Water as a resource - GFZpublic

Water as a resourceWater research for a sustainable future

Information

PublisherBundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung(BMBF, Federal Ministry of Education and Research)Division 724Resources and Sustainability 53170 Bonn

DownloadAn accessible version of the brochure is available athttp://waterresources.fona.de

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Bonn, BerlinMay 2012

Image creditsTitle: Helmut Löwe, Bundesministerium für Bildung und For -schung (BMBF, Federal Ministry of Education and Research);p. 16: Mull u. Partner Ing. Ges. mbH, Hanover; p. 36: Bundes -anstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG, Federal Institute of Hydrology);p. 39: www.oekolandbau.de; p. 44: Water related InformationSystem for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong Delta(WISDOM), Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR,German Aerospace Center), Deutsches Fernerkundungs daten-zentrum (DFD, German Remote Sensing Data Center ); p. 52:Daniel Karthe, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Umweltfor schung(UFZ, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research); p. 53:Daniel Krätz, Center for Environmental Systems Research, Uni-versität Kassel; Lena Horlemann, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Um -weltforschung (UFZ, Helmholtz Centre for EnvironmentalResearch); p. 58: GIZ International Services; p. 63, p. 126, p. 144:André Künzelmann, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Umweltfor -schung (UFZ, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research);p. 66: Thomas Egli, Departement Umweltwissenschaft, ETHZürich (department of environmental sciences at the SwissFederal Institute of Technology Zurich); Dagmar Haase, Helm -holtz-Zentrum für Umweltforschung (UFZ, Helmholtz Centrefor Environmental Research); p. 67: Günther Rank; p. 73:www.benno-gym.de; p. 80: Passavant-Roediger GmbH; p. 82:Fraunhofer-Institut für Grenzflächen- und Bioverfahrens tech-nik (IGB, Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering andBiotechnology); p. 112: Deutscher Verein des Gas- und Wasser-faches e.V. (DVGW, German Technical and Scientific Associa-tion for Gas and Water) – Technologiezentrum Wasser (TZW,Water Technology Center); 15: www.strategy4.china.com;p. 134: RusHydro; p. 140: visibleearth.nasa.gov; p. 148, p. 149:DWA Deutsche Vereinigung für Wasserwirtschaft, Abwasserund Abfall e.V. (German Association for Water, Wastewaterand Waste)

The project descriptions in this brochure are based on the information available as

at April 2012. The respective project co-ordinators are responsible for ensuring the

accuracy of the information supplied.

Water as a resourceWater research for a sustainable future

WELCOME Water as a resource – Water research for a sustainable future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

INTRODUCTION Water research for people, nature and the economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1. ECOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.1 UNDERGROUND APPLICATION – EFFICIENT IN-SITU GROUND WATER REMEDIATION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.1.01 In-situ remediation of abandoned waste – making good use of biological cleaning processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.1.02 Keeping tabs on pollutants – recording and assessing natural degradation and retention processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.1.03 Permeable treatment walls – underground structures for successful remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.1.04 Reliable long-term effectiveness – in-situ treatment wall at the Rheine site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.1.05 Funnel and gate – an innovative reactor concept successfully combating contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.1.06 Application of treatment walls – combating high TCE concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221.1.07 SAFIRA joint research project – remediation research using the Bitterfeld site as a model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241.1 08 Direct oxygen injection – measuring and modelling dynamic gas accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261.1.09 VEGAS research facility – ecological remediation without digging up and shipping out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.1.10 Remediation using alcohol – using methods from the crude oil industry as a model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301.1.11 Heat as an accelerator – heat lances turning soil pollutants into vapours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.2 MAINTAINING LIFELINES – FULLY INTEGRATED, SUSTAINABLE RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341.2.01 The Elbe basin – a research model for river management in the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361.2.02 Examining the Rhine and Ems – management systems for water quality in river basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381.2.03 SEDYMO research project – effects of sediment dynamics on the quality of flowing waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401.2.04 The sturgeon is making a comeback – repopulation of a former river resident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1.3 CREATING SYNERGIES THROUGH INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION – INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

1.3.01 Lack of water in the valley of the Jordan – finding cross-border solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461.3.02 German-Vietnamese collaboration – researching a sustainable way to deal with water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481.3.03 Wastewater disposal in Vietnamese industrial zones – a case study for holistic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501.3.04 Model Region Mongolia – the path to sustainable water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521.3.05 Model region Gunung Kidul – integrated water resource management in karst regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541.3.06 Example region Shandong – concepts to combat avoidable water shortages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561.3.07 International Water Research Alliance Saxony – building blocks for sustainable water management . . . . . . . . . . . 581.3.08 WISDOM research project – a water information system for the Mekong Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601.3.09 Integrated water resource management – global networking to ensure transfer of knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

1.4 COMBATING FLOODS TOGETHER – TARGETED APPROACHES TOWARDS COUNTERING THE RISKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641.4.01 The consequences of a hundred-year flood – pollution following the flooding of the Elbe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661.4.02 3ZM-GRIMEX project – coupled models simulate flood scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681.4.03 Flood events – the forgotten groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701.4.04 The underestimated threat posed by groundwater –

damage assessment and prevention after the hundred-year flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721.4.05 Avoiding dyke breaches – monitoring methods and safeguarding concepts for river dykes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741.4.06 Integrated warning system – monitoring and stabilising dykes with sensor-based geotextiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761.4.07 Building security for all – self-sealing water barriers for windows and doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Table of contents

WATER AS A RESOURCE2

TABLE OF CONTENTS 3

2. TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

2.1 GLOBAL SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH CUSTOMISED LOCAL SOLUTIONS – RECYCLING AND RESOURCE EFFICIENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

2.1.01 Semi-centralised supply and disposal systems – dynamic solutions for China’s growing major cities . . . . . . . . . . . . 842.1.02 Wastewater as a resource – the promising SANIRESCH demonstration project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862.1.03 Domestic wastewater in a cycle – the “KOMPLETT” system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882.1.04 Water recycling in hotels – business as usual during conversion work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902.1.05 Phosphorous recycling – wastewater and sewage sludge sources of a valuable resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922.1.06 Vietnam – clean water for the Mekong Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942.1.07 Clean and effective – decentralised disposal systems for hotel complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962.1.08 Semi-decentralised concept for a new building development – the Knittlingen “water house” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

2.2 PROVEN METHODS AND HIGH-TECH ANALYSIS – MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS TO ENHANCE HEALTH AND HYGIENE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

2.2.01 Dams as a source of drinking water – the benefits of the membrane procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022.2.02 AQUASens analysis system – a fast and mobile method for detecting water impurities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1042.2.03 Pathogens in taps – an underestimated problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062.2.04 Swimming pools – health risks posed by pool disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

2.3 KMU-INNOVATIV – GIVING THE GREEN LIGHT FOR TOP RESEARCH BY SMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

2.4 PROVEN TECHNOLOGIES IN USE ABROAD – PROGRESS THROUGH A GLOBAL TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

2.4.01 A natural water filter – bank filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142.4.02 Adapted slow filtration – versatile and cost-effective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162.4.03 Export-oriented research & development – transfer to other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1182.4.04 Adapted wastewater technologies – knowledge gaps filled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202.4.05 Water management in megacities – the role of the database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1222.4.06 Transferable solutions for special wastewater problems – paper manufacture at the Yellow River . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

2.5 UNITED FOR CLEAN WATER RESOURCES – INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

2.5.01 Adapted technology – an underground hydro-power plant on Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1282.5.02 2008 Olympics in Beijing – a water use concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1302.5.03 Nitrate reduction in Iran – knowledge export improves drinking water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1322.5.04 Water management on the Volga – safeguarding the future of Europe’s longest river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1342.5.05 Protecting the world heritage site Ha Long Bay – German expertise supports mine rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362.5.06 Water quality monitoring – new measuring procedures developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1382.5.07 The rainmakers of Israel – cloud seeding increases rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1402.5.08 Four methods, one goal – wastewater disinfection in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

3. ECONOMY AND EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

3.1 COMMUNAL WATER AND WASTE MANAGEMENT – ESCAPING THE COST TRAP WITH SUSTAINABLE CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

3.1.01 Learning from the best – benchmarking in the field of wastewater disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483.1.02 Peak performance indicators – professional management in the water industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503.1.03 Waste disposal and city cleaning – continuous optimisation of public utility companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

3.2 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION – SAFEGUARDING OUR FUTURE THROUGH KNOWLEDGE AND CO-OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

3.2.01 Learning from the experience of others – progress through global knowledge transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1563.2.02 Opening up new perspectives – sustainability in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1583.2.03 International scholarship programme – imparting knowledge and cultivating contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Water as a resource is one of the key factors in global sustainable development. Its protection isone of the most important tasks of the 21st century.Together with various players from politics and economics, those in water research are working onfuture-oriented solutions while simultaneously contributing to securing the wellbeing of the generations of today and tomorrow.


WELCOME 5

Global water consumption has tripled since the middle ofthe 20th century. In view of the world’s growing popula-tion, this trend is set to continue. This not only affectsemerging and developing countries, but also industri-alised countries, where in some cases consumption exceedsnatural supplies. In order to protect mankind’s mostimportant resource, experts from water research, politicsand economics are working together to create solutionsfor the sustainable management of water supplies.

The aim is to guarantee water supply and wastewater dis-posal and to increase efficient usage. For this we needtechnical and structural innovations, as well as a systemat-ic national and international exchange of scientific find-ings and practical applications.

Within the framework of the government’s “high-techstrategy”, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research(BMBF) is supporting the implementation of ground-breaking innovations within relevant fields of application.For the framework programme “Research for sustainabledevelopment” (FONA), the BMBF is set to provide morethan two billion euro of funding by the year 2015. A majorpart of FONA is the water research that will be implement-ed within the BMBF’s new principle “sustainable watermanagement”. BMBF is therefore promoting jointresearch projects with partners from the worlds of scienceand economics.

As well as enabling the exchange of knowledge, theseprojects are intended to provide emerging and develop-ing countries in particular with support in training spe-cialist personnel and thus ensuring they can deal withtheir ecological problems themselves in the long term.They also give German companies the opportunity to playa greater role in the global market in the fields of waterand environmental protection. In this way, we are secur-ing quality of life and at the same time promoting Germany as a business location.

This eBook presents a selection of completed and ongoingBMBF research projects. With such projects, we are mak-ing a significant contribution to expanding Germany’sleading position as a development partner and exporter ofenvironmental technologies.

Prof. Dr. Johanna Wanka , Federal Minister for Education and Research

An accessible version of the article is available athttp://waterresources.fona.de/reports/bmbf/annual/2010/nb/English/10/welcome.html

http://www.hightech-strategie.de/

http://www.fona.de/en/index.php

http://www.fona.de/en/9847

Water is essential for all life. Be it in agriculture,industry or the home: this resource plays a crucialrole in people’s everyday lives and in the economy.Conscious handling of water is therefore a centralpillar of sustainable development – and with theeffects of climate change, population growth and alack of drinking water this is one of the major chal-lenges of the 21st century.

Funding water research and technologies has made a vitalcontribution towards German water management andresearch institutions being recognised and accredited fortheir development of future-oriented solutions that arehelping secure and protect water resources worldwide.

Research for sustainable developments andhigh-tech strategy: the framework of theprogramme

The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) isusing its “Research for sustainable development” frame-work programme (FONA) and the government’s high-techstrategy to tackle domestic and global challenges, particu-larly in relation to water. The focus is on research for sus-tainable water management. The topics covered withinthe principle of “sustainable water management” cover abroad range, including innovative technologicalapproaches to protecting drinking water, supply and dis-posal, methods for river basin and flood management,cost-effective management concepts and measures toensure an international transfer of knowledge. Waterresearch has – like the entire area of environmental tech-nology – undergone a paradigm shift over the last fewyears. While in the past the focus was on reacting to prob-lems and developing “end-of-pipe” technologies, theemphasis is now on research and technology looking atforward-looking measures and the development of inte-grated problem-solving strategies.

Water research for people, nature and the economy

On the way to a European research area

Multilateral initiatives are being supported at Europeanlevel in order to intensify the funding of research in theEuropean area. The aim is to create an internationallycompetitive European research and technology area. Forexample, the BMBF and its project co-ordinators areinvolved in the EU-funded ERA-NET (European ResearchArea-Networks) with regard to integrated river basin man-agement and flood protection and precautions. This net-work makes it possible to co-ordinate research fundingand develop harmonised concepts for future collabora-tion in the areas of research and technology.

Exceeding the boundaries of specialistdisciplines

Water research involves many different fields of knowl-edge and combines a diverse range of approaches andobjectives. Solutions in this broad field of research canthus only be found when the boundaries of specialist disci-plines and sectors are exceeded and through intensifieddialogue. Water engineers must work together with ecol-ogists, economists and social scientists and must also con-sider the needs presented by politics, administration andconsumers.


An accessible version of the article is available athttp://waterresources.fona.de/reports/bmbf/annual/2010/nb/English/20/introduction.html


http://www.hightech-strategie.de/en/index.php


http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/coordination/about-coordination_en.html

INTRODUCTION 7

Networking to increase water managementexpertise

One of the central aims of the BMBF “Research for sustain-able development” framework programme is to intensifydialogue between all the key players from economics, sci-ence, politics and society and to embark on new journeystogether within water management. In doing so, Ger-many intends to retain and expand its position as a lead-ing technology provider within the fields of climate pro-tection and adapting to climate change, sustainableresource management and innovative environmental andenergy technologies. The environment sector is also amajor source of employment. By providing training in sci-ence and international project management, the researchfunding provided to universities, research institutes,major research facilities and industry makes a huge con-tribution to maintaining and intensifying water manage-ment expertise and thus securing jobs.

Transfer of technology and knowledge

One specific concern of the BMBF is the transfer of knowl-edge from research and development to company prac-tice, with particular emphasis being placed on tappinginto new markets. It is precisely through collaborationwith emerging and developing countries, that successfulwater management can produce both short-term solu-tions for acute challenges and also consider long-termdevelopments to deal with a lack of specialists andextreme climatic conditions. The principle of IntegratedWater Resource Management (IWRM) within the sustain-ability research programme focuses on developing effi-cient measures for safeguarding and managing waterresources in numerous partner countries, particularlywithin Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Measures withinenvironment education and on-site capacity building playa key role in supporting the future sustainability of projects and processes.

International implementation

Many forms of technology have already proven theirworth here in Germany. Now is the time to transfer themto other regions and to adapt them to the local conditions.Decentralised supply and disposal concepts and proce-dures for obtaining and treating water could also providemore and more people in emerging and developing coun-tries with access to clean drinking water. Accessing waterresources requires planning tools that assist in controllingconsumption in accordance with need. As extreme weath-er events are on the increase, a forward-looking floodmanagement policy is of growing global importance. Therespective local conditions must also be taken intoaccount, for example the composition of the untreatedwater, the infrastructure and cultural differences.

An overview

This brochure presents ongoing and completed examplesof BMBF water research funding. Covering the main prin-ciples of “ecology, “technology” and “economy and educa-tion”, the aim is to provide an overview of ideas and resultsproduced and implemented by German universities andinstitutes together with commerce & industry and inter-national partners.


Ecology

8 WATER AS A RESOURCE | 1.0

An accessible version of the article is available athttp://waterresources.fona.de/reports/bmbf/annual/2010/nb/English/30/1_-ecology.html

9

Water is the source and foundation of all life – a precious commodity that is increasingly endangeredin many regions of the planet as a result of man’s influence. This makes it all the more vital to ensurethe sustainable handling and protection of water resources. The BMBF is working to achieve this goalthrough numerous research projects covering areas such as the restoration of domestic river basins,the biological clean-up of soil and groundwater, and flood management. The aim of integrated waterresource management is to co-ordinate the social, ecological and economic aspects of this work.

ECOLOGY

10 WATER AS A RESOURCE | 1.1.0

Underground application – efficient in-situ ground water remediation methods

Toxic substances that escape from under disused,unsealed landfill sites, extensive contamination ofthe ground and soil from long-since closed industrialsites, widespread contamination from fuel and theaftermath of weapons: these are just some exam-ples of hazardous abandoned waste in the soil thatoccur in great numbers and pose a threat to thequality of groundwater. Often no one knows pre-cisely where this abandoned waste is locatedbecause toxic substances have been disposed ofincorrectly or there are no longer any witnesses.Despite these difficulties, scientists are increasinglysucceeding in tracking down abandoned waste,analysing it and using new methods – directlyunderground (“in situ”) – to render it harmlessbefore it reaches the groundwater. This is essential,as around 70 percent of Germany’s drinking water isobtained from groundwater.

Germany is one of the world’s most densely populatedcountries. Combined with the unchecked dumping of haz-ardous substances in the past and the intensive use ofgroundwater and soil resources, this all amounts to a largeamount of abandoned waste and many suspected areas ofcontamination. With around 296,500 suspected aban-doned waste sites recorded in Germany in 2009, there is aconsiderable need to treat this waste. Abandoned wastecan be found underground at many disused and stillactive industrial sites. Its detection and efficient remedia-tion presents a real challenge.

The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF)tackled this issue with new vigour as part of its “Researchfor sustainable development” programme, supportingselected research and development projects to solve theproblem of abandoned waste. One of the aims of this is todevelop pilot, transferrable solution examples.

Cleaning directly in the groundwater

Treating the groundwater and soil “in situ”, i.e. makingthe hazardous substances harmless while still under-ground, is a promising approach. Be it the addition ofnutrients, gas injection (project 1.1.08) or the introductionof micro-organisms – the range of in-situ proceduresbeing (further) developed and tested by researchers andengineers in Germany is technically challenging anddiverse. One advantage is the generally lower costsinvolved in on-site treatment. Unlike conventional meth-ods, the contaminated groundwater and soil material

does not need to be raised for treatment in plants aboveground.

Groundwater remediation: a priority task

Germany places great value in developing efficient reme-diation procedures. There are numerous projects under-way seeking to optimise these forms of technology interms of practicality and transferability. Here are someexamples of joint projects funded by the BMBF: ● Under the KORA principle (retention and degradation

processes to reduce contaminations in groundwaterand soil), tests were undertaken to determine how andwhether remediation of abandoned waste could beimproved through natural cleaning processes, (pro-jects 1.1.01 and 1.1.02).

● The BMBF founded the RUBIN research programme(use of permeable treatment walls for site remedia-tion) in May 2000 with the specific aim of developingin-situ treatment walls (projects 1.1.03, 1.1.05 and1.1.06).

● SAFIRA (remediation research in regionally contami-nated aquifers). Also the name of the Bitterfeld-basedmajor research facility conducting the work, SAFIRAbegan researching new technologies and methods in1999 for the in-situ remediation of groundwater con-taminated with complex hazardous compounds (pro-ject 1.1.07).

● The BMBF and the state of Baden-Württemberg alsoprovided funding to set up VEGAS (Versuchseinrich-tung zur Grundwasser- und Altlastensanierung/research facility for the remediation of groundwaterand abandoned waste), the purpose of which is todevelop innovative remediation methods that enableexperiments to be performed under near-natural con-ditions (projects 1.1.09, 1.1.10, 1.1.11).

ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER 11



http://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=1623

http://www.vegasinfo.de/


Experience has shown that conventional remedia-tion procedures are often hit by technical or finan-cial limitations, meaning that impurities cannot befully removed from soil and groundwater. Naturalprocesses for reducing hazardous substances couldbe of great support here. Research was undertakenunder the BMBF KORA principle (retention anddegradation processes to reduce contaminations ingroundwater and soil) between 2002 and 2008 todetermine how and whether these natural process-es could be used in the remediation of abandonedwaste.

In the past, more and more sites were being uncoveredthat were polluted with substances hazardous both tohealth and the environment as a result of previous pro-duction and storage activities. Before now, such aban-doned waste was sanitised by digging up and removingthe polluted soil or pumping out then treating the con-taminated groundwater. Alternatively, safeguardingmeasures can prevent further spread of harmful sub-stances or treatment (decontamination) with chemical orbiological agents can be carried out. However, these con-ventional remediation methods are often subject to tech-nical and economic limitations, e.g. due to deepaquifers◄, heterogeneous underground conditions, built-up areas, the type of toxic substances present and theiroften uneven distribution.

Building on natural processes

It has been determined at a number of sites that naturallyoccurring processes such as biological degradation, chem-ical precipitation◄, decomposition, sorption◄, dilutionand volatilisation can render harmless or withhold haz-ardous substances in groundwater and soil under theright conditions. As such, contaminant plumes◄ expandonly to a limited degree in the groundwater and diminishonce the source of the toxin runs dry. Great emphasis hasbeen placed on researching, evaluating and finally utilis-ing these processes in a targeted manner for a sustainableway to handle our resources.

In-situ remediation of abandoned waste – making good use of biological cleaning processes

Systematic investigations at24 reference sites

The natural retention and degradation of hazardous sub-stances depends on the type of contamination and theconditions in the soil and groundwater. A few key ques-tions must be answered to be able to assess whether natu-ral processes for reducing contamination (referred to as“natural attenuation” (NA) processes) can be used or stim-ulated at a given location:● Are the hazardous substances being effectively broken

down or withheld by natural processes under the pre-vailing conditions underground?

● Are any (undesirable) intermediary products accumu-lating through biological degradation?

● Could degradation be stimulated through the target-ed modification of on-site conditions?

The diverse range of issues related to NA processes waswhat prompted the BMBF to provide approximatelyEUR 20 million of support to the “retention and degra-dation processes to reduce contaminations in ground-water and soil” (KORA) principle between 2002 and2008. In total, 74 projects were carried out at 24 typicallycontaminated sites representing a wide range of compa-rable cases in Germany, testing whether and under what

WATER AS A RESOURCE | 1.1.0112

Overview of the thematic networks (TN) and working aids from the KORA funding principle

TN

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Name of thematic network(industry-specific pollutants)

Refineries, fuel tanks, fuels/mineral oil(TPH, BTEX, MTBE)

Gas works, coking plants, coal tar process-ing (PAH, coal tar, heterocyclics)

Chemical industry(VCHC, BTEX)

Landfills, abandoned waste disposal sites(landfill pollutants)

Former munitions works(Compounds typically found in explosives)

Mining, sediments(Trace metals, acidity/sulphate, pesticide)

Modelling and prognosis

Derivation of MNA concepts, legal and eco-nomic issues, acceptance by the officialbodies and the public

Investigatedsites

5

4

6

4 (+ 2)+

3

2 (+ 1)+

–

–

Short name forworking aid

TN 1 guidelines(ISBN 978-3-89746-093-9)



TN 4 guidelines(ISSN 1611-5627, 04/2008)


TN 6 guidelines(ISBN 978-3-89746-098-X)

TN 7 synopsis(ISSN 1611-5627, 05/2008)

Handling recommendationswith method collection(ISBN 978-3-89746-092-0)

+ Additional sites were investigated as part of associated projects



ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | IN-SITU REMEDIATION OF ABANDONED WASTE 13

conditions natural degradation and retention processescould be put to effective use – in particular:● Assessing the risks associated with contaminated

groundwater and soil ● Calculating and performing hazard control measures

(specific remediation)● Calculating and performing follow-up measures.

In order to assess whether natural toxin reductionprocesses can be used and to monitor their effectiveness,regular soil and groundwater samples must be taken(monitored natural attenuation, MNA). The use of NAprocesses is therefore not a “do-nothing option”. Quite theopposite: only through clear and thorough data collection(monitoring) and assessment (forecasting) can the antici-pated processes be implemented effectively and naturalmethods of reducing contamination be a viable alterna-tive or supplement to conventional remediation methods.

Toxin-related research

The aim of the research performed under KORA was toform the basis for considering natural processes for reduc-ing contamination and to derive plausible opportunitiesand parameters for implementation from an ecological,economic and administrative perspective. This not onlyrequired the development of appropriate methods toprove the efficacy of the NA processes, but also the valida-tion of tools for their assessment. Universities, engineer-ing bodies and authorities worked together to developMNA concepts for the 24 investigated sites with tailoredsolutions for each one, and in many cases these processeswere implemented too. In doing so, they created refer-ence sites to be used as examples of how NA processes canbe recorded, assessed and considered in a graduated pro-cedure. The experts further developed innovative in-situremediation procedures based on stimulating naturalprocesses for reducing contamination. They also investi-gated various measures that are to encourage acceptanceof NA processes for abandoned waste remediationthrough (risk) communication.

Industry guidelines and handling recommendations for practical application

The results of this funding principle were documented inthe KORA handling recommendations (with integratedmethod collection), in six sets of industry guidelines andin the KORA synopsis “Systemanalyse, Modellierung undPrognose der Wirkungen natürlicher Schadstoff min-derungsprozesse” (systems analysis, modelling and fore-casting effects of natural processes for reducing contami-nation) (see table). There is thus a variety of supplemen-tary material available to assist authority representatives,engineering planners and those in charge of remediation.They can be used to check the potential ways in which NAprocesses and MNA concepts can be applied to treat aban-doned waste. The working aids provide recommendationsand assistance in using monitored or stimulated naturalcontamination reduction processes to treat abandonedwaste in Germany and cover NA processes for groundwa-ter that is already contaminated. Relevant existing(inter)national working aids, concepts and guidelineswere considered during the compilation of the handlingrecommendations and industry guidelines. The workingaids can be referenced at the website for this principle(www.natural-attenuation.de/bestellung) or downloadedin PDF format.

Project website ►www.natural-attenuation.de

DECHEMA e. V.Dr. Jochen Michels, Christopher FreyTheodor-Heuss-Allee 2560486 Frankfurt, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 69/75 64-157, -440Fax: +49 (0) 69/75 64-117E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] reference: 02WN0335

University of StuttgartInstitut für Wasserbau (water engineering institute), VEGASDr.-Ing. Hans-Peter KoschitzkyPfaffenwaldring 6170650 Stuttgart, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-647 17Fax: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-670 20E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WN0336

The former premises of a dry cleaner’s for leatherwork clothing in the Harburg region of Lower Saxony was contaminated with perchloroethyleneover a period of several decades. As the groundwa-ter is extremely low down and the contamination isextremely difficult to access, conventional surveyingand remediation procedures are not suitable for thisabandoned waste. One of the projects within theKORA principle (retention and degradation process-es to reduce contaminations in groundwater andsoil) therefore aimed to use suitable monitoring andforecasting procedures to estimate the degree towhich natural degradation and retention processesare sufficient in ruling out any risk to a neighbour-ing water conservation area.

Perchloroethylene (PCE)◄was and still is used in tradeand industry to remove paint, as a solvent and to degreasematerials – as it was in a former specialist dry cleaner’s forleather work clothing in Rosengarten-Ehestorf in Har-burg. After use, the chemical along with the improperlycleaned wastewater filtered underground over thedecades below the company’s premises measuringapprox. 3000 sqm.

An inaccessible aquifer

The surface of the affected aquifer◄ is 30 to 40 metresunderground – unusually low down. With one stretch upto 230 metres deep, it is also extremely powerful. Thesefactors – combined with the heavily built-up area – wouldmake it extremely difficult and expensive to carry outremediation using conventional methods (pump-and-treat procedure◄). The Harburg authorities thereforelooked at alternatives and opted to take part in the BMBFKORA principle. Run from 2003 to 2006, the project enti-tled “Field-scale quantification of the potential of NAin deep large-scale aquifers – example: VOC contami-nation from a dry cleaners in Rosengarten-Ehestorf”involved project planners determining the extent of natu-ral attenuation (NA) in the soil since the introduction ofcontamination and estimating its subsequent course. Theproject partners included the Harburg authorities, theInstitut für Gewässerschutz und Umge-bungsüberwachung (institute for the protection of natu-ral waters and environmental monitoring) in Kiel, theState Authority for Mining, Energy and Geology inHanover and the Tübinger Grundwasser-Forschungsinsti-tut (Tübingen groundwater research institute).

Keeping tabs on pollutants – recording and assessing natural degradation and retention processes

In order to quantify the nature of the contaminantplume◄ and the natural degradation and retentionprocess underground, the PCE introduction and its distri-bution had to be recorded first. Existing measuring pointswere upgraded and new ones set up in order to locate theprecise location of the contamination source and theensuing discharge.

Innovative systems for taking soil gas andgroundwater samples

The site conditions made it extremely expensive to samplethe groundwater using conventional wells, which is whyonly five were installed. The experts secured additionalsamples, but above all site surveys, using what is known asthe direct-push procedure◄. This innovative drillingmethod is a faster, more flexible and considerably morecost-effective alternative to the conventional procedure.The direct-push procedure was further developed duringthe project so that the required underground depths


A direct-push sounding device at work

http://www.natural-attenuation.de/content.php

ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | KEEPING TABS ON POLLUTANTS 15

could also be reached. The scientists also expanded thewells to create multilevel measuring points to enable per-manent sampling of soil gas and groundwater at variousdepths. This innovative procedure enabled a preciseanalysis of the vertical distribution of the contamination.Conversely, it proved difficult to determine the horizontalspread of the contamination by attempting to pump at thewells. The impenetrable soil did not permit any conclu-sions to be drawn regarding the overall breadth of thecontaminant plume.

Steady introduction of PCE

Key results of the survey: the scientists measured the high-est concentrations of PCE at a soil depth of five to tenmetres below the surface. They determined that the soilcontinuously feeds PCE into the groundwater. However,the quantity continually drops over time until the dis-charge finally comes to a halt. Because the contaminant isprimarily accessing the groundwater with the drainagewater, the current and future amount of contaminantdelivered and thus the lifetime of the pollution source issignificantly affected by the amount of precipitation. Onaverage, the total delivery over the non-sealed surfacearea of the company premises amounts to nine grams aday, of which over seven grams can get into the ground-water. The rest evaporates into the atmosphere, where it isbroken down into harmless substances.

Pollution transport models

The project team made use of what are known as transportmodels to obtain a quantitative estimate of the futureintroduction of pollution into the groundwater. Withtheir help the team ran through various versions of pollu-tion spread since the assumed introduction of the contam-ination some 40 years ago. According to the most likelyscenarios, which were determined by a comparison withthe results measured on site, the PCE contaminationplume in the aquifer has been stable and virtuallyunchanged for around 20 to 25 years. Calculations sug-gest that it is between 400 and 500 metres long. Theresults from the measuring points, which are extremelyheterogeneous in part, lead to the conclusion that theremay not be just one contaminant plume but it could havesplit into two or more branches.

Pollution source will be “clean” in around40 years

Scientists expect that the source of the pollution – i.e. thePCE still in the soil above the groundwater – will havecompletely disappeared in around 40 years’ time. The PCEplume in the groundwater will completely break downover time due to the existing natural degradation processes.

These statements are indispensable for a legal assessmentof using natural attenuation. They enable the authoritiesto dispense with the extremely expensive and frequentlyonly partly efficient measures of active remediation with-out any risk. Overall, the procedure developed at theRosengarten site for surveying and assessing the contami-nation situation has shown that decisions on whether andto what extent natural pollution reduction is taking placecan also be made with sufficient certainty for deepaquifers.

Landkreis Harburg (Harburg County)(Head of soil/air/water department)Gunnar PeterPostfach 144021414 Winsen/Luhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 41 71/6 93-4 02Fax: +49 (0) 41 71/6 93-1 75E-mail: [email protected]: www.landkreis-harburg.deFunding reference: 02WN0437

Groundwater is an especially important and also vul-nerable resource for our supply of drinking water.Often only the slightest amount of contamination isenough to render thousands of litres of waterundrinkable. In order to dispense with the need topump contaminated groundwater to the surface forcleaning, researchers in Germany and elsewherehave been intensively focussing on “in-situ” proce-dures for some years – technologies that can beapplied directly in the aquifer◄. To drive forwardnew and further development of permeable treat-ment walls in Germany, the BMBF has been support-ing the RUBIN research programme since 2000/2001.

Cleaning polluted groundwater is a complex task. Mostremediation procedures involve an active pump-and-treatmethod, active meaning that the water is pumped to thesurface and treated there in downstream plants. This is anextremely expensive process, and as the water is then fre-quently channelled into the sewer system this results inyet more cost.

Remediation within the aquifer

Recent years have seen intensive work on the develop-ment and testing of passive forms of in-situ remediationtechnology using permeable treatment walls. These areinstalled in the groundwater flow from the source of con-tamination to eliminate the pollutants in the aquifer itself.A unique new procedure is thus saving costs as there is nolonger a need to pump or discharge the groundwater.Two types of technology have been primarily introducedto practical applications: the all-over permeable treatment wall and the funnel-and-gate system, wherebythe groundwater is fed via guiding walls (funnel) to a per-meable reaction zone (gate).

An all-over permeable wall involves a ditch reachingdown to the layers where the groundwater flows beingfilled with reactive material. Elemental iron or activatedcarbon◄ is primarily used for this purpose. The contami-nated groundwater flows through the permeable barrier,and the reactive material operates like a filter to removeor break down the pollutants.

The technology involved in permeable treatment wallswas primarily driven forward in North America. Germanyhad little practical experience with treatment walls.

Permeable treatment walls – underground structures for successful remediation

RUBIN – the project

The BMBF-funded research programme entitled Use ofpermeable treatment walls for site remediation(RUBIN) saw industrial companies and research facilitiesworking closely together in an interdisciplinary fashion atvarious locations across Germany. The main task was toconduct a detailed, far-reaching and co-ordinated investi-gation into the potential and limitations as well as theenvironmental impact and economic viability of perme-able treatment walls at a large number of locations in Ger-many. One key goal of the research programme was todevelop generalised criteria for the application of perme-able treatment walls, such as● Layout, design, construction and operation● Performance and durability (degradation of pollution,

as well as for mixed contamination/reactor systemsand reactive reactor filling materials)

● Framework conditions and limitations for use● Economy (procedural costs) and ecology (environmen-

tal impact).

Results for practical application

Projects were conducted at six sites to investigate durabili-ty, degradation levels, changes in material, material con-version processes, treatment wall systems, reactor fillingmaterials and monitoring.


Schematic representation of a fully permeable treatment wall (Mull u.Partner Ing. Ges. mbH, Hanover)

http://www.rubin-online.de/english/introduction/index.html

ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | PERMEABLE TREATMENT WALLS 17

Another focus of the work saw employees from the Univer-sity of Kiel set up and test quality management rules aspart of the RUBIN project, with the aim of enabling reli-able planning, execution and monitoring of standardisedtreatment walls in future. Experts from the University ofTübingen also compared the economic efficiency of themethods with conventional remediation procedures.These studies put those using this new technology in aposition to carry out an in-depth cost comparison infuture.

The quality management rules and economic efficiencyobservations are, along with the overall results of the pro-gramme, integral components of the handbook on the useof permeable treatment walls for site remediation, whichpresents the key results and findings of the project tointerested parties. Created under the guidance of OstfaliaUniversity, the co-ordination site of the RUBIN pro-gramme, this handbook is to serve primarily as a generalorientation aid for users – e.g. authorities, those in chargeof remediation, planners and environmental technologyproviders.

Scientists conducted further investigations to examine theresults and findings at technical pilot facilities, with exten-sive planning, construction and trials involved. As a result,the technology was able to be rendered marketable andintroduced to practical groundwater remediation withinGermany. The BMBF funding therefore made it possible todevelop a new, more cost-effective and more environmen-tally friendly method of removing pollution directly fromthe groundwater – one of the country’s most significantsources of drinking water – ready to put into practice andthus enhance Germany’s status within environmentaltechnology.

Project website ►www.rubin-online.de

Ostfalia – University of Applied SciencesFaculty of Civil and Environmental EngineeringProf. Dipl.-Ing. Harald BurmeierProf. Dr. Volker BirkeHerbert-Meyer-Straße 729556 Suderburg, Germany Tel.: +49 (0) 58 26/9 88-6 11 40, -6 15 60E-mail: [email protected]@ostfalia.deFunding reference: FZK 0271241 and 02WR0828

Permeable treatment wall

Contaminant plume

Clean groundwater

Contamination

Soil/non-saturated zone

Impervious layer

Direction of groundwater flow

Aquifer

Ground water surface

Schematic representation of a fully permeable treatment wall (source: Mull u. Partner Ing. Ges. mbH, Hanover)

Treatment (reactive) walls are an extremely promis-ing approach to sanitising or safeguarding contami-nated aquifers◄. Germany’s first all-over permeablereaction wall was installed as a pilot scheme atRheine in North Rhine-Westphalia in 1998, in a qua-ternary aquifer polluted with chlorinated hydrocar-bons (DBU project). In a subsequent, further-reach-ing research and development project funded bythe BMBF, partners from science and economicsworked together to investigate the durability of thetreatment wall and the degree to which iron can beused as a reactive material at that particular site.

In June 1998, Hanover-based Mull und Partner Inge-nieurgesellschaft mbH used funding from the DeutscheBundesstiftung Umwelt (DBU, German environmentalfoundation) to erect a groundwater treatment wall as afield-scale project in order to remove volatile halogenatedhydrocarbons (VHHC)◄ such as tetrachloroethylene(PCE)◄ or trichloroethylene (TCE)◄ from contaminatedgroundwater. This involved using a new porous zerovalent iron (Fe0), “iron sponge”, as the reactive material.

Pollutants from a laundry

The reaction wall was installed approximately 700 metresdownstream of a massive source of underground PCE con-tamination. The cause of this pollution is a laundry thatonce operated on the premises. The treatment wall is astructure enabling all-over permeability of contaminatedgroundwater and measures around 6 metres deep,22.5 metres long and 88 centimetres thick. It is filled withtwo reactive materials up to a height of around 3.5 metres,i.e. above the maximum anticipated level of the ground-water. The materials used are an iron sponge supplied byMITTAL Steel Hamburg GmbH (formerly ISPAT Hamburg-er Stahlwerke GmbH) and a 70% pea gravel and 30% greycast iron granulate blend from Gotthart Meier AG in Rhe-infelden. This twin-layered effect allows the performanceof the materials to be compared. This procedure has seenthe amount of PCE reliably drop from its initial concentra-tion of several thousand micrograms per litre by over 99%since 1998.

Reliable long-term effectiveness – in-situ treatment wall at the Rheine site

Studies on long-term effectiveness

As well as the activity mentioned, the plant was also usedfor various long-term investigations. The BMBF funded thefollowing projects: Pre-investigation, monitoring andquality management regarding Reactive Walls(Christian Albrecht University of Kiel), Evaluation of thedurability of an iron-reactive wall with the example ofthe site at Rheine (Mull und Partner Ingenieurge-sellschaft mbH) and Biological processes in a reactiveiron wall (TU Berlin). The objective of the research activi-ties was to observe the long-term behaviour of the treat-ment wall and to develop a monitoring programme toinvestigate the geochemical, hydro-geological and bio-logical processes in and around the Fe0 treatment wall.

Reliable for many years now

The reaction wall at Rheine has been providing assuredconstant remediation of the groundwater for over tenyears now, with the two different materials producing dif-ferent cleaning performances. The groundwater investi-gations have shown that the iron sponge achieved a


GardenStreet

FilmHDPE 2 mm

Gas drain pipes

Calcite gravel

Protective layer of sand

Drainage gravel

Filled with non-contaminated dug-out material

Iron granulate filled borehole

Max. groundwater level

Quaternary base

Vertical structure of the treatment wall at the Rheine site

ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | IN-SITU TREATMENT WALL AT RHEINE 19

cleaning performance of around 70 to 80% in the first 6 to12 months following installation, a figure that then rose tomore than 99%. For several years now the concentrationsof VHHC measured downstream have been under10 micrograms per litre.

The concentrations of VHHC downstream of the section ofwall filled with a mixture of grey cast iron granulate andpea gravel were somewhat different: an excellent clean-ing performance of 99% was recorded at the start, but oncethe reaction wall had been in operation for around 8 to12 months only around 80% of the inflowing VHHC con-tent was still being broken down. This level of cleaningperformance has remained virtually constant up to thepresent day. The scientists were able to determine fromcore drilling that a partial separation of gravel and ironwas the cause of the reduced degradation in this section ofthe treatment wall.

Both flow modelling and pump-and-trace attempts clearlydemonstrated that the permeability of the treatment wallis assured and nothing is flowing over or around it. Theexperts were also able to substantiate that hydraulicchanges had taken place during the time of operationthrough precipitates◄ or gas formation.

Biological aspects

The scientists at TU Berlin also demonstrated during theproject the appearance of bacteria in the two iron materi-als used after a few years. The description of the biologicalactivities of all relevant physiological bacteria groupsoffered fundamental insights into the microbial colonisa-

tion. As it was discovered, there are no anticipated nega-tive effects within a foreseeable timeframe on the long-term stability of the dechlorination performance of irontreatment walls as a result of the micro-organisms present.

Applying the results

The synopsis of all the research work clearly demonstratesthat the pilot and demonstration treatment wall at Rheinecan be successfully applied for long-term use. The projectresults also included Mull und Partner Ingenieurge-sellschaft mbH registering a trade name for the ironsponge. It is marketed under the name “ReSponge” andhas been registered with the patent and trademark officesin Europe (07/2005) and the USA (12/2005). The companyalso entered a contractual agreement with MITTAL SteelGmbH in Hamburg in 2003 for the marketing of ironsponge for remediation purposes.

Project website ►www.rubin-online.de

Mull und Partner Ingenieurgesellschaft mbHDr. Martin WegnerJoachimstraße 130159 Hanover, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)5 11/12 35 59-59Fax: +49 (0)5 11/12 35 59-55E-mail: [email protected] reference: 0281238

Christian Albrecht University of KielInstitute of GeosciencesProf. Dr. Andreas DahmkeDr. habil. Markus EbertLudwig-Meyn-Straße 1024118 Kiel, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)4 31/8 80-28 58, -46 09Fax: +49 (0)4 31/8 80-76 06E-mail: [email protected]@gpi.uni-kiel.deFunding reference: 02WR0208

Technische Universität BerlinDepartment of Environmental Technology (ITU)Environmental hygiene working groupDr. Martin SteiofAmrumer Straße 3213353 Berlin, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 30/31 42 75-32Fax: +49 (0) 30/31 42 75-75E-mail [email protected] reference: 0271262

Reactive wall Downstream

Upstream

ReSponge®

Reducing the concentration of pollution by treatment wall permeation

The Lang tar works in Offenbach prepared andprocessed tar from 1915 to 1929. After most of thebuildings were torn down in 1930 and a period ofvarious intermittent uses, the premises are now pre-dominantly wasteland. However, the soil andgroundwater are just as polluted with tar oil andtar-oil-related substances as they were before. Whatis therefore required is a straightforward, economi-cally feasible and safe remediation procedure thatalso affects the surrounding office locations as littleas possible. Scientists working under the RUBINresearch programme used an innovative “funnel-and-gate system” with three built-in bioreactors◄to develop a procedure to meet these requirements.

The impact of 14 years of tar production at the Offenbachsite is still clearly measurable today: the contaminating taroil and tar-oil-related substances have penetrated rightthrough to the base of the quaternary, sandy-gravellyaquifer◄. Underneath this lies tertiary◄ clay (Rupelianclay), which has a blocking effect to prevent further pene-tration of the contaminants. Several measuring pointsindicate this pollution to be a 20 to 80 centimetre tar oilphase◄ at the base of the quaternary aquifer. Polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are the dominant pollutantspresent; analyses indicated over 150 milligrams per kilo-gram of soil, and up to several grams in places. Theresearchers found BTEX◄ concentrations of up to 30 mil-ligrams per litre at the source of the contamination.

Low maintenance and control requirements

After a detailed inspection of the site, experts estimatedthat it would cost around EUR 18 million to perform a con-ventional clean-up by means of digging up the soil. Thatled to a search for more cost-effective alternatives. In astudy of the various options, scientists weighed upwhether to clean up just some areas or to seal off the con-taminated soil with a barrier and a surface seal. A funnel-and-gate system with bioreactor was discussed as an addi-tional option. This solution should be simple to imple-ment with low maintenance and control requirements,and would have minimal impact on the existing landusage. The estimated costs were comparatively low, com-ing in at EUR 1.5 million. However, there was a problem:such a reactor had never been built before; the feasibilityof this proposal needed to be proven first.

Funding from the BMBF smoothed the way from the initialidea through to the now obtained proof of functionality

Funnel and gate – an innovative reactor conceptsuccessfully combating contamination

and effectiveness. Working under the RUBIN researchprogramme (see project 1.1.03), a team of scientists per-formed the required experiments (in the lab and on site),produced the necessary models and implemented theconstruction and test run of the reactor on a pilot scale.Other key requirements for the success of the project werethe approval of Darmstadt council, Department for theenvironment in Frankfurt, and the equipment providedby the state of Hessen.

Planning, construction and operation

The concept implemented on a pilot scale involved a heav-ily structured reactor: it comprised a baffle plate thickenerto remove iron and other solids from the water, three in-series bioreactors and an activated carbon phase.Upstream of the baffle plate thickener and before each ofthe three bioreactors was an open water area (free waterarea) to distribute the groundwater over the entire flowcross-section of the bioreactors. Oxygen (as H2O2) andnutrients were also fed into the groundwater at severalpoints within these free water areas to stimulate the bio-logical degradation of the pollution. The reactor concepttherefore took the general development away from pas-sive, difficult-to-control systems to ones that enable inter-vention and control.

The pilot funnel-and-gate system was constructedbetween October 2006 and March 2007. The 30 metrelong guiding walls (funnel) connect to the permeablereaction zone (gate) on the east and west flanks. They weredesigned as 550 millimetre thick walls in the mixed-in-place (MIP) procedure◄ and extend at least one metre intothe Rupelian clay. The actual reaction areas between thefree water areas were filled with a gravel with a grain sizeof 2 to 8 millimetres to serve as a growth body (carrier) forthe pollution-degrading micro-organisms.

The reactor is operating during the pilot with a flow rateof 230 to 500 litres per hour, which cannot be achieved bythe natural gradient of the groundwater alone. A pump istherefore necessary to achieve this. This active interven-tion ensures a constant throughflow and keeps feedingquantities and degradation conditions as constant as pos-sible, leading to a clear reduction in operating and moni-toring requirements compared with a passive approach.The flow rate control also enables modification to thehydraulic framework conditions at any time (e.g. ground-water sampling from the area).


ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | FUNNEL AND GATE 21

Oxygen and nitrate are added to the water in order tostimulate aerobic◄ and aerobic-denitrifying degradationof the pollutants. O-phosphate◄ also ensures that there issufficient phosphorus present in the water. Nitrogen –another essential nutrient – is available to the micro-organisms in the form of naturally occurring ammoniumwithin the groundwater. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solu-tions, sodium nitrate and a mixture of monopotassiumphosphate (KH2PO4) and buffer solution Na2HPO4 areburied to serve as working chemicals.

The microbial colonisation of the four gate modules wascontrolled by feeding in additives and monitored over800 days across the entire bioreactor system using amicrobiological monitoring program.

Effectiveness proven

In the baffle plate thickener, the addition of H2O2 convertsthe iron, which is then deposited as sludge through sedi-mentation. A large proportion of the pollutants is alreadybroken down at this stage through the aerobic stimulationin the baffle plate thickener. The main reduction is that ofPAH and BTEX aromatics (benzene, toluene, ethyl ben-zene, xylenes), to around 70%. The other contaminantsrelating to the tar oil (tar-oil-based pollutants) such asNSO-HET (NSO heterocyclic compounds)◄ and the otheraromatic hydrocarbons◄ are reduced by around half.

The remaining aromatic hydrocarbons and PAH 2-16 arereduced to around 40% each in bioreactor 1 by the aerobic-denitrifying processes; the BTEX aromatics and NSO-HETto above 20%. The remaining pollutants are broken downin bioreactors 2 and 3.

The first time that no traces of tar-oil-based pollutantswere recorded in the bioreactor process was in September2009. The trialled funnel-and-gate system is removing thepollution from the groundwater by means of aerobic-den-itrifying degradation alone. Other potential eliminationprocesses such as retardation◄ and volatilisation are play-ing little or no role.

System expansion

The positive experiences with the test reactor are nowleading the scientists to investigate the suitability of thesystem for treating the entire downstream contamination.They are currently comparing various versions with one ortwo gates and also passive and active components.

HIM GmbH, Remediation of Contaminated SitesDivisionDipl.-Ing. Christian Weingran64584 Biebesheim, GermanyWaldstraße 11Tel.: +49 (0) 64 28/92 35 11Fax: +49 (0) 64 28/92 35 35E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WR0293

CDM Consult GmbHDipl.-Ing. Jörn Müller64665 Alsbach, GermanyNeue Bergstraße 13Tel.: +49 (0) 62 57/50 43 15Fax: +49 (0) 62 57/50 43 60E-mail: [email protected]

I.M.E.S. GmbHDr. Hermann Schad88279 Amtzell, GermanyMartinstraße 1Tel.: +49 (0) 75 20/92 36 00Fax: +49 (0) 75 20/92 36 04E-mail: [email protected]

DVGW Water Technology Center (TZW)Dr. Andreas Tiehm76139 Karlsruhe, GermanyKarlsruher Straße 84Tel.: +49 (0)7 21/9 67 81 37Fax: +49 (0)7 21/9 67 81 01E-mail: [email protected]

Operating station

Sedimentation area

Fill area for activated carbon

Free water area 2

Dosing station

Connecting structures

Piping (culvert)

Free water area 1 Free water area 3 Free water area 4

Bioreactor B1 Bioreactor B2 Bioreactor B3

Longitudinal cross-section of the innovative funnel-and-gate system

Iron granulate reaction walls have proven theircleaning effectiveness in several field studies todate. However, the effect of modified pH values◄onthe long-term stability of the reactive material wasstill unclear. Scientists from the use of permeabletreatment walls (RUBIN) programme used the site ofa former barracks in Berlin to test a correspondingpilot facility on the groundwater there, which washighly contaminated with trichloroethylene (TCE)◄.The result was overwhelming: the iron granulatewas also highly efficient and economical in the longterm and it was possible to remove all the TCE.

There are 11,000 known abandoned waste sites in Ger-many, all representing a significant risk to the groundwa-ter. Quick remediation, e.g. through excavation or pump-ing out the polluted groundwater, has proven technicallyunfeasible or disproportionately expensive in many cases.This is especially true when the pollutants are organic sub-stances such as volatile halogenated hydrocarbons(VHHC)◄ or tar oils, and when this pollution takes theform of a separate flow phase◄under the ground. Assuch, technologies aiming to secure the contaminantplumes◄ being emitted from the sources of contamina-tion are increasingly gaining favour. One example of suchtechnology is permeable treatment walls. Development ofthis technology began in North America and it has sincebeen funded in Germany via the BMBF’s RUBIN R&D project (see project 1.1.03).

Testing long-term stability

A modular pilot facility was set up in 2001 on the site of aformer Soviet barracks in Bernau (approximately 30 kmnorth-east of Berlin) to treat the groundwater there, whichwas highly contaminated with trichloroethylene (TCE).The main aim of the project was to test the durability anddegradation performance of an iron granulate treatmentwall under quasi in-situ conditions. The procedure utilisedthe reduction potential of metallic iron coming into con-tact with water and halogenated hydrocarbons. The corro-sion reaction of the iron served to dehalogenate◄ the par-tially carcinogenic substances. However, the oxygenreduction process increased the pH value, which trig-gered a string of secondary reactions restricting the long-term stability of the reactive material.

Application of treatment walls – combating high TCE concentrations

Project aims achieved

The scientists began by erecting a funnel-shaped barrieraround the source of the contamination. This barrier bor-ders the reactor, which is placed beneath the naturalgroundwater table and thus permits passive horizontalpermeation. The reactor comprises 18 individual cylindri-cal modules measuring 2.8 metres in diameter andaround 2.2 metres high; each module can be consideredto be a standalone reactor. By coupling several modules inseries or in parallel, it is possible to control flow lengthsand thus the amount of time the water remains in thereactor according to requirements. The research projectoperated the modules in series.

The most important aims of the project were achieved infull:● Efficient elimination of the high TCE concentrations

remaining stable in the long term.● Manageable volume flows and pollutant concentra-

tion/quantity over a long flow course in the iron reac-tor.

● Access to the reactive material to enable countermea-sures to be taken against any unforeseen negativeinfluences.


Average retention time (hrs)

TCE degradation in lab with iron granulate

http://www.rubin-online.de/english/introduction/index.html

ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | TREATMENT WALLS COMBATING TCE 23

The grey cast iron granulate used as the reaction materialachieved a cleaning performance of over 99.5%. It is both ahighly efficient and economically beneficial prospect forfield-scale projects where pollution concentrations are atleast 25 milligrams per litre, as found at the Bernau site.Follow-up cleaning of the slightly contaminated reactoroutlet with water activated carbon has proven to be highlyeffective over the three and a half years the reactor hasbeen in operation and the most economic measure forremediation available. Running over several years, theresearch project saw a total of 450 kilograms of TCEremoved from 15,000 cubic metres of water overall, andthe treated groundwater cleaned up to the TCE detectionlimit.

Ready for practical application

The results of the research project have been implement-ed in site remediation since February 2007. The “eastVCHC plume” is being cleaned using the iron granulatetreatment wall. The requirements for this were:● Upgrade/retrofit of the equipment. The iron granulate

from 10 reactor modules had to be removed, mechani-cally processed and reinstalled.

● Installation of new piping plus measuring and controltechnology as a pump system to and from the reactormodules.

● Implementation of six pumping wells plus the neces-sary pumping technology.

As the cleaning performance of the reaction wall is insuffi-cient for the cDCE degradation product◄, follow-upcleaning with water activated carbon is also required.

The contaminated groundwater is pumped at a speed of2.4 cubic metres an hour from six wells. Ten parallel mod-ules are used to clean the water contaminated withvolatile chlorinated hydrocarbons◄ (VCHC, predominant-ly TCE). The treated water then flows through the follow-up cleaning system and is then fed back into the soil. Theequipment is operated and monitored centrally.

The scientists have already modified the equipment sever-al times during operation in order to optimise perform-ance. The water now flows up through the modules in theA section. A mixture of iron and filter sand was placed inthe feed area of the B section modules and a gas drainagesystem made from perforated polyethylene tubes hasbeen installed.

In the last three and a half years, the cleaning installationat the Bernau site has removed approximately 3,200 kilo-grams of VCHC from around 55,000 cubic metres ofgroundwater underground. It has removed virtually allthe TCE from this location, part of which was not fullydechlorinated but converted to cDCE instead.

Brandenburgische Boden Gesellschaft für Grundstücksverwaltung und -verwertung mbHMartina FreygangWaldstadt Hauptallee 116/615806 Zossen, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 33 77/3 88-157Fax: +49 (0) 33 77/3 [email protected] Funding reference: 0251231

IMES Gesellschaft für innovative Mess-, Erkundungs- und Sanierungstechnologien mbHDr. Hermann SchadMartinstraße 188279 Amtzell, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 75 20/92-36 00Fax: +49 (0) 75 20/92-36 [email protected] www.imes-gmbh.net

ISTEV GmbHPeter HeinBismarckstraße 114109 Berlin, GermanyTel. +49 (0) 30/80 94-15 76Fax +49 (0) 30/80 94-15 [email protected]

Iron granulate

Output

Gas valve

SamplingWater and gas area

SandGeotextile

Filter gravelDrainage

Input

View of the reactor ditch with partly filled modules (left) and side viewof a filled module

Coal mining and chemical industry have heavily con-taminated the soil and groundwater in the Bitter-feld area. Experiences from the last 20 years indi-cate that hydraulic soil and groundwater remedia-tion◄ is often ineffective – particularly on largeabandoned waste sites if the source of the contami-nation either cannot be precisely located or is verydifficult to remove. The remediation research inregionally contaminated aquifers◄ (SAFIRA)research project therefore used the sample modelsite at Bitterfeld-Wolfen to develop new technolo-gies and methods for in-situ remediation of ground-water contaminated with complex pollutant com-pounds.

The Bitterfeld-Wolfen area is still suffering the effects ofabandoned waste. The ground beneath the former indus-trial and landfill sites is polluted, the groundwater heavilycontaminated in places with organic compounds, prima-rily chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHC◄), over an area ofaround 25 square kilometres. In Bitterfeld this contamina-tion reaches a depth of 30 to 40 metres and affects an esti-mated 250 million cubic metres of groundwater. Conven-tional remediation procedures demand mainly protractedand expensive pump and treat measures. However, forsuch widespread contamination and such a complex mixof pollutants, in-situ cleaning is an appealing approach asit does not involve digging up and moving the soil.

