EMMONS, Geol . Report Second District, p . 397, f. 2 .

I

This fossil belongs to the Genus . .QL10DERMA,having a great lateral

expans ion and a very strong dorsal carina .

I h ave before me an imperfect specimen apparently of this species,

wh ich has a leng th ofmore than an inch and three fou1 th s on the carina

Clioderma aftaauata ‘

: Geol . Report of

Thl s spe01es , ,of theTrenton limest one in .Wiscdnsign, is ovate-tr1angu

lar in form,the dorsum abruptly and prominentlygcarinate; t he icavity

very shallow ,and the apex attenuate .

The casts of th is species showa featurewhich 1s apparently of generic

importance . The. apexof the cast is trifid, from two parallel short ver

tical septa which divide th is portion of theshell into three d1v1S1ons ‘for

a short distance b eLow the s1'

1mmit .

‘

This species resemb les the 0 . canalflculata in form,but has no

- depres

sions of the shell parallel to the s ides,and the surface is apparently les s ,

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100 [A SSEM B LY

than the opposite , gibbous, transverse, or as wide as longmesial fold usually not defined above the lower third of the

shell ; its p lace above this being indicated by the straigh tnessof the striae and sometimes by a litt le greater gibbosity h inge

line sh ort ; the cardinal extremities rounded .

SURFA CE marked by fine regular lamellose striae, the edges of

wh ich are sometimes projected .

The distinguishing feature of th is species , when compared with the

three spemes known in the Hamilton group , is the great inequality ofthe valves. The band- like or lamellose striae are not unlike the A . vitiata

,

but the elongate ventral valve and angular sinus are very distinctive

features . Internal casts of the species are strongly marked by the

generic characters of A THYRi s .

Geological formation and locality. In the Chemung group Philipsburgh, A lleghany county, and elsewhere.

MERISTELLA ELISSA (n .

SHELL subovoid ; length and width of the body of the shell subequalr with a linguiform extensi on in front . Ventral valvegibbous and extremely arcuate, the umbo much elevated , andthe beak incurved over the dorsal valve fghe greatest gibbosityof the valve is a little below the beak of the dorsal valve ;the base extended in front

,with scarcely a sinus . Dorsal

valve depressed- convex below the middle , a little gibbous

ab ove , b roadly expanded laterally , and extended in front intoa b road linguiform process .

SURFA CE marked by fine concentric striae,with stronger lamellose

elevations at intervals,and ob scure radiating striae crossing

these.

The specimen describ ed has a length of one inch and eight-tenths

,

and,below the beak of the ventral valve

,is about one inch and four

tenths ; while the greatest width across the middle of the shell is more

than one inch and five- tenths.

The width of the linguiform process , in

the middle of its extension,is about seven- tenths of an inch.

Th is species is distinguished from M nasuta of CONRA D by itslarger

size, comparative flatness of dorsal valve,and broad extension in front ;

while in that species it is narrow,and niore incurved and elevated i ii

No . 136 . 101

TREMA TOSPIRA HIRSUTA .

A tryp a hirsute HA LL, Tenth A nnual Report of th e Regents, p . 128.

This species , which I referred to the Genus A TRYPA on account of its

general form and finely plicated surface, proves to. belong to the Genus

TREMATOSPIRA ; the interior showing spiral appendages , as in the already

describ ed species of that g enus . This then makes two species of the

g enus in the Hamilton group .

The A trypa uniangulata of CONRA D h as heretofore remained without

the means of determining its structure ; but during the present year,1 860

,I have

,through the kindness of Mr. S . S . LYON, been furnished

with the separated valves of a well-preserved i ndividual . The ventral

v alve bears essentially the character of MERISTEDLA ; while the cardinalprocess in the opposite valve? is quite peculiar, rising above the level of

the hinge- line

,and approach ing in form the corresponding part of RHYN

OHOSPIRA , preserving at its base the commencement of the crural pro

cesses,

A nother specimen shows the presence of internal spires arranged

as in SPIRIFER. These characters ally it with TREMA TOSPIRA,but the

structure of the shell is distinctly fibrous ; and in th is respect, and in

the character of the muscular impression ,it is more nearly allied to

MERISTELLA ; while in the cardinal process , muscular impression,and

absence of lamellose structure,it differs from A THYRis .

Should farther examination prove these differences to be of generic

importance, it may form a subgenus , for which I suggest the name

GONIOcmLi A .

In the preceding Report, I have described as TEREB RA TULA , T. lincklceni,

T. rectirostfra, T. lens,and T. p lanirostra ; suggesting at the same time

that,since the internal structure is. unknown,they may prove distinct

from that genus . Even before the Report was published, I had satisfied

myself that these forms were not true TERERRA TULA . The muscular

impressions left upon the shell so nearly resemble those of RENSSELE RIA,

that it might be inferred from the cast that the species belonged to this

genus . The exterior form and the extension of the beak g ive them a

different aspect ; and the absence of long itudinal or radiating striae is

likew ise Opposed to the known forms of that genus , w ith one exception .

These forms begin their exis tence in the Lower Helderberg group ,

where I know a single species , wh ile the type becomes farther developedin the Iipper Helderberg and Hamilton groups . For these fossils, I propose the name of CRYPTONELLA .

'

CRYPTONELIJA

SHELLS equilateral}

; Oval valves,

. unequally1 convex , without median : fold Or Sinus; or W’lflk tl fiS

character moderately developed and . principally tOWardf

s‘

5 tha‘

f.

base of. the Ventral valve with‘

b eak o‘

i'

incurved ; perforate ; foramen terminal, the lower side fOrnied

1

by two small triangular deltidial p ieces , or , in their ah‘

sence,by the umbo of the Opposite valve . Shell - structure. finely

'

t punctatei Surface smooth,orwith concentric striae. Valves r

articulating by,teeth and sockets

,the dental lamellae of the

.ventral uv'

alve . extending downwards in to the'

cavity of thei r

1 8116 11. The muscular impressions in the . dorsal valve. are'

strongly'marked above; and extend in two narr

’

ow'

separated

impressions more than h alfway to the front of the shell : th eventral sinus shows elongated muscular and vascular impres8 10 11 8 .

The species of this gen1'

1s are more elongate than MERisTA and MER'

is'

l-1

TELLA ; and those now known are less distinc tly marked by mesial fold1

and s inus ; while the beak 1s more attenuate,often a little flatt

‘

en‘

ed; and

rarely so closely incurved, as in the genera cited ; The '

pu’

nctate‘

st'

rtici

ture of the shell .is a distinguishing ch aracter .

CENTRONELLA IMPRESSA (n :

Sii ELL sub triangularly ovoid , elongate Width and length about ,

as - seven . to nine Ventral valve convex ; much elevated ; or~

subangular i w the middle,with sides abiruptly

- l p ingwto

‘

thed‘

margins ; sinuate in front ; be'

ak'

extended and nearlyfstraightk

Dorsal valve slightly concave in the upper and"

middle'

pOr

tions , with usually an impressed l ine down th e centre , ab ruptlyinflected at the sides and less abruptly i n thefront

, which i s

produced i n a short process filling ,

the sinus of the Opposite i

‘

valve . Surface finely striateconcentrically, with faint remainsof extremely fine radiating striae, wh ich are visib le only undera lens entire surface finely punctate .

The interior of the ventral valve sh ows two strong teeth much

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vertical , but tu‘

rn gently b ackwards towards‘

th e centre,which

is marked by a flat revolving band . Length fromone to two

inches .

This specl es resembles the preceding ,a variety of which I had for

merly considered it ; but the ab sence of the canaliculation at the

summit of the volution,the more depressed convexity and greater

attenuation of the volutions, giving a more elongate aperture, are char

acters which appear sufficient for specific distinction .

Geologicalformation . Upper Helderberg limestones .

LOXONEMA PEXA LI‘

A (n .

SHELL elongate, terete or subfusiform volutions six or more,

gradual ly expanding from the apex , somewhat flattened towardsthe upper side , or a little concave just below the suture

,and

most convex below the middle,last one ventricose ; aperture

elliptical . Surface marked by regular elevated transversestriae, which , at the summit of the'

volution, bend a little back

wards , and again'

curve forwards above the greatest convexityof the volution .

Geologi calformation and localities . In limestone of the Upper Helder

berg group . through out New-York and 111 Ohio . This species of Loxo

NEMA,and the two preceding species ofMURCHISONIA , are not unfrequently

associated together ; and as the specimens are usually in the condition

of casts of th e interior,it becomes very difficult to distinguish the one

from the other,more particularly where they have suffered pressure and

distortion .

LOXONEMA B ELLA TULA (n .

SHELL moderately elongated , somewh at conical volutions few,

rapidly expanding from the apex ; last volution ventricose ,

ob tusely angular a little below the middle ; aperture transverse . Surface of volutions marked by transverse undulatings triae, which have their greatest retral curve just above the

on the last volution .

This species , occurring with the preceding ,is readily known by its

shorter spire and obtuse angularity of the last volution .

Geologicalformation and locality. Upper Helderb erg limestone, Ohio.

PLEUROTOMA RIA KEA RNYI (A.

SHELL large , trochiform . Spire short, consisting of three or four

volutions, which rapidly increase l n size from the apex : upper

volutions depressed- convex on the sides ; the suture somewhatcanalicu late , and carinate ab ove by the b ase of the volution ;the last volution flattened on the upper third , prominent ab ove

the middle and flattened on th e lower half, marked just aboveth e b ase by a strong simp le angular carina lower side of the

volution prominent in the middle,depressed towards the

umb ilicus ; aperture transverse , somewhat semioval . Surface

marked by strong unequal striae,wh ich bend slightly back

wards from th e suture and , in , passing the upper more promi

nent part of the volution ,curve a little forward

, but do not

b ecome vertical ; bending abrup tly forward on the carina ,

again curve a little forward , and thenb ackward into the urn:

b ilicus .

This shell reaches the dimensions of more than two inches in height

by three inches ln diameter on the base,while some individuals are four

inches across the base .

Geologicalformation : Upper Helderberg limestone .

PLEUROTOMA RIA HEB E

SHELL conical , hemisph eric, rounded upon the lower side ; the

volutions above flattened, and nearly in the same p lane from

the apex to the outer edge of the last volution ; the Spire

ab ove the aperture about equal to the heigh t of the aperture .

Volutions about four, very gradually expanding to the lastone

, which is ventricose and angular on the outer margin ;

[A ssemb ly , No. 14

106 [A ssEMB LY

aperture transversely elliptical . Surface marked by strongrevolving striae and finer transverse striae

, which are stronglybent b ackward on the carina of the outer volution .

Th is species is larger and more rotund than P . sulcomarginata of the

Hamilton group . The specimens examined are all imperfect , and the

shell crystalline, s o that the surface mark ing s are indistinctly seen .

Geolog i calformation and locality . In limestone of the Upper Helderb erg g roup Western New-York .

PLA TYOSTOMA TURB INA TA n .

SHELL depressed sub turb inate , sometimes approach ing to glob ose .

Sp ire depressed , little elevated above th e outer volution,and

sometimes nearly on a p lane with it . Volutions three orfour ,

very rap idly expanding ; the last one extremely ventricose , andthe lower part projected downwards in the direction of the

columel la, which 1s unusual ly extended aperture ovate ,broader abov

‘

e . Surface marked by five somewhat unequalstriae, parallel to the aperture , and crossed by finer and lessconsp icuous revolving striae.

This species, wh ich seems clearly referable to the Genus PLA TYOSTOMA,

i s remarkable for the attenuation of the last volution’

and the contrae

tion of the aperture below .

Geologicalformation and locality. In the Upper Helderberg limestone

Helderberg mountains , and places in Wes tern New-York .

PLA TYOSTOMA LICHA S (n .

SHELL ob liquely subglobose . Sp ire moderately elevated volutions ab out four, rounded , the earlier ones very gradual ly ex

panding, and the last'

one becoming extreme ly ventricose ;aperture nearly circular . Surface marked by

'

fine striw of

growth .

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1 08 [A SSEM B Lf

Of the Cephalopoda - of the Upper Helderberg group , four species of

CYRTOCERA S and one PHRA GMOCERA S have been described,v iz : 0 . p ara

dowum,0 . trivolvis

,0 . matheri

,C. undulatum

,and Phragmoccras sp ino

sum . Several species of ORTHOCERA TITES and GOMPHOCERA S are known,

and two of TROCHOCERA S .

TROCHOCERA S GLIO

SHELL discoid or depressed , suborb icular , convex above and

broadly umb ilicate beneath volutions ab out three, gradual ly

expanding , the last one becoming ventricose th e outer ch am

ber large . On the lower side of the outer volution , where the

diameter is h alf an inch ,the septa have a distance of about

one- tenth of an inch ; wh ile in th e margin of the umbilicus at

the same part , they h ave not more than h alf th is distance,andupon the dorsum ab out one - eigh th of an inch . Siphunclecentral .

SURFA CE strongly annulated upon the upper and dorsal portionsof the volution ,

the ridges dying out in the umb ilicus en tiresurface even ly cancel lated by transverse and revolving striae .

This species attains a diameter of two or three inches,and can be

known in its fragmentary condition by the annulated surface .

Geologicalformation and locality. In the Schoharie grit : Helderb erg

mountains and Schoharie .

l

TROOHOCERA S EUGENIUM (n .

SHELL s'

ubhemispherically discoid volutions strong , graduallyincreasing from above to the last one , wh ich becomes more

rapidly expanded and ven tricose outerchamber large . Septa ,

where the shell is one inch in diameter , one- fifth of an inch

distan t on the lower side, and about half the same distance at

the margin of the umbilicus volutions a little flattened upon

the lower side , and abruptly curving into the deep umb ilicus .

Siphuncle dorsal dorsal surface of casts showing no annula

No. 109

This is a more robust species than the T. annulatum it is readily dis

tinguishable in the ab sence of annulations,and in the dorsal pos ition of

the S iphuncle, wh ile the umbilicus is proportionately narrower and

deeper.

Geological formation and locality. In the Schoharie grit Helderbergmountains and Schoharie .

GOMPHOOERA S EXIMIUM (n .

SHELL large , the outer chamber gradually contracting from the

last septum,and tapering in about the same degree in the

Opposite direction : section elliptical . The twelve chambers

preceding the outer one measure three inches in length ; thegreatest diameter at the outer section being three and a halfinches , and , at the distal section ,

two and a half inches .

There are about three inches of . the outer chamber preserved in the

specimen . The entire leng th of the specimen is more than s ix inches,

the greater diameter about three inches,

l and the lesser diameter two

inches . It may h ave suffered accidental pressure in some degree ; but

it is ev ident,from the prevalent form,

that the shell has been originally

elliptical in section .

Geologicalformation and locality.

'

In the Upper Helderberg limestone :

B lack Rock,New-York .

CORRECTION.

Page 91 , for CYCLONEM A VENTRICOSA read Cyclonema varicosa.

Page 92 , for larg e, read larger.

CORRECTION THE THIRTEENTHA NNUA LREPORT .

Page 1 13 . In the title of the article for Hudson-river group ,

read QUEBEC GROUP.

Th 1s correction was made in a part of the edition .

The NOTICE on page 128 did not reach the printer till the formwas on the press, and consequently some of the first eOpies

printed are without this notice.

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4

the Eustachian tube. I believe that th is view of the development of these parts is incorrect, and shall in this paper state

what I believe to be the fact on this point .Von B aer gave an account of th e development of the

primary optic vesicle that h as held its own against the view

of Huschke ; in regard to what we now call th e secondaryvesicle

,Von B aer made a mistake that misled many after

him ; he located the vitreous between the two layers of th eretina formed by the folding in of the primary vesicle

,or

,

what amounts to the same thing, in the primary optic vesicle.

In 1 830 Huschke described the involution of the lens

Remak confirmed his observations,and soon after Vogt and

Remak described the manner of growth of the lens fibres

from the epithelium of the lens vesicle . Schultze,Miiller

,

B abuch in,Iwanofi

'

,Zernofl

'

,Kessler

,Lieberkuhn

,and others

,

have done much in clearing up special points . Prof. A rnold’s

last contribution,

B eitrage zur Entwickelungsgesch ichte

des A uges,”contains one of the most correct and practical ac

counts that we possess he follows the process in one species

and in an almost complete series of embryos of different ages .

The eye is first formed by a protuberance from th e brain,

wh ich consists of a hollow stem—the optic nerve— the ex

panded extremity of wh ich forms a globe, the primary eye

vesicle ; soon the lens is formed by a thickening and involation of the integument over the vesicle th is process

—the in

volution of the lens- turns the anterior h alf of the primaryvesicle inward ; the cavity thus formed is the secondary optic

vesicle. The succeeding stages will be described in detailand a comparison made with the corresponding stage of de

velopment of the labyrinth .

Embryo P ig, -3 of an Incl . long Ear .

- The otic vesi

cle is ovoid, the recessus labyrinthi forms a wide-mouthed

diverticulum from its upper extremity, the apex of the reces

sus is surrounded by a th ick network of b lood- vessels, thecommencement of the choroid plexus ; at this time the bloodcorpuscles vary much 1n si ze

,and many have a large, round

granular nucleus ; sections of the b lood- vessels show the nu

clei of the cells wh ich formed their walls.

Eye.—The eye at th is time is a much more complicated

5

structure : the primary optic vesicle has been doubled in by

the inversion of the lens,which at this time is a mere depres

sion of the integument the cylinder cells in the bottom of

th is depression are longer than those on its side and on the

neighboring surface ; the depression itself is filled by a colleetion of delicate

,round

,sligh tly granular cells

,which in all

probability hold the same relation to the cylindrical cells th atth e epithelial scales hold to the rete malpighii . I have not

been able to find th e longitudinally striated layers describedby A rnold as covering these round cells ; accordingly my sec

tions agree exactly in appearance with Fig . 2, p late xxi .

,in

the 1 l th vol .,3d part, of the A rc/11

'

s fitr M ikrosltop ischeA natomic, where Mihalkovics states that h e also is unab le tofind the layer in question . When the epithelium folds

.

in to

form th e lens,it carries with it a layer of th e connective tis

sue upon wh ich it rests ; this now appears as a hyaline substance in wh ich b lood- vessels are rapidly developing ; bloodcorpuscles are also formed in the layer of tissue bounding the

vesicle on the outside . It is interesting to know that b loodcorpuscles are seen in this location before a trace of pigment

is seen in th e retina .

Embryo P ig, cg"

an Inch long Ear .—The otic vesicle

is considerably changed in appearance it looks now as if com

pressed from without inward and then flexed,so th at i t forms

a curve with the convexity outward th e apex of th is curve is

th e point at which the horizontal semicircular canal buds outfrom the superior extremity there are now two diverticula

,

one the recessus,an d one for the vertical semicircular canals ;

a slight depression on the inner wall marks the position of

the future sacculus rotundus the epithel ium is much thicker

at the inferior portion of the sac .where the coch lea is buddingout and thinnest over th e vertical semicircular canal . This

form of the labyrinth is evidently intermediate to those illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9

, p late 1 , by B ottcher, in his Entwick

clung und B au der Gehorlabyrinth ,”

yet th e embryo whose

labyrinth I h ave described was shorter than that from wh ich

Fig . 8 was drawn . A lthough B ottch er used foeta l sh eep , Ithink that the difference results from the difficulty, referred

6

to by B ischoff, of exact measurement of foetal development bymeans of noting the length .

Eye—The lens is now almost separated from th e epider

m is ; the mouth of th e previous depression closes like a purse

wh en the string is drawn ; the lens is round ; the epithelialwal l in its whole circumference consists of cel ls of like shape,accordingly th e cavity in the lens is round ; it is filled withcells of the same character as those described as filling the

previous depression of the integument which then formed the

l ens the inner layer of the retina is four orfive times th icker

than the outer ; th e retinal pigment is seen in th e anterior por

tion of the outer layer ; it occupies the inner end of the cel lsconstituting this layer of the retina

,and not the outer part, as

Mauz expressly states in th e Graefe- Saemisch Handbuch .

”

B etween th e lens and the inner retinal layer the hyal ine tissuecontains a greater number of b lood-vessels ; somewere carried

in with the connective tissue that was pushed in by the lens,some pass through the so- called choroideal fissure. It seems

to me that the lens turns in from a position downward and

forward .

P ig Embryo, fi of an Inch long Emu— In the embryo

s of an inch , we described the recessus labyrinth i as a process

leading from the upper part of the sac ; in the embryo of

an inch long, th e vertical semicircular canals formed anoth erin the embryo {15 of an inch long, we can no longer speak of

processes, as the whole upper part of the sac is composed

of the narrow recessus and the wide cavity of the verticalsemicircular canals. Just at the mouth of these canals is ash arp projection outward of th e wal l of the vesicle ; th is is thecommencement of the horizontal canal . Just below th e open

ing of the i'ecessus on the inner wall is an indentation,the site

of the formation of the sacculus rotundus ; the lower portionof the vesicle hooks inward under the brain ; this hook is the

beginning of the spiral of the coch lea ; the ganglion of the

coch lear '

nerve is p lainly seen delicate fibres connect it withth e epithelium in the coch lear canal .Eye.

—The lens has undergone a most interesting metamorphosis ; the cells on the posterior wall have now become

lens-fibres, which reach forward about two- thirds of the dis

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8

layer of connective tissue at the site of the cornea has in

creased in th ickness, and the membrana capsulo pupillaris isin the position occupied later by Descemet’s membrane ; the

lids have commenced forming .

P ig Embryo,58 of cm Inc/1 long Earn—The cartilagi

nous labyrinth is clearly defined th e recessus labyrinthi now

lies in the connective tissue forming the dura mater, except

ing its vestibular end, wh ich lies in cartilage ; the dura mater

fills out the angle formed by the junction of th e temporal andpetrous cartilages in the apex of this angle a sinus h as

formed ; not far from it is. seen the extremity of the recessus ;

th e semicircular canals have a h ardly perceptib le lumen ; thecoch lea has one and one- half turns ; its epith elium is th ick and

is easily detached from the surface beneath ; the greater epi

thelial protuberance h as commenced forming .

Eye—Here a marked change is seen ; the sclerotic and

rnea can be easily distinguished the cornea is considerab lythicker than the sclerotic

,and the corneal corpuscles are seen

they appear to be the developed nuclei of connective- tissue

cells,some ofwhich are seen among the corpuscles unchanged

the membrana capsulo pupillaris adheres to the posterior sur

face of the cornea the formation of th e ciliary body has

begun it is '

com’

posed of connective tissue from the neighbor

hood of the corneo- scleral junction ,of transformed cells of

the retina,and of tissue from the vitreous ; its apex is drawn

out into a thin hyaline structure that covers the surface of the

lens ; the lens is solid ; in th e retina there is an evident strati

fication when the two layers of the retina are separated, the

limitans goes with the internal layer, and a hyaline substance

is discovered that adheres partly to the limitans and partly tothe outer layer .

M eatus Externus,Drum

,and Eustachian Tnbe.

—The

idea that the Eustachian tube,tympanum ,

and external mea

tus are formed from the first branchial cleft, was first pub

lished in the Isis byHuschke in 1 827. Von B aer did not coin

eide with this View. In 1828 he described the development of

th ese parts more in accordance with what seems to me to bethe truth . Huschke

’s view as to the development of the otic

v esiclewas soon proven to be correct,andVon B aer’

s error on

9

th is point no doubt weakened his authority on the one in

question . Von B aer did not fol low the development of the ear

very closely, as he h imself states on page 146, vol . i . , of his

Entwickelungsgeschich te der Thiere,”

so that h is descrip

tions lacked the necessary accuracy . Huschke’s statements

have been accepted by every writer on development withwh om I am acquainted . Kolliker

,in his deservedly popular

Entwickelungsgesch ich te,”

gives the h istory as followsThe first branch ial cleft

,which is fully open in the human

embryo at the fourth week,closes in the fifth week

,not

,how

ever,in its whole length , as do the other clefts

,but so that at

both sides of the p lace of closure wh ich lies near the outer

opening, the beginning and th e inner end of the canal remain

open these parts are noth ing other than the sites of the mea

tus auditorius on the one side and the Eustachian tube and

the tympanum on the other .

The history of the development of these parts , as I have

found it,is as follows The Eustach ian tube is an in volution

of the mucous membrane of the pharynx it is not in any way

the remains of a branchial fissure,but lies in the tissue in

wh ich th e base of the skull is forming ; it grows in length as

the branchial fissures close . When the cartilaginous cochlea

is first formed,the Eustach ian tube lies under it

,and follows

its outline to the site of the middle ear,which at an earlier

date is principally indicated by the ganglion of th e facialnerve .

The meatus externus is formed as follows The first

branchial cleft in an embryo of an inch long i s very nar

row ; in its middle portion there is a sligh t protuberanceof the second branch ial arch that breaks the otherwise straigh t

course of the fissure . In an embryo43 of an inch long, the cleft

is closed,excepting that, at the point at wh ich the projection of

the second arch was situated,there is a shallow depression

remaining ; this point corresponds nearly to themiddle section

of the cleft . The process of closure is interesting : the ends of

the inferior maxillary process of th e first branch ial arch growtogether very early—they are joined in an embryo

43 of an inch

long— soon after,the second arch closes in front, and at the

same time fuses with the first arch in its ventral portion , so

10

that the first branchial cleft is ob literated as far as the inner

end is concerned ; as a result of th is process the buccal cavityis closed in . The outer end of the first fissure

,seen in profile

views of the embryo, has also closed down to the furrow men

tioned above,which is situated on the side of th e embryo just

above the blunt angle formed by the junction - of its lateraland ventral surfaces this depression is a sh allow one

,and

does not represent the whole depth of th e fissure ; th e first andsecond arches are united beneath it ; bisect an embryo

43 ofan inch long in th e antero-

posterior median plane, separate

the walls of the buccal cavity, and the site of the depression is

seen to be occluded by a th in,tran slucen t layer of tissue .

Now,th e projection of th e second branchial arch increases in

bulk and becomes more pointed, but the thicknessof the foldmakes the point appear rather blunt at first ; th e tissue of -

.the

first arch on the opposite side of the depression forms a slightridge. When this point i s reached (in an embryo of an inch

long , or little less), the meatus externus commences as a bur

row into the tissue of th e first branch ial arch—or rather into

tissue that did compose the arch,for the arch has now disap

peared. In an embryo of an inch long , the meatus is very

apparent, the pointed protuberance above Spokenof is much

thinner,and is now easily recognizable as the auricle ; it points

forward ; the meatus is not only deeper, but, as a proof thatthe process of its formation is an active process, its termination is much nearer the Eustachian tube . A section of the em

bryo at th is stage shows that the meatus has extended so

deeply that its inner extremity lies under the outer portionof the Eustach ian tube— in fact

,is a lmost in contact with the

tube ; the portion of connective tissue lying between meatus

and Eustach ian tube is the membrana propria of the drum,

the meatus forming its dermoid or inferior surface,the B usta

ch ian tube its superior or mucous surface. In the connective

tissue above,and posterior to the location of the drum

,the

ossicles have commenced formi ng ; the stapes does not, as most

authors state,form later than the other ossicles

,but, no doubt,

it appears later in the tympanum . Its first appearance seems

to be rather in the vestibule than in the tympanum ,not free

in its cavity . for it is connected with its cartilaginous walls.

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Beobaohtungen

in der

n g e n s c h a f t

Ein kleiner B eitrag

naheren Kenntnis s des Lebens d ies er Th iere

V0 11

Friedrich K. Knauer.

WIEN, I875.

A lfred Hiilder (B eck’

sche Universitats- B uchhandlung)Roth enthurmstrasse Nr. 1 5.

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kurz halten und glaubte nur da einigermassen aus

fuhrlicher werden zu mussen wo meine B eobachtungen

von denen A nderer ganz oder theilweise abweichen

oder wo ich mehr oder minder Neues mitzutheilen

hatte.

W i e n,im Juli 1875.

F. Knauer.

Verzeichniss j ener Reptilien und Amphibien, an denen

die nachfolgenden Beobachtungen gemacht wurden.

Reptilien, Kriechthiere.

‘

Ordnung : S auria , Echsen.

Familie : Lacertidae, wahre Eidech sen .

Gattung

A rt

A rt

A rt

A rt

Lacerta, Eidech sen .

Lacerta muralis, Mauereidech se.

Lacerta viridis, griine Eidech se.

Lacerta stirpium,Zauneidechse.

Lacerta vivipara, lebendig gebarende Eidechse .

Familie : Chalcides, Panzerschleich en .

GattungA rt

Pseudopus, Stummelfiissler.

Pseudopus serpentinus, Scheltopusik .

Familie : Scincidae, Scinke,

Gattung

A rt

Anquis, B ruch sch leich‘

en .

A nquis fragilis, B lindsch leiche.

ordnung : op h idia; Schlangen .

Familie : Colubridae, Nattern .

Gattung

A rt

Gattung

A rt

Gattung

A rt

A rt

Coronella, Jachsch langen.

Coronella Iaevis , Schlingnatter.

Callopeltis, Kletternattern .

Callopeltis A esculapii, A eskulap snatter.

Tropidonotus, Wassernattern.

Tropidonotus natrix, Ringelnatter.

Tropidonotus tessellatus, Wurfelnatter.

Familie : Viperidae, Ottern.

Gattung

A rt

Amphibien, Lurche.

Ordnung : B atrach ia ,

Pelias, Sp iessottern.

Pelias herus, Kreuzottern.

Froschlurche.

Familie : Bufonidae, Kroten .

Gattung

A rt

A rt

Bufo, Landkroten.

Bufo vulgaris, Erdkrote.

Bufo variabilis, Wech selkrote.

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Seiten des Weibchens und presst den Kopf fest und enge

an den des Weibchens an . Wie blind der Fortpflanzungstriebdieser Thiere, erhellt daraus

,dass sie Mannchen ihrer und

anderer A rt auf dieselbe Weise nothzuchtigen . Ich konntesie oft Wochen lang auf dem Rucken eines m

'

annlichen

Wasserfrosches sitzen sehen, der vergeblich suchte,die unbe

queme Umarmung los zu werden . A uch wenn die Mannchen

nicht auf den Weibchen sitzen,lassen sie

,sobald sie mit der

Hand beriihrt werden oder em Genosse ubér sie hinweg steigen

will , ihr Geschrei horen . Wunder nahm es mich, dass diese

Thiere Monate lang in steter Erregtheit auf dem Weibchen

sitzend und ohne Nahrung zu sich zu nehmen tapfer aus

hielten und das oftmals der Last ledig'

zu werden s uchende

Weibchen stets mit ungemmderter Kraft zu b’

andigen wussten.

Am heftigsten scheint der Fortpflanzungstrieb bei den Erd

kroten,den Wasser und den Thaufroschen zu sein

,

'

da diese

Thiere besonders lang und mit ersichtlichster Grier auf einandersassen . Inwelcher Weise die Eier abgegeben werden, die B e

fruchtung stattfindet und welcher A ntheil hiebei dem Mannchenzukommt

,ist langst bekannt. Weit weniger leidenschaftlich

als bei den Frosch lurchen vollzieht sich die B egattung bei

den Schwanzlurchen. Woh l sind diesbeziiglich noch fleissige Be

obachtungen zu m'

achen . So“

viel ich bis nun bei Wasser

molchen beobachten konnte, findet eine B efruchtung der Eier

des Weibchens in der Weise statt, dass das Mannchen, nach

dem es sich dem Weibchen behutsam gen'

ahert und eine Weileruhig geblieben, plotzlich seinen Samen nach dem A fter desWeibchens hinspritzt. Eine ahnliche B eobachtung machte ichzweimal an gefangenen Feuersalamandern B ei den Rep

tilien findet eine eigentliche B egattung, namlich unmittelbareB eruhrung der Geschlechtstheile statt . Oft konnte ich B eginnund Verlauf des B egattungsactes bei den verschiedenen

Wenn sie nur ganz kleine Wassergefasse erhielten, also von

einem Eierlegen keine Rede sein konnte, schien der Fortpflanzungstrieb

lang er als im Freien anzudauern, da ich Mannchen zwei Monate lang

auf dem Weibchen sitzen sah .

Eidechsenarten beobachten. Das begattungssuchtige Mannchen

geht mit erhobenem Kopfe und etwas gekrummtem Schweife

um das Weibchen herum, worauf das Weibchen seine Will

fahrigkeit durch eigenth iimliche zitternde B ewegung des

Korpers kundgibt. Endlich wird das Weibchen vom Mannchen

am Rucken gepackt, etwas nach der Seite gedreht und die

beim Drucke heraustretende Kloake des Weib'

chens an die

des Mannchens fest angedruckt. Doch beobachtete ich auch

riicksichtsloseres A uftreten von Mannchen,die einfach auf das

Weibchen zugiengen und selbes sofort umdrehten . Der A ct

selbst wahrt 2—4 Minuten. Die Einleitung der B egattungvon Seite dcs Mannchens konnte ich bei Schlangen ein einzigesMal und nur ungenau an einem Wiirfelnatterpaar beobachten .

Das Mannchen sch lich einige Male neben dem Weibchen hin

und her,legte sich naher an dasselbe an und begann nun

mit dem B auche dessen Rucken sanft zu reiben ; dabei kamen

sich die beiden Schlangen immer naher und lagen schliesslichvollst

‘

andig neben einander,das Mannchen die reibende B e

wegung noch immer fortse’tzend ; als ich etwas naher trat,

machte das Mannchen Miene,sich zu verkriechen ; um dies zu

verhindern,trat ich vollstandig zuruck ; als ich spater wieder

nachsah, waren beide Schlangen enge in einander versch lungen,wie ich an anderen sich begattenden Schlangen oft gesehen.

Dass auch die Schlangen durch die B egattung starker erregtwerden, obwohl sic sich nach A ussen minder stiirmisch zeigt, lasstsich daraus entnehmen

,dass die sonst so fliichtigen Schlangen

in der B egattung begriffen, wenn sie gest'

ort werden, nicht sofort an das Fliehen denken Die B egattung wahrt nach meinen

bisheri-

gen B eobachtungen, wenn die Thiere nicht beirrt werden,Tage lang . B ei den A mphibien sowoh l wie bei den Reptilienbegatten sich die Mannchen mit mehreren Weibchen und um

gekehrt. Was die Zeit,in welcher die heimischen A mph i

bien und Reptilien sich fortzupflanzen beginnen, und das Eier

legen betrifft,’

so habe ich diesbezuglich an gefangenen Thieren,

da sie bei einigermassen entsprechender Pflege alle zur B e

gattung und zum Eierlegen gebracht werden konnen, nach

folgende B eobachtungen gemacht : A m fruhesten beginnen den

Reigen der Thaufrosch und die Knoblauchkrote, welche beidesich oft schon A nfangs M

’

arz begatten ; im A pril geht der

Laubfrosch,im Mai oder auch im Juni der Wasserfrosch und

die Unke an das Laichgeschaft. Wenn die Thiere in einem

grossen A quarium mit Wasserpflanzen gehalten werden, so

legen sie ihre Eierschnure auch in der Gefangenschaft ab .

Die Wassermolche begatten sich oft schon im Februar, am

fruhesten der A lpentriton . Feuersalamander haben mir im

Friihlinge, Sommer und Herbste Junge (40 - 80) geworfen .

Die Eidechsen begatten sich im Mai,mehrere Male des Tages,

und legen von Juni an 4—8 etwa bohnengrosse, graue Eier ;

die B lindsch leichen werfen von A nfangs A ugust an (bis MitteSeptember) 6— 20 .Junge. Die Ringelnattern begatten sich im

Mai oder Juni und legen von Juli an (bis September) 14 bis35 taubeneigrosse, zusammenhangende Eier ; von Wiirfelnatternerhielt ich bisher nur zweimal 7 und 11 Eier ; die

'

A eskulap

nattern begatten sich Ende Juni und legen im A ugust und

September 6— 10 Eier ; die Zornnatter paart sich im Mai oder

Juni und legt von Ende Juli an 4— 10 Eier, aus denen sofortdie Jungen ausschlupfen .

Ueber die B egattung der A mphibien und Reptilien, die

Entwick lung und das Legen der Eier, das A usschliipfen der

Jungen hofi'

e ich besonders bezuglich des Feuer und A lpensalamanders

,des

'

Scheltopusik’

s u. a . d . u. noch weitere B eobachtungen machen zu k

‘

onnen .

Der Hautungsact.

Dieser fiir alle A mph ibien und Reptilien hochst wichtigeProcess

,der Mauser bei den Vogeln vergleichbar, greift auf

kurzere oder langere Zeit in die regelmassige Lebensthatigkeit

dieser Thiere ganz auffallend ein . Lange vor der in der Thatsich vollziehenden Hautung verlieren sie ein gut Theil ihrerLebhaftigkeit, bleiben lange und anscheinend leblos auf einemPlatze

,sch leichen nur miihsam und trage weiter, lassen sich

wenig in ihrer Ruhe storen,nehmen keine Nahrung zu sich

,

sperren oft und stark gahnend den Rachen auf, suchen gerne

das Wasser auf und trinken auch oft und viel . Die Thiere

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Hautungsact findet mehrere Male im Jahre statt. Doch ist es

meiner Meinung nach sehr gewagt, wenn Einige Zeit und

Zah l derHautungen ganz bestimmt angeben . Ich glaube, dassdiesbezuglich locale Verh

'

altnisse,Temperatur, A lter des

Thieres u. s. w. sehr mannigfache A enderungen bedingen.

