Environmental Flows for Sustainable Water Resource Management in Uganda

Environmental Flows for SustainableWater Resource Management in Uganda: ACase Study of Rwizi Catchment.

UNESCO-IHE INSTITUTE FOR WATER EDUCATION

Pamela Lawino OkoriMSc Thesis ES 10.20

April 2010

UNESCO-IHEINSTITUTE FOR WATER EDUCATION

Environmental Flows for Sustainable WaterResource Management in Uganda: A case study

of Rwizi Catchment.

Master of Science Thesis by

Pamela Lawino Okori

SupervisorsProf. J. O’Keeffe, PhD, MSc (UNESCO-IHE)

P. Kelderman, PhD, MSc (UNESCO-IHE)M. McClain, PhD, MSc (UNESCO-IHE)

Examination CommitteeProf. J. O`Keeffe, PhD, MScK. S. Meijer, MSc (Deltares)

P. Kelderman, PhD, MSc

This research is done for the partial fulfilment of requirements for the Master ofScience degree at the

UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, the Netherlands

DelftApril 2010

The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed inthis study do neither necessarily reflect the views of theUNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, nor of theindividual members of the MSc committee, nor of theirrespective employers.

Blessed are those who trust in the Lord and have made theLord their hope and confidence.

They are like trees planted along a riverbank, with rootsthat reach deep into the water. Such trees are not bothered

by the heat or worried by long months of drought. Theirleaves stay green and they go right on producing delicious

fruits.

Jeremiah 17 : 7-8

Dedication

To my sister and friend Ms. Annette Nakimera (MaamaAngela), your unremitting

spiritual support enabled me get to the height of thisacademic achievement.

Thank you, and may the Lord remember you always.

Abstract

World over today, there is increasing demand for freshwater resources to meet and satisfy human requirements invarious ways. It is estimated that by 2025 almost 70% ofthe world’s water resources will be allocated foranthropogenic activities. Yet currently, approximately 60%of rivers in the world have been modified andhydrologically altered reducing river flows, altering flowregimes, affecting variability and ecosystem healthresulting to loss of biodiversity. Whereas Uganda is wellendowed with considerable freshwater resources the countryis now facing water related challenges due to rapidpopulation growth, environmental degradation, increasedurbanization and industrialization. In 2005, Lake Victoria,the largest fresh water lake in Uganda and Africaexperienced a drop in water levels perhaps due to over-allocation of water for socio-economic activities andneglecting ecosystem water requirements.

A central pillar of ecosystem preservation and maintenanceis the concept of Environmental Flow (E-Flow). E-Flowconcepts aim at putting in place proper planning, designs,operations and management practices that preventmodification and/or transformation of river systems. Theconcepts are part of the Integrated Water ResourcesManagement (IWRM) framework, with emphasis on themaintenance of natural flow paradigms and water allocationmechanisms to ensure protection of ecosystem health. Giventhe need to better manage Uganda’s water resources therewas a need to investigate the current readiness forimplementation of E-flow concepts. The general objective ofthis study was to examine how the concepts of E-Flow withinthe legal and institutional framework of Uganda could beimplemented in order to contribute towards sustainablewater resources management in Uganda. A combination ofliterature review and key informant interviews with variousregulatory, statutory, regional bodies, governmentministries and departments were conducted.

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The study revealed that the notion stating “Uganda is wellendowed with abundant freshwater resources”, has distortednecessary attention regarding prioritization of waterresources. E-Flow implementation would strengthencomponents of the current legal framework towardsachievement of mandatory goals and objectives thussustainable development of the Ugandan water resources.Opportunities for E-Flow implementation, the major onebeing the shift from centralized to decentralized IWRM doexist. Although key informants interviews showedwillingness to implement E-Flow concepts, it was also notedthat there is general laxity and non-compliances inimplementation of related environmental laws due to lowenforcement. The study showed that while the Rwizicatchment receives considerable amounts of rainfall thereseems to be little groundwater recharge thus negativelyaffecting base flow during the dry season. Catchmentmanagement options are therefore required to preventpopulation water stressful situations or compromise ofecosystem water needs during the dry seasons.

The study thus provided a broad overview of suitability andapplicability of E-Flow implementation as a mechanism toenhance informed, equitable and sustainable decisions inmanagement of water resources in Uganda.

Keywords: Environmental Flows, Natural Flow Paradigm, RwiziCatchment, Water Quality, Prati Index.

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Acknowledgements

Great thanks to the Almighty God for His grace and merciesthat enabled me to complete this MSc study and thesis.

I am very grateful to my supervisor Prof. J. O`Keeffe ofUNESCO-IHE for his invaluable guidance and encouragementduring the research period. I am deeply indebted to mymentors, Dr. Peter Kelderman and Dr. Michael McClain ofUNESCO-IHE, whose stimulating suggestions and encouragementhelped me throughout the time of the research and withoutwhom this write up would not have been successfullyaccomplished. Profound thanks, to my former colleagues from theDirectorate of Water Resources Management, who gave me allthe necessary support during my field work in Uganda. I amespecially and will forever be grateful to Dr. CallistTindimugaya, Commissioner-Water Resources Planning andRegulation for the trust and allowing me access allinformation archives, within and outside of the Ministry ofWater and Environment. Ms. Gwendolyn Kyoburungi, myacademic achievement was wrapped in your heart; ChristineMukwaya, your credence in my ability compelled me tostrife; Faima Ayimo, I deeply appreciated your assiduouswillingness to see me through; Monica Nambirige, thank youso much for your continuous support; Okello Lawrence,Kiwalabye Charles and Mugisha Louis many thanks.

Special thanks to my friends of National EnvironmentManagement Authority for the invaluable support andencouragement during my research, Dr. Festus Bagora, GeorgeMatovu-Lubega, Francis Ogwal, Jennifer Kutesakwe and JudieMuwonge, thank you all for the immeasurable assistance.

Many thanks to colleagues and students at UNESCO-IHE:Lakshmi E. Clarli-Joseph you inspired me; NzabonantumaLonard, you were God sent; Yemane, it was possible; OrupCeaser, you gave me confidence; Caroline Murungi myroommate, your friendship and support made it much easier,thank you.

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My brothers Robert and Steven Ogwang and mother Lucy OgwangI appreciate your support and love.

I pay my heartiest thanks to all the interviewees forsharing their time and providing me with the requiredinformation for the completion of this work. Special thanksto the Minister of State for Environment, Ms. Jecisa Eriyofor going out of her busy schedule and providing time toparticipate in the key informant interview, I was humbled.

Above all, I thank my family, especially my husband Dr.Patrick Okori together with our son Pennuel and daughtersPagiel and Purity for their love, patience andunderstanding during the long absence from home but for aworthy cause. Your moral and spiritual support made iteasier “I mused while the fire burnt”.

Pamela OkoriApril 2010

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Table of ContentsDedication............................................viiAbstract................................................iList of Abbreviations...................................x

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION.......................11.1 The need for planned and sustainable use of waterresources...............................................11.1.2.......Environmental Flows: A strategic approach toplanned water utilization.............................1

1.2 Statement of the problem...........................21.3 Significance of the study..........................21.4 Research objectives................................31.4.1....................................General objective

31.4.2.....The specific objectives of this study were to:

31.4.3.................................. Research questions

31.4.4..................................Report Presentation

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CHAPTER TWO-LITERATURE REVIEW....................52.1 Global challenge to water resources management.....52.2 Integrated Water Resources Management..............52.2.1..................The Concept of Environmental Flows

62.2.2.................................. Aquatic Ecosystems

72.2.3...........................The Natural Flow Paradigm

82.2.4..........Methods of Environmental Flow Assessments

92.3 Policies and legislations related to EnvironmentalFlows..................................................112.3.1 Experiences of countries with Environmental Flows.....................................................112.3.2..................................Sectoral conclusion

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CHAPTER THREE - MATERIALS AND METHODS...........153.1 Description of study area.........................15

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3.1.1................................Geographical location15

3.1.2......Water Resources Distribution and Availability16

3.1.3...........................The River Rwizi Catchment17

3.2 Research Methodology..............................213.2.1.......................Primary source of information

223.2.2....................Secondary Sources of Information

223.2.3.........................................Data Analysis

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CHAPTER FOUR –RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS...........274.1 Policy and Legal Framework for Water and Environment

274.1.1. . .Overview of provision of elements of E-Flows inthe legislations.....................................27

4. 2 International Conventions.........................424.3 Institutions involved in implementation of the legalframework..............................................444.3.1. An overview of institutional arrangements and keyinformant interviews.................................444.3.2. . . Statistical summary of major findings from keyinformant interviews.................................51

4.4 Comparison with other Countries..................534.4.1..........The South African Water Act No 36 of 1998

534.4.2. . .The United Republic of Tanzanian National WaterPolicy - July 2002...................................544.4.3. .Lessons Uganda could learn and/or adopt from theRepublic of South African Water Act (1998) and WaterPolicy (2002) of the United Republic of Tanzania.....56

4.5 Case Study of the River Rwizi Catchment...........594.5.1 General information, survey and observation of thecatchment areas......................................594. 5.2 Water quality related information.............634. 5.3 Water quantity related Information............664. 5.4 The steps that Uganda can take in implementationE-Flows..............................................73

CHAPTER FIVE - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. .76

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5.1 Conclusions.......................................765.2 Recommendation....................................77

References......................................78APPENDICES......................................83APPENDICES.............................................84Appendix I: Semi structure interview questionnaire. . .84Appendix II: List of Key Informants..................86Appendix III: Ugandan National Policies, Laws andRegulations..........................................89Appendix IV: River Rwizi hydrological data...........90Appendix V: Water Quality data.......................91Appendix V: Prati Index..............................91Appendix VI: Tenant Method for E-Flow Assessment.....92Estimated and Actual water consumption levels(UNWDR,2005).........................................92Appendix VII: Ratified Convention related to water andenvironment in Uganda................................94Appendix VIII: Quotes from Key Informants............95Appendix: IX.........................................99Terms of Reference for the CAC.......................99

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List of Tables

Table 2-1: Various definitions of Environmental Flows. . . .6Table 2-2: Australian National Principles for the provisionof water for ecosystems.................................13Table 3-1: Climatic parameters of Rwizi Catchment area(DSER, 2006)............................................19Table 3-2: Key informants and institutions involved in thestudy...................................................23Table 4-1: Key Stakeholders involved in the EIA process inUganda..................................................41Table 4-2:Gazette RAMSAR sites in Uganda (Source: WetlandInspectorate Department)................................43Table 4-3: Challenges /limitations of E-Flow implementation........................................................51Table 4-4: Opportunities for E-Flow implementation InUganda..................................................52Table 4-5: Major Wastewater Discharge into the Rwizi River........................................................65Table 5-1: Important issues for successful implementationof E-Flows in Uganda....................................77

List of Figures

Figure 2-0-1: Analytical framework for ecosystem functionsand services (Adopted: Hes et al., 2008).....................7Figure 2-0-2: Aquatic biodiversity and natural flow regimes(Bunn and Arthington, 2002)..............................8Figure 3-0-1: Major Catchments in Uganda (Source; DWRM ) 15Figure 3-0-2: Dropping water levels of Lake Victoria(Source; GoU-SER, 2006).................................16Figure 3-3: Demarcated water management zones followingdecentralized IWRM Implementation (Sources; DWRM).......17Figure 3-0-4: Rwizi Catchment covering five districts(Sources: DWRM GIS Centre)...................................18Figure 3-0-5: Variation in Mean Annual Rainfall (Source:DWRM)...................................................19Figure 3-0-6: Evaporation Monthly Time Series (Source;DWRM)...................................................19

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Figure 3-0-7: Topography of the Rwizi Catchment ( Source;DWRM)...................................................20Figure 3-0-8: Influence and importance matrix forstakeholder analysis....................................25Figure 4-0-1: The legal framework for water andenvironmental management in Uganda......................27Figure 4-0-2: Distribution of Hydropower generationProjects (Sources: MEMD resource centre)................34Figure 4-0-3: Massive tree planting on bear hills tofacilitate water infiltration (Source: NFA website,February, 2010).........................................39Figure 4-0-4: Informant Interview with the .. Figure 4-0-5:Informant interview with Rwizi Chairman CAO Catchment theMinister of state for Environment45Figure 4-0-7: Structure of Ministry of Water andEnvironment (Source- Water Resources Management Sub-SectorRe-form Study, Vol. 1, January 2005)....................45Figure 4-0-8: Location of the WfP Facilities within theCattle Corridor Districts (Source: WfP Resource centre,DWD)....................................................47Figure 4-0-9: Earth Dam result of impoundmentFigure 4-0-10:Fetching water from a Valley Dam 47Figure 4-0-11: Components of the South African Waterresources management strategy components................56Figure 4-0-12: Structure of the Catchment AdvisoryCommittee ( Source; DWRM)...............................60Figure 4-0-13: Importance and Influence Matrix..........61Figure 4-0-14: Technical capacity at district levels fornatural resources management............................62Figure 4-0-15: River Rwizi as it flows that Mbarara Town 64Figure 4-0-16 Flow Duration Curve Comparing Ndeizha and OldWater Works Gauging Stations (Source; DWRM).............66Figure 4-0-17: River Rwizi flows in 1993 with E-Flow at 10%........................................................68Figure 4-0-18: River Rwizi flows in 1999 with E-Flow at 10%........................................................69Figure 4-0-19: River Rwizi flows in 1995 with E-Flow at 20%........................................................70Figure 4-0-20: River Rwizi flows in 1999 with E-Flow at 20%........................................................70Figure 4-0-21: Monthly variation in rainfall in the RwiziCatchment (Sources; Meteorological Department)..........71

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Figure 4-0-22: Schematic picture of the steps that Ugandacould follow to institute E-Flow........................74

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List of Abbreviations

ASEC: Australian State of Environment CommitteeBBM: Building Block MethodsBOD: Biological Oxygen DemandCBO: Convention on BiodiversityCOAG: Council of Australian GovernmentDEA: Directorate of Environment AffairsDEC District Environment CommitteeDEO District Environment OfficerDRIFT: Downstream Response to Imposed FlowTransformationDSER: District State of Environment ReportDWAF: Department of Water Affairs and ForestryDWD: Directorate of Water DevelopmentDWRM: Directorate of Water Resources ManagementEFA: Environmental Flow AssessmentE-Flows: Environmental FlowsEIA: Environmental Impact AssessmentGIS: Geographical Information SystemGoU: Government of UgandaGWP: Global Water PartnershipIFIM: In-stream Flow Incremental MethodologyIUCN: International Union for Conservation of

Nature and Natural ResourcesIWIM: International Water Management InstituteIWRM: Integrated Water Resources ManagementLVEMP: Lake Victoria Environment management Project m.a.s.l: Meters Above Sea LevelMDB: Murray Darling BasinMAR: Mean Annual RunoffMEA: Millennium Environmental AssessmentsMEMD: Ministry of Energy and Mineral DevelopmentNBI: Nile Basin InitiativeNEMA: National Environmental Management AuthorityNFA: National Forestry AuthorityNWP: National Water PolicyNWQMS: National Water Quality Management Strategy, 2006PEAP: Poverty Eradication Action PlanSER: State of Environment ReportUBOS: Uganda Bureau of Statistics

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UNCED: United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopmentWfP Water for ProductionWMZ: Water Management ZonesWQP: Water Quality PolicyWRM: Water Resources ManagementWHO: World Health OrganisationWWF: World Wildlife Fund

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Environmental Flow for Sustainable Water Resources Management in Uganda: A Case Study of RwiziCatchment

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

1.1 The need for planned and sustainable use ofwater resources

Water resources all over the world are currently beingtransformed and adapted in various ways to meet and satisfyhuman requirements. Among the changes are impoundments forconstruction of dams and weirs, construction of floodabatement structures, drainage return flows, inter-basinwater transfers, abstraction for agricultural and urbanwater supplies, and maintenance for navigation flows(Arthington and Pusey, 2003; Tharme, 1996; Dyson et al.,2003; Hirji and Davis, 2009). Moreover, it is alreadyprojected that by the year 2025 almost 70% of the world’swater resources (surface and groundwater) will be allocatedfor anthropogenic activities (Postel et al., 1996; Postel,1998 cited in Tharme, 2003; Ravenga et al., 2000). Over theworld, approximately 60% of rivers have now been modifiedand hydrologically altered with at least 46% of catchmentshaving a large dam (Ravenga et al., 2000). Subsequently, thishas resulted in reduced river flows, thereby altering flowregimes, affecting variability and ecosystem health andresulting into loss of biodiversity (de Groot, 1987;Coastanza et al., 1997; Poff et al., 1997). It is now generallyaccepted that natural flow regimes are key in maintainingecosystem health and human welfare (Dyson et al., 2008;O`Keeffe and Le Quesne, 2009). The natural flow paradigmsthat comprise of five key variables that are magnitude,frequency, duration, timing and rate of change are nowrecognized as key in sustaining biodiversity and ecosystemsintegrity (Poff and Ward, 1989; Kar, 1991; Naimen et al.,1995).

1.1.2 Environmental Flows: A strategic approach to planned water utilization

The increased demand for sustainable use of water resourcesfor various development activities has led to the emergenceof Environmental Flow (E-Flow) Concepts. In general, theconcepts aim at putting in place proper planning, designs,Pamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 1


operations and management practices that preventmodification and /or transformation of natural flow regimesof river systems. The concepts of E-Flow are part ofIntegrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) framework,albeit with an emphasis on maintenance of natural flowparadigms and water allocation mechanisms to ensureprotection of ecosystem health (Tharme, 2006). The generaloutcome of these interventions are negation of reduced flowvolumes, poor water quality and irregular patterns whichgovern ecosystem function that downstream communitiesdepend upon for survival (Hirji and Davis, 2009; O`Keeffeand Le Quesne, 2009).

The concept calls for balancing of water quantity, qualityand ecosystem integrity in water resources management andserves to enhance informed, equitable and sustainabledecision making. E-Flow concepts are emerging globalpriority for sustainable management of water resources thathave been adopted in all continents and various countriesworld over for instance: Europe, North America, Australia,South America- Mexico, Africa-Kenya, Tanzania and SouthAfrica, Asia- China etc. The major focus of which is toenhance sustainable use and management of water resourcesthrough enhanced riverine ecosystems. Uganda has extensiveriver systems to which implementation of concepts of E-Flows could address sustained water use, however, theconcept has not yet been adopted in-spite of its potentialusefulness. In Uganda and world over, today, E-Flows areincreasingly being considered as a critical element ofdevelopment interventions. Accordingly, internationalorganizations and development partners like WorldConservations Union (IUCN), World Bank, and WWF are nowadvocating for implementation of E-Flows towardssustainable water resources management (Dyson et al., 2003).

1.2 Statement of the problem

Water of adequate quantity and good quality is essentialfor production, and contributes towards poverty reduction,socio-economic development and ecosystem health. WhereasUganda is well endowed with considerable freshwater

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resources (lakes, rivers, wetlands, swamps) the country isnow facing water related challenges which are resulting todecreasing water coverage/availability, water pollution andrising conflicts among water users (Water Policy, 1999).The major causes are rapid population growth, increasedurbanization and industrialization, uncontrolledenvironmental degradation through poor agriculturalpractices, discharge of industrial and municipal effluents,and poor sanitation and deforestation (Water Policy, 1999;Rubarenzya, 2008). The negative consequences of these beingreduced E-Flows resulting into diminishing productivity,threatened biodiversity, degraded water quality andescalated poverty, unfortunately borne by the communitiesthat depend on the would-be ecological goods and services(MEA, 2005; King and Brown, 2006). For example, in 2005Lake Victoria experienced a drop in water levels perhapsdue to over-allocation of water for economic activities andneglecting ecosystem water requirements (LVEMP Report,2008).

It should however be noted that Government of Uganda (GoU)is cognizant of the need for sustained exploitation of thenatural resources base. In the early 1990’s enablinginstitutional and legal frameworks were enacted by law toprovide for sustainable water resources management(Constitution of Uganda, 1995). These laws were developedbased on the principals of IWRM and as such, elements of E-Flows were enshrined in them. Nevertheless, theirimplementation in water resources management has not beenoperationalised, although a non-verified level of awarenessof its importance for sustainable management of waterresources does exist. Moreover, a lack of expertise andskills on the methods of its implementation are alsopresent. Thus the provision of basic explanatory todetailed scientifically based mechanisms for rational waterallocation for economic developmental purposes andecosystem health maintenance in water resources in Ugandais now required.

Pamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 3


1.3 Significance of the study

Uganda’s water resources are very vital for sustaininghuman life, promoting socio-economic development andprotection of the environment (Water Policy, 1998). GoU’scommitment to promote sustainable development of its waterresources was demonstrated as early as the 1990s when itembraced IWRM approach based on the guiding principles fromRio and Dublin UNCED environmental proceedings of 1992 and1996 respectively (Environment Policy, 1994). A WaterAction Plan (1993-1994) which laid the foundation for acomprehensive legal, policy and institutional framework wasprepared. The necessary management tools that includedsetting up nation-wide monitoring network, databases,assessments, and regulatory tools were developed (WaterResources Regulations, 1998). Driven by the urge tosustainably manage her water resources, through the years,sector reforms have been on-going and recommendationsimplemented. Most recent of the sector reform outputs wasthe establishment of the Directorate of Water ResourcesManagement and endorsement of the Water Quality Policy(2007). Following the 2003-2005 sector reform long termobjectives, there is now a shift from centralised tocatchment water resources management zones driven bystakeholder participation to ensure that local inputs,ideas and concerns are incorporated in water resourcesmanagement ( NWQMS, 2006).

Overall, GoU’s urge to continually improve its waterresources management as one of its priority areas, clearlyshows the countries predisposition towards sustainablemanagement of her waters (NEMA, 2004). The importance of E-Flows in conserving ecosystems and biodiversity to ensurecontinued provision of ecosystem goods and services uponwhich the very poor depend, is in line with the country’sPoverty Eradication and Action Plan (UNWDR, 2005).Moreover, its implementation will provide a moretransparent and scientifically based mechanism of waterallocation thereby improving ecosystem health, social andeconomic welfare and overall sustainable management ofwater resources.

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1.4 Research objectives

1.4.1 General objectiveThe general objective of the study was to examine how theconcepts of E-Flows within the legal and institutionalframework of Uganda could be implemented in order tocontribute towards sustainable water resources managementin the country.

1.4.2 The specific objectives of this study were to:1) Identify elements of E-Flows in Uganda’s water and

environment related laws and policies to assesssuitability of their applications towards sustainablewater resources management of rivers in the country.

2) Assess the impact and implications of internationalconventions that Uganda has ratified and how theycould be used to promote implementation of E-Flows inUganda.

3) Undertake case studies on water legislations of theRepublic of South Africa and the United Republic ofTanzania that provided for E-Flows, in order to drawlessons and best practices that Uganda could learnfrom and/or adopt.

4) To illustrate the possible steps that may be followedtowards implementation of E-Flows in water resourcesmanagement in Uganda, and demonstrate how E-FlowsAssessment for river Rwizi could be allocated based onthe Tenant method.

1.4.3 Research questionsThis study was guided by a number of research questionspresented below:

1) Where within the water and environmental policies andlaws were elements of E-Flows provided in regards towater resources management in Uganda? What are theresponsible institutions? What has been done and how?What has not been done and why?

2) What are the international convections Ugandaratified? Identify elements of E-Flows; do the



conventions have any influence on the policy decisionsat the national level? Are there provisions forimplementation of elements of E-Flows in theorganograms of implementing institutions?

3) How did the Republic of South Africa and the UnitedRepublic of Tanzania provide for elements of E-Flowsin their legal framework? What are the good practicesand lessons that Uganda could learn and/or adopt?

4) What steps would Uganda take in institutingimplementation of E-Flows in Uganda? Whatopportunities and challenges do exist and what shouldUganda put in place for successful implementation ofE-Flows? How would E-Flow assessment be conductedusing the Tennant method on Rwizi Catchment?

1.4.4 Report PresentationThe study started by identifying elements of E-Flowsenshrined within the water and environment legal frameworkto assess suitability of their implementation towardssustainable management of water resources in Uganda.Institutions implementing these laws were examined fortechnical provision in their organograms for implementationof E-Flow concept. The impacts and implication ofinternational conventions related to water and environmentthat Uganda ratified were assessed for the possibility ofpromoting implementation of E-Flows in Uganda. Lesson andbest practices that Uganda could learn and/or adopt fromthe Water Act (1998) of Republic of South Africa and WaterPolicy (2001) of the United Republic of Tanzania towardsimplementation of concepts of E-Flows were outlined.Finally a demonstration of how E-Flow assessment for RiverRwizi could be conducted based on the Tenant Method wasdepicted, and the steps Uganda could follow in institutingimplementation of E-Flows towards sustainable management ofthe Uganda river resources were illustrated. The reportconsists of five chapters below is a summary of thechapters;

Chapter one, gives brief introduction to the concepts of E-flows, problem statement, significance of the study,6 MSc thesis


research objectives and research questions. While ChapterTwo, presents the literature review related to the conceptof E-Flows and experiences of countries that have providedfor E-Flow in their legal framework and/or implementating.

Chapter Three, shows the materials and methods used in thestudy. It entails a brief description of the study areas(Uganda and Rwizi Catchment), approaches used to obtainboth primary (key informant interviews) and secondarysources (majorly literature reviews), data and information,data analysis and the limitations of the study.

Chapter Four, presents results and discussion of the study,elements of E-Flows within the national legal frameworkwere identified and provision for implementation ininstitution framework assessed. Impacts of ratifiedinternational conventions on E-Flow implementation wereassessed and good practices that Uganda could adopt orlearn from the South Africa Water Act (1998) and TanzanianWater Policy (2001) were identified. Finally the state ofpopulation stress in the Rwizi catchment was assessed usingthe Tenant method and steps that Uganda should follow ininstituting E-Flow implementation in water resourcesmanagement was recommended. Lastly, Chapter Five gives themain conclusions and recommendations for critical researchareas towards E-Flow implementation in Uganda.



CHAPTER TWO-LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Global challenge to water resources management

Before the 1990’s water resources management was onlycarried out with the aim of supplying water to meet humanneeds. The focus was on allocation of water for economicactivities like hydropower generation, irrigation schemes,urbanisation, industrialisation, with limited attention tothe health of ecosystems (Dyson et al., 2003). Moreoverthere was no awareness or correlation of negative impact ofover-abstraction, poor water quality, changing of flowregime through damming of rivers or draining of wetlands onecosystem health.

Globally for rivers, exploitation of water resources hasled to degradation of freshwater biodiversity and loss ofservices, in some cases even resulting to stopping flowsand drying of river beds (King et al., 2000; Katz, 2006).Unfortunately, the processes of disrupting the resourcesare not vivid and consequences of over-exploitation areonly realized by the communities that depend on theseresources for socio-economic activities after seriousdamages have occurred (de Groot, 1987; Kings and Brown,2006). According to the authors it is likely that theeffects of climatic change will be manifested through thehydrological cycle because of the rising demand for waterfor food and energy production from the escalating globalpopulation (O`Keeffe and Le Quesne, 2009). Water resourcesmanagers are now coming to terms with the fact that ifeconomic benefits from water resources are to be sustained,then a more holistic approach in water resources managementthat includes ecosystem preservation has to be adopted.These collectively resulted into the birth of IntegratedWater Resources Management which empowers stakeholders andentrust them with management of their water in asustainable manner (GWP, 2003).

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2.2 Integrated Water Resources Management

As defined by GWP (2000), Integrated Water ResourcesManagement (IWRM) “is a process that promotes coordinateddevelopment and management of water, land and relatedresources in order to maximize the resultant economic andsocial welfare in an equitable manner without compromisingthe sustainability of vital ecosystems.” The majorchallenge of IWRM is the practice to allocate water, oftentimes the well placed consumers (economically, socially orpolitically) that justify their water use, are often givenwhile compromising ecosystems that are silent users(Korsgraard, 2006). An argument by Bisaws (2004), is thatthe definition was attractively packaged but the conceptdoes not show which aspects need to be integrated, by whom,how and the feasibility of integration remains wanting.Much as IWRM addresses all the other social and economicneeds, ecosystems are not often given priority or dueconsideration in water allocation mechanism. Therefore,taking a wider picture of ecosystems protection andconservation approach into IWRM is the concepts of E-Flows(Tharme, 2003; Bisaws, 2004; Korsgraad, 2006).Implementation of IWRM with a focus on riverine ecosystemsis best managed within the framework of E-Flows. In thecase of Uganda, IWRM concepts has been enshrined within thewater and environment laws, however, implementation of E-Flows has not yet been operationalised. The focus of thisthesis is to examine the potential application of E-Flowsin the management of Uganda’s riverine ecosystems.