Active and passive methods

In-situ remediation methods are divided into active tech-nologies (e.g. soil gas suction) and passive methods, thelatter requiring little or no energy feed during the remedi-ation process. The most developed passive version is reac-tion walls. While this method is already successfullyapplied to simple combinations of pollutants, develop-ment is still needed to handle complex mixtures.

The SAFIRA research project investigated the hydro-geo-logical and geochemical framework conditions for cost-effective in-situ procedures and tested these at the Bitter-feld site. Researchers at the UFZ centre for environmentalresearch at Leipzig-Halle and the universities of Dresden,Halle, Kiel, Leipzig and Tübingen were able to use areasformerly home to the Bitterfeld chemical industry todevelop and test the suitability of technologies for passivedecontamination in a real-life situation.

SAFIRA joint research project – remediation research using the Bitterfeld site as a model

The main objectives of the project were: ● Development and gradual implementation of effi-

cient passive water treatment technologies for organ-ic pollutant mixtures from the lab stage to a pilotphase.

● Technical-economic optimisation of the new tech-nologies plus their combination.

● Demonstration of their long-term stability under fieldconditions.

● In addition, the actual operating costs and the envi-ronmental law and planning aspects of in-situ reac-tion zones were to be evaluated.

Pilot facility for various procedures

At the heart of this project is a pilot facility installed in Bit-terfeld’s groundwater, 23 metres below the surface of thesite. The scientists used this to investigate seven proce-dures that had been successfully tested in the lab and insmall-scale field trials: ● Adsorption◄ and microbial degradation of pollutants

with activated carbon◄● Zeolite-supported palladium (PD) catalysts◄● Oxidation all-metal catalysts◄● Oxygen-reducing combination reactors◄● Membrane-supported palladium (PD) catalysts◄● Adsorption with activated carbon ● Anaerobic◄microbial degradation


Water flow 30 ... 1000 l/h

Dual-phase separator (separation of substances heavier and lighter than water)

Precipitation/flocculation (4-chamber agitator vessel)

Separation (stainless steel lamella baffle plate thickener, lamella surface area: approx. 1 m²)

Filtration (backwashing possible), V = 185 l, sand filling (approx. 140 l coarse, medium and fine sand), p up to 10 bar

Activated carbon air filter 2 Activated carbon filters in series, 1-2 and 2-1 poss., with V = 216 l, carbon quantity each: 160 l

Gas washer for washing out HCl (pH neutralisation)

Stripping (compact stripper)

Compact stripper with droplet separator

Stripping air fan with volume flow rate of up to 135 m³/h

Catalytic oxidation exhaust gas cleaning2 reactors, each approx. 30 l

(electric heating 8 kW (approx. 350°C))

Catalytic reduction exhaust gas cleaning2 reactors, of approx. 30 l and 6 l

(electric heating 2 x 2 kW (approx. 100...300°C))

Stripping via 2 hollow-fibre membrane modules

Gas flow: 2...50 l/min N2, 0.1...5 l/min H2

Water flow: 100...1000 l/min water

Incl. vacuum pump: 4 m³/h at normal pressure

Vacuum up to 100 mbar absolute

Procedural steps carried out in the pilot scheme


ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | SAFIRA RESEARCH PROJECT 25

Transferring these procedures to a larger pilot scaleproved problematic in some cases. Although the micro-organisms at the site are in a position to break downchlorobenzene◄under anaerobic conditions, the rates ofdegradation were insufficient in practice so proceduresfor adding oxygen also had to be developed. The scientistsalso ascertained that although palladium catalysts weresuitable for quick reduction dechlorination◄ they neededbetter protection in groundwater containing sulphatesagainst the products used for the microbiological reduc-tion of sulphate such as hydrogen sulphide. Conventionaladsorbents (such as activated carbon) help to remove pol-lutants. The operating life of treatment walls can be signif-icantly extended through microbiological colonisation.The project also showed that oxidation catalytic proce-dures can also be used to treat complex pollutant mix-tures. Methods for reactivating the surfaces of the cata-lysts is an area where optimisation was required.

Implementation in specific remediationconcepts

In additional investigations, the project partners adaptedtheir research to the extremely diverse composition of pol-lution at each site, in particular the many different sub-stances and the high concentrations of individual sub-stances at Bitterfeld. The new projects focused on threeareas promising huge benefits for future remediation con-cepts at Bitterfeld-Wolfen: ● Innovative remediation technologies (catalysis◄) ● Coupled systems (hydrochemistry/microbiology) ● Spatial effect (digital area model, visualisation,

models)

Within innovative remediation technologies, the projectteam developed a new method that uses vacuum strips◄through a hollow-fibre membrane to convert pollutantsfrom the liquid phase◄ to the gaseous phase, whichenables a highly efficient level of destruction throughcatalysis. This technology deals with a broad range of con-taminants in high concentrations. Once the procedurehad been successfully used in a pilot scheme, it was devel-oped further at various locations. The focus of this devel-opment was on removing and destroying crucial sub-stances from a procedural perspective. A new form oftechnology will now make it much easier to treat the spe-cific contaminated groundwater in the Bitterfeld-Wolfenregion. It was tested in a pilot scheme that included a pro-cedural stage for stripping◄ out pollutants with hollow-fibre membrane modules and devices for applying inno-

vative procedural steps for removing the sulphur from thestripped-out gases (UFZ patent). The facility aims todemonstrate alternatives for complex groundwater con-tamination where there has previously been no economi-cally viable cleaning concept. The “treatment train”approach was followed to achieve a sufficient overallcleaning performance, in other words the intelligentinterlinking of modular standard and/or innovative indi-vidual processes.

Another focus was on the combination of different micro-biological degradation paths in corresponding condi-tioned aerobic◄/anaerobic zones permitting the succes-sive degradation of certain pollutants or groups of pollu-tants. The third area of focus looked at the creation of adigital database for Bitterfeld, which included a geologi-cal structure model, a description of regional groundwa-ter qualities at various periods and remediation scenariosbased on land usage.

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research –UFZProf. Dr. Holder WeißProf. Dr. Frank-Dieter KopinkePermoserstraße 1504318 Leipzig, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 41/2 35-12 53Fax: +49 (0)3 41/2 35-18 37E-mail: [email protected]@[email protected]: www.ufz.deFunding reference: 02WT9911/9

Many organic pollutants in groundwater arebiodegradable under aerobic◄, or oxygenated, con-ditions. Adding oxygen can accelerate the degrada-tion process; a relatively cost-effective way of doingthis is to use direct gas injection. A project teaminvestigated the processes determining the efficien-cy of such direct gas injections in porous media(aquifers◄), and developed forecast models for usewithin remediation. Several demonstration projectshave already been successfully completed on thebasis of the research results.

One way to accelerate the degradation of pollutantsunderground is to use direct gas injections – an in-situremediation procedure. Injection lances moving both hor-izontally and vertically are used for the targeted introduc-tion of oxygen into the stream of contaminated ground-water, where it establishes itself in the aquifer in the formof small, finely distributed bubbles. Low-permeability lay-ers of sediment prevent the gas from dissipating upwards;sideways-expanding oxygen-flow capillary networks◄form instead. The immobile gas phase◄ acts hydraulicallyand biologically like a reactive oxygen wall that cleans thegroundwater flowing through it. This means the bubblesdissolve slowly and add oxygen to the groundwater pass-ing by, supporting the process of degrading the pollutantsit contains, while new oxygen is constantly fed in fromabove.

Controlling the spatial effect of the gasaccumulator

Between 2000 and 2010, the BMBF financed the SAFIRA,PROINNO 1 and 2 and ZIM demonstration projects inorder to research this procedure. The research sitesincluded the site of a former chemical plant in Leuna andthe Auensee recreation area in Leipzig, which is underthreat from the groundwater being contaminated withPCE-TCE◄. Conventional technologies for direct gas injec-tion are based on homogeneous gas distribution throughlances. The distribution itself is not measured, meaningthat these technologies operate “blind”. Basically, the gasdistribution at the injection lances behaves like a dynamicgas accumulator comprising branch-like and inter-related(coherent) channels of gas and non-related (incoherent)gas clusters. The injection or release processes cause theseeither to expand or draw closer together.

Direct oxygen injection – measuring and modelling dynamic gas accumulators

The heart of the innovation and the scientific challenge ofthe projects lay in the small-scale metrological recordingof the gas dispersion and accumulation processes in theheterogeneous conditions underground and the interpre-tation and control of these using computer models. Theaim was to control the spatial effect of the gas accumula-tion. As well as conventional low-pressure injection (LPI),the scientists also experimented with high-pressure injec-tion (HPI) for the first time.

Improved monitoring

Sensatec in Kiel worked together with the UFZ centre forenvironmental research at Leipzig-Halle to develop a newsystems technology for coupled LPI-HPI direct gas injec-tion. This involved both a reliable in-situ gas measure-ment system and a dynamic gas dispersion model on thebasis of which the new injection process can be controlledand optimised. The measuring system features an innova-tive set of sensors (sensor array), which enables it to meas-ure and store large amounts of data extremely quickly.This makes it suitable for recording changes in the gastransport and accumulation processes in the otherwiseheterogeneous conditions underground. As this is muchfaster than typical groundwater transport processes, stan-dard systems are unsuitable for this type of monitoring.With regard to the measurement data, the scientists usedsuitable geostatistical processes to calculate intermediatevalues (interpolation) and visualised all the data in 3D.These 3D data fields formed the basis for developing thegas dispersion model.


Low-pressure injection High-pressure injection

3D representation of gas distribution underground with LPI andHPI direct gas injection


ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | DIRECT OXYGEN INJECTION 27

Technologically relevant results

The research projects produced the following results:● Independent measuring of horizontal and vertical

hydraulic conductivity is essential for model-support-ed forecasting of dynamic gas accumulation under-ground. Thin clay layers in particular can significantlyinfluence the dynamics of the gas flows reaching verti-cally upwards. In existing groundwater models, thevertical conductivity was calculated from the horizon-tal conductivity using an empirical factor (< 1). Howev-er, this basic approximation breaks down when itcomes to predicting the dispersion behaviour ofdynamic gas accumulators.

● A fine-scale site survey is required to ensure the opti-mum vertical and horizontal positioning of injectionlances and sensors. As a minimum, monitoring mustinvolve dynamic drilling◄ and injection logs◄ inorder to determine hydraulic conductivity and geo-electric profile recordings◄.

● The gas must be measured in a sealed in-situ sensornet adapted to the local conditions (approx. 60 meas-uring points per injection lance; 1 sensor per m3),which is essential for successful predictions of gas dis-persion in heterogeneous sediments.

● The experts derived from the laboratory experiments aworking hypothesis that low-pressure injections leadto incoherent gas transport and high-pressure injec-tions lead to coherent gas transport. This finding isimportant when it comes to ascertaining the correctdimensions for the gas barriers.

● A sensor system must be able to measure and store lotsof data in a short period of time and to differentiatebetween coherent and incoherent gas transport.

● LPI scenarios and combined LPI/HPI scenarios with anextremely low injection rate of 0.18 cubic metres anhour lead to an incoherent accumulation of gas. Con-versely, LPI scenarios with an injection rate ten timeshigher than this and pulsed HPI scenarios lead to acoherent accumulation of gas. This means that it isclearly the injection rate and not the injection pres-sure that predominantly affects the various gas distri-bution patterns. The only significant differencebetween the two injection methods is that high-pres-sure injection achieved a higher level of gas saturationin the lower range.

● A 3D gas dispersion model for optimising the coupledLPI/HPI gas supply procedure must:a) be a multi-phase model,b) factor in heterogeneous horizontal and vertical

permeability◄ and capillary pressure fields◄, c) use parameter fields conditioned for the measure-

ment data.● The experiments regarding the gas dispersion process-

es conducted in the lab and the field are also of greatinterest to CCS technology, i.e. the underground accu-mulation of greenhouse gases.

Project website ►http://safira.ufz.de

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research –UFZHydrogeology departmentProf. Dr. Helmut GeistlingerTheodor-Lieser-Straße 406120 Halle, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 45/5 58-52 20Fax: +49 (0)3 45/5 58-55 59E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WT9947/8

Example 3D computer simulation of gas distribution with LPI and HPI direct gas injection

Pollution is contaminating soil and groundwater allover the world. Land affected by this is difficult touse and hard to sell because remediation of the soiland groundwater is extremely complex and expen-sive. It therefore often remains unused. At the sametime, an area of around 90 hectares a day in Ger-many alone is being redeveloped as green-field land.The specialists at the Versuchseinrichtung zurGrundwasser- und Altlastensanierung (research facil-ity for the remediation of groundwater and aban-doned waste, VEGAS) are therefore developing tech-nologies that enable efficient surveying and remedi-ation of contaminated land to render it marketableonce more.

The soil and groundwater at many former industrial sitesand also in numerous urban areas has been contaminatedthrough improper disposal methods, accidents, the effectsof war and careless handling of hazardous substances.Consumers have also worsened the problem in the past:household chemicals, paint and other toxins that are nowdealt with as specialist waste were disposed of at unse-cured landfill sites with permeable ground underneath.For example, exhausted gravel pits were filled with allkinds of refuse and then planted over.

Conventional in-situ remediation techniques are oftenprotracted and expensive. The physical properties of thepollutants means that they collect in the soil pores and aredifficult to remove with traditional flushing methods.However, if contaminated material is dug out and dis-posed of at a dump, this only serves to delay the problem.Built-up land or land with deep-lying, hard-to-pinpointsources of pollution cannot be dug up in any case. One ofthe most important tasks we face today therefore is todevelop new technologies offering economical and eco-logical remediation before the abandoned waste poses athreat to both people and protected natural resources.

The VEGAS concept

With support from the BMBF and the Ministry of the Envi-ronment in Baden-Württemberg, the major research facil-ity VEGAS was established by the University of Stuttgart inSeptember 1995 (size: 670 m2; large-scale test rig surfacearea 18 x 9 m, height 4.5 m, divisible into three compart-ments). The engineers and scientists there develop survey-ing and remediation technologies and operate field appli-cations and technology transfers. The large-scale test rigsare used to perform experiments under near-natural con-

VEGAS research facility – ecological remediation without digging up and shipping out

ditions, their dimensions being somewhere between con-ventional lab equipment and actual field conditions.There are good reasons for such middle ground: conven-tional lab tests are not directly transferrable to actual con-ditions “in the field”, and the results from time and cost-intensive field studies at existing pollution sites are onlymeaningful to a limited extent. This is because more oftenthan not the remediation specialists are unaware of boththe overall amount of pollution and its precise spatial dis-tribution. The few distributed measurement points do notproduce a sufficiently detailed overview. Furthermore,environmental protection laws currently in force prohibitthe injection of remediation chemicals into the aquifer◄ ifit cannot be guaranteed that they are harmless. However,such a guarantee cannot be given when testing new tech-nologies under development.

Innovations in technology

Abandoned waste in the soil can either be cleaned up orsafeguarded. The remediation approach involves remov-ing the source of the contamination or the plume throughchemical, biological or hydraulic methods. Safeguardingprevents the further spread of the pollution, e.g. by con-taining the source. In the last few years, VEGAS has con-centrated primarily on source surveying and remediation.Appropriate procedures, some of which have already beenput into practice in the field in collaboration with compa-nies include:


Society

• Acceptance

• Social compatibility

Environmental policy

• Remediation goals

• Threshold values and

standards

Ecology

• Impact

• Sustainability

Laboratory experiments

and principles

Simulation technology and

hydroinformatics

Practice

• Field investigations

• Remediation

experiments

Teaching and training

(interdisciplinary)

VEGAS

Large-scale technological

experiments

Technical feasibility

Efficiency

VEGAS – Contributing to research, practice and teaching


ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | VEGAS RESEARCH FACILITY 29

● Thermal remediation technologies: Energy feeds –either in the form of vapour or a vapour-air mix or as afixed source of heat – increase the temperature of thecontaminated soil and groundwater areas. Thisreduces the surface tension◄, viscosity◄ and densityof the pollution while simultaneously increasing itsvapour pressure. This boosts its transformation intogas and enables it to be sucked out via the soil gas.

● In-situ reduction of pollution through minute piecesof iron (nanoscale iron) in treatment walls: this reme-diation procedure is applied to CHC plumes. Expertsare currently examining how this technology couldalso be applied within built-up areas. This involvesinjecting nanoscale iron directly into the source of thecontamination by means of suspension◄. The issues oftransportation, reactivity, and long-term stability andalso economics still need to be clarified; these too mustbe answered through the pilot sites within variousresearch consortia.

Other types of technology (further) developed by universi-ties, companies, local authorities and institutes withinVEGAS involve procedures such as the injection of ten-sides, alcohol cocktails or microemulsions. Other newoptions included special remediation wells, in-situ chemi-cal oxidation (ISCO◄) and reduction (ISCR◄), immobilisa-tion of heavy metals and improvement of the naturaldegradation processes within the aquifer (enhanced natu-ral attenuation, ENA) through the addition of nutrients.

Focus on measurement technology

The field of measurement technology has been consistent-ly expanded within VEGAS:1. Surveying: The position and concentration of a pollu-

tion source must be precisely identified in order toimplement remediation. The VEGAS researchers havetherefore developed new methods, e.g. based on sen-sors and fibre optics, to enable a quick and cost-effec-tive way of pinpointing sources of pollution.

2. Monitoring: New instruments for on-site measure-ment technology enable a prompt return of informa-tion on the distribution of and decrease in pollution,thus lowering the cost of remediation.

3. Long-term observation: Once remediation is complete,the experts must use automated long-term observa-tion to prove that the concentration of pollution is notrising again and that the threat is therefore effectivelyneutralised.

4. Geothermal energy: To date there has been littleresearch on the influence of geothermal systems ongroundwater. The monitoring of water temperatureand quality in the vicinity of geothermal probes isintended to contribute to their safe use in the longterm.

Transfer of technology and knowledge

In order to ensure sustainable protection for soil andgroundwater, it is not enough simply to develop technolo-gy. That is why the research facility holds regular trainingevents for specialists working at authorities and engineer-ing bodies. The technologies developed are conveyed to abroad specialist audience through pilot schemes conduct-ed at actual pollution sites.

Project website ►www.vegasinfo.de

University of StuttgartInstitut für Wasserbau (water engineering institute), VEGASPfaffenwaldring 6170550 Stuttgart, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-6 47 17Fax: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-670 20Funding reference: 02606861

VEGAS scientific managerDr. Jürgen BraunTel.: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-6 70 18E-mail: [email protected]

VEGAS technical managerDr.-Ing. Hans-Peter KoschitzkyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-6 47 16E-mail: [email protected]

Using methods from the crude oil industry as a mod-el for protecting the environment? A research teamfrom the Versuchseinrichtung zur Grundwasser- undAltlastensanierung (research facility for the remedi-ation of groundwater and abandoned waste, VEGAS)at the University of Stuttgart has shown that this isindeed possible. Experts at the institute for waterengineering (IWS) there and the institute for hydro-mechanics at the University of Karlsruhe (IfH) devel-oped an alcohol-based form of remediation technol-ogy for treating contaminated aquifers◄. They con-centrated primarily on contamination throughhydrocarbons of varying density and medium to lowsolubility (LNAPL/DNAPL◄). Their work has resultedin a procedure that enables aquifers contaminatedin this way to be cleaned “in situ” – i.e. in its existinglocation.

The crude oil industry first of all managed to use tradition-al pumping methods to extract around 40% of the accu-mulated crude oil from the discovered source. The mainreasons for the low yield were the surface tension◄ andthe different viscosities◄ and densities of water and oil.The specialists at the oil company then injected alcoholand tensides into the oil fields as solubilisers to test theireffect. These substances reduced the surface tension andsignificantly increased pumping efficiency.

However, certain types of alcohol prevent the CHCs frommoving freely. This put alcohol flushing back in the pic-ture for use in in-situ groundwater remediation. Thismethod is only economically viable though if alcohols canbe found that enable a quick and controlled discharge ofcontaminants in dissolved form or as a free phase◄ andthat can be recovered and reused several times duringremediation.

Large-scale tests

The BMBF-funded project entitled “Development of anadvanced groundwater remediation technique forthe removal of anthropogenic chlorinated hydrocar-bons with high density (CHC) by alcohol injections”saw scientists from IfH and VEGAS testing whether alcoholflushing was suitable for remediation and investigatinghow to determine the relevant dimensions. The researchfocused on efficiency, stability of the cocktail (separabili-ty), production costs and above all hydraulic control. On

Remediation using alcohol – using methods from the crude oil industry as a model

the one hand, this means that a cocktail of alcohol with itsspecific physical properties must be transported in a tar-geted manner to the source of the contamination; on theother, that uncontrolled mobilisation of the contamina-tion must be avoided. The IfH investigated what happenswhen alcohol cocktails are injected in a spatially targetedmanner into a contaminated aquifer and whether theeffects can remain under control. To clarify these ques-tions, the experts from both institutes performed twolarge-scale tests among others in realistic conditions.

The researchers produced a mixture of hydrocarbons(BTEX◄) of low density (LNAPL) in a 6 x 3 x 4 metre tank sothat the pollution lay in residual saturation – i.e. capturedthrough capillary forces – beneath the surface of the waterand as a floating phase. They then used a horizontal wellto target injection of a mixture of alcohol and water (iso-propanol and water at a ratio of 60:40) into the artificialaquifer. The alcohol permeated the contaminated regionand dissolved the pollution, which could then be pumpedout via two vertical wells. The result: almost 90% wasremoved.

In further tests, the scientists introduced a source of CHCcontamination (TCE) to a heterogeneous artificial aquiferin a large tank (9 x 6 x 4.5 m). They used a groundwater cir-culation well to inject a cocktail of alcohol into the lowerregions of the aquifer. At the same time, the same well was


Water - Alcohol - Contaminant

Vertical wells

LNAPL

Horizontal well Alcohol injection

Alcohol flushing of aquifers contaminated with LNAPL


ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | REMEDIATION USING ALCOHOL 31

used to draw out the mixture of alcohol, water and pollu-tion from the upper regions. Scientists managed again toremove over 90% of the contamination – in dissolved butalso mobilised form. It must be emphasised that no uncon-trolled downwards vertical displacement of the pollutiontook place.

The alcohol used was recycled in order to reduce costs andthe amount of wastewater. The project team designed andbuilt a wastewater treatment facility for this purpose.

Alcohol cocktails for tough cleaning

These successful tests meant that the researchers couldnow make more accurate statements on which alcoholcocktails are suitable for which types of remediation. Forexample, a cocktail of 2-propanol (54% volume), 1-hexanoland water (both 23% volume) is recommended for CHCcontamination. This mixture enabled the soil material tobe cleaned safely and efficiently in all tests. The requiredinitial concentration of the mixture depends on the flowconditions and the heterogeneity of the soil. It must benoted that the higher the proportion of alcohol, the moreexpensive the remediation process. The lower the propor-tion, the greater the risk that the cocktail will separate.

Complex use cases

Finally, the project partners used the test data to producemathematical equations for the dependency of the densi-ty, viscosity and surface tension on temperature and themixture ratio. They are currently being used to expand theMUFTE-UG (Multiphase Flow, Transport and Energy Model– Unstructured Grid) numeric model at the department ofhydromechanics and modelling of hydrosystem at IWSwith a module that can simulate a complex multi-phase/multi-component flow.


Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Department of Civil Engineering, Geo and Environ-mental Sciences Institute of HydromechanicsProf. Gerhard H. JirkaKaiserstr.1276128 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)721/608-2200Fax: +49 (0)721/608-2202Funding reference: 02WT0065

University of StuttgartInstitut für Wasserbau (water engineering insti-tute), VEGASPfaffenwaldring 6170550 Stuttgart, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-6 47 17Fax: +49(0)7 11/6 85-6 70 20E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WT0064



Large VEGAS well (alcohol flushing for DNAPL contamination)

High temperatures are a good way to extract pollu-tion from contaminated soil. This has been provenby researchers at the Versuchseinrichtung zurGrundwasser- und Altlastensanierung (research facil-ity for the remediation of groundwater and aban-doned waste, VEGAS) within the University ofStuttgart’s water engineering institute. Their ther-mal in-situ remediation technology (THERIS) – justone of the procedures used for thermal remediation– uses a strong infeed of heat to clean out contami-nation from underground, which is faster than theconventional means of “cold” soil gas suction.Experts at the VEGAS research facility (see project1.1.09) have compared both processes with eachother as part of a research project – with very clearresults.

Medium to low solubility liquid hydrocarbons(LNAPL/DNAPL◄) contaminate soil and pose a risk togroundwater. Landowners frequently turn to a processcalled soil gas suction (SGS) for remediation. This involvesthe pollutants, which convert into gas at a sufficientlyhigh natural temperature, being sucked out of the con-taminated ground together with the air within throughpipes (soil gas level). A discharged air treatment facility fil-ters out and removes the pollution from the contaminatedsoil air on site and the system then releases the cleaned airinto the atmosphere. However, this method quickly reach-es its limits: the organic pollutants only convert from liq-uid to gas◄ in very small amounts at the usual soil temper-ature of about 10°C, which makes the remediation processmuch slower and much more expensive. Furthermore,fine-grain soils – in which pollutants most often accumu-late – are not permeable enough for this process. The soilgas is then very difficult to suck out. After several years, itis still uncertain whether many of these facilities areachieving their remediation objective.

Heat infeed boosts contaminant discharge

These problems can be overcome by applying heat, e.g. viafixed sources of heat such as the electrical heat lances onwhich the THERIS procedure is based. The soil heats up,pollutants convert more quickly to gas and are also dis-charged from smaller areas of permeable soil. SGS sucksout gaseous contaminants directly from under the groundalong with the soil gas. The suctioned, contaminated soilgas is then cleaned on site. THERIS can be used with vari-ous soil types, particularly those with loose stones (sand,

Heat as an accelerator – heat lances turning soil pollutants into vapours

silt, clay) in the soil zone above the groundwater, i.e. thenon-saturated soil zone. Unlike thermal in-situ remediation procedures – vapouror vapour-air injection – no heat medium is injected dur-ing the THERIS process. This makes THERIS also suitablefor heating and cleaning large, low-permeability soil lay-ers. Comparative experiments in the large tank at theVEGAS research facility and at a field site should now clari-fy the differences between SGS and THERIS in terms ofremediation time, degree of effectiveness and energy consumption.

Experiment in the large VEGAS tank

The researchers began testing the THERIS procedure in a150 cubic metre tank at the VEGAS research facility, whichwas filled with a layered soil structure and equipped withmeasuring instruments. They added 30 kilograms oftrimethylbenzene (TMB, flash point 169°C) to a localisedarea of a one-metre thick layer of fine low-permeabilitysand.

To begin with, they applied cold soil gas suction for twomonths. They then put four quadratically arranged, fixedheat sources (THERIS) into operation in this fine-struc-tured layer, which heated up to 500°C. The SGS continuedto deliver a constant rate of suction. As the TMB was fullyremoved after just 20 days, the soil temperature betweenthe heating elements had not even hit 100°C.


Zone U. Hiester , H.-P. Koschitzky T. Theurer, A. Winkler,

Ground to air (gas) extraction

Surface

Fixed heat sources

e.g. silt or clay layer

Non-saturated zone

Groundwater

Contamination

Principle of the THERIS procedure



ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | HEAT AS AN ACCELERATOR 33

Remediation in the field test

The researchers also began a field test: an approximately3.5 metre thick clay-marl layer over an area of around 80square metres still contained high concentrations ofCHC◄ after several years of cold SGS, primarilyperchloroethylene◄ (PCE, flash point 121°C). To beginwith, the SGS was left to continue without any change.Then 22 heat lances from the THERIS system were imple-mented, equipped with the latest measuring, control,data recording and transfer technology. They heated thesoil evenly and in a way relatively uninfluenced by differ-ences in geological structure. After just one month thetemperature was around 80°C, and largely over 90°C aftertwo. The researchers sucked out the gaseous pollutantsmobilised by THERIS using SGS.

THERIS has the edge

The evaluation of the tests showed that THERIS cut theremediation time by about 90% compared with cold SGSand reduced the amount of energy required by two-thirds.Differences in the absolute values between the tank andthe field test were traced to location factors such as geolo-gy, the type of contamination and its distribution plus sys-tem-specific details (e.g. the well arrangement).

THERIS takes just a few weeks to clean even low-perme-ability soil quickly, reliably and with sustainable results.The significant increase in performance is predominantlyattributable to: ● the increased gas permeability and more effective dif-

fusion as a result of the dried soil ● the accelerated conversion of liquid hydrocarbons to

gas as a result of the higher temperatures.

The THERIS facilities are robust, enabling them to beinstalled quickly and operated safely whatever the weath-er. Due to the cost of putting the heating elements andmonitoring systems in place, the installation costs arehigher than for cold soil gas suction. However, these addi-tional costs are compensated for by the shorter remedia-tion time, lower operating costs (energy, equipmentrental etc.) and lower personnel costs.


University of StuttgartInstitut für Wasserbau (water engineering institute), VEGASPfaffenwaldring 6170550 Stuttgart, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-6 47 17Fax: +49 (0)7 11/6 85-6 70 20E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WT0266



THERIS procedure: areas of application Heat lances and soil gas suction level being installed in the large tank

Clay Silt Sand Gravel

“Cold” SGS

Vapour-air injection

THERIS


Maintaining lifelines – fully integrated, sustainable riverbasin management

ECOLOGY | RIVER BASINS 35

Rivers are the lifelines of nature. They collecttogether the continents’ water and transport it tothe seas, they provide structure to landscapes andare a home for many different types of animal. Theyalso fulfil a key economic function as transportroutes, energy suppliers and sources of drinkingwater. When flooding occurs, it poses a risk to bothlife and property. Pollution also remains a problemin many regions of the world. This wide variety ofaspects and their interaction can only be managedthrough sustainable river basin management.

River basin management refers to a water economy bor-dered by a natural drainage basin (rather than city,regional or other administrative borders). Its spatial fieldof activity is thus where the natural interrelations of thewater cycle can be detected and where they have a directimpact.

A new understanding of water resourcemanagement

European Parliament and Council directive 2000/60/EC,generally referred to as the EU Water Framework Direc-tive (WFD), came into force on 22 December 2000. It drawsheavily on the idea of river basin management, its coreobjective being the protection of aquatic ecosystems witha view to sustainable environmental development. Unlikethe previous method of categorising waters on a basis ofusage, measures and sectors, the WFD places the focus onan all-embracing, integral view of the groundwater andsurface water systems (watercourses, standing waters,transitional waters and coastal waters).

As such, water management in future will no longer bebased on administrative borders but on river basins. Thisopens up the way to a fully integrated method of viewingnatural water systems and their use from source throughto mouth. A co-ordinated approach across state and coun-try borders will serve to ensure waters are used sustainablyand are protected.

Instruments for sustainable river basinmanagement

These requirements make river basin management a com-plex task from both a scientific and practical perspective.The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) issupporting research projects focussing on river basinmanagement so that new handling guidelines can bedeveloped within this field. As well as researching thecomplex interaction between rivers and their basins, landreclamation and conservation are other issues of scientificfocus. Focal points from the last few years have includedresearch on the Elbe ecology (project 1.2.01), river basinmanagement (project 1.2.02), risk management forextreme flood events and integrated water resource man-agement. The sediments in flowing waters were consid-ered as part of the BMBF joint research project entitled“sediment dynamics and pollutant mobility in riverbasins” (SEDYMO) (project 1.2.03), the aim being to con-tribute towards ecological maintenance dredging of fed-eral watercourses, sustainable management of contami-nated flood sediment and the planning and implementa-tion of sediment clear-ups to improve the structure andecology of bodies of water. A joint research project fundedby the BMBF and the Federal Ministry for the Environ-ment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU)resulted in the requirements necessary for the successfulreintroduction of sturgeon (project 1.2.04).

Funding has also been provided at European level, forR&D and networking projects on river basin managementand integrated water resource management (IWRM)within EU research programmes. One such example is theEU “IWRM Net” project, representing 21 institutions from14 countries including the BMBF with its two project co-ordinators in Karlsruhe (PTKA) and Jülich (PTJ). This proj-ect is pursuing training and intensification within Euro-pean river basin management. IWRM Net gives the partic-ipating countries the opportunity to exchange both theconditions within their location and their experiences atEuropean level, launch joint projects and even developfuture concepts where necessary for co-operative researchand development.

http://www.tu-harburg.de/iue/sedymo/english/e_maine.htm

http://www.bmbf.wasserressourcen-management.de/en/index.php

http://www.fona.de/de/9843 verlinken

The Elbe river basin is an extremely exciting field ofresearch for scientists in ecological disciplines.Whereas the quality of the Elbe’s water wasextremely poor some years back, the flood plains forthe river formerly serving as an international borderwere able to sustain the versatile structure thatmost rivers of a similar size lose as a result of con-struction. This means the 1091 kilometre stretch ofriver and its basin◄ has the potential to survive as anear-natural river habitat in future. The Elbe basintherefore serves as a model region where expertscan research usage conflicts and develop solutionconcepts.

The structure and history of the Elbe have made it the sub-ject of many research activities within a whole host of dif-ferent scientific disciplines – wholly within the intent ofthe EU Water Framework Directive◄. This directivedemands river basin management◄ aimed at achievingsustainability. Development concepts for large-scale riverhabitats with their diverse forms of interaction have onlyemerged to some extent previously – including on aninternational front. In the meantime, it has becomeapparent that preservation of river habitats requires a ful-ly integrated approach that must support a complexassessment of the ecological and commercial situationwithin the river basin.

As such, the BMBF provided around EUR 20 million offunding for 28 scientific projects within the joint researchprogramme on the ecology of the Elbe between 1996 and2005. Experts within the individual projects examinedecological and economic connections and developed solu-tion concepts for the various usage requirements of farm-land, conservation, water management and shipping.

Natural areas rather thanadministrative units

The researchers should not only gather scientific findings,they should also devise instruments and handling recom-mendations for politicians and planners. The require-ments of the EU Water Framework Directive state that theriver, its flood plains and the basin should be consideredas a functional unit. The effects of the Elbe flood of 2002and the extreme drought of 2003 have already clearlyshown in dramatic fashion that ecological phenomenamust be considered not within the confines of administra-tive borders but by those of natural areas.

The Elbe basin – a research model forriver management in the future

Three focuses for research

Topic 1: The ecology of flowing waters Key phrases such as “creating retention basins◄ byinstalling dykes” and “guaranteeing minimum waterwaydepths through tailored river-engineering maintenancemeasures” are on everyone’s lips in the wake of the floods.However, such measures have an effect on water levels,affect the hydrodynamics◄ and morphodynamics◄ of thewaters and influence the living conditions of fish andmicro-organisms. The micro-organisms in the Elbe areespecially important for material conversion and thus forthe quality of the water. The researchers investigatedthese connections by examining the morphological◄,hydraulic◄ and biocoenotic webs of interaction◄. Themain focus was on which processes control the composi-tion and dynamic of the living communities within theElbe. The results of in-depth field tests and devised modelsprovided the answer, the end product being a contempo-rary, comprehensive overview of the research on waterquality, which also included decision-making supports forplanning water engineering measures.

Topic 2: The ecology of the flood plains Engineering rivers and changing land usage within floodplains are actions that have ecological consequences. Pub-lic discussion has seen an increased demand for the clear-ing of flood zones and the reclamation◄ of river floodplains. This poses the question as to what an environmen-tally appropriate development of the flood plains in theElbe river basin might look like. The consequences for theaffected farmland, the population and the flora and faunamust be taken into account. The projects within this topicindicate handling recommendations to ensure conserva-tion and formulate overall concepts for the ecologicaldevelopment of flood plains while also factoring in eco-


View of the Elbe and its flood plains (Source: Federal Institute ofHydrology)

ECOLOGY | RIVER BASINS | RIVER MANAGEMENT IN THE ELBE BASIN 37

nomic aspects. This meant that current research results oncontrol factors, bioindication◄ and the prognosis for liv-ing communities within the Elbe and its flood plains hadto be brought together. Alongside this, a considerable pro-portion of the work involved indicating the benefits andcosts of intervention as this is ultimately what influencespolitical decisions. So, for example, the results of theresearch have also provided key bases for planning proce-dures for dyke relocation around Lenzen. It is the largestnational project of this type to date, and has since beenimplemented.

Topic 3: Land usage within the river basin Diffuse nutrient loading from agriculture is one of the keynegative factors in the quality of the Elbe’s water today.The causes of this loading vary greatly from region toregion due to the natural properties and usage structureswithin the Elbe river basin. The projects within this topicinvolved scientists examining how the water quality in theElbe and thus also the North Sea could be improvedthrough a modified use of the land or other agriculturalprocedures. They used water and matter balance modelsto show which measures are ecologically desirable andeconomically feasible for controlling land usage and thewater balance in the Elbe basin. This was then used as a

basis to develop and propose strategies for reducing watercontamination. The conserving soil processing procedureis one worth particular mention: this management systemhas a positive effect on soil-physical, hydrological and bio-logical properties, reduces soil loss and therefore also low-ers the amount of phosphate entering the water.

Representation of the results invarious media

The results of the joint Elbe ecology research programmewere prepared in three types of media for varying needs:● The Internet-based Elbe Information System (ELISE)

provides information on the research into the Elbe’secology and supports co-ordination of the projectwork.

● The five bands within the publication series on con-cepts for the sustainable development of a river land-scape (entitled “Konzepte für die nachhaltige Entwick-lung einer Flusslandschaft”) summarise the findingsacross the projects and present concepts for use inpractice (http://www.weissensee-verlag.de/ver-lagsprogramm/04_niw_flusslandschaft.htm).

● The “Elbe-DSS◄”, a decision support system for riverbasin management, provides a basic structure for thespecialist knowledge and the computer models anddata relating to the Elbe basin. Such systems couldhelp authorities to plan river management in future.They enable the complex effects of individual meas-ures to be identified in advance in view of the objec-tives to be achieved. The Federal Institute of Hydrolo-gy (BfG) has made the developed prototypes for theElbe DSS available free of charge over the Internet(http://elise.bafg.de/?3283).

The joint Elbe ecology research programme

The Elbe basin (German section)

Flowing water/lakeCanalBorder of Elbe basinNational borderFederal state borderCitiesElbe basinSurrounding area

Flowing water

Flood plains

River basins

Location of research areas:

Basic map: BfG/FZJ

General topics The ecology of the flood plains

Land usage within the river basin

The ecology of flowing waters

Research projects:

Research projects:

Research projects:

Adaptation:

• Co-ordination: Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG) – Elbe ecology

project group

• Elbe Ecology Information System ELISE (IITB)

• Economic evaluation and monetisation (TUB)

• Morphodynamics of the Elbe (Univ. KA)

• Foreland areas and fluid dynamics (BAW)

• Groynes and semi-terrestrial areas (TU DA)

• Transport of solids from tributaries (BfG)

• Ecology of Elbe fish (Univ. HH)

• Migratory behaviour of fish (NLÖ)

• Biofilms and bed permeability (TUD)

• Biotic communities and material flows (Univ. HH)

• Slack water zones and water quality (BfG)

• Substance conversion in morphological structures (IGB)

• Substance transport and conversion in inter-groyne areas (UFZ)

• Conservation and agriculture (NNA)

• Flood plain regeneration through dyke relocation (LAGS)

• Recovery of retention areas (LAU LSA)

• Bioindication systems for flood plains (UFZ)

• Biotic communities in dynamic habitats (TU BS)

• Ecological concepts for Elbe alluvial forests (TUD)

• Protection and usage in the Middle Elbe Biosphere Reserve (Univ.

Halle)

• Revitalisation of the Unstrut flood plain (TLU)

• Erosion reduction and grassland utilisation (SLfL)

• Natural environment classification of the Elbe basin (FZJ)

• Landscape water and matter balance of the Elbe basin (PIK)

• Water and matter balance in the lowland area (ZALF)

• Water and matter balance in the loess area (UFZ)

• Water and matter balance in the bedrock (TUD)

Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG)Dr. Sebastian KofalkMainzer Tor 156068 Koblenz, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)2 61/13 06-53 30Fax: +49 (0)2 61/13 06-53 33E-mail: [email protected]: www.bafg.de, http://elise.bafg.deFunding reference: 0339542A

Rivers form a crucial part of the water cycle. Amongother things, they need to be protected from nutri-ent loading to guarantee their function in the longterm. The European Water Framework Directive(WFD◄) calls for this safeguarding measure with thedemand for corresponding environmental develop-ment. The REGFLUD project saw an interdisciplinaryteam tackle these requirements and adopt a scien-tific approach to studying the systematic manage-ment of regional river basins. Using the examples ofthe Rhine and Ems rivers, the experts investigatedagricultural measures to improve the quality of thewater.

German waters are not as heavily loaded with nutrients asthey were in the past; they have undergone a substantialclean-up over the last few decades. The biggest contribu-tions to this positive development are an improved proce-dure for cleaning up wastewater and a reduction in theamount of phosphates used in detergents. Despite thissuccess in water protection, there are still equally largesections of water suffering to a greater or lesser extentfrom nutrient loading. The majority of nutrients in riversoriginate from diffuse sources – i.e. they are impossible topinpoint precisely – predominantly as a result of farming.Agricultural production introduces nitrogen and phos-phorus, which have an impact on the ecological balanceand the usability of water and seas. As a further steptowards improving the water balance, the 2000 EU WaterFramework Directive◄ calls for management systems tobe established for all river basins.

New requirements

Many public bodies in charge of water usage and protec-tion are entering new territory when it comes to diffusenutrient loading. Unlike isolated loading, neither thecause nor the effect can be clearly identified. This is prima-rily due to the diverse natural conditions such as waterbalance and soil properties that affect the transportation,bonding and degradation of the nutrients undergroundand in the groundwater. In many cases, the authoritieslack the tools and methods necessary to decide on effi-cient strategies or measures to reduce diffuse water load-ing through agriculture.

Examining the Rhine and Ems – management systemsfor water quality in river basins

Different regions undergoing investigation

This is where the BMBF-funded REGFLUD research projectstepped in to assist (full name: “Management regionalerFlusseinzugsgebiete in Deutschland (REGFLUD) – Rah-menbedingungen und Politikoptionen bei diffusenNährstoffeinträgen (Stickstoff und Phosphor) derLandwirtschaft” – management of regional river basinsin Germany – framework conditions and policy options for


River basins of the REGFLUD project

Federal state border

National border

Flowing water

Lake/sea

Kilometre

from

from

from

from to

to

to

to

to

from

The river basins involved in the REGFLUD project

ECOLOGY | RIVER BASINS | EXAMINING THE RHINE AND EMS 39

diffuse nutrient loading (nitrogen and phosphorus) inagriculture). The aim of the project was to devise scientificmethods that could be used to help determine efficientmeasures for reducing the diffuse nutrient loading of riverbasins as a result of agriculture. The investigations tookplace between July 2001 and October 2005 and focused ontwo river basins: a section of the Rhine basin between theSieg, Erft, Wupper and Ruhr tributaries, and the entirebasin◄ of the River Ems. The regions investigated differedin terms of both agricultural usage and local conditions.

Interlinking systems and models

The focus of the REGFLUD project was on interlinking theRegional Agricultural and Environmental InformationSystem (RAUMIS) for Germany with the hydrologicalGROWA98 and WEKU models. RAUMIS enables the analy-sis of the regional effects of various agricultural and agri-environmental policy measures on agricultural landusage, production and income and on diverse agri-envi-ronmental relationships, e.g. excess agricultural nutri-ents. The GROWA and WEKU models use this as a basis –while factoring in a whole host of local conditions such assoil, climate and topography – in order to map nutrientloading of water by area. The deriving of efficient meas-ures to reduce nitrogen loading from agriculture usingthe combined model was tested with a nitrogen tax and arestriction on livestock density.

Tailored measures required

The model results show that the different regional condi-tions lead to very different proportions of excess nitrogenfrom agriculture being found in the groundwater and sur-face water. The proven effects of a nitrogen tax and arestriction on livestock density, strongly deviating fromeach other within areas, document that only tailoredmeasures to provide a sustainable solution to the nitrateproblem will help in a given area. The integrated consid-eration of local conditions and the complex interactionthrough the combined model makes it possible to developmore efficient water protection measures.

Putting into practice

The AGRUM-Weser pilot project run by Germany andneighbouring countries is developing other regional solu-tions using the REGFLUD approach. The combined modelhas been expanded to include the MONERIS model, whichfactors in all relevant loading paths. The work is beingconducted in collaboration with those responsible for exe-cuting the requirements of the WFD in the Weser riverbasin and also takes country-specific procedures intoaccount. The aim is to analyse and evaluate operationalmeasures for reducing the effects of diffuse nutrient load-ing from agriculture. As such, the decisive step has beentaken to put the REGFLUD research project into practice.

Project co-ordinationInstitute of rural studies within the Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL)Dr. Heinrich BeckerBundesallee 5038116 Braunschweig, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)5 31/5 96-55 03Fax: +49 (0)5 31/5 96-55 99E-mail: [email protected]:www.vti.bund.de/de/startseite/institute/lr.htmlFunding reference: 0330037 to 0330040

Muck spreading in agriculture(Source: www.oekolandbau.de)

Many pollutants released by man into the environ-ment end up in the water. The contaminationdirectly discharged gathers together here, alongwith solids washed away by precipitation and floodsand dissolved compounds. Some pollutants tend tobind to particles and are deposited with the sedi-ments on the water bed. From there they can getback into the water, for example if they are stirredup by deepening of the waterways or flooding, orare re-dissolved as a result of chemical processes. Aresearch project is tackling these important prob-lems and working on supplying the currently lackingfoundation and process knowledge.

Although the amount of contamination entering Ger-many’s rivers is constantly falling, the sediments◄ theycontain are still heavily loaded with environmental chem-icals in many areas. These substances do not only enter thewaters through wastewater; other causes of this pollutionare contributions from the air, precipitation and floods,and contaminated solids from landfill sites and slag heaps.River mouths are especially affected by this, as this iswhere the pollutants from the entire course of the rivergather.

Fine sediment is of particular interest to those researchingwater pollution. It contains relatively large amounts ofpollution and the large particle surface makes it very reac-tive from a chemical and physical perspective. Pollution inthis regard does not only relate to directly toxic environ-mental chemicals such as heavy metals and specificorganic compounds; it also covers substances that canindirectly affect water quality, such as organic substancesor nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The degra-dation processes and widespread algae growth reduce theoxygen levels in the water.

Dynamics of pollution release

Depending on the flow speed and the chemical and bio-logical state of the water, solids and parts of dissolved sub-stances transported by rivers are deposited on theriverbeds and flood plains. The sediments therefore alsoindicate the water pollution of the last few days, but theircomponents can also be released again. If solids are pres-ent (mineral or organic particles), then either natural orartificial erosion processes are involved. Triggers includeflood water, movement caused by ships or maintenancedredging to keep the waters navigable. Soluble pollutants

SEDYMO research project – effects of sediment dynamicson the quality of flowing waters

that in the meantime have bound themselves to the sedi-ment◄ can be released through (micro)biological andchemical processes.

Knowledge on the dynamics of pollutant-bearing sedi-ments is becoming increasingly important with the imple-mentation of the European Water Framework Directive(WFD)◄, which focuses on measures to improve waterquality across entire river basins.

Statements to date on the means of pollution enteringwater have predominantly referred to known sources out-side the water itself. This includes diffuse sources such asagriculture and isolated sources such as landfills andindustrial sites. However, this approach omits an extreme-ly important factor: the re-release of harmful particleswithin the sediment on the riverbed.

The BMBF “sediment dynamics and pollutant mobilityin river basins” (SEDYMO) research project was launchedin May 2002 to drive forward this aspect of sedimentresearch. The project aims to make a contribution towardsthe ecological optimisation of maintenance dredgingwithin federal waterways, the sustainable management ofcontaminated flood sediments and the planning and exe-cution of sediment clear-up operations to improve thestructure and ecology of the water.

Interdisciplinary approach

The research project co-ordinated by the institute of envi-ronmental technology and energy economy at the Ham-burg University of Technology together with 12 other part-ners (see TUHH project website) combines two key issues:the dynamic erosion/depositing behaviour of the fine sedi-


Taking sediment samples atthe Rhine

Using an in-situ erosion tester at theElbe



ECOLOGY | RIVER BASINS | SEDYMO RESEARCH PROJECT 41

ment and the mobility of pollutants and loads in sedi-ments and suspended matter. As the two aspects are close-ly interlinked in practice, a joint research approachbetween technical and natural-science disciplines isrequired.

The first phase◄ of the project saw the project team exam-ining the erosion and transportation of fine-grained sedi-ment using the Neckar and the Elbe as an example. Theresearchers used the flow channel, microcosm and turbu-lence column as measuring devices. The methodical workwas accompanied by physical-chemical and microbiologi-cal analyses. Other sub-projects involved comparativeinvestigations of the transportation of fine-grained sedi-ment performed under near-natural conditions in docksand their inlets. Another sub-project investigated the mix-ture of fine-grain particles in the Elbe. The second phaseprimarily saw the scientists investigating the transporta-tion of nutrients and pollutants. The interactions occur-ring in natural conditions between aggregates, pollu-tants, water and soil were quantified, classified as controlfactors of biological, sedimentological and chemicalprocesses and consolidated into models. Six more sub-pro-jects helped the scientists gain fundamental knowledge ofthe physical-chemical and biological properties of solidswithin water.

Broad application range

The investigations showed that the speed at which theorganic pollutants are sorbed (bound) to the sediment andthen desorbed (released) depends heavily on hydrody-namic conditions. Conversely, changes to the hydrochem-ical composition of the flowing water, e.g. due to floodevents, have less influence on the binding behaviour ofpollutants than previously thought.

The instruments and models developed during the courseof the project to characterise and predict the erosion sta-bility of sediments has already been put to practical use.For example, areas flooded by the severe Elbe flood in

August 2002 were examined. Scientists from the researchprogramme have also taken part in the “Iffezheim bar-rage” risk assessment: the shifting of 300,000 cubic metresof heavily contaminated Rhine sediment has sparked aninternational controversy.

The SEDYMO results are also being directly input into thework of the technical committee on managing contami-nated sediments at the German Association for Water,Wastewater and Waste (DWA) and the BMBF-funded “RiskManagement of Extreme Flood Events” (RIMAX) pro-gramme. They will be of particular relevance when fur-ther measures are implemented in accordance with theWFD to combat pollution sources in waterways. Reducingemissions from historically contaminated sediments willbe a key task within this work.

The publication entitled “Sediment Dynamics and Pollu-tant Mobility in Rivers – An Interdisciplinary Approach” isthe frame of reference for the interactions in both techni-cal engineering and natural sciences of contaminated sed-iment in flowing waters and was compiled as part of theSEDYMO project from the contributions to the “Interna-tional Symposium on Sediment Dynamics and PollutantMobility in River Basins”.

Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH)Institute of environmental technology and energy economy (IUE)Prof. (i. R.) Dr. Ulrich FörstnerEissendorfer Straße 4021071 Hamburg, GermanyE-mail: [email protected]: Stöversweg 6 a21244 Buchholz, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 41 81/3 67 90Internet: www.tu-harburg.de/iue/sedymo

University of StuttgartInstitut für Wasserbau (water engineering institute, IWS)Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Bernhard WestrichPfaffenwaldring 6170569 Stuttgart, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/68 56 37 76E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WF0315 – 0318,

02WF0320 – 0322, 02WF0467 – 0470

Taking sediment samples at the Salzach


http://rimax-hot.ifh.uni-karlsruhe.de/index.php?lang=en

The sturgeon was a typical resident of North-Ger-man rivers that then disappeared from thesewaters. Its eradication is a symptom of the condi-tions of the water: migrating fish in particular find itdifficult to locate suitable conditions in obstructedand contaminated rivers. An ongoing research proj-ect conducted by the BMBF and the BMU has beenworking since 1996 to meet the necessary require-ments for the successful repopulation of the stur-geon. The scientists have already established parentstock for North Sea and Baltic Sea sturgeon andreleased the first set of young into the Oder andElbe as part of an experimental stocking measure.Fish from French and Canadian rivers constitute thegerm cell for the offspring.

At the end of the 19th century, sturgeon were widespreadalong the entire European coast and they had spawninggrounds in all the major European rivers. Today, thisbreed of fish is threatened with global extinction. Therivers have become obstructed and contaminated,destroying their habitat, and intensive fishing has simulta-neously decimated the population. Individual catches ofsturgeon were registered in Germany as late as 1992. Afterthat, the sturgeon was deemed to have died out in Germany.

It is not just the sturgeon that has suffered the destructionof its habitat; other migrating fish have also been affected,e.g. the salmon, sea trout, houting, allis shad and twaitshad. The experience gained in the reintroduction of thesturgeon and possible reclamation measures◄ is there-fore also of benefit to other fish populations.

Residents of different waters

The sturgeon is a migrating fish that leaves the sea andmoves far upriver in order to breed, laying over a millioneggs in fast flowing water. Once the larvae have hatchedand grown up among the pebbles, the offspring driftdownstream to sections of the river rich in food. At the endof their first year, the fry progress to the brackish water ofthe river mouth and then go on to reside in the sea for thenext two to four years. After 10 to 20 years, the sexuallymature fish return to the river of their birth in order tobreed.

Reintroduction research project

The quality of the water in rivers has improved greatly inthe last 20 years – providing an opportunity to reintroducesturgeon, which was seized by the Gesellschaft zur Ret-

The sturgeon is making a comeback – repopulation of a former river resident

tung des Störs e. V. (society for saving sturgeon) in 1994.The federal ministries for research and the environmenthave given over EUR 1.8 million since 1996 to support aresearch project on the reintroduction of sturgeon to thefeeder rivers of the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Entitled“Genetische Populationsstruktur, Zuchtplan und kün-stliche Vermehrung einer süßwasseradaptiertenZuchtgruppe des Europäischen Störs (Acipenser sturio)als Voraussetzung einer erfolgreichen Wiedereinbür-gung” (genetic population structure, breeding plan andartificial reproduction of a freshwater-adapted breedinggroup of European sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) as a pre-requisite for successful reintroduction), the projectinvolves the German Federal Agency for Nature Conserva-tion (BfN), the Berlin Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecolo-gy and Inland Fisheries (IGB), the Landesforschungsanstaltfür Landwirtschaft und Fischerei Mecklenburg-Vorpom-mern (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania state researchfacility for agriculture and fisheries) as well as otherresearch facilities.

Suitable sturgeon were bred

If the waterways are to be repopulated, it is essential tohave sufficient numbers of fish that correspond to the for-mer native breeds. A significant sub-project is thereforethe establishment of a parent stock for producing a stockof offspring suitable for the respective habitat. The Euro-pean Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) from theGironde in south-west France was selected for the off-spring to be introduced to the North Sea and its feederrivers. From a genetic perspective, this very small fish population is virtually identical to the fish that once livedin the North Sea. The IGB has been obtaining a few sam-ples with the co-operation of Cemagref in France since1996 in order to breed stocking fish for the Elbe and Rhine.As sturgeon are not sexually mature until the age of 10 to12 at the earliest, the first offspring of fish formerly of


Trial stock in the Elbe river basin, young sturgeon (Acipenser sturio)with marking

French stock became available in 2007. The fish producedfrom this reproduction were marked, fitted with telemet-ric transmitters and released in the middle of the Elbe sothat their migration could be tracked.

The sturgeon that once lived in the Baltic Sea differ fromthose of the North Sea both genetically and in appearance.They are the descendants of the American Atlantic stur-geon (Acipenser oxyrinchus), which migrated to this loca-tion around 1,000 years ago. A breed that is geneticallyvery similar to the Baltic Sea sturgeon lives in the Rivers St.Lawrence and St. John in Canada. The Gesellschaft zur Ret-tung des Störs brought some sexually mature fish to Ger-many for breeding purposes in 2005 and 2006 with theaim of founding an initial parent stock. The release of off-spring from controlled reproduction in Canada into theOder river basin◄has been taking place since 2006 fortelemetric examinations and to determine the use of thehabitat◄.

Offspring from controlled reproduction were reared inorder to build up parent stocks. These fish were charac-terised using genetic screenings, particularly viamicrosatellites developed by the University of Potsdam,and breeding plans were created in order to optimisegenetic diversity. 2010 saw the first successful reproduc-tion from the A. oxyrinchus parent stock in Germany, sonow early live stages can also be examined.

