Appendix IConstants
Constant Symbol Value
Universal constantsSpeed of light in vacuum c 2.9979 9 108 m s-1
Universal gravitational constant G 6.674 9 10-11 N m2 kg-2
6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
Planck constant h 6.6261 9 10-34 J sElectric constant e0 8.8542 9 10-12 F m-1
Magnetic constant l0 1.2566 9 10-6 N A-2
Thermal radiationBoltzmann constant k 1.38065 9 10-23 J K-1
Stefan-Boltzmann constant r 5.6704 9 10-8 J s-1 m-2 K-4
Radiation density constant a 7.5657 9 10-16 J m-3 K-4
Wien wavelength displacement law constant b 2.8978 9 10-3 m KAtomic and nuclearElectron mass me 9.1094 9 10-31 kgElementary charge e 1.6022 9 10-19 CClassical electron radius re 2.8179 9 10-15 mThomson scattering cross section rT 6.65246 9 10-29 m2
Atomic mass unit mu = u 1.660539 9 10-27 kgProton mass mp 1.6726 9 10-27 kgNeutron mass mn 1.6749 9 10-27 kgAlpha particle mass ma 6.644656 9 10-27 kgBohr radius a0 5.2918 9 10-11 mRydberg constant R? 10,973,731.5685 m-1
SunMass of the Sun M� 1.989 9 1030 kgLuminosity of Sun L� 3.828 9 1026 J s-1
Radius of Sun R� 6.955 9 108 mExpanding universeHubble constant H0 75 km s-1 Mpc-1
Age of expanding Universe t0 13.7 9 109 years
(continued)
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(continued)
Constant Symbol Value
Cosmic microwave background radiationTemperature TCMB 2.725 KPhoton density NCMB 4.10 9 108 m-3
Anisotropy DT=TCMB 1.1 9 10-5
The physical constants are accurate to the fourth decimal place. For greater accuracy with thelatest values consult http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/constants/index.html
608 Appendix I Constants
Appendix IIUnits
Unit Symbol Value
Distance and lengthÅngström Å 10-10 mMeter m 1 km = 103 m = 0.621371 mile
1 mile = 1.60934 kmMean Earth-Sundistance
AU 1.49598 9 1011 m
Light-year ly 9.460528 9 1015 m = 63,239.67 AUParsec pc 3.08568 9 1016 m = 3.26164 light-
years = 206,265 AUMegaparsec Mpc 106 pcAngleDegree � 600 = 36000 0
1� = 0.0174532925 radians10 0 = 4.8481368 9 10-6 radians
(The symbol 0 denotes minutes of arc, the symbol 0 0 designates seconds of arc)Radian rad 2.06265 9 105 0 0
57.2957795� = 360�=(2p)Pi p 3.141592654TimeSolar day day 24 h = 86,400 sSidereal day sidereal day 23 h 56 m 04.09 s = 23.9344696 hYear tropical
year365.25 solar days = 3.15576 9 107 s
Energy, power, force, pressureJoule J 107 ergElectron-volt ev 1.6018 9 10-19 JPower Watt J s-1
Force N kg m s-2
Pressure Pa N m-2
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(continued)
Unit Symbol Value
MassKilogram kg 1,000 g, 1 metric ton = 103 kgSolar unitsMass of the Sun M� 1.989 9 1030 kgLuminosity of Sun L� 3.828 9 1026 J s-1
Radius of Sun R� 6.955 9 108 m
610 Appendix II Units
Appendix IIIFundamental Equations
Angular resolution, hr, of a telescope of diameter, DT, at a wavelength, k:
hr ¼k
DTradians ðA-1Þ
where 1 radian = 2.06265 9 105 seconds of arc = 2.06265 9 105 00.
Angular source extent, hsize, of a celestial source of radius, R, located at adistance, D:
hsize ¼2R
Dradians; ðA-2Þ
where 1 radian = 2.06265 9 105 seconds of arc = 2.06265 9 105 00.
Wavelength, k, frequency, m, and speed of light, c:
k� m ¼ c; ðA-3Þ
where the speed of light c = 2.9979 9 108 m s-1.
Photon energy, E, of radiation at frequency m:
E ¼ hm ðA-4Þ
where the Planck constant h = 6.6261 9 10-34 J s.
Stefan-Boltzmann law for luminosity, L, of thermal radiator with effectivetemperature Teff and radius R:
L ¼ 4prR2T4eff ðA-5Þ
where p = 3.14159 and the Stefan-Boltzmann constant r = 5.6704 9 10-8 J s-1
m-2 K-4.
Apparent magnitude, absolute magnitude, and luminosity for a star. Anyapparent magnitude, m, can be converted to absolute magnitude, M, through thesimple formula:
K. R. Lang, Essential Astrophysics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-35963-7, � Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
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absolute magnitude ¼ M ¼ mþ 5� 5log D; ðA-6Þ
where D is the distance in parsecs, and 1 parsec = 3.26164 light-years = 3.08568 9 1016 m. The absolute magnitude can be converted into aluminosity, L, using:
logL
L�
� �¼ 0:4 M� �Mð Þ; ðA-7Þ
or
L ¼ 100:4ðM��MÞ L�; ðA-8Þ
where the absolute magnitude of the Sun in the visual range of wavelengths, whereit is most intense, is M� = +4.83 and the absolute luminosity of the Sun isL� = 3.828 9 1026 J s-1. Notice that the symbol M� is used to denote both theabsolute magnitude of the Sun, which is used here, and the mass of the Sun, usedin other equations. The Sun has an apparent magnitude of m� = -26.74.
Wien displacement law for wavelength kmax of maximum intensity for athermal radiator at temperature T:
kmax ¼0:002898
Tmeters: ðA-9Þ
Radiant flux, f, or apparent brightness, of an object of luminosity L atdistance D:
f ¼ L
4pD2: ðA-10Þ
Gravitational force, FG, between two masses, M1 and M2 separated by adistance D between their centers:
FG ¼GM1M2
D2; ðA-11Þ
where the universal gravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.
Kepler’s third law for the orbital period P of a binary system of mass M1 andM2 separated by distance a:
P2 ¼ 4p2
G M1 þM2ð Þ a3 ðA-12Þ
612 Appendix III Fundamental Equations
Appendix III Fundamental Equations 613
where the universal gravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.
Jeans mass, MJ, for a spherical gas cloud of radius, R, and temperature, T:
MJ ¼3kT
GmR; ðA-13Þ
where the Boltzmann constant k = 1.38065 9 10-23 J K-1, the universalgravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2, and m is the gasparticle mass. Gravitational collapse occurs if the cloud mass, M, is greater thanthe Jeans mass, MJ.
Escape velocity, Vesc, at a distance R from a mass M:
Vesc ¼2GM
R
� �1=2
; ðA-14Þ
where the universal gravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.
Doppler effect for a change Dk in the wavelength k due to a radial velocity Vr
of a source moving away from observer:
Dkkemitted
¼ kobserved � kemitted
kemitted¼ Vr
cfor Vr � c; ðA-15Þ
where the speed of light c = 2.9979 9 108 m s-1.
Parallax the annual parallax pA, of a star at distance, D, is:
pA ¼ AU=D radians; ðA-16Þ
where 1 AU = 1.49598 9 1011 m and 1 radian = 2.06265 9 105 s of arc. Whenthe parallax is given in units of seconds of arc, then the distance, D, is given by:
D ¼ 1pA
parsecs; ðA-17Þ
where 1 parsec = 3.26164 light years = 206,265.8 AU.
Gravitational potential energy of a mass, M, with radius, R:
Gravitational potential energy ¼ GM2
R; ðA-18Þ
where the universal gravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.
Kinetic energy of mass, m, moving at velocity, V:
Kinetic energy ¼ 12
mV2 : ðA-19Þ
Thermal energy at temperature, T:
Thermal energy ¼ 32
kT ; ðA-20Þ
where the Boltzmann constant k = 1.38065 9 10-23 J K-1.
