Appendix I Constants - Springer LINK

Appendix IConstants

Constant Symbol Value

Universal constantsSpeed of light in vacuum c 2.9979 9 108 m s-1

Universal gravitational constant G 6.674 9 10-11 N m2 kg-2

6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2

Planck constant h 6.6261 9 10-34 J sElectric constant e0 8.8542 9 10-12 F m-1

Magnetic constant l0 1.2566 9 10-6 N A-2

Thermal radiationBoltzmann constant k 1.38065 9 10-23 J K-1

Stefan-Boltzmann constant r 5.6704 9 10-8 J s-1 m-2 K-4

Radiation density constant a 7.5657 9 10-16 J m-3 K-4

Wien wavelength displacement law constant b 2.8978 9 10-3 m KAtomic and nuclearElectron mass me 9.1094 9 10-31 kgElementary charge e 1.6022 9 10-19 CClassical electron radius re 2.8179 9 10-15 mThomson scattering cross section rT 6.65246 9 10-29 m2

Atomic mass unit mu = u 1.660539 9 10-27 kgProton mass mp 1.6726 9 10-27 kgNeutron mass mn 1.6749 9 10-27 kgAlpha particle mass ma 6.644656 9 10-27 kgBohr radius a0 5.2918 9 10-11 mRydberg constant R? 10,973,731.5685 m-1

SunMass of the Sun M� 1.989 9 1030 kgLuminosity of Sun L� 3.828 9 1026 J s-1

Radius of Sun R� 6.955 9 108 mExpanding universeHubble constant H0 75 km s-1 Mpc-1

Age of expanding Universe t0 13.7 9 109 years

(continued)

K. R. Lang, Essential Astrophysics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-35963-7, � Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

607

(continued)

Constant Symbol Value

Cosmic microwave background radiationTemperature TCMB 2.725 KPhoton density NCMB 4.10 9 108 m-3

Anisotropy DT=TCMB 1.1 9 10-5

The physical constants are accurate to the fourth decimal place. For greater accuracy with thelatest values consult http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/constants/index.html

608 Appendix I Constants

Appendix IIUnits

Unit Symbol Value

Distance and lengthÅngström Å 10-10 mMeter m 1 km = 103 m = 0.621371 mile

1 mile = 1.60934 kmMean Earth-Sundistance

AU 1.49598 9 1011 m

Light-year ly 9.460528 9 1015 m = 63,239.67 AUParsec pc 3.08568 9 1016 m = 3.26164 light-

years = 206,265 AUMegaparsec Mpc 106 pcAngleDegree � 600 = 36000 0

1� = 0.0174532925 radians10 0 = 4.8481368 9 10-6 radians

(The symbol 0 denotes minutes of arc, the symbol 0 0 designates seconds of arc)Radian rad 2.06265 9 105 0 0

57.2957795� = 360�=(2p)Pi p 3.141592654TimeSolar day day 24 h = 86,400 sSidereal day sidereal day 23 h 56 m 04.09 s = 23.9344696 hYear tropical

year365.25 solar days = 3.15576 9 107 s

Energy, power, force, pressureJoule J 107 ergElectron-volt ev 1.6018 9 10-19 JPower Watt J s-1

Force N kg m s-2

Pressure Pa N m-2

(continued)


609

(continued)

Unit Symbol Value

MassKilogram kg 1,000 g, 1 metric ton = 103 kgSolar unitsMass of the Sun M� 1.989 9 1030 kgLuminosity of Sun L� 3.828 9 1026 J s-1

Radius of Sun R� 6.955 9 108 m

610 Appendix II Units

Appendix IIIFundamental Equations

Angular resolution, hr, of a telescope of diameter, DT, at a wavelength, k:

hr ¼k

DTradians ðA-1Þ

where 1 radian = 2.06265 9 105 seconds of arc = 2.06265 9 105 00.

Angular source extent, hsize, of a celestial source of radius, R, located at adistance, D:

hsize ¼2R

Dradians; ðA-2Þ

where 1 radian = 2.06265 9 105 seconds of arc = 2.06265 9 105 00.

Wavelength, k, frequency, m, and speed of light, c:

k� m ¼ c; ðA-3Þ

where the speed of light c = 2.9979 9 108 m s-1.

Photon energy, E, of radiation at frequency m:

E ¼ hm ðA-4Þ

where the Planck constant h = 6.6261 9 10-34 J s.

Stefan-Boltzmann law for luminosity, L, of thermal radiator with effectivetemperature Teff and radius R:

L ¼ 4prR2T4eff ðA-5Þ

where p = 3.14159 and the Stefan-Boltzmann constant r = 5.6704 9 10-8 J s-1

m-2 K-4.

Apparent magnitude, absolute magnitude, and luminosity for a star. Anyapparent magnitude, m, can be converted to absolute magnitude, M, through thesimple formula:


611

absolute magnitude ¼ M ¼ mþ 5� 5log D; ðA-6Þ

where D is the distance in parsecs, and 1 parsec = 3.26164 light-years = 3.08568 9 1016 m. The absolute magnitude can be converted into aluminosity, L, using:

logL

L�

� �¼ 0:4 M� �Mð Þ; ðA-7Þ

or

L ¼ 100:4ðM��MÞ L�; ðA-8Þ

where the absolute magnitude of the Sun in the visual range of wavelengths, whereit is most intense, is M� = +4.83 and the absolute luminosity of the Sun isL� = 3.828 9 1026 J s-1. Notice that the symbol M� is used to denote both theabsolute magnitude of the Sun, which is used here, and the mass of the Sun, usedin other equations. The Sun has an apparent magnitude of m� = -26.74.

Wien displacement law for wavelength kmax of maximum intensity for athermal radiator at temperature T:

kmax ¼0:002898

Tmeters: ðA-9Þ

Radiant flux, f, or apparent brightness, of an object of luminosity L atdistance D:

f ¼ L

4pD2: ðA-10Þ

Gravitational force, FG, between two masses, M1 and M2 separated by adistance D between their centers:

FG ¼GM1M2

D2; ðA-11Þ

where the universal gravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.

Kepler’s third law for the orbital period P of a binary system of mass M1 andM2 separated by distance a:

P2 ¼ 4p2

G M1 þM2ð Þ a3 ðA-12Þ

612 Appendix III Fundamental Equations

Appendix III Fundamental Equations 613


Jeans mass, MJ, for a spherical gas cloud of radius, R, and temperature, T:

MJ ¼3kT

GmR; ðA-13Þ

where the Boltzmann constant k = 1.38065 9 10-23 J K-1, the universalgravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2, and m is the gasparticle mass. Gravitational collapse occurs if the cloud mass, M, is greater thanthe Jeans mass, MJ.

Escape velocity, Vesc, at a distance R from a mass M:

Vesc ¼2GM

R

� �1=2

; ðA-14Þ


Doppler effect for a change Dk in the wavelength k due to a radial velocity Vr

of a source moving away from observer:

Dkkemitted

¼ kobserved � kemitted

kemitted¼ Vr

cfor Vr � c; ðA-15Þ


Parallax the annual parallax pA, of a star at distance, D, is:

pA ¼ AU=D radians; ðA-16Þ

where 1 AU = 1.49598 9 1011 m and 1 radian = 2.06265 9 105 s of arc. Whenthe parallax is given in units of seconds of arc, then the distance, D, is given by:

D ¼ 1pA

parsecs; ðA-17Þ

where 1 parsec = 3.26164 light years = 206,265.8 AU.

Gravitational potential energy of a mass, M, with radius, R:

Gravitational potential energy ¼ GM2

R; ðA-18Þ


Kinetic energy of mass, m, moving at velocity, V:

Kinetic energy ¼ 12

mV2 : ðA-19Þ

Thermal energy at temperature, T:

Thermal energy ¼ 32

kT ; ðA-20Þ

where the Boltzmann constant k = 1.38065 9 10-23 J K-1.