Meine B eobachtungen haben mich fibe‘

rzeugt, dass nicht nur

gleich grosse Thiere derselben A rt unter versch iedenen Ver

haltnissen nicht gleich oftmal und auch nicht zu derselbenZeit hauteten, sondern dass auch ein und dasselbe Thier nichtin jedem Jahre gleich viele Hautungen vornahm. Wahrend

von mancher Seite behauptet wird,dass vor Mitte A pril

keine Schlange bereits gehautet zu finden,kann ich

“

nur ge

stehen,dass ich vor dieser Zeit

,wenn anders nicht in Folge

eines besonders strengen Winters schonere Jahreszeit erstspater eintrat

,allem A nscheine nach ihres Winterkleides ent

ledigte Schlangen fieng und dass viele meiner gefangenen

Sch langen schon in der zweiten Halfte des Monates Marz sich

hauteten ._ Schon bei Sch langen derselben A rt,

sagte ich,

zeigen sich hinsichtlich der Dauer des Hautungsprocesses be

deutende A bweichungen ; noch grosser sind diese bei Sch langenverschiedener A rt. Nach meinen B eobachtungen w

’

ahrt der

Hautungsprocess unter allen einheimischen Schlangen bei der

A eskulapnatter am langsten . Ich hatte ein durchaus nichtkrankes

, gut gefuttertes, in der Gefangenschaft sich ganzwoh l befindendes Exemplar, das zur Hautung in jedem Jahre

uber sechs Wochen brauchte . Nachdem sich A nfangs kaum

bemerkbare,dann immer deutlicher zu Tage tretende Haut

risse an den vorderen und hinteren Schnauzenschildern (scutainternasalia et praefrontalia) gezeigt, schleppt sich die

Schlange noch lange umber,bis die immer weiter auseinander

tretenden Schuppen, das umflorte A uge, die immer reichlicherweiss gesprengelte Haut und der marmorweiss gewordene

Unterleib den endlichen A bsch luss des Hautungsprocesses an

zeigen . Hinsichtlich der A rt des A bstreifens stimmen alleSchlangen uberein

,indem sich die Haut an der Schnauze ah

”Schlangenkunde.

“Dr. H. O. Lenz. Gotha. 1832 . S . 43 .

lost,der eine Lappen nach oben

,der andere nach unten zu

riickgeschlagen wird und die Schlange durch zeitweiligesB efeuchten der Haut und Hiniiberkriechen uber kantige Korperdas vollige A bstreifen der Haut zu besch leunigen sucht. Die

abgeworfene Haut ist mit der A ussenseite nach Innen gekehrt.Sehr kr

‘

aftige, grosse Thiere werfen ihr Kleid gewohnlich nu

verletzt ab ; unter ungunstigen Verhaltnissen dem Hautungs

processe obliegende Sch langen geben die Haut in Fetzen ab .

Die Loslosung der Haut geht am schwierigsten am Kopfe vor

sich ; ich konnte sehen dass bei einzelnen Schlangen dieLoslosung der abzuwerfenden Haut am Kopfe durchaus nichterfolgen wollte, worauf eine Trennung der

,Haut am Halse

vor sich gieng, das Kleid von da an abgestreift wurde und

das Thier noch lange mit einzelnen Hautfetzen am Kopfe be

hangen herumkroch . So viel ich bis j etzt beobachtenkonnte

,scheint das Hautungsgeschaft die Zornnatter und die

Wurfelnatter besonders anzugreifen und sind mir jungereExemplare dieser A rt fast regelm

‘

assig in Folge des begonnenenaber nicht zu Ende gekommenen Hautungsprocesses zu Grunde

gegangen . Ebenso glaube ich nach meinen bisherigen B e

obachtungen sagen zu diirfen, dass dieWurfelnatter unter denheimischcn Sch langen die geringste Zah l der Hautungenim Jahre nur zwei aufweist ; es mag dies mit ihrem faststetigen A ufenthalte im Wasser und

\dadurch bedingter min

derer A bnutzung der Haut zusammenh‘

angen . B ei den

Eidechsen geht die Haut stets in grosseren od er kleinerenFetzen ab . Wenn ihren Lebensbedingungen Genuge geleistetist

,so vollzieht sich der Hautungsprocess bei ihnen weit

rascher'

und leichter, als dies bei den Sch langen der Fall .Die B lindschleiche entledigt sich ihres Kleides mehr im Zu

sammenhange, indem sic nach A rt der Sch langen die Hautvom Kopfe nach riickwarts schiebt und dann eine A rt Rohre

abwirft . Entgegen den B eobachtungen A nderer muss ich bemerken, dass meine gefangenen B lindschleichen j ahrlich nur

eine Hautung vornahmen . Die B lindschleichen h’

auten sich

A m oftesten bei A eskulapnattern .

nicht so leicht wie die Eidechsen und gleichen was die ‘Dauer

der Hautung und die veranderte Lebensweise betrifft, diesbezuglich weit mehr den Schlangen . Der Scheltopusik hautet sich wahrscheinlich nur einmal im Jahre, braucht zieml

‘

ich geraume Zeithiezu und gibt die Haut nach A rt

'

der Eidechsen in grosseren

und k leineren Fetzen ab . Gerade an diesem Thiere konnteich sehen

, wie sehr das Wohlbefinden des Thieres die schnelleA bwicklung des Hautungsprocesses erm

'

oglicht, sch lecht ge

n‘

ahrte Thiere aber dem Hautungsactc erliegen . Wahrend allejene Exemplare, die bereitwillig Nahrung angenommen hatten,sich verh

'

altnissm'

assig rasch gehautet hatten, giengen mir

al le ubrigen, die ich vor B eginn der Hautung'

nicht zur

Nahrungsannahme hatte veranlassen kounem,

sofort nach B e

ginn der Hautung zu Grunde . Wie schon erwahnt und

aus der Lebensweise dieser Thiere woh l zu erklaren,

vollz ieht sich die Hautung bei den A mphibien weit rascher. A llegeben ihre Haut in sehr diinnen Fetzen von sich . B ei den

Tritonen hatte ich oft Gelegenheit zu sehen,W1e swh die

Thiere bei dem A blegen der Haut gegenseitig unterstiitzten,

einander die Hautfetzen herabrissen,dieselben verschluckten

und wieder ausspicen . Eine interessante B eobachtung ahnlicherA rt machte ich an den Erdkroten . Nachdem es mir schon

ofters aufgefallen war, dass einzelne Erdkroten,

ohne vorher

im Wasser gewesen zu sein,

am ganzen Korper reich lich befeuchtet an einer Stelle kauerten und mit ersichtlicher A nstrengung an einem Gegenstande zu wiirgen schienen und ich

ersterer Zeit der Meinung war, die Krote bemuhe sich,mit

der erschnappten Nahrung aufgenommenes ~Moos (wie dies

ofter zu beobachten) anzuspeien, sah ich eines Tages bei

n‘

aherer B esichtigung die Krote an einem zu beiden Seitendes Mundes herausstehendem,

mit den Vorderfussen verbun

denem Strange zerren . Ich sah nun,wie dieser Strang einer

seits partienweise im Munde verschwand,an den Vorderffissen

sich nachschob und endlich ganz fiber die Zehen herabgezogenwurde . Dadurch aufmerksam gemacht, war ich nun sehr oft

in der Lage, einzelne, einige Tage friiher verborgen gebliebeneund nicht mit den A nderen zur Futterung .hervorgekommene

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wenn die Thiere aus der Kalte rasch in die Warme gebrachtWerden . Im Gegensatze zu der Wahrnehmung, dass Amphibien

und Reptilien auch in solchen Gegenden die warmerenWinter haben Winterschlaf halten koh nen alle unsere

Reptil ien und A mphibien in der Gefangenschaft den Winterfiber in geheizten Localen wach erhalten werden Dass der

Winterschlaf nichts anderes als ein verlangsamter Lebensprocess,erhellt aus dem Umstande

,dass Thiere

,die vor B eginn des

Wintersch lafes keine Nahrung zu

l

sich genommen haben,meist

vor B eendigung des Wintersch lafes oder bald nach dem Er

wachen zu Grunde gehen . Mit wenigen A usnahmen suchen die

A mphibien wie die Reptilien gesellschaftlich einenWinteraufenthalt zu beziehen

,reihen sich enge an und ubereinander rollen

und krummen sich zusammen und schliessen die A ugen. Einige

wenige warme Tage lassen sie erwachen,auch an die Ober

flache kommen, erneuteKalte treibt sic aber bald wieder zuriick .

Ueber Wachsthum und A lter der Amphibien und Reptilien.

Ueber diesen Punkt lasst sich woh l erst nach vielj ahrigen

B eobachtungen elnlgermassen B estimmtes sagen. Meine bis

herigen B eobachtungen wenigstens haben mich“

belehrt,dass

woh l die allmalige Entwicklung des Eies und das Heran

wachsen der Kaulquappe, weil ersichtliche Fortschritte zei

gend, wahrend kurzerer B eobachtungszeit studirt werden kann,

das weitere Wachsthum aber bis zum endlichen A usgewachsensein

,insbesonders bei Reptilien so

'

ausserst l angsam fortschreitet,dass ich mit

‘

Hinblick auf den grossen Unterschied zwischenerst ausgekrochenen und vollig

'

erwachsenen Schlangen, Eidechsen Kroten Froschen einerseits und das so langwierige

Die von J. Erber (”Die A mphibien der oesterr. Monarch ie.

“

Verhandl . des zool . -bot . Vereines in Wien . XIV. Ed. 1864. Seite 697)

gemach te Mittheilung ,dass der Feuersalamander auch im geheizten

Zimmer inWintersch laf f‘

allt,ist wenigstens nich t fur al leFalle rich tig ,

denn ich habe nich t nur meine, sondern auch von A nderen g efangen

gehaltene Feuersalamander in entsprechend warmen Zimmern Wahrenddes ganzen Winters wach gefunden .

Wachsthum anderseits nicht zu irren meine, wenn ich fiir

fast alle diese Thiere ein A lter von mindestens flinfzig Jahrenannehme

,in welcher Zeit

,wenn sie nicht eines gewaltsamen

Todes sterben oder uberhaupt ungunstigen B edingungen erliegen, sie den A bschluss ihres Wachsthums erreichen konnen .

Ueber die langst bekannte und sorgfaltig studirte allmalige

Entwicklung dieser Thiere aus dem B i and die allmalige

Metamorphose der Kaulquappen von Lurchen, will ich hier

kein Wort verlieren . Einen gewiss interessanten Fall langenLarvenzustandes einer jungen Erdkrote kann ich hier jedochnicht unerw

‘

ahnt lassen Am 12 . Mai '

1873 schopfte ich

mehrere kaum aus dem Eie gekommene Kaulquappen von

B ufo vulgaris, nahm sie nach Hause und fiitterte sie fleissig

mit Oblate ; sie nahmen regelmassig an Korperumfang zu und

erhielten A nfangs Juni die Hinterfusse ; ich gab nun drei

Exemplare in ein B echerglas und fiitterte sie nur sehr selten ;s1e nahmen etwa bis zum A ugust stets an Grosse zu

,machten

aber durchaus keine A nstalt, mit der B ildung der Vorderfiissezu beginnen ; von A ugust ab bemerkte ich auch keine eigent

liche K’

orperzunahme , nur dass sie zeitweilig stark aufgeblaht

aussahen und'Wahrscheinlich deshalb mit dem B auche nach

oben~ herumschwammen . Zwei Exemplare giengen mir am22 . Februar 1874 zu Grunde

,das dritte Exemplar, nach mehr

als zwei Jahren noch immer nur mit den Hinterfussen ver

sehen und den Ruderschwanz tragend, besitze ich noch jetzt.

Stumme und stimmbegabte Amphibien und Reptilien.

A nbelangend das Verm‘

ogen, lautere, vernehmbarere Tone

von sich zu geben, stehen die niederen A mphibien, insbesondere

die Froschlurche, den Reptilien voran, indem sic weit abwechselndere

,oft weithin h '

orbare Laute ausstossen . Von ihrem Stimm

organ machen die Frosch lurche, Wie bekannt, nach beendetemWinterschlafe an die B egattung gehend reichlichen Gebrauch,

A ehnliche B eobachtungen machte schon J. Kolazy (”Ueber

Kaulquappen der B atrach ier.

“ Verhandlungen des zool .-botan . Vereines .

XXI. Ed . 1871 . Seite 38

obgleich sie auch spater nicht stumm bleiben . In der Gefangen

schaft fiihren sie ihre gemeinsamen Concerte nur da‘

nn mit

gewohnter Virtuositat auf, wenn sie alle in geraumigen Kafigenuntergebracht sind und fur ihre B edij rfnisse bestens Sorge getragen ist. Fast immer beginnen sie erst A bends sich horen Zu

lassen und gefallen sich dann die gauze Nacht hindurch inihrem Gesange ; nur der Laubfrosch und zuweilen derWasser

frosch unterbrechen auch die Tagesruhe mit ihrem plotzlichen

Gequake . Die Stimmen in diesem Concerto sind von ganz ver

schiedener H‘

ohe und Tiefe ; am lautesten thuen sich vor allender Wasserfrosch

,der Laubfrosch

,die Wechselkrote und die

Erdkrote hervor, die zur Paarungszeit vieleWochen lang nu

ermiidlich ihre quakenden und heulenden Tone hervorbringen ;ebenso fleissig, aber minder vernehmbar

,auch spater beginnend

lasst sich die Unke horen ; nur pausenweise und sehr dumpf

fallt das Grunzen der Knoblauchkrote ein. B esonders rasch

und hoher gehalten werden die T’

one hervorgestossen, wenn

die Mannchen wahrend des Fortpflanzungsgeschaftes mit der

Hand beruhrt oder sonst irgendwie gestort werden . Ganz anders,

klaglichem Kindergeschrei nicht unahnlich, horen sich die Klagerufe eines von einer Sch lange ergrifi

'

enen Frosch lurches an ;

ebenso bestehen vielfache A bstufungen hinsichtlich der Hohe

und Tiefe des Tones zwischen der Kinderstimme des kaum

die Metamorphose uberstanden habenden Froschchens und dem

tiefen B ass eines alten,vollig ausgewachsenen Wasserfrosches .

A uch glaube ich behaupten zu konnen,dass die jungen Kroten

die Fahigkeit, Tone von sich zu geben, erst viel spater erhalten,als die jungen Frosche, da ich kaum vollstandig umgewandelteLaub Thau undWasserfroschchen stimmbegabt, gl

‘

eich grosse

und grossereKroten aber stumm fand ; erstere jammer‘tengar klag

lich, wenn sie von einer kleinen Ringelnatter verzehrt wurden,letztere blieben in ahnlichem Falle Vollig lautlos und konntenauch auf andere Weise nicht dazu gebracht werden, irgendeinen Laut auszustossen . Im Gegensatze zu den Frosch lurchensind

,die Schwanzlurche fast vollig stumm ; zwar horte ich beim

schnellen Ergreifen jungerKamm undTeichmolche und auch vonKaulquappen des Feuersalamanders einen schwachen quiksenden

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Eidechsen und der A eskulapnatter konnte ich dann stets,

bei den ubrigen Thieren gewohnlich ein plotzlichcs Heben oder

Wegwenden dcs Kopfes bemerken ; schlafende Thiere erwachtenmeist

,wobei ich mir natiirlicherWeise alle Miihc gab, sic nicht

durch einc andere Ursache zu erwecken . A uch das sofortigeZuriickschncllcn der zur Todtung in Weingeist gebrachtenThiere (wenn sic kaum den Kopf innerhalb dcs Glases h atten)lasst sich schwer anders als in Folge mittelst dcs Gcruchsinnesgemachter Wahrnehmung veranlasst erklarcn .

Wenn ich Eidechsen die vorgelegte Nahrung vorher belecken,so z . B . Mchlwurmer (woh l wegen des anhaftenden schimmelnden Mehles), aufgeschnittene c cnwurmcr (gewiss wegen dcs

herbcn Geschmackes) nach erfolgter Priifung mittelst der. Zunge

als nicht willkommen liegen lassen sah,dieselbe B eobachtung

oft an den so gcfrassigcn Kroten machen konnte ; wenn manalle Reptilien und A mphibien gar nicht oder nur sehr ungerne

und nach langem Z‘

ogcrn cine minder wohlschmeckende Nahrung annehmen sah

,nachdem sic durch leckere B isscn ver

wohnt worden,so durften diesc B eobachtungen schwerlich ge

deutet werden, ohne an einen ziemlich entwickelten Geschmacksinn bei diesen Thieren zu glauben . Selbst das eigenth iimliche,behagliche A blecken der Schnauze mit der Zunge, wie man diesso oft an Eidechsen nach besonders zusagender Mahlzeit sehen

kann,dunkt mir cine A eusscrung dcs Geschmacksinnes zu sein .

Dass diesc Thiere horen und einige sehr gut horen, kann

nicht in A brede gestellt werden. Man muss nur Froschc und

Kroten (vor allen den Laub den Wasserfrosch,die Wechsel

und die Erdkrote) bei dem leisesten Gerausch die Kopfe hebcnoder ducken

,noch so sachte vorbeigleitende B eute am oftcstcn

durch das Gehor wahrnehmen und die A eskulapnatter durch

das leiseste Gerausch einer cbcn ihren Schlupfwinkel verlassenwollenden Maus auf die Nahe und den A ufenthaltsort derwillkommenen B eute ‘

aufmerksam werden gesehen haben, um

wenigstens fur dicse genanntcn Thiere Stumpfheit des Gch'

or

sinnes nicht zugeben zu konnen .

Die grosse Empfindlichkcit der meisten unserer Amphibien

und Reptilien gegen die Kalte ; das ersichtliche B ehagen, mit

dem sich die meisten an den warmenden Strah len der Sonnelaben ; das sofortige A ufsch lagen der A ugen, wenn man schla

fende Amphibien und Reptilien auch noch so leise beruhrt ;

der kl‘

aglichc Ruf dcs kaum beim Fussc gcpackten Frosches ;

das sofortige A ufheulen von Seite einer mannlichen Krote, wenn

sic wah rend der B egattungszeit leise bcriihrt wird und vieleandere Wahrnehmungen an A mphibien und Reptilien deutendenn doch nicht auf einen m so hohem Grade stumpfcn

“ Tasteund Gefuhlsinn.

Was endlich das Sehvcrmogen dieser Thiere anbelangt,so wiirdc ich

,so viel ich aus vielfachen diesbeziiglichcn

B eobachtungen zu entnehmen glaube, nur dic Ringelnatter, dieWurfelnatter

,und etwa noch die Knoblauchkr

’

dte und die Unke

als schlech t oder schwachschende Thiere bezeichnen . Die

A eskulapnatter, welche die ihr gereichte Maus sofort erblickt(wenn nicht das A ugc in Folge sich vollziehender Hautungganz oder theilweise erblindet ist) und nicht mehr aus dem

A uge verliert ; die Wassermolche, die, sobald man sich dem

A quarium nahert,sofort hcrankommcn und nach zu erhoffender

Nahrung ausschauen ; die Eidechsen, welche das Herankommendcs Feindes oder Freundes sofort bemerken

,nicht ubersehen

,

wenn einc Kameradin irgend etwas erbeutet hat und h ineilen,ihr das Erbeutete abzuhaschcn

,auf der Flucht jeden Schlupf

winkel sogleich crspahen und endlich die grossaugigcn Kr’

otcn

und Frosche,deren B licken auch nicht das kleinste Thier ent

geht und die mit bcwundcrnswerther A ufmerksamkeit sowohlwie Fern

’

sicht A usschau halten,sollten die nicht allen bcrcch

tigten A nspruch darauf haben, als mit vortrefflichem Schvcr

mogen ausgestattete Thiere zu gelten i ?

Die l eistigen Fahigkeiten der Amphibien und Reptilien.

Es ist im Vorhinein zu erwarten,dass Thiere

,die in so

mannigfacher Weise dazu bestimmt scheinen,

unbilligstc B e

In sonderbarer Weise werden fast alle A mphibien und Reptilien v

'

om Lich tc angezogen ; stellt man Nachts ein Lich t vor die

Glaswand dcs K‘

afigs, so kommen sic gewohnlich ganz nahe h eran ;Laubfrosch e sprangen mir stets in die Flamme h inein und wiederholtcn ungcwitzig t trotz verbrannten B auchcs nochmals den Sprung .

urthcilung und ungerechteste Verfolgung zu erleiden,bczuglich

ihrer Geistcsf‘

ahigkcitcn um so h'

arter mitgenommen werden

wurden . Wenn cs nun sehr gefeh lt ware, behaupten zu wollen ,dass dicsc Thiere uber besondere geistige Fahigkeitcn ver

fiigtcn,'

so glaube ich denn doch andererseits nicht beistimmenzu konnen

,weh n _es heisst Zur List

,die noch durchaus

nicht als I—Iochgeistigkcit gcltcn darf,

erhebt sich keines

Kriechthiercs Geist“ oder wenn em gewisser Ortssinn, cine

beschr‘

ankte Erkenntniss dcs Fressbaren oder Ungeniessbaren,

dcs Nutzlichcn also und des Schadlichen, auch woh l Erkenntniss dcs Feindlichen und cine sinnliche Leidenschaft endlich “

die ~cinzigcn B eweise der geistigen Fahigkeiten dieser Thiere

sein sollen .

Man sehe der interessanten Scene zu,die sich abwickelt,

wenn, besonders nach langcrcm Hungcrn Seitens der Schlangen,in den Kafig der A eskulapnattern cine grossere Zah l M‘

ausc

gebracht wird ; wie nun sofort alle Sch langen kampfbereitsind

,wie sic nicht blind (wie etwa die Ringel und die

Wiirfclnattcrn) zuschnappen, sondern mit ersichtlicher Ruhe,

die Maus 'immer im A uge, heranschlcichen und erst ganz naheherangekommen, sicher zielend auf die Maus losfahren ! Uh

zahlige Male sah ich die Maus sich auf den Kopf einerNattersetzen oder wohl gar mit der Zunge deren Schnauze belecken.

W‘

arc die A eskulapnatter nun wirklich so geistcsarm,als man

sic mit ihren Stammverwandten machen will, so musste sic,

besonders bei gutcm A ppetit, in blinder Gier sofort zufahren .

Woh l wissend aber,dass sic erst von einer gewissen Ent

fernung aus sicher auszuholen vermag, zieht sic sich,schein

bar um die Maus ganz unbckfimmcrt langsam zuruck, um im

nachstcn Momente tiber sic herzufallen . Wie vorsichtig, ganzA ug und Ohr

,sic die aus den A ugcn verlorene B eute auf

sucht,

von einem Winkel dcs K ‘

afigs zum anderen zieht,in

jede Ocifnung einen’

A ugenblick lang hineinsieht oder auch

mit dem Kopfe hincinschliefcnd Nachforschung halt ; mit welchlistiger Wendung sie der unvermuthct von einer anderen

Illustrirtcs Thicrlcben .

“ A . B rehm. S . 10.

M "

) Ebendaselbst . S . 9 .

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die weit j iingere und schwachcre der beiden Schlangen bei

dem Versuche,die Maus hervorzubckommcn

,mit '

cingeschniirt

wurde. Doch gelang es dann und wann grosseren, uncrmiid

lieberen Thieren schliesslich denn doch zum Zicle zu kommen.

Unter meinen Smaragdcidechscn befand s ich cin Weib

chen,das bei der Fiitterung auf den vorgehaltenen Meh lwurm

meist mit solcher Gier und Ungcschicklichkeit losfuhr, dass

es mich stets in den Finger knciptc. Da k lopfte ich sic

eines Tages etwas unsanft auf den Kopf und iibcrgieng sic

cinige Male bei der Futterung, obgleich sic sich mit ihren

Genossinnen zur Futterung einstellte. Mag nun die ihr gewordene

Zuchtigung oder das Uebergehen beim Futtern gewirkt haben,Thatsachc war cs

,dass sic kiinftig den gebotenen Meh lwurm

mit grosstcr Vorsicht aus der Hand nahm.

Wie k lug, listig und geschickt benimmt sich der Schelto

pusik bei der Jagd auf seine B eute ! B ei dem geringsten'

Ge

rausche aufmerksam werdend,durchsucht er jeden Winkel

seines Kafigs, oder freigelassen'

dcs Zimmers,um irgend

etwas zu erhaschen . Erhalt er cine Maus in einem Glase mitengem Halse

,so bleibt er ruhig, unverwandten ,

B lickes davorstehen und wartet ruhig auf das endliche Herauskommen der

Maus,die ihm selten zu entkommen weiss. A uf jede B eute

sturzt er immer mit hoch erhobenem,umgcbcugtem Kopfe von

oben herab, um so bcsser einbeissen zu k‘

ounem. Da er dcs

engen Schlundes halber grosse Stucke nicht verzehren kann,

die einmal erfasste B eute abcr nichtmehr loslasst, so stemmter sich

,sobald cine Partie verschlungen, an cine Wand an

und schiebt so wieder einen herausstehenden Theil seiner

Speise in den Rachcn . Zahmgcwordenc Thiere dieser A rt

kommen bei dem leisesten A npochen an die Glaswand dcs

Kafigs sofort aus dem Moose heraus,nachsehend, ob sic etwas

erhalten.

B eobachtet man endlich, wie die gefangenen Thiere, so:

bald sic einmal heimisch geworden, von Tag zu Tag irgend

einen neuen Zug von List, A nhanglichkcit vcrrathcn ; Iwie sic

cs bald heraus haben, welche Nahrung unter verschiedener vor

gelegter als die zusagcndstc auszuwahlcn ;wie‘

dies undj cncsThier

amleichtesten zu bewaltigcn sci ; wann und wo sic stets gefuttertwerden ; in welcher Weise aus dem herabhangendcn Wasser

gcfassc am bequemsten zu trinken ; wie sic sogleich Feind

und Freund, zanksiichtigc und harmlose Nachbarn unterscheiden lernen u. s. W .

,so reicht man meiner beschcidcncn

Meinung nach mit obigem Schema geistiger Fahigkeitcn

unserer Thiere zur Erklarung allcr dieser Wahrnehmungen

gewiss nicht aus.

Zur Mythe von der Zauberkraft der Schlangen.

Nachdem sich schon Lenz redlichste Miihc gegeben,

den Glauben an cine den Sch langen innewohnende bezauberndeKraft als v

‘

ollig nichtig und grundlos hinzustellen, holtc

Link 23 Jahre spater dicsc Fabel nochmals aus

‘

der

Rumpelkammer und hielt sich flir berechtigt, auf cine cin

fache Erzahlung irgend eines Manncs hin,

einer langst ah

gcthancn A nsicht nochmals das Wort zu-reden. Obschon seine

B eweise wohl Niemanden iibcrzeugcn konnten und gleich nach

Vertiffcntlichung sein‘

es Werkes lebhafter Wi‘derspruchsich geltend machte , liess ich es mir angelegc sein

,eigene

B eobachtungen anzustellen, dcrcn Resultat, wie vorauszusehen,das war

,dass von einer solchen Zauberkraft gar keine Rcdc

sein kann . Nicht nur,dass ich von einer ruhig in den unver

mcidlichen Tod sich crgcbcndcn Fugung dcr den Schlangenvorgeworfenen Thiere nichts bemerkte, sogar dieselben vor

den sic verfolgenden Schlangcn'

mit allem A ufgebote von Eileund List sich zu retten suchten, musste ich vielmehr die B eobachtung machen, dass es bei den meisten Thieren auch mit

dem Instinct,der sic die Gefahr ahncn

,dieselbe vorzeitig

wittern und flichen lassen soll,nicht weit her ist. So konnte

ich besonders bci A cskulapnattcrn sehen,dass die ihnen vor

geworfenen Manse, sobald sic sich und das geschah in

”Schlangcnkundc.

“ H. O. Lenz . Seite 72 —81 .

”Die Sch langen Deutsch lands .

“ H. E. Link . S . 54- 58 .

”B eitrage z. Naturgesch ichte deutscher Schlangen.

“ Dr. E. B ursy .

Troschel’s A rchiv fiir Naturgcschichtc. 21 . Jahrg . I. B and .

wenigcn Minuten in dem neuen Wohnort ~eingefunden,

’

ruhig daran giengen, sich eifrigst zu putzen ; so lange dieA cskulapnattci n sich 1uhig vc1h ic1tcn, benahmen sic sich ganzharmlos und frei

,als w

'

a1en sic die Heri en dcs Platzes; bcganncn dann die A cskulapna

’

ttcrn'

auf sic Jagd zu machen,

so starrten sic wohl,

nachdem s1e ln cine andere Ecke ent

wichcn waren, ganz verwundert ob der so plotzlichcn Storang

darc1n,waren abcr bald wieder guter Dingc, putzten sich

auf’

s Ncue odel klettci tcn an den Wanden dcs K‘

afigs he1um,

ohne dcs Feindes weitci zu achten ; j a s1e g1engen in ihr '

el

dul eh kcincn Zauber gebannten Freiheit so weit,

auf den

Leibern der Feinde herumzustcigen, gar woh l am Kop'

fe der

einen oder anderen Schlange ruhig sitzen zu so.

trieben sic c'

s,bis sic schliesslich , alle

'

m A nscheine nach noch

immer nicht recht an die nahc'

Gcfahr glaubend, von einer

der stetig auf der Lauer gewesenen Sch langen ergriffen und

verloren waren . Weit chcr konnte man doch will ich’

s

nicht gesagt haben von einer B ezauberung der B eute durcheinc Krote sprechen, wenn man sieht

,wie dicsc

,oft mehrere

Minuten lang un

'

vcrwandtcn A ugcs auf den sich regende‘

n

Wurm starrt

Die Zahlcbigkcit der Amphibien und Reptilien.

Ueber dic Lebenszahigkcit der Amphibien und Reptilienist so viel Wunderbares und Fabelhaftes geschrieben und '

gc

sag t worden, dass nur noch dic B ehauptung feh lt, man konneeines dieser Zahlcbigcn Thiere in beliebig viele Stucke theilenum dann jedes dieser Stiickc in kurzer Zeit zum vollstandigcn

Thiere crganzt und . ausgcwachscn zu sehen . Gewiss ist es,

dass , dicsc Zahlcbigkcit nicht zum charaktcristischcnMerkmalgemacht werden kann, da cs unter den A mphibien ,

- Wie .untc1'

den Reptilien nicht wenige -Thiere gibt, die ausserst cmpflnd

licher Natur bei nun einigermassen ungunstigen Lebens

b edingungen zu Grunde gehen also das Pradicat Zah lcbig“

gewiss nicht verdienen Ich unterlasse cs hicr den B egriff

Zahlcbigkcit“ dcs Nahcrcn zu crortern und will nur einigc

B eobachtungen ,W1e

'

ich sic an gefangenen Thieren gemacht,

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Jah re hindurch in Steinen eingeschlossen, jede Nahrung ent

behrend, lcbcn konncn und oft auf das Jammerlichste verletztund beschadigt sich doch bald wieder vollst

‘

andig crholcn !

Und doch musste ich zu meinem Leidwesen erfahren,dass oft

auch ganz leichte Verletzungen diesen Thieren das Leben

kosten z Unter vielen Hunderten gefangener Erdkr’

dtcn waren

mir etwa dreissig Exemplare als mehrj'

ahrigc sehr heimisch

gewordene Gefangene besonders lieb geworden . Eines Tages

hatte ich in meiner kleinen Menagerie cinigc nothigc Um

andcrungcn vorgenommen ,war aber vorzeitig gestort worden

und hatte die Kiste mit den crwahntcn Kroten am B oden

stehen gelassen. Zuf‘

allig war die vcrschlicsscnde Glastafel nichtgut eingeschoben und fiel heraus . Zwei frei herumlaufendeweisse Rattcn hattcn so Gelegenheit , _ubcr meine ungluck

l ichen Pficglinge herzufallen und sic in arger Weise'

zu bc

handeln . A ls ich imVerlaufe einer Stundc zuriickkchrtc, waren

fast alle Kroten verletzt ; obgleich nun cinigc von ihnen nur

leichte Verletzungen an den Ohrdriiscn erhalten hattcn und ich

A lles aufbot,sic zu retten

, gelang es mir nicht,”

auch nur eines

der Thiere davonzubringen .

Sehr oft giengen mir Kroten dieser und anderer A rt auf

die Weise zu Grunde,dass sic iibcr die Glastafel hinubcr

zusteigen versuchten und sich dabei Schnittwunden zuzogen,die regclmassig, und zwar nach sehr kurzer Zeit den Tod derThiere herbcifiihrten .

Wenn ich auch durchaus nicht bestreiten kann und will,dass sich andererseits ebenso viele Falle von ganz auffallenderErhaltungskraft dieser Thiere anfiihrcn liessen

,so halte ich

denn doch den A usdruck Lebenszahigkcit“ fur nicht richtig

gcwahlt. Dcnn wenn cin Thier em abgefallenes Glied baldwieder ersetzt

,ubcrraschcnd lange zu hungcrn vermag, anderer

seits abcr z . B . bei Wasserentzug in kurzcster Zeit zu Grunde

geht, so wird man demselben woh l kaum das A ttribut zah

lcbig“crtheilcn konnen.

B ei sorgfaltigcrcr B eobachtung und von wenigen A usnahms

fallen abgesehen, hat man aber reichlich Gelegenheit, auch von

der viclgcruhm'ten Reproductionskraft der Reptilien und A mphi

b1cn nicht viel zu halten . Durch Unfallc und absichtlich herbeigcfiihrtc Verletzungen von Sch langen, Eidechsen, Kroten, Fr

’

o

sehen,Molchcn hatten hochstcns den nicht vicl sagenden Erfolg,

da’

ss der abgebrochene Schweif sich crganztc oder mindestensvernarbte

,dass seitlich angebrachte Verwundungen, wenn cs gut

gieng, heilten ; nicht cinmal konnte ich einen in Verlust gegangcncn Fuss oder gar cin ausgestochenes A nge

"

bci diesen

Thieren sich ersetzen sehen . Es mogen also seltene A us

nahmsf‘

allc moglich sein ; diesc kommen abcr auch bei nichtals z

’

ahlcbig“

verschrieenen Thieren vor und'

rechtfertigendurchaus nicht das viele A ufheben

,das man von der Sache

macht und das gar sehr an die Drachcn und dcrcn fabelhafteReproductionskraft erinnert.

Untcr meinen gefangenen Reptilien und A mphibien fand

ich gar manchc sehr empfindlicher A rt. Dass die Eidechsen

nur bci sorgsamer Pflcgc, guter Nahrung sich erhalten und

bald zu Grunde gchcn, wenn ihnen Licht undWasser entzogenwird

,ist bekannt ; die grune Eidechse allein konnte einiger

massen Zahlcbig“

genannt werden ; die B erg und die Mauer

eidechsen‘

sind sehr zartlebig“

. Unter den Schlangen sind die

Zorn und die Wiirfclnatter sehr cmpfindlichcr Natur. Die

Amphibien stehen woh l obcan was die M'

oglichkcit langenHungerns anbelangt, erliegen abcr sofort nur kurze Zeit an

haltender Trockene. Dies konnte ich besonders deutlich an

c hsclkroten beobachten . So lange diesc Thiere ohne jedeNahrung aushalten koh nen

,wenn sic am Tage

—im Dunklenzwischen Steinen verkrochen

,die Nacht imWasser zuzubringen

Gelegenheit haben, so schnell gchcn sic zu Grunde und trockncn sic cin

, wenn man ihnen im Sommer auch nur zwei TagedasWasser vorcnthalt und sic in sehr trockener Erde belasst .A ls ich im A ugust v. J. aus Vcrschen zwei Tage iibcr das

Wasscrgcfass ungcfullt gelassen hatte, waren mir in drei Kistens

’

ammtlichcc hsclkr‘

otcn zu Grunde gegangen . In ganz gleicherWeise cmpfindlich zeigten sich die Unken und die Feuersala

mander. Dass nicht alle A mphibien sehr lange ohne Nahrung

zu lcbcn vcrmogcn, zeigt dic Knoblauchkrote, die bei einigermassen guter Futtcrung leicht zu erhalten

,ohne Nahrung aber

sehr bald zu Grundc geht. Mir hat sich bis jetzt der Wasser

frosch als jenes Thier erwiesen,der am langstcn den Nah

rungsmangel zu ertragen vermag . Ich haltc nun tiber cin Jahr

(scit 16 .\ Mai V. J.) zwei auffallend grosse Exemplare, ohne

sic zu futtern,in einem zum Theil mit Erde gcfii llten, fast

vollig dunk lem Raumc,

‘

ohne dass ich bis jetzt an diesen

Thieren cine A bnahme an K’

orperumfang wahrzunehmen vcr

mochte. A n Wasserfroschcn konnte ich auch beobachten,

Wic lange dicsc Thiere ohne raschere A thmung zu lcbcn

im Standc sind : Ich warf einer Ringelnatter zwei j ungcrcWasserfroschc vor

,die in kurzer Zeit vcrsch lungcn waren ;

nach etwa einer Viertelstunde reizte ich die Schlange und zwangsic so zurWiedergabe der versch luckten Nahrung ; beide Froschclebten noch und erholten sich bald. Ein alter

,vollig ausge

wachsener, stets scheuer Wasserfrosch tauchte,

so oft ich ans

A quarium trat,unter und kam nicht fruhcr herauf

,als bis ich

weggegangen war. Ich wollte nun versuchen,Wie lange das

Thier unter Wasser bleiben wurde und blicb 36‘vor dem

A quarium stehen,bis der Frosch

,nachdem er allmalig die

A ugen gesch lossen, durch einen heranschwimmcndcn Schwimm

kafer gestort rasch an die Obcrflachc kam,aber sofort wieder

untertauchte.

Welche Amphibien und Reptilien ertragen das Gefangen

lcbcn gut, welche sind diesbeziiglich sehr empfindlich ?\

Es muss einleuchten,dass das Leben in der Gefangen

schaft von nachhaltigem Einflussc auf das Leben der gc

fangcncn Thiere sein muss und nur dic zah lcbigcrcn unterihnen den Vcrlust der Freiheit clnlg

'

crmasscn leichter ertragen,um so leichter

, j c mehr cs ihnen crmoglicht wird, ihre gc

wohnte Lebensweise zu fahren . A m cmpfindlichstcn erwiesen

sich mir die Eidechsen, unter diesen wieder die B erg-

. und

die Maucrcidcchscn ; cs ist eben schwer, diesen an die localen

Verhaltnissc ihres A ufenthaltes so viele A nspruchc stcllcndcn

und insbesondere viel directes Sonnenlicht verlangenden Thierendas Leben in der Gefangenschaft, wenn man nicht ubcr vicl

Plalz verfugt, nach Wunsch zu gestalten . Noch am mindesten

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gleichfalls feuchte, dunkle'

Verstecke unter Moos oder Erde ;auch betreffend den

,

A lpensalamander kann ich Erbcr’

s B e

hauptung dass derselbe in der Gefangenschaft nicht langaushalte

,nicht theilen ; von vierzehn Exemplaren, die ich seit

Jahren habe,ist mir bis nun nicht eines zu Grunde gegangen .