Thermal velocity, Vthermal, of a particle of mass, m, at temperature, T:
Vthermal ¼ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi3kT
m
r¼ 3kT
m
� � 1=2
; ðA-21Þ
where the Boltzmann constant k = 1.38065 9 10-23 J K-1.
Gas pressure, PG, of particles of number density, N, and temperature T:
PG ¼ NkT ; ðA-22Þ
where the Boltzmann constant k = 1.38065 9 10-23 J K-1.
Radiation pressure, Pr, for a temperature T:
Pr ¼aT4
3ðA-23Þ
where the radiation constant a = 7.5657 9 10-16 J m-3 K-4.
Magnetic pressure, PB, of a magnetic field of strength, B:
PB ¼B2
2l0; ðA-24Þ
where the magnetic constant l0 = 1.2566 9 10-6 N A-2.
Energy radiated, DE, by a mass loss, Dm, during nuclear reactions:
DE ¼ Dm c2; ðA-25Þ
where the speed of light c = 2.9979 9 108 m s-1.
Schwarzschild radius, Rsch, of a mass, M, of radius R:
Rsch ¼2GM
c2¼ 2:95� 103 M
M�
� �m; ðA-26Þ
where the universal gravitational constant G = 6.674 9 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 andthe Sun’s mass M� = 1.989 9 1030 kg.
Hubble law for the recession velocity Vr of a galaxy at a distance D:
Vr ¼ H0 � D; ðA-27Þ
where the Hubble constant H0 = 75 km s-1 Mpc-1 and 1 Mpc =
3.08568 9 1022 m.
614 Appendix III Fundamental Equations
Author Index
AAbell, George, 7, 500Adams, Walter S., 321, 418Alfvén, Hannes, 157, 267Alpher, Ralph A., 353, 526Ambartsumian, Viktor, 115Anderson, Carl, 205, 208Anderson, Wilhelm, 427, 428Ångström, Anders Jonas, 161Appleton, E., 147Aristotle, 2Arrhenius, Svante, 59Aston, Francis, 220Atkinson, Robert d’Escourt, 222, 349Axford, William I., 274
BBaade, Walter, 203, 434, 446,
448–450, 515Babcock, Horace, W., 260Bahcall, John N., 238Balmer, Johann, 166Barnard, Edward E., 109, 366Barrett, Alan, 379Becquerel, Henri, 192Bell, Jocelyn, 453Bennett, Charles L. ‘‘Chuck’’, 530Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 294, 295, 418Bethe, Hans A, 213, 231, 233,
335, 353Bevis, John, 445Biermann, Ludwig, 269Blaauw, Adriaan, 115Blackett, Patrick, 208, 209Bohr, Niels, 168, 200Boltzmann, Ludwig, 50, 132, 174, 309
Bondi, Hermann, 514Bort, Leon Philippe Teisserenc de, 146Bowen, Ira S., 358, 414Boyle, Robert, 141Bradley, James, 13, 14, 37Brahe, Tycho, 69, 433, 444Braun, Karl F., 146Bruno, Giordano, 400Bunsen, Robert, 160Burbidge, E. Margaret, 351Burbidge, Geoffrey R., 351
CCannon, Annie Jump, 305Carrington, Richard Christopher, 122, 127Cassini, Giovanni Domenico, 36, 52Cavendish, Henry, 75Chadwick, James, 450Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 25, 325, 428Cherenkov, Pavel A., 241Chwolson, Orest, 504Clairault, Alexis Claude de, 80Clapeyron, Émile, 143Clark, Alvan, 418Clausius, Rudolf, 134, 143Clay, Jacob, 203Cockcroft, John, 208, 211Colombo, Giuseppe, 118Compton, Arthur H., 25, 64, 203Condon, Edward U., 197Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 169Cowan, Clyde L., 201Critchfield, Charles, 231Curie, Manya (Marie), 193Curie, Pierre, 193Curtis, Heber D., 487
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DDavis, Raymond Jr., 239, 460Democritus, 125Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice, 206Doppler, Christiaan, 107, 108, 180Dreyer, J. L. E., 7Duncan, John C., 445Dungey, James, 288
EEddington, Arthur Stanley, 111, 216, 220, 310,
312, 326, 349, 413, 421, 462, 463, 475,504, 514, 517, 557
Edlén, Bengt, 256Einstein, Albert, 41, 42, 60, 93, 213, 220, 504,
514, 517Epicurus of Samos, 440Ewen, Harold I. ‘‘Doc’’, 376
FFaraday, Michael, 33, 126Fermi, Enrico, 200, 213, 425Feynman, Richard, 213Follin, James W., 526Forbush, Scott, 203, 273Fourier, Jean-Baptiste, 58Fowler, Ralph A., 178Fowler, Ralph H., 425Fowler, William A. ‘‘Willy’’, 225, 338, 352,
429, 437Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 159, 163Friedmann, Aleksandr, 519
GGalilei, Galileo, 22, 73, 99, 471Gamow, George, 196, 222, 353, 441,
526, 532Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 78Ghez, Andrea, 485Giacconi, Riccardo, 460Gilbert, William, 283Gill, David, 52Giovanelli, Ronald G., 267Gold, Thomas, 278, 284, 290, 454, 514Goodricke, John, 474Gore, Albert Arnold (Al), 59Greenstein, Jesse, 548Gribov, Aladimir, 243Grotrian, Walter, 256Gurney, Ronald W., 197
HHahn, Otto, 212Hale, George Ellery, 189, 258Hall, John Scoville, 368Halley, Edmond, 74, 106Harkins, Willam D., 350Härm, Richard, 346Hayashi, Chushiro, 353, 396, 533Hazard, Cyril, 548Heaviside, Oliver, 147, 371Heisenberg, Werner, 213, 424Helmholtz, Hermann von, 132, 215Henderson, Thomas, 295Herman, Robert C., 526Herschel, Caroline, 26Herschel, John, 7Herschel, William, 7, 26, 39, 249, 412, 471Hertz, Heinrich, 40Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 318, 319Hess, Victor Franz, 202, 208Hewish, Antony, 453Hiltner, William A., 368Hipparchus, 11, 13, 296Hodgson, Richard, 277Houtermans, Fritz, 222Hoyle, Fred, 278, 343, 346, 351, 437, 514Hubble, Edwin, 25, 445, 487, 494, 517Huggins, William, 180, 257, 412Hulse, Russell A., 96, 459Humason, Milton, 495
JJansky, Karl, 369Janssen, Pierre Jules César, 163Jeans, James, 46, 140, 389Jeffreys, Harold, 86Joule, James Prescott, 54, 131Joy, Alfred H., 431
KKant, Immanuel, 381, 479Kapteyn, Jacobus C., 110, 472Keeling, Charles D., 59Keenan, Philip C., 322Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), 28, 215Kennedy, Roy J., 42Kennelly, Arthur E., 147Kepler, Johannes, 69, 70, 72, 269, 433Kerr, Frank, 376Kerr, Roy, 470Kirchhoff, Gustav., 65, 160
616 Author Index
Klebesadel, Ray W., 552Kohlschütter, Arnold, 321Koshiba, Masatoshi, 240, 241, 460Kraft, Robert P., 431Kronig, August, 143Kruskal, Martin, 470
LLampland, Carl, 450Landau, Lev, 451Lane, Jonathan Homer, 218Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 154, 382, 465Lawrence, Ernest, 208, 211Leavitt, Henrietta Swan, 474Leighton, Robert B., 250Lemaître, Georges, 517, 541, 556, 557, 560Leucippus, 125LeVerrier, Urbain Jean Joseph, 93Lewis, John S., 139Lifshitz, Evgeny, 541Lockyer, Joseph Norman, 163, 176Lorentz, Hendrik, A., 40, 187Lowell, Percival, 492Lucretius, 73, 125, 400
MMaclaurin, Colin, 120Magellan, Ferdinand, 474Marconi, Guglielmo, 146Mather, John C., 527Maxwell, James Clerk, 33, 135Mayall, Nicholas, 495Mayer, Jules Robert, 131Mayor, Michel, 405McCrea, William H., 179Meitner, Lise, 212Menzel, Donald, 413Messier, Charles, 6, 357, 445Meyer, Peter, 273Michell, John, 465Michelson, Albert A., 41, 307Mie, Gustav, 62Mikheyev, Stanislav P., 243Millikan, Robert A., 60, 126, 202Milne, Edward, 178Minkowski, Hermann, 43Minkowski, Rudolph, 435Minnaert, Marcel, 185Morgan, William W., 322Morley, Edward W., 41
Morrison, Philip, 213Mulders, Gerard F. W., 185Murdin, Paul, 467
NNeugebauer, Marcia, 269Neumann, John von, 346Newcomb, Simon, 13, 78Newton, Isaac, 20, 37, 73, 81, 99