Thermal velocity, Vthermal, of a particle of mass, m, at temperature, T:

Vthermal ¼ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi3kT

m

r¼ 3kT

m

� � 1=2

; ðA-21Þ


Gas pressure, PG, of particles of number density, N, and temperature T:

PG ¼ NkT ; ðA-22Þ


Radiation pressure, Pr, for a temperature T:

Pr ¼aT4

3ðA-23Þ

where the radiation constant a = 7.5657 9 10-16 J m-3 K-4.

Magnetic pressure, PB, of a magnetic field of strength, B:

PB ¼B2

2l0; ðA-24Þ

where the magnetic constant l0 = 1.2566 9 10-6 N A-2.

Energy radiated, DE, by a mass loss, Dm, during nuclear reactions:

DE ¼ Dm c2; ðA-25Þ


Schwarzschild radius, Rsch, of a mass, M, of radius R:

Rsch ¼2GM

c2¼ 2:95� 103 M

M�

� �m; ðA-26Þ

where the universal gravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 andthe Sun’s mass M� = 1.989 9 1030 kg.

Hubble law for the recession velocity Vr of a galaxy at a distance D:

Vr ¼ H0 � D; ðA-27Þ

where the Hubble constant H0 = 75 km s-1 Mpc-1 and 1 Mpc =

3.08568 9 1022 m.

614 Appendix III Fundamental Equations

Author Index

AAbell, George, 7, 500Adams, Walter S., 321, 418Alfvén, Hannes, 157, 267Alpher, Ralph A., 353, 526Ambartsumian, Viktor, 115Anderson, Carl, 205, 208Anderson, Wilhelm, 427, 428Ångström, Anders Jonas, 161Appleton, E., 147Aristotle, 2Arrhenius, Svante, 59Aston, Francis, 220Atkinson, Robert d’Escourt, 222, 349Axford, William I., 274

BBaade, Walter, 203, 434, 446,

448–450, 515Babcock, Horace, W., 260Bahcall, John N., 238Balmer, Johann, 166Barnard, Edward E., 109, 366Barrett, Alan, 379Becquerel, Henri, 192Bell, Jocelyn, 453Bennett, Charles L. ‘‘Chuck’’, 530Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 294, 295, 418Bethe, Hans A, 213, 231, 233,

335, 353Bevis, John, 445Biermann, Ludwig, 269Blaauw, Adriaan, 115Blackett, Patrick, 208, 209Bohr, Niels, 168, 200Boltzmann, Ludwig, 50, 132, 174, 309

Bondi, Hermann, 514Bort, Leon Philippe Teisserenc de, 146Bowen, Ira S., 358, 414Boyle, Robert, 141Bradley, James, 13, 14, 37Brahe, Tycho, 69, 433, 444Braun, Karl F., 146Bruno, Giordano, 400Bunsen, Robert, 160Burbidge, E. Margaret, 351Burbidge, Geoffrey R., 351

CCannon, Annie Jump, 305Carrington, Richard Christopher, 122, 127Cassini, Giovanni Domenico, 36, 52Cavendish, Henry, 75Chadwick, James, 450Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 25, 325, 428Cherenkov, Pavel A., 241Chwolson, Orest, 504Clairault, Alexis Claude de, 80Clapeyron, Émile, 143Clark, Alvan, 418Clausius, Rudolf, 134, 143Clay, Jacob, 203Cockcroft, John, 208, 211Colombo, Giuseppe, 118Compton, Arthur H., 25, 64, 203Condon, Edward U., 197Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 169Cowan, Clyde L., 201Critchfield, Charles, 231Curie, Manya (Marie), 193Curie, Pierre, 193Curtis, Heber D., 487


615

DDavis, Raymond Jr., 239, 460Democritus, 125Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice, 206Doppler, Christiaan, 107, 108, 180Dreyer, J. L. E., 7Duncan, John C., 445Dungey, James, 288

EEddington, Arthur Stanley, 111, 216, 220, 310,

312, 326, 349, 413, 421, 462, 463, 475,504, 514, 517, 557

Edlén, Bengt, 256Einstein, Albert, 41, 42, 60, 93, 213, 220, 504,

514, 517Epicurus of Samos, 440Ewen, Harold I. ‘‘Doc’’, 376

FFaraday, Michael, 33, 126Fermi, Enrico, 200, 213, 425Feynman, Richard, 213Follin, James W., 526Forbush, Scott, 203, 273Fourier, Jean-Baptiste, 58Fowler, Ralph A., 178Fowler, Ralph H., 425Fowler, William A. ‘‘Willy’’, 225, 338, 352,

429, 437Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 159, 163Friedmann, Aleksandr, 519

GGalilei, Galileo, 22, 73, 99, 471Gamow, George, 196, 222, 353, 441,

526, 532Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 78Ghez, Andrea, 485Giacconi, Riccardo, 460Gilbert, William, 283Gill, David, 52Giovanelli, Ronald G., 267Gold, Thomas, 278, 284, 290, 454, 514Goodricke, John, 474Gore, Albert Arnold (Al), 59Greenstein, Jesse, 548Gribov, Aladimir, 243Grotrian, Walter, 256Gurney, Ronald W., 197

HHahn, Otto, 212Hale, George Ellery, 189, 258Hall, John Scoville, 368Halley, Edmond, 74, 106Harkins, Willam D., 350Härm, Richard, 346Hayashi, Chushiro, 353, 396, 533Hazard, Cyril, 548Heaviside, Oliver, 147, 371Heisenberg, Werner, 213, 424Helmholtz, Hermann von, 132, 215Henderson, Thomas, 295Herman, Robert C., 526Herschel, Caroline, 26Herschel, John, 7Herschel, William, 7, 26, 39, 249, 412, 471Hertz, Heinrich, 40Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 318, 319Hess, Victor Franz, 202, 208Hewish, Antony, 453Hiltner, William A., 368Hipparchus, 11, 13, 296Hodgson, Richard, 277Houtermans, Fritz, 222Hoyle, Fred, 278, 343, 346, 351, 437, 514Hubble, Edwin, 25, 445, 487, 494, 517Huggins, William, 180, 257, 412Hulse, Russell A., 96, 459Humason, Milton, 495

JJansky, Karl, 369Janssen, Pierre Jules César, 163Jeans, James, 46, 140, 389Jeffreys, Harold, 86Joule, James Prescott, 54, 131Joy, Alfred H., 431

KKant, Immanuel, 381, 479Kapteyn, Jacobus C., 110, 472Keeling, Charles D., 59Keenan, Philip C., 322Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), 28, 215Kennedy, Roy J., 42Kennelly, Arthur E., 147Kepler, Johannes, 69, 70, 72, 269, 433Kerr, Frank, 376Kerr, Roy, 470Kirchhoff, Gustav., 65, 160

616 Author Index

Klebesadel, Ray W., 552Kohlschütter, Arnold, 321Koshiba, Masatoshi, 240, 241, 460Kraft, Robert P., 431Kronig, August, 143Kruskal, Martin, 470

LLampland, Carl, 450Landau, Lev, 451Lane, Jonathan Homer, 218Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 154, 382, 465Lawrence, Ernest, 208, 211Leavitt, Henrietta Swan, 474Leighton, Robert B., 250Lemaître, Georges, 517, 541, 556, 557, 560Leucippus, 125LeVerrier, Urbain Jean Joseph, 93Lewis, John S., 139Lifshitz, Evgeny, 541Lockyer, Joseph Norman, 163, 176Lorentz, Hendrik, A., 40, 187Lowell, Percival, 492Lucretius, 73, 125, 400

MMaclaurin, Colin, 120Magellan, Ferdinand, 474Marconi, Guglielmo, 146Mather, John C., 527Maxwell, James Clerk, 33, 135Mayall, Nicholas, 495Mayer, Jules Robert, 131Mayor, Michel, 405McCrea, William H., 179Meitner, Lise, 212Menzel, Donald, 413Messier, Charles, 6, 357, 445Meyer, Peter, 273Michell, John, 465Michelson, Albert A., 41, 307Mie, Gustav, 62Mikheyev, Stanislav P., 243Millikan, Robert A., 60, 126, 202Milne, Edward, 178Minkowski, Hermann, 43Minkowski, Rudolph, 435Minnaert, Marcel, 185Morgan, William W., 322Morley, Edward W., 41