2.2.1 The Concept of Environmental FlowsIn response to saving rivers around the world and preventtheir subsequent hydrological alterations and associatedenvironmental degradation the concept of E-Flows weredeveloped two decades ago (Tharme, 2003). There is nospecific definition of E-Flows; a number of definitionshave evolved from various regions in the world, differentauthors, and scientists and even quoted it differently invarious legal instruments (Table 2-1). Generally, E-Flowsindicates the water that is intentionally left in the riverto flow downstream and keep the ecosystems functioning isthe desired state, that is often a compromise between



different users and may require trade offs (O`Keeffe and LeQuesne, 2009) . Other terms are used interchangeably withthe word E-Flows, for instance it may be referred to as“Reserve” (South African Water Act, 1998), “minimum flow”(Swiss Water Protection Act, 1999), “in stream flow” or“ecological flow” (Dyson el al., 2003).

Table 2-1: Various definitions of Environmental FlowsSouth African Water Act (1998), “The quality, quantity anddistribution of water required to maintain the components, functionsand processes of aquatic ecosystems on which people depend.”

Dyson et al. (2003), “Water regime provided within a river, wetland orcoastal zone to maintain ecosystems and their benefits where competingwater uses and flows are regulated.”

Hirji and Panella (2003), “An allocation of water with a prescribeddistribution in space and time deliberately left in a river orreleased to maintain river health and integrity of ecosystem sustainedby river flows.”

Tharme and King (1998), “An assessment of how much of the originalflow regime of a river should continue to flow down it and on to thefloodplains in order to maintain specified valued features or theecosystem”.

IWMI (2004), “The provision of water for freshwater depended ecosystemto maintain their integrity, productivity, services and benefits incases when such ecosystem are subject to flow regulations andcompetition for multiple water users”.

Hirji and Davis, (2009) “E-Flow concept recognizes that there is aphysical limit or a carrying capacity beyond which a water resourcesuffers irreversible damages to its ecosystem function, thereforecalling for an allocation of water for ecosystem needs”.

Overall, E-Flows is a research area that is committed toavailing water resources managers with the necessary toolsfor prudent water allocation given the uniqueness anddifferences between rivers (Tharme, 2003). The concept doesnot prevent water abstraction for human preservation ratherit recognizes that rivers have their own water needs,therefore calling for a fair allocation amongst users. Flowrequirements then becomes a societal choice depending onthe desired future state of the health of the riverecosystem. Therefore, science becomes a support to

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stakeholders’ decision and can only provide technicalguidance regarding the kind of dominant ecosystem underprevailing flow regimes (Dyson et al., 2003). Accordingly,setting E-Flows is both a matter of socio-political actionsthat also require negotiation through tradeoffs among thevarious users (Korsgraad, 2006). The major elements of E-Flows are presented below.

2.2.2 Aquatic EcosystemsThe term ecosystem was first used by Arthur Tansley, aBritish Scientists in 1935. In his explanations he statedthat without any major climatic, natural or anthropogenicinterference/ disturbances ecosystems are self-regenerating. An ecosystem is a natural unit of communitiescomprising of plants, animals and micro-organisms whichlive, feed, reproduce and interact with their naturalenvironments (Turner, 1991). They may be terrestrial oraquatic but distinct places with specific uniqueness,aquatic ecosystems may include Lake Ecosystems, RiverEcosystems, Swamp Ecosystems or Wetland Ecosystems (MEA,2005). Wetland ecosystems provide both goods and servicesupon which human population depend for survival eitherdirectly or indirectly (Figure 2-1, Acreman, 2001). Forpurposes of simplicity, Coastanza (et al.,1997) referred toboth ecosystem goods and service to mean ecosystemservices, these include: gas regulation, climaticregulation, disturbances regulations, water supply, erosioncontrol and sediment retention, soil formation, nutrientrecycling, waste purification/treatment, pollination,biological control, food production, raw materials, geneticresources, recreation, and cultural uses (de Groot, 1987;Turner, 1991; Coastanza et al.,1997).

Freshwater systems occupy only about 0.01% of the worlds’total surface water and yet, they are habitat for about 40%of all fish species in addition to vertebrates likeamphibians, reptiles, and mammals (Tharme, 2003; Katz,2006). Over the last 50 years all over the world,modification of rivers for the provision of water andenergy (Ravenga et. al. 2000) have altered flow regimesthereby compromising the capacity of ecosystems to functionand subsequent loss of biodiversity (de Groot, 1987; Poff



et al.,1997). Between the 1970 and 2000, there was a globaldecline of freshwater biodiversity of about 55% (Tharme,2003), putting terrestrial, avian and estuary wildlife thatare dependent on fresh water flows at risk (Allan andFlecker, 1993). In cognizance of the importance andcontribution of these services for sustaining human lifethe Convention of Biodiversity (CBD) that is now ratifiedby over 175 countries was formulated.

Figure 2-0-1: Analytical framework for ecosystem functions andservices (Adopted: Hes et al., 2008)

The CBD defines an ecosystem as “dynamic complex of plants,animals and micro-organism communities and their non-livingenvironment interacting as a functional unit” (Article 2,1992). And defines Biodiversity as “the variability amongliving organisms for all sources including, inter alia,terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystem and theecological complexes of which they are part; this includesdiversity within species, between species and ofecosystems’ (Article 2, 1992). Biodiversity is therefore astructural attribute of ecosystems and the uniquedifferences among ecosystems is the aspect of biodiversitywhich is the origin of ecosystem goods. The natural flowregime of a river including floods and droughts ought to beincluded to maintained biodiversity of the naturalcommunities in the rivers (Naimen et al., 1995; Poff et al., 1997;O`Keeffe and Le Quesne, 2009). Moreover undertakings toprotect aquatic ecosystems also incorporate water qualityand pollution prevention (Karr, 1991).

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2.2.3 The Natural Flow ParadigmStream flow quantity is one of the most crucial aspects ofa river system. It plays a central role in establishingphysico-chemical characteristics, regulate geomorphic anddetermines abundance and distribution of riverine species(Naimen et al., 1995; Poff et al., 1997). Natural flows of ariver that regulate ecological process are determined byfive components, viz. magnitude, duration, frequencies,timing and rate of change (Figure 2-2). These variations,that may be in terms of hours, days, seasons, years, areobtained from stream flow gauges or though extrapolationfrom streams with gauges within the same geographical areas(Naimen et al., 1995; Poff et al., 1997; Poff and Ward, 1998).Through observations and scientific studies it has now beenaccepted that altering natural flow regimes of a river isdetrimental for ecosystem integrity and biodiversity(Naimen et al.,1995; Poff et al., 1997; Poff and Ward, 1998).Closure of fisheries, groundwater depletion, water qualitydecline, water availability, intense flooding and riverbank erosion and sedimentation are symptoms of the presentriver management and economic development policies (Poff etal., 1997). In search of solutions to these problems, thescience of E-Flows was developed. E-Flows and itssubsequent assessments is devoted to retaining sufficientwater needed in the water course, thereby calling forappropriate water allocation along tradeoffs between allusers of the resource (King et al., 2000; Tharme, 2003).



Figure 2-0-2: Aquatic biodiversity and natural flow regimes (Bunn andArthington, 2002)Effect of changing flow regimes, with respect to four major principles: 1)Effect of flow on determination of physical habitat and consequently bioticcomposition in streams. 2) Effect of flow pattern on shaping life historypatterns of aquatic species. 3) Essentiality of maintaining natural patternsof longitudinal and lateral connectivity for the viability of populations ofmany riverine species. 4) Effect of flow regimes on the invasion and successof exotic and introduced species in rivers.

It is very important that societies understand theunderlying scientific principles behind natural flowregimes of rivers and their link to supplying vital goodsand services that contribute to their welfare. In this way,not only will they appreciate the concepts but also bewilling to contribute to river conservation and restoration(Naimen et al., 1995). Alterations of natural flows havecaused temporal changes in the hydrology of major rivers atthree different levels; small scale of days to weeks (floodpulse), medium scale of weeks to years (flow history), andlong-term scale of decades or longer (flow regime)(Arthington and Pusey, 2003). The effect of changing flowregimes were studied , with respect to four majorprinciples: 1) Effect of flow on determination of physicalhabitat and consequently biotic composition in streams. 2)Effect of flow pattern on shaping life history patterns ofaquatic species. 3) Essentiality of maintaining naturalpatterns of longitudinal and lateral connectivity for theviability of populations of many riverine species. 4)

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Effect of flow regimes on the invasion and success ofexotic and introduced species in rivers (Bunn andArthington, 2002) (Figure 2-2). However, water managershave not yet given E-Flows the due attention either becausethey have not appreciated it or are not aware of the linkbetween the fundamental scientific principles of river flowregimes and the ecosystem function (Poff et al.,1997).

2.2.4 Methods of Environmental Flow AssessmentsTharme (2003), states that 207 individual methodologies forassessment of E-Flows do exist in over about 44 countriesin different regions of the world, and has grouped theminto four distinctive classes namely, Hydrological,Hydraulic Ratings, Habitat Simulations and Holisticmethodologies.

2.2.4.1 Hydrological Methodology

This is the quickest, low cost and easiest method, usuallysuitable for initial scoping of water resources planningand development, in addition to solving low level waterconflicting cases. Often referred to as look-up table orfixed percentage this method is the simplest typicaldesktop technique of E-Flow estimation. The method makesuse of simple indices, the most widely applied beinghistorical hydrological flow records usually in the form ofnaturalized, historical monthly or daily flow records.Important to note is that these indices are statisticallygenerated or extrapolated from the natural flow regime ofthe river (Dyson et al., 2003). Following this therefore,minimum flow estimates that are assumed to be adequate tosatisfy ecosystem integrity are left or released into thewater course based on the percentages of mean annual flows(annually, monthly, seasonally) (Tharme, 2003). An exampleof the above method that is widely used is the Tennantmethod. The Tennant method correlates percentages of meanannual flow to specific classes of flow dependantsituations and grades the classes into varying degrees ofpoor, moderate, and good. The method is very popular andhas been applied to over 25 countries including NorthAmerica either in the original form or slightly modifiedwith a few added criteria. Though widely used the methodlacks ecological validity and cannot be transferred toPamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 15


another river because it does not incorporate site-specificconditions in addition to low resolution E-Flow estimates(Dyson et al., 2003).

2.2.4.2 Hydraulic Rating Methodology

This method was developed in the USA between 1960 and 1970sto ensure that in-stream flow required to boost economicfisheries were maintained. Of this method the most widelyused is the generic wetted perimeter, which assumes thatecosystem integrity is directly related to quantity ofwetted perimeter and as such E-Flows can be determinedusing wetted perimeter (Tharme and King, 1998). The methodapplies a statistical approach to ecological data andrelates independent variables (flows) to biotic dependentvariables (populations and communities). Further, itcombines both flows and ecology and considers the nature ofthe river making it more suitable for addressing E-Flows.Indices to indicate the various habitats within the riverat a given discharge are determined (Dyson et al., 2003). R-2 Cross Method is also another method of hydrologic ratingmethod that was developed about 25 years ago but is notvery widely used but found its applications at localscales. For instance, it is the benchmark nation-widemethod that is applied to determine E-Flows of thecoldwater of Colorado, USA (Tharme, 2003).

2.2.4.3 Habitat Simulations Methodology

This method relates changes of flow regime to response ofparticular species and communities after which habitat dataof a given species is then used to determine E-Flowrequirements. The method recognizes that the physicalcharacteristics (hydraulics, hydrology, geomorphology etc.)are the most negatively impacted upon by changes in flowregimes resulting from dam construction, poor land usepractices or water abstraction. Having been developed in1976, the method resulted into the development of the firstcomputer model called Physical Habitat Simulation by the USFish and Wildlife Service (Tharme, 2003). The model thatquantitatively relates the baseline flow regimes todifferent possible scenarios has been adopted by a numberof countries including France, Norway and New Zealand while16 MSc thesis


and others have developed similar models (Dyson et al., 2003).The In-stream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM) is asubgroup of the habitat simulation methodology (Tharme andKing, 1998). Whereas this method was developed by the thenCo-operative In-stream Flow Service Group in Colorado inthe 1970s, it is still regarded as the most scientificallyand legally defensible methodology by E-Flowspractitioners.

2.2.4.4 Holistic Methodology

Originally, E-Flows settings were determined on the groundsof a single sensitive species like fish. This was based onthe judgment that if the flows for such species wereprovided, then all the other species would as well havebeen catered for. However, a more holistic approach thatincorporates the whole ecosystem like wetlands, groundwaterand estuaries are now readily applied (Tharme 2006; Dysonet al., 2003). In addition, this approach also takes intoconsideration all sensitive invertebrates, plants andanimals as well as the hydrological regimes (floods,droughts, water quality). The Building Block Method (BBM)that was developed in South Africa, now with a writtenmanual was the first holistic method (King and O`Keeffe,1989; Brown and Joubert, 2003; Tharme, 2003). Itsflexibility, multidisciplinary, and consensus buildingincluding stakeholder involvement has made it one of themost powerful tools for E-Flows assessments. The methodutilises expert (Biological and Physical scientists)knowledge and experiences in capturing all the aspects ofthe river ecosystem. At the moment BBM is the most widelyapplied method with over 15 standard applications in SouthAfrica (Tharme and King, 1998; King et al., 2000) and as theonly method in Australia and Swaziland (Tharme, 2003) andbeing tried in the United States (Dyson et al., 2008). TheDownstream Response to Imposed Flow Transformation (DRIFT)that recently evolved from the BBM is a top-down holisticmethod that is composed of biophysical, social, scenarioand economic modules (Tharme, 2003; Brown and Joubert,2003; King et al., 2003). The major advantage of thisframework is its strong social economic module which isable to envisage the impacts of each scenario to the



beneficiaries and decision makers of the resources (Dysonet al., 2003; Tharme, 2003).

2.3 Policies and legislations related toEnvironmental Flows

Each country is unique and so are its water resources withthe prevailing conditions around them. So the design of theE-Flow regimes should consider all the prevailingdifferences. It is therefore critical to fully understandthe existing policies, laws, regulatory and institutionalframework of a given country (Hirji and Davis, 2009). Indeveloping E-Flows strategies, international treaties,convections and protocols related to water and environmentthe country is legally bound to or ratified ought to beidentified. For the importance that they supportimplementation at the domestic level in addition toinfluencing national policy decisions, actions andproviding guidelines on how strategies can be achieved(GWP, 2003). Secondly, the national laws, policies andresponsible institutions related to water and environmentalmanagement that may have a direct or indirect influence ofE-Flows implementation ought to be identified. Important tonote is that some policies may impact on E-Flowimplementation from an economic (Irrigation), social (watersupply) or environmental (water transfers for ecosystemspreservation) perspectives (Dyson et al., 2003).

2.3.1 Experiences of countries with Environmental FlowsHaving been developed only two decades ago E-Flows arestill a new concept that have not been adopted by manycountries and therefore not provided for in their policies,legislations and institutional framework. Considering thegrowing global water resources management problems severalcountries are experiencing, E-Flows is now viewed at as asustainable solution to water resources management. Overall the concept is being accepted and countries like SouthAfrica, Australia (O`Keeffe and Le Quesne, 2009) Mexico andTanzania (Acreman et al., 2005) among others have adopted itand made special provisions for its implementation in theirlegal framework. In order to draw lessons for countries

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such as Uganda that have not yet or may be in the processof implementing E-Flows, it is imperative that bestpractices be examined and considered for adoption with orwithout modifications as necessary.

2.3.1.1 Republic of South Africa

The South Africa old Water Act of 1956 emphasized more onriparian ownership, commercial based control of water(ushering in inequality) but had no provisions forenvironmental protection. Thus water was allocated to meetindustrial economic demand, urbanisation, mining,agriculture and forestry, of which agriculture requiredalmost half of the national water demand. At the same timethese activities especially mining severely polluted thewater resources. With just 1,200 m3 of available freshwaterper person per annum, predictions were that the countrywould be water scares by 2025. Therefore, this necessitateda shift of focus from developmental water planning andmanagement to increasing water use efficiency (conservationand reuse), protecting and conserving aquatic environments(Hirji and Davis, 2009). Other than addressing the issue ofinequality in the then Water Act (1956), the water stresssituation in South Africa required a new thinking inmanagement of its water resources. The new South AfricanConstitution (1997), now guarantee access to “sufficientwater” offers a right to an environment that is “notharmful to health or well being” of all citizens, as wellas environmental protection for the benefits of the presentand future generations (South African Water Act, 1998;Hirji and Davis, 2009). The act instituted the ‘Reserve’which is a given quantity and quality of water that isexcluded from any other water use, other than for supplyingbasic human (basic human need reserve) and ecosystem(ecological reserve) health water needs (South AfricanWater Act, 1998). South Africa was fortunate because italready had aquatic scientist and technical capacity forinstance the South African Society of Aquatic Scientists(Palmer, 1999), DWAF and Water Resource Commission that hadalready indentified the need to provide quantitativeestimates of E-Flow requirements. These scientists thentook advantage of the water reform which resulted intoseeing a number of provisions in the water policies andPamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 19


legislation in relation to implementation of E-Flows (Hirjiand Davis, 2009).

2.3.1.2 Australia

The Murray Darling Basin (MDB) that covers about fivedifferent states is Australia’s major inland river systemhas most of its rivers heavily regulated. In addition thereis river diversion to support the irrigation industry,urban water supplies and the large population. Followingthe 1980 severe drought in this region, there was a publicawareness on the effects of over water allocation and arealization of the deteriorating water quality by 1990(rivers, wetlands, estuaries, aquifers) (Arthington andPusey, 2003). In 1994, the Council of Australia Governments(COAG) undertook a major water sector reform with a keyoutcome of allocating water for environmental benefits(Hirji and Davis, 2009). Following this, were agreements toapply the best available scientific information indetermining environmental water requirements and waterallocation plans for restoring ecological health of overallocated water resources. COAG then agreed upon 12principles (Table 2-2) for the provision of ecosystem waterneeds so as to provide a rational and/or unified frameworkfor water resources management (Hirji and Davis, 2009).Furthermore in 2004, the National Water Initiative wasinstigated to hasten water reforms that were lagging behindamong which was implementation of E-Flows. The outcome ofwhich were; the recognition of the environment as a lawfulwater user, provision of water allocation plans for allcatchments, operationalisation of methods to return flowsto surface and groundwater systems of over stressed areasand trading of E-Flows (Poff et. al., 2003; Hirji and Davis,2009). At the moment the country is committed to thenational water reform programmes and each authority isobliged to initiate legislations and programme and executeall reform recommendations towards sustainable managementof rivers, wetlands in the country. If fully implementedthen rivers and wetlands will be restore and ecosystemswill receive their water allocations to sustain and restorebiodiversity of water dependent species (Quesne et al., 2007).Arthington and Pusey (2003) stated that studies conducted

20 MSc thesis


in Queensland Rivers showed that rivers needed about 80-92% of minimum flows to maintain a low risk of environmentaldegradation. Meanwhile for Snowy River in Victoria,negotiations for about 28% of the natural flow at minimumcost of US $216 million were conducted purposely forrestoring ecosystem and enhancing recreation opportunities.Learning from the environmental disaster of the MDB, NewSouth Wales has incorporated E-Flows in its water policyand water resources management (Poff et. al., 2003).

2.3.1.3 Mexico

The National Water Plan (PHN: Plan Nacional Hidrico, 2007-2012) is the document from which all strategies regardingwater resources are taken, this plan is issued by the Table 2-2: Australian National Principles for the provision of waterfor ecosystems Goal: To sustain and where necessary restore ecologicalprocesses and biodiversity of water dependent ecosystems.Basic premises ofprinciples

Principle 1: River regulation and /or consumptiveuse should be recognized as potential impacting onecological values

Determiningenvironmentalwater provision

Principle 2: Provision of water for ecosystemsshould be on the basis of the best scientificinformation available on the water regimesnecessary to sustain the ecological values ofwater dependent ecosystems.

Process forproviding waterfor ecosystems

Principle 3: Environmental water provisions shouldbe legally recognized

Interactions withother users

Principle 4: In systems where there are existingusers, provision of water for ecosystems should goas far as possible to meet the water regimenecessary to sustain the ecological values ofaquatic ecosystems whilstRecognizing the existing rights of other waterusers.

Overcommittedwater allocationsituations

Principle 5: Where environmental waterrequirements cannot be met due to existing uses,action (including reallocation) should be taken tomeetenvironmental needs

Protecting theenvironment infuture waterallocationdecisions

Principle 6: Further allocation of water for anyuse should only be on the basis that naturalecological processes and biodiversity aresustained (i.e. ecological values are sustained).



Management ofenvironmentalwater

Principle 7: Accountabilities in all aspects ofmanagement of environmental water provisionsshould be transparent and clearly defined.

Uncertainty inenvironmentalwater provisions

Principle 8: Environmental water provisions shouldbe responsive to monitoring and improvements inunderstanding of environmental water requirements.

Others Principle 9: All water uses should be managed in amanner which recognizes ecological values.Principle 10: Appropriate demand management andwater pricing strategies should be used to assistin sustaining ecological values of waterresources.

Further research Principle 11: Strategic and applied research toimprove understanding of environmental waterrequirements is essential.

Communityinvolvement

Principle 12: All relevant environmental, socialand economic stakeholders will be involved inwater allocation planning and decision-making onEnvironmental water provisions.

President at the beginning of each six years. According tothe plan the national water policy is based on series ofprinciples and the two relevant ones are; water managementto be carried according to river basins and organizedparticipation of users as important factor for the successof achieving proposed objectives. This resulted intoincorporating E-Flows as one of the objectives of Strategynumber 15 “To foster the preservation of the countriesecosystems, striving to maintain in our rivers the volumeof water that are required” (PNH, 2007). However for thecase of Mexico, given the little available water there is achallenge in administering the law. Quesne et al, (2007), saidjust having the policies that ensures leaving enough waterfor ecosystems health is not enough because other userstend to view the environment as a competing user. Inaddition, to the policies the author said water authoritiesshould be availed with enough information, strengthenenforcement, initiate payment for environmental servicesand removal of subsidies that may encourage overabstraction from sectors like agriculture. It is statedthat the Mexico groundwater depletion rate is now 6 km3 ayear and it is feared in the last decade the number of overexploited aquifers had risen from 20-104 (PNH,2007).

22 MSc thesis


2.3.1.4 The United Republic of Tanzania

The Tanzanian economy is heavily dependent on access toadequate quantities and good quality water therebycompeting with population and ecosystem water needs. Forinstance, large scale agricultural activities, the rapidlyemerging tourism and mining sectors, in addition totraditional sectors like energy, industry and livestock alldemand for water to flourish (MWLD, 2004; Hirji and Davis,2009). Before the 1990s, water supply (urban and rural)planning and management were administratively handled atregional levels while energy and irrigation were at thenation level. At the end of the Water and SanitationDecade, water supply targets were way too far from beingachieved and investors barely struggling to sustain thesystem (MWLD, 2004). At the same time, areas heavilydependent on river basins began experiencing conflictsrelated to accessibility and utilisation of the resource. Arapid water resources assessment conducted in the mid-1994by the government with support from DANIDA and the WorldBank revealed that there was; inter-sectoral unsynchronizedwater use and management, mounting conflicts amongst waterusers, inadequate stakeholder representation in decisionmaking, a lack of motivation for efficient water use,escalating water pollution, and insufficient hydrologicaland water use data upon which water allocation was based inmost rivers and lake basins (World Bank, 2006). Followingthese therefore, an Environmental Policy (1996), wasformulated. This notwithstanding, throughout the 1990s anumber of water conflicting situations between hydropowerand other water users progressed (World Bank, 2006). In2003 a National Water Policy that was inclined to the SouthAfrica Water Policy, 1997 was passed (World Bank, 2004). Inaddition to providing for improvements in environmentalmanagement, water resources (surface and ground) and watersupply (rural and urban). The policy in particular cateredfor implementation of E-Flows and linked it to economicbenefits, livelihood and biodiversity values given thenations water depended ecosystems (protected area, nationalparks, and game reserves). The national water policy nowprioritises ecosystem water needs as long as the humanbasic needs are satisfied and the environmental water



allocation is operational and the South African DRIFT andBBM methods are being applied (Acreman et al. 2005).

2.3.2 Sectoral conclusionFrom the fore going, it is clear that the implementation ofE-Flows in the above countries involved a progression fromold water resources management styles to elements of IWRM.The processes include enactment of laws and policyframeworks supported by institutions and restructuring toallow effective and more impactful management of riverecosystems. In East Africa, both Tanzania and Kenya haveadopted and fully provided for concepts of E-Flows in theirlegislations and institutional frameworks. Given that thesetwo countries are part of the East African Community andmoreover, share catchments of some rivers especially thoserelated to the Lake Victoria systems it is imperative thatUganda fully address the issues of environmental flows.

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CHAPTER THREE - MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of study area

3.1.1 Geographical location Uganda, dubbed by Sir Winston Churchill as the ‘Pearl ofAfrica’ is a relatively small, land-locked country whichlies astride the Equator. Located in the eastern part ofAfrica, Uganda lies between latitude 1o30’ South and 4o

North, and longitude 29o30’ East and 350 West. Uganda isneighboured by the Republic of Kenya in the east, Tanzaniaand Rwanda in the south, the Democratic Republic of Congoin the west, and Sudan in the north. Covering a total areaof 241,038 sq. km, with a perimeter of about 16 630 kmlong, the country is rich in fresh water resources with15.3% open water. On a regional basis, 39.1% of waterbodies are found in central, 30.3% in eastern, 3% innorthern and 8% in western regions (NEMA, 1996). Ugandan’srivers and lakes, including wetlands, cover about 20% ofthe total surface area (Figure 3-1), however, Uganda sharesimportant aquatic ecosystems with its neighbours, LakeVictoria shared with Kenya and Tanzania, lakes Edward andAlbert shared with the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)and the Nile that originates from Uganda shared by tencountries. The whole of Uganda lies in the upper Nilecatchment (98%) , consisting of numerous rivers andstreams, with an annual rainfall in the range of 900-2000mm, rain as the principle contributor of surface waterbodies (NEMA, 1996).



Figure 3-0-3: Major Catchments in Uganda (Source; DWRM )

3.1.2 Water Resources Distribution and Availability Uganda's struggle for economic and social development isincreasingly related to water hence freshwater isconsidered a key strategic resource, which is vital forsustaining life, promoting development and maintaining theenvironment (Water Policy, 1999). Although the country iswell endowed with water resources its availability islimited by uneven distribution and increasing exhibition ofseasonal and spatial variability. There is decreasing waterper capita availability, degrading water quality,increasing competition /conflicts within sectors andsocieties (urban versus agriculture, upstream versusdownstream, national versus international) (JSR, 2009).

Additionally the country encompasses both humid and semi-arid areas with significant differences between wet and dryyears and variations in the onset of seasons. A significantwater resource concern in certain parts of the country isthe wide fluctuations in water resources availability.26 MSc thesis


These are characterized by floods in the wet seasons anddroughts in the dry seasons, variation in rainfall and in-stream flows with devastating consequences. For instancefollowing prolonged drought in 2004/2005 the water level ofLake Victoria that dropped by a whole meter in 2006 (Figure3-2 below) affected water related social economicactivities in the region (JSR, 2009).