OOlbers, Heinrich Wilhelm, 493Olson, Roy A., 552Oort, Jan, 480Öpik, Ernst, 340, 394, 489Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 213, 451Osterbrock, Donald E., 267
PPacini, Franco, 450Parker, Eugene, 269, 273Parsons, William (Earl of Rosse), 445Pauli, Wolfgang, 200, 425Pawsey, Joseph L., 546Payne, Cecilia H., 179Pease, F. G., 307, 489Penrose, Roger, 470Penzias, Arno, 526, 528Perlmutter, Saul, 553, 554Perrin, Jean, 191Pickering, Edward C., 305Piddington, Jack H., 267Pigott, Edward, 474Planck, Max, 44, 45Pogson, Norman, 296Pontecorvo, Bruno, 243Purcell, Edward M., 376Pythagoras, 2
QQueloz, Didier, 405
RRamsay, William, 164Rayleigh, Lord (John Strutt), 46, 61, 62Reber, Grote, 369Reines, Frederick, 201, 208
Author Index 617
Richer, Jean, 52Riess, Adam G., 555Roche, Édouard A., 90, 432Roll, Peter G., 528Rømer, Ole, 36Röntgen, Wilhelm, 38, 191Roosevelt, Franklin, 213Russell, Henry Norris, 179, 318, 319, 334Rutherford, Ernest, 127, 193, 220, 514Rydberg, Johannes, 167Ryle, Martin, 546
SSaha, Meghnad, 177Salpeter, Edwin E., 317, 341,
544, 550Sandage, Allan, 346, 495Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 116Schmidt, Brian P., 555Schmidt, Maarten, 548Schönberg, Mario, 325, 441Schramm, David, 353, 534Schwabe, Samuel Heinrich, 258Schwarzschild, Karl, 346, 467Schwarzschild, Martin, 346Seyfert, Carl K., 545Shajn, Grigory Ambramovich, 124Shapley, Harlow, 476, 487, 517Shatzman, Evry, 419Shelton, Ian, 439Shklovskii, Iosif S., 376Simpson, John, 273Slipher, Vesto, 497–494, 517Smirnov, Alexei Y., 243Smoot, George, 529Snyder, Conway W., 269Soddy, Frederick, 194Soldner, Johann George von, 94Spitzer, Lyman Jr., 26Stefan, Joseph, 50, 309Stoner, Edmund C., 428Stoney, George Johnstone, 126, 138Størmer, Carl, 187Strömgren, Bengt, 179, 232, 364Strong, Ian B., 552Struve, Otto, 124Suess, Hans E., 59, 350Swope, Henrietta H., 515Szekeres, George, 470
TTaylor, G. I., 86Taylor, Joseph H. Jr., 96, 459Thomson, Joseph John, 63, 126, 191Totsuka, Yoji, 241Townes, Charles H., 379Trumpler, Robert J., 367Turck-Chièze, Sylvaine, 239Tyndall, John, 58, 61, 309
UUnsöld, Albrecht, 179Urey, Harold Clayton, 350
VVan de Hulst, Hendrik C. ‘‘Henk’’, 375Vogt, Heinrich, 334Volkoff, George M., 451
WWagoner, Robert V., 353Walker, Merle F., 430Walton, Ernest T.S., 208, 211Webster, B. Louise, 467Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich von, 213, 231,
336, 350Wien, Wilhelm, 46Wild, J. Paul, 277Wildt, Rupert, 249Wilkinson, David T., 528, 530Wilson, Charles Thomas Rees, 205, 208Wilson, Robert, 526, 528Wolf, Maximillian, 366Wolfenstein, Lincoln, 243Wollaston, William Hyde, 159
YYukawa, Hideki, 208
ZZanstra, Herman, 413Zeeman, Pieter, 187Zeldovich, Yakov B., 550Zhevakin, Sergi A., 475Zwicky, Fritz, 203, 434, 450, 502
618 Author Index
Subject Index
AAberration, 14, 15, 37Absolute magnitude, 300Absolute visual magnitude, 300Absolute zero, 130Absorption coefficient, 65Absorption lines, 159, 160Absorption, starlight, 367–369Abundant elements, Sun, 164, 165, 352Acceleration, 74, 544
expansion of universe, 553gravity, 79
Accretion disk, 461Accretion luminosity, 463, 464Accretion rate, 464Active galactic nuclei, 545–549
emission lines, 549super-massive black holes, 549
Active region, 262Age
Crab Nebula, 447Earth, 198expanding universe, 532, 540globular star clusters, 345, 346meteorites, 198Moon, 198observable universe, 513–516, 532, 540open star clusters, 345, 347planetary nebulae, 415radio pulsar, 456Sun, 196, 217
Albedo, 57Aldebaran, 327Alfvén velocity, 157Alfvén waves, 157
coronal heating, 267interplanetary medium, 157, 158
Alpha Centauri, 315Alpha decay, 194, 195
Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, 209Alpha particles, 193, 194Alpha rays, 193Ammonia, interstellar, 379Andromeda Nebula, 488
collision with Milky Way, 508distance, 488, 489
Ångström, 35Angular momentum, 87
Earth, 88Jupiter, 385Moon, 88Sun, 385
Angular resolution, 21, 22An Inconvenient Truth, 59Annual parallax, 293, 294Annual proper motion, 107Antares, 327Antennae galaxies, 509Anti-gravity, 555Aphelion, 71Apparent magnitude, 296Apparent radiation flux, 299Apparent visual magnitude, 297, 298Arcturus, 327
radius, 307Asteroid belt, 384Astronomical unit (AU), 28, 50, 70
radar value, 53Astronomy, 1Astrophysics, 1Asymptotic branch, Hertzsprung–Russell
diagram, 347, 348Atmospheres, 138
circulation, 145speed of sound, 155thermal evaporation, 140thermal velocity, 133, 134
Atom, 125
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Atom (cont.)Bohr, 168excited, 173formation, 535ground state, 173nucleus, 127physical properties, 129quantization, 167radius, 128
Atomic bomb, 213Atomic mass number, 130Atomic mass unit, 128, 226Atomic nucleus, 127
physical properties, 129radius, 128
Atomic number, 130
BBackground radiation, 526–546
angular power spectrum, 530, 531anisotropy, 529, 531blackbody spectrum, 527, 528discovery, 526isotropy, 529photon density, 528, 529, 531temperature, 527, 531temperature fluctuations, 530, 531
Balmer limit, 172Balmer lines, 166Balmer series, 167, 171Balmer transition, 171Bar, 141Barnard’s star, velocity, 109–112Barn unit, 226Barometric equation, 144Barometric law, 144Baryonic matter, 531Beta decay, 199, 200Beta Pictoris, planet-forming disk, 401, 403Beta rays, 193, 198, 203Betelgeuse, 327
angular diameter, 307mass loss, 309radius, 308winds, 309
Big bang, 522–525neutron–proton ratio, 534nucleosynthesis, 352–354, 534, 535pair annihilation, 524radiation temperature, 526singularity, 523
Big-bang nucleosynthesis, 352–354,534, 535
Big Dipper, 11Binary pulsar, 96, 459, 460Binary stars, 314, 315
eclipsing, 314, 315mass, 314orbital motion, 96, 97spectroscopic, 315visual, 315, 316
Binding energy, 78, 226, 227gravitational, 78nucleus, 226, 227
Binding energy per nucleon, 226Black holes, 465–470, 484, 550
collapse time, 469description, 467event horizon, 470galactic center, 484, 485imagining, 465Milky Way, 484, 485observation, 466, 467Schwarzschild radius, 468singularity, 470super-massive, 484, 485, 550, 551X-rays, 469, 470
Blackbody, 44Blackbody radiation, 44
brightness distribution, 45energy density, 47radiant flux, 48, 50
Blackbody spectrum, 45background radiation, 527, 528
Blue sky, 61Bohr atom, 167Bohr magneton, 188Bolometric magnitude, 303Boltzmann constant, 30Boltzmann distribution, 174, 176Bond albedo, 57Bound-bound transition probability, 175Bow shock, 284, 285Bow shock distance, 286
Earth, 286Jupiter, 286
Braking radiation, 362, 363Bremsstrahlung, 362, 363Bright named planetary nebulae, 417Brightest stars, 296, 297Brightness, 296
cloud, 65, 66Brightness distribution, 45
blackbody radiation, 45thermal, 45
Brown dwarf star, 312Butterfly diagram, 259
620 Subject Index