ECOLOGY | RIVER BASINS | THE STURGEON IS MAKING A COMEBACK 43

Development of alternative fisherytechniques

To ensure that the growing sturgeon population does notbecome a victim to fishing, the project has also driven for-ward the further development of gillnets for coastal fish-ing. The aim is to minimise the unintended catching(bycatching) of sturgeon and simultaneously to optimisethe catching of zander and perch in the Szczecin Lagoon.Trials with newly developed nets have shown that thebycatching of sturgeon can be almost completely elimi-nated by implementing simple changes. But as theamount of target breeds entering the net was also some-what lower, uptake within the fisheries is still rather low.

Sturgeon under observation

Once the sturgeon have been released, they remain underintense observation. Markings and transmitters are usedin order to research the migration of the fish, the aimbeing to identify and describe suitable habitats and todetermine the risks posed to them. This monitoring is toform the basis for further releases and possible reclama-tion measures in rivers. If the quality of the sturgeon habi-tats is improved, then other animals will also benefit. Thesturgeon can therefore also become a precursor for theresettlement of other breeds with similar ecologicalrequirements.

Ultrasound to determine gender in Born/Darß

Catching an American Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus) forreproduction in Canada

Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland FisheriesDr. Jörn GeßnerMüggelseedamm 31012587 Berlin, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 30/64 18 16 26E-mail: [email protected]: www.igb-berlin.deFunding reference: 0330718

Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB)

The scientists at the Berlin IGB are dedicated toecosystem research of limnetic systems (inlandwaterways). The findings serve as the basis for eco-logical restoration, remediation, managementand protection concepts. At the IGB, hydrologists,chemists, microbiologists, limnologists, fish ecolo-gists and fisheries biologists all work under oneroof. www.igb-berlin.de

Creating synergies through international co-operation –integrated water resource management


ECOLOGY | IWRM 45

Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) isgenerally defined as a process for co-ordinateddevelopment and management of water, land andthe associated natural resources. An IWRM processsuch as this pursues the goal of effecting economicand social well-being along with a sustainable wayof managing ecosystems.

In the last few years, the principle of integrated waterresource management has been the overlying concept forwater management in Germany and Europe; not leastthrough the implementation of the European WaterFramework Directive concluded in the year 2000. TheIWRM process puts the focus on water basins as units: ifinteracting stationary surface waters, aquifers and –where present – coastal waters are considered with anintegrative approach, sustainable management will beachieved. Social framework conditions, the ecosystem andvarious usage requirements are all weighed against eachother and discussed with all user groups and interestgroups.

The Federal Government dedicated funding to IWRM in2004 as part of the research for sustainable developmentprogramme being run by the Federal Ministry of Educa-tion and Research (BMBF). The overriding goals of usingIWRM in developing and emerging countries are: ● Ensuring the population has on-site access to clean

drinking water and secured means of sanitary disposal● Improving the positioning of German companies

within the international water management markets ● Supporting bi and multilateral collaboration within

water as a scientific field● Promoting interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary and

international co-operation between science, industry,administration and supply/disposal practice

● Boosting Germany’s standing as a location of econom-ics, education and research among international com-petition.

Eight research projects are currently being funded, takingplace in China (project example 1.3.06), Indonesia (projectexample 1.3.05), Iran, Israel-Jordan-Palestine (projectexample 1.3.01), Mongolia (project example 1.3.04),Namibia, South Africa and Vietnam (project example1.3.02). German and international researchers and compa-nies are working together to establish the prerequisites forsustainable use of water supplies, frequently backed up byGerman monitoring and plant technology. The projectsare being supervised by project co-ordinators KarlsruheWater Technology and Waste Management Division(PTKA-WTE) and Jülich (PTJ-UMW).

Topic-based programmes and projects

Within the various funding programmes, the BMBF is sup-porting IWRM-related projects in partner countries thatare not actually classed as developing or emerging but arealso focused on fields such as developing and adaptingwater technology or sustainable land use. Examples ofthese are the International Water Research Alliance Sax-ony (IWAS) or concepts for sustainable development onthe Volga and its tributaries. The transdisciplinary projectentitled “Water related Information System for the Sus-tainable Development of the Mekong Delta” (WISDOM)intends to provide local authorities with a information sys-tem to help them use the resources available in a sustain-able manner (project 1.3.08).

With the aim of developing comprehensive water man-agement concepts for five hydrologically sensitive regionsof the world, around 40 scientists from the Helmholtz Cen-tre for Environmental Research – UFZ and the TechnicalUniversity of Dresden have joined forces with Stadten-twässerung Dresden GmbH, the Institute of Hydrobiology(itwh), Dreberis GmbH and other partners from science,economics and politics to form the “International WaterResearch Alliance Saxony” (IWAS) (project 1.3.07).

The funding priority of IWRM and the results obtained areavailable on the BMBF website dedicated to IWRM(www.bmbf.wasserressourcen-management.de).


http://www.iwas-sachsen.ufz.de/index.php?en=17427


http://www.wisdom.caf.dlr.de/en

Just 50 years ago, the River Jordan was abundantwith water. These days, the lower course of the riveris merely a trickle and the water level of the DeadSea is falling by a metre every year. Diversions forthe Israeli coast and the highlands around the Jor-danian capital Amman have decimated the watersupplies. It is thus virtually impossible to ensure eco-nomic and social development of the Jordan valley –especially as the population is exploding at thesame time. A cross-border management conceptcould help ensure the resources available are usedmore efficiently. An international team of scientistsis now recording previously unused water supplies,developing technologies for cleaning and storageand assuring the necessary infrastructures andexpertise are in place in the affected regions.

In the spirit of the Millennium Goals◄ and the UN “Waterfor Life” decade, the BMBF is supporting the internationalresearch project entitled “Sustainable Management ofAvailable Water Resources with Innovative Technolo-gies” (SMART) within the basin◄ of the Lower Jordan. Theproject is being implemented under the scientific leader-ship of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) togeth-er with German, Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian part-ners.

Assessing and managing water supplies

The key focus of the project is to conduct a comprehensiveassessment of all water resources in the area of investiga-tion – including groundwater, wastewater, extremelysaline waters and floodwater – and to incorporate this intoan integrated cross-border management system. In orderto achieve this, the scientists must survey and assess allresources that until now have never been considered foruse for quality reasons or due to a lack of storage facilities.The intention is to determine suitable treatment tech-niques and develop intermediate storage capabilities inaccordance with subsequent use and the local conditions.This integrative approach is new to the field of water man-agement; apart from new technologies, a regional infra-structure and institutional capacities are required in orderto implement integrated water resource management(IWRM).

Lack of water in the valley of the Jordan – finding cross-border solutions

Regional characteristics of the area underinvestigation

This region is typified by stark contrasts in climatic condi-tions, changing from Mediterranean (semi-arid) on thecoast through to highly arid◄ in the south-east. The pre-cipitation within the Jordan basin varies from 800 mil-limetres a year in the northern mountainous regions(approx. 1,000 metres above sea level) to less than 100 mil-limetres a year in the Lower Jordan valley (250 to 420metres below sea level). The latter lies within a major lin-eament comparable to a deep trench, where the ArabianPlate is shifted in a northerly direction. The flanks of thetrench consist of carbonate rocks and sandstones, and it isfilled with fluvial◄ and marine sediments. The ever-grow-ing population, predominantly based in the major cities inthe upper-lying regions (Jerusalem, Ramallah andAmman-Salt), is producing large amounts of wastewater


Map of the SMART investigation zone between the Sea of Galilee in thenorth and the Dead Sea in the south

http://www2.ufz.de/index.php?de=15689

ECOLOGY | IWRM | LACK OF WATER IN THE VALLEY OF THE JORDAN 47

in isolated areas that is either infiltrating the aquifers◄ orflowing towards the Jordan via deep and mainly dryriverbeds – known as wadis. Economically, the Lower Jor-dan valley is in a period of agricultural, tourism and alsoindustrial development. The high temperatures and fer-tile soils provide conditions for all-year-round farmingand shape the region as a “natural greenhouse”.

Research with an application approach

During the first phase of the project (2006 to 2009), theresearchers established extensive infrastructures such asthe “SMART-Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Site” inFuheis and environmental monitoring systems (climate,effluent, groundwater quality and quantity) in several sec-tions of the basin. They also identified other sites for vari-ous forms of technology. Pilot systems are now beinginstalled there in consultation with local ministries, devel-opment co-operation bodies and the industrial partnersinvolved.

The second funding phase is ongoing and aims to imple-ment the successful activities from the first phase withindemonstration projects, with a strong applicationapproach being taken. The German Water Partnershiphas already registered interest, particularly in the fields ofwastewater treatment, membrane procedures◄, artificialgroundwater enrichment and software-supported deci-sion-making tools; several members of the umbrellaorganisation for German water management are involvedin the SMART project. Discussions are also taking placewith the Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau banking group(KfW), which sees great potential in decentralised waste-water treatment in the region.

Key results from the research programme have foundtheir way into the Jordan National Strategic Water Plan2008–2022, which means important political steps havealready been taken to prepare a systematic solution fordecentralised water management.

Building up structures and expertise

During the second phase of the project, the scientists willcontinue to characterise the available water resources andto expand into other areas. The key question is how thewater quality can be developed in a closed basin in themedium and long term when increasing amounts ofwastewater are being reused. The research team is investi-gating how hygiene-related micro-organisms can be elim-inated and how organic trace elements◄ accumulate andbiodegrade in arid to semi-arid conditions.

All activities are fed into IWRM scenarios for the sectionsof the basin, in which the various forms of adaptation arerepresented in terms of demographic, climatic and eco-nomic change and compared in analyses. ConfirmedIWRM scenarios are then made available for the entireproject area taking into account the new technology andmanagement concepts.

Overall, the build-up of local capacities has played a majorrole within SMART II: this is crucial for the implementa-tion of integrated water resource management. It wasalready evident in the first phase that there is huge inter-est in the specifically developed further education pro-grammes. They received particular support from themajor planning authorities (Palestinian Water Authority,Jordan Ministry of Water and Irrigation) and proved them-selves to be a good opportunity to raise awareness for theIWRM process and the use of sustainable technologies.

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute of Applied GeosciencesProf. Dr. Heinz HötzlAdenauerring 20 b76131 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 21/60 84 30 96Fax: +49 (0)7 21/60 62 79E-mail: [email protected] reference: BMBF-PTKA 02WM1079

View of the Jordan valley with irrigationcultures on the eastern Jordanian side

Information from schoolchildren on the use ofclean wastewater for irri-gation in agriculture

Vietnam is a country rich in water resources. Withan average annual precipitation of just under2,000 millimetres and a dense water network of2,360 rivers spanning over ten kilometres, the watersupply is generous. Yet despite these favourableconditions, water management is a challenge inVietnam: a lack of infrastructure and knowledge andincreasing water consumption through agricultureand industry are just some of the problems. Germanand Vietnamese researchers are working togetheron a BMBF research project to establish the prereq-uisites for a sustainable way of managing the watersupplies.

The distribution of precipitation and waterways in Viet-nam varies greatly from region to region. Extended dryseasons lead to temporary supply problems in certainareas of the country. Much of Vietnam is also “down-stream territory”, i.e. the rivers have already travelledsome distance before flowing into the country. So, forexample, the quantity and quality of the water resourcesin the Mekong and the Red River depend heavily on theusage along the upper courses in neighbouring countries.Furthermore, the necessary infrastructure for water sup-plies, wastewater treatment, flood protection etc. is not inplace nationwide. In addition to all this, the economicdevelopment of the country with advancing urbanisation,industrialisation and intensive farming is leading to anincrease in water consumption and thus to growingamounts of wastewater. The authorities are not currentlyin a position to implement effective water management inthe face of these challenges.

Careful management of water resources is essential if thewater-related problems in Vietnam are to be solved. Tech-nical, judicial and social tools must be developed and con-ceptual measures for the respective river basins imple-mented. These activities are intended to harmonise thesomewhat contradictory requirements of the water supplyand provide sustainability. Several BMBF-funded projectsunder the collective title “IWRM Vietnam” are support-ing this process in three representative Vietnameseregions with different natural, socio-economic and eco-logical characteristics:● Red River Delta, Nam Dinh province: The key chal-

lenges for integrated water research management(IWRM) are intensive farming and the wastewaterfrom the textile industry, metalworking and aquacul-ture. The freshwater is also being depleted throughexcessive groundwater extraction and increasing salt-water intrusion◄.

German-Vietnamese collaboration – researching a sustainable way to deal with water

● Dong-Nai basin, Lam Dong province, Hoa Bac district:Intensive tea and coffee cultivation is resulting inlarge quantities of fertilisers and pesticides enteringthe waterways that supply over 9,000 people withtheir day-to-day water.

● Mekong Delta, Can Tho province: The main problemshere are the deficient water supply, flood events anddeposits from intensive livestock farming.

The “IWRM Vietnam” research project is being led by thechair of environmental engineering and ecology in civilengineering at the University of Bochum with the co-oper-ation of the Universities of Bonn and Greifswald and a net-work of German and Vietnamese partners in universities,research institutes, authorities and companies. The scien-tists are developing methods for implementing integratedwater resource management for river basins in Vietnam.To date, they have produced the following results at twoplanning levels:

River basin level: planning and decision-making support tools

Tools have been developed that will help to establish sus-tainable water management and to reduce or even com-pletely eliminate the risks posed to water quality. One ofthe results is a planning atlas for integrated waterresource management.

The scientists examined the water resources in the afore-mentioned example regions as well as the current eco-nomic, social and ecological situation of the basin◄ inquestion. The aim was to cover both current and future


The Red River Delta in the Nam Dinh province of Vietnam

ECOLOGY | IWRM | GERMAN-VIETNAMESE COLLABORATION 49

usage conflicts and water management issues. The resultsof the investigations are to help decision-makers in futurein implementing measures for sustainable water manage-ment and for protecting the water resources against con-tamination. The tools were developed in close collabora-tion with the Vietnamese authorities and tested in thethree example regions.

Local level: environmental technology

The experts have also developed technical and conceptualsolutions for specific water-management problems atlocal level for the three project regions. This involvedadapting German environmental technologies to localconditions and putting them to use.

The scientists developed a tool for the Can Tho provincethat is designed to reduce the amount of nutrients in thewaters of the Mekong Delta. A web-based geo-informationsystem (GIS) was set up for this purpose in order to monitorthe water quality. The researchers also developed solu-tions for treating agricultural wastewater.

The researchers designed a central water supply systemfor the Lam Dong province. This involved creating a bal-ance between conflicting interests within an agrariancommunity. The adverse effect of agriculture on the waterquality played a significant role here. The experiencesgained are being fed into the development of a province-scale IWRM system.

The scientists developed concepts for treating domesticand industrial wastewater in the Nam Dinh province. Theyare examples of a possible solution for the water manage-ment problems faced there.

One key component of the project is what is known ascapacity development◄. This involves training for theVietnamese partners in environmental administrationand research, master’s theses, joint research activities,workshops and conferences.

Continuing need for co-operation

The Vietnamese government has recognised the impor-tance of integrated water resource management and isworking on improving the framework conditions. Theinstitutions that need to implement IWRM on site arebeing strengthened – beginning with the river basins withthe biggest water management problems. The diverserange of challenges means the Vietnamese governmentrequires continuing support, e.g. in the development ofplanning tools, monitoring strategies and wastewatertreatment procedures, and in the intensifying of environ-mental administration and personnel training. There isstill great demand for scientific and technical collabora-tion between Vietnam and Germany where IWRM is con-cerned.

University of BochumFaculty of Civil and Environmental EngineeringU+Ö: Environmental engineering and ecology incivil engineeringProf. Dr. Harro StolpeUniversitätsstraße 15044801 Bochum, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)2 34/3 22-79 95E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WM0815

· Sub-projects, Ruhr University of Bochum, U+Ö (funding ref 02WM0815, funding ref WM0816)

· Sub-project, University of Bonn, INRES (funding ref02WM0760)

· Sub-project, University of Greifswald, IGG (funding ref 02WM0765)

· Sub-project, iaks GmbH (funding ref 02WM0766) · Sub-project, Fraunhofer Institute (funding ref

02WM0767) · Sub-projects, Moskito GIS GmbH

(funding ref 02WM0762, 02WM0769)

Location of the three project regions

Topic areas and partners within the AKIZ research project

Vietnam is one of the up-and-coming former devel-oping countries experiencing strong economicgrowth and rapidly increasing environmental prob-lems. Most of the country’s 300 or so industrialzones have no regulated forms of wastewater dis-posal. There is a lack of modern technology, the nec-essary expertise and assertive authorities. It is clearthat a holistic approach is essential for this complexissue to be successfully resolved in the long term.Research facilities are working together with Ger-man companies within the BMBF research projectentitled “integrated wastewater concept for indus-trial zones” (AKIZ) to develop new solutions – andare therefore simultaneously creating a future mar-ket for Germany’s environmental technology.

Vietnam produces around 20% of its exports in state-runindustrial zones. There are currently around 250 nationalregistered industrial zones covering more than60,000 hectares of land plus an additional 15 economiczones. Factoring in the industrial zones registered atregional and district level, this figure is likely to be wayover 300 and 90 more are planned by the year 2015.

In preparation for the project, experts determined thatonly around a quarter of the investigated industrial zoneshad any sort of central sewage facility whatsoever, ofwhich only a quarter again operated satisfactorily from awestern perspective. Existing facilities were often out ofcommission due to insufficient financing or a lack ofmaintenance.

Integrated approach

A research project with around EUR 8 million of fundingfrom the BMBF intends to indicate possible ways out of thisprecarious situation. Scientists working on this “flagship”project are using an industrial zone in the Can Thoprovince within the Mekong Delta as an example to devel-op an integrated wastewater concept. The expectedresults include the specifications for work at a centralsewage plant. Working on the AKIZ research project arefour German industrial partners and a total of five Germanuniversities together with Vietnamese universities andresearch institutes. The Institute of Environmental Engi-neering and Management at the University of Witten /Herdecke gGmbH (IEEM) is responsible for overall co-ordi-nation.

Wastewater disposal in Vietnamese industrial zones –a case study for holistic concepts

The BMBF project is being conducted together with German development collaboration.

Finding tailored solutions

Before high-tech solutions that have proven themselves inindustrial countries can be implemented, they must betailored to the specific working conditions and tropical cli-mate conditions within the project area. The scientistsused container testing facilities at German industrial


Workers in a Vietnamese pesticide plant

TP 1

TP 2

TP 3

TP 4

TP 5

TP 6

Integrated management concept/co-ordinationInstitute of Environmental Engineering and Management at the University of Witten /Herdecke gGmbH (02WA1060), Hanoi University of Science, National Economics University

Elimination of toxic substancesHST Hydro-Systemtechnik GmbH (02WA1061), University of Stuttgart (02WA1062), Hanoi University of Science

Anaerobic industrial wastewater treatment with energy recoveryPassavant-Roediger GmbH (02WA1063), Leibniz University Hanover (02WA1064), Southern Institute of Water Resources Research

Recovery of valuable materials by membrane filtrationEnviroChemie GmbH (02WA1065), Technische Universität Darmstadt (Technical UniversityDarmstadt) (02WA1066), Hanoi University of Civil Engineering, Vietnamese-German University

Development and operation of a containerized laboratory and monitoring conceptLAR Process Analysers AG (02WA1067), Institute of Environmental Engineering and Man-agement at the University of Witten / Herdecke gGmbH (02WA1068), Passavant-RoedigerGmbH (02WA1063), Vietnam Institute of Industrial Chemistry, Can Tho University

Sewage sludge management conceptsTechnical University Braunschweig (02WA1069), Vietnamese Academy of Science andTechnology, Institute for Environment and Resources at the Vietnam National University

http://www.akiz.de/

ECOLOGY | IWRM | WASTEWATER DISPOSAL IN VIETNAM 51

partners to do this and to further development. Samplecompanies in the Tra Noc industrial zones were used topresent decentralised solutions for wastewater pre-treat-ment with pollution close to the source and recovery ofenergy and resources.

In Vietnam – as in many other developing and emergingcountries – there have never been any sustainable con-cepts for eliminating effluent sludge. The scientists had tobegin by devising suitable concepts for its disposal andrecycling. Most emerging countries have effluent limitsthat are even comparable in part with western wastewaterstandards. However, they often do not contain any toxicityparameters◄ or are not implemented due to a consider-able lack of enforcement. Nevertheless, it is a fundamentalprerequisite that applicable environmental standards andquality requirements be implemented when using high-tech facilities. Specific training in this regard (capacitybuilding◄) is being implemented as part of the AKIZ proj-ect. An innovative monitoring system will also supply keydata for determining requirements for technologicaladaptation and for the administrative and financialaspects of cleaning wastewater.

Concepts with a future

All the aforementioned aspects must be fed into a singleall-encompassing management concept that maps outthe technical and economic operation of the wastewatersystem in the industrial zone. It covers the decentralisedtechnological approaches to pre-treatment and the cen-tral sewage plant, beginning with the monitoring system(tropicalised laboratory unit) and extending to the calcu-lation and financing models to ensure sustainable waste-water cleaning. The intention is to use other industrialzones to verify the transferability of the project results.

The resolution of the precarious wastewater situation inmany industrial zones in developing and emerging coun-tries requires a strictly holistic approach that must ensurethe sustainable and efficient operation of the entire sys-tem along with all technical, economic and ecological fac-tors. The AKIZ project deals with these aspects with anintegrative approach and uses German expertise to devel-op tailored solutions. As an emerging country experienc-ing strong economic growth and rapidly increasing envi-ronmental problems, Vietnam is also increasingly becom-ing a market for quality-oriented environmentaltechnologies from Germany.

Institute of Environmental Engineering and Man-agement at the University of Witten / HerdeckegGmbH (IEEM)Prof. Dr. Dr. Karl-Ulrich RudolphMs Dipl.-Ing. Sandra KreuterAlfred-Herrhausen-Straße 4458455 Witten, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 23 02/9 14 01-0Fax: +49 (0) 23 02/9 14 01-11E-mail: [email protected]@uni-wh-utm.deInternet: www.uni-wh-utm.de

Project co-ordinationAKIZ Project OfficeDipl.-Ing. René HeinrichLot 12A, Tra Noc Waterplant, Industrial Zone Tra NocIICan Tho City, VietnamTel.: +84/71 03/74 40-03Fax: +84/71 03/74 40-04E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WA1060 (TP co-ordination)

A wastewater channel in the Tra Noc industrial zone in Can Tho

Mongolia is faced with some major water manage-ment challenges. Global change, droughts, wide-spread contamination from mining and outdatedwater supply and disposal infrastructures have ledto a dramatic decline in living conditions overrecent years. The problems are so closely interlinkedthat only integrated system solutions can help. Aconsortium of scientists and engineers is now devel-oping an overall concept using German expertiseand technologies to implement sustainable manage-ment of the water supplies.

Mongolia has a population of around three million peo-ple, around 60% of whom have no access to clean drinkingwater and safe methods of wastewater disposal. Thebroad, dry and cold steppe regions and the boreal conifer-ous forests◄ of central Asia are typified by a general watershortage and an extremely variable climate that bringsgreat annual and seasonal fluctuations in water availabili-ty. With a rapidly growing population, the traditionalnomadic nature and the expansion of agriculture andmining (predominantly gold and copper), more and morewater is being consumed. The situation is not expected toimprove in future either.

The research project entitled “Integrated WaterResources Management in Central Asia: Model RegionMongolia” (MoMo) has a team of scientists developinginnovative solutions to provide the people with a sustain-able water supply. Numerous German and Mongolian co-operation partners are involved in this inter and transdis-ciplinary research, which is being co-ordinated by theHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) inMagdeburg.

Reliable basic data required

Between 2006 and 2009, the researchers created key foun-dations for integrated water management for the city ofDarkhan (approx. 100,000 inhabitants) and the surround-ing Kharaa river basin in north-east Mongolia. They devel-oped the new concepts in close collaboration with localpartners. This initial phase of the project examined the keycomponents of water management: climate change andhydrology◄, groundwater, land use, nutrient cycles, ecol-ogy, supply of drinking water and treatment of waste-water. The scientists used scenario techniques to formlong-term strategies for managing water resources, devel-

Model Region Mongolia – the path to sustainable water management

oped with the key local players and adapted and fine-tuned to the situation on site. This enabled them to pro-pose a useful range of measures. Mongolia is exhibiting agreat deal of interest in the implementation; with thenational water law of 2004 and the creation of a nationalwater agency, there are excellent institutional frameworkconditions in place in order to achieve this.

Steps towards implementation

Since the three-year implementation phase began (run-ning from 2010 to 2013), the scientists have been imple-menting the first elements of integrated water resourcemanagement (IWRM). For example, several pilot sewageplants are being set up to adapt selected technologies tothe local conditions. Gaps in knowledge on the qualitativeand quantitative condition of the water resources are tobe closed and a comprehensive environmental monitor-ing system set up covering the surface water, groundwa-ter, soil, drinking water, wastewater and land coverage.The planned monitoring network is being set up in collab-oration with the environmental authorities and adaptedto local needs.

With regard to domestic water management, theresearchers are implementing an integral concept cover-ing the introduction of locally optimised technologies andstrategies for the settlements in question. These includethe urban sector with its ailing central drinking water and


Cities (sample)

Kharaa and tributaries

Kharaa basin

Aimag border

Height [m above NN]

Kilometres

Location of the model region in Mongolia (Cartography: DanielKarthe)

http://www.iwrm-momo.de/index.php?id=1&L=1

ECOLOGY | IWRM | MODEL REGION MONGOLIA 53

wastewater treatment system, the suburban yurt settle-ments where the residents have no prospects of a connec-tion to central supply and disposal systems through theauthorities and smaller localities in the country, whichinstead of sewage facilities often only have sluice systemstaking the waste away. The second phase of the projectwill also see capacity development measures significantlyincreased to make a sustainable contribution to improv-ing living conditions and to increase the sense of personalresponsibility in affected areas.

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZDepartment Aquatic Ecosystem AnalysisProf. Dr. Dietrich BorchardtBrückstraße 3a39114 Magdeburg, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 91/8 10 97 57Fax: +49 (0)3 91/8 10 91 11E-mail: [email protected]: www.iwrm-momo.deFunding reference: 033L003

The Kharaa basin in northern Mongolia (Source: Daniel Krätz)

In the suburban yurt settlements, the residents obtain their drinkingwater from central water kiosks (Source: Lena Horlemann)

Research project partners: MoMo

Project partners in Germany:

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ, Leipzig, Magdeburg

Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Berlin

Fraunhofer Application Center System Technology, Ilmenau

Bauhaus University Weimar, chair for urban water and sanitation, Weimar

University of Kassel, Center for Environmental Systems Research

Heidelberg University, Institute of Geography, Heidelberg

p2mberlin GmbH, Berlin

Vista Geowissenschaftliche Fernerkundung GmbH, Munich

terrestris GmbH & Co. KG, Bonn

Bergmann Clean Abwassertechnik GmbH (BCAT), Penig

Seeconsult Deutschland GmbH, Osnabrück

Passavant-Roediger GmbH, Hanau

GEOFLUX GbR, Halle (Saale)

Project partners in Mongolia:

At national level:

Mongolian ministries for the environment, education, construction, agricultureand finance

National environmental monitoring authorities

National water agency

At regional level:

Darkhan Uul Aimag provincial government

Regional environment agency, Darkhan Uul Aimag

Meteorological institute of Darkhan

USAG, drinking water and wastewater company, Darkhan

Scientific institutions in Mongolia:

National University of Mongolia, Ulan Bator

Mongolian University of Science and Technology, Ulan Bator and Darkhan

Agricultural University, Darkhan

Mongolian Academy of Sciences

German partners in Mongolia:

German embassy, Ulan Bator

GIZ, Ulan Bator

Gunung Sewu on the southern coast of Java is char-acterised by its tropical climate. In the dry season,the karst region◄ suffers an acute lack of water; thisweakens this agricultural area so badly that it is alsoreferred to as the poor house of Java. The regionalso suffers from an appalling supply system andcompletely insufficient means of wastewater dispos-al. Supported by the BMBF, scientists over recentyears have already set up an underground reservoirand used regenerative hydropower to supply cavewater. The follow-up project is now opening upadditional water supplies and developing a conceptfor integrated water resource management. Thequality of life among the inhabitants is set toimprove long term with these measures.

The Gunung Kidul district near the city of Yogyakarta isone of the poorest regions on Java. One reason for this isthe fissured karst ground, which soaks up the surfacewater straightaway. On top of this, there is a lack of adapt-ed technologies to obtain and distribute drinking waterand to treat wastewater. This is where the BMBF projectentitled “Integrated Water Resource Management(IWRM) in Gunung Kidul, Java, Indonesia” comes in: theaim of this project is to secure a supply of drinking waterfor the region; this necessitates tapping into the under-ground water resources in the Gunung Sewu cave systems(“1000 hills”) and the karst groundwater of the WonosariPlateau, and sanitising existing water distribution sys-tems. Newly developed technologies are intended to helpsupply the population with sufficient clean water all yearround, without placing an additional burden on futuregenerations or neighbouring regions.The research project is being run by the Institute for Water

Model region Gunung Kidul – integrated water resourcemanagement in karst regions

and River Basin Management (IWG) at the Karlsruhe Insti-tute of Technology (KIT) and involves the collaboration ofGerman and Indonesian partners from universities,research facilities, industry and public authorities.

Surveying and managing the waterresources

The basis of an IWRM project is sound knowledge of all theconditions affecting the water within a given region. Thedata already gained for the basin◄ of the Gua Bribin cavein the precursory project is to be expanded and optimisedwith the new findings within management and distribu-tion systems, and strategies to protect precious waterresources are to be developed.

A barrage installed in the precursory project retains theinflowing water within the Gua Bribin cave. This gener-ates sufficient pressure to operate pumps to deliver thewater. The scientists are now planning to implementanother pumping facility within the Gua Seropan cave;the energy to drive this is to be produced via a woodenpressure line. The two facilities will provide valuable prac-tical experience for the use of regenerative pumping tech-nologies in karst regions.

Distribution, treatment, quality assurance

The existing water distribution systems in the rural areasof Gunung Sewu must be improved as a matter of priority.Alongside a cost-efficient network and operating concept,the scientists also intend to develop a concept for decen-tralised energy recovery within the distribution networkand to implement this at selected example sites.


Location of the Gunung Sewu karst region on Java, Indonesia

Surveying the water

resources

Water resource management/

renewable energy

Water distribution/

intermediate storage

Improvement of living conditions

Drinking water quality controlTreating wastewater and waste

Protecting water resources/

sustainable use

Technology impact

assessment

Socio-economic framework

conditions

2+2 concept/

capacity building

Opening up new markets/

appropriate technologies

Sustainability/

participation Ecological and economical

assessment

Basic design of integrated water resource management (IWRM)

http://www.bmbf.wasserressourcen-management.de/en/293.php

ECOLOGY | IWRM | MODEL REGION GUNUNG KIDUL, INDONESIA 55

A management tool is to support and assist the localauthorities in their decisions in order to optimise the oper-ation of the network.

Another vital aspect is assuring the quality of the water.Researchers are therefore developing a monitoring sys-tem to keep a permanent watch on the quality of theuntreated water and the water in the distribution systems.They are installing a pilot water treatment facility in theWonosari hospital, which if successful will serve as a tem-plate for further decentralised facilities in the region.

Treating wastewater and waste

With regard to treating wastewater and waste, the inten-tion is to develop adapted technologies for separating,treating, using and returning flows of wastewater andwaste. The ultimate aim is an enclosed nutrient cycle andassurance of the scarce water resources available. The sci-entists must develop a “substance flow model” as part ofthe preparatory work for devising a sustainable disposalconcept. This maps all the relevant, water-related nutrientflows within the region, depicts existing problems andhelps determine the areas on which the work shouldfocus. The stark differences between the urban and ruralsections of the model region mean that solutionapproaches must differ depending on the area.

Socio-economic evaluation and technologyimpact assessment

A socio-economic analysis can be used to determine theliving conditions and problems relating to water supplyand wastewater disposal within the region of investiga-tion according to the different areas and to develop possi-ble solutions. The systems analysis and technology impactassessment – supplemented by the life-cycle assessment◄and life-cycle costing◄ are also used to evaluate econom-ic, ecological, social, cultural and acceptance-relatedaspects. The results facilitate decision-making with regard

to designing and implementing water management facil-ities, enable the effect of this system to be judged in termsof sustainable development within the affected regionand support the overall IWRM project in making such acontribution.

Expanding knowledge

Technical concepts are only sustainable if the targetgroups accept the concept in question and are involved inall phases of the project. The design and implementationof technical concepts within this project are thereforeaccompanied by workshops, familiarisation campaignsand an intensive transfer of knowledge. The scientistshave worked together with the Indonesian partner institu-tions on all tasks and have involved NGOs and the localpopulation to some extent. Also planned is a comprehen-sive teaching and education programme for the staff oper-ating and maintaining the water management facilities.This is also intended to form the basis for the transfer ofthe IWRM concept to other locations and trigger its multi-plication with as diverse a base as possible.

Strategies to combat water shortage

The new underground flowing water system and IWRMconcept for Gunung Kidul will provide significantapproaches to overcoming the shortage of water in karstregions but also in non-karst regions. Significantly, theproject is also making a contribution to interculturalunderstanding, which is of vital importance in light of theglobal political situation.

Project website ►www.iwrm-indonesien.de

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute for Water and River Basin ManagementProf. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h. c. mult. Franz NestmannDr.-Ing. Peter OberleDr.-Ing. Muhammad IkhwanKaiserstraße 1276131 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 21/6 08-63 88Fax: +49 (0)7 21/60 60 46E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WM0877

The Gunung Sewu karst region during the dry season

The northern provinces of China have severe watershortage and pollution problems, the consequencesof which are stagnant socio-economic development,a decrease in the quality of life and damage to theenvironment. And yet there is no fundamental lackof water; it is the rapid growth in population, indus-try and agriculture plus the uncoordinated watermanagement measures that are often leading towater conflicts. Integrated water resource manage-ment using German monitoring and plant technolo-gy is intended to resolve the major problems experi-enced in the Shandong province and simultaneouslyserve as a sustainable concept for use in otherregions of the world.

The basin◄ of the Huangshuihe river is 1,034 squaremetres in size and situated in the north-east of the Shan-dong province on China’s Pacific coast (64 kilometrecoastline). Agriculture is one of the main sources ofincome in this region, but its development has since beenheavily curtailed due to a shortage of water – and thesame applies to the region’s industry. The excessive strainbeing placed on resources has also become apparent, withoveruse of groundwater sources leading to saltwater infil-tration.

As part of the bilateral research project entitled “Sustain-able Water Resources Management in the CoastalArea of Shandong Province, PR China”, an internationalteam of scientists is now developing an integrated waterresource management (IWRM) system to solve the majorproblems faced in this region. The aims of IWRM are:● Integration of social, economic and environmental

aspects● Integrated consideration of groundwater and surface

water (quantity and quality)● Optimisation of the water balance for the entire basin.

German-Chinese research team

The research project is being funded by the Chinese Min-istry of Science and Technology (MOST) and the BMBF,bringing together German expertise, the latest develop-ments in connection with the WFD◄ and the researchefforts of Chinese experts in the coastal region of the Shan-dong province. Using Longkou as an example area, Ger-man and Chinese scientists are working together withlocal authorities and research facilities to develop an

Example region Shandong – concepts to combat avoidable water shortages

application-oriented strategy for optimising water man-agement. Ideally, it should help relieve the water shortagewhen applied to the entire Shandong province.

The project is divided into four sub-projects:1. Socio-economic decision-making criteria for a deci-

sion support system (DSS)◄2. Development of a method for planning sustainable

measures within IWRM3. Integrated concept for saving, reusing and recycling

water in the home, industry and agriculture4. Development of a water monitoring concept for the

Huangshuihe basin

Development of a decision support system

Scientists are developing a DSS as part of this project. Thissystem is intended to help optimise sustainable watermanagement and to devise a monitoring concept. Socio-economic decision-making criteria are input into the sys-tem; these were initially determined by the Institute forEcological Economy Research (IÖW) recording the pres-ent water usage in the project area (report: “Assessment ofcurrent water uses”). The analysis of the socio-economicand institutional framework conditions in the water sec-tor formed part of a master’s thesis. The scenarios forfuture water usage developed therein were determinedthrough linear projection of current usage; a different


Final selection for cost-benefit optimisation

Selection criteria and combination mechanism

Sustainable

solution

Scenario 2 Scenario 3Scenario 1

General catalogue of measures

Preselection of measures with regard to geohydrological and socio-cultural limitations

Catalogue of applicable measures

Development of

scenarios (DSS 1)

Catalogue of

measures (DSS 1)

Re

qu

ire

me

nts

Su

pp

ort

ing

me

tho

ds

Sit

e-s

pe

cifi

c d

ata

Construction diagram for the planned decision support system (DSS)

ECOLOGY | IWRM | WATER SHORTAGE IN SHANDONG 57

procedure is currently not possible. However, the greatestgap in information within the framework conditions liesin the socio-economic institutions and institutional tools.Despite close collaboration with the Chinese partners, it isstill just as difficult to acquire actual data and figures foragriculture, households and institutional measures.

Another element of focus was on the collation and quanti-tative description of measures to serve as a basis for theDSS. During close collaboration between DHI-WASYGmbH and the Ruhr University of Bochum, experts puttogether a comprehensive catalogue of potential watermanagement tools. Questions relating to the selectionmethod are currently being discussed. For example, a pre-selection stage will make it possible to reduce the largenumber of potential measures(or combinations of measures) in advance. A newly devel-oped interactive water balance sheet and a groundwatermodel devised as part of the project have already beenable to indicate that the water balance in the projectregion has almost balanced out over the last year. It wouldtherefore appear, as already suspected, that there is nofundamental lack of water and that this is purely a man-agement problem.

Pilot project plans complete

In the meantime, scientists have completed concepts anddesign plans for the use of rainwater in the Songfeng set-tlement and for efficient irrigation for the Weilong WineCompany, which have been transferred to the Chinesepartners. Reactions to these are still pending. Plans forpilot projects to enrich the groundwater with treatedwastewater in the Dongcheng sewage plant and to reuseprocess waters in the Yulong paper plant are still under-way.

Monitoring system under construction

The scientists were also able to make significant progressin implementing the monitoring concept. A rough analy-sis of the project area undertaken before the project high-lighted clear weaknesses in the existing monitoring sys-tem, particularly in the recording of groundwater levelsand water quality parameters. The Chinese partners havenow built two new measuring points, and a third isplanned. The first measuring point is equipped with asolar multi-parameter remote probe, which continuallymeasures five different values and transmits these daily toa website. A facility with additional measuring and sam-pling technology plus regular sampling for chemicalanalysis are in the preparatory stages.

There also weak spots in recording the amount of effluent.Of particular importance is the fact that the effluent datafor the Huangchengji – the largest tributary in the projectregion – is missing. The scientists have in the meantimedesigned a measuring system in co-ordination with theChinese partners; it is to be installed just before the mouthof the Huangchengji in the main river and will providedata for the groundwater model.

Project website ►www.dhi-wasy.de

DHI-WASY GmbHProf. Dr. S. Kaden (Project Co-ordinator)Waltersdorfer Straße 10512526 Berlin, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 30/67 99 98-0Fax: +49 (0) 30/67 99 98-99E-mail: [email protected]: www.dhigroup.comFunding reference: 02WM0923-6

Testing sampling technology at a groundwater measuring point

There are currently almost a billion people livingwithout clean drinking water and over three billionwithout sufficient sanitation – with serious conse-quences for health and the economy. It is inresponse to this that the United Nations devised theMillennium Goals◄ in 2002, which commit the mem-ber states to halving the number of people withoutaccess to clean drinking water and sanitary facilitiesby the year 2015. Research projects such as the“International Water Research Alliance Saxony”(IWAS) can help deliver specific solutions in thisregard. Scientists working on this project are devel-oping comprehensive water management conceptsfor five hydrologically sensitive regions of the world.

The world’s population is rapidly growing and with it theneed for food and clean water. This poses a major prob-lem: up to 90% of the expected increase (by 2050) will be indeveloping and emerging countries. Irrigation farming isrequired in order to produce the amount of food requiredwithin these regions. This worsens the already prevalentlack of water – taking up around 70% of global water con-sumption, agriculture uses far more water than anythingelse.

Around 40 scientists from the Helmholtz Centre for Envi-ronmental Research – UFZ and the Technical University ofDresden have joined forces with Stadtentwässerung Dres-den GmbH, the Institute of Hydrobiology (itwh), DreberisGmbH and other partners from science, economics andpolitics to form the “International Water ResearchAlliance Saxony” (IWAS) in order to address these chal-lenges, by tackling the most pressing water issues in fivestrongly affected regions of the world.

Working in the model regions

Funded by the BMBF as part of the “Spitzenforschung undInnovation in den Neuen Ländern” programme (topresearch and innovation in new countries), scientistsworking on the IWAS project are developing system solu-tions for the respective water problems. The solutions areto serve as elementary building blocks for holistic and sus-tainable integrated water resource management (IWRM),the aim being to establish this in the affected countries inthe years and decades to come. The reasons for the waterproblems that are occurring are as diverse as the profilesof the regions under investigation:

International Water Research Alliance Saxony – building blocks for sustainable water management

Eastern Europe/Ukraine: The focus in this region is onimproving the quality of the surface water in line with theEU Water Framework Directive (WFD◄). The modelregion is the basin◄ of the Western Bug. Previous studieshave shown that the river basin is heavily contaminated.An extensive range of technological improvements andchanges to institutional framework conditions arerequired if European standards are to be achieved in thisarea. The scientists analysed the water management struc-tures within the urban and rural areas, mapped the watercycle and the established forms of land use in computermodels and recorded the climate data in a database.Intensive relationships were also established with repre-sentatives from science, the authorities, water manage-ment and the relevant ministries.

Central Asia/Mongolia: This project region is dominatedby an extreme climate and the environmental conditionsare currently undergoing significant change. The mostimportant task here is to develop adaptation strategies,with new technologies to safeguard water quality playinga major role. The scientists have already begun construct-ing a measuring device that will quickly detect bacterio-logical impurities and pollutants. They have also workedin close collaboration with the “MoMo” IWRM project (seeproject 1.3.04) in analysing the available administrativestructures and stakeholders. This will enable potentialimprovements to social framework conditions to beapplied and thus pave the way for the sustainable imple-mentation of the IWRM concept.


Model area in Saudi Arabia: water in the dessert (Source: GIZ IS, Riyadh)


ECOLOGY | IWRM | INTERNATIONAL WATER RESEARCH ALLIANCE SAXONY 59

South-east Asia/Vietnam: The work in this project regionfocuses on a district of Hanoi (Long Bien). Extremely rapidgrowth in this region has led to the improper disposal ofwastewater. The aim is to develop a concept for a sustain-able drainage system and to integrate it into the existingwater system. The scientists have analysed ways to supple-ment the groundwater artificially with cleaned waste-water to counteract its reduction. A demonstration facilityis to be erected on a plot of land provided by the cityauthorities and a water competence centre is also in thepipeline.

Middle East/Saudi Arabia, Oman: Arid regions◄ like theArabian Peninsula primarily obtain their water resourcesfrom the groundwater. The risk of over-exploitation of thissource of water is especially high. The focus of this region-al project therefore is a complex modelling of groundwa-ter regeneration and the negative effects on its quality,e.g. through the infiltration of saltwater along the coast.Then there is also the question of sustainable manage-ment; among other things, the project is examining theinfluence of climate change and climate extremes on cropyields.

Latin America/Brazil: The Brazil model region is typifiedby rapid, unchecked urbanisation. It is expected that theneed for water supplies and system capacities will soonincrease dramatically. IWAS is working together with thewater supplier and other Brazilian partners to developappropriate strategies. This is to be combined with othercomplementary BMBF projects in order to establish anIWRM system for the region. The regional water suppliersare planning to invest millions over the next few years inland use and the development of a technical infrastruc-ture; the project results will make a significant contribu-tion to devising sustainable solutions in this regard.

Cross-sectional activities and outlook

The development of sustainable management conceptsrequires future scenarios and forecasting models. Theseare combined for all regional projects in a central “IWAStoolbox” to enable transferability to other regions. Otherkey components of the IWAS projects are the transfer ofknowledge (capacity development) and the setting up ofsustainable water management structures. This is intend-ed to help implement the developed solutions and strate-gies in the respective regions in such a way that ensurestheir longevity.

Following the completion of the two-and-a-half-year pilotphase, a follow-up project was launched (2011 to 2013).This phase will continue the work undertaken, increasethe focus and implement the developed managementconcepts in collaboration with the respective partners.

International Water Research Alliance Saxony – IWASHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZDepartment Aquatic Ecosystem Analysis and ManagementProf. Dr. Dietrich BorchardtBrückstraße 3a39114 Magdeburg, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 91/8 10 91 01E-mail: [email protected]

Technical University of DresdenInstitute for urban water managementProf. Dr. Peter Krebs01062 Dresden, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 51/46 33 52 57E-mail: [email protected]

Funding reference: Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ02WM1027Technical University of Dresden 02WM1028Stadtentwässerung Dresden 02WM1029Institute of Hydrobiology (itwh) 02WM1050DREBERIS GmbH 02WM1051

ISSUES

Surface water quality

Water balance in

climate-sensitive

regions

Wastewater and use of

sludge

Groundwater enrich-

ment and safe yield

Untreated water quality

and water treatment

Cross-sectional project Q1:Scenarios and system analysis

Cross-sectional project Q2:Transfer and application

Eastern EuropeUkraine

Middle EastOman/Saudi Arabia

Latin AmericaBrazil

South-east AsiaVietnam

Central AsiaMongolia

Research approach of the International Water Research Alliance Sax-ony (IWAS)

Climate change, rapid economic development and aquickly growing population have all put increasedpressure on water supplies in the Mekong Delta.This makes living and farming in a region alreadyblighted by natural events such as floods anddroughts even more difficult. German and Viet-namese scientists are now developing an innovativeinformation system in a project funded by the Fed-eral Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF),which is designed to help local authorities to adaptwater management to the changes in environmen-tal conditions and to use the resources available in asustainable manner.

At a length of 4,500 kilometres and with a basin◄ of800,000 square kilometres, the Mekong is one of theworld’s largest rivers. It starts at the Tibetan Plateau andwinds its way down to the southern end of Vietnam whereit flows into the South China Sea via nine larger channelsand forms the 70,000 square kilometre plus MekongDelta. Both living and farming in the region of this mightyriver mouth are dominated by natural events: intermit-tent flooding and droughts, saltwater penetration fromthe tides, but also through advancing climate change,which turns the soil saline. The rapid population growthand progressive economic development have also putextra pressure on resources, and regulatory measuresimplemented in neighbouring countries upriver have hadfar-reaching effects within the region. The consequencesare: changed flood patterns, increasing numbers ofextreme events such as floods and droughts, a deteriora-tion in the quality and availability of drinking water, acidi-fied and saline soils and a loss of biodiversity.

These developments all bring great challenges to farmingand water management, and yet the administrative andplanning sectors in the regions in question only have iso-lated environment-related information at their disposaland this information is rarely exchanged. Duplication ofand gaps in responsibilities make it even harder to imple-ment a sustainable strategy.

German-Vietnamese collaboration

“Water related Information System for the Sustain-able Development of the Mekong Delta” (WISDOM) is atransdisciplinary research project aimed at establishingintegrated water resource management for the Mekong

WISDOM research project – a water information system for the Mekong Delta

on three scales (basin, delta, three selected subject regionsin the delta) and is being co-ordinated by the GermanRemote Sensing Data Center (DFD) of the German Aero-space Center. German and Vietnamese institutions aretogether establishing a transferable information system(IS) for the Mekong Delta as part of the project. The aim isto support plans and decisions relating to sustainable landmanagement and integrated water resource manage-ment (IWRM) and to make a contribution towards adapt-ing to climate change. The project is being conducted inclose collaboration with the relevant regional and nation-al institutions.

More information for improved planning

The focus in the design of the WISDOM information sys-tem is on the constant integration of existing and newlygenerated results and data. This will enable user-orientedanalyses in order to develop sustainable solutions withinresource management. The system collates data from vari-ous disciplines such as hydrology◄ (water quantity, sedi-ment load), socio-economics (socio-economic statisticaldata, analyses of legal framework conditions, institutionaldatabases etc.), geography (land use, soil, vegetation,water resources and changes to these), modelling (saltinfiltration◄, spread of pollution, flooding scenarios),information technology (data from in-situ measuring net-works◄ on salt content, water level, pH value◄, nutrients)and earth monitoring (land use, soil humidity, non-sealedareas etc.). The planning tool enables the user to conductanalyses in regard to specific issues.


BMBF delegation visits the WISDOM workshop in Vietnam – WISDOM project co-ordination presents project results

http://www.wisdom.caf.dlr.de/en

ECOLOGY | IWRM | WISDOM RESEARCH PROJECT 61

User-friendly online tool

The WISDOM-IS features an innovative and complex datainfrastructure based on various licence-free software com-ponents. It is – visually speaking – a bit like a “mini Google-Earth” for the Mekong Delta, and makes all project resultsavailable. Not only does it provide visualisation of all dataand research results and their combined retrieval andintersection, users can also call up documents, legal texts,address databases, image material and presentations. Thisis an easy-to-use online tool so the decision makers do notneed any experience with geo-information systems (GIS)or other Geo-IT-related knowledge in order to use the sys-tem. As the IS provides data on a regular basis it can alsosupport certain monitoring tasks within sustainable landand water resource management. Still a prototype at pres-ent, the system is to be made ready for practical applica-tion and implemented in the region by the end of the proj-ect (2013).

Reuse and transferability

Involvement in the German-Vietnamese WISDOM initia-tive provides excellent opportunities to establish Germantechnology and expertise in Vietnam. Assuming the proj-ect runs successfully, there are good scientific and eco-nomic opportunities for reuse, particularly within envi-ronmental monitoring and decision-making for waterand land management and land administration. There isalso great potential within capacity building◄ and institu-tional-level training – both nationally (ministries, researchprogrammes) and regionally.

The planning-based information system enables data ofany type (remote sensing, GIS or sensor data, digital maps,field maps, reports, statistics etc.) to be fed in and retrieved

in relation to specific problems. Furthermore, many of themethods developed during the project for the specificconditions in developing countries can be adapted andtransferred. The initial results of the WISDOM project arealready being transferred to the CAWA (Central AsianWater) project financed by the Federal Foreign Office.Both Central Asia and China have shown great interest inthe WISDOM approach.

Project website ►www.wisdom.caf.dlr.de/

German Aerospace Center, DLRGerman Remote Sensing Data Center DFD of the DLRDr. Claudia KünzerMünchner Straße 2082234 Wessling, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 81 53/28 32 80E-mail: [email protected] reference: 0330777

Fieldwork in the Mekong Delta

WISDOM training workshop

Sustainable management of water resources is oneof the greatest challenges of the 21st century. Oneof the focuses of Federal Ministry of Education andResearch funding involves scientists, engineers andpractitioners working on concepts for “integratedwater resource management” (IWRM). IWRM is aprocess that implements sustainability conceptsand interlinks ecological, social and economic objec-tives. An accompanying scientific project is support-ing networking among those involved.

There is no escaping the escalating global water crisis.Many emerging and developing countries are sufferingfrom an inadequate supply of drinking water and insuffi-cient means of wastewater disposal. Roughly one in sixpeople in Asia currently has no access to a central supplyof drinking water, and 50% have no regulated means ofwastewater disposal. Four in ten people in Africa have toget by without a guaranteed supply of drinking water ormeans of wastewater disposal. In many semi-arid and aridregions◄ of the world, a chronic water shortage is a factorrestricting economic development. The explosion in theworld’s population and the consequences of climatechange and differences in land use will intensify theseproblems in future on a global scale. The impacts of cli-mate change – such as flooding, drought and desertifica-tion◄ – pose major challenges to water management inthe future.

Foundations laid in 1992

There are great expectations that the concept of “integrat-ed water resource management (IWRM)” will solve theworld’s water problems. The international foundations forthis as a concept were laid back in 1992 with the “DublinPrinciples” and “Agenda 21”, and many international con-ferences have signed up to the IWRM concept since then.IWRM is an iterative, adaptive and evolutionary processaiming to maximise social and economic well-being with-out negatively affecting vital ecosystems, which involvesinterlinking ecological, economic and social objectives.This requires various public and private entities to getactively involved and work together on the planning anddecision-making processes for handling water.

Integrated water resource management –global networking to ensure transfer of knowledge

The IWRM approach was introduced by the EuropeanUnion (EU) as the Water Framework Directive in the year2000 and is currently being implemented in the EU mem-ber states. The management cycles put forth by the EUWater Framework Directive◄ are intended to serve as aninternational example. This framework – when adapted tothe respective local conditions – provides excellent oppor-tunities to overcome existing water problems, both withinand outside the EU.

The focus since 2006

The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF)has been funding IWRM projects since 2006, developingand testing new procedures, technologies and manage-ment concepts in model regions outside the EU. The aimof this: to ensure water supplies and the preservation ofecosystems in settlements and river basins and to enablesustainable management through integrated conceptsthat can be transferred to comparable regions. The solu-tions derived from this work will also make it easier forGerman companies working in the water sector to tap intonew markets. This particular focus is accompanied byadditional measures to improve the prospects of infra-structure investment through multilateral financing andfunding agencies.


EUROPEGLOWA Elbe, GLOWA Danube, IWAS

Ukraine, IWRM Russia, Volga Rhine,

Theiß STIRD

IWRM Vietnam, IWAS Vietnam, WISDOM,

IWRM China Shandong, IWRM China

Guanting, IWRM Mongolia, IWAS Mongolia,

IWRM Uzbekistan, IWRM Indonesia, RECAST

Urumqi, Miyun Reservoir

GLOWA Jordan River,

SMART, Hemholtz Dead Sea,

IWAS Oman/Saudi Arabia

IWRM Namibia, IWRM Middle

Olifants South Africa, GLOWA

Impetus, GLOWA Volta

Future Megacities LiWa,

IWAS Brazil

ASIA

MIDDLE EASTAFRICA

SOUTH AMERICA

Countries and regions receiving BMBF IWRM project funding

ECOLOGY | IWRM | INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 63

The BMBF is currently funding IWRM research projects inChina, Indonesia, Iran, Israel-Jordan-Palestine, Mongolia,Namibia, South Africa and Vietnam. Synergies are beingproduced from the results of funding focused on “GlobalChange and the Hydrological Cycle” (GLOWA) and“Research for Sustainable Development of the Megacitiesof Tomorrow”.

In the meantime, many research projects and initiativeshave been working on adapted IWRM concepts. However,one key question is whether generally applicable frame-works and benchmarks for integrated managementapproaches can be derived from the country-specificactivities. The relevant scientists and decision-makersfrom politics and administration therefore need to enterinto an intensive dialogue about the experiences gainedfrom the projects – and draw conclusions from the results.

Networking co-ordination centre set up

To provide support for networking among those involvedin this work, the BMBF set up a co-ordination centre at theHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ in2009. The networking activities involve many representa-tives from science, politics, administration and econom-ics. As many of these representatives as possible need toparticipate in this networking to enable sustainable con-cepts to be developed and to establish integrated waterresource management as an intelligent management concept.

The aim of this supporting project is to improve meaning-ful dialogue among those involved, and furthermore toprovide contextual and organisational support for IWRMfunding measures – including the transfer of technologyand knowledge – in order to draw synergy effects from thenational and international research activities.

Various cross-cutting themes have been addressed as partof the networking project, where they have been dis-cussed and worked through in workshops and workinggroups. These themes, which play a central role in theimplementation of IWRM, include capacity development,information and data management, water governance◄,stakeholder participation, financing strategies and imple-mentation concepts. An international conference onIWRM is planned for 2011 for scientists, engineers, admin-istrative bodies and companies to present and to discusstheir experiences and research results in this area.

Project website ►www.bmbf.wasserressourcen-management.de

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZDepartment Aquatic Ecosystem AnalysisDr. Ralf IbischDipl.-Loek Christian StärzDipl.-Pol. Sabrina KirschkeProf. Dr. Dietrich BorchardtBrückstraße 3a39114 Magdeburg, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 91/8 10 97 57Fax: +49 (0)3 91/8 10 91 11E-mail: [email protected]: www.ufz.de

A boy looking for water in Jordan (Source: André Künzelmann, UFZ)


Combating floods together – targeted approaches towards countering the risks

ECOLOGY | FLOODING 65

Homes destroyed, assets wiped out, existencesunder threat: it would seem residents in flood-riskregions are increasingly having to stand by andwatch water taking away their property. The riskcomes not only from swollen rivers that flow over orbreak their banks; because the groundwater levelincreases so much during a flood this puts cellarsand underground infrastructures under threat too.Professional risk management is essential if the dan-gers posed to business and residential areas are tobe avoided.