Morrison, Philip, 213Mulders, Gerard F. W., 185Murdin, Paul, 467

NNeugebauer, Marcia, 269Neumann, John von, 346Newcomb, Simon, 13, 78Newton, Isaac, 20, 37, 73, 81, 99

OOlbers, Heinrich Wilhelm, 493Olson, Roy A., 552Oort, Jan, 480Öpik, Ernst, 340, 394, 489Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 213, 451Osterbrock, Donald E., 267

PPacini, Franco, 450Parker, Eugene, 269, 273Parsons, William (Earl of Rosse), 445Pauli, Wolfgang, 200, 425Pawsey, Joseph L., 546Payne, Cecilia H., 179Pease, F. G., 307, 489Penrose, Roger, 470Penzias, Arno, 526, 528Perlmutter, Saul, 553, 554Perrin, Jean, 191Pickering, Edward C., 305Piddington, Jack H., 267Pigott, Edward, 474Planck, Max, 44, 45Pogson, Norman, 296Pontecorvo, Bruno, 243Purcell, Edward M., 376Pythagoras, 2

QQueloz, Didier, 405

RRamsay, William, 164Rayleigh, Lord (John Strutt), 46, 61, 62Reber, Grote, 369Reines, Frederick, 201, 208

Author Index 617

Richer, Jean, 52Riess, Adam G., 555Roche, Édouard A., 90, 432Roll, Peter G., 528Rømer, Ole, 36Röntgen, Wilhelm, 38, 191Roosevelt, Franklin, 213Russell, Henry Norris, 179, 318, 319, 334Rutherford, Ernest, 127, 193, 220, 514Rydberg, Johannes, 167Ryle, Martin, 546

SSaha, Meghnad, 177Salpeter, Edwin E., 317, 341,

544, 550Sandage, Allan, 346, 495Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 116Schmidt, Brian P., 555Schmidt, Maarten, 548Schönberg, Mario, 325, 441Schramm, David, 353, 534Schwabe, Samuel Heinrich, 258Schwarzschild, Karl, 346, 467Schwarzschild, Martin, 346Seyfert, Carl K., 545Shajn, Grigory Ambramovich, 124Shapley, Harlow, 476, 487, 517Shatzman, Evry, 419Shelton, Ian, 439Shklovskii, Iosif S., 376Simpson, John, 273Slipher, Vesto, 497–494, 517Smirnov, Alexei Y., 243Smoot, George, 529Snyder, Conway W., 269Soddy, Frederick, 194Soldner, Johann George von, 94Spitzer, Lyman Jr., 26Stefan, Joseph, 50, 309Stoner, Edmund C., 428Stoney, George Johnstone, 126, 138Størmer, Carl, 187Strömgren, Bengt, 179, 232, 364Strong, Ian B., 552Struve, Otto, 124Suess, Hans E., 59, 350Swope, Henrietta H., 515Szekeres, George, 470

TTaylor, G. I., 86Taylor, Joseph H. Jr., 96, 459Thomson, Joseph John, 63, 126, 191Totsuka, Yoji, 241Townes, Charles H., 379Trumpler, Robert J., 367Turck-Chièze, Sylvaine, 239Tyndall, John, 58, 61, 309

UUnsöld, Albrecht, 179Urey, Harold Clayton, 350

VVan de Hulst, Hendrik C. ‘‘Henk’’, 375Vogt, Heinrich, 334Volkoff, George M., 451

WWagoner, Robert V., 353Walker, Merle F., 430Walton, Ernest T.S., 208, 211Webster, B. Louise, 467Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich von, 213, 231,

336, 350Wien, Wilhelm, 46Wild, J. Paul, 277Wildt, Rupert, 249Wilkinson, David T., 528, 530Wilson, Charles Thomas Rees, 205, 208Wilson, Robert, 526, 528Wolf, Maximillian, 366Wolfenstein, Lincoln, 243Wollaston, William Hyde, 159

YYukawa, Hideki, 208

ZZanstra, Herman, 413Zeeman, Pieter, 187Zeldovich, Yakov B., 550Zhevakin, Sergi A., 475Zwicky, Fritz, 203, 434, 450, 502

618 Author Index

Subject Index

AAberration, 14, 15, 37Absolute magnitude, 300Absolute visual magnitude, 300Absolute zero, 130Absorption coefficient, 65Absorption lines, 159, 160Absorption, starlight, 367–369Abundant elements, Sun, 164, 165, 352Acceleration, 74, 544

expansion of universe, 553gravity, 79

Accretion disk, 461Accretion luminosity, 463, 464Accretion rate, 464Active galactic nuclei, 545–549

emission lines, 549super-massive black holes, 549

Active region, 262Age

Crab Nebula, 447Earth, 198expanding universe, 532, 540globular star clusters, 345, 346meteorites, 198Moon, 198observable universe, 513–516, 532, 540open star clusters, 345, 347planetary nebulae, 415radio pulsar, 456Sun, 196, 217

Albedo, 57Aldebaran, 327Alfvén velocity, 157Alfvén waves, 157

coronal heating, 267interplanetary medium, 157, 158

Alpha Centauri, 315Alpha decay, 194, 195

Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, 209Alpha particles, 193, 194Alpha rays, 193Ammonia, interstellar, 379Andromeda Nebula, 488

collision with Milky Way, 508distance, 488, 489

Ångström, 35Angular momentum, 87

Earth, 88Jupiter, 385Moon, 88Sun, 385

Angular resolution, 21, 22An Inconvenient Truth, 59Annual parallax, 293, 294Annual proper motion, 107Antares, 327Antennae galaxies, 509Anti-gravity, 555Aphelion, 71Apparent magnitude, 296Apparent radiation flux, 299Apparent visual magnitude, 297, 298Arcturus, 327

radius, 307Asteroid belt, 384Astronomical unit (AU), 28, 50, 70

radar value, 53Astronomy, 1Astrophysics, 1Asymptotic branch, Hertzsprung–Russell

diagram, 347, 348Atmospheres, 138

circulation, 145speed of sound, 155thermal evaporation, 140thermal velocity, 133, 134

Atom, 125


619

Atom (cont.)Bohr, 168excited, 173formation, 535ground state, 173nucleus, 127physical properties, 129quantization, 167radius, 128

Atomic bomb, 213Atomic mass number, 130Atomic mass unit, 128, 226Atomic nucleus, 127

physical properties, 129radius, 128

Atomic number, 130

BBackground radiation, 526–546

angular power spectrum, 530, 531anisotropy, 529, 531blackbody spectrum, 527, 528discovery, 526isotropy, 529photon density, 528, 529, 531temperature, 527, 531temperature fluctuations, 530, 531

Balmer limit, 172Balmer lines, 166Balmer series, 167, 171Balmer transition, 171Bar, 141Barnard’s star, velocity, 109–112Barn unit, 226Barometric equation, 144Barometric law, 144Baryonic matter, 531Beta decay, 199, 200Beta Pictoris, planet-forming disk, 401, 403Beta rays, 193, 198, 203Betelgeuse, 327

angular diameter, 307mass loss, 309radius, 308winds, 309

Big bang, 522–525neutron–proton ratio, 534nucleosynthesis, 352–354, 534, 535pair annihilation, 524radiation temperature, 526singularity, 523

Big-bang nucleosynthesis, 352–354,534, 535

Big Dipper, 11Binary pulsar, 96, 459, 460Binary stars, 314, 315

eclipsing, 314, 315mass, 314orbital motion, 96, 97spectroscopic, 315visual, 315, 316