CCalorific rays, 40Carbon burning, 349Carbon monoxide, interstellar, 379Cassiopiea A supernova remnant, 444Cat’s Eye Nebula, 412Cataclysmic variable star, 431Celestial coordinates, 5Celestial equator, 4Celestial positions, standard epoch, 13Celestial sphere, 4Centaurus X-3, 460, 461Centrifugal acceleration, 119Centrifugal force, 118Cepheid variable stars, 473–476
period-luminosity relation, 475nearby galaxies, 497spiral nebulae, 487, 488
Chandrasekhar limit, 429Charge-coupled device, 21Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO) , 25, 444,
445, 450, 509Chemical elements, 125
origin, 347–354Chemical ingredients, Sun, 160, 163Chromosphere, 255
heating by sound waves, 266Chromospheric evaporation, 280Civil time, 15Clairault’s theorem, 80Closed universe, 520Cloud, brightness, 65, 66Cloud chamber, 205Clusters of galaxies, 500–507
dark matter, 502–505gravitational lens, 505, 506intergalactic matter, 503physical properties, 502X-ray radiation, 504
21 cm spin transition of hydrogen, 375–378CNO cycle, 335–339Cold dark matter, 542Collisions, 134, 134
galaxies, 508, 509particles, 134, 135
Color index, 304Colors, 37, 304
stars, 303wavelength, 37
Coma cluster of galaxies, dark matter, 503Communication disruption, 290
Composition, Sun, 160, 161Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
(CGRO) , 25Compton scattering, 64Conservation of angular momentum, 70, 71,
385Earth-Moon, 87
Conservation of energy, 76, 131, 200Constant of aberration, 14Constant of nutation, 14Continuum spectrum, 44Convection, 245, 248, 339, 340Convective zones, stars, 340Corona, 255
eclipse, 256forbidden emission lines in visible light,
257radio radiation, 256temperature, 256ultraviolet and X-ray emission lines, 258X-ray radiation, 257, 276
Coronal heating, 265–267Alfvén waves, 267magnetic reconnection, 267
Coronal holes, 26811-year magnetic activity cycle, 268origin of high-speed solar wind, 261
Coronal loops, 261–26411-year magnetic activity cycle, 265magnetic and gas pressure, 264, 265
Coronal mass ejections, 281energy, 282physical properties, 283travel time to Earth, 283
Coronium, 256COsmic Background Explorer (COBE),
527–530Cosmic microwave background radiation. See
Background radiationCosmic ray shower, 207Cosmic rays, 202–209
acceleration in supernovae, 203discovery, 199energy, 203flux, 204inverse correlation with solar activity, 203protons, 203
Cosmic static, 370Cosmic web, 511Cosmological constant, 554–559Cosmological principle, 529
Subject Index 621
Coulomb’s law, 221Crab Nebula, 446–450
age, 447, 449amorphous region, 446, 448emission lines, 446nonthermal radiation, 446physical properties, 447polarized light, 448progenitor star, 447radio pulsar, 447, 448, 450, 459synchrotron radiation, 447–449X-rays, 447–449
Crab Nebula supernova remnant, 446–448.See Crab Nebula
Critical mass density, to stop expanding uni-verse, 500, 516, 520
Cross section, tunneling, 229Curvature, space, 94, 95Curve of growth, 185Cyclotron, 21161 Cygni, distance, 295Cygnus A, 546, 547Cygnus X-1, 467
DDark energy, 554–559
constraints, 559cosmological constant, 555–559discovery, 554, 555
Dark halo, 486Dark matter, 531–535
clusters of galaxies, 500–504Coma cluster of galaxies, 503constraints, 559galaxies, 490galaxy formation, 542Milky Way, 485, 486spiral galaxies, 488, 491star formation, 543
Day, 30lengthening, 80, 81sidereal, 17solar, 15, 18
Deceleration parameter, 519, 558Declination, 5Decoupling time, 539Deflection of starlight, 94Degeneracy pressure, 425Degenerate, 425Degenerate electron gas, 423–427
relativistic, 426Degenerate electron pressure, 426Degenerate neutron pressure, 465Delta Cephei, 474, 476
distance, 476Density parameter, 519, 558Density waves, 483De Rerum Natura, 119Differential rotation, 120, 480, 481
Milky Way, 479–482Sun, 120
Differentiation, 384Discovery
background radiation, 526cosmic rays, 202dark energy, 554–555exoplanets, 403–408expanding universe, 493–494galaxies, 487–492gamma-ray bursts, 552helium, 163infrared radiation, 39interstellar hydrogen 21 cm line,
375–378ionosphere, 146muon, 207pion, 208positron, 206pulsars, 452, 453quasars, 549radioactivity, 193, 194radio waves, 40solar wind, 268tau lepton, 211white dwarf stars, 418, 419X-ray pulsars, 460, 461X-rays, 191, 192
Displacement law, 46Distance
Andromeda Nebula, 488–490galactic center, 476, 477galaxies, 496Proxima Centauri, 53spiral nebulae, 487–489Sun, 50, 52
Distance modulus, 302Doppler effect, 107, 108, 180Doppler line broadening, 188Dust, 367–368Dwarf novae, 430Dwarf nova SS Cygni, 430, 431
622 Subject Index
EEarth
age, 198, 216atmospheric pressure, 141, 142, 145equatorial radius, 12escape speed, 100, 102flattening factor, 12, 79gravitational redshift, 181, 182gravity, 79internal heat from radioactivity, 216local acceleration of gravity, 79magnetic storms, 288magnetosphere, 283–285mass, 75, 80mass density, 75mean radius, 11orbital properties, 78physical properties, 77rotation, 3surface gravitational acceleration, 80
Eccentricity, 72Eclipsing binary stars, 314, 315Ecliptic, 4Eddington limit, 462, 463Eddington luminosity, 312, 313Effective temperature, 55
planets, 56, 57Sun, 55
Effective thermal energy, 230Einstein ring, 506, 507Einstein-De Sitter universe, 520Electric constant, 31Electromagnetic fields, 33Electromagnetic radiation, 33Electromagnetic spectrum, 37, 39Electromagnetic waves, 33Electron, 126, 129
mass, 191physical properties, 129quantized orbit, 168
Electron Compton wavelength, 64Electron degenerate pressure, 425Electron neutrinos, 242Electron volt, 150Electron-positron annihilation, 206Elementary charge, 126Ellipse, 72Elliptical galaxy, 491Emission lines, 159, 160
corona, 256Crab Nebula, 446planetary nebulae, 413, 414quasars, 549radio galaxies, 546
Seyfert galaxies, 546Emission nebulae, 357–365
bright named, 359physical properties, 361spectral lines, 358, 360
Energyconservation, 76, 131, 200kinetic, 130, 132light, 59nuclear reaction, 223photon, 59supernova, 442thermal, 132
Energy density, blackbody radiation, 48Energy distribution function, 137Energy generation, nuclear reaction, 231Energy release, nuclear fusion, 226Equation of energy conservation, 333Equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, 332Equation of mass conservation, 333Equation of radiative energy transfer, 333Equinox, 840 Eridani B, 327, 418Escape speed, 99, 100
Earth, 100, 102Moon, 100, 102Sun, 100, 102
Escape velocity, 77Earth, 100, 102Milky Way, 492Moon, 100, 101neutron star, 451planet, 139star cluster, 111Sun, 100, 101
Eskimo Nebula, 416Ether, 41Event horizon, 470Ever-expanding universe, 521Exclusion principle, 424Exobase, 140Exoplanets, 403–410
atmospheres, 410discovery, 405flat multi-planet systems, 408habitable, 409hot-Jupiters, 408mass, 405, 406orbital distance, 406
Exosphere, 147Expanding universe, 493–495
accelerated expansion, 555, 556age, 513–516, 532, 540cosmological constant, 555–559