Both floods and low waters form part of the naturaldynamic of all river landscapes. However, the impact ofglobal climate change has given rise to a trend of extrememeteorological events in Central Europe, such as droughtsand extreme rainfall. There has also been an increase inso-called “hundred-year floods”. Floods are already themost widespread natural threat in Europe. As the soil isincreasingly being sealed off, ever decreasing amounts ofprecipitation are filtering down. Measures to shore up riv-er flood plains and to channel waters have also led to a lossof natural retention areas. This increases the flow speedduring floods, makes flood waves higher, and causes theprospects of damage to rise too. The advanced age of somedykes also presents a risk as breaches can occur.

Transdisciplinary research activities

There is to be an improvement in the options available infuture to detect dangerous situations in advance andreduce damage. This requires comprehensive risk man-agement in both the planning and operation stages.Research in this area must develop transdisciplinaryexamination approaches, obtain results from these andthen prove they can be applied by means of example. Inorder to ensure that results can be transferred into prac-tice, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research(BMBF) is involving representatives from economics andadministration in its research projects on flood protection.The participants come from universities, national authori-ties, state authorities, local authorities, private companies,water boards and insurance firms.

The BMBF was funding flood research projects even beforethe flood disasters involving the Oder and Elbe, but theseevents intensified those efforts. Here are some examples ofthe subject areas receiving BMBF funding: the acute pollu-tion as a result of the August 2002 Elbe flood was the sub-ject of investigation (project 1.4.01) and also served to clari-fy the consequences of the extremely high groundwaterlevel in Dresden even long after the Elbe flood through theuse of models (projects 1.4.02 and 1.4.04). Important find-ings were also obtained through monitoring and stabilis-ing dykes with drainage elements (project 1.4.05) andusing sensor-based geotextiles inside (project 1.4.06). Toprevent floodwater from getting through windows anddoors in extreme events, scientists from the Saxon TextileResearch Institute in Chemnitz have developed self-seal-ing water barriers that can also be fitted in old buildingswith uneven walls and are removed just as easily (project1.4.07). The MULTISURE (“Development of MultisequentialMitigation Strategies for Urban Areas with Risk of Ground-water Flood”) project focuses on how to estimate thepotential for damage and risk as a result of rapidly risinggroundwater in urban areas (project 1.4.03).

Sustainable protection against flood events

In 2004, the BMBF established flood protection as a focusfor its research funding. Since then, the “Risk Manage-ment of Extreme Flood Events” measure (RIMAX, see proj-ect 1.4.06) has been combining skills and driving forwardfurther development (www.rimax-hochwasser.de). Fund-ing of around EUR 20 million in total has been channelledinto 38 projects between 2005 and 2010, the aim being todetect pending flood events at an earlier stage in futureand to be quicker and more effective in preventing dam-age. RIMAX thus made a significant contribution towardsthe implementation of the government’s five-point pro-gramme for flood protection and also forms part of itshigh-tech strategy. Through RIMAX, the BMBF has alsoformed an early basis for the national implementation ofthe EU Floods Directive dated 23 October 2007 (Directive2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Councilon the assessment and management of flood risks). (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:288:0027:0034:EN:PDF)


When extreme flood events mobilise pollutants as inthe Elbe basin◄, large amounts of harmful sludgeand wastewater are distributed over the floodplains – and also residential areas and farmland. Ateam of scientists investigated the pollution leftbehind and evaluated the ensuing risks. The result:pollution levels within the soil were generally nogreater than they were prior to the flood. Neverthe-less, the experts recommend a comprehensivewater and risk management system for future use.

In August 2002, heavy rainfall caused extreme flooding ofthe Elbe and its tributaries, leading to significant contami-nation of the flooded area. The floods released pollutantsfrom old sources, expanded contaminated river sedimentsand carried along polluted soil and excavated materialfrom industrial areas and mine dumps. Oil flowed fromtanks on private property and both communal and indus-trial wastewater escaped from overcome sewage plantsinto the rivers. The water infiltrated residential areas, gar-dens and farmland, where the solids were deposited andformed a layer of sludge contaminated with heavy metals,organic pollutants and harmful germs. As such, the risksposed to health needed to be clarified as soon as possible.

The first stage saw numerous research institutes andauthorities independently examining the effects of theflood on the pollution levels in the groundwater andflooded areas. So that these measurements could be com-bined and an analysis gained of the overall situation, theBMBF initiated a research project called “Schadstoffun-tersuchungen nach dem Hochwasser 2002 – Ermitt -lung der Gefährdungspotenziale an Elbe und Mulde”(Pollution investigations after the flood of 2002 – deter-mining the potential risk at the Elbe and Mulde). 28 part-ners worked under the guidance of the centre for environ-mental research at Leipzig-Halle to investigate the riverbasins of the Mulde and Elbe from the Czech Republic toHamburg.

Chronic pollution of river sediment

The numerous pollutants in the Elbe come from manysources. Elements such as arsenic and heavy metals occurnaturally across the entire basin and have always beencarried down from the bordering low-mountain regions.Depending on the river dynamics, they are deposited orcarried further and cause the “geogenic background con-

The consequences of a hundred-year flood – pollution following the flooding of the Elbe

tamination◄” in the waterways. Other sources of pollu-tion include mining and other industrial activities withinthe region.

Virtually no changes as a result of the flood

The substantial (in part) concentration of heavy metalsand organic pollutants exhibited by the rivers during theflood quickly dropped again as the waters receded accord-ing to tests. With just a few exceptions, the flood did notsignificantly increase the amount of pollution in floodplain soils and sediments. However, this should not takeaway from the fact that the regularly flooded land beyondthe dyke beneath the confluence of the Mulde and Saale isheavily contaminated. As the recommended values for useas pasture were way exceeded in terms of dioxin and mer-cury in many samples, experts recommend the implemen-tation of consistent use management. This would meanthat the heavily contaminated hollows and watering holes


Oil tank torn off by the Elbe flood (Source: Thomas Egli)

Sediment deposits after the 2002 Elbe flood (Source: Dagmar Haase)

ECOLOGY | FLOODING| THE CONSEQUENCES OF A HUNDRED-YEAR FLOOD 67

should not be used and that grazing should only com-mence after cleaning through precipitation.

The great flood of 2002 also affected locations normallyprotected by dykes. In the researchers’ view, no acute riskis posed to the health of the population: the analyses indi-cated only disparate increases in the concentration of pol-lution. Nevertheless, the measurements indicated that thebasic pollution load of the researched area was alreadypretty high before the flood occurred. (See UFZ finalreport: Schadstoffbelastung nach dem Elbe-Hochwasser2002 (pollution load after the Elbe flood of 2002) atwww.ufz.de/data/HWBroschuere2637.pdf).

Introducing risk management

Floods and the associated hazards are not going to goaway. However, the intensity of the events and the extentof the damage can be reduced. As such, the researcherspropose employing preventive water management andland usage in a far more consistent manner than beforeand consolidating fragmented areas of responsibility forflood-related issues. The aim is to ensure integrative andinterdisciplinary water management in the river basin,which is also to include flood risk management. Theresearchers view integrated pollution management – par-ticularly for the Mulde and Saale – as a potential basis forlong-term remediation within central Germany.

A recently developed pollution distribution model is thefirst step in this direction. The coupling of a hydraulicmodel with a land and pollution distribution model forthe first time enabled scenarios for moderate to extremeflood events to be determined and then fed into a decisionsupport system◄ – a system already in use within AnhaltBitterfeld. It is also used for current flood exercises and forresettlement operations in order to assess the risk of pollu-tion ingress during flood events.

In order to reduce the risk posed by toxins and harmfulgerms during future floods, the experts also advocate thecreation of handling instructions for dealing with floodsediments, installing pollution sources such as private oiltanks and heaters and commercial chemical stores in loca-tions secured against flooding and devising measures toenhance protection of industrial facilities, sewage plantsand other similar installations. The scientists also recom-mend compiling research results through a database-sup-ported decision support system (DSS)◄ so that the neces-sary information is available when making decisions infuture.

Greater efforts should also be made to keep flood zonesfree from buildings and inappropriate use as a preventivemeasure (preventive land use). Abandoning farmland andplanting greenery is an effective way to counteract ero-sion of contaminated soil on river flood plains. Undevel-oped land also provides natural retention areas◄; thismethod all but eliminates damage to buildings.

In a second project funded by the BMBF called “Flood riskmitigation based on non-structural land use schemes inrunoff generation and flood plains” (MinHorLam), scien-tists investigated the influence of non-structural land usemeasures on flood risks. One of the topics covered was therisk potential for producers and consumers when pollu-tion contaminates the plant stocks and soils on land usedfor agriculture and forestry. The researchers devised dam-age-limitation measures such as changing land use, intro-ducing special types of plant, accumulating pollution inonly small amounts and compensation for leaving landuncultivated. The findings gained are being made avail-able to the general public through an Internet platform.

UFZ-Umweltforschungszentrum Leipzig-Halle GmbHRiver ecology departmentDr. Wolf von Tümpling, Prof. Walter GellerBrückstraße 3a39114 Magdeburg, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 91/8 10-93 00Fax: +49 (0)3 91/8 10-91 11E-mail: [email protected],[email protected]: www.ufz.de/hochwasserFunding reference: 0330492

The legacy of a century of mining: slag heaps in Muldenhütten nearFreiberg. Around 9,000 tonnes of high-grade lead and arsenic-loadedmaterial were eroded here during the flood of 2002 (Source: GüntherRank)

When a flood occurs, the danger is not only posedby submerged land but often by rising groundwateras well. This spreads out under the earth and cancause a great deal of damage. Up to now, mostwater flow simulation systems have treated theseprocesses separately or as two components, and ithas not been possible to map surface water, thesewage system and groundwater together. Aresearch project led by the Dresden GroundwaterResearch Center interlinked computer-aided modelsto provide a better assessment of how these compo-nents interact during flood conditions.

Floods in recent years have caused a terrible amount ofdamage. The amount of damage in Dresden aloneamounted to around a billion euro in August 2002 –roughly 10% of the total damage nationwide. Groundwatercounts for 16% of the damage to property in Saxony: it hastherefore become apparent that floods can affect ground-water even in urban areas. The floodwater generally takestwo courses as it spreads beneath the earth: ● Surface water getting into the groundwater and

spreading. The groundwater flowing into the receiv-ing waters◄ from the hinterland backs up.

● Surface water spreading via infrastructures such as thewastewater sewage system (technogenous regions◄)to areas outside the region flooded directly.

Researchers at the Dresden Groundwater Research Centerused model support to begin mapping the interactionbetween surface water and groundwater in flood condi-tions immediately after flooding occurred. The aim was toassist the clean-up in the wake of flooding and to improveprevention measures. At that time however, only individ-ual technical model solutions were available for interac-tions between surface water and groundwater andbetween groundwater and the sewage system: they werebased on simulation programs relating to a single compo-nent – surface water, the sewage system or groundwater.

Coupled modelling: three zones – one system

This is where the BMBF project “Development of a 3-Zone model for groundwater and infrastructuremanagement after extreme flood events in urbanareas” (3ZM-GRIMEX) was able to help. The scientistsmaking up the project team developed an innovativemodelling tool for the state capital Dresden that maps the

3ZM-GRIMEX project – coupled models simulate flood scenarios

interactions between the following hydraulic componentsin extreme flooding on the basis of existing models: sur-face water effluent, effluent in the technogenous zoneand groundwater. This coupled modelling system enablesthe development of solution strategies for designing andsafeguarding the underground infrastructure networks,for managing groundwater-related flooding and for sup-porting town-planning decisions.

The experts used coupling software from the FraunhoferInstitute to link together simulation programs with aproven record in mapping significant flows of water dur-ing a flood. In doing so, they had to take into account boththe time and spatial differences between the individualmodel components. To ensure that the coupling was suc-cessful, full awareness of the fundamental connectionswithin the system – comprising sewage network, surfacewater and groundwater – and the time and spatial scalesof the flow processes was required. A scale determinedhow a certain feature of a process was recorded and ren-dered measurable.

Computer-aided coupling process

Computer-aided coupling is based on the strategy that theindividual modules – models for surface water, the sewagenetwork and groundwater – calculate their respectivewater levels and throughflows as separate instances andthen exchange these calculations. Each module then sup-plies these “coupling variables” to the others. The cou-pling software ultimately combines the information fromthe individual modules (blending). If, for example, sewageelements, groundwater levels and flooded surface areasare blended together, it is possible to determine which res-idents are affected by adverse weather and warn them ingood time.


Flooding in Dresden: Water flowing out ofthe sewage system onto Terrassenufer

http://www.gwz-dresden.de/dgfz-ev/forschungsbereich/3zm-grimex.html

ECOLOGY | FLOODING | 3ZM-GRIMEX PROJECT 69

The programs used provided the project team with differ-ent challenges depending on the field of application. Takethe sewage network for example: the hydrodynamicsewage network calculation did not require an especiallyhigh level of performance from the computers and the lev-el of data in most areas was also very good. However, theonly way to integrate the effect of the sewage system onthe dynamic of the groundwater was to use greatly simpli-fied approaches.

Practical application in Dresden

The focus of the first processing phase was on the individ-ual models. This depended on harmonising their spatialrelationships and recording all relevant water flows thathave an effect during flooding and need to be mapped inthe modelling system. The researchers created a generalwater flow schematic for this purpose, which formed thebasis for the coupling activities. The main thing was toensure adequate mapping of temporary components suchas flood relief wells, flooded surface areas and overlybacked-up sections of sewer. These algorithms were testedin a synthetic test model, which involved the team ofexperts trialling first the couplings and then all threeinstances.

The entire system has since been implemented in Dres-den. The coupled modelling has enabled the exchange ofwater between surface water effluent, effluent in thesewage system and groundwater to be calculated for avariety of flood scenarios. Experts also used the new sys-tem to identify hotspots with latent flood risks due toemergent sewer water. The transfers from groundwaterinto the sewage system were able to be localised andquantified. The influence of emergent sewer water ongroundwater only has a local effect during flooding, butdepending on the intensity can lead to a significant rise ingroundwater in the hotspots.

Project website ►www.gwz-dresden.de/dgfz-ev/forschungsbereich/3zm-grimex.html

Dresdner Grundwasserforschungszentrum e. V.Project co-ordinationDr. Thomas SommerMeraner Straße 1001217 Dresden, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 51/40 50-6 65Fax: +49 (0)3 51/40 50-6 79E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WH0557

Surface water model

Sewage network model

Groundwater model

Coupling

Schematic of the model coupling within the 3ZM-GRIMEX project

Advance calculation of flooded surface areas through realistic modelling (Map background source: city of Dresden)

What are the consequences of a groundwater levelraised by a flood, particularly for built-up areas nearrivers? The MULTISURE project has been seekinganswers to this long-neglected question. The scien-tists involved developed models to enable potentialrisks and damage to be more accurately pinpointedin future, using Dresden — which is located on theElbe – as an example.

The specialist community most often perceives a flood asan event involving extreme effluent over the surface of theground. In addition to flooded surface areas, a rise ingroundwater as a result of flooding can also be observed –especially after long periods of flooding in wide valleyflood plains. Before now, science rarely factored in the riskto underground structures and infrastructures posed byfast-rising groundwater as a consequence of extremeflooding.

So, how can the risk and damage potential from fast-risinggroundwater be estimated? What is the required make-upof models that can predict underground damage due toextreme flooding? These questions were the focus of theproject entitled “Development of Multisequential Miti-gation Strategies for Urban Areas with Risk of Ground-water Flood” (MULTISURE), led by the Dresden Ground-water Research Center (DGFZ), involving several institutesand running from 2006 to 2009. The aim of the projectwas to develop tools used to map and assess the hazards,potential damage and risks arising from the interactionsbetween flooding, groundwater and underground infra-structures. The site chosen for investigation was Dresdenalong with the Elbe valley aquifer and both existing andplanned underground building developments.

Two damage models developed

The project partners began by investigating howapproaches for estimating damage through flooded riverscan be applied to groundwater-related flooding, and howthe two events interact and overlap. The German ResearchCentre for Geosciences (GFZ) modified the meso-scaledamage model developed for river flooding called FLE-MOps (top-down approach) in order to estimate the dam-age caused by rising groundwater. This involved conduct-

Flood events – the forgotten groundwater

ing telephone surveys with those affected — specificallyregarding damage that occurred outside the flooded sur-face areas or were caused solely by groundwater. As such,findings could be obtained on handling the groundwater-related flooding individually and on the material andfinancial damage.

A bottom-up approach involved describing damage fortypes of building and infrastructure in relation to age —and depending on the groundwater dynamic. Thisenables the remediation measures required to rectify thedamage to be determined, and also their costs. Expandingon this, the Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban andRegional Development (IöR) is developing the newGRUWAD model (damage simulation model for buildingdamage related to groundwater).

Multiple scenarios created

The groundwater risk assessment and depiction used boththe above modelling approaches (top-down and bottom-up). FLEMOps and GRUWAD were used for a GIS-based◄determination of damage caused by groundwater at dif-ferent spatial resolutions. The basis for this were the sce-narios created by the Dresden Groundwater ResearchCenter for the highest groundwater levels under variousflood conditions in the Dresden Elbe valley and the imple-mentation of various protective measures (database previ-ously was flood events plus current planning within Dresden).


Normal groundwater

Cellar opening

(connection to house)

Groundwater level

Ground surface level

Permeation of

groundwater through

openings in the cellar

Water pressure on

the external wall

Moisture penetration

High groundwater

Underlying water pressure

(buoyant force)

Sum of all building loads

Threat from below: effects on the building structure

ECOLOGY | GROUNDWATER | FLOODING AND GROUNDWATER 71

Interviews conducted

Intensive communication and co-operation among every-one involved is key in ensuring efficient flood risk man-agement: this includes city and state authorities, associa-tions, scientists and residents. MULTISURE has analysedand evaluated these processes.

The basis for co-ordinated public action in flood preven-tion is meaningful information – and this also increasesrisk awareness and personal prevention measures amongcitizens. The interviews conducted during the course ofthe project and the analysis of existing means of informa-tion and communication were co-ordinated by the Insti-tute for Environmental Communication at the LeuphanaUniversity of Lüneburg. The resulting brochure – primari-ly aimed at the general public – deals particularly with thepersonal responsibility of those affected and is thereforeintended to intensify risk prevention.

The project results were fed by Görlitz/Zittau Universityinto the city of Dresden’s information system. This enablesinternal access within authorities to key project results. Assuch, the results can be used to improve authorities’ inter-nal analyses and decisions and to provide the public withinformation on the risks posed by groundwater-relatedflooding.

Threat from below: groundwater escaping to the surface

Dresdner Grundwasserforschungszentrum e.V.(DGFZ)Dr. Thomas SommerMeraner Straße 1001217 Dresden, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 51/4 05 06-65Fax: +49 (0)3 51/4 05 06-79E-mail: [email protected]: www.dgfz.deFunding reference: 0330755

In the wake of the flood of August 2002, Dresdenhad more to tackle than damage to buildings andinfrastructure: the groundwater had also risen by upto six metres in places and was taking a long time torecede. A team of local researchers and engineerstherefore set about investigating the consequencesof the flood beneath ground. The aim was to enableearly detection in future of risks to undergroundfacilities and the groundwater so that protectivemeasures can be implemented. To achieve this, theexperts modelled the dynamics of the rise ingroundwater and analysed the nature of thegroundwater as a supply of drinking water and thepotential risks due to infiltrating pollution.

During the flood of 2002, groundwater levels underneaththe Elbe valley way exceeded anything observed indecades. The triggers for this were the heavy rainfall over12 and 13 August, the ensuing overflowing of the Elbe trib-utaries and the flood of the Elbe itself. The groundwaterhad an impact on building structures both above andbeneath ground – their functional capability and stabilitywere significantly affected by the fast-rising levels. As thesurface floodwater receded, it was then possible to assessthe impact of the underground floodwater on the body ofgroundwater beneath the city of Dresden. This groundwa-ter is a major source of drinking and process water andplays a major role in the stability of buildings and theurban environment. Scientists and engineers from TUDresden and the Dresden Groundwater Research Centerjoined forces with local engineering firms and dedicatedthemselves to achieving this task through the researchproject entitled “Hochwassernachsorge GrundwasserDresden” (Dresden groundwater: cleaning up after theflood), which was led by the city’s Environment Office. Theexperts started with short and medium-term conse-quences, and investigated them in line with the followingfocus points: ● Further development of the groundwater model to

determine the effects of the groundwater dynamic onbuildings and potential damage to buildings,

● Investigation of changes to the nature of the ground-water in the wake of significantly risen levels,

● Analysis and evaluation of potential groundwater-related damage ensuing – as a result of flooding – fromcontaminated areas (abandoned waste), sludgedeposits or waste,

● Evaluation of the risks posed by unsealed wastewaterchannels (contaminant discharge).

The underestimated threat posed by groundwater – damageassessment and prevention after the hundred-year flood

The aim was to use Dresden as an example to evaluateflood-related damage to a body of groundwater under-neath a city for the first time and to use this to deriveaction recommendations for administration, affectedcompanies and citizens.

Model recording the groundwater dynamic

The nature and course of the groundwater flooding dif-fered throughout the city, with wide areas – mainly morethan a kilometre away from the receiving waters◄ – dis-playing a rise in the groundwater level after the floodwave that was then extremely slow to recede and othersshowing a brief significant rise that then dropped backdown rapidly. The experts developed a computer ground-water model to record these different dynamics, whichalso factored in the basic structure of buildings beneathground – primarily the historical town centre and theinfrastructure. This enabled the project team to simulatethe effect of different flood protection measures on thegroundwater too.

The investigations of the nature of the groundwater tookplace on three levels: the working group took samplesfrom a wide area in autumn 2002 and then spring andautumn 2003 to see how the quality had progressed.Investigations also found isolated pollution ingress atabandoned waste sites. The third element took the form ofsample site-specific investigations of the naturalsediment◄, conducted in the lab. This should enablestatements to be made on the discharge and conversion ofsubstances where polluted wastewater reaches thegroundwater from the sewage system. The researcherssimulated scenarios with different water levels and pressures in the sewers and the aquifer◄.


The Elbe flood at Kaditz. Groundwater measurement points areengulfed by the flood.

ECOLOGY | FLOODING | THE UNDERESTIMATED THREAT POSED BY GROUNDWATER 73

Drinking water unaffected

The experts were able to dispel fears regarding the natureof the groundwater by comparing the readings of specificwater characteristics and pollutants values taken prior tothe flood. The changes as a result of the flood were thenonly detectable for three months afterwards; they posedno threat to the drinking water.

The results at the abandoned waste sites investigated var-ied depending on the substances present and the flowconditions. Increased groundwater levels and flow speedreleased contaminants from their respective source. Theexperts detected slight increases in pollutant concentra-tions in the upper groundwater, plus vertical displace-ment within certain groups of substances. No significantlateral spread of pollution as a result of the flood wasobserved.

To enable them to investigate risks posed to the aquiferfrom unsealed channels, the project team simulated alocal unsealed sewer system under pressure and flow con-ditions akin to a flood. This showed that the ammoniumload typical of municipal wastewater only spread a smallamount as a result of the flow speed and limited amountof unsealed areas.

Identifying risks, developing protectivemeasures

The experts used the distances between the groundwatertable and the surface of the terrain◄ (depth to groundwa-ter table) from August 2002 to December 2003 to developa method for detecting risks posed to underground build-ing areas. The parameters used included the intensity andduration of the groundwater flooding, the highest water

levels, the speed of the rise in level and the minimumdepths to the groundwater table. As a result, it was possi-ble to determine the risk potential for 68 measurementsites within the city.

The assessment of the nature of the groundwater and theflow modelling based on various flood scenarios enabledconclusions to be drawn for use in town planning. Accord-ing to the project team’s findings, town planning shouldalways factor in the threat posed by a rise in groundwater.The investigations also confirmed the effectiveness of theplanned protection measures, namely mobile shoringwith inner-city Dresden and flood relief wells.

In light of the results of their investigations, theresearchers recommend that the processes of groundwa-ter rising be constantly factored into the preparation andexecution of measures to tackle flooding, with buildingprecautions forming an essential component. The identifi-cation of “danger zones”, where increased groundwaterlevels can be expected, forms the basis for this. As such,prompt measurements of the groundwater dynamic andthe identification of the highest groundwater levels usinga current groundwater flow model are required.

Project website ►www.hochwasser-dresden.de/HWGWDD

Project managementCity of Dresden, Environment OfficeDr. Kirsten UllrichGrunaer Straße 201069 Dresden, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 51/4 88 62 78E-mail: [email protected]: www.dresden.de/HochwasserFunding reference: 0330493

Project co-ordinationDresdner Grundwasserforschungszentrum e.V.Dr. Thomas SommerMeraner Straße 1001217 Dresden, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 51/4 05 06 65E-mail: [email protected]

Protecting the building structure against rising groundwater at a Dres-dner school (Source: www.benno-gym.de)

Floods in recent years have increasingly led to dykebreaches as these – in part historical – structureshave not been able to withstand the hydraulic loadsplaced upon them. For financial reasons, thoroughremediation of all affected dyke areas can only takeplace in the long term at best. As such, scientistsworking on two research projects funded by theBMBF have developed a monitoring system for thereliable detection of dykes in critical condition anda procedure for stabilising endangered dykes usingdrainage elements◄. The efficacy of these develop-ments was confirmed through pilot tests.

A state-of-the-art three-zone dyke comprises a surface sealon the water side and a supporting body in the centre ofthe cross-section. A drainage body on the land sideensures that drainage water is captured in the dyke andsafely diverted away. However – as in other parts of Europe– Germany has old dykes running along stretches of riversand streams spanning hundreds of kilometres, dykes thatdo not meet today’s safety standards. They have previouslybeen filled, mainly after floods, with materials availablelocally. Dyke bodies such as these take in water during aflood due to a lack of a sealing layer; this causes progres-sive moisture penetration that in the worst case can leadto a breach.

Using time domain reflectometryto monitor dykes

The development of moisture penetration over time is cru-cial to stability, particularly in old dykes such as thosementioned above. A monitoring system is required inorder to obtain reliable information on this, and needs todeliver data on the current hydraulic situation of a dykebody along the stretch of a given dyke. Time domainreflectometry (TDR) has proven to be a suitable procedurewhen used in conjunction with cable sensors. Thisinvolves implementing ribbon-cable sensors in the dykebody; a voltage pulse fed in at the sensor start and reflect-ed at the sensor end can be used to determine the distribu-tion of moisture along the cable sensors. This enables suffi-ciently accurate detection of the drainage line (boundarybetween moist and dry material) and thus the area pene-trated by the moisture. The benefit of this procedure isthat the dyke body only needs to be accessed at sensitivespots.

Avoiding dyke breaches – monitoring methods andsafeguarding concepts for river dykes

Scientists from the Materialforschungs- und -prüfanstalt(institute of material research and testing, MFPA) at theBauhaus University Weimar and the Institute of SoilMechanics and Rock Mechanics (IBF) at the KarlsruheInstitute of Technology (KIT) developed a monitoring sys-tem based on the TDR method specifically for flood pro-tection dykes as part of the project entitled “Bewertungund Prognose der Standsicherheit von Hochwasser-schutzdeichen mittels Time Domain Reflectometry”(evaluation and prognosis of the stability of flood protec-tion dykes using time domain reflectometry).

At the heart of the monitoring system is a forecastingmodel that uses the moisture distributions measuredwithin a dyke, the predicted course of flooding and theexpected precipitation to predict the onward progressionof the dyke’s moisture penetration. An evaluation modelwas developed both for the moisture distribution meas-ured during a flood and for the predicted moisture condi-tions to permit a stability analysis of the outer slope of thebacked-up dyke. The developed monitoring system is ableto use its own power supply to perform self-sufficientmeasurements and send data to a central server viaremote transmission. The analysed and predicted mois-ture distributions are made available online along withthe stability evaluation. This could then be an effectivetool for those responsible for flood management forarranging safeguarding measures or evacuations quicklyin the event of a threat. It was not possible to transform themonitoring system into a fully automated monitoring toolduring the funding period of this project.

Stabilising dykes with drainage elements

Sections of dyke that are at risk of a breach need to be sta-bilised in the lower section of the outer slope during flood-ing; this involves a great deal of labour and materials (e.g.sandbags). The surface of the slope on the river side is to besealed with films or other materials, but this is only usefulif there are weak spots leading to a concentrated through-flow. Otherwise, such measures are not able to reduce thedrainage line by any significant amount. If it is not possi-ble to avoid water getting into the dyke, it is then a matterof capturing the drainage water in the dyke body and safe-ly diverting it away. Otherwise, it can emerge from theouter slope; increased flow forces could then lead to abreach.


ECOLOGY | FLOODING | AVOIDING DYKE BREACHES 75

This is the area that the second BMBF project addressed,entitled “Stabilisierung bruchgefährdeter Flussdeichemit Dränelementen zur Sickerwasserfassung undBewehrung” (stabilising river dykes at risk of breachingwith drainage elements to capture drainage water and forreinforcement) and involving the Institute of Soil Mechan-ics and Rock Mechanics (IBF) of the Karlsruhe Institute ofTechnology, the Department of Geotechnics at the Univer-sity of Kassel and the Saxon Textile Research Institute(STFI) in Chemnitz. During this project, a concept wasdeveloped to safeguard backed-up dykes in the event of aflood. An emergency measure like this can also be used asa short or medium-term method for strengthening olddykes.

Effectiveness of the procedure proven

The emergency safeguarding measure specifically intendsto apply drainage elements by machine to sodden dykes atrisk of breaching, which will then intercept the runningdrainage water at the foot of the dyke. Standard equip-ment (e.g. from the construction industry) readily avail-able from multiple locations is to be used for the installa-tion wherever possible. The practicality of the procedureand the tools required for installation were tested on anatural scale using standard drilling equipment. The true-to-life tests confirmed that the stability procedure isindeed effective. A trial on a proper stretch of dyke wouldalso be invaluable in gaining acceptance within standardconstruction practice; however, this was not possible aspart of the research project.

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute of Soil Mechanics and Rock MechanicsDr.-Ing. Andreas BiebersteinEngler-Bunte-Ring 1476131 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 21/6 08-22 23Fax: +49 (0)7 21/69 60 96E-mail: [email protected]: www.ibf.uni-karlsruhe.deFunding reference: 02WH0479 / 02WH0585

Standard drilling is to be applied to implement the linear drainage elements in the model dyke (Performed by: Morath GmbH, Albbruck)

The model dyke on a natural scale (height: 3 m) proved the technicalfeasibility of the stabilisation procedure (viewed from land side)

The condition of dykes has almost exclusively beenmonitored visually up to now. With the appearanceof their insides hidden from inspectors, damage isoften not noticed until it is in the advanced stages.This means it is generally too late to implement tar-geted support for sections at risk of breaching in cri-sis situations. Automated monitoring within thedyke could prove to be helpful here: with fundingfrom the BMBF, the Saxon Textile Research Institute(STFI) has worked together with the Federal Insti-tute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) andother partners to develop special geotextiles thatboth secure and monitor dykes at the same time. Inthe meantime, the research has produced a newspin-off company◄ called fibrisTerre GmbH as wellas three marketable patents.

Conventional dyke inspections in Germany monitor thesurface and are not always able to detect damage with suf-ficient speed or reliability. Round-the-clock monitoringwould be required during times of flooding, and this ishardly feasible from a manning perspective. There areactually electronic measuring systems already availableon the market, but they are expensive and as such arerarely used. Cue the BMBF-funded research project enti-tled “Entwicklung von multifunktionalen, sensor-basierten Geotextilien zur Deichertüchtigung, fürräumlich ausgedehntes Deich-Monitoring sowie fürdie Gefahrenerkennung im Hochwasserfall bei derDeichverteidigung” (development of multifunctional,sensor-based geotextiles for reinforcing dykes, dyke moni-toring over greater areas and hazard detection to defenddykes in the event of flooding). Scientists from the SaxonTextile Research Institute in Chemnitz worked togetherwith the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Test-ing in Berlin and other partners to develop an innovativematerial with built-in sensor technology as a part of thisproject.

Geotextiles: a versatile construction material

Geotextiles are heavy-duty fabrics specially designed foroutdoor use; they can be made of woven, non-woven orknitted fabrics, and from natural or synthetic materials.They are used within geotechnical and structural engi-neering – generally to stabilise ground constructions andprevent soil erosion, e.g. in constructing roads and rail-ways or waterways and dykes. Depending on their pur-pose, geotextiles are either permeable – when installed onsteep slopes, berms or embankments – or impermeable,e.g. when used at landfill sites.

Integrated warning system – monitoring and stabilisingdykes with sensor-based geotextiles

Automated dyke monitoring

The idea behind the project was to develop a multifunc-tional geotextile that, as well as being able to secure thedyke slopes, could also be used to monitor dyke stability.Fibre-optic sensors were therefore incorporated into non-woven structures during the manufacturing process itselfto serve this precise purpose. These sensors feature thestandard, low-cost glass fibres used within telecommuni-cations and use special optical measuring procedures todetect even minimal stretching of the textile structure aswell as temperature fluctuations so that dyke deformitiescan be registered during a flood. The detected changescan then be routed to central measuring and monitoringstations, where they can be called up at any time so thatthe alarm can be raised promptly in the event of any dam-age.

A new basis for measuring devices was developed forobtaining and evaluating the readings, work primarilyundertaken by the BAM. Based on Brillouin frequencyrange analysis◄, the new measuring technology devel-oped and patented during the BMBF’s RIMAX project(Risk Management of Extreme Flood Events) clearly had somuch potential that the EXIST research transfer pro-gramme approved the application of three young scien-tists to set up their own company. Founded in January2010, fibrisTerre GmbH is the first spin-off company fromthe BAM.


Controlled measuring on an area of sensor-based geotextile as part ofthe application process: field test in Swienna Poremba (Poland)


ECOLOGY | FLOODING | SENSOR-BASED GEOTEXTILES 77

Producing the geotextiles

How should textiles be made in order to ensure sufficientprotection of the optical fibres? Which materials are mostsuitable? How can the glass fibres be worked into the tex-tile? To answer these questions, the scientists at the SaxonTextile Research Institute conducted numerous tests on anon-woven Raschel machine. The method used is a con-ventional production procedure for geotextiles that hasbeen specially modified for this purpose; new test meth-ods have also been developed to determine the sensor andmechanical performance profile of the multifunctionalgeotextiles. The STFI is obtaining patents both for the pro-duction process and for the use of geotextiles with built-insensors within dykes.

In the meantime, the functional capability of the geotex-tiles has been demonstrated in various field tests. Variousstudies using a trial full-size dyke on the premises of theFranzius Institute of Hydraulics, Waterways and CoastalEngineering at the University of Hanover have shownwhat the new procedure can achieve. Simulations of dif-ferent crises and loads were run, proving the functionalcapability of the sensor-based geotextiles under condi-tions of practical relevance. BBG-Bauberatung Geokunst-stoffe GmbH is currently working on marketing the sen-sor-based geotextiles together with rg-research, whichwas founded by Rainer Glötzl (http://rg-research.de).

Benefits of the procedure

Comparatively speaking, sensor-based geotextiles are acost-effective alternative to other dyke monitoringapproaches. The optical procedure lowers the costs permeasuring point considerably, and provides data for theentire area rather than just isolated spots or along a chainof sensors. This also makes it possible to monitor extreme-ly long sections of dyke with little personnel expenditureand enables precise mapping of damage. Only a monitor-ing system enables observation of both short-termchanges such as cracks and scouring and long-term effectssuch as dyke subsidence. Finally, the procedure is alsofinancially beneficial when it comes to constructingdykes, as securing the structure and integrating the moni-toring system becomes a single-step process.

Project co-ordinationSächsisches Textilforschungsinstitut e.V. (STFI)Elke ThieleAnnaberger Straße 24009125 Chemnitz, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 71/52 74-0Fax: +49 (0)3 71/52 74-1 53E-mail: [email protected]: www.stfi.deFunding reference: 02WH570

Field test on a full-scale lab dyke at the Franzius Institute of Hydraulics,Waterways and Coastal Engineering in Hanover

Field test in Solina (Poland)

A large number of towns and communities havebeen affected by flooding in recent years. The flood-water gets into houses and often destroys all thefurnishings inside. Windows and doors must besealed in good time to prevent water escaping overbanks from getting into buildings. There are alreadyvarious protection systems available on the market,yet experience has shown that old buildings in par-ticular are not sufficiently sealed. Scientists fromthe Saxon Textile Research Institute in Chemnitztherefore developed self-sealing water barriers forwindows and doors for flexible and straightforwardinstallation – even in old buildings with unevenwalls – that can also be removed without any problems.

Conventional flood protection systems for windows anddoors generally comprise protection panels that are eitheraffixed directly to the masonry with pins and screws priorto a flood or inserted into pre-installed rails. The crucialthing here is that the gap between the panel and the wallis perfectly sealed so that there are no little openings orcracks for the water to access the inside. And yet – as expe-rience from recent floods shows – this prevention is hardlyever implemented, a trait particularly prevalent among alarge number of old buildings as the uneven masonrydoes not enable precise, impermeable sealing to beinstalled. Even rubber itself is not elastic enough in suchcases, and silicone is not easy to remove from plaster, win-dows and door frames once the barrier system has beentaken down.

Mineral sealing material

In light of the above, scientists at the Saxon TextileResearch Institute in Chemnitz have been seeking moreefficient and effective alternatives as part of the work onthe BMBF-funded research project entitled “Selbstdicht-ende Wassersperren für Fenster und Türen” (self-seal-ing water barriers for windows and doors). And their solu-tion? Mineral sealing materials that can be moulded byadding fluid and can thus flexibly adapt to unevenness.Loam and clay are examples of mineral substances thatswell up when moistened and can be moulded into anyshape. Used to fill special textile tubes and moistenedbefore use, they can adapt to match the masonry perfectly.Tests have shown that bentonite is an extremely suitablesealant for this purpose. This stone is a mixture of variousclay minerals and is particularly effective at absorbing

Building security for all – self-sealing water barriers for windows and doors

water and expanding. The clay granulate used is extreme-ly fine (grain size of 0.1 to 2 mm), making it easy to dis-pense and helping to prevent the funnel from blockingwhen filling the textile tubes (bridge-building). This gran-ulate was therefore selected for use in the subsequenttests.

Produced in a single process

The textile tubes are to be filled with bentonite granulateduring production so that the complete product is madein a single process. The scientists worked with representa-tives from Umwelt- und Maschinentechnik GmbH in Pöhlto test special machines used in textile processing thatwould be suitable for this. These included a circular loom,a circular knitting machine and a “Kemafil” machine. Thelatter of these can be used to implement a special proce-dure developed and patented by the Saxon TextileResearch Institute, which enables a wide range of materi-als to be coated with a three-dimensional mesh structure.The sealing system is produced by shaping a non-wovenmaterial into a tube and securing with meshed threads,and simultaneously filling this with the mineral sub-stances. The tests showed that a right-left small circularknitting machine was best at producing the seal for thebarrier system.


Central clamping spindle

Clamping struts

Barrier panel

Dowel pins

Seam for sealing element

Barrier system with specially developed clamping struts for increasedstability.

ECOLOGY | FLOODING | BUILDING SECURITY FOR ALL 79

Additional scouring protection

It has been demonstrated that textile tubes filled withmineral granulate are suitable for balancing out minorand major unevenness in walls and providing perfect seal-ing. This sealant must be moistened before applicationbetween the wall and panel. If a significant flow speed isencountered, additional scouring protection should beapplied prior to sealing. A tube made from soft, recycledtextile is suitable for this; it does not prevent water gradu-ally seeping through to the seal, but it reduces the flowspeed such that the mineral components are not washedaway.

Benefits of the self-sealing water barrier

The self-sealing water barrier system is quick, flexible andstraightforward to install without any pre-installationwork required; it can be applied to all building types andremoved again without any problems. As well as the min-eral seal and scouring protection, the system includesmetallic or non-metallic front panels affixed using aquick-release mechanism. This dispenses with the need tosecure directly to the masonry with pins and screws. Theperfect seal also means there’s no need for laborious resealing once floodwater has come up against the barrier.

Sächsisches Textilforschungsinstitut e. V. (STFI) atthe Chemnitz University of TechnologyDept. Technical Textiles/Woven, knitted and com-posite productsDipl.-Ing. Ulrich HerrmannAnnaberger Straße 24009125 Chemnitz, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 71/52 74-2 16Fax: +49 (0)3 71/52 74-1 53E-mail: [email protected]:www.stfi.de/de/projekte/rimax_wassersperre.pdfFunding reference: 02WH0477

Modified R-L small circular knitting machine with feed, metering andfilling equipment

Sealant tube made from a small circular knit with integrated BEN-TONITE granulate

Technology

WATER AS A RESOURCE | 2.080

An accessible version of the article is available athttp://waterresources.fona.de/reports/bmbf/annual/2010/nb/English/40/2_-technology.html

TECHNOLOGY 81

Ensuring a basic sanitary supply for the world’s growing population and for the future is a global challenge. Research into flexible concepts and efficient and financially feasible technologies enablesthe constantly growing requirements for environmentally friendly water supplies and wastewater disposal to be met. Decentralised and transdisciplinary approaches play a crucial role in this area.

Global sustainability through customised local solutions –recycling and resource efficiency


TECHNOLOGY | DECENTRALISED 83

Around a billion people still have no access to cleandrinking water, and around 2.5 billion are withoutregulated wastewater disposal. The 2002 UN sum-mit in Johannesburg highlighted the huge impor-tance of drinking water supplies and wastewaterdisposal: the proportion of people having to livewithout clean drinking water and basic sanitation isto be halved by the year 2015. A simple direct transi-tion of our methods to affected areas will not workas demographic change is storming ahead; adaptedand efficient technologies and concepts are there-fore required.

Designed decades ago for a much greater consumption ofwater, conventional, central supply and disposal systemsdepend on a high flow of water. However, householdwater consumption in Germany has been decreasing foryears now, and the country’s demographic change sug-gests that this trend is set to continue further over the nextfew decades. To generate the pressure required to preventsolids from being deposited in the sewer systems, manyareas are already having to pump in additional water.Smaller, decentralised concepts that can adapt to chang-ing needs are therefore essential for the future.

Areas with a lack of water and ecologically sensitiveregions can also implement customised, decentralisedprocedures so the available resources are used efficiently.However, this approach requires the entire local water sys-tem to be considered as a single entity, from water collec-tion, treatment and distribution through to wastewatercleaning and recycling. Through integral examinationand management, household wastewater can be treatedand used as process water, and solids can be processedand used as fertiliser or converted into biogas for energy.Numerous projects funded by the Federal Ministry of Edu-cation and Research (BMBF) have investigated how tried-and-tested methods can be combined on site to form sys-tem solutions.

Example of China. “Semi-centralised”: this was the namegiven to a structure extending beyond individual buildingunits, thus different from conventional centralised solu-tions. The “Semizentrale Ver- und Entsorgungssysteme fürurbane Räume Chinas” project (semi-centralised supplyand disposal systems for urban areas in China) primarilyinvestigated the potential of this approach in China’slarge, fast-growing cities (project 2.1.01).

Example of Germany. The “Sanitary recycling Eschborn”(SANIRESCH) project focussed on how to reduce waterconsumption for toilets and how the resultant urine watercan be used in an environmentally compatible manner(project 2.1.02). The KOMPLETT project (2005 to 2009) wasable to demonstrate that reusing all domestic wastewaterand solids of a high yield density (e.g. in hotel complexes)could be made economically viable (project 2.1.03, Devel-opment, combination and implementation of innovativesystem components of process engineering, informationtechnology and sanitary equipment to create a sustain-able key technology for closed-loop water systems). “Pro-duction integrated measures for environment protectionin hotel and catering industry in special consideration ofexisting built volumes” investigated how the conceptdescribed in its title could be implemented (project 2.1.04).“Recycling of Phosphorus – Ecological and Economic Eval-uation of Different Processes and Development of a Strate-gical Recycling Concept for Germany” (PhoBe) is a projectfunded by the BMBF to see how scarce phosphorus can beefficiently recovered from effluent sludge; the researchersare also determining the production costs of the proce-dures involved (project 2.1.05). When it comes to connect-ing new building developments, local areas need to con-sider whether to expand existing sewer systems. At a newbuilding development in Knittlingen near Pforzheim, a“Decentralised Urban infrastructure System 21” (DEUS 21)was drafted and implemented (project 2.1.08).

Example of Vietnam. The issue of resolving contamina-tion through mineral fertilisers and human excrement isbeing investigated under a German-Vietnamese projectcalled “Closing Nutrient Cycles in Decentralised WaterTreatment Systems in the Mekong-Delta – SANSED” (pro-ject 2.1.06).

Example of Turkey. Environmentally friendly waste andwastewater disposal or energy supplies are a rarity amongtourist facilities. One solution could be “Integrated mod-ules for high-efficient wastewater treatment, solid wastedisposal and regenerative energy production in touristicresorts” (MODULAARE) (project 2.1.07).

http://www.saniresch.de/en

http://www.komplett-projekt.de/index.php?id=3601&L=en

http://www.phosphorrecycling.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=16&Itemid=39&lang=en

http://www.sansed.uni-bonn.de/

http://www.deus21.de/index.php?id=3&L=1

http://www.p-42.net/modul/front_content.php

http://semizentral.de/en/

China’s cities are growing at a rapid rate: hoards ofpeople are drawn to these overcrowded areas insearch of work. The supply and disposal infrastruc-ture is not designed to cope with this, and high pol-lution levels are the result. “Semi-centralised” con-cepts for water supplies and the treatment of wasteand wastewater in rapidly growing urban areas areone solution to this: they are flexible and can beadapted to the population growth within cities.

With growth rates of up to 1,000 people a day, convention-al centralised and above all sectoral-based supply and dis-posal strategies in urban areas are quickly hitting theirlimits. This problem is also evident in the People’s Repub-lic of China: the rapidly expanding cities have outgrownthe water supply, waste and wastewater treatment andspatial planning; the environmental problems are equallyacute.

This is the area tackled by the project cluster “Semi-zentrale Ver- und Entsorgungssysteme für urbaneRäume Chinas” (semi-centralised supply and disposal sys-tems for urban areas in China), which was led by the IWARinstitute at the Technische Universität Darmstadt (Techni-cal University Darmstadt) and ran from 2004 to 2010.“Semi-centralised” is still new in terms of spatial referenceplanes; it is a structure that extends beyond individualbuilding units and is thus different from conventionalcentralised solutions. The aim of this: to enable flexibleadaptation of supply and disposal units to the dynamicdevelopment of major cities, which in China are charac-terised by rapid growth and quickly changing structures.

An initial subproject in 2004/2005 tackled the structuraland legal frameworks; subsequent projects investigatedtechnical aspects in pilot facilities in both Germany andChina, conducted public relations (EXPO 2010 in Shang-hai) and produced a cost comparison between examplesof a conventional and an integrated semi-centralised sup-ply and disposal unit.

The aim of the second phase of the project (which ranfrom 2005 to 2008) was to develop supply and disposal sys-tems that could actually achieve sustainable use ofresources through an extensive water and energy cycle.This required integrated planning for the technical facili-ties. The project team developed a modular system forsupply and disposal (water, wastewater, waste) that is flex-ible enough to adapt to local conditions and applies both

Semi-centralised supply and disposal systems –dynamic solutions for China’s growing major cities

technical and organisational synergies. The wastewater-related research involved investigations into greywatertreatment◄ and inner-city water recycling. Various proce-dures were examined in terms of the achievable drainagequalities, space and energy requirements and more.

Integrated approach

Semi-centralised supply and disposal systems provide aconsistently high level of quality for water infeed anddrainage, a secure way to treat sewage sludge and wasteand autonomously produce enough energy to run the sys-tems independently. The concept combines the varioustechnical infrastructure elements for water, wastewaterand waste both with each other and within spatial plan-ning. This needs specific legal, socio-cultural, ecologicaland economic considerations to be taken into account, aswell as the administrative and technical structures andresources available locally. In order to promote synergies,it is important to make efficient use of interfaces betweenspatial and infrastructural planning and also between theindividual technical modules. For example, this could beenergy recovery through integrated treatment of wasteand sewage sludge or reusing inner-city water to flush toi-lets (integrated infrastructure planning).


“Semizentral” exhibition stand at EXPO 2010 in Shanghai

TECHNOLOGY | DECENTRALISED | SOLUTIONS FOR CHINA’S MAJOR CITIES 85

Proven technologies

The main aims of combining various modules to form oneoverall technical system are to achieve a material flowcycle and to reuse nutrients and energy found in waste-water and waste. Proven technology is used in these mod-ules: aerobic and anaerobic wastewater treatment◄,fermentation◄ and mechanical-biological waste treat-ment◄, energy and material recycling◄ and water col-lection and treatment. Industrial-scale test facilitieswere also used to examine new technical challenges suchas membrane cleaning via ultrasound and industrial grey-water treatment using a variety of treatment procedures.

The semi-centralised approach has attracted immenseglobal interest in the meantime; this was reflected at itsappearance at EXPO 2010 in Shanghai, where it was pre-sented within the “Urban Planet” pavilion as a forward-looking infrastructure solution for cities of the future.

Project website ►www.semizentral.de Technische Universität DarmstadtIWAR InstituteProf. Dr.-Ing. Peter CornelProf. Dr.-Ing. Martin WagnerDr.-Ing. Susanne BiekerPetersenstraße 1364287 Darmstadt, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 61 51/16 27 48Fax: +49 (0) 61 51/16 37 58E-mail: [email protected]: www.iwar.bauing.tu-darmstadt.deFunding reference: 02WD0398, 02WD0607,

02WD0998

Knowledge of new sanitary systems is growing inGermany. However, further research and develop-ment is required for all system components beforeproduction can begin. The “Sanitary recyclingEschborn” is helping to achieve this: the focus of itswork is on how to implement the alternative solu-tion approach and use wastewater in an environ-mentally compatible manner. A federally ownedcompany is being used for the demonstration, andthe initial results of the project are coming in.

The current level of knowledge within Germany aboutinnovative sanitary systems is not yet sufficient to allowlarge-scale implementation: many of the technologiesinvolved must be developed further (e.g. diversion-flushtoilets), and approval is not yet in place for recoveredproducts such as urine and struvite◄ to be used in farm-ing. A research and demonstration project is looking intohow this situation could be amended: “Sanitary recycling Eschborn” (SANIRESCH) is being run by theDeutschen Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenar-beit (GIZ, German association for international co-opera-tion) with scientific support from RWTH Aachen Universi-ty, the University of Bonn, Gießen university, Huber SE andRoediger Vacuum (period of study: 2009 to 2012).

The GIZ installed a sanitary system for the separate collec-tion of urine, brown water and greywater◄when it mod-ernised its main building in Eschborn near Frankfurt in2006. This system includes diversion-flush toilets, water-less urinals, separate piping systems for urine, brownwater and greywater and urine storage tanks. SANIRESCHis looking at how to treat and recycle wastewater, examin-ing both staff acceptance of the new sanitary system andalso how urine could be used in farming. Economic effi-ciency and ability to transfer the approach to other coun-tries are additional considerations.

Numerous project modules

The project consists of various components, with the proj-ect partners working on these alone or in collaboration.

Sanitary and in-house installations: The GIZ headquar-ters features 25 waterless urinals (Keramag) and 48 diver-sion toilets (Roediger Vacuum) to separate the wastewater– the latter are being tested in continuous operation.

Wastewater as a resource – the promising SANIRESCH demonstration project

Plant technology: A precipitation reactor is treating thecollected urine using a chemical-physical process; magne-sium oxide is added to produce solid magnesium ammo-nium phosphate (MAP), which is a valuable fertiliser foruse in agriculture. Brown water treatment◄ takes place ina membrane bioreactor (MBR), once the solids have beenremoved. The MBR uses ultrafiltration◄ to remove solidsand bacteria, as well as almost all viruses. The resultant fil-trate is then hygienic enough to use for irrigation. An MBRis also used to treat greywater (water from the kitchensink/hand-washing), with the resultant process waterbeing used to flush the toilets.

Operation and monitoring: The facilities in question aremaintained and optimised on site. Remote technology◄ isused to control and monitor the systems and to analysethe basic parameters of the wastewater.

Quality of the products / Storage of urine: When urine isstored, the pharmaceutical substances can degrade; thisdegradation is to be quantified. Lab tests are also beingused to adapt the storage conditions (e.g. by varying thepH value◄) so that urine storage can be improved in termsof removing harmful substances.

Agricultural production SANIRESCH is conducting fer-tiliser tests using stored urine and MAP in the open field.The primary focus is the effects on renewable raw materi-als (miscanthus) and crops. The legal framework condi-tions for recycling urine in Germany are being clarifiedand recommendations are being developed for authorities.


Production tests using urine on test fields by the University of Bonn:fertilising (March 2010)

http://www.saniresch.de/en

TECHNOLOGY | DECENTRALISED | SANIRESCH DEMONSTRATION PROJECT 87

Acceptance: Studies intend to determine the level ofacceptance of urine as a fertiliser among users and clean-ing staff at GIZ and also farmers and consumers.

Economic feasibility: One project module is dedicated todetermining the costs of investment, operation and re-investment, and also the amortisation point. The projectalso seeks to make an economic comparison of this con-cept with other technical solutions.

International adaptability: The objective is to determineregions particularly suited to the sanitary concept and thetechnologies used and to identify the ways in which theycan be used. The necessary adaptation to be able to imple-ment the technologies successfully in specific cases inemerging and developing countries is also being deter-mined.

Initial project results

The research project was launched in July 2009; the fol-lowing results relate to the first year of the project.

When it comes to employees, the urinals and toilets arethe only visible components of the system. The state of thesanitary facilities is thus crucial to their acceptance. Itbecame evident that the Roediger diversion toilets need tobe modified: the valve responsible for diverting the urinehas already been improved in order to facilitate installa-tion and improve throughflow.

The urine storage tests showed that the urine containspharmaceutical residues that even at the end of the six-month storage period were not completely eliminated.Initial measurements showed concentrations of heavymetals to be beneath the limits of the German DrinkingWater Ordinance (TrinkwV, 2001); it is therefore assumedthat this could be used within agriculture without anyissues. Tests on the urine precipitated as MAP indicated

that no active pharmaceuticalagents were included withinthe precipitated product.Analysis is still required todetermine whether agents areadhering to the surface of theMAP crystals and forming partof an organic matrix.

Regarding the effect of thefertiliser, an ongoing field testis fertilising parcels of landcontaining wheat and broadbeans with urine. These cropshave displayed good growth,equivalent from a visual per-spective to those on parcels ofland receiving mineral fertilis-er. Although more detailed

results are still pending, it is expected that there will onlybe slight differences in comparison with mineral fertiliser.

The economic feasibility study analysed the investmentand operating costs of the sanitary installations imple-mented within the building (toilets, urinals, piping sys-tems, urine tanks) compared with the conventional sys-tem, which was installed in the wings of the building atthe same time. The sanitary installation costs for theSANIRESCH version were EUR 0.088 per use, comparedwith EUR 0.071 for the conventional version. This differ-ence is due to the considerably higher investment costs.

Project website ►www.saniresch.de

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbHSustainable sanitation – ecosanDr.-Ing. Martina Winker (project management)Postfach 518065726 Eschborn, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 61 96/79 32 98Fax: +49 (0) 61 96/79 80 32 98E-mail: [email protected]: www.giz.de/ecosanFunding reference: : 02WD0947 to -52

Project partners inspecting the MAP reactor MAP reactor with view of theinside

The objective of the “Komplett” project was to sep-arate out domestic wastewater for treatment andto reuse virtually all of this resource. The projectalso intended to develop new sanitary ceramics forWCs that are lighter (and thus save resources duringproduction), reduce water consumption and possessantibacterial properties.

There are still around 1.1 billion people without access toclean drinking water and around 2.5 billion with no sani-tation facilities – meaning that a considerable proportionof the global population has either no or insufficientaccess to basic human needs. According to forecasts pro-duced by UNESCO, between two and seven billion peopleworldwide – depending on the scenario – will suffer froma lack of water by the middle of the century. Regions par-ticularly affected are those that supply tourists in additionto their native population (at approx. 400 litres per personper day, tourist water consumption is extremely high). Theprovision of hygienic, problem-free water is also one of themajor future tasks faced by states in central and southernEurope. Reusing treated domestic wastewater has thepotential to make a vital contribution to this.