Binding energy, 78, 226, 227gravitational, 78nucleus, 226, 227

Binding energy per nucleon, 226Black holes, 465–470, 484, 550

collapse time, 469description, 467event horizon, 470galactic center, 484, 485imagining, 465Milky Way, 484, 485observation, 466, 467Schwarzschild radius, 468singularity, 470super-massive, 484, 485, 550, 551X-rays, 469, 470

Blackbody, 44Blackbody radiation, 44

brightness distribution, 45energy density, 47radiant flux, 48, 50

Blackbody spectrum, 45background radiation, 527, 528

Blue sky, 61Bohr atom, 167Bohr magneton, 188Bolometric magnitude, 303Boltzmann constant, 30Boltzmann distribution, 174, 176Bond albedo, 57Bound-bound transition probability, 175Bow shock, 284, 285Bow shock distance, 286

Earth, 286Jupiter, 286

Braking radiation, 362, 363Bremsstrahlung, 362, 363Bright named planetary nebulae, 417Brightest stars, 296, 297Brightness, 296

cloud, 65, 66Brightness distribution, 45

blackbody radiation, 45thermal, 45

Brown dwarf star, 312Butterfly diagram, 259

620 Subject Index

CCalorific rays, 40Carbon burning, 349Carbon monoxide, interstellar, 379Cassiopiea A supernova remnant, 444Cat’s Eye Nebula, 412Cataclysmic variable star, 431Celestial coordinates, 5Celestial equator, 4Celestial positions, standard epoch, 13Celestial sphere, 4Centaurus X-3, 460, 461Centrifugal acceleration, 119Centrifugal force, 118Cepheid variable stars, 473–476

period-luminosity relation, 475nearby galaxies, 497spiral nebulae, 487, 488

Chandrasekhar limit, 429Charge-coupled device, 21Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO) , 25, 444,

445, 450, 509Chemical elements, 125

origin, 347–354Chemical ingredients, Sun, 160, 163Chromosphere, 255

heating by sound waves, 266Chromospheric evaporation, 280Civil time, 15Clairault’s theorem, 80Closed universe, 520Cloud, brightness, 65, 66Cloud chamber, 205Clusters of galaxies, 500–507

dark matter, 502–505gravitational lens, 505, 506intergalactic matter, 503physical properties, 502X-ray radiation, 504

21 cm spin transition of hydrogen, 375–378CNO cycle, 335–339Cold dark matter, 542Collisions, 134, 134

galaxies, 508, 509particles, 134, 135

Color index, 304Colors, 37, 304

stars, 303wavelength, 37

Coma cluster of galaxies, dark matter, 503Communication disruption, 290

Composition, Sun, 160, 161Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

(CGRO) , 25Compton scattering, 64Conservation of angular momentum, 70, 71,

385Earth-Moon, 87

Conservation of energy, 76, 131, 200Constant of aberration, 14Constant of nutation, 14Continuum spectrum, 44Convection, 245, 248, 339, 340Convective zones, stars, 340Corona, 255

eclipse, 256forbidden emission lines in visible light,

257radio radiation, 256temperature, 256ultraviolet and X-ray emission lines, 258X-ray radiation, 257, 276

Coronal heating, 265–267Alfvén waves, 267magnetic reconnection, 267

Coronal holes, 26811-year magnetic activity cycle, 268origin of high-speed solar wind, 261

Coronal loops, 261–26411-year magnetic activity cycle, 265magnetic and gas pressure, 264, 265

Coronal mass ejections, 281energy, 282physical properties, 283travel time to Earth, 283

Coronium, 256COsmic Background Explorer (COBE),

527–530Cosmic microwave background radiation. See

Background radiationCosmic ray shower, 207Cosmic rays, 202–209

acceleration in supernovae, 203discovery, 199energy, 203flux, 204inverse correlation with solar activity, 203protons, 203

Cosmic static, 370Cosmic web, 511Cosmological constant, 554–559Cosmological principle, 529

Subject Index 621

Coulomb’s law, 221Crab Nebula, 446–450

age, 447, 449amorphous region, 446, 448emission lines, 446nonthermal radiation, 446physical properties, 447polarized light, 448progenitor star, 447radio pulsar, 447, 448, 450, 459synchrotron radiation, 447–449X-rays, 447–449

Crab Nebula supernova remnant, 446–448.See Crab Nebula

Critical mass density, to stop expanding uni-verse, 500, 516, 520

Cross section, tunneling, 229Curvature, space, 94, 95Curve of growth, 185Cyclotron, 21161 Cygni, distance, 295Cygnus A, 546, 547Cygnus X-1, 467

DDark energy, 554–559

constraints, 559cosmological constant, 555–559discovery, 554, 555

Dark halo, 486Dark matter, 531–535

clusters of galaxies, 500–504Coma cluster of galaxies, 503constraints, 559galaxies, 490galaxy formation, 542Milky Way, 485, 486spiral galaxies, 488, 491star formation, 543

Day, 30lengthening, 80, 81sidereal, 17solar, 15, 18

Deceleration parameter, 519, 558Declination, 5Decoupling time, 539Deflection of starlight, 94Degeneracy pressure, 425Degenerate, 425Degenerate electron gas, 423–427

relativistic, 426Degenerate electron pressure, 426Degenerate neutron pressure, 465Delta Cephei, 474, 476

distance, 476Density parameter, 519, 558Density waves, 483De Rerum Natura, 119Differential rotation, 120, 480, 481

Milky Way, 479–482Sun, 120

Differentiation, 384Discovery

background radiation, 526cosmic rays, 202dark energy, 554–555exoplanets, 403–408expanding universe, 493–494galaxies, 487–492gamma-ray bursts, 552helium, 163infrared radiation, 39interstellar hydrogen 21 cm line,

375–378ionosphere, 146muon, 207pion, 208positron, 206pulsars, 452, 453quasars, 549radioactivity, 193, 194radio waves, 40solar wind, 268tau lepton, 211white dwarf stars, 418, 419X-ray pulsars, 460, 461X-rays, 191, 192

Displacement law, 46Distance

Andromeda Nebula, 488–490galactic center, 476, 477galaxies, 496Proxima Centauri, 53spiral nebulae, 487–489Sun, 50, 52

Distance modulus, 302Doppler effect, 107, 108, 180Doppler line broadening, 188Dust, 367–368Dwarf novae, 430Dwarf nova SS Cygni, 430, 431

622 Subject Index

EEarth

age, 198, 216atmospheric pressure, 141, 142, 145equatorial radius, 12escape speed, 100, 102flattening factor, 12, 79gravitational redshift, 181, 182gravity, 79internal heat from radioactivity, 216local acceleration of gravity, 79magnetic storms, 288magnetosphere, 283–285mass, 75, 80mass density, 75mean radius, 11orbital properties, 78physical properties, 77rotation, 3surface gravitational acceleration, 80

Eccentricity, 72Eclipsing binary stars, 314, 315Ecliptic, 4Eddington limit, 462, 463Eddington luminosity, 312, 313Effective temperature, 55

planets, 56, 57Sun, 55

Effective thermal energy, 230Einstein ring, 506, 507Einstein-De Sitter universe, 520Electric constant, 31Electromagnetic fields, 33Electromagnetic radiation, 33Electromagnetic spectrum, 37, 39Electromagnetic waves, 33Electron, 126, 129

mass, 191physical properties, 129quantized orbit, 168

Electron Compton wavelength, 64Electron degenerate pressure, 425Electron neutrinos, 242Electron volt, 150Electron-positron annihilation, 206Elementary charge, 126Ellipse, 72Elliptical galaxy, 491Emission lines, 159, 160

corona, 256Crab Nebula, 446planetary nebulae, 413, 414quasars, 549radio galaxies, 546

Seyfert galaxies, 546Emission nebulae, 357–365

bright named, 359physical properties, 361spectral lines, 358, 360

Energyconservation, 76, 131, 200kinetic, 130, 132light, 59nuclear reaction, 223photon, 59supernova, 442thermal, 132