Subject Index 623
Expanding universe (cont.)critical mass density, 500, 516, 520decoupling time, 539, 540discovery, 491–493fate, 555General Theory of Relativity, 517history, 537–540mass density, 537matter era, 527origin, 513radiation energy density, 536, 537radiation era, 527radiation temperature, 538, 539rate of expansion, 514recombination time, 539, 540reionization time, 540size, 518
Expansion age, universe, 514–518Expansion line broadening, 184Expansion, stellar associations, 115Expansion velocity, 185Extragalactic nebulae, 490
FFaint-Young-Sun paradox, 252, 253Fate, 254, 257
expanding universe, 560stars, 411Sun, 252, 255
Fermi Lab, 212Fermi unit, 128First generation stars, 354Five-minute oscillations, Sun, 251Flat universe, 517, 520Flattening factor, Earth, 11, 12, 79Focal length, 19Fomalhaut, planet-forming disk, 401, 402Forbidden emission lines, corona, 257Forbush effect, 203Force, 74, 127
gravitational, 74nuclear, 127
Formationatoms, 535galaxies, 540–544giant star, 341planetary nebulae, 415red giant star, 341solar system, 381–387stars, 381–399, 540–544
Fourth state of matter, 149, 151Fraunhofer absorption lines, 159, 161–163Free-bound radiation, 361, 362
Free fall time, 397Free-free radiation, 362, 363Frequency
plasma, 152radiation, 35, 36
Friedmann equations, 519
GGalactic center, 476–484
distance, 476–478super-massive black hole, 484, 485
Galaxies, 487–510active nuclei, 544–549center, 499clusters, 500–504collision, 508cosmic web, 511dark matter, 490, 491discovery, 487–491distance, 494, 496edge, 499first, 540–544formation, 543–544giant elliptical, 550, 551gravitational lens, 504, 506look-back time, 512luminosity, 492–498luminosity function, 497motion, 492, 508, 510number density, 492, 498peculiar motions, 508physical properties, 492redshift, 494starburst, 543streams, 508super-massive black holes, 484, 485,
547–551voids, 510walls, 510
Galaxy, 471–488Gamma-ray bursts, 552
afterglow, 552discovery, 552luminosity, 553supernovae, 554
Gamma rays, 39, 38Gamow energy, 229Gas pressure, 141, 142, 264, 330Gaussian constant of gravitation, 78General Catalogue, 7General Theory of Relativity, 94, 468, 517Geocentric gravitational constant, 75Geomagnetic storms, 288
624 Subject Index
Subject Index 625
Geosynchronous orbit, 103Giant elliptical galaxies, super-massive black
holes, 542, 546Giant molecular clouds, 385–391
free fall time, 397gravitational collapse, 391physical properties, 388
Giant planets, 383Giant stars, 306, 321
formation, 336pulsation, 327
Global Positioning System, 3, 12, 16Global warming, 58, 59Globular star clusters, 111, 114, 343–345,
475–478age, 345, 346Cepheid variables, 474distribution, 477Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams , 347spheroid, 478stellar motions, 116
Gran Telescopio Canarias, 21Granulation, 249, 250Gravitation, 74Gravitational binding energy, 78Gravitational collapse, 389–395
Kelvin–Helmholtz time, 216triggering, 392
Gravitational constant, 30, 75Gaussian, 78geocentric, 75universal, 30, 75
Gravitational force, 74Gravitational lens, 505, 506
clusters of galaxies, 503galaxies, 504, 505
Gravitational potential energy, 78Gravitational radiation, 97Gravitational radius, 468Gravitational redshift, 181, 182
Sun, 181white dwarf stars, 421
Gravitational waves, 97Gravity, 73
acceleration, 79cause, 93Earth, 80local acceleration, 73
Great Attractor, 508Great Observatories, 25Great Wall, 510Greenhouse effect, 58, 59Greenwich sidereal time, 18
Ground state, 173Gyration radius, 371Gyrofrequency, 371
HH I regions, 375, 377
equilibrium, 392, 393physical properties, 378
H II regions, 357, 361equilibrium, 392physical properties, 361
Habitable zone, 57, 409Hale Telescope, 21Heat, 130Heliopause, 276Helioseismology, 123, 251Heliosheath, 276Heliosphere, 275Helium atom, 129Helium burning, 340–343
temperature, 342Helium, 129, 165, 534
big-bang nucleosynthesis, 534discovery in Sun, 164physical properties, 129
Herschel Telescope, 25Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 318–320
protostars, 396star clusters, 343–347
Higgs boson, 212Hinode, 25HIPPARCOS, 8, 25
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 319, 320Oort’s constants, 480star density, 478star distances, 295stellar proper motions, 111
Historical supernovae, 434Homestake neutrino detector, 240Hooker Telescope, 21Horizontal branch, Hertzsprung–Russell dia-
gram, 347Hot-Jupiters, 408H-R diagram. See Hertzsprung–Russell
diagramHubble constant, 493–497Hubble expansion parameter, 519, 558Hubble law, 493–499Hubble Space Telescope (HST), 25, 402, 476,
496, 497, 501, 505, 509, 516Hubble time, 512Hydrogen, 126
Hydrogen (cont.)Balmer lines, 166big-bang nucleosynthesis, 534interstellar, 375–377most abundant element in most stars, 179physical properties, 129
Hydrogen alpha line, 167Hydrogen burning, 231–239, 335–340Hydrostatic equilibrium, 330
IIdeal gas law, 142Index Catalogue, 7Inflation, 523InfraRed Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), 401Infrared radiation, 39
discovery, 60Initial mass function, stars, 317Instability strip, Hertzsprung–Russell diagram,
347Interferometer, 23, 24, 306Interferometry, 23
stars, 307International Atomic Time, 15International celestial reference system, 6Interplanetary magnetic spiral, 289Interstellar Boundary EXplorer (IBEX) , 276Interstellar dust, 367, 368
reddens starlight, 304Interstellar hydrogen atoms, 375–378Interstellar molecular hydrogen, 380Interstellar molecules, 378, 379
radio radiation, 379Interstellar water, 379Inverse beta decay, 207Inverse Compton effect, 64Inverse square law, 74, 299
gravity, 74light, 299
Io, eclipse period, 36Ion, 149Ionization potential, 149
abundant atoms, 178Ionization wavelength, hydrogen and oxygen,
358Ionosphere, 145, 146
discovery, 147origin , 152plasma frequency, 152temperature, 151
Isotopes, 130
JJames Webb Space Telescope (JWST), 26Jeans density, 391Jeans length, 389Jeans mass, 389, 390Jeans radius, 391Joule, 54Julian century, 15Julian Date, 13Julian year, 15
KKamiokande neutrino detector, 240Kapteyn Universe, 477Kapteyn’s star, velocity, 110, 111Keck Telescopes, 21Kelvin-Helmholtz time, 216Kepler mission, 409Kepler’s first law of planetary motion, 69, 70Kepler’s harmonic relationship, 71, 73Kepler’s second law of planetary
motion, 69, 70Kepler’s third law, Newtonian expression, 103Kepler’s third law of planetary motion, 71, 72Kiloparsec (kpc), 29Kinetic energy, 100, 130, 132Kinetic temperature, 133Kirchhoff’s law, 65
LLarge Binocular Telescope, 21Large Hadron Collider, 212Large stars, 306Latitude, 23Leptons, 242Lifetime
main sequence, 323–326nuclear fusion in Sun, 219nuclear reaction, 219protostars, 395–397radioactive atom, 196–199synchrotron radiation, 374