A research project funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) saw practical tests con-ducted for a concept involving almost entirely closedwater cycles. The project was run by sanitation firmVilleroy & Boch from 2005 to 2009 and was called “Development, combination and implementation ofinnovative system components of process engineer-ing, information technology and sanitary equipmentto create a sustainable key technology for closed-loopwater systems – Komplett project”. The objective was asystem that enables the reuse of all the wastewater pro-duced domestically and also all solids.

The project comprised a preliminary testing, pilot-plantand full pilot phase. Phase one involved tests to charac-terise the two different wastewaters (greywater and black-water◄). Lab tests were then performed in order to evalu-ate and improve individual system components (the bio-logical treatment of wastewater in particular). Initial teststo compost the solids were also conducted, and new sani-tation products were developed. The project enabled thedevelopment of new sanitary ceramics and lighter sani-tary items.

Domestic wastewater in a cycle – the “KOMPLETT” system

Test facility in Kaiserslautern

The pilot-plant phase used a testing facility on a semi-technical scale to treat the two partial flows of greywater(from showers, hand basins, washing machines) andblackwater (from toilets) from a block of flats in Kaiser-slautern for ten months. As well as biological treatmentstages, the trial tested process stages for additional chemi-cal-physical water treatment and the disinfection andelimination of trace elements◄. Functional tests of thesanitation products, the system’s measuring technologyand the software for displaying the readings took place atthe same time. The project team also tested vermicom-posting◄ (which is processed using special worms) of theremaining substances.

Pilot facility in Oberhausen

The final test phase was the operation of pilot-scale treat-ment facilities on the premises of the Fraunhofer Institutefor Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology(UMSICHT) in Oberhausen – with the wastewater from oneof the institute’s buildings and the nearby “CentrO” shop-ping and leisure complex. The systems for sanitation and


Presenting the KOMPLETT project at the 2008 IFAT environmentaltrade fair in Munich under the patronage of the German Water Part-nership.



treatment technology were coupled with those for recy-cling and visualisation, while the blackwater cycle was ful-ly closed (treated water used to flush toilets and urinals)and the greywater cycle was largely closed (treated grey-water used for showers and washing machines). Thismade it possible to inspect the accumulation of non-degraded substances in both water cycles. The projectpartners investigated acceptance of the sanitation prod-ucts and water recycling in order to assess the recyclingpotential. The concluding tasks were a cost analysis of theKomplett system and a comparison with the costs of con-ventional technology for water supply and disposal. Theresults showed that the system can be used economicallyin areas lacking the infrastructure for supply and disposaland with a high use density, e.g. in hotel complexes. Theaims of the project were therefore achieved.

Flushing with just 3.5 litres

The flush-optimised toilets and urinals with photo-catalyt-ic surfaces◄were pilot tested in Oberhausen. A new, 20%lighter sanitary ceramic was developed during the proj-ect; this saves considerable resources during productionand also provides an antibacterial surface. The new 3.5-litre WC can flush away faeces and paper without any

TECHNOLOGY | DECENTRALISED | THE “KOMPLETT” SYSTEM 89

problems using two litres less water. Compared with a 6-litre WC, it saves 17,000 litres of drinking water a year in afour-person household. However, there is a higher propor-tion of solids in the blackwater portion of the Komplettsystem; while this reduces the cost of blackwater treat-ment, it does require adapted pipes to be installed in thehome.

Project website ►www.komplett-projekt.de

Villeroy & Boch AGEnvironment/Safety/Research –Corporate CoordinationDanuta KrystkiewiczPostfach 11 2066688 Mettlach, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)6 86/4 81 13 32Fax: +49 (0)6 86/4 81 14 16E-mail: [email protected]: www.villeroy-boch.com

EnviroChemie GmbHDr.-Ing. Markus EngelhartIn den Leppsteinswiesen 964380 Rossdorf, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 61 54/69 98 57Fax: +49 (0) 61 54/69 98 11E-mail: [email protected]: www.envirochemie.deFunding reference: 02 WD 0685

Representation of the potential uses of the KOMPLETT research projectresults, factoring in the remote diagnostics and special ceramics thathave been developed.

Water consumption per person is much higher inhotels and guest houses than it is in private house-holds: a guest in a German hotel uses around300 litres of water a day on average – more thantwice the amount they would use at home. If thevenues also have golf courses and swimming pools,consumption can be as much as 1,000 litres perovernight guest per day. The amount of fresh waterused could be reduced significantly if the greywaterproduced on site were to be treated. One projectshows that it is possible to make the necessary con-versions without suspending business operations.

“Production integrated measures for environmentprotection in hotel and catering industry in specialconsideration of existing built volumes” was a researchproject run by the Institute for Environmental Engineer-ing (ISA) at RWTH Aachen University from June 2006 toMay 2009 that investigated how the concept described inits title could be implemented. The focus was on demon-strating that even standard systems for treating processwater can considerably reduce the consumption of drink-ing water in hotels, and that the conversion work can takeplace with hotel business running as usual.

The ISA was able to secure the four-star “Hotel Am Kur-park” in Bad Windsheim (Middle Franconia) as a projectpartner. Founded in 1981, the hotel has 50 guest roomswith 90 beds, a restaurant seating around 100, plus confer-ence rooms and a sauna. The bulk of the accommodationis located in the main building, with 20 guest rooms andthe seminar rooms in a separate building (built 1992,extended 1998). The hotel’s water consumption increasedconsiderably between 2001 and 2007 (see diagram).

Greywater treatment system

The greywater◄ treatment system was installed by HansHuber AG (Berching) in November 2008. The structure ofthe building made installation of the new water pipesunexpectedly difficult as they had to be integrated intothe existing pipeline shafts. As hotel business was not to beinterrupted, chasing and tiling was restricted to a bareminimum. While the seminar building was connectedwithin the ten-day construction phase, work in the mainbuilding’s cellar and the connecting shaft between thetwo buildings was conducted outside of this period. Over-all, 460 metres of piping were laid for greywater andprocess water.

Water recycling in hotels – business as usual during conversion work

Other sources integrated

The low amount of greywater specifically from the guestrooms (shower, bath, hand basin) made it necessary toconnect other sources of greywater to the treatment sys-tem in order to make it financially viable. The ISA there-fore split operation of the system into three phases forevaluation purposes.

During the first phase of operation, a greywater yield of35 to 130 litres per guest per day was recorded, with theaverage being 52 litres. When the washing machines wereadded as an extra source in the second phase, the averageguest-specific greywater yield rose to 72 litres per guestper day. The bar and the glass/dishwashers were connect-ed in the third phase of operation, bringing the specificyield to a final average of 82 litres. Including other sources


Year

Average value: 272 I/(guest/d)

Median: 279 I/(guest/d)

85% percentile: 293 I/(guest/d)

Annual water consumption Guest-specific water consumption

Drinking water feed

Pressure increase

systemClean water tank

UV reactor

MBR

UF membrane

Initial storage tank

incl. preliminary

mechanical cleaning

Progression of water consumption in the “Am Kurpark” hotel from2001 to 2007

Diagram of the greywater treatment system at the “Am Kurpark” hotel

of greywater in the treatment concept (connecting the barand glass/dishwashers) meant that automated extractionof excess sludge was required.

Connecting extra greywater streams resulted in increasedoutflow concentrations: operating phase I recorded onlythree breaches of microbiological limits in the whitewater, but the microbiological quality of the white waterdeteriorated when other sources of greywater were con-nected. For some microbiological parameters, for whichthe ultrafiltration membrane (ultrafiltration◄) serves as asecure barrier (particularly for E. coli◄), the increased con-centrations could only be traced back to recontaminationeffects within the permeate pipe. Adapting the recircula-tion rate enabled the required hygienic quality of thewhite water to be maintained even after tests in operatingphase III (the diagram opposite provides a properties sum-mary for the greywater and process water at all threephases).

Operating phase II

Bath/shower, basin and

washing machine

Operating phase I

Bath/shower, basin

Operating phase III

Bath/shower, basin,

washing machine

and bar

OutputOutputOutputInput Input Input

Colony count 20°C

Colony count 36°C

Coliform germs

E.coli

Enterococci

GW produced (guest/d)(guest/d)(guest/d)(guest/d)

1) Permeate before UV disinfection

2) Permeate after UV disinfection

TECHNOLOGY | DECENTRALISED | WATER RECYCLING IN HOTELS 91

Greywater becomes process water

The wastewater from the showers and baths is treated toturn it into high-quality process water, which is hygieni-cally harmless and meets the requirements of the GermanDrinking Water Ordinance. This process water is used toflush toilets, in the prewash cycle of dishwashers and forirrigation and cleaning.

The project has demonstrated that concepts for waterrecycling can be implemented without affecting the run-ning of the hotel. However, the extra construction effortinvolved may sometimes be considerable, thus increasingcosts. Implementation is more economic in new builds oras part of general sanitation measures.

RWTH Aachen UniversityInstitute for Environmental EngineeringProf. Johannes PinnekampMies-van-der-Rohe Straße 152074 Aachen, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)2 41/8 02 52 07Fax: +49 (0)2 41/8 02 22 85 E-mail: [email protected]: www.isa.rwth-aachen.de

Comparison of the chemical-physical and microbiological propertiesof greywater and process water for the three phases of operation (aver-ages)

Phosphorous is essential to all life. It requires agreat deal of energy to take mined phosphate oreand produce mineral phosphorus fertiliser. What’smore, these ores are finite: current knowledge indi-cates that the known reserves economically viablefor mining will be exhausted in around 100 years.Scientists have therefore been working for someyears now on procedures enabling the efficientrecovery of phosphorus from wastewater andsewage sludge.

One of these research projects was funded by the FederalMinistry of Education and Research (BMBF). Entitled“Recycling of Phosphorus – Ecological and EconomicEvaluation of Different Processes and Development ofa Strategical Recycling Concept for Germany” (PhoBe),it involved five institutes from various faculties and wasled by the Institute for Environmental Engineering (ISA) atRWTH Aachen University. PhoBe (completion date: end of2011) was an all-encompassing project summarising theresults of the projects funded under the BMBF “Recyclingmanagement of plant nutrients, especially phosphorus”initiative and providing global analyses. This funding ini-tiative was launched in 2004 in conjunction with the Fed-eral Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservationand Nuclear Safety (BMU).

As the price of mineral raw phosphate is a deciding factorin evaluating the economic feasibility of recycling proce-dures, a medium to long-term assessment (2030) of theglobal price development was conducted within one ofthe eight work packages. The relevant phosphate-richmaterial flows in Germany were also identified and quali-tatively measured. The phosphate products obtained fromthe recovery processes developed as part of the fundinginitiative were analysed for impurities and evaluated fortheir effectiveness as a fertiliser compared with conven-tional phosphate fertilisers (such as triple superphos-phate).

In an additional step, the specific production costs of thedeveloped processes were determined using a cost assess-ment and the processes were balanced in terms of ecologi-cal aspects. The step to follow this was to use the resultsgained to develop a recovery concept for Germany thatdemonstrates which material flow is appropriate for recy-cling. Another key focus was to look ahead from a technol-ogy perspective, by means of a survey of experts and theidentification of future prospects for phosphorus recy-cling in Germany.

Phosphorous recycling – wastewater and sewage sludgesources of a valuable resource

Forecast for price development

A methodical approach was used for the medium andlong-term price development of phosphate, beginning byanalysing the fundamental data separately – the develop-ment of supply and demand – and then merging them fora subsequent price development. Two scenarios wereexamined, assuming a rise in phosphate consumption(one or two percent a year). The slow increase mirrors thedevelopment of recent years (Business as Usual, BAU); thefaster increase would be due to increasing cultivation ofplants for biofuels.

As phosphoric acid is the base substance in producingphosphate-based fertiliser, the price development of bothraw phosphate and phosphoric acid was assessed: the firstscenario saw an increase in the price of phosphoric acid toUSD 660 a tonne by the year 2030 and the second saw anincrease to USD 760 (see graph on the price developmentof phosphoric acid).

The analysis of the secondary phosphate obtained in thefunding initiative showed that all the magnesium ammo-nium phosphate (MAP) produced was beneath the limits(and almost all products beneath the level for labellingobligation) of the 2008 German Fertiliser Ordinance. Theeffectiveness of the fertiliser was tested on the first andsecond crop of maize planted in sandy and clay soil incomparison with triple superphosphate, raw phosphateand a zero control◄. Results so far indicate that the


Observed prices

Possible price development

BAU price estimate

Biofuel price estimate

Pric

e (U

S$/t

)

Price development of phosphoric acid

http://www.phosphorrecycling.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=16&Itemid=39&lang=en

ECOLOGY | WATER AND RESOURCES | RECYCLING PHOSPHORUS FROM SEWAGE SLUDGE 93

recovered secondary phosphate is in no way significantlydifferent from triple superphosphate and is thereforecomparable with conventional fertilisers in this regard.

Secondary phosphate is not yet competitive

The cost assessment of the processes developed during thefunding initiative showed that the specific productioncosts for a kilogram of secondary phosphate are – depend-ing on the technical effort required and the recoverypotential of the process – between EUR 2 and 13 per kilo-gram and are therefore not yet in a position to competewith conventional phosphate fertiliser (approx.EUR 1.50/kg). And yet phosphate recycling is worth it eventoday: in cases where there is an additional benefit – suchas avoiding pipe blockages due to deposited MAP orimproving the drainage of sewage sludge.

The material flow balance produced for Germany statesthat the amount of phosphorous in wastewater andsewage sludge theoretically available for phosphorousrecycling is around 70,000 tonnes a year. The contributionfrom sewage sludge is particularly significant, around aquarter of which is currently disposed of in mono sewagesludge incinerators. The combustion process destroysmost of the germs, odorous substances and organic mat-ter, but the phosphorous content is still fully present as aresidue in the ashes. Tests have shown that the proportionof phosphorous in sewage sludge ashes is around 6% andthus the highest concentration of phosphorus comparedwith other sources (sewage plant outflow, sludge liquor,sewage sludge).

Potential of up to 45,000 tonnes

The mono-incineration capacities in Germany are around520,000 tonnes of sewage sludge a year, with currentoperation at more than 90%. If all sewage sludge ashesproduced from mono incineration were fed into phospho-rous recovery, around 13,000 tonnes of phosphorouscould be recovered every year. If sewage sludge that doesnot undergo mono incineration or agricultural recyclingwere to be included, the major sewage plants (for>100,000 residents) could recover a further 5,000 tonnes.Assuming that agricultural recycling of sewage sludgewill be further restricted in future and thus that heat recy-cling will increase, a scenario has been calculated inwhich all sewage sludge is burned in mono-incinerationfacilities and then used for recovery: this would recoveraround 45,000 tonnes of phosphorous a year, equating toaround a 60% substitution of phosphorus fertiliser.

Experts believe that phosphate recycling could be imple-mented in industrial countries between now and 2030and be economically viable – this is the result of a surveycalled “Dringlichkeit der Phosphorrückgewinnung, Erfol-gspotenzial der Phosphorrückgewinnung aus Abwasser-behandlung und Klärschlamm, Potenziale der Rück-gewinnung aus Klärschlammasche und Phosphatrück-gewinnung im Kontext eines Systemwandels in derWasser- und Abfallwirtschaft” (phosphate recovery as apriority, success potential of phosphorus recovery fromwastewater treatment and sewage sludge, potential ofrecovery from sewage sludge ash and phosphate recoverywithin the context of change of system to a water andwaste economy).

Project website ►www.phosphorrecycling.eu

RWTH Aachen UniversityInstitute for Environmental Engineering (ISA)Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Johannes PinnekampMies-van-der-Rohe Straße 152074 Aachen, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)2 41/80-2 52 07Fax: +49 (0)2 41/80-2 22 85E-mail: [email protected]: www.isa.rwth-aachen.deFunding reference: 02WA0805 – 02WA0808

Magnesium ammonium phosphate (MAP) and sewage sludge ash(small image)

Although Vietnam gets plenty of rain, many regionslack both clean drinking water and water for farm-ing. The Mekong Delta is one such region: a German-Vietnamese project is developing water supply anddisposal solutions to suit the conditions foundthere. This not only involves securing drinking waterfor the population, but also recovering recyclableproducts from wastewater treatment for use in agri-culture, e.g. compost and biogas.

The Mekong Delta in southern Vietnam is home to around17 million people, about a fifth of the country’s popula-tion. Most of them work in agriculture or fish farming.Around half those living in the cities have access to a regu-lated water supply and disposal facility, as opposed to just10% in rural areas. As there are only a few sewage plants,most of the wastewater ends up getting into the riverswithout being treated, and often fish ponds too in therural regions.

Increasing water consumption in the Mekong Delta iscausing the groundwater level to drop. Seawater is fre-quently getting into the groundwater in coastal areas,resulting in rising salt concentrations. Farming is theregion’s greatest consumer of water: farmers use around90% of the water for growing rice because although theprecipitation is plentiful, rice fields still need intensive irri-gation.

Obtaining organic fertiliser fromsewage water

Farmers use large amounts of expensive mineral fertiliserin order to increase the crops from their rice fields. Butthere could be cheaper and more environmentally friend-ly ways to add nutrients to the soil: human excrement,which currently contaminates the water. The German-Vietnamese SANSED project investigated how this couldbe achieved (full name “Closing Nutrient Cycles inDecentralised Water Treatment Systems in theMekong-Delta”). The universities of Bonn and Bochum,Can Tho university in Vietnam and numerous Germancompanies were involved in the project.

Decentralised systems aim to process drinking water ascost-effectively as possible while simultaneously treatingwastewater so that local farmers can make use of thesludge and compost. In an ideal scenario, the 120,000 or sotonnes of nitrate and 19,000 tonnes of phosphorous pro-

Vietnam – clean water for the Mekong Delta

duced in the Mekong Delta every year could be returnedto the nutrient cycles through an environmentally friend-ly process.

Seven aspects

Decentralised wastewater disposal and water supply sys-tems that are adapted to local structures and also factor inthe low income of the population are especially useful.The second phase set up demonstration systems and oper-ated them together with Vietnamese partners: SANSEDwants to demonstrate that the cost of constructing andoperating the systems can be refunded through the sale ofthe products produced (biogas, fertiliser, compost). Therewere seven sub-projects within SANSED.

Biogas: The country’s typical biogas plants, which use bac-teria to break down waste, either do not produce enoughgas or allow excess amounts to escape unused. Theapproach followed by SANSED uses fungi to break downdegradation-resistant polymers in sugar; this triggersincreased activity in the bacteria and thus increases thegas yield. Excess gas can be converted into power or storedin bottles.

Partial wastewater flow treatment: The project teaminstalled toilets that separate the wastewater from the fae-ces in two university halls of residence to serve as modelsfor wastewater cleaning. The urine and solids were used toobtain fertiliser for farming and biogas. Pathogens andorganic contaminants from the urine water◄were eitherremoved or at least considerably reduced through sun-drying. The earthworms added to the solids converted thesubstrate into compost (cold rotting).


Biogas plant used for agriculture

http://www.sansed.uni-bonn.de/

TECHNOLOGY | DECENTRALISED | VIETNAM AS A PIONEER 95

Wastewater sieving/soil filtration: At one of the halls ofresidence, fine sieves filter out solids from the wastewater.The water is then cleaned further through soil filters, andthe solids are composted.

Drinking water from surface water: One system treatedsurface water polluted with organic substances andmicro-organisms – using slow sand filters and sunlight(UV disinfection) among other things – to supply water toone of the halls of residence.

Drinking water from groundwater: The scientists opti-mised the drinking water supply for around 100 house-holds: quick sand filters treated the heavily ferrousgroundwater.

Further training: Many districts in Can Tho have a centralsupply of drinking water that could be described asprocess water at best. There is also a system that involvesfilling containers with drinking water. The project teamdevised a special information and training programme forthe staff at the Can Tho Water Supply and Sewerage Com-pany.

Handling recommendations: The team collaborated withthe local supply company to create a sample feasibilitystudy using a district of Can Tho that previously had noregulated water supply or disposal: the study shows whereit would be useful to implement (de)centralised systems.

Verifying transferability

The SANSED project is to be used as a basis to verifywhether decentralised wastewater treatment and watersupply systems could be used in other regions with poorinfrastructure.

The SANSED final report appeared in volume 31 of the“Bonner Agrikulturchemische Reihe” (Bonn agriculture-chemical series, ordered and purchased via www.ipe.uni-bonn.de/publikationen).

Further information can be found on the project website.Project website ►www.sansed.uni-bonn.de

University of BonnINRES-PflanzerernährungDr. Ute ArnoldKarlrobert Kreiten Straße 1353115 Bonn, GermanyTel +49 (0)2 28/73 36 39Fax +49 (0)2 28/73 24 89Internet: www.ipe.uni-bonn.deFunding reference: 02WD0620

Natural fertilisation used in farming

Drinking water supply system

Many tourist resorts in southern countries do nothave any environmentally friendly means of wasteand wastewater disposal or energy supply. TheMODULAARE research and demonstration projectused a Turkish hotel complex to test a sustainablesolution to these problems: the procedure devel-oped combines the fermentation of organic wastewith membrane technology for wastewater clean-ing. The resulting products: process water, fertiliserand biogas.

Tourist resorts cannot enjoy stable economic develop-ment if their environment is not intact. Heavily visitedregions, rapidly growing new resorts and ecologically sen-sitive areas in particular need to orient their tourismtoward the guiding principle of sustainability – andensure that their energy and water supplies and waste andwastewater disposal facilities are environmentally com-patible.

Spot checks have determined a daily water consumptionof up to 1,200 litres per guest in international holidayhotels (including apportioned consumption for greenfacilities and swimming pools). By way of comparison:households in Germany currently consume about a tenthof this, an average of 123 litres per resident per day. Waste-water often flows – poorly cleaned – into rivers or directlyinto the sea because sewage facilities in the hotel com-plexes are either poorly maintained or lacking altogether;it is often not possible to be connected to the centralwastewater disposal system as tourism resorts are oftenoutside built-up areas. Waste disposal causes just as manyproblems: large hotels produce up to 2.5 kilograms perguest every day, which is often disposed of at unautho-rised dumps.

Integrated concept for tourism regions

One answer to these problems, particularly in ecologicallysensitive regions, are “Integrated modules for high-effi-cient wastewater treatment, solid waste disposal andregenerative energy production in touristic resorts”(MODULAARE). This is the title of the project combiningmembrane technology◄ in wastewater treatment andanaerobic◄ fermentation in the treatment of bio-waste toenable targeted nutrient flow management for waste-water and organic waste. This results in a virtually closednutrient cycle in an almost wastewater-free hotel – andalso produces valuable by-products such as process water,fertiliser and energy.

Clean and effective –decentralised disposal systems for hotel complexes

To put this procedure to the test in a practical setting, theinternational project team set up a test facility at the“Hotel Sarigerme Park” on the Turkish Aegean coast in2005. Concluded in 2008, the project was managed by theVerband zur Förderung angepasster, sozial- undumweltverträglicher Technologien e.V. (AT-Verband,association for the promotion of adapted, social and envi-ronmentally compatible technologies, Stuttgart); theInstitute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Sol-id Waste Management at the University of Stuttgart was incharge of scientific management, MEMOS MembranesModules Systems (Pfullingen) produced the membranetechnology and Bio-System Selecta GmbH (Konstanz) pro-duced the anaerobic system. The administrative authori-ties for the island of Mainau on Lake Constance suppliedbasic data and supported the project’s public relations.

Membranes cleaning the wastewater

The procedure used recovers biomasses from the waste-water via membranes – not through final clarification◄(sedimentation) as usual. Membranes not only remove allsolids, but also large amounts of germs and viruses. Themembrane bioreactor upstream is a mechanical cleaningprocess that removes the solids. The membrane filtrationenables increased concentrations of biomasses (expertsrefer to a higher space-time yield): bio-membranereactors◄ operate with biomass contents of 10 to 15 gramsper litre. This value is about three times higher than con-ventional activated sludge reactors◄ (approx. 4 g/l)because the biomass concentration in the activation nolonger depends on the sedimentation behaviour in thesecondary settler. The MODULAARE process provides fur-ther treatment of excess sludge◄ together with kitchenand garden waste in the fermentation module.


The “Sarigerme Park” hotel complex in Turkey

http://www.p-42.net/modul/front_content.php

TECHNOLOGY | DECENTRALISED | DISPOSAL SYSTEMS FOR HOTEL COMPLEXES 97

The membrane system offers a number of technical waysto eliminate nutrients. Carbon, nitrogen and/or phospho-rus can also be reused to some extent – depending on theintended use of the cleaned wastewater. Phosphorus canbe used within garden irrigation as a fertiliser; the processcan also provide soil protection, especially in areas with anegative humus balance like the Mediterranean area. Themodular nature of the system allows it to adapt to season-al fluctuations in guest numbers, be it through a differentsolids content or activated/deactivated membrane modules.

Biogas covers energy requirements

Hotel waste can consist of more than 70% organic materi-al. Due to the nature of the waste, only around a third of itcan be treated aerobically◄ (compost) without majortechnical efforts. The high water content and the struc-ture of the material means there can be sufficient anaero-bic◄ areas to result in considerable odour; compost canalso easily dry out in Mediterranean and arid zones due tothe high air temperatures. Fermentation◄ on the otherhand can treat up to 90% of the organic waste, and the fer-mentation residue can be used in agriculture.

The MODULAARE project has developed a practicable con-cept that permits optimum use of biogas: used either toprovide heat or – converted into electricity – to cover thehigh amounts of energy required by the membrane biore-actor. Any wastewater (e.g. from drainage) is fed directlyback into the membrane bioreactor.

Project website ►www.modulaare.de

Verband zur Förderung angepasster, sozial- undumweltverträglicher Technologien e.V. (AT-Verband)Dr. Udo Theilen (Co-ordinator)Dieter Steinbach, Andrea Schultheis (MODULAAREoverall concept)Waldburgstraße 9670563 Stuttgart, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/7 35 52 79Fax: +49 (0)7 11/7 35 52 80E-mail: [email protected]: www.at-verband.deFunding reference: 02WD0440

University of StuttgartInstitute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Qualityand Solid Waste ManagementDepartments of Wastewater Technology and Siedlungsabfall (municipal waste)Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin Kranert (scientific management)Bandtäle 270569 Stuttgart, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/68 56 55 00Fax: +49 (0)7 11/68 56 54 60E-mail: [email protected]: www.iswa.uni-stuttgart.deFunding reference: 02WD0441

MODULAARE membrane moduleA MODULAARE biogas module

When it comes to connecting new building develop-ments to the water supply and disposal system,local authorities are faced with a choice: should theexisting sewer system be expanded, or should adecentralised solution be implemented? The Fraun-hofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering andBiotechnology used a model project in Knittlingennear Pforzheim to demonstrate the benefits of asemi-decentralised concept: as this method usesrainwater, it reduces the level of fresh water con-sumption. It also produces fertiliser for farmers andits operation is energy-neutral.

Industrial nations generally apply a combined-systemprinciple to wastewater disposal: rainwater is used todilute the wastewater before it enters the central sewageplant. This process is counter-productive as the sewageplant has the laborious task of extracting the contentsfrom the water. A practical alternative from both an eco-nomic and ecological perspective could be to use cycle-oriented, semi-decentralised systems for water supply andwastewater disposal – in emerging and developing coun-tries too.

The Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering andBiotechnology (IGB) implemented such a concept as partof the “DEcentralised Urban infrastructure System 21”(DEUS 21) project in 2005, selecting a new business devel-opment with 100 buildings in Knittlingen near Pforzheim.The Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and InnovationResearch (ISI) is working alongside the project to comparethe ecological and economic aspects of the system withthose of conventional processes.

Treated rainwater

At the heart of the system is the “water house”, located atthe edge of the DEUS 21 residential area. It serves as boththe technical operations building and an information cen-tre for residents and visitors. The rainwater flowing off theroofs and streets is stored in underground cisterns andtreated in the water house. The aim is to treat the rainwa-ter to render it potable and then use a separate network tochannel it into homes so it can be used for flushing toilets,watering gardens, operating washing machines and dish-washers and also for washing and showering. The firststep is to examine the treated rainwater over an extendedperiod; the residents receive a second source of drinkingwater from the Knittlingen authorities during this testphase.

Semi-decentralised concept for a new buildingdevelopment – the Knittlingen “water house”

A vacuum sewage system sucks the domestic wastewaterfrom transfer chutes in front of the houses; it is then treat-ed in the water house in an anaerobic◄ cleaning reactorwith built-in membrane technology◄. The central vacu-um station, commissioned in 2005, produces the vacuumrequired for this process. The builders can also lay a vacu-um pipe in the home, enabling installation of a water-sav-ing vacuum toilet and a shredder for kitchen waste.

Solids separated

Preliminary tests have shown that wastewater cleaning ismore effective if the solids are separated beforehand. Theoutput solids are therefore treated separately at 37°Cusing the high-load digestion◄process developed by theFraunhofer IGB with integrated microfiltration◄. Fermen-tation of the solids produces up to 5,000 litres of biogasevery day. The hydraulic retention time in the reactor isapprox. ten days; the solids retention time is freelyadjustable to a certain extent but is considerably higher.An unheated, fully mixed bioreactor◄with a volume often cubic metres is used to treat the overflow from the sed-imentation tank (approx. 99% of the inflow); the outflow ishandled by four parallel rotating disc filters (pore diame-ter of 0.2 μm).

The anaerobic sewage plant offers reliable functionalityeven at low temperatures: at reactor temperatures as lowas 13°C the outflow values register less than 150 mil-ligrams of the chemical oxygen demand (COD◄) per litre(limit value for sewage plants serving less than 1,000 resi-dents). The inflow concentrations are between 400 and


The water house in Knittlingen

http://www.deus21.de/index.php?id=3&L=1

TECHNOLOGY | DECENTRALISED | KNITTLINGEN WATER HOUSE 99

1,100 milligrams COD per litre, with the average level ofdegradation at 85%. The maximum biogas production inthe reactor for cleaning the primary treatment overflow isaround 3,000 litres a day. The increase in biomass pro-duces around 10% of the expected amount of excesssludge◄ from the activated sludge procedure◄. Since itscommissioning in March 2009, the membrane filtrationhas been cleaned through automatic filtrate backwash-ing, with the first chemical clean taking place in April2010.

Agricultural benefits

The water flowing out of the plant was suitable for irrigat-ing and fertilising farmland. The bioreactor breaks downvirtually no ammonium or phosphate, both of whichoccur in relatively high concentrations in the wastewater.The membrane filtration removes the bulk of germs fromthe water, so it is therefore safe to use as fertiliser. Spotchecks in the outflow from the rotating disc filters used inthe membrane filtration revealed no traces of Escherichiacoli◄ bacteria, although it was present in the reactorsludge at a level of one million per millilitre.

If this cannot be used as fertiliser, one alternative is torecover the ammonium and phosphate: an electrochemi-cal process precipitates the nutrients as struvite◄ (MAP,magnesium ammonium phosphate). Excess ammonium isbound to zeolite by means of an ion exchange process andrecovered as ammonium sulphate through air stripping.

Energy-neutral operation

The fully anaerobic process technology is able to convertmost of the organic materials from the wastewater intobiogas: a daily yield of 40 to 60 litres per resident – asopposed to just 25 litres from conventional wastewatercleaning through sludge digestion. The energy in the bio-gas produced through anaerobic wastewater cleaning isover 100 kilowatt hours per resident each year. Largesewage plants consume around 30 kilowatt hours of elec-trical energy per resident per year (and around 30 kWhthermal energy): in comparison, anaerobic conditionsenable energy-neutral wastewater cleaning at the veryleast.

Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering andBiotechnology (IGB)Prof. Dr. Walter TröschDipl.-Ing. Marius MohrNobelstraße 1270569 Stuttgart, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 11/9 70-42 20Fax: +49 (0)7 11/9 70-42 00E-mail: [email protected]@igb.fraunhofer.deInternet: www.igb.fraunhofer.deFunding reference: 02WD0457

A vacuum station (left) and bioreactors in the water house

Proven methods and high-tech analysis – management concepts to enhance health and hygiene


TECHNOLOGY | HYGIENE AND HEALTH 101

Around two million people worldwide die from alack of drinking water or contaminated drinkingwater. Water, especially clean water, is a preciouscommodity – one that is however scarce in manyregions of the world. There is an urgent need fornew and efficient processes and management con-cepts to find ways to provide as many people as pos-sible with a day-to-day supply of clean water. Theaim is to achieve a high level of efficiency through-out the entire use cycle – from obtaining waterthrough to cleaning wastewater.

The health of the global population is directly linked tothe quality and quantity of fresh water available for use.According to data from the World Health Organization(WHO), the most important factor in world health is pre-venting the transferable pathogens (bacteria, viruses andparasites) present in contaminated drinking water. Unhy-gienic conditions, a lack of sanitation and poor-qualitydrinking water are the main reasons why a child under 5dies every 3 seconds in developing and emerging coun-tries.

In addition to mass contamination, the situation is alsodeteriorating in many developing countries due to a dras-tically worsening water shortage. Compared with devel-oping and emerging countries, Germany and the otherindustrialised nations are mainly at risk through a multi-tude of new chemical substances and also pathogens thatprimarily spread via the waterways.

Germany’s largest ultrafiltration facility

One of the world’s largest ultrafiltration membrane facili-ties was commissioned in the Eifel region in 2005. Everyhour, 7,000 cubic metres of water flow through the facilityfrom the dam, and can then be used as drinking water.Dissolved substances, particles and micro-organisms arefiltered out by the ultra-fine membrane pores within thefacility. The BMBF funded extensive pilot tests as part ofthe research project on high-performance membranetechnology before the facility was put into operation. Thehigh-performance membranes tested in the Eifel regionsmet expectations in full: even when the water wasextremely contaminated (e.g. after heavy rain), they elimi-nated almost 100% of the parasites and viruses present. Thecosts for materials and debt service including new build-ings came to less than ten cents per cubic metre of drink-ing water (project 2.2.01).

AQUASens – a fast and mobile method fordetecting water impurities

Even today, methods for detecting microbial contamina-tion in water samples are incredibly laborious – and oftentake longer than a week. Within an interdisciplinaryBMBF – research project involving scientific institutionsand companies, a semi-automatic analysis device wasdeveloped that can detect both small molecules (such ashormones, antibiotics and pesticides) and much largerbacteria: by means of an immunological test that uses atiny water sample and is complete within hours. Thisenables those responsible to obtain fast, reliable informa-tion on the degree of water contamination and the poten-tial threats (project 2.2.02).

Pathogens in taps

Even top-quality drinking water can still be contaminatedin the last few metres before it emerges from the tap:poor-quality seals and hoses are a bacterial paradise.Those working on the BMBF project researching biofilmsin the home took 20,000 measurements over the course offour years to test the level of hygiene in hot water systems.The results showed that legionella was present in over 13%of these hot water systems (project 2.2.03).

Current aspects of swimming pool hygiene

When treating swimming pool water, chlorine must beused as a disinfectant (also see DIN 19643). However, thereactions of chlorine with substances that get into thepool either via the water or the pool users produceunwanted disinfection by-products. It is suspected thatthese by-products pose a risk to health. The aim of theproject entitled “Gesundheitsbezogene Optimierung derAufbereitung von Schwimm- und Badebeckenwasser”(optimizing the treatment of pool water with regard tohealth) is to investigate the effects of these by-products –particularly on those with respiratory or other chronic ill-nesses (project 2.2.04).

Pressure-driven membrane procedures◄ are gainingimportance in the field of treating water. After sev-eral years of pilot testing, one of the world’s largestultrafiltration membrane facilities was commis-sioned in 2005 in the North Eifel region to turn thewater from dams into drinking water. The expecta-tions of this facility have been met in full. The pre-liminary tests were financed by the Federal Ministryof Education and Research.

The hygienic requirements of treating surface water foruse as drinking water have increased considerably overthe last few years. Membrane procedures are a solutionwith a great deal of development potential in order tomeet these requirements: they can filter out dissolved sub-stances and also serve as a barrier for particles and micro-organisms. The universal application potential in remov-ing salt from seawater, treating wastewater and produc-ing process and drinking water provides the backing forthe growth potential of pressure-driven micro◄, ultra◄and nanofiltration◄membrane procedures and alsoreverse osmosis◄.

The potential fields of application for the membrane fil-tration procedure depend on the impurities to beremoved from the untreated water◄. Reverse osmosis fordesalination has long been the technology of choice fortreating brackish water and seawater for use as drinkingwater. The main methods used for processing untreatedwater inland are the ultra and microfiltration low-pres-sure membrane procedures◄ as well as nanofiltration.Wide-scale elimination of parasites and viruses hasrecently become a core interest. Both micro and ultrafil-tration are used to remove most of these particles dis-solved in the water (with microfiltration removing virtual-ly all parasites, but ultrafiltration possibly not removingall the viruses). Processes using denser membranes arerequired to remove inorganic dissolved matter, e.g.nanofiltration or reverse osmosis.

Good combination potential

The success of the membrane procedure is in the way itcan be combined with conventional water treatment pro-cedures and techniques (e.g. flocculation◄). Other bene-fits are the greatly reduced price of membranes and theconsiderable reduction in energy requirements throughlow-pressure membranes and intelligent energy recovery.

Dams as a source of drinking water –the benefits of the membrane procedure

Wassergewinnungs- und -aufbereitungsgesellschaftNordeifel (WAG) has been operating a membrane facilityin Roetgen since the end of 2005, treating water obtainedfrom dams for use as drinking water. The facility suppliesaround 500,000 people in the Aachen region with drink-ing water. With a capacity of up to 7,000 cubic metres anhour, the facility is one of the world’s top-performingultrafiltration membrane facilities producing drinkingwater from dam water. Even when the dam water is heavi-ly contaminated (e.g. after heavy rain), it eliminatesalmost 100% of the parasites and viruses present.

Several years of preliminary testing

Before the facility was commissioned, WAG and the IWWWater Centre (Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut fürWasserforschung) spent four years working together withthe chair for water technology at the University of Duis-burg-Essen carrying out tests: they used multiple test facil-ities with capacities of around ten cubic metres an hourand a pilot facility with a much higher treatment output(approx. 150 m3/h). At the same time, pilot tests were per-formed using an immersed suction membrane to producedrinking water and to treat the flushing water for themembrane facility. The BMBF funded these tests as part ofthe research project entitled “Hochleistungs-Membran-


Distribution

system

Drinking

water tankFilter stage 1

Reaction

reservoir

Receiving

waters

Filtrate

Flocculants (optional)

Filtrate

Filter stage 2

Flush water

tank

Disinfection

Dam

Industrial-scale UF

pilot systems

UF pilot systems

Treatment schematic for the Roetgen water plant and integration ofthe pilot facilities

technologie” (high-performance membrane technolo-gy). Wetzel + Partner Ingenieurgesellschaft mbH (Moers)was able to use the results of these tests to plan the indus-trial-scale facility in Roetgen, with scientific support fromthe IWW.

The facility in Roetgen combines flocculation and directultrafiltration. This reduces the amount of sedimentationon the filter membrane and thus the associated, irre-versible drop in efficiency. The flakes collect on the sur-face of the membrane and stabilise filtration operation.Optimised membrane backwashing then enables theimpurities to be removed from the surface of the mem-brane together with the flakes. Another feature of thefacility is that the sludgy backwash from the membranefacility is treated during a second membrane stage. Theresultant permeate – water cleaned through particulatefiltration – is then mixed with the untreated water in thefirst stage. This increases the yield of the overall process toover 99%. The second stage has a treatment capacity of630 cubic metres an hour, meaning it is also one of theworld’s largest facilities of its type.

Expectations met in full

The stable operation and outstanding quality of the waterproduced meet all expectations. The costs for material useand debt service (including the new buildings) amount toless than EUR 0.10 per cubic metre of drinking water.

ECOLOGY | WATER AND RESOURCES | DAMS AS A SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER 103

IWW Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut für Wasserforschung gGmbHProf. Dr.-Ing. Rolf GimbelMoritzstraße 2645476 Mülheim an der Ruhr, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)2 08/4 03 03-3 00Fax: +49 (0)2 08/4 03 03-83E-mail: [email protected]: www.iww-online.deFunding reference: 02WT0658

WAG Wassergewinnungs- und -aufbereitungsgesellschaft Nordeifel mbHDipl.-Ing. W. DautzenbergFilterwerk52159 Roetgen, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 24 71/1 30-0Fax: +49 (0) 24 71/1 30-12 05E-mail: [email protected]: www.enwor-vorort.deFunding reference: 02WT0660

Ultrafiltration units for treating drinking water (stage 1) Ultrafiltration unit for treating the flush water (stage 2)

Microbiological tests of water samples have alwaystaken a lot of time and effort. A new analysis system,the development of which was funded by the Feder-al Ministry of Education and Research, could providea solution: it is fast, mobile and accurate – and goodvalue to boot. There are many different ways thissystem could be used by industries and local authorities.

Before now, tracking water impurities through micro-organisms has required a specialised lab, where germshave had to be multiplied on a culture medium. While col-iform (faecal) germs can be detected within a single day –as there are proven procedures in place – tests for mostother bacteria still require a great deal more work andoften take more than a week. However, if the water ispotentially contaminated with microbes, those in chargeneed fast, reliable information on the degree of contami-nation and the potential threats.

Combined expertise

The Federal Ministry of Education and Research funded aproject in order to provide a solution: “AquaSENS – Detec-tion of micro-organisms in water with CMOS-based sen-sors”. Companies and science institutes combined theirexpertise to develop a mobile analysis system that canquickly detect micro-organisms and germs in water –without the need for timely and costly cultivations in a lab.The parties involved in the project were Siemens AG, ingewatertechnologies AG, Friz Biochem Gesellschaft für Bio-analytik mbH, the Institute of Hydrochemistry (IWC) at TUMunich, the IWW Water Centre (Rheinisch-WestfälischesInstitut für Wasserforschung) and the Water TechnologyCentre Karlsruhe (TZW). Tasks within the project:● Set up a compact, fully automated membrane filtra-

tion system for concentrating germs (from 10 litres ofwater into an eluate volume of 50 millilitres).

● Develop two sample preparation procedures on thebasis of immunomagnetic separation and affinitychromatography for further concentration and trans-fer of germs in a 1 millilitre measurement buffer.

● Develop digital read-out biochips with built-in detec-tion and analysis electronics.

● Develop and produce the compact and user-friendlyread-out device for the biochips.

AQUASens analysis system – a fast and mobilemethod for detecting water impurities

● Identify biochemical detection molecules (antibodies)and DNA segments specific to the micro-organismssought, and develop detection procedures (assays) fortransfer to the biochips.

The AquaSENS project was able to complete all tasks setsuccessfully: the semi-automatic device designed detect-ed both small molecules (such as hormones, antibioticsand pesticides) and much larger bacteria: by means of animmunological test using a tiny water sample. This detec-tion is based on the concept of the immune system: theability of antibodies to identify foreign substances fromcharacteristic constituents – antigens.

Biochips developed

This approach uses a biochip with a fully integrated CMOS(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor). The smallbiochemical sensor and the associated read-out electron-ics are ideal for use in portable, compact and economicalanalysis systems. They are particularly advantageous forsituations involving many different germs in a singlemeasurement process alongside antibody-antigen inter-actions or the detection of specific DNA segments. Thebiochip and biochemical detection procedures have beendeveloped for both of these principles.


Small biochip, big performance: a sensor quickly detects micro-organ-isms in the drinking water.

TECHNOLOGY | HYGIENE AND HEALTH | DETECTING WATER IMPURITIES 105

Because harmful germs such as legionella, salmonella andcoli bacteria are usually only present in water in low con-centrations and the biochips use just tiny samples of 100microlitres, it is necessary to augment the germs beingsought first. The project partners established the systemrequired to do this by coupling a membrane filtration sys-tem with an “immunomagnetic separation column◄”.

The result: coli bacteria could be detected within just 90minutes. The biochip detection limit for E.coli bacteriawas determined at 2,000 germs per millilitre of sampleconcentrate, with a measuring time of 30 minutes. Theanalysis system can therefore detect bacteria within twohours.

Multiple uses available

As well as being used for the quality assurance of drinkingwater supplies, the analysis system could also be extreme-ly useful for samples of process water, ultra-pure water,groundwater and surface water; tests are still underway todetermine whether and how this is possible.

AQUASens could be used in public buildings and hospitalsto test the process water in the sewage system or to test forharmful substances in the hot water system. The newanalysis system would also be useful in the food and phar-maceutical industries, which require ultra-pure water forproduction.

It may even be suitable for measuring sewage sludge orfor process monitoring in biotechnological fermenters◄.First the relevant micro-organisms would be determined,then the corresponding assays developed. The crucialthing here is to identify and produce suitable antibodiesfirst, as they are not currently available for all use cases.

Siemens AGCorporate TechnologyDr. Daniel SickertOtto-Hahn-Ring 681739 Munich, Germany Tel.: +49 (0) 89/63 64 50 89Fax: +49 (0) 89/63 64 85 55E-mail: [email protected]: www.siemens.comFunding reference: 02WU0862 – 0867

The mobile reader provides a read-out for water impurity results

Even top-quality drinking water can still be contami-nated in the last few metres before it emerges fromthe tap: poor-quality seals and hoses are a bacterialparadise – this can have serious consequences forpeople with a weakened immune system under cer-tain circumstances. A new research project is cur-rently investigating how to improve the hygienicsafety of drinking water installations.

How does drinking water get to the consumer? It travels along way to get there, from the waterworks through thepipelines and into the home, strictly monitored and keptat peak quality – until it reaches the water meter. “This iswhen it hits a grey area: the home installation. A highlyvisible variety of materials undergoing little control canbe used here, some of which represent a paradise formicro-organisms”, says Professor Hans-Curt Flemming ofthe University of Duisburg-Essen. Drinking water is notsterile and indeed should not be – it still contains bacteriathat survive even with a lack of nutrients and are com-pletely harmless. The key to success in waterworks isextracting the nutrient base for the bacteria. This pro-duces “stable drinking water”. “When these ravenousgerms come across materials that provide them with food,then it’s like paradise to them. They don’t need much tothrive – small amounts of exuded softener, colouring,antioxidant and other products added to plastics are per-fectly sufficient. They establish themselves there and formthick biofilms◄ in which pathogens can settle, grow, thenbe flushed out to contaminate the water”, continues Flem-ming.

Then even the best water loses its level of quality, all in thelast few metres on the way to the tap. What circumstancescause this? Are there any epidemics? What level of moni-toring is there? Which materials are authorised? How canproblems be avoided?

Hot water systems tested

These questions were the main focuses of the large-scalestudy funded by the BMBF called “Biofilme in derHausinstallation” (biofilms in home installations), whichran from October 2006 to March 2010. Five research facili-ties and 17 industrial partners spent four years examiningthese questions under the co-ordination of ProfessorHans-Curt Flemming (University of Duisburg-Essen andIWW Mülheim). The results were certainly worth atten-tion: “The statistical analysis of more than 20,000 meas-urements taken by health authorities showed that

Pathogens in taps –an underestimated problem

legionella was present in over 13% of the hot water systemstested”, said Professor Thomas Kistemann from the Insti-tute for Hygiene at the University of Bonn, one of theresearchers involved. One particularly unpleasantpathogen is Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which causesinflammation of the lungs, urinary tract infections andalso especially persistent infections of burns. This wasfound in 3% of the tests performed. Kistemann goes on:“Since monitoring was made mandatory four years ago,only half the public buildings and hotels affected havebeen tested. That is not to say that the authorities have notbeen active, simply that they are overwhelmed and under-staffed. And who is responsible for water quality in multi-ple dwellings? Experience shows that anyone taking onthis task quickly becomes unpopular.”

Shower hoses – a bacterial paradise

The scientists were able to use true-to-life model systemsto demonstrate that shower hoses and also relatively smallseals become a paradise for bacteria when they containmaterials that support germ growth. Biofilms could bespotted on some of them after one or two weeks – evenwith the naked eye. The usual suspects in such cases areplastics that no test has approved for use with drinkingwater. Low-cost taps often contain additives for biologicaluse such as softener or remains of release agents, orbecome contaminated with substances during productionand installation. An unfavourable combination of poormaterial quality (e.g. low-cost taps) and water qualityencourages strong biofilm development – and thus pro-vides a living environment for pathogens. “That does notnecessarily mean that epidemics are going to break out,


Time since inoculation (d)

Cultural

P. a

erug

inos

a (C

FU o

r cel

ls/c

m²)

Evidence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa through cultivation (left col-umn, blue) vs. fluorescence in-situ hybridisation (FISH) (right column,purple)

TECHNOLOGY | HYGIENE AND HEALTH | PATHOGENS IN TAPS 107

but illness could occur and lead to time off work and atemporary loss of quality of life”, says Professor Kiste-mann. “When the immune system is weakened, e.g. afteran operation, critical situations can arise”, says ProfessorMartin Exner from the University of Bonn.

So what can be done? Firstly, it was demonstrated in theresearch project that the current monitoring methodsneed to be expanded on considerably in problem cases. Ithas been shown that the pathogens being sought can gointo a sort of coma, which causes them to disappear fromthe radar of standard methods. However, they wake up assoon as their living conditions improve and can be just asinfectious as they were before. Practical problem caseswere able to demonstrate the benefits of new molecularbiology methods for identifying the causes of persistentbacterial contaminations and eliminating them.

Greater attention towards home installations

One conclusion from this successful research project is todedicate more attention to home installations, as this iswhere even the best water can lose its quality. “We havedrawn up important notes on methods to prevent this”,concludes Hans-Curt Flemming. However, it was clearthat there is still a great need for research and regulation –not only for materials but also for the testing procedures.The last few metres before the tap are crucial, and yetamazingly underexposed.

As a result of the findings from this project, the consor-tium has drawn up a research proposal that addresses theproblems in detail. It particularly focuses on the tempo-

rary disappearance of pathogenic germs from the moni-toring radar and their sudden recurrence, the conditionsunder which this occurs and how the hygienic safety ofdrinking water installations can be ensured. The proposalwas successful and will receive over EUR two million totalfunding from September 2010 to August 2013.

University of Duisburg-EssenEssen Campus – Biofilm CentreProf. Dr. Hans-Curt Flemming Universitätsstrasse 547141 Essen, Germany Tel.: +49 (0)2 01/83-66 01 1Fax: +49 (0)2 01/183-66 03 E-mail: [email protected]: www.uni-due.de/biofilm-centre/Funding reference: 02WT1153-1157

Computer-controlled, semi-technical home installation for long-term testing with true-to-life consumption profiles

“Swimming is good for you”: this is a commonlyused phrase in health care. But does this alsounequivocally apply to swimming in pools contain-ing water disinfected with chlorine? Once water hasbeen disinfected with chlorine, disinfection by-prod-ucts can form – and these can pose a risk to humanhealth. There are still many questions requiringgreater scientific clarification regarding the riskposed to children and those suffering from chronicillnesses. A new research project is seeking answersto these questions.

When treating swimming pool water, chlorine must beused as a disinfectant (also see DIN 19643). However, thereactions of chlorine with substances that get into thepool either via the water or the pool users produceunwanted disinfection by-products. It is suspected thatthese by-products pose a risk to health. This is by no meansa new problem, but the effects of pool water on hygienehave recently become the focus of scientific interest.

The results of studies conducted thus far connect respira-tory and other chronic illnesses with swimming in chlori-nated water. Particularly given the general acceptance ofswimming from childhood (“swimming is good for you”),the issue is a hot topic for health policy. The public canoften gain the impression that the risks of swimming inchlorinated water outweigh the health benefits. This is atask for health-related environmental research: it mustprovide reliable data that enables a scientific risk assess-ment in terms of prevention.

Instigating international momentum

Germany has a leading international role in pool waterhygiene. The research work undertaken contributestowards sustainable health care and has an influence oninternational standards. Noteworthy projects are “Swim-ming Pool Water Under Aspects of Health and Treat-ment Technology” (funding reference: 02WT0004) and“Integrated Risk Assessment for the new Generation ofDisinfection By-products” (funding reference:02WU0649). The study involving top swimmers (projectwith funding reference 02WT0004) was the world’s firstpopulation study that assessed the health risk of swim-ming in pools. It instigated international momentum toconduct similar studies.

Swimming pools –health risks posed by pool disinfection

Symposium held

A symposium called “Aktuelle Aspekte der Schwimmbeck-enwasserhygiene – Pool Water Chemistry and Health” washeld in Dessau in March 2009. The event brought leadingscientists from around the world together; a survey wasconducted and open issues identified. The scientists over-whelming agreed that German research has a clear edgein pool hygiene: all key aspects of risk management havealready been examined in terms of their interactions – beit treatment of pool water or hazard assessment and riskevaluation of disinfection by-products.

The two research projects mentioned have shown thatthere are potential health risks associated with swimmingin pools with chlorinated water. The aim of ongoing proj-ect “Gesundheitsbezogene Optimierung der Aufbere-itung von Schwimm- und Badebeckenwasser” (opti-mizing the treatment of pool water with regard to health)is to work through pending issues that are extremely hottopics in health policy, especially regarding respiratory ill-nesses and with a particular focus on children. The over-riding objective is to define parameters to rule out healthrisks across a broad consensus of science, authorities, poli-tics, pool operators and the public.


On-site measurement to determine the potential risk from disinfectionby-products in the pool hall’s air

TECHNOLOGY | HYGIENE AND HEALTH | SWIMMING POOL DISINFECTION 109

Three questions are of particular interest to the project:● Are the discussed exposure paths and associated

chronic illnesses (inhalation/asthma, dermal/bladdercancer) relevant potential risks?

● If so, which exposure scenarios are responsible (chemi-cal substances/treatment)?

● What options (treatment techniques/range of meas-ures) are available to reduce or eliminate these poten-tial risks?

The key element to the scientific work involved is theestablishment of a pool model for conducting controlledtests. The various treatment options are accompanied byextensive chemical and toxicological analyses. The latestprocedures were used to do this (e.g. exposure models forinhalation and dermal contaminants◄).

Bulletin published on baby swimming anddisinfection by-products in swimming pools

A risk analysis of disinfection by-products as well as tech-nical and legal measures based on the results is plannedwith the aim of reducing the build-up of these by-prod-ucts. One key objective is to drive forward environmentalresearch with regard to health. It is expected that researchinto pool hygiene will find its way into legal regulations.The first result is the publication of the bulletin entitled“Babyschwimmen und Desinfektionsnebenprodukte in

Schwimmbädern” (baby swimming and disinfection by-products in swimming pools) by the Swimming PoolWater Commission (BWK) of the Federal Ministry ofHealth, which appeared in the Federal Health Gazette 2011(54: 142–144). A potential risk was highlighted in terms ofthe care principle. Another aspect is the availability ofequipment to minimise the concentration of TCA in theair of the pool hall through technical rules for treatingpool water and for indoor pool ventilation. Current devel-opments show that pool operators and visitors havebecome clearly conscious of a problem associating babyswimming and asthma as a result of the UBA’s activities.Although the scientific evaluation of the toxicology datafrom the BWK and the Indoor Air Hygiene Commission’sad-hoc working group for indoor guidance values is ascontroversial as ever, the technically feasible guidelinestipulated of 0.2 mg/m3 trichloramine within the poolhall’s air means there is now a suitable monitoring param-eter available in order to minimise the health risk.

Federal Environment Agency (UBA)Bad Elster research centreDr. Tamara GrummtHeinrich-Konen-Straße 1208645 Bad Elster, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)3 74 37/7 63 54Fax: +49 (0)3 74 37/7 62 19E-mail: [email protected]: www.uba.deFunding reference: 02WT1092

KMU-innovativ –giving the green light for top research by SMEs


It is often small and medium-sized enterprises(SMEs) that use and drive forward the most efficienttechnologies. They are therefore the pioneers oftechnological progress in many fields. Resource effi-ciency is improved through their own innovations orby catching onto highly innovative methods at anearly stage. The BMBF “KMU-innovativ” funding ini-tiative is supporting SMEs in the development ofinnovative technologies and services for improvedresource and energy efficiency.