Von den Froschen fiigen sich die Laubfroschc und dieWasser

froschc bei nur einigermassen sorgsamer Pflcgc sehr gut

m die Gefangenschaft , minder gut die Thaufroschc. Im

Ganzcn also sind fast alle Amphibien und Reptilien leichtgefangen zu erhalten und bcfinden sich allem A nscheine nach

ganz woh l , wenn ihre wichtigsten B edurfnissc crfiillt sind,die

A mphibien also feuchte, die meiste’

n Schlangen und die

Eidechsen trockene A ufenthaltsorte angewiesen erhalten ; gut

besonnte Platze flir solche,dic grosse Warme

,dunk le Ver

stecke fur jene,die Schatten und Dunkelheit wiinschcn, vor

handcn sind ; den Schlangen und auch den Eidechsen durch

rauhc Felssteine der Hautungsprocess erleichtert wird ; moglichst grosse Wasscrgcfassc gelegcntlichcs B aden gestatten ;fur den allfalligen Winterschlaf durch reichliche Erd und

Mooslagcn vorgesorgt ist und besonders den gcfrassigcrcn

A mphibien und Reptilien reich liche Nahrung nicht vcr

wehrt wird

Was ist von der mancherseits behauptcten Schcu einiger

Reptilien vor demWasser zu halten?

Nichts ! denn ich haltc mich durch vielfache zu diesem

c ckc angestellte B eobachtungen berechtigt, zu behaupten,dass alle unsere Amphibien und Reptilien in der Gefangen

schaft und gewiss auch in der freien Natur Wasser trinkenund bei Wasserentzug auch unter sonst giinstigcn B edin

”A mphibien der oesterr. Monarch ic.

“J. Erber. Seite,

711 .

ImUcbrigcn verweise ich bctrcfl‘

cnd die Pflegc dieser Thiere auf

cin dcmnachst erscheinendes Schriftchcn : ”Die A mph ibien und Repti

l icnzucht .“ Ein Vortrag Wien 1 875. A lfred Holder

welche kleine A rbeit cin schon vcrofi‘

entl ich tcs Werkch en : ”Fang der

A mph ib ien und Reptilien und dcrcn Conservirung fiir Schulzwecke .

“

Wien 1875. A lfred Holder fortzusetzen bestimmt ist.

gungen fruhcr oder spater zu Grunde gehen . A- llc einheimischen

Schlangen und Eidechsen bei den Amphibien ist das

Wasscrbedurfniss sclbstverstandlich gehen nach beendigtemWintersch lafc sofort daran, in langen, kraftigcn Ziigcn oder

nach Hundeart mittelst der Zunge oft Stundcn lang das langentbehrte Nass cinzuschliirfcn . B ei Zornnattcrn und bei A es

kulapschlangcn, denen insbesondere von mancher Seite solcheScheu vor 'dem Wasser nachgesagt wird, konnte ich mich oft

iibc cu’

gcn, mit welchcm B ehagen sic nach dem Erwachen

aus demWinterschlafc immer 11nd immer wieder das Wasser

aus dem vorgehaltenen Loffel aufsogcn . Ebenso ist es nichtganz richtig, wenn Lenz B rehm u. A . behaupten, die

A eskulapnatter gchc nicht freiwillig insWasser und suche ohne

ihren Willcn in dasselbe geworfen schnellm'

oglichst aus dem

sclbcn zu entkommen. Dass dem durchaus nicht so sci,habe ich

zum ersten Male an einem sehr kalten Wintertage (im Janncr)wahrgenommen, als ich funf A cs

’

kulapnattern in einen wirren

Kn‘

aucI versch lungen, nur 'die Kopfe iibcr Wasser, imWasser

gcf‘

asse fand. Dicsc Stellung gabcn sic :

erst nach etwa vier

Tagen, als f dic grimmige Kalte in etwas nachgelassen hatte auf.

Dasselbe beobachtete ich dann noch‘

oftcrs. Jetzt an heisscn

Sommertagen kann man sic,wie sich c crmann bei mir

iibcrzeugcn kann,Stunden lang ganz oder theilweise imWasser

liegend finden . Dass nun aber z . B ; Link geradezu bc

hauptct : die Schwalbacher Natter sci,dic einzige unter den

dcutschcn Schlangen, dem Trunkc,

und selbst _in der Ge

fangcnschaft ergeben findc ich nicht zu cntschuldigcn,‘

dcnn,

bloss angenommen, Link habe cin halbes Jahr uber vor Vcr‘

offcntlichung seines Werkes B eobachtungen angestellt, so

konnte ihm,wenn er mehrere Exemplare besass

,die Wahr

nehmung nicht entgehen, dass'

jede Sch lange, wenn ihr nur

cinigc Zeit das Wasscrgcf‘

ass entzogen und sonstige B efeuch

”Sch langcnkundc.

“ Dr . H. O. Lenz. S. 515.

”Illustrirtcs Thicrlcbcn .

“ A . B rehm. V. B d . S . 231 .

”Die Sch langen Deutsch lands .

“ H. E. Link . Stuttgart. 1855.

S . 77 und 78 .

tung verhindert worden, wenn nicht aus der Hand,

so doch

aus dem h ingestellten Napfe trinken wird . So viel ich beobachten konnte, haben alle meine gefangenen Schlangen und

Eidechsen bei beginnendem Hautungsprocessc und wahrend

desselben,dann nach jeder rcichlichcrcn Mah lzeit, endlich

nach dem Erwachen aus dem Winterschlafc stets und oft

Wasser genommen . Gerade weil cs so schwer denkbar,dass

dicse Thiere eines so allgemcincn Lebensbcdurfnisscs entbehrenkonnen sollten

,hatte man so gewagten B ehauptungen fleissigcre

und sorgf'

altigerc B eobachtungen vorausgehen lassen sollen . Die

Eidechsen nehmen, wie auch allgemein zugegeben wird,

haufig Wasser zu sich ; dass sic,wie Milde sagt, das

Wasser nur auflecken,

nicht aber auch aus dem gebotenenWasscrgefassc entnehmen sollen

,habe ich nicht bemerkt. Um

das Umschutten dcs Wassers und dadurch verursachtes Faulen'

dcs Mooses und Holzes zu vcrhindcrn,h

'

angc ich den Wasser

napf entsprechend auf und kann da immer sehen,wie die

Eidechsen an dem Glasrandc oder den haltenden Schnurcnsich festhalten und

,wenn das Wasser bereits zur Neige geht,

sich ziemlich tief in das Gef‘

ass hinabbiegen mussen, um zum

Wasser zu gelangen .

Dass die Amphibien Wasser aufsuchen,ihnen dasselbe

nicht entzogen werden darf, ist bekannt, wenn es auch nichtgut moglich, sic beim

'

Trinken zu beobachten ; wahrscheinlichist dies bei der reichlichen Wasseraufnahme durch die Hautgar nicht niithig.

Nehmen alle Reptilien und Amphibien'

in der Gefangenschaft

Nahrung zu sich ?

Man solltc glauben ,dass die B eobachtungen

‘

uber cine

solche Frage in ihren Resultaten unmoglich auseinander

gchen konnten . Und doch ist dem so. Wahrend z . B . Lenz

”Ueber Zootoca vivipara .

“J. Milde. Verhandl . dcs zool -botan .

Vereines in Wien. XX . B d . 1870 . S . 1035.

M) ”Schlangenkunde.

“Dr. H. O. Lenz. S. 517.

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zukommen und die Regenwurmcr aus der Hand zu nehmen,

fassen sic aber vom B oden sofort auf. Der Scheltopusik ziehtsich A nfangs immer scheu zuruck

,spater abcr kommt er beim

Oeifnen des Kafigs sofort unter dem Moose hervor und nimmtgerne die Nahrung aus der Hand. Von den Kroten werden

am schnellsten die Erdkrote und die Knoblauchkrote, weniger

die c hsclkr’

otc, am wenigsten die Fcucrkrotc zutraulich und

wahrend die Erdkrote oft schon am ersten Tage bewogen

werden kann,die Nahrung aus der Hand zu nehmen

,flicht

dic Unke auch nach jahrelanger Gefangenschaft meist von der

Hand zuruck wenn sic auch die hingeworfene Nahrung er

g‘

reift und sich schnell zuruckzieht. Es ist fiir mich stets cin

erg'

otzlicher A ugenb lick, wenn ich A bends oder am Tage zum

Kafigc der Erdkr'

citen trete und nun durch blosses Klopfen “ an

der Glastafel oder dcrcn Herausnahme die ganze Gesellschaftin lebhafteste B ewegung gcrathen sehe. Im Nu sind alle Insassen dcs Kafigs aus ihrer selbst betrachtenden Stellung aufge

ruttclt,heben die Kopfe in die Hohe und kommen 1m nachsten

Momente alle zum Futtertcller. Es l 'asst sich schwer mit

Worten Wiedergeben, in welch’

possirlichcn Stellungen sic sich

da um einen vorgehaltenen c en oder Mehlwurm gruppiren ;

mit welch’

argcrlichem und neidischem B lick alle auf die

gluckliclic Gcfahrtin blicken, die ihnen den Wurm wegschnappte ;wie sic sich nach der Hand drangen und emporzuk letternsuchen um vor den anderen etwas zu erhaschen ; wie die

geringste B ewegung der Hand nach einer anderen Seite dieganzc Gesellschaft dahin cilen und cinigc besonders gefrassigc

und auch heimischcrc uber die Riickcn der anderen h inubcr

steigen l ’

asst. Eben dicsc ganz absonderlichen B ewegungen,

dicsc rege A ufmerksamkeit, die Gcsch icklichkeit mit der die

schnellste B eute erfasst wird,haben mir diesc Gefangenen zu

meinen Lieblingen gemacht und mich an die vielverschriecne

Tr'

aghcit der Kroten’

nicht woh l glauben lassen .

A n gefangenen Thieren lasst sich die Gcfrassigkcit cin

zelner leicht beobachten . Die Kroten stehen in dieser B eziehungobcnan

,unter ihnen wieder die Erd und Knoblauchkrotcn .

Ich konnte nicht genug Mchlwurmtopfe plundcrn, um dicse

gefrassigcn Thiere auch nur einigermassen zu sattigen . Mehrere

Malemachte ich an einem erwachsenenWeibchen denVersuch,ob

es nicht moglich sci,durch fortgesetztes Darreichen der Nahrung

endlich dah in zu gelangen, dass die Krote weitere Nahrung

nicht zu sich nimmt. Ich reichte ihr cine Schale mit Mchlwurmern nach der anderen die ersten waren nach zw‘

eimaligemZulangen geleert, die , spateren mit minderer Gier ; nach und

nach machte sic wohl immer langere Pausen, die meine c uldauf cine hartc Probe stellten

,aber zu lange konnte sic dem

Rciz der verlockenden B eute nicht widerstehen und wieder

wurde dic Schale leer. Ich versuchte cs mit grosscrer B euteund reichte ihr mehrere Exemplare Lederlaufkafer (Carabus

coriaceus), abcr mit demselben Erfolge ; die crstcn Stucke waren

bald verschlungen, die anderen hattcn nur die A ussicht,etwas

langer herumlaufen zu durfen,schliesslich verschwanden sic

doch in dem Magen der immer hungrigen Krote. Die durch

A ndererUntersuchungen nachgewiesene Gcfrassigkcit mancher

Sch langen wird durch die wirk lich grenzenlose dieser weitk leineren Thiere ganz in den Schatten gestellt. Es ist nun gewissganz berechtigt, mit Riicksicht auf die grosse Zah l dieser

Thiere und den guten Magen jedes einzelnen deren Nutzlich

lichkeit hervorzuheben, insofcrnc ihnen allj ahrlich cine uncr

mcsslichc Zahl schadlicher Thiere zum Opfer fallt ; meine

wcnigcn B eobachtungen in dieser Hinsicht lassen mich jedochauch die Zah l der durch die Kroten vertilgten niitzlichcn

Thiere nicht untcrsch ’

atzcn ; ausscr den Laufkafern (die ihnen

gar oft in den c kommen durften) und j ungcn Thau und

Wasserfroschcn,die ich sic in der Gefangenschaft, wie im

Freien versch lingen sah,mag noch manches andere nutzlichc

Thier ihnen zur B eute werden,da sic woh l schwerlich etwas

Lebendes passiren lassen werden,das zu verzehren ihnen

moglich . Doch will ich hiemit den grossen Nutzen dieser

Thiere besonders da nicht in Frage gestellt haben, wo (z . B .

J. Erbcr : B eobachtungen und Versuch e an lebenden A mph ibien

in der Gefangenschaft und namcntlich an Zamenis A cskulapn . Verband

lungen d . zoolubotan . Ver. inWien . VI. B d . 1856 und J . Erber : Weitere

B eobach tungen ubcr Zamenis A csculap ii. Ebendaselbst . VII. B d . 1857.

inGarten) einerseits zu vertilgende scha’

dliche Thiere (B an-

pen,

Regenwurmcr, Nacktschnecken) in ~Fiille,

ander‘

erseits wenigeg cf

’

aihrdete nutzlichc Thiere vorhanden sind. Nicht wurde ichrathen, Kroten in der Nahc von B icnenstocken zu belassen .

Welchcr A rt die Nahrung der gefangenen Amphibien und

Reptilien sci,wie sic in der Gefangenschaft in Ermanglung

ihrer gewohnten Nah’

rung zur A nnahme anderer sich bequemen,

welche ihre Lieblingsspcisc, welche Vorsorge man zu trcfien

habe,dass stets Nahrung fur die Gefangenen vorhanden sci,

und welche die Quellcn'

und natiirlichcn Vorrathskammcrn,

die uns Futter fiir unsere Thiere liefern,dariiber beabsichtige

ich in einem bereits vorbereiteten Schriftchcn (”A mphibien

und Reptilienzucht“

) abzuhandeln.

Ueber die A rt und Weise, in welcher Amphibien und

Reptilien ihre Beute erjagen und verzehren.

Langst'

bekannt,daher hicr cine weitere A usfuhrung

liberfliissig, ist es,dass die Wasser und die Erdmolchc

11nd ein Theil der Kroten mit gcoffnctcm Munde auf die

B eute losfahren ; Frosche und cin anderer Theil der Kroten

mit ihrer weit ausstrcckbarcn,klebrigen Zunge nach dem

zu fangenden Thiere ausholen ; Eidechsen auf ihre Nahrung

zuschnappen, sic abcr vor dem Versch lingen geh'

drig zer

zauscn und schuttcln ; die Schlangen endlich zum Theil(A eskulap und Zornnatter) die rasch erfasste B eute in vielfachen Windungen vorher crdriicken und ersticken, zum Theil(Ringel Wfirfclnattcr und Kreuzotter) dieselbe mit dem Mundepackend sofort ans Verschlingen gehen Ich will nun hicrnur cinige B eobachtungen mittheilcn, die das schon B ekanntetheilweise crganzcn m

'

ogen .

A lle Molchc sturzen auf die ihnen vorgeworfene B eutemit grosser Gier und blinderWuth und schlingcn den erfasstenWurm sofort mitMacht hinab, ohne darauf B edacht zu nehmen

,

dass derselbe Wurm am anderen Korpcrende bereits von einem

Genossen erfasst 11nd theilweise verschlungen wurde ; immer

Die Kreuzotter, nachdem sic ihre B eute durch ihr Gift gctiidtct .

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Enden heraus und in regem Winden sucht der Wurm der

ungastlichen Tiefe zu,cntschliipfcn . Wie die Krote nun einen

weiteren Zug nach unten vcrsucht,

ob der argen Wurgung

die A ugen fest zusammendruckt, bald mit dem einen bald mit demanderen Vorderfussc nachhelfend cin neues Stuck dcs Wurmes

zum Munde fiihrt, dabei cigcnth iimlich herumz appelt, bis das

schwere Werk gclungcn ! A ber noch lange sicht man sic

augcnblickwcisc die A ugen schliessen und Schluckbcwcgungen

machen . Sonderbar 1st cs, wie vorschnell einerseits und

uncrmiidlich andererseits sic sich einen ganzen Tag abmiiht,

nach hinter einer Glastafel auf einem Teller herumkriechendenMchlwiirmern vergeblich zu schnappen A ber sic verliert dieGeduld nicht und f

’

ahrt immer und immer wieder auf die

Glastafel los . Durch sic werden ihre Colleginncn , aufmerksam,

kommen auch heran und nun steht die ganzc Schaar auf

einen Knauel vereinigt vor der Glasscheibe und ergeht sich

in eifrigsten Versuchen den Thieren beizukommen ; die cine

steigt auf den Ruckcn einer Kameradin und schnappt von

diesem hoheren Standpunkte darauf los,

cine andere duckt

sich moglichst tief zu B oden und glaubt von da aus bcsscr

dazu zu kommen ; cinigc treten bald vor,bald zuruck

,als

wollten sic sich ubcrzeugen, ob denn nicht cine Tauschung

vorliege u. s . w. Jede Sch lange, die ich vor dem Krotcnkafig

cinigc Male vorbcikricchcn lasse,bringt unter den Kroten dic

selbc B ewegung hervor ; von allen Seiten kommen sic heran

und fahren mit den Zungen nach der sich bcwcgcndcn

Sch lange.

In welcher Weise die Sch langen ihre B eute bcwaltigen, istschon so oft and so ausfiihrlich crzah ltworden, dass cs wohl ganznutzlose A rbeit ware

,dies nochmals zu thun . Nur ubcr zwei

Punktc mochte ich diesbezuglich cine kurze A cusserung thun.

Link W ) fand seiner Zeit die unserer ostcrreichischcn Natter

So lange cine Erdkrote ihren B lick gespannt auf d as zu

packende Th ier gerich tet h'

alt, bcfindct sich die vierte (lang ste) Zch e

des Hinterfusscs (schwach gek rummt) in'

anhaltender zitternder B cwcgung ,

welch e sofort aufhort, wenn die B eute erfasst ist .

”Sch langen Deutsch lands .

“ H. Link . S . 79 .

zugethciltcn Namen als hochst unglucklich gcwahlt“ und glaubtesich vcrpflichtct, dicsc Sch langen, wie cr meint

,mit mehr

Recht Schlingnatter“zu benamsen . Weit entfernt etwa

,an

cine abermalige Taufe diescs Thieres zu gchcn, halte ich aber

gerade diesen Namen als den unglucklichst gcwah ltcn, da er

unsere Schlange nicht bcsscr, chcr unbestimmter bezeichnet,

als dies die anderen Namen dieser Sch lange thun . Wer j c

und oft Gelegenheit hatte, unsere heimischcn Schlangen dabeibeschaftigt zu findcn

,ihre B eute zu versch lingen, diirftc

schwerlich die Zornnatter diesc Verrichtung mit besonderer

Gcschicklichkeit oder mit drastischerer Wirkung vollbringensehen . Meiner Meinung nach mach t cs der Schlange gewiss

grossere Schwierigkeit, einen minder langen, . aber umfang

reicheren Thicrkorper, als cin langes, diinncs Thier zu vcr

schlingcn und hat mir wenigstens das Vcrschlungcnwerdcncincs Wasscrfroschcs von einerRingelnatter stets interessantereMomente geboten, als dic

,wenn ich so sagen darf, langweiliger

sich abwickelnde Schlingarbcit einer Zornnatter. Was dann

die dem Versch lingen vorangehende Jagd auf die B eute be

trifft,

so ist d ie einer Zornnatter auf Eidechsen g ewiss nicht

so lebhaft und erregt, wie sic sich etwa zwischen A eskulapnattern und Mauscn abspielt. Gleicherweise kann Niemand

Link beipflichten, wenn er cs fiir gl iicklichcn Zufall halt,

A ugenzeuge eines solchen zwischen Zornnatter und Eidechse

sich vollziehenden Kampfes sein zu konnen und wenn er die

Zornnattcrn nur Nachts auf B eute ausgchcn lasst. Wie an

allen anderen gefangenen Sch langen, wenn sic Nahrung uber

haupt annehmen,so lasst sich auch an gefangenen Zornnattern

oft und ohne Hilfe dcs Zufalls der Moment eines solchenKampfes beobachten . Wiirfelnattcrn erfassen ihre B eute(Fische) stets am B auchc

,halten den erbeuteten Fisch ubcr

Wasser 11nd gchcn aus dem Wasscrgcfassc heraus ; nun suchen

sic mit viclcr Miihe den herausstehenden Schwanz in den Mundzu bekommen

,worauf dann dcr Fisch leicht und schnell vcr

schlungen wird ; nic sah ich cine Wiirfelnatter den Fisch mit

dem Kopfe voran versch lingen ; beim Jagen erweisen sic sich

nicht sehr geschickt, indem sic meist blind,

ohne Sicherheitgierig zuschnappen und viele Fchlgrific thun .

Der Scheltopusik zeigt sich beim Erfassen der B eute weitgclcnkcr , als sich bei seiner sonst so ruhigen, durchaus nichtlebhaften Lebensweise erwarten liesse. Kaum hat man cine

Schnecke in den Kafig geworfen, so ist er sofort da und

stiirzt,

sobald die Schnecke Lebenszeichen vcrrath,mit cr

hobcnem,nach abw

'

arts gebogenem Kopfe und gcoffnctcm

Rach en auf sic los . Weit weniger schnel l und behend ist er

beim schlicsslichcn Verzehren der B eute . Der enge Schlundlasst nur k leinere Stiicke hinabgleiten . Doch ha be ich nichtbeobachtet

,wie von mancher Seite mitgetheilt wird, dass cr

von dem ci bcutctcn Thiere Stucke losrcisst und dasselbe so

nach und nach stuckweisc verzehrt . Ich sah ihn nie dic cr

fasste B eute (insofcrnc sic ihm convenirte) wieder loslassen .

Er scheint vielmehr von der nachgiebigen Masse k leinePortionen einzuziehen

,sic durch Druck 11nd mit Hilfe . der

Zahne strangformig zusammenzuballcn und so nach und nach

innerhalb geraumer Zeit (unter Umstanden brauchte er zum

Verzehren einer einzigen Weinbcrgschneckc fast den ganzenTag) das ganzc Thier partienweise zu versch lucken . Durch

A nstemmen an die Wand schiebt er immer wieder einen Theilin den Mund em . Das Zerbrechen dcs Gchauscs grosser

Schnecken nimmt er entweder gar nicht vor oder aber er gc

wohnt sich dies in der Gefangenschaft ab ; ich musste die

Gch’

ausc stets vorher zcrtriimmcrn ; jedenfalls zieht er auch

im Freien die Nacktschncckcn vor. Ob er bei seiner wirk lichbeispiel losen Langsamkeit im Verzehren erbeuteterThiere auch

thats‘

achlich so enorm grossen Nutzen stiften kann,wie Erber

so besonders hervorhebt,will ich nicht entscheiden.

Wicdergabc schon verschlungener Nahrung.

A n manchcn A mphibien und Reptilien l ‘

asst sich die auffal

lende Erscheinung beobachten, dass in Folge irgend einerVcr

anlassung die kaum oder schon langer verschluckte Nahrungwieder ausgespieen wird . Dicsc Wahrnehmung konnte ich beiallen unseren Schlangen und bei denMolchcn machen. Am leich

”Die A mphib ien der oesterr. Monarch ic.

“ J. Erber. S. 704.

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Herausspcicn mach t der Kr'

ote furchterliehe A rbeit und ich

konnte einzelne Thiere viele Stunden lang mit ersichtlicherMuhe sich anstrengen sehen

,den unwillkommenen Kiirpcr

herauszubcfordern.

Zahmbarkeit der gefangenen Amphibien undReptilien.

In der Gefangenschaft verlieren fraher oder spater und

mehr oder minder alle dicsc Thiere ihre sonstige Schcu,

lernen don Pflegcr kennen,kommen bei der Futtcrung zu

traulich hcran und nehmen die gebotene Nahrung aus der

Hand . Die grosste Zutraulichkeit zeigt nach langerer Gefangenschaft der Scheltopusik, der mit grosser Zudringlichkeit um

die Hand herumsucht,

ob nichts fur ihn zu holen sci und,

wenn man in grossercr Entfernung vom Kafigc steht,so weit

als moglich seinen Kopf cntgcgenstrcckt. Streichelt man ihn,so lasst er sich dies ganz woh l gefallen, gibt auch zeitweiligeinen leisen, dumpfen Laut von sich . Von den ubrigen Eidech

sen zeigt sich am z'

ahmbarsten die grune Eidechse, die in

kurzer Zeit das Futter aus der Hand nimmt,

sich ruhig cr

greifen lasst,

auf der Hand liegen bleibt und einsch lummert.Ebenso verlieren die meisten Sch langen ihre natiirliche Scheu

und gewohncn sich im Laufe der Zeit an den Menschen,

Ringcl A cskulap und auch Zornnattern nehmen dann die

Nahrung aus der Hand ; die Kreuzotter gewohnt sich wenigstenseinen Theil ihrer Reizbarkeit ab und fahrt nicht nach der

Hand ; am scheuesten bleibt die Wurfclnattcr ; wenn sic auch

(wie sic dies schon in den ersten Tagen der Gefangenschaftthat) zeitweilig sich nahert

,so zieht sic sich doch immer rasch

wieder zuruck , sobald man sich bewegt. Im Winter liegendie Sch langen gerne auf der warmen Hand. Von den Kroten

werden die Erdkroten sehr bald zahm,kommen bei der

Futtcrung auf einem Orte zusammen ; erhaschen die vor

gehaltene B eute ; steigen auf Hand und A rm,um schnellcr

befriedigt zu werden ; lassen sich mit der Hand oder mit

einem Stahe streicheln,

ohne :

sich nicdcrzudriicken oder auf

zublascn ; kehren in ihre Kafigc wieder zuruck,

nachdem sic

cinigc Zeit herumspaziert u s . w. A uch die Knoblauchkrotc

wird meist sehr zahm, Dagegen bleiben die c hsclkrotcn

und die Unken lange schcu. Die Molchc lernen den Pflcgcr

erkennen, kommen zu bestimmten Zeiten zur Futtcrung,

nehmen Wiirmcr oder Fleischstfickc aus der Hand und lassensich bcriihren, ohne zu flichcn ; am zutraulichsten wird derKammmolch und der A lpensalamander.

Welche Vertheidigungsmittel stehen den Amphibien und

Reptilien zu Gebote ?

Mit einziger A usnahme der Kreuzotter verfugt keines

unserer A mphibien und Reptilien tiber cine Waffc,die dem

Menschen Furcht cinzuflosscn oder Schaden zu bringen ange

than ware. Fast alle suchen ihr Hcil in der Flucht oder sind

durch ihre Lebensweise, die geseh iitztcn Verstecke und ihr

Nachtleben minder der Gefahr ausgesetzt . Die scheinbar wehr

losen Kroten scheinbar wehrlos,insofcrnc sic weit weniger

geschickt und flink,

als die Frosche und ebenso ohne sichtbare Vcrthcidigungsmittcl wie dicsc sind gerade die unan

gcfochtcnstcn, sichersten Thiere,da die

,wenn auch nicht

giftigen, so doch atzcndcn,oft ubclricchcnden Safte

,die ihre

reich bewarztc Haut sofort absondert,

'

ihre Feinde sicherer ab

haltcn,als es vielleicht cine

’

ausserlich gewichtigere Waffe zu

thun verm'

ochte ; nur wenige Thiere und dicsc in Ermanglungbesserer Nahrung vergreifen sich an Kroten . Die c hsclkrotc

zeichnet sich durch reichliche Saftabsonderungsfahigkeit ihrerHaut besonders aus. Was die Verbreitung widerlicher Geriichebetrifft

,soll die Knoblauchkrotc sich diesbezuglich in hervor

ragender Weise hcrvorthun ; obschon ich mir nicht bewusstware

,auch nur einigermassen abgestumpften Geruchssinn zu

besitzen, auch durchaus nicht behaupten konnte,

an derleiiiblcn Gcruchcn nur den geringsten Gefallen zu findcn

,konnte

ich doch niemals einen so ausserordcntlich heftigen , unaus

stchlichcn Knoblauchgcruch , durch dicsc Krote verbreitet,

wahrnehmen,der im Standc ware

,das Thier mit der Nasc

friiher auffinden zu lassen,

als mit den A ugen und letzterenThrancn zu entlocken obwoh l ich zugcbc, dass sich cin

”Illustrirtes Thicrlcben.

“ A . B rehm. S. 393 .

ziemlich iiblcr Geruch'

bemerkbar macht,wenn das Thier gc

reizt wird . Minder glucklich als die Kroten sind die Frosche,

wenn sic beim Ergriffenwerden durch cine Schlange plotzlich

einen wasserstrahl abgeben . A uch die Molchc sondern einen

mehr oder minder atzcndefi Saft ab ; doch ist nur der von

den Erdmolchcn abgegebene . weissliche Schaum besonders

atzend und fiir gewisse Thiere schadlich . Die Schlangensind fast alle auf eilige Flucht als bestes Rettungsmittel an

gewiesen ; nur die Kreuzotter stellt sich zur Wehrc und suchtdem Gegner mit ihren Giftzahnen beizukommen ; zwar kann

man auch dic Zorn und oft auch die A eskulapnatter mi t

gcoffnctem Rachen auf den Feind losstiirzcn sehen,

selbst r~

standlich abcr ohne Erfolg . Eine cigcnth iimlichc, obschon

wenig niitzcndc Waffe haben die Ringelnattern und in

minderem Grade die iibrigcn Schlangen ; ergriffen suchen sic

aus eigcncn Druscn einen h’

ochst intensiv und ubclricchcnden

Saft abzusondern,dessen Geruch lang anhaftet die Ringel

natter und dieWurfclnatter machen von diesem Verthcidigungs

mittel sehr oft,

andere Schlangen nur selten Gebrauch ; so

lange die Sch lange gestreckt in die Hohc gehalten wird,ist

sic ausscr Standc,sich dieses Stoffes

'

zu entledigen . A uch dem

Scheltopusik wird dicsc Unart nachgesagt und soll er es

immer so einzurichten s wissen,

dass cr Einen mit seinem

abscheulich stinkenden Unrathc von obcn bis unten besudelt “ .

Obgleich ich schon sehr viele Exemplare dieses Thieres in derGefangenschaft zu beobachten Gelegenheit hatte, machte ich

bisher keine auch nur ahnliche Wahrnehmung ; da ich aber

Gelegenheit hatte, A chnlichcs bei B lindsch leichen zu beob

achten,so will ich an der Moglichkeit obgcnanntcr Vcrtheidi

gungswcisc nicht zweifeln,und bestreite nur

,dass dies in der

Regel geschieht . Die iibrigcn Eidechsenarten suchen,wenn

sic nicht entfliehcn konnten und gefangen wurdcn, zu heisscn ;

Verdunnt man dicsc hochst unangenehm riech ende halb feste,

halb flussigc Massc mitWasser, so erhalt man cine schmutzige , durch

ans nich t unangenehm etwa moschusartig riechende Fliissigkcit.

”Illustrirtcs Th icrlcbcn .

“ A . B rehm. S . 157. (Mitgcthcilt vonJ . Erber )

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Gefangenschaft, sehr leicht erregb’

ar ist und stets wiithend umsich bcisst, ist bekannt . Auch die Eidechsen smd sehr reizbare Thiere ; dies konnte ich sehr oft zur B egattungszeitsehen besonders bei griincn Eidechsen ; mit auffallenderErregtheit fahren die Mannchen mit gciiffnctcm Munde a uf

einander los,zerren sich hin und her und beissen einander

die Schwanze ab ; auch bei der Futtcrung suchen sic fortwahrend Strcit ; hat cine Eidechse cin Thier gepackt und

wagt es cine andere,hinzuzukommen und ebenfalls zuzugreifen,

so lasst die erste meist sofort die B eute fahren'

und tractirt

die hinzugekommene mit Schnabelhicbcn . A chnlichc B eob

achtungen machte ich bci B lindsch leichen, unter denen cs

immer cinigc altere, grosse Exemplare gab, die in _ dieser

Weise zu dominircn suchten Im Ganzcn sind die Amphi~

bien weit ruhigere, gleichgiltigerc Naturen . Zwar gibt es auch

unter ihnen (z . B . bei den Molchcn) oft Kampfe ,

um die

Nahrung, doch verlaufen dicsc meist viel gcmuthlicher. Eine ge

wiss interessante B eobachtungb wie cs auch im Leben dieser

kaltblutigcn Thiere erregte Momente, durch Zorn und Neid her:

vorgerufen, gibt, habe ich an Erdkroten fast bci jeder Fiittcrung machen konnen . Sobald ich namlich die Glastafel dcsKafigs dieser Thiere weggenommen, den Teller mit dcn 'Mehl

wurmcrn h ingestellt und die Erdkrotcn sofort zur Futtcrung

herangekommen waren, sah ich oft,Wie plotzlich da oder

dort cine Krote mit der A ufnahme von Mchlwurmcrn innehielt,sich umwendete

,cine Genossin einen A ugenblick lang beob

achtete und dann mit der Zunge auf sic losfuhr. . Vicl deutlicher konnte ich dies beobach ten ,

wenn ich einen Mehlwurmin die Hand nahm und den Kroten vorhielt

,worauf sich so

gleich mehrere um den Wurm herumstclltcn, ihn anglotztenund zu erschnappen suchten . Oft h ielt ich ihn zu fest und dieKroten hatten nicht die Kraft

,ihn aus der c mmc heraus

pressten, und doch sch ienen mir dies nicht A eusscrungen des Zornes’

zu sein,da ich einzelne A cskulapnattern, obgleich von einer Kameradin

in crwahntcr A rt festgehalten, mit dem frei geb liebenen Vorderkorp cr

ruh ig h crumkriechen ,auch woh l cin vorgeworfenes Th ier sofort cr

fassen sah .

zubekommen,schnappten d

'aher oft vergeblich nach ihm. End

lich hat ihn cine erobert. Mit welch ’

argcrlichem und neidischem

B licke wandten sich nun die anderen nach dieser um,betrachte

ten sic cine Weile und schnappten dann sofort mit der Zunge

nach ihr. Wurde auf diesc Weise ein ganz junges Thier von

einer grossen weiblichen Krote gezuchtigt, so konnte cs gc

schchcn,dass der Kopf dcs ersteren Thieres fiir einen A ugen

blick ganz von der Zunge der anderen Krote bedeckt und in

dcren Rachcn zu verschwinden schien . Da ich mich nichtentsinne

,irgendwo uber diesen Gebrauch der Zunge Seitens

einer Krote etwas gelesen zu haben, glaubte ich mit l dicscr

Mittheilung nicht zuruckhalten zu sollen . Dicsc B eobachtungwird immer und leicht gemacht werden konnen

,wenn

mehrere gefangene Kroten langere Zeit gemeinschaftlich in

einem Kafige gelebt haben und gewohnt sind, gleichzeitig bei

der Futtcrung zu erscheinen .

Ein B eweis dafur,dass dicsc Thiere denn doch nicht

so theilnahmslos sind,

als sic zu sein scheinen,istfdie rege

Neugierde, mit welcher einzelne A mphibien und Reptilien .

das

in ihrer nachsten Umgebung Vorgchcndc betrachten . B esondere

A ufmerksamkeit fiir ‘

aussere Vorg'

angc zeigten stets dieWurfcl

natter,die A eskulapnatter (mehr oder minder auch die Ringel

und die Zornnatter) und die Erdkrote ; sobald man zum

Kafige tritt oder vor denselben ein Thier hinstellt, so sind

die Schlangen und Kroten sofort an der Glastafel _und besehen

sich das A ussen befindlichc Thier auf das aufmerksamste.

Ich erinnere mich noch lebhaft an cine in ihrer A rt komische

Scene,die sich abspielte, als ich einst vor die Glaswand des

Krotcnk‘

afigs den B chaltcr mit .den Wurfclnattcrn hinstellteA lle Kroten sofort an die Glaswand kommend und nun in

den sonderbarsten Stellungen und Wendungen ihr Gegenuber

betrachtend,die Schlangen wieder hin und her kriechend

,

dann wieder einen A ugenblick lang starr hcriiberglotzcnd . A ls

ich mehrere Stunden spater wieder nachsah,hatte sich die

Scene in nichts geandcrt, beide Theile Widmeten sich noch

immer ungethcilte A ufmerksamkeit.

Welche Amphibien und Reptilien sind beweglicher und

lebhafter, welche besonders lau und trage ?

Schon in Erwagung des Umstandes, dass A mphibien7

und

Reptilien einen grossen Theil ihres Lebcns im Winterschlafcbegriffen zubringen, konncn dicsc Thiere nicht mit zu den

raschlcbigstcn gezahlt werden. Dazu wird noch'

cin grosser

Theil der ubrigen Zeit,sci es wahrend des Hautungsprocesses

o

’

der wahrend den heissesten Tagesstunden, in tragcm Hin

brtitcn verbracht . Und doch ist es meiner A nsicht nach wieder

zu weit gegangen, wenn man, wie es geschieht, sic alle oder

wenigstens die Mehrzah l dieser Thiere geradezu trag und

mattlcbig ncnnt ; denn es gibt, wie wir oben gchort haben,

fur alle dicsc Thiere cine,wenn auch kurze

,1mmcr w1cdcr

kehrende Lebensperiode, in der s1e elu hochst reges Leben

entfalten ; cs ist dies die B egattungszeit fur die Amphibien,die warme Jahreszeit fur die Reptilien . Die flinksten

,beweg

lichstcn unter den Reptilien sind jedenfalls die Eidechsen,

welche,sofcrnc sic unter g iinstigcn B edingungen lcbcn

,durch :

aus nichts von Traghcit an sich haben ; dagegen zahlt dieB lindschleiche und der Scheltopusik jedenfalls zu den langsamcren

,tragcren Thieren . Unter den Sch langen sind die

Wurfcl die A eskulap und die Zornnattern die lebhaftesten ;die Ringelnatter ist nur im Wasser etwas bchcnder

,die

Kreuzotter ausserst trage. Frosche und Eroten lieben cs

zwar,zu gewissen Stunden des Tages ruhig, in sich versunken

dazuliegen, sind abcr gleichwoh l im Momente dcr Gefahr oder

auf der Jagd begriffen sehr lebhaft ; unter den Froschen sind

cs jedenfalls die Thaufroschc,

.unter den Kroten die Wechselkrotcn

,dercn B ewegung unter Umstanden elne sehr rasche

Dass der Sch eltopusik , wie es in B rehm’

s ”Illustrirtes Thier

leben “ S . 157 h eisst,bcstandig in B ewegung sci und s ich in anmuth i

gen B ewegungen ohne Unterlass durch scinen Kafig sch langlc, konnte

ich an meinen vollstandig gesunden und frischen Exemp larcn n ich t‘

bemerken ; zwar geht er nach langerem Fasten daran, nach B eute sich

umzuseh en hat er aber einigermassen reich liche Nah rung gefunden ,

so bleibt er Tage lang ganz ruh ig , den Kopf wenig erh ebcnd , unter.