Light bending, 95, 96Light travel time, 294
astronomical unit (AU), 28, 52Light-year, 29, 294Line broadening
expansion, 184rotation, 184thermal motion, 183
626 Subject Index
Zeeman effect, 183, 187–190Line splitting, Zeeman effect, 183, 187–190Local hour angle, 19Local sidereal time, 17Longitude, 2, 3Look-back time, galaxies, 512Lorentz contraction, 43Lorentz factor, 41Lorentz transformation, 41Luminiferous ether, 41Luminosity, 298
accretion, 463, 464Eddington, 463galaxies, 491, 498gamma-ray bursts, 552Milky Way, 471–486radio pulsar, 456, 457stars, 299Sun, 27, 54, 298–300synchrotron radiation, 374
Luminosity class, stars, 321, 323Luminosity function, galaxies, 497Lunik 2, 269Lunisolar precession, 13Lyman transition, 171Lyman series, 168, 171
MMagnetic brakes, Sun rotation, 386, 387Magnetic cloud, from Sun, 291Magnetic constant, 31Magnetic energy, 393Magnetic fields
cosmic, 189Earth, 189energy density, 157interstellar, 188neutron stars, 456radio pulsars, 457, 458solar wind, 190Sun, 258, 289sunspots, 188white dwarf star, 423, 455Zeeman effect, 183, 186–188
Magnetic pressure, 141, 264Magnetic reconnection
coronal heating, 267entry to magnetosphere, 288solar flares, 278, 279
Magnetic waves, 156, 158, 267Magnetic white dwarf stars, 423Magnetosphere, 283–285
planets, 285, 286
Magnetotail, 285Main sequence, 318, 320
lifetime, 323–325stellar mass, 323zero age, 332
Main-sequence stars, 320, 321, 323, 324physical properties, 322
Mariner 2, 270Mariner 5, 157Mars, parallax, 52Mass, 74
binary stars, 314dark halo Milky Way, 486dark matter Milky Way, 487Earth, 75, 81emission nebula, 365H II region, 365increase with motion, 42Milky Way, 479, 482spectroscopic binary stars, 316–318stars, 306Sun, 26, 80super-massive black hole galactic center,
485super-massive black holes, 484upper limit for stars, 313
Mass defect, nucleus, 226Mass distribution, stars, 544Mass-energy equivalence, 220Mass loss
Betelgeuse, 309nuclear fusion in Sun, 236red giant stars, 328solar wind, 273supergiant stars, 309, 348VY Canis Majoris, 309VY Cephei A, 309
Mass-luminosity relation, stars, 310, 311Matter era, expanding universe, 536Maxwell’s equations, 33, 34Maxwell speed distribution, 135, 136Mean collision time, 135Mean free path, 134, 135Mean speed, 137Megaparsec (Mpc), 29M 87, super-massive black hole, 550Mercury, 93, 94, 116, 117
precession of perihelion, 93, 94rotation, 116, 117
Mesosphere, 146Meteorites, age, 198Metric, 43MeV unit, 226Michelson–Morley experiment, 41
Subject Index 627
Micron, 35Microwaves, 37, 39Mie scattering, 62Milky Way, 471–486
central super-massive black hole, 484collision with Andromeda Nebula, 508dark halo, 486dark matter, 486, 487differential rotation, 479, 480escape velocity, 493luminosity, 478, 482mass, 478, 482physical properties, 478radio emission, 369–375shape, 471, 472size, 471, 472spiral arms, 482, 483super-massive black hole, 484, 485synchrotron radiation, 374, 375
Milne universe, 521Molecules, 126
interstellar, 378, 379planetary atmospheres, 138, 139
Moonage, 198escape speed, 100, 101ocean tides, 81orbital properties, 82orbital speed, 103outward motion, 87physical properties, 82
Morgan–Keenan (M–K) luminosity classes,321
Most probable speed , 136Motion, 99
galaxies, 492–499, 508, 509kinetic energy, 99, 130orbital, 101ordered, 131planets, 69random, 130star clusters, 111stars, 105
Muon, discovery, 207Muon neutrinos, 243
atmospheric, 243
NNanometer, 35Neap ocean tides, 83Nebula, 7Nebular hypothesis, 381, 382Nebulium, 357
Negative beta decay, 201Negative hydrogen ion, solar photosphere, 249Neutrinos, 200, 237
electron, 240, 241muon, 240, 241observation, 205oscillation, 240, 241Sun, 241–243supernova, 441tau, 240types, 242
Neutron, 125physical properties, 129
Neutron capture, 352Neutron stars, 450–463
degenerate neutron pressure, 452escape velocity, 451magnetic field strength, 455physical properties, 451radius, 451rotation period, 451, 454superfluid and superconducting, 452
New General Catalogue, 7Newtonian focus, 20Newton’s first law of motion, 99Nonthermal radiation, 370, 373
Crab Nebula, 446–449Nonthermal velocities, 370North celestial pole, 6North Star, 10Nova Aquilae 1918, 429Nova Cygni 1992, 429Novae, 429–432
origin, 429–432physical properties, 430thermonuclear explosion white dwarf star,
430, 431Nova Herculis 1934, 429Nuclear bombardment, 209Nuclear fission, 212Nuclear force, 127Nuclear reactions
energy release, 225, 226lifetime, 224non-resonant, 229rate, 223supergiant stars, 348–349temperature, 222
Nuclear transformation, 209, 210Nucleons, 127Nucleosynthesis, 216, 339
big bang, 353, 354stellar, 351, 352
Nucleus, 127, 226, 227
628 Subject Index
Nucleus (cont.)atomic, 127binding energy, 226, 227mass defect, 226
Null geodesic, 469Number, galaxies, 497Number density, galaxies, 502Nutation, 13, 14
OO and B stars, triggering gravitational
collapse, 394Oblateness, planets, 119Obliquity of the ecliptic, 4Ocean tides, 81Olbers’ paradox, 493Oort’s constants, 478, 480Open star clusters, 344, 345
age, 344, 345Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams, 347
Open universe, 520Optical depth, 65Optically thick, 66Optically thin, 66Optically visible radiation, 38Orbital motion, 101
binary stars, 104planets, 102
Orbits, electron quantized, 168Origin
chemical elements, 348–353expanding universe, 523novae, 429–433solar flares, 276solar winds fast and slow, 274supernovae, 436–438
Orion Nebula, 359Oscillating universe, 520Ozone layer, 145
PPair annihilation, 207
big bang, 523solar flares, 280
Palomar Sky Survey, 7Parallax, 51, 293, 294Parsec (pc), 29, 294Particles
energy distribution, 137speed distribution, 135, 137
Pascal, 141Peculiar motions, galaxies, 508, 509
51 Pegasi, exoplanet, 405, 406Penetration probability, protons, 222Perihelion, 72Period-luminosity relation, variable
stars, 475, 476Period-radius relation, variable stars, 475Photo-absorption coefficient, 175Photoelectric effect, 60Photon, 59Photon energy, 60Photosphere, 255
thermal velocity, 132, 133Pion, discovery, 208Planck constant, 30, 45Planck mission, 532Plane waves, 34Planetary nebulae, 412–417
age, 415bright named, 417central stars, 414emission lines, 413, 414formation, 415physical properties, 414
Planetary rings, origin, 90Planet-forming disks, 400–402Planets
albedo, 58atmospheric molecules, 138composition, 382, 383effective temperature, 55, 56fastest rotation, 119habitable zone, 57magnetospheres, 285, 286motion, 69oblate shape, 118orbital speed, 102rotation, 116–120speed, 69, 70temperatures, 56–58
Plasma, 149, 150Plasma frequency, 152Plasma oscillations, 152Plerions, 448Plurality of worlds, 400Polaris, 6, 10Polarization, starlight, 368, 369Pole Star, 11, 12Polonium, 193Population I stars, 354
Cepheids, 476Milky Way, 476variable, 475