Energy density, blackbody radiation, 48Energy distribution function, 137Energy generation, nuclear reaction, 231Energy release, nuclear fusion, 226Equation of energy conservation, 333Equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, 332Equation of mass conservation, 333Equation of radiative energy transfer, 333Equinox, 840 Eridani B, 327, 418Escape speed, 99, 100

Earth, 100, 102Moon, 100, 102Sun, 100, 102

Escape velocity, 77Earth, 100, 102Milky Way, 492Moon, 100, 101neutron star, 451planet, 139star cluster, 111Sun, 100, 101

Eskimo Nebula, 416Ether, 41Event horizon, 470Ever-expanding universe, 521Exclusion principle, 424Exobase, 140Exoplanets, 403–410

atmospheres, 410discovery, 405flat multi-planet systems, 408habitable, 409hot-Jupiters, 408mass, 405, 406orbital distance, 406

Exosphere, 147Expanding universe, 493–495

accelerated expansion, 555, 556age, 513–516, 532, 540cosmological constant, 555–559

Subject Index 623

Expanding universe (cont.)critical mass density, 500, 516, 520decoupling time, 539, 540discovery, 491–493fate, 555General Theory of Relativity, 517history, 537–540mass density, 537matter era, 527origin, 513radiation energy density, 536, 537radiation era, 527radiation temperature, 538, 539rate of expansion, 514recombination time, 539, 540reionization time, 540size, 518

Expansion age, universe, 514–518Expansion line broadening, 184Expansion, stellar associations, 115Expansion velocity, 185Extragalactic nebulae, 490

FFaint-Young-Sun paradox, 252, 253Fate, 254, 257

expanding universe, 560stars, 411Sun, 252, 255

Fermi Lab, 212Fermi unit, 128First generation stars, 354Five-minute oscillations, Sun, 251Flat universe, 517, 520Flattening factor, Earth, 11, 12, 79Focal length, 19Fomalhaut, planet-forming disk, 401, 402Forbidden emission lines, corona, 257Forbush effect, 203Force, 74, 127

gravitational, 74nuclear, 127

Formationatoms, 535galaxies, 540–544giant star, 341planetary nebulae, 415red giant star, 341solar system, 381–387stars, 381–399, 540–544

Fourth state of matter, 149, 151Fraunhofer absorption lines, 159, 161–163Free-bound radiation, 361, 362

Free fall time, 397Free-free radiation, 362, 363Frequency

plasma, 152radiation, 35, 36

Friedmann equations, 519

GGalactic center, 476–484

distance, 476–478super-massive black hole, 484, 485

Galaxies, 487–510active nuclei, 544–549center, 499clusters, 500–504collision, 508cosmic web, 511dark matter, 490, 491discovery, 487–491distance, 494, 496edge, 499first, 540–544formation, 543–544giant elliptical, 550, 551gravitational lens, 504, 506look-back time, 512luminosity, 492–498luminosity function, 497motion, 492, 508, 510number density, 492, 498peculiar motions, 508physical properties, 492redshift, 494starburst, 543streams, 508super-massive black holes, 484, 485,

547–551voids, 510walls, 510

Galaxy, 471–488Gamma-ray bursts, 552

afterglow, 552discovery, 552luminosity, 553supernovae, 554

Gamma rays, 39, 38Gamow energy, 229Gas pressure, 141, 142, 264, 330Gaussian constant of gravitation, 78General Catalogue, 7General Theory of Relativity, 94, 468, 517Geocentric gravitational constant, 75Geomagnetic storms, 288

624 Subject Index

Subject Index 625

Geosynchronous orbit, 103Giant elliptical galaxies, super-massive black

holes, 542, 546Giant molecular clouds, 385–391

free fall time, 397gravitational collapse, 391physical properties, 388

Giant planets, 383Giant stars, 306, 321

formation, 336pulsation, 327

Global Positioning System, 3, 12, 16Global warming, 58, 59Globular star clusters, 111, 114, 343–345,

475–478age, 345, 346Cepheid variables, 474distribution, 477Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams , 347spheroid, 478stellar motions, 116

Gran Telescopio Canarias, 21Granulation, 249, 250Gravitation, 74Gravitational binding energy, 78Gravitational collapse, 389–395

Kelvin–Helmholtz time, 216triggering, 392

Gravitational constant, 30, 75Gaussian, 78geocentric, 75universal, 30, 75

Gravitational force, 74Gravitational lens, 505, 506

clusters of galaxies, 503galaxies, 504, 505

Gravitational potential energy, 78Gravitational radiation, 97Gravitational radius, 468Gravitational redshift, 181, 182

Sun, 181white dwarf stars, 421

Gravitational waves, 97Gravity, 73

acceleration, 79cause, 93Earth, 80local acceleration, 73

Great Attractor, 508Great Observatories, 25Great Wall, 510Greenhouse effect, 58, 59Greenwich sidereal time, 18

Ground state, 173Gyration radius, 371Gyrofrequency, 371

HH I regions, 375, 377

equilibrium, 392, 393physical properties, 378

H II regions, 357, 361equilibrium, 392physical properties, 361

Habitable zone, 57, 409Hale Telescope, 21Heat, 130Heliopause, 276Helioseismology, 123, 251Heliosheath, 276Heliosphere, 275Helium atom, 129Helium burning, 340–343

temperature, 342Helium, 129, 165, 534

big-bang nucleosynthesis, 534discovery in Sun, 164physical properties, 129

Herschel Telescope, 25Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 318–320

protostars, 396star clusters, 343–347

Higgs boson, 212Hinode, 25HIPPARCOS, 8, 25

Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 319, 320Oort’s constants, 480star density, 478star distances, 295stellar proper motions, 111

Historical supernovae, 434Homestake neutrino detector, 240Hooker Telescope, 21Horizontal branch, Hertzsprung–Russell dia-

gram, 347Hot-Jupiters, 408H-R diagram. See Hertzsprung–Russell

diagramHubble constant, 493–497Hubble expansion parameter, 519, 558Hubble law, 493–499Hubble Space Telescope (HST), 25, 402, 476,

496, 497, 501, 505, 509, 516Hubble time, 512Hydrogen, 126

Hydrogen (cont.)Balmer lines, 166big-bang nucleosynthesis, 534interstellar, 375–377most abundant element in most stars, 179physical properties, 129

Hydrogen alpha line, 167Hydrogen burning, 231–239, 335–340Hydrostatic equilibrium, 330

IIdeal gas law, 142Index Catalogue, 7Inflation, 523InfraRed Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), 401Infrared radiation, 39

discovery, 60Initial mass function, stars, 317Instability strip, Hertzsprung–Russell diagram,

347Interferometer, 23, 24, 306Interferometry, 23

stars, 307International Atomic Time, 15International celestial reference system, 6Interplanetary magnetic spiral, 289Interstellar Boundary EXplorer (IBEX) , 276Interstellar dust, 367, 368

reddens starlight, 304Interstellar hydrogen atoms, 375–378Interstellar molecular hydrogen, 380Interstellar molecules, 378, 379

radio radiation, 379Interstellar water, 379Inverse beta decay, 207Inverse Compton effect, 64Inverse square law, 74, 299

gravity, 74light, 299

Io, eclipse period, 36Ion, 149Ionization potential, 149

abundant atoms, 178Ionization wavelength, hydrogen and oxygen,

358Ionosphere, 145, 146

discovery, 147origin , 152plasma frequency, 152temperature, 151

Isotopes, 130

JJames Webb Space Telescope (JWST), 26Jeans density, 391Jeans length, 389Jeans mass, 389, 390Jeans radius, 391Joule, 54Julian century, 15Julian Date, 13Julian year, 15

