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Transcript of Modern J Ainism - Forgotten Books
NOTES ON
MODERN JAIN ISMW ITH SPEC IAL REFERENCE TO THE
S’
VETA’
MBARA,D IGAMBARA AN D
STHA’
NAKAVA’
SI SECTS.
MRS . SINCLAIR bTEVENSON ,\I
, A.
SOMETIME SCHOLAR O F SOMERV ILLE COLLEG E, OX FORD .
OXFORD
B. H. BLACKWELL, 50 5 1 BROAD REE'
l‘
LONDON
SIMPKIN,MARSHALL CO , L IM ITED
SURAT : IRISH M ISS ION PRES S1 9 1 0.
HVN C L IB ELLVM DE TRIS T I V ITAE
S EV ERITATE CVM M BAE TVM MARIT I
MATRI M EMO RIAE MO N VM EN TVM
DED IC O QVAE EXEM PLVM LO N GE
AL IVM S EC VTA E N O M EN MATERNVM
TAM FEL IC ITER O RN AVERV N T .
M W 73 0 -0 4 5 M ASJM
M 5 01 5”
fw
2029268
PREFAC E.
THESE notes o n Jain ism have been compiled main lyfrom informat ion suppl ied to me by Gujarat i speakingJaina
,so it has seemed advisable to use the Gujarat i forms
of their technical terms .It would be imposs ible to issue th is l ittle book without
express ing my indeb tedness to the Rev. G . l’. Taylor
,D . D .
,
Principal of the Fleming Steven son D ivin ity College,Ahmedabad
,who placed all the resources ofh is valuable
l ibrary at my disposal,and also to the various Jainafriends
who so courteously bore withmy interminable quest i onings.I amspec ially grateful to a learned Jaina gentleman
who read through all the MS. with me, and thereby savedme
,I hope
,from some of the numerous p itfalls wh ich
beset the pathway of anyone who ventures to explore anal ien faith .
MARGARET STEVENSON.
Irish M iss ion,
Rajkot. India.
October 6th,1 909 ,
CO NTENTS
JAINISMLIFE OF MAHA
’
V IRA
RISE OF THE JAINA SECTS
THE JAINASCR IPTURES
JAINA ASCETICS
JAINA LAY ADHERENTS
JAINA DOCTRINE
KARMA
THE N I NE CATEGORIES
JAINA DIV ISIONS OF T IME
THE F IVE KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE
RATNA TRAYA : THE THREE JEWELS
JAINA WORSH IP
JAINA FESTIVALS AND FASTS
JAINA INSTITUTIONS
JAIN IS M .
“ JAINISM,
” says Mons ieur A. Barth ,“ i s one ofthe least
known amongst those [ rel ig ions ] which have pe rformedan important part in the past of India.
”Dr. Burge s s
’
f
b el ieves that research during the last half century hasperhaps been less directed to the study of Jain i sm than toany other branch of Indian study,
”and i t i s probably owing
to the prevail ing ignorance of Jain ism that a recentwriterIhas ventured to stigmat ise i t as a rel ig ion in wh ich thech ief po ints ins isted o n are that o ne should deny God
,wo r
sh ip man,and nourish vermin
,
” and to such a rel ig ionhe den ies the right even to ex ist.
Th is ignorance is all the more surpris ing when o ne
remembers the great interest wh ich attaches to Jain ism as“ the only one of the almost primeval mendicant orderswh ich survives in India at the present day,
”and the
contempt so l iberally poured forth is scarcely merited by arel igious community wh ich has done much to foster thestudy of language and of sc ience
,whose members
,though
numbering less than amill ion and a th ird,are almost;the
Barth . Religions o f India. p . 1 40 .
1" D igambara Jaina Iconography . p . 1 . Dr. Burge ss go e s on to
po int o ut t hat such re searc h as t he re has been is chiefly‘
directed
t o the literature o f the Swe tambara se ct .Hopk ins . Re ligion s o f India. p . 297 .
2 MODERN JA IN ISM .
most l iterate in India,
“
whose temples are famous amongstthe glories o f the East
,and whose worsh ip far excels
in purity of thought and ritual the Hinduism wh ichsurrounds i t.
Jain ism,l ike its great rival Buddh ism
,seems to have
taken its rise in the S ixth century before Christ,an age in
wh ich rel igious speculat i onwas rife in many parts of theworld .
In Indiathe j oyous,ch ildl ike faith reflected in the earl ier
Vedas had been stifle d under priestly dom inat ion ; the
Aryan Holy land was parcelled out among a numbe r o fpetty Chieftains
,who waged internec ine war one against
ano ther’ff
’ the cl imate, then as now, exerted i ts depress inginfluence o n all beneath its sway, and the consequentpess imism is reflected in the ph ilosophies of the t ime s .
The immediate cause wh ich gave rise to both Buddh ismand Jainism was probably the caste exclus iveness o f the
Brahmans in restrict ing entrance into the medicant o r fourthas ramato members of their own community; Th is restrict ionwas spec ially obnox ious to members of the next
,the
Ksatriya(orwarrior) caste, and it is not iceable that it i s fromthis caste that the h istoric leaders ofboth rel igions sprang
,
in apart of the world,too
,where Brahman influencewas
alreadyweakening.
Twenty - five per cen t o fthe Jainaare able to read andwrite thust hey are seco nd o nly to the Parsis , ofwhomtwo th irds are lite rate .
1“ Impe rial Gaze tte er of India. V o l. I . p . 4 07 .
The o ld Brahmanic re ligion dire cted aman to pas s t hro ugh foursucce ssive asrama stage s first t hat ofa relig io us student, nextthat o f. aho use - ho lder, the n to re tire fromthewo rld as an anchorite ,and las tly to spend the remaining years ofhis life as awanderingmendicant .
LIFE O F MAHA ’VIRA .
Mahavira,the founder, o r (as i t would perhaps be more
accurate to call h im ) the re former, o f Jainism,was born
about 599 B. (3. His antagonism to Brahmanism wasmarked even before h is birth . fo rwe are to ld in o ne of themost famous of the Jainasacred boo ks , the Kalpa Sutra,
"
that h is embryowas removed from the Brahman i Devi nandato the Ksatriyan i Tris
’
ala.
His father S iddharthawas apet ty Raja,the head of the
Ksatriya clan of the Nata,who l ived in Ko llaga, a suburb
o f Vaisali ( the modern Be sar about 27 miles north o f
Patna. Dr. Ho ernle’
r gives amost inte re st ing account o f thegovernment o f th is place
,wh ich seems to have been a sort
o fol igarchic republic ;“ its governmentwas vested in a
Senate,composed of the heads ofthe res ident Ksatriyaclans,
and pres ided over by an officer who had the t itle of K ingandwas ass isted by aV iceroy and aCommander in ch ief.”
S iddharthawasmarried to Tris'ala,the daughter of th is
re publ ican king,and from the Kalpa Sutra we gain a
charming p icture of the happy motherhood of the princess .We read of her j oy when , through the fourte en wondrousdreams vouchsafed to her in o ne night
,she learnt that She
should bear aprophet son,and ofher fixed determinat ion
not to go to sleep again that night lest any unlucky dreamss houldmar the effect; Before the ch ildwas born she tookherwalks in places which were empty and agreeable as well
Sacred Bo oks o f the East . V o l . xxu . p . 226.
1‘ Annual Addre ss , Asiatic So cie ty of Be ngal , 1 898.
I S . B . E . xxii . 24 0.
4 MODERN JAINISM .
as del ightful to the mind and at last,when the sky in
all i ts direct ions [was ] clear, bright and pure ;while afavourable and agreeable lowwind Swept the earth ; at the timewhen the fields were green and all people glad “
perfectly healthy he rself, gave b irth to aperfectlyheal thy boy.
" ”f
His father had already decided what the boy’s personalname should be From the moment that th is our boy hasbeen begotten
,our s ilVer increased, o ur gold
intens ity of o ur l iberal i ty and popular ity h ighly increased .
Therefore when th is our boy will be born,we Shall give
h im the fi t name,attr ibutive and conformable to h i s
qual ity— Vardhamana,
” i . e the increasing o ne .
’
) i
Vardhamana,or (as he is cal led in the various Jaina
s criptures) Mahavira, had discovered even before h is b irth
h owcompletely h is mother’s happ inesswas bound up inh is
,and he therefore came to the following deci s ion :
“ Itwill not behove me, during the l ife ofmy parents, to tearo ut my hair, and leav ing the house to enter the state o f
so,unlike Buddha
,he l ived the ordinary
l ife of a nobleman until h is parents’ death . He married,
and h is wife,Yas
’
Oda,bo re h im a daughter
,Anoj ja( o r
Priyadars’ana whose t itled husband
,Jamal i
,later o n
became o n e of h is followers, and the connections thusformed were all to help h im later in h is l ife work .
Hisparents eventually died
,having kept all the rules of their
religion ; we are told in anothe r of the Jaina sacred books,t he A
’
carangaSutra, that“ they observed
,blamed
,repented ,
c onfessed and did penance according to their s ins,
”and
S . B . E . xx ii . 250 . S . B . E . xx ii . p . 25 1 .
S . B . E . xxii . p . 24 9 . s s . B . E . xx ii . 25 0 .
LIFE OF MAHA’
V IRA . 5
finally attained ameritorious death by su ic ide [ reclining] o n abed of kus
’
agrass they rejected all food,and their
bodies dried up by the lastmo rtiflcatio n of the flesh , wh ichis to end in death .
” I
Mahavirawas nowth irty,and with the permiss ion of
h is elder brother,Nandivardhana
,he resolved to enter upon
the Sp iritual career wh ich in India as in Europe has s o
ofte n proved afi tt ing sphere for yo unger sons .
Dr. Ho ernle i tells us that the Nata clan kept up amonastic establ ishment for monks of Parsvanatha’s orderin Ko llaga, and i t was naturally th is establ ishment thatMahavirafirst j o ined . But the ir rule did not seem to h imstringent enough , and after a year and a month heseparated from them o n the quest ion ofwearing clothes
,§
and“after that t ime walked about naked and accepted
alms in the hollow of h is hand .
”The question ofwearing
c lothes o r notwas dest ined to become a cruc ial one in theh istory of Jainism
,for i twas on th is po int that i ts two
great sects div ided .
I t is difficult to understand why Mahav i ra laid suchgreat stress o n nudity. SirMon ier Williams 'li gives what isat least aposs ible explanation . The Jains
,
” he says,l ike
all othe r ascetics,were impressed with the ideathat i twas
necessary to maintain a defensive warfare against the
assault of evi l pass ions,by keep ing unde r the body and
Away ofgain ingmerit still practised among the Jaina.
‘
f S . B . E . xxii . 1 94 .
T Annual Addre ss , A . S . B . , 1 898.
A Jaina traditio n say s that Mahavirao n j o ining th e o rde r had
o nly re tained o ne clo th given to himby the god Indra.
ll Buddhism. p . 530 .
6 MODERN JAINISM .
subdu ing it. They had also anotion that a sense of shameimpl ied sin
,so that if there were n o sin in the world
therewould be no shame . Hence they argued rather illogically that to get rid of clotheswas to ge t rid of Sin ; and
every ascetic who aimed at s inlessness was enjo ined to
walk about naked, with the air o r sky (D ig) as h is sole cove ring . For twelve years Mahavira wandered naked andhomeless over the land
,never rest ing during summer o r
winter fo r more than a s ingle night in avil lage o r fo r morethan five nights in atown
,
’ begging his food and indifferentwhether good or had were given to h im
,guarding h is
thoughts,guarding h is words
,guarding his senses
,h is heart
as pure as water in autumn,and h imself as unso iled as the
leaf of a lo tus.
At last in the thirteenth year he reached enlightenment.Hewas si tt ing under a$21 1 tree o n the banks ofarive r notfar from the town ofGrimbh ikagrama, in the pos i t ion
”r thatis now so famil iar from Buddh is t statues
,with legs and
arms crossed. He had fasted for two days and a half,
e xposed to the heat of the sun without even drinking water,
when, engaged in deep meditat ion , he reached the highestknowledge and intuit ion
,called Kevala
,which i s infinite
,
s upreme,unobstructed
,unimpeded
,complete and full .” I
He had nowbecome aJina(i . 6. V ictor), an Arihan ta( i . e .
S . B . E . xxu . 260, ff. (Rule s still binding o n Jainamo nk s andnuns , though they have enlarged the one nigh t into awe ek andthe five n ights into amo nth . )
‘r A popular Jainat radition de clare s that at the time of rece ivingenlighte nment Mahavira was sitting in the godolfa dsana
po sture ( i . e . the po sition ofmilk ing acow. )I S . B . E . xx ii . 263.
LIFE OF MAH A’
V IRA, 7
Venerable One), aKevali 6. Possessor O fKevala [Ema-1 ] o rs p ir i tual nature ) and a Mahavira( o r G reat Hero and byeach of th is galaxy of ti tles he i s varyingly cal led. Now he
knew and sawall conditions o f the world,of gods
,of men
and demons ;whence they come, wh ither they go , whetherthey are born as men or animal s or become gods o r hellbeings
,the ideas
,the thoughts of their minds
,the food
,
do ings,des ires
,the open and se cret deeds of all the l iving
beings in the whole world
I t is from h is t i tle of Jina that h is Sect and systemderive the ir name. The Buddh ist name for Mahav ira
,
h o wever,i s Nataputta, from h is clan , and the Jaina scrip
tures occas ional ly call h im Ve saliyafrom h is birth place.
For thir ty years more Mahav ira taught h is doctrine,
gathering followers round h im . Gos'alahad been h is firstd isc iple. Jacobi th inks hewas the head o f an independ
ent sect,who threw in h is lot fo r a t ime with Mahav irabu t
s eparated o n the quest ion of leadersh ip , bu t Dr. H o ernle I
bel ieves h im to have been a follower who after six yearsquarrelled with h is master and became head of the A’j iv ikaorde r of monks
,which are ment ioned o n As
’
oka’s p illar,
about 234 B. C .,but wh ich have long ceased to exi st . In
the SutrakIjitanga§ adispute between Gos’ala and a zealous
d isc iple ofMahav ira i s recorde d,in wh ich of course Gos’ala
i s ignomin iously routed. Th is Gos’alamust have been acantankerous fellow
,fo r he i s ment ioned in the Buddh ist
S criptures as an antagonist ofBuddhaal so .
Mahaviramade many converts to h is rel igious system
S . B . E . xxn . 263.
‘l S . B . E . xlv. Introd : p . xxix .
Annual Addre ss, A . S . B . 1 898 p . 4 1 . S . B . E . xlv. 4 09 .
8 MODERN JAINISM ,
and organised an order of ascet ics in the lands under thesway of h is royal k insfolk
,in Sravas ti
,V ideha
,Magadha
and Anga ( the modern Oudh and the provinces of Tirhutand Bihar) , the very countries traversed by his great rivalBuddha. During the rainy seasons he would cease fromh is peregrinat ions
,lest he should inj ure any of the abundant
l ife then springing into being, staying for four months insome town . Twelve rainy seaso nS he passed thus in h is
own town of Vais’ali.
He gained eleven disc iples who remained true to h im,and they in turn instructed monks .
His great disc iple Sudharma surv ived h im ; it is
through h im that Jain ism itself has been preserved, and hehands down in the Su trakritanga many of the discoursesof h is maste r.
The Kalpa Sutra records with curious iterat ion the
death of Mahavira in h is seventy Second year. He Spenth is las t rainy season in the town of Papapuri (probably themodern Padraona
,as General Sir A. Cunningham thinks, )
and at the t ime o fearly morning,in king Hastipala
’
s Officeof the Writers
,s itt ing in the Samparyanka posture and
rec it ing the fifty five lectures wh ich detai l the resu lts o f
Karma,he died
,went o ff, qu itted the world, ou t asunder
the ties of b irth,old age and death ; became a S iddha, a
Buddha,aMukta
,amaker of the end to all misery.
” 'f
Mahaviramust have been aman of strong personal ity tohave done the work he did amongst h is warrior kinsfolk ; bu the neve r seems to have had the same personal magnet ism
Bahle r, Indian Se ct of the Jainas . p . 27 .
'l' S . B . E. xxii . 264 .
1 0 MODERN JAI NISM
o r ford maker who has crossed the troubled river of constant b irths o r transmigrat ion (Samsara[i Q] to the havenofLiberat ion ; Pars
’va i s the twenty- th ird,and beh ind h im
stretch the other Tirthankara,whose length o f l i fe and
height of stature grow eve r greater and greater as theyrecede further and further into the mists of tradit ion . Weshall return to them later whenwe are discussing Jainabel iefs .
RIS E O F THE JAIN A S EC TS .
The h istory o f Jain ism subsequent to the death ofMahavira i s no t marked by many outstanding events
,
except ing the great sch ism wh ich div idedsvgggg
’
liggfld the order into the white clo thed Sve tam
bara and the nude or sky clothedD igambara. A great famine arose in 31 0 B . C . , some twoc enturie s after the death ofMahavira
,in Magadha (Bihar),
and,as somet imes happens in Indiaat the present day,
under pressure of th e famine agreat part of the populat ionemigrated, amongst themBhadrabahu ,
the then head of theJaina community
,and anumber of h is people . These went
t o Southern India,and a certain S thulabhadra assumed
the leadersh ip of t hose left beh ind in Magadha.
Th is Sthulabhadrawas evidently an energetic worker,
and under h is rule agre i t counc i lwas held at PataliputraPatna), which amongst other things collected the Jaina
sacred books .
At th is t ime al so the home keep ing Jai na adopteds ome sort o f dress
,and when the faminewas over and the
exiles returned,they found that their weaker brethren had
no t only lacked the strength of character to leave their ownland but also the moral courage to keep their rule .
The orthodox D igambara Jaina refused to have anyfellowsh ip w ith their clothed (Svetambara) brethren , andthus laidafoundat ion for the sch ism wh ich defin itely arosein 82 A. D . and has lasted to th is day. I t seems probablethat two part ies in the community had always ex isted
,and
that only distance had been needed to enable the divergencet o develop.
l 2 MODERN JAINISM .
The D igambararefuse to acknowledge the wo rk of theCounc il of Pataliputraand say that the original sacredbooks have been lost.
The manuscripts authorized by the first counc il eventually grew scarce and fell into disorder, and so a secondgreat counc ilwas held at Vallabhi
,in Gujarat
,under the
pres idency of Devarddhi,the head of o ne of the schools
,
wh ich revised them and thus fixed the Svetambaracanon ofthe scriptures .
This,briefly
,is the account given by Dr. Ho ern le of
the h istoric Jaina tradit ion of their own h istory and sacredbooks
,and he goes on to show howin 1 896 most striking
corroborat ion of the early date of the great sch ism wasfound by Prof. Buhler when dec iphering the inscript ionsin Madura.
The modern Jaina tradit ion however in Weste rn Indiadiffe rs sl ightly from th is account
,and I amindebted to a
learned Jainagentleman for the following part iculars .
He agrees with Dr. Ho ernle as to the cause of thecomplete divergence between the Svetambaraand D igambara sects
,and holds that under Mahavira there had been
two sect ions,theJi nakalpi 939 4 300 who were very rigid
in their observance of the rule,and the S/hivarakalpi
(Banach ), who owing to o ld age o r i llness were allo wed torelax the rule so far as to wear clothes and to eat del icac ies .
The Svetambaracanonwas not committed to writing ?“for 980 years after the
‘ death of Mahavira,then
,under the
Annual Addre ss , A . S . B . 1 898. p . 4 7 H.
'l' A Jainad hu has k indly suppliedmewit h the fo llowing legendas to the cause o f th e Sve tambara scripture s be ing committed to
JAINA SEc . 1 3
pres idency ofDevarddhi Ksamas’ramana,forty- five Shas tras
were written down,which took th irteen years to accompl ish .
The Svetambara bel ieve that originally there had beene ighty four scriptures but that th irty n ine had been lost .
J
The remain ing forty five were first written and publis hed in Vala Gohelvad Frant Kath iavad . All the sectsbel ieve that at th is t ime certain of Mahav ira’S preceptswh ich were no longer su ited to society were omitted .
The Scriptures were written in Arddha Magadhi ,c ommentaries o n th em have been written in Sanskrit
,and
there are also Gujarat i translat ions of the text. The Svetambara do no t allow laymen or women to read theirS criptures ; thesemay only read certain small books of
e xtracts which have been made from them .
Monks are allowed to read the Sacred books,and so
are nuns,though it i s very unusual for the latter to be
s uffic iently educated to be able to do so .
There i s however a branch of the Svetambara Jainawho permit the laity to read their Sacred books . These
are the Dhu fndhid 5741 70 1 1 ) o r, as they
Sgflgfil
ggggé .
prefer to be called,the Sthd nalcacd s i
(3414 3q Jaina. They give the following account of their origin . About five hundred ' years ago
writing . A certainmo nkwas ill and needed g inger as a remedyfo r b is sickne ss . By the ir rule the monk swere allowed to begfo r any nece ssarymedicine , but the unused po rtionmust he re tur
ned by n ight fall . The monk s failed to re turn the unused g inger,andwhen the ir guru sawhowfo rge tful they had become , he fe ltitwas no lo nger safe to trust the Scripture s to the irmemorie s .