Moos liegen .

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lange und gerne sich sonnen und auch die Erdkroten oft

den bestbcleuchtctcn Platz im Kafigc aufsuchen sehen ; stellteich den Kafig um

, so waren sic bald wieder an der besonntenStelle. Im Freien mag vielleicht das Verlangen nach Ruhc und

Gefahrlosigkeit die Wahl so vereinsamter,dunkler Verstecke

bedingen.

Welche Amphibien und Reptilien lcbcn gesellschaftlich,

welche vereinsamt ?

Wenn man Schlangen und Eidechsen,Kroten

,Frosch e

und Molche immer in nachster Nahe bei einander findet,

zu

gewissen Zeiten in grossen Mengen, so konnte man sich vcr

leitet fuh len, diesen Thieren einen besonderen Sinn fiir gesellschaftliches Zusammenleben zuzuschreiben . Nahcrc B etrachtungder thatsachlichcn Verhaltnisse zeigt abcr, dass gerade in

diesen beiden Gruppen das B cdurfniss dcs Sichanschlicsscns an

Thiere gleicher A rt so gut wie nicht vorhanden Denn wenn

auch z . B . Wassermolche angewiesen sind,in grosscrer Menge

in demselben Wasserbchaltcr zu wohnen oder c hsclkroten

genothigt sind,

scheinbar gesellschaftlich in demselben Steinhaufen zu hauscn

,so lasst sich doch durchaus nicht, wie bei

vielen Thieren hohercr und niederer A rt,

ein Sinn der Zu

sammcngchorigkeit entdecken ; Thiere,die jetzt noch in

einem Sch lupfwinkel zusammengcdrangt den Tag verbrachten,z

'

erstreuen sich in der Nacht und andere treffen wieder

zusammen,

um cbcn so wenig fur langer sich aneinander

zu sch liessen . Man sicht durchaus nicht,dass cin Thier sich

um das andere bckummcrt,bei langerem Zusammensein mit

demselben sich an dasselbe gcwohncn wurde. Selbst im Fruhjahre

,da sic schaarcnweisc von allen Seiten an irgend einem

Grewasscr sich zusammcnfindcn oder im Winter,wenn sic in

grosscrcr Gesellschaft in ihren Wintcrquarticrcn sich trefi'

cn,

kann von keinem zusammenhalt die Rcdc sein ; jetzt sitztdieses Mannchen auf diesem Weibchen, um vielleicht schon

nach einer Stunde sich zu trennen und nicht wieder zusammenzutreffen. Wenn also von einem gcscllschaftlichcn Vorkommen

bei diesen Thieren die Rcdc ist,

so denken wir durchaus

nicht an cine durch Selbstwahl zusammengckommenc und

durch Gewohnheit zusammengehaltcnc Gesellschaft,

sondern

wir haben da cine zufallig zusammengctragcnc Masse, dcrcn

jedes einzelne Glied fiir sich lebt, unbekummcrt um die Um

gebung Erst in der Gefangenschaft scheint sich cine A rt

von Zusammenleben a llmalig herauszubilden und -das einzelneThier nach und nach Theilnahmc fur seine Umgebung zu ge

winnen . Doch haben solche B eobachtungen insofcrnc keinen

Werth,

als sic fiir das Leben der Th iere im Freien nichtgelten . In der Gefangenschaft gruppircn sich in grosser Ge

sellschaft zusammen : die Wassermolche,wenn sic im Mai

oder Juni das Wasser verlassen und dunkle Verstecke auf

suchen ; die Erdmolche (fibrigens auch'

im Freien oft zu

zwanzig und mehr Stiickcn beisammen) ; die c hsclkrotcn,

die immer,Winter und Sommer, gerne uber und ncbcnein

ander unter Steinen liegen ; die Unken,welche gewohnlich

an einem Platze im Kafige zusammengclagcrt sind ; mehr oder

minder alle Eidechsen ; ebenso alle Sch langen, die sich gerne

an einer besonnten Stelle ncbcneinandcr lagern, vielleicht aberauch deshalb

,weil auch in grossen Kafigen nicht so viele bc

sonnte Stellen vorhanden sein konnen,um

'

die einzelnen Th ieresich scparircn zu lassen . Immer oder fast immer einsam,

von

Dass bei diesen Th ieren von einer Sorgfalt fur und A nhang lich

kcit an die Jungen nicht d ie Rcde sein kann,wird Niemanden wundern ;

ich durfte dah er gewiss mit Rech t erstaunt sein, als ich in Grcdlcr’

s

”Fauna der Kriechth icrc und Lurch e Tirols “ S . 17 folgende Stelle las

,,Dr. Settari, cin emsiger B eobachter und Ziich tcr von Schlangen 11 . s . w .

theilte mir unlangst cine unter A mph ibien vollig ungcwohnlich c,

mcrkwurdigc A rt von A etzung brieflich mit .“ Er schreibt : ”Die Putte

rung dcr Jungen (der Zornnatter) geschieht die ersten 2—3 Woch en

durch die Mutter, indem sic Meh lwiirmer,kleinere Eidechsen u. s . w.

zuerst zu sich nimmt,dann nach einer oder zwei Stunden wieder h er

aufwurgt und den Jungen in den Mund steck t.“ Ich brauch e woh l

nicht zu sagen, dass ich mir auf dicse Notiz h in al le Muhe gab , etwas

A chnlich cs zu beobachten,und wie zu erwarten war, naturlich nich ts

von alldem wahrnehmen konnte ; g leich nach der Geburt verthcilten

sich die Jungen nach al len Seiten und die Mutter bckiimmertc sich

nicht im Geringsten um sic.

den Genossen sich entfernend, fand ich den A lpentriton ,die

Erdkrote,die Knoblauchkrote und den Scheltopusik .

Unter diesen in grosscrer Zah l zusammcnlc'

bcndcn Thieren

zeigten sich die Eidechsen, unter diesen die grunen Eidechsen,als die unvcrtr

'

aglichsten ; wahrend der B egattungszeit und beijeder Futtcrung entstanden heftige Kampfe ; die Sch langengriffen sich wohl nic Zornnattern ausgenommen an

,doch

konnte man bei allen A rten sehen,dass_die grosseren Thiere

cine A rt Herrscherrecht ausiibcn und ihnen die schwachcrcn,

gait cs'

cinc B eute zu erhaschen,meist freiwillig wichcn . B ei den

Kr'

otcn waren es nach meiner B eobachtung blos die Fcucrkrotcn,die gleichzeitig auf cine B eute losstiirzten '

und,wenn cin Thier

von zwei Kroten erfasst wordenw ar,cine Weile an demselben

herumzerrten . Sehr herrisch und seine schwachercn Genossen,

wo cs ihm moglich ,'

vcrdrangend benimmt sich dcr’Wasscr

frosch . Erbitterte Kampfe entwickeln sich,wie schon oben

angedeutet wurde, bei den Wassermolchen und auch bei Erd

molchcn,wenn dieselben gcfii ttcrt werden und vorgeworfene

Thiere von zwei oder mehreren Molchcn gleichzeitig erfasstwerden .

Ich habe mir seiner Zeit erlaubt,vorliegende Schrift, die

durchaus nicht den A nspruch macht, als abgeschlossenes Ganzcszu erscheinen

,mit folgenden Worten anzuzcigen : B eobachtun

gen,~ die ich cine Rcihc von Jahren hindurch an gefangenen

Amphibien und Reptilien machte, gedenke ich in einer bald

nachfolgenden A rbeit mitzuthcilcn : We n n a u ch a u f d i e s em

Ge b i e t e w e n ig Ncu c s m e h r zu b r ing e n ,s o h a b en

s o l c t e r‘

offcn t l i c h u n g e n d o ch d en a n s i ch s ch on

n i ch t zu un t e r s c h a t z c n d c n E r fo l g ,d a s s s i c d a s

Ih r i g e d a zu b e i t r a g en ,d i e n i c h t n u r b e i Un g e

b i l d e t e n z u t r e ffe n d e l a ch c r l i ch c S ch cu un d

Eu r c h t a u ch vo r n ii t z l i ch c n,h a rm l o s e n A mp h i

b i e n un d Re p t i l i e n zu b e s e i t i g en un d d e r d i e s e n

Th i e r en g e g cn ii b c r n o ch imm e r z u Ta g e tr e t en d e nVc r fo l g un g sw u t h e i n i g e rm a s s e n z u s t eu e rn .

“

Sollte dieses Schriftchcn auch nur den angedeuteten c ck

erfiillen,so kann ich mir sagen, dass dicsc einfachen Mit

theilungen denn doch nicht nutzlos gewesen .

F. Knauer.

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Dr. B rucke : ”Untcrsuchungen uber den Farbenwechsel dcs afrikanischen

Chamaeleons. “ Sch riften der k . A kademie derWissenschaften in

Wien . Math .

- naturw. Classe. IV. B d . 1852 .

L. Martin: ,,Zur Naturgesch ichte der glatten Natter.

“ A llgemeine deutsche

naturh istorisch e Zeitung . 2 . Jahrg . 1847.

A . H. Tauberth ,, A phorismen aus der A mph ibicnkundc. Krankheiten

der Sch langen .

“ Ebenda.

Jaques v. Bcdriaga : ,,Ueber die Entstehung der Farben bei den Eidech sen .

“

Jena 1874.

Dr. E. Dursy : ,,B eitrage zur Naturgesch ich te deutsch er Sch langen .

“

Trosch cl’

s A rch iv fur Naturgcsch ich te. 21 . Jah rg . I. B d .

l . Kolazy : ,,B atrach iologisch e Mitth eilungen .

“ Ebenda. XXI. B d . 1871 .

J. Erber : ”B eobachtungen und Versuch e an lebenden A mph ibien in der

Gefangenschaft 11nd namentlich an Zamenis A esculapii .“ Ebenda .

VI. B d . 1856.

,,Weitere B eobachtungen uber Zamenis A csculapn Ebenda.

VII. B d . 1857.

,,Die A mphibien der fisterr. Monarcbic.

“ Ebenda . XIV. B d . 1864.

G. R. v. Frauenfeld : ,,Ueber in der Gefangenschaft gcbornc Jungen von

Salamandra maculosa.

“ Ebenda. XIV. B . 1864.

0 . Herklotz : ,,Wicdcrersatz verloren gegangener Gliedmassen dcs Triton

cristatus .

“Ebenda . XXI. B d . 1871 .

,,Ueber Coluber natrix.

“ Ebenda . XV. B d . 1865.

C. Gicbcl : ,,Ueber Coluber variab ilis 11nd C. A esculapii .“ Zeitschrift fur

die gcsammten Naturwisscnschaftcn von 0 . Giebel l ind M. Siewert.

B erlin 1867.

F. K. Knauer : ,,Die Rep tilien und A mphibien Niedcrostcrreichs .

“ Wien1875.

,,Fang der A mphibien und Reptilien und dcrcn Conscrv1rung fur

Schulzwecke .

“ Wien 1875.

,,A mph ibien und Reptilicnzuch t.“ Wien 1875.

NB . Eine ausfuhrlich cre Literaturangabe ist in Dr. Schreiber’

s

,,Hcrpetologia europaea“zu finden .

I N H A LT.

Einleitung

Vcrzcichniss j ener Rep tilien und A mph ib ien, an denen die

nach folgenden B eobach tungen gemach t wurden

Fortpflanzung der A mph ibien und Rep tilien

Der Hautung sact

A mph ibien und Rep tilien im Wintersch lafcUeber Wach sthum und A lter der A mph ib ien und Reptilien

Stumme und stimmbegabte A mph ibien und Reptilien

Die Sinne der A mph ib ien und Rep tilien , insbesondere der

Geruch s der Geschmacks und der Tastsinn

Die geistigen Fah igkeiten der A mph ib ien und Reptilien

Zur Myth e von der Zauberkraft der Sch langen

Dic Ziihlcb igkcit der A mph ib ien und Reptilien

Welche A mph ib ien und Rep tilien ertragen das Gcfangcnlcben

gut, welch e sind diesbezuglich sehr cmpfindlich ?

Was ist von der manchcrseits behaupteten Scheu einiger Rep

tilien vor dem Wasser zu halten ?

Nehmen alle A mph ib ien und Rep tilien in der Gefangenschaft

Nahrung zu sich ?

Ueber die A rt undWeise , in welch erA mph ib icn und Rep tilien

ihre B eute erjagen und verzeh ren .

Wiedergab e schon versch lungener Nahrung

Zahmbarkeit der g efangenen A mph ib ien und Rep tilien

Welch e Vcrth eidigungsmittel steh en den A mph ib ien und Rep

tilien zu Gebote ?

A eusscrungen d'

cs Zornes,Neides

,der Neug ierde u . s . W. bei

A mphib ien und Rep tilien

Welch e A mphibien und Reptilien sind beweglich er und leb

haftcr, welch e b esonders lau und trage ?

Vorliebe der einzelnen A rten fiir schattige oder lichte,trockene

oder feuchte Orte

Welche A mph ibien und Reptilien lcbcn gesellschaftlich , we1chc

vereinsamt ?

Schlusswort

Literaturangabe

Druok von W i lh e lm Kfi h le r . W i en , . A a rgure tb en p lat z 2 .

30 32

32 34

34—38

45—47

47 49

50—51

51—52

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B OSTON , m

J

r'I'

HE LINNJEA N Socrn'rr

’

ofNew England, founded for the purposec fforming a

eetion f Natural History, beg leave to solicit your attention to the objectsbf their institution .

ring your absence frequent opportunities Wl ll occur ofcollecting specimens spanto them, they take the liberty of suggesting such methods, as

‘

they have found

preservation of those curiosi ties, that cannot be kept in thcir natural state .. They

that you will probably be disappointed in yOur first attempts at preparing u

animals, q

own experience they can .say, that“

every‘

dilficulty will be overcome by a little Care

Quadrupeds and’

Plants Willarcquirc the most'

attcntion ; but by an

‘

dbservance of

M essing j dircctions, you Will be able tg prepare them, ,so thg gthc

’

ywill permanently preserve

PshesWithout. scalesmay be prepared-

by removing‘

;thc skin and stuffing it with cotton, tow,chaff,lrysand ; the jlast isto be preferred as i t

’

wi ll not suffer the skin to contract in drying. The skin 2

7"

be e asily remoy efl‘ tLif t lQOSGQitzig it on ,one Side, directly under the gills, and drawing thebody

’

P

at that place. Fishcs Wi th scales should be prepared by cutting off halfof the ski nwith the tail

fins, andsthen separating the flesh and fat from this portion of the skin. Thismay be stretched

a nd fastened to a board, and the natural appearance of the fish given to it by placing tow or

11 underneath . In every instance the inside of the skin should be washed with corrosive subli

e, dissolved in brandy or some other spiritf‘

andkifyou are not attentive, considerable fat will be

Aparticularly around the eyes. Ifthe fish i s large, it will be found necessary to remove the g

ills

brain The fins should be stretched outand dried in that situation, and great care should be

an to preserve them entirer

B irds .

Separate carefully the feathers on the belly, and then divide the skin to an extent sufficien

draw out the legs. Cut off the legs from the body, so as to leave the bones of themunited to

skin, but be careful to remove all the flesh from them. Having separated the tail, the

be easily stripped off as h igh up as the wings, which must be cut from the body like the 1c

ing the flesh and leaving the bones. The skin is then easily drawn off, until you get to

which must be opened,and the brain and fat under the eyes removed. Divide the

unites with the skull, and moisten the inside of the skin, with the same substance as was

mended,when speaking offishes. The skin may be then stuffed with cotton, tow, wool 0

materials, as may be convenient, and a wire, which can be easily bent, should be passed a]

back and fastened to the skull . This will allow you to give the"

natural

A wire should be passed th1ough each leg and carried as high up as the back, which wil l en

1. bird to stand securely. When glass eyes cannot be had, glass buttons, heads or other

bearing a resemblance to the original“

, should be substituted.

Qaadrup eds .

In preparing quadrupeds, nearly the same process is to be observed as in preparing birds.

skin is to be divided on the belly, so that the hind legsmay be drawn out ; and if

small , the bones are to be left and the flesh cut away from them, if not, they must be removed1the body. The tail should be separated and the skin stripped off, until you come to the fore

which you must separate from the body, and preserve the bones if possible. Youwill then e

v 1 remeve the skin as far as the skull ; cut off the neck and take out the brain.

the skin, moisten it as recommended before ; stuff it with hay, straw, chaff,

imost convenient. If the animal be large, pieces ofwood must

able the animal to stand and preserve a natural appearance. If not, Wire will answer the

In every case it is of th o / highest importance to preserve the teeth and jaws. Glass eyesmust

used,when they can be obtained.

P lants .

Plants can be made to preserve, in a great degree, their natural appearance, by drying them ha

i tween two pieces of paper. The leaves and flowers should be spread out and laid smooth, and anf

equal pressure should bea pplied. If the plants contain a considerable quantity of juice, a mag

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B irds .

Separate carefully the feathers on the belly, and then divide the skin to an extent sufficient

draw out the legs. Cut off the legs from the body, so as to leave the bones of them united to t

skin, but be careful to remove all-

the flesh from them. Having separated the tail, the skin m.

be easily stripped off as h igh up as the wings, which must be cut from the body like the legs, remt

ing the flesh and leaving the bones. The skin is then easily drawn off, until you get to the sku

which must be opened,and the brain and fat under the eyes removed. Divide the neck, where

unites with the skull, and moisten the inside of the skin, with the same substance as was reco

mended,when Speaking offishes. The skin may be then stuffed with cotton, tow, wool or oth

materials, as may be convenient, and a wire, which can be easily bent, should be passed along 0

back and fastened tb the skull . This will allow you to give the natural appearance of the his

A wire should be passed through each leg and carried as high up as the back, which wil l enable t

bird to stand securely. When glass eyes cannot be had, glass buttons, beads or other at tics

bearing a resemblance to the original, should be substituted.

Quadrup eds .

In prepari ng quadrupeds, nearly the same process is to be observed as in preparing birdss Ti

skin is to be divided. on the belly, so that the hind legs may be drawn out ; and if the animal

small, the bones are to be left and the flesh cut away from them, if not, they must be removed w?

the body. The tail should be separated and the skin stripped off, until you come to the fore le;

rwhich you must separate from the body, and preserve the bones if possible. You will then easi

gremeve the skinas

'

far as the skull ; cut off the neck and take cut the brain . B efore you reta‘

fj the skin, moisten it as recommended before ; stuff it wi th hay, straw, chafl'

, wool or c otton, as

jmost convenient. If the animal be large, pieces of wood must be used to support the head, and e‘

ab le the animal to stand and preserve a natural appearance. If not, wire will answer the purper

In every case it is of th uv highest importance to preserve the teeth and jaws. Glass eyesmust 1

used,when they can be obtained.

P lants .

Plants can be made to preserve, in a great degree, their natural appearance, by drying them b

tween two pieces of paper. The leaves and flowers should be spread out and laid smooth, and

equal pressure should bea pplied. If the'

plants contain a considerable quantity of juice, a war

may be passed over the paper. The Society are anxious to obtain not only the'

leaves and

ers of plants, but in every’

instance where it is possible, the seeds and fruit. They are desirous

knowing every circumstance that they can, with regard to the specimen that may be pre

to them, such as; the place of its growth , the kind of soil in which it flourishes best, the sea

flowering, the common name by which it is known, the uses, if any, to which it is applied, t e.

ants mav be dried in a shorter way by placing them between the leaves of a book, and ap

a considerable weight .

rpents, Frogs, Lizards and Reptiles of all kindsmay be prepared by stuffing the skin, or if

may be preserved whole in spirit.

all flying Insects may be dried, by fastening themwith a pin to a piece ofboard, after placing

in their natural position ; great care should be taken not to injure their legs, wings or other

here are other specimens which it is an object to obtain, but which require no trouble

erve. These are shel ls, corals, petrifactions, ores of different metals, minerals, &c. It

e preper with regard to these, to state where they are found, and such other particulars as

known concerning them. A ny account which may be furnished ofspecimens that are pre

particularly of those that are rare, would be extremely interesting to the Society. In

g their collection of animals, they wish to render it complete by obtaining in every instance

and female, and if they are birds, a nest of eggs.

he Society, Sir, feel no hesitation in asking your attention to the subj ects they have suggested,and are convinced that you will be disposed to cooperate with themin the advancement of an institution founded for the publ ick good.

A ny specimens sent to Henry A . S . Dearborn, Esq. Collector of the port of B oston, orWilliam

5; Shaw, Esq . District Clerk, will be received and gratefully acknowledged.

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6

according to different inclinations or taste, we haveassembled on the second anniversary under auspicious

and interesting circumstances .

It Was during the year of 1833 that some unusual

attention to the pursuit ofNatural Science seemed to

agitate the minds of several ofour citizens . A ided by

the kind suggestions and assistance of others in our

neighborhood, who were well known as decided friends

to our cause , a train ofcircumstances was laid, which

resulted in the organization of the present Society,

just before the close of that year, on the eighteenth

day ofDecember.

On the sixteenth day of A pril, 1834, the Societyheld a meeting in Topsfield, at which was a conside

rable attendance of the friends of Natural History,

from the vicinity . Several plates of A udubon’s mag

nificent work on the B irds of America, were exhibited,

besides many prepared specimens . The season, the

Weather, the day were auspicious . It seemed as if

Nature herself was smiling on our prospects, and in

y iting us to her study and acquaintance. The fields

and meadows had assumed a livery of beauty, the

feathered choristers of heaven were filling the air with

harmony—the early vernal and delicate flowers of the

lovely Hepatica, and pure Sanguinaria , Were bloomingunder our feet, or assisted to adorn our tables, and

add to our delight .B y the liberality of one of ourVice Presidents* the

Society Was generously presented with a loan of all

the then published engravings, ofour A merican Orni

thologistfir for public exhibition, to aid its funds.

William Oakes,Ipswich . l J J. A udubon .

From the middle ofMay following, for a few weeks,

they were opened to the public ofthis city and vicinity.

Donations of value, in every department of study,were rece ived. It was about this time that horticulture and floriculture , the junior and accompanying

arts of natural scientific knowledge , were permitted tolend their .aid. Fifteen Weekly exhibitions of whatever was rare and beautiful from the gardens of the

c itizens, were held, during the rest of the season.

Public curiosity and regard seemed awakened in our

favor. On the opening of the next year, arrangementswere made for the continuance of such floral displays .

B y the kindness of our floricultural friends, ourflower

stands were rende red highly attractive and splendidlyconspicuous . A mid the various representatives of

the kingdoms ofNature, were the choice productionsof human ingenuity cc - operating with her in their

mutual employmen ts . The gorgeous Dahlia, the‘

ever

charming, lovely Rose, the rich and variegated Tulip,and other prominent individuals of the Liliaceous

family, were blended in unison with the simpler, yet

elegant flower of our native fields . The splendid

Magnolias of China vied with the fragrant and graceful co - spec ie s

i“of our own neighborhood. The deli

cions productions of Pomona, were contrasted withthe more amid and humble offerings of Tellus and

C eres.

The commencement of the present yearfinds us inthe spac ious and commodious halls, which We now

occupy, furnished with elegant and useful cabinets

The most northern limits of the only species of the White B ay or Small

M agnolia (M . Glauca) found inNewEngland ,are the swamps ofCape A nn .

8

and valuable specimens . During the last session of

theLegislature,we have become an incorporatedbody .

A mong several other specimens of the higher order

ofanimated beings, we have in our possession that

curious and anomalous inhabitant of New South

Wales, the Ornithorhynchus p aradoxus. B LUMENB

Sixty specimens of birds, mostly native, with a

corresponding suite of nests and eggs occupy their

proper station .

Rare and elegant species of Testudines foreign

and native Reptilia ; the“

commencement of a fine

cabinet of Conchology, and another of Mineralogy ;

the rich foreign , Wi th the more humble native species

of the insect world, and the prepared treasures of thevegetable kingdom, may be found in their several

compartments. Comparative anatomy has not been

unoccupied in its curious researches and the Library,

consisting of an hundred volumes of elementary and

higher appropriate reading, is furnished with a pros

pective View of usefulness .

Thus in the brief space of scarcely more than two

years, a Society, extensive in numbers and embracing

in its precincts a large and flourishing County, has

risen from the united and'

zealous endeavors of a few

individuals, to its present condition . Without a spe

cimen of any kind, destitute of a single work on

Natural Science , with no endowment or pecuniary

aid at that time and now, with an increasing list of

members, our shelves and cabinets enriched with val~

uable acquisitions and a spur given to a more general

taste for such studies. We owe much to the kind

ness of our friends for our rarer and valuable foreign

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10

and veriest insignificant substance of ancient art and

of ancient pride possess, while the never changing,1mperishable , ever eloquent, constantly useful, and

always instructive types and originals of Creation’s

first Existence are overlooked and despised ! These

tell of the maj esty and excellence , the deep thrilling,‘

instructive voice of Nature, to the reflecting and

thinking mind ; those—feat - " individuals of our own

species, once lived—and died—and passed away into

comparative oblivion. These unfold to us leaf after

leaf, of those constantly instructive pages, which are

written on the heavens and engraven on the earth,

While those only assure us, that the same operations

of the natural World are every where the same in

mode and effect . These exhibit to our admiring eye,

the inimitable perfection of Creative Power, —andthose, only the extent of. human industry and skill.

It is with pleasure then, that We perceive the efforts

and studies of our Society pr1n0 1pally directed to thenatural productions of our own immediate vicinity,

though by no means regardless ofother and more dis

tant . Perhaps few are aware , how wide is the field,

not only ofobservation , but of actual discovery unme

diately around them. If the more obvious may be

already familiar, the patient and curious eye, and the

constant untiring observation, is rewarded in some nu

expected manner. A part from the pleasure and value

of a general knowledge of any branch of science,

which the labor and ingenuity, the research and talent,o f others may have prepared for any one

’s more ready

acquisition,—such is the amazing extent of inquiry,

which can constantly employ the mind, such the mys

1 1

teries of the laws of organicmatter, —itwere scarcelypossib le, that some new and h itherto unobserved

truth should not be unfolded. Hasty and casual ob

servation is led to suppose that little remains to be ac

complished after the labors of some devoted and emi

nent student in a particular department of research ;

but it needs only a more familiar acquaintance with

the subject to expose the error. With what fidelityand almost veneration have the grossest and most

anomalous mistakes been cherished and maintained in

the very opposition to reason and observation Nat

ural Science in common with every other branch of

human knowledge) is yet“ too much indebted to the

dulness and obstinacy , the theories rather than practi

cal experiments ofi ts advocates and disciples, for the

mo st palpable errors . The pages ofmisna—med treatises

on the subj ect , are too often burdened with idle

speculations on idlefthemes . It-becomes us then par

ticularly, not to err on such grounds, preferring rather

a single correct and personal observation to a multi

tude of fictitious, though recorded, Opinions .

The pursuit ofNatural History 18 m this point of

view, entirely in the power and at the option of everyone . Well would it he, were the first and oftentimes

feeble efforts, —feeble, because unaided and unsup

ported by the sympathy of kindred spirits ,—ofmany

a curious observer of"

Nature rendered available and ofutility to himself and others . B ut the existence of

the present circumstances may be in a great measureattributed to the popular system of education and

mode of thinking. The almost intuitive love for, and

admiration in such studies , with the young, by some

12

sad and lamentable error is discouraged and frustrated.

It requires a strong and unconquerable predilection, anindependence of action, or fortuitous and prosperous

circumstances, for one to become a Naturalist . The

sneer of the unthinking, the world’s dread laugh,

”

the fear of singularity has deadened and extinguishedmany a bright Spark of genius and talent for such

s tudies, which fostered and cherished, might have serv

ed to illume and enlighten and benefit a more or less

extended sphere . One of the most prominent obj ects

of this Society was to render an essential service to the

cause of science by extending that sympathy to such

enterprises, which they so much need, and to promote

a more general attention to the importance of the sub

j ect, especially among thefriends ofeducatlon, through

out the County. It is hoped, that to a certain extent ,its success has proved the Wisdom

fl

of- the scheme, and

we could wish that the zeal and spirit manifestedthroughout the sphere of its opera tions might be mul

tiplied and increased .

The common observation that a pursuit ofNaturalHistory is rendered difficult and tedious through the

technicalit ies of science, is neither founded in truth

nor is the result of observation and experience . The

nomenclature to every branch of human knowledge is

necessarily more or less difficult to acquire and under

stand. The Natural selences are no more singular in

this respect than other sciences or arts . A slight ao

quaintance with philology enables any one to acquire

all that is needful in the perception and comprehensionof scientific terms . Nor 1s even this necessary, though

desirable. Nature is not read in books and systems ,

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14

suppose that other than practical, individual observa

tion and‘

a genuine love for his pursuits could have

enabled him to present to the admm ng world a spe

cimen of his genius and industry. How many, who

have read his B iography of the B irds of A merica,”

cast a glance at or for a‘

moment think of the aecom

panying and purely scientific descriptions . They for

get in the admiration of the naturalist,the premsion

of his favorite science . Who, that peruses the no

less artless and beautiful essays on the same subject

in the Works of A lexander Wilson, would fain per

suade himself, that the pioneer of A merican Ornitho

logy was an humble individual of ordinary talent andacquirements, and that by industry, perseverance , in

domitable zeal, and sincere love of his early predl lec~

tions , he claimed the meed of fame awarded him.

B ut while in this manner, endeavoring to justifyand promote a general study of Natural History; byshowing the facility of its pursuit ; still we do not

wish to depreciate the great value of system and or

der. Could we remove the supposed difficulty, which

deters many from attempting to acquaint themselves

with the subject , the result is not to be feared . That,

is not only a truly beneficent plan of Providence, but

in its extended operations constitutes a glorious fea

ture in the human character, which induce s a farther

search and constantly increasing desire forknowledge,

from the pleasure and benefit'

arising from that already

acquired. On studies so extensive, I may almost

say, illimitable , the mind never ean have a moment

for cessation to its improvement . Ten years of de

15

voted study to the minute and microscopic infusorial

animals, enabled Ehrenberg to discover the most

wonderful and surprising features in the external and

internal anatomy of their systems . lmperceptible to

the unaided vision, yet peopling with myriads the

liquid'

drop ofwater and inhabiting almost every form

ofmatter, we were ignorant of the extent of their ai:

t1Ve being, until the microscope revealed both their

existence and economy . With motions as rapid as

thought, limbs of the most exqursrte form and propor

tions anomalous to every other body, which we see

around us, they possess all the necessary functions

of animated beings and astonish us with the compli

cated harmony of their structure .

* In the examina

t ion of a single 1nsect, Lyonnet employed several

years, and yet left for farther research , much"

to com

plete the history of that single individual species, in

the larva of the Cossus lignip erda . FA B R he counted

above 4000 muscular bands, precisely adapted to the

performance of the required effects . To support life

and perform all the functions necessary to an insect

not exceeding an inch in length M . S traus enumer

ated 872 organs, composed oftracheae . muscles, nerves

and scale - like plates a spectacle, says“

Cuvier,

altogether transporting by its delicacy and regular

ity. Even to the fine assortments of its colors, every

thing seems as if made on purpose to please the eye

ofman, which now perhaps looked upon it for the first

Ehrenberg has proved the existence of Monads,which are not larger

than the 24 000th of an inch . He computes that of these micro8 0 0 pic animals may be contained in the space of a single drop of water —a

number equalling the amount of human bemgs existmg on the surface of the

g lobe . Roget’

s B ridg ewater Treatise. Vol . 1 . Introduction p 25 .

16

time since the creation . A short life, whosewholeextent was only thirty

- one years, enabled B ichat to

give that impulse to animal physiology and anatomy,

which is felt at the present day, and opened a wide

field for extended and eminently useful investigations

While the prolonged life of the Father ofNatural His

tory, though diligently employed, served only to leave

behind the rudiments of a System ofNature” which

would require ages to perfect. The patient researches

of the illustrious Cuvier, on one single subject,have restored to form and symmetry the original in

habitants of a former world, Whose mighty relics are

scattered in profusion over the earth’s surface , and

given us ideas of the vastness of Creative Power andthe astonishing results of human industry with mental

application—while the no less interesting studies of

B rougniart are presenting to our mind’s eye and actual

observation , the gigantic flora of those ages, which

bore in luxuriant exuberance the mighty prototypes

of our now more humble and pigmy vegetable forms.

’r

Half a century of cons tant experiment unbaffled and

undismayed by repeated and severe misfortunes,

enabled the B elgian horticulturist, the distinguishedVan Mons, amidst the more imperative duties of his

profession to establish important facts in vegetable

Rapport sur l’

Histoire Naturelle . Jardine’

s Naturalist’

s Library . Eu

tomology—Vol . II. p . 72 .

i “ S ome of the fossil ferns are so similar to those now growing on the sur

face of the earth , that no doubt IS entertained , that they are generically the

same this is the case especially W i th the Equiseta .- Some of the fossil

Selaginales are very S imilar to the Lycopodia of the present day , such as

Lycopoditesfa lca tus , wh ich is an ool i tic fossil . B ut the most numerous and

remarkable Lycopodial remains , are those gigantic fossils called Lep idoden

rim and Ulodendm , some fragments of wh ich measure nearly fifty feet in

length l”

-Ram et’

s Introd . to B otany, Vol . pp . 339-341 .

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18

ral knowledgem that the laws which govern the mate

rials, which are rendered subservient to the supply of

our wants and every relative acquirement, which

places the very elements in our power and promises a

certainty of success may be understood and compre

hended while the errors and prejudices which have

heretofore retarded its progress shall be banished and

destroyed .

We hail with unfeigned pleasure the prospects of

the Society from a similar manifestation of interest in

its welfare among the artists and mechanics of this

city and county, confident that mutual benefits will

accrue.

Ever forward in the cause of good, the ladies have

engaged in pur behalf with a spirit, which seems to

augur well for our success . The names of several of

our city, who are knowni

as general patrons and stu

dents ofNatural Science , We are gratified to say are

already enrolled on our list ofmembers . We would

cordially and re spectfully welcome others in following

so laudable an example . In B otany, a study pecu

liarly appropriate to the developement of refined sen

timents of innate purity and loveliness of character,

we find many admirers . - The herbarium of the So

ciety is the result, in a considerable degree, of the

kindness of one . Valuable and rare shells enrich the

drawers of its Cabinet from the liberality of others .

Several private collections in that elegant and delightful department Conchology, remarkable for extent andworth, in the possession ofmany in this city, are suf

ficient proofs that Natural History has lost nothing of

its charms and merits, nor has been overlooked in our

19

community . Unable to possess all that knowledge

with the mol‘

luscous tribes of the watery deep, which

we could wish, the study and taste , which prompts to

an intimate acquaintance w ith their singularly fabricated habitations speaks of the delight experienced in

any contemplation ofNature . The topics for inquiry,

which the fragile shell of some production of the

waters may call forth, the elegance and symmetry of

form and proportion, the richness ofcoloring, mocking

even the rainbow’s tints , the value to mankind as an

article of luxury or use, theperfectionand adaptation

ofmeans to the end—are but a few arguments in favor

of so rational and so refined a taste . Circumstances

of the greatest importance facts of the most serious

moment, may be indebted to this single branch of

knowledge . The minutiae of Nature are truths in

themselves , each important in the great scheme . The

adventurous exploits of the little and fearless voyager

in its pellucid and pearly bark, engaged the attention

of the earliest Naturalist, and to this day, though

speeding with outstretched sail and pendent oars over

the ocean’s surface , its real economy and habits are

by no means ascertained .

Thus the whole history ofthe lower animals and of

organized matter is bura constant and tangible witness

of our own ignorance . With a perception and fore

sight peculiar to each, the very operations, which years

of the most patient industry and the concentrated ef

forts of ingenuity can only effect, have been from the

first executed in perfection, unperceived. The pensile

nests of several species of birds exhibit a facility of

interweaving various and heterogeneous substances in

20

a manner almost inexplicable. The curious nest ofthe B engal grosbeak, the actually sewed cradle of

the tailor bird, of India, (Sylvia sutoria ,) the beauti

ful intertwined and grassy nest of the tiny marsh wren

of our neighboring swamps (Trog lodytes brevirostris .

NUTT. ) the woven and strong pouch—like nest of the

vivid and splendid golden robin, (Icterus baltimore.

B ONA P .) and the yet more singular texture of the

orchard orioles (Icterus sp urius . B ONA P .) are striking

instances . The workmanship of the loom is naughtin comparison with the ingenuity of the cunning and

active spider—and while for centuries the treasures

of intellect and mind were committed to various sub

stances of inferior value, for general diffusion, the

ingenious wasp, was hourly fabricating its elegant

nest, with the now universally used and almost indis

pensable article of paper, which has superseded all

else .