Population II stars, 354globular star clusters, 477
Subject Index 629
variable, 475Population III stars, 354Positive beta decay, 201, 207Positron, 201
discovery, 206Power, nuclear reactions, 223Poynting–Robertson effect, 141Precession, 11–13Pressure, 141–145
cosmic range, 142Earth’s atmosphere, 142, 145gas, 140, 142magnetic, 141radiation, 141wind, 141
Prime Meridian, 2, 16Principia, 74Principle of Relativity, 41Procyon B, 327Proper motion, 105, 107Proper time interval, 469Protons, 127
electrical repulsion, 221physical properties, 129
Proton-proton chain, 232–234, 335, 338Proto-planetary disks, 400Protostars, 395, 396
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 395lifetime, 388, 389
Proxima Centauri, 29, 319distance, 53, 295, 301luminosity, 301radius, 301, 307temperature, 301velocity, 119
Pulsar, Crab Nebula, 449, 450Pulsar.See Radio pulsar or X-ray pulsarPulsars, 452–454, 456, 458, 460, 461
discovery, 452, 453
QQuanta, 44Quantum mechanics, 168, 197, 424
atom, 165, 166, 168degenerate gas, 423–427, 452radioactive decay, 197
Quantum tunneling effect, in Sun, 222Quarks, 127Quasars, 549
discovery, 548emission lines, 549
Quasistellar radio sources, 549
RRadar, astronomical unit, 53Radial velocity, 105–107, 180Radian, 9, 10Radiation, 33
absorption, 65blackbody, 44emission coefficient, 65frequency, 35, 36scattering, 62, 63thermal, 44wavelength, 35
Radiation constant, 49Radiation era, expanding universe, 536Radiation pressure, 141, 330
stars, 311, 313Radiation temperature, big bang, 526Radiation transfer, 65Radio galaxies, 546, 547
emission lines, 546synchrotron radiation, 547
R136a1, massive star, 312Radio pulsars, 452, 453, 455, 456, 458, 460
age, 457Crab Nebula, 449, 450, 458luminosity, 457magnetic field strength, 457periods, 454physical properties, 454rotational energy, 457
Radio radiation, 64bending by Sun, 95discovery, 59Milky Way, 369, 375scintillation, 453supernova remnants, 444
Radio telescope, 23Radioactive alpha decay, 194Radioactivity, 193
constant, 196dating, 198nuclear half-life, 197
Radium, 193Radius
Arcturus, 308atom, 128atomic nucleus, 128Betelgeuse, 307Earth, 11emission nebula, 360, 365gyration, 187H II region, 360, 365Milky Way, 476, 478
630 Subject Index
Radius (cont.)neutron stars, 451observable universe, 516Proxima Centauri, 315stars, 305Sun, 10, 28, 53universe, 558
Radius-mass relation, white dwarf stars, 428Radon, 194Random motion, 131Rate, star formation, 542Rayleigh scattering, 62Rayleigh scattering cross section, 62Rayleigh-Jeans law, 46, 47Reaction rate, nuclear fusion, 230Recombination lines, 170, 363Recombination radiation, 361, 362Recombination time, expanding universe, 539Reddening, starlight, 368Red giant stars, 306, 320, 326
formation, 341mass loss, 328winds, 328
Redshift, 109, 180galaxies, 494
Redshift-magnitude diagram, Type Ia super-novae, 555
Redshift-magnitude relation, 495Reflector, 19, 20Refractor, 19, 20Reionization time, expanding universe, 540Resolving power, 21Resonance reactions, 343Rest mass, 43Rest-mass energy, 43Right ascension, 5Rings, origin, 90Robertson–Walker metric, 518Roche limit, 90–92Roche lobe, 432Root mean square speed, 137Rosette Nebula, 359Rotation
cosmic, 116differential, 120Earth, 2Mercury, 116, 117Milky Way, 478–481neutron star, 455radio pulsar, 456, 458stars, 120, 398, 399Sun, 121, 385, 386velocity, 184
Venus, 118white dwarf stars, 456
Rotational line broadening, 184Runaway stars, 115–118Runaway thermonuclear explosion, white
dwarf, 432Rydberg constant, 167
atomic, 172, 173Rydberg energy unit, 169
SSagittarius A*, 484, 485Saha ionization equation, 177Satellites, threat from Sun, 291Scattering
Compton, 64radiation, 64Rayleigh, 61Thomson, 63
Schwarzschild metric, 468Schwarzschild radius, 467, 468Scintillations, 453, 454Second generation stars, 354Second law of thermodynamics, 266Second of arc, 9, 10Seeing, 22Seyfert galaxies, 545
emission lines, 545Sgr A*, 484, 485SI units, 30
conversion to c.g.s units, 30Sidereal day, 17Sidereal rotation period, 121Sidereal time, 17, 18Singularity
big bang, 523black hole, 469, 470
Sirius A, luminosity, 302Sirius B, 327, 419
gravitational redshift, 421luminosity, 302
Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 7, 510, 511Sloan Great Wall, 510, 511SN 1987A, 439
neutrino burst, 441progenitor star, 441visible explosion, 441
Solar active region, 261SOlar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) ,
251Solar constant, 55, 300Solar day, 15, 18
Subject Index 631
Solar flares, 276–280accelerated particles, 277chromospheric evaporation, 280energy, 276magnetic reconnection, 278, 279nuclear reactions, 279origin, 277positrons, 280protons - threat to humans, 290radio bursts, 277, 278shock waves, 277temperature, 276white light, 276X-rays, 278, 279
Solar granulation, 249, 250Solar magnetic activity cycle, 259Solar nebula, 381, 383, 394Solar neutrino problem, 240–244Solar neutrinos, detectors, 239Solar neutrinos, flux, 238, 241Solar neutrino unit, 240Solar parallax, 51, 52Solar system, formation, 381–387Solar time, 15, 17Solar wind
comet tails, 268discovery, 268mass loss from Sun, 273physical properties, 272speed of sound, 156, 272steady, uniform high speed, 274supersonic, 271termination shock, 275, 276variable, gusty slow speed, 274
Solstice, 8Sound, 154Sound speed, 155Sound waves, 154
heat chromosphere, 267in Sun, 251, 252
Space curvature, 94Space curvature index, 518, 520Space Telescopes, 25Space velocity, 105, 106Space weather, 283–292
forecasting , 291, 292Special Theory of Relativity, 42, 43, 220, 468Spectral classification, stars, 306Spectral sequence, 305, 306Spectroheliograph, 159, 162Spectroscopic binary stars, 315, 317Spectroscopic distance, stars, 322Spectroscopic parallax, stars, 322Spectrum
blackbody, 44continuum, 44electromagnetic, 37, 38nonthermal radiation, 370thermal radiation, 46
Speed, 71escape, 77, 99–101, 113, 139, 451light, 14, 28, 30, 35, 41mean, 137most probable, 135orbital, 102planets, 70, 71root mean square, 137sound, 155
Speed distribution function, 136Speed of light, 14, 28, 30, 35, 41Speed of sound, 155Sphere, gravitational potential energy, 76Spheres of ionization, 360Spiral arms, Milky Way, 482, 483Spiral galaxy, 491
dark matter, 490, 491Spiral nebulae, 491
Cepheid variable stars, 488, 489distance, 489recession velocities, 492
Spitzer Space Telescope (SST) , 25, 401, 496,509, 516
Spontaneous transition coefficient, 175Spring ocean tides, 83Sputnik, 153Standard epoch, 13Stars
age and rotation, 123, 124angular size, 306brightest, 296, 297central temperature, 219, 329Cepheid variable, 474–476chemical composition, 334classification, 305color, 303convection, 339, 340convective zones, 340effective temperature, 303fate, 310first, 540–544first generation , 354formation, 387–400, 543–544formation rate, 543gravitational redshift, 181, 182, 421habitable zone, 409initial mass distribution, 544initial mass function, 317interferometry, 307