1 4 MODERN JAIN ISM .
in Ahmedabad a certain Svetambara Jaina'was asked to
copy certain sacred Svetambara books,and whilst making
the close study of them necessary for the work,he real iz ed
that there was no ment ion of idolatry in them. He
eventually founded a reformed and non- idolatrous sect l'
wh ich rejects any of the SvetambaraScriptures that treatof idols or idol worsh ip
,and allows the common people
to read the books it has retained.
The D igambara reject the Svetambara Canon . Theyhave formed their own Scriptures
,Purana and Grantha
,
containing l ives of the Tirthankaraand ofThegiggr
r
pbara great monks and certain rules of conduct
,
as well as some mathemat ics,sc ience and
ph ilosophy . These scriptures are spe c ial ly noted fo r the irphilosophy
,though l ike the SvetambaraSacred Books
,o n
which indee d they are based,they treat of idol worsh ip also .
They l ike the DhundhiaScriptures ) are Open to the lai ty.
The re are famous Treasure Houses of the JainaScriptures at Patan ( near SiddhpurCambay and Je salmir ( in Raj putana
and there is a smaller one at L imbadi in Kathiavad
Treasure Houses .
They are connected with Jainamo nasteries,but can
scarcely be called L ibraries,for i t is very diffi cult for even
Jarmto gain access to them,and pract ically imposs ible fo r
a non- Jaina.
The Dhundhiasay the copy ist’s namewas Lo nka. Mr. Bhimbhai
Kirparamsays the reformerwas aprie st o f the Lo nkasectwhorebe lled again st the authority of his Shripujvaandwas expelled .
Bombay Gaze tteer. V o l. ix . Part i . p . 1 06.
l' They are also known in Malwaas Sadhumargi (ingumt) Jaina.
THE JAIN A S C RIPTURES .
The following is the Canon of Scriptures held by theJaina of Western India, toge ther w ith brief notes as to
the ii‘ contents . Various sec ts and sub - sects d iffer very muchwith regard to the Chedagran tha, Mulagran thaand Payanna,but all Svetambara and Sthanakavas i pract ically agree
with regard to the Anga andi
Upar'
iga. They hold thatorig inally there were Twe lve Anga
,but that one
,the
Dris’
t ivadaAnga(Qfigqig vial) containing an account of the
fourteen Purvao r Sc iences, was de stroyed .
A . Th e Eleve n Anga (mm) .1 . The A
’
Cd ’
rd llg ct S utra (M ine rals;are; A book of
rules fo r monks and recluse s,together with the l ife of
Mahavira.
2. The Saye gaddfiga Su tra. (wimp;a? ! whichcontains adescription of the faiths wh ich prevailed at thet ime when Jain ism arose
,and wh ich deal s also with
tranquil ity of mind and with the knowledge that destroyso ur attachment to the world.
3. The Thdn dv’
tga S utra (fi ght A book con
cerned with the numbers in which th ings ex ist. Thus,
under the heading “on e
”are grouped all th ings wh ich
exist s ingly as soul s imilarly under two are mentionedall th ings
'
o f wh ich there are pairs,as Love and Hatred
under “ three Birth,L i fe and Death ; under four
Anger,Pride
,Deceit
,Avarice.
4 . The Samavdydhga Su tra. H?! Thisbook contains various comparisons of Oppos ites
,as the
1 5
1 6 MODERN JAINISM,
power that moves bodies and the power that keeps themstat ionary ; the comparison be ing made with regard tosubstance
,space, t ime, and emot ion .
5 . Bhagcwatij i (moiqcflgg o r Vivihdpan nan ti q q
glufl feq Th is i s the great Sutra and i s held in theh ighest honour. I t contains the quest ions wh ich Gautamaasked Mahav ira and the latter’s answers . I t deals ch ieflywith rel igious ph ilosophy .
6. Jfl d tddharma Katha/agar. (nu-
115111 gain ) containsmoral stories about Faith
,Knowledge and Soul ; e. g . Two
men were each given a peahen’s egg. One man,being
faithless,was for ever shaking h is egg whilst i twas hatching
,
to see how itwas progress ing,and so destroyed the ch icken
,
but the bel ievingman ,who quietly left his egg alone t ill the
appointed t ime,was rewarded w ith abeaut iful peacock.
7 . Upa'
sa/ca Das’
c’
i r‘
tga ( 614121 5, Quin contains theb iographies of ten eminent laymen and the eleven steps alayman should take to attain L iberat ion Moksa
8. An tagacta [Jas’
d z'
zga (mm-
p l; The l ives Often Preceptors A
'
cd rya wnauzi who possessed the
greatest powers o f endurance, were fre ed from the eight
Karmaand attained Moksa in the same life,together wi th
'the l ive s of some other Kevali.
9 . An u ttarova’ud i Das
’
d n‘
ga(”animals fi lial). Thelives of ten Preceptors who attained to Anuttaravimanaq qfimq i . 6. o ne stage short of Moksa
,in the
same life.
1 0. Prue/mt Vydkaf
raaa ( us e; samg deals chieflywith the path ofKarmaand its destruct ion.
1 8 MODERN JAINISM .
1 0 . Papphiyd ( gfiiqi ) . An account of the heavensand different planets, and of the celest ial cars which conveypeople from the earth to the planets
,together with ade scrip
t ion of the peoplewho are ent itled to enter heaven .
1 1 . P uphachul id (39360 An account of the nun
Puphachula her v i rtues and her disc iples.
1 2. Vtt nhidas’
d (qrr éi i ll ). An account of the great
men who were born in the V ishnu family ; how they conquered Dwarka
,Obtained in it iat i on, maintained self control
and attained Mo ksa. It i s interest ing to note that according to Jaina bel ie f Krishnawas a Jaina, a cousin of
N eminatha, the twenty- Second Tirtharikara, and that hewill h imself in h is next Incarnat ion be one o f their new
Twenty- four Tirtharikara.
C . S ix C he dag rantha {Beam ( Books partiallydestroyed
,o r books teaching how to destroy sin .)
VyavahdrwS utra. (may )
, apt2. Brihcttkalpa
"169 9 1
3. Das'
da’
ru tashandhu ( i i ll’flflkéfil
4 . N t s'if/u t (Plait!
These four books all contain rule s wh ich monks andnuns must observe as to the taking o f food
,water
,clothes
,
pots,etc and the penal ties to be undergone fo r V iolat ing
any of these regulat ions .
As we have al ready seen , the Svetambarahardly ever
allow their books to be read by laymen , and although the
S thanakavas i do not thus restric t the use of the scriptures,even they do not like the lai ty to see these four books ,which
,they say, are meant for monks only.
JAINA SCR IPTURES .1 9 .
The remaining two Chedagrantha are not recognisedby Sthanakavas i but only by Svetambara Jaina. Their
names are :
5 . Mahd n is’
i tha (Hgq falq
6. Jt trtkcttp l. g age ;
D . Fo ur Mu lag rant ha (according to the
Svetambara canon .
1 . Das’wvrtikd tika “(gaffe An ep itome of the
rules for monks with regard to the div is ion o f their t ime .
2. Uttttrddhg/aymm A very famous
and important book , containing the l ives of eminent saints ,and teach ing that aman i s raised by h is Karmaand no t h isb irth . I t deals to o with cel ibacy
,disc ipl ine and character
,
and also records the adv ice g iven by Mahavira to h isdisc iples two days before he entered Moksa. Its last chapters
are devoted to an important and lengthy d iscussion o n
Soul and Matter.
3. A’
vas’
yaha The morning and even ingduties of Jaina
,Padikamanum, etc. ) Various sects of
Svetambarahave different vers ions o fth is book,and whereas
vers ions of other scripture s in use among different sects aremuch al ike
,the vers ions of th is o ne differ widely from
each other.
4 . Oghfrn iryukti (fl lufiififm This is o n similarl ines
,but i s not accepted by the Sthanakavas i.
Of these four the S thanakavas i accept only the firsttwo as Mulagran thaand consider the A
’
vas’
yakato be notaMulagrantha but the last of all the scriptures .
20 MODERN JAINISH .
Fo ur Mu lag rant ha, (according to the Sthanakavas iCanon . )
I . Das’
avc’
i i lsd lika galgglft-ia.
2. Uttarddhyayana Gfl l lq f l.
3. Nand i Sutra. (rte-{l fi g . ) A h istory of the eightyoriginal scrip tures and their de struct ion
,and also of
the saints who succeeded Mahavira.
4 . An uyogadvd ra ( M QQMQRJA book o n logic .
The Svetambara and S thanakavas i al ike bel ieve thattheir rel igion is decaying
,and that their scriptures are being
destroyed ; they th ink however that the Four Mulagran tha
will be the last to perish .
This completes the l ist of the th irty— two scripturesaccepted by the S thanakavas i.
In addit ion the Svetambaraaccept the following
E Te n Payanna (WU-Pat ) o r Mi scellaneous Books .
I . Cauwrana( 1 &3n inwh ich people are exho r
ted to seek the protection of
Arihanta (wagerS iddha (avg )Sadhu myDharma ( lid ) 73. c. the Jaina) Rel igio n .
2. S tmthd rd Paguana( if-ll? ! ‘l 'l'
d l Another booko f good advice
,which urges people to fulfil all their vows
during the ir,
life t ime, to confess their sins , and to diepeacefully without any desi re fo r longer l ife .
3. Tandazuwyouic rig-M icawit. ) tell ing of the
n ourishment and dangers of the embry o in the womb .
JA1NA SCRIPTURES .2I
4 . Canddvij t tya f i l i lq q contains stories about
the moon, ( its ecl ipse , distance from the earth , etc needless.
to say no t in accordance with Western Sc ience .
5. Gttaivijaya neflq q.) A book ofari thmet i c .
6. Devin ttathuo ( 2312333 1 . S ongs in praise of
Indra,the highest of the gods inhabit ing swargu . Some
,
however,hold that these are really songs sung by Indra
in praise of the
7 . Vi rathuo (41 1 3531 1) Songs in praise of Mahavira.
8. Gaccha‘
cfi rt t clams-IR gives rules of conductb inding on the members of different Jaina sects .
9. Jyo tikarunda wi lfi gi s . ) A book of astrology,
dreams,omens, etc .
1 0. A'
yuhpaccakhd rw -l A book of thevows wh ich aman should take at the t ime ofh is death inthe presence of a monk o r nun . As these are cons ideredto o difficult for any o ne to perform
,he is allowed in case of
recovery to keep them in amodified form,and to permit
of th is hemay take them in either a l imited (Hlilfmor
unl imited 1 00 1 :m form : e . g. he vows in the l imitedform not to l ie ; if o n h is recovery he should, nevertheless,tell a l ie in the course of h is dai ly bus iness
,he would be
held to have committed the s in of ly ing bu t no t that o f
vow break ing .
Th e Digambara S c ripture s .
The following is the l ist ofD igambaraScriptures givenby Dr. Burgess .’
D igambaraJainaIco no graphy . p . 1 .
22 MODERN JA1N ISH
1 . P rathvtmd n uyog q . (aqua-
inn which contains allworks o n legends and h istory
,including the twenty four
Puranawith the l ives of the Tirtharikara.
2. m ad nwyoga gq gflm) wh ich includes alltheir books deal ing with Cosmogony .
Dmvyd n uyogw( gun-jam) or books treat ing o f
doctrine and ph ilosophy .
4 . Carctn d n uyogwmag i-1 31m in wh ich d chd ra
customs,worship etc . are described .
JAINA AS C ETIC S .
The Jainasay that o ne of Mahavira’s great messages to
the human race was that man could attain salvationthrough h is own efforts independently o f Brahmanic aid.
Unl ike Buddha,he laid the greate st stress o n ascet ic ism as
a means towards attain ing that end,and Jain ism has
pro ved the forerunner ofmuch of the most revolt ing ascet ic ismcurrent in the Indiaof today. I t has been said thatas knowledge is wisdom to the Brahman
,and purity and
love to the Buddh ist,so i s ascet ic ism wisdom to the Jaina.
Mo nks .
I t i s easier for an ascetic o r Yat i (qfq) to attain heaventhan for alayman
,but before aman may become an ascet i c
he must obtain leave from his parents o r guardians. I f hebe married hemay still become aYati ( o r Sadhu ) o n gaining h is wife’s permiss ion or after her death
,but a Bala
brahmacari ( Out-1 14 51 24 11 ] "i . e . aman who has neverbeen married
,i s held in h ighe r honour.
Before h is in it iat ion o r diksa the Yat i gives upe verything save five garments three upper and two lower
ones ), and a blanket ; in the case ofa
Svetambara these would be yellow incolour
,and in that ofaSthanakavas i white ; the D igambara,
o f course - keeps no cloth ing . In Ahmedabad some ofthe
Svetambaraasceticswear wh i te with yellow over it, andthese men are considered to be more devout ).
Possessions .
He keeps also two o r three more p ieces of cloth towrap round h is food and to strain h is drinking water, and a
23
24 MODERN JAINISM.
p iece of cloth to wear over h is mouth . A Sthanakavas iSadhu must keep hi s mouth covered nigh t and day, so hewears this mouth cloth o r mamat i and] t ied on withstrings
,and when lay people talk to Sthanakavas i ascet i cs
they must cover their mouths . I t i s suffic ient for the SvetambaraSadhus to keep their mouth cloth in their hands.
Bes ides h is cloth the monk generally has a long rod,
which must not be hollow lest it Should entrap and kill aninsect, and abrush (Raj on omen) , which is used to protectinsects by sweep ing them out of danger. I ts wh isk is of
wool,and the Sthanakavasi
,who sweep more carefully than
the Svetambara,have ab igger brush with a longer handle
The D igambara Sadhu who l ive in the jungle frequentlyuse apeacock’s feather instead of abrush .
The ascet ic is allowed to possess five pots,which must
be gourds,o r else fash ioned from wood. Brass vessels are not
permitted,as aSadhu must possess no metal ; thus if he
borrow aneedl e he must return it by sunset,lest the s in of
covetousness Should grow upon him, and if he is obl igedto wear spectacles they must be framed in wood. He is
also allowed to keep awooden jug.
These are henceforth to be his sole possess ions, andwhen they grow o ld he must not ask for new ones , butmust wait t il l they are given to h im .
”r A woman w ish ingto become a nun must give up all her property in thesame way, except ing that she i s allowed to keep twoaddit ional garments .
Also calledmuhapati g lg‘idl ormukhapat tikfi 3400425 1
'l' Even then the donormay no t bring themto himat the Upasaro ,but inviting himto his house must say as he offers themthatthey are more than he require s for his own use .
26 MODERN JAIN ISM .
The Svetambara call male ascet ics Samvegi (Qfi bfl )and the nuns Garan ij i saggy the Sthanakavas i call themen Mahapurusa Hé lgi ‘l or Pujya ‘
taq and thewomen Mahasati “16111 60 o r A
’raja “ RM
N uns .
The in it iat ion ceremony for a nun is pract ically thesame as for amonk
,except ing that theman tra i s whispered
into her ear by a Sadhvi ( female ascetic ) instead of a
Sadhu . Her head too is shaved for the first t ime,but
afterwards when the hair grows i t i s pulled out hai r byhair. Th is i s done about twice a year by one nun foranother, and i s called Loca (Hm If a woman wishesto become anun shemay do so , but she must first obtainher husband's consent
,or
,if unmarried o r widowed
,the
consent ofher parents o r guardians .
In any case she must be well instructed in the tenetso f the Jainafaith before she can be and the
instruct ion should last from six months to two years . At
any t ime before her profess ion she can go back into theworld
,and some women seem to take the course of instruc
t ion without any intent i on of becoming nuns .
A woman who had not ye t‘
been professed most kindlygave me the following account of her day’s rout ine. About
5 A. M . she rose, and in her own housebefore sunri se she made confess ion of thenigh t’s s in Bayasi Padikamanumwail
Hflg’
flQ} At sunrise she went to the nu‘ns’ house o r
When I asked a nun if this did no t hurt very much she re pliedH urt ? Of course it do e s , butwhat’s that comparedwith the bo the r
andworry ofahusband
JAINA Ascs rrcs 27
Upasaro (Qumi l), and l istened for an hour to the reading oft he scriptures o r asermon by anun . From eight to twelves hewas busied with the work of her own house
,but at two
o’clock
,after her midday rest
,she went back to the Upasaro
for meditat ion (Samayikaal 11n She had to be homeagain to take her dai ly meal before sunset
,and after sunset
s he made her confess ion of the day’s s in (Devas i Padikamanuni {can HQQHQ
’
Q. Twice during the day she did
palewana i . e . searched her clo th ing to find if therewere any insects in i t, and , if she found any, removed themcarefully that they might take no inj ury.
After she should become a nun,she would have the
same duty of morning confession and l is ten ing to thescriptures . In addit ion
,not having any
Daily Life household du t ies,she would study t i l l
ofaNnu .
n ine A. M and then go out and beg fo rwater. (The only water an
'
ascet ic can take must have
been bo iled to destroy any l ife in it, and bo iled moreovern o t more than four hours prev iously
,lest new l ife be formed
in it.) She would also have to go and beg for food at eleveno
’clock,and again at five in the evening, and must arrange
n ever to have any food left over at night, lest insect l ifes hould form in i t. Strictly speak ing ,
she should only eato nce and only sleep fo r three hours during the twenty- four.During the nigh t she should if poss ible r ise and pray twice .In many places however these rules have fallen into disuse .
The l ife o fa nun i s an arduous one,for she must l ive
t he same wandering l ife as amonk , though always aecom
pan ied by a female compan ion. She i s however held int he greatest honour
,as i s shewn in the respec t paid to her
at her. death .
28 MODERN JAIN ISM .
By the courtesy ofsome Sthanakavas iThe Funeral Of nuns Iwas allowed to be present at thean AraJa
funeral of o ne of the ir number.
When the moment of death approached,devout la)
women were called in to attend o n the dy ing nun,whom
they placed in the sitt ing (or Kan sagga) posture on one of
the wooden bedsteads in the Upasaro ; the other nuns withdrew to another part of the room
,where they sat repeat ing
certain Man tras,taking no part in the funeral rites
,though
they were obliged to fast t i ll allwas completed . As soonas the nun died
,the laywomen t ied her to a short plank to
keep her in the s itt ing posture,and wrapped a rich cloth of
gold brocade over her body,st il l wearing its nun’s robes of
s imple wh ite and itsmamati o rmouth covering.
In the mean t ime acostly palanquin of teak wood hadbeen prepared, the top ofwh ich resembled a temple
,with
numerous p innacles each bearing a flag, while the ins idewas l ined with exqu is ite s ilk and rich cush ions .The bodywas carried from the Upasaro to the palan
quin by laymen,who removed the plank and t ied the
corpse,stil l in the si tting posture
,to some supports at
the back and arranged the cush ions round it .
A process ionwas then formed to the river bank ; itwas headed by aroyal horse and drum lent by the ruler ofthe State
,after wh ich came men seated in a cart beat ing
rel igious drums,followed by people o n foot playing o n
ordinary drums and musical instruments .
The boys from the Jaina schools furnished a guard ofhonour ; some bore silver st i cks and banners on wh ich werewritten am JayaJinendra! (V ictory to the Highest
JAINA ASCETICS , 29
o f the Jina whilst others sang Jaina songs about thetrans itoriness of l ife.
After these came acart containing the sandal wood,‘cocoanuts and t ins of clarified butter necessary for thefuneral ri tes
,together with abag of Juvara(oq ), ak ind
o fmillet,which would be distributed to the poor when the
bodywas burnt.Hindu
,not as on e would have expected Jaina
,ascet ics
followed,playing cymbal s and other mus ical instruments,
and owing to the friendl iness that ex ists in Kath iawadbetween the sects
,both Svetambara and Sthz
‘makavasrlaymen followed the ascetics . Iwas assured that in mostplaces the Svetambarawould no t have paid such honour toanun ofanother sect
These were succeeded by people scattering money,food
and flowers amongst the crowd of onlookers . Therewas agreat rush amongst the spectators to try and get hold of
these,as they are supposed to have the power of fulfill ing
wishes .
The palanquin i tself came next,and th is had to be
guarded by pol ice,as any woman who can tear a p iece
ofa dead nun’s dress th inks she has secured an infall iblecharm against ch ildl essness.
A dozen or more men carried the palanqu in,and there
are always eager volunteers for the post of bearer,which is
considered very meritorious . Those who cannot act asbearers are given l igh ted sticks of incense and follow the
palanqu in with the crowd through the c ity to the burn ing
g hat shout ing jayaj inendra.
”
30 MODERN JAIN ISM .
At the ghat the funeral pyrewas built,i ts lowest layer
of the wood of the p ipal tree ; on th is sandal woodwasarranged with cocoanuts o n the top . On the pyre theyplaced the palanqu in and its burden
,and over bothwere
scatte red p ieces of cotton wool dipped in clarified butter.A dozen men set fire to the palanqu in in different place s
,
the scattered cotton wool mak ing it ignite qu ickly.