* W'

ith a precision unparalled and undeviating

the bee (Ap is Mellifica . L. ) whose history is only

coeval with man, solved at each repeated construction

of its cell, the problem, which required the skill of

a mathematician, aided by the infinitesima l calculus

to prove . The tissue and'

internal structure of vege

tables’

r outrival the curious and costly productions of

art, and the gorgeous and magnificent vesture of the

lihes of the field,” furnished in Holy Writ, a strike

ing and persuasive argument in the support ofdivine

truth . ;l

B alis tes Nidulans of Cayenne , constructs a nest of genuine paste board,and several A merican species of Vespa and Crabro

,use paper of their own

fabrication , in the construction of their cells and nests .

t The lace tree of the West Indies, (Lag etto lintearz

‘

a) furnishes from itsinner bark a beautiful substitute for lace .

Matthew vi. 28 29 .

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22

same common language of instruction . In studies soextensive and pursuits so glorious, who can become

an unprofitable learner ! No place so solitary, no spot

so desolate, no circumstance in life so devoid of inter

est, but could furnish a solemn and important lessonof truth.

Such then are the subjects of our mutual studies,

such their extent and such t heir salutary influence .

It remains for us in our endeavors as a Society to

pursue themwith that attention , which gives the con

viction of our delight in them. May the happy efforts

towards the advancement of a more general taste for

such subjects, which are so far crownedWith success,be yet increased, that collections from every depart

ment of the Natural world may add to the value of

our labors, and our halls still affo rd an occasional

resort for an enlightened community, where the grace

and loveliness ofNature shall minister to the refine

ment and elegance of society.

Peace to the ashes , and deep respect to the memoryof that venerable and learned manfi“ who has so latelydeparted from the scene of h is favorite studies and

extensive usefulness . A lthough devoted to the in

terests ofNatural Philosophy, he was by no means

unmindful or inattentive to those ofNatural History .

We remember, for how can we forget, his occasional

presence in our balls and at our floral exhibitions ;

and many there are, who have enjoyed his liberalityin the use of the rarer and splendid works from his

Library, or listened with delight to his instructive

Rev. JOHN Pars on,LL.D .

23

conversation . His life is an exemplification of the

influence of such pursuits as our’s, on the heart and

mind.

In c onclusion let me add, that much remains to be

accomplished in every department of science under

our immediate cognizance. The flora of this County

contains many beautiful and elegant productions . A

full and perfect herbarium is essential to our Cabinet.

A n attention to the cryptogamous plants will interest

many, who hitherto may have overlooked them. Of

diminutive size and of humble rank in the order of

vegetable forms, their real beauty and inimitable per

fections are imperceptible without minute study and

examination . A ssisted by the microscope we are as

tonished and delighted with their wonderful and

unique economy . Composing a vast group of an ex

tensive variety of forms, they are scattered over the

earth’s surface, with a profusion equal only to the

benefits which they confer in the great operations of

existence .

Those rarer phaenogamous plants too , which the

research of the respected President of this Society has

heretofore discovered in our immediate vicinity, should

prompt others to a similar spirit in each sec tion of the

county . The peculiar beauty and value of the dried

specimens of another, who is also well known as an

accomplished botanist, will serve as models of our

own. OurEntomology demands particular attention.

The members of the Society will confer a great ser

vice to the general cause, by transmitting at the end

of each season, collect ions of every species of insect

which falls under their observation.

24

In fine, let an enthus1asm and laudable taste forthe contemplation of the natural world be cherished

and cultivated by every member, and our united

labors in so good and glorious a pursuit must and will

insure the prosperity of the Essex COUNTY NATURA L

Hi sroav SOCIETY.

[Norm—There have been also two exhibitions of Fruits and Flowers at

B radford, under the direction of the Society,—one in September, 1834, the

other in September, 1835—both of them were very fully attended, and err

v

cited much interest in the cause of science ]

Enem a—Ou page 11th , l 6th line, formisnamed read misnomered18th for idle themes read idler themes

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A RTICLE I.

THE Society shall b e called the ES SEX COUNTY NA T

UR A L HISTORY SOCIETY. It shall consist of two classes of

members, Resident and Corresponding ; Resident Members,

such as reside in the County ofEssex ; Corresponding Mem

bers, such as reside elsewhere .

A RTICLE II.

A NY person may become a Member of this Society by

signing the Constitution and paying the annual assessment ;or may become a life member,—exempt of all assessments,

by the payment of twenty dollars .

A RTICLE III.

CORRESPOND ING Members, shall be chosen by ballot,after having been nominated at a meeting previous to that

on which the b allot is taken ; the votes of two thirds of the

members present shall be requisite for an election .

A RTICLE IV .

THE annual assessment of each member shall b e two dollars ; and no resident member, who shall be in arrears for

one year, shall be entitled to vote or be eligible to any

office in the Society .

A RTICLE v .

MEMBERS may be expelled from this Society by a vote

Of three fourths of the members present at the annualmeeting .

A RTICLE VI.

THE Ofiicers of this Society shall be a President, two

Vice Presidents , Secretary, who Shall also act as Treasurer,

a Librarian and Cabinet Keep er .

27

It shall be the duty of the PRES IDENT , and in his ah

sence of one of the VICE PRE SIDENTS , to preside in all the

meetings of the Society and Curators, to call meetings Ofthe Curators and Special Meetings Of the S ociety, by the

advice of the Curators .

It shall be the duty of the S ECRET A RY to attend the

meetings of the Society and Curators and record their pro

ceedings ; to keep on file all letters and papers respecting

the Society and to manage the correspondence Of the Society

under the directi on of the Curators ; to keep copies of all

l etters written for the Society in a book provided for that

purpose to receive and pay all monies subj ect to the order

of the Curators.

It shall be the duty Of the LIBRA RI A N and CA BINETKEEPER to receive and have in his custody all specimens,

books, papers, & 0 . Of'

the Society , which he shall arrange inclasses and register in a book with a proper description of

each article, the donor’s name, when the same shall be a

present, time when received, also to‘

acknowledge all dona

tions whatsoever in such a way as the curators may direct .

A RTICLE VII.

TH E President, Vice Presidents, Secretary and Cabinet

Keeper, ex Ofi’

icio, with four others chosen by the Society

shall be the CURA TORS . They shall direct the Secretary

and Cab inet Keeper in the performance of their respective

duties present to the Society such by~laws and regulations

as shall be thought expedient, and manage the finance Of the

S ociety subj ect to the direction of the Society .

A RTICLE VIII.

THE Officers and Curators shall be chosen at the annualmeeting by ballot .

A RTICLE 1X.

THE A nnual Meeting shall be on the thirdWednesday in

2 8

A RTICLE X.

THIS Constitution may be altered by a Vote Of three

fourths of the members present at any regular meeting Of

the Society ; the intended alterations b eing submitted at any

two previous meetings.

E T D D EQW QO

CHA PTER I.

"

Of .Members .

RES IDENT members only shall be ent itled to vote or be

eligible to any Office .

A resident member on removing from this County may

become a corresponding member on giving notice thereofand paying all arrears ; and a corresponding member who

shall hereafter residewithin this county shall become a resi

dent member.

No resident member, who shall be in arrears for one year,

shall be entitled to vote or be eligible to any office ; and if

any one so in arrears shall refuse or neglect to liquidate his

dues within six months‘

after being duly notified, he shallcease to be a member of the Society .

The yearly assessment is payab le at the annual meetingin June.

CHA PTER II. Of Ofiicers and Curators .

THE PRESIDENT and in h is ab sence one Of the VICE

PRESIDENTS , shall preside in all meetings and regulate the

order thereof. He shall have a casting vote when there is

an equal division amongst the members.

The SECRETA RY shall be present at all meetings and re

cord the proceedings read all communications made to him

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30

NO book to be purchased except by the written consent of a

maj or part Of the Curators .

The C urators, for sufficient reason, may withhold any

book from circulation, such books being marked in the cat

alogue and also on the cover“not to circulate .

” The

Librarian shall insert in a book provided for that purpose

the names of the borrowers, the time when taken out and

when returned .

Each member sh all be entitled to take from the Library ,

one folio or one quarto , or two volumes Of any lesser fold,at one time ; separate volumes Of plates, to accompany the

text as a part of the same, may be delivered in addition .

NO person shall lend any book belonging to the Society,

excepting, to a member, entitled to take out, under a penaltyof one dollar, for every Offence .

If any book is damaged or lost, the person for whose use

it was taken out, shall make good such damage or loss as

the curators may determine .

The Curators may on special occasions, permit any person not a member Of the Society to use the books belongingto the Library, under such restrictions as they may think

proper.

The members of the Society residing in the c ity Of Salemor in the towns of B everly or D anvers, shall not detain any

book longer than two weeks, under a penal ty Of twenty- five

cents per week . Members - resident in the more distant

towns Of the county, shall not detain any book longer thanfour weeks, under the same penalty.

If any member of the Society, not resident In the City of

Salem or either Of the towns of B everly or Danvers, shouldwish to Obtain the use Of a book or books, then in the hands

of some other member of the Society not resident in either

of the aforesaid places, that member may receive such book

or books from the other member, on condition that both

parties notify the Librarian by letter (post paid . ) Non

3 1

compliance with th is condition, shall subj ect the member,

who received the book or books direct from the Library, to

the usual fine . In all cases of loss or damage the originalreceiver shall be held responsible to the Curators ; and

should any demur or difficul ty arise, the parties shall settle

it between themselves, responsibility always attaching to thefirst receiver Of the books.

On the Wednesday preceding the annual Meeting all

b ooks shall be called in,and the C urators shall examine the

Library . They shall no te all missing books, the s tate of

the Library and report the same at th e annual meeting .

CHA PTER VI. Of M eeting s .

THE ordinary Meetings of the Society Shall be held on

the third Wednesday Offevery month , at‘

3 O’clock, P . M .

Visitors may be introduced“

by any member.

The annual and all special meetings of the Society Shallbe notified by circulars, signed by the Secretary,

“

and sent

to each member, at least six days before said meeting .

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1834.

A ug .

Sept.

Oct .

38

Tantalus rubra . Rhamphastoserythrorynchus .

Exuviae of Gryllus sp .

Native fishes ,

Cyprinus sp .

Falco columbarius, young male .

Pagurus Jongicarpus-Native

shells -Nest of Troglodytes

palustris .

M onoculus Polyphemus—Skull of

’

Ovis aries var. polycerata- Skull

and claws of S trix nyctea and

nebulosa.

Shells,several sp . from Thames

river,England ,

Sylvia Canadensis

Vesperti lio Noveboracensis

Shells from Ouisconsin river and

South Carol ina

Falco hahaetus,adult male

Falco sparverius

Falco leucocephalus , young

A lcedo alcyon ,female

Foreign shells

Solen sp . Paludinia decisa, Cyprea

caput- serpen tis , & c . & c .

Nest of Card-making Wasp fromCayenne

Quartz crystals

Spicular Iron Ore , from Elba

Volcanic Nitres and S ulphurs ,from the Med1terranean—Native Insects

Palmated S ponge, from! Ipswich

B each,Mass .

Minerals , from Franconia, N . H .

Native M inerals,and Vertebra of

a WhaleTurdus WilsonuFiber zibeth icus

M adrepora sp .

B og Iron ore, and Lacerta sp .

Insects

Tetraodon sp .

Exocetus volitans,and Coluber Sp .

Emys sp .

Coumarouma odorata

Fulica atra and Native Insects

Foreign Minerals and Shells

Stephen Driver, j r.

M iss H . Perkins .

Geo . A . Perkins .

John M . Ives .

Wi lliam Rose .

John Lewi s Russell .

Joseph Farnum , j r.

Henry Wheatland .

VVilh am Peele .

M iss Prince .

M rs . Dunlap .

Samuel Gardner.

Nathaniel West,3d .

James B rown .

William Rose .

Mrs . B enja . Shreeve .

Mrs . J . Chadwick .

M iss P . A . Winn .

Jas . D . G i llis .

B . W . Crown inshield .

Charles G . Page .

John M . Ives .

Horatio Robinson .

Joseph Farnum, j r. _John Henfield

, j r.

William Rose .

M iss H . S . Haskell .

Dan iel P. King , Danvers .

George A . Perkins .

Francis H . Tufts .

Rev . John Prince .

Henry Perley .

M iss P. A . Winn .

Henry Wheatland .

John M . Ives .

1834.

A ug .

Nov.

Jan .

Feb .

M ar.

A pril .

39

Skull of A rdea Herodias Joseph Farnum, j r.

B alanus sp . from S . A merican coast John Lewis Russell .

Scolopendra morsitans

Nest of Icterus B altimore

M ustela lutreola

C rystallized Quartz

Capsules of Capsicum baccatum,

and skin of Dasypus tricinctus

S turnus prmdatorius

Mergus Merganser

George P. Farrington .

Elias E. Porter,Danvers .

S hatswell .

Francis Cummins .

Charles H . Fabens .

M oses Horne, j r. Topsfield.

James B alch .

Syngnathus typh ic—Native Insects B . Hale Ives .

Exocetus exiliens,& c . J . Fisk A llen.

Lepus cuniculus , male and female Franci s H . Tufts .

Copal , containing insects

C apsule of B ertholletia excelsa

Pods of Tamarindus Indica

B ox ofNative Lepidoptera

S ciurus Carolinen sis

S trix nyctea

B owlders,from St . Petersburg

S trix nyctea

Skull of Corvus corone

Tes tudo radiata

Falco leucocephalus, (young)

S trix Virgin iana and cinerea

Cervus paludosus , young female

Eggs of 15 species of native birds

A ntlers of Cervus Virgin i anus

Do. do . and Fring illa purpurea

S talactites , from G irgenti , S icily

Native M inerals—23 specimens

S eeds and B ird - skins,from S ande

W i ch and Soci ety Islands

M inerals and seeds of M angifera

Indi ca

Fulica A mericana

Native M inerals and Sylvia pinus

Reptiles , from Para, S . A .

S hells , from Fegee Islands

M inerals

A ndrew Leach,B everly .

M rs John Chadwick .

Mrs . Newcombe .

A bel Nichols,Danvers .

Joseph Farnum .

‘

William Oakes,Ipswich .

Ch arles Cramer,N . Y. city .

James B rown ,Danvers .

Charles G . Page

Mrs . A rrington .

Joseph Grover, Concord, N. H.

Erastus Ware, Marblehead .

B enj . Creamer.

S amuel P. Fowler,Danvers .

Henry Wheatland .

William P. Richardson .

William Fettyplace .

F. W. Paine,Worcester.

John B . Williams .

M rs . J . Chadwick .

George Prince .

A ndrew N ichols, Danvers .

Tho’

s P. Pingree .

John W . Rogers .

John C . Lee .

Prepared heads of17species ofB irds John M . Ives .

Repti les and B ird- sk ins

,from Para‘ B enj . Cox, j r.

Unbroken fibre of Musa sp . fromwh ich M an illa hemp is obtain

cd —Specimen of cotton,With

seed enclosed Jena. P. Felt.

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1835.

A ug .

42

Minerals , from Franconia and

Wh ite Hi lls,N . H. T . P. Shepard .

Chelonura serpen tina and native

minerals A bel Nichols, Danvers .

S hark'

s j aw,Luther Upton .

Capsules of B ertholletia excelsa Robert Hill .

Skin of Penguin’

s neck Mrs . Johonnot .

Suite of Shells,from IslandofJava John C . Lee .

Turkey tracks in Sandstone , from

Montague , Mass . Pickering Dodge .

S ph inx sp . from Para W i lliam Rose .

Coluber Sp Joseph B rown .

M inerals , from Franconia and

vicm ity Francis Cummins .

M adrepora and M inerals M iss S . S i lver.

Petrifactions , from Cattsk ill M ts .

George A . Perkins .

Native In sects , Skulls of Can is

(Vulpes) fulvus , Cervus Vir

g inianus , Can is fami l iari s (b .

Terrari us) 65 0 . Henry Wheatland .

Un iones, several species Mrs . Dunlap .

Unio , from Fox river, Mich iganTerritory Mrs . Elkins .

Fulica A mericana Upton , Danvers .

Podiceps rubricolli s Wm . Cheever.

Eggs of A rdea nycticorax Francis C ummins .

Orn ithorhyncus paradoxus , and

Falco sp . fromNewS outhWales Wm . Driver.

Charadrius melodus John M . Ives .

Skull of'

B uceros sp . from S umatra C h arles Procter.

Equus caballus , female Wm . Osborne .

Nest of Hirundo edi lis,Fruit of

C itrus paradisus ,Shells , Che

lon ia mydas, var. from Java Richard Wheatland.

Hyria, two species, Turbo, Caricer

,& c . Geo . H . B rown , B everly .

Skull of Loxia cardinalis,male S . P. Fowler

,Danvers .

Palate bone of Drum fish Nath’

l Weston .

Skin of Felis tigrina, from S . A

merica Daniel Shepard .

Jaw ofDelph inus delph is Joseph Farnum, j r.

European (ch iefly Russian) Insects T . Wm . Harris, Cambridge .

Skull of Sus babyroussa, from

Island of Tumor John G . Waters .

B radypus didactylus , Chelys Ma

tamata and 12 species of S imiaeand Lemures

,from S . A merica B enj . Upton , j r.

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T H E G OR I L L A ;

B EING A SKETCH OF ITS HISTORY,A NA TOMY

,GENERA L

A PPEA RANCE A ND HA B ITS .

B Y LEONA RD J. SA NFORD, M. D.

(Read before the Connecticut A cademy of A rts and Sciences , December 1sth ,

SOME writer has observed that “ A frica every year produceth

some strange creature before not heard of, peradventure not ex

tant.” In this spirit, many have contemplated the Gorilla A pe

an incredulity not to be wondered at,for itmust be acknowledged

that its antecedents and h istory are bad. Too often in the past,has the world heard the cry, ‘

gorilla,’when there was no gorilla,and the public faith now

,is hardly equal to accepting the veri

table animal, though as an inducement to recognition, he pre

sents to us h is very bones . B ut unfortunately,with this otherwiseindubitable proof in 1846, came innumerable fictions which at

tributed wonderful achievements and superhuman intellectual aswell as physical power to the animal . Those who were permitted the vision ,

said the bones were bones, but of what creature,who could tellY—The conjectures on this question have rangedthe newly arrived animal from a specimen of monkey, up to Mr.

Harris’

s Pre-A damic Man .

Gradually however, fiction has given place to fact ; the changehas been working through a period of fifteen years, and now

,

we are in possession of the animal’s zoological position and know

him tolerably well, in temperament and habits .

In the present article we propose to ‘show him up

’so far as

the sources of information at our command will suffice.

In the description of its anatomy, we have compared the gorilla with other

anthropoid apes, and with man in order to show its apish characteristics to the bestadvantage, and also to be able, in a more intelligible manner, to indicate its position

among the apes relatively to man. Thewriterwould hére state that the anatomicalspecifications of the gorilla which he has given, are mainly obtained from a, nearlyconiplete, skeleton of the animal in his possession.

l

2 [49] Dr . L. J. Sanford on the Gorilla .

The natives of A frica have al ways regarded the gorilla witha feeling of superstitious dread. To some of them,

he is a mysterious demon . Those who believe in the transmigration ofsouls

,consider h im as a compound of man and brute—their ex

planation being, that at the death of a wicked man, h is spirit enters the body of a lesser ape, which immediately becomes a go

'

rilla,and which

,when so inhabited

,can neither be killed nor

conquered. Others see so much of human attributes about the

animal that they acknowledge h im as a kinsman, one howeverso superior to themselves, that they dare not cultivate any inti

macy or even acquaintance with h im. These,and so many other

superstitions and traditions are believed in by the various humantribes of A frica

,that comparatively few among them,

can knowthe gorilla as simply the immense ferocious ape that he is.

We have no means of knowing when th is species was first

recognized. The name Gorilla was applied to some animal ofthe ape kind, longer ago than the beginning of the Christian era,

for,in the Perip lus of the Carthaginian voyagerHanno

, who was

sent to circumnavigate the A frican continent,in the sixth cen

tury before Chri st as it is supposed, is the following passage :“ On the third day after our departure thence, having sailed by

“

those streams of fire,we arrived at a bay called the Southern

B orn ;‘

at the bottom of which lay an island like the former,having a lake

,and in this lake another island

,full of savage

people, thegreater part of whom were women, whose bodies

were hairy, and whom our interpreters called Gorillas. Though

we pursued the men,we could not seize any of them ; but all

fled from us,

’ escaping over the precipices, and defending themselves with stones . Three women were however taken ; but

they attacked their conductors with their teeth and hands,and

”could not be prev iled on to accompany us . Having killed them,

“

we flayed them,

'

and'

brought their sk ins with us to Carthage.

We did not sail farther on,our provisions failing A ccord

ing to“

Pliny, these skins were placed in the temple of Juno, and,

the name gorillas was changed to gorgones. Two of them at re

mained in the temple at the time Carthage was taken by t eRomans . Penetravit in eas (Gorgades Insulas) Hanno Paenorumimperator, prodiditque hirta feminarum corpora, viros pernicitate

evassisse,duarumque gorgonum cutes argumenti et miraculi

gratia in,Junonis templo posuit, spectatas usque ut Carthaginem

ca tam.

%anno ’

s gorilla, may have been the progenitor of the animal

known at the present time by the same name, but this is improb

able unless the race has wonderfully improved in its later generations

,for

,the gorilla with which we are acquainted is non

Voyage of Hanno (Falconer’

s translation), page 18 .

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4 [51] Dr. L. J. Sanford on the Gorilla .

description is too meagre in details to admit of a decision ; thename

,

~however,bywh ich he calls it,ingena, suggests that animal,

for this is the Mpongwe name for the gorilla. In that part ofthe work where he relates h is visit to the Gaboon

,he says :

“ Thefavorite and most extraordinary subject of our conversation on

natural history was the ingena, an animal like the orang-cetang,but much exceeding it in size

,being five feet high, and four

,

across the shoulders. Its paw was said to be even more dispro

portioned than its breadth , and one blow of it to be fatal . It is

seen commonly by them when they travel to Kaybe, lurking inthe bush to destroy passengers, and feeding principally on wildhoney, wh ich abounds. A mong other of their actions reported

without variation bymen, women and children of the Mpongweand Sheeka1 [Shekiani] , is that of building a house in rude imio

tation of the natives,and sleeping outside on the roof of

We migh t cite numerous accounts of apes more or less anthropoid, Wh ich have been seen in A frica in the earlier centuries of

our era,but they are all so vague as to render it impossible to

decide in any instance, on a particular species—we learn this

much from them however,that there were in A frica, in the olden

time,apes innumerable, and of many grades, from those of large

size, power and intelligence, to diminutive monkeys that were

more than liliputian . The tribes of men in the A frican wilds,

though surrounded.

by these animals and always aware of their

existence,have learned but little concerning their peculiarities

and habits ; acknowledging them as righ tful cohabitors of the

country, and hence possessing inalienab le rightswhich should be

respected, th ey have not ventured on much interference—not

even for purposes of investigation—and for the more ferocious

specimens, they h ave entertained so profound a respect'

and

dread,as to be unwilling to incur any risks of danger

sake of a better acquaintance. For reasons such as these,the

A fricans have been slow in acquiring information about their

neighbors, the apes, and that most formidab le one,the gorilla,

they have known scarcely at all,except by tradition . Their tra

ditions accord to him wonderful powers, and ach ievements ad

libz'

tum in story too he is perpetuated, and thus,many of the

poor deluded inhab itants have come to regard the creature, eitheras a demi-god or demon

,having no kindly purposes towards

them—ih fact they imagine h im to be their direst and most dan

gercus enemy.

When the gorilla stories were first divulged abroad,the

subject of them was regarded as an improbability ; but h is ex

istence was placed beyond a doubt,before the world

,in 1846.

Towards the close of that year, the Rev. J. Leighton Wilson,a missionary in the Gaboon region of Western A frica

,came in

it Mission to A shantee, p . 440 .

Dr. L. J. Sanford on the Gorilla. [52] 5

possession, accidentally, of the skull and some other portions

of the skeleton of '

a species of ape which he was convinced

was unknown to zoologists. These remains be forwarded to theSociety of Natural History at B oston

,in whose proceedings

they were subsequently described by Dr. Savage and Professor

Jeffries Wyman . The new animal was found to belong to the

genus Troglodytes, and these gentlemen proposed as his distin

guish ing cognomen, gorilla . Whether they thus named him on

the supposition that he was the same species as seen by Hanno,the old Carthaginian navigator, we are not informed.

The term Troglodytes (from a cavern,and 6600

,to ia

was first applied . to the apes by Linnaeus, we believe, andit now includes four varieties, viz : The chimpanzee (Troglodytesm

’

ger) , the kooloo-kamba* (Troglodytes kaolao-lcamba), the nsh iegombouvé (Troglodytes ca lvu-s) and the gorilla (fl '

oglodytes gorilla) .The ch impanzee was originally known as the Homo sylvestre

'

s or

Pigmy, which namewas given by Tyson in 1699. Linnaeus callsit,in his Systema Naturae

,

”the Homo-Troglodytes . It became

more generally known, however, as the Sima'

a Zi 'oglodytes, from

B lumenbach . The name it now bears,Troglodytes m

'

ger, was giv

en in 1812, by Geoffroy St. Hilaire of Paris—It is proper to addhere

,that th is naturalist makes a new genus for the gorilla,

which he has named Gorilla, and has called the only species of

the genus thus named ngz'

na . A ll the above species inhabit

equatorial A frica. B esides them,six other varieties of tail- less

apes are known to naturalists,viz ; two 8 ecies of the orang

oetan (Sz'

m1'

a Satyras) found in B orneo an Sumatra ; and four

species of the gibbon (Hylobates) , including the siamang, whichare distributed through Java, B orneo, Sumatra, Malacca and

Siam.

Since 1847, at wh ich time the gorilla was fairly introduced tothe world, our knowledge of him has been gradually increasing.

In 1853, Prof. Owen, of London, received fi'

om the Gaboon, a

gorilla’

s carcass,in a cask of spirit,

—it was in so imperfect a

state of preservation however, that but little more than its skeleton was available for examination ; the results

,together with

such meagre accounts of the appearance and habits of the ani

mal as had been obtained from the natives, formed a very inter

esting paper which Prof. Owen subsequently published. Withth is memoir, the subject rested until the latter part of the year1859, when the enterprising A merican traveller

,Paul B . Du

Chaillu, returned to this country, bringing a full collection of

gorilla skeletons and stuffed carcasses,which he had obtained

during his four years exploration tour in equatorial A frica. Mr.

DuChaillu claims to be the first white man who has seen the gorilla and studied its habits, in its native jungles ; the facts are

Kooloo, the sound which it utters, and Kamba, a native word signifying to

utter.

6 [53] Dr. L. J. Sanford on the Gorilla .

recorded in an interesting way in his published volume.

* We

shall take the liberty of using some of the author’s statements

,

in a report of the animal,wh ich we now undertake.

In its size,the fully developed gorilla is the largest anthropoid

ape known—it varies though , in this particular, as much as does

man ; the range, among adult males,is said by DuChaillu to be

from five feet two inches,to six feet two inches. One specimen,

whose proportions are given, measured in length , five feet nine

inches ; the chest had a circumference of sixty~two inches

,and

the arms extended, spanned nine feet-

tThe bones comprising the skeleton, are massive, and they ‘

pos

sess a greater density of structure than in animals generally . In

number, position, and form,

they approach human bones closely,and when articulated in the skeleton

,are quite suggestive of

that h igher animal. For convenience of description and com

parison, the skeleton may be divided into 1 . The vertebral column

,or central axis . 2 . The head and face

,or superior develop

ment of the central axis ; 3 . The thoracic arch and upper ex

tremities. 4. The pelvic arch and lower extremities .

The number of pieces in the vertebral column, both in man

and the gorilla, is twenty-four,and in their d ivision into classes

they correspond, except in the dorsal and lumbar regions ; tothe former

,the ribs are attached

,and there are twelve, thirteen

or fourteen in that series,according as there are twelve or more

pairs of ribs. In the processes of the several vertebrae, there islittle to contrast ; the cervical group departs most, from that of

man . The vertebral column however,is far from being conform

able : In man it presents three, opposite curvatures, which are

compensating. In all the apes, there is a. single curvature in theform of a bow

,wh ich

,acting like a spring, protects the animals

from sudden shocks in leaping, or running on all fours ; the same

purpose is answered in man,by a combination of curvatures,

wh ich the better adapts him to maintain the uprigh t posture.

Moreover, out of deference to position in walking, is doubtlessowing the difference which exists in the place of connection ofthe head with the vertebral column . In the gorilla, the artica

lating point is so far back on the base of the skull,that the ani

mal could not well support h is head if standing erect—the laborof doing it would make him conversant with a most intractab leailment—r headache.

In the conformation of the sha ll,agreat difference is apparent

between all the apes and man . In the latter, the bones of theface are arranged perpendicularly, or nearly so

,under those of

the cranium. So that the facial angle (the angle formed betweenA dventures inEquatorial A frica by Paul B . DuChaillu—published by Harper

and B ros . N. Y.

‘

1861 .

1' For the dimensions of the gorilla as given by Dr. Gray, see this Journal, vol.xxxii, p. 437.

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8 [55] Dr . L. J . Sanford on the Gorilla .

endowment, and it places the possessor retrograde among his

congeners, for they are without it, excepting only the orang-oetan.

In the quadrumana generally, the top of the head is regularlyround and smooth . A gain , in the gorilla, the face is not so broadin proportion to length , as in the kooloo-kamba. In this species,the peculiar development of the cheek (malar) bones, gives a

great breadth to the face, and this, in conjunction with ‘ a moresymmetrical nose and mouth

,enab les the animal to wear a coun

tenance which is strangely human . A plump-faced member of

the genus homo, with a convict crop of hair,a slight forehead,

high cheek bones,flat nose

, wide mouth and a moderate supplyof whiskers, may have the satisfaction of knowing that, in so

far, he impersonates an A frican kooloo-kamba.

In the gorilla, the orbital cavities are larger, and nearer to

gether, than in the chimpanzee ; his nose too, is compressed, andthe jaws are more projecting, and quadrate in outline.

'

These

peculiarities make up an expression of countenance more beastlyand savage, than any of h is fellows could offset ; . they gi ve to

the face a decidedly carnivorous look,to wh ich

,among the apes,

the orang-oetan makes the nearest approach

—though he is amiable in the comparison. It is due the gorilla however, to state

,

that when young, he has not so markedly these brutish features ;but after the infantile period is passed, the face undergoes awonderful metamorphosis which brings them out. In infancy, xhis

skull,and that of the chimpanzee and its allies

,have most of

human resemblances ; and at th is period, like all babies,they

are scarcely distinguis from each other.

In leaving the skull, we may'

remark , that if the ape class of

the mammaliawere ranked according to the approach which theirskulls make to the human standard

,several species would take

precedence of the gorilla.

A n extraordinary feature in the skeleton of the troglodytes,and one wh ich is almost generic, is the great length of the anteriorextremities as comp ared with thep osterior . In the human 8 ceies

,

the lower limb is the longest, by an inch or two.

'

In the anga

roo, and other animals whose mode of progression is largely bleap ing, t he lower extremities very much exceed in length theupper ; while in quadrupeds generally, the locomotive organs

correspond very nearly with each other, both in length and size.

The arms are most extensive in apes and monkeys, for the rea

son that these creatures lead, chiefly, an arboreal life,and so they

require greater length and strength in that member. The lon

gest arms are found in‘

the siamang (the highest of the gibbous)and orang

-oetan,in whom they reach the ground, when the ani

mals stand erect. The ch impanzee, erect, reaches a little belowthe knee, and the gorilla, a little above it, he therefore comes nearest to man, whose reach is to the middle of the thigh ,—and con

Dr. L. J.

‘

Sanford on the Gorilla . [56] 9

siderably near it is too,if their arms, in the measurement frpm

shoulder to hand,be compared. If judged of by the position

at the side,there is a greater discrepancy, for the reason that its

much shorter thigh , brings the hand to a lower level in the gorilla : A lso it has affinity with the human arm in another partie

ular,for the arm bone (humerus) , sustains to those of the fore

arm (radius and ulna), the relative proportions of these bones

in man . In both,the fore arm is shorter than the arm ; in apes

generally, it is as long, or longer. The humerus,in the gorilla,

is longer than the same bone in the ch impanzee ; yet in the latter,the anterior extremity is the longest, on account of its more ex

tended fore arm.

The motions of pronation aud sup ination are erformed veryreadily and perfectly in the gorilla, we th ink, j u ging from the

character of the elbow articulation, and the'

muscles which sub

serve those movements.

The gorilla’s hand exalts him in the quadrumanous series ; the

siamang is his only competitor in an approach to the human

hand ; theirs represents it almost, on a more elongated scale.

In most of the apes, th is member is little better than a paw,in

consequence of the great length and narrowness of the palm,and

the length.

of thefingers with the comp arative shortness and backwardp osition of the thumb. The thumb it is, ch iefly, which . impresses

perfection on the hand ofman : Its articulation with the wrist issuch as to permit great range and freedom of motion ; it may be

brought in apposition with any of the fingers, thus qualifyingthe hand for the most d elicate manipulations. The bone which

unites the thumb to the carp us (wrist), is the m- trap ezium ; its

surface for the articulation is,in man

,

’

the gorilla and siamang, a

rounded,but not deep concavity . In other species, it is so deep

and angular, that the head of the metacarpal bone of the thumbis more fixed

,and its motions restrained.

The entire number of carpal bones in man, the gorilla, and

chimpanzee, is eight; the orang-oetan

, gibbons, and most of the

lower monkeys, have nine.

The bones uniting the anterior extremity with the body, are

the scap ula (shoul der-blade bone) and clavicle (collar bone) . The

former, is broader in the gorilla than in the chimpanzee, andcomes nearer to the proportions of that bone in man . B ut in

the clavicle there is a yet greater similarity, both in form and

DuChaillu gives the '

following measurements of the hand and foot of a large

female gorilla, viz : length of the hand, 71} inches ; length of the foot from the hair

comprising the heel, 8 11 inches ; round of hand above the thumb, 9} inches ; do. do.

under the thumb, 9 inches . Leng th of thefingers ; thumb, 1% inches ; first finger,4 inches ; second do., 4} inches ; third do 3% inches ; fourth do. , 31} inches. Circum

ference of thefingers ; thumb, 2% inches ; first finger, 35inches ; second do., 4 inches

third do., 31} inches ; fourth do., 3 inches. Circumference of the toes thumb, 31}inches ; first finger, 22 inches ; second do., 2} inches ; third do. , inches ; fourthdo., 14 inches. See DuChaill

’

u’

s A dventures,”&c., p . 301 .

2

10 [57] Dr . L. J. Sanford on the Gorilla .

size. This bone,as its name imports, is a key or brace to the

shoulder, and in th is function it is very important in all climb

ing or flying animals. In those not thus addicted, it is morerudimentary, and in those where the anterior extremity is em

ployed merely as an instrument of progressivemotion on a planesurface

,it is entirely wanting .

The pelvis (basin) in the gorilla, is decidedly anthropoid. In

no other ape do the iliac (hip) bones bend forward enough to

produce a pelvic concavity . Their apish characteristics, are,

great length , straightness, and narrowness in proportion to length .

The tuberosities of the ischia are broad,thick

,and curved out

wards ; the pubic bones are broad and deep, but flattened frombefore backwards. The whole elvis is placed more in a line

with the spine than in man,and

)

the sacrum and coccyxwhich

complete it beh ind, have a much less concavity . Moreover, the

diameters of its superior aperture, are below the average in the

human subject. In all these points the gori lla deviates from manless than any of his allies .

The p osterior extremities of the gorilla, are characteristicallyshort ; in this feature they seem to outdo all other nether limbsamong the quadrumana. The relative length of the th igh , to

the leg, is about the same as in man ; in both , the th igh is lon

gest by about two inches (average) . In the other apes we have

been comparing, the two divisions of the posterior extremitypreserve a corresponding relationsh ip—r and in conjunction, theymake a longer limb than the gorilla’

s,without an exception the

writer thinks,among the larger species . In man

,the lower ex

tremity tapers gradually, and gracefully, from the groin to the

foot. In the gorilla, the large muscles wh ich invest the thigh

bone give to that part a square and massive form,while the leg

is so devoid of them,that it has no calf

,and hence no volume or

symmetry . Plain ly it is of little account to its owner for walking in the erect position, and we should apprehend his downfall ,even if he attempted to maintain it at rest, very long. A ccord

ing to Professor Owen , the glutaei muscles, which form the but

took,and lift and rotate outward the thigh in walking, are most

developed, in a quadrumanous series,in the gorilla. B ut this

does not prove him any more a biped. We think with Mr. B . G.

Wilderfi" of B oston, that the form and direction of the glutaei, inapes, is more favorable to leaping, than continuous walking .

Nor does the structure and articulation of the foot, favor

pedal locomotion. The foot is not sufficiently plantigrade to

allow it, and a yet greater interference lies in the position of

the great toe. B y position, th is member, in the chimpanzee andgorilla, is a true thumb

,being situated posteriorly and inferi

Contributions to the Comparative'

Myology of the Chimpanzee by B . G.

Wilder, p. 371 . From Proceed. B ost. Soc. Nat. Hist , A pril 17, 1861 .

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12 [59] Dr . L. J. Sanford on the Gorilla .

The brain of anthropoid apes is distinguished from that of

other brutes, in possessing a process of structure known as the

hipp ocamp us minor—this is a minute

,nipple shaped, body,

which is found in the posterior cornu or h ow of each lateral

(the largest cavities of the brain) ventricle. Its existence in the

apes, to the exclusion of all other animals except man (for th is,so far as known

,is a fact) , is the more remarkab le, inasmuch

as the posterior lobes of the brain, which contain the cornua, are

very inconsiderably developed in them.

In the circle of their functions,and in the phenomena of pe

riodicity, the apes, again, make a close approach to the human

s cores.pThe dissections wh ich have been made of the goril la’

s carcass,

show an identity almost,in character and relations of the soft

parts, with those of the other species of the Troglodytes.