Figure 3-0-4: Dropping water levels of Lake Victoria (Source; GoU-SER,2006)

This drop was attributed to high evaporation, low rainfallin the headwaters of the rivers draining into the lake, andexcessive abstractions and water retention due tohydropower power generation to meet growing electricity inthe country (LVEMP Report). Today the water resourcesstress conditions may be exacerbated by climate instabilitydue to evolving global warming and climate changeconditions. According to the predicted water resourcesavailability trends towards 2025 among African countries,Uganda is in the middle range regarding water stressfulconditions (UNEP, 1999).

In recognition of this and as a measure towards sustainablewater resources management, Uganda introduced the IWRMapproach at catchment level. Four water management zonesnamely Victoria Water Management Zone, Kyoga WaterManagement Zone, Albert Water Management Zone and the UpperNile Water Management Zone. The Victoria Water managementZone where the Rwizi Catchment is located was selected as



the pioneer catchment for piloting IWRM in the country(DWRM, 2008) seen in Figure

U pper N ile

K yoga

Victoria

A lbert

0 80 160 240 320 Kilo m e ters

N

EW

S

O p en w ater

Inte rnatio nal b oun daryM an agem e nt zo ne bonda ry

Le g en d

Figure 3-0-5: Water Management Zones following decentralized IWRM(Sources; DWRM)

3-3 above. The major aim of the pilot scheme is to ensurethat the most effectives and feasible institutional andfunding mechanisms for decentralised IWRM are instituted inorder to harmonise, coordinated planning andimplementation.

3.1.3 The River Rwizi Catchment

3.1.3.1 Geographical Location

Covering a total area of 2521 km2 Rwizi is a perennialriver located in the south-western part of Uganda, theriver transects through five districts, namely Mbarara,Bushenyi, Isingiro, Kiruhura and Ntungamo (Figure 3-4). TheRwizi wetlands stretches from Bushenyi and North Easternparts of Ntugamo, through Mbarara, pouring into Lake Mburoin Kiruhura district and Nakivale in Isingiro district andfinally to lake Victoria. The narrow and wide valleyswithin the catchment are covered with permanent andseasonal swamps. Most wetlands are presumably owned byeither individuals or institutions (schools and churches),28 MSc thesis


although there is no restriction to accessibility ofwetlands for water (domestic and livestock), wetland goods(firewood, grass, fish, papyrus, medicinal herbs) ortraditional uses by communities. However, prior permissionor payments to landlords for cultivation, livestockgrazing, commercial harvesting and bricklaying is requiredand most seasonal wetlands are fenced off for grazing,rendering then inaccessible (DSER, 2006).

3.1.3.2 Rwizi catchment demography

According to the population and housing census of 2002,(UBOS, 2005) then, the five districts had an average of2,000,000 people and population density of 130 per sq. Km.However, population variations are between 52 and 191 persq. km among the different districts with 36% of thepopulation (720,000) specifically found along the wetland

Figure 3-0-6: Rwizi Catchment covering five districts (Sources: DWRM GISCentre)

system. In 2002 the whole of Uganda had a population of 26million, however, over the last 10 years there has been atremendous population rise to slightly over 34 million (76%increase). Following this nationwide trend therefore it islikely that the population in the catchment has alsoincreased (UNEP, 2002).



3.2.1. 2 Service delivery

Approximately within a distance of 0-5km, 70-76%, 90-96%and 85-89% of the household have access to healthfacilities, primarily schools and water sources,respectively. The national service delivery survey carriedout in the 2005 indicated an improvement in services.Unlike the other districts with only 40% of water coverageattributed to lack of operation and maintenance of brokenboreholes in the last 10 years, Mbarara has 80-88% within0-2 km accessibility due to the existence of the NWSC(DSER, 2006).

3.1.3.3 Climate features

RainfallThe climatic condition of the Rwizi catchment (Table 3-1)is typically semi-arid having a relatively wet climatevarying from low-lying areas of Kiruhura and Isingirodistricts and north parts of Mbarara and Ntungamo to high-lying areas especially in the district of Bushenyi (DSER,2006). The average annual rainfall received ranges from800-2000 mm with a bimodal pattern. The rainy season isnormally between March-June and September-December with twointercepting dry seasons of July and September and Januaryand March annually (Meteorology Department Report, 2008).The highest rains (more than 1100 mm) are received in themountainous areas in the northern and south-western part ofthe catchment, especially Bushenyi, and the lowest rains(less than 900 mm per year) received in the central andeastern parts of the catchment, in particular in theKiruhura District ( Figure 3-5).

Table 3-3: Climatic parameters of Rwizi Catchment area (DSER, 2006)

District

Rainfall(mm)

Temperature( C) Humidity (%)

Min. Max. Min. Max MorningEvening

Bushenyi 1500 2000 12 30 85 56Mbarara 1200 1500 17 30 80 50Ntungam 800 1000 19 29 75 48

30 MSc thesis


oKiruhura 800 900 19 30 80 50Isingiro 800 1200 13 29 80 50

The mean annual temperature of the catchment fluctuatesbetween 12.5-30 ˚C with a relative annual humidity varyingbetween 70-90 % in the morning and 48-60 % in the evening.The average maximum temperatures of 28oC, average minimumtemperatures of 16oC, dew-point temperatures of 19oC andaverage temperatures of 24oC January to March being thehottest months of the year (Meteorology Department Report,2008).

Figure 3-0-7: Variation in Mean Annual Rainfall (Source: DWRM)

Potential Evapotranspiration



Figure 3-0-8: Evaporation Monthly Time Series (Source; DWRM)Unlike rainfall and discharge, evaporation follows seasonalvariations and tends to be repetitive from year to year fora one-year cycle (Figure 3-6). Due to the general scarcityof evaporation stations (data) in the country, there isonly one evaporation station in the Rwizi catchment(Mbarara) with limited temporal evaporation data coverage.However, a time series for evaporation data (mean monthlypotential evaporation) for a period between 1950 to 2007was developed using seasonal mean monthly values based onthe seven years of available data (DWRM, 2007) .

3.1.3.4 Physical Features

GeologyPre-cambean are the major underlying rock in the Rwizicatchments, they are described in four types namely;

The Buganda-Toro system; age dating over 800million years

Wholly granitised or high to medium grademetamorphic formation especially in the northernparts of Kiruhura District

The Karagwe-Ankolean system mainly southern andwestern parts;- age dating from 13001400 millionyears and

The grain told and highly granitised rock in southof the catchment

The system has overlapping geological features and soilstypes stemming from similarities in landscape, climate anddrainage (DSER, 2006). 32 MSc thesis


Topography The Rwizi catchment comprises a mixture of fairly rollingsharp and mountainous, reasonably deep and shallow valleysin the district of Isingiro, Ntungamo and Bushenyi; withmoderately flat land, undulating hills in the central andnorthern parts of Mbarara and Kiruhura districts (Figure 3-7). The land rises gently from 1262 m.a.s.l in KiruhuraDistrict along the river to about 2168 m.a.s.l in thenorthern parts of Bushenyi District, broken by occasionalhills and seasonal rivers. The average elevation of thecatchment is 1517 m.a.s.l. (DSER, 2006).

Figure 3-0-9: Topography of the Rwizi Catchment ( Source; DWRM)SoilsThe catchment is endowed with sandy-loams, clay loams andslightly laterite loams. Sandy-loams found in the valleyare both seasonally and/or permanently flooded favouringaquatic flora and fauna. Because of accumulated residuallitter of swamp/wetland flora (papyrus, sedges and typha)the soils are peat, generally black clays with sandy soilsalong the river, supporting agricultural production whichis by far the main economic activity in the area. Mostsoils are compact having a massive structure with strongsurface sealing, which facilitates runoff during heavyrains. The soils are shallow to very shallow; extremelystony to rocky and are highly impermeable (NEMA, 2004).



3.1.3.5 Ecological Features

FloraPermanent swamps are dominated by Cyperus papyrus and Typhadomingesis while the seasonal flooding edges and encroachedparts of wetlands are composed of sedge. Unlike Nyamphae,Pista and Azolla, floating vegetation especially water lillieand nile cabbages are found in open waters, while smallportions of water hyacinth exist at the mouth of RiverRwizi and some valley dams in Kiruhura districts.Associated flora of permanent reed swamps include; Polygonumsaliciform, phragmities spp, miscanthas spp, and Ensete ventricosum. Tresseswhich occur within seasonal wetlands or adjacent wetlandsinclude Acaia seyal, Acaccia hockii, Erythrinin abyssirinica markhamialutea,Sapiumellipticum, Euphobia spp and Sesbania sesban. Some of thethreatened species include Typha domingesis, acacia spp, albizia spp,and combretum spp. due to over harvesting for commercialand domestic use (NEMA, 2004; DWIR, 2007).

FaunaWetlands, both permanent and seasonal are habitats of avariety of mammals. Sitatunga, hippo, velvet monkeys, wildpig, bush pigs, water bucks and antelopes inhabit permanentwetlands while bush backs, wild rabbits and monkeys inhabitwetlands with acacia tress especially in Kiruhura District.The most common fish in both water bodies and flooded areasof the wetlands are tilapia, clarias, and mudfish and lungfish. Increased demand of fish has resulted toindiscriminate fishing, with the use of clarias as baits fortilapia and nile perch thereby endangering it withinwetlands, Ntungamo being the most affected. Birds tooinhabit most parts of the wetlands notable among thesebeing ibis, weaverbirds, crested crane, yellow billedegret, king fisher, grey heron, horn bill, doves, hammerkop, papyrus yellow warbler and shoebill. Threatenedspecies include; horn bill and crested crane resulting fromdestruction of their breeding grounds (DSER, 2006; DWI R,2007).

Having obtained general background information about thestudy area, data and information were collected and beloware the details of the applied methodology.

34 MSc thesis


3.2 Research Methodology

The research method was mainly qualitative and a bit ofquantitative analysis of key informant interviews to obtaingeneral overview of the level of awareness and knowledge onlegal provision of E-Flow concepts among key informants andinstitutions. As such combinations of comprehensiveliterature reviews, key informant interviews, stakeholderanalysis, surveys and observations were conducted.

3.2.1 Primary source of information Semi-structured interview is a non-formal approach wherebroad questions are asked, and new questions develop in theprocess of the conversation (MSP Portal, WageningenInternational, 2008). This tool was chosen because itallows exploration into different issues depending on theconcerns or opinions of the interviewee. In this respectquestions related to assessment of knowledge of E-Flowconcepts and provisions in the national and internationallegal framework that apply to Uganda were applied. Withinthe semi structured component of this study the followingwere investigated: elements of E-Flows, Implementinginstitution and their current status (capacity) ofimplementing, opportunities and challenges forimplementation in Uganda; the details of the questionnairecan be seen in Appendix I. Primary information was alsoobtained through observations, surveys and photographythrough Mbarara, Kiruhura and Bushenyi districts within theRwizi catchment area. The key informants included implementing agencies, policyinstitutions and policy makers, transboundary and academicinstitutions (Table 3-2). A total of 30 key informants(Appendix II) with either one or two from each institutionwere interviewed. Although they represented theinstitutions, it is important to note that the outcomes maynot necessarily represent the views of the wholeinstitution but provides an overview of issues related toE-Flow implementation in Uganda.



3.2.2 Secondary Sources of InformationSecondary information was mainly obtained from legaldocuments and literature (reports, journals, maps,literature, records, books hydrological and water qualitydata, etc) from various ministries, department,institutions and libraries. A total of 14 national legaldocuments and 5 international conventions (ratified byUganda) related to water and environment were reviewed foridentification of elements of E-Flow and assessed forimpacts on enhancement of E-Flow implementation in Uganda(see Appendix III).

Institutions visited included Ministry of Water andEnvironment, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development,Ministry of Agriculture, Animal, Industry and Fisheries,National Water and Sewerage Corporation, Directorate ofWater Resources Management, Directorate of WaterDevelopment, Wetland Inspectorate Department, NationalEnvironment Management Authority, National ForestAuthority, Nile Basin Initiative, Academic Institutions( Makerere and Kyambogo University) and the districts headquarters of Mbarara, Kiruhura and Bushenyi.

The Water Act (1998) of the Republic of South African andWater Policy (2002) of the United Republic of Tanzaniawhere E-Flows were explicitly provided for were examined inorder to draw lessons and best practices that Uganda couldlearn from and/or adopt.

Hydrological data of river Rwizi at the Mbarara New WaterWorks Intake (Appendix IV), water quality data (seeAppendix V) for three points along the stretch of the riveras it flows through Mbarara District and Maps of the Rwizicatchment were mainly obtained from the DWRM, in additionto Meteorological Department, NEMA, and WetlandInspectorate Department.

Table 3-4: Key informants and institutions involved in thestudy Water resources management related institution

36 MSc thesis


Institutions Nature ofInstitution

Officials interviewed

Ministry of Waterand Environment

National policydevelopment andoversight

Minister of State forEnvironment

Directorate of WaterResourcesManagement, (DWRM)

National policyImplementingagency

Commissioner-WaterPlanning and RegulationsDepartment; AssistantCommissioner-Monitoringand AssessmentDepartments, PrincipleAnalyst- Water Quality

Directorate of WaterDevelopment,


Engineer-Water forProduction

Wetland InspectorateDepartment


Commissioner-WetlandInspectorate Department

Water resources use- InstitutionsInstitutions Nature of

InstitutionOfficials interviewed

Ministry of Energyand MineralResources,

National Policydevelopment andoversight

Environmental Specialist(Hydropower generation)

Uganda ElectricityRegulatory Authority


Environmental Specialist(Hydropower generation)

Ministry ofAgriculture, Animalsand Husbandry


In charge Water forproduction

National Water andSewerage Corporation

Utility provider Area Manager , Mbarara

Environment management institutionsInstitutions Nature of


National EnvironmentManagement Authority

Supervisory,monitoring andcoordinatinginstitution

Director and NaturalResources Specialist

Forestry ForestAuthority (FA)

Implementingagency and policyinstitution

Environmental ImpactAssessment Specialist

Nile BasinInitiative

Trans-boundaryInstitution

Project Officer andRegional Water PolicySpecialist

Lake VictoriaEnvironnementalManagement Programme

Regional Researchand DevelopmentProgramme

Task Leader, Waterquality and QuantityComponent

River RwiziCatchment Management

Implementingagency

Chairman- RwiziCatchment



OrganizationAcademic institutionsInstitutions Nature of


Makerere UniversityInstitute ofEnvironment,

National trainingand researchInstitutions

Director- MUIER andAcademic Staff Facultyof Technology

Kyambogo University-EnvironmentalDepartment

National trainingand researchInstitutions

Academic Staff( Environment and CivilEngineering)

3.2.3 Data Analysis

3.2.3.1 Tennant Method

The Tennant method is an example of the hydrologicalmethods of E-Flow assessment. It has low costs and easy toconduct usually suitable for initial scoping of waterresources planning and development, in addition to solvinglow level water conflicting cases (Tharme, 2003).The methodis very popular and has been applied to over 25 countriesincluding North America either in the original form orslightly modified with a few added criteria. The Tennantmethod (Appendix VI) correlates percentages of mean annualflow to specific classes of flow dependant situations andgrades the classes into varying degrees of poor, moderate,and good. Though widely used the method lacks ecologicalvalidity and cannot be transferred to another river becauseit does not incorporate site-specific conditions inaddition to low resolution E-Flow estimates (Dyson et al.,2003). Using EXCEL hydrological data, population and per capitawater consumption for the Rwizi catchment was applied tothe Tenant method. The method was used to show therelationship between ecosystem water allocation andpopulation water stress conditions thus evaluating thestate of river Rwizi whether it is over allocated or not(Appendix VI). With discharge Q (m3/sec) measurements wasobtained from DWRM the following assumptions were applied;

Assumptions made in the calculations

38 MSc thesis


- Population information of the catchment as 2000,000people in 2007 was obtained from the Mbarara District(UBOS, 2005);

- The Uganda overall population growth rate is 3.5%although the urban areas it is 4.1% (DWD cited inUNWDR, 2000) for this study 3.5% population growthrate was used.

- DWD places an estimate of between 50–200litre/person/day of different service levels fortowns, but for this study 120 litre/person/day wasused and applied for the whole catchment (DWD, 2000cited in UNWDR, 2005) (Appendix VI).

- Population water needs in this context has accountedfor all water needs for domestic, institutional(schools, offices, hospitals etc), commercial,agricultural and industrial water demands in the wholecatchment (UNWDR, 2005).

- No return flows were considered in the computation onthe assumption that the Rwizi catchment majorly beinga rural setting most of the water taken from the riveris not returned due to absence of piped return systemand evaporation ( Not considering NWSC which is onlyin Mbarara Town as yet)

- Evaporation was also not incorporated in the studysince it is the effective river discharge that wasconsidered, out of which 10% and 20% scenarios of theMAR were applied as E-Flows (ecosystem water needs).

Approach

The following approach was applied, all data was convertedto m3/month (Appendix IV).

Discharge Q1 –E-Flows (10% or 20%) = Available Water in theRiver Q2

Available Water in the River Q2 – Population Water Demand =Water flowing down stream Q3

A sum of all discharges (received water in the catchment)in the 20 years was compared to the sum of the populationwater needs requirements for the 20 years for both reserve



variations of 10% and 20%. This was to assess thecorrelation between received water and consumed water inthe catchment and eventual population stress status of theRwizi catchment.

3.2.3.2 Semi structured interviews

Primary data collected through the semi structuredinterview tool (MSP Portal, Wageningen International, 2008)were reported both qualitatively and quantitatively.Quantitative analysis involved extraction, cording andanalyzes of data using the Statistical Package for SocialScientists (SPSS), frequencies and cross tabulations werecomputed and the levels of significance detected using t-tests.

3.2.3.3 Importance and Influence

The main function of the Influence and Importance tool wasto identify level of importance and influence of differentstakeholders in relation to implementation of E-Flows (MSPPortal, Wageningen International, 2008). All stakeholdersin the Rwizi catchment were first listed and then theirinterests drawn, using their degree of importance andinfluence placed in the respective places in the Importanceand Influence Matrix. This finally guides on the choice ofthe stakeholder to participate in E-Flow implementation inthe Rwizi catchment.

Implications of the boxes in the influence and Importance matrix:

Box A: These stakeholders require special initiatives iftheir interests are to be considered.

Box B: These stakeholders determine the success ofoutcomes; they ought to be brought in early andmaintain good working relationships with them toensure continuity.

Box C: These stakeholders are likely to causeuncertainties; they ought to be handled withextra care and kept on board, observed closely.

40 MSc thesis


Box D: These stakeholders are unlikely to be the subjectof project activities or management.

Figure 3-0-10: Influence and importance matrix for stakeholderanalysisInfluence or Power = the power which stakeholders have to control whatdecisions are made; the extent to which the stakeholder is able topersuade others into making decisions and following a certain courseof action. Importance = the impact stakeholders (can) have on theoutcome of the management process of the system

3.2.3.5 Data Uncertainties and Limitations

The following limitations were met during the researchperiod:

- The time frame of the thesis work was limited

- At the time of this study the water quality data basein DWRM had crashed and as such not all the requireddata could be obtained for the Prati index waterclassification.

- The river was not easily accessible by road and assuch observations were only taken where accessibilitywas possible.


AHighImportanceLow influence

BHighImportanceHigh influence

DLowImportanceLow influence

CLowImportanceHigh influence

Influence

Importance


- Time was a major constraint in key informantinterviews as most times the key informants were notavailable and in some cases time was wasted inwaiting. Some were very busy as such some interviewwere conducted in a hast and as such some aspects wereleft unanswered wasted in waiting.

- Some documents and information were not readilyavailable

- The collected information does not necessarilyrepresent the views of the whole institution; in somecases two key informants within the same institutionshad different views about the same issue.

- The nature of semi structures made it difficult tostick to the guiding questions due to the trend of theconversation and as such some questions remainedunanswered while alot of information was obtained forother questions of interest of the onterviewee.

42 MSc thesis


CHAPTER FOUR –RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Policy and Legal Framework for Water andEnvironment

4.1.1 Overview of provision of elements of E-Flows in the legislations

Government of Uganda (GoU) has a comprehensive regulatoryframework for management of water and environmentcomprising of policies and laws that were examined forelements of E-flows and suitability for implementation(Figure 4-1). Most of these policies and laws indeed haveelements of E-Flows and although they have been in forcefor over a decade now, implementation of E-Flow have notbeen operationalised. In the next sub-sections of thisthesis, results on the provisions for E-Flows in terms ofinclusion of elements, suitability and opportunities of E-Flow implementation in fulfilling the existing gaps towardssustainable water resources management are hereinpresented. THE E DFDF

W ater Policy 1999

W ater Act, Cap 152

Electricity Act 1999

Environm ental Act, Cap 153

W ater Abstraction

Regulation 1999

W ater Resources Regulation 1998

W ater (waste discharge)

Regulation 1999

W etland Conservation Policy

1995

EIA Regulation 1998

Environm ental Policy 1994

Forestry Policy 1999

Forestry & Tree Planting Act

1999

Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995

NW SC Act, Cap 143

E-Flow elem ents provided and not im plem ented

E-Flow elem ents

provided and im plem ented E-Flow

elem ents provided and im plem ented

E-Flow elem ents

provided and im plem ented

E-Flow elem ents provided and im plem ented

E-Flow elem ents not provided



Figure 4-0-11: The legal framework for water and environmentalmanagement in Uganda

4.1.1.1 The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (1995)

The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (herein afterreferred to as the constitution) is the supreme ruling thatlays the foundation for all laws that have a bearing onwater and environment and provides for environmentalprotection and conservation. In particular, theconstitution makes provision for management of naturalresources of which water forms an integral part, clearlystating that it is the duty of the state unless otherwisedecreed by parliament to manage water resources. Local andcentral governments hold natural resources in trust for thepeople of Uganda in accordance with the provisions of theconstitution. As trustee, government only has powers togrant concessions, licenses or permits in respect ofnatural resources. The constitution (Article 39 and 17)further provides for the right to a clean and healthyenvironment, but states that it is the duty for everycitizen of Uganda to create, protect and maintain theenvironment. To promote sustainable development and publicawareness of the need to manage water resources in abalanced and sustainable manner and utilization of waterresources in a way that would meet the development andenvironmental needs of present and future generations arealso stipulated in the constitution.

In line with concepts of E- Flows the constitution (Article245) requires Parliament to provide measures intended toprotect and preserve ecosystems and the environment fromabuse, pollution and degradation. Indeed Parliament hasably done this through the enactment of the Water Act Cap152, National Environment Act cap 153 and other relevantlaws and policies, in particular, to take all possiblemeasures to prevent or minimize damages, pollution anddestruction to water resources.

44 MSc thesis


4.1.1.2 National Water Policy (1999)

The National Water Policy (NWP) provides for the overallframework for water resources management in Uganda. Amongthe key policy derivatives it offers guidance ondevelopment and management of water resources in anintegrated and sustainable manner. The aim is to securewater of adequate quantity and quality for all social andeconomic needs, with full participation of all stakeholderswhile being mindful of the needs of the future generations.Furthermore, the policy calls for regulation of water forall uses, that emphasizes the aspect of water allocation,in addition to promoting measures for controlling pollutionof water resources to ensure good water quality which arewithin the concepts of E-Flows. However, other than the useof water permits in water allocation and control of thepollution of water resources no other water regulatorymechanisms was provided in the NWP. Moreover, the basisupon which minimum flows of water permits were developeddid not incorporate ecosystem health, therefore increasingthe threat on ecosystem integrity. The current NWP has anumber of gaps and limitations that create a suitableenvironment or opportunities for E-Flow implementation soas to strengthen the processes of achieving policyobjectives..

Opportunity for E-Flow implementation as a water allocation toolE-Flows implementation may be used as a water allocationtool because it recognizes that a given catchment has acarrying capacity and as such not all water users may begranted permits (Hirtji and Davis, 2009). The concept callsfor conducting an EFA of a given catchment to providescientific basis upon which minimum flows maybe determinedin addition to initiating guidelines for optimum waterallocation plans for any given catchment. In this line theNWP calls for balancing social and economic benefits aswell as determining the environmental objective of a givenwater resource in a participatory manner (societaljudgement). The application of E-Flows concepts wouldsupport science and social choice in making effectivedecisions during water allocation (Dyson et al., 2003). Opportunity for comprehensive ecosystem protection Pamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 45


The policy states the need to protect the environment andin-stream water uses however, the policy is silent on thedetails and intricacies of how this should be conductedand/or how ecosystems water needs are to be determined. Thepolicy also provides for the overall strategy and principleof water allocation for consumptive water uses (industrial,agriculture, power generation. etc), although it is notcertain as to whether it did or did not include non-consumptive water needs (ecosystem water needs). Hirtji andDavis (2009) reported that ecosystems just like any otherwater users have water use needs that should be allocated.Whereas the policy provides for ecosystem protection thereis a missing gap on how ecosystems protection can beguaranteed. The concept of E-Flows on the other handprovide a comprehensive water allocation mechanism throughEFA that goes a great length in determining minimum flowsbased on scientific information thus fully protectingecosystems (Poff et al., 1997; Dyson et al., 2003).

E-Flows to strengthening IWRM The policy endorses IWRM approach however the challenge ofIWRM is the practice to allocate water for both consumptiveand non-consumptive purposes. Often times the well placedconsumers (economically, socially or politically) that canadvocate for water and justify their use are allocatedwater while compromising ecosystems that are silent user(Korsgraard, 2006). The policy is cognisant of the need toprotect ecosystems, however, the details and elaborate waysof what (natural flow regimes, minimum/in-stream flowsmaintenance) and how (water allocation mechanism, societalchoice) water resources can be managed and conserved tosupport ecological goods and service that enhance economicperformance were not provided. An argument by Bisaws(2004), is that much as the definition of IWRM was veryattractively packaged it leaves a lot to be desired. Theconcept does not spell out which aspects need to beintegrated, by whom, how and also the feasibility of theintegration still remains wanting. Much as IWRM addressesall other social and economic water needs, ecosystem waterneeds are not often given priority or due consideration inwater allocation mechanism. Therefore, taking a widerpicture of ecosystems protection and conservation approach46 MSc thesis


into IWRM is the concept of E-Flows (Bisaws, 2004;Korsgraad, 2006).

Currently Uganda is implementing IWRM approaches atcatchment levels, considering that E-Flows are within thesettings of IWRM, with elaborate ways on ecosystemconservation and protection, its implementation willgreatly contribute towards a holistic integrated andimproved water resources management (Tharme, 2003). Inaddition, Dyson et al., (2003) argues that the concept of E-Flow is a very important element of IWRM because itmaximises the resultant economic and social welfare in anequitable manner without comprising the sustainability ofvital ecosystems.

Opportunity for full provision of the Reserve The policy gives an unconditional first priority of waterallocation for domestic use and not for ecosystem waterneeds. The South African Act (1998) defines the ‘Reserve’ asgiven quantity and quality of water that is excluded fromany other water use, other than for supplying basic humanneeds and ecosystem health needs. Basic human need reserverefer to the water that is used to satisfy and preservehuman needs like drinking, washing, bathing, cleaning,cooking. While ecological health reserve refer to the waterneeded for aquatic ecosystem conservation and protection.In the Ugandan contexts the “Reserve” is partiallyimplemented with a focus on only domestic water use.Accordingly, by law ecosystem water needs compete withother water uses (Industry, hydropower generation,recreation, commercial agriculture etc) and itsprioritization is dependent on other factors and subject totradeoffs between social and economic water needs.

The concepts of E-Flows require that the “Reserve” (domesticand ecological water needs) be given first priority inwater allocation and then using societal judgment otherwater users may be allocated available water through mutualnegotiations and tradeoffs (Korsgraard, 2006; O`Keeffe andLe Quesne, 2009). Although the Reserve is mentioned and theimportance of ecological water needs emphasized in thepolicy, it is apparent that ecological water needs have not



been prioritized by not providing for full implementationof the “Reserve”. In a broad sense implying that ecologicalconservation has not been sufficiently accorded thenecessary protection, thereby risking ecosystem healthand/or in-stream water needs which E-Flow implementationwould negate.