KKamiokande neutrino detector, 240Kapteyn Universe, 477Kapteyn’s star, velocity, 110, 111Keck Telescopes, 21Kelvin-Helmholtz time, 216Kepler mission, 409Kepler’s first law of planetary motion, 69, 70Kepler’s harmonic relationship, 71, 73Kepler’s second law of planetary

motion, 69, 70Kepler’s third law, Newtonian expression, 103Kepler’s third law of planetary motion, 71, 72Kiloparsec (kpc), 29Kinetic energy, 100, 130, 132Kinetic temperature, 133Kirchhoff’s law, 65

LLarge Binocular Telescope, 21Large Hadron Collider, 212Large stars, 306Latitude, 23Leptons, 242Lifetime

main sequence, 323–326nuclear fusion in Sun, 219nuclear reaction, 219protostars, 395–397radioactive atom, 196–199synchrotron radiation, 374

Light bending, 95, 96Light travel time, 294

astronomical unit (AU), 28, 52Light-year, 29, 294Line broadening

expansion, 184rotation, 184thermal motion, 183

626 Subject Index

Zeeman effect, 183, 187–190Line splitting, Zeeman effect, 183, 187–190Local hour angle, 19Local sidereal time, 17Longitude, 2, 3Look-back time, galaxies, 512Lorentz contraction, 43Lorentz factor, 41Lorentz transformation, 41Luminiferous ether, 41Luminosity, 298

accretion, 463, 464Eddington, 463galaxies, 491, 498gamma-ray bursts, 552Milky Way, 471–486radio pulsar, 456, 457stars, 299Sun, 27, 54, 298–300synchrotron radiation, 374

Luminosity class, stars, 321, 323Luminosity function, galaxies, 497Lunik 2, 269Lunisolar precession, 13Lyman transition, 171Lyman series, 168, 171

MMagnetic brakes, Sun rotation, 386, 387Magnetic cloud, from Sun, 291Magnetic constant, 31Magnetic energy, 393Magnetic fields

cosmic, 189Earth, 189energy density, 157interstellar, 188neutron stars, 456radio pulsars, 457, 458solar wind, 190Sun, 258, 289sunspots, 188white dwarf star, 423, 455Zeeman effect, 183, 186–188

Magnetic pressure, 141, 264Magnetic reconnection

coronal heating, 267entry to magnetosphere, 288solar flares, 278, 279

Magnetic waves, 156, 158, 267Magnetic white dwarf stars, 423Magnetosphere, 283–285

planets, 285, 286

Magnetotail, 285Main sequence, 318, 320

lifetime, 323–325stellar mass, 323zero age, 332

Main-sequence stars, 320, 321, 323, 324physical properties, 322

Mariner 2, 270Mariner 5, 157Mars, parallax, 52Mass, 74

binary stars, 314dark halo Milky Way, 486dark matter Milky Way, 487Earth, 75, 81emission nebula, 365H II region, 365increase with motion, 42Milky Way, 479, 482spectroscopic binary stars, 316–318stars, 306Sun, 26, 80super-massive black hole galactic center,

485super-massive black holes, 484upper limit for stars, 313

Mass defect, nucleus, 226Mass distribution, stars, 544Mass-energy equivalence, 220Mass loss

Betelgeuse, 309nuclear fusion in Sun, 236red giant stars, 328solar wind, 273supergiant stars, 309, 348VY Canis Majoris, 309VY Cephei A, 309

Mass-luminosity relation, stars, 310, 311Matter era, expanding universe, 536Maxwell’s equations, 33, 34Maxwell speed distribution, 135, 136Mean collision time, 135Mean free path, 134, 135Mean speed, 137Megaparsec (Mpc), 29M 87, super-massive black hole, 550Mercury, 93, 94, 116, 117

precession of perihelion, 93, 94rotation, 116, 117

Mesosphere, 146Meteorites, age, 198Metric, 43MeV unit, 226Michelson–Morley experiment, 41

Subject Index 627

Micron, 35Microwaves, 37, 39Mie scattering, 62Milky Way, 471–486

central super-massive black hole, 484collision with Andromeda Nebula, 508dark halo, 486dark matter, 486, 487differential rotation, 479, 480escape velocity, 493luminosity, 478, 482mass, 478, 482physical properties, 478radio emission, 369–375shape, 471, 472size, 471, 472spiral arms, 482, 483super-massive black hole, 484, 485synchrotron radiation, 374, 375

Milne universe, 521Molecules, 126

interstellar, 378, 379planetary atmospheres, 138, 139

Moonage, 198escape speed, 100, 101ocean tides, 81orbital properties, 82orbital speed, 103outward motion, 87physical properties, 82

Morgan–Keenan (M–K) luminosity classes,321

Most probable speed , 136Motion, 99

galaxies, 492–499, 508, 509kinetic energy, 99, 130orbital, 101ordered, 131planets, 69random, 130star clusters, 111stars, 105

Muon, discovery, 207Muon neutrinos, 243

atmospheric, 243

NNanometer, 35Neap ocean tides, 83Nebula, 7Nebular hypothesis, 381, 382Nebulium, 357

Negative beta decay, 201Negative hydrogen ion, solar photosphere, 249Neutrinos, 200, 237

electron, 240, 241muon, 240, 241observation, 205oscillation, 240, 241Sun, 241–243supernova, 441tau, 240types, 242

Neutron, 125physical properties, 129

Neutron capture, 352Neutron stars, 450–463

degenerate neutron pressure, 452escape velocity, 451magnetic field strength, 455physical properties, 451radius, 451rotation period, 451, 454superfluid and superconducting, 452

New General Catalogue, 7Newtonian focus, 20Newton’s first law of motion, 99Nonthermal radiation, 370, 373

Crab Nebula, 446–449Nonthermal velocities, 370North celestial pole, 6North Star, 10Nova Aquilae 1918, 429Nova Cygni 1992, 429Novae, 429–432

origin, 429–432physical properties, 430thermonuclear explosion white dwarf star,

430, 431Nova Herculis 1934, 429Nuclear bombardment, 209Nuclear fission, 212Nuclear force, 127Nuclear reactions

energy release, 225, 226lifetime, 224non-resonant, 229rate, 223supergiant stars, 348–349temperature, 222

Nuclear transformation, 209, 210Nucleons, 127Nucleosynthesis, 216, 339

big bang, 353, 354stellar, 351, 352

Nucleus, 127, 226, 227

628 Subject Index

Nucleus (cont.)atomic, 127binding energy, 226, 227mass defect, 226

Null geodesic, 469Number, galaxies, 497Number density, galaxies, 502Nutation, 13, 14

OO and B stars, triggering gravitational

collapse, 394Oblateness, planets, 119Obliquity of the ecliptic, 4Ocean tides, 81Olbers’ paradox, 493Oort’s constants, 478, 480Open star clusters, 344, 345

age, 344, 345Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams, 347

Open universe, 520Optical depth, 65Optically thick, 66Optically thin, 66Optically visible radiation, 38Orbital motion, 101

binary stars, 104planets, 102

Orbits, electron quantized, 168Origin

chemical elements, 348–353expanding universe, 523novae, 429–433solar flares, 276solar winds fast and slow, 274supernovae, 436–438

Orion Nebula, 359Oscillating universe, 520Ozone layer, 145

PPair annihilation, 207

big bang, 523solar flares, 280

Palomar Sky Survey, 7Parallax, 51, 293, 294Parsec (pc), 29, 294Particles

energy distribution, 137speed distribution, 135, 137

Pascal, 141Peculiar motions, galaxies, 508, 509

51 Pegasi, exoplanet, 405, 406Penetration probability, protons, 222Perihelion, 72Period-luminosity relation, variable

stars, 475, 476Period-radius relation, variable stars, 475Photo-absorption coefficient, 175Photoelectric effect, 60Photon, 59Photon energy, 60Photosphere, 255

thermal velocity, 132, 133Pion, discovery, 208Planck constant, 30, 45Planck mission, 532Plane waves, 34Planetary nebulae, 412–417

age, 415bright named, 417central stars, 414emission lines, 413, 414formation, 415physical properties, 414