By the end of four hours the pyre was complete lyconsumed
,and the Jaina
,leaving the ashes o n the river
bank,bathed
,and donning the fresh clothes that had been
brought to them from their homes,returned in a body
to the men’s Upasaro , where they had to l isten to asermon
and then to s it in the Kan sagga posture and meditate .
When th iswas over they went to the women’s Upasaro ,
where the laywomen (who could not go to the ghat ) andthe nuns had been s itt ing all day meditat ing and l isteningto sermons ; to these they offered their condolences, andthen had to l isten to yet another sermon on the transi toriness of l ife before seeking their homes . I twas curious tonot ice that
,thou gh Hindu ascet ics had taken part in the
process ion,no Jainaascet ics, male o r female, were permitted
to do so . The cost of th is nun’s funeralwas about fivehundred rupees
,the palanqu in alone costing two hundred .
During the whole day business throughout the c itywaspractically at a stand st ill
,all the grain and vegetable
markets and most of the othe r shops being closed.
Five Great Vows o r Panc ha Mahavrata.
Every ascet ic must take the five great vows (Hie-1 Hgq )wh ich Mahaviraordained . These vows, i t will be not iced,resemble the Buddh ist vows
,bu t st i ll more the ancient
JAINA Ascnrrcs . 3 l
Brahmanic vows on which they are doubtless both founded .
’
The first vowthe Jainaascet ic takes is to refrain fromdestroy ing l ife, and runs as follows I renounce all kill
ing of l iv ing be ings,whether subtile or
gross,whether movable o r immovable .
N o r shall I myself k ill l iv ing beings (norcause others to do it , nor consent to it) . As long as I l ive
,
I confess and blame,re pent and exempt myself o f these s ins
,
i n the thrice threefoldway, in mind, speech and body .
” “f
1 . AhimsaVrataH Q in art.
This which is also the first vow taken by theBrahman and Buddhist ascet ics ) the Jaina sect divide inton ine
,and so make it cover an immense field . They are
not to kill in word,thought or deed they are no t to cause
any o ne to k il l in word, though t o r deed ; they are not tosupport any one who kills in word
,thought o r deed . This
vow, o n which the Jainalay the greatest stress, they regularly break . They are most careful not to destroy l ifethemselves
,but are qu ite will ing to
“ consent to othersdo ing it and to reap the benefit . An ascet ic fo r instancemay not take water that has not been boiled, lest it containl ife
,neither may he bo il it but by taking water that
another has boiled he certainly consents to their act ionin bo i l ing it. It has been suggested that the real reason fo rthe vowwas not so much unselfish kindness to animals asthe selfish fear of be ing haunted by the sp iri t of the dead;
For the compariso n of Jainismwith Buddh ismgenerally s e e
Jaco bi’s Introduction to the JainaSutras , S . B . E . xx ii . pp . xix ff.
1“
AcarangaSutra. S . B . E . Vo l. xxii. p . 202.
1 Op . Bombay Gaze tteer. V o l . ix . Part i . p . 99 .
32 MODERN JAINISM.
The second great vow o f the Jaina,the renounc ing of
all untruthfulness, runs thus -
“ I renounce all vices of
ly ing speech (arising) from anger o r greed2' A
jgt
gau
'
fgaga o r fear o r mirth . I shal l nei ther myself
speak l ies,nor cause others to speak lies
,
nor consent to the Speaking of l ie s by others . I confessand blame
,repen t and exempt myself o f these s ins in the
thrice three- foldway, in mind, speech ,and body.
”
I t i s interest ing to not ice that,with regard to the
order of the vows,the Jainahave here kept closer to the
second Brahmanic vow of tru thfulness than have theBuddh ists
,whose second vow is against stealing.
The Jaina carefully subdiv ide th i s vow,also
,into n ine
.
The th ird vow runs ' I renounce all taking of any
3. AsteyaVratath ing no t given
,either in a vil lage o r
“a“ ’l‘“ a town o r a wood,e ither of l ittle or
much,ofsmall o r great, of l iv ing o r l ifeless th ings . I shal l
neither take myself what i s n o t given , n o r cause others to
take i t,nor consent to their tak ing it.” 1
“ Th is vowi sthe th ird vowof the Brahman ascetics , but the second of
the Buddh ists.
The Jaina subdiv ide th is vow also in n ine ways, andunder i t forb id aguru to take any child as a disc iplew ithout the leave ofh is parents , and insist on the ascet icsd iv idin
gwith each other the alms they have received. By
it,too
,an ascet i c i s forb idden to ask any indiv idual for a
house to l ive in without the consent of the princ ipal
laymen of the place. Once aman has g iven a house,he
may never again be asked for alms .
S ,B
. E .xxii. 204 .
'l‘ S . B. E . xxn . 205 .
3 4 MODERN JAINISM .
Te n Dut ie s Of Mo nks o r N uns .
There are ten dut ies,the Das’aYatidharma “Fm-
oi),binding on monks and nuns of all sects .
An ascet ic must bear and forgive any inj ury infl icted
1 . Ksama’ am. on him .
He must be absolutely free from greed. He must not
2_ N irlobhata’ covet new clothes even if in need ofthem
,
5 13mm but must wait till they are offered to
h im,and even then he must only accep t those ofwh ich the
giver has no further need.
He must be perfectly straightforward and never be3 . A
’
rjavawash . gu il ty of any kind of intrigue or fraud.
He must be absolutely humble,never proud of
4 , Ma’rdava h is purity of l ife
,his learn ing
,o r any
aria. other virtue, and he must never
speak a harsh word.
An ascet i c must pract ise many austerities, whichwi ll5 . Tapaas . all help to free h im from rebirth .
These austerit ies are div ided into Exterior and Interior.
i ) There are S ix Exte rio r Au s teri ties .
(a) Fas ting Anas’
ana ”id -Uri . A monk mustfrequently fast, but the period for wh ich he fasts
may vary from one day to three months. Duringthat t ime
,bes ides water
,he may only take the
watery part of sk immed milk .
(b) Partial Fas ting Un odari gi
aqlifl ). Instead ofa
total fast,an ascet icmay vow to take only one
half o r a third of h is usual amount Of food.
(C)
(d )
(6 )
W
JAINA ASCETICS. 3 5
Restri cting D iet (Vr i tti saizks epa gfrfl iaq An
ascet icmay vow that for a period of t ime varyingfrom one day to amonth he wil l only eat five ors ix different art icles of food , or he may vow toeat only one part icular th ing, fail ing to obtai n
wh ich he will fast .
A lis tain ing fromappetising fo od Ra~atydga
{aw The ascetic promises to abstain from h is
favourite food probably milk,gh i
,o r molasses
for acertain period .
B odi ly a'aster i ties Ka‘
yakles’
a slewascet ic torments h is body in various ways, such as
pull ing ou t h is hair, wearing insuffic ient cloth ing inwinter and exposing h is body to heat in summer .
Theavo idan ce ofall. temptation (Sainlinata‘
aefl( it‘
ll)is accounted another external austeri ty, and underthis the cramping of l imbs by sitt ing in uncomfort
able postures is also included .
following si x austerit ies are I n terio r.
Expiati o n Prayas
’
ei ta simian If the asceti c
has committed any s in , he must confess it privatelyto h is guru. and perform the penance he imposes .D ifferent kinds of penances are prescribed in the
Scriptures for different O ffences . Fo r example,i f
he has cast a stone (which the Jainabel ieves to
possess o ne sense ) into water (wh ich also possessesone sense he wi ll be made to atone for the
injury he has infl icted on sent ient things by fast ingorby extra Padikamanum.
(b)
MODERN JAINISM.
The greatest punishment the guru can in
flict i s to annul the ascet ic’s ini t iation and sounfrock h im .
The guru i s bound by the Scriptures to secresywith regard to Confess ion .
The ascet ic must also pay Reverence to h is superiorsVinaya fqdq An ascet ic who has no reverencefor h is superiors will never gain heaven .
(0) An ascet ic must s erve his superiors and the affl icted .
Th is is called Vaig/avaecaas lq l n . He must bringwater and food for h is g uru and massage h imwhen t ired.
(d ) Neither must an ascetic neglect the duty ofStudy
(6)
U)
Svadhyaya “ (lazuli He must gain knowledge
by reading,by quest ioning
,by remembering , by
discuss ion,and by preach ing.
Meditatio n D/iyana“s tud There are two bad
ways of meditat ion wh ich a monk i s bound torenounce
, i . e . wai l ing for the dead,and remember
ing wi th anger any personal inj uries hemay havesuffered. He is however bound to meditate in thegood ways
,by being absorbed in rel ig ious thought,
and by being so freed from earthly thoughts as tobe able to th ink of sp iritual th ings .
The last interior austeri ty wh ich an asce tic mustpractise i s absolu te In d ifierence to h is physicalstate ( Utsarga ggaai In orde r to gain thisindifference he s its in apart icular pos it ion
,wh ich
he must not change even if a serpent draw nigh
JAINA Ascnrrcs. 37
The restraint of the pass ions i s the s ixth duty b inding6. SarnyamaN ew. ou
'
all monks and nuns.
The seventh duty is to be absolutely truthful i n everyparticular . An ascet ic must not tell any white ” or conven
tional l ies,he must not speak ambig
uously, h is speech must be free from all
egot ism and s imply cons ist ofthe plain unvarnished truth .
7’Satyaem.
8. S’aucaam. The eighth duty is purity.
9 A’kincinyawiG'
fi i e u.
1 0 . Brahmacaryaswua
An ascet ic must have no possessions .
An ascet ic must strictly observe cel ibacy.
I t will be not iced that the last five dut ies closelyresemble the five great vows .
Wand e ring l ife .
The A’
carangaSutrasays that he who i s well providedwith these great vows and their clauses is really houseless
,
and certainly the Jainaascet ic is Anagara wig s“?Both monk and nun must wander from village to
village, begging as they go, and never staying at one placefor any length Of t ime . The o ld commandwas that they should stay only one night
in avillage and not more than five in atown,but th is they
now interpret as permission to stay for aweek in a villageand amonth in atown . During the rainy season, however ,they must stay in the same place for fourmon ths
,fle st theyshould inj ure any of the insect o r plant l i fe wh ich is thenso abundant. They must pass each rainy season at a
different place,or must at least let three years elapse before
they return to the same place.
I tineracy .
38 MODERN JAIN ISM .
The Svetambara, as a rule, only go to those village swhere there are Upasara, i . e. separate bu ildings erected by
each sect for their monks or nuns. An
Upasaro i s a large bare hall without bathr ooms o r cooking places, f urn ished only with wooden beds .These beds the monks o r nuns are forb idden by their ruleto possess
,but they are lent for an indefini te period by
chari table lay people,who do not expect to get them backagain . The beds occas ionally have the name of the lenders
carved o n them ,that theremay be no doubt as to whom
the merit of lending them belongs .
The ascet ics l ive o n the alms of the charitable,and
Begging .
as each of the three sects have ratherd ifferent rules for begging, i t may be
worth going into the subj ect in detail .
The Upasaro .
N O ascet ics ofany sectmay si t in a layman’s house toeat food ; nor will they accept food spec ially cooked fo r
them,but only some Of that wh ich is being prepared for
the household,and they are never allowed to knock at
c losed doors , but only to enter doors already Opened .
Svetambarawill usually accept food from people of the
Vania, Brahman and Ksatriya caste ; in Gujarat howeverthey will not accept food from Ksatriya.
Sthanakavas i, fail ing Vaniaand Brahmans, will acceptfood from the Shepherd caste .
Neither a Svetambaranor a Sthanakavasi will acceptfood taken to the Upasaro for them by ,
alayman . The
Svetambara, however, will accept an inv itat ion to go to
a layman’s house in order to fetch food and to take it back
to the Upasaro ; this a Sthanakavasi will not do.
JAINA AscErics . 39
In the Bombay Gazetteer" it is stated that the Dhun
dhiapriests do no t beg ; this however my Dhundhia i . e .
S thanakavasi ) friends assure me i s unfortunately no t thecase.
The householders who are begged from feel obl iged to .
g ive, and the support of so large abody of mendicants i sfelt as a very severe tax by agreat number of thrifty andhard working Hindus and Jaina. A Brahman gentleman
,
who though of good pos it ion had to strain every nerve tomake both ends meet
,told me that it cost h im at least a
rupee a week to sat i sfy all the rel igious mendicants whobegged from him
,asum equivalent to four days’ labour.
V ol . ix . Part I . p . 1 06.
JAINA LAY ADHEREN TS .
One of the reasons for the total d isappearance of
Buddh ism from India under the stress of Mahommedaninvas ion and Brahmanic sp iritual pressurewas its failureto connect i tself with its lay adherents by suffic iently closebonds. Th is mistake Jainism never made : the famousMathura inscript ions record the dedicat ion by lay menand lay women of Jaina statues to Jaina temples underthe direct ion Of some Jainamonk or nun
,and shew clearly
that at that early date (probably A. D . 83- 1 76) the S’ravaka’f
o r lay adherents formed an integral part of the Jainao rgan isation .
’r
The Twe lve Vows o f Layme n’
Jainalaymen to day take twelve vows (Bard Vrataam), the first five ofwh ich , as wil l be seen, resemble the fivegreat vows of monks
,modified to su it the different c ircum
stances oflay l ife}?
i . e. hearers .1“ See Dr. Ho ernle
’
s Annual Addre ss . A . S . B . 1 898. pp . 50, ff.
1 Jainaare o ccasionally found in po sition s as for e xample in thepo lice , o r in earlier time s in the army where the taking of lifebecome s part Of the ir Offic ial duty . They are no t t hen forbiddento carry out the se duties , butwhile remaining in such po sition swo uld no t be con sidered true S’tavuka. The classic in stance
given by the Jainat hemselve s is King Knmarpala,who , though aco nvinced Jaina, frequently formany years engaged in bat tle .
T h iswas befo re he had tak en the vows, forafter taking them, he
neverwen t to batt le to the end of h is life , t hough re serving to
himse lf the right , if occasion arose , to fight strictly in selfdefence ,which indeed had be en his practice throughout .4 0
— 4 2 MODERN JAINISM.
Instead of cel ibacy,they promise to be faithful to their
wife o r wives . The Svetambara allow remarriage duringthe wife’s l ife- t ime if there be no issueby
“the first wife ; the D igambara on theother hand
,at least in certain local it ies
,to their honour
d issent from th is pract ice,and do no t allow aman to marry
asecond wife while h is first i s stil l al ive.
4 . Chastity.
In h is fifth vowthe layman promises to set l imits toh is covetousness with regard to land and
5 ' Against houses,money
,coin
,servants
,cattle and
Cove tousness .
plen i sh ing.
The sixth vow taken by laymen is that of Dis’ivrataFarimana (25, t i i5, i In this vow aman b inds
h imself for l ife to keep with in a certain6‘ Dis
’
ivrata space. My pandit told me that be, forFarima’na.
example,had vowed never during th i s
l ife t ime to go beyond England o n the o ne s ide o r Japano n the other
,never to go further north than the Himalayas
or further south than Ceylon . So far as I could judge,he
would never have the least Opportunity of breaking h isvow
,but he told me that i f it were fo r arel igious reason
he could do so w ithout s in .
The seventh vow,the UpabhogaParibhogaParimdrza
(61 1391131 143mm), also lasts for a l ife time . Byit aman fixes what food
,clothes o r
7 . UpabhogaPin" furniture he w ill use. My pandit, forbhogaParimana.
instance,had vowed that he would never
use more than fifty th ings. The fewer things o ne can
manage to use the better.The durat ion of the eighth vow, the Anartha Danda
JAINA LAY ADHERENrs . 4 3
Vrata(” Mid {4 an) i s generally for l ife, but somet imes foronly five o r ten years . One promises forthe fixed period not to th ink ev il ofanyo ne , not to be to o overj oyed at the good
fortune o fany one,not to be careless in one’s work
, and nott o keep more weapons than are necessary
,and to keep those
in safe places.
8. AnarthaDandaVrata.
Th e ninth vow, Samagika (Hl‘i ll‘it relates to one’s
religious dut ies . One promises in it tospend acertain portion of t ime in medita
t i on every day o r every year.
9 . Sa’ma’yika.
The tenth vow,De s ’dvakas
’
i ka Vrata Eulqglfi lg cm),is taken for o ne day only ; on e vows to l imit the space he
will travel over,to increase the per iod of
meditat ion e ither at home o r in the
Upasaro , and to decrease the number of
t h ings he w il l u se on that part icular day.
The effect ofthe eleventh vow,Po sadkaVrata(51q gm)
must be to connect the laity st il l closer with the monast icorder
,for in it one promises to lead a
monk’s l ife for a day. This means inpract ice ) to fast from food and drink fo r that period .
The twelfth vow,Ati thi Sar
’
nvibhaga Vrata mafiaQifqetmqq), must be equally useful to the monast ic orders,
fo r in it the layman promises to set as ideevery day a special port ion Of food for
the poor or for ascet ics.
1 0 . Des’a’va
ka’s’
ikaVrata.
1 1 . PosadhaVrata.
1 2. Alms .
Cas te and C us toms .
The Jaina say that Mahavira’s seco
'
nd great message
4 4 MODERN JAINISM.
t o mankindwas that Karmawas offar greater importancethan caste . If th is were ever the case
,
the message has lost its power now,fo r
the Jaina are perhaps the most caste— ridden people inIndiafi
‘ Some years ago i t was commonly bel ieved byEuropean scholars that both Buddhism and Jainism wererevolts against the tyranny o f caste in general
,but unfo r
tunately they seem to have been merely revolts of the h ighercastes against Brahmanic exclus iveness
,wh ich shut the door
of the h ighest as’
rama against all but Brahman ascetics.
Caste .
Dr. Biihler’r says that the characterist i c feature of thisrel igion is its claim to un iversal ity
,wh ich it holds in
common with Buddh ism and in oppos it ion to Brahmanism.
It also declares its object to be to lead all men to salvat ion ,and to open its arms— not only to the noble Aryan
,but also
to the low- born S’udra and even to the al ien, deeplydesp ised in India
,the Mlechha.
” If it ever had suchkindly feel ing to the lowcastes
,Jain ism nowmost effec
tually dissembles its love.” At two of the great centres ofJainap i lgrimage, Mt . Abu and Girnar, Iwas assured thatno low caste would be allowed to enter thei r temples toworsh ip ; And today
,when all that is most generous and
enlightened in young India i s longing to free itself fromthe huge incubus of caste that i s thwart ing all true develo pment, not one of the Jainaassoc iat ions dare put on the
programme of its Conference any mot ion in favour of therelaxat ion of caste restrict i ons .
Imperial Gaze tte e r o f India. Vo l . I . p . 4 1 6.
1‘ The Indian se ct o f the Jainas . p. 3.
A Parsiwho some years ago became a Jainawas for long no t
allowed to e nter the ir temple s towors hip , and even nowno Jainacan eatwith him.
JAINA LAY ADHERENTS. 4 5
This i s due no t to the laity so much as to the obscurant ismof the ascet ics
,who at their in it iati on were them
selves supposed to have renounced caste . The Mathurainscript ions bear witness to the ant iqu ity of caste amongstthe Jaina
,
’ bu t to the cruelty and inhumanity of i t I knowno more conv inc ing test imony than the not ice in Engl ishaffi xed to the entrance of Hath isimha’s temple in Ahmedabad wh ich runs as follows
Lowcas te servan ts i n atten dan ce o n cisi to rs and
dogs can no t be allowed to en ter the temp le .
”
The Brahmans are st il l the domest ic chaplains Of theJaina, and offi ciate at their wedding
,birth and death
ceremonies . The Brahmanic ritual i s
followed almost complete ly in the caseo faJainawedding
,except ing that of late years
,instead of
fire,Arihanta i s worsh ipped
,achange due to the influence
of the conferences .
Marriage .
The customary age fo r marriage differs with the sectsthe Sthanakavas i and Svetambara general ly marry theird aughters at about fo urteen o r fiftee n to boys of aboutnineteen o r twenty. There is however no special rel igioussanct ion amongst them for any part icular age.
‘
l
The D igambara are governed by fifty— three rules Ofl ife Samskara{1n and amongst these i s a saying that‘ a fathe r should seek a fitt ing husband for h is daughter. ’
They generally marry their daughters when about ten
D r. H o ernle’s Annual Addre ss . A . S . B . 1 898. p .
1“ D r. Burge ss (N o te s o n the Jainas . p . 36) say s Amo ng Jainas ,as amo ng Brahman s , it is strictly pre scribed that girls should bebetro thed before puberty .
”The JainaI have co nsulted deny this .
4 6 MODERN JAIN ISM .
o r twelve years of age . Vaniasomet imes accept moneyin exchange for their daughters
,but this
,which pract ically
amounts to sell ing their own children,i s much contemned
by other Jaina.