The slain of the gorilla, in the young as well as in the adult,is

of j et black color,and is very thick and firm. The skin of the

female,is generally darker than that of the male. B lack

,with few

exceptions, appears to be the skin-color of apes, though some do

not obtain it till after the period of adolescence. The face of

the chimpanzee, when young, is yellow, while that of the youngnsh iego

-mbouvé , is astonishingly wh ite . The skin of each is

clothed all over with hair,which also is black or gray. The

hair of a fully grown, but not aged gorilla, is said to be of irongray color - the black hair is intermixed with gray, and so

ringed, as to produce this particular shade. The longest anddarkest hair—sometimes over two inches long—is on the ante

rior extremity ; from the shoulder to the elbow,it grows down

wards ; on the forearm,upwards. The back of the hand is

hairy to the division of the fingers, which have a more down

coating. The posterior extremities,likewise

,are covered wit

coarse hair, which is thickly set,except upon the toes.

The gorilla, in general configuration, is quite like the apes,but his larger size, and more compact organization, depriveh im of their agility of motion—and so

,by good right, of their

name. In motion and manner,he must be an awkward and un

gainly ape. He is accomplished, however, by possessing greatstrength

—in this particular, as also in ferocity of disposition, we

conceive h im to be something terrible. His p hysique, judged of

by man’s,is graceless and shabby in the extreme ; in the compa

rison, we are justified in characterizing him,as B uffon has done

the sloth,

“a bungled composition of nature.

”

The gorilla is supposed to have originated in A frica—at anyrate he makes h is abode in the equatorial belt, of that continent .

A ccording to DuChaillu,h is range of migration is between

3°north, and 3

°

south latitude,and as far into the interior,

as Captain B arton’s Lake Tanganyika. Over this region of

Dr. L. J. Sanford on the Gori lla . [60] 13

country the animal holds undisputed sway ; not even the ele

phant and lion are competitors with him there ; they and all

lesser beasts, flee before him. The adult male gorilla has no

sense of fear ; he runs from no enemy, and is not the aggressor,usually, in an encounter. When the hunter comes in his way,he rises . erect and opens

'

wide upon him h is fiendish eyes, givingutterance at the same time, to deafening and protracted roars of

warning ; and. by way of bidding defiance, he distributes upon hismassive drumlike chest, blows, whose vibration can be, heard

,it

is said,

“at least a mile If the hunter then makes

”

no re

treat,the brute advances towards h im,

repeating as he moves,the terrific roar and thumps . The righ t shooting distance is six

or eigh t yards . If a ball takes effect in the head or chest,the

animal falls and dies quick ly, - for,likeman

,he has not a strong

tenacity of life. If the hunter misses the mark,woe be to him

,

for the alternative is,to kill or be killed ; before he can reload,

the beast is upon h im,and one b low of h is large fist

,suffices to

crush in the unfortunate man’s skull

,or frigh tfully lacerate h is

trunk .

* The female gorilla is not thus fearless and courageous ;she seeks to escape when pursued, unless the safety of her youngis imperilled ; for them

,it is said

,she will resist

,e ven unto

death .

The roar of the male gorilla to which we have referred, is described by DuChaillu

,as the most Singular and awful noise

heard in the A frican forest, he says,“ it begins with a sharp bark,

like an angry dog, then glides into a deep bass roll, which lit

erally and closely resembles the roll of distant thunder along thesky, for which I have sometimes been tempted to take it

,where

I did not see the animal . So deep is it that it seems to proceedless from the mouth and throat

,than from the deep chest and

vast paunch .

”

In h is diet,the gorilla is reported as being a strict y ege

tarian . If th is is true, we must regard his canine teeth as

rudimentary tusks, and as such,useful either for purposes of

This statement concerning theway inwhich the gorilla attacks his foe, is madeon the authority of Mr. DuChaillu. We question its authenticity however, for the

reason that the gorilla having nails instead of claws at the extremities of the fingers,would hardly be able to make an extensive laceratedwound with his hands. On this

ground Mr. CharlesWaterton denies that the animal is at all pugilistic in an encoun

ter. Mr.Waterton says, in the London A thenaeum for Oct. 19th , 1861 , Let me remark here (notwithstanding what anatomists may teach to the contrary), that thegorilla and every other ape have received their long and brawny forelegs, not foroffensive or defensivemeasures, but solely, like the sloth , to enable them to pass frombranch to branch with a rapidity like unto that of an arrow from the hunter

’

s how.—their hinder legs acting as mere props in the transit. A natomists ought to knowthat the gorilla, being an ape, has non retractile claws so that i t never attacks its

foe, or defends i tself, with theforefeet, but invariably with the mouth . Wherefore, Icondemn unhesitatingly Mr. DuChaillu

’s description of a gorilla giving the negro

a‘ tremendous blow with its immense open paw.

’

(See the narrative cited on p,6 3 of th is Journal).

14 Dr. L. J. Sanford on the Gorilla .

prehension , or as weapons of offense. DuChaillu states that his

favorite diet consists of,

“the wild sugar cane ; pine apple

leaves ; certain berries which grow close to the ground ; the pithof some trees

,and a kind of nut with a very hard shell .

Such food seems quite insufficient for so large'

and powerful ananimal

,-most vegetab le food, as compared with animal

,con

taining a comparatively small proportion of nutritive substance.

If this kind suffices,he must

,like herbivorous animals generally,

require to spend a great deal of time in feeding. His largepaunch or stomach is much like theirs

,and is peculiarly adapted

to the digestion of vegetable aliment.The gorilla, in his mode of life

,is said to be a restless and

nomadic creature, not remaining stationary, long, in any locality,but roaming about in many forests ; this is not improbable, fora moderate region of country would not supply h im with a suf

ficiency of food for a very long time.

He is non -

gregarious—only the members of the same family

live and move together. DuChaillumet,and heard of, no

‘

exceptions to this ; he tells us also

,that they are usually found in

dark and gloomy places, preferring the jungles to open woods.

A t night, the young animals lodge in trees,while the old ones

sleep and keep guard near by, below.

It is“

not yet known whether the gorilla is tameable. DuChaillu

is convinced that it is not, but we think he decides the question

on insufficient evidence. His observations with reference to this

point were limited to three young animals,—the first of which

survived his capture but about a month , the second lived onlythree days, and the third, died on the tenth day . He says con

cerning them,

no treatment of mine,kind or harsh

,subdued

the young monsters from their first and lasting ferocity and ma

lignity.

”To the sin of untameability they added the vice of

treachery, and so long as they lived, these little brutes requited

aster’s kind efforts

,with obstinacy and rebellion.

B utMr. DuChaillu’s declaration that the gorilla is untameab le,

vanishes, if the following b iography of a young animal is true.

We extract it from a letter by R. B . Walker,wh ich is published

in the London A thenaeum for Sept. 21st, 1861 .—Mr. Walker is

the proprietor of a. mercantile agency located near the Gaboon,inWestern A frica

,- he says,

“ The statement of the untameabil

ity of the young of the gorilla, is untrue. In proof whereof,let me ask Mr. DuChaillu

,whose memory, usually so very good,

seems to have failed him signally in this particular instance, ifhe has forgotten the young female goril la, of from two to three

years of age, called Seraphine, which lived at my factory for

four months in 1859,and which he repeatedly saw there ? I

assert, without fearxofcontradiction byMr.DuChaillu or any other

person (and I could name scores of Europeans who saw it), that

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Dr. L. J . Sanford on the Gorilla .

rions undertaking ; but we pushed on, until finally we thought we saw

through the th ick woods the moving of the branches and small trees

which the great beast was tearing down, probably to get from them the

berries and fruits he lives on . Suddenly, as we were yet creeping along,in a silence wh ich made a heavy breath seem loud and distinct, the

woods were at once filled with the tremendous barking roar of the

orilla.gThen the underbrush swayed rapidly just ahead, and presently before

us stood an immense male gorilla; He had gone through the jungle on

his all-fours but when he saw our party he erected himself and looked

us boldly in the face.

’

He steed about a dozen yards from us, and was a

sight I think never to forget. Nearly six feet high (he proved four inchesshorter), with immense body, huge chest, and great muscular arms, withfiercely glaring large deep gray eyes, and a hellish expression of face,which seemed to me like some nightmare vision : thus stood before us

‘

this king of the A frican forests.

He was not afraid of us. He stood there, and beat his breast with

his huge fists till it resounded like an immense bass-drum,which is their

mode of offering defiance ; meantime giving vent to roar after roar.

His eyes began to flash fiercer fire as we stood motionless on the de

fensive, and the crest of short hair which stands on his forehead began

to twitch rapidly up and down, while his powerful fangs were shown as

he again sent forth a thunderous roar. A nd now truly he reminded meof nothing but some hellish dream creature—a being of that hideous or

der, half man half beast, which we find pictured by old artists in somerepresentations of the infernal regions. He advanced a few steps

—then

stopped to utter that hideous roar again—a dvanced again, and finally

stopped when at a distance of about sixyards from us. A nd here, as he

began another of his roars and beating his breast in rage, we fired and

killed him.

“ With a groan which had something terribly human in it, and yet

was full of brutishness, it fell forward on its face. The body shook con

vulsively for a fewminutes, the limbs moved about in a struggling way,and then all was quiet

—A death had done its work, and I had leisure toexamine the huge body. It proved to be five feet eight inches high, and

the muscular development of the arms and breast showed what immensestrength it had possessed.

“

Having heard howMr. DuChaillu killed gorillas, let us learnhow a huge specimen killed one of his men

,-he and his aids

came upon one of the party, wounded on the ground—he thus

describes the encounter.

Our little party separated, as is the custom, to stalk the wood in va

rious directions. Gambo and I kept together. One brave fellow, went

ofi'

alone in a direction where he thought he could find a gorilla.

’

The

other three took another course.

We had been about an hour separated when Gambo and I heard a

gun fired but a little way from us, and presently another. We were al

A dventures in Equatorial A frica, p . 98 .

Dr. L. J. Sanford on the Gorilla . [64] 17

ready on our way to the spot where we hoped to see a gorilla slain,when

the forest began to resound with the most terrific roars. Gambo seized

my arms in great agitation, and we hurried on,both filled with a dread

ful and sickening fear. We had not gone far when our worst fears were

realized. The poor brave fellow who had’

gone off alone was lying on

the ground in a-

pool of his own blood, and I thought at first quite dead.

His bowels were protruding th rough the lacerated abdomen . B eside him

lay his gun. The stock was broken, and the barrel was bent and flat

tened. It bore plainly the marks of the gorilla’s teeth .

“ We picked him up, and I dressed his wounds as well as I could with

rags torn .from my clothes. When I had given him a little brandy to

drink he came to h imself, and was able, but with great difficulty, to

speak. He said that he had met the gorilla suddenly and face to face,and that it had not attempted to escape. It was

,he said

,a huge male,

and seemed very savage. It was in a very gloomy part of the wood,and the darkness, I suppose, made him miss. He said he took good

aim,and fired when the beast was only about eight yards off. The ball

merely wounded it in the side. It at once began beating its breasts, and

with the greatest rage advanced upon him.

To run away was impossible. He would have been caugh t in the

jungle before he had gone a dozen steps.

He stood his ground, and as quickly as he could reloaded h is gun .

Just as he raised it to fire, the gorilla dashed it out of his hands, the gun

going off in the fall, and then in an instant,and with a terrible roar, the

animal gave h im a tremendous blow with its immense open paw,frigh t

fully lacerating the abdomen, and with th is single blow laying bare part

of the intestines. A s he sank, bleeding, to the ground, the monster seized

the gun, and the poor hunter thought he would have his brains dashed

out with it. B ut the gorilla seemed to have looked upon this also as an

enemy, and in his rage flattened the barrel between h is strong jaws.

When we came upon the ground the gorilla was gene. This is their

mode when attacked—to strike one or two blows,and then leave the vic

tims of their rage on the ground and go off into the

Our traveler’s negro associates seem to have exhib ited lesscourage in the presence of live gorillas, than he did. Unlessthe game was

.

a young animal,or a solitary female, they were loth

to encounter i t.

To kill an adult male,is regarded as a great achievement

among the natives,

“ it gives the hunter a life long reputation

for courage and enterprise, even among the bravest of the negrotribes.

” Mr. DuChaillu states,that “

the hunters are their mostvalued men . A brave and fortunate one is admired by all the

women ; loved—almost worshiped—by h is wives ; and enjoysmany privileges among his fellow villagers . B ut his proudest

time is when he has k illed an elephant or a gorilla and filled thevillage with meat. Then he may do almost what he pleases .

”

New Haven, Dec. 1 861.

Ibid. , p . 342.

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Pseudanthropos fuligino'

sus Schauf ,

eine neue Chimpanze -Varietat.

Im zoologischen Garten zu Dresden befand sich seit etwa

Jahren ein Chimpanze , den der inzwischen verstorbene

Kaufmann J a h n von M o ym b e mitgebfacht‘

hatte .

Die Gutmuthigkeit und Gelehrigkeit des Thieres ,‘

welche

uber das Niveau des Gewohnlichen hinausging , verschaffte dem

selben bald die Zuneigung des Dresdner Pub likums und es ge

dieh unter der sorgsamen Pflege des kundigen Thiergarten

Directors Herrn S c h o p ff zusehends , bis vor wenigen Wochen

eine Drusengeschwulst eintrat , die , gewiss in Verbindung mit

Heimweh , den raschen Tod herbeifuhrte .

Es wird selten der Tod eines A ffen soviel Theilnahmc era

weckt haben, als der der M afok a , Wie er genannt ward . A lle

Localblatter,brachten wahrend seiner Krankheit B ulletins . So

meldet der Dresdner A nzeiger vom 13 . December 1 875 :

A m vorgestrigen Tage statteten wir wieder M a fo k a einen

B esuch ab . Das arme Thier lag zu derselben Zeit , in der es

sonst zum Ergotzen der Zuschauer,

sein Futter erhielt und mit

dem W'

arter allerlei A llotria trieb,auf seinem an der Seite

‘

des

Kafigs

angebrachten Lager . Es erhob nicht mehr den . Kopf

auf unsern Zuruf und nur die B eweguag der langen A rme, die

es zeitweilig in die Hohe hob , liess erkennen ,dass noch Leben

in dem Th iere war. Wir hatten bald darauf Gelegenheit mit

Herrn Director Schopff in den Kafig zu geben , in welchen uber

haupt jetzt Jedermann eintreten kann,

ohne einen'

unliebsamen

A ngriff von dem geschwachten Thiere erwarten zu mussen .

Mafoka verhalt sich theilnahmslos gegen die A ussenwelt und

liess sich ruh ig Kopf und Hande streicheln , ohne irgend ein

Zeichen der Lust oder Unlust dabei von sich zu geben . Wirhorten ,

dass dieser A ffe einige Male am Tage das Lager ver

lasst und auf dem B oden des K'

afigs im Stroh sich hinstreckt,

wohl auch , aber sehr langsam und mit zitternden Gliedern , den

aufgestellten B echer , der mitx

Zuckerwasser gefullt ist , ergreift

und daraus trinkt , von festen Nahrungsmitteln aber nur noch

Weintrauben zu sich nimmt. Die Geschwulst am Halse will

das immer schwacher und schwacher werdende Thier durchaus

nicht beruhren lassen ; dieselbe ist jetzt weicher als vorher und

scheint dem Thiere keine Schmerzen zu machen . Es ist diese

Geschwulst gewis sermassen nur ein A usdruck fur ein inneres ,

tiefes Leiden des Thieres etc.

and vom 1 6 . December 1 875 lesen wir daselbst :

Was sich erwarten liess , hat sich leider bel

statigt . In den

vorgestrigen Nachtstunden ist dieser interessante A ffe in unserem

zoologischen Garten verendet . B ereits seit drei Tagen nahm

das seit mehr als drei Wochen dem Siechthume verfallene Th ier

keine Nahrung zu sich, so dass sich sein Schwachezustand von

Stundc zu Stunde verschlimmerte . Wenige Stunden vor seinem

Tode suchte es durch Liebkosungen dem rastlos um seine Pfiege

beschaftigten Director Schopff, sowie seinem Warter gleichsam

seinen Dank auszudrucken und sein Leid mitzuthcilen , indem es

wiederholt, so matt es auch war,

sich aufrichtete und seinen

A rm um die Schulter des Pflegers legte , wobei es ihm mit er

loschendem B licke fest in’

s A nge sah Mafoka schlief zuletzt

ruhig ein , ohne wieder zu erwach en .

Der Sectionsbefund ergab Lymphdrusentuberculose , beson

ders der Hals und Lungendruse ; die Lungen waren frei voin

Tuberkeln . A uch fand sich Dyphtheritis des Rachens und

B lutung nach dem kleinen Gehirn .

Dieser A ffe ward schon bei Lebzeiten beruhmt . Es kamen

Professoren aus B erlin ,Hamburg und andern S tadten , um ihn

anzustaunen und ihn , offentlich fiir einen Gorilla oder neuen

Waldmenschen oder kurzweg fiir einen Gorilla zu erklaren .

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Ps eudan th rop os Rchb .

M a u l imHalbkreis nach unten .

E c k z a h ne

O h rmu s ch ‘

e l g r o s s ,

s t e h e n d.

A rm e

a b

m i t t e lma s s ig , wie

beim Menschen .

H a n d e breit.

Vorderhande

Hinterh'

ande

Fi n g e r im Verhaltniss der

menschlichen .

N a g e l glatt, menschlich

S ch w a n z fehlt

B a ck e n t a s c h e n fehlen

G e s as s s ch w i e l e n

sichtbar .

Z w i s c h e n k i e fe rmen verwachsen , ohne Nath

kaum

vollkom

Spur .

S ch en k e l a u fh a n g e b a n d

vorhanden, wie beim Men

F u s s d a um en mit’

Nagel .

R ip p e n p a a r e 1 3

S c h n e i d e z ah n e

B a ck z ah n e

5. unterer B ackzalin b r e i t e r

a l s l a n g , 4 h o c k e r i g , wie

beim Menschen .

Gori l la Géoffr .

die unteren uberaus gross .

k l e i n dem menschlichen ahn

k u r z

glatt, menschlich .

fehlen .

1 3 .

fast in gerader Linie .

die drei unteren von vorn nach

hinten verlangert, mitHocker .

5. unterer B ackzahn 5h 6 ck e

r ig , l a n g e r a l s b r e i t , der

5. Hooker fast so breit als

7

lich .

w e i t l a n g e r als beim Men

schen , bei aufrechtem Stand

die Mitte der Schenkel er

reichend .

so breits als lang .

gestreckt , d i e d r e i M i t t e l

fin g e r fiber d a s 1 . G l i e d

du r ch B in d e h au te v e r

e i n ig t .

Pseudanth rop os Rchb .

D a um e n breit

H a n dwurz e l k n o c h e n 8 .

Diese Gattungsmerkmale sind, wie wir sehen , an und fur

sich wenig ausfuhrlich behandelt, sie sind nicht nur ungenugend

angefuhrt , es ist auch daran zu b e r i c h t i g e n . Zu berichtigen

ist, da s s v o l lk omm en v e rwa ch s e n e Zw i s ch ’

e n k i e fe r b e i

Pseudanth rop os n ur im A l t e r vo rk omm e n ,i n d e r

J ug e n d a b e r n i c h t n ur d i e N a t h s i c h t b a r , s o n d e rn

a u ch th e i lw e i s e e in e d eu t l ic h e L ij eh e v orh a n d e n i s t .

Das Skelett,welches ich von Pseudanthr’

op os Troglodytes L .

besitze, zeigt dies ebenso wie ein Schadel eines sehr j ungcn

Chimp anze, den ich in Hamburg sah .

B eim Gori l la ist das Paarige des Zwischenkiefers am

auffallendsten bis in’

s hochste A lter ausgepragt, wahrend beim

Orang -Utang ,wenn es gestattet ersch eint, diesen hier zu er

wahnen, die Nath schon beim jungen Thiere undeutlich wird

,zu

einer Zeit, in welcher die Scheidelleiste noch nicht begonnen

sich zu entwickeln .

Da jedoch die Verschmelzungen zweier oder mehrerer

Knochen bei den Saugethieren nur als individuelle A nomalien

betrachtet werden durfen,ist auf ein Verwachsen des Zwischen

kiefers bis zur scheinbaren Verschmelzung wohl wenig Wertli

zu legen .

Den G‘

res ich tsw ink el furPseudantkrop os TraglodytesL .

bestimme ich an meinem,jungen , Skelett auf am Schadel

eines jungen Thieres in Hamburg am Schadel eines m i t te l

a l t e n G o r i l l a 45° (eines alten Orang-Utang Fur den

Gattungsbegriff konnen jedoch A ngaben fiber den Gesichtswinkel

Gori l la Géoffr .

der fibrige Zahn . Dieser

Hooker ist mit zwei kleinenHervorragungen versehen ,

die nach vorn aneinander

stehen (manchmal sogar mit

drei Hervorragungen).

bei den menschenahnlichen A ffen nur von Werth sein,wenn

uber genugendes Material zu gebieten ist .

Ein wohl zu beachtender Unterschied zwischen Gorilla und

Pseadanthrop os liegt in der F 0 rm der Na s enoffn un g . Diese

ist beim

Chimp anze Gorilla

fast dreieckig ,nach unten er fast quadratisch nach unten

weitert (verkehrt herzformig) . verengt.

Es nahert sich also hier der Chimpanze dem alteren OrangUtang und dem Menschen

A lte Chimpanze- Schadel kenne ich nicht ; nach den mir zu

Gebote stehenden A bbildungen zu urtheilen , fe h l t denselben

die beim Gorilla das A lter characterisirende hohe Scheidelleiste .

Die Finger der H in t e rh an d e des Chimpanze s in d fa s t

b i s z u r M i t t e d e s e r s t e n G l i e d e s d ur ch B in d e'

h au t e

v e r e i n i g t , Wle wir \ aus nachstehenden Messungen an meinem

gestopften Exemplare und der Mafoka ersehen werden .

Der Unterschied zwischen Chimpanze und Gorilla besteht

nach Vorstehendem in der Hauptsache in Folgendem :

Chimp anze. Gorilla .

A rme : fast wie beim Menschen , langer als beim Menschen .

Ohren : gross abstehend klein, menschenahnlich .

Nasenofi’

nung am Schadel : drei quadratisch .

eckig .

Hinterhand : 1 . Fingerglied bis die drei Mittelfinger bis ub e r

zur Mitte durch B indehaute das erste Glied durch B inde

vereinigt (excl . Daumen) . haute vereinigt .

B ackzahne : s V s . v .

Dies genug‘

t zur B egrundung der Gattungen , und der A ffe,

welcher Veranlassung zu diesem A ufsatze gab , gehort zu den

Chimpanzen . Dafur sprechen Vergleichungen der Maasse , wie

nachstehend ; die'

grossen Ohren und hauptsachlich die Gestalt

ung der Hinterhande Ich habe die B ackzahne nicht unter

suchen konnen . Mafoka gab dies lebendig nicht zu und todt

steht mir das Thier nicht zu Gebote. Die Nasenoffnung wird

man 8 . Z . am Schadel dreieckig finden . Fiir Chimpanzenart

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Meine beiden Chimpanze - Exemplare habe ich selbst gel

messen ,die Maasse der Mafoka erhielt ich durch die Gute des

Herrn Schopff, Director des Zoologischen Gartens in Dresden .

B eim ‘ Vergleich der Maasse des Skelettes mit denen des

gestopften und des lebendcn Thieres ist zu beachten,dass den

Fleischtheilen Rechnung getragen werden muss . Ich bezweifele

die Richtigkeit d e r Maasse am Pseadantli rop os fa liginosas :welchen

,ich ein beisetzte .

Der Vergleich der Maasse ergiebt, dass . wenn Mafoka ein

Gorillaweibchen ware ,die A rme lang sein mussten

ihr hatten dann Schultern in der B reite von

und der B rustkasten wurde einen Umfang von

0 ,390’mm haben .

Ich habe Mafoka nur gesehen , selbe aber nicht genauer,

als in diesem A ufsatze crwahnt , untersuchen kunnem und ver

muthe , dass ich mich in B etreff der B ehaarung d es halben ersten

Fingergliedes in sofern getausch t habe , als die nach vorn stehen

den Haare bis dahin wohl reich en , ihre Wurzel aber noch auf

der Hand selbst h‘

aben . B eim Gorilla ist die B ehaarung bis

ans zweite Fingerglied vorhanden .

Die A bbildungen des echten Gorilla und ech ten Chimpanze

konnte ich leider der Kurze der Zeit. halber jetzt nicht b eiffigen .

Wie wir aus den obigen B eschreibungen ersehen , variiren

die menschenahnlichen A fien in ausserordentlicher Weise . B e

schauen wir die verschiedenen Gesichter von dergleichen Thieren ,

wie sie in Reichenbachs Monographie der A ffen abgebildet sind

so muss uns unwillkurlich der Gedanke kommen ,das

'

s selbe,

als hochentwickelte Wesen der Variationsfah igkeit des Menschen

naher kommen , als andere Geschopfe . Die Menschen haben

verschieden gefarbtc Haare,das B lond verfarbt sich haufig in

’

s

B raune um schliesslich gran zu werden . Der Gorilla tritt in

verschieden gefarbtem Haarkleide auf und nimmt im A lter grauen

Pelz an .

Die Ch impanze haben wir sowohl mif fleischfarbenen als

schwarzen Gesich tern ,Handen und Hintern kennen gelernt,

denen verschiedene‘

Namen gegeben wurden konnen diese

scheinbar verschiedenen A rten nicht ebensogut ein und dieselbe

sein ? Ich glaube es fast und wird dies mit der Zeit bestatigt,so dienen die gegebenen Namen

'

nur dazu mit moglich st wenig

Worten eine diagnosirte Varietat zu bezeichnen ,ohne sie erst

wieder beschreiben zu mii ssen .

Es ist eine merkwurdige Thatsachc , die ich glaube hier

h ervorheben zu durfen,dass wir mit den grossten Objectem der

Fauna so schwer auf’

s Reine zu kommen vermogen . Ueber die

europaischen H i r s c h k afe r sind Wir heut noch nicht ganz sicher,

wie viel e A rten haben, weil Lacunas p entap hyllas Rake.

vielfach als Varietat angesehen wird. Die europaischen A d l e r

sind als A rten noch nicht sicher gestellt. Ich besass A quila

fa lva und chrysaelds sind dies zwei haltbar/

e A rten ?

Reichenbach nimmt zwei existirende G i r a ffe n - A rten an ,

dies zu bestatigen ? Wir kennen zweierlei El e p h a n t e n ,die

angeblich d r i t t e A rt lieferte ich nach Odessa . Die hervor

ragende Stirnleiste und Stosszahnanlage beim Q sollten nach

v . Schlagintweit’

s A nsicht die A rt begriinden . Schaffen w1r

uns reicheres Material zum Stadium an !

D r e s d e n ,d . 15. Decbr. 1875.

Dr . L . W Sch aufuss .

(Separat- A bdruck ans Nanqaam oliosas“

. Zoologische Mittheilungen von

Dr. L . W . Schaufuss,ausgegeben am 24 . Decbr

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MEM OR I A L .

Z'

o the Honorable the B oard of Education of the Git/31 of

The Memorial of the undersigned, Robert L. Waterbury, a

Lecturer on Natural Science in th e Pub lic Schools,respectfully represents, that

B y a resolution of your honorab le b’

ody, dated October27th , 1 858 ,Lectures on Natural Science were allowed in such

of the Ward Schools as desired them ,to be given by men

whose competency should be attested by the Medical Collegesof this city .

Pursuant to that resolution the undersigned procured the

necessary certificate of qualification, and addressed th e chair

man of each of the several local boards of School Ofi‘icers,

calling attention to th e fact that such Grammar schools as

they might designate in their wards were en titled to Lec

tures .

Four wards, comprising seven schools,have already

adopted the method of instruction of the undersigned in

Natural Science ; receiving in each school , one lecture a

week , on a regularly specified day and hour.

The Lectures have comprised the outlines of animal strueture, after the plan of the four departments discovered byCuvier and adopted by A gassiz, illustrated by diagrams,

dissections, preparations, and skeletons ; the natural h istoryof th e atmosphere, illustrated by the standard pneumatic

experiments with the air-

pump ; the chemical composition of

the air, illustrated by preparing before th e classes the gases,Oxygen ,Hydrogen, Carbonic A cid, Nitrogen , etc.

, and per

forming the well-known brilliant experiments with the same ;

th e natural h istory ofwater, including the laws of steam,the

prominent facts in electricity, and illustrations of Frank lin’s

great discoveries in that science and to all these have been

added copious explanations, togetherwith some historical andclassical matter. The Lectures have b een given in p lainand easy language ; the older pupils have repeated many

of‘

the experiments,and the classes have generally responded

intelligently to questions on the main poin ts . They were all

much interested in the lectures on Electricity, and whilethese were being given , quite a number of effective littleelectrical machines were built by the boys at trifling expense .

A s to the cost of these results to the Department :

During the period ofmore than a year through which th e

Lectures have extended,though an expense of over five hun

dred dollars has been incurred by the undersigned for illustrations and apparatus, ch emical and philosophical ; thoughan assistant has b een necessary to move the apparatus from

sch ool to school—and though a continual expense for ch emi

cals has accrued, yet at no time has the Department been

put to an outlay equal'

to the salary of a principal of one of

the Grammar Schools, or to that of most of the music teach

ers, none of which instructors are at any expense to illustrate their teaching . Seven lectures a week , in seven differ

ent schools, is the most the undersigned has been ab le asyet

to give, and th e aggregate remuneration for th is,as pre

scribed by the B oard, has been at th e rate of fourteen hun

dred dollars per annum for the school year of ten months.

Even if the undersigned had been fully emp loyed withtwo schools a day, for five days in the week, which is all

any Lecturer could possib ly do, the aggregate remuneration

would have been on ly two thousand dollars a year, out of

wh ich the necessary expenses must come. B ut in fact his

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a system, and enjoy great advantages thereby, but also experience some inconveniences. Systems change their directionslowly, and with difficulty. In the better class of DistrictSchools

,and in th e small academies throughout the State,

wh ich are more free to comply with the advancing require

ments of education,as well as in the private schools of “

this

city , wh ich are stimulated by an active competition , the

elements of Natural Science have'

for years formed/a part of

the standard course of study .

“

.The great value of'

this kind

of instruction was recognised by the Public School Societyand there are still remaining in some of the schools disjointed fragments of apparatus possessed during th eir admi

n istration . In the new course of Popular Instruction at the

Cooper Institute, Natural ; Science, in the form of illustratedlectures, forms a prominent. part

B ut the chief reason why the elements ofNatural Scienceh ave not a lready been introduced into the schools

,like those

are not of so old a’

date . It is with in th e memory of l ivmg

men that the compound natureof the air and of water were

first discovered,out of wh ich has grown Chemistry ; from

wh ich science we have derived those great inventions that

have so signally’advanced the civilization of th is century .

It seems to the undersigned quite as important that a boy

should have general ideas of the laws of steam,as of the

latitude and longitude of Timbuctoo ; and that a girl shouldhave some knowledge of the composition of the air

,as well

as to be ab le to “reduce th irty

- six ells Flemish to the deci

mal of a yard .

” The introduction of the outlines ofNaturalScience

,in the place of such information as this, can surely

be but a question of time .

There are some especial reasons why the B oard of Educa

tion should favor the policy of Lectures on Natural Sciencein the Grammar Schools.

7

l st. There is at present, aside from Lectures, with perhapsone or two excep tions, no instruction whatever in the Ele

ments of Natural Ph ilosophy, Chemistry, Geology, and

Physiology, in the Grammar Schools . What was left of thiskind of education from the administration of the Pub licSchool Society has died out by reason of the ti resome nature

of recitations from the book, unaided by illustrative appara

tus. B ut a very small part of the boys in this city, and not

one of the girls, can expect ever to enter th e Free A cademy,

to ob tain th is kind of knowledge.

Where,then

,if all Lectures on Natural Science be inter

dicted,can such information be

“

ob tained by the pupilsof ourCommon Schools2d . None of theWard Schools have now any Philosoph ical

or Chemical A pparatus, except what has been ob tained,in

two or three instances, by private subscription . To procure

a respectab le apparatus for each of the Schools separatelywould require the expenditure, by the B oard of Education

,of

as many times one thousand dollars as there are Schools ; thusinvolving an aggregate outlay of some fifty thousand dollars .

If used at all,th is apparatus would be used very irregularly ;

it would be continually getting out of repa1r, 1ncurr1ng in

th is way a continuous bill of expense ; and when used,the

experimen ts would generally b e unsatisfactory and incom

plete. Vexatious bills for chemicals,and other supplies,

would also be continually accumulating . B ut by a proper

system of Lectures,not only is a single set of apparatus made

to supply a number of Schools,but it is preserved and kept in

repair, and used systematically and safely, and in the most

effective manner.

A gain, a certain proportion of the experiments will “

failwhen first attempted, ,even in experienced hands, and it is

only through frequent repetitions, not only of the matter of

the lectures,but also of th e experiments, that complete suc

cess canbe attained .

3d . Natural Science,in the form of aLecture, once a week ,

in each School,is the elieap est form in which that study can

be pursued . The expense, as allowed by the B oard, amountedto onlyTwoHundredDollars for a school year of ten month s to

each School . When the size of the classes is taken into con

sideration (averaging more than three hundred), this will befound to be the cheapest tuition in the whole School system .

The music teachers generally receive three hundred dollarsayear from each School .Not only are Lectures the cheapest kind of tuition , but they

more than save their cost in the expense of books . The in

struction conveyed to the pupil, during the year, by this p lan ,is more than he would derive from an elementary book on

Natural Philosophy , one on Chemistry, one on Physiology,and one on Geology so that th e books alone for these studieswould cost the Department more

,for the same number of

pupils, than A pparatus and Lectures combined .

4th . Natural Science, in the form of Lectures, properly

illustrated, is th e most efl'

ective form in wh ich such studies

can b e taugh t. The more senses we can address,in convey

ing knowledge, the b etter. What a pupil has seen he is

almost certain to rememb er . It i s not necessary that he

should always recite what h e learns, or that he should be ableto embody the matter in any particular form of words. Very

few business men could write a treatise on the laws of trade,

and so th ere are pupils now in theWard Schools of our City,who are constructing effective Scientific A pparatus, and per

forming experiments with'

th e same,who never recited a les

son on th ese subjects . B ut it is not necessary for the B oard

to take the Opinion of any man on a point of this importance .

The notes and abstracts of the Lectures prepared by th e

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one of mere examination , and the general practice . in -

.this

respect‘

is not likely to change until lectures in NaturalSciencehave taken the p lace to wh ich they are properly en

titled in the school system,— that of a most powerful and

effective auxiliary in the work ofPub lic Instruction . The

school regulation wh ich closes the b ook to the pupil duringthe s ixrecitation hours must go a step

- further, and open to

him theteacher, and the teacher must have opportunity to

become familiar with the higher processes of oral instruction .

It is sometimes suggested that the Principals should givelectures on Natural Science. B ut the time of the Principals isalready completely occupied, and their energies are taxed to

the utmost, with their executive duties . Nor have they gene

rallyreceived that peculiar educationwhich is indispensab le tothe success of aLecturer on Natural Science

,but is worse than

useless in controlling and regulating the affairs of a school .

Even where th e Principal has the preliminary education,

and is furnished with the necessary apparatus, if-he were to

prepare one regular and systematic lecture every week , he

could do little else ; for it is on ly by combining together a

number of schools, and giving to each in succession the same

matter, that a special teach er can do this. The proper sys

tem is, for the special teacher to commence the week ‘with

a lecture, and repeat the same lecture with the accompany

ing illustrations and experiments twice ,a day, in successive

schools, during the five school days, making such modifica

tions at the time of each delivery as will adapt the lecture toth e actual condition of the class.

B y th is system th e undersigned has been enab led to furn ish.to each of his schools, during the past year, a fresh lectureevery week ; the illustrations for wh ich have cost

,on an

average, more than twice what he received for that lecture .

A llowing lectures in the public schools to be proper and

11

expedient, we are met at the next step by th e question of

uniformity . If'

the B oard will'

allow a word from a man ,

whose whole time and atten tion havebeen absorbed formore

than two years in the attempt to solve this vexed question, itmay be preper to suggest that

A comp lete and uniform system of School Lectures on

Natural Science,for g iving one lecture aweek in each of th e

Ward Schools, iniplies,l

of necessity, the expense of only one

full set of apparatus, and the salaries of four lecturers, eachof whom would have h is own subject or class of subjects, andh is own portion of the illustrative apparatus, and wouldspeak twice a day,

“

giving one lecture a month i n each school .B y the rotation of these lectures, every school would receive

one lecture a week,wh ich should be on a stated day and

hour, and would in this way come from a man whose largeexperience in teaching his own particular branch wouldensure

'

success: The‘ intellectual labor to th e lecturers inth is way would be

‘

only one- fourth part of what it has been

to the undersigned, as only twelve new lectures would berequired during the yea

It would seem proper to place such department of Natural

Science under the supervision of the City Superintendent of

Schools,and to allow ‘

space'in the Repository for

‘

keeping

the apparatus, specimens, diagrams, etc. , which collectionwould soon become a museum . In this way the standard

experiments in Natural Ph ilosophy—the more prominent

and striking facts and experiments in Chemistry— th e beau

tiful and instructive experiments in Electricity, Galvanismand Magnetism,

and'

the elements of Geology, with the pro

per diagrams—the Steam Engine, explained by means of

plans and sectional models—and the outlines of the structureand classification of A nimals and Plants, exp lained by means

of th e proper specimens, dissections, and preparations, would

be furnish ed by these four lecturers to every pupil in the

Grammar Schools ; knowledge of inestimab le value to thefuture industrial and m echanical interests of th is city, wh ichnot one in a hundred of the pupils, by th e present . system

ever attain .

The expense to the city of such a Department of Natural

Science would not exceed Ten Thousand Dollars a year ; asum

,wh ich

,however large it may seem by itself, shrinks in to

comparative insignificance wh en compared with th e annual

cost of Pub lic Education . It is not th e one hundred and

twentieth part of the present cash expenditure, to say

nothing of the use of the school buildings, or th e time of th e

scholars.