Planetary rings, origin, 90Planet-forming disks, 400–402Planets

albedo, 58atmospheric molecules, 138composition, 382, 383effective temperature, 55, 56fastest rotation, 119habitable zone, 57magnetospheres, 285, 286motion, 69oblate shape, 118orbital speed, 102rotation, 116–120speed, 69, 70temperatures, 56–58

Plasma, 149, 150Plasma frequency, 152Plasma oscillations, 152Plerions, 448Plurality of worlds, 400Polaris, 6, 10Polarization, starlight, 368, 369Pole Star, 11, 12Polonium, 193Population I stars, 354

Cepheids, 476Milky Way, 476variable, 475

Population II stars, 354globular star clusters, 477

Subject Index 629

variable, 475Population III stars, 354Positive beta decay, 201, 207Positron, 201

discovery, 206Power, nuclear reactions, 223Poynting–Robertson effect, 141Precession, 11–13Pressure, 141–145

cosmic range, 142Earth’s atmosphere, 142, 145gas, 140, 142magnetic, 141radiation, 141wind, 141

Prime Meridian, 2, 16Principia, 74Principle of Relativity, 41Procyon B, 327Proper motion, 105, 107Proper time interval, 469Protons, 127

electrical repulsion, 221physical properties, 129

Proton-proton chain, 232–234, 335, 338Proto-planetary disks, 400Protostars, 395, 396

Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 395lifetime, 388, 389

Proxima Centauri, 29, 319distance, 53, 295, 301luminosity, 301radius, 301, 307temperature, 301velocity, 119

Pulsar, Crab Nebula, 449, 450Pulsar.See Radio pulsar or X-ray pulsarPulsars, 452–454, 456, 458, 460, 461

discovery, 452, 453

QQuanta, 44Quantum mechanics, 168, 197, 424

atom, 165, 166, 168degenerate gas, 423–427, 452radioactive decay, 197

Quantum tunneling effect, in Sun, 222Quarks, 127Quasars, 549

discovery, 548emission lines, 549

Quasistellar radio sources, 549

RRadar, astronomical unit, 53Radial velocity, 105–107, 180Radian, 9, 10Radiation, 33

absorption, 65blackbody, 44emission coefficient, 65frequency, 35, 36scattering, 62, 63thermal, 44wavelength, 35

Radiation constant, 49Radiation era, expanding universe, 536Radiation pressure, 141, 330

stars, 311, 313Radiation temperature, big bang, 526Radiation transfer, 65Radio galaxies, 546, 547

emission lines, 546synchrotron radiation, 547

R136a1, massive star, 312Radio pulsars, 452, 453, 455, 456, 458, 460

age, 457Crab Nebula, 449, 450, 458luminosity, 457magnetic field strength, 457periods, 454physical properties, 454rotational energy, 457

Radio radiation, 64bending by Sun, 95discovery, 59Milky Way, 369, 375scintillation, 453supernova remnants, 444

Radio telescope, 23Radioactive alpha decay, 194Radioactivity, 193

constant, 196dating, 198nuclear half-life, 197

Radium, 193Radius

Arcturus, 308atom, 128atomic nucleus, 128Betelgeuse, 307Earth, 11emission nebula, 360, 365gyration, 187H II region, 360, 365Milky Way, 476, 478

630 Subject Index

Radius (cont.)neutron stars, 451observable universe, 516Proxima Centauri, 315stars, 305Sun, 10, 28, 53universe, 558

Radius-mass relation, white dwarf stars, 428Radon, 194Random motion, 131Rate, star formation, 542Rayleigh scattering, 62Rayleigh scattering cross section, 62Rayleigh-Jeans law, 46, 47Reaction rate, nuclear fusion, 230Recombination lines, 170, 363Recombination radiation, 361, 362Recombination time, expanding universe, 539Reddening, starlight, 368Red giant stars, 306, 320, 326

formation, 341mass loss, 328winds, 328

Redshift, 109, 180galaxies, 494

Redshift-magnitude diagram, Type Ia super-novae, 555

Redshift-magnitude relation, 495Reflector, 19, 20Refractor, 19, 20Reionization time, expanding universe, 540Resolving power, 21Resonance reactions, 343Rest mass, 43Rest-mass energy, 43Right ascension, 5Rings, origin, 90Robertson–Walker metric, 518Roche limit, 90–92Roche lobe, 432Root mean square speed, 137Rosette Nebula, 359Rotation

cosmic, 116differential, 120Earth, 2Mercury, 116, 117Milky Way, 478–481neutron star, 455radio pulsar, 456, 458stars, 120, 398, 399Sun, 121, 385, 386velocity, 184

Venus, 118white dwarf stars, 456

Rotational line broadening, 184Runaway stars, 115–118Runaway thermonuclear explosion, white

dwarf, 432Rydberg constant, 167

atomic, 172, 173Rydberg energy unit, 169

SSagittarius A*, 484, 485Saha ionization equation, 177Satellites, threat from Sun, 291Scattering

Compton, 64radiation, 64Rayleigh, 61Thomson, 63

Schwarzschild metric, 468Schwarzschild radius, 467, 468Scintillations, 453, 454Second generation stars, 354Second law of thermodynamics, 266Second of arc, 9, 10Seeing, 22Seyfert galaxies, 545

emission lines, 545Sgr A*, 484, 485SI units, 30

conversion to c.g.s units, 30Sidereal day, 17Sidereal rotation period, 121Sidereal time, 17, 18Singularity

big bang, 523black hole, 469, 470

Sirius A, luminosity, 302Sirius B, 327, 419

gravitational redshift, 421luminosity, 302

Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 7, 510, 511Sloan Great Wall, 510, 511SN 1987A, 439

neutrino burst, 441progenitor star, 441visible explosion, 441

Solar active region, 261SOlar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) ,

251Solar constant, 55, 300Solar day, 15, 18

Subject Index 631

Solar flares, 276–280accelerated particles, 277chromospheric evaporation, 280energy, 276magnetic reconnection, 278, 279nuclear reactions, 279origin, 277positrons, 280protons - threat to humans, 290radio bursts, 277, 278shock waves, 277temperature, 276white light, 276X-rays, 278, 279

Solar granulation, 249, 250Solar magnetic activity cycle, 259Solar nebula, 381, 383, 394Solar neutrino problem, 240–244Solar neutrinos, detectors, 239Solar neutrinos, flux, 238, 241Solar neutrino unit, 240Solar parallax, 51, 52Solar system, formation, 381–387Solar time, 15, 17Solar wind

comet tails, 268discovery, 268mass loss from Sun, 273physical properties, 272speed of sound, 156, 272steady, uniform high speed, 274supersonic, 271termination shock, 275, 276variable, gusty slow speed, 274

Solstice, 8Sound, 154Sound speed, 155Sound waves, 154

heat chromosphere, 267in Sun, 251, 252

Space curvature, 94Space curvature index, 518, 520Space Telescopes, 25Space velocity, 105, 106Space weather, 283–292

forecasting , 291, 292Special Theory of Relativity, 42, 43, 220, 468Spectral classification, stars, 306Spectral sequence, 305, 306Spectroheliograph, 159, 162Spectroscopic binary stars, 315, 317Spectroscopic distance, stars, 322Spectroscopic parallax, stars, 322Spectrum

blackbody, 44continuum, 44electromagnetic, 37, 38nonthermal radiation, 370thermal radiation, 46

Speed, 71escape, 77, 99–101, 113, 139, 451light, 14, 28, 30, 35, 41mean, 137most probable, 135orbital, 102planets, 70, 71root mean square, 137sound, 155