”
Sve tambara, D igambara and Sthanakavas i will allintermarry if they are Of the same caste . They will alsointermarry with Hindus of their own caste. Curiouslyenough, certain Svetambara in Ahmedabad will intermarry
,
bu twill not dine with,Sthanakavas i.
The birth ceremonies are pract ically the same as theBrahman ones . On the s ixth day aft er the ch ild
’s b irtha clo th i
L i s spread,with paper and ink
on it,and i t i s bel ieved that fate then
writes o n the baby’s forehead . On the twelfth day the
father’s s ister names the ch ild, and bo iled grain and molassesare distributed. The ch ild’s horoscope is deciphered by aBrahman .
Birth .
Amongst the Svetambaraand Sthanakavasi, if no ch ildi s born
,a husband is allowed to remarry
,although the
first wife be stil l l iv ing. If the secondw ife bear h im no ch ild
,hemay marry a
third and even a fourth . Although th is is allowed bycus tom
,it i s not really allowed by the Jaina Scriptures
,
Co -wives .
The offenders , howeve r, defend themse lve s by say ing that t he sedaughte rs had in a previous e xistence been the ir debtors
, and
that they had been reborn into the ir ho use s as daughters simplyt o g ive t he ir cre dito rs this ve ry Oppo rtunity of re covering abad debt
’l' The piece of clo th is generally to rn fromthe turban of the o lde stman in t he family , as it is believed t hat the ch ildwill live aslong as he doe s .
JAINA LAY ADHEREN'
is,
4 7
and aman who does so is not cons idered quite respectableby his fellow castemen .
The D igambara,as we have already seen
,disapprove
of remarriage during the l ife- t ime Of thewife.All three sects of Jaina unite in forb iddin g widow re
marriage. They give as areason that o ne who has been free dfrom worldly t ies should not seek to form
them again but thi s reason surely
appl ies j ust as strongly to the case of
men ;nevertheless all sects allow wido wers to remarrynL
WidowRemarriage .
There is,however
,o ne small subsect of the D igambara
who pe rmit their widows to remarry and in consequenceare much desp ised by their fellow Jaina. Unfortunately allover India it is cons idered asign of good soc ial s tandingfor acaste to disallow widow remarriage.
I t i s not aJaina custom to keep women in seclus ion,
but the pract ise has been adopted by them as a protect ion,
and also as as i n Of G ood soc ial o s it ionPurdah .
go P
wherever Mahommedan influence i s
specially strong.
The three sects all permi t women to go to their severalconferences
,and have aLadies’ Day fo r them .
A S thanakavasi Jaina,wh o thus remarried at Morvi,was recently
seve rely cen sured by his sect.1' Th ey say t hat th is is becau se the number o fwomen is twentyseven time s as great as that ofmen ;whe n to ld that the censusabso lute ly con trad icts the se figure s ( since in Ind iafor every 1 000male s o nly 963 female s are bo rn they re ply Oh ye s , it isn
’
t
true , it ’s only areaso n 1 !
4 8 MODERN JAINISM ,
The death ceremonies,wh ich are conducted by aBrah
man, very much resemble those of the Hindus. The Jaina,
however, after the dead body has beenburnt at the s ide of a river
,pour water
over the ashes and s imply leave them o n the bank,whereas
the Brahmans throw the ashes into the river.
Death .
L ike the Brahmans,too
,the Jaina bury instead Of
burning a child of less than a year and ahalf. The Brahmans bury their dead ascetics
,but the Jaina burn their
dead (with the except ion of infants) whether lay or ascetics,lest the body should give rise to too much insect l ife.
The Jaina wear wh ite o r black turbans as a s ign of
mourning,but unl ike Gujarat i Brahmans do not shave their
moustaches on the tenth day.
5 0 MODERN JAINISM .
as one witho ut caste,unaffe cted by smell
,without the sense
o ftaste,without feel ing
,without form
,without hunger
,with
o ut pain,without sorrow
,without j oy, without b irth , without
old age , withou t death , without body, without Karma, enjoying endless happiness .” That i s to say, the hol iest
,highest
manh ood that the Jaina se t before themselves as theiri deal i s that in which personal i ty i s comple te ly s tult ified.
All li fe i s div ided into two classes,B/u l ’vi ( evi l and
Abhrwi according as i t has o r has no t the
capac ity to become a S iddha,and only a Tirthankara o r
Kevali knows to wh ich div i s ion i t belongs .
The Tirthar'
ikara rather than the S iddha seem to havese ized o n the popular imaginat i on ; i t i s their images wh ich
are in the Jaina temples,and legends of
their g igantic stature and l ives of interminable length are eagerly repeated .
Tirthankara
Certain p icturesque m iracles are said to have taken
place whenever any of the Tirthankarapreached o n earthan as’okatree springs up at the place and grows to twelvet imes the preacher’s height
,the dwellers in Devaloka l isten
to his sermon and scatter flowers from heaven some godss ing and play celest ial mus ic
,others wave afly whisk in
front of the preacher. A l ion shaped throne and a s tateumbrella are provided for h im by the gods
,a halo o
f
l ight enc ircles h is head,and whenever he pauses to take
breath in h is discourse,a cele stial kettle drum is suthu
s ias tically beaten . A Tirthankara’s preach in g has thirtyfive characteristics
,amongst the most important of which
,
from a hearer’s po int of view,are that i t i s alwavs sweet,
intell igible,accurate and interesting.
JAINA DOCTRINE.5 1
Every Tirthankarahas also th irty four bodily characteristics , h is blood for instance is wh ite, h is body has asweet odour and he is never seen to eat .
Lis t o f T irt hankara.
The following l ist of Tirthafikara Of the present ageshows some sl ight differences between the sects .
(1 ) RISABHADEVA (asti oizq o r A’
DINA’
THA mufgcuqwhose s ign is the bull .
(2) AJITANA’
THA whose s ign is the ele phant .
(3) SAMBHAVANA’
THA (ale whose s ign is the horse.
(4 ) ABH INANDANA (wifevigri), whose s ign is the ape .
"5) SUMATINA’
i‘
Ha (aufimmwhose sign is the redgoose .
\6) .
PADMAPRABHU (Wuag‘
,whose s ign is the lotus flower
.
(7 ) SUPA’
RS’
VANA’
THA whose s ign isthe svas tika symbol .
(8) CANDRAPRABHU algae; whose s ign is the moon .
(9) SUV IDHINA’
TH A. whose s ign is the croco
dile Digambara: crab ]S
’
ITALANA’
THA whose s ign is the S ’
r i
mtsa figure D igambara fleas ve tig io sa
(1 1 ) ( 34 411q i,whose sign is the
rh inoceros .
(1 2) VA'
SUPUJYA may” whose s ign is the male
buffalo .
"E
(1 3) VIMALANA’
THA (fi lmy-1 121 whose s ign is the boar .
Dr. Burg e ss in h is e dit io n o f D r. Bu li ler’
s Indian sect o f theJainas ,” p . 69 , g ive s the sign as the female buffalo , but all theJaina I have asked give the male .
5 2 MODERN JAINISM .
(1 4 ) ANANTANA’
THA (wh im—1124 1 whose sign is a hawkD igambara abear
DHARMANA’
THA ( 5131 4 124 whose s ign is a thunderbolt.
(1 6) S’
A’
NTi NA’
THA (rufeqqm), whos e sign is adee r?“(1 7 ) KUNTHUNA
’
THA whose s ign is agoat .
(1 8) ARANA’
THA (M i rna) , whose s ign is astep - well
(1 9) MALL INA’
THA 11191-1 4 121f
,whose s ign is awater jar.
This the Svetambara bel ieve to have been theonly woman Tirthankaraj; The D igambara ofcourse do not hold th is
,as they do not th ink a
woman can attain Mok sa.
(20) MUN ISUVRATA gfn qq whose s ign is the torto ise .
(21 ) NAMINA’
THA M(H whose s ign is the blue lotus
[D igambara As’
oka tree ] .
(22) NEMINA’
THA (361q ,whose sign is the couch shell
,
and to whom Mt . G irnar in Kath iawad ) i sspecially sacred.
(29) PA’
RS’
VANAI’
HA (Hl‘ cld li-l), whose s ign is the serpent .
(24 ) MAHA’
V IRA whose sign is the lion,the most
famous ofall the T irthankara, and whose l ifewehave al ready given .
Bes ides Mahavira,the favourite T irthankaraare Pars’
vanatha,Neminatha, S’
an tinathaand the first,B isabhadeva.
D r. Burg ess loc . cit . g ive s antelo pe .
1“ Dr. B urge ss g ive s the Nandydvartad iagram.
1 Some twe nty - five years ago her image was found in Bhoyan i in
Gujarat ;and th is has g ive n the place such sanctity that , thoughquite asmall village , it has becn cho sen as t he place o fmee ting o fthe S’vetambara Conference o f 1 9 1 0.
JAINA Doc iNE, 5 3
The names are also recorded of Twenty— four Tirtharikarawho preceded those of the present age , and ofTwentyfour who will succeed them ; other sets of Twenty- fourTirthankarawill follow these,and so o n in endless success ion .
Jaina Es c hat o lo gy.
The Jaina have preserved the H indu doctrine o f
Transmigrat ion , though they subdivide the E ighty- fourLakhs (i . e . Eighty- four hundred thousand ) of reb irths,through which asoulmay pass, by an elaborate classifica
t ion of their own . This doctrine, together with that of
Karma,wh ich they also hold in common with the H indus,
colours all their eschatology.
The Jainaheaven,Svarga {cpl i s attained by those
who have acqu ired great merit,but who
Svar a.gare st ill subj ect in some measure to Karma
In Svarga both happ iness and pain are experienced ,but happiness preponderates .
Svarga i s divided into twenty- s ix heavens,wh ich are
grouped as follows
Devaloka ("mil ls o r the twelve lower heavens
,where
the gods and goddesses,Deva
,Devi sq ,
“
gen,
who
resemble those of the Hindus,dwell . At the head of these
Devaand Devi are the god Indraand the goddess Indran i .
Next above these heavens come the nine heavens called
Greveyika ( i flfqg but before a Deva can pass fromDevalokato Greveyika, he must descend to o ur world andbecome aman . The gods in these nine heavens are allequal and without a ruler.
Devi only attain to the lower of the se twelve h eavens .
5 4 MODERN JAINISM .
Above Greveyika is An n /1amVimana(Mani (spurt)agroup Of five heavens wh ich are inhab ited by higher gods,who will attain Mok saaft er the expiry ofo ne age . To passto Mo k sa
,an inhab itant ofAnu ttaraV imanawould have to
descend to our world and become aman and an ascet ic .Above Svarga i s the h ighest region o f all
,called
Moksa i t i s attained by thosewhoare complete ly freed from Karma, and
these are generally ascet ics .
The denizens of Mo k saare S iddha ( demi- gods ) whoexperience nei ther pain nor happ ine ss .
K ok sa.
We shall have to discuss Mo ksa later,as i t ranks as
o ne of the n ine elements of Jainaph ilo sophy.
Our world,o r Tiryukatoka(Gui is s i tuated beneath
the lowest Svargaand separates i t from Hell . It is madeup oftwo and ahalf islands
,each ofwhich
Tiryakaloka i s div ided into se ven parts ( the half
island being div ided into seven smaller parts ), and thesetwenty—one parts are again subdivided.
On each Island is adis tric t of great impo rtance called
Mahavideha Natal e bu t no o ne knows where th is
d istrict is. During the fifth and s ixth ages only those bornin th is d istr ict can attain Mo ksa
,and these, too, must firs t
have been ascetics .
Below our world is Adho loka which con
tains the Seven Hells o r Naraka «(Q3
Most vivid p ictures are publ ished as tothe various torments suffered by the den izens ofHell .”
Naraka.
See ru’ 51 4 i (i tal — o r Picture s o f H ell. (Publishers and Printersno t given
JAINA DOCTR INE.
The first hell,Ratna I
’
rabha 2m$101 ! i s paved withsharp stones the second
,S'
ar/mra P rahka He“ i spaved with stones in the shape of sugar loave s the th ird
,
Vala Prabha( 011g sic“ i s paved with sand ; the fourth ,PankaPra/rha
'
(wig is paved wi th mud ; then followsDhamra Prabhri (gal stei n
),wh ich is fi lled with smoke ; the
s ixth,TamaPrat/i ii (m1 Ste-u l i s absolutely dark and in
the se venth,Tamatama Prahka(<1a lieu), the blackness
is e ven more intense .
The inhabitants of all these hells are tormented byW icked Deva and suffer h ideous phys ical torments
,being
spl it Open , p ierced, cut into pieces, or burned ; water isO ffered to them
,and when they try and assuage the i r th irst
by drinking it,i t turns into molten lead .
They suffe r fo rafixed period according to their Karma,
and are th en reborn as men or lower an imal s o r,lowest of
all,as some vegetable
,perhaps apotato or even an on ion
The Jaina i llustrate these div i s ions by the diagram o f
aman . His legs are Adho loka with the seven hells, o ur
world,Tiryakaloka, i s h is waist, and above come s Urdhva
loka (Glsd'
éllg ) or Svarga, h is breast being Devaloka, h isneck Greveyikaand h is face AnuttaraV imana. His crowni s Mok sa.
KARMA .
Jaina,in common with Hindus
,bel ieve that Karma
ac tion ), the accumulated force of a man’s act ions
,good
and bad,in prev ious exis tence sf no t only determine s every
detai l ofhis present l ife and future exié’ten ce,iL but necess itates
h is pass ing through an unknown succe ssion of rebirths,unt i l h is Karmabe exhausted .
I t is interest ing to note that of all the Tirthai'
ikara
Mahavira had the greatest accumulat ion of Karma toexhaust .
The S ix Le s’
a’
.
The Jaina bel ieve that there are s ix emot ions or
Les’awhich lead to Karma; three are bad, and three are
good .
(1 ) Kri snaLes’a gumElm o r the feel ing that gives
rise to very ev i l thoughts ; th is is the worst of the three
bad emot ions .
N i ta Les’a( f ile; 171m) the emotion that leads to
e vil thoughts , but thoughts le ss ev i l than the first .
CompareThe Karma— all that to tal OfaSo ulW hich is the t h ings it did , the t ho ugh ts it had ,
The se lf itwove — wi thwo of ofviewle ss time,Cro ssed on thewarp of invisible actsThe o utcome o f h imon t he Un iverse . Sir Edwin Arnold .
1‘ The H indus co nstantly quo te the say ing fromthe Mahabharatat hat A s acalf immediately finds o ut its mo ther amo ng manythousands , s o do e s the fruit ofac tio n s done in bygo n e age s fo llowthe agent .
”
5 8 MODERN JAINISM.
S’ukla Les’a persuades the sixth man to think only ofp icking up those fru its that have fallen down .
The Eig ht Karma.
The Jaina seem to have a pass ion fo r classifying,
dividing and subdiv iding all the tenets of their faith .
Karma, wh ich is one of their main doctrines,they class ify
under eigh t heads .
Jfi d n fivaran iyaKarma. (alrucfl gnq gal), or the curtainthat hides knowledge. If aman i s prevented from getting
knowledge in o ne l i fe,either by poverty
o r stup idity,the reason is that in a
previous birth he must have h indered
another from gett ing knowledge e . g . destroyed useful books,
or neglected to help apoor student by paying h is fees,and
so accumulated the Karmawhich now prevents h im from
gett ing knowledge himself.
Dur s’wndvm'an iya Karma If o ne
man i s beginn ing to bel ieve inthe Jainarel igion and anotherh inders h im and puts stumbling blocks
2' pars/
am“ in h is way, the h inderer in h is nextvaramyaKarma.
b irth will not be able to have faith evenif he longs to possess it. The accumulat ion of thi s Karma
accounts for the act ion of those Jaina who eat meat andbreak the rules of their rel igion .
3. VedaniyaVedan iyaKarma awl) is the
Karma. o ne that brings happiness or unhappiness
in the next b irth .
Mohan iya Karma (fl lgffiq gal the fourth,i s the
s trongest ofall and the o ne wh ich brings most punishment .
1 .Jna’na’varaniyaKarma.
KARMA. 59
It is accumulate d through entanglement
in worldly attachments . If aman in o ne
b irth is so absorbed in worldly t ies thath e never th inks ofrel igion
,he will be kep t away in the
next birth from those he loves .
4 . Mohaniya
Karma.
A’
yu Karma 70 1 13 H i ) fixes the period during whichaman w ill experience heaven o r hell o r earthly l ife. In
each b irth man i s bu ilding up h is A’
yu
Karma for h is next l ife. A'
yu Karmacannot be accumulated beyond o ne reb irth .
5 . A’
yu Karma.
NamaKarma (4m9 1 ) dec ides whether aman will6 N K
be reb o rn as an animal o rab ird,whether
ama arma.
in he ll o r as ago d, i . e . in wh ich Gati ’“
h e will be reborn .
Go traKarma (31m331 A man’s act ions in o ne l ife
dec ide in what caste he w ill be born in the next thus bydo ing good to others
,by look ing always
at the bright s ide ofpeople, o r by tak ing
an interest in animal asylums he can try to avoid be ing
born in a low caste,and even hope to be born in on e of the
h ighest castes .
An tard yaKarma (34mm3d If in o ne l ife amanhas money and i s not willing to spend it on others, or i f he
8. Antara’
yahas influence o r energy
.
and yet refusesKarma. to serve others
,he W i ll in 11 1 8 next b irth
be born without money, influence o r energy.
7 . GotraKarma.
There are four Gati Manu s yaGati ug tanfd D evaGati (gqM51 ) , TiryancaGati (al ibi MG) , and Natak i Gati are ) , andt hey are frequently -repre sen te d by the Swastika symbo l .
60 MODERN JAINISM .
These eight are subdiv ided again into one hundredand fifty
- e ight divis ions, into wh ich it i s scarcely necessaryto go .
Th e Fo urt e e n S t e ps t o Libe rat io n .
The Jainabel ieve that asoul is liberated from Karmabyfogrteen steps , and these they call the CaudaGunasthdnaka
21 12 s eams
The First Step is the M i tl/yd tm. Gunasthd naka} (fili‘flcctgg tqlqg) . Men or women
,according to the Jaina
,often
l st Step .
begin to take their first interest in religionby realismg that what 18 unreal i s real .
Those who are at th is stage are completely under bondaget o Karma.
Sd s ed clcmaGuaastkdnaka(itl'fl l'é f l gqatuqs). Aman
zud Step.
beg ins to real ize what the truths
of
Jain ismare,but finds them too difficult
to bel ieve and i s st ill t ied down by Karma.
Mi'
s’mGunas thdnaka (3131 3&3e At this stage
aman,though cont inu ing to be bound by
Karma,begins to hold some truth along
with the untruth he st i l l bel ieves .
Avirati Samyakadris ti Gunas thd nwka “Elia{Hulkéf‘e any time A manwho has reached th is stage
begins to understand the evils of excessiveAnger
,Pride
,Deceit and Greed
,and i s
freed from the three ties of Self righteousness,Self esteem
and Self conceit ; if these evil qual it ies are not absolutelydestroyed at th is stage
,they become quiescent and are n o
longer motives in dec iding h is conduct. He is now somewhat freed from the chains of Karma.
3rd Step .
4 th Step .
KARMA. 61
Des’cwirati Sctr
'
rryatd suoizyam) Gunas thd naka( al(Eq aqq laqq gqgud g At th is po int moderate Anger
,
Pride,Deceit and Gree d are destroyed or
5th Step become qu iescent in aman,who i s now
a l ittle more free d from Karmaand can take the vows uponh imself
,either o ne o r all twelve .
P ramaitct Gu '
nas thafnaka 5M“ gqflmg S light
Anger, Pride, Decei t and Greed are now6th Step .
destroyed o r qu iescent,and amanwrll
s pontaneously des ire to keep the vows .
Ap ramatta Gu nas tha‘
nal’ca ( 7 01 50 1 1 1 q mr lg Anger'
i s now completely destroyed in aman o r else remainsqu iescent. Pride, Deceit and Greed only
7 th Step .
remain with h im in the fourth degree,and he is also
,happily
,freed from all the bad qual i t ies that
would make h im lazy o r sleepy .
N iyatibda’
amGan ccs thd naka q fq0 1 121 amend s [wring ] This is apart icularly interesting
stage,as the D igambara bel ieve i t to be
sth Stop the h ighest a woman can reach . The
Svetambara and Sthanakavasi, however, bel ieve that awoman can pass through all the stages and attain Mo ksa.
One who has reached this po int is freed from Pride,
o r i t remains qu iescent . His mind and body are now so
d i sc ipl ined that he can dispense w ith the aid that the taking
c fvows affords to h is weaker brethren . Th is stage is calledthe Unique because so few attain to it .
An iyatibddamGunas thdnaka(M q rfl oi l i l gflfl lflg).
At th is stage aman becomes practically sexless , and he9th Step .
i s freed from the dominion ofDeceit .
62 MODERN JAJN ISM
‘
S uksmasampardya Gunasthdn uka Qfi ‘ia‘fl lq 3&34 1 All sense ofhumour n owvanishes from aman
,together w ith h is power
of feel ing grief and— quaint j uxtaposi t ion l— h is sense of
smell .