The experience of the last year h as shown that what wasat one time s upposed to be an insuperab le objection to such

a system—the danger in moving apparatus— is in reality

sligh t . Th e more delicate forms of phi losoph ical and chemical instruments are none of th em required .

Finally, if any idea of procuring comp lete apparatus for

each of the Grammar Schools is utterly hopeless,why shouldnot the teaching Of Natural Science

,like that of Music

,at

once lie Open to competition , allowing each Lecturer to fur

nish h is own apparatus, and be subj ect directly to the LocalB oards ? Have the Lecturers done anyth ing to subj ect them

to. an especial prohibition ? Surely the progress they havemade during the past year has not been such as to imply

th at the Trustees are prodigal of the pub lic money ? If the

Trustees have retained any Lecturer, he'

must have convinced

th emof the value of his‘

services and the Trustees are gene

rally the men who are most familiar with the interest of theirown sch ools and the relative value of th eir teach ers .

Is there any more availab le way Of resolving th is great

question ofNatural Science in the ward schools than the one

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14

A nd it only remains now for h im to regret, that in the

judgment of the B oard—fromwh ich there is to h im no appeal

- his well-meant attemp t should have proved a failure ° to

regret it not only on h is own account, but also, for the sake

of the gentlemen who so earnestly wish ed it to succeed, and

for th e sake Of the classes who are so assiduously and

patiently listening to his instructions . He can only hopethat this attempt to do someth ing in what he believes to be

a great and good work , will yet prosper, in .abler,and more

fortunate hands .

Yet he hesitates to separate from the classes to which - he

has become attached,

-. and he is led to believe th is feeling is

in some measure reciprocated by them . He has also justmade arrangements and purchases to th e amount of over

fifty Dollars for illustrating the January Lectures with

Hare’s compound B lowpipe and the corresponding experi

ments .

With the hope and belief, that this'

sort of instruction

would commend itself to the good Opinion of the B oard to

such a degree as to make illustrated Lectures on Natural

Science a permanent departmen t of Pub lic Instruction,he

two years since abandoned all oth er avocations and devotedh imself entirely to this one pursuit . The delays and diffi

culties attendant on all new enterprises prevented an earlycommencement and have continually embarrassed h is pro

gress so that no school has yet received fifty lecture s. The

Medical College find“

it necessary to give at least eighty inthis department Of instruction, and to repeat the course .

A nd now suddenly, without previous intimation, and without Opportunity of explanation , he finds himself deprived of

position by the resolution of your honorable body . Sensib leof th e great importance of the subject, and conscious that in

h is labors he has endeavored to advance the . true interests Of

15

education and believing thatwhat has been done is notwhollywithout success, and aware that the experiment Of Lec~

tures on Natural Science in theWard Schools has not yet

had a full trial, the undersigned respectfully petitions for a

reconsideration of the resolution prohibiting Lectures in thePub lic Schools.

Very respectfully,

ROB ERT L. WA TERBURY,

NEW YORK, Dec. 21, 1859.

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W i ld er. ) 5245[Jul y 15,

1 he B rain of the domestica . 1 . Preliminar y A ccount of the

Gross A natomy . With four p lates. B y B art G. Wilder, M .D . , Professor

of Comp ara tive A natomy, etc. , in Cornell Univen'

sity, and of Physiologyin the Medica l School of Maine, Member of the A m. Neurological A sso~

cia tion, etc.

(Read before the A merican Ph ilosop hica l Society, July 15,

Th is paper is in four parts z—A . Introduction . B . Th e macroscopic -vo

cabulary of th e brain . C . List Of poin ts to b e elucidated . D . Exp la

nation of th e plates .

A . INTRODUCTION .

Th e present paper is th e first of a series of contri butions to th e know l

edge of th e brain of th e domestic cat . A second—~A Descrip tion of th e

Cwebra l F issares, together with their Synonymy—h as b een nearly ready for

a year, and a briefprel imi nary ab stract ofit h as b een pub lish ed (Wilderbut it w ill more properly fol low th e presen t gene

—ral account Of th e en tire

b rain .

Th e t itle of th e series is made compreh ensive in order th at th e subj ect

may be d i scussed from any point of view. I h ope, th erefore, that oth ers

* Th i s n um b er refers to th e l ist at th e en d Of th i s p ap er. In th at l ist , th e

nam es of th e auth ors are p laced in a lp habetica l ord er .

mh e titles of sep ara te works

a re d es ign a ted b y letters , an d th ei r ord er h as n o sign ificance . Th e t i t les ofp ap ers

are numbered . In th e case of p ap ers p u bl i s h ed b e tween 1800 an d 1873, th e n um

b ers corresp on d to th ose in th e ch rono log ica l“Cata logue of S ci en t ific Pap ers ,

”

p ub l i sh ed b y th e Roy al S ociety of Lon d on . In o th er cases th e n um b ers are

on ly p rov i s ion a l , an d are p rin ted in i ta l ics .

Th e referen ces are mad e as fo l lows : th e nam e of th e auth or i s g iven first u n

l ess th e au th or h as b een i n d ica ted a lread y ; th en fo l lows th e letter or t h e num

b er b y wh i ch th e tit le of t h e wo rk or p ap er i s des ign a ted up on t h e l ist ; if a

Roman n um era l i s g iven i t d en otes th e n um b er o f th e volum e ; an d th e last

n um b er i s th at of th e p ag e . Th e sy stem of referen ces to a List was fol lowed

b y m e in 1872 , in th e p ap er en t it led In term emb ra l Hom o log ies t ) , an d h as b een

S i nce adop ted by o th ers .

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[July 15,

is one of th e tasks wh ich I wish to accomplish , but I trust th is will notdeter oth ers from undertak ing it .

”

Since th e ab ove was written , I h ave lost no Opportunity of accumulatingmaterials for th e illustration of th e enceph al ic anatomy of th e cat, and th e

museum of Cornell University now contains more th an 220 preparations

of th e brain of th at animal . A few of th ese are th e entire organ , or its

undissected h alves th e larger number‘

are dissections for th e sake of sh ow

ing certain points in its structure.

A t th e outset, I h oped to find th at, excepting purely h istological matters,

th e structure of th e h uman brain was so ful ly known as to require l ittle

more th an th e identification and description of th e corresponding features

in th e cat . It was soon apparent, h owever, th at some points of con sider

ab le morph ological importance were as yet undetermined, or at least pre

sented very un satisfactorily in th e standard work s . To th e deficiencies or

positive errors of th e pub l ish ed accounts, was added th e diffi culty of Oh

tain ing examp les of th e h uman b rain in such a condition as to serve for

th e determination of doub tful points . A fter con siderable ob servation and

enquiry upon th e subj ect, I am constrained to afii rm th at, by th e ordinarymeth od of extraction , th e fresh est human b rain is so distorted as to b e

useless excep ting for th e rough est kind of enquiry, wh ile th e average dis

secting- room brain is often only fit to b e examined with a spoon .

Th eoretical ly, of course, th e anatomy of th e human brain is to b e learned

only by th e examination of th at organ . Practical ly, h owever, so great

are th e difficulties of ob taining, preserving, and dissecting it, th at, with

most persons , a certain expenditure of time and money upon cats’

brains

w ill be more productive th an if devoted to th e brains of human b eings .

*

A fter spending more th an twenty years in th e study and teach ing of

anatomy and physiology , aided by th e b est models and plates, I feel that

n early all my real and sub stantial knowledge of th e brain h as b een derived

from th at of th e cat . Nor h as th e time yet come wh en I can examine a

cat’

s b rain for an h our, with out correcting somemisappreh ension , learn ing

someth ing new , or at least gaining some fresh conception respecting th e

organization or functions of th e organ , or its possib ilities in th e way of

variation .

Th e presen t paper concerns only th e gross anatomy of th e brain , and

even th at is treated in only a general way . I fully recogn ize th e great,

perh aps th e paramount, importance of a comp lete account of th e h istology

of th e organ , if only as a b asis for th e physiological , path ological and

* I h ave exp ressed el sewh ere (2) th e b el iefth at , o fal l th em ore easi l y access i b le

an ima l s , t h e cat offers sup eri or advan tag es for p rel im i n ary an a tom ica l wo rk,

b ut of course a larg e am oun t of i n form at ion may b e ga in ed from th e d issection

of any m amm a l,a s id e from th e m ere isk i l l in th e use o f in strumen ts wh ich

comes from th e i r actua l em p loym en t up on th e o rgan s . H en ce th e fol lowing

q uo tat ion from S ol ly (A . , i s g iven w i th en t i re ap p rova l“ I am su re th a t w h oever w i l l tak e th e troub le to go ov er th i s d i ssect ion [o f

th e rab b i t’s b ram l o nce or tw ice b efo re a ttem p t i ng th at o f t h e h uma n b ra in ,

W i l l fi nd h is p ath m uch faci l i tated b y t h e k nowled ge an d th e m an ua l d ex teri tyh e wi l l h ave acq uired .

”

W i ld en ] [July 15,

It is generally admitted th at th e b rain migh t b e of use in th e determina

tion of zoblcgical affinities . Th at it is real ly so seldom employed for th is

purpose, excep ting as furnish ing merely corroboratory evidence, is largelydue to th e vagueness of our information , wh ich p revents exact compari

sons . Now th e Carnivora in general , and th e Fel idae in particular, form

very compact and well - defined groups ; h ence th e careful comparison of

th e parts of th e cat’

s b rain w ith th e h omologous parts in oth er memb ers of

th e family and order sh ould not only b e comparatively easy, but also

afford some clues to th e functions of th e parts, as well as furn ish a basis

for taxonomic considerations .

It would probably be difficult to estimate th e influence, upon b oth ph ysi

ology and systematic zoiilogy, of th e sum of knowledge wh ich may b e

available wh en th e b rain h as received an amount of time, labor and

th ough t equal to th at wh ich h as b een devoted to th e skull .

Considering th e abundance of th e domestic eat in most parts of th e

world wh ere anatomy is cultivated, very l ittle use seems to h ave b een

made of its b rain . In several papers (Owen , Kraeg B enedikt

(1 and Pansch th e cereb ral fissures aremore or less fully discussed

but I am not acquainted with any special paper on th e entire organ , and

th e only figures of th e structure known to me are th e following : Th e

mesal surface is sh own by Leuret et Gratiolet (A , pl . v , fig . 3) th e pro

coel iac (ventriculi laterales) are sh own by Gegenbaur (A , 508, fig . 286) and

th e dorsal and ventral surfaces are partly seen in connection with th e

nerves in B ourgery and Tacob (A , p l . xvi) .

Th e sh eep’

s b rain seems to h ave b een selected by Foster and Langley

(A ) , and by Morrell (A ) , partly, at least ,on account of th e ease with

wh ich th e h ead may b e p rocured, th us avoiding th e kill ing of an an imal

for th e sake of th e b rain . B ut cats are so plenty, and so readily k illed by

ch loroform , th at no obj ection need exist upon that score, and the brain

is removed, preserved and dissected much more conveniently th an th at

of th e sh eep .

*

Th e smal l size of some of th e parts of th e cat’

s brain is an objection , no

doub t ; but th is is atoned for by th e numb er of preparations one may

make and k eep , and by th e ease wi th wh ich th e en tire organ may b e

h eld or placed in any position so as to ob tain th e b est l igh t with out th e

danger—wh ich is ever present with larger b rains

—of tearing by its own

weigh t .

B . THE MA CROSCOPIC VOCA B ULA RY OF THE B RA IN .

In a recent paper I h ave p resented somewh at in detail b oth th e

grounds for attempting a Revision of A natomical Nomenclature, and th e

resul ts of th at revision .

With a sl igh t rearrangement, and some unimportant verbal al terations ,

th e following paragraph s remain as th ere pub l ish ed (pp . 123, and

* For a d eta i led accoun t of th e m eth od s of p reparing th e cat‘

s b ra in , see my

p ap er in S cience ”

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Wi lden ] [July 15,

by an anatomical teach er, from wh ich I quote th e following :“ Th ere is

certainly ample room for it [ th e reform proposed] , but one cannot h elp

th ink ing th at in h is desire for set names, Professor Wilder approach es

pedan try . In view of wh at migh t h ave b een expected from so critical a

j ournal , I am disposed to feel more encouraged by th e admission th an dis

h eartened by th e obj ection .

Dr. Oliver‘

Wendell Holmeswrote me th e fol lowing letter upon th e sub

j ect, wh ich , with h is permission, was printed in“ Science for June 4, and

is h ere, in part. reproduced

B OSTON , May 30, 1881 .

DEA R DR . WILDER r—I h ave read carefully your paper on Nomencla

ture . I entirely app rove of it as an attempt—ah attempt wh ich I h ope will

be partially successful , for no such sweeping ch ange is, I th ink , ever

adop ted as awh ole. B ut I am struck with th e reasonableness of th e system

of ch anges you propose, and th e fitness ofmany of th e special terms you

h ave suggested .

Th e last th ing an old teach er wants is, as you know ful l well , a new set

of names for a familiar set of obj ects . It is h ard teach ing old professors

n ew tricks . So my approbation of your attempt is a sic cos non oobis case

so far as I am concerned .

it

Wh at you h ave to do is to keep agitating th e subj ect, to go on training

your students to th e new terms—some of wh ich you or oth ers will doub t

less see reasons for ch anging—to improve as far as possib le, fill up b lank s,

p erh aps get up a smal l Manual in wh ich thenew terms sh all b e practically

app l ied , and h ave faith th at sooner or later th e b est part of your innova

tions w ill find th eir way into scientific use.

it Th e p lan is an excel lent one—it is a new garment wh ich wil l

fit Science wel l, if th at capricious and fantastic and old - fash ioned - dressing

lady can only b e induced to try it on .

A lways very truly yours,

0 . W. HOLMES .

Dr. Holmes’

s l iterary auth ority , aswell as th e fact, perh ap s less generallyknown , th at for 33 years h e h as b een th e Professor Of A natomy in th e

Medical Sch ool of Harvard Un iversity,will give great weigh t to hi s ap

probation ofmy undertaking .

In Science for A p ril 29, 1881, Dr. E . C . Sp itzka of New York , well

known as an indefatigab le worker in enceph al ic anatomy and h istology,

pub lish ed (7) a letter to th e Editor respecting my article. Dr. Sp itzka

generously puts aside th e natural feel ing of disappointment th at a task

wh ich h e h ad contemplated for several years sh ould b e, h owever imper

fectly , performed by anoth er, and, togeth er with valuab le practicable

suggestions upon several important points, comments as fol lows upon th e

general subject

It is with mingled pleasure and profit th at I h ave read th e very sugges

tive paper on Cerebral Nomenclature con tributed to"your latest issues by

Prof. Wilder. Some of th e suggestions wh ich h e has made have been

531 [Wi lder.

latent in my own m ind for years, but I h ave lacked th e courage to b ringth em b efore my col leagues . Now th at h e h as b roken ground ,

th ose wh o

p refer a rational nomenclature to one wh ich like th e p resen t reign ing one,

is based upon erroneous principles, or rath er on no principles at al l ,w il l be rejoiced at th e precedent th us set for innovation s . A s Prof.

Wilder h as invited criticism, I take th e opportun ity of offering th e follow

ing remarks upon th e leading points of h is papers, in so far as th ey refer

to th e b rain alone .

1 . Th e principles announced are such as zootomists and anatomists

generally w ill agree with , to th e fullest extent .

it I h ave no h esi

tation in saying th at th e labor of th e anatomical studentw ill b e dimin ish edfully one - h alf wh en th is nomenclature sh all h ave b een defin itely adop ted .

it In Germany th e older system h as gone out of use almost

en tirely , and not th e least ch arm ab out th e work s of Hen le, Schwalbe,Forel and Gudden , is th e fact th at th ese auth ors h ave more or less done

away w ith th e amb iguous terms once rampant .

3 . In proceeding to comment on some of th e terms proposed by Prof.

Wil der, I wish it to b e distinctly understood th at I do so merely ten ta

tively and to promote discussion ; in so doing I feel certain th at I am

carrying out th at w riter’

s wish . It is but just to state th at th e maj ority of

th e

germs cannot b e discussed—th ey are perfection and simplicity com

b ine

I th ink D r. Spitzka does h imself scant justice in ascrib ing h is non -

pre

scutation of th e subj ect to a lack of courage .

”B ut I can well under

stand th at th e demands of an active practice h ave forced h im to defer from

t ime to time th e somewh at onerous task of putting h is material into sh ap e

for pub l ication .

*

In th e following discussion of th e macroscop ic vocabulary of th e b rain ,

I h ave transcribed freely from th e article ab ove named, introducing such

modifications as h ave since appeared to me desirab le .

Th e terms emp loyed by anatomists form two divisions th ose wh ich in

dicate th e p osition or direction of organs , and th ose by wh ich th e organs

th emselves are designated . Since, also, writers h ave usual ly treated of

th em separately ,it w ill b e convenient h ere to consider anatomical top ono

my and organonomy under d istinct h eadings .

TERM S or POSITION A ND D IRECTION—TOPONOMY.

D r. B arclay’

s volume h ad especial reference to th is division Of th e sub

j cet and its key- note is struck in th e following paragraph (A , 5)

The vague amb iguity of such terms as superior, inferior, anterior, p os

terior, & c. , must h ave b een felt and acknowledged by every person th e

least versan t with anatomical description .

”

Dunglison admits (A , 61) th at Great confusion h as prevailed w ith

anatomists in th e use of th e terms b efore, b eh ind, 850 . Dr. Sp itzka h as

forcib ly stated (1, 75, note 1 ) th e obj ections to th e use of anterior, & c . , and

th eir un suitability i'

s tacitly conceded in th e employment of oth er terms by

“ S i n ce th is p ap er was p resen ted , D r. S p i tz k a h as p ub l ish ed an ab le con trib u

t ion (10) to our k nowledge Of th e m eten cep h a lon ,i n wh i ch t h e top on om i cal

t erms h erein sugg ested are em p loyed .

PRoc. A MER . PHILOS . soc. XIX. 109 . 30 . PRINTED DEC . 6, 1881 .

W i ld er . ) [July 15,

several writers wh o do not expl icitly condemn th e current toponomy :

Gegenbaur (A , Mivart (A , Cleland (1 , Rolleston (B , 33,

note) , th e

F inally, th e need of a radical change of base h as b een proclaimed in one

of th e v ery strongh olds of anth ropotomy

Now th at th e more extended study of comparative anatomy and em

b ryonie development is largely applied to th e elucidation of th e human

s tructure, it is very desirab le th at descriptive terms sh ould b e sough t

wh ich may , with out amb iguity , indicate position and relation in th e

organ ism at once in man and an imals . Such terms as ceph alic and caudal,

dorsal and ventral , & c . , are Of th is k ind , and ough t, wh enever th is may b e

done consistently w ith sufli cient clearness of description , to tak e th e place

of th ose wh ich are only applicab le to‘

th e pecul iar attitude Of th e human

b ody .

” —Quain , A , I, 6 .

Th is is certainly explicit as to th e principle involved,and it is to be

h oped th at later edition s of th is standard Human A natomy may display its

practical app lication to th e b ody of th e work .

How slender is th e justification for retaining a toponomical vocabularyb ased upon th e relations of organisms to th e surface Of th e earth , appears

more ful ly wh en we reflect th at th e assumed standard, for th e h igh er ver

tebrates at least, is man in h is natural erect attitude ; yet th at both man

and an imal s are more often examined and compared w ith th e back down

ward, th is b eing an attitude truly ch aracteristic of on ly th at infrequen t

subj ect, th e sloth .

A s a single illustration of th e logical inconsistencies into wh ich we are

led by th e use of th e current toponomy , take th e series Of possible designa

tions of th e d irection o f some vertebral spinous process wh ich proj ects to

ward th e sk in of th e back at, or approximately at, a righ t angle with th e

myelon . With man th e direction in wh ich it poin ts is p osterior, b ut with

a eat it is sup erior, wh ile with an ape or a b ird it is somewh ere b etween th e

two w ith all four,wh en on th e d issecting tab le, it would b e usual ly in

fer ior . Final ly, with a flounder th e corresponding direction would b e

horizonta l or sidewise.

In sh ort, to designate th e location s of organs by th e relations of animals

to th e surface of th e earth , wh ich relation d ifl'

ers in nearly al lied forms,

and varies w ith th e same individual according to circumstances, is as far

from p h ilosoph ical as it would b e to define th e p lace of a h ouse or a tree by

reference to th e p lanet Jup iter, or to assume th at m ankind naturally face

the rising sun, and h ence to designate our righ t and left as th e south and

north sides of th e body .

Th e present tendency of accurate anatomical description is to refer th e

position or direction Of all parts and organs to an imaginary plane div iding

th e b ody into approximately equal righ t and left h alves h ence it is desira

b le to designate th is middle p lane, or any l ine contained th erein , by a

word whi ch is at once significant, sh ort, and capab le of infl ection . Dr.

B arclay proposed mesion, and mesial has been general ly used but would

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535 [W ild er.

A BB REVIA TIONS OF THE CR A NIA L NERVES . (iSee fig .

For convenient comparison , th e numerals appl ied by Soemmering

prefixed to th e proper ab breviations .

vi. abd .—A bducens .

xi . ac.- A ccessorius (spinalis) .

viii au .—A uditorius . (Portio mollis . )

f .—Facialis. (Portio dura . )

ix . gp h .—Glossoph aryngeus .

xu . hg .—Hypoglossus .

iii . ocm.

—Oculomotorius . Motor communis .

i . cl.—Olfactorius .

11 . op .—Opticus .

iv . tr .—Troch learis . Path eticus .

v . trg .- Trigeminus . Trifacialis .

x . c .—Vagus . PneumOgastricus. Par vagum .

’

LIST OF THE PA RTS OF THE CA T’

S B RA IN WHICH A RE VISIB LE TO THE

UNA IDED EYE .

To avoid repetition , th is l ist is accompamed by th e‘

abb reviations wh ich

are used upOn th e p lates, and , for conven ience of reference, th e names are

arranged in th e alph abetical order of th e abb reviations . Only th e abbrevia

tions of genera l names are cap ital ized . Th e numb ers follow ing th e

names indicate thefigures upon wh ich th e parts are Sh own , or, in a few

cases, th e-

pages on wh ich th ey are mentioned .

Most of th e names are th ose in common use, with th e omission of super

fluous elements l ike corpus, and th e genitives Of th e names of more com

p reh ensive parts . Most of th e apparently new names w ill b e found to be

old acquaintances under such th in disguises as translation , transp osition ,

abridgment, and th e substitution of p refixes for qualifying words. In a few

cases th e old names, arewholly discarded for briefer new ones. Most of th e

new names, h owever, refer to parts apparently unob served h ith erto (e. g

crista , co/rina , delta) , or to parts wh ich—al th ough p robab ly ob served

seem not to h ave b een regarded as needing a special designation (e. g . ,

a/ula , quadrans, p ero) .

SO much of each name as immediately follows th e abb reviation , is re

garded as a sufli cient designation Of th e part under ordinary circum

stances sometimes it may b e desirab le to add th e words in parenth esis .

a .—A ula. Th e cavity of th e primitive prosenceph alon , or Lobus com

mun is . 3, 13, 16 . See p . 540 .

abn .—A lb icans (Corpus) . 3, 4, 11 .

a lb.—A lba (Sub stantia) . Wh ite matter. 13, 14, 20.

op w.—A ul iplexus . Not distinctly sh own . See p . 542 .

M b. ct.—A rbor vitae (cereb elli) . 4.

A r . cr .—A rea cruralis . 3, 1 1 .

A r . icr .-A rea intercrural is . 3, 1 1 .

A r. cl. - A rea el liptica . 3.

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W i ld en ]538 [July 15,

p n .-Pons (Varoln ) . 2, 3, 4, 9, 11 .

ppf .—Postperforatus (Locus) . 3, 4,

ppm—pOI‘tip lexus . 18 .

p rc.—Procoelia . Coelia prosenceph al i ; ventriculus lateral is . 15, 16,

18, 19 .

p rcs .—Prsecommisura. Commissura anterior. 4, 14, 16.

p rcu .—Praecornu (procoelias) . Cornu anterius . 13, 15, 16, 18, 19 .

p ren .—Prosenceph alon . Cereb rum . Hemisphmrae.

p rgn .—Prsegen iculatum . Corpus geniculatum externum . 7, 8, 9 .

p rpf .—Preeperforatus, (Locus) . Locus perforatus anterior. 3, 4, 11 .

p rp n—Proplexus . Plexus procoel iae. 15, 18 .

p s . cl . —Pes olfactorius . 16.

Pt. d .—Portio depressa (praeperforati) . 3, 11 .

Pt. dien .—Portio dien ceph al ica (cruris cerebri) . 11 .

Pt. msen .—Portio mesenceph alica (cruris cereb ri) . 11 .

Pt. p .—Portio prominen s (praeperforati) . 3, 4, 11 .

p y.

—Pyramis (metenceph ali) . Pyramis anterior. 3, 4.

p sc .—Pseudocoel ia . Ventriculus septi lucidi fifth ventricle . Not in th e

cat . See p . 549.

g.—Quadrans (cruris ) 11 .

r ._—Rima . Fissure of B ich at . 14, 17.

R . a .—R

_eceSsus aulae. 14.

R . op .- Recessus Op tions . 4, 11 , 16.

R . p rp n .—Recessus preepontilis. 4.

Rg . a .—Regio aulica . Th e complex region about th e aula .

rh c.—Rh inocoelia . Ventriculus ol factorius . 16.

rhen .—Rh ’

inenceph alon . Lob i ol factorn . 1, etc.

rm.—Rostrum (callosi) . 4.

rp .—Ripa . 14.

Rd . in .—(Cruris ol factori i ) . Not distinct in th e cat . See p . 548 .

Rn. l .—Radix lateralis. 3 .

Rd . ml . -Radix motoria (Nervi trigemini) . 3 .

Rd . ms.—Radix mesal is (Cruris olfactori i ) . 3 .

Rd . sn .—Radi_x sensoria (Nervi trigemini) . 3 .

s .—Striatum (Corpus) . 13, 15, 16.

El . h .

—Sulcus b ah enec. 7.

S l . ic. l . —Sulcus intercruralis lateralis . 11 .

Sl. ic. ms.—Sulcus intercruralis mesal is . 11 .

Sl. li .—Sulcus limitans . 13.

Sl . trd .—Sulcus triradiatus . 11 .

sp .

—Splenium (cal losi) . 4,6, 14, 17.

Sp t. lu .—Septum lucidum .

'

16, 19.

t.—Terma. Lamina terminal is . 4, 16. See pp . 541, 544 .

T. cin .—Tub er cinereum . 3, 4, 11 .

th .—Th alamus (Nervorum Opticorum) . 7, 9, 10, 13.

539 Wi lder.

Tr . op .—Tractus opticus. 3, 11 , 14, 19.

Tr . p rh .—Tractus postrh inalis . 3 .

te.—Trapezium . 2, 3.

cl. —Velum (interpositum) . Not Sh own . See p . 544 .

cm.—Vermis (cerebelli) . 1 , 2, 15.

cc.—Valvula (cerebelli) . 4.

A few of th e terms included in th e foregoing list need more extended

mention .

The encep halic segments—It is often convenient, and always more ph ilo

soph ical , to regard th e brain as composed of a series of segments or dici

sions, each con sisting of a cavity, with its sides, floor, and roof variously

th ickened, convoluted, or oth erwise modified . So far as is known , th e

anatomical divisions most conven ien tly made correspond essentially with

th e series of embryonic vesicles .

To th ese division s, th e German anatomists, fol lowing, I b elieve, Von

B aer, app ly th e names corderhirn , zwischenhirn , mittelhi rn , hinterhirn , and

nachhirn , wh ich are commonly rendered in English by forebrain ,

’

ti oeen

brain , midbra in , hindbrain , and afterbrain .

In converting th ese vernacular terms into tech nical , anatomists h ave

generally recognized th e practical advantage of regarding th e Lobi alfaotorii as a segment apart from th e cerebral h emisph eres, under th e name of

rhinencep ha lon . Th e h emisph eres, including th e striati, etc constitute

th e p rosencep ha lon , and th e Lobi op tici , with th e corresponding portion of

th e Orura cerebri, form th e mesencep ha lon . So far, all agree . B ut th e

region including th e th alami, between th e prosen . and th emesen . h as b een

variously called deutenccp ha lon , tha lamencep halon , and diencep ha lon . Un

ab le to ascertain wh ich h as priority, I select th e last as th e Sh ortest and

most applicab le.

Upon th e names of th e remaining parts of th e brain th ere is more

serious divergence of usage among writers . Owen (A , I, 293) cal ls it

all ep encep ha lon ,

‘ but Huxley appl ies (A , 60) th at name to th e pons

and cereb ellum as a division separate from th e medulla, wh ich h e cal ls

myelencep ho lon , notwith standing th is term h ad been previously proposed by

Owen (A , I, 268) for th e entire “cerebro - sp inal axis .

”

In th is, Huxley is

followed by th e Engl ish editor of “ Gegenbaur”

(A , xiii) notw ith stand

ing h is admission th at a different nomenclature h ad b een previously pub

l ish ed in Quain (A , II, Th e editors of “ Quain recognize th e two

divisions, and apply ep encep ha lon to th e pons and cerebel lum, giving to

th e medulla proper th e name metencep ha lon . On al l accounts , th is seems

to me th e b est arrangement of terms for th e encephalic segments, and is

followed in th e present paper.

The ccclia , or encep ha lic“centrioles .

—Th e incongruity of th e anth ropo

tomical designation s of th e enceph alic cavities h as b een pointed out by

Owen (A , I, 294, note) , and th e writer (9 ,

,Th e cana lis centra lis expands into a cavity wh ich , al th ough th e first of

PROC . A MER . PHILOS . soc . x1x. 109 . SP . PR INTED DEC . 6, 1881 .

W il der.) 540[Jul y 15.

th e series, is called th e fourth ventricle . Th e more or less distinct cavities

corresponding to th e cerebellum and th eLob i optici are not called ventricles

at al l , and th e th ird is b etween th e th alami. Th e two “ lateral”

ventricles

are rarely mentioned as th e first and second , but since th e numb ers must

b e understood in order to account for th e th ird and fourth , th e student

d esires, in vain , to know wh ich is th e first and wh ich th e second . In poin t

of fact, if th e enumeration is b egun at th e ceph al ic end of th e series, th e

lateral ven tricles are th e th ird and fourth, since th ere are well - developed

ventricles in th e Lobi olfactorii . Finally, a fifth ventricle is mentioned,

wh ich is not only at th e greatest distance from th e fourth , but h as no

normal connection with th e oth er ventricles, and is, in fact, no part of th e

series .

In view of all th is, th e task of describ ing to students th e h ighways and

by-ways of th e b rain

—wh ich sh ould be most attractive b ecause th erein is

most clearly man ifested th e ideal arrangement of th e organ—is one from

wh ich I sh rink as from any oth er k ind of solemn nonsen se . To my mind .

indeed,rath er th an go on as we h ave b een going, it would b e at once more

ph ilosoph ical and more intel l igible to adopt th e simple vocal device em

p loyed by Straus-Durckh eim for th e designation of th e Ossa metatarsal ia

padion , pedion , p idion , podion , pudion—and to re - ch risten th e ventricles

by , for 1nstance, th e names p ran , p ren , p rin , p ron , and p run .

Fortunately , h owever, anoth er alternative is presented . A ssuming th at

th e terms rh inencep ha lon , p rosencep ha lon , diencep ha lon ,met encep ha lon ,

ep encep ha lon and metencep ha lon are to b e retained, and that th ey are to

b e learned by successive generations of students , wh y sh ould we no t

transfer th e distinctive p refixes to th e Greek word for ventricle, zoc/lc’

a,

omlid ? Th is would give us rhinoccelid , p roccelid , did ocelid , mesoed tid , ep icwlia ,

and metd ccelia .

Th ese terms are capab le of inflection ,and th e longest of th em is no

longer th an th e Latin oentricntns, wh ich requires a prefix or qual ifying

word . Th ese prefixes may b e also employed fdr th e designation of th e

membraneous roofs of th e th ird and “ fourth ventricles, and th e

p lexuses of th ese and th e lateral ventricles . Thus we sh ould h ave meta

teld and metap lexus, diatela and diap lexus, p roplarus, p ortip lezvus, and an ti

p lewus . Two or more“ven tricles

”

would b e spoken of as ewlite, wh ile

th e“ fifth ventricle,

”

wh ich is real ly no part of th e series, may wel l

b e called p seudocai lid .

A udra—I h ope, b efore long, to justify more fully th e preposition already

made (Wilder, 5 and to consider th e ceph al ic portion of th e th ird ven

tricle b etween th e p ortce (Foramina Monroi) , as a morph ological ly inde

pendent cavity under th e name of amid .

Portd .—Th is is proposed as a convenient substitute for th e ph rase

Foramen Monroi. If th e two orifices leading, respectively, from th e

two procoel ias (“ lateral into th e aula, and so commun icating

w ith th e entire mesal series of coel iae, were seldom employed , or even as

frequentlyas“ Foramen Magendie, th ere migh t b e less cal l for a ch ange

of name ; but, according to my view of th e best meth od of study ing th e

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W i lden ]542

[Jul y 15,

O. A LIST OF SOME POINTS TO B E ELUCIDA TED .

No part of th e cat’

s b rain is th orough ly or sufficiently understood, and

al l parts need monograph ic treatment . Th e fol lowing points, th erefore, are

selected b ecause th e deficiencies in our knowledge of th em h ave b een most

d istinctly impressed upon me.

A lbicans.—abn .

—Have th e a lbiean tia th esame relation to th eColumnaefor

nicis wh ich is said to exist in th e human b rain ? Wh at morph ical or telical

significance h as th eir degree of separation from one anoth er ?

A rea ellip tica .—A r . el .—With wh at does th is correspond in man and th e

lower vertebrates ? If it represents th e oliea or olivary body , its position

is reversed from th at in man in relation to th e apparent origin of th e N .

hyp oglossus .

A rea ova lis .—A r . oo.

—With wh at does it correspond in man and th e

lower vertebrates ? Wh at are its relations to th e several columns of th e

myelon and metenceph alon ?

A ula .-a .—Wh at are its precise l imits ? In th e cat, and oth er forms with

a large med ieommissura , th is commissure may b e regarded as its caudal

b oundary but in man , wh ere th e commissure is smaller, and in th e lower

vertebrates wh ere it is wh ol ly ab sent, th e question of limitation is more

difficult .

A a lip lexus .

—apw.

—Th e p lexus wh ich appears near th e dorsal end of th e

anta on each side. Th is plexus is continuous, th rough th e p ortip laeus,

w ith th e p rop lexus, and apparently also with th e diaplexus, but th e rela

tions of th e latter are doub tful .

A s to th e plexuses in general , are th ey formed as stated byQuain’

(A ,

II, and oth er auth ors, by th e intrusion of th e free b order of th e

velum, or of processes th ereof, still covered by th e endyma, into th e

various cavities, or as recently stated by M ivart (B , 266)

Th e ch oroid p lexuses of th e lateral ventricles are (like th ose of th e

th ird) merely portions of th e ependyma, wh ich h appen to b e very vascular,

and are not really intrusion s from w ith out .

”

Th is statemen t is so positive th at, th ough unsupported by figures, or

detailed description , I forbear to affirm th e contrary . So far as I can judge,h owever, th e p rop lemnses are intrusions of th e p ia,

wh ile th e die/p lexuses

seem to correspond more nearl y w ith th e view ofMivart . In th e one case,

th e fold of velum bears to th e fold of endyma th e same relation wh ich an

abdominal viscus b ears to th e v isceral layer of peritoneum in th e oth er

case, th e p lexus may be compared to a fold of omentum .

Car ina (fornicis) .—ea . f .

—How nearly constant is it, and wh at is its sig

n ificance

Oa/ada (striati) .—cd . s.

-Is it distinct in th e cat ? Has it th e relations des

cribed in man by Cuvier (E, III, and oth ers, and more recently and

ful ly by Dalton (Z, 13 )Spitzka says (7)“ I h ave identified th is structure in th e eat ; it does not make as fine a

sweep as in man, but is distinct at th e roof of th e inferior h orn and loses

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W i ld en ] 546[Ju ly 15,

are sh own : Th e Fissura dorsimesa lis (F or“ Posterior fissure ;

th e dorsilateral fissure (F . d l . ) th e Columna dorsalis (Olm. and th e

Olm . latera lis (Olm. l . ) on th e righ t side, th e p rincipal trunk of th e JV.

accessorius (N . and th e dorsal or sensory fun icul i of th e first spinal

n erve (JV. cc .

A s already stated , th e fissures of th e h emisph eres are d ifl‘

eren tly repre

sen ted upon th e two sides . Th e comb ination of th e two k inds of fissural

arrangement in a single figure serves to illustrate th e extent of th e lateral

variation and compen sation to wh ich attention was called by me in 1873

(10,Th e postsylvian and supersylvian (FF . p s . and s . ) are represented as

united upon th e left side, but separated on th e oth er . Th e junction ismore common , but th e separation is sometimes complete . Th e case is

somewh at similar with th e latera lis and meditatera lis (FF . l . and

Th e ansa te fissure (F. an . ) present s itsel f in so many forms th at it is difli

cul t to determine its n ormal condition and connection s . It is usual ly

j oined with eith er th e latera lis or th e coronalis or b oth wh en separate,- it

often is trirad iate ; but occasional ly , as in prep . 294, on th e left side, it

forms a nearly straigh t fissure at righ t angles with th e lateral is and coro

nal is, and wh ol ly independent of th em both . Th is condition is repre

sented on th e righ t side of fig . 1 . Th is fissure demands fuller investiga

tion , especial ly w ith reference to its representation in th e h uman b rain .

So far as I k now , th e fol lowing junction s of fissures wh ich , on some

grounds , may b e regarded as fissural integers, are constan t in th e cat Of

th e rhina l (rh . ) w ith p ostrh ina l and of th e -sy lvian with th e

point o f th eir un ion ; of th e sup erorbita l with th e‘

rh inal ; of th e

ca llosal (cl ) , w ith th e hyp oc’

amp a l and with th e p reradica l

wh en it exists .