Innovations for resource and energyefficiency

KMU-innovativ is open to all topics within the field ofresource and energy efficiency and is aimed at all innova-tive SMEs across all industries. The BMBF has been using“KMU-innovativ” to provide SMEs with new opportunitiessince 2007 by facilitating access to research funding inareas key to our future, as the risks associated with topresearch are often difficult to calculate. The BMBF hastherefore improved consultancy services for SMEs and hassimplified and accelerated the application and approvalprocess.

Technology field: “sustainable watermanagement”

One of the greatest challenges for the future is to ensurethe supply of clean water to the global population. Popu-lation growth, water contamination and a growing waterconsumption per capita are all having a negative effect onwater quality. Large-scale changes to climate and landusage are also affecting global and regional water cyclesand are therefore calling the medium and long-termavailability of water into question. The BMBF is supportingresearch and development projects in the following areasin order to develop solutions:Innovative procedures for obtaining drinking water● Strategies and technologies for saving water (includ-

ing recycling technologies)● Efficient irrigation technologies● Energy-efficient wastewater treatment procedures

and recovering energy from wastewater● Innovative concepts and technologies for coupling

material flows (e.g. water/energy/waste) and whereapplicable recovering materials/nutrients

● Resource-efficient and energy-efficient adaptationmeasures to increase export capability within thewater sector

The following three projects are examples from this fund-ing initiative.

1. Intelligent soil moisture sensor forefficient irrigation

Rising temperatures, dry summers and increasingly wetwinters are causing the general availability of water todrop dramatically. The many places already experiencinga lack of water for irrigation are feeling this effect evenmore, and water as a resource is generally becoming apotential source of conflict.

The aim of the project therefore is to develop an intelli-gent soil moisture sensor to increase the efficiency of irri-gation systems. The sensor is fitted with a microcontrollerto enable autonomous detection of the soil’s hydraulicproperties (water tension curve), which enables it to deter-mine exactly when to irrigate and how much water to use.Intelligent algorithms detect changes to the soil’shydraulic properties over time and adapt the irrigationlogic accordingly. Contact partner: Parga Park- & Garten-technik GmbH & Co. KG, Markus Blind, e-mail: [email protected]

Efficient water treatment is a central funding area for KMU-innovativ

http://www.hightech-strategie.de/en/388.php

http://www.hightech-strategie.de/en/388.php

TECHNOLOGY | KMU-INNOVATIV 111

2. Developing new solutions for water andenergy-efficient irrigation technology

New solutions are being sought to improve irrigation effi-ciency within Egyptian farming in the Kalabsha regionnear the Aswan Dam, an undertaking by the Egyptianministry for agriculture with substantial support from theWorld Food Programme (WFP). One problem along theNile is that the growing population is increasing theamount of water used for farming. This results in environ-mental damage, e.g. through salinisation of irrigatedfarmland, and an increase in energy consumption foroperating the pumps. The PREFARM project, a moduleintending to solve these irrigation efficiency problems, isbeing funded as part of the BMBF KMU-innovativ pro-gramme. drip irrigation products (dip GmbH), AlternativElektrobau Renger (AER) and Energiebau Solarstromsys-teme GmbH are working together with the Institute forTechnology and Resources Management in the Tropicsand Subtropics (ITT) at the Cologne University of AppliedSciences to continue the successful co-operation betweenthe ITT and Egypt on the Kalabsha project to introduceinnovative drip irrigation systems.

The aims of the project are: ● Develop innovative drip irrigation systems (dip GmH

drip irrigation products, Ellefeld) ● Innovative optical procedures for detecting water sup-

ply and bio-activity (AER Alternativ Elektrobau RengerElektromeisterfachbetrieb, Ellefeld)

● Record measurement data for climate, water con-sumption and soil properties and ensure self-sufficientenergy and water supplies through solar energy(Energiebau Solarstromsysteme GmbH, Cologne)

● Co-ordinate field work and the socio-economic analy-sis of innovative water and energy-efficient irrigationtechnologies across the overall project (Cologne Uni-versity of Applied Sciences – Institute for Technologyand Resources Management in the Tropics and Sub-tropics (ITT), Cologne; contact partner: Prof. Dr. SabineSchlüter. Institute for Technology and Resources Man-agement in the Tropics and Subtropics ITT, CologneUniversity of Applied Sciences)

3. Innovative sampling and measuringtechnology to protect groundwaterresources

The resources of untreated water for the public water sup-ply are increasingly representing an area of tension as aresult of climate change. The national and internationaldemand for water requires procedures for cost-effectiveplanning, implementation and monitoring of howuntreated water resources are used to obtain drinkingwater.

Climate-related changes to the supply of water are beingexamined as part of the BMBF research project entitled“Process-based Management Tool Water” byTrinkwasserversorgung Magdeburg GmbH (TWM) andthe Grundwasserforschungsinstituts GmbH Dresden (GFI)using the Colbitz waterworks in Saxony-Anhalt as anexample.

The Groundwater Center Dresden is developing innova-tive sampling and measuring technology to monitorgroundwater – a resource worthy of protection. Thisinvolves: ● “Verfälschungsfreies Grundwasser-Probenahmesys-

tem” (distortion-proof groundwater sampling system)– protecting the aquifer◄upstream of the primarilychemically altered standing water and depth-orient-ed, isobaric sampling

● “Milieu-Fluid-Sampler” – pressure-maintaining deepwater sampling down to 500 m and geophysical multi-parameter probe

Contact partner: GFI Grundwasserforschungsinstitut GmbH, Dr. Susann Berthold, e-mail: [email protected]

Project co-ordinator: KarlsruheKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Water Technology and Waste Management Division (PTKA-WTE)Dr. Verena Höckele Postfach 36 4076021 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 21/60 82 49 32 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.kmu-innovativ.de

www.ptka.kit.edu

Proven technologies in use abroad – progress through a global transfer of knowledge


TECHNOLOGY | KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER 113

The implementation of environmentally-conscious,high-tech and hygienic requirements for treatingdrinking water and cleaning wastewater comeswith additional challenges in developing andemerging countries in particular. They begin withthe question as to which procedures and technolo-gies are suitable for the varying conditions andextend to reliable operation and maintaining facilities.

One of the government’s key concerns is to build up spe-cialist knowledge in developing and emerging countries.This means taking procedures established in Germany fortreating water and cleaning wastewater and adaptingthem to the respective local conditions. The Federal Min-istry of Education and Research (BMBF) has funded severalprojects in recent years that have shown how proceduresand technologies that have proven themselves in Germany can be developed further and adapted to localconditions.

Example: drinking water supply

A joint research project funded by the BMBF has docu-mented results of German water research and developedthem to suit other conditions. For this purpose, referencevalues were determined for the size and operation ofwater treatment and distribution plants while takingextreme untreated water properties as well as deviatingclimatic and social conditions into account. Treatmentmethods tried and tested in Germany are assessed as totheir applicability under amended conditions or whenimproved performance is to be expected (project 2.4.03).The project looking into long-term water resource man-agement in connection with this is called “Abwasserbe-handlung bei der Papierherstellung mit Stroh als Rohstoffzur Zellstoffherstellung am Beispiel der Shandong Provinz(Volksrepublik China)” (wastewater treatment for papermanufacturing using straw as a raw material for pulp pro-duction using the Shandong Province (PRC) as an exam-ple). One objective of the research project is to feed treatedwastewater back into paper production as process waterin order to reduce water consumption (project 2.4.06).

Example: bank filtration

Bank filtration is a well-established drinking water treat-ment procedure in Germany: waterworks use the naturalcleaning power of the soil to improve the quality of the

untreated water without the use of any energy or chemi-cals. Scientists examined the prerequisites for this in aproject called “Determination of the potential purificationperformance of bank filtration/underground passage withregard to the elimination of organic contaminants undersite-specific boundary conditions” (project 2.4.01).

Example: slow filtration

Slow filtration has become a well-established procedurefor biological drinking water purification. The systemsusually consist of an infiltration pond filled with differentfilter and support layers. However, uniform and wellcleaned filter sand is not widely available. Several insti-tutes have been investigating how the procedure can beadapted to local conditions as part of the slow sand filtra-tion project. The cleaning performance of recycled glassgranulate and coconut fibres among other things wasanalysed to serve as an example (project 2.4.02).

Example: wastewater technologies

Germany is a world leader in the field of water technology.However, some knowledge gaps still exist – the objectiveof the joint venture “Export-oriented research and devel-opment in the field of water supply and wastewater treat-ment part II: Wastewater technologies in other countries”was therefore to adapt technologies for communal waste-water treatment tried and tested in Germany to differentclimate zones. The project included investigations into thestate of communal wastewater treatment in twelvenations (project 2.4.04).

Example: database for water managementsystems

Reliable information is essential for successful water man-agement. The water authority of the megalopolis Beijingneeds to be able to monitor the supply and consumptionof water accurately due – among other things – to theregion’s climate causing significant fluctuations in avail-able water levels. A computer program addressing thisneed has now been developed as part of a Sino-Germanjoint venture – in the face of highly challenging condi-tions. The results of the project are also important to othermegacities in Asia, where application is also possible (project 2.4.05).

Bank filtration is a well-established and cost-effec-tive drinking water treatment procedure in Ger-many: waterworks use the natural cleaning powerof the soil to improve the quality of the untreatedwater without the use of any energy or chemicals. Aresearch project was set up to investigate the abili-ty of bank filtration to remove or at the very leastreduce organic contamination under fluctuatingconditions, the ultimate objective being to createplanning and operating guides to enable this proce-dure to be used worldwide.

Depending on the wastewater discharge from industry,households and farming, surface water in industrialisedand urban areas often contains many organic trace ele-ments◄ or substances produced from their degradation:pesticides, mineral oils and chemicals with hormonaleffects or active pharmaceutical agents can be detected inthe water. These substances must be effectively removed ifthe surface water is a source of drinking water.

Bank filtration involves wells being established directly bythe river used to supply drinking water, which artificiallylowers the groundwater level. The result is a hydraulicslope between the riverbed and wells, and the surfacewater trickles over the bed or the bank to get under-ground: dirt and contaminants are filtered out anddegraded by means of natural physical, chemical and bio-logical processes. Depending on the geological condi-tions, the distance between the wells and the bank and thelevel of the river, this can take just a few days or as much assix months.

Fluctuating conditions on site

So to what extent is bank filtration suitable for removingorganic compounds when these compounds have a wholehost of different chemical-physical properties? Scientistsexamined this question in a project called “Determina-tion of the potential purification performance of bankfiltration/underground passage with regard to theelimination of organic contaminants under site-spe-cific boundary conditions”, which ran from 2001 to2005. They also wanted to discover the prerequisites a sitemust meet for bank filtration to be a success. This isbecause, alongside the range of contamination and therespective concentrations in the water, hydrogeologicalconditions also have a major role to play – especially thecomposition, permeability and sorption capability◄ of thesoil, as well as climate factors such as water temperature.

A natural water filter – bank filtration

Other aspects of bank filtration were examined by theInstitute for Water Research, Dortmund (overall co-ordi-nation of the “bank filtration” project), the KarlsruheResearch Centre and TU Berlin, TU Dresden and TU Ham-burg-Harburg (guidelines: Kühn, W.; Müller, U. (editor)(2006): Export-oriented R&D in the field of water supplyand wastewater treatment – part I: Drinking water. Vol-ume 2. Guidelines. Water Technology Centre, Karlsruhe,ISBN 3-00-015478-7).

With the aim of creating planning and operating guidesfor using bank filtration in other climate zones, the projectpartners collated existing research results and experiencegained in Germany and other countries and conducted ananalysis. They filled any gaps in information – e.g. in rela-tion to more extreme climatic conditions – with the resultsof true-to-life field and lab tests.

Clear improvement in water quality

The tests performed during the project showed that bankfiltration can remove most (around 80%) of the organictrace elements found in the surface water, with a reduc-tion in concentration observed at the very least in theremaining substances. Nevertheless, the behaviour ofinnovative substances is not 100% predictable in bank fil-tration as chemically similar substances occasionally reactin very different ways. The project confirmed that theremoval of organic compounds is attributed to sorptionprocesses and biological and chemical degradationprocesses underground. This means the bulk of the


To water

works

River

Bank filtration Infiltration

Pretreatment

How bank filtration works

TECHNOLOGY | KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER | BANK FILTRATION 115

reduction in contamination takes place in the “infiltrationzone”, directly after the water gets into the soil. The con-clusion from this is that removing the wells (20 to400 metres) does not have a major impact on cleaningperformance. Even so, the increased flow course/waterretention time underground is significant as it ensuresoptimum effect. The project team therefore observed thatmany substances were eliminated to a much higherdegree when the water spent longer underground.

Oxygen supply is crucial

The trace elements that are degraded and the extent towhich this occurs depend heavily on the oxygen-reduc-tion environment◄ in the soil, or in other words, themicro-organism oxygen supply. For example, some traceelements are removed more effectively in an aerobic◄environment, and others in an anaerobic◄ one. Thismeans that locations suitable for bank filtration are thosewhere the water can spend a while in both aerobic andanaerobic areas of soil.

Regardless of the oxygen-reduction conditions, bank fil-tration is suitable for removing organic trace elementssuch as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinat-ed biphenyls◄ (PCB) and many insecticides. Odours, tastes

and substances affecting hormones are also degraded to agreat extent. One key consideration for bank filtration inwarmer climates: rising temperatures lead to increasedmetabolism and thus a higher conversion rate in most cases.

DVGW – Water Technology Center Karlsruhe (TZW)Dr. Frank Thomas LangeKarlsruher Straße 8476139 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0)7 21/96 78 15 7Fax: +49 (0)7 21/96 78 10 4E-mail: [email protected]: www.tzw.deFunding reference: 02WT0279

A well of the vertical well gallery in Düsseldorf

Slow filtration is a near-natural, simple and cost-effective means of water treatment; in Germany, itis usually combined with other processes. It can alsobe performed using alternative, locally available fil-ter materials. A number of research projects havelooked at ways in which slow filtration could betechnically improved and adapted to the specificconditions at locations outside Central Europe.

Slow filtration has become a well-established procedurefor biological drinking water purification. The systemsusually consist of an infiltration pond◄ filled with differ-ent filter and support layers. A drainage and support layercomprising stones, gravel and coarse sand is followed byan (approx.) one metre high filter layer. The primary filtermaterial employed in Central Europe is sand (slow sand fil-tration); generally speaking, the longer the water remainsin the sand filter, the greater the level of purification.

However, uniform and well cleaned filter sand is not wide-ly available. Attempts to proliferate this procedure (partic-ularly in developing and emerging countries) requiresadaptation to local circumstances – for example, the use oflocally available and cost-effective filter materials. Thismatter has been closely examined by the IWW Water Cen-tre (Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut für Wasser-forschung) in Mülheim an der Ruhr (overall co-ordinationof “slow sand filtration” projects) and the Institute forWater Research (IfW – Institut für Wasserforschung) inSchwerte (period of study: 2002 to 2005).

Sand alternatives examined

The scientists compared the cleaning performance of sandto that of recycled glass granulate and coconut fibres –employing a range of methods at varying temperaturesand filter speeds. Another sub-project addressed the ques-tion of whether the effectiveness of slow filtration isimproved by adding gravel, pumice or coconut fibres tothe sand filter layer.

Extreme pollutant concentrations simulated

The research was performed in laboratories and semi-industrial test facilities. To establish the procedure’s effec-tiveness in the face of extreme pollutant concentrations inthe unprocessed water, tests were partially conductedusing contaminated surface water with raised DOC andammonium content◄. The researchers also employed theoutflow of a sewage plant as untreated water◄ in the test

Adapted slow filtration –versatile and cost-effective

facilities; this was done to determine whether slow filtra-tion is also suitable for the treatment of water in rivers thatare greatly affected by wastewater discharge but still pos-sess some assimilative capacity.

Another area of research was the nature of microbialcolonisation in slow sand filters. To optimise system per-formance, the Water Technology Centre (TZW) of theDeutsche Vereinigung des Gas- und Wasserfachs (DVGW –German Technical and Scientific Association for Gas andWater) developed a module for the practical mathemati-cal simulation of slow sand filtration under different envi-ronmental conditions.

Finally, the objective of the projects “Boundary condi-tions for slow sand filtration, suggestions for technicalmodification and adaptation to regional conditions”and “Optimisation of slow sand filters by means of spe-cial protection layers and operating methods” was tocombine existing slow filtration data with current resultsin order to create guidelines for the planning and opera-tion of slow filtration systems (Kühn, W.; Müller, U. (eds.):Export-oriented R&D in the field of water supply andwastewater treatment – part I: Drinking water. volume 2;Karlsruhe; at www.tzw.de).

Recycled glass granulate and coconut fibresas alternatives

The research showed that both recycled glass granulateand coconut fibres represent viable alternatives to sand asslow filtration materials. Under test conditions, however,the cleaning performance of these substances was not of asufficient level to produce drinking water in all circum-stances. The experiments highlighted specific strengthsand weakness of the different filter materials, which are tobe taken into account in practice and potentially


Column experiment system in a climatic chamber Recycled glass granulate

TECHNOLOGY | KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER | ADAPTED SLOW FILTRATION 117

compensated by means of technical modifications (e.g.pre-separation or aeration).

The purification performance of slow filtration greatlydepends on the temperature: the biodegradation process-es become significantly slower at temperatures below10°C, in some cases even coming to a complete standstill.At high temperatures and with a high concentration ofbiodegradable substances, the degradation processesresult in significant oxygen consumption. Column experi-ments in an air-conditioned room showed that, in theselected operating conditions (filter layer thickness, oper-ating method, filter speed etc.) and at 5 to 10°C, none ofthe filter materials was able to process the untreatedwater (high DOC and ammonium content) such that it metthe drinking water regulations of the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) in terms of the examined chemicalparameters. At 20°C, only the filtrate treated with recycledglass granulate exceeded the thresholds, while all filtratesmet the WHO limits at 30°C. In these experiments, thesand-filtered water actually complied with the values stip-ulated by the even stricter German Drinking Water Ordinance.

Protective layer

The experiments showed that a 20 cm protective layerconsisting of gravel, pumice or coconut fibres greatlyincreases the filtering time. Furthermore, a large portionof the particles contained in the water was retained in thislayer, thus protecting the sand filter layer below and min-imising agglutination. If the filtered particles are organicrather than mineral substances, they are already biode-graded in the protective layer. The disadvantage of this isthe lack of oxygen further down, which – without addi-tional aeration – has a negative impact on subsequent aer-obic biodegradation processes◄, e.g. ammonium oxidation.

The scientists assessed the ability of slow sand filters toretain degradation-resistant trace elements◄ in a sepa-rate test system featuring an activated carbon layer belowthe sand layer. The result: layers of sorptive materials suchas activated carbon◄ are highly effective in retainingorganic trace elements from pesticides and pharmaceuti-cals. As this “sandwich” method entails high constructionand maintenance costs, large-scale application is not cur-rently a realistic option. Therefore, if slow filtration alonedoes not provide the desired water quality, a better optionwould be to integrate the procedure in a system of suit-able pre- and post-treatment techniques adapted to therelevant location.

IWW Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut für Wasserforschung gGmbHDr.-Ing. Hans-Joachim MälzerMoritzstraße 2645476 Mülheim an der Ruhr, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 08/4 03 03-3 20Fax: +49 (0) 2 08/4 03 03-80E-mail: [email protected]: www.iww-online.deFunding reference: 02WT0282

Institut für Wasserforschung GmbH Dortmund(IfW)Frank RemmlerZum Kellerbach 4658239 Schwerte, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 23 04/95 75-3 53Fax: +49 (0) 23 04/95 75-2 20E-mail: [email protected]: www.ifw-dortmund.deFunding reference: 02WT0279

Surcharge area

(0.3 m - 1.5 m)

Freeboard

(approx. 0.2 m)

Filter medium

(0.8 m - 1.3 m)

Support layer

(0.2 m - 0.4 m)

Drainage layer

(0.2 m - 0.5 m)

Total height

Schematic representation of slow sand filtration (section) according toDIN 19605, from DVGW work sheet W213-4

A joint research project funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) has documented results of German water research anddeveloped them to suit other conditions. For thispurpose, reference values were determined for thesize and operation of water treatment and distribu-tion plants while taking extreme untreated waterproperties as well as other climatic and social condi-tions into account. Ten institutes and universitiesparticipated in the project.

In the following, treatment methods tried and tested inGermany are assessed as to their applicability under spe-cial boundary conditions or when improved performanceis to be expected.

Slow filters◄with closed bottoms and infiltration ponds◄with subsequent groundwater recharge represent possi-ble alternatives for small systems in rural areas and citiesof developing and emerging countries. It should be notedthat slow filtration without pre-treatment should only beused to process low-turbidity◄water with minimal micro-biological contamination.

Wealth of experience in bank filtration

Since bank filtration has been used in Germany for over100 years, the country has a wealth of experience in thisarea. This knowledge can be employed for targeted appli-cation in other nations – despite the existence of differentclimatic and hydrogeological conditions. To support thistransfer of knowledge, the project participants developeda range of engineering aids and provided detaileddescriptions in the form of user guidelines (see referencesat end of article).

A combination of flocculation◄, sedimentation and filtra-tion is the standard procedure employed by many coun-tries for the treatment of surface water. Important consid-erations during project planning are optimum hydraulicand technical conception with regard to the addition ofprocessing agents for flocculation, the minimisation offlushing water requirements, optimised sludge water dis-charge as well as the use of measurement and controltechnology adapted to local standards.

Export-oriented research & development –transfer to other countries

Micro- and ultra-filtration – an alternative toconventional water treatment

In addition to conventional water treatment by means offlocculation and filtration, micro-◄ or ultra-filtration◄represents a possible alternative for turbidity removal pur-poses. These processes can be used to purify either low-turbidity untreated water without pre-processing or high-turbidity untreated water following conventional pre-pro-cessing. Micro- and ultra-filtration is also a suitable meansof processing eutrophic water◄. Sustainable use of thesetechniques requires an appropriate infrastructure formaintenance and operation.

The removal of heavy metals using ion exchangers◄ isparticularly suitable for low-turbidity water; the capacityof the ion exchangers is barely reduced. In the case ofwater containing heavy metals, ion exchange can be analternative to treatment via flocculation, for example.

Particularly when used with waters containing unknowncompositions of water-based substances, the by-productgeneration connected with oxidation processes andremoval of residual content must be taken into account.The combination of hydrogen peroxide and UV radiationhas proven to be a very energy-intensive process; pre-oxi-dation with potassium permanganate◄ is not an effectivemeans of enhancing the turbidity removal capacity offlocculation. Important planning criteria are the


Transportable test rig for assessing the influence of water quality oncorrosion on site

TECHNOLOGY | KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER | GERMAN KNOWLEDGE EXPORT 119

operational reliability of the process and the necessaryqualification of the relevant personnel. The deficiencies ofbiological ammonium oxidation in cold water can becountered by a number of means. However, at water tem-peratures under 5°C, extremely long treatment periods(weeks to months) are required to eliminate high ammo-nium loads, which could effectively outweigh the benefitsoffered by the procedure.

Activated carbon◄ should, in principle, only be loadedwith low-turbidity water (e.g. < 0.2 NTU, NephelometricTurbidity Units). The effect of the water temperature onthe adsorption◄ of natural, organic substances in water isrelatively minor. High DOC concentrations◄ in untreatedwater can limit the activated carbon’s adsorption capacityfor trace elements◄, which should therefore be min-imised as much as possible by other means prior to theadsorption. Although granulated iron hydroxide is veryeffective in the removal of arsenic, its ability to eliminatedissolved organic substances is quite limited.

Drinking water disinfection is the most important and fre-quently employed treatment process throughout theworld. As a rule, drinking water purification outside

Germany stipulates the disinfection of the water and itssubsequent introduction to the distribution network withfree disinfectant; this is often a necessity given the factthat conditions in the distribution network are frequentlyless than ideal. Since a residual chlorine level is desired atthe water tap, appropriate disinfectants with a lastingdepot effect are still required as a final safety step follow-ing the optimisation of the water treatment process. How-ever, care must be taken to avoid overdosage due to thepotential for disinfectant by-product formation and nega-tive reactions on the part of consumers.

Water quality and corrosion in pipenetworks

Outside Germany, the impact of water quality on pipe cor-rosion cannot be adequately assessed by the common-practice method of establishing the corrosion probabilityon the basis of ion ratios. More concrete information canbe gained by conducting additional experiments with aspecial test rig (see photo) under the applicable specificconditions.

When assessing the basic applicability of the various pro-cedures from a technical perspective, the country-specificconditions regarding infrastructure, availability etc. mustbe taken into account (see table). Provided that any climat-ic differences are taken into account, transferring theseprocedures to other industrialised countries does not rep-resent a problem, since a virtually identical technologicalstandard can be assumed. However, this does not apply todeveloping and emerging countries (or only to a limitedextent).

The results of the joint project have been published in theform of guidelines, while an accompanying CD docu-ments the final reports of the sub-projects: “Export-orient-ed R&D in the field of water supply and wastewater treat-ment.Part I: Drinking water, volume 2: Guidelines, in-housepublication of DVGW Water Technology Centre Karlsruhe(2006), ISBN: 3-00-015478-7” (out of print)

DVGW Water Technology Centre (TZW)Dr. Uwe MüllerKarlsruher Straße 84D-76139 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 7 21/96 78-2 57Fax: +49 (0) 7 21/96 78-1 09E-mail: [email protected]: www.tzw.deFunding reference: 02WT0273 – 0282, 02WT0323

Suitability of treatment processes in industrialised (IC), emerging (EC)and developing countries (DC)+++ Minimal expenditure or state of the art++ Moderate expenditure or not yet widely used+ Higher expenditure or availability only in specific cases

Cost factors in industrialised, emerging and developing countries(Gieb, 2005)

Procedure

Bank filtration

Slow filtration

Flocculation, sedimentation

Filtration

Ion exchange

Oxidation

Adsorption

Disinfection

Sub-procedure

Slow filter infiltration

Rapid filtration

Biofiltration

Micro-/ultra-filtration

Atmospheric oxygen

Ozone

H2O2/Fe

Granular activated carbon

Powdered activated carbon

With residual concentration

Without residual concentration

IC

++

+

+++

+++

++

+++

+++

+++

+++

+

+++

++

+

++

EC

++

++

+++

+++

++

++

+

+++

+

+

++

++

+++

DC

+++

+++

+++

+++

+++

+

+

+++

+

+

+

+++

+++

Component

Structures

Mechanical engi-neering equipment,

Electrotechnology/measure-ment and control technology

Cost type

Frequently con-structed by region-al companies

Local/regional production

Imported equipment

IC

1,0

1,0

EC

0.6

0.8

1.5-1.7

DC

0.4

0.6

1.5-1.7

Generally not used

Factor for development standard

Germany is a world leader in the field of water tech-nology. However, some knowledge gaps still exist –one example being the adaptation of wastewatertechnologies to altered conditions, such as the cli-mate in different countries. These gaps have beensuccessfully closed by a joint research project.

These altered conditions include extreme wastewatertemperatures, low concentrations of easily degradablecompounds, raised salt content or intensive algae growthin sewage ponds◄due to high insolation levels. The objec-tive of the joint venture “Export-oriented research anddevelopment in the field of water supply and waste-water treatment – part II: Wastewater technologiesoutside Germany” was to adapt technologies for commu-nal wastewater treatment tried and tested in Germany todifferent climate zones and boundary conditions. A fur-ther objective was to place greater emphasis on the sub-jects of recycling and planning methods. The researchproject thus helped to raise the quality and efficiency ofwastewater treatment while ensuring improved and moresustainable use of the resource water.

During the first project phase, investigations were per-formed of the special conditions of communal wastewatertreatment in the following twelve nations, which wereselected as being representative of different world regionsand development levels: Egypt, Brazil, China, Indonesia,Iran, Jordan, Morocco, Russia, South Africa, Thailand, USAand Vietnam. This general survey was accompanied by 24individual research and development projects, whichwere conducted by 11 different universities as well asnumerous companies and focussed on three core areas.

Core area A: wastewater treatment

Core area A looked mainly at procedures that are standardin Germany and throughout the world: activated sludgeprocesses◄, trickling filters◄, rotating biological contac-tors◄, submerged fixed beds◄ and sewage ponds. Ger-man water technology can provide a wealth of experiencein this area, which must be adapted to the relevant condi-tions. The focus is on the composition of the waste water,the temperature of the waste water and ambient air aswell as the specific requirements for the purification plantprocess or treatment stages (mechanical, biological, nutri-ent elimination).

Adapted wastewater technologies –knowledge gaps filled

Core area B: disinfection and water reuse

The sub-projects of the second core area focussed on waterrecycling possibilities as well as the analysis, demonstra-tion and enhancement of selected wastewater treatmentprocedures. One particular area of research was the differ-ent requirements of wastewater treatment plants – vary-ing by time of year (summer, winter) or users – for the gen-eration of irrigation water. In addition, the scientistsexamined the use of anaerobic processes for the treat-ment of wastewater. Examinations of sewage sludge treat-ment and utilisation were also part of the project.

Core area C: wastewater treatmentsimulation and concepts

Core area C comprised the projects in which locally adapt-ed aids were devised for the planning of wastewater treat-ment plants outside Germany. These aids include adaptedeconomic methods for variant evaluation, models forpurification plant simulations, stepwise expansion con-cepts for adaptation to growing treatment requirementsor rising pollution as well as working aids (“ExpoTool”,available from ifak e.V., Magdeburg) for project assess-ment, which provide quantitative evaluations and visual


RP

1C

ore

pro

jec

tsR

P 2

RP

2

Study: “Requirements of wastewater technology in other countries”(Universities of Aachen, Bochum, Darmstadt, Stuttgart, Witten/Herdecke)

Project co-ordination(Ruhr University Bochum)

User guidelines(Editing: Ruhr University Bochum/DWA public relations)

A: Wastewater

treatment

B: Sanitation and water

reuseC: Wastewater treatment

simulation and concepts

Project structure

TECHNOLOGY | KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER | ADAPTED WASTEWATER TECHNOLOGIES 121

representations of the various treatment plant alterna-tives. With these aids, available alternatives can bedescribed and presented – e.g. to ordering or contractingbodies – in a clear and meaningful manner.

Extensive documentation

The project documentation produced by the research ini-tiative provides a wide range of tools and information tosupport the adaptation of treatment plant technologies tothe specific conditions in different countries. For the firsttime, quantitative recommendations can be made for a

range of known qualitative phenomena. In this context,the impact of the water temperature is of primary impor-tance: in all projects involving measurement and assess-ment, the water temperature is the most importantparameter in terms of the adaptation of wastewater purifi-cation and sewage sludge treatment processes to differentclimatic conditions. One of the most significant observa-tions in this regard is that higher wastewater tempera-tures may greatly increase performance, but can alsoresult in operational problems (e.g. siltation, insufficientoxygen supply) without the implementation of suitablecountermeasures.

As well as being the subject of scientific publications andpresentations, the results of the research project are sum-marised in the three reports “Requirements of wastewatertechnology outside Germany”, “Cross-project closingreport” and “Guidelines for wastewater technology out-side Germany”. The reports are available from the RuhrUniversity Bochum via the address specified below.

Ruhr University Bochum Institute of Urban Water Management and Environmental EngineeringProf. Dr.-Ing. Hermann OrthBuilding IA 01/147Universitätsstraße 15044801 Bochum, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 34/32-2 30 49Fax: +49 (0) 2 34/32-1 45 03E-mail: [email protected]: www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/siwawi/Funding reference: 02WA0539Final clarification and digester of the Fujairah treatment plant, United

Arab Emirates (provided by Passavant-Roediger GmbH)

Demonstration system at the Yamuna Vihar treatment plant inNew Delhi, India

The water authority of the megalopolis Beijingknows all too well that correct decisions cannot bemade without reliable information: since theregion’s climate causes significant fluctuations inavailable water levels, accurate data is required tocontrol and monitor the supply and consumption ofwater. A computer program addressing this needhas now been developed as part of a Sino-Germanjoint venture – in the face of highly challenging con-ditions. The results of the project may also proveextremely useful to other megacities in Asia.

The sustainable management of water resources in semi-arid areas is an extremely complex task. As of a specificsize (supply area, population) optimum management ofmultiple resources is required – both from a temporal andgeographical perspective – whereby wastewater is alsoconsidered a resource in semi-arid areas. For megacitiessuch as Beijing, with its 16 to 17 million inhabitants, this is aparticularly challenging task.

Extreme situations

Due to its geographical situation at the northern edge ofthe North China Plain, Beijing has a semi-arid and inter-mittent semi-humid climate. Virtually the entire annualrainfall occurs over just two months (including floodevents), while the area remains mostly dry for ten monthsof the year. The city’s water authority is therefore requiredto manage two very different, yet equally extreme situa-tions.

The most water is required for agricultural purposes in theareas surrounding the metropolis, whereby demand islargely covered by the 40,000 to 50,000 local groundwa-ter wells. Drinking water is currently obtained from sur-face water (predominantly water reservoirs) as well asfrom groundwater – both sources are overused. The watercarried by the two major rivers in the region (Yongdingand Chaobai) has been seasonally or geographicallyrestricted for years. In addition, groundwater levels aredropping by one to metres every year.

To ensure continued water supply in the face of ever grow-ing consumption, plans were made in 2007 to channelwater into the Beijing region from the South-North watertransfer. The link-up has been delayed, however, and iscurrently scheduled for 2012/2013. The transfer is to con-vey an annual water volume of 1.4 billion cubic metresinto the metropolis, but suitable reservoirs to store thewater are still required.

Water management in megacities –the role of the database

These multifaceted tasks can only be addressed with theaid of a computer program tailored to these specificrequirements. The creation of such an information systemfor the Beijing area was the remit of a Sino-German ven-ture, which reached its conclusion in November 2009 withthe delivery of the software system to the Beijing WaterAuthority (BWA). The project, which was supported by theFederal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), wasoverseen by the Fraunhofer Institute for Optronics, SystemTechnology and Image Exploitation (IOSB).


Example of a dry river bed in the area under examination

Structure and functions of the information system developed for Beijing

TECHNOLOGY | KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER | WATER MANAGEMENT IN MEGACITIES 123

Multilayered program

The resulting “Beijing Water Decision Support System”(DSS◄) collates data and information of varying quality,quantity and controllability (see figure). The informationranges from easily measurable data (e.g. water abstractionfrom a specific source) to uncertain estimates (e.g. con-sumer behaviour, groundwater recharge rate). The systemmaps all resources onto mathematical models on the basisof balance equations: this allows the BWA to simulate vari-ous scenarios to support its decision-making.

As was to be expected, significant problems were encoun-tered with the creation of a comprehensive informationbase as well as with the derivation of representative modelstructures with spatial and temporal parameters. Data isgenerally held by different institutions and authorities,and is therefore fragmented, inaccurate, inconsistent andoccasionally even contradictory – something which great-ly hinders efforts to implement the required modellingdetail. Another exacerbating factor was that many modelparameters (or model input quantities) were to be deter-mined as functions of location and time – i.e. in the form ofcharts – but the available measurement data was severelylacking.

Creation of water balance system

The project partners tackled this problem by creating acoherent, multilayered system for water balances: it canbe used, for example, to balance the water levels of differ-ent sources, groundwater recharge and untreated waterabstraction, water consumption as well as the treatmentand disposal of wastewater. The results can be used toidentify and correct implausible data and close any gaps.The system also enables automated multi-criteria optimi-sation, in which simulations of pre-defined parametervariations are used to identify the specific scenario repre-senting the best possible water supply solution under giv-en conditions. Due to the high complexity of this process,the system always checks the consistency, plausibility andcompleteness of user entries.

The work performed on the Beijing Water Decision Sup-port System gave rise to new methodical approaches forhigh-resolution modelling of water resources with meso-level analysis areas of over a thousand square kilometres(and larger), as well as for the determination of parame-ters on the basis of incomplete, inconsistent or contradic-tory raw data (as is usually the case with the water suppliesof Asian or South American megacities). The success ofthese approaches was underlined by the high level of con-cordance between calculated and measured results aspart of the verification of data from the period between1995 and 2000.

Fraunhofer Institute for Optronics, System Technology and Image Exploitation (IOSB)Prof. Dr. Michael BirkleFraunhoferstraße 176131 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 7 21/60 91-3 80Fax: +49 (0) 7 21/60 91-5 56E-mail: [email protected]: www.iosb.fraunhofer.deFunding reference: 02WA0565, 02WA0849,

02WA1035

Dried out littoral zone of Kunming Lake at the Summer Palace in Bei-jing

Paper factories are of great economic importanceto the Chinese province of Shandong. However,the wastewater production of these factories isextremely high. A new research project supportedby the BMBF has examined ways of making China’spaper production more environmentally sustainable.

The Shandong province in the east of the People’s Republic of China accounts for the second highest GDP ofall Chinese provinces – and most of this can be attributedto the industrial operations based in the region. These pri-marily include paper manufacture, distilleries, dye industry and monosodium glutamate production. The Shandong province has long suffered problems withits drinking water supply. In 2003, more than two millionpeople did not have an adequate supply of drinking water.According to the annual report of the Shandong Ministryof Water Resources, more than six million people werewithout a short-term supply of drinking water, despite therelatively high level of precipitation experienced in 2003.As a result, the problems with the province’s drinkingwater supply are likely to increase in the coming years.

China’s second largest river – the Yellow River – flowsthrough the Shandong province. Water is channelledfrom the Yellow River into the “south-north transfer”, par-ticularly to supply the Beijing region with untreatedwater◄ for drinking water production. In this context, theestablishment of sustainable water resource managementin the basin◄ of the Yellow River and the transfer is a veryimportant topic. Consequently, a large number of projectshave been initiated to tackle this matter. The focus ofthese initiatives is on the cleaning of industrial waste-water from, for example, distilleries, textile dye works andpaper factories in particular.

In 2005, 38 paper factories in Shandong were using strawas a raw material. The wastewater produced by these fac-tories – 416 million cubic metres in 2000 alone – isextremely damaging to the province’s waterways. A pro-duction output of some three million tons of paper in2000 equates to 138 litres of wastewater per single kilo-gram of paper – by way of comparison, German paper fac-tories produced a mere tenth of this.

To ease the conflict between economic growth and envi-ronmental protection and gradually achieve all environ-mental goals, both the central government in Beijing and

Transferable solutions for special wastewater problems –paper manufacture at the Yellow River

local government of the Shandong province issued stricterregulations concerning industrial wastewater disposal. Asof 1 January 2011, wastewater fed directly into the receiv-ing waters must not exceed a concentration of100 mg COD◄/l (“Integrated Wastewater Discharge Stan-dard in Shandong Peninsula Basin”). This discharge limitis lower than its European counterparts. This made it allthe more impossible for the wastewater treatment plantsin the Shandong paper factories to meet these require-ments, both with regard to the polluting load and the pol-lutant concentration. It was therefore necessary to devel-op processes that would allow the factories to comply withthe stipulated discharge loads and concentrations in areliable and cost-effective manner.


Pre-treatment stage – micro-electrolysis procedure

Aerobic–aerobic treatment stage

Anaerobic–aerobic biological treatment stage

ECOLOGY | WATER AND RESOURCES | PAPER MANUFACTURE AT THE YELLOW RIVER 125

The overall aim of the commissioned research project wasto identify purification solutions for the special paperwastewater of the Shandong province and to make initialimprovements to general wastewater treatment. Anotherlong-term goal was to optimise process water recircula-tion to reduce the overall water consumption in Shan-dong’s factories. The project was also to assess the trans-ferability of the examined procedures to other paper fac-tories in the Shandong province and throughout China.

The initiative can be split into two main steps: in the firstpart of the project (project phase A), the micro-electrolysisprocedure was examined on a laboratory scale at theTechnische Universität Darmstadt (Darmstadt TechnicalUniversity) in order to optimise the biodegradability ofwastewater from paper production. The aim was toachieve significant BOD5◄ and COD reduction andimprove biodegradability in subsequent stages. This stepsupported the later research in the semi-industrial testfacility (project phase B), which had been constructed inShandong’s Qufu factory as part of the Sino-German jointventure.

In the semi-industrial test facility, the paper wastewaterwas processed in a pre-treatment stage based on themicro-electrolysis procedure and a two-stage biologicalcleaning process (anaerobic◄/ aerobic◄ or aerobic/aero-bic). The micro-electrolysis was used to pre-treat thewastewater, particularly to eliminate lignin compounds,degradation of which is very difficult. In a first basin, thewastewater was then processed in a highly concentratedactivated sludge procedure◄ and a subsequent biofilter

stage. In the second basin, the wastewater was subjectedto anaerobic pre-treatment with a UASB reactor◄ and sub-sequent aerobic post-treatment using a biofilter. In addi-tion to the semi-industrial test facility, project phase B alsoinvolved additional laboratory experiments with a modi-fied treatment stage, in which the various treatment stepswere processed in the following sequence: micro-electrol-ysis, UASB, activated sludge basin and biofilter.

In their tests with the semi-industrial facility, researcherswere able to meet the 120 mg COD/l threshold applicablefrom 1 January 2010, but not the more stringent emissionstandards that would take effect in 2011. However, theadditional laboratory experiments succeeded in reachingthese future requirements (less than 100 mg COD/l).

The conducted research showed that it was possible tooptimise the wastewater treatment in China’s paper facto-ries by affordable means; however, meeting the requiredpollutant limits would require the adaptation of proce-dures to the special wastewater streams and pollutingloads. With regard to the transfer of results to other facto-ries, researchers are currently still working on a water bal-ance for the paper factory specified above However, thegeneral assumption is that the employed procedures willbe suitable for factories using straw as a raw material. Inorder to assess suitability for the paper wastewater treat-ment of factories using other raw materials, considerationand possible further examination of the specific condi-tions and wastewater composition is required.

Technische Universität DarmstadtIWAR InstituteDepartment of Wastewater TechnologyProf. Dr.-Ing. Peter Cornel Petersenstraße 1364287 Darmstadt, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 61 51/16-21 48Fax: +49 (0) 61 51/16-37 58E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.iwar.bauing.tu-darmstadt.deFunding reference: 02WA0953

Iron bed (foreground), intermediate treatment and final clarification(background)

United for clean water resources – international co-operation


TECHNOLOGY | INTERNATIONAL 127

In its efforts to improve water supplies across theglobe, the Federal Ministry of Education andResearch (BMBF) supports a variety of research anddevelopment projects to devise technologies andconcepts for the sustainable management of waterresources. In the last funding period, these effortsfocused primarily on Asia, the Middle East, EasternEurope and Africa.

Technologies and procedures tried and tested in Germanygenerally require adaptation to regional, economic andsocial conditions. Another important factor is the trainingof local specialists. One of the main aims of the interna-tional water research projects is the transfer of knowledgeto the relevant persons on site, thus enabling them toimplement and pursue their own projects. German com-panies are contributing valuable expertise to theseresearch and development initiatives. The BMBF-fundedprojects are thus also helping to establish new export mar-kets for the German water industry – in areas that are like-ly to experience considerable growth over the comingdecades.

Example of Indonesia. The southern coast of the island ofJava is one of the poorest regions in Indonesia. The inhabi-tants suffer a severe lack of water, despite the relativeabundance of this valuable resource underground. Previ-ously, the water flowed straight into the sea via a complexunderground water system comprising more than 1000caves. As part of the project “Accessing and managingunderground karst waters in Central Java, Indonesia”,German and Indonesian scientists constructed a smallunderground hydroelectric power plant with which watercan be transported to the surface to supply some 80,000people (project 2.5.01).

Example of China. In the build-up to the Beijing 2008Olympic Games, a water concept was devised for the 550hectare Olympic Park with the Sino-German research proj-ect “Development of a sustainable water concept for theOlympic Park in Beijing, 2008”. Research is also to be car-ried out to assess the transferability of the results to otherregions of China as well as other states (project 2.5.02). Themany hygienically relevant micro-organisms (viruses, bac-teria, protozoa, worm eggs) present in the wastewater –even after biological cleaning – mean that adequatepurification of the water is required before it can bereused. However, chlorination is generally accompanied

by the formation of unwanted disinfection by-products. Acomparison of various procedures has shown that alterna-tives exist to conventional wastewater treatment. TheIWAR institute of the Technische Universität Darmstadthas tested four of these alternative procedures in China(project 2.5.08).

Example of Iran. Mashhad is the second largest city in Iranand is situated in an arid zone. To supply the populationwith low-nitrate drinking water, the BMBF worked withthe Iranian Ministry of Energy on the project “Demonstra-tion of different high-performance procedures developedin Germany for the removal of nitrate from drinking waterand their adaptation to the treatment of groundwaterwith high concentrations of sodium nitrate and other saltsusing the example of drinking water purification in Mash-had, Iran” (project 2.5.03).

Example of Russia. At 3500 kilometres, the Volga isEurope’s longest river. Massive intervention has alteredthe waterway on an almost unprecedented scale – withcomplex consequences for people and the environment.As part of a German-Russian project, sustainable solutionswere developed for the economic and ecological manage-ment of the Volga and its feeder streams (project 2.5.04).

Example of Vietnam. Black coal is an important energysource in Vietnam, but mining efforts cause significantdamage to the environment. The aim of the German-Viet-namese project “RAME (Research Association Mining andEnvironment)” in the Quang Ningh province is to transferremediation technologies from the German coal miningindustry to its Vietnamese counterpart (project 2.5.05).

Example of Israel. Scientists from Germany and Israelhave worked together to develop new measuring proce-dures to serve as the basis for continuous monitoring ofthe pollutant content of drinking water sources in Israel(project 2.5.06). In another project detailed in thisbrochure, German and Israeli scientists are using cloudseeding in an attempt to counter desiccation of the land(project 2.5.07).

http://www.rame.vn/

The southern coast of the island of Java is one ofthe poorest regions in Indonesia. Water is in shortsupply, despite the relative abundance of this valu-able resource beneath the ground; however, thewater flows directly into the sea via a complexunderground water system comprising well over1000 caves. Scientists in Germany and Indonesiahave found a simple solution for one region on Java:a small underground power plant that transportsenough water to the surface to supply some80,000 people.

The approx. 1400 square metre karst landscape◄ in Java’sGunung Sewu region is littered with hundreds of intercon-nected caves and underground streams. Although there isplenty of water beneath the earth, the region’s inhabitantssuffer extreme water shortages during the dry seasons dueto an absence of appropriate storage facilities – the limitedrainfall simply seeps into the karstic ground. Previously,diesel-powered pumps were used to transport the waterfrom the caves up to the surface. Not only does this systemuse a great deal of energy and carry significant operatingand maintenance costs, but the water volume conveyed isnot enough to cover the water requirements of privatehouseholds, local industry and the region’s agriculture.

Cave water

A feasibility study commissioned by the BMBF concludedthat it would be technically possible to transport the cavewater using hydraulic energy. On this basis, the German-Indonesian pilot project “Accessing and managingunderground karst waters in Central Java, Indonesia”was launched in 2002, with the aim of constructing ademonstration hydro-power plant in Gunung Sewu. Theproject was overseen by the Institute for Water and RiverBasin Management (IWG) of the Karlsruhe Institute ofTechnology (KIT) and involved seven institutes from dif-ferent specialist disciplines as well as industrial partnersfrom the fields of tunnelling, pump and control technology.

Following intensive on-site research, the specialists decid-ed on the (Gua) Bribin cave. It has a capacity of some300,000 cubic metres and a water flow rate of over 1000litres per second, even in dry seasons. The project partici-pants decided to construct a barrage in the cave to damthe continuous flow of water, a part of which was to betransported along a 100 metre riser pipe by means of asmall hydro-power plant; this would then supply some80,000 people in the surrounding shanty towns with

Adapted technology –an underground hydro-power plant on Java

water. During research and development, a consciouseffort was made to employ easily manageable techniquesadapted to the needs of the local people and the environment.

To determine the potential water levels and storage vol-umes, large portions of the cave were measured usingstate-of-the-art laser technology and the resulting datacompiled to form a high-resolution, three-dimensionalmodel. The rock porosity and mineralogical compositionwas determined through macroscopic and microscopicanalyses of samples. This provided the scientists with themeans to predict potential water losses and signs of corro-sion, thus allowing them to assess the long-term stabilityof the system. A monitoring network was then installed toenable continuous recording of the water quality as wellas hydrological, hydraulic and hydrogeological conditions.

Upon completion of necessary preparations at the projectsite, the Department of Public Works, Yogyakarta, drilleda first sounding hole (103 m) on the basis of the measure-ments obtained by the IWG. Following an additionaldrilling and detailed analysis of the drill samples, work onthe access shaft began in 2004; for this purpose, Her-renknecht AG developed a vertical tunnelling machinetailored to local conditions and excavated a shaft around100 metres deep with a diameter of 2.5 metres. The tun-nelling from the surface through to the cave was complet-ed in December 2004.


Drill site in the karst area

http://www.iwrm-indonesia.com/

TECHNOLOGY | INTERNATIONAL | UNDERGROUND WATER WORKS ON JAVA 129

Pumps instead of turbines

For the construction of the dam with its integrated hydro-power plant, a number of different building, material anddesign variations were examined. As well as focussing onfunctionality, safety and availability, the project partici-pants were conscious of the fact that the technologyemployed for the small power plant would have to beadapted to the abilities and expertise of local technicalpersonnel, specifically with regard to control, repairs andmaintenance. For this reason, inversely operated pumpsdeveloped jointly by the IWG and KSB AG were usedinstead of turbines. These pumps are affordable, highlyrobust and easy to maintain.

Work interrupted by earthquake

Upon completion of the planning work, construction ofthe underground barrage began in April 2005. At the endof 2005, work ceased due to the early onset of the rainyseason; shortly after construction resumed in May 2006,the region was struck by a severe earthquake measuring6.3 on the Richter scale, the epicentre of which was just 30kilometres from the project site. The site itself escaped rel-atively unscathed, but the water level rose by approx. twometres following the quake, thus rendering any furtherwork impossible. Professional divers from Germany dis-covered that the increased water level was caused by fall-en rubble after the downstream siphon: over 1000 cubicmetres were blocking the flow cross-section at this virtual-ly inaccessible location. At the end of 2006, German andIndonesian specialists blasted a path through the rubble –work then resumed in June 2007.

Following successful completion of the dam and installa-tion of the first pump module, the first test of the systemwas performed in August 2008 amid great public interest.Based on saturation processes in the surrounding moun-tains, it was estimated that it would take one to two weeks

to fill the man-made reservoir – in actual fact, the targetedwater level of 16 metres was reached after just two days.The first filling of the reservoir was also accompanied by atest of the first pump module, during which the scientistsmeasures a delivery rate of 20 litres per second at the endof the 100 metre vertical pipe – the results were thus in linewith expectations. A further four pump modules werethen installed, along with an electric system to control theplant.

In March 2010, the project partners were able to hand overthe finished system to the responsible Indonesian authori-ty, the employees of which had already received the neces-sary training to operate the plant. To assess the behaviourof the system in continuous operation and assist with anyproblems that may occur, the KIT continues to offer itssupport as part of the follow-up project “Integrated waterresource management (IWRM) in Gunung Kidul, Java,Indonesia” (see project 1.3.05).

Project website ►www.iwrm-indonesien.de

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute for Water and River Basin Management(IWG)Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h. c. mult. Franz NestmannDr.-Ing. Peter OberleDr.-Ing. Muhammad IkhwanKaiserstraße 1276131 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 7 21/6 08 63 88Fax: +49 (0) 7 21/60 60 46E-mail: [email protected] reference: 02WT0424

Exploration of the cave system Construction work in the cave

Having won the honour of hosting the 2008 OlympicSummer Games, the Chinese government was anx-ious to improve the environmental situation in theregion around the capital and host city, Beijing. ASino-German research project was therefore taskedwith devising an exemplary water concept for the550 hectare Olympic Park constructed in the northof the metropolis. The concept was built around alarge artificial lake as well as an artificial river with-in the park.

The environmental situation in the Beijing megalopolis isextremely challenging. In addition to air pollution, thecity is also encountering problems with its water supply:water requirements are rising constantly while ground-water levels are falling by one to two metres per year andwater quality is also declining. For the 2008 OlympicGames – dubbed the “Green Olympics” by the organisers –a functional and reliable water management system wasrequired for the Olympic Park, which was home to some18,000 athletes and officials. After the Games, the parkbecame a green recreation area between the city and itssurroundings. In addition to extensive forestation meas-ures, an approx. 60 hectare lake was created in the northof the park. A small river was also formed in the centralarea of the Olympic Park. The latter was filled with waterof the highest quality (reverse osmosis◄) and the lake tothe north with municipal wastewater treated with micro-filtration◄.

Public and private partners

The bilateral joint venture “Development of a sustain-able water concept for the Olympic Park in Beijing,2008” was to contribute to the sustainable managementof the limited water resource for 2008 and beyond – withthe additional aim of transferring findings and experi-ences to other regions of the country as well as differentstates. Funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology(MOST) of the People’s Republic of China as well as theBMBF, the project involved both the University of Duis-burg-Essen and the Technische Universität Berlin (TUB –Berlin Technical University) as well as a number of mid-sized companies: WASY Gesellschaft für wasser-wirtschaftliche Planung und Systemforschung mbH fromBerlin (now known as DHI-Wasy GmbH), Institut für ange-wandte Gewässerökologie GmbH, GeoTerra GmbH andthe consulting firm Obermeyer from Munich. The Chineseproject participants were the Tsinghua University of Bei-jing and the Beijing Water Authority. As well as perform-

2008 Olympics in Beijing –a water use concept

ing a detailed appraisal of the planning basis, the projectexamined the use of domestic water-saving technology inthe Olympic Village, modern techniques for wastewaterand stormwater treatment as well as the waterway con-struction in the Olympic Park. One of the outcomes of theproject was the creation of a decision maker’s handbookfor sustainable water management in cities.

Among other things, the research project focussed on theselection of suitable technologies for the treatment andreuse of wastewater in the Olympic Park, particularly forthe water bodies. The recycling concept involved the man-agement of hygiene, algae and odour problems throughregulated nutrient concentrations. Hygiene was ensuredby means of a multi-barrier system (dual low-pressuremembrane procedure◄, soil filtration), which allowed thetreated water to be used as process water for toilet flush-ing, fountains and street cleaning.

Combined process technology

On the grounds of the Beixiaohe purification plant in thenorth of Beijing, water specialists from the TechnischeUniversität Berlin worked with representatives ofTsinghua University and the Beijing Drainage Group(BDG) to construct a pilot system for all planned waterrecycling procedures. Combined, modern process tech-nologies were used: membrane bioreactors (MBR), fixedbeds, phosphate adsorption materials and ultra-filtration◄with near-natural treatment processes such asartificial bank filtration. The MBRs separated the biomassand germs, thus ensuring particle-free water flow. Sinceorthophosphate serves as a fertiliser for algae and plantsin the lake, thus potentially upsetting the ecological bal-


G I S - b a s e d I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m f o r d a t a m a n a g e m e n t a n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n

P l a n n i n g D S S M o n i t o r i n g M o d u l e M o n i t o r i n g M o d u l e

O p e r a t i o n D S S O p e r a t i o n D S S

P u b l i c W a t e r I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m


O l y m p i c G a m e s P o s t O l y m p i c G a m e s Pre Olympic Games

G I S - b a s e d I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m f o r d a t a m a n a g e m e n t a n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n

P l a n n i n g D S S M o n i t o r i n g M o d u l e M o n i t o r i n g M o d u l e

O p e r a t i o n D S S O p e r a t i o n D S S



O l y m p i c G a m e s P o s t O l y m p i c G a m e s Pre Olympic Games

OWIS – Olympic Water Information System

TECHNOLOGY | INTERNATIONAL | WATER USE AT BEIJING OLYMPICS 131

ance of the water, the orthophosphate was removed in anadsorptive stage. The suitability of the systems with regardto the required water quality was successfully verified dur-ing prior testing (2005). In the test lake of the purificationplant, mesotrophic◄ conditions were maintainedthroughout, while excellent process water quality wasachieved following artificial bank filtration in the test lakeand subsequent processing with ultra-filtration mem-branes. The results from the pilot system and test lakewere established during the first phase of the project(2004 – 2008). However, the recommendations of the proj-ect partners BDG and TUB were only partially implement-ed in the Olympic Park as the authorities only wanted touse reverse osmosis water in the central area. Here thepartners had recommended a combination of bio- andultra-filtration.