Opportunity for sustainable water resources use and management The policy provides for sustainable use of water resources.Although this may be achieved through IWRM, implementationof E-flows will add a more holistic, practical andattainable version of sustainable water resources use andmanagement. In Uganda today, there are no clear guidelineson setting flow requirement for rivers or catchments giventheir uniqueness and different uses. Most river systemsalready have altered flow regimes due to modifications ormanagement of flows to meet economic developments(Rosenberg et al., 2000; Tharme, 2003). Implementation of E-Flow concepts would allow for a wide range of methods,approaches and framework guided by science and societaljudgement in determine minimum flows thus contributingtowards sustainable water use (Tharme, 2003; Korsgraard2006).

Considering that there are no clear procedures and harmonyover the amount of minimum flows (low and high) in Ugandato provide guidelines on optimum abstraction or released athydropower dams that ought to mimic natural flow paradigmsthere is need to implement the concepts of E-Flow.Moreover, it`s implementation will facilitate the exerciseof water allocation and/or provide a platform fornegotiations and tradeoffs among water users that islacking in IWRM. Thus enhancing conservation and protectionof water resource, maintenance of natural flow paradigmsand subsequently contributing towards sustainable use andmanagement of the water resource (GWP, 2000; Dyson et al.,2003).

E-Flow to facilitate water resources quantification before allocation The policy is silent on prior quantification of waterresource before allocation and yet it promotes allocationof water for agricultural production (crops, livestock and48 MSc thesis


fish) in order to modernizes agriculture and mitigateeffects of climatic change variations on rainfedagriculture. Water resources quantification beforeallocation is very essential in protecting in-stream flowespecially where massive abstractions or hydropowergenerations may be ongoing in low yield or small waterresource particularly in water scare areas. In view of theescalating Ugandan population (growth rate of 3.2% perannum (UBOS, 2002), climate change, temporal and spatialdistribution of water resources there is indeed a need forquantification of water resources prior to planning andallocation. Although water allocation is more of a socialpolitical activity scientific information and analysis ofthe initial quantity are very vital as a basis forequitable and sustainable conclusion (Dyson et al., 2003).The concept of E-Flow is a suitable option considering thatit calls for prior water quantification before andincorporates population and ecosystem water demands,environmental objectives, social economic development,scientific information and societal choices in determiningminimum flows and finally development of catchment waterallocation plans. Policy provision regarding water allocation principles The law (Water Policy, 1998; Water Act, Cap 152, Section 5;The Constitution of Uganda , 1995) places all rights touse, control, protect, and manage water resources under thecontrol of the Minister of Water and Environment andDirector, Directorate of Water Resources Management.Whereas no permanent water rights exist, temporary rightsmay periodically be obtained through allocation of waterusing water permits that are renewed on expiry. Inexercising water allocation, the NWP provides for thefollowing options during the processes;

Principle I: First priority for domestic water needsThe first priority for water allocation is to meet domesticwater demand, implying that community water allocation isto be considered, committed and excluded from other wateruses. Thereafter, depending on the total available water inthe resource other users among which industrial,agricultural, and ecosystems may be considered. This doesnot necessarily mean that societal choice are considered



during water allocation although it does imply that a waterallocation mechanism that is not yet in place ought to beconsidered in computing communal domestic water needs.

Principle II: Provision for resource management and environmentThe second provision in water allocation is to reserve in-stream water to ensure continuous viability andconservation of the environment. In particular the NWPstates that minimum flows shall be provided for maintenanceof water quality and aquatic ecosystem. Currently, thereare about four informal approaches of allocating water forecosystem needs these include leaving;

i). About 10-15% of the MAR, ii). 30-40% of the minimum flows, iii). 1% of the minimum flows andiv). Q 95% reserved for ecosystem water needs.

There is therefore a need for a scientifically based waterallocation mechanism to harmonize the above practices anddetermine the amount of flows that ought to be regarded asminimum to maintain water quality and aquatic ecosystems ofa given water resource, therefore calling for E-Flowimplementation (Poff et al.,1997).

Principle III: Provision for Water for productionPolicy requirements for allocating water for productioncalls for consideration of social economic value of thewater use, optimum development of the water potential andthe impact on water resources. Indeed in alliance withconcepts of E-Flows the physical limit or carrying capacitybeyond which a water resource suffers irreversible damagesto its ecosystem function ought to be considered beforeundertaking social economic activities (Hirji and Davis,2009). In addition the concept recognizes social choices indetermining environmental objectives and provides for awater allocation plan that will result to sustainableutilization of the water resource which are in line withthe concept of E-Flow (Korsgraad, 2006).

Principle IV: Market based allocation principleOver a period of time the policy requires that “Market-based Allocation” that is supported by the principle of50 MSc thesis


“water as a social and economic good” be applied. This principlepromotes water allocation basing on the understanding ofthe available yield less the allocation for a “Reserve”(domestic and ecosystem water needs). Thus, priorassessments of yields or quantities of each water resourceat the prevailing level of development before committingthe “Reserve” is required so as to facilitate resourcemanagement. In addition, involvement of stakeholder is aprerequisite for the continuity of the established of waterallocation plans bringing in societal choices indetermining the environmental objective of the givenresources which are all within the concepts of E-Flows

In view of the onset of effects of climate change,dwindling water quantity and availability, increasingdemand for social economic development and populationgrowth, Uganda has reached this point in time that entailsthe establishment of the Market-based Allocation. Aninventory of water resources to establish availabilityagainst demands ought to be conducted to offer effectiveguidance during water allocation. Whereas the law providesfor these principles which are in fact components of E-Flows, currently the main focus is on full implementationof Principle I and partially II. Implementation of E-Flowsrequires full activation of Principle IV (Market-basedAllocation) as a contribution towards sustainable waterresources management (Water Policy, 1999).

4.1.1.3 The National Environmental Management Policy,(1994)

The overall goal of the National Environment ManagementPolicy is to promote sustainable economic and socialdevelopment that will meet the needs of the presentgeneration while being mindful of the needs of futuregenerations. The specific policy objectives are tointroduce:

• Sound environmental management, • Environmental planning, • Ecosystem conservation, • Sustainable resource consumption, and • Environmental awareness and community participation.



Within the policy, EIA is recognized as an importantenvironmental planning tool in preserving and enhancingenvironmental quality and ecosystem productivity which arein line with concepts of E-Flow. E-Flow concepts are key tosustainable development, enhancing ecosystem integrity,sharing of benefits and poverty alleviation, nevertheless,water allocation for environmental uses is still lackingamong water resources practitioners (Dyson et al., 2003) evenin Uganda as well.

The Policy is recognizant of the low cost of preventingenvironmental damage compared to high costs of repairingthem thus establishing a sound economic justification forinstituting and carrying out EIA. In advocating for the useand application of EIA, the policy seeks to integrateenvironmental concerns early enough in the developmentplanning process for all activities and projects atnational, district and local levels with full publicparticipation. Thus the policy requires that eligibleprojects or policies likely to have significant adverseecological or social impacts undertake EIAs beforeimplementation. It has now been proven that the world`sbiodiversity and alleviation of poverty among the ruralcommunities that greatly depend upon ecosystems can only beachieved by maintaining a sound ecological system (Naimenet al., 1995; Dyson et al., 2003).

4.1.1.4 The National Forestry Policy (2001)

Over the years the Forest Policy (1929), underwentconsiderable transformations due to the need for lessstrict conservation and more liberal economic use of forestresources. The new policy instituted the National ForestAuthority (NFA) and provided alteration followingincreasing deterioration of forests; receding ecologicalgoods and services; declining natural forest cover;increasing pressure on forest land and demand for forestproducts in the country. The policy now provides directiontowards conservation of ecosystems and sustainabledevelopment, with guiding principles built on governmentnational development priorities of poverty eradication andgood governance. The major sectoral goal in alliance with

52 MSc thesis


concepts of E-Flow is to contribute towards povertyalleviation by safeguarding biodiversity, ecosystems andenvironmental goods and services through effectiveconservation strategies. As supported by Naimen et al.,(1995) it is now evidenced that maintaining a soundecological system is the answer for maintaining the world’sbiodiversity and poverty alleviation for the ruralcommunities.

4.1.1.5 National Policy for Conservation and Management of Wetland Resources (1995)

Wetlands cover about 13% of the area of Uganda providingdirect and non-direct goods and services to its population.Until the early 1990s wetlands were considered as“Wastelands”, subsequently, heavily reclaimed foragricultural purposes in rural area and drained as ameasure of controlling malaria in urban settings. Throughthe mid 1990s, a realization to conserve and protectwetlands culminated into the process of institutional theWetland Inspectorate Department (Directorate of EnvironmentAffairs) and formulating the National Wetland Policy. Thepolicy seeks to promote wetland conservation in order tosustain ecological and socio-economic functions for thepresent and future wellbeing of the people. In Uganda todaywetlands are considered as water resources in form of“green water” their conservation culminates to conservingflows in water courses. In line with E-Flows the policycalls for sustainable management and protection of wetlandecosystems, in addition to ensuring that all negativeimpacts that could degrade ecosystems are negated throughEIA processes.

4.1.1.6 The National Energy Policy for Uganda (2003)

The main policy goal of the energy sector is to meet energyneeds of the Ugandan population for social and economicdevelopments in an environmentally sustainable manner. Inalliance with E-Flow concepts, the policy recognizespotential environmental impacts of hydropower relatedinvestments on water resources and ecosystems thus callingfor EIA undertakings. The Energy sector is also entrustedto ensure that environmental guidelines that enhances



protection of ecosystems and establishes monitoringmechanism to evaluate compliances are established. Indeedthis was provided through DWRM that issues water permitsfor hydropower generation stipulating minimum flow andagreed curve requirement. E-Flows do not prevent the use ofwater resources for economic developmental purposes likehydropower generation, rather it calls for proper planning,designing, operations and practices that would not modifyor transform natural flow regimes of rivers especiallywhere releases are concerned (Dyson et al., 2003).

Figure 4-0-12: Distribution of Hydropower generation Projects (Sources:MEMD resource centre)

As will be discussed later (4.1.1.13) in details the EIApolicy in Uganda does not fully provided for implementationof E-flows. Currently Uganda is promoting ruralelectrification through hydropower generation (GoU, 2001)and a number of sites have been identified (Figure 4-2) ifimplemented with no E-Flow incorporation then theseprojects will likely to alter natural flow regimes. Thelack of a water allocation plan for catchments furthermagnifies these likely occurrences because in the eventthat a number of dams are constructed in the same catchmentnatural flow regimes will be altered. Subsequently,affecting ecosystem integrity especially in drought /dry54 MSc thesis


seasons when adequate water volumes are required for powergeneration and supply. This confirms the statement thatover the world approximately 60% of rivers have now beenmodified and hydrologically altered with at least 46% ofthe catchments having a large dam resulting in reducedriver flow altering flow regimes, affecting variability andseasonality of flows (Tharme, 2003; Dyson et al., 2003). It istherefore prudent that GoU initiates implementation of E-Flows to ensure that maintenance of natural flow paradigms,facilitate development of catchment hydropower plans,ecosystem health maintenance and continued supply of energyto meet the demand of the population.

4.1.1.7 The Water Act, Cap 152

Following the Water Policy (1998), the principle law forwater resources management is the Water Act Cap, 152. Theact provides the basic foundation of most provisions toreconcile environmental protection while ensuringavailability of water of adequate quantity and acceptablequality. The objectives of which are to enable equitableand sustainable management; use and protection of waterresources through supervision; and coordination of publicand private activities that may negatively impact waterresources (quantity and quality). Within the act thereexist limitations and gaps that provide an opportunityand/or could be strengthened through implementation of E-Flow concepts thereby contributing towards effectivemanagement of water resources. E- Flows an alternative regulatory tool Allocations of permanent water rights are prohibited(section 18) but temporal rights could be attainablethrough time-bound permits to abstract water, constructhydraulic works and discharge waste. Persons requiring touse water, construct (construct herein defined asalteration, improvement, maintenance and repairs of watersystems) or operate any works or cause or allow waste tocome into contact directly or indirectly with waterresources (section 6, 28 and 31) are obliged to obtainpermits from the Director. Albeit, the act gives generalrights to persons that are residents on land or adjacentland with water resources to collect water and use it toPamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 55


meet domestic water needs (fire fighting or irrigation asubsistence garden). However limiting water quantities notto exceed 400 m3/day and prohibits motorized water usewhether for domestic or not without authorization.

Currently, the water permit system is the only availableregulatory tool of which minimum flows were informallydetermined basing only on hydrological parameters notmindful of dynamics of different catchments and ecosystemwater needs. Implementation of E-Flows as a regulatory toolthat applies a multidisciplinary criterion and allowsapplication of diverse measures in determining minimumflows (high and low) towards a more holistic regulatorystrategy is now a necessity in fostering contributionstowards sustainable management of the water resources inUganda.

E-Flows as a water resources planning tool Notwithstanding, general rights to use water resources maybe limited by the Minister, in times of shortage and/oranticipated shortage thus granting use for only specificpurposes an aspect of water allocation within concepts ofE-Flow (Section 8). Furthermore, the act calls for orderlydevelopment and use of water resources (animals,irrigation, industrial, commercial and mining uses, energy,navigation, fisheries, preservation of flora and fauna andrecreation) in ways which minimize harmful effects to theenvironment and ecosystems. Still in alliance with conceptsof E-Flow the act (section 28 and 31) provides for controlsof pollution by promoting safe storage, treatment,discharge and disposal of waste which may pollute water orotherwise harm the environment and human health. Therebyensuring that clean, safe and sufficient supply of waterfor domestic use are availed as a right to every citizen ofUganda (Constitution of Uganda, 1995)

In performing his function the Minister is required toregulates, restrict and prohibits some activities and allowothers in relation to water availability and societalchoice. At this moment the Minister`s ability to performfunctions pertaining to water resources planning andallocation are inadequate. E-flow implementation will56 MSc thesis


enhance performance of these functions given that it willcall for conducting an inventory of all water resources,determination of the Reserve and available water(uncommitted) as well as establishing carrying capacity ofgiven water resources. In addition catchment waterallocation plans with optimum numbers of permits would bedeveloped. With this in place the Minister will then beable to determine the state of the resources and forecastanticipated water shortages against known water quantitiesand demands then initiate appropriate water resourcessustainable actions.

E-flows as a decision making tool In executing his duties the Water Act, allows the Directorto vary granting permits if in his opinion the waterresources is likely to become insufficient in quantity orquality for the needs of the persons/public using theresource or seeking to utilize it (section 22). This dutyrequires prior knowledge of the state of water resources(quantification and classes), environment objective ofresources, societal choices and development of catchmentwater allocation plans. The Director would then be informedof the optimum number of abstraction and waste dischargepermits and hydropower generation plants within a givencatchment being mind of the resource carrying capacity(Hirii and Davis, 2009). Considering that in Uganda todaythere is no quantification of a resources before waterallocation, no classification of resources, the Directorability to perform duties and provide authentic decisionson the state of any water resources is limited and E-Flowimplementation would bridge this gap.

E-Flows as a tool for equitable sharing of water resourcesThe Director is required to (section 23) offer guidance onample amount of water quantities in his view that thepermit holder may need if quantities are not specified. Themajor aim is to ensure equitable sharing of water resourcesamong different societal users so as to prevent waterwastage, promote tradeoffs and negotiations towardssustainable development of water resources. E-Flows isabout equitably distribution (down and upstream; amongdifferent sectors; etc) and accessibility of water and



services that aquatic ecosystems provide (Dyson et al.,2003). In executing his duties the Director requiresknowledge of the available water resources (quality andquantity), the Reserve (to ascertain uncommitted water) andwater allocation plan to facilitate equitably sharing ofthe water resource. In addition to establishing what thesociety wants for the given water resources (societalchoice) which are enveloped within concepts of E-Flows.

4.1.1.8 The Water Resources Regulations (1998)

The overall objective of water resources management is “tomanage and develop the water resources of Uganda in an integrated andsustainable manner, so as to secure and provide water of adequate quantityand quality for all social and economic needs of the present and futuregenerations with the full participation of stakeholders”.

From the onset elements of E-flows are identifiable in theWater Resources Regulation (1998). The need to protect theenvironment and government policy related to conservation,water allocation and use of water resources are provided.Prior to water (surface or ground) abstraction,authorization from the Director-DWRM (section 3), throughacquisition of water abstraction permit is a pre-requisite.In alliance with concepts of E-Flows, the regulation(section 6 and 7) coerce the Director to assess projectedeffects of abstractions on water availability and qualityand determine likely impacts of water allocation on thefollowing;

i) the existing water useii) protection of water and of surroundingiii) maintenance of flow in the waterwayiv) protection or control of in-stream uses of waterv) aquifer or water way including effects on land which

forms the waterway or its surrounding, vi) maintenance of drainage regime including the

riverine and riparian environment.

Furthermore, construction of any works on water wayswithout undertaking measures to protect in-stream wateruses, maintenance of flows in waterways and the drainageregime are prohibited. The regulation calls for steps and

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measure that will maintain in-stream water availability tosatisfy other water users in cases of water shortage inwaterways, this is none other than implementation ofconcepts of E-Flows. Indeed Poff et al., (1997) states that anew ecological thinking and management style among watermanagers is urgently needs if societies are to continuedepending on river ecosystems for food production, powergeneration, waste assimilation, fisheries, and floodcontrol. Sadly though the importance of the variability ofnatural in-stream flows that exits in rivers have not beenlinked to ecosystems health or societal welfare andtherefore not received attention of water managers.

In alliances with E-Flow concepts, the regulation providesfor a requirement to maintain drainage regimes (naturalflow paradigms) and releases that will not negativelyimpact on downstream water users. The requirement toconsider the existing water users before issuance of permitbrings in an element of carrying capacity, development ofwater allocation plan and attempts to prevent overallocation of water resources thus sustaining minimum flows(Hirji and Davis, 2009). The challenge however, is that thepolicy and legal framework in Uganda do not provide forfull implementation of the Reserve and thus compromisesecological water needs. Prioritising of only domestic waterneeds subjects ecological water need to competition withother more powerful socio economic water users thuscompromising ecosystem health and integrity (Korsgraard,2006).

4.1.1.9 The Water Abstraction Regulation, 1998

The Water Abstraction Regulation (1998) provides for theinstitution of a controlled water abstraction or allocationmechanism through the establishment of a water permittingsystem. Permits are prerequisites for motorized and/orabstracting of quantities above 400 m3/day for personsinvolved or engaged in drilling boreholes and construction(impounding, damming, diverting surface). In line with E-Flow concepts compliances to regulation will contributetowards protecting ecosystem water needs. and allowsufficient flows downstream thus guarantee efficient and



balanced use of water without compromising sustainabilityof sensitive and vital ecosystems (GWP, 2003).

The problem however, is that the information upon whichminimum flows are determined are not based upon ecosystemsensitivity or scientifically proven information and yetonly the low minimum flows are considered. Besides,different criterions are applied in determining minimumflows (4.1.1.2) within DWRM, the responsible institutionfor water resources management. Moreover, no waterresources quantification is conducted to establishcapacities of given water resources (surface andgroundwater) before issuance of water permits. What more,because of a lack of a water allocation plan forcatchments, water permits are issued on an individual basisand not as a totality of the whole water resource. Thesetherefore call for implementation of E-Flows as a measureto harmonize the current criteria for determining lowminimum flow and also introduce high minimum flows whichare currently not in existence in water resourcesmanagement in Uganda. It will also result into developmentof catchment water allocation plans that are devoted toretaining sufficient water needed in the water coursethrough appropriate water allocation mechanisms alongtradeoffs and negotiations between all users of theresource (Tharme, 2003).

4.1.1.10 The Water (Waste Discharge) Regulations (1998)

The Wastewater Discharge Permit (1998) was established withthe aim to regulating and controlling wastewater dischargesinto the environment and subsequent water quality andecosystem protection. Prohibiting discharge of untreatedeffluents or waste into aquatic environment or land unlessin conformity with specified minimum permissible limitsprovided by law. Water quality is a fundamental element ofwater resources management that is the primaryconsideration of all options for reconciling waterrequirement and availability (DWAF, 2008). In line withconcepts of E-Flows, the Director is obliged to ensure thatno negative impacts from the permit affect in-stream and

60 MSc thesis


downstream water quality so as to enhance protection andconservation of water resources and ecosystems health.Palmer (1999), reported that there is now a realisationthat supplying adequate water resources quantities in timeand space would not necessarily result to ecosystem healthif the water quality is impaired. Thus the water qualityreserve (environmental water quality requirement andecological water needs) which is the description of waterquality that is required to maintain aquatic ecosystems ina predetermined state (DWAF, 2003).

4.1.1.11 The National Forestry and Tree Planting Act, 2003

The National Forest and Tree Planning Act (2003) providedfor the establishment of the National Forest Authority(NFA). NFA is charged with protection, conservation,productivity enhancement, sustainable use, management anddevelopment of forests for the benefit of the people ofUganda. The act promotes strategies and actions that aidpromotion and improvement of livelihood so as to contributetowards poverty alleviation which is in line with E-Flowconcepts. Dyson et al., (2003) appraise E-Flows as a majorcontributor to sustainable development, enhancing ecosystemintegrity, sharing of benefits and poverty alleviation. Theact (Section 6) is recognisant of the linkage betweenforestry and environment and the need to protect streams,rivers, lakes, lake shores, river banks, wetland andecosystems which are in support of concepts of E-Flow. Theact grants protection against likely adverse effect onhabitats and environment due to detrimental changes intemperature or erosion, pollution, degradation, deposits ofsediments and desertification. In addition to ensuring thatenvironmental benefits, costs and values are reflected inthe strategies and activities related to forest.

The act prohibits actions that are likely to negativelyimpact on forests, and/or environment and requires that theresponsible persons or bodies be brought to action and anEIA carried out to mitigate such impact. In line withconcepts of E-Flows, the act authorises the Minister ofWater and Environment (Section 7) to declare an area as aforest reserve (strict natural reserve) for conservationPamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 61


purposes. Streams, rivers, lakes, lake shores, river banks,wetland and ecosystems are to be conserved and forestreserves protected for ecological and tourism purposes forthe common good of the citizen. In addition the act(Section 13) calls for management of forest reserves in amanner that will conserve biological biodiversity,ecosystems and habitat while sustaining economic yields andpromote fair distribution of economic, social, health andenvironmental benefits. It’s now evidenced that maintaininga sound ecological system is the answer for maintaining theworld’s biodiversity and poverty alleviation for the ruralcommunities (Dyson et al., 2003).

E-Flow implementation to address gaps within the act In as much as the act emphasises on protection of in-streamflows, rivers, lakes and wetlands the act is silent on treeplanting in relation to water availability. The aspect ofuneven distribution of water resources in time and spacewas not incorporated in the act probably due to theassumption that Uganda is well endowed with freshwaterresources(Water Policy, 1999).

Figure 4-0-13: Massive tree planting on bear hills to facilitate waterinfiltration (Source: NFA website, February, 2010)

Currently NFA has embarked on nationwide tree planningactivities that are likely to impact on water resourcesquantities thus in-stream flows (Figure 4-3). The fact thatsome tress species require enormous quantities of waterwhile others thrive in water scares areas were not captured

62 MSc thesis


in the act. Water demand information of the different tressspecies ought to be availed to the public as a guideline ontree planting activities based on suitability, waterresources availability and wise use. It should be notedthat changes in river flows are not only due to overabstraction, storage or regulation through dams but alsoupstream land use activities like forestry, urbanisationand agriculture (Dyson et. al., 2003). EFA will clearly showwater stress and water abundant areas within the differentcatchments. This with environmental objectives of a givencatchment developed by through societal choices will guidethe authority on the kind of tress in relation to waterdemand to promote in the given catchments. Once implementedE-Flow will enhance NFA`s ability to improve livelihood andalleviate poverty among communities as well as contributetowards sustainable use and management of forest and waterresources in Uganda.

4.1.1.12 The National Environment Act, Cap 153

The National Environment Act provides for sustainablemanagement of the environment, calling for wise use,conservation and management of natural resources in anequitable manner for the benefits of both the present andfuture generations. In line with E-Flow concepts the actrequires that the rate of population growth andproductivity of the available resources be taken intoaccount to enhance sustainable utilisation. The act(Section 24-32) also prevents contamination of waterresources restricting the use of lakes and rivers statingthat no person shall, in relation to a river or lake use,erect, reconstruct, alter, extend, remove or demolish anystructure or part of any structure in, on, under or overthe bed or excavate or drill (section 34). By preventingmodification, transformation or alteration along the watercourse, natural flow regimes that promote and sustainecosystem health and integrity will be maintained (deGroot, 1987; Naimen et al., 1995; Coastanza et al. 1997). In alliance with E-Flow concepts the act provided for thedevelopment of the National Environment (Wetlands, RiverBanks, and Lake Shores Management) Regulation (1998). Thisregulation provides a mandatory 200 meters buffer zone



application to wetlands, river banks and lake shores,within which no anthropogenic activity or permanentstructure should be erected so as to protect in-streamflows (natural flow paradigms) and water resources fromerosion and associated pollution.

Also in line with E-Flow concepts the act provides for(Section 42 and 43) in-situ and ex-situ conservation ofbiological fauna and flora resources on land or in waterand reclamation of lost ecosystems. The requirements tomaintain a stable functioning relationship between livingand non-living parts of the environment throughpreservation of biodiversity and respecting the principlesof optimum sustainable yield of natural resources are inline with E-Flow concepts. The concept recognizes thatthere is a physical limit or a carrying capacity beyondwhich a water resource suffers irreversible damages to itsecosystem function, therefore calling for an allocation ofwater for ecosystem needs (Hirji and Davis, 2009).

4.1.1.13 The Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 1998

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulations followeda requirement from the National Environment Act, Cap, 153that calls for mitigation of negative environmental impactsfor developments and projects with potential effects on theenvironment. It ensures that environmental impacts areincorporated early in the project life cycle (conception,design, pre-and post-implementation stages) as well astheir financial and technical aspects. Thereby ensuringthat important environmental resources are recognized andprotected early in the planning and decision makingprocess. In Uganda, the requirement for undertaking EIAsare supported by a number of sectoral laws (Forestry,Mining, Fisheries, Energy, Petroleum explorations etc) thatwere enacted in 1995, and continues to be endorsed in otherenvironment related sectors.

In alliance with E-Flow concepts, implementation of EIA isbased on active participation and involvement ofstakeholders (Table 4-1) whose collective contribution is

64 MSc thesis


considered in the final decision, an aspect of societaljudgement in environmental aspects (Dyson et al.,( 2008).Furthermore, EIAs are based on the appreciation andrealization of the cheap costs of having to preventenvironmental damages than repair which are also in supportof E-Flows concepts. Moore (2004) said the link betweensocial economic costs and benefits of E-Flows ought to bewell explained to stakeholders so that they can makeinformed choices, recommending sensitisation and awarenessrising. Poff et al., (1997), expounded on this and said it’svery important that societies understand the underlyingscientific principles behind natural flow regimes of riversand their link to supplying the vital goods and servicesthat contribute to their welfare. In this way not only willthey appreciate but also be willing to contribute to riverconservation and restoration.

Hirji and Davis (2009) stated that EIA policies of manycountries have not matured to the point of effectivelyintegrating EFA. As is the case in Uganda where little orno emphasis on water allocation and/or minimum flows orecological water needs are provided in the EIA policy.Therefore in this current Ugandan EIA policy therequirement to protect water resources and wetlands ofsignificant importance so as to maintain equitable,sustainable use and conservation of ecological functionswill inadequately be attained. Moreover, the first scheduleof the EIA regulation demands that sufficient understandingof both terrestrial and aquatic environments, social,landscape and land use be considered during the EIAprocess. Specific regards were accorded to ecologicalfactors, calling for sustainability of fish breedingpopulations, wise use of wetland, maintenance of fragileecosystems and negating effects of proposal on food chains.However, how the above provisions are to be achieved werenot provided for in the EIA policy of which if E-Flows areimplemented then these provisions would be attained.

E-Flows as a measure of strengthening ecosystem protectionImplementation of E-Flow concepts and/or its incorporationin the EIA policy in Uganda would go a further step inensuring full ecosystem protection, management and



sustainable use of water resources. The natural flowvariation that may be in terms of hours, days, seasons,years or even longer are obtained through very longobservation from stream flow gauges or though extrapolationfrom streams with gauges provided they are within the samegeographical areas (Poff et al. 1997). Natural flows of ariver that regulate ecological process are determined byfive components that include magnitude, duration,frequencies, timing and rate of change (Poff and Ward 1989;Poff et al., 1997). These components act together in intricateways to regulate geomorphic and ecological processes.Closure of fisheries, groundwater depletion, water qualitydecline, water availability, intense flooding and riverbank erosion and sedimentation are symptoms of the presentriver management and economic development policies (Naimanet al.,1995; Poff et al., 1997). It is therefore very importantthat societies, environmental practitioners, water andenvironmental resources managers, politicians and otherstakeholders understand the underlying scientificprinciples behind natural flow regimes of rivers. And theirlink to supplying the vital goods and services thatcontribute to their welfare thus alleviating poverty andimprovement of human health. In this way not only will theyappreciate maintenance of natural flows but also be willingto contribute to river conservation and restoration (Poffet al.,1997).

Table 4-5: Key Stakeholders involved in the EIA process in Uganda (i) Developers; charged with the responsibility of conduct EIAs as afunction of their planning process.

(ii) NEMA; authorization by law to co-ordinate, supervise and monitorthe processes and requirements of implementating EIA.

(iii). Lead agencies; Sectoral government departments and localgovernments are charge with a significant role of reviewingEnvironmental Impact Statements on developments and projectsactivities whose implementation may have potential impact oncomponents of the environment under their jurisdiction.

(iv) EIA Practitioners; Provide technical expertise in conductingenvironmental assessments of impacts of developments and projectsthereby providing useful information to both developers and decisionmakers,

66 MSc thesis


(v). Members of the general public; Beneficiary Communities likely tobe affected by development activities and whose input is critical atvarious stages of the planning and development process. This alsoincludes NGOs and civil society groups whose advocacy role providespressure for effective adoption of EIA as a planning and decisionmaking tool.

E-Flow concepts to address gaps in EIAs for hydropower generationThe Energy Policy (2002) provides for EIA undertakingshowever as discussed above (4.1.1.6) there is no clearrequirement in the EIA Policy to maintenance natural flowparadigms. It may be urged that water permits that providefor minimum flows are obtained from DWRM, but the currentminimum flow conditions provided in water permits are notharmonised (4.1.1.2), besides its basis is not upon provenscientific finding. In addition, only the requirements tomaintain low minimum flows are provided in the permits.Having to maintain high minimum flows (wet season) willensure flooding of wetlands and recharging of groundwater,facilitate movement of fish to their breeding ground, flashrivers thereby improving water quality, maintenance ofbiodiversity and fragile ecosystems which are often veryvulnerable to low flows. On the other hand low minimumflows (dry seasons) will ensure that the low flowbiodiversity are maintained and food chains of thedifferent species breed at the different phases of theriver cycle.

Key informant interviews revealed that the practise athydropower dams is to maintain releases according torecommended permit low minimum flows and/or withhold waterin the nights releasing during the day because of thedifferences in power demand. They however recognised thatthis practise alters natural flow paradigms and in-streamflows. In-stream flow quantity is one of the most crucialaspects of river systems its timing plays a central role indetermining water quality, water supply and ecosystemintegrity. In addition, it is responsible for establishingphysicochemical characteristic (water temperature, channelgeomorphology, habitat diversity) that determines abundanceand distribution of riverine species and control ecologicalintegrity of flowing rivers (Poff et al., 1997). The



importance of the variability of natural stream flow thatexits in rivers had not been linked to social economicdevelopment and ecosystems health and therefore notreceived attention of water managers even of Uganda aswell.

Poff et al., (1997) reported that water managers often facedifficulties in management of rivers due to fragmentationof responsibilities among different agencies. This is thecase in Uganda, where water permits to operate hydropowerdams are issued by DWRM (Ministry of Water and Environment)and yet implementation of releases are carried out byMinistry of Energy and Mineral Resources and UgandaElectricity Authority and enforced by NEMA. It was alsoreported that the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resourcesis also involved in issuance of related water permits.These discrepancies will be minimised in the event thatconcepts of E-Flows are implemented, because DWRM wouldavail E-flow guidelines based on scientific knowledge,technocrats in hydropower generation would be sensitised onimportance of maintaining natural flow paradigms thuscontributing towards sustainable management of waterresources and ecosystem health.

4. 2International Conventions

The international conventions related to water andenvironment that Ugandan has ratified include; (1)Convention on Biological Diversity (1992); (2) Conventionon Wetlands of International Importance Especially asWaterfowl Habitat (1971); (3) Convention on Fishing andConservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas(1958); (4) Convention on Fishing and Conservation of theLiving Resources of the High Seas (1958), and (5) UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification (1994); wereexamined for provision of elements of E-Flows. Theseconventions were also assessed for their impacts andpossible influence on policy decisions regardingimplementation of E-Flow concepts in Uganda.

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All the above international conventions have elements of E-Flows, as seen in details in Appendix VII, however, onlythe Convention on Wetlands of International ImportanceEspecially as Waterfowl Habitat (1971) (RAMSAR) andConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1992) areactively being implemented in Uganda. Of these two only theRAMSAR Convention is implementating elements of E-Flowsthrough conservation of wetlands thus ensuring flows intowater courses and prevention of degradation of waterquality.

The RAMSAR convention is being implemented by the WetlandInspectorate Department (DEA) and so far 12 RAMSAR siteshave been gazetted (Table, 4-2). On the other hand CBD isbeing spearheaded by NEMA but implementation of relatedconvention activities is by the various natural resourcesministries that include Wildlife Authority, National ForestAuthority, Wetlands Inspectorate Departments, and MAAIF.Again it is only the Wetland Inspectorate Department thatis actively implementing aspects of the CBD in relation towetland conservation.

Table 4-6:Gazette RAMSAR sites in Uganda (Source: Wetland InspectorateDepartment)

Name Ramsar site Year of designation

Site No.

Area (Ha.)

Conservationimportance

Lake George System4/3/1998 394 15,000 Flora and

FaunaLake Nabugabo Wetland System

11/2/2004

1374

22,000 Bird and Aquatic

Sango Bay-Musambwa Island-Kagera Wetlands System

16/09/2005

1641

6,053 Flora and Bird

Lake Mburo-Nakivali Wetlands System

22/09/2005

1634

25,572 Flora and Fauna

Lake Opeta Wetland System17/09/2005

1636

68,913 Bird

Mabamba Bay Wetlands System

18/09/2005

1638

2,424 Bird

Nabajjuzi Wetlands System20/09/2005

1639

2,144 Bird

Lake Bisina Wetlands System

15/09/2005

1633


Lake Nakuwa Wetland System16/09/2005

1635

91,150 Bird

Lutembe Bay Wetlands 18/09/20 163 108 Bird



System 05 7Murchison Falls Wetlands System

20/09/2005

1640


Rwenzori MountainsProposed 22,400 Flora and

Fauna 307,756

In the case of Uganda, the lack of E-Flow implementation inrelation to ratified international convention is attributedto the lack of guidelines and absence of its explicitprovision in the national legislation. This hasovershadowed the importance of E-Flow implementation eventhough they are provided for at the internationalconventions. The success in implementing the RAMSARconvention could be attributes to the fact that only onedepartment supported by its own technical personnel wasaccorded the mandate of its implementation. In that way,the discrepancies associated with inter-sectoralcollaboration and sourcing for external technical capacitywhich seemed to be the case for CBD implementation would beavoided. Following this therefore it may be prudent tocharge one ministry or department for successfulimplementation of other international conventions.Considering that DWRM is mandated to manage the Ugandanwater resources then implementation of E-Flows could behanded to DWRM as supported by the majority of keyinformant. Given the multidisciplinary approach of E-Flowimplementation, DWRM would have to coordinateimplementation in collaborate with other sectors for extratechnical support. In addition, NEMA a coordinating andsupervisory body could be charged with enforcement whileUniversities could be involved in carryout related researchactivities. Explicit provision of E-Flows in national legalframework and provision of guidelines that would harmoniesthe current minimum flow inconsistency would be addressedthrough prescribed water allocation mechanisms followingEFAs.

Otherwise, currently the ratified international conventionsoffer very little impact on overall E-flow implementationunless the requirement for E-Flow implementation isexplicitly provided for in the national water andenvironment legal framework. And guidelines for its70 MSc thesis


achievement developed in combination of scientific findingsand societal judgment.

4.3 Institutions involved in implementation of thelegal framework

4.3.1 An overview of institutional arrangements and keyinformant interviews

The institutional framework for water and environmentsector in Uganda spreads through national, regional andcommunity levels. It comprises of ministries, governmentagencies, parastatals, the water policy committee, non-governmental organizations, development partners, privatesector, community based organisations, and district localgovernment (Appendix VIII). The institutions (directly andindirectly) involved in the use, management andimplementation of Water and Environment legislations wereassessed for inclusion of technical capacity forimplementation of elements of E-Flows as typified ininstitutional organograms. Key informant interviews wereused to assess technical provision for E-Flowimplementation with a focus on the level of knowledge andawareness of E-Flows within the legal framework. In thenext sub-sections outcomes of interviews and review oforganizational structures are discussed, but details ofopinions, concerns and relevant information of individualkey informants as quoted from the interviews are providedin Appendix VII.

4.3.1.1 Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE)

MWE is the government institution mandated to manage andregulate the use of water resources in Uganda. For waterresources management and development GoU instituted threedirectorates in the MWE, namely; Directorate of WaterResources Management (DWRM), Directorate of WaterDevelopment (DWD) and Directorate of Environment Affairs(DEA) (Figure 4-6). In order to assess the sector widereadiness for implementation of E-Flows, an interview withthe Minister of State for Environment was held. TheMinister (Figure 4-5) affirmed awareness to concepts of E-Flows having recently leant about the elements as critical



for sustainable management of water resources. Being awareof the importance of natural flow paradigms for river andhuman health her concern was the rampant sedimentation anddamping of soils along wetlands and water courses foreconomic developments. She also expressed concern aboutinvestors in hydropower generation sector who release waternot based on natural flows but the amount of energy theywould like to generate. The Minister’s view point providesinsights into the increased awareness of GoU on the need tobegin implementing E-Flow concepts as part of the long termstrategy towards sustainable management of the nation’swater resources.

Figure 4-0-14: Informant Interview with the Figure 4-0-15:Informant interview with Rwizi Chairman CAO Catchment theMinister of state for Environment

4.3.1.2 Directorate of Water Resources Management (DWRM)

DWRM manages and coordinates the full range of IWRMfunctions and activities at national, regional andinternational (transboundary) levels. In carrying out itsfunctions the directorate collaborates with otherministries, districts, private sectors, NGOs and localstakeholders for decentralised and catchment-basedapproaches of water resources management. Interviews wereheld with various key informants in DWRM that includedCommissioner-Water Resources Planning and Regulation,Assistant Commissioner-Monitoring and Assessment Departmentand Principle Analyst-Water Quality Department. GoU iscommitted to building its local technical capacity toenable the directorate perform its advisory, monitory andregulatory roles and disseminate information to all water

72 MSc thesis


users. This study revealed that all key informants in DWRMwere aware of the mandate the directorate had inimplementating E-Flows in Uganda and affirmed thattechnical provisions were provided in the organogram. Themain issues that arose was the need to harmonise thedifferent theories upon which minimum flows (high and low)are to be based considering that they are informallyprovided with little scientific or social choiceinformation and development of local expertise in E-Flowimplementation .

Purpose:

M inistry of W ater and Environm ent

Directorate of Environm ent Affairs

(DEA)

Directorate of W ater Resources M anagem ent

(DW RM )

Directorate of W ater Developm ent

(DW D)

To m anage and develop the water resources of Uganda in an integrated and sustainable m anner in order to provide water of adequate quantity and quality for socio-econom ic needs for both the present and future generations

To plan, im plem ent and supervise the delivery of urban and rural water supply and sanitation services across the country, including water for production.

To prom ote and ensure rational and sustainable utilisation, developm ent and effective m anagem ent of the environm ent for socioeconom ic developm ent of the country

Vision: Sound m anagem ent and sustainable utilisation of water and environm ent resources for the betterm ent of the population of Uganda.

M ission: To prom ote and ensure the rational and sustainable utilisation, developm ent and effective m anagem ent of water and environm ent resources for socioeconom ic developm ent of the country.

Directorates

M inistry of W ater and Environm ent

Departm ents, Divisions and Units: (reporting to the PS) Finance and Adm inistration Dept.

o Procurem ent Unito Internal Audit Unit

Planning Divisiono Policy Analysis Unit

Departm ent of M eteorology Clim ate Change Unit

Departm ents: Urban W ater Supply and

Sewerage Rural W ater Supply and

Sanitation W ater for Production

Departm ents: W ater Resources M onitoring

and Assessm ent W ater Resources Planning

and Regulation W ater Q uality M anagem ent

Departm ents: Environm ental Support W etlands M anagem ent Forestry Support

Authorities and Agencies: (reporting to the M inister) National Forestry

Authority (NFA) National W ater and

Sewage Corporation (NW SC)

National Environm ental M anagem ent Authority (NEM A)

Organisational Structure

Departm ents

Figure 4-16: Structure of Ministry of Water and Environment (Source-Water Resources Management Sub-Sector Re-form Study, Vol. 1, January2005).

4.3.1.3 Wetland Inspectorate Department (WID)

There is general awareness of concepts of E-Flow in WID asexpressed by the Commissioner-WID and technical provisionsin the institutional organogram. The Commissioner,expressed concerns about the limited scope of E-Flowconcept saying it was biased towards physical flows “bluewater” and not static flows “green water”. Revealing thatimplementation of E-Flows in form of protecting green waterthrough prevention of wetland channelization, encroachment,degradation, draining and reclaiming which indirectlyensures maintains of groundwater recharge thus contributingto base flows and eventual recharge of water resources wasongoing. In addition WID involves both upstream anddownstream communities in determining the state of their



desired wetlands, thus promoting societal choices which arein line with concepts of E-Flows. The department is alsoin-charge of implementing the RAMSAR Convention and hasmade successful progresses.

4.3.1.4 Water for Production Department (WfP)

Water for Production refers to water for agriculturalproduction (crop irrigation, livestock and aquaculture) andwater for rural industries. Due to massive negative impactsthat water shortage and scarcity creates on social economicactivities especially in dry seasons the need to providewater for agricultural production arose. Whereas Uganda hasabundant water resources, they are unevenly distributed intime and space, for instance, surface water resources areseasonal and groundwater potential often limited in dryareas. Crop production is impossible while pastoralistsmove to various places in search of water resources,subsequently affecting subsistence food production, qualityand quantity of livestock as well as causing vulnerabilitydiseases.

Provision for water sources which could be accessed bycommunities in water stressed districts/areas famouslyreferred to as Cattle Corridor to ensure food security andenhancement of social economic development were required(Figure 4-7). Earth dams a result of river impoundment(Figure 4-8) and valley tanks created by diverting andstoring runoff (Figure 4-9) were the available remedies forthese challenges. The earth dams and valley tanks areconstructed on seasonal rivers during the dry periods thecapacities of which are designed to meet water needs of thebeneficiaries regardless of the capacity of the waterresources. So far 30 dams and 750 valley tanks have beenconstructed, on the other hand these also serve as vitaldomestic water sources in areas without improved sources.

The need for E-Flow implementation in the WfP sectorThere is no E-Flow implementation in WfP Departmentalthough the key informant was aware of the concept of E-Flows. Country wide the need to provide WfP activitiesespecially in water stress (cattle corridor) is on the rise

74 MSc thesis


(Figure 4-7). Damming, impoundments and large scale watertransfers have direct, short and long term effect onnatural flow paradigms and subsequent minimum flows. It maybe argued that Uganda received considerable quantities ofrainfall however this is not evenly distributed in time andspace. Quantification of water resources and managementoptions of how water can be retained within the catchmentareas are required before allocation, thus calling for E-Flow assessments and implementation. Damming (Figure 4-8)and impoundment activities (Figure 4-9) alter natural flowswhich may result to negative (short and long term) impacton water resources (quality and quantity).

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LakeIsland

$T Valley Tanks# D am s

Political B oundary

1° 1°

0° 0°

1° 1°

2° 2°

3° 3°

4° 4°

29°

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31°

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32°

33°

33°

34°

34°

35°

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Figure 4-0-17: Location of the WfP Facilities within the CattleCorridor Districts (Source: WfP Resource centre, DWD)

Reducing seasonal flows in water stress areas not onlybringing in food insecurity but also affect otherecosystems that communities depend upon. By maintainingnatural flow paradigms water quality will be preserved,organic nutrients will be distributed along water courses(upstream and downstream), sedimentation will be avoidedthus promoting productivity of other ecosystems, wildlife,wetlands, fisheries etc (Poff et. al.,1997). Whereas EIAs are



conducted they are only aimed at providing mitigationmeasures for constructions and operation of proposed damsand valley tanks and not for ecosystem water needs or theeffects of such activities downstream. The study alsorevealed that no water permits were obtained for WfPactivities, so the limited efforts in observing minimumflows as stipulated in the permits are not carried out thusfurther risking ecosystem health and integrity.

Figure 4-0-18: Earth Dam result of impoundment Figure 4-0-19:Fetching water from a Valley Tank

4.3.1.5 National Forest Authority (NFA)

There is no implementation of E-Flow concepts and notechnical provision in the institutional organogram. Andyet both the National Forest Policy (2001) and NationalForest and Tree Planting Act, (2000) were recognisant ofthe importance of elements of E-Flows and provided fortheir implementation. Key informant interviews with theEnvironmental Specialist and GIS in-charge revealed a lackof awareness of concepts of E-flows. Nor were they aware ofthe provisions of its elements within their own institutionpolicy and legal documents. In his survey Moore (2004)concluded that the major hindrances to implementation of E-Flows concepts were the lack of awareness and understandingby stakeholders which seems to be the case with NFA.

4.3.1.6 The National Environment Management Authority(NEMA)

NEMA is the principle body charged with the responsibilityof overseeing, coordinating, supervising and monitoring all

76 MSc thesis


environment management issues in Uganda. Having a crosssectoral role the act empowers NEMA to develop guidelines,prescribe measures and standards for sustainable managementand conservation of natural resources. NEMA is also theagency responsible for implementation of EIA, withtechnical support from other sectors and lead agencies. Keyinformant interviews were conducted with the Director(NEMA), and the Natural Resources Specialist (NEMA). Bothinterviewees were well informed about the concepts of E-Flows and importance of natural flow paradigms.

E-Flow implementation is on-going in NEMA throughimplementing of the National Environment (Wetlands, Riverbanks and Lake Shores Management) Regulations, 2000. Thisregulation ensures that flows along river banks and lakeshores and subsequently minimum flows along water courseare protected. NEMA also provided a buffer zone by lawthrough the National Environment (Hilly and MountainousAreas management) Regulations, 1998. This regulationprohibits anthropogenic activities such as wetlandchannelization, afforestation, agricultural, live stockkeeping within 200 meters to the rivers banks and lakeshores thereby restoring wetlands and natural flows. NEMAhas four natural resources specialists who providetechnical support toward natural resources management andinvolved in E-Flow implementation too. The Directorreported that because of the above efforts successful casesof river flow and critical wetland restorations have beenregistered at community level in several areas countrywide.

4.3.1.7 Hydropower generation related institutions

The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development (MEMD) andUganda Electricity Regulating Authority (UERA) are theresponsible institutions involved in hydropower generationin Uganda. Two key informants both EnvironmentalSpecialists in charge of hydropower generation each fromMEMD and UERA were interviewed. These institutions areimplementing E-Flow concepts in form of maintaining minimumflows and regulating releases as prescribed on agreed curvesin water permits so as to mimics natural flows. Althoughboth respondents confirmed that recommended patterns ofPamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 77


releases were not often adhered to thus modifying naturalflow paradigms, they said there are no proper policies andguidelines to support their initiatives towards correctivemeasures. They were recognisant of the ecologicaldetrimental consequences associated to alteration ofnatural flow regime of a river, thus appreciatingimplementation of E-Flows as a scientifically basedmanagement procedure that will enhance economic developmentas well as ecosystem conservation in hydropower generation(Poff et al., 1997).

4.3.1.8 The National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NW&SC)

NW&SC is the water and sewerage authority mandated tooperate and provide water and sewerage services in areasentrusted to it on a sound commercial and viable basis.Currently the NW&SC operations have covered 22 major urbancentres within Uganda. Accordingly, (section 47) NW&SCoperations are not restricted to supply water for onlydomestic uses but also to stock, horticulture, industrial,commercial, recreational and environment and other waterusers.

The study revealed a lack of awareness of concepts of E-Flows and neither were there technical provisions in theNW&SC organogram. However, implementation of E-Flows as arequirement by the water abstraction permits (adherence tomaintenance of minimum flows) and wastewater dischargepermits (preventions of water quality pollution) are on-going. Considering that the current minimum flows were notbased on scientifically proved information in light ofecosystem conservation, implementation of E-Flows willeffectively address it. Guidance on water abstractionlimits and acceptable nutrient loads to water resourcesduring dry seasons thereby averting negative impacts onecosystem water needs would be availed.

4.3.1.9 Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Fishers and Industries (MAAIF)

MAAIF is in charge of coordinating, facilitating andsupervising national programs on agricultural development.78 MSc thesis


Currently the ministry is implementing GoU priority plansfor eradication of poverty through modernisation ofagricultural activities and providing water foragricultural production in collaboration with the Water forProduction Department in DWD (Ministry of Water andEnvironment). Key informants included a Senior Veterinaryofficer in the Irrigation and Livestock Department andSenior Fisheries Officer in the Fisheries Department. Thestudy revealed a lack of awareness of concepts of E-Flowand nor were there technical provisions in MAAIFinstitutional organogram. However, the two informantsappreciated the significance of implementing E-Flows notonly as a strategy towards sustainable water resourcesmanagement but also to fish productivity and animalindustry.

4.3.1.10 Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)

Uganda is fully committed not only to management of itswater resources at national level but also dedicated toregional and international obligations in ensuring thatshared and transboundary resources are sustainably managed.By virtue of its location, about 98% of Uganda lies in theupper Nile catchment as the river flows through LakeVictoria, thereby defining her interests in safe and soundequitable sharing of her resources in the basins. Thiscoupled with the overall policy of good neighbourhoodpromotes both regional and international cooperationtowards sustainable water resource use and management.

NBI is a transboundary agency and not a basin commissiontherefore limited in operations along the river Nile bylaw. However, NBI could be a platform for advocacy fordevelopment of guidelines for good environmental practicesand soft laws among which are concepts of E-Flows.Temporarily NBI can only encourage or incorporation orimplementation of concepts of E-Flows in water resourcesmanagement among the Nile countries. As a contribution topromote it implementation NBI can aid development of E-Flowrelated projects in addition to offering technical supportin the Nile region. Expertise networking with institutionsand professionals to promote E-flow implementation andlinking Uganda to other countries if successfullyPamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 79


implemented in addition to sourcing for funding can also beconducted by NBI.

Key informant interviews were conducted with the RegionalWater Policy Specialist (RWPS) and Project Officer. Bothrespondents were informed and had long heard of concepts ofE-Flows and importance of natural flows paradigms. The RWPSdid suggested that the modality to introduce E-Flowimplementation in Uganda is best by developing a proposalto seek funding, then involve inter-sectoral and academicinstitutions. It would then be incumbent upon DWRM todemonstrate that implementation of E-Flows in the Ugandacontext is possible thus laying a foundation fordevelopment of guidelines and clear provisions in the legalframework (See Appendix VIII for detailed information).

4.3.1.11 Local Governments

Uganda is divided into over 80 administrative district allgoverned under the Local Government Act (1997) and managedby both the political and technical arms. The Local CouncilChairman assisted by the Resident District Commissionersand the Chief Administrative officer (CAO) is the politicalhead of each district. Districts also have five localcouncil levels with overlapping function handling variousrelated issues concerning the districts and communities,they include Local Council-I (operating at village level),Local Council-II (operating at Parish level), LocalCouncil-III (operating at sub-county levels), LocalCouncil-IV (operating at county level) and Local Council-V(operating at district level).

The law (National Environment Act Cap 153) requires everydistrict to establish a Local District EnvironmentalCommittees (DEC) and Local Environment Committee (LEC) thatwould work together to foster environmental monitoring,education and management in the districts. The LEC areassisted by the LC-Is, LC IIs and resources persons incarrying out water resources management often skilled oreducated persons willing to lead the committee and act assecretary to supplement chairpersons. Technically DistrictPlanner and District Environmental Officers (DEO) are the

80 MSc thesis


responsible coordinators of environmental issues and theyare required to have updated findings regardingenvironmental data and information. NEMA conducts trainingof DECs and DEOs who are supposed to transfer the acquiredknowledge and skills to local levels personnel as seen inthe local government organogram (Figure 4-13).

In the event of implementing E-Flows in Uganda, localgovernment resources persons and authorities should beinvolved in EFA studies. Experiences from the Republic ofSouth Africa and Australia revealed that involvement andgradual capacity building of local villager and authoritieswas indeed a good strategy. Because it ensurestransparency, imparts a sense of belonging upon communitiesallowing interactions between implementers and assessmentteams with the local communities along the water course(Dyson et.al.,2008).

4.3.2 Statistical summary of major findings from key informant interviews

4.3.2.1 General awareness levels about concepts of E-Flows

Thirty key informants from government line ministries,national authorities, departments, regional organizationand academicians participated in these interviews (see listof participants Appendix VII). The majority (75%) ofrespondents had heard of the concepts of E-flow with about50% of respondents having heard of them as early as theyear 2000. The vast majority related E-Flows with waterreserved for the environment and not domestic water needsimplying that the meaning of the term Reserve is not yetfully understood. The major source of information about E-flows was college training (40%), followed by technicalworkshops (16%) and lastly from work places (12%) of waterand environment related institutions. The vast majority ofrespondents learnt about E-flows concepts in Europe whileundertaking master degrees or short course studies mainlyin the Netherlands followed by Germany.



4.3.2.2 Imperatives for E-Flows implementation in Uganda

The majority of key informants (75%) were aware of theimportance of natural flow paradigms to river and humanhealth although slightly less (68%) were knowledgeable ofchanges in river flows and management strategy. Eightyeight (88%) of key respondents affirmed that indeed E-flowsimplementation was important to sustainable water resourcesmanagement if the hindrances and challenges associated toits implementation as seen in Table 4-3 were managed ormitigated.

Table 4-7: Challenges /limitations of E-Flow implementation Weak sectoral andInter-sectoralCollaboration

-Independent planning for water use bydifferent sectors - No reconciliation of issued water licencesamong issuing institutions

Social perceptions -Notion that Uganda is well endowed with waterresources is hampering wise use and sustainablemanagement of water resources

lack legalprovision

- Lack of legislative provisions for waterresources conservation in other sectoral laws(Fisheries, Irrigation, Mining, Wildlife etc)

Technical Expertise -Absence of local technical expertise forimplementing E-Flows

Politicalinterferences

-Legal provisions are bypassed due to politicalreasons/ mandates-Political support on water developments thanresources management

Lack of enforcement -Very limited enforcement of existing water andenvironment laws, -Judiciary body places very little importanceon natural resources crimes (punishment notcomparable to the environmental damage).

Increasingpopulation andwater demand

-Increasing water need demands from population -Population exert pressure on land,encroachment on natural resources and degradingproblems may interfere with the E-Flow studies

Limited /dividedmandates

-Water for production being controlled in twodifferent ministries MAAIF and MWE-License for power generation issues by bothMWE and MEMD and operations managed by MEMD andERA

Lack of clarity of -No clear provisions for maintenance of minimum

82 MSc thesis


legal provisions flows in laws/policy-No Guidelines for minimum flows ( high andlow)

Lack of awarenessand knowledge of E-Flow

-Poor understanding of the hydrological cycles -Ignorance of importance of natural flowparadigms in WRM

According to the interviews less than half (34%) of theinstitutions were involved in implementing of at least anelement of E-Flows, either through the permit system(wastewater effluent discharged and water abstraction),conservation of wetlands or implementation of agreed curves.The following institutions Wetland InspectorateDepartmental, Uganda Electricity Regulatory Authority,Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, Directorate ofWater Resources Management and National EnvironmentManagement Authority, had technical provisions forimplementation of E-Flows in their organograms. The studyrevealed that among others (Table 4-4) the majoropportunity for implementation of E-flows in Uganda wasattributed to legal (although not clearly understood) andinstitution framework in addition to availability oftechnical capacity.

Table 4-8: Opportunities for E-Flow implementation In UgandaHarnessing existingfunds

-Funding towards activities that will contributeto poverty alleviation referred to as “PovertyAlleviation Fund”-Donor and development Partners e.g. JointEnvironmental Funds,

Operationalisingexisting Policy andLegal Frameworks

- 5 policies and 15 water and environment lawsthat at least refer directly or indirectly tothe need and suitability of implementing E-flows. -Sectors (Wetland Metrology, FisheriesDepartments) developing bills or amending lawsif sensitized could incorporate concept of E-Flows -On-going sectoral reforms in water andenvironment sectors

StrengtheningInstitutionalframeworks ( Appendix VIII)

-Nine (9) ministries, (3) Parastatalorganizations, water policy committee (composedof six ministers and NEMA), involved in WRM -Decentralized regional technical facilitators -District local governments, Community basedorganizations, Non- governmental Organizations,Private sector, Water & environment sector



working groups

Harnessing existingTechnical Capacityand Dataavailability

-Available technical capacity in the water andenvironment sector, academic institutions andregional agencies -Hydro-metrological data (over the last 30years) available in addition to equipment andinstruments-water quality data (groundwater & surface) forthe last 10 years-Well established water quality laboratory andGIS facilities -Water resources assessment and monitoring anddata generation are ongoing

Enabling Environmentwith water andenvironment sub-sector

-Water Quality Strategy in use and WaterResources Assessment Strategy (WRAS) in finalstages of bidding for consultancy. -The EIA policy and Environmental PractitionersAssociation -Solid waste management policy in major towns -Water resources demand studies underway -E-flow currently being perceived as one of theadoptive measures for mitigating effects ofclimate change

SectoralCollaboration

-Water and environment sector working groups -Memorandums of understandings among water andenvironment sectors -Focal point persons appointed from differentsectors

Political Support -GoU supportive of all initiatives andendeavours that contribute towards sustainablemanagement of the countries natural resources.

Awareness andsensitizationinstruments

-Focal point officers that are educating andtraining local communities in relation toprevailing legal instrument of wetlands are on-going these can also be channelled intoimplementation of E-Flows - Social technical capacity building in thewater sector

Decentralization ofWater resourcesmanagement

-Pioneer site with CMC involving important andinfluential stakeholders in the Rwizi catchmentIWRM

4.3.2.3 Level of awareness of legal provisions for implementation of E-Flow concepts

The majority of respondents (68%) were aware of theprovision of elements of E-flows within the legal frameworkof Uganda. The laws that were mainly known to provide for84 MSc thesis


the concepts of E-flows were the Water Policy, 1998 and theWater Act, cap, 152. However the majority (70%) said thelaws were not clearly understood to refer to elements of E-flows, while only 24% of respondents agreed that theconcepts were being implemented although not fully. 8%attributed the lack of implementation to the unclear legalprovisions of aspects of E-flows thus overshadowing theirsignificances subsequently not understood by implementers.

4.4 Comparison with other Countries

4.4.1 The South African Water Act No 36 of 1998

4.4.1.1 The Fundamental Principles

The new South African Act (1998) followed a reform toprovide for essential changes and revoke certain laws inthe old Water Act (1956) regarding water resourcesmanagement after which provided the enabling environmentfor implementation. With the ultimate aim of sustainableuse of water resources for the benefit and interests of allusers, the act calls for resources quality protection andequitable water allocation for beneficial use. In order toachieve these provisions the act mandates the nationalgovernment with the responsibility of managing waterresources of the country. It also recognizes the need forIWRM and promotes participation of stakeholders throughdelegation of management functions at regional or catchmentlevels.

The act is recognisant of the fact that sustainability andequity are central guiding principles in use, protection,development, management and control of water resources.With the purpose to meet the basic human needs of thepresent and future generations, the act promotes equitableaccessibility to water, encouraging efficient, sustainableand valuable use of water in public interests. The act alsofacilitates social and economic development, provides forgrowing demand for water use, protects aquatic andassociated ecosystems and their biological diversity,reducing and preventing pollution and degradation of waterresources. It promotes dam safety, management of floods and



drought and establishment of institutions to attain thesefunctions. On behalf of the national government theMinister of Water Affairs and Forestry is obliged tooversee these accomplishments (section 3) in regard to use,allocation, protection and access to water resources inaddition to regulating use, flow and control of all waterin the republic. The act (section 4) however, gives rightof water resources use to persons for domestic uses,gardening, animal watering, fire fighting, andrecreational. Strategies to facilitate proper management ofwater resources included development of the National WaterResources Strategy and Catchment Management Strategy.

4.4.1.2 National Water Resources Strategy (NWRS)

Development of the NWRS followed a participatory approachthat established a framework for use, protection,development, conservation, management and control of waterresources. The major requirements of the NWSR were theestablishment of a Reserve and identification of particularneeds of a given water resources so as to meet projectedfuture water uses and needs. Boundaries of water resourcesmanagement zones, resource quantification, present againstfuture water requirement and water area deficits andsurpluses were to be determined. In addition to setting outprinciples related to water conservation and demandmanagement. In relation to classification system for waterresources, water quality objectives were to be determinedin addition to promoting holistic and integrated managementof catchment within zones.

4.4.1.3 Catchment Management Strategy (CMS)

In collaboration and conformity with stakeholders a CMS(section 9) was to be developed in harmony with the NWRSand the Catchment Management Agency (CMA) charged withperiodic reviews of agreed stands. All issues pertinent toprotection, use, development, conservation, management andcontrol of water resources are to be included in the CMS.Over all the CMS takes into account the classes of waterresources and resources quality objective, the Reserve,water allocation plan, among others.

86 MSc thesis


4.4.1.4 Water Resources Protection

The act is recognisant of the gradual process indevelopment of water resources protection and ultimate aimof attaining efficient use, development, conservation,management and control of water resources. Measures toensure comprehensive protection of water resources but inline with NWRS and CMA were provided as follows;classification system for water resources, classificationof water resources and resources quality; determination ofthe Reserve and pollution prevention.

4.4.1.5 Use of Water and Regulation

Regulation of water use including equitable waterallocation is national government responsibility. Water usecovers abstraction, storage, obstruction or diversion orimpoundment, or engagement in any activity that may reducein-stream flow of water in a water course. It also includesprevention of waste discharge (chemical, thermal etc) orwater containing waste into a water pipe, canal, and sewerthat may eventually be detrimental to in-stream or riparianhabitats and water uses. Except for the Reserve authorisationof other water uses are subject to the NWRS and dependenton available water quantity, restrictions or limitationsare based on the number of existing lawful water users. Inthis act water regulation is not only limited to waterlicensing but dependant on the different water resourcesuse, class and resources quality. The act also provides forregulation of in-stream water reduction activities as wellas controlled activities for protection of the Reserve andother users.

4.4.2 The United Republic of Tanzanian National Water Policy - July 2002

4.4.2.1 Water Resources Demands in Tanzania

Tanzania has abundant freshwater resources (surface andground) covering approximately 60,000 Km2 and the countryis heavily depended on these resources for socio-economicdevelopments and meeting population water needs. Over theyears the demand for socio-economic activities (industrialproduction, irrigated agriculture, livestock keeping,Pamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 87


mineral processing, hydropower generation, navigation,recreation and tourism) and population water demands havetremendously increased. Coupled with the challenges ofdisproportionately distributed water resources in time andspace, quality and quantity the water resources base andenvironment of the country were threatened. Moreover overthe past 15 years, the situation escalated due to waterscarcity as a result of unreliable rainfall in some partsof the country. Consequently resulting to competing uses;demeaning of sources and catchment; threatening foodsecurity; decreased energy production; compromisingenvironmental integrity leading to water conflictssituations amongst sectors of the economy.

Furthermore, given the annual renewable water resources of89 cubic kilometer or 2700 cubic meter of water per personper year (World Resources 2000-2001 cited Water Policy,2002), the population projections of 2025 of 59.8 millionfrom 33 million in the year 2001 is bound to reduce theannual available water per capita by 45% to about 1500cubic meter per person per year. This implies that the 1700cubic meter per person per year that indicates water stresscircumstances, will be the scenario in Tanzania and thecountry will be declared water scares.

4.4.2.2 Water and the Tanzanian 2025 Development Vision

The Tanzania vision for the year 2025 is a high qualitylivelihood for its people through sustainable and equitablesharing of growth. The vision also seeks to attain goodgovernance and rule of law and achieve a strong andcompetitive economy. Without water of adequate quantity andgood quality to support its social and economic activitiesbesides sustaining its biodiversity and sensitiveecosystems, it is practically impossible for the country toattain this vision. In addition, the realization of theheavy dependency on environment resources (water, soil andforest) especially by the poor in particular as a means ofgenerating income for livelihood makes water a key factorin social economic development and the main fight againstpoverty. In 1992, Tanzanian signed Agenda 21, of the United

88 MSc thesis


Nations Environment meeting of Rio de Janeiro that requiredall countries to protect natural resources including waterresources against pollution and conserve ecosystems.Tanzanian then applied these recommendations andexperiences of the country to develop principles upon whichwater resources management would be based. The principlesrelated to water and environment required that during waterallocation environmental water needs should be givenpriority. Moreover, the environmental water allocationwould be based on scientific information and considerationsof both temporal and special water requirements to maintainhealth and viability of riverine and estuary ecosystems.These requirements warranted a shifting from the old waterresources management style to one that would ensure thatwater is used in a sustainable and equitable manner withoutbecoming a limitation to national development. Therefore,deliberate efforts were required in management ofenvironmental resources and water in particular in order tosustain the desired pattern of growth and consumption andto ensure that all social economic activities maximizetheir capacities as articulated in the vision. Accordinglygovernment of Tanzania put in place the relevant legalinstruments to support attainment of Vision 2025, thus therevised National Water Policy.

4.4.2.3 The New National Water Policy (2002)

In July 2002, the revised Water policy was instigated,followed by a legal and institutional framework providedfor in the 2008 Water Act. The revised policy now lays afoundation for sustainable development and management ofthe nation`s water resources, reduced the role of centralgovernment from being service providers to coordination,policy and guidelines formulation and regulations. Thepolicy that aims at promoting cross-sectoral interest inwater and watershed management seeks to encourageintegrated participation approach for water resourcesplanning, development and management. In regard to waterresources management the policy presents a broad outlinefor supporting optimal, sustainable and equitabledevelopment and use of water resources while incorporatingthe interest of all water users in consideration of thepresent and future generations. In planning and water usePamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 89


the policy provides that water for basic human needs shallbe in adequate quantity and acceptable quality and willreceive the highest priority. Water for the environment toprotect ecosystem will receive second priority and will bereserved. Other water users will be subject to socio andeconomic criteria which will be revised from time to time.

4.4.3 Lessons Uganda could learn and/or adopt from the Republic of South African Water Act (1998) and Water Policy (2002) of the United Republic of Tanzania

The Ugandan Water Act, Cap, 152 has some similarities withprovisions in both the South African Water Act, No 36 of1998 and Water Policy (2002) of the United Republic ofTanzania. However, lessons and good practices that Ugandacould draw from both the South African Act 1998 and theTanzanian Water Policy are hereby presented.

1. Development of the Water Resources Management Strategy( WRMS) WRMS is a key aspect in water resources management,following this therefore Uganda is currently in the initialstages of developing the strategy. However, Uganda couldlearn from the South Africa strategy and consider includingthe following provisions. In the schematic diagram belownegative signs (-) indicate absence of the provisionwhereas the positive signs (+) indicate inclusion of theprovision in the current Ugandan perspective (Figure 4-10).

90 MSc thesis

- Boundary water management zone (+)- Resourcequantification (-)- Present and futureprojected water needs(-)

Water Resources ManagementStrategy

WaterResource Assessment

WaterResources

WaterResources

Compulsory licensing(-)

Controlledactivities (-)

Water allocationplan (-)

Prevention of

Classification systemof water resources (-)

Classification of waterresources (-)

Classification of

Physicalchemical (+)

Biological (-)

Water QualityAssessment


Figure 4-0-20: Components of the South African Water resourcesmanagement strategy components

2. Prioritisation of the ReserveThe Reserve that was provided for the in Ugandan WaterPolicy, 1998, Principle IV of water allocation processought to be activated. The first priority for waterallocation in adequate quantity and acceptable qualityshould be reserved for basic human needs and secondpriority for ecosystem water needs. Following that, otherwater users can then be allocated water basing on socialand economic criteria but subjected to periodic reviews inrelation to prevailing conditions in light of scientificinformation and societal choices. Otherwise, only domesticwater needs have been prioritised as stipulated in theWater Policy, (1998) and Water Act, cap 152.

3. In-stream flow reduction and controlled activities Land-based activities likely to reduce availability of flowin water courses and/or expected to impact on the Reserve,affecting other water users or ability to meetinternational obligations should be declared in-stream flowreduction activity. The extent of water availabilityreduction, effect of reduction on class and flow andduration also ought to be considered before declaration.Controlled activities are those with detrimental impacts onwater resources and have to be regulated subject tostakeholder participation. For instance irrigation usingcontaminated water, modification of atmosphericprecipitation, alteration of flow regimes, aquifer rechargeusing contaminated water or waste are to be controlled.

4. Water Permitting SystemPresently there is a water permitting system however,Uganda could adopt some aspects that are currently notbeing practised or considered so that full protection ofthe water resources through regulation is attained. InUganda issuance and renewal of permits are granted forshort periods of only three to five years, based onindividual requirements and not on the totality of thePamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 91


resources (quantity and quality). The South Africa`sapproach of public involvement, compulsory licensing andgeneral review process, application of volumetric waterreduction model and issuance of permits for slightly longerperiods could be adopted in Uganda. When compulsory andgeneral licensing of permits is conducted at the same time,impact on the total resources (quality and quantity) wouldbe easily identified, negotiations, tradeoffs and equalsharing of the resources facilitated. Among others new andfuture water users would be considered, illegal increase ofwater quantities prevented and/or reconciled and waterusers get to know themselves and report any illegalhappenings at catchments. Subsequently, over allocation,the Reserve and future water users in the verge of theeffects of climate change will be prevented.

Permit issuance calls for prior quantification of waterresource to determine available water quantities minus theReserve, so that appropriate action in relation torestriction, limitation or permission to water usage inlight of existing lawful water usage is undertaken.Moreover, water regulation should not only be limited towater licensing but dependant on different water resourcesuses, class, scientific information and societal judgement.

Clause that could be included in the permit conditions: Prevailing terms and conditions are subject to review

before renewal especially in relation to availablewater, required water quantity and subject to theMinister and Director`s duties for instance .

o The Minister has powers to regulate, restrict andprohibit some activities and only allow specificpurposes in relation to times of anticipatedwater resources shortage and societal choices(Water Act, Cap 152, Section 8).

o The Director has powers to vary granting permitsif in his opinion the water resource is likely tobecome insufficient in quantity or quality forthe needs of the person/public using theresources or seeking t utilize it (Water Act, Cap152, Section 22).

92 MSc thesis


Indicate water regime on permits and let the wateruser know that permitted water quantities may notalways be obtained in view of drought, the Reserve, newwater users and projected future users or due toeffects of climate change

List of all water users ( ground and surfaces water),the available water resources (quality & quantity),the Reserve, allocated water, the requested waterquantities and wastewater dischargers into the samewater resources

Date of compulsory licensing, negotiations, tradeoffand social choice reviews

5. Water Management Plans Water resources managers or regulators should institute acompulsory requirement for all water use applicants toensure conservations and efficient water use. For instancecleaner production technologies could be recommended tolimit water wastage and wastewater generation. Thuscontributing to wise water use, improved water quality andpreventing over drawing/ abstraction from the waterresources thus improving the overall water resources(quality & quantity) conditions.

6. Reflection of scarcity in water useReflection of water scarcity and the value of water onpermit fees could act as an economic negative incentive tousers instead of the use of flat rates. Permit fees forwater scares areas should be have higher permit fees andstringent conditions to discourage unnecessary demand. Thiswill prevent needless water permit requests and result towater conservation, efficient and wise use of waterresource thereby protecting the Reserve and ecosystem healthand integrity thus contributing towards sustainable waterresources management.

7. The need to link E-Flow concepts and social welfareImplementation of E-Flows and subsequent incorporation inthe legal framework of a country is based on therealisation of its significance in water resourcesmanagement. Water resources managers and regulators oughtto make societies understand the underlying scientificprinciples behind natural flow regimes of rivers and theirPamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 93


link to supplying the vital goods and services thatcontribute to their welfare. In this way not only will thesocieties appreciate but also be willing to contribute toriver conservation and restoration (Poff et. al., 2003).Currently in Uganda water managers and environmentalistpractitioners have not yet captured or fully understood theimportance of maintaining natural flow regimes andecosystem health in water resource management. Thistherefore calls for sensitization, awareness creation,trainings and education amongst both water users andmanagers.

8. Participatory approach in water resources managementUganda ought to strengthen public participation/involvementespecially of the private sector, academia and localgovernment in water resources management. Water relatedpolicies should be subjected to in-depth review not only bythe water sector and related ministries but withuniversities, research institutions, regional bodies,private sector, non-government organizations and localgovernment. Moreover, related policy development processshould involved all water resources stakeholders inmeetings, technical workshops, national conferences, fieldconsultations including conducting a number of technicalstudied to provide input during the policy reviewactivities.

Water resources managers in Uganda seem not to have fullygrasped the importance of participatory approach. RecentlyIWRM was initiated in the Rwizi catchment and the multi-sectoral approach did not seem to have been exhaustivelyapplied because representatives from important andinfluential stakeholders like Wildlife Authority, WetlandDepartment, DWD (Water for Production), Forest Authority,MAAIF, NEMA and Industries were not included on the CAC assee in the Terms of Reference (Appendix VIII). Consideringthat IWRM in Uganda is the first of its kind the experienceof Rwizi will be very important and will lay the foundationof all other catchment management strategies and as suchmulti sectoral stakeholder involvement should not beunderestimated.

94 MSc thesis


9. Promote cross-sectoral, multidisciplinary andparticipatory water resources planning and management

As a measure of regulating and protecting water resourcescross-sectoral, multidisciplinary and participatory waterresources planning and management ought to be carried outso as to avoid over drawing or retention (hydropowergeneration) from the same resources. This will bring arealization of water scarcity among users encouragingtradeoffs and negotiations as well as integrating linkagesbetween land and water use and the role of ecosystems innational economy. Ultimately contributing towardsmaintenance of the Reserve, ecosystem health and waterresources conservation.

In Uganda today water resources planning is at sectorallevels like agriculture, energy, water for production,industries etc. Fragmented sectoral water resourcesplanning and allocation should shift to multi-sectoral,regional and district levels. Water resources planning andmanagement should not be biased on only developmentactivities but ought to also focus on protection ofecosystem health and integrity.

4.5 Case Study of the River Rwizi Catchment

4.5.1 General information, survey and observation of the catchment areas

4.5.1.1 Community interests in the catchment

Overall the river Rwizi catchment is important for social,economic and cultural aspects and survival of communitiesand ecosystems. Over 90 % of the population within thecatchment solely depend on agriculture as the majoractivity followed by fisheries as the second socialeconomic activity. Drastic changes majorly due to increasedpopulation, urbanisation, agriculture, andindustrialisation have been observed within the catchmentin the last 10 years (DSER, 2006). Subsequently these havecaused increased pressure on environmental resources, withspeculation that if the present trend continued



irreversible changes in relation to water resources andecosystem health would occur. Moreover, downstream waterusers and districts are already complaining of dwindlingwater flows especially during the dry seasons. This coaxedthe formation of a joint water resources management plan bythe five districts sharing the river, with the aim ofcurtailing further environmental and water resourcesdegradation. In this same period the Wetland InspectionDepartment with support from Belgium Technical Projectcarried out activities in the catchment with the major aimof conserving wetlands. A structural organogram fromdistrict to grass-root community level were developed, theoutcomes among which was the development of districtwetland inventories (DWIR, 2007). Due to limited fundingthe project came to an end in 2007, but the district hadgained experience in wetland management plan development.In 2007, DWRM launched IWRM for catchment areas and Rwizicatchment in the Victoria Management Zone was selected as apioneer site for the country (JSR, 2009).

4.5.1.2 Integrated water resources management in the Rwizi catchment

The realization that although the Constitution of theRepublic of Uganda (1995) mandates DWRM to centrally managewater resources of Uganda, this approach has provedinefficient and ineffective thus paving a way fordecentralized management (JSR, 2009). The need to combineDWRM`s technical expertise, local knowledge and politicalsupport to address urgent water resources related problemsfacing catchment in Uganda was grasped. The Rwizi catchmentis the pilot area for implementation of IWRM in Uganda andthe experiences that will be obtained are very importantand will be translated to successfully manage othercatchments nationwide in revising and updating relatedwater legislations (DWRM, 2008).

4.5.1.3 Catchment Management Body

In 2007 the Rwizi Catchment Advisory Committee (CAC)structure composed of 15 representatives from the fivedistricts and major stakeholders was developed (Figure 4-11). The CAC that operates under the authority and96 MSc thesis


direction of the Victoria Water Management Zone Coordinatorin the DWRM was charged with managerial and advisory roleson decentralised water resources management (DWRM, 2008).Being the

Figure 4-0-21: Structure of the Catchment Advisory Committee ( Source;DWRM)first body and IWRM pilot activity in Uganda, experiencesgained are hoped to offer guidance and information forother subsequent CACs as such a term of references wasdeveloped (Appendix IX).

4.5.1.4 Stakeholder involvement in catchment activities

Stakeholders involved in management of Rwizi catchmentcomprise of government, water users and leaders (political,technical and community). In view of the recent rate ofdegradation combined efforts of all stakeholders,sensitisation and awareness are required in addressing theneed to protect and conserve water and environmentresources of the catchment. The study however, showed thatrepresentatives from important sectors like Industry,MAAIF, Wildlife Authority, NEMA and Wetland Department, DWD(Water for production) and Forest Authority were notincluded in the CAC. All these stakeholders are needed



during negotiations and tradeoffs and in determiningenvironmental objective of the river which is the societalchoice aspect of E-Flow concepts. In the event that the E-flows are to be implemented then the most influential andimportant stakeholders are as seen importance andinfluential matrix as seen below (Figure.4-13).

Figure 4-0-22: Importance and Influence Matrix

4.5.1.5 Management and Technical Capacity in relationto E-Flows Implementation

An assessment on the level of knowledge and understandingof managers, technical staff and stakeholders in thecatchment in relation to E-Flow implementation was very lowmoreover no E-Flow implementation was in existence.Centralised water resources management dissociateddistricts from related activities to the level thatdescription of duties and responsibilities were majorlyallied to water supply provision. This averted developmentof expertise in water resources management issues at localgovernment and county levels (JSR, 2009). It is now GoUpolicy to employ graduates at district and county levels,while diploma and certificate holders are employed at sub-county levels as a means to distributed technical capacityall over the country (Figure 4-14). With the presenttechnical capacity, political and sectoral support, inaddition to stakeholder involvement, the Chairman CAC, wasoptimistic of successful implementation of E-Flow concepts

98 MSc thesis

DWRM, NWSC,NEMA, WID,CAC, Centralgovernment

Industries,Local governmentWildlifeAuthorityForestry

DWD, MEMDMAAIF,UERA,

AcademicinstitutionsNGO'sCBO's

Influence

Importance


at the catchment. He however, expresses concern aboutdelays in releases of funds from central government fornatural resources related activities. They had alreadystated experiencing the same with IWRM activities althoughit had been reported the DWRM was finalising with releasesof funds. At the time of this study indeed the activitiesrelated to IWRM had not yet taken off since the institutionof the CAC.

Figure 4-0-23: Technical capacity at district levels for naturalresources management

4.5.1.6 Natural resources conservation activities in the catchment

Wildlife and forest conservation are the major naturalresources in the catchment covering 5.6 % of the total landarea. The major conservation centre and potential touristsite covering 3.2% (370 sq. km) being Lake Mburo NationalPark in Kiruhura and Isingiro districts. Sport hunting(elands, zebra, buffaloes, etc) in protected areas,national parks and game and traditional hunting (wild pig,rabbits, antelopes etc) for meat by community in gazettedareas is carried out (DWIR, 2007). Generally, eco-tourisminitiatives in the country are on the rise and the Rwizicatchment for instance received over 12,339 tourists in2004 and the collected revenue shared among the districtsthrough a Revenue Sharing Policy (NEMA, 2007). Justifying,the need for continued in-stream flows downstream tosupport the wide biodiversity of both flora and fauna andboost related conservation and tourist activities for LakeMburo National Park and downstream districts.



4.5.1.7 Water resources situation in the catchment

Open water resources and wetlands account for 3.4% and 3.3% of the total catchment surface area respectively. Thesame are the main water sources for households with over65% of the population specifically depending on wetlandsresources. In addition semi arid areas of Kiruhura,Ntungamo and parts of Isingiro districts depend on valleydams, water tanks and boreholes. Currently wetlands arethreatened with degradation mainly owing to conversion toagricultural land, sand mining and brick making. Inaddition pollution of water resources from industrial andmunicipal effluents due to inadequate enforcement of thewastewater discharge regulations are ongoing. It is alreadyreported that downstream flows of Rwizi river has reducedtremendously, this being attributed to wetland degradation,changes in land use, massive tree planting upstream andreduced tree covers (DSER,2006). Indeed the ChiefAdministration Official of Kiruhura district, expressedresentment over increased decline of river flows downstreamdue to prevalent wetland encroachment in spite of existingwetland laws. Because of the decline, he said the localcommunities are now forced to share water sources of earthdams and valley tank with livestock especially during thedry season.

4. 5.1.8 General land use activities in the catchment.

Originally (1958) the Rwizi catchment had a low populationand land was communal, basically used for grazing andcultivation especially in the districts of Kiruhura,Isingiro and Ntungamo. With the current escalatingpopulation, the country all over and the Rwizi catchment inparticular is now faced with land fragmentation thusaffecting general land use in the catchment. GoU wasprompted to gazette areas like Lake Mburo National Park andsome forest reserves for the benefit of communities ingeneral (NEMA, 2004). Of the Rwizi total land area 72.3% isarable, 5.6 % national parks and forest reserves, 3.4 %open water and 3.3% containing wetlands. The remaining14.3% is composed of other land uses like rocky, mountainsand plantations (DWRM, 2002).

100 MSc thesis


Agriculture is the major economic land use activity with90% of the population involved in subsistence farming andlivestock production supported by arable land. Fishing(commercial and subsistence) is the second prevalenteconomic activity, largely contributing to local revenue ofthe districts in the catchment. About 23% of the populationare involved in fishing activities in natural water bodiesand constructed infrastructure (valley dams and fishponds). The main fish species are tilapia, clarias andprotopterus (mud fish) species mainly caught in lakes,wetlands and streams especially during the rainy seasons.The catchment is nationally known as a source ofagricultural produce, livestock and milk to other urbancentres especially Kampala.

4. 5.2 Water quality related information

4. 5.2.1 Water quality inventory

No surface and groundwater water quality inventory for theRwizi catchment has been conducted although District WaterOfficers have been involved in monitoring water supplyquality. However, monitoring of two surface water qualitysites namely; Rwizi New Water Works (RNWW) and Rwizi at thebase of a hill and one ground water quality monitoring siteunder the Water Quality Department (DWRM), three to fourtimes a year is ongoing (Figure 4-14). At the time of thisstudy Mbarara district did not have water qualitymonitoring activities/plans nor had the IWRM activities setoff because of delayed funds.

In this study a water quality inventory of Rwizi river asit flows through Mbarara District was carried out using thePrati Index (Prati et al., 1971) (Appendix V). Prati Index isa water quality indice that uses physic-chemical parametersin interpreting monitoring data giving a general overviewof the resources water quality as Class I- Unpolluted;Class 2- Slightly polluted; Class 3- Moderately Polluted;Class 4 Polluted; and Class 5- Extremely Polluted.An inventory on the water quality state of river Rwiziflowing through Mbarara urban centre was demonstrated usingthe Prati Index. Three points along the section of thePamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 101


river that included, Site 1: NWSC Intake Point, Site 2:Tannery Point, and Site 3: Lagoon Point Down Hill wereassessed (Figure 4-14). Using monthly water qualitymonitoring data of November 1999 and May 2008 obtained fromDWRM an overview of the water quality of the river wasobtained (Appendix V).Prati Index results showed that as the river enters MbararaTown at Site I, NWSC Intake, the water quality is Class 2(represented by the yellow colour), which is slightlypolluted the same applied to Site 2. The water then getsmoderately polluted as it leave the town centre as seen inSite 3- Lagoon Point with Class 3 (represented by the Redcolour). Anthropogenic activities are the likely causes ofthis moderate pollution within the Mbarara town centre aswill be seen in the subsequent sections following herein.

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

$ $

$

$#Y

#Y

#Y#Y#Y#Y#Y#Y

#Y

M BA RA RA

RA K A I

BU SH E N Y I

M ASA K A

N TU N G A M O

90300030

90300060

90300130

90300140

90300190

90300210

90300250

90310060

90310200

90310250

R . K ibale

R uizi N W W R uizi at base of hillsR .R uizi O W W

N

EW

S R uizi_dow nstream

W etlandLakes

R ivers

D istricts

# R ainfall$ Surface W ater Stations#Y W ater Q uality Stations

9 0 9 18 Kilom eters

Scale 1: 550,000

Figure 4-0-24: River Rwizi as it flows that Mbarara Town

4. 5.2.2 Wastewater discharge and compliances

There are five (5) wastewater dischargers into Rwizi river,however, the study revealed that only NWSC the mainsewerage company that manages wastewater in major towns in

102 MSc thesis

WQ-Study Area

NWSCIntake

LagoonPoint

Tannery


the country was the legal discharger (Table 4-5). NWSC hasthree stabilising ponds for treatment of wastewatercollected from industries and households, these lagoons areall located along the Rwizi river and discharges treatedwastewater into the river. All other dischargers do not have wastewater dischargepermits and regard soak-pits as wastewater abatementfacilities as such no monitor of wastewater quality asrequired by the wastewater discharge permit was conducted.Currently the WHO wastewater discharge standards are usedto determine guidelines for acceptable levels of wastewaterdischarged into the environment and compliances assessed.NWSC the major wastewater dischargers were complying to therequired standards of wastewater discharge into land orwater with levels of BOD5 20 below 50 mg/l. Water quality pollution is likely to be emanating fromother waste dischargers who still regard soak pits astreatment facilities. Direct discharges of untreatedwastewater are potential surface and groundwater pollutantsprobably accounting for progression of water qualitypollution as seen below (Figure 4-14).

Table 4-9: Major Wastewater Discharge into the Rwizi RiverDischarger WWD

Permits Type/kind of WW Volume

discharged Distance toRiver(m)

Presence ofWWT

facility

GBK DiaryProducts

Available

Industrial(Diary)

Nomeasurement

300 Simpleaeration

Rwizi ArchHotel

Notavailable

Sewage and greywater

Nomeasurement

400 Not present( soak pit)

Lake ViewHotel

Notavailable

Sewage and greywater

Nomeasurement


Slim BinhemAbattoir

Notavailable

Wastewater(Organic waste)

0.0051/sec3 hrs/day


NWSC Available

Wastewater(Industrial &domestic)

100 Lagoons

Available

Wastewater(Industrial &domestic)

100 Lagoons

Availab Wastewater 100 Lagoons



le (Industrial &domestic)

Coca-colaIndustriesMbarara

connected toNWSC

Industrial Nomeasurement

1000 Simpleaeration

WW- Wastewater WWD-Wastewater Discharge WWT-Wastewatertreatment

4. 5.2.3 Human activities around the river that could affect water quality

The catchment has scattered reclaimed swamps and valleyswith on-going agriculture activities in low laying plateausof Bushenyi, Mbarara and Ntungamo districts. However thepersistently dry districts of Kiruhura and Isingiro mainlyhave livestock keeping activities (DSER, 2006). It wasreported that large scale farming and livestock keepingalong the river were the major sources of water qualitycontamination. Due to land pressure and the need for foodsecurity, wetlands and vegetation within the catchment andespecially along the rivers are cleared to supportagricultural activities. In addition, livestock dipping insmall ditched and fish farming are common activities alongthe river that are bound to negatively impact on waterresources. These activities collectively pose a big threatto the river water quality thereby affecting flora, faunaand human water requirements.

Mbarara district has an effective municipal solid wastemanagement structure with a sanitary land fill andcollection equipment. Elsewhere in the town councils ofBushenyi, Ntungamo, Kiruhura and Isingiro, there are nosanitary landfills or wastewater management systems. Poorsolid waste and wastewater management are likely to besources of water quality pollution especially during therainy seasons when solid waste aided by surface runoff maybe washed or damped into the river system.

Although NWSC sewer systems are within the municipality ofMbarara more than 70% of households are not connected tothe system. Implying that there is likely discharge anddisposal of wastewater effluents into the Rwizi river thattransverses the municipality. In addition a number ofprocessing industries within the municipality still104 MSc thesis


consider soak pits as wastewater abatement facilities thusdischarging untreated wastewaters that are likely sourcesof pollution for surface and groundwater system (DWIR,2007).

4. 5.3 Water quantity related Information

4. 5.3.1 Discharge Measurements

Two functional gauging stations namely Mbarara New WaterWorks and Ndeizha are located within the study area. TheNdeizha gauging station is situated in the south-westernpart of the catchment measuring flows originating from thewestern and south-western. While the Mbarara New WaterWorks measures flows from upstream Northern part ofBushenyi flowing through the Mbarara municipality. There isno gauging station at the outlet of the Rwizi catchment.Flow duration curves for Mbarara new water works andNdeizha showed a good correlation between the two gaugingstations during low flows (Figure 4-15). Considering thatlow flows are the most critical in both E-Flow studies andwater resources management this similarity in correlationwas a good indication. Implying that the catchment islikely to be evenly affected especially in terms of baseflows and wetland conservation needs to increase capacityof the catchment to retain water in the system.

81224-Ruizi at O ld water works [m 3̂/s]81225-Ndeizha [m 3̂/s]

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00Probability of Exceedence

0

20

40

60

80

100

Data Valu

e

Figure 4-0-25 Flow Duration Curve Comparing Ndeizha and Old WaterWorks Gauging Stations (Source; DWRM)

4. 5.3.2 Water Abstraction

Mbarara NWSC a body charged with water supply for domesticand industrial water uses is the major water abstractor.Pamela Lawino Okori, EST, April 2010 105


NWSC has two abstraction points along the river Rwizi, theMbarara Old and Mbarara New Water Works abstracting 2000m3/day and 6000 m3/day respectively, as reported by theEngineer in charge. Construction of the new works followedincreased demand for water from the rising population andindustrialization in the district. Although it was alsorevealed that during dry season the water level at the oldwater works still drops very low and only the new waterworks with a higher water level remains operational. Thiscompelled NWSC into narrowing the river width so as toraise the water levels to facilitate abstraction. As ifthat is not enough, the present water supply is still notadequately meeting the population water demand needsespecially during the dry seasons resulting to populationwater stressful situations. NWSC is now in the verge ofconsidering carrying out water transfer schemes.

Even though it appears that NWSC is seemingly meetingpopulation water demand currently, projected populationincrease, climate change effects, temporal and specialdistribution of water resources and other increasingsectoral water demands ought to be brought into context.NWSC is still fortunate because they are the only majorwater abstractor and no hydropower dams or commercialirrigation activities upstream of the catchment.

At the time of this study there was no proof that MbararaNWSC had obtained water abstraction permits from DWRM forthe two intake points along the Rwizi river. Implying thatthere is a likelihood that no minimum flow implementationas stipulated in the permits were being apprehended thusjeopardizing ecosystem health and supportive of thecomplaints of downstream districts on diminishing flows.Poff et al., (1997) reported that the initial aim ofprotecting river flows were an attempts to restrictedabstraction of water supply to ensure maintenance of in-stream flows (minimum flow) which are central aspects ofriver system. In-stream flow timing plays a critical rolein determining water quality, water supply and ecosystemintegrity as well as establishing physicochemicalcharacteristics (water temperature, channel geomorphology,habitat diversity) that determine abundance and106 MSc thesis


distribution of riverine species and control ecologicalintegrity of flowing rivers (Naimen et al., 1995).

The Chairman (CAC) expressed concerns about a majorupcoming groundwater abstractor for commercial drinkingwater bottling that was in the process of getting a groundwater abstraction permit from DWRM. He said this majoractivity will subsequently impact on groundwater levelsthus reducing base flows and is likely to aggravate thecurrent low flow situation especially during dry seasons.Groundwater represents the contribution to runoff thatcomes from springs or seepage into streams or rivers and assuch a reliable background level of a river enabling it tomaintain base flow during dry periods (Langbein and Iseri,1995). So with massive groundwater abstraction andprolonged drought, base flow is likely to be reduced thusnegatively affecting river flows and further expounding onthe already fragile situation at the catchment. Indeed thisillustrates on the current weakness of individual waterpermit issuance that indirectly affects minimum flows andsubsequent ecosystem health and integrity.

4. 5.3.3 Environmental Flow Assessment – Tennant MethodAn E-Flow assessment for river Rwizi was conducted usingthe Tennant Method as a demonstration on how waterallocation along the Rwizi catchment could be conducted.The Tennant method was used for prescribing in-stream flowregimes for fish, wildlife, recreation and relatedenvironment on a river in the USA. Since then a number ofcountries have used it as a quick method to assess thegeneral state of their rivers. The methods states that ariver that leaves only 10% of its MAR and below depicts aseverely degraded situation. While those leaving MAR above10% shows poor or minimum degraded conditions and leaving30% of the MAR and above being the desirable state andclassified as good and excellent (Appendix VI).

In this study the Tennant methods was used to give ageneral overview of the state of the Rwizi river and assessthe stress state of the population. 10% and 20% MAR werevaried based on the information that Uganda recommendsleaving between 10-15 % of the MAR for ecosystem water



needs. Hydrological data for the last two decades (1990 to2006) were used, however in this report not allcomputations was attached (Appendix IV). Using twoscenarios of leaving either 10% or 20 % of the MAR of Rwiziriver as minimum flows (ecosystem water needs), anassessment of the population water stress was carried out.The information in red shows the times when the water flowsin the river minus the reserve (10% or 20) could notadequately satisfy population water needs and as such thepopulation got stressed. Below are the detailed of the twoscenarios.

Scenario I - Leaving 10% of MAR for Ecosystem water needs

Results - The results showed that the population was stressed

three times in 20 years when 10% of the MAR wasreserved for ecosystem water needs.

- From computed results the population became waterstressed when E-Flows were reserved at 10% in themonths of July and September of 1993 (Figure 4-16);Months of July and August in the year 1995; and themonths of May to August of the year 1999 as the mostseverly stressed stretching for four months (Figure 4-17).

- In these two scenarios (1993 & 1999) there is a closecorrelation between downstream flow and discharge floecurves during both the dry and wet seasons.

108 MSc thesis


Figure 4-0-26: River Rwizi flows in 1993 with E-Flow at 10%


- The highest peak flow for the year 1993 was in theearly months of March to June (Figure 4-16), while thehighest peak flow for 1999 were as in the later monthsof the year of October and December (Figure 4-17).



- The total amount of water received in the catchmentfor the years 1990- 2009 was approximately 346,000 x10^4 m3/ 20 year and water required to meet populationwater needs minus the 10% for E-Flows wasapproximately 12,700 x10^4 m3/20 year. Meaning thatthe catchment received a considerable amount ofrainfall to meet its population water needs.

Scenario II - Leaving 20% of MAR for Ecosystem water needs

Results- In this scenario when 20% of the MAR was reserved for

ecosystem water needs results showed that thepopulation was stressed seven times in 20 years when20% of the MAR was reserved for ecosystem water needs.

- The population got stressed in the years 1993 fromJuly to September; 1995 from June to August (Figure 4-18); 1999 from May to August being the most severelystressed stretching for four months (Figure 4-19);2000 from June to July and for the years 2000, 2005,2006 and 2008 the population got stressed in the monthof June.

- The total amount of water received in the catchmentfor the year 1990- 2009 with a reserve of 20% wasapproximately 294,000 x10 ^4 m3/20 year and waterneeded for population demand minus the 20% for theenvironment was approximately 12,750 x10^4 m3/20 year.Again implying that the catchment receives aconsiderable amount of rainfall to meet its populationwater needs.

110 MSc thesis




Discussion

Water Regulation basing on E-Flow reservation



As seen below in the annual rainfall pattern (Figure 4-20),the dry periods in the above scenarios corresponds to themonths in which the Rwizi river receives the least rainfalland the period with the highest evaporation values in thecatchment (Figure 3-5). This is `also the period when thepopulation gets stressed (Red marks in Appendix IV). TheDirector (DWRM) can use this assessment information to varyissuance of water permits on the onset of the dry periodsand carry out water rationing, permitting some users andprohibiting others (Water Act Cap, 152 Section 22). In thiscase water permits as seen from the lessons learnt shouldinclude a clause that clearly states that during dry seasonwater users will be required to abstract less water thanthey have requested for despite allocation.

The year 1999 showed long dry periods for both scenarios(10% and 20 %), probably implying that it was a dry yearand as such the Minster could also take necessary action inanticipated water shortage years so that both thepopulation and ecosystems are protected from stressfulsituations. With this information the Minster can thenregulate, restrict and prohibit some activities and allowothers depending on water availability and societal choicesthus effectively and efficiently fulfilling his mandatedduties (Water Act Cap, 152 Section 8).

Figure 4-0-30: Monthly variation in rainfall in the Rwizi Catchment(Sources; Meteorological Department)

Population water stress with increase in ecosystem water needs

112 MSc thesis


The population of the Rwizi catchment will get stressedwith increase in percentage of MAR for ecosystem waterneeds from 10% to 20% as seen above. When 10% of MAR wasreserved for the ecosystem, the population got water stressonly three times (1993, 1995 and 1999) in 20 years with themost severe stressed year being 1999. The frequency ofpopulation water stress rose with increase of ecosystemwater needs by 20% MAR to seven years in 20 years. Societaljudgement is needed in determining the kind ofenvironmental the society requires, this also calls forinstitutions of management options that will avoidconflicts between population and ecosystem water need.Otherwise even with the laws in place, weak enforcementwill instead result to compromising ecosystem water needs.

Sufficient water resources and insufficient base flow to recharge thesystemThe study showed that the catchment received a considerableamount of rainfall (800-2000 mm) as confirmed bymeteorological data and information from the Chairman CAC.With an effective catchment management strategy,utilisation of the received water would facilitate meetingboth population water needs and even higher percentages ofecosystem water reserves. Inspite the substantial amountsof water that is received in the catchment, retentioncapacity appears to be very low and as such, as much wateras is received is flashed out of the catchment. Thecorrelation between downstream flows and discharge curvesin the graphs above confirms this likelihood. It isprobable that the wetlands that could have recharged thesystem through surface and groundwater interaction(assuming that surface water is recharged by groundwater)in terms of base flow have been degradation as stated byNEMA (2004).

A crucial component of the river regime is the base flow,which is the groundwater recharge and discharge andrepresents the groundwater contribution to runoff thatcomes from springs or seepage into a stream channel. It isthe reliable background level of a river, meaning that theriver can maintain the base flow during dry periods. Baseflows make up the flows of most rivers in dry countries



during the dry season. With prolonged drought, base flowitself will diminish and the rate of flow falls in adepletion curve (Langbein and Iseri, 1995).

Management options to for CAC to alleviate population stressfulsituations The problem in river Rwizi is not lack of sufficientrainfall or received water but retention of the waterwithin the catchment. This problem is almost certainlyexacerbated by the lack of sufficient groundwater aquifersand wetlands to recharge the river through base flow in thedry periods. However, stringent management options thatwill avert this situation has to be considered by the CAC,the following are some of the strategies that could beapplied;

1. Sensitisation and awareness campaigns to allstakeholders within the catchment on the need toconserve wetlands that should aid retention of waterin the system and thus base flow to prevent populationwater stressful situations in the dry periods.

2. The Forest Authority should encourage planting ofindigenous tress with low water consumption/demandrates in the bear hills so as to facilitategroundwater infiltration thus base flow in dryseasons. The Authority should also prohibit tressplanting at the water heads and along the river asrequired by the National Environment (Wetland, Riverbanks and lake shore management) Regulations (2000) asis now the case in the Rwizi catchment area.

3. Societal choice to determine the environmentalobjectives of Rwizi catchment should be carried out.This will create transparency and facilitatenegotiations, tradeoffs and rationing of waterespecially during the dry season and dry years.

4. All water users should be involved in waterconservation and wise use especially during the dryseasons; through water rationing populations should beencouraged to reduce their water demands from the

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assumed 120 litres/capita/day to lower values. Waterrationing by water suppliers should also be conductedfor other water uses especially the non basic humanneed water requirements during such dry periods.

5. Construction of reservoirs (valley tanks and earthdams) using sustainable environmental options forcapturing water in wet seasons (between March & April;October & December) and storing it for use during dryperiods could be a workable option. Throughinfiltration this would also facilitate recharging ofgroundwater systems subsequently facilitating andmaintaining base flow.

6. Full scale enforcement of the National EnvironmentRegulations; Hilly and Mountainous Areas Management,(1998) and Wetlands, River Banks and Lake ShoresManagement, (2000) should be instituted and defaultersubjected to stipulated penalties. Permit regulatorsshould also stringently follow compliances especiallyduring the dry periods (May to September) to avertassociated negative impacts.

7. Application of sustainable agricultural practises andincreased water use efficiency in addition topreventing changes in land use should be encouraged.

4. 5.4 The steps that Uganda can take in implementation E-Flows

Each country is unique and so are the water resources, thesteps in instituting E-Flow implementation depends onprevailing situations. Most importantly is the need tofully understand the existing policies, laws, regulationsand institutional framework of the country (Dyson et al,2008). Implementing E-Flows will either require an activeor restrictive management approach. Active management isenforced on infrastructures like dams in which case a wholeflow regime that comprises low flows and floods can begenerated. While restrictive management refers to reducingabstraction for water uses like irrigation or industries,it aims at retaining sufficient water within the watercourses for ecosystem health. This then calls for policies



that will regulate water abstraction by controlling waterwithdrawal and diversions in dry periods. However, bothmanagement interventions calls for societal behaviouralchange and commitment to agreed ecosystem objectives. Giventhe prevailing conditions the critical steps needed toimplement E-Flows in Uganda could be as follows (Figure 4-21).

1. Establishment of an Environmental Flow National Team Undertaking this will require the following;

i) Identification of technical experts from variousrelevant government institutions to form a team. Inthe case of Uganda members could be drawn fromuniversities, consultancies, government Ministries(Water, Environment, Fisheries, Agriculture, Wildlife, Wetland, Hydropower generation, MeteorologyDepartment, Lands,) Local governments, Environmentalpractitioners, NGO, CBO etc).

ii) Capacity building to form a team of experts thatwill be involved in management, data collection andmonitor of E-Flows in Uganda. This could be done viaworkshops, seminars, in house trainings etc.

iii) From the above group multidisciplinary nationalrepresentatives at all levels (regional, catchment,and district) of Hydrology (River Flows), Ecology(species present, location and link with the flow),Geomorphology, Hydraulic, (velocity, depth, wettedperimeter, cross sectional area) Water Chemistry,Botany. Aquatic Invertebrates, Vertebral Zoology,Engineering, Social Scientist to be instituted.

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E-Flow National Team

W ater Resources Inventory

Determ ine the Reserve

W ater Allocation Plan

M onitoring & Assessm ent

W ater Resources M gt Strategy

1.Select EFA method2. Identify stressed Rivers3.Create Data Center 4.E-Flow Research Programme

1.Identification of technical experts2. Capacity building

1.Quantification of resource2. Classify water resources 3. Classify water quality1.Domestic water needs

2. Ecosystem water needs3.Environmental objectives4.In stream flow 1.No. abstraction

permit2. No. waste discharge permit 3. Regulate in stream use

1. IncorporateE-flows in legal fram eworks

2. Provide for technical capacity in institutions

3. Im plem ent E-Flow concepts

Figure 4-0-31: Schematic picture of the steps that Uganda could followto institute E-Flow

2. Carry out a national water resources inventory/audit

Undertaking this will require the following; i) A simple and fast EFA method like Tennant or Look- up

methods could be applied with the aim of establishingthe state of rivers.

ii) In cases of catchments or areas with over waterallocation or stressed resources, further andcomprehensive assessments using other detailed methodsshould be followed in addition to improving catchmentmanagement strategies and options.

Establish data bank

Create a national, regional and district data centre andlibrary for disseminating E-Flow information to allinterested stakeholders

Develop and start implementing an E-Flow research programme



Use consistent methods, maintain frequencies of datacollection and embark on EFA studies on a given catchmentas a pilot area

3. Develop a water resources management strategy for thestudy area (catchment)

i) Determine the water resources quantity of the catchment

ii) Classify the water resources in the catchment (good, fair or bad)

iii) Classify the water quality of the resources within the catchment and determine the general water quality requirements/ desires for water users

Determine the reserve i) Domestic water needs in relation to the population ii) Ecosystem water needs in relation to the

prevailing ecosystemiii) And environmental objective basing on societal

choice/judgement

4. Determine in-stream water user both consumptive andnon consumptive

Promote maintenance of natural flow paradigms of all riversand promote mimicking of natural flows as much as possibleby non-consumptive uses e.g. Hydropower generators

5. Develop water allocation plan for the catchment

i) Determine the number of acceptable water abstractionand wastewater discharge permits bearing in mind thecarrying capacity of the water resources, legal waterusers, future water users, the Reserve, and uncommittedwater.

ii) Regulate/ prohibit all in-stream flow reductionand controlled activities that may affect quantity andquality of flows.

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6. Monitoring and assessments data to update informationagainst which the Reserve is to be computed Have rangeof methods, compare generated data with outcomes andtest correctness

7. Policy Reviews: Review relevant policy and legalframework and provide for incorporation of elements ofE-Flows as well as provision of posts for technicalcapacity within the institutional Organograms that areinvolved in implementation of E-Flows.



CHAPTER FIVE - CONCLUSIONS ANDRECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

- Overall, GoU recognizes the need for sustainablemanagement of its natural resources and institutedlegal and institutional provisions. In the case of thewater and environment sub-sector there are 5 policyinstruments and 15 related laws, with about 10institutions. This study however, reveals that whilstthese provisions are made, their implementation withinthe concept of ecological concepts is weak.

- There are available opportunities for implementationof E-Flow concepts towards strengthening efforts ofsustainable management of Uganda’s water resources.However, successful implementation requires addressingassociated identified hindrances.

- Uganda has the necessary technical capacity toimplement E-Flow concepts, however, only a lack oflocal expertise to kick off the process of EFA doesexist. In particular the relevant institutions thatneed strengthening for implementation include DWRM,NEMA, MAAIF, DWD, WID, UERA and MEMD.

- The notion that Uganda has abundant water resourceshas distorted necessary attention regardingprioritization of water resources management bystakeholders, managers and politicians. Thiscountrywide perception has overshadowed the need toconserve, protect and wisely use the water resources.The situation is exaggerated by the lack of a waterresources assessment strategy.

- There is fragmented implementation of the Reserve, onlydomestic water needs and not ecosystem water needs

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were prioritized thus subjecting ecosystem health tolikely compromise by other competing water uses.

- Lessons from South Africa and Tanzania waterlegislations show that Uganda ought to develop a WaterResources Assessment Strategy that will provided forthe Reserve, fully protect the water resources andstrengthen existing legislations

- Ratified International Conventions have no impact onoverall implementation of E-Flows in Uganda withoutsupport of local expertise or local guidelines orexplicit provision within local national legislations

- Water Quality of the Rwizi river ranges from slightlypolluted to moderately polluted as it follows throughthe urban centre of Mbarara. River Rwizi is not overallocated, the catchment receives considerable amountof rainfall and catchment management options arerequired to ensure that population and ecosystem waterneeds are availed with water of adequate quantity andacceptable quality especially during the dry season.

5.2 Recommendation

Critical Research areas for E-flows management in Uganda

This study has provided an overview on the suitability andpracticability of implementing E-Flows in Uganda. Ademonstration of how EFA could be applied to facilitatedmanagement options so as to avoid population waterstressful situations; facilitate water allocation; offerguidance on societal choices and decision making based onscientific information were illustrated. Some of the issuesto be considered and key for successful implementation ofE-Flows as generated from key informant interviews are alsoherewith presented (Table 5-1). Further studies should becarried out on how E-Flow implementation can be intertwinewith IWRM under the decentralized water resourcesmanagement in Uganda. The major areas to be considered inthe study are;



1. Detailed ecosystem studies (ecosystem composition andspecies distribution) to determine the Reserve andminimum flows (low and high) in relation to theavailable ecosystems in terms of water quantity andquality within the catchment.

2. Conducting a water balance study for the Rwizicatchment as establish the surface water andgroundwater interactions

Table 5-10: Important issues for successful implementation of E-Flowsin Uganda

a) Development of the Water Resources Assessment Strategy anda water allocation plan for all catchments.

b) Harmonization of low minimum flow limits within the water sector and establishment of higher minimum flows for wet seasons to allow flooding of wetlands and river banks.

c) Improve Intersectoral collaboration amongst the water users and other institutions

d) Stakeholder involvement and participation to impart knowledge of E-flow to all natural resources managers and users, local government, local communities, private sectors, NGO, CBOs to facilitate implementation

e) GoU ought to increase natural resources management budget and not transfer funds generated from natural resources ( water permits, tourism etc) in funding non environmentalactivities (e.g. buying vehicles).

f) Massive sensitization and awareness campaigns (trainings, workshops, education etc) on concepts of E-Flows with a focus on the technical, political and general public.

g) Dissemination and communication of E-Flow information among technical, academic and general public.

h) DWRM should put a show case to demonstration that the concepts are attainable as a flat form for acceptance and countrywide implementation

i) DWRM to develop and avail guidelines upon which implementation will be based

j) Change in notion and perception of the people of Uganda regarding abundance of water resources that is currently hampering wise and sustainable water use

k) Strengthen compliance monitoring and enforcement of existing legal provisions

l) Legal requirements of all natural resources management anduse institutions should clauses on the need for water resources management and conservation that will advance

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implementation of concepts of E-Flows for sustainable and wise use of water resources

m) Explicitly clear and understandable legal provisions for the requirement of concepts of E-Flows should be availed to users and implementers

n) Strengthen institutional linkages and collaborationo) Source for technical expertise in E-Flow implementation to

build local technical staff.p) Water permits to be allocated basing on the totality of

the water in the catchment and not on an individual basis.



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APPENDICES

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APPENDICES

Appendix I: Semi structure interview questionnaireKey guiding questions for the semi-structured interviewsAssess level of knowledge of Environmental Flows

a) Have they heard of E-Flow concepts in management of waterresources? When and where?b) What do they know about the importance of maintaining the riverflow paradigms in relation to human and ecosystem health?c) Do they think implementing environmental flows are important forsustainable management of water resources? Why?d) Are they implementing it in anyway and if so how and to what level?Have they provided for the technical capacity in their organogram?d) What do they know about changes in the flow regime and themanagement practices? e) What do they think their role/contribution would be in implementingenvironmental flows in water resources management?f) (Academicians), do they teach topics related to environmentalflows, have they had students undertake research related to elementsof environmental flows, have they attended any workshops/conferencesrelated to environmental flows in water resources? What would be theirrole in the academic field towards implementations of environmentalflows?g) Who do they think is the responsible for E-Flow implementation InUganda?h) What do you think could be the opportunities and hindrances to itimplementation?

Assess knowledge related to elements of Environmental Flows within the Legalframework (National and International)

a) Have they identified/aware of the concepts of environmental flowsin the national and/or international laws? Which ones in particular?b) Was the law clearly quoted and is the interpretation of itunderstandable?c) Do they think it is being implemented? If so to what level? If not,what are the hindrances to implementations? And how can they be overcome?d) Assess willingness to implement environmental flows and what theythink should be done to promote its implementation?



Data was obtained on the following issues in relation to the River Rwizi Catchment

General information, survey and observation of the catchmentareas

a) Community interests in catchment. The interests and needs of thecommunity regarding management of the catchment. This alsoincluded a description of the major activities in the differentareas of the catchment that may affect environmental flows ofthe river.

b) Management of the catchment. This included an assessment of thelevel of understanding of managers in the catchment ofenvironmental flow concepts and the strategies put in place.

c) Technical capacity. Assessment of the level of technicalcapacity to handle environmental flow assessments in catchmentarea.

d) Stakeholders in the catchment area. Who are the stakeholders inthe catchment? What is their level of involvement in decisionmaking? Who are the most importance and influential ones indecision making.

e) Catalogue of natural resources. An assessment of the kinds ofnatural resources existing within the catchment was taken. Otherdata taken included conservation and protective measures toprotect them.

f) General land use in catchment. A Description of the general landuse activities around the catchment and how they affectenvironmental flows.

g) Challenges and opportunities to implement environment flows.Data was taken on the opportunities or hindrances to theimplementation of environmental flows in the catchment.

Water quantity related data

a) Water Quantity. A description of the quantity of water upstreamof the river and how much of this reaches downstream.

b) Description of the major water users. Who are the major waterusers? How much water do they abstract and what do they use thewater for.

c) Water abstraction. Record of the number of water abstraction andwastewater discharge permits that have been issued. This alsoincluded investigation of the presence if any of a waterallocation plan for the river and its tributaries in terms ofnumber of water abstraction permits to be issued and how thequality of the water is to be protected.

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d) Environmental flow aspects. How much water is reserved forenvironmental flows and how was it computed. This also includedan assessment of the stress levels of the river.

Water quality related data

a) Waste water discharge. The wastewater dischargers into theriver. This also included the type/kind of wastewater producedin the catchment area, volumes produced and discharged into theriver or its tributaries.

b) Compliance management. This included assessment of the level ofcompliance to the existing water discharge regulations as wellas the terms of the wastewater discharge permits (do they haveseasonal discharge conditions).

c) Wastewater management. This included data on forms of wastewaterabatement facilities being used in the catchment area as well astheir efficiency of treatment.

d) Environmental management plan. Data was obtained on the forms ofenvironmental management plans in operation, responsible partiesfor monitoring the quality of the river, frequencies ofmonitoring and the parameters used during the monitoringexercise.

e) Water quality inventory. The water quality inventory of theriver was done using the Prati Index.

f) Human activities around the river. Record was taken ofanthropogenic activities around the river that may contribute todegrading water quality.



Appendix II: List of Key Informants

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Appendix III: Ugandan National Policies, Laws and Regulations

Laws and Policies RegulationsEnvironmental Act, Cap. 153: 2000 The Water (Waste Discharge)

Regulations, 1999Water Act, Cap. 152; 2000 The Sewerage Regulation, 1999National Water and SewerageCorporation Act,Cap. 143; 2000

The Water Supply Regulations,1999

EIA Regulation, Cap. 150; 2000 Water Resources Regulation, 1998National Environmental ManagementPolicy (1994)

Hilly and Mountainous AreasmanagementRegulations, 1998

Water Policy (1999), The National Environment (Standardsfor Discharge ofEffluents into water and on land)Regulations, 1999

National Wetland Policy, 1995 The Environmental Audit Guidelines,1998

Irrigation Policy, 1998 The National Environment (Wetlands,River banks andLake Shores Management)Regulations, 2000

Wetland Policy, 2000 Dam Construction Policy,



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Appendix IV: River Rwizi hydrological data

Years Population

M onths

Discharge (m 3/m onth)*10^4

E-Flow (10% )

Available w ater before supply

Intake at w ater supply

Population Stress

River Stress

Env. Flow (20% )

Available w ater before supply

Intake at

w ater supply

Population Stress

River Stress

Jan 849.9168 84.992 764.925 367.200 397.72512 482.7168 169.98336 679.93344 367.2 312.73344 482.7168Feb 1037.3184 103.732 933.587 367.200 566.38656 670.1184 207.46368 829.85472 367.2 462.65472 670.1184Mar 1120.7808 112.078 1008.703 367.200 641.50272 753.5808 224.15616 896.62464 367.2 529.42464 753.5808Apr 6169.2192 616.922 5552.297 367.200 5185.0973 5802.0192 1233.8438 4935.37536 367.2 4568.17536 5802.0192May 2582.928 258.293 2324.635 367.200 1957.4352 2215.728 516.5856 2066.3424 367.2 1699.1424 2215.728Jun 659.9232 65.992 593.931 367.200 226.73088 292.7232 131.98464 527.93856 367.2 160.73856 292.7232Jul 428.7168 42.872 385.845 367.200 18.64512 61.5168 85.74336 342.97344 367.2 -24.22656 61.5168Aug 336.96 33.696 303.264 367.200 -63.936 -30.24 67.392 269.568 367.2 -97.632 -30.24Sept. 358.992 35.899 323.093 367.200 -44.1072 -8.208 71.7984 287.1936 367.2 -80.0064 -8.208Oct 940.1184 94.012 846.107 367.200 478.90656 572.9184 188.02368 752.09472 367.2 384.89472 572.9184Nov 2454.1056 245.411 2208.695 367.200 1841.495 2086.9056 490.82112 1963.28448 367.2 1596.08448 2086.9056Dec 1081.9008 108.190 973.711 367.200 606.51072 714.7008 216.38016 865.52064 367.2 498.32064 714.7008Jan 884.1312 88.413 795.718 417.600 378.11808 466.5312 176.82624 707.30496 417.6 289.70496 466.5312Feb 947.376 94.738 852.638 417.600 435.0384 529.776 189.4752 757.9008 417.6 340.3008 529.776Mar 1360.0224 136.002 1224.020 417.600 806.42016 942.4224 272.00448 1088.01792 417.6 670.41792 942.4224Apr 2301.9552 230.196 2071.760 417.600 1654.1597 1884.3552 460.39104 1841.56416 417.6 1423.96416 1884.3552May 954.1152 95.412 858.704 417.600 441.10368 536.5152 190.82304 763.29216 417.6 345.69216 536.5152Jun 521.7696 52.177 469.593 417.600 51.99264 104.1696 104.35392 417.41568 417.6 -0.18432 104.1696Jul 247.536 24.754 222.782 417.600 -194.8176 -170.064 49.5072 198.0288 417.6 -219.5712 -170.064Aug 375.5808 37.558 338.023 417.600 -79.57728 -42.0192 75.11616 300.46464 417.6 -117.13536 -42.0192Sept. 2246.7456 224.675 2022.071 417.600 1604.471 1829.1456 449.34912 1797.39648 417.6 1379.79648 1829.1456Oct 6286.896 628.690 5658.206 417.600 5240.6064 5869.296 1257.3792 5029.5168 417.6 4611.9168 5869.296Nov 5274.2016 527.420 4746.781 417.600 4329.1814 4856.6016 1054.8403 4219.36128 417.6 3801.76128 4856.6016Dec 1701.9072 170.191 1531.716 417.600 1114.1165 1284.3072 340.38144 1361.52576 417.6 943.92576 1284.3072Jan 798.0768 79.808 718.269 518.400 199.86912 279.6768 159.61536 638.46144 518.4 120.06144 279.6768Feb 689.2128 68.921 620.292 518.400 101.89152 170.8128 137.84256 551.37024 518.4 32.97024 170.8128Mar 1015.8048 101.580 914.224 518.400 395.82432 497.4048 203.16096 812.64384 518.4 294.24384 497.4048Apr 898.128 89.813 808.315 518.400 289.9152 379.728 179.6256 718.5024 518.4 200.1024 379.728May 502.5888 50.259 452.330 518.400 -66.07008 -15.8112 100.51776 402.07104 518.4 -116.32896 -15.8112Jun 306.1152 30.612 275.504 518.400 -242.8963 -212.2848 61.22304 244.89216 518.4 -273.50784 -212.2848Jul 357.9552 35.796 322.160 518.400 -196.2403 -160.4448 71.59104 286.36416 518.4 -232.03584 -160.4448Aug 499.9968 50.000 449.997 518.400 -68.40288 -18.4032 99.99936 399.99744 518.4 -118.40256 -18.4032Sept. 1398.384 139.838 1258.546 518.400 740.1456 879.984 279.6768 1118.7072 518.4 600.3072 879.984Oct 2431.0368 243.104 2187.933 518.400 1669.5331 1912.6368 486.20736 1944.82944 518.4 1426.42944 1912.6368Nov 3962.3904 396.239 3566.151 518.400 3047.7514 3443.9904 792.47808 3169.91232 518.4 2651.51232 3443.9904Dec 1782.5184 178.252 1604.267 518.400 1085.8666 1264.1184 356.50368 1426.01472 518.4 907.61472 1264.1184

127440 346925.78 127440 294218.473

E-Flows at 10% (m 3/m onth) *10 4̂ E-Flows at 20% (m 3/m onth) *10 4̂

1440000

1020000

1160000

1999

1993

1995



Appendix V: Water Quality data

Date ofSampling Site names

pH(units)

TSS(105)mg/l

Cl(mg/l)

NO3(mg/l)

COD(mg/l)

11/27/1999

R. Rwizi Downstream of FREBATannery 7.6 61 11 0.14 69

11/27/1999

R. Rwizi at NWSC Lagoons(Afterdischarge) 6.9 95 11 0.12 100

11/27/1999

R. Rwizi at NWSC New WaterTreatment Works 6.6 67 11 0.12 75

5/27/2008R. Rwizi Downstream of FREBATannery 6.9 60 11 0.22 75

5/27/2008R. Rwizi at NWSC Lagoons(Afterdischarge) 7 120 10 0.29 98

5/27/2008R. Rwizi at NWSC New WaterTreatment Works 6.8 47 11 0.17 66

Appendix V: Prati IndexClass 1 2 3 4 5Indexinterval 0.1-1 1-2 2-4 4 - 8 10

pH 6.5-8.06.0-6.4 &8.1-8.4

5.0- 5.9 &8.5-9.0

3.9-4.9 & 9.1-10.1

<3.9 & >10.1

% O2 88-11275-87 & 113-

12550-74 & 126 -

15020-49 & 151-

200<20 & >200

BOD520 (ppm) 0.0-1.5 1.5-3.0 3.0-6.0 6.0-12.0 >12.0

COD (ppm) 0-10 12-36 20-40 40-80 >80Susp. Solids(ppm) 0-20 20-40 40-100 100-278 >278NH3 + NH4

+ (ppm) 0-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.9 0.9-2.7 >2.7NO3 (ppm) 0-4 4-12 12-36 36-108 >108Cl- (ppm) 0-50 50-150 150-300 300-620 >620Components of the Prati index for water quality assessment(simplified). The index is based on 8 parameters and rates the waterquality from class 1 (unpolluted) up to class 5 (extremely polluted).

ParameterSite

NWSC IntakePoint

Tannery Point Downstream Point

Nov,1999 May2008

Nov,1999 May2008 Nov,1999

May2008

pH 6.5 =0.1

6.8=0.5

7.6 =0.5 6.9=0.3

6.9=0.3

7=0.3

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CODmg/l

75 = 7.5 66=6.6

69 =6.9 75=7.5 100 =10

98 =10

Sus.Solid mg/l

67 = 3 47=2 61 =3 60 =2 95 =3.5 120=4

NO3mg/l

0.12 =0.1

0.17=0.1

0.14=0.1

0.22=0.15

0.12=0.1

0.17=0.1

Cl-mg/l

11 = 0.1 11=0.1 11 =0.1 11=0.1 11 =0.1 13 =0.1

Points 10.8 9.3 10.6 10.05 14 14.5PratiIndex

10.8/5=2.16

9.3/5=1.9

10.6/5=2.12

10.5/5 14/5=2.8

14.5/5=2.9

Class 2 2 2 2 3 3



Appendix VI: Tennant Method for E-Flow Assessment

Estimated and Actual water consumption levels (UNWDR,2005)

Service levelEstimated( Liters per person per day)

Actual Average (liters/person/day)

Household connections 50-200 70Yard Tap 40 19Stand Tap 20 8Rural Water Supply 20 13Commercial 50-200

1,988 liters perday

Hotel 50-100Industries (litres/Hectare/day 10,000

144 MSc thesis


146 MSc thesis

Environmental Flow for Sustainable Water Resources Management in Uganda: A Case Study of Rwizi Catchment

Appendix VII: Ratified Convention related to water and environment in Uganda

Ratified Convention Date ofRatification

E-Flow provision Implementation of E-Flows

Convention on BiologicalDiversity (1992)

Uganda signed thisconvention on 12th

June 1992 andratified it on 8th

September 1993.

-In-situ conservation and sustainable use ofecosystems and habitat-Protection of ecosystems and natural habitatstowards maintenance of viable population ofspecies in their natural surroundings-Regulatory provisions for the protection ofspecies and populations, rehabilitation andrestoration of degraded ecosystems andpromotion of the recovery of threatenedspecies.

-Responsible InstitutionNEMA-Enforcement of wetlandconservation

Convention on Wetlandsof InternationalImportance Especially asWaterfowl Habitat(1971),

The convention wassigned on the 4th

March 1988 andratified on 4th

July 1988.

-Conservation of wetlands that provideecological functions as regulators of waterregimes and habitat for flora and fauna-Minimize loss of biodiversity or diminish ofecological, hydrological, cultural or socialvalues of wetlands-Prevent and control water quality pollution

-Responsible InstitutionWetland InspectorateDepartment -Implementation in form ofpreventing wetlanddegradation andencroachment thuscontributing ecosystemprotection and minimumflows

Convention on Fishingand Conservation of theLiving Resources of theHigh Seas (1958)

Uganda signed thisconvention on 4th

March 1988 andratified it on 4th

July 1988.

Provides for conservation and protection ofwater and fish habitats

No implementation and noresponsible institution

African Convention onthe Conservation ofNature and Natural

This conventionwas signed on 15th

September 1968 and

-In-situ Conservation of ecosystems, habitatsand species. -Meet Domestic water needs, utilization and

No implementation and noresponsible institution



Resources (1968) ratified on 30th

November, 1977development of water, considering carryingcapacity-Formulation of development plans with fullconsideration of ecological economic andsocietal factors. -Management of water aquatic environmentsmindful of negative affect water quality oraquatic habitats-Studies to investigate water cycle of eachcatchment,

United NationsConvention to CombatDesertification in thoseCountries ExperiencingSerious Drought and/orDesertificationParticularly in Africa(1994)

Uganda signed thisagreement on 21st

November 1994 andratified it on 25th

June 1997.

Primarily concerned with management ofecosystems and habitats and the conventionalso gives facilitative provisions coveringthe need to establish synergies among certainrelated conventions like the CBD.

Responsible InstitutionNEMA but implementation ofE-Flow

Convention concerningthe Protection of theWorld Cultural andNatural Heritage(1972)

This conventionwas ratified onthe 20th November1987

Protection of natural heritage that arehabitats for biological diversity

No implementation andno responsibleinstitution

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Appendix VIII: Quotes from Key Informants

Key Informantinterview

Quote of opinions, perceptions and considerations of key informants in relationto E-Flow implementation

Minister ofState forEnvironment

‘Sustainable development is often misunderstood to mean non utilization ofnatural resources for social economic developments. Uganda is now drawing andutilising considerable quantities of groundwater and there is now an urgent needto sustainably manage the recharge system of rivers so that they don’t dry up.This therefore calls for catchment water allocation plans based on the capacityof the resource which are in line with concepts of E-Flows.”

The Director-NEMA

“Considering the advantages that E-Flow implementation contributes towardssustainable management of water resources, NEMA`s role of supervisory,coordinating and monitoring will not prevent it from being at the fore front ofimplementation. Water being a fundamental part of the environment, once E-flowimplementation is instituted by DWRM, NEMA will provide support and strengthenDWRM`s endeavours in implementation.”

Principle WaterAnalyst - DWRM

“Currently, the Water Quality Department is implementing aspects of E-Flowsalthough not fully because the Biological Unit (of the lab) is underestablishment and training of technical capacity (biological monitoringframework) is on-going. As long as pollution is managed from the source throughpermit regulation and wetland systems prevented from degradation then waterquality will be preserved. The challenge however, is that the number of non-compliances to regulations and wetland dilapidation are widespread thus affectingflows thus water quality degradation. Societies have to be involved indetermining levels of water purity and flows so as to negate upstream anddownstream conflict which the concept of E-Flows carries along.”



In his opinion water quality could be used to promote E-Flow implementation.“Water quality being a desirable aspect of water is easily appreciated bycommunities unlike reduced flows or drop in water levels. If communities are madeto understand the benefits of E-Flow implementation in relation to the quality oftheir water resources they would readily appreciate its importance to theirdirect health and social economic activities. Besides, biological water qualitymonitoring is very cheap, and can be conducted in districts (with limitedresources) and methodology easily teachable to the user local communities”.

CommissionerWater ResourcesRegulations and

“The Department is implementing some elements of E-Flow in water permit systemsto a limited extent, for instance 1 % of the discharge or 10-15% MAR is reservedfor ecological water needs. There are risks on both methods for instance leavingonly 1 % of the discharge for R. Nile has no impact compared to a small river,while leaving 10-15 % MAR may not necessarily represent the real mean of waterflows. It is now become clear that DWRM needs to conduct a national waterresources inventory and develop a model for catchments that will show minimumflows (basing on environmental, economic and social index) against which waterallocation plans could be developed, the modal frequently be updated withmonitoring data”.

AssistantCommissioner(Monitoring andAssessmentDepartment)

“Before water allocation, upstream and downstream users are considered and flowsexceeding 99% are reserved as minimum flows for ecosystem water needs. Agreed flowcurves are provided to stakeholders involved in power generation to ensure thatnatural flows paradigms are mimicked. Flow duration curves, dry and wet years andthe flows that take 95% of the time are used in determining minimum or low flows,while regression analyses are used to get information for catchments that do nothave gauges. During water allocation (permit system) water resources inventoriesare conducted and basing upon the present and future trends water use needs areconsidered as well as having to leave uncommitted water for any eventualities or

150 MSc thesis


directive (especially political) for anticipates users.Project OfficerNBI (PO)

“NEMA`s role as a supervisory, monitory and coordinating body has a wide scopethat stretch to agriculture for food, forest plantations and should thereforespearhead E-Flow implementation in Uganda. Otherwise DWRM has limited interest ofmonitoring and management of water resources and perhaps disseminate theinformation to the users, but has no enforcement role. Moreover DWRM often doesnot translate technical information in relation to the prevailing social,economical and environmental impacts, their regulatory role only seems to begeared towards generating money through the permit system. So NEMA that isindependent and only interested in environmental sustainability should manage andcoordinate E-Flows implementation unlike DWRM with conflict of interests and maywant to issue permits to whoever needs them as long as they generate the moneyout of the permit system”

“Minimum flows for catchments ought to have both upper and lower limits for wetand dry seasons respectively. This is important especially for hydropowergenerators that must mimic natural flows paradigms but often tend to onlyreleases constant flows although above minimum flows but not enough to causeflooding of rivers banks which phenomenon is every important for ecosystemhealth, wetlands and ground water recharges.”

Although DWRM is important in implementation of concepts of E-Flows, the PO`sopinion was that NEMA was more influential and should be the institutionspearheading its implementation in Uganda. The PO further expressed discontentover DWRM saying it`s scope of operation was limited because only physicallyflowing water is considered and yet flows are indirectly affected by activitieslike wetlands degradation, forestation along water courses, unsustainable landuse activities that for which NEMA has the mandate to monitors. “After all DWRM



functions in management of water resources and issuance of water permits is onbehalf of NEMA who are the overall managers of the environment.”

Regional WaterPolicySpecialist

“The conditions regarding levels of abstractions, releases for hydropowergeneration and minimum discharge effluent standard issued in the permittingsystems are informally and conveniently estimated with no scientifically basedinformation or evidence. Literature recommends Q-95 as a flat value for minimumflows which often times is misleading because it does not consider other dynamicsalong a given catchment. The need for studying a given catchment or river systemand identify not only hydrological parameters that DWRM currently uses todetermine minimum flows to a multidisciplinary approach involving ecology(species present, location and link with the flow), hydraulic, (velocity, depth,wetted perimeter, cross sectional area), botany, aquatic invertebrates, waterchemistry, zoology, social aspects are now required. Important also is toconsider endangers species or ecosystem so that minimum flows that would favourtheir restoration and recovery are applied. Flows are dynamic and with the onsetof climate change minimum flows may change with time, so there must be a strongmonitoring team and collaboration amongst the different players”

Senior FisheriesOfficer –Ministry ofAgriculture,Animal, Fisheryand Industry

“Leaving the river in its natural flow state, allows flashing of the water coursethat ensures good water quality, prevents siltation of the flood plains which areimportance sites for fish breeding and spawning thereby increasing fishproductivity, sadly though no provisions have been made in the new FisheriesBill”. Water resources management in relation to fish productivity is verycrucial because then it ensures adequate water quantities and good quality duringbreeding seasons thus enhancing fish productivity thereby promoting the fisheriessector”. In his opinion E-Flow implementation will supplement and strengthen theFisheries Act, he however, expressed fears over the rampant fishing industriesand fish farming/aquaculture that all depend on the water resources and yet thenew bill makes no mention of the importance of water resources protection.

152 MSc thesis


Considering the uncertainly that climate change may bring there is indeed a needto embrace the concepts of E-Flows in Uganda and all institutions involved innatural and water resources management and use ought to be fully involved in itimplementation towards sustainable water resources management.

EnvironmentalSpecialist - UER

“Having to implement E-Flows in ERA is a policy matter and so far releases areimplemented according to the water permit conditions of which the aim is tomaintain minimum flows (low flows). The current regulations are not sufficient toprotect ecosystems, given that in power generation water is retained according tothe power demand. The present practice in water releases only maintains the lowerlimits of minimum flows and often times water is retained/stored thereby alteringnatural flows. This practice is disadvantageous because it interferes with waterquality, wetlands and ground water recharges, distribution of organic matter andresults to sedimentation of the water courses. Although the knowledge to do theright thing is in existence we are incapacitated by the lack of legal provisionand the terms in water permits which override ERA decisions on the limits ofwater flows”

EnvironmentalSpecialist –MEMD

“DWRM ought to carry out massive sensitization and awareness campaign targetingall major water users for successful implementation of the concepts of E-Flows.Localising E-Flow information and knowledge will not contribute towardssuccessful implementation because they (MEMD) are the ones involved in overseeingreleases”. Citing an example of MEMD`s involvement in issuance of operationalpermits to electricity generators independent of DWRM, he suggested that EIAregulations be revised to incorporate E-Flows, since EIA were older than E-Flowconcepts in Uganda. In this case it would necessitate training all environmentalpractitioners in implementation of E-Flows. He said their major contributionwould be to advice developers and environmental practitioners who conductfeasibility studies and EIA for Hydropower generation respectively to incorporateE-Flow concepts in the details, designs and operations of the projects.



Appendix VIII

The Water and Environment Sector in Uganda (Source- Strategic Sector Investment Plan for theWater and Sanitation Sector in Uganda, July 2009).

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M oLG M oTIM oEM D M AAIF M oHM W E M FPEDM oES

DW RM DW D DEA

W ater Policy Com m ittee: M W E NEM A M AAIF M oTI

M oEM D M oLG NW SC

Parastatal Organisations: NEM A NW SC NFA

Decentralised Regional Facilitation: Technical Support Units (TSUs) Um brella Organisations (UO s) W ater M anagem ent Zones (W M Zs) W ater and Sanitation Developm ent Facility (W SDF)

District Local Governm ent: District W ater Office (DW O ) District Environm ent Office (DEO ) District Forestry Office (DFO ) District Directorate of Health Services

(DDHS) District Education Office (DEO)

Com m unity Based Organisations (CBOs): Catchm ent-based M anagem ent

O rganisation (CM Os) W ater User Associations (W UAs) District W ater and Sanitation Coordination

Com m ittees (DW SCCs)

NGO s

x 80+ districts num erous CBOs as required

accountabilityadvice and facilitation

National Level:

M onitoring and Assessm ent Planning and Regulation Advice and Facilitation Laws and Policies Quality assurance and guidance Capacity developm ent Financial assistance and funding

Regional Level:

M onitoring and Assessm ent Planning and Regulation Advice and Facilitation Quality assurance and guidance Capacity developm ent Financial assistance and funding

Com m unity Levels:

Coordination of m anagem ent and developm ent activities

Im plem entation of infrastructure projects and program m es

Operations and M aintenance Com m unity m obilisation and

stakeholder participation ensuring dem and-driven im plem entation

Com m unications and awareness raising

Represented nationally by UW ASNET

Private Sector

Contractors and consultants providing services at national, regional and com m unity levels

W ESW G

O verall coordination between governm ent, developm ent partners and NGOs

Sub-groups: ENR W SS

Annu

al Joint Sector R

eviews

(JSR

) and

Joint Techn

ical Reviews

(JTR

)

M G LSD



Appendix: IX

Terms of Reference for the CACTerms of Reference

______________________________________________________________________________

TERMS OF REFERENCE For

THE INTERIM CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE (ICMC) OF THE RWIZI RIVERCATCHMENT AREA (August 2007)

BACKGROUND Water Resources Issues and Reform of the Water Sector 1. Water is a resource of strategic importance for national

development. Water sustains life, maintains the natural environmentand drives socio-economic development. Proper management of waterresources supports all the five pillars of PEAP and is aprerequisite for attainment of the MDGs.

2. Water resources are under pressure and getting degraded at analarming rate due to rapid population growth, increasedagricultural activities, urbanization, industrialization anddeepening poverty in the countryside. As pressures from the variousdemands on water converged on this limited resource, the need fornew and innovative approaches became urgent.

3. The government of Uganda, responding to the above pressuresrecently undertook to reform the water sector with a view tolightening the burden of central government in service provisionand increasing physical and fiscal efficiency in service deliverywhile reversing water and environmental resources degradation. Inthe water resources management subsector, the reforms carried outbetween 2003 and 2005 recommended, among other things, elevation ofthe then Department of Water Resources Management in the Ministryof Water and Environment to a Directorate and a shift fromcentralized to decentralized catchment-based water resourcesmanagement. The reforms also laid emphasis on adoption of anintegrated water resources management (IWRM) approach.

4. Integrated water resources management is defined as a process thatpromotes the co-ordinated development and management of water, landand related resources like wetlands, forests, savannahs and soil,in order to maximize the resultant socio-economic benefits tosociety in an equitable manner without compromising thesustainability of vital ecosystems. Because water is one of thevital elements that support life, growth, and development,sustainable management of this finite resource must take intoaccount a broad spectrum of social, economic, and ecologicalfactors. IWRM is one of the essential processes through which thesefactors are linked. It allows decision making at all levels within

156 MSc thesis


the framework of overall planning and coordination among allsectors of society.

JSR 2006 Undertaking No. 1 on IWRM 5. As a first step to implementing the reform recommendations, the

September 2006 joint annual review of the water and sanitationsector in Uganda by government and development partners adopted asone of six priority action areas to “prepare and test a framework forparticipatory IWRM in one pilot catchment by September 2007”.

6. To work towards attainment of the above undertaking, the WaterResources Management Department, which was elevated to aDirectorate in July 2007, constituted a Thematic Team withrepresentation from line ministries, government parastatals andNGOs. The Thematic Team steers the activities related to theundertaking. Under the guidance of the thematic team, the DWRMdeveloped a work plan for the undertaking, selected a catchment(Rwizi) for piloting of the catchment-based IWRM concept, held alaunch workshop for the concept in the catchment, reviewed theexisting policy and legal