Qpas’
d 'n taMohaGunas thd naka(611 1 1q’
ing ggrg tmg) .I t is at th is po int that Greed should
,if no t destroyed
,at
least become qu iescent . This i s considered avery crit icalstage if Greed really dies out
,all i s wel l ;
but if i t be only do rmant,and something
rouses i t,i tmay drag aman down again . Curiously enough ,
if he falls,i t i s not to any of the thre e stages immediately
below him,but to the s ixth o r seventh stage
,o r hemay
even fall as lowas the first .Should aman die in th is stage without Greed having
been reawakened, he will become an Anuttaravas i Deva1 115?m $54 ) , i . .e
,o ne who after o ne more reb irth will
become aS iddha.
Ks inamohct Gunmthd n u/w. filming QQQQM;At th is po 1nt aman i s freed from four of the Eight Karma
P. Jfianavaran iya Dars’
anavaran iyaMo han iyaand An taraya
),and though the
other fo ur remain, they have no more powe r over h imthan a burnt up string ’ No o n e can ever die in th isstage
,for even i n rid iculemo r t is he would pass through the
next two stages and ente r Mo ksa.
b’
uyog i Keval i Gu ’
ryts thd na/ca(yawnc A
manwho reaches th is s tage becomes aKevali,is omnisc ient
,
and wil l at death become aS iddha. (Onlythe Kevali know which stage aman . has
1 0th Step .
1 1 th Step .
1 2th step .
1 3th Step .
KARMA . 63
reached,but as they take no interest
,no o ne prays to them
for aid in gett ing free from Karma) .
A monkwho faithfully performs h is vows,etc.
,can
reach th is th irteenth stage. A layman could reach it,but
i t would be very hard for him . The S’vetambara and
Sthanakavas i,as we have seen
,say that i t might be reached
by awoman,but i t would be hardest of all for her. They
say that fo r every 1 08men who attain Moksa,at most only
twenty women do so,and ten neu ters .
Ayog i Ker-ai l Gunas lhc
’
i naka 7 0131311'
gqt-{l gqamqg) .No one who has attained the fourteenth
1 4 th St ep .
and final stage ever l ives in 1 t,but
,be 1ng
freed from all Karma,dies at once and becomes aS iddha.
‘
THE N IN E CAT EGO RIES o r JAIN A DO CTRIN ES .
The S’vetambaraand Sthanakavas i bel ieve that thereare nine princ iples of Jain i sm,
v a Tafva «iq qqq theD igambarahold that there are only seven .
i. Jiva (29a
With the Jainathe word Jivaseems to mean sometimessoul
,sometimes l iv ing being
,sometimes consc iousness and
sometimes v ital ity ? There are,they say, ten different kinds
o f l ife .
(1 ) E A-
en d '
riya, Under th is heading are
classed th ings possessed of ex istence alone . This class i sagain subdivided into things visible
( badara 0 1m as a stone,c lay
,wind
,
water,fire
,and certain vegetables as on ions ; and th ings
in vis ible (suksmaag’
fl ), as , fo r example, oxygen . I t i s thefear of injuring these Ekendriyathat so l imits the trades aJaina can follow . Children are even forbidden to playwith any of these
,such as stones or lumps of earth
,for
fear of injur ing themflL
(2) Be Indriya (Q L iving th ings po ssessed,the Jaina say, of body and tongue have
two senses,as caterpillars, leeches, worms,
Ekendriya.
Be Indriya.
an imalculae .
3 d E1 51 Nai l V112“. Part 2. p . 38. This is o ne ofaGujarati Serie so f book s of instructio n in the Jaina relig io n prepared for
ch ildren ,and published at Ahmedabad in 1 907 .
1" Id . Part 1 . p . 28.
66 MODERN JAIN ISM ,
n . Aj lva (“ 29 st
The Jainamake five divis ions in the class of thingswithou t l ife
,
”and these w ith Jiva make up the whole
o fthe universe .
Dharmd s tikdya addicts“! Motion,for example
that wh ich , brought into connection withafish
,makes i t swim.
Adharmd s tikdya Mafilfzqglq Inertia in soul
2. Inertia 0 1' body
3. Space . A’
lcd s’
d stikd yaMannheim) : Space.Kala 8M Time.
1 . Motion .
The Jainamake two divis ions in t ime
a. Vyavahd rikaKata, (oqqglfl g gm) , which includesthe ordinary divis ions of t ime into days
,years etc and
b ) Addhd samaya Kata or t ime whichworks alterat ions
,e . g . wh ich makes new th ings old and
o ld new.
Pudqaic'
is tikciya ggoicqifictglq Under th is head
ing is included every th ing that relates to o ur means of
percept ion,such as colour
,touch
,smell
and taste. The Jainabel ieve that there
are five primary colours,viz — red, yellow,
blue o r green),black and wh ite. Under “ touch ,
”
(wail) they classify thing sheavy and l ight, smooth and rough , dry and wet, hot andcold.
" I‘
he late Rev. Douglas Thoronton haswell said These arevaguely classed and generally incapable of inte rpretation .
”Parsi
,
Jainaand Sikh , p . 63.
THE N INE CATEGORIES . 67
iii. The Fo rty two A’
s’
rava.
There are forty- two A’
s’
rava imamor Paths leadingto the E ight Karma, and of these seventeen aremaj or andtwenty- five minor. The current Jaina i llustrat ion of
A’
s’
rava is as follows - the soul i s l ike atank intowh ich,
l ike water through rills and channels,Karma flows byway
of the body, tongue, nose , eyes and ears? Of the seventeen
maj or A’
s’rava, four are included under
Kasa‘
ya 314 14 ) or pass ions , namely Ange r , Kro dha
3ih ), Pride (Mana HM I llusion (Maya 1 1 14 1 f, GreedLo bha171 19 1 These are all subdiv ided
according to the ir extent . In the case
o f Anger (wh ich thev bel ieve dwells in the forehead )there are
(1 ) An fmtci n ubrtndhi (wdq lgwr ifl o r the b i tteres tanger, which is endless, and .the punishment for wh ich
is Hell .
(2) .l pacalcha‘
nd raran iyu (wq lqlqlegq), or angerwhich lasts fo r no t more than a year
,and wh ich is
ended o n the Jaina fe st ival of good will , the last day of
Pajjusana. Ifaman die wh ilst he i s indulging in th is
ange r,he will become abeas t o r b ird .
(3) ( HHWIQI’RQM
‘ o r angerwhich las ts for not more than fifteen days .
The Passions .
At the}
end o f eve ry fifteen days there is a Spec ialconfess ion of s in amongst the Jaina, and th is anger mustend then . Ifaman die in th is state, he will have no chanceof becoming a saint in h is next birth
,but w ill be born
aman .
34 hi
t Nat l Part 2. p . 59 .
68 MODERN JAINISM .
(4 ) Safij i 'alana airmen-
l),o r sl ight anger. This anger
is confessed and dismissed at the end of every day at
the evening confess ion. If aman die whilst indulging inth i s form of anger
,he cannot become aSiddha
,but migh t
be aTirthankara in his next b irth .
Pride , Illusion and Greed are div ided in the samewayand carry the same punishments.
The Prince. Iudriya firm). The next five A’
s’
rava
c onsist in fai l ing to restrain the senses of sight,hearin g
,
smell,taste and touch . Though . th e
'
immediate results of exerc is ing these
s ensesmay be good, yet they lead to entanglement.
The Senses .
The Pri nce Av-
rata ( 1 1121 7mm) are the oppo site su of
the five great vows, and consis t of k ill ing,lying . steal ing, unchast i ty and covet ing.
The remaining th ree,the Trana Yoga ”IQ
Elmcome from fai l ing to restrain body, m ind
and speech .
B reach ofVows .
TranaYoga.
The D igambara include under A’
s’
rava .llerit (Punya
3631 ) and S in (Papa1 4m) , which , unl ike the Svetambaraand
S thanakavas i, they do no t consider to be main d ivis ions
o f the nine categories, but only subd iv is ions.
iv. S amvara (as ? t h e Impe d ing o f Karma.
The Jainabel ieve that Karmamay be impeded in fiftyseven ways. Ten of these we have already learnt under theTen duties ofmonks and nuns besides these there are :
Five Rules ofConduct (Pd ficrt Sami ti taf’
flfq )
wh ich impede Karma
THE N INE CATEGORIES. 69
(1 Iryci Sami ti ( kph i . e . walking carefully
Rules ofConduct . and avo iding treading o n anyth ing.
(2) Bhdsd Samiti ( 01 1t1 1 afflfq ) o r speak ing sweet,
wholesome,true words .
(3) Esan ci Sani i ti (fl qq 1 116 taking only such foodas i s all owed by the S
’astras and avo iding the forty- twos ins ofeat ing .
(4 ) A’
dd nan iks epaf
rta‘
Sami ti 34 12146193HQ}! 36d};sweep ing the ground to clear it of insects before s itt ing down
.
(5) Parithdpan ikd Sami ti ( qfwmfdu afflfq righ tdisposal of refuse .
The Three Gapti also impede Karma they arestrictly b inding o n monks and nuns
,and
also,though more loosely
, o n the laity.
They are
(1 ) Man ogap ti or controll ing the mindamonk must give up wandering thoughts and fix the mindo n medi tat ion .
(2) Vacanagupti (qq qgfxq controll ing the Speechamonk should Speak as l ittle as poss ible and occas ionallyvow silence for awhole day.
(3) Kdyagup ti ( 5:1n restraining bodi ly movement . If amonk is meditat ing
,he should no t start even
ifasnake appear ; whenever he moves, he should take carenot to injure any l iv ing th ing.
There are also Twenty- two Ways of Endurance o r
Parisaka. qfiag by which amonk or nun is bound,and
the lai ty should endeavour,to impede
Karma. Such endurance is spec iallyb inding o n the laity during the Pe sadha
'
Vow). The
7 0 MODERN JAIN ISM.
monk must endure hunger (K swdhd Par isahu. 55151 1 qfiyg)th irst (Tr ied, only drinking ho t fluids ;cold S’i ta{liewithout l ight ing a fire o r asking fo r extra clo thing ; heat
gogglwithout even fanning ;mosquito b ites (Dci fnsaAlli unsu itable cloth ing Vas tra ‘Ral he must be indifferent to the lodgin g
,food
,clothes
,etc., he obtains (Arati
,
“ (fa indifferent to women Stri tail) ; he must not mindchanging h is dwell ing Oaryrimi1 must be indifferent todanger and fear (Nais
’
idhilci fifufiqfl as to gett ing abedor no t (S ay/ya? 9
, 1q must endure taunts,etc. (A
’
ltro s’
a
wugm) ; beat ing Vadhct cm unk indness when begging
(Yd ri ed? £111 1 1 ) refusal when begging (Ald lihu.mam) illnessB oga
z
{13 1 must no t mind the prickly grass on which he
l ies Trinaspars’aqqauofi ) ; must endure dirt o n h is body
(Meta, must not be puffed up when praised fo r h islearning o r v irtue (Sal t/caret awn )
;no r proud whilst teach inghis pupil s (Praj i
‘
ui must not remember h is learn ing
and h is studies Aj'fid na 1 4 3 1-1 and finally
,must never
allow adoubt as to the truth of h is rel igion any foot- hold
in h is mind (Samyi ktiw. I’arisaimwqgtq ‘lr’éfié
Twelve great reflect ions Bhd vanci euqru ) must be
remembered,especially by monks and nuns, but also by
the laity
( l ) An i tya Bhdvan d “Gme1 1e1 ct1 One must
Twelve constantly remember that the world is
Reflections . transitory and the soul eternal .
(2) As'
arargrt Bhd i 'and ” RRQ Gl l°lfll that the soul
fears death and has no shel te r .
(3) Sav’
n sc‘
imBhdva'nc
‘
i thatman is cons tan tly taking birth .
THE NINE CATEGORIES . 7 1
(4 ) E lective. Bhdvami £1 861 (amen): that the soul cameunaccompanied
,goes unaccompanied and must suffer for i ts
act ions .
(5) Anyatva Bhd ’
t ‘fl’
n d (M e qfi ouqeu that neitherwealth
,son nor wife are really ours but belong to others .
(6) As'
auca Bhavan ’i wfiuq (amen ) : that even o ur
body is not our own and i s impure .
(7 ) A 3mm. Bhdvana‘
”1 1812 61 1614 1 One must reflecthow hard i t is to be free from Karma when sin may lurkin one’s every action .
(8) Sa'fiwamBhd van d ( 3.t that to destroy
Karmaone must take certain vows,e ither small o r great.
(9) N i ijm'd Bhdvand (d iv/Q! 9 1 1l In order tocompletely destroy Karmaone must meditate on austerities
.
(1 0) Lo/ca Bhdmna‘
. (H1; One must th ink of
the world as in the form Of aman . Instead of search ingfo r God in anyth ing one must th ink of h imself as capable o fbecoming aS iddha.
(1 1 ) Bod liibiju Bhdvan d ( 5l lffil“{lwe1 1c1 e1 1 One mus tthink howhe shall take the first step in h is rel igion
,and
then go on mount ing.
(1 2) Dharma Bhdvand (E131 91 101 -1 1 and he must
th ink of the h ighest truth in hi s rel igion,and be thankf ul
that hewas born aJaina.
F inally, there are five Rules of Conduct o r D isc ipl ine,
Cd ri tm(21 1019 1 Wh ich impede Karma
(1 ) St'
imdyikaC’c’
iri tra(11 17 1 1613 zufiq ), the giv ing up ofall sin ful act ions and pe rforming innocent
F ive Can tra. ones,and look ing o n all mankind as equal.
7 2 MODERN JAIN ISM.
(2) Chedozmsthapan iyaCdritra (Qi iuaqmcflq aura-ai),repent ing for all s ins .
(3) Parihara Vi s’
addhaCd ri tra(nay ), (Riga, anfiq ).
This th ird rule is variously given by the various sects ; itmay mean to go when ordered by asuperior to amiserableplace as a test of endurance.
(4 ) Suksmasampardya Cdri tra fi guaquqTo try and have very l ittle attachment to th is world . Thereare
,as we saw
,fourteen stages on theway to L iberation, and
hewh o i s thus but l ightly t ied to th is world has reached thetenth stage .
(5 ) Yathci lchyci ta Cd i i to'a (nalbam21 160 1 The fifth
rule ofconduct is carried o ut when one has lost all attachment to the world and thinks only Of the soul . Th is isto attain the th irteenth and fourteenth stages towardsL iberat ion .
v. N irjara’
(Greta )
The fifth great princ iple o r category of Jain ism deals
with the part ial destruct ion Of Karma. I t i s effected bythose exterior and interior austeri t ies wh ich we have alreadydiscussed under Tapawhen we we re studying the ten dutiesofmonks and nunsfi
’
vi. Band ha (ova)The s ixth prInCIple is also conce rned with Karmaand
o ur bondage to i t. Each o f the eight Karma already
mentioned’r i s cons idered with regard to i ts nature, durat ion,qual ity and quant i ty.
Se e page 34 . See page 59 .
"
7 4 MODERN JAINISM ,
viii. Punya.
Panya (guy) o r merit can be earned in any of the
follow ing n ine ways
N ineways of (1 ) An naPa’ltya(“ fl aQQ) : gIVIIlg
Earning Merit . food to the poor or to mendicants .
(2) PatnaPanya(mg any) : giving water to the th irsty.
Co ld water can never be given to ascet ics,and the ho t water
«given must be surplus hot water,and not water spec ially
warmed for them .
(3) Laya’aaPu '
nya(GHQ n ) : building houses fo r the“homeless
,o r sett ing as ide Spec ial bu ildings for ascetics .
Jainamonks from Mé lwaand Marwar will never stay at anUpasaro monastery ), but beg the loan of empty houses .They are afraid, if they used o ne specially erected fo r them
,
o f sharing in the gu il t of building houses ( by wh ich l ifemay have been destroyed).
(4 ) S’
aya’aaPan g/a(51q ggq providing seats
,beds
«o r bedding for those who are in need. It is in order to.earn this merit that laymen lend to an Upasaro the broad
'
.benches the monks sleep o n .
(5) VastraPan g/a 01131 31231 merit gained by givingclothing to the poor and naked
,or renewing the five gar
ments pe rmitted to amonk .
(6) Mama Punya. any) : th ink ing well Of others ."
It i s considered very meritorious to think of the brights ide ofother people
,and to remember their good qual it ies
whilst forgett ing their bad . One should also constantly
T lan to promote the happin ess Of others .
THE NINE CATEGORIES. 7 5
(7 ) Vaco naPunya(qui et speaking well ofand too thers. Th is includes merit gained by speak ing as h ighlyas poss ible of others
,giving them good advice , instruct i on,
lectures etc,and always Speaking pol itely.
(8) S”ariraPun ya n ) : serving others at some
bodi ly trouble to oneself,and personally look ing after the
s ick and aged A layman cannot thus serve monks,who
must be served by their brother monks ; if, however, alayman has taken the Po sadhavow, ! he can serve amonkas long as the vow lasts .
(9) Namask'i ra Panya showing reverence to elders
,superiors and ascet ics . One can acquire th is
form of merit by bowing,by salaaming with both hands,
and by generally showing re verence in bodily postures.
The fru i t of Punya i s div ided into fifty— two classes of
rewards,which vary according to the zeal with wh ich the
act ionwas performed. Some act ions,for
instance,bring fame, some health of body
o r beauty Of form o r vo ice,others assure
your being born in an exalted family, o r even win Moksa,
and the h ighest of all raises the doer to the rank Ofa
T irthankara.
The frui t ofPunya.
Although the Jaina have set before themselves soc omplete asystem ofal tru ism
,and buttressed it by rewards
appeal ing so strongly to self interest, it seems to have butl ittle influence on their conduct to any but Jainaand asce
t ics. The callous indifference to human suffering shown bythis rich community during the famine which devastated.
Se e page 43.
7 6 MODERN JAIN ISM.
Gujarat in 1 900 ‘ has left an indel ible stain on a reputati on
already tarnished by their apathy regarding infant ic ide
The pract ice offemale infant ic idewas , before the Brit ishGovernment intervened to put an end to it, almost universal
amongst certain Raj put tribes in Western India;and the
Jainanever attempted to save the countless ch ildren thusdone to death . Concerning thi s the Government Gazetteerofthe Bombay Pres idency says with just ifiable indignat ionBrahmans who would no t destroy the most hurtful reptile
,
and Jains,who cover their mouths that theymay not injure
the smallest insect,looked o n with apathy from generat ion
to generat ion,never rais ing their vo ice in behalf of the
helpless creatures,who
,year after year, were sacrificed at
the shrine of superst it ion and pride .
”T
ix. Papa.
The ninth category deals w ith sin (Papa ofwh ich,
according to the Jaina, there are eighteen kinds . Thegreatest ofall sins is the destruct ion ofl ife
(Prana'
tipatau1q1fq 1 11c1), and this carrieswith it the heaviest punishment the guilt
Increases in accordance with the number of senses”
the thing inj ured possesses so that the greatest guil ti s incurred by kil l ing aman), and also in accordance withthe mot ive from which the act ion was done . Mri savada
(ENN IS ), or tell ing l ies,i s also forb idden
,but the truth
s hould be spoken pleasantly. Adattadd na (W i fl l i ld ) , o r
Eigh teen kindsofSin .
The exagge rate d value Jainaplace o n animal rather t han humanlifewas clearly sh ewn in the famine . Inmore than one town theywere seen to drive away starving little children frompick ing upscattered grain s of corn , so that pigeonsmigh t get afull meal.
'l' B ombay Gaze tteer, vo l. viii . p . 1 1 2.
THE NINE CATEGORIES, 7 7
s teal ing, i s proh ib ited in all i ts branches : o ne must nots teal
,receive stolen property, shelter ath ief, or smuggle .
T reason,curiously enough
,i s also forb idden under th is head .
The other S ins forb idden are Abrahmacarya 1 119451 21 11:
-o r unchast ity Parigraha(vfiflg), o r gathering possessions’
with to o much greed ;Krodha (fi3m), anger Mdna orconceit Maya o r deceit Lobka avarice Raga
o r overfondness for persons or things D '
vesa o r
enmity ( which includes envy, sp ite and mal ic iousnessKies
'
a quarrelsomeness ; Abhyakhyana(i s ome rslander ; Pais
’
unya (hg c q), o r talebearing ; ParapravddaN inda
‘
( 1 1 1 510112 o r fault finding ; Rati Arati (QR-
1“warn lack of self control ; Mdydmri sa Hl‘l l‘i hll o r
s ugges ti o fals i and Mi thyadars’anaS
’
alya (61 930 1 9314o r false fai th .
All these e ighteen s ins are carefully tabulated asforb idden, but there i s acurious passage in one of the newJainarel igious school books
,which runs Ch ildren
,you
must no t commi t such sins aimlessly,where no end can be
gained fo r yourselves , and the interests of your relat ivesare not concerned ; moreover s ins should be kept with inbounds ” !