Electronic information andmonitoring system

In conjunction with Tsinghua University, employees ofWASY GmbH developed the “Olympic Water InformationSystem” (OWIS) for the planners, organisers and operatorsof the Olympic Park. This database included new informa-tion and research results established over the course of theproject as well as existing data provided by the Chineseproject partners. OWIS enables continuous monitoring ofthe water system in the Olympic Park and features an inte-grated alarm module. OWIS can also be used to assess theconsequences of potential decisions or events for thewater system and compare different courses of action – forexample, which measures would need to be taken in thecase of a sudden dramatic worsening of the water qualityin the Olympic lake.

DHI-WASY GmbHProf. Dr. Stefan Kaden (Managing Director)Waltersdorfer Straße 10512526 Berlin, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 30/67 99 98-0Fax: +49 (0) 30/67 99 98-99E-mail: [email protected]: www.dhi-wasy.deFunding reference: 02WA0526

Part of the pilot system at the BeiXiaoHe purification plant

Map of the Olympic Park (source: www.strategy4.china.com)

Across the globe, agricultural deposition anduntreated household wastewater are causing highnitrate concentrations in the groundwater. Withoutappropriate treatment, the resulting drinking watercan be harmful to health. To reduce this risk for theinhabitants of the Iranian city Mashhad, a German-Iranian project has tested four different methods forremoving nitrate from groundwater. The results willhelp to decide whether and with which technologydrinking water treatment plants will be built in Iranin the future.

Nitrate is a nitrogen compound, low concentrations ofwhich are naturally contained in most water sources.However, for many years now nitrate concentrations havebeen on the rise in numerous regions across the globe – afact that is frequently attributed to nitrogen depositionsfrom the agricultural sector. Groundwater is also affectedby untreated household wastewater seeping into theground. When drinking water is sourced from nitrate-containing groundwater – without sufficient treatment –the nitrate content remains in the end product. Excessivenitrate concentrations are damaging to health.

Significantly raised nitrate levels

With a population of over two million, Mashhad is Iran’ssecond largest city and is located in an arid zone in thenorth-east of the country. Untreated groundwateraccounts for around 85% of the city’s water supply. Thesummer months in particular are characterised by severewater shortages. Over the past few years, the nitrate con-centration in many of Mashhad’s wells has risen signifi-cantly – up to values of 150 mg/l (in some cases evenexceeding 250 mg/l). By way of comparison: the guide val-ue stipulated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) is50 milligrams of nitrate per litre of drinking water. Thesehigh values are likely to be caused by untreated domesticwastewater seeping into the ground, thus causing highnitrogen deposition in the aquifer◄. Although the waste-water situation in Mashhad has greatly improved inrecent years, the nitrate concentrations in the waterresources are unlikely to diminish in the short or mediumterm.

To supply the population with low-nitrate drinking waterin the future, the Iranian Ministry of Energy and the BMBFhad agreed a joint venture in 2002; the project was enti-tled “Demonstration of different high-performance

Nitrate reduction in Iran –knowledge export improves drinking water quality

procedures developed in Germany for the removal ofnitrate from drinking water and their adaptation tothe treatment of groundwater with high concentra-tions of sodium nitrate and other salts using the exam-ple of drinking water purification in Mashhad, Iran”.The parties involved in the project were the IWW WaterCentre (Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut für Wasser-forschung), VA TECH Wabag Deutschland GmbH,Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe Research Cen-tre, now part of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology(KIT)), the WETECH – Institute for Water and Environmen-tal Protection Technology as well as the local water suppli-er Mashhad Water & Wastewater.

Combined processes

The aim of the project was the first ever parallel applica-tion of four different methods for removing nitrate fromdrinking water; the processes employed were ionexchange◄, reverse osmosis◄, electrodialysis◄ and bio-logical denitrification◄. As these procedures were devel-oped in Germany and had never been used with suchheavily polluted groundwater, they needed to be adaptedto the specific conditions in Iran – not least to ensure reli-able nitrate removal in the face of similarly high sulphateconcentrations. The test systems with throughputs ofaround three cubic metres per hour were constructed inGermany in modular format and installed in Mashhad inOctober 2004. A German-Iranian team (IWW, Mashhad


Erection of test systems on the grounds of the well pump station inMashhad

TECHNOLOGY | INTERNATIONAL | DRINKING WATER QUALITY IN IRAN 133

Water & Wastewater Co.) was responsible for the opera-tion and optimisation of the systems and performedextensive scientific research between 2004 and 2007.

Upon completion of the project at the end of May 2008, ithad been established that the four procedures could besuccessfully applied to the situation in Mashhad. All testsystems worked reliably and reduced the nitrate concen-trations in drinking water to levels below the WHO guide-lines. However, the project partners identified significantdifferences between the individual procedures – e.g. withregard to the specific wastewater volume and requiredresources (energy, chemicals, personnel) as well as theecological and economic consequences. These aspectswere recorded for all four processes and assessed in theform of a cost/benefit analysis. Taking the situation in Iraninto account (e.g. the extremely low energy prices), bio-logical denitrification and reverse osmosis were identifiedas the most suitable means of achieving the targetedwater quality in Mashhad. However, these findings may bedifferent if the boundary conditions were to change (e.g.due to increased energy prices).

Transferable results

The experiences gained over the course of this project arealso relevant for new water works in Mashhad and othercities in the region, since they provide an ideal basis forIranian experts to decide whether and with which proce-dures future nitrate removal plants are to be built Anotherimportant outcome of this research initiative is the newcontact established between German and Iranian waterexperts.

The project partners have already presented their findingsat numerous international conferences and trade fairs aswell as in international publications. The final report enti-tled “Demonstration of high-performance proceduresdeveloped in Germany for the removal of nitrate fromdrinking water in Iran” is available online via the GermanNational Library of Science and Technology (TIB) Hanover(http://edok01.tib.uni-hannover.de/edoks/e01fb09/590090909.pdf; 7.4 MB).

IWW Water Centre (Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut für Wasserforschung)Water Technology divisionDr.-Ing. Stefan PanglischDipl.-Ing. Oliver DördelmannMoritzstraße 2645476 Mülheim an der Ruhr, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 08/4 03 03-243, -321Fax: +49 (0) 2 08/4 03 03-82E-mail: [email protected]@iww-online.deInternet: www.iww-online.deFunding reference: 02WT0393

Reactor for biological nitrate removal (denitrification)

At 3,500 kilometres, the Volga is Europe’s longestriver. Massive intervention has altered the waterwayon an almost unprecedented scale – with complexconsequences for man and nature in the river basin.As part of a German-Russian project, sustainablesolutions were developed for the economic and eco-logical management of the Volga and its feederstreams. The initiative focussed on water quality,water management and the safety of hydraulicstructures.

The basin◄ of the Volga with its approx. 200 feederstreams is the economic and cultural centre of the Russianfederation and is home to around 40% of the population.Thanks to its water and resulting energy resources, the riv-er offers enormous economic potential, which Russia hasbeen exploiting for decades: as early as the mid 1930s,eleven large dams were constructed on the Volga and itslargest tributary stream, the Kama. These structures (col-lectively known as the “Volga-Kama Cascade”) now gener-ate a total output of 11 gigawatts. However, these massiveinterventions in the region’s ecosystem have resulted infar-reaching risks and conflicts.

The minimisation of these risks was the objective of the“Volga-Rhine project: a German-Russian joint venturefor water quality and resource management on theVolga and Rhine” (period of study: 2004 to 2006). Fundedby the BMBF and the Russian Research Ministry, the proj-ect involved a number of different parties: the Institute forWater and River Basin Management (IWG), the Engler-Bunte Institute (EBI), department of Water Chemistry, andthe Institute of Concrete Structures and Building Materials(IfMB) of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), theInstitute for Environmental Geochemistry of HeidelbergUniversity and the Soil Physics department of theHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) aswell as the companies Voith Siemens Hydro (Heiden-heim), MC-Bauchemie (Bottrop) and RusHydro (formerlyRAO EES), Russia’s largest energy supplier. The project wasco-ordinated by the IWG and EBI institutes of the KIT.

Precipitation and outflows analysed

Of particular significance are the statistical analyses andsimulations of the precipitation/outflow behaviour in theVolga basin: how often and intensively does it rain? Howdoes rainfall affect the natural outflow of the Volga? Therelationship between precipitation and outflow is of cen-tral significance to the entire river system: only when

Sustainable water management on the Volga –safeguarding the future of Europe’s longest river

modelled on the basis of precise data, can accurate state-ments be made regarding the solute transport and high-water levels of the river.

To be able to analyse the flood zones, water depths andoutflow during flooding, the scientists developed digitalterrain models of five important barrages on the Volga.While the Russian contributors recorded and processedthe available data, their German partners simulated thehydraulic conditions of the Volga using hydrodynamicnumerical models. They also developed the program “Volga decision support system” to analyse different out-flow scenarios. This program enables computer-basedsimulation of the entire Volga system and reservoirs, thusallowing the scientists to identify the most energy-effi-cient and ecologically sound management strategy foreach barrage. To satisfy the various usage requirementsfor reservoir management, fundamental principles weredevised for the simulation of barrage chains includingautomation functions for improved management.

Structures and water quality assessed

One of the main prerequisites for economical and envi-ronmentally friendly management of the Volga is thefunctionality and operational safety of the existinghydraulic structures. At the Volgograd hydroelectric sta-tion, scientists and engineers examined the condition ofthe structure and its individual components (weir over-flows and pillars, concrete walls). The results of these on-site inspections and laboratory analyses then formed thebasis for a restoration concept, the implementation ofwhich was supported by the project partners with theircombined technical expertise.Although the former Soviet Union initiated extensiveefforts to control its water quality in the mid 1940s, theresults have never been published. Following the dissolu-tion of the Soviet Union, these initiatives ground to a halt


Nizhegorodskaya hydroelectric power station near Nizhny Novgorod (source: RusHydro)

TECHNOLOGY | INTERNATIONAL | WATER MANAGEMENT ON THE VOLGA 135

due to lacking materials and personnel. As a result, little isknown about the current condition of the Russian water-ways – despite the role of the Volga and other rivers asimportant sources of drinking water. The project thus alsoinvolved analyses of the pollutant content of Volga waterand sediments. In the examined area of Nizhny Novgorod,the water quality was surprisingly good; introduced pollu-tants are greatly diluted by the massive water volumestransported by the river and contaminant levels reducedby self-cleaning processes.

Eutrophic reservoirs and their consequences

However, the nutrients in the water are leading to criticallevels of eutrophication◄, particularly in reservoirs; this iscaused by the introduction of phosphorous compounds

from household wastewater (e.g. detergents) and nutrientinputs from the agricultural industry. In the summermonths, this eutrophication is causing massive algaegrowth in reservoirs in particular; this in turn results in areduced oxygen content of the water and the release oftoxins. These effects are exacerbated by the relatively highconcentrations of natural organic substances. The conse-quence: anaerobic◄ zones are appearing at many loca-tions, which in turn leads to decomposition processes.Therefore, one of the main aims of the research projectwas to put the results to use, as a means of improving pre-ventative measures and removing sources of pollution –for example, by practising ecological agriculture in theriver basin.

Area 1: water resource managementKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute for Water and River Basin ManagementProf. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Franz NestmannProf. Dr. Rolf KrohmerKaiserstraße 1276128 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 7 21/6 08 21 94Fax: +49 (0) 7 21/60 60 46E-mail: [email protected]@kit.eduInternet: www.iwg.uni-karlsruhe.deFunding reference: 02WT0484

Area 2: water qualityKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Engler-Bunte Institute and DVGW Research Centre– Department of Water ChemistryProf. Dr. Fritz H. FrimmelDr. Gudrun Abbt-BraunEngler-Bunte-Ring 176128 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 7 21/6 08 25 80Fax: +49 (0) 7 21/69 91 54E-mail: [email protected]: www.wasserchemie.uni-karlsruhe.deFunding reference: 02WT0480

Longitudinal section of the Volga and Kama barrage chain

Extraction and analysis of samples in the research area

Black coal is an important energy source in Vietnam,but mining efforts are causing significant damage tothe environment. In a joint venture, technologiesand experiences from the German coal miningindustry are being employed to make Vietnamesemining more environmentally compatible. Scientistsand engineers from both countries are working onsite to determine which techniques and procedurescan be adapted to local requirements.

Some 95% (45 million t/a) of Vietnam’s coal extractionoccurs in the Quang Ninh province in the north-east of thecountry. Yet the province is not only home to Vietnam’smost important coal field, but also to the unique naturallandscape that is the Ha Long Bay. The Bay, with its count-less limestone karsts and small islands, became a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site in 1994 and is a very popular touristdestination. The Vietnamese government wishes to devel-op the tourist appeal of Ha Long and further increase thenumber of visitors. But the country has also massivelyincreased its mining efforts in recent times – and thus alsothe level of environmental damage to the area. The lack ofvegetation on spoil tips and abandoned mining areas,combined with the transport of coal to harbours and pow-er stations in open-bed trucks, have caused a high level ofdust pollution – many villages and entire stretches of landare covered in grey dust.

Mine and seepage water entering the Bay

The mine and seepage water from the spoil tips is contam-inating the streams and rivers in the mining areas; it flowsinto the Ha Long Bay, where it endangers or damages theunique and highly sensitive coastal and marine fauna andflora. Large-scale erosion of the unvegetated mining areasexacerbates the situation by transporting carbonaceousfines into the Bay. Another problem is the lacking spacefor spoil tips: to save space, the tips are usually built upvery steeply and in direct proximity of nearby villages; thiscan lead to landslides posing a significant risk to the resi-dents.

To eliminate or at least reduce the negative consequencesand risks of Vietnam’s coal mining to man and nature,rehabilitation measures are urgently required. But howcan German expertise in mine rehabilitation be adaptedto specific Vietnamese requirements? This question isbeing addressed by the BMBF-funded, German-Viet-namese research programme “RAME (Research Associa-tion Mining and Environment) in Vietnam, Quang Ninh

Protecting the world heritage site Ha Long Bay –German expertise supports mine rehabilitation

province”. The project is being overseen by the Chair ofEnvironmental Engineering and Ecology of the Ruhr Uni-versity Bochum (Prof. Dr. Harro Stolpe), with a study peri-od of 2007 to 2012. The project participants are RWTHAachen University (Chair of Mining Engineering I), theHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), CBMGmbH – Gesellschaft für Consulting, Business und Man-agement mbH (Aachen), Brenk Systemplanung GmbH(Aachen), LMBV International GmbH, eta AG engineering(Cottbus), GFI Grundwasserforschungsinstitut GmbH(Dresden), BioPlanta GmbH (Leipzig) and DHI-WASIGmbH (Berlin). Work is being performed in close co-oper-ation with the Vietnam National Coal-Mineral IndustriesHolding Cooperation Limited (VINACOMIN), which hasprovided the research team with an office at its Hanoiheadquarters. The German partners are developing thetechnical concepts to be implemented by VINACOMIN atthe example locations in the form of pilot projects.

During the first project phase (2005 to 2007), the aim wasto identify, isolate and describe the specific problems aswell as to find suitable example locations to performanalyses for the adaptation of German technologies (top-ic: mining and the environment in Vietnam, problemanalysis and solution strategies). Since 2007, the projectpartners have been developing concepts for selected loca-tions: the Chinh Bac Nui Beo spoil pit (stabilisation andrecultivation), the mining location Vang Danh (waste-water treatment) as well as the mining areas Dong Trieu(treatment of mining-impacted water in a passive waterpurification system) and Hon Gai (environmental man-agement).


Ha Long Bay is a recognised world heritage site

http://www.rame.vn/

TECHNOLOGY | INTERNATIONAL | MINE REHABILITATION AT HA LONG BAY 137

Pilot system and experiments

After establishing the ecological consequences of miningduring the first phase, the project team – in collaborationwith VINACOMIN – designed an adapted mine waterpurification system that would remove both the fine car-bon particles as well as the high iron and manganese con-tent. Extensive field experiments were conducted on theselected spoil tip, e.g. relating to the pouring technologyAfter selection of suitable local species, plant experimentsfor the recultivation efforts were also introduced on thistip and are currently examined on a regular basis. Basedon the data recorded for Hon Gai, an environmental infor-mation system is being implemented that will facilitatethe environmental management and reporting of VINA-COMIN. Furthermore, a handbook for Vietnamese envi-ronmental engineers is to be created by the end of theproject on the basis of knowledge acquired from the pilotsystems and various experiments.

Vietnamese experts trained

An important aspect if the project is the cultivation of con-tact with Vietnamese research institutes, ministries,authorities and companies. In this regard, an excellentworking relationship has already been established withscientists of the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technol-ogy (VAST) and the Hanoi University of Mining and Geolo-gy (HUMG). This scientific collaboration is also paving theway for later economic co-operation between Germanand Vietnamese companies.The capacity building◄measures of the joint venture areanother important aspect of the technology transfer con-ducted in this project. A number of one to three-weekcourses were held for VINACOMIN employees in Vietnam;these were taught by German mining experts and covered

topics such as dust, spoil tip design and mine water. Inaddition, technical excursions to Germany were organisedto show the decision-makers of VINACOMIN examples ofmining locations with effective rehabilitation◄ and recul-tivation measures.

Project website ►www.vinacomin.vn

Ruhr University BochumEnvironmental Engineering and EcologyProf. Dr. Harro StolpeUniversitätsstraße 15044780 Bochum, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 34/32-2 79 95Fax: +49 (0) 2 34/32-1 47 01E-mail: [email protected]: www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/siwawi/

Research Association Mining and Environment inVietnam (RAME)Vietnam National Coal & Mineral Industries Group(VINACOMIN)Dr.-Ing. Katrin Brömme (CEO)226 Le DuanHa Noi, Viet NamTel.: 00 84/4 35 18 83 07Fax: 00 84/4 35 18 83 41E-mail: [email protected]: www.rame.vn

Funding reference: 02WB0689 (pre-project),02WB0915, 02WB0916, 02WB0917, 02WB0919 (pro-ject co-ordination), 02WB0957, 02WB0958,02WB0964, 02WB0965, 02WB1017, 02WB1018,02WB1019, 02WB1250, 02WB1251

A village in front of a spoil tip in Quang Ninh

Acacia seedlings planted by VINACOMIN

http://www.vinacomin.vn/en.html

Drinking water sources require continuous monitor-ing of their contaminant content – a time-consum-ing and expensive process. Yet monitoring is partic-ularly important in crisis regions, where there is arisk of terrorist attacks – for example, poisoning ofdrinking water sources. Scientists from Germanyand Israel have worked together to develop newmeasuring procedures, which can serve as the basisfor early warning systems. These processes arebased on the infrared absorption spectrum◄of sub-stances.

Continuous monitoring is essential to the reliable andtimely detection of pollutants and contaminants in drink-ing water sources. In politically sensitive regions such asIsrael, there is also a risk of targeted poisoning of watersources (chemo-terrorism). As a result, there is greatdemand for measuring procedures that can provide con-tinuously reliable information on water quality.

German-Israeli co-operation

Previously, groundwater testing in Israel primarily tookthe form of laboratory analyses. The samples had to be tak-en from the measurement locations before being trans-ported to the lab for processing – a time-consuming,expensive and error-prone process. Funded by the BMBFas part of the German-Israeli scientific co-operation, theproject “Compact fibre-optic infrared system foronline monitoring of pesticides and other pollutantsin water” was set up to develop a measurement systemthat would enable continuous, reliable monitoring of thewater quality in real-time and across great distances. Theresearch was conducted by the School of Physics andAstronomy of Tel Aviv University and the Fraunhofer Insti-tute for Physical Measurement Techniques (IPM).

Analysis of radiation spectrum

The IPM had already laid the technical foundation in theform of a wide-band spectrometer, which was originallydeveloped to monitor landfill and seepage water online aswell as to control industrial processes. The analyticaldevice is programmed to detect different organic mole-cules (e.g. pesticides). The measuring process is based onthe property of all substances to absorb infrared radiationin a specific spectrum. Infrared spectroscopy◄, a technicalanalysis method, can be used to identify substances viatheir infrared absorption spectrum. The researchersemployed the technique of attenuated total reflectance

Water quality monitoring –new measuring procedures developed

(ATR) spectroscopy◄, which is based on an optical system.The analytical radiation spectrum provides informationon the presence and concentration of contaminants. Thisenables identification of water contamination by mostharmful chemicals and immediate radio transmission ofthe data to a central monitoring station.

The measurement system of the wide-band spectrometerconsists of three modules: a light source, a sensor elementand an infrared spectrometer. The radiated light of aminiaturised emitter is directed into the ATR sensor ele-ment where it passes through the measuring path and isrecorded by the spectrometer. The individual substancesin the water, and their concentrations, are then deter-mined in the subsequent spectrum analysis.


Sample

ATR element

Polymer coating

Schematic representation of ATR technology

TECHNOLOGY | INTERNATIONAL | WATER QUALITY MONITORING 139

Detection of minimal contaminantconcentrations

ATR technology is based on the fact that the field of a lightwave passing through a transparent medium partiallyextends into the surrounding medium. This so-calledevanescent field is ideal for performing absorption meas-urements. A sensitive fibre serves as the sensor: when it iscoated with a suitable polymer, the targeted molecule isenriched, thus amplifying the measured signal up to athousandfold. The water-resistant polymer also offers pro-tection against water, which would otherwise greatlyinterfere with the measurement. A movable grid allowsthe spectrometer to measure wavelengths between 8 and12.5 micrometres. Other wavelength bands can beanalysed by replacing the grid. Absorption measurementsin the mid-infrared range enable detection of organicmolecules with concentrations of less than 1 ppm◄.

Two measurement systems developed

Over the course of the project, which started in 2003 andwas concluded in June 2006, the German-Israeli teamdeveloped two different measurement systems based onATR technology: a large device with higher sensitivity –but which was also more expensive and not suitable forfield use – as well as a handy and more cost-effective mod-el with lower detection sensitivity. In a follow-up project,advances in the miniaturisation of commercial Fouriertransform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers was utilised tocreate a measurement system offering virtually the samedetection sensitivity as the expensive counterpart (seephoto). These projects have formed the basis for the devel-opment of compact, reliable and user-friendly measure-

ment systems. The devices have been subjected to initialfield tests and are at a high stage of development. Addi-tional field use in Germany and Israel is planned.

Fraunhofer Institute for Physical MeasurementTechniques (IPM)Dr. Werner KonzHeidenhofstraße 879110 Freiburg, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 7 61/88 57-2 89Fax: +49 (0) 7 61/88 57-2 24E-mail: [email protected]: www.ipm.fraunhofer.deFunding reference: 02WU0268

Tel Aviv UniversitySchool of Physics and AstronomyProf. Abraham KatzirRamat AvivPO Box 3904069978 Tel Aviv, IsraelTel.: 00 97 23/6 40 83 01Fax: 00 97 23/6 41 58 50E-mail: [email protected]: www.tau.ac.ilFunding reference: FZK0201

An ATR measurement module for recording infrared absorption spec-tra (the sensor fibre is located on the cylindrical measuring cell,through which the water sample flows via the two water connections.)

Despite many years of research across the globe,attempts to increase rainfall in arid regions throughhuman intervention have enjoyed little success.However, significant progress has now been made ina joint research venture between German and Israeliscientists: their simulations show that precipitationincreases when clouds are seeded with suitableminute particles.

Israel is one of the world’s driest countries, yet water is akey economic factor for the state: Israel has a highly pro-ductive agricultural industry and exports both fruit andvegetables. Around 70% of the fresh water consumed bythe country is used for agricultural irrigation, but highwater requirements have caused a continuing decline ofgroundwater levels. The river Jordan is gradually beingreduced to a trickle since 85% of its water is used to supplythe population and agricultural areas. This in turn has hada direct impact on the water level of the Dead Sea (intowhich the Jordan empties), which has fallen by more than20 metres over the last 70 years – a trend that is showingno sign of abating.

German-Israeli water technology co-operation

Israel – and the rest of the Eastern Mediterranean – wouldbenefit greatly from increased rainfall, and this is exactlywhat scientists are working on. Supported by the BMBF,the Institute of Earth Sciences of the Hebrew University inJerusalem and the Institute of Meteorology and ClimateResearch (IMK) of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology(KIT) have given the “rainmakers” a significant boost inthe form of their joint research project entitled “Numeri-cal investigations on the effect of aerosol particles onthe precipitation dynamics of clouds in the Israelicoastal region” (period of study: 2004 to 2008), whichwas conducted as part of the German-Israeli water tech-nology co-operation. Computer-simulated calculationshave shown that artificial “cloud seeding” off the Israelicoast delays rainfall such that inland precipitation isincreased in the event of a westerly wind. Optimum resultsare achieved when (sea/table) salt particles of a specificsize are dispersed into the clouds.

The focus of the project was on aerosol particles◄. Thesetiny suspended particles are everywhere in the air and arerequired for the formation of cloud droplets and the pro-

The rainmakers of Israel –cloud seeding increases rainfall

duction of rain: when air is oversaturated with watervapour, the aerosol particles act as condensation nuclei towhich the water vapour attaches, thus creating drops. Thenumber and size of the drops depends on the compositionof the condensation nuclei. For example, the air in coastalareas contains few but very large salt particles – largedrops thus form in the clouds in small numbers. The airover the mainland, on the other hand, contains manyaerosol particles and the cloud droplets are relativelysmall.

The project team discovered that manually releasedaerosols also have a significant influence on the temporaldevelopment, spatial distribution and volume of theresulting precipitation. For may years, researchers havebeen observing a decline in the rainfall over the JudeanHighlands. Their calculations suggest that this develop-ment can be attributed to an increase in man-made sus-pended particles (e.g. soot, dust).


Satellite image of the region (source: visibleearth.nasa.gov)

TECHNOLOGY | INTERNATIONAL | RAINMAKERS OF ISRAEL 141

Simulation models employed

To determine the impact of the aerosol effect on precipita-tion formation, the scientists utilised two different numer-ical simulation models: the complex computer model“Spectral Bin Cloud Microphysical Module” (SBM) of theHebrew University and the enhanced program “Two-Moment Parameterization” (TMP) of the Karlsruhe IMK.The latter represents a rough (yet still sufficiently accu-rate) means of reducing the overall computing time. TheGerman-Israeli team started by testing the ability of thetwo models to predict natural weather processes – bothfunctioned very well and provided similar results. Theythen calculated means of actively influencing rainfall. Theresults showed that artificial seeding of the clouds form-ing off the coast successfully delays the formation of pre-cipitation. The rate of rain development is slowed and theclouds blown east by the westerly wind then rain over themainland, generally near the coast (though sometimes upto 50 km inland).

Particle size decisive

The size of the particles is of central importance to the pre-cipitation development. Large hygroscopic particles◄accelerate the formation of rain, while smaller particlesslow the development and often reduce the volume. Thescientists used computer simulations to establish the par-ticle size that would most effectively raise the level of rain-fall achieved with cloud seeding: the optimum size –depending on cloud height and other meteorologicalparameters – is between 1.8 and 2.5 micrometres. Using

hygroscopic particles of this size, the inland precipitationvolume can be increased by 20 to 25%, while overall rain-fall is marginally reduced.

To compare the model calculations with the actual natu-ral effects of cloud seeding, a number of practical testswere performed in Israel, whereby aircraft were used todisperse salt particles of the calculated optimum size intothe clouds; the observed results largely matched the theo-retical calculations.

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research(IMK)Prof. Dr. Klaus Dieter BehengKaiserstraße 1276128 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 7 21/6 08-4 35 95Fax: +49 (0) 7 21/6 08-4 61 02E-mail: [email protected]: www.imk-tro.kit.eduFunding reference: 02WT0536

Calculated temporal development of total inland rainfall after seedingwith hygroscopic particles. Solid line: control calculation without seeding; dashed line: simulation with seeding using medium-sizedparticles

Calculated temporal development of total rainfall with seeding ofdeep convective clouds using hygroscopic particles of optimum size

A comparison of disinfection procedures in the efflu-ent discharge of Chinese wastewater treatmentplants has highlighted the existence of alternativesto conventional chlorination. As part of a jointresearch project funded by the BMBF, the IWARinstitute of the Technische Universität Darmstadt(Darmstadt Technical University) tested four differ-ent procedures in conjunction with the Tongji Uni-versity in Shanghai (period of study: August 2006 –March 2011).

The many hygienically relevant micro-organisms (viruses,bacteria, protozoa, worm eggs) present in the wastewater– even after biological cleaning – necessitate adequatepurification of the water before it can be introduced tosensitive surface waters (especially prior to reuse). Whilewastewater disinfection is a legal requirement in the Peo-ple’s Republic of China, this process is frequently omittedfor cost and operating safety reasons (Xin, 2004).

An alternative to conventional disinfection methods isrequired for a number of reasons. The most common pro-cedure, chlorination, is generally accompanied by the for-mation of unwanted disinfection by-products. Other dis-advantages of chlorine and its compounds are the ever-present concerns regarding operating safety and thelimited effectiveness against chlorine-resistant organisms.Therefore, the aims of the joint research project are to:● Improve the hygienic water quality in the effluent of

municipal treatment plants to protect against water-borne diseases

● Provide a scientifically verified contribution to theissue of cost-effective application of effective, innova-tive wastewater disinfection processes

● Avoid new risks by minimising the formation of disin-fection by-products

Employed methods

Relevant factors influencing the choice of disinfectionmethod include effectiveness, operational safety, invest-ment and operating costs, practicality (transport, storage,production etc.) and the creation of unwanted by-prod-ucts. Having been selected during a pre-project literaturestudy, the processes tested over the course of the projectwere as follows:

UV radiation: UV rays with a wavelength of 245 – 265nanometres alter the nucleic acid in the cell nucleus, thusresulting in the irreversible loss of the cell’s multiplication

Four methods, one goal –wastewater disinfection in China

capacity and subsequent inactivation of the cell when itsregenerative ability is exceeded. No addition of disinfec-tants remaining in the water occurs with this disinfectionmethod. As a result, negative environmental and healthimpacts can be largely eliminated, though a potentialdepot effect in the discharge water is also excluded. TheUV system features two replaceable UV lamps with out-puts of 80 and 120 watt. The desired radiation dose can beset via a control unit (from 80 – 800 J/m).

Electrochlorination: The electrochlorination system pro-duces gaseous chlorine (Cl) and other electrochemical oxi-dants from table salt, water and electric current on site,thus eliminating the transport and storage of chlorine(gas). Chlorine causes the oxidative destruction of the cellwall of micro-organisms. The maximum dosage is 20 mgCl2/l.

Chlorine dioxide: The disinfectant properties of chlorinedioxide can be mainly attributed to its high oxidationpotential (approx. 2.5 times higher than that of chlorinegas). When wastewater is disinfected with chlorine diox-ide rather than chlorine (gas), the potential for formationof ecologically damaging compounds is lower, since notrihalomethanes (THM), chlorophenols or reaction prod-ucts with ammonium and amino compounds are pro-duced. The dosage of chlorine dioxide is between 1 and 20mg ClO2/l. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is created on site fromhydrochloric acid and sodium chlorite by means of thechlorite/acid process.

Ozone: Ozone (O3) is one of the most effective disinfec-tants. Ozone attacks the cell membrane directly or perme-ates the wall to enter the cell interior, where it attacks theDNA, RNA or other cell components, this inactivating the


Pilot disinfection systems (right) with various wastewater treatmentstages (left); intake = untreated communal wastewater

TECHNOLOGY | HYGIENE AND HEALTH | WASTEWATER DISINFECTION IN CHINA 143

cell. Wastewater ozonation can also be used to removepharmaceutical residues, endocrine disruptors as well asodourants and colourants (Schuhmacher, 2006). Ozonegenerators are used to create ozone on site by means ofelectrical discharges from industrially produced oxygen.Ozone dosage varies between 2 and 20 mg O3/l.

All of the above procedures (with the exception of ozona-tion, which was only tested in Germany) were operatedand examined over the course of the project using identi-cal semi-industrial test systems at a communal treatmentplant in Darmstadt-Eberstadt and in Shanghai.

In addition to the choice of disinfection process, the man-ner in which the water is pre-treated is also of decisiveimportance – both with regard to the success of disinfec-tion and the potential for by-product formation. In manycases, the overall performance of a disinfection systemand the potential health risks are greatly determined bythe shadowing and inclusion of micro-organisms in waste-water particles. In this project, disinfection capacity wasassessed by using standard methods for microbiologicalcultivation to quantify the indicator organisms E. coli,total coliforms, enterococci and somatic coliphages.

Achieved results

Both micro-screening and sand filtration can reduce CODconcentrations◄ by around 30%, UV absorption (at 254nm) by approx. 10% and turbidity by some 80%. During testphases I to III (see figure), all four disinfection processeswere able to reduce the level of indicator organisms belowthe detection threshold or by up to four orders of magni-tude (Bischoff, 2009). An increased toxicity◄ of the waste-water, measured as the effect on the luminescence of Vib-rio fischeri organisms, was not significant in this case(order of toxicity rise: Cl2>O3>ClO2; UV radiation: noincrease).

In addition to the disinfectant dosage and the organic sub-stances contained in the wastewater, the water tempera-ture was also found to have a significant impact on the

success of the disinfection process. Phase IV was terminat-ed after four weeks, as stable operation of the disinfectionsystem was rendered impossible after two weeks by theincreasing biofilm growth◄. As a result, a critical assess-ment was made of wastewater disinfection procedures inwhich no biological treatment methods are employed.Depending on the employed dosage, the examined disin-fection methods with prior biological wastewater treat-ment◄produced environmentally sound water that couldbe introduced even to sensitive surface waters and is per-fectly suitable for a range of reuse scenarios. A moredetailed assessment of the test results can be found in thefinal project report.

Technische Universität DarmstadtIWAR InstituteDepartment of Wastewater TechnologyProf. Prof. Martin WagnerM.Sc. Astrid BischoffPetersenstraße 1364287 Darmstadt, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 61 51/16-37 59Fax: +49 (0) 61 51/16–37 58E-mail: [email protected]@iwar.tu-darmstadt.deInternet: www.iwar.bauing.tu-darmstadt.deFunding reference: 02WA0764

References

Bischoff, A.; Cornel, P.; Wagner, M. (2010): Ozone,chlorine dioxide, UV light and electrolyticallyproduced chlorine gas for disinfection of treatedwastewater – a comparative study with differentpreceding treatment techniques; poster at: IWAWorld Water Congress and Exhibition, 19–24 Sep-tember 2010, Montréal, Canada.

Schuhmacher, J. (2006): Ozonung zur weitergehen-den Aufbereitung kommunaler Kläranlagenab -läufe (Advanced treatment of wastewater treat-ment plant effluent using ozonation); disserta-tion; Technische Universität Berlin (TechnicalUniversity of Berlin)

Xin, Z. (2004): Disinfection development: the rise ofUV in China. In: Water21; Oct. 2004.

Pilot system for wastewater disinfection (from left): UV radiation, electrochlorination, chlorine dioxide, ozone

144

Economy and education

WATER AS A RESOURCE | 3.0

An accessible version of the article is available athttp://waterresources.fona.de/reports/bmbf/annual/2010/nb/English/50/3_-economy-and-education.html

145

In this country, clean drinking water and functioning wastewater disposal are a matter of course. Thanksto tailored and professional management, costs can be regulated effectively and reduced if necessary.As well as contributing to the optimisation of domestic concepts, the BMBF intensively supports the transfer of knowledge and expertise in emerging and developing countries across the globe; the aim isto train skilled personnel and educate them in the environmentally sustainable handling of the resourcewater.

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION

146 WATER AS A RESOURCE | 3.1.0

Communal water and waste management – escaping the cost trap with sustainable concepts

147ECONOMY AND EDUCATION | COST REDUCTION

Nowadays, costs for drinking water, wastewater dis-posal and refuse collection account for the majorityof our ancillary living costs. Responsible utility com-panies are already looking for ways to minimise cus-tomer expenses and raise the efficiency of their ownoperations while maintaining highest quality levels.Supported by the Federal Ministry of Education andResearch (BMBF), a number of pilot projects haveshown that adaptive management and optimisedinstruments, such as performance indicators andbenchmarking, enable the implementation of effi-cient and sustainable supply and disposal processes.In this context, even the smallest of measures canhave a big impact.

In Germany, clean drinking water and a functioningwastewater and waste disposal system are a matter ofcourse. Yet in the face of high investments in system main-tenance and expansion, many communities and theirpublic or private utility companies are under great eco-nomic pressure. As a result, cost-effective management isbecoming ever more important.

Cost and fee debate intensifying

To provide consumers with safe and reliable supply anddisposal services, the German water and waste industryhas spent the last decades investing heavily into theexpansion and modernisation of plants, sewers and watersupply networks. This expenditure must pay off in thelong term, yet the sector is constantly called upon to tack-le new requirements: the cost and fee debate is intensify-ing, while demographic and structural changes are neces-sitating expensive alterations of the supply and disposalsystem in some regions. All the while, consumers aredemanding affordable costs and fees – without suffering adrop in quality levels.

Practicable instruments

In order to meet these requirements, sustainable planningand actions are required on the part of the waste andwater sector; it is essential that optimised solutions arefound on the basis of social, ecological and economicaspects. To develop practicable concepts, the variousresearch disciplines must work closely together and seekthe input of other experts. Transdisciplinary work is verymuch the name of the game.

The dialogue between representatives from the worlds ofpolitics, economy, society and research must be intensi-fied in an effort to co-create suitable instruments for prac-tical application. These should allow the utility companiesto better assess the consequences of their actions in thecontext of sustainability and develop appropriate strate-gies on this basis. Tried and tested measures from othersectors must be adapted such that they can be applied towater and waste management (projects 3.1.01 and 3.1.02).

Professional management delivers costbenefits

The transdisciplinary projects funded by the BMBF haveshown that professional management raises the efficiencyof operations and thus also reduces the financial impacton consumers. A range of measures are available to utilitycompanies in this regard: business tools such as integrat-ed management systems (IMS), effective control ofprocesses via performance indicators, systematic, cross-company comparison of processes in the form of bench-marking and application of resource-friendly technolo-gies and procedures.

In many cases, even small changes, such as more flexibleworking time models, can lead to significant savings – andnot just in the field of water management: instrumentssuch as benchmarking or effective controlling also allowwaste disposal companies to improve their performance(project 3.1.03).

In 2002, the German Bundestag initiated a moderni-sation strategy for the German water industry in theform of its resolution “Sustainable water manage-ment in Germany”. This also includes the develop-ment of modern procedures for comparing the per-formance of different operations (benchmarking). Inits corresponding project, the water boardEmschergenossenschaft/Lippeverband (EG/LV) – inconjunction with its partners Aggerverband, RINKEUnternehmensberatung and the Universität derBundeswehr München (Bundeswehr UniversityMunich) – adapted this method to the field ofwastewater treatment and devised strategies for itsapplication in other areas of the water industry. Theproject thus became a building block of the mod-ernisation strategy and set the tone for the success-ful development of the benchmarking instrument.

The boundary conditions for the water economy havechanged significantly: demands for efficiency have risenand fees are now only accepted if the underlying costs aresufficiently transparent. To be able to perform their dutiesin a reliable and economical manner, companies mustdevise methods for efficient wastewater disposal withoutlosing sight of other important requirements. Launchedby EG/LV in 1999, the aim of the project “Benchmarkingin wastewater disposal on the basis of techno-econom-ic indicator systems” was to improve the operationalprocesses in sewage plants. Since benchmarking was anentirely new concept in the water industry at the time, itsimplementation required a significant amount of devel-opment work. One particular challenge facing the projectpartners was to ensure the comparability of the varioustechnical solutions and their costs despite the differingboundary conditions. This required the development ofstandardised assessment criteria. The partners comparedover 100 sewage plants with population equivalents (PE)◄of 420 to 2,400,000. The project consisted of four parts:

1. Application of the methodology to all plants The results of a precursor project concerning the bench-marking of sewage plants with a PE of 10,000 to 100,000were applied to all EG/LV and Aggerverband plants. Theexperts defined the technical and economic parameters tobe determined, collected the data, calculated the per-formance indicators, analysed the reasons for deviationsfrom the optimum values and identified improvementmeasures. To compare the “wastewater treatment”process across multiple plants, six sub-processes were

Learning from the best – benchmarking in the field of wastewater disposal

examined: mechanical, biological and advanced purifica-tion, sludge stabilisation, sludge recycling and disposal aswell as miscellaneous facilities (e.g. external plants, labsand workshops).

2. Creation of strategies for the inclusion of other operators

The experts also succeeded in including other operators oftreatment plants with different databases in the bench-marking process. The parameters were adjusted accord-ing to the requirements of small and medium-sized enter-prises.

3. Generation of techno-economic assessment criteriafor planning

The benchmarking not only relates to plant operation butalso to planning. EG/LV has documented the investmentcosts for all its plants, sub-divided into the cost types struc-tural engineering and mechanical/electrical engineering.Based on the established data, the experts are able toassess the economic efficiency of structural solutions andprocess combinations in terms of investment costs andoperational expenditure.

4. Development of the methodology for other areas ofwastewater disposal

The project partners also applied the benchmarkingprocess to other areas, such as wastewater discharge. Forthis purpose, they created survey forms, which were tested


•

•

• • •

• •

• • •

•

•

•

Benchmarking workflow

Stages Activities

Description of benchmarking targetDefinition of performance indicators

Definition of benchmarking target

Establishment of participants/ benchmarking target

Implementation

Plan of measuresAscertainment of potentialCause analysis

Determination of benchmarkComparison of performance indicators

Plausibility checkData preparationData collection

IV. Analysis

V. Integration

III. Determination of benchmark

II. Data acquisition

I. Preparation, planning

Benchmarking workflow

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION | COST REDUCTION | BENCHMARKING IN THE FIELD OF WASTEWATER DISPOSAL 149

with other local authorities along with the system itself.The benchmarking of rain overflow basins and pump sta-tions of the sewage network was also examined.

Practical benefits

The venture succeeded in establishing a solid foundationfor benchmarking in the water industry. The method isnow used throughout the world and is helping to reduceannual operating costs by 3 to 12%. Furthermore, sewageplants of all sizes can be compared using a techno-eco-nomic indicator grid. Since the performance indicator sys-tem presents all wastewater disposal sub-processes in auniform manner, comparisons of individual process stepsare also possible. Targeted improvements can thus bemade on a structural and selective basis.

The experts enhanced the system to be able to implementthe requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive◄.The results of the project served as the basis for the bench-marking organisation aquabench GmbH, which is madeup of Emscher Wassertechnik GmbH and AggerwasserGmbH, the cities of Hamburg, Bremen, Dresden, Zurich,Cologne, Düsseldorf, Munich and Berlin – or their corre-sponding water companies – as well as the consulting firmon.valco. aquabench provides online access to a widerange of benchmarking products, which relate to differ-ent processes and enable comparisons at company level.

The experts continuously presented the results of theirresearch project and experiences gained from follow-upprojects to the relevant trade associations. A uniform,quality-assured process is supported by a leaflet andguidelines published by the German Association forWater, Wastewater and Waste (DWA) and the GermanTechnical and Scientific Association for Gas and Water(DVGW) as well as an example indicator system of theDWA. Since 2005, the associations have also been inform-

ing politicians, the public and companies about the indus-try’s performance via their “Profile of the German watersector”. Benchmarking projects are now conducted andcorresponding reports published in virtually all Germanstates (e.g. www.abwasserbenchmarking-nrw.de).

The aim is to continue the proliferation of benchmarkingand to establish an international performance indicatorbasis to enable comparisons between different projects. Inaccordance with the Water Framework Directive, meansof extending the observation period beyond companyboundaries must also be examined. An initial investiga-tion of this subject was performed by EG/LV, aquabench,the Universität der Bundeswehr München (BundeswehrUniversity Munich) and the University of Duisburg-Essenin their pilot project “Benchmarking the management ofriver basins◄”.

Project website ►www.aquabench.de

Emschergenossenschaft and LippeverbandProf. Dr.-Ing. Andreas SchulzKronprinzenstraße 2445128 Essen, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 01/10 4-27 23Fax: +49 (0) 2 01/10 4-27 86E-mail: [email protected]: www.emschergenossenschaft.deFunding reference: 02WI9913/9

Deviation from

optimum value

Cause analysis

Future actual valueActual valueOptimum value

Comparison of performance indicatorsBenchmarking

Qualifiable/concrete measures

Unquantifiable measures

Unchangeable

Benchmarking methods and core elements

Basic data – structure and technology

Efficiency Reliability QualityCustomer

service

Sustainabil-

ity

Criteria for assessing the performance of a water management compa-ny

Quality, supply reliability, customer service, sustain-ability and efficiency are important target variablesin the water supply sector. To raise its effectivenessin these key areas, the water industry is increasinglyrelying on performance indicators – a business toolthat is already used successfully in industrial appli-cations. The IWW Water Centre (Rheinisch-West-fälisches Institut für Wasserforschung) has devel-oped a performance indicator system that has nowbecome the industry standard. It is based on a mod-el of the International Water Association (IWA) andsupports the process analysis of water productionand examination of sustainability aspects of thewater supply.

To exploit all means of cost reduction and identify anyoptimisation potential, the companies of the water indus-try require a suitable database. More and more of theseoperations are therefore employing indicator systems,since they supply reliable information to act as a basis forbusiness decisions but can also be used for benchmarkingpurposes – i.e. comparisons with other companies in thesector. Company management can thus monitor thedevelopment of their operation, establish in what areas itperforms better than the competition and identify wherea need for improvement exists.

The aim of the project “Performance indicators forwater supply services: Field test of the IWA perform-ance indicator system”, which was conducted by theIWW and funded by the BMBF, was to create and test anindicator system for the German water industry on thebasis of international standards. 14 operations joined theproject group and agreed to test and develop the systemover the course of three survey periods.

Performance indicator system of the IWA

The IWA indicator system has eight key characteristics:● The system contains all tasks of a water supplier,

organised into the areas of technology and adminis-tration.

● The hierarchical structure of the system enables inter-linking of all performance indicators – from maintasks, subtasks and individual tasks to specific process-es, with an increasing level of detail.

Peak performance indicators – professional management in the water industry

● All terms, derivations and data structures (e.g. finan-cial structure) are uniquely defined.

● In the data model, all entered information is evaluatedas to its reliability and accuracy.

● Depending on the user group (e.g. companies, author-ities, trade associations, banks) the performance indi-cator system and the weighting of the indicators canbe flexibly adapted to different requirements.

● The system is designed for electronic data processing –a mandatory requirement for the continuous use ofperformance indicators as a management tool. Com-panies will find the process much easier if they collectdata variables before calculating and evaluating theperformance indicator results.

● To support the persons responsible for the operationsin interpreting the indicator results, the German IWAmanual provides context information relating to cor-porate structures (e.g. size, legal form, managementsystems), supply systems (e.g. protected areas, wells,water works, pipeline data) and supply areas (e.g.topography◄, soil condition).

● A total of 55 performance indicators and 19 contextinformation items are assigned to the five main fea-tures of the drinking water supply – reliability, qualityand sustainability of the supply, customer service andefficiency.


Level of consideration

Examples of performance indicators

Level of aggregation

High

Low

Small

Large

Number

Overall company“Proportion of replaced and restored network lengths in year”

“Personnel working on technology for operating and maintenance tasks”

“Number of involved organisational units for establishing connections to houses”

Area/department

Process level

From highly aggregated performance indicators for assessing theoverall company to detailed process indicators

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION | COST REDUCTION | PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT IN THE WATER INDUSTRY 151

Multiple benefits

Continuous indicator analyses and comparisons are notonly an excellent means of identifying and eliminatingweaknesses in a company. Based on the experiences of theoperations involved in the project, the system also offers arange of additional benefits: ● The system necessitates the creation and maintenance

of a structured data model that reflects the conditionswithin the company.

● The tasks, workflows and results for all performancefeatures become more transparent.

● The system enables the conclusion of target-orientedagreements with the responsible company divisions,which promotes cost awareness and efficiency in themaintenance of quality and reliability.

● The decision-makers are better able to assess whereco-operation with external partners (e.g. utility com-panies, service providers) would be beneficial, sincethey may be able to deliver a specific service in a moreefficient manner.

● Delivered services and rectified deficiencies can bemade transparent to the public.

Practical and successful

The practical and internationally compatible IWW per-formance indicator system, with its specific enhance-ments, has since been widely accepted in practice and hasbecome the industry standard for German water supplyservices. More than 500 water supply companies through-out the German-speaking region have used the system innumerous benchmarking projects.Based on this wide-spread application, the IWA system

became the focus of a joint follow-up project entitled “Sus-tainability of water services” conducted by the IWW, theInstitute for Social-Ecological Research (ISOE) and theRegional Planning and Environmental Research Group(ARSU). In the context of a detailed efficiency and perform-ance analysis of the operational processes employed inwater production, the project also served as the startingpoint for a joint research venture between the IWW andthe Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg (HamburgUniversity of Technology) entitled “Development andpractical test of process indicators for the management,supply and treatment of water”.

The project gave rise to the following publication, amongothers: “Kennzahlen für Benchmarking in der Wasserver-sorgung. Handbuch zur erweiterten deutschen Fassungdes IWA-Kennzahlensystems mit Definitionen, Erk-lärungsfaktoren und Interpretationshilfen” [Performanceindicators for benchmarking water supply services. Hand-book for the extended German version of the IWA per-formance indicator system with definitions, explanatoryfactors and interpretation aids] (wvgw Wirtschafts- undVerlagsgesellschaft Gas und Wasser mbH, Bonn 2005 –ISBN 3-89554-152-4)

IWW Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut für Wasserforschung gGmbHDr.-Ing. Wolf MerkelChief Technical OfficerMoritzstr. 2645476 Mülheim an der Ruhr, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 08/4 03 03-0Fax: +49 (0) 2 08/4 03 03-80E-mail: [email protected]: www.iww-online.deFunding reference: 02WT0224

Pipes and fittings in a water works (filter outlet and flush water distribution)

Well chamber and turbine in a water works

As well as extremely high requirements, municipalwaste management companies now face constantlychanging legal provisions and regulations. In addi-tion to the ever-present economic demands, thecompanies have found themselves under increasingenvironmental pressure in recent years. They mustcomply with strict environmental regulations andensure separate collection, recycling and disposal ofall waste. The responsible managers are now beingcalled upon to increase both the productivenessand cost-effectiveness of their operations while con-tinuing to tackle these sometimes very complextasks. In a joint research project, representativesfrom 19 such companies have worked with expertsto analyse possible means of implementing moreefficient waste management and city cleaning,assess the feasibility of these approaches and devisecorresponding recommendations.

The project was started in 1999 as a result of an ideas com-petition held by the BMBF to reduce costs in public wastedisposal. The aim of the venture “Cost reduction in pub-lic waste disposal and city cleaning” was to establishsome basic recommendations. The project participantsincluded representatives from waste management com-panies located in German cities and communities of vary-ing sizes. These organisations embodied a number of dif-ferent business types – ranging from government- andowner-operated companies to mixed enterprises and pub-lic limited liability companies. The project was co-ordinat-ed by INFA GmbH (Ahlen), with technical support provid-ed by the Institut für Umweltökonomie (IfU, Mainz), uveGmbH (Berlin) and intecus GmbH (Dresden). Five workinggroups were set up and each tasked with identifying costreduction potential in one of the following areas: wastelogistics, street cleaning, depots and workshops, costaccounting and efficiency management as well as organi-sation and administration.

The first step was to perform a survey of selected opera-tions, during which the experts recorded important per-formance data. They worked with the companies to exam-ine new organisational forms, methods and techniqueswith the potential to raise operating efficiency. Based onexperiences gained during this process, the project teamdevised a target concept, performed target/actual com-parisons and determined performance indicators. The fiveworking groups identified savings potential in all fiveareas, which in some cases was quite considerable. Theyalso found that these savings could be successfully appliedto other operations in the sector.

Waste disposal and city cleaning – continuous optimisation of public utility companies

Waste logistics

In the area of waste logistics, a range of possibilities wereexamined with regard to their potential cost savings andpracticability. These included the collection and vehiclesystems, collection intervals, type and scope of separatecollections, the route planning and software used for thispurpose, personnel and vehicle deployment planning,internal procedures, business information systems andnew working time models. The project team identified sig-nificant savings potential. Depending on local circum-stances, examples included intelligently controlled vehi-cle and personnel deployment using route planning soft-ware, adapted collection intervals, the separation of wastecollection and transport using swap bodies, more flexibleworking time models, the use of an improved documenta-tion and management information system as an effectivecontrolling instrument and more intensive personneltraining. In the area of waste logistics, many companieshad already achieved a high level of efficiency before theproject was launched, but were still able to reduce costs by5 to 20% as a result of the joint venture.


Management processes

Process structure

PerspectiveEnvironment

Quality

Risk

Costs

Personnel and financial processes

Business and core processes

Support processes

Companies

Water supply

Wastewater disposal

Wastewater discharge

Wastewater treatment

Waste disposal

Gas supply

Power supply

Road construction

e.g. communication

Occupational safety

e.g. treatment plant maintenance

e.g. implementation of other projects

e.g. IT operationse.g. procurement of materials

e.g. treatment plant operation

e.g. concepts and long-term planning

e.g. financial and cost accounting

e.g. personnel development and management

Corporate process structures (from: DWA-M 801, “Integrated qualityand environmental management system for operators of wastewaterfacilities”, April 2005)

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION | COST REDUCTION | CONTINUOUS OPTIMISATION OF PUBLIC UTILITY COMPANIES 153

Street cleaning

Significant savings potential – of 5 to 15% – also exists in thearea of street cleaning. The corresponding measures arefrequently employed to raise the quality of street cleaning,since the image of a clean city has become increasinglyimportant in recent times. Examples of these measures arean improved and requirement-based deployment of vehi-cles, longer and more effective cleaning times as well asclose co-operation of manual and mechanical cleaningsystems. The introduction of group systems, optimisedroute planning and the supportive use of small sweeperscan also help to reduce costs.

Depots and workshops

The members of this working group investigated six work-shops dealing with refuse and street cleaning vehicles toassess their workshop configuration, order acceptanceprocess, operational workflows, working hours and co-operation as well as the areas of planning, software andcontrolling. Among other things, they found that fewerinterfaces between the computer programs for timerecording, workshop order management, invoicing andpayroll accounting would enable significant time and costsavings. A functioning controlling system proved to beparticularly significant with regard to business decision-making.

Cost accounting and efficiency

To allow operations to work more efficiently, this workinggroup developed a controlling system with integratedreporting. It allows employees to gather, prepare andpresent information in a manner that facilitates manage-ment decisions. For this purpose, the company mustknow, record and systemise its various services. The proj-ect participants therefore created service catalogues fortheir individual operations. These can be combined withthe basic cost accounting and reporting pyramid to forman integrated management system.

Organisation and administration

Administrative employees should be able to focus on theircore activities. Therefore, the experts of the workinggroup for “organisation and administration” recommendthat a service centre and administrative office be set up,individual service areas reorganised and procurementcentralised; this should be done in line with the size of theoperation and on the basis of local conditions. One publicwaste disposal company was given advice and how toimprove its call centre, while the working group support-ed another operation with the implementation of suitablefleet and workshop management software. Notes on moreefficient waste management can be found in DStGB docu-

ment no. 58 “Handlungsempfehlung zur Kostensenkungin der kommunalen Abfallentsorgung” [Recommenda-tions for reducing costs in municipal waste disposal] (pub-lished in 2006), while the efficiency of street cleaning isaddressed in DStGB document no. 67 “Handlungs -empfehlung zur Optimierung der kommunalen Straßen-reinigung” [Recommendations for optimising municipalstreet cleaning] (published in 2007). DStGB document no.58 appeared in the supplement of the German Associationof Towns and Municipalities (DStGB) “Stadt und GemeindeINTERAKTIV”, issue 4/2006(http://www.dstgb.de/dstgb/DStGB-Dokumentationen/).

INFA – Institut für Abfall, Abwasser und Infrastruktur-Management GmbHProf. Dr.-Ing. Klaus GellenbeckDr.-Ing. H.-J. Dornbusch Beckumer Straße 3659229 Ahlen/Westfalen, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 23 82/9 64-5 00Fax: +49 (0) 23 82/9 64-6 00E-mail: [email protected]: www.infa.deFunding reference: 02WA0728

Formulating goalsPlanning measures

Implementing measuresComparing targets and performance

Applying corrective measures

Continual improvement

PDCA cycle (from: DWA-M 801, April 2005)


International environmental education – safeguardingour future through knowledge and co-operation

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION | INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 155

Education is an important aspect of many of thewater management projects supported by the Fed-eral Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). Theaim is to inform different target groups about newor established processes and technologies as well asimportant aspects of water management, thus rais-ing awareness of the importance of our sustainableand environmentally sound use of the resourcewater. Another important aspect is the training andeducation of local project partners: if initiatives incountries outside Germany are to be successful inthe long term, they must be continued independ-ently upon project completion.