Speed distribution function, 136Speed of light, 14, 28, 30, 35, 41Speed of sound, 155Sphere, gravitational potential energy, 76Spheres of ionization, 360Spiral arms, Milky Way, 482, 483Spiral galaxy, 491

dark matter, 490, 491Spiral nebulae, 491

Cepheid variable stars, 488, 489distance, 489recession velocities, 492

Spitzer Space Telescope (SST) , 25, 401, 496,509, 516

Spontaneous transition coefficient, 175Spring ocean tides, 83Sputnik, 153Standard epoch, 13Stars

age and rotation, 123, 124angular size, 306brightest, 296, 297central temperature, 219, 329Cepheid variable, 474–476chemical composition, 334classification, 305color, 303convection, 339, 340convective zones, 340effective temperature, 303fate, 310first, 540–544first generation , 354formation, 387–400, 543–544formation rate, 543gravitational redshift, 181, 182, 421habitable zone, 409initial mass distribution, 544initial mass function, 317interferometry, 307

632 Subject Index

Stars (cont.)largest, 306luminosity, 299luminosity class, 321mass, 310mass distribution, 544mass-luminosity relation, 310, 311most abundant element hydrogen, 179most massive, 312motion, 105Population I, II and III, 354pulsation, 327, 475radiation pressure, 312radius, 306rapid rotation, 124red giant, 306, 320, 327, 328rotation, 120–124, 399second generation, 354spectral classification, 305spectroscopic distance, 322spectroscopic parallax, 322supergiant, 306, 320, 327, 328support by gas pressure, 330support by radiation pressure, 330temperatures, 303upper mass limit, 313variable, 475white dwarf, 320, 327

Star catalogues, 6Star clusters

escape velocity, 113Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams, 347

Star time, 17, 18Starburst galaxies, 543Starlight, 367, 368

interstellar absorption, 367polarization, 368, 369reddening, 368

Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 49Stefan-Boltzmann law, 49, 309, 318Stellar aberration, 14Stellar associations, 115Stellar black holes, 465–469Stellar nucleosynthesis, 350, 352Stellar rotation, 124Stratosphere, 145Streams, galaxies, 508Strömgren radius, 360, 364Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, 244, 245Sun

absolute visual magnitude, 300absorption lines, 159

abundance of elements, 351active region, 261age, 198, 217angular extent, 8central gas pressure, 218central mass density, 218central temperature, 217composition, 160, 161convection, 245, 248convective zone, 246, 247core, 244, 245deflection of starlight, 94differential rotation, 120distance, 51, 52effective temperature, 56escape velocity, 100, 101, 270explosions, 276fate, 253, 254Fraunhofer absorption lines, 161–163free fall time, 397gravitational redshift, 181internal mass density, 148, 150internal plasma, 153internal pressure, 148, 150internal rotation, 123, 124internal structure, 245internal temperature, 148, 150light bending, 95, 96luminosity, 28, 55, 298, 300magnetic field, 258, 259mass, 28, 80mass loss by nuclear fusion, 236mass loss by solar wind, 273most abundant element hydrogen, 179most abundant elements, 164, 165neutrinos, 238–243nuclear fusion lifetime, 236ocean tides, 81physical properties, 219radiation diffusion time, 247radiative zone, 246, 247radius, 9, 10, 28, 54red hydrogen alpha transition, 176rotation, 120, 386rotation velocity about galactic center, 479,

481secondary nuclear fusion reactions, 235spectrum, 161temperature, 55, 56Thomson scattering, 247

Sunspots, 258cycle, 258–260

Subject Index 633

Sunspots (cont.)origin, 263pairs, 261Zeeman effect, 188

Sun time, 15, 17Superfluids, neutron stars, 452Supergiant stars, 306, 320, 327–329

mass loss, 309, 328nuclear reactions, 347–349winds, 309, 310, 328

Supergranulation, 250Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector, 243Super-massive black holes, 550, 551

galactic center, 484, 485mass, 550M 87, 550

Supernovae , 433–444acceleration of cosmic rays, 203binary star system, 437energy, 442gamma-ray bursts, 552gravity-powered iron-catastrophe, 436,

438, 439historical, 434neutrinos, 441nuclear powered, 436, 437origin, 436–439origin of elements, 341, 344remnants, 443–450triggering gravitational collapse, 394types, 435

Supernova remnants, 443–450radio radiation, 444types, 444X-rays, 443, 445

Synchronous rotation, 85Synchrotron radiation, 372–375

Crab Nebula, 447–449lifetime, 374luminosity, 374Milky Way, 374, 375radio galaxies, 546, 547

Synodic rotation period, 122

TTangential velocity, 106–108Tau lepton, discovery, 211Tau neutrinos, 242, 243Telescope, 20

resolving power, 21Temperature

accreting material, 463

background radiation, 526, 531big bang, 526center of star, 219center of Sun, 217corona, 256cosmic, 131emission nebula, 365H II region, 365helium burning, 342kelvin scale, 28kinetic, 133nuclear reactions, 221, 222planets, 56, 57stars, 303star centers, 329Sun visible disk, 55

Terrestrial planets, 383Terrestrial time, 16Thermal bremsstrahlung, 364Thermal energy, 132Thermal equilibrium, 44Thermal evaporation, 140Thermal motion, Doppler line broadening, 183Thermal radiation, 44

maximum intensity, 46Thermal spectrum, 46Thermal velocity, 132, 139Thomson scattering, 63

cross section, 63in Sun, 246

Three-degree cosmic microwave backgroundradiation. See Background radiation

Tidal friction, 85Tidal locking, 85Tides, 80Time

civil, 15dilation, 42, 469free fall, 397international atomic, 15local sidereal, 17sidereal, 17, 18solar, 15, 17star, 17, 18terrestrial, 16universal, 16

Time dilation, 42gravitational, 469

Transition Region and Coronal Explorer(TRACE) , 262

Troposphere, 145Tunneling cross section, 230Two Degree Field Galaxy Survey, 510, 511

634 Subject Index

Tycho supernova remnant, 444Type Ia supernovae, 436, 437

redshift-magnitude diagram, 555Type II supernovae, 435, 438, 439

UUltraviolet radiation, 38, 39Uncertainty principle, 424Universal gravitation, 73Universal time, 15Upper mass limit, white dwarf star, 429Uranium, 194, 195Urca process, 442

VVan Allen radiation belts, 287Velocity, 71

Alfvén, 157expansion, 184radial, 105–107, 180rotation, 184space, 105–107tangential, 105–107thermal, 132

Velocity-distance relation, 495Venus

parallax, 52rotation, 118

Vernal Equinox, 4Very Large Telescope Interferometer, 308Very Large Telescopes, 21Virial theorem, 111Visual binary stars, 314, 315Vogt–Russell theorem, 334Voids, galaxies, 510Voyager 1, 275Voyager 2, 275Vulcan, 93VY Canis Majoris, mass loss, 309VY Cephei A, mass loss, 309

WWalls, galaxies, 510Water, interstellar, 379Wavelength

colors, 38radiation, 35

WavesAlfvén, 157electromagnetic, 33

Weight, 74White dwarf stars, 320, 327, 418–428

carbon and oxygen nuclei, 419discovery, 418formation, 415former red giant star, 419gravitational redshift, 181, 421in short-period binary systems, 431magnetic field strength, 422mass density, 420physical properties, 423radius, 420radius-mass relation, 427rotation period, 455supernova, 435, 437upper mass limit, 429

Wien displacement law, 46Wien tail, 46Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe

(WMAP), 530–532Wind pressure, 141Winds

Betelgeuse, 308Sun, 268–276supergiant stars, 307, 309, 328

XX-rays, 38

black holes, 466, 467clusters of galaxies, 504Crab Nebula, 447–449discovery, 192pulsars, 460solar flares, 278, 279supernova remnants, 444

X-ray pulsars, 460–466discovery, 460, 462physical properties, 463

YYear (yr), 15, 29Ylem, 353Young stars, rapid rotation, 124

ZZeeman effect, 183, 187, 188

interstellar, 188Sun, 258, 261sunspots, 188

Zero age, main sequence, 332

Subject Index 635

Appendix I Constants - Springer LINK

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Transcript of Appendix I Constants - Springer LINK