Sin will h inder o ur attain ing in our next birth toRight Knowledge, Faith and Conduct. For example
,if
Resul ts of sin .
aman i s rebornwealthy,.
he may beunable to give alms owmg to the
zmiserliries s produced by h is sins in apast l ife.6151 13 1 1 ! Fmi (M R Imam0! M aiam, an «uni «1 1 311 3131
as} «1 gm, an «and { 13 M i ‘ll‘t dwi i am, MR an miterQuai l am.
34 Hi as“w. Part 2. p. 55.
7 8 MODERN JAIN ISM.
Again onemay, as the resul t of sin , become abeast or ab ird, or be born in Hell. To be born in Hell is the worst ofall punishments
,wh ile another of the heaviest penalt ies is
to be born an onion or other one- sensed th ing,
If in o ne l ife a woman is not faithful to her husband,
she will in the next become awidow. It is h ideous toth ink Ofall the suffering that has been caused by th is o n e
art icle ofbel ief,and th is suffering has been heightened by
the fact that it i s only the ch ild<3
widow,i . e . the one most
incapable ofdefending herself who is bel ieved tohave thuss inned. When older women lose thei r husbands In maturel ife
,i t i s cons idered s imply to be in the course ofnature.
Certain other s ins cause phys ical deformity in the nextbirth
,o r may make a woman childless . Loss of friends
,
relat ions,weal th
,etc ., are all put down to s ins in aformer
l ife,as are excess ive sleepiness and laziness. One Jaina
gentleman told me that,as his family consisted only of
daughters,he found it agreat expense to marry them all Off
,
but he dare not complain,as all h is friends assured h im it
was only h is just punishment for having misappropriatedfunds in aprevious existence l
JA lNA DIVIS IO N S O F TIME.
The Jaina bel ieve that,wh ile the world was never"
created and wil l never end, two periods of t ime , a Riseand aDecl ine, have fOllowed each other and will follow eachother endlessly in ceaseless rotat ion .
These two divis ions are known as the Utsa'rpi
'
na(gagNgfl o r Ris ing
,and the Avasa'
rp ini (wqyfqgn) o r
Fall ing ;each of these, true to the Jainagenius for class ifiest ion
,i s subdiv ided into s ix periods
A Ut sarp in i.
This era begins when everything is at Its very worst,
and i ts first and worst period is known as Du samaDu safma35131 gN
‘i This i s followed by Du sama,when
,though
everyth ing is very evil,asight improvement has taken place
Dasama Su sa'ma gum24 1111 1 ) i s a period a l ittle betterst ill, when there is some joy as well as some sorrow ; and in
Su samaDu samaj oy preponderates over sorrow . The fifthperiod
, Su sama, i s entirely j oyful , and i t i s followed bySu samaSu sama,
at ime ofextreme and intense j oy .
8 . Avasarp in i.
Unfortunately we are nowl iv ing in the decl in ingperiod Of the world’s happiness .
(1 ) It began with Sasama S usama, a period wh ichlasted for countless years
,and of which a rather pretty
p icturewas given me by a.
JaIna. The ch ildren that wereborn in that happy age were always fortunate. They were
always born twins , aboy and girl , beaut i ful trees providedthem with fru it to eat
,and the bark of these trees served7 9
280 MODERN JAINISM .
them as garments. On the fourth day after their bi rth theywere able to eat as much food aswas equal to agrain Of cornin s ize ; they never ate alarger meal throughout their l ives ,and this meal they only took every fourth day. They neve rhad to cook their food , but the desire—fulfilling tree , theKalpaVriksa 30 1 gmserved their need. The parentsdied as soon as the ch ildren were forty- nine days o ld
,and
the ch ildren l ived l ives of such innocence that they didnot even know what a dwell ing place , a cook ing u tens il,cooked food
,or rel igion were
,and at their death this ih
nocence took them to Devaloka.
(2) Sasama. Happy twins were born in this periodtoo
,the differences being that they could eat o n the th ird
day after their b irth , and continued to eat, every third dayof their l ives
,ameal equal in s ize to aBo ra(flu), o r jujube
fruit,and the parents l ived till their ch ildren were s ixty
four days o ld. These twins,l ike the previous ones
,went
straight to Deval okaat death .
(3) SasamaDuqama. The twins that are born in thisperiod eat every second day ameal the siz e of an A
’mala“ 171611 fruit, and their parent s l ive t ill their ch ildren are
seventy—nine days Old.
The first Jaina Tirthankara, Risabhadeva,
“took birthin the latter part of th is period and taught the twins theseventy- two useful arts i . 6. cooking, sewing, pottery,carpentry
,8m. ) After th is the happy t imes ceased
,the
desire—fulfilling trees disappeared, and fortunate twins wereno longer born . Risabhadevaalso introduced pol it ics andestabl ished akingdom
,and taught h is daughters letters and
the art of writ ing. Risabhadeva’
s elder daugh ter,Brahmi
,
i s the Jainapatron of learn ing.
82 MODERN JAINISM .
will only last for s ixtee n years and will go o n decreas ing,
and in the sameway the average human height, at first onlyone cubit
,will get smaller and smaller.
At the end of the period terrific winds will blow,rains
fall and flames appear in such av i olent storm that i t willalmost seem as if the world we re go ing to be destroyed, butas the world is eternal , that ofcourse cannot really happen .
An imals and men will shrink to the size of seeds, andb irds and the seeds of every plant w ill take refuge in theriver Ganges
,in the ocean o r in caves.
At last the time wi ll come fo r the eraof Utsarpini torecommence
,and agradual improvement will set in : the
seeds will grow,and in the th ird period the Jaina rel igion
will begin afresh . In due course th is era will again befollowed by Avasarpin i, and so o n in endless success ion, as
n ight follows day.
FIVE KIN DS ; O F KN OW LEDGE.
The Jainahave a class ificat ion of knowledge o n whichthey lay great stress, and wh ich is bel ieved to be pecul iarto themselves . They divide it in to fi ve classes .
(1 ) MatiJani na (
’
q gm), wh ich depends o n makingthe r ight use Of intellect and consc ience .
(2) San ta Jiia'
na gm{1M or knowledge attainedby hearing
,preach ing and the reading ofS
’astra,& c . This
knowledge is intimately connected with knowledge of theprev iou s class .
(3) Avai l/i iJi'
i 'ima ’
q '
q QM ). L imited knowledge Ofth ings beyond the ken Of
'
Ordinary men , for instance knowledge concern ing the heavens
,gods
,the act ions Of friends at
adistance,8m.
1 4 ) .llanaéparya‘
yaJRai na(Hd zutilq 53m). KnowledgeOfwhat passes in the minds Of'
O the I‘S.
(5) Kevala (gem The perfect knowledgeo r omnisc ience possessed by the Kevali .
RATN A TRAYA .
The Jaina sum up all their rule s of conduct and all
t heir doctrines,with their mult ifarious subdiv is ions
,under
t he name of the Three Jewels, or Raina Traga (2mThese are Jnana o r Right Knowledge of the
Jainadoctrines ; Dars'
ana if or Right Faith in thosed octrines ; and Car i trya ( : 1 1(1 9 4 o r Right Conduct infulfill ing the Jainavows and duties ; of these the first twoare cons idered ofn o avai l w ithout the last.
It i s interest ing to notice in th is co nnect ion that thought he Buddh ists also speak ofTri— ratna
,or Three j ewels
,with
them these terms denote three concrete th ings : Buddha,
the Lawand the Order.
JAINA WO RS HIP .
The Jaina seem always to have chosen for theirsanctuaries the crests of wooded h ills. In Western Indiathere are three shrines of spec ial sanct i ty and beauty to
which the S'vetambara and D igambara Jaina go on
pilgrimage .
The most sacred o f these,
“ the first Of places of pilgrimage
,the bridal hal l of those who would marry everlast
ing rest,” i s the hill Of S’
atrunjaya, nearPal itanain Kathiawad. Th is h ill
,wh ich
is sacred to A’
dinatha,rises to the height of some 1 97 7 feet
above sea level,and the summit i s ent irely covered with
temples. “ Street after street,and square after square
,
extend these shrines o f the Jain faith,with their stately
enclosures,half palace , hal f fortress, raised, in marble
magn ificence,upon the lonely and maj est ic mountain .
”
Indeed,so many are the temples
,that to go round them all
i s said to requ ire n inety- nine p ilgrimages .
Mount Girnar, the h il l of can be seen ona clear day from S
’
atrunjaya, to wh ich it is only secondin sanct ity. It i s s ituated in the Mahomedan State Of Junagadh, and its summit,
i s gained by the most magnificent stairway in the world,
fl igh t upon flight Of stone s teps, wh ich lead from the plainbeneath
,past the Neminatha fortress w ith its wealth of
temples,to the h ighest Of the five peaks
,some feet
above the level of the sea.
Girna’
r.
A . K . Forbe s . Res Malapp. 5 , 6.
85
86 MODERN JAINISM .
The Dilvaratemples on Mount A'
bu,though they lack
the surpassing sanct ity ofS’
atrunjaya, and their s ite has n o tthe wild grandeur ofGirnar
,are in them
selves perhaps the most beaut iful of all.A walk of about amile through a pleasant valley connectsthe ris ing ground on wh ich they standwi th the l ittle h ills tat i on of A’
bu .
The larger shrines belo ng to the S’vetambara sect,and
the brothers Vas tupalaand Tejapala— they died in the years
A. D . 1 24 2 and 1 252 respectively — who had spent,i t i s said
,
e ighteen crores Ofrupees in erecting the temples on theS’
atrun jaya hills, spent twentv— four crores more o n erectingtemples here and on G irnar.
A’
bu .
Digambara Mo rn ing Wo rs h ip.
Across theway from these shrines i s a l ittle temple ofthe D igambarasect, .wh ich has lately been restored throughthe zeal o f the Bombay Provinc ial Assoc iation ofD igambaraJaina. Through the courtesy of their representat ive inA
’
bu,we were pe rmitted to watch thei r morning and
evening worsh ip . Two steep fl ights of steps lead to thetemple court
,in the centre of wh ich is a shrine of
A’
dinatha,and round the court are windowless cells
,bu ilt
for the occupat ion of vis it ing monks,nuns and pilgrims .
There i s an addit ional room' with five o r s ix separate
hearths wh ich serves{
as akitchen .
We arrived about 8 A. M and found the JainaPuja'
ri
taki ng an early cup of teabefore beginning h is work. Afterremoving our shoes
,we were allowed to stand on the floor
before the door of the temple during theworship, wh ichlasted about an hour and a half
,and which consisted in
JAI NA WORSH IP. 87
cleansing the idols,mark ing them and Offe ring rice . In the
main c ircle of the tem p le,o r RarigaMandapa in 1 13 11 )
were two figures ofA’
dinathaand two OfMahav i ra.
In afurthur re ce ss, the Gabbero DIG wh ich o ne
might almost cal l achancel,were two figures of Sambhava
natha,and with in the inner Shrine
, the Sevano Gabharo
(331 131 a larger figure OfA’
dinathaand h is attendantYak sas
,s e t in abackground ofbeautiful carv ing.
The furni ture of the temple consi sted of abeautifuls ilve red alms chest or Bhandara standing j ust infront of arough wo oden table o n wh ichwas a square s i lverstand for the sacred book . Beh ind th is tablewas a smallerwooden one
,al so bare
,save fo r a three- legged stool wh ich
rested on it . A hanging brass bel l and a moveable gongcompleted the equipment .
The images Of the Tirthankarawere all o fwhite marble
and qu ite nude, wearing only a star— shaped ornament on
the ir breasts . Just as with the S’vetambara,the figures
are seated wi th their legs in the Padmasana 1 1131 11414 )
posture,i . e . crossed in fro nt
,the toes of o ne foot rest ing
close upon the knee of the other,and their hands in the
Kan sagga p os it io n , i . c . the righ t hand over the left inthe lap. The eyes of the Tirtharikara in the D igambaratemples are devoutly cast down
,in the S
'
vetambarathey ares taring straight in front of them . The D igambaralay greatstress o n t h is difference
,as shewing how completely their
T irthankarahave renounced the world .
‘
It is in tere sting , however, t o n o te , as perhaps indicating localdivergencie s , t hat in the plate s illustrat ing Dr. Burge ss’‘DigambaraJainaInconography ’
the Tirt harikaraare repre se ntedas nude indeed , but loo k ing straight in front of them.
88 MODERN JAIN ISM.
The puj d ri , not be ing a monk ,was unshaven and
wore 'a moustache. In the adj o in ing temples the pujariare Hindus and so take far less interest in the worsh ipthan the Jainawe had the Opportun ity of watch ing here ;in fact we did not happen to meet in A’
bu a single S'
ve tambarapujari who knew the S’
to lou proper to the variou sacts ofworsh ip .
After bath ing,the pujari entered the shrine and
washed the sacred vessels and the smaller wooden tablein front of the large figure. Taking a duster
,and regard
less apparently ofany small insects he might be killing, hecleaned the inner shrine with resounding whacks of h i scloth and roughly swept the steps .
After having placed a l ittle heap ofyellow powder onthe washed table
,he proceeded to dust the figure ofA
’
di
natha by deal ing it several smacks on its face with h isduster . Then
,more reverently
,he stood in front of the
image and gently poured a l ittle water on its forehead,mopp ing up the drops as they fe l l and wip ing it all over
,
first with adamp and then with adry cloth .
Both here and on Mount Girnar the D igambarapujar iwere most careful lest any water should fall to the groundthey said that if even adrop fe ll, i t would be accounteda s in— whereas the Svetambara were qu ite careless on th i spo int?“
In the same way be wiped the marble of the inne rshrine and then the other Tirthankara in the body of the
Dr. Burge ss . however, in the bo ok already mention ed g ive s as o neo f the difference s be twe en D igambaras and S’ve tambaras that thefo rmer bathe the ir image s with abun dance ofwater but theS’vetambaras u s e ve ry little .
” Dig . Jaina I conography , p . 2.
.9 0 MODERN 'JAINISM .
The pujari completed his own preparat ions for th is- c eremony by taking o ff h is vest
,and
,clothed only in h is
dho ti , o r lo in cloth, unwound the pagari from hi s head andarranged it over h is bare shoulder l ike a lakes“
,or scarf,
Taking some o f the yellow powder, be marked with a
cd n rlalo his forehead and h is ears} drew three l ines o n eacharm
,marked the middle of h is chest and . each s ide
,and
finally drew a l ine round h is neck . Then,go ing outside
with o n e of the sacred vessels,he bathed again .
His personal preparat ions over,he took the gong
,and
striking it once o r twice,laid it o n the table . Next he took
a spoonful of the l iqu id from the tumble r and poured i tover the rice o n the tray
,and then did the same with a t iny
bowlful,afterwards bowing elaborate ly before the shrine.
Ris ing he sang loudly Jag/rt Jag/a V ictory, V i c tory and
continued intoning in the sameway as before.He then took a few grains of rice from the full tray
and placed them on the marked tray and on the upturnedchal ice.
Again he took,o n a t iny brass platter
,rather more
rice from the full tray,elevated it
,waved it sl ightly and
empt ied it out o n to the marked tray. He repeated th isseveral t imes
,and then l ighted the incense and knelt down .
Ris ing,he clapped h is hands , took afew grains of rice ,
touched h is forehead with them and put them o n the up
turned chal ice .
He rang the gong for the second time and poured a
;s poonful of l iqu id on to the rice on the tray marked l I“
The marking of the ear is peculiar to Jaina.
JA im: WORSH IP. 9 1
He nextwaved al ittle r ice in h is left hand, cl ick ing thefingers ofh is right
,and then wiped his hands elaborately .
Taking the ends of h is u ttct rd sanaor clo th ,he t ied themo ver h is head in such away as to cover h is mouth ,”andc o nt inued to transfer the r ice
,etc .
,l ittle by l ittle from the
full tray to the marked o ne,elevat ing and wav ing i t and
dust ing either the hand o r the l ittle platter by means of
which he had transferred it .A th ird t ime he rang the gong, and after pouring o ut
the l iqu id,he cl icked the fingers ofh is left hand .
Then he stood rigid before the shrine for afull m inutein absolute silence
,ceas ing for the first t ime the into ning
which h e had maintained all th rough the cleansing,prepara
t ion and offe ring. The n,beginning h is chant again
,he bowed
and knelt,and ris ing
,co ntinued ceremon iously transferring
the rice from o ne tray to the other.He rang the gong afourth t ime
,and clapped his hands
and proceeded as before for several minutes .
Then he rang afifth t ime,again clapped h is hands
,
and after cont inu ing to transfer rice for aminute o r twolonger
,be poured the contents of the two tumblers on to
the rice in the marked and now nearly filled tray.
Again he stood reverently s ilent , then bowed , andunt ied his u ttwrc’isana from h is mouth and knelt
,touch ing
the floo r w ith h is head .
Tak ing the marked tray,he waved i t before acocoanut
,
which he had placed by the side of afigure of A’
dinathaat the left of the Man dapa.
’Dr. Burge ss , lac . cit . , however, say s : The D igambaras mak ethe ir prayers after the usual H indu fashion the membe rs of theo ther sect clo se the irmonths or tie aclo th over the ir lips .
9 2 MODERN JAINISM .
Th is done he returned to the table,shook the grain s
from the upturned chal ice on to the tray, and the ceremonywas complete.He explained to us that the offering to the cocoanutwas in order that all might be ausp ic ious
,and he also told
us that the food that had been offered would be afterwardsremoved and eaten by atemple servant
,and that no D igam
barapu1ar1 would eat any of it h imself.
Eve n ing Wo rs h ip o r A’
rat i .
About s ix o’clock we returned to see the even ingworsh ip .
This occup ied only about ten minutes,and consisted
in waving al ight before the image in the shrine.
The pujari,fully clothed and wearing an ordinary
nat ive cap, went to the shrine, before wh ich o ne l ightwasburn ing. He l ighted the l i ttle five—fold lamp or A’rati
,and
then struck agong,after wh ich he solemnly and slowly
waved the l igh t from left to right for three or four minutes,
intoning all the t ime. He next turned to the Mandapa, andwaved the l ight in front of the seated figure of A’
dinathao n the right.
This done,he put the l ight on the three- legged stool ,
knelt down,and ris ing
,struck a gong
,to show that the
se rvicewas ended.
S’
ve ta’mbara Mo rn ing Wo rs h ip .
Early n ext morn ing we presented ourselves at the
gate of the S'vetambara temples across the way, and the
temple attendants, after some l ittle hesitat ion , courteouslypermitted us to v iew their worsh ip also .
9 4 MODERN JAIN ISM.
On e ither s ide of the Vastupalatemplewas ared daubedimage of Bhai rava, and amongst the Tirthankara in the
courtyard that surrounds the central shrine ofN eminathawas the figure (dressed in red skirt and blue silk chadar)of S
’
anke s’
vari Mata,the mothe r
,we were assured
,of all
the Tirthankara
Inside the central shrine of the third temple we foundthe lap of the large metal image covered with a cloth , tos how that i t had been washed but '
n o t yet worsh ipped.
Retrac ing our steps,we entered the princ ipal temple
,that
o fV imalaShaha,wh ich is said to date from A . D . 1 032.
Here,too
,was ev idence of the all- pervading influence
of Hindu ism in the shape o fa large image of the goddess
Ambaj i, wh ich occupied a cell bigger than any of the
Tirthar’
ikara cells in the court surrounding the centralshrine.
The temple is dedicated to A’
dinatha,but beside h is
s tone image it also contains two seated brass images, one of
Naminathaand one ofA’
dinathah imself,and two standing
figures of Pars ’vanatha.
The furn iture consi sted of a long alms— table in thec entre and asmaller alms chest on the right
,and on the left
an ' empty brass throne,in front ofwhich amost beautiful
brass lamp was hanging. The whole of the in terior,in
striking contrast to the s imple severity of the D igambaras hrine
,was disfigured by quant i t ies ofvulgar hanging glass
shades and cheap mirrors. Two banners on either s ide borethe Svast ikas ign .
In contrast to.
the simple,unadorn ed Digambarafigures,
the images throughout the S'vetambara. temples are given
“Jams; WORSH IP; 9 5
staring glass eyes,are adorned with j ewels ,andare represented
aswearing lo in clo ths .
”
Another difference between the two sectswh ich we shal lnote later is in the number ofmark ings the pujari gives theimage
,whil e ast ill further po int .
of difference is in thepujari h imse lf.
In the D igambaratemples the pujari i s always aJaina,aVaniaby caste ; in the S
’vetambaratemples he is generally
aHindu,sometimes aMal i (Gardener) by caste, s omet imes
aKanabi Farmer f, aBrahman , o r a Barota Bard ). A
further co ntras t is that the S’ve tambarapujari may h imselfeat the offering after the ceremony
,the D igambarapujari
leav ing it for the temple servant .
The cleans ing of the temple and of the idolwas verysimilar to what we had seen the previous morning, thoughowing to the number of small images of Tirthankara s ix
pujaris were employed instead of o ne .