To simply regard international environmental educationas an instrument of acute environmental protectionwould be short-sighted: it also represents an essential toolin the fight against poverty in developing and emergingcountries. The programmes funded by the BMBF are thusin tune with the United Nations Decade of “Education forSustainable Development” (2005 to 2014).

Projects with strong educational value also create a sus-tainable basis for international co-operation in regionswith scarce water resources and help to strengthen theposition of the German water industry by opening up newmarkets. Last but not least, such initiatives also build theinternational reputation of Germany as a centre of scienceand technology.

Programmes for global knowledge exchange

The disciplines of environmental protection and sustain-able development are highly reliant on the continuousadvancement of theoretical and practical knowledge. Ger-many can look back on many years of environmental andsustainability research and thus has both an opportunityand a duty to share its extensive technological and plan-ning expertise with the rest of the world. Just one exampleof this is the project “Introduction of a German post-grad-uate course for environmental sciences in China”, whichwas successfully completed in 2008. In 1999, the long-standing water technology co-operation between theBMBF and the Israeli Ministry of Science and Technology(MOST) also saw the creation of the “Young ScientistsExchange Program” (YSEP) with the aim of motivatingyoung scientists to participate in this international co-operation. The YSEP is primarily geared towards gradu-ates, PhD students and post-docs and offers research staysof up to six months at partner institutions in Germany or

Israel. As part of the German-Israeli co-operation, over100 research projects have been completed over the lastfew years. Developed in conjunction with numerous Euro-pean universities, the study module “Integrated FloodRisk Management” (FLOODmaster) and its e-learningcomponent are also suitable for specialists who wish toexpand their knowledge in this area (project 3.2.01).

Knowledge transfer in Uzbekistan

The transfer of knowledge also plays a central role in aBMBF-funded project in the Central Asian republic ofUzbekistan entitled “Economic and ecological restructur-ing of land and water use in the Khorezm region”.Khorezm is situated on the Aral Sea, which has all but dis-appeared over the last few decades as a result of the mas-sive irrigation required for the region’s intensive cottonproduction. Working with their Uzbek partners and localfarmers, the project participants are promoting environ-mentally sustainable agriculture in the region and sup-porting the inhabitants of Khorezm with the independentimplementation of necessary measures. This is done byproviding regular training to farmers and water techni-cians and by developing appropriate organisational andcommunication tools. The initiative also supports the edu-cation of Uzbek students (project 3.2.02).

International scholarship programme

In 2001, the BMBF launched a scholarship programmeunder the title of “International Postgraduate Studies inWater Technologies” (IPSWaT). The programme offersscholarships for Masters degrees (M.Sc.) and doctorates(Ph.D) as a means of supporting young, highly qualifiedscientists from home and abroad with their research intointegrated, sustainable water management. By awardingthese scholarships, the BMBF hopes to improve the inter-national transfer of knowledge and technology in the fieldof water management and support future decision-mak-ers in developing and emerging countries. The pro-gramme is also laying the foundation for future scientificand economic co-operation (project 3.2.03).

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-sustainable-development/

http://tu-dresden.de/die_tu_dresden/fakultaeten/fakultaet_forst_geo_und_hydrowissenschaften/fachrichtung_wasserwesen/ifhm/floodmaster/index_html/document_view?set_language=en

http://www.internationales-buero.de/en/789.php

The disciplines of environmental protection and sus-tainable development are highly reliant on the con-tinuous advancement of theoretical and practicalknowledge. Germany can look back on many yearsof environmental and sustainability research andthus has both an opportunity and a duty to share itsextensive technological and planning expertise withthe rest of the world. After all, conserving the foun-dations of life and protecting people from naturalhazards are not just domestic concerns. Three exam-ples from the field of water management highlightthe many means of imparting knowledge to youngscientists across the globe.

German environmental experts teachingin China

Co-operation between China and Germany in the fields ofeducation and research has greatly increased in recentyears China has thus become an important partner to theFederal Republic – both with regard to the number of proj-ects and the funding volume. Two main goals are beingpursued: firstly, the expertise of German specialists isbeing used to promote environmental protection effortsin China. Secondly, the transfer of environmental knowl-edge is to familiarise the Chinese people with Germanstandards, environmental technologies and expertise,while also paving the way for the entry of German compa-nies into the Chinese market.

As an important aspect of this knowledge transfer, theproject “Introduction of a German post-graduatecourse for environmental sciences in China” waslaunched in January 2003. This study programme is opento decision-makers and specialists from the fields of eco-nomics, industry and administration, who hold a Bache-lor’s degree or are current Masters students, and providesthem with an in-depth insight into German technologiesand standards. Elements of the Environmental Sciencespostgraduate course offered by the Institute of Environ-mental Engineering (ISA) of the technical universityRWTH Aachen have been integrated in the Mastersdegree courses of two Chinese universities. German tutorsare delivering series of lectures on the subjects of watermanagement and waste disposal to students at these insti-tutions. At the end of the lecture programme, the top 15students of each class are invited to Germany to experi-ence our water technologies and water managementstructures first-hand.

Learning from the experience of others –progress through global knowledge transfer

Exchange programme for young German andIsraeli scientists

Since its initiation in 1974, the water technology co-opera-tion between the BMBF and the Israeli Ministry of Scienceand Technology (MOST) has given rise to over 125 researchprojects. In 1999, the co-operation was further enhancedby the addition of the “Young Scientists Exchange Pro-gram” (YSEP). The aim of this initiative is to motivateyoung scientists to participate in the German-Israeli co-operation in the field of water technology.

The YSEP programme his since become one of the mostimportant aspects of the joint efforts between these twocountries. It is geared primarily towards graduates, PhDstudents and post-docs and offers research stays of up tosix months at partner institutions in Germany or Israel.Up to the end of 2011, a total of 70 budding scientists(35 Israeli, 35 German) participated in the programme –one particularly positive aspect being that female stu-dents have accounted for half of this number.


ISA employees teaching at the Tsinghua University of Beijing

Test drilling for a well in the Judean desert near the Dead Sea as part ofa research project

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION | INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION | PROGRESS THROUGH GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER 157

International study module on floodmanagement

Extreme flood events continue to underline the impor-tance of comprehensive risk management – both in Ger-many and abroad. Transdisciplinary analyses of complexflood risks and assessments of management options areproving particularly challenging both from a researchand practical perspective. By providing an appropriaterange of courses, university education can instil young sci-entists and experts with a better understanding of theissue as a whole. This includes both the connectionsbetween the hydro-meteorological causes of floods andsocial, economic and ecological vulnerability◄ as well asthe effectiveness of preventative measures and disastermanagement.

This is the aim pursued by the international study module“Integrated Flood Risk Management” (FLOODmaster),which is taught at the Technical University of Dresden aspart of the Masters degree course in Hydro Science andEngineering. The international, English-language studyprogramme effectively combines basics of natural sci-ences and engineering with economic, social and plan-ning expertise. The course is aimed at Masters candidates,students in higher semesters and graduates. The special e-learning component of the programme is ideal for expertswho wish to expand their knowledge in this field. Theteaching materials are made available on the Internetboth for full-time students and distance learning purposes.

The study concept comprises the following components: ● Two series of lectures on the subjects “processes of

extreme flood risks” and “integrated flood risk man-agement”.

● Three focus workshops dealing with the most impor-tant flood types; conflicts in the development of man-agement strategies are addressed in an actor’s work-shop involving specialists and professional experts.

● Transnational issues are covered in the form of a mul-ti-day excursion to a European flood risk area.

● The theoretical and methodical basics from the indi-vidual components are combined in a seminar paperon a specific subject.

The module was developed in close co-operation withmultiple European universities and scientists from nation-al and international research initiatives and is supportedby a scientific advisory board. The programme arose fromthe BMBF initiative RIMAX (Risk Management of ExtremeFlood Events) in co-operation with the European researchproject FLOODsite (Integrated Flood Risk Analysis andManagement Methodologies). Today, this universitycourse is taught as a dual module in Flood Risk Manage-

ment as part of the international Masters course in HydroScience and Engineering at the TU Dresden and repre-sents a perfect example of the successful practical applica-tion of a BMBF-funded initiative.

ChinaTechnical University RWTH AachenProf. Dr. Max DohmannTemplergraben 5552056 Aachen, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 41/80-2 66 24 (secretary’s office)Fax: +49 (0) 2 41/87 09 24E-mail: [email protected]: www.fiw.rwth-aachen.deFunding reference: 02WA0418

IsraelPTKA-WTE Research Centre KarlsruheDr. Hans Joachim MetzgerP.O. Box 364076021 Karlsruhe, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 721/60 82 23 55Fax: +49 (0) 721/60 89 22 35 5E-mail: [email protected]: www.ptka.kit.edu/wteFunding reference: KII1101-YSEP

InternationalTU DresdenInstitute of Hydrology and MeteorologyProf. Dr. Christian Bernhofer01062 Dresden, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 3 51/4 63-3 13 40Fax: +49 (0) 3 51/4 63-3 13 02E-mail: [email protected]: www.floodmaster.deFunding reference: 0330680

Students assessing the flood risk along the Elbe river as part of the RiverFlood Workshop in Dresden

http://tu-dresden.de/die_tu_dresden/fakultaeten/fakultaet_forst_geo_und_hydrowissenschaften/fachrichtung_wasserwesen/ifhm/floodmaster/index_html/document_view?set_language=en


http://www.floodsite.net/

Stopping the inefficient and ecologically damaginguse of the soil and waters while alleviating povertyamong the people: these are the objectives of a German-Uzbek project at the Aral Sea. There is anurgent need for action in this area as decades ofintensive agriculture (cotton production) haveresulted in the gradual disappearance of the AralSea. At the same time, the initiative hopes to pro-vide local farmers with the necessary knowledge toimprove their income using ecologically sustainablefarming methods.

The irrigation agriculture practised in Central Asiareduces the productivity of soil and water resources, whilepoverty continues to rise – issues that can be attributed tothe inefficient and unsustainable use of availableresources. This applies particularly to the irrigated low-lands of the Aral Sea basin in Uzbekistan, an area that ishome to some 27 million inhabitants: intensive cottonproduction has had a serious environmental impact onthe region’s soil and waters.

To halt this downward spiral, the Uzbek populationshould be able to work in a more market-oriented man-ner. After all, farmers account for over 70% of the popula-tion, and they are most likely to protect their resources ifthis will help them to raise their income. However, theyhave insufficient experience of private agriculture, havingonly recently become independent operators. In addition,their economic freedom is still quite limited: the farmersare still under the strict control of the central governmentand are bound by its plans. Merely demonstrating to thesepeople how sustainable agriculture works would there-fore be wholly inadequate. It is equally essential that theyunderstand the local decision-making structures and con-sider the interests of the different policy-makers.

Concepts for irrigation agriculture

To make sustainable improvements to the utilisation ofresources at the Aral Sea, the Centre for DevelopmentResearch (ZEF), an interdisciplinary research institute atthe University of Bonn, joined forces with UNESCO and theUzbek government to launch the research project “Eco-nomic and ecological restructuring of land and wateruse in the Khorezm region” (period of study: 2002 to2012). Institutes from Germany, Uzbekistan and othercountries are also involved in the project.

Opening up new perspectives –sustainability in Uzbekistan

Experts from a range of disciplines (land use, agriculturalsciences, water management, economics and social sci-ences) are developing concepts for the ecologically sus-tainable and economically efficient use of resources in theAral Sea basin. The model region of the BMBF-funded proj-ect is the Uzbek province of Khorezm, situated south of theAral Sea along the lower Amu Darya. The most importantlocal partner is the Urgench State University, where amodern laboratory building was constructed andequipped for the project.

One of the fundamental objectives of the initiative is tosupport the persons responsible in the region in theirindependent implementation of the necessary measures.The scientists are therefore looking closely at local deci-sion-making structures in order to make recommenda-tions for improving the organisation of land cultivationand water management – in conjunction with the localdecision-makers. Studies relating to agricultural businessand macroeconomics and covering the entire productchain are to uncover potential for a more efficient man-agement of resources and improved value creation. Newland use technologies are also being tested. The projectalso supports the academic training of Uzbek students:many are given the opportunity to attend a Mastersdegree course in Tashkent, while 22 postgraduate stu-dents have gained their doctorate at the ZEF in Bonn(many of whom have found positions in Central Asia or arenow supporting the transfer of knowledge as post-doctor-al fellows in this initiative).


A ship graveyard on the dried up ground of the Aral Sea

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION | INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION | SUSTAINABILITY IN UZBEKISTAN 159

Participatory approach

The success of technological innovations is also greatlydictated by the level of participation: the needs and expec-tations of the partners must be addressed, while technicaland institutional changes must be adapted to local cir-cumstances. Close co-operation with the Uzbek partnershas a significant impact on local acceptance. Regulartraining of farmers and water technicians is equally essen-tial, as is the development of appropriate organisationand communication tools. With regard to technical co-operation, the project team is working closely with Ger-man, Uzbek and international organisations.

Part of the initiative included the creation of interdiscipli-nary models for water and land use, which incorporateecological, social and economic aspects. These haveproved particularly helpful in examining the interplaybetween the various factors and participants, thus allow-ing the team to predict the long-term effect of specificmeasures. At the same time, cost/benefit calculations areemployed to highlight the financial benefits if individualtechnologies, thus enabling the local decision-makers toimplement suitable measures.

Four project phases

The ten-year project has been broken down into four phas-es. The first phase involved the creation of the local infra-structure and required database (e.g. digital maps), bothfrom existing materials and the team’s own research.

Based on intensive field studies and model developments,the second phase saw the generation of options for thefuture management of resources. These included new,soil-friendly cultivation methods, optimised irrigationstrategies and technologies as well as the introduction ofalternative crops and tree species, which not only offerenvironmental benefits but also increase the earnings oflocal farmers.

These concepts were then tested by the project partici-pants during the third phase, in close co-operation withfarmers, representatives from the water authorities andthe partner institutions in the Khorezm region. Phase 4(2012) is the implementation stage, in which the scientistsand their Uzbek partners intend to spread their restructur-ing concept across the province. The ultimate aim is toimplement a long-term solution that will allow the regionto enjoy an ecologically, economically and socially sus-tainable future.

University of BonnCentre for Development Research (ZEF)Prof. Dr. Paul L. G. VlekDr. John P. A. LamersWalter-Flex-Straße 353113 Bonn, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 28/73-18 38Fax: +49 (0) 2 28/73-18 89E-mail: [email protected]: www.zef.de/khorezm.O.htmlFunding reference: 0339970A, 0339970C

Forestation of a degraded area An irrigation channel with distribution structure

The BMBF scholarship programme “InternationalPostgraduate Studies in Water Technologies”(IPSWaT) represents the direct implementation of arecommendation made in the “Action Concept: Sus-tainable and Competitive German Water Industry”from 2000. The aim of the programme is to supporthighly qualified young scientists, promote the inter-national transfer of knowledge and cultivate long-term contacts in the fields of science, water man-agement and development co-operation.

The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF)launched the IPSWaT programme in 2001 as a means ofproviding highly qualified students and budding scien-tists from Germany and abroad with scholarships for inter-national, English-language Masters courses and Ph.Ddegrees at German universities. In the context of capacitybuilding◄, the granting of these scholarships is to pro-mote the international transfer of knowledge and tech-nology in the field of water management and supportfuture decision-makers in developing and emergingcountries in particular. The programme is also to lay thefoundations for future co-operation.

Scholarships are available for Masters courses (M.Sc.) andPh.D degrees. Around 35 M.Sc. and Ph.D. scholarships areawarded in two annual selection rounds. Candidate appli-cations should ideally refer to a specific problem in theirhome country or region and include a methodical solu-tion approach. The relevant issue should be studied in thecontext of a bi- or multi-lateral research project. The selec-tion panel is particularly interested in applicants intend-ing to research areas of integrated, sustainable watermanagement including aspects of economic value cre-ation. Depending on the desired scholarship, applicantsmust have acquired a Bachelors or Masters degree. Thescholarship will allow Masters students to participate inone of 20 accredited German degree programmes for aperiod of two years. Ph.D degrees are funded for a periodof three years and can be completed at any German uni-versity.

International scholarship programme –imparting knowledge and cultivating contacts

Applications assessed by experts

An expert panel meets twice a year (April and November)to assess received applications. Once the successful appli-cants have been selected by this external, independentcommittee, the relevant universities are notified of theresults by the International Bureau of the BMBF. Candi-dates are selected first and foremost on the basis of theiroutstanding academic qualification. Other selection crite-ria include:● Potential to be included in bilateral or multilateral co-

operation in science, industry or development policy● Practical relevance and transferability of the planned

research work● Institutional links to countries of origin and/or partner

countries● Relevance of the research project to integrated water

resource management

Scope of scholarship

In addition to the monthly stipend (and family allowance,where applicable), the following will be paid to IPSWaTscholarship holders: travel allowance for one return jour-ney to the place of study, a German language course at thestart of the scholarship, health, accident and liabilityinsurance for the duration of study, tuition fees for thefirst semester, maintenance grants for research visitsabroad, a one-off start-up payment and a monthly bonusin the form of a research grant. During the study pro-


Numerous universities and technical colleges have been accredited forthe IPSWaT programme (source: IPSWaT brochure)


ECONOMY AND EDUCATION | INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION | INTERNATIONAL SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAMME 161

gramme, the scholarship will also cover attendance of anyrelevant international conferences, training courses andtrade fairs, field studies abroad as well as placements of upto three months at a German water technology companyor water supplier. The following are not covered: Insur-ance and travel costs for family members as well as multi-ple journeys to and from the place of study.

Creation of networks

Since the programme was launched, the BMBF has fundedover 350 students from 60 different countries. A centralaspect of the IPSWaT is the creation of networks bothamong current and former students as well as with Ger-man partner organisations from the fields of water man-agement, research and development co-operation (e.g.with the BMBF programmes IWRM and IWAS or the insti-tutions DAAD, DED, GIZ, InWEnt, KfW). The annual schol-arship meetings have proved to be a successful platformfor internal and external networking. At these events, stu-dents can discuss their research work with one anotherand also have the opportunity to meet relevant stakehold-ers from German water institutions representing theworlds of business, science and development co-opera-tion.

The programme is currently scheduled to run until theend of 2014.

Project website ►www.ipswat.de

International Bureau of the BMBFGerman Aerospace Centre (DLR)International Postgraduate Studies in Water Technologies (IPSWaT)

Cornelia ParisiusHeinrich-Konen-Straße 153227 Bonn, GermanyTel.: +49 (0) 2 28/38 21-4 22Fax: +49 (0) 2 28/38 21-4 44E-mail: [email protected]

A group of students at the IPSWaT scholarship meeting in Leipzig, July2010

A poster session at the IPSWaT scholarship meeting in Stuttgart, July2009


http://www.bmbf.wasserressourcen-management.de/en/index.php


Acidification: Entry of acid into water bodies and soil. Thiscan be the result of “acid rain”, for example, ordegradation products of the pyrite on coal spoil tips.

Activated carbon: Collective name for a group ofartificially produced, highly porous carbons with asponge-like structure. This pure material is characterisedby its large specific surface area (up to 300 m2/g). Activatedcarbon is manufactured from peat, wood, lignite, blackcoal or nutshells. The materials are first carbonised,during which tiny pores are created. Activated carbonadsorbs organic substances from water and the air and isthus able to clean contaminated water or polluted air.

Activated sludge: The biomass formed in an activatedsludge basin during ► aerobic biological wastewatertreatment as a result of the degradation of substances inwastewater. Microscopic examinations have verified thatactivated sludge flocs consist of bacteria and protozoa.

Activated sludge procedure (also referred to asActivated sludge process): With this procedure, thewastewater is biologically cleaned using ► activatedsludge (also known as bulking sludge). The micro-organisms in the sludge (bacteria, fungi) break down theorganic substances: the oxygen required by the micro-organisms is added in the activated sludge basin. Once thewastewater has been cleaned, the activated sludge isseparated from the wastewater in the secondarysedimentation tank and returned to the activated sludgebasin (or disposed of as waste sludge).

Activated sludge process: See ►Activated sludgeprocedure.

Activated sludge reactor: see ►Activated sludgeprocedure

Adsorption: The accumulation of gaseous or liquidsubstances on the surface of a solid.

Aerobic: State involving the presence of oxygen (O2). Alsoused in the context of organisms that require oxygen tolive, or to describe chemical reactions that require thepresence of oxygen.

Aerobic and anaerobic wastewater treatment: See► Biological wastewater treatment.

Glossary

Aerobic biodegradation processes: Degradation ofmicro-organisms with the aid of oxygen.

Aerosol: Mixture of a gaseous substance and liquid orsolid, finely distributed elements referred to as“suspended particles”. These particles are everywhere inthe air and are so small that, individually, they cannot beseen with the naked eye. Examples are salt crystals, sandgrains, pollen and soot as well as other particles inindustrial fumes. Aerosol particles accumulate airhumidity and thus act as cloud condensation nuclei.

Ag ions: Ag (Argentum) is the chemical symbol for silver.Silver is an ancient antiseptic: its use as a preventativemedicine and for treating infections can be traced back toapprox. 1000 BC. Nowadays, silver is used in drinkingwater disinfection, among other things.

Anaerobic: Absence of oxygen (O2). Also used in thecontext of organisms that do not require oxygen to live, orto describe chemical reactions that occur in the absence ofoxygen.

Aquifer: In the field of hydrogeology, an aquifer (from theLatin words aqua = water, and ferre = to bear or carry) isan underground layer carrying groundwater. Aquifers arealso referred to as water-bearing strata. Different types ofaquifer are distinguished depending on the individualrock type (and thus the rock’s porosity).

Arid regions: Regions with a dry climate.

Aromatic hydrocarbons: The aromatic hydrocarbonsbenzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylene (►BTEXaromatics) are contained in coal tar but usually obtainedfrom crude oil. They increase the octane number of petroland are also used as solvents and degreasing agents or asraw materials in the chemical industry. Aromatichydrocarbons are generally highly toxic and – at least inthe case of benzene – carcinogenic.

ATR spectroscopy: “ATR” stands for attenuated totalreflection – an analytical procedure for measuring thinsurface layers. The reciprocal action of an infrared beamon the interfacial surface of a permeable material and thesurface of the material to be examined results in theabsorption of a characteristic part of the beam (see► Infrared spectroscopy).


GLOSSARY 163

Basin: Part of the earth’s surface that is drained by a riverand its tributaries. We distinguish between above-groundand underground basins. The drainage divide marks theboundaries of the basin.

Batch test: A test set-up used to examine the speed ortime at/over which a substrate (in this case, the substancesin wastewater) is broken down by means of biologicalprocesses under specific conditions.

Biocide: Agents (chemicals and micro-organisms) used forpest control in the non-agricultural sector. Examples aredisinfectants, rat poison, wood preservatives etc. See also:►Microbicide

Biocoenotic: The term biocoenosis is used to describe acommunity of plants, animals, fungi and micro-organismsin a separate habitat (biotope).

Biofilm: Layer of living and dead micro-organisms.Biofilms are formed when micro-organisms (e.g. bacteria,algae, protozoa) accumulate on interfacial surfacesbetween gaseous and liquid phases (e.g. at free waterlevel), liquid and solid phases (e.g. gravel on river beds) orliquid/liquid phases (e.g. oil droplets in the water). A thin,usually closed slime layer (film) embedding the micro-organisms forms on the interfacial surface.

Biogas reactor: System that creates biogas from abiomass. Methane accounts for 50 – 70 of biogas, whichcan be used as an energy source. Artificial biogasproduction occurs in multiple stages in a heated reactor atan average temperature of 30 – 35°C and in the absence ofoxygen (►Anaerobic).

Bioindication: Determination of natural or humanenvironmental influences by means of suitable organisms(bioindicators).

Biological denitrification: Procedure employing thenatural ability of micro-organisms (bacteria) to convertnitrate (NO3) into elementary, gaseous nitrogen (N2). Theprocess occurs under anoxic conditions, i.e. in the absenceof oxygen, and requires a substrate (e.g. acetic acid) toenable the bacteria’s denitrification. In drinking waterpurification, the ►denitrification stage must generally befollowed by comprehensive post-treatment (gasexchange, filtration, disinfection).

Biological wastewater treatment: With biologicalwastewater treatment, the organic compounds containedin wastewater are subjected to a biodegradation process.Degradation is performed mainly by micro-organisms inconjunction with dissolved oxygen in the case of► aerobic processes or in the absence of oxygen in thecase of ► anaerobic processes. Inorganic compounds andbiomass are created through conversion processes. Themost frequently used method of biological wastewatertreatments is the ► activated sludge procedure.

Bioreactor: A bioreactor is a vessel in which micro-organisms, cells or small plants can be cultivated orfermented under optimum conditions. The breakdown ofchemical compounds using bacteria can also beperformed in bioreactors. In this context, they play inimportant part in the biological cleaning of wastewater,for example.

Black water: Collective term for all sanitary wastewaterfrom toilets and urinals.

BOD5 (biochemical oxygen demand): This value indicatesthe amount of oxygen in mg/l consumed by bacteria andall other water-based micro-organisms over a period offive days at a temperature of 20°C, and thus serves as thebasis for establishing the volume of biodegraded organicsubstances.

Boreal coniferous forests: The earth’s most northerlyforests, which stretch across Northern Eurasia and NorthAmerica in a wide belt.

Brillouin frequency range analysis: Measurementsystems using the method of Brillouin frequency rangeanalysis are based on the non-linear optical effect ofstimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS), which transfers theextension of an optical glass fibre to a measurablefrequency shift in the backscattered light of an opticalsignal.

Brown water: Sanitary wastewater without urine (see► Urine water).

BTEX: ►Aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene)

Capacity building/development: In the context ofinternational co-operation for human resource andorganisational development, the aim of capacitydevelopment is provide technical support and advice topeople in developing countries. This involvesstrengthening local competence in a sustainable mannerand raising the capacities of the country such thateffective solutions can be found to social, political andeconomic problems.


Capillary networks: Networks of tiny vessels andramifications (capillaries).

Capillary pressure: This is the force that causes liquids torise up when in contact with narrow tubes, gaps or hollowspaces. This effect is caused by the surface tension ofliquids and the interfacial tension between liquids and thesolid surface.

Catalysis: Chemical reaction in which a suitablesubstance is employed as a catalyst (accelerator), usuallywith the aim if increasing the reaction speed.

cDCE degradation product: The formula stands for cis-1,2-dichloro-ethene. It is created by the degradation of► tetrachloroethylene (PCE) and ► trichloroethylene(TCE). Both substances are examples of volatilechlorinated hydrocarbons (►VCHC).

CFU: Colony-forming unit

CHC (chlorinated hydrocarbons): Collective name fororganic compounds containing at least one chlorine atombound directly to a carbon atom. CHCs are contained inmany products and are used as base materials in thechemical industry, as solvents and as pesticides. As a resultof their wide-spread use and high stability, CHCs are nowubiquitous in the environment.

Chlorobenzene: Aromatic organic compound used,among other things, as a thinner in the paint industry, adegreasing agent in the textile and metal industry and asan extracting agent.

COD: The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure ofthe amount of water-based substances that can beoxidised under specific conditions. It indicates the volumeof oxygen (in mg/l) required for the oxidation of thesesubstances.

Co-fermentation: Addition of ► anaerobicallydegradable substances in a ►digester or biogas plant.

Combined heat and power (CHP) plant: System for thecombined generation of power and heat based on theprinciple of cogeneration. In a CHP plant, the heat lost aswaste heat in conventional power generation is convertedto steam, which can then be used for heating purposes(district heating).

Contaminant plume: The spread of dissolvedcontaminants in the ► aquifer.

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane): Insecticide thatworks as a contact and stomach poison and has been usedsince the early 1940s. DDT is an example of a persistentchlorinated hydrocarbon. Its use has been prohibited inmost industrialised countries since the 1970s. In 2004, itsinternational use was restricted to the sole purpose ofcombating malaria vectors. The substance is highly stableand is broken down very slowly in the environment. As aresult, it has become ubiquitous in the environment and iseven contained in breast milk. DDT is mutagenic andsuspected of being carcinogenic.

Decision support system: ►DSS.

Dehalogenated: Dehalogenation is the removal ofhalogens (especially chlorine) from organic compounds.In a narrower sense, the term refers to the removal ofhalogens from ► volatile halogenated hydrocarbons(VHHC). Volatile halogenated hydrocarbons (VHHC) withup to three chlorine atoms can be dehalogenated throughmicrobial activity.

Denitrification: Process in which bacteria break downnitrate and release nitrogen (N2) as it occurs in the air. By-products of denitrification are nitrous oxide (N2O) andnitrogen oxide (NOX).

Desertification: Process of gradual desert formation inarid areas.

Digester: A tower-like vessel constructed from concrete,prestressed concrete or steel and used in wastewatertreatment for the controlled and regulated execution of► anaerobic degradation processes. Just like otherdigestion tanks, digesters are usually found in sewageplants. The digested sludge is used to break downfermentation gases such as methane (CH4), which must becaptured or combusted due its high global warmingpotential. The captured gas can be converted into energy,particularly for the generation of power in a combinedheat and power plant.

Direct-push procedure: Procedure used for depth-oriented groundwater sampling. A special filter probe isadvanced directly into the aquifer at the required depth,thus enabling groundwater sampling from pre-defineddepth ranges.

DNAPL: The term dense non-aqueous phase liquids(DNAPL) is used to describe organic liquids that areinsoluble in water an have density greater than 1 g/cm3

(i.e. heavier than water). The group of ► volatilehalogenated hydrocarbons (VHHC) is of particularimportance in this regard. DNAPLs frequently occur asgroundwater contaminants.

GLOSSARY 165

DOC content: DOC stands for dissolved organic carbon. Itcombines with the particulate organic carbon (POC) andthe volatile organic carbon (VOC) to form the total organiccarbon (TOC). This organic sum parameter indicates theorganic substance dissolved in water.

Drainage elements: These serve as a substitute fornatural, water-permeable drainage layers consisting of,for example, expanded clay, lava, gravel or expandedshale. Drainage elements are used for the mechanicalstabilisation of the substrate and to prevent waterretention and are therefore often employed in dykeconstruction, among other things.

DSS (decision support system): Computer-based toolthat assists decision-makers in evaluating informationand assessing the impact of different courses of action.

Dynamic drilling: Dynamic drilling is a simple means ofanalysing the soil structure and extracting samples usinga hollow steel probe that is driven into the ground.

Ecomorphology: Structural configuration of a waterbody, including littoral zones (see also ►Morphological).

Elbe DSS: A decision support system for river basinmanagement. It provides a basic structure for thespecialist knowledge, computer models and data relatingto the Elbe basin.

Electrodialysis (ED): Membrane process in which the ionscontained in water are passed through a membrane byapplying an electric voltage. Using an alternatingconfiguration of cation- and anion-selective membranes,the majority of the ions can be removed from the water.After passing through the membranes, the cations andanions are gathered in a concentrate stream, which isthen discharged. In contrast to reverse osmosis, theuntreated water does not pass through the membranes,thus making electrodialysis a relatively stable process.

Energy recovery: Use of waste as a substitute fuel incement works, coal-fired power stations and refuseincineration plants.

Environmental federalism: Allocation of (decision-making) powers and responsibilities to different parties inthe environmental field.

Escherichia coli (E. coli): Bacteria found in the gut flora ofhumans and animals; named after its discoverer, thedoctor Theodor Escherich (1857-1911). The presence ofE. coli in drinking water is an indicator of faecalcontamination.

EU Water Framework Directive: Directive 2000/60/EC ofthe European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October2000 establishing a framework for Community action inthe field of water policy – more commonly known as theWater Framework Directive (►WFD) – represents theregulatory framework for the protection of all waterbodies. The primary aim of the directive is to achieve a“good status” of water bodies. The WFD follows acomprehensive, basin-wide approach in which allsignificant pollution in ►basin areas is recorded and itseffect on the relevant water bodies assessed.

Eutrophic: Rich in nutrients (see also: ►Mesotrophic and►Oligotrophic).

Eutrophication: Excessive input of nutrients, particularlyphosphorus and nitrogen compounds, into standing orslow flowing water, thus resulting in the mass formationof algae and aquatic plants. The decomposition of deadplants and algae leads to oxygen depletion in the waterand decay accompanied by the formation of hydrogensulphide and other harmful substances (ecosystemcollapse, fish kills, odours).

Fermentation: Breakdown of biogenic material throughmicro-organisms in the absence of oxygen (anaerobicconditions). In the case of close co-operation betweenmultiple groups of bacteria, biomass is transformed intobiogas.

Fermenter: ►Bioreactor

Final clarification: Sub-process of biological wastewatertreatment in which the purified wastewater is separatedfrom the sewage sludge involved in the cleaning process.Final clarification generally occurs in the secondarysedimentation tank. This part of a wastewater treatmentplant is usually preceded by a biological stage (e.g.activated sludge basin), in which the flow velocity isreduced to bring about sedimentation of the degradablesubstances. Membrane procedures can also be used forfinal clarification under specific circumstances.

Flocculation: A procedure used in drinking waterpurification to reduce existing turbidity; insolublesubstances are removed from the water in the form oflarge particles (flocs) through the addition of flocculantssuch as aluminium and iron salts in the form of chloridesand sulphates. The flocs are then separated bysedimentation, for example.


Flotation sludge: Large volumes of fat are producedduring the slaughtering process, and this fat is separatedfrom its carrier substance (water) in flotation plants.Flotation sludge is a mixture of fat, blood and water aswell as other contaminants from the slaughtering process,such as feathers.

Fluvial: Something which is created (eroded), transported,deposited (sedimentation) or enriched (soaps) through themovement of water (river/stream). Taken from the Latinword fluvius = river. Fluvial sediments are usually wellrounded and can comprise virtually all rocks found in thebasin of the relevant river or stream.

Free phase: The individual parts in a mixture of differentsubstances (e.g. a liquid with a solid) are known as► phases. The “free phase” is the part of a liquid (or gas:liquid or gaseous phase) that is not bound (sorbed) to thesolid parts of the mixture (solid phase) via bonding forces.

Funnel-and-gate systems: Funnel-and-gate systemsconsist of underground walls arranged to form a funnel,which channels the stream of contaminated groundwaterinto an underground gate, at the end of which thegroundwater flow can continue as before. The water iscleaned as it passes through the system. If correctlyconfigured, the procedure requires no pumps oradditional power.

Geo-electric profile recording: In geo-electric profilerecordings, the structure and properties of a substrate aredetermined by means of an applied current.

Geogenic background contamination: Natural pollutionof the ground, water or air resulting from chemicalcompounds in the rocks of the earth’s crust.

GIS-based: Mapping, measurement or determinationbased on geo-information systems.

Grey water: Domestic wastewater from the kitchen, bath,shower, washing machine etc. (no faecal matter or urine)(see also ►Brown and ►Urine water).

Groundwater aquifer: See ►Aquifer

Habitat: Living environment for organisms or spaceinhabited by a species.

Heterocylics: Organic compounds with a ring-shapedstructure in which one or more carbon atoms aresubstituted with a heteroatom (e.g. nitrogen, oxygen).

High-rate digestion: This procedure was developed bythe Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering andBiotechnology (IGB). The procedure is characterised by itsenhanced efficiency through the use of a smaller► digester, shorter retention times of the sewage sludgein the digester and a higher biogas yield. With high-ratedigestion, the amount of residual sludge requiringdisposal is also reduced.

Hydraulic effect: Effect of a specific measure on theproperties of a river, e.g. on outflow distribution, flowspeed or water levels.

Hydraulic resistance: Resistance offered by a mediumagainst the free flow of water. This property depends onthe thickness and hydraulic conductivity of a material orground layer.

Hydraulic soil and groundwater remediation:Remediation process based on the mechanical propertiesof fluids.

Hydraulics: Study of the mechanics of fluids.

Hydrodynamics: A branch of fluid mechanics dealingwith the dynamic, storage and transport processes inhydraulic systems.

Hydrology: The scientific study of water, its spatial andtemporal distribution and the associated biological,chemical and physicalproperties.

Hygroscopic particles: Substances that bind moisturefrom the atmosphere.

Immunomagnetic separation column:Immunomagnetic separation columns are used to retainmicro-organisms previously bound to magnetic particles.As the liquid flows through the magnetised column, themagnetically activated micro-organisms adhere to itswalls. The magnet is then removed and the column rinsedwith a measurement buffer via which the micro-organisms leave the column.

Infiltration pond: Reservoir for surface water which isintroduced to the groundwater after being filteredthrough gravel and sand.

Infrared spectroscopy: Physical analysis procedure basedon the properties of infrared light. It is used for thequantitative and structural determination of substances.

Inhalation and dermal contaminants: Contaminantsthat are either inhaled via the respiratory tract orabsorbed through dermal contact.

GLOSSARY 167

Injection logs: Measurement system for establishing thehydraulic permeability of soil.

In-situ chemical oxidation (ISCO): Remediationprocedure whereby chemical oxidising agents (e.g.potassium permanganate) are injected into the aquifer toremove contaminants.

In-situ chemical reduction (ISCR): With this process,reducing chemicals (e.g. molasses) are injected into thesubsoil where they react with contaminants which arethen chemically destroyed.

In-situ measurement networks: In-situ measurementsare performed on site, i.e. under natural conditions.Measurement networks comprise multiple measurementstations, which are often distributed across large areas.

Ion exchangers: Natural or artificial materials whichreplace ions (charged particles) dissolved in water withother ions. The ions to be replaced are bound to the ionexchanger material, which itself releases ions into thesolution.

Karst/karst landscape: Type of landscape where solublebedrock (limestone, gypsum and salt rock) has beendestroyed (eroded) by water. Typical features are jaggedrocks, sink holes and caves.

Lamella separator: In lamella separators or clarifiers,particles are separated from contaminated water usinglamellar honeycomb structures.

Life-cycle costing: This calculation method indicateswhich costs occur at which points in a life-cycle, e.g. of aproduct.

Life-cycle assessment: A life-cycle assessment provides acomprehensive analysis of the entire product life-cycleand the associated ecological impact. The turnover ofmaterials and energy during the life-cycle is also assessed,as are the resulting environmental consequences.

LNAPL: Most hydrocarbons (i.e. non-chlorinatedcompounds, see ►DNAPL) are lighter than water andform phases that float on its surface (e.g. on groundwater).Organic liquids with densities less than 1 g/cm3 are knownas light non-aqueous phase liquids (LNAPL). The mostimportant LNAPL compounds are fuels (gasoline,kerosene, diesel), with heating oil EL being anotherexample. The ►BTEX compounds are of particularrelevance in this regard.

Low-pressure membrane procedure: See ►Membraneprocedure.

Low-turbidity: Water turbidity is caused by organic andinorganic suspended matter as well as by living organicsubstances that are hard to remove through filtration.Low-turbidity water has a greater level of clarity and canbe cleaned by means of slow filtration.

Material recycling: Recovery of raw materials from waste,their re-introduction into the economic cycle and use inthe creation of new products.

Mechanical-biological waste treatment: Procedurewhereby waste is broken down mechanically before beingbiologically decomposed (e.g. through composting).

Membrane bioreactor: Combination of ► activatedsludge procedure and membrane filtration. The aim ofthis process is the extensive cleaning of biologicallycontaminated wastewater such that it can be used asservice or process water.

Membrane process/technique: Use of a filter applied to asupporting layer for removing anything from tiniestparticles to dissolved substances from wastewater.Depending on the individual application, the filtermaterial can be made of stainless steel, plastic or textilefabric.

Membrane-supported Pd catalysts: Pd is the chemicalsymbol for palladium, a white transition metal thatbelongs to the platinum group of metals and is thus also aprecious metal. Palladium is an excellent catalyst for theacceleration of chemical reactions. Its uses includedechlorination in water treatment, for which it is finelydistributed across membranes.

Mesotrophic: Possessing a balanced, moderate nutrientlevel. Condition of water bodies between nutrient-rich (►Eutrophic) and nutrient-poor (►Oligotrophic).

Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE): Colourless, volatileorganic compound. MTBE/vapour/air mixtures are highlyflammable and explosive. Primarily used as an antiknockagent in gasoline.

Microbicide: Chemical substances used to kill microbes(virucides for viruses, bactericides for bacteria, fungicidesfor fungi etc.). They belong to the group of (see also ►)biocides and are contained in many paints, cleaningagents and cosmetics, primarily to ensure long shelf lives.

Micro-biocoenosis: Community of micro-organisms.


Micro-filtration: Physical (mechanical) ►membrane(separation) procedure (filtration method). All substanceswithin a liquid that are larger than the membrane poresare retained by the membrane. Filtration usingmembranes with a pore size > 0.1 μm is known as “micro-filtration”, while pore sizes < 0.1 μm are used in“ultra-filtration”.

Millennium Goals: Eight development objectives agreedby the heads of state and government of 189 countries inthe Millennium Declaration of 2000. The goals, whichoriginate from four spheres of action (1. Peace, securityand disarmament, 2. Development and eradication ofpoverty, 3. Protection of our shared environment,4. Human rights, democracy and good governance) andhave a primary aim of securing a sustainable future, are tobe implemented by 2015.

Mineralisation: Conversion to inorganic substances.

Mixed-in-place procedure (MIP): The mixed-in-placeprocedure (MIP) is used to create vertical concrete walls inthe soil. The ground is mixed with a cement suspensionthus forming a concrete-soil structure. The mainadvantage of this process is that no other materials arerequired. The procedure is used to seal off landfills andcontaminated sites.

Morphodynamics: Dynamic formation of landformsthrough erosion and sedimentation, e.g. due to weathereffects or hydrological processes.

Morphological: Relating to the external form.

Nano-filtration: Pressure-driven membrane process inwhich nanometric particles are retained.

Nitrification: Bacterial degradation (oxidation) ofammonium compounds into nitrate (NO3).

NSO-HET: Heterocyclic hydrocarbons (see ►Heterocylics).

Oligodynamic effect: Damaging effect of metal cations(positively charged metal ions) on living cells.

Oligotrophic: Low in nutrients (see also ► Eutrophic and►Mesotrophic). (► Eutrophication).

O-phosphate: Oxygen-phosphate bond (O is the symbolfor the chemical element oxygen).

Oxidation all-metal catalysts: Catalysts (reactionaccelerators) that clean water using oxygen.

Oxygen-reducing combination reactors: Contaminatedgroundwater does not usually contain any dissolvedoxygen since it has been used up (as in the case ofcombustion) for the oxidation of carbon – i.e. thecontaminant compounds. Combination reactors are usedin the successive treatment of pollutant mixtures: for thecomplete degradation of all contaminants, oxygen is firstadded to the water to bring about positive redoxconditions. Thereafter, the groundwater returns to anegative redox condition, i.e. absence of oxygen. Someadditional pollutants can then be destroyed in thesereduced conditions.

Oxygen-reduction environment: A redox reaction (ormore precisely: reduction oxidation reaction) is achemical reaction in which electrons are transferred fromone reactant to another. Such electron transfer reactionstherefore involve the loss of electrons (oxidation, as in thecase of combustion) by one substance and the gain ofelectrons (reduction) by another. In this context, theoxygen-reduction environment describes the chemicalstate of the surrounding medium.

Perchloroethylene (PCE): See ► Tetrachloroethylene.

Permeability: Measure of the ability of a porous material,such as rock or soil, to allow gases or fluids to pass throughit.

Phase: A phase is a spatial area in which the physicalparameters and chemical composition of the relevantmatter are homogeneous.

Photo-catalytic surfaces: Surfaces on which (sun)lightbreaks down organic materials.

pH value: Measure of the H+ ion concentration, i.e. ofacidity (pH < 7) or basicity (pH > 7). A pH value of 7 isneutral.

Population equivalent (PE): Measure of the level ofcontamination of commercial/industrial wastewater,specified as the number of persons producing acorresponding pollution load.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB): Group of toxicsubstances used up to the 1980s, primarily intransformers, capacitors and hydraulic systems; PCBswere also used as softening agent in paints, sealingcompounds and plastics. The substances have since beenincluded in the “dirty dozen” group of known organictoxins, which were banned throughout the world in 2001.In addition to their chronic toxic effect (chloracne, hairloss and hyperpigmentation), PCBs are also suspected ofbeing carcinogenic and hormonally active.

GLOSSARY 169

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH): Group oforganic compounds. PAHs are natural components of coaland crude oil that are created during the pyrolysis(incomplete combustion) of organic material (e.g. coal,heating oil, fuel, wood, tobacco) and are thus ubiquitousin the environment. Due to their degradation resistance,toxicity and prevalence in the environment, PAHs areconsidered highly potent pollutants.

ppm: Parts per million. Measure indicating theproportion of one substance to another.

Precipitate: Substance that separates from a solution andsettles (precipitation).

Precipitation: In this process, chemical reactions causethe transformation of dissolved substances into insolublesubstances, which then settle at the bottom of a vessel orwater body – e.g. in the form of flocs – where they can bemore easily removed from the water.

Pre-oxidation with potassium permanganate:Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is a powerful oxidisingagent (see also: ► ISCO), which can be used in drinkingwater purification (e.g. to remove iron) and to oxidisesulphite into sulphate.

Pressure-driven membrane process: Membranes are finefilters that allow liquids to pass through but retain thecontained substances. In a pressure-driven membraneprocess, the liquid is pressurised when transportedthrough the membrane. Depending on the cut-off or poresize of the membrane, the processes micro-, ultra- andnano-filtration as well as reverse osmosis aredistinguished.

Pump-and-tracer procedure: With this procedure, thewater is artificially “marked” (e.g. with a colourant) inorder to monitor its flow behaviour (e.g. flow velocity).

Pump-and-treat procedure: Remediation procedure inwhich the contaminated groundwater is extracted viawells or drainage systems before being cleaned.

Quaternary aquifer: Quaternary ► aquifers were formedduring the most recent period in the earth’s history, theQuaternary, which started 2.6 million years ago andcontinues to this day.

Receiving waters: This term is used in the field ofhydrology to describe the channels, such as watercoursesand soil drainage, via which water can flow into a waterbody in the form of wastewater, rainwater or drainagewater. Examples of natural receiving waters are openstreams that take in and discharge water from otherwatercourses, groundwater bodies and discharge systems.

Reduction dechlorination: Procedure in which chlorineis removed from chemicals in the absence of oxygen. Thisprocess is important for the remediation of groundwatercontamination, for example.

Rehabilitation: Removal of river straightening measuresand river bed linings with the aim of restoring naturalflow conditions.

Remote technology: Remote system monitoring.

Retardation: This term is taken from the Latin word“retardare” (= delay) and is used in the context of materialtransport. It describes the deceleration of a substancerelative to the moving medium in which it is transported.

Retention: In the field of water management, this termrefers to the balancing effect of reservoirs on the outflowof flowing waters; see also ►Retention basins.

Retention basins: In the case of flooding, part of the wateris stored in reservoirs at the sides of the river and on theflood plains. As a result, the water downstream rises at aslower rate. This in turn delays the flood wave and makesit flatter. The lower the gradient, the higher the level of ►retention. The areas contributing to the retention areknown as retention areas.

Reverse osmosis: The process of osmosis involves thediffusion (movement) of a solvent (e.g. water) through asemi-permeable membrane (i.e. permeable only to thesolvent). The solvent moves from the area with the lowerconcentration of the dissolved substance to that with thehigher concentration. In the case of reverse osmosis, thenatural osmosis process is reversed through theapplication of pressure. The salts are retained by themembrane and discharged in the form of concentrate.

River basin management: Collective term for themeasures employed to manage bodies of water such thatthey serve the common good. The aim is to preventavoidable impairments of their ecological function. Inaddition, the water balance of terrestrial ecosystems andwetlands directly dependent on these water bodies mustbe protected, such that sustainable development isensured. In this context, planning areas are river basindistricts, which include the ► basins themselves as well asthe groundwater and coastal waters.

Rotating biological contactor: Mechanical unitfeaturing discs mounted on a horizontal axis positionedjust above water level; the rotating discs are submergedapproximately halfway into the wastewater container.The rotation of the discs supplies the biofilm on thesurface of the water with substrate and oxygen.

Salination: Process whereby the salt load of a water body isincreased, e.g. by salts not removable during wastewaterpurification or through the introduction or recirculationof salts from a seawater desalination system into a body ofwater.

Salt (water) intrusion: Entry of salt or brackish water intothe groundwater through the movement of fresh/saltwater boundaries.

Sediment: Deposits in water bodies created throughsettling (sedimentation) of mineral and/or organic solids.We distinguish between clastic (suspended matter, sand,rock), chemical (substances separated from aqeuoussolutions, e.g. carbonate) and biogenic sediments(deposited organisms or their remains, e.g. coquina).

Seismology: Study of the earth’s crust through the use ofartificially generated seismic waves.

Semi-industrial scale: Test or pilot systems are usuallyassessed on a smaller semi-industrial scale – i.e. withpractical relevance – before a full-size system is built.

Sewage ponds: Small ponds in which wastewater iscleaned biologically by means of plants.

Sewage sludge: In sewage plants, water flows into theprimary sedimentation tank via the sand and grease trap.In this first treatment chamber, undissolved substancesare deposited in the form of sewage sludge (mechanicpurification).

Sewage Sludge Ordinance (AbfKlärV): Regulates theapplication of sewage sludge from wastewater treatmentplants to agricultural, forested or horticultural land.

Slow filter: Slow filters are based on the principles ofnatural soil filtration and are characterised by their lowflow velocity. The high surface area requirements are adisadvantage of this method. However, slow filters arebeneficial wherever surface water is to be used.

Sorption: Process whereby a solid or liquid substancetakes up or holds another gaseous or dissolved substance.The term sorption refers to processes resulting in theenrichment of a substance within a phase (absorption) oron an interfacial surface between two phases (adsorption).The term is used when absorption and adsorption cannotbe clearly distinguished. The sorbing substance is alsoreferred to as the sorbent (or sorbent material).

Spectroscopy: The measurement of a spectrum from aradiation source.

Spin-off company: When part of a company or institutionis set up as a separate business, this is described as a spin-off.

Stratigraphy: Geoscience discipline involving the studyand dating of rock strata.

Stripping: Removal of water-based substances throughthe injection of air/gas. The dissolved substances aretransferred to the gaseous phase and consequentlyremoved from the water.

Struvite (also known as: magnesium ammoniumphosphate): A sparingly soluble compound ofammonium and magnesium named after the scientistHeinrich Christoph Gottfried von Struve (1772–1851).

Submerged fixed beds: In fixed bed reactors, which arefrequently used in biotechnology, the elementsresponsible for the substance conversion (micro-organisms, enzymes) are bound to fixed carrier materials(fixed bed). A liquid stream directs the other componentsinvolved in the process (e.g. substrates, gases) past thefixed bed, which can be made of ceramic, glass, plastic ornatural material. In the case of a submerged fixed bed, thecarrier material of the fixed bed is fully immersed in theuntreated wastewater. Oxygen is supplied by means ofpressure aeration (which is also used for flushingpurposes).

Surface tension: An interfacial surface is the contact zonebetween two phases, e.g. between water and air orbetween oil and water. Surface tension causes the surfaceof a liquid to behave like an elastic film.

Suspension: The term suspension is used to describe aliquid containing finely distributed solid particles whichare held in a suspended state – e.g. through agitation orstirring.

Technogenous region: Underground water supply anddisposal networks (sewage systems) are also described astechnogenous regions.

Tectonics: Study of the structure or composition of theearth’s crust.

Tertiary: The Tertiary is the geological period of theCenozonic era, i.e. from the start of the Cretaceous period(65 million years ago) to the start of the Quaternary(approx. 2.6 million years ago).


GLOSSARY 171

Tetrachloroethylene: Colourless, volatile liquid; alsoreferred to as perchloroethylene (PCE).Tetrachloroethylene is a highly toxic chlorinatedhydrocarbon (►CHC) and is classified as a category 3carcinogen.

Thermal waste treatment: Incineration of waste.

Topography: Scientific discipline involving the surveying,portrayal and description of terrain, locations andlandscapes.

Toxicity: Degree to which a substance can damage aliving or non-living organism.

Toxicity parameters: Characteristic properties relating tothe toxicity of a substance.

Trace elements: Trace elements are substances with aconcentration in water of less than 100 micrograms perlitre. These can be inorganic or organic trace elementsthat effect the quality of water.

Trichloroethylene (TCE): Aliphatic, chlorinated organiccompound. One of the most commonly used cleaning anddegreasing agents. It also serves as an extracting agent fornatural fat, resin, oil and wax. The substance belongs tothe group of volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons (►VCHC)and is classified as a category 1 carcinogen and germ cellmutagen.

Trickling filters (also known as trickle-bed or trickle-flow reactors): Wastewater treatment system in whichthe water is cleaned by being trickled over a porous fixedbed (e.g. volcanic slag). The organic materials separatedfrom the water are biodegraded by micro-organisms onthe fixed bed (the “microbial film”).

UASB – upflow anaerobic sludge blanket: UASB is acontinuous process involving the constant flow ofwastewater and sludge through the reactor. The systememploys a counterflow configuration with the wastewatersupplied at the bottom of the reactor. The specialstructure of the reactor well comprises a sludge bed(anaerobic reaction zone), gas/solid separator andsedimentation chamber.

Ultra-filtration: See ►Micro-filtration.

Untreated water: Water before it has been purified orcleaned, e.g. to produce drinking water.

Urine water: Urine from separation toilets and urinals,with or without flush water.

Vermicomposting: ►Aerobic composting processperformed by micro-organisms and worms. Theadvantages of this method over conventional compostingare a higher process speed, increased mineralisation rateof contained nutrients and ability to process relativelysmall volumes.

Viscosity: Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow. It isdefined by the frictional resistance offered by a liquidagainst deformation.

Volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons (VCHC): Organiccompounds in which up to four hydrogen atoms arereplaced with chlorine atoms. VCHCs were commonlyused as solvents and cleaning agents well into the 1980sand primarily evaporated into the atmosphere. Due totheir longevity, VCHCs are still ubiquitous in theatmosphere today. In the past, large volumes of thesesubstances found their way into the subsoil due tocarelessness, improper handling, sedimentation oraccidents.

Volatile halogenated hydrocarbons (VHHC): Organiccompounds containing both carbon and hydrogen as wellas halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine).VHHCs were (and sometimes still are) used as cleaningand extracting agents, solvents, refrigerants, greenhousegases (CFCs, freons) or as fire-extinguishing agents(halons). Similarly to the three ►BTEX aromatics, theyaccumulate in the soil gas but, unlike the former, canpenetrate down to the confining bed. Some VHHCs arenot only toxic but also damaging to the ozone layer (CFCs,halons) or carcinogenic.

Vulnerability: In the field of ecology, this terms refers to aparticularly high sensitivity to environmental conditionsand outside interference.

Waste sludge: The excess biomass produced duringbiological wastewater treatment (► activated sludge). It isextracted from the activated sludge basin and dehydratedto form “sewage sludge”.

Water Framework Directive (WFD): See ► EU WaterFramework Directive.

Water governance: Term for a holistic watermanagement process comprising ecological, economicand social aspects as well as regulatory and non-regulatory measures. The comprehensive and earlyinvolvement of the public in decision making-processes(e.g. poor persons who have little or no access to drinkingwater) is of central importance to the “water governance”approach, as is the participation of groups with differentinterests. In this context, water governance alsorepresents a means of conflict prevention or resolution(particularly in areas where water is scarce).

WFD: Water Framework Directive of the EuropeanCommunity; see ► EU Water Framework Directive.

Zeolite-supported Pd catalysts: The active substances ofa catalyst are often precious metals of the platinum group,in this case palladium (Pd). In a conventional vehiclecatalytic converter, these fine precious metal particles areapplied to porous ceramic surfaces to maximise contactwith the medium to be cleaned. In this case, the samefunction is performed by zeolites, both in their naturallyoccurring form and as industrially manufacturedminerals with a large surface area (porosity). They are alsoreferred to as “molecular sieves”. The tiny palladiumparticles in the pores of the zeolites break down the smallcontaminant molecules, while the large sulphurousmolecules, which also occur in groundwater, remainoutside.

Zero control: Untreated control serving as the standard inexperiments against which the other, treated samples aremeasured.


GLOSSARY 173

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