Th e fol lowing junctions are common : Of th e diagona l w ith th e

anterior (a . ) of th e postsylvian w ith th e sup ersylvian of th e

meditatera l (ml ) , w ith th e lunate (Zn . and with th e la tera l or th e con

finis (of ) of th e margina l w ith th e p ostmargina l (pmr . ) and of

th e ansate with th e latera l or coronal or both .

Th e junction of th e cruciate (F. with th e sp lenia l (F. wh ich

Guillot h as seen once, Krueg tw ice (Krueg, 2 , and Pansch th ree

times out of fourteen , h as b een ob served by me on on ly four of th e many

h emisph eres exam ined . I h ave never seen a union of th e sp lenia l with th e

p ostrhina l p rh .

I h ave n ever ob served th e union of th e anterior and posterior fissures to

form th e“ first or lowest arch ed fissure

”

of th e Can idae. On th e oth er

h and ,as stated by Krueg and by myself th is un ion some

t imes fails w ith domestic dogs h ence, in th is as in many oth er resp ects,

th e cat presents less tendency'

to vary .

A junction of two fissures is usually mark ed by a less depth of th e com

pound fissure at th at p oint , constituting a concealed transition convolu

t ion or pli de passage, wh ich may b e seen by separating th e sides or

by slicing off th e cortex .

LW l l d e l ' .

Fig . 2 .—Th e sinistral asp ect of th e brain . From prep . 288 . Enlarged

two diamet ers .

Th e Lobus olfactorius (L. ol is made somewh at too p rominent . Th e

curved line upon its lateral surface ind icates, approximately, th e boundary

of th e more ceph alic portion of th e pero or ectal layer, wh ence arise th e

Nerei olfactorii . Th ese nerves are nbt sh own .

Th e features of th e Orus olfactorium indicated by lm. cin . and lm a lb.

are more fully sh own upon fig . 3 .

Th e Nereus op ticus (N . op . ) proj ects from th e ventral margin of th e fig

ure, and th e Fissura Sylviana (F . s . ) is seen dorso- caudad of it .

Th e ventral end of th is fissure, as is always th e case in th e cat, joins th e

fissure wh ich forms th e dorsilateral boundary of th e Tractus olfactorius

(Tr. and th e ceph alic and caudal divisions of th at fissure are.

cal led re

spectively rhina lis and p ostrhina lis (FF . rh . and So much of th e

h emisph ere as l ies caudad of th e F . Sylviana forms th e Lobus temp ora lis

(L . th e ventral extremity of wh ich is th e Lobulus hgp occwnp ce (Ll .

Th e cerebellum (ebl. ) presents th e narrow median lobe or cermis (em ) ,and th e Lobus lateralis (L. Near th e ventricephalic angle of th e lat

ter, two or th ree of th e lam inae of th e second tier project as th e Lobulus

app endicularis (Ll . wh ich is seen b etter in fig . 3 .

Th e metap lerus shown in fig . 3 h as b een removed , so as to ex

pose th e prominent Eminentia auditoria (Em. wh ence springs th e

N auditorius (N .

Just ventrad of th e eminence is th e trap ezium (ta ) , and ceph alad of th is

is th e p ens (pn) .

B etween th e pons and th e h emisph ere appears a part of th e Orus cerebr i

(Or . ab ) , and ceph alad of th is is th e slenderN . troch learis (N . wh ich ,

by inadvertence, seems to emerge from th e F . p ostrhinalis instead of from

b etween th e cerebellum and th e h emisph ere .

Th e N . trigeminus (N . trg . ) h as b een cut sh ort, in order th e more clearly

to sh ow that it emerges just caudad of th e pons, and not th rough it

as in man .

Th e remaining nerve origins are indicated only by dots . Those of th e

NN . glossop hargngeus, cagus and accessorius (NN . gp h . , c . and ac. ) form a

series . A t th e side of th e myelon , near th e dorsal and ven tral borders, are

seen th e origins of th e first cervical nerve (N .

In th is figure th e fissures are accurately represented as th ey are in th e

preparation, excep ting that th e smal l F . lunata (F. h as b een added

from prep’

s 519 and 520 . Th e smal l F. intermedia migh t wel l h ave b een

inserted between th e dorsal ends of th e FF . anterior and p ostica (FF . a

and p ) .

PLA TE II .

Fig . 3 .—Th e basis encep ha li, or ventral aspect of th e brain . Enlarged

two diameters .

Th e proportions and general features are from th e brain of an adult 9 ,

W i l den ] 548[July 15,

Maltese and wh ite, prep’

s 288 , 289 . Some details of th e A rea p rwchias

matica (th e region cephalad of th e ch iasma) are from 461 and 527 of th e

A r . p ostp ontilis (th e region caudad of th e pens) from 358 , 454 and 491, and

of th e in termediate A . crura lis from 422, 506, and 527.

Most of th e nerves and cerebral fissures are lettered on th e righ t side,

and most of th e oth er parts on th e left . Some of th e left nerves are cut

sh ort, and th e left N . troch learis is not sh own at al l .

Th e Lobi olfactorii (Ll. and are made too long, and th e hyp op hysis

(hp h . ) is too sh ort .

A ttention is cal led to th e following points, ch iefly in comparison with

th e h uman brain

Th e ab sence of a distinct Radix intermedia (R23. in . ) of th e Orus olfactoriam, corresponding with th e so - cal led middle root of th e olfactory

nerve in man . Th e part so designated upon th e plate is apparently only

an area, comparatively undifferentiated , b etween th e more or less fibrous

tracts forming th e Radices mesa lis and latera lis .

Th e turn ing of th e Re}. mesa lis (Re . ms . ) over th e margin of th e brain so

as to app ear upon th e meson .

Th e distinction of th e Re . latera lis (Rx. l . ) into a lateral gray and a

mesal wh ite tract, th e Limes cinerea (Lm. cin . ) and th e Inn . a lba .

Th e great exten t of th e (Locus) p rocp erforatus and its division

into a cephal ic more prominent portion (Pt. and a caudal depressed

portion (Pt. B oth portions are perforated,”

but th e degree of fur

rowing of th e Pt. p rominens varies con siderab ly . Th ese furrows exist in

some oth er Carn ivora .

Th ewidth of th e hyp op hysis and th e crenation of its caudal border,

indicating th e existence of an ental sub sph erical mass, wh ich is covered

by an ectal layer, th e th inness of wh ich , in th e caudal region , permits th e

contour of th e former to b e seen .

- Th e slightdegree of separation of th e a lbieantia wh ich are h ere

nearly concealed by th e hypoph ysis, but more fully sh own in fig . 12 .

Th e distinctness of th e cimbia or“tractus transversus p edunculi,

”

wh ich is b etter seen in fig . 11 .

Th e sligh t exten t of th e true p ostp erforatus (ppf . ) th e only part wh ich

is real ly perforated”

is a smal l triangular area just caudad of th e albi

cantia, and partly h idden by th em .

Th e less caudo - ceph alic extension of th e p ens (pn . ) th is exposes more

of th e A rea intercrura lis (A r . ic. ) than in man , and uncovers th e trap ezium

(tea) , wh ich , in man , is wh olly concealed . Connected also with th is

feature of th e p ens is th e fact th at th e N . abducens (N . abd . ) passes

directly ceph alad from its origin a l ittle caudad of th e pons, wh ereas in

man it is forced to curve around th e caudal border. Final ly, th eN . trigem

inus (N . in place of emerging th rough th e pons as in man , arises

wh olly caudad of it, alth ough closely appl ied to its surface.

Th e greater extent of th e A r. erura lis, wh ich may be ascribed both to

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W i l d en ]550 [July 15,

3 . Th e natural endymal surfaces of th e true ca lice or ventricles .

course th e,

“ lateral ventricles,”

procoel ias, do not appear.

4. Th e cut surfaces of th e commissures and oth er parts wh ich cross th e

meson , or l ie upon it . In th e cerebellum (ebl . ) th e relative areas of th e ental

a lba and th e ectal cinwea forming th e arbor eitce (arb. are ind icated by th e

sh ading with less definiteness, th e alba is sh own in th e callosum th e

fornix th e p rteeommissura (pres ) , th e postcommissura (p es ), th e com

missura habena/rum (cs . and th e chiasma Th e section of th e

medicommissura (mes ) sh ould appear as if composed ,at least ch iefly, of

cinerea, but no attempt h as b een made to indicate th e nature of th e cut sur

faces of th e Crista fornicis (Ors. th e terma th e hyp op hysis

th e infundibulum (inf ) , th e basicommissura th e conaxrium th e

op tici and p ostop tiei (op . and‘

th e oalcula (on ) , th e Orura cerebri (Or .

cb th e metatela (mti l ) , or th e rest of th e epenceph alon and meten

ceph alon Th e extent of th e transverse fibres of th e p ens (pn . )sh ould h ave b een represented, at least approximately .

So much of th e ceph al ic boundary of th e aula intervenes b e

tween th e p ra eommissura (pros ) and th e erista (Ors . f . ) is very th in , and

is too indistinctly sh own in th e figure . Neith er h ere nor at any oth er poin t

is th ere any such interruption of th e wall as would form a communication

b etween th e true coel iac and th e pseudocoelia or th e ectal surface of th e b rain .

It is probab le th at th e p resence of such a commun ication as i s ascribed to

th e h uman embryo, and to some animals in Quain (A , II, is due to

th e artificial rupture of th e natural connections .

A ttention is cal led to th e fol lowing points, ch iefly in comparison with

th e h uman b rain

Th e appearance of th e Rm. mesa lis (Rx. ms . ) on th e meson ,and th e

p resence of two sh allow fissures, p ostrad icalis and p rceradiealis (FF . p rd .

and p rrd . ) b etween it and th e adjoin ing surfaces of th e h emisph ere.

Th e large size of th e commissures, especially th e medicommissura wh ich

nearly fills th e diacoelia

Th e non - appearance of th e p orta wh en th e meson is viewed squarely

it is doub tful wh eth er th e h uman foramen of Monro”

is really visible

from th e meson .

Th e less extent of th e ca llosum, especially of its rostrum (rm ) . In

some h uman b rains th e rostrum does not extend so far as is usually

represented .

Th e darker spot on th e section of th e hypophysis represents th e space

occup ied by th e ental mass, wh ich h as b een removed .

Th e relations of th e pia are not indicated at al l, and are not wel l under

stood , especially between th e cerebellum and th e metenceph alon and

mesenceph alon .

PLA TE III .

With th e excep tion of fig . 13, all th e figures upon th is p late represen t

th e natural surfaces of regions wh ich are more or less completely conceal ~

ed by other parts in th e undissected brain .

[W i ld er.

F ig . 5.—Th e ceph alic aspect of th e Prosenceph alon after th e removal of

th e Lobi olj‘

actori i . From prep . 294. Enlarged two d iameters .

Th e harden ed b rain was transected at th e .FF . p ostica, so th at th e prepa

ration includes only th e ceph al ic two- th irds of th e prosenceph alon .

Th e drawing represents th e preparation tilted up so as to expose th e ven

tral aspect foresh ortened .

A s compared with fig . 6, th is migh t wel l h ave b een made of th e natural

size . A less regularly symmetrical b rainwould h ave been more instructive .

One of th e Urura olfactoria sh ould have b een divided at a little greater d is

tance from th e prosen .

So far as appears in th e figure, th e fissures are remarkab ly al ike upon

th e two sides th e left F . ansata (F . an . ) h owever, only th e meso - ceph alic

end ofwh ich appears in th e figure, presents th e somewh at unusual but verysuggestive condition of entire independence of th e F . latera lis (wh ich is in

visib le) and th e F. corona lis (F . On th e righ t side it is joined by th e

former fissure .

Th e righ t F. syloiana (F. s. ) is sh orter th an th e left, and presents a

sl igh t terminal b ifurcation wh ich is not sh own .

In consequence of th e removal of th e Lobi olfactori i , and th e tilting of

th e wh ole p reparation , so much of th e F . rhina lis (F. rh . ) as l ies ceph alad

of its union w ith th e F . sup erorbita lis (F. so. ) is practical ly obliterated , and

th e remainder of it is so foresh ortened as to appear as an insign ificant in

termediate portion of an extensive u - sh aped fissure formed by th e FF . syl

ciana (F. s . ) and sup erorbita lis (F. Th e appearances th-

us presented

are suggestive in view of th e idea of Meynert (1 , wh ich I also en ter

tained at one time (10, th at th e F. sup erorbita lis represents th e

terior b ranch of th e h uman F . sylviana , and th at th e interven ing part of

th e b rain corresponds to th e operculum .

”

A sl igh t preponderance of th e left h emisph ere just caudad of th e F . syl

v iana is somewh at exaggerated in th e figure, and th e Orura olfactoria

Or . at. ) sh oul d d iffer less in form and in th eir distance from th e meson .

Th e FF . olfactoriee (F. ol . ) appear as l ittle more than sh al low furrows .

On account of th e foresh ortening of th e ven tral aspect, th e line of sepa~

ration of th e Portio p rominens (Pt. p . ) ant h e Pt. dep ressa (p t. d . ) is indis

tinct . Th e Ll. hyp ocampw (Ll . hmp . ) on each side h as been flattened by

p ressure, and is so represented .

F ig . 6 .—Th e caudal aspect of th e Prosenceph alon , w ith part of th e

Dienceph alon , after th e removal of th e oth er parts of th e brain .

From prep . 292, an adul t 9 .

Th e dien . h as b een transected so as to leave a concave surface wh ich , at

th e meson , is close to th e caudal b order of th e medicommissura (mes ) , but

rises at th e sides so as to coincide nearly with th e caudal surface of th e

prosenceph alon .

The postcommissura h as b een removed, and th e slender transverse band

(Os . Just ventrad of th e sp lenium (sp . ) is th e Commissura habenarum.

c

W ild en ] 552[Jul y 15,

Had th e postcommissura b een left, th e in tervening space would be a fora

men , Fm. cone/rii .

Th e sh al low depression 0 1 th e ventricaudal surface of each h emisph ere

just laterad of th e splen ium,represents th e area of contact of th e op ticus .

Th e cerebral fissures are markedly unsymmetrical , and thus in contrast

w ith th ose of fig . 5. Th e righ tF . p ostrhina lis (F . p rh . ) is th e longer, and

th e righ t p ostsylviana (F. p s . ) joins th e F . sup ersylviana, alth ough th e place

of union does not appear in th e figure. On th e contrary , by reason of th e

p erspective, it seems to b e joined by th e F. medil atera lis (F. ml) .

Th e LlLl. hgp oeamp cwum h ave th eir proper rounded form in th is

preparation .

Part of th e diaccelia (dc. ) appears dorsad of th e medicommissura, and

part on its ven tral side. In man , th e commissure is smaller, and th e coel ia

correspondingly more'

extensive . On account of th e removal of th e h y

pophysis and infundibulum, th e diacoel ia Opens freely at th e Fm. infundi

buli (Fm.

F ig . 7.—Th e dorsal aspect of th e D ienceph alon (th alami and gen icu

lata), and of th e Mesenceph alon (op tici and postop tiei) .From preps . 397 and 494, adult 92Q, 423, a nearly adult 9 , and 506 .

En larged two diameters .

Th e principal features of th is figure were drawn from prep . 506. Th e

preparation was made by lifting th e caudal ends of th e h emisph eres , and

gradual ly separating th em , with th e callosum, fornix and velum , from th e

subjacent parts . Th e epen . and meten . were th en removed by a transec

tion just caudad of th e postoptiei .

Th e ca lcula (on ) was torn from prep . 506, so it is drawn as it appeared

in p rep . 494, after inflation by b lowing air from th e d iacoelia th rough th e

mesocoel ia or iter.

0

Th e Commissura habena/rum (0s . h . ) is really more distinct in prep . 397

th an appears in th e figure . Th e h abenae th eir sulci (St. h . ) and th e

l ines of reflection of th e endyma are taken from prep . 422 , and th eir dis

tinctness is not exaggerated in th e figure . Th eir morph ical sign ificance is

to b e noted in connection with th e genera. question of coel ian circumscription . Upon th is point, see a b rief note in Science

Th e complete roof of th e diacoel ia, th e dia tela (dtl ), is sh own in fig . 10.

A s compared with th e h omologous parts in man , th e feline postop tiei

(p op . ) and geniculata (pgn and prgn . ) are larger, wh ile th e tha lami (ih . )seem to be only th e mesal continuations of th e p rtegeniculata and

to lack altogeth er th e pulvinar or posterior tub ercle ofman .

F ig . 8 .—Th e caudal aspect of th e Mesenceph alon , with parts of th e

adjoining regions . From prep . 506.

Th e plane of transection coincides nearly with th e caudal surface of th e

p ostop tiei and h as divided th e p ens a l ittle caudad of its

middle . Th e catoa la (cc. ) was torn from th is preparation, and th e line of

its attachment is not d istinctly sh own . Someth ing of its position may be

judged from fig . 7. Th e caudal orifice of th e iter or mesocoelia (msc. ) is

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W i l d er . ) 554[July 15,

th ere is usually a deep notch wh ich may be cal led th e Incisura hgp ocamp ce

On th e left side, th e h emisph ere was dissected off so as to leave two cut

surfaces . One of th ese surfaces is plane and nearly horizon tal , and lies at

ab out th e level of th e dorsal end of th e p ostgeniculatum Th e oth er

is convex, and extends from th e ceph alic b order of th e former ob liquely

to th e ventral surface of th e b rain it corresponds closely with th e cephal ic

b order of th e Tractus op ticus (Tr .

Th e left medieornu is cut at ab out th e midd le, and at nearly a righ t

angle with its course h ence its lumen p resen ts its ch aracteristic crescentic

section ,th e ental b oundary b eing th e convex surface of th e hyp ocamp a

Th e ceph al ic margin of th e medieornu is h ere seen to reach th e surface

of th e h emisph ere close to th e Tractus op ticus, and th is narrow l ine of ih

terruption of th e true nervous wall of th e cornu constitutes th e rima . Th e

scale upon wh ich th is figure was drawn d id not'

permit th e relations of th e

p ia, th e celum, and th e p rop lexus to b e shown, and th e undulation s of th e

ectal surface, corresponding w ith th e FF . hyp ocamp ce and fimbrice, and th e

fasciola andfimbria are h idden by th e proj ecting postgen iculatum .

Most of th e ceph alic p ortion of th e b rain h as b een removed , but th e

Portio dep ressa (Pt. d . ) of th e p rcep erfora tus is seen , with part of th e Pt.

p rominens (Pt. Th e removal ofmost of th e ch iasma (ch . ) exposes th e

form and extent of th e Recessus op ticus (R .

Th e p ens h as b een transected ob l iquely , and its caudal portion removed

togeth er w ith th e rest of th e ep en . and th e metenceph alon .

Th e left Urus (Or. cb. ) is seen in its wh ole length , excep ting a smal l

part concealed by th e sl igh tly p roj ecting ceph al ic border of th e pons .

Th e wel l -marked cimbia (emb. ) may perh ap s b e regarded as th e b oundary

b etween th e d ienceph al ic portion of th e crus (Pt. dien . ) and th e mesen

ceph al ic portion (Pt. wh ich more d irectly supports th e op tici and

p ostop tiei ; in man , th is part seems to b e almost wh ol ly concealed by th e

p on s .

Th e righ t N . oculomotorius (N . ocm. ) is seen to emerge from th e crus

just caudad of th e mesal end of th e cimbia, a nd just laterad of th e Sulcus

in tercrura lis latera lis (Sl. ic. A marked longitudinal ridge of th e crural

fibres separates from th e p ostgeniculatum (pgn . ) th e dep ressed area wh ich ,

from its forming approximately th e fourth of a circle, I h ave cal led th e

quadrans

Th e a lbicantia (abn) .

are m‘

ore closely un ited th an in man , but th ey are

large, wh ite, and p erfectly d istinguish able . Th e sh allow furrow b etween

th em, togeth er with th e u - sh ap ed furrow wh ich forms th eir ceph al ic

b oundary , may b e named Sulcus triradiatus (S t.

Th e h ypoph ysis h as b een removed so as to expose th e Taber cinereum

(T. and th e th in raised margin of th e Fm. infundibuli (Fm. inf ) .

Just caudad of th e alb icantia, and partly overhung by th em, is a smal l

triangular depressed space with distinct perforations th is seems to b e th e

true p ostp erforatus

F"

F’

0 50 [Wi ld er.

Th e entire A rea cruralis may be more completely exposed by removing

th e cereb el lum and dorsiducting th e medulla, as in prep . 425.

Fig. 12 .—Th e dorsal aspect of th e Metenceph alon or Medulla, sh owing

th e metatela or roof of th e metacoel ia . From prep . 397, adult 9 , 464 and

491 .

Th e metatela h ere sh own is apparently independent of th e p ia l ik e th e

diatela it seems to consist of more sub stantial tissue th an simp ly endyma,

but I am not aware that its m icroscop ic structure h as been ascertained . I

am in doub t respecting th e precise l imits and attachments of th e metatela,

and th e form and location of th e “ foramen of Magendie . Hence th e

figure is vague and unsatisfactory upon th ese poin ts .

Fig . 13.—Part of an ob l ique transection of th e Prosenceph alon and

D ienceph alon to sh ow th e form and position of th e crista . From prep . 441 .

Enlarged two diameters .

Th e b rain was transected ob liquely at an angle of about 45 degrees with

th e general longitudinal axis . Th e p lane of section passed from a point

nearly dorsad of th e genu, th rough th e aula, th e medicornua and th e alb i

cantia . Th e figure includes only a part of th e caudal aspect of th e slice.

Th e dorsal borders of th e h emisph eres are d ivaricated sl igh tly , and th e

ca llosum (cl. ) is seen crossing th e interval th e sl igh t notch on each side

just dorsad of th e callosum is th e F . ca llosa lis (F.

Th e striata (s. s. ) are seen in section just ventrad of th e lateral expan

sion of th e cal losum, wh ile th e lower part of th e figure is occup ied by th e

th alami (ih ) , united by th e medicommissura (mes ) . B etween each th ala

mus and th e corresponding striatum is a groove, th e Suleus limitans

(Sl .

Th e Columncefornicis (Olm. f . ) are divided nearly at a righ t angle w ith

th eir course, and at a point just dorsad of th e crista (ers . wh ich is par

ticularly wel l sh own in th is preparation . Th e open space between th e

forn ix and th e th alami is th e aula and on each side are th e p ortce

leading in to the p roeaelia . A l l th e plexuses have been removed .

PLA TE IV .

Unl ike th ose ofPlate III, all of th e figures upon th is plate represent cut

surfaces, al though some natural surfaces are sh own also .

Fig . 14.—A ventricaudal view of th e fornix, w ith th e adjacent parts .

From prep’

s . 507, 463 and 396 (adult Enlarged two diameters .

Th e p reparations were made wh ile th e b rain was fresh , so as to p ermit

more flattening of th e h emisph eres, and consequen t exposure of th e fornix .

A fter th e removal of th e rh inen . , meten . , epen . and mesen . , th e th alami

and genieulata were excavated p iecemeal , so as not to injure or d isp lace

th e forn ix . Th e cut surface at each side of th e forn ix (ft) is th e p laneof division of th e dien from th e striatum .

Th e ceph alic end of th e prosen was th en sl iced down to th e level of th e

p rceeommissura (pres ) , wh ich is seen to send a distinct fasciculus toward

th e rh inen . on each side . Th en th e righ t h emisph ere was sliced obl iquely

Wi lden ] 556 [July 15,

from near th e meson dorsd - laterad so as to cut th e medieornu (mcu . ) and

hgp ocaonp a (hmp . ) at about th e middle of th eir length . On th e left side.

th e L . temp ora lis was allowed to fal l somewh at by its own weigh t so as to

expose th e forn ix more fully .

Th e velum and al l th e p lexus were removed so as to d isp lay th e pecul iar

mark ings of th e forn ix and its mesal portion wh ich is supposed to repre

sent th e lgra

Th e p orta (p . ) appear b oth sh orter and narrower th an th ey real ly are, on

account of th e ob l iquity of th eir planes to th e l ine of vision . Th e

v - sh aped l ine called rip a (rp . ) wh ich connects th e two portse, separates th e

delta (dlt . ) or entocoel ian part of th e forn ix from th e remaining surface ,

wh ich is wh ol ly outside of th e coel ian cavity. The delta forms th e roof of

th e d ata , th e ceph alic continuation of th e diacoel ia between th e two portae,

and th e ripa is th e line of reflection of th e endyma upon th e two auli

p leeus th e removal of th ese p lexuses causes th e rup ture of th e endyma

along th e ripa .

A t each s ide, th e ripa curves dorsad somewh at sh arply so as to reach th e

dorsal end of th e porta at th is point, and dorso- caudad for th e entire

length of th e rima th e endyma is s imp ly reflected from th e contiguous

surfaces of th efimbria (fmb. ) and th e corresponding border of th e striatum.

Hence th e rima is virtually closed, and th us wh ol ly distinct from th e porta .

On th e meson , between th e portae, is seen th e erista (ers: wh ich is

unusual ly rounded in th is preparation . Th e ! ccerina , wh ich sometimes

appears as a sl igh t mesal ridge extending dorso- caudad from th e crista,

does not appear in th is preparation . Th e Recessus aults (R . a . ) is th e cleft

b etween th e two Columnce fornicis (Olm. f . ) whose cut ends are seen just

caudad of th e praecommissura . Th e sh ading on th e caudal aspect of th e

columnse indicates, but rath er too distinctly, a sl igh tly depressed area, of

wh ich th e dorsal part, close to th e crista, sometimes p resents th e appear

ance of a transverse band , for wh ich I suggest th e name Commissura for

n ieis 0 8 .

A fter a prolonged examination ofmany preparations, I am unab le to de

fine accurately th e l imits of th e fornix and th e lyra A comparison of

th e accounts given in standard work s w ith th e appearances p resented by

th e l imited materials at my disposal , leads me to doub t wh eth er th e rela

tive extent of th e two parts in th e human b rain is well determined .

Th efasciola (fsol. ) is th ick , and no part of it presents th e denticulations

from wh ich its more ventral portion , in man , is called “ fascia dentata .

”

Th e peculiar curve of th e h ypocampe, medieornu and fasciola is well ih

d icated by th e fact th at th e F. hgp ocamp ce (F. wh ich corresponds

nearly with th em in direction , is v isib le in th is preparation only at its two

ends, near th e sp len ium and near th e tip of th e Ll. hyp oca/rnp ce (Ll.

B etween th e fimbria and th e fasciola is a depressed line wh ich may

b e called th e Fissura fi/mbrice (F .

Fig . 15.—Th e dorsal aspect of th e p roceeliee, with th eir p rop lecus From

prep . 465. Natural size .

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W il d en ] 558 [Jul y 15,

fornix and th e callosum, is th e mesal surface of th e righ t h alf of th e

Sep tum lucidum (Sp t. lu . ) and is in contact w ith its p la tetrop e or lateral

h omologue in th e undissected b rain . Th e th ickness of th e lateral laminae

constituting th e septum render th e adjective lucidum wh olly inapp licable .

Fig . 17.—Th e mesal aspect of th e righ t h emisph ere, w ith th e Lobus

olfactorius . From prep’

s 296 and 401 .

Th e caudal divisions of a h alf- brain were removed,and th e th alamus

careful ly excavated so as to leave undisturbed th e fornix (f. ) and th e

fimbria In th is respect, th is figure may b e compared w ith th e

left h al f of fig . 14.

Th e special obj ect of th is figure is to sh ow th e F. hgp ocamp ce (F.

in its wh ole length at once . So great is th e curvature of th e parts th at

th is is possib le only in a single position of th e preparation in wh ich th e

meson is foresh ortened . In general , th is figure may be compared w ith

th ose given by F lower (13) of th e rabb it and sh eep .

Th e dorsal end of th e F. hgp occwnp ce is seen to turn sh arply around th e

sp lenium so as to b ecome continuous w ith th e F . ca llosa lis (F . cl ) .

Th e fasciola is wide, and devoid of denticulations, but is crossed

ob l iquely by a sh allow furrow . In th is position of th e p reparation , th e

F . fimbrice (F. appears to b e con tinuous w ith a sh ort l ine passing

ceph alad to a point ven trad of th e cal losum in reality , h owever, th is latter

l ine is on ly one of th e mark ings of th e ventral surface of th e fornix, and

th e F. fimbrice, like th e F. ca llosa lis, turns sh arply dorso- caudad to termi

nate just ceph alad of th e splenium .

Fig . 18 .—Th e righ t p roca lia seen from th e righ t or ectal side . From

prep . 495.

Th e righ t h alf of th e brain was removed in successive sl ices until Wh at

remained was about 3 mm . th ick . Th e remainder of th e striatum was

th en everted from th e p raeornu Th e p rop lexus (prp a) is sligh t lyd isplaced , but th e p orta is h idden by th e p ortip lexus (ppm) . Th e medi

cornu (men ) , and th e hgp ocamp a are sh own in section , and th e

oth er parts will b e readily recogn ized . Th e relative h eigh ts of th e .

op ticus and th e p ostotp icus (p op . ) at a l ittle distance from th e

meson are wel l disp layed . Th e sh ort curved l ine at th e ceph alo- ven tral

end of th e procoel ia represents th e b eginning of th e passage to th e rh ino

coelia .

Fig . 19 .—The left pra cornu and p orta exposed from th e left or ectal

side . From prep . 495.

Th is figure represen ts th e oth er side of th e same brain as th at from

wh ich Fig . 19 was drawn . Th e preparation was made in th e same

way , but in addition th e proplexus and portiplexus were carefully sn ipped

ofl‘

so as to expose th e porta .

Th e p orta (p . ) is seen to open b etween th e Columncefornicis (Olen . f . ) and

th e ceph alic end of th e tha lamus Th e orifice would appear larger if

th e preparation h ad been so placed as to leave its p lane parallel with th e

p icture-

plane.

559 [Wi lder .

Th e membranes could not be sh own well on so small a scale. In th is

and in th e previous figure th e fornix is seen to b e continuous w ith th e

Sep tum lucidum (Sp t. lu . ) wh ich forms part of th e mesal wal l of th e p roc

cornu .

Fig . 20 .—Transection of th e fornixw ith th e crista . From prep . 508 .

Th e obj ect of th is figure is to sh ow th e decided elevation formed by th e

Crista (Crs . On ly enough of th e rest of th e section is included to

locate th e crista .

LIST on wonxs A ND P A PER S REFERRED To .

*

B arclay , Joh n .—A .

- A new anatomical nomenclature, relating to th e

terms wh ich are expressive of position and aspect in th e animal system .

0 . pp . 182, 5 plates . Edinburgh , 1803 .

Ch auveau .

—A .—Traité d ’

A natomie comparée des A n imaux domestiques .

seconde edition , O. , pages 992, 368 figs . Paris, 1871 .

Cleland , J —L - A remarkab le doub le monstrosity of th e h ead . Journ .

A nat . and Phys ,XIII, 164—172 2 p lates . 1879 .

Clevenger, S . V.—3 .

—Plan of th e Cerebro - sp inal nervous system. Read

before A m . A ssoc. for A dv. Sci 1880. Jour . of Nerv . and Mental Dis

ease, Oct . , 1880. Pp . 40, 26 figures .

Cuvier, G .—A .

—Lecons d’A natomie comparée. 2me edition , 8 vols ,

D . Paris, 1835—1846 .

Dalton , J . C .

—I.—Cerebral A natomy, with special reference to th e

Corpus Striatum . A nnals of th e A natomical and Surgical Society, II, 1

18, 6_figures . Jan . 1880 . Reprinted in“ B rain .

Dunglison , R .—A .

—A D ictionary of Medical Science . Large O . , pages

1131 . Ph iladelph ia, 1874.

Flower, W . H .—18 .

—On th e Commissures of th e Cerebral Hemi

sph eres of th e Marsup ial ia and Monotremata as compared with th ose of

Placen tal mammals. Ph il . Trans . clv ., 1865, 633—651, 4 p lates . A bs . in

Roy . Soc. Proc . xiv . , 1865, 71—74.

Foster and Langley .— A .

- A Course ofElementary Practical Physiology .

3d edition . D . , pages 276. London, 1878 .

Gegenbaur, C .—A .

—Th e Elements of Comparative A natomy . Trans.

lated from th e German by F . J . B el l . Edited by E . R . Lank ester. O . ,

p p . 45, 35 figures . London , 1878 .

Huxley, T . H .—A .

—Manual of th e Comparative A natomy of Vertebra

ted A n imals . D . , pages 431 , 1 10 figs . N ewYork , 1872 .

70 .—On th e B rain of A teles Paniscus . Zool . Soc. Proc. , 1861

247- 260 1 plate, 2 figures.

1 .—On th e Evolution and Classification of Mammal s . Zool .

Soc . Proc . , 1880. Reported in“ Nature,

”

Jan . 6 and 13, 1881 .

Hyrtl . ~—A .

—Onomatologia, etc . O. , pp . 626. Wien , 1880.

Krueg, J—2 .

—Ueber die Furch en auf der Grossh irnrinde d er zono

For th e mann er of referen ce , see th e note at th e b eg inn i ng of th is p ap er.

Wi lder.

560 [Jul y 15,

placentalen Saugeth iere. Zeitsch rift fur wiss. Zoologie, xxxiii, h eft 4,

1880.

Leuret et Gratiolet. —A .—A natomie comparée du systeme nerveux con

s idéré dan s ses rapports avec l ’intel ligence. 2 vols . , O. ,1284 pages, with

folio atlas of 32 plates. Paris, 1839, 1857. (Vol . I is by Leuret, Vol . II.

by Gratiolet as stated in a note appended to th e explanation of pl . xvii,

plates i—xx ii were drawn and engraved under th e direction of Leuret ;

b ut th e explanations of xvn—xxn were prepared by Gratiolet according

to Leuret’

s meth od th e remaining p lates were prepared under th e dirce

tion of Gratiolet. )Morrel l, G. H.

—A .—Supp lement to th e A natomy of th e

“

Mammal ia .

Contain ing dissections of sh eep’

s h eart and brain , rat, sh eep’

s h ead, and

ox’

s eye. O. , pages 269 . London , 1872 .

Meynert, T.—A .

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s Histology .

.L—D ie Windungen der convexen Oberflach e des vorderh irne

b ei Mensch en ,A fl

'

en und Raub th ieren . A rch iv fur Psych iatric, etc. , vn,

1877.

Mivart, St. George.—A .

—Th e common frog . Nature seri es, London,

1874. D . , pp . 158, 88 figures .

B .—Th e Cat ; its History, A natomy, Psych ology and Origin, an

Introduction to th e study of B ackboned A nimals,especially Mammalia.

0 , pp . 557, 200 illustrations .

Monro, A lexander, secundus .

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Function s of th e Nervous System . Illustrated with tab les . F . , pp . 176,

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th iere . Morph ologisch e Jah rbuch ,v, 1879 .

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2 vols . , O. , pages

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Reich ert, C .

<B .—A .

—Der bau des mensch lich en Geh irns . Zweite A b th ei

lung . O. , pages 192, 9 plates and 10 figs. Leipzig, 1861 .

Rolleston , G .—B .

—Th e Harveian Oration for 1873 . D . , pp . 90, 4 fig

ures . London , 1878 .

Solly, Samuel .—A .

—Th e Human B rain, its Configuration , Structure,

Developmen t, and Ph ysiology ; illustrated by references to th e nervous

system in th e lower orders of animals . D . , pp . 492, 2 figures, 12 p lates .

London ,1836.

Sp itzka, E . C .—1 .

—Th e central tubular gray . Jour. of Nerv . and

Mental D isease ; A pril , 1880 ; pp . 40.

2 Notes on th e A natomy of th eEnceph alon , especial ly th e larger

ganglia . Science,”

II, 14.

‘

Jan . 15, 1881 .

3 .—Th e p eduncular traits of th e A nth ropoid apes. Jour. of

N erv . and Mental Disease, pp . 27. July , 1879 .

4.—Th e h igh er Gangl ia of th e Mid and Hind B rain . Jour. of

N erv . and Mental Disease. July 1880.

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W i ld en ] 562[July 15,

reference to th at of th e b rain . Science, II, NO. 38, 122—126, No . 39,

133, 138 . Mar. 19 and 26, 1881 .

10 .—Th e two kinds of vivisection , sen tisection and call isection .

M edical Record , A ug . 21 , 1880, 219 . Reprinted in“ Nature,

”Sept . 30,

1880, and in Science, Oct . 23, 210.

11 .—How to obtain th e b rain of th e cat . Science, II, No . 41 ;

A pril 9, 1881, 158—161 .

12 .—Criticism of Sp itzka

’

s“ Notes on th e anatomy of th e en

ceph alon . etc . Science, No . 31 , p . 48, Jan . 29, 1881 . (Embodies a

statement of Opinion as to th e dorsal limits of th e diacoelia . )13 .—On th e b rain of a cat lack ing th e corpus callosum . (Pre

sented at th e meeting of th e A mer. A ssoc , 1879, but not yet publ ish ed . )Williams, H . S.

—A .—Th e bones, ligaments and muscles of th e domes

tic cat . O . , pp . 86 ; with atlas of 12 folio p lates . Copies, reduced one

th ird , of th e outl ine p lates in Straus-Durckh eim’

s A . Th e text is an ex

planatory index. New York ,1875.

A d d enda —Concern in g th emorp h ical relation s an d s ign ificance of th e conariuma n d t h e hyp op hy sis , see th e p ap er b y Pro f. Owen ,

read b efore t h e Briti sh A sso

e lat ion in 1881, an d rep orted in N ature ” for S ep t. 22, 1881.

In h is R ep 0 1 t for 1880, as En tom o log ist of th e U. S . Dep t . of A g ricul ture,

m y col league , Prof. J . H en ry Com stock ,exp resses (p . 284) 11 18 ap p roval of m ost

Of th e top onom ica l term s p rop osed in th e p resen t p ap er (p . 531) an d emp loy s

t h em i n th e d escrip t ion s of in sects th erein con tain ed .

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