The central shrine and i ts idol were first cleansed,then
the figures in the cells round the court.
The image of the Hindu goddess Ambaj iwas undressed,bathed, and redressed beh ind adrawn curtain by the sameattendant that bathed the large image of A’
dinatha,who
however sang ent irely different s ’lo lca to the two images.When all the smallerTirthankara in the ce lls were
cleansed and marked, the Pujari returned to the centralshrineand marked the large image of A
’
dinathain fourteen
'It is th erefore no t quite accurate to say generally of
‘ Jainastatue s —
“ The images of the saints , statue s of black orwhitemarble , are repre sented as nude .
” Imperial Gaze tte er of India.
vo l . I . p . 4 16. Th is is only true of Digambara statue s .
“
9 6 MODERN JA IN ISM ,
places, i . 6. right b ig toe, left big toe, right knee , left knee ,r ight arm,
left arm,right shoulder
,left shoulder, forehead,
head,centre ofchest
,centre of diaphragm ,
centre ofstomach ,and palm Of the upper Of the two crossed hands .
(The pujari informed us that the Digambara onlymarked their images in three places
'
Then,taking flowers from o ff the alms- chest
,be
arranged them round the image and proceeded to put o n i ts
j e wellery, wh ich he had taken Off in order to wash the figure .Thi s to
'
ok some time, as the image wore acrown, a necklace
,earrings, bracelets, armlets , and agirdle . All th is time
another pujari outside was preparing the yellow powder
fOr use in all four temples .
If outs ide worsh ippers had been present,amost curious
ceremony might now'
have taken place,via,
the auct ion ingof the ghi or clarified butter One against another theywould have b id how much gh i they were w ill ing to give,and the service would then have been performed fo r thebenefit of the h ighest b idder.
NO actual gh i changes hands , i t i s n ows imply,
the
arb itrary symbol for the amount they are will ing to pay.
ag. Ifaman says he w ill g ive ten maunds of ghi,he has
actually to contribute twenty- five rupee s. The price ofth is fict it ious gh i i s convent ionally fixed at one anna apound
,aprice which must have prevailed long ago , as the
present market value is ten t imes that amount.
The Offering made to the image may consist Of rice- and sweets, with the addit ion of fru it
,such as oranges
,
anas , oralmonds.
9 8 MODERN JAINISM.
S’
ve ta’mbara Eve n ing Wo rs h ip .
Hat th is imha’s temple in Ahmedabad is a modernJaina sanctuary famous fo r i ts arch itectural beauty. lts
facade, decorated with Ion ic and Corinth ian pillars , seemshowever curiously o ut ofkeep ing with the rest Of the building and it i s the entrance to th is temple which 18 defaced
by the not ice : Low— caste servants in attendance on v is i torsand dogs cannot be allowed to enter the temple.
”
Arriving at the t ime for even ing worshi p,we were
allowed to pass into the Gabharo,where the worsh ippers
were prostrat ing themselves before the idol .
The pujariwas,in th is case
,aKanabi or farmer by
caste. He l ighted two l ittle earthen lamps (ko diyam731- 1 4 4 0in the Sevano Gabharo and placed tuem o n candl est icksbefore the image Of Dharmanatha(the 1 5th Tirthankara) ;then
,l ight ing two l ittle st icks Of incense, he placed them
too before the image . Next. he l it a l i ttle kodiyur’
n and
placed it in the Gabharo at the right of the door leadinginto the Sevano Gabharo and hung abrush of soft peacock
’
s
feathers on the door.
A worsh ipper coming up at th is momentwas given anincense st ick which he waved before the shrine ; afterwards,putting that down
,he took the brush of peacock feathe rs
and waved that
The pujari proceeded to get ready the A’rati
,and then
the Mangaladipa (s ingle l ight), by taking l i ttle portions o fcotton wool
,dipp ing them 1 1 1 gh i and putting them in the
lamps,wh ichwe re then l it .
A drumwas beaten and two be ll s rung in diffe rentparts of the temple . A wor sh ipper
,who had offered apice
JAINA Wo RsHIP. 9 9
for the privilege,was handed the A’rat i on a tray
,wh il st
the Mangaladipawas placed o n the threshold . Th isworsh ipper waved the A
’rat i from left to righ t ; then , plac ing ito n the threshold
,
‘he picked up the Mangaladipaand wavedthat in the sameway, whilst the pujariwas chanting.
'
l‘
his
done,be replaced the Mangaladipaand waved the peacock
feathers ; the noise ceased , and the worsh ipper proceededto say h is private praye rs , kneel ing and prostrat ing h imsefbefore the idol .
The l ights,we were to ld
,would be left to burn for an
hour or two,in sp ite Of the fac t that
,being unprotected
,
they were agrave source of dange r to insect l ife .
Daily Wo rs h ip o f a S t ha’
nakava’
s i Jaina.
The members o f the th ird sect of the Jaina,no t posses
s ing temples,and abhorring anyth ing l ike idol worsh ip ,
have no even ing o r morning worshi p similar to that Of the
Deravas i (i . e . S'
vetambaraand D igambara) Jaina.
A S thanakavas iJainalayman , however, has most kindlyfurnished me with the fol lowing particulars of thei r daily
rel igious dut ies .
They should rise two hours before sunrise ( thoughth is is no t always carried into actual pract ise in winter ),
and say the .Vcwakd ru Man trariot i . 6. te ll the ir heads Md ld HUM
making salutat ion to the F ive (PairedPammes ’c rmu
,namely Arihan ta, S iddha, A
’
carya, Upadhyayaand Sé dhu l and to Knowledge
,Fai th
,Character and
Austeri ty ?
In Gujarat , h owever, mo st Sthanakavas i Jaina do no t includ et he se last four in the ir repe t itio n of the NavakaraMantra.
1 00 MODERN JAINISM .
Next he does Pctciilcamanaiii f‘iflk‘igl ) e ither in thehouse or in a religious building .
Padikamanum Padikamanumhas s ix parts(i ) Scimdyi/ca ,(mq g (See below).(2) (L
'aavisan tht/LO argcfliiaiu wh ich consists Of
praise to the twenty- fo ur Tirthaiikara.
(3) c u irugd (’ii ) salutat ion to the Guru o r
,if he
be not present,to the N . E . corner of the building .
4 ) Patti/Jammiwii proper , or repeti tion of the twelvevows and confess ion o fany infringement of them .
5 ) Kd usuggct (s imian s itt ing l ike Mahavira withthe mind lo st in meditation
,and secretly repeatingman tra.
6 ) Paw/chain wai ving} taking a vow not to eat
forbidden food during the day, or, if said in the afternoon ,
promis ing to abstain from the evening meal.
The Sci /in ciyi f'
ca i s generally said by Sthanakavas i Jainain amonastery (Upasard . On ente ring the monastery the
worsh ipper says Nisahi (rflaél bid
ding worldly cares and thoughts“ be
gone,”and then
,before beginning praye rs
,says A
’
vasahi
”i l'fl ugl Le t me enter into what is necessary to be'
done ] .Jr Sam'
ayika generally lasts about forty- eight
minutes ; i t cons i sts of e ight parts
Sa’ma’yika
a Namkd‘
ra (mall ), o r salutation to the F ive,as
above ; b Ti le/tum(q ‘
vifu when the worsh ippe r salute sthe Gu ru, ( spi ri tual instructor ) three times by moving h is
This is because Mahavide lia, the abo de o f the Tirthankara, issuppo sed to lie in t hat direction . See p . 5 4 .
‘
i W ith the D eravas i Jaina, howeve r, th is vvo rd seems to be useddiffere ntly , i . 6.when about to re sumeworldly dutie s afterworsh ip .
1 0 2 MODERN JAINISM .
This is followed by evening praise,Sctj ltdya S iarana
marl and lastly by avow no t to eat t ill sunris‘e,
o r Co uihd ran dnt Pacalchfiaa (flip l i e-{Wig Afterth is he is free to go home and please h imself ti ll bed t ime,when he must tell h is beads and offer salutat i on to the F ivebefore go ing to sleep .
Dai ly Wo rs h ip o faS’
ve ta’mbaraLayman .
A S’ve tambara Layman at Girnarwas kind enough
t o g ive me some detai ls of his daily worsh ip,which we
afterwards compared with the worsh ip we sawperformed ina l i ttle temple in Rajkot. The worsh ipper, we learnt ,gene rally rose at seven A. M . and bathed
,wearing a spec ial
dhoti,and h is sacred thread round h is waist
,which Jaina
unl ike Brahmans ) only wear during worsh ip . He mightbathe either at home o r at the temple, but he must be careful to choose adry Spo t and to use as l i ttle water as possible .
!
After bathing, he donned, if he had t ime, the special seamlessc lothes (which are kept for worsh ippers in a room at the
temple ) consisting o f e ither blanket o r
dhoti,
uttu r ti saaa, GTRR M and an
e ight— fold makkako sa QW'
SN and marked h is forehead
with acandalo “algalNext he walked three times round the temple— th is i s
called Pradaks in d (ndawU- aud wh ilst doing so meditated
o n the Three Jewels, and then enteringthe temple uttered thrice the Nisah i
that bids all worldly cares bego ne .
Vestments .
Pradak sina’.
Jainaare n o t suppo sed t o bathe in t h e re, tanks , lake s o r the s ea
fo r fear o f disturbing thewater, but as agreatmany of themcan
swim,th is proh ibitio n is o bvio u sly often honoured in the breach .
JAINA WORSH IP. 1 03
The full ri tual has eight parts,but the firs t rite
,the
JalaP uj d ( 67 01 ‘(m o r wash ing Of the idol,can only be
done once in the day,and so only one
person has the opportuni ty Of performingall the e ight acts Of worsh ip . The actual puja i s verys imple, cons isting Ofwash ing the idol with suffic ient waterto remove all the candwna marks Of the previous day ;i nstead Of water
,Pwficdmri ta(11 24 1131 )may be used} which
is compounded Ofpure milk , whey, Kes’
ara,flowers and
water. The idol is then rubbed over three t imes to dry it .
This done,the worsh ipper proceeds t o the next ri te
,
the Candana P uj d ( d i rt 1 M 3, o r mark ing the idol withkes’ara. The use in Rajkot seemed to
be to make only th irteen spots with th isyellowsubstance, whe reas in A’
bu fourteen places o n theimages were thus marked .
Afte r that he does P u spa Paj ci ( gmam) , offering
flowers and garlands . Otherworsh ippers also do the Candana and the Puspa Puja
,t ill the idol is covered with
0
various yellow spots at the appointedPu8paPuja
’.
places,but as
,before they can be perf0 1
med,the worsh ippe rs must bathe and do n the spec ial dress,
o nly those with leisure can do these rites .
TO perform the remaining acts Of worsh ip i t i s notnecessary to enter the innermost shrine, so ordinary dress
may be worn women al so are permitted to perform them .
The fourth rite is the Dhupa Paj d 1m), o r wavingDhupaPaja
j.Of a l ighted incense st ick before the image.
JalaPuja’
.
CandanaPuja’
.
Dr. Burge ss however say s : The D igambaraswash the ir image swith the panchdmz‘ita; but the o thers do no t .
”D ig . Jaina
I conog raphy , p . 3.
1 O4 MODERN JAINISM .
The fifth is D ipu Paj d { N {M o rwaving a lampD
' before the shrine . As apart Of thi s ri te1paPuJa.
the five— fold A rat i mav be waved,or the
s ingle Mangaladipaalone.
In the next,the AlesataPuj d (”laid ‘
i ‘fl l: rice i s Offe red .
The worsh ipper brings from h is (or her) home some rice in al ittle bag generally e laboratel y embro idered. This he arranges e ithe r o n the alms
che st (Bhandara) or on as te e l in apart icular form,thus
Ak sataPuja’
.
The Svast ika sign c represents
the Gati ’“ in which o ne mav be born,either as man o r beast
,in heaven or
in hell . The thre e l i ttle heaps (6)represent the Three Jewels Jr Of RightKnowledge
,Right Fai th and Right
Conduct,by wh ich one attains to
Moksa,wh ich is represented by the half moon s ign a
The rice thus arranged is left until some other worshipperrequ ire s the space fo r his Aksata
,when it i s swept into
the alms chest . At the end of amonth all the rice in the
chest i s sold in the bazaar fo r the temple expenses,when
,
however,Jaina are careful not to buy it . Occas ionally
worsh ippers drop p ice into the alms chest through thesame aperture as that through which the rice i s swept.
The seventhaacons ists Of Offering Na'
z'
redya (Rik iNaivedya.
o r sweet meats .
The eighth , Phaéa Paid (Qt/1 1 M is the Offering Of
fru i t and nuts Of all k inds almonds,
PhalaPuja’
oranges,l imes
,bananas
,etc . The pl lJal‘ l
Se e p . 59 . 1”See p . 84 .
1 06 MODERN JAINISM,
Dai ly Wo rs h ip o f aDigambara Layman .
A D igambara layman told me that,l ike members o f
the other two se cts,he told h is beads
,but did no t do e i ther
Padikamanun’
] o r Samayika. Afte r tell ing h is beads,he
went to the temple about 8 A . M.,and wearing only h is dhot i
did Kriyft Fuj i £84 ! ‘iM 0 . offered rice, almonds andc ocoanut . Th is took about an hour
,and my informant
did no more pujaduring the day, because he happened tobelong to the Terapan tha(Fania) sub— sect" Ofthe DigambaraJaina
,who do no t do A
’
rat i puja,giv ing as their reason
that the '
l‘
irthankara,hav ing attained bl iss, take no furthe r
interest in mortals,so that there could be no profi t in per
forming such a ceremony as the A’rati . The Visapan thasect ofJaina
,howe ve r
,be l ieve in Offe ring the A’rat i
,for they
say that, since the'
l‘
irthankara,who have now attained
Mo ksa,did so
, there must be some advantage in it .The Digambarado no t permit their women to perform
any pujanear the idol theymay o nly perform such pujaas can be done at adistance Bar s
/
an d
A S thanakavas i Sadhu k indly furnish ed mewith the fo llowinginfo rmat io n abo ut the Te rapan tha Se c t .
They are recruited fromall thre e sects , though th e ir founderwasa S thanakavas i, who abo ut 1 50 years ago , in So jat (Marwar ) ,e ntertained do ubt s about certain curre nt practice s , and founded ase ct Ofhis own . They are called Te rapantha, because the numberOf Sadhus who jo ined was o riginally thirte en . The ir asceticswear the same dre ss , e tc . , as the S thanakavasi Sadhu , bu twillno t stay in an Upasaro , prefe rring to beg the loan of house s fromwealthy laymen .
The Terapanthi accept the S thanakavas i scripture s , bu t read
the ir ownmean ing into ce rtain passage s . The are no t as particularas o ther Jaina about pro tecting animal li e , never for instanceinte rfering to save mice fromcats , s o the o rthodox o f all threes ects unite in co ndemning t hem.
They are found chiefly in Kathiawar, Cutch and Raj putana.
JAINA FESTIVALS AN D FASTS .
TO the Jaina of all thre e se cts the mos t sacred swamo fall is Pajjusana (Humbug ) , o r Paryusana whichclo ses their year. It extends from the las t four days of the
eight days usually fall in Augus t). Bo th S vetambaraandDigambara Jainaco un t eight days as the seaso n
,but as
the Digambara keep sewn days at its c lose fo r s pe cialworsh ip, it really las ts fiftee n dayswi th them. The spe cial
o bject with which they kee p Pajj usana is to o btain pardo nfo r the sins of the veer. Every o the r day they fas t and
go to the Upasaro , wearin g the ir bes t c lo thes ,while on the
zdternate days they eat spec ially dain ty fo od.
The fifth day is co nventionally ce lebrate d as Mahavira’
s
birthday,tho ugh th ey knowth is ne t to be the true date .
On this day bo th S’vetambaraand D igambarago in procos
generally that of Pam’
vanfi tha. Th e Sthanakavas i Jainawo uld als o like in many cases to o bserve M avira’s birthday, but their gurus frown on this
,les t it sho uld lead to
On the fas ting days the S vetambarago t o the Upasaroto hear {he KalpaSutraM 1 in Mi gadh i, the pries t tran s lating. The Sthanakavas i Jaina
,who do no t acce pt the Kalpa
Sutra, go to their own Upasaro and hearMahavira’s life read
in the ir own Scriptures . The members ofall the sects go to
the Upasari as often as they can,and some of themspend
1 07
1 O8 MODERN JAIN ISM .
the whole day there. A Jainafast is exceedingly strict,fo r
they are supposed to eat noth ing at all,though theymay
drink water. Some Very devout Jaina,instead of fasting on
alternate days,fas t for thewhole eight
,and some fast more
or less for forty days . Their object in fast ing is to gainme ri t and freedom from reb irth
.
(Minn or Po sadha ( 31 16111 During Pajjusanaany Jainamay obtain spe c ial merit. by behav ing fo r twenty
four hours as an ascetic during thatt ime he wears o ld clothes and fasts
,
pass ing h is t ime in meditat ion .
Srtnwatsm' i Qiqqafl ). On the last day of the Jainarel igions year all adult men andwomen must fast throughout
the day. All thro ugh Pajjusana devou tJaina have been doing Padikamanum
with greater zeal and attention than usual,bu t on this
day every Jainamu st do it . At the t ime of the ceremonyall the temples are crowded ; in large towns the templeshave separate build ings for men and women
,and the
S thanakavas i have separate Upasara.
Samvatsari .
The Gur u are present but they are making their owno nfe ss io ns privately
,wh ilst some learned layman ( o r lay
woman as the casemay be ) repeatsman traaloud in Magadh iand afterwards in Gujarati . This continues for about threehours ; when the first person is t ired
,another takes up the
repetit ion,and s o o n . The audience l isten all the time in
s i lence they are supposed to be making private mentalconfess ion
,but generally they s imply l isten to theman tra.
The late Rev. Do uglas Tho rnton seems in his able Essay Parsi,Jainaand S ikh . p . 62 ) to imply that th is practise has falle ninto desue tude , but this is no t the case .
1 1 0 MODERN JAIN ISM ,
O li.
In the month ofMarch or April, e ight days before C'ai tri
l’an ema, (fi lwfl) or A’wibela(”flat-1) i s observed. At th is
t ime men and women take special vows w ith regard to thefood they will eat
,as that i t shall consist only of one k ind
o f grain for that day and that they will only drink bo iledwater. Women are spec ially part icular in keep ing these vows .
This,too
,is the great season fo r pilgrimages ; both
S’vetambara and D igambara Jaina go on pilgrimage to
Pal i tana,Samedsh ikhara(near Gaya), A
’
bu o r Girnar,Where
large fairs are held and the temples decorated .
Mo nt h ly Fas ts .
S'vetambaraand Sthanakavas i observe A
’ghama
the eighth,and I ’
dkh'i tuna theA tl
figifiiié nd fifteenth day of each ( lunar ) month .
Devout members of these sects fast , and
all are supposed to go to the temples and Upasara.
In the sameway the Digambarasect observe the eigh thday
of the month,bu t instead of the fifteenth they keep thefourteenth day Caudas
’
a (final . S trict
Digambara Jaina not o nly fast from all
food on th is day, but also from all water.
A’thamaandCaudaea.
The S’vetambaraand Digambaraob s erve the anniversary
of Mahav ira’s b irthday and the anniversary o f the day on
which he be came a Kevali, but the Sthanakavas i do not,nei ther do they keep two c ther fest ival s , S iddha Giza/era
Paja(Qua24 4; 1 M and JadaJatrd N U] M 9 1;
JAINA iN S T lTUT IO NS .
Pa’
njara’
po la.
All three sects ofJainaunite in maintaining near manyo f the large towns and v i llages of IndiaPd nj u '
rd '
l iofa(Vim/l l‘lm or asylums for old and diseased animals .
Any onemay send decrep it horses, cows , donkeys, etc .,
there,and the Jainaunde rtake to feed them . The pariah
dogs,to o
,which haunt the streets of Indian c it ies
,are often
collected in vans and taken charge of temporarily,to save
them from destruct ion by vigilant authorit ies.
Unfortunately these Panjarapo la are too often left inthe hands of h irelings
,without any proper supervis ion
being exerc ised. The result is that they have earned a
very bad reputat ion for starving and neglecting theimprisoned animals
C o nfe re nc e s .
Each of the three leading sects has i ts own Conferencefor the development and spread o f i ts tenets .
The head offices of both the S’
vetambaraand D igambara Jaina are in Bombay, while the Sthanakavas i havelate lv moved th e i r head quarters from Morvi to Ajmere .
There are eighty— four subsec ts of Jaina,some of them
differing very widely from each other,as the Tup i. (mocha
(qq and [ 1 77mmGu cci” (24 2m31 7- 3 ) do . The Sthanakavas i claim to have ve ry fewsubsec ts
,but in all three cases
the subsects attend the big Conference of their parent sect.
One finds however t hat it is po ssible to secure some alleviatio n inthe ir conditio n , ifp ublic attentio n be drawn to i t .
1 1 1
1 1 2 MODERN JAINISM
The JainaYoung Men’s Associat ion of Indiahas beenformed with the object of promoting harmony between thethre e sects
,and of furthering the cause of educat ion and
soc ial improvement . They aimult imately at the abol itionof caste restric tions, the alleviat ion of the sufferings of
ch ild—widows and the introduct ion of other social reforms .Bu t in these, as in all the ir other ambitions, they are muchhindered by obs curantist priests and ascet ics .
The pessimismwh ich" o ve rshadowed the birth ofJain ism still seems inherent m it
,and i ts more thoughtful
followers are not only perplexed by the confl ic t between itsteachings and the discove ries of Modern Science, but amalso discouraged from act ive e ffort by their bel ief that
«Jain ism is doomed to disappear at the end of the present era.
1 1 4
An tagadaDas’anga, 1 6.
An tarayaKarma, 59, 62.
AnuttaraV imam-a,1 6
,54
,5 5 .
Anuttaravas i Deva, 62.
Anuttarovavai Das’anga, 1 6.
Anuyogadvara, 20.
AnyatvaBhavana, 7 1 .
Apacakhanavaran iya Krc
dha, 67 .
AparigrahaVrata, 33.
Aparyapta, 65 .
ApramattaGunasthanaka, 61 .
Apurvakarana, 61 .
A’
raja, 26.
funeral of,28.
Aranatha, 52.
A’rat i
, 92, 97 , 99, 1 04 .
A’rat i Pujé
, 92, 1 04 , 1 05 , 1 06.
Arat i Parisaha, 70.
Arati,Rati , 7 7 .
ArddhaMagadhi , 1 3.
Arihan ta, 6, 20, 4 5 , 99 .
A’
rjava, 34 .
A’
sadh i Punerna, 1 09.
A’
s’
aranaBhavana,70.
AsatyaTyaga, 32.
As’
aucaBhavané , 7 1 .
Asce tics , 23 til, 4 3
A's’rama
,2,4 4 .
A’
s’
rava,the Fo rty- two
,
A s ravaBhavana, 7 1 .
As teyaVrata, 32.
A’
thama,1 1 0.
At ith i SamvibhagaVrata, 4 3 .
Attachment , 33, 7 2, 7 7 .
Auction ofghi, 96.
Austeri ty, 34 , 72, 99. [34 .
Austerit ies,the Six Exterior,
Auste rit ies,the Six Interior,
Avadhi Jnana,83. [35 .
A’
vasahi,1 00
,1 05 .
Avasarpini, 7 9, 82.
A’
vas’
yaka, 1 9.
Ayogi Kevali Gunasthanaka,’
yu Karma, 59 .
Ayuhpaccakhana,
Bé daru, 64 .
BalaBrahmacari, 23.
Bandha, 72.
BaraVrata, 4 0.
Barota,95 .
Beads,tell ing
, 99, 1 05
Be IndriyaJ iva, 64 .
Begging,27 , 32, 38, 70 .
Bhadaravo,1 07 .
Bhadrabahu, 1 1 .
Bhagavatij i, 1 6.
Bhai rava, 94 .
Bhandara, 87 , 1 04 .
Bhaga. 6
BhasaSami t i,69 .
INDEX 1 1 5
Bhavana, 70.
Bhavi,50.
Bhoyan i, 5211 .
Birth Ceremonies,4 6.
Bodh ibijaBhavana, 7 1 .
Borafru it,80 .
Brahmacarya, 37 .
Bmhmacarya V rata, 33.
Brahmans,2,3,23
,31
,32
,
33,4 0, 4 4 , 4 5, 4 5n .
,
Brahmi , 80 . [95 .
Brihatkalpa, 1 8.
Brotherhood ofman ,4 9.
Buddha,4, 7 , 8, 9 , 23.
Buddh ism,2, 7 , 23, 3l n .
,32
,
33, 4 4 , 84 .
Caitri Pun ema, 1 1 0.
Gandalo,90
,1 02.
Candana,1 03.
CandanaPuja,1 03
,1 05 .
Candapannati, 1 7
Candavijaya, 21 .
Candraprabhu ,5 1 .
Canon ,Jaina, 1 2 ff.D igambara, 1 4 .
S’vetambara, 1 2.
(jarananuyoga, 22.
Caritra, the F ive , 7 1 .
Caritrya, 84 ,
CaryaParisaha, 70 .
Caste,4 4
,98, 1 1 2.
Categories, the Nine , 64 .
CaudaGunas thanaka, 60 .
Caudas'
a,1 1 0.
Cauvisan ththo , 1 00.
Causarana, 20.
Cel ibacy, 37 .
Character, 99 .
Chast i ty, 33, 37 , 4 2, 7 7 .
Chedagran tha, the S ix,1 8
,
ChedOpasthapan iya Caritra,
Ch ildren , Advice to, 64 , 77 .
Clo thmg, 5, 6, 1 1 , 23, 35 , 70,
Cold (enduring), 70 .
Colour, 66. [97 .
Committees fo r Worsh ip,86,
Conce it , 77 .
Conduct,F ive Rules of, 68.
Conduct, Right , 7 7 , 84 , 1 04 .
Conferences,Jaina, 4 4 , 4 7 ,
Confess ion, 36. [ 1 1 1 .
CorendriyaJiva, 65 .
Covetousness, 33, 34 , 4 2, 7 7 .
Coviharanafn Pacakhana, 1 02.
Cc -wives, 4 2, 4 6.
Creat ion ,4 9 .
Cremat ion,4 8.
Customs,4 5 .
1 1 6 INDEX .
DamsaParisaha, 70 .
Daqda, 25 .
Dars’
ana, 84 , 1 06. [62
Dars’
anavaran iyaKarma, 58,
Das'
as ’rutaskandha, 1 8.
Das’
avaikalika, 1 9.
Das’
aYatidharma, 34 .
Death Ceremonies, 48.
D eceit, 7 7 .
Deravas i, 99.
De s/avakas
’
ikaVrata, 4 3.
Des’
aviratiGunas thanaka, 61 .
Destruct ion of L ife, 24 , 27 ,7 4 , 76, 93, 1 0 1 , 1 09 .
Deva, 53, 55 .
Devaloka, 50, 53, 55 , 80.
Devananda, 3.
Devarddh i, 1 2.
Devas i Padikamanum,Devi, 53.
Devindathuo ,21 .
Dharma, 20 .
DharmaBhavana, 7 1 .
Dharmanatha, 52, 98.
Dharmas t ikaya, 66.
DhumraPrabha, 5 5 .
Dhundh ia, see Sthanakavas i.
DhupaPuja, 1 03.
t an 36.Fai th , 99.
D 1gambaraCanon , 1 4 .Fai th , Right , 7 7 , 84 , 1 04 .
D igambaraS cripture s
,2I.
Falgus'
ri, 81 .
D igambaraSe ct , Origin of, 1 1 .
D igambaraWorsh ip, 86 if.
D iksé , 23.
DilvaraTemples, 86, 93.
D ipaPuja, 1 04 , 1 05 .
D isc ipl ine, F ive Rules of, 7 1 .
DiS/ivrataFarimana, 4 2.
D ival i , 93.
Doctrine,4 9 .
Doubts, 7 0.
Dravyanuyo ga, 22.
Dris tivadaAnga, 1 5 .
DuppasahaSuri , 81 .
Dusama, 7 9, 81 .
Du samaDusama, 7 9 , 81 .
DusamaSusama, 7 9, 81 .
Duties of Monks and Nuns,Dve sa, 7 7 . [34 ff.
Ear, marking o f,90.
EltatvaBhavana, 7 1 .
EkendriyaJ iva, 64 .
Endurance, Ways of, 69 .
Enmity ,7 7 .
E sanaSamiti , 69 .
Eschatology, 53 , 81 , 82.
E terni ty o fWorld , 4 9.
1 1 8 INDEX .
IryaSamiti , 69.
I t ine racy, 37 .
Jainism,1 .
Origin of,2.
JalaJam-a, 1 1 0 .
JalaPuja, 1 03.
Jamal i , 4 .
Jambudivapannat i, 1 7 .
JayaJ inendra, 28, 29.
Jewels , the. Three , 84 .
Jina,6.
J inakalpi, 1 2.
J itakalpa, 1 9 .
J iva, 64 .
Jivabh igama, 1 7 .
Jnana, 84 .
Jnanavaran iyaKarma, 58, 62.
JnatadharmaKathanga, 1 6.
Jnjube tree, 80.
Junagadh , 85 .
Jyo tikaranda, 21 .
Kala, 66.
Kalikumara, the Ten , 1 7 .
Kalpa, 1 7 .
KalpaSutra, 3, 8, 9, 1 07 .
KalpaVriksa, 80 .
Kapota Les’a
,57 .
Kappavadis’
ayya, 1 7 .
Kappia, l 7n .
Karananayoga, 22.
Karemi Bhan te , 1 0 1 .
Karigara, Temple o f the
Abu 1,93.
Karma, 1 9, 4 4, 50
,54
,56
58,59
, 63, 72, 73.
Karma,the Eight
,58
, 73.
Karma,the Impeding of
, 68.
Kartt iki Punema,1 09 .
Kas’aya
,67 . [ 1 00 .
Kausaggaposture, 28, 30, 87 ,Kayagupti, 69 .
Kayakle s’
a, 35 .
Kes’
araPaste,89, 96, 1 03.
Kes’i,1 7 .
Kevala, 7 , 83.
KevalaJfiana,83.
Kevali, 7 , 50, 63, 83.
Kles'
a, 7 7 .
Knowledge, 99 .
Knowledge, Five kinds of, 83.
Knowledge, Right , 7 7 , 84,
Ko diyuni , 98. [ 1 04 .
Ko llaga, 3, 5 .
Krishna, I8.
KrisnaLes’a
,56.
KriyaPuja, 1 06.
Kro dha, 67 , 7 7 .
Ksama,34 .
Kainamo lia Gunas thanaka,
Ks udhaParisaha, 7 0 .
INDEX .
KumarpalaRaja, 4 011 .
Kun thunatha, 52.
L idies at Conference , 4 7 .
Lamp s , 92, 93, 9 9 , 1 04 , 1 09 .
LaLy Adhe rents , 4 0 .
Twelve Vows of, 4 0 .
LayanaPunya, 7 4 .
Les’a, the S ix,56.
L iberat ion ,the
S te ps to ,60 .
Life , Destruct ion o f, 24 , 27 ,
Lobha, 67 , 7 1 .
Loca, 26.
Lodging, 6, 37 , 38, 7 0, 7 4 .
Logas sa, 1 0 1 .
LokaBhavana, 7 1 .
Lonka, 1 4 n .
Fourteen
Madura, Inscriptio ns at , 1 2
4 0, 4 5 .
Magadha, 8, l 1 .
Magadh i , Arddha, 1 3, 1 08.
Mahan is'
itha, 1 9 .
Mahapuru sa, 26.
Mahasati, 26.
Mahavideha, 54 , 1 00n .
Mahav ira, 3, ff. 52, 56, 81 , 87 .
Birthday of,
L ife of, 3 ff.
1 1 9
Mahav irareache s enlightenment
,6.
Death of,8.
Characte r of, 8.
anna, 1 00 .
Mal i , 9 5 .
Mallinatha, 52.
Malwé , 7 4 .
Man -a, 66.
Mana, 67 , 7 7 .
ManahparyayaJnana,ManaPunya, 7 4 .
Mandapa, 92.
Mangaladipa, 97 , 99 , 1 04 .
Mango tree, Parable of, 57 .
Manogupt i, 69 .
Mantras , 25 , 28, 1 08.
Mardava, 34 . [ lo4 .
Marks on Images , 95 , 96, 1 03,Marriage, 4 2, 4 5 .
Marwar , 7 4 .
Maryaditaform o f vow,
Mars , 93, 94 .
Mathura, ,
se e Madura.
Mati J 11 51 11 11 , 83.
Maya, 67 , 7 7 .
Mayamrisfi , 7 T.
Med itation ,27 , 36. 1 0 1 .
Me laParisaha, 7 0 .
Merit , 7 4 .
M i s’raGunas thanaka, 60.
1 20 INDEX .
Mithyadars’
anaS’
alya, 7 7 .1
M ithyatvaGunasthanaka, 60.
Mo han iyaKarma, 58, 62.
Mo ksa,1 6
,5 4
, 63,
Money lending,4 1 . [ 1 04 .
Monks,23 if.
Monthly Fasts,1 1 0 .
Mosqu i tos, 7 0 .
Mot ion, 66.
Mourning,4 8.
Mouth - cloth,24
,28
, 9 1 .
Mrisavada, 7 6.
Muhapati, 24 n .
Mukhako sa,1 02.
Mukhapat jt iké 24n .
Mulagran tha, the Four,Mumati, 24 , 28.
Mun isuvrata, 52.
Naq ila, 81 .
Offering to idols, 89, 9C,
Nais’
idhiki Parisaha, 70.
Oshamryukti, 1 9 .
Naivedya, 1 04 .
Oh , 1 1 0.
NamaKarma,59
NamaskaraPunya, 7 5 .
Name , change of, 25 .
Naminatha,52
,04 .
Namo ththuna,1 0 1 .
Nandi Sutra,20 .
Nandivardhana, 5 .
Naraka,54
,55 .
Nata, 3, 5 .
Nataputta7 .
NavakaraMantra, 99, 1 00.
NavaTatva, 64 .
N eminatha,1 s
,5 9
,85
, 94 .
N ikac ita Karma, 7 3.
Nila Le s ’é,5C.
N iravalia,1 7 .
N irgran thaSect , 9, 911 .
N irjara, 72.
N irjaraBhavana, 7 1 .
N irlobhaté,34 .
N isahi, 1 00, 1 02.
N is’
itha, 1 8. [61 .
N iyatibadara Gunas thanaka,North - East Corner
, 1 06, 1 01 .
Novice, Daily l i fe of, 26.
Nudity, 5 , 6, 1 1 , 87 , 95 .
Nuns , 26 if
Pacakhana, 1 00. [ 1 0
Pacakhana C0 1 iharanam,
Pacakhanavarn iya Krodha,
67 .
Padikamanum,1 9 , 27 , 35 ,
PadmaLe s ’
é, 5 4 .
Padmaprabhu, 5 1 .
Padmasana,87 .
INDEx.
Purdah,4 7 .
Purity,37 .
Purn imfi,se e Punema.
PuspaPuja, 1 04 .
Raga, 7Rajkot
,1 02
,1 03.
Rajo n o 24 .
RangaMandapa, 87 .
Rasatyaga, 35 .
Rat i Arati,7 7 .
RatnaPrabha, 5 5 .
RatnaTraya, 84 , 1 02.
RatrlbhOJanaTyaga, 33.
Havana,93.
Rayapasen i, 1 7 .
Bayas i Padikaman um,26.
Reflect io ns,the Twelve
, 7 0 .
Rel igious Instructio n Series,Reve rence
,36
, 7 5 . 7 7 .
Right Co nduc t,7 7 , 84 .
Right Fai th,7 7 , 84 .
Right Knowledge , 84 .
Risabhadeva, 5 1 , 52, 80.
Boga Parisaha, 7 0 .
Rule s of Conduc t , Five , 68.
sadhu , 20, 23 ff,4 9 . 99 .
Sadhvi, 26.
SaihayaStavana, 1 02.
Sale of daugh te rs,4 6.
Samavayanga Sutra, 1 5 .
Samayika, 27, 4 3, 1 00, 1 01,
S imayikaCaritra, 7 1 . [ 1 06.
SamayikaPalana, 101 .
Sambhavanatha, 5 1 .
Samedshikhara 1 1 0 .
Samiti Panca, 68.
Safnlinaté, 35 .
Samparyanka Posture, 8.
Samsara,1 0 .
SamsaraBhévana, 70 .
Samskara,4 5 .
Samvara, 68.
Sariivara Bhavané 7 1 .
Samvatsari,1 08.
Samvegi, 26.
SamyaktvaParisaha, 70 .
Samyama, 37 .
Saniyatasarnyata Gunas thanaka
, 61 .
SahatanaPujé , 97 .
Safijvalana, 68.
S’
a1 ike s’
vari Mata 9 4 .
San tharaPayanna, 20 .
S’an tinatha, 52.
S’
arira, 65 .
S'
ariraPunya, 7 5S’
arkaraPrabha, 5 5 .
SasvadanaC 1 1nasthanaka,SatkaraParisaha,S
’
atrunjaya, 85 , 86.
INDEX .
Satté , 73.
Satya, 37 .
Satyas’
ri 81 .
S'
auca, 37 .
S’
ayanaPunya, 7 4 . [62, 63.
Sayo gi Kevali Gunas tha
’
rnaka,
S’
ayyaParisaha, 7 0.
S criptures , Jaina, 1 2 if 1 5 if.
Sect marks , 1 05 .
Senses, 35 , 64 , 76.
Sevane Gabharo ,87 , 98.
Shav ing, 25 , 26. [99.
S iddha, 20, 4 9 , 50 , 54 , 63, 68,
S iddhaChakra l’uja, 1 1 0 .
S iddhartha, 3.
S in,7 6.
S in ,Results o f, 7 7 .
S’
italanatha, 5 1 .
S’i ta Parisaha, 70 .
S’
ith ilaKarma, 73 .
S’lokafo r Wo rsh ip, 88,
Smell , 50, 66.
Space, 66.
S’ravaka, 4 0 .
S’
rftvana, 1 0 1 .
Sravas t i, 8.
S’
reyamsanatha, 5 1S
’
rutaJ 83.
S teps to Libe ration the Four
teen,60 .
S thanakavas i, 1 3, 1 8, 1 9 , &' C .
1 23
S thanakavas i Sect , Origin o f,
S th ivarakalpi, 1 2.
Sthulabhadra, 1 1 .
Stri Parisaha, 70 .
Study , 36.
Sudharmé , 8.
S’
uk laLe s'
é,57 .
Suk sma, 64 . [72.
Suk smasamparaya Caritra,
Suksmasamparava C una
s thanaka, 62.
Sumat inatha, 5 1 .
S tipars’
vanatha, 5 1 .
Supreme Being, 4 9.
Surapannat i, 1 7 .
Susama, 7 9 , 80.
SusamaDusama, 7 9, 80 .
SusamaSusama, 7 9.
Sutrakritfinga, 7 , 8.
Suvidh inatha, 5 1 .
SuyagadangaSu tra, 1 5 .
Svadhyaya, 36.
Svarga, 53, 54 .
S’
ve‘
xso cchvé sa, 65 .
Svastika sign ,5 1 , 89 , 94 , 1 04 .
S’vetambara, 1 8, 1 9, 85 0 .
S’vetambara Canon , 1 2.
S’vetambaraScriptures , 20 .
S’vetambara Se ct , Origin of,S
'vetambaraVow, 33.
Sweep ing brush , 24 , 98, 99 .
1 24 INDEX .
TamaPrabhé , 55 .
TamatamaPrabha,55 .
Tandulaveyalié , 20 .
Tapa,34
, 72.
Tapagaccha, I l l .
Taso ttari, 1 0 1 .
Taste,50, 66.
'
I‘
e japalaTemple (A’bu l
,66.
Tejo Les’
é,57 .
Terapan tha, Terapan th i, 1 06.
ThanangaSutra, 1 5 .
Tfln fin 32, 4 l , 77 .
Thirst,7 0.
Thread, Sacred, 1 02.
Three Jewels, the, 84, 1 02
,
Tikhuto,1 00 . [ 1 04 .
Time, 66.
Time, D iv is ions o f, 7 9 .
Tirthankara, 9, 1 0, 1 8
,4 9,
5off. , 68, 7 5 , 1 00n . ,
1 06.
Tirthankara,L ist of
, 5 l if.
Images of,
Tiryakaloka, 54 , 55 .
To uch, 66.
TranaYoga,68.
Transmigrat ion,53.
Travel,4 2.
Treason, 7 7 .
Treasure houses,1 4 .
Tri Indriya, 65 .
Trinaspars’
a Parisaha, 70.
Tri- ratna,84 .
TrisaParisaha, 70 .
Truth, 37 , 4 1 , 76.
Twins,Happy
, 70 80.
Udaya, 73 .
Uno dari, 34 .
Untruthfulness , 32, 34 , 76.
Upabho ga Paribhoga Parimana
,4 2.
Upadhyaya, 4 9, 99.
Upi nga, the Twelve, 1 7 if.UpasakaDas
’anga, 1 6.
Upas’an ta Moha Gunasthz
‘
a
naka,62.
Upasaro , 24 11 27,28,1 00, 1 0 1 , 1 05, 1 07ff.
Urdhvaloka, 55 .
UsnaParisaha, 70.
Utsarga, 36.
Utsarpini, 7 9 , 82.
Uttarfidhyayana, 20.
Uttarasana, 9 1 , 1 02.
Uvavai, 1 7 .
VacanaGupti,69 .
Vacana Punya, 7
VadhaParisaha, 70 .
Vaisali,3
.
Vaisali,G o vernment of
,