632 Subject Index
Stars (cont.)largest, 306luminosity, 299luminosity class, 321mass, 310mass distribution, 544mass-luminosity relation, 310, 311most abundant element hydrogen, 179most massive, 312motion, 105Population I, II and III, 354pulsation, 327, 475radiation pressure, 312radius, 306rapid rotation, 124red giant, 306, 320, 327, 328rotation, 120–124, 399second generation, 354spectral classification, 305spectroscopic distance, 322spectroscopic parallax, 322supergiant, 306, 320, 327, 328support by gas pressure, 330support by radiation pressure, 330temperatures, 303upper mass limit, 313variable, 475white dwarf, 320, 327
Star catalogues, 6Star clusters
escape velocity, 113Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams, 347
Star time, 17, 18Starburst galaxies, 543Starlight, 367, 368
interstellar absorption, 367polarization, 368, 369reddening, 368
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 49Stefan-Boltzmann law, 49, 309, 318Stellar aberration, 14Stellar associations, 115Stellar black holes, 465–469Stellar nucleosynthesis, 350, 352Stellar rotation, 124Stratosphere, 145Streams, galaxies, 508Strömgren radius, 360, 364Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, 244, 245Sun
absolute visual magnitude, 300absorption lines, 159
abundance of elements, 351active region, 261age, 198, 217angular extent, 8central gas pressure, 218central mass density, 218central temperature, 217composition, 160, 161convection, 245, 248convective zone, 246, 247core, 244, 245deflection of starlight, 94differential rotation, 120distance, 51, 52effective temperature, 56escape velocity, 100, 101, 270explosions, 276fate, 253, 254Fraunhofer absorption lines, 161–163free fall time, 397gravitational redshift, 181internal mass density, 148, 150internal plasma, 153internal pressure, 148, 150internal rotation, 123, 124internal structure, 245internal temperature, 148, 150light bending, 95, 96luminosity, 28, 55, 298, 300magnetic field, 258, 259mass, 28, 80mass loss by nuclear fusion, 236mass loss by solar wind, 273most abundant element hydrogen, 179most abundant elements, 164, 165neutrinos, 238–243nuclear fusion lifetime, 236ocean tides, 81physical properties, 219radiation diffusion time, 247radiative zone, 246, 247radius, 9, 10, 28, 54red hydrogen alpha transition, 176rotation, 120, 386rotation velocity about galactic center, 479,
481secondary nuclear fusion reactions, 235spectrum, 161temperature, 55, 56Thomson scattering, 247
Sunspots, 258cycle, 258–260
Subject Index 633
Sunspots (cont.)origin, 263pairs, 261Zeeman effect, 188
Sun time, 15, 17Superfluids, neutron stars, 452Supergiant stars, 306, 320, 327–329
mass loss, 309, 328nuclear reactions, 347–349winds, 309, 310, 328
Supergranulation, 250Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector, 243Super-massive black holes, 550, 551
galactic center, 484, 485mass, 550M 87, 550
Supernovae , 433–444acceleration of cosmic rays, 203binary star system, 437energy, 442gamma-ray bursts, 552gravity-powered iron-catastrophe, 436,
438, 439historical, 434neutrinos, 441nuclear powered, 436, 437origin, 436–439origin of elements, 341, 344remnants, 443–450triggering gravitational collapse, 394types, 435
Supernova remnants, 443–450radio radiation, 444types, 444X-rays, 443, 445
Synchronous rotation, 85Synchrotron radiation, 372–375
Crab Nebula, 447–449lifetime, 374luminosity, 374Milky Way, 374, 375radio galaxies, 546, 547
Synodic rotation period, 122
TTangential velocity, 106–108Tau lepton, discovery, 211Tau neutrinos, 242, 243Telescope, 20
resolving power, 21Temperature
accreting material, 463
background radiation, 526, 531big bang, 526center of star, 219center of Sun, 217corona, 256cosmic, 131emission nebula, 365H II region, 365helium burning, 342kelvin scale, 28kinetic, 133nuclear reactions, 221, 222planets, 56, 57stars, 303star centers, 329Sun visible disk, 55
Terrestrial planets, 383Terrestrial time, 16Thermal bremsstrahlung, 364Thermal energy, 132Thermal equilibrium, 44Thermal evaporation, 140Thermal motion, Doppler line broadening, 183Thermal radiation, 44
maximum intensity, 46Thermal spectrum, 46Thermal velocity, 132, 139Thomson scattering, 63
cross section, 63in Sun, 246
Three-degree cosmic microwave backgroundradiation. See Background radiation
Tidal friction, 85Tidal locking, 85Tides, 80Time
civil, 15dilation, 42, 469free fall, 397international atomic, 15local sidereal, 17sidereal, 17, 18solar, 15, 17star, 17, 18terrestrial, 16universal, 16
Time dilation, 42gravitational, 469
Transition Region and Coronal Explorer(TRACE) , 262
Troposphere, 145Tunneling cross section, 230Two Degree Field Galaxy Survey, 510, 511
634 Subject Index
Tycho supernova remnant, 444Type Ia supernovae, 436, 437
redshift-magnitude diagram, 555Type II supernovae, 435, 438, 439
UUltraviolet radiation, 38, 39Uncertainty principle, 424Universal gravitation, 73Universal time, 15Upper mass limit, white dwarf star, 429Uranium, 194, 195Urca process, 442
VVan Allen radiation belts, 287Velocity, 71
Alfvén, 157expansion, 184radial, 105–107, 180rotation, 184space, 105–107tangential, 105–107thermal, 132
Velocity-distance relation, 495Venus
parallax, 52rotation, 118
Vernal Equinox, 4Very Large Telescope Interferometer, 308Very Large Telescopes, 21Virial theorem, 111Visual binary stars, 314, 315Vogt–Russell theorem, 334Voids, galaxies, 510Voyager 1, 275Voyager 2, 275Vulcan, 93VY Canis Majoris, mass loss, 309VY Cephei A, mass loss, 309
WWalls, galaxies, 510Water, interstellar, 379Wavelength
colors, 38radiation, 35
WavesAlfvén, 157electromagnetic, 33
Weight, 74White dwarf stars, 320, 327, 418–428
carbon and oxygen nuclei, 419discovery, 418formation, 415former red giant star, 419gravitational redshift, 181, 421in short-period binary systems, 431magnetic field strength, 422mass density, 420physical properties, 423radius, 420radius-mass relation, 427rotation period, 455supernova, 435, 437upper mass limit, 429
Wien displacement law, 46Wien tail, 46Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP), 530–532Wind pressure, 141Winds
Betelgeuse, 308Sun, 268–276supergiant stars, 307, 309, 328
XX-rays, 38
black holes, 466, 467clusters of galaxies, 504Crab Nebula, 447–449discovery, 192pulsars, 460solar flares, 278, 279supernova remnants, 444
X-ray pulsars, 460–466discovery, 460, 462physical properties, 463
YYear (yr), 15, 29Ylem, 353Young stars, rapid rotation, 124
ZZeeman effect, 183, 187, 188
interstellar, 188Sun, 258, 261sunspots, 188
Zero age, main sequence, 332
Subject Index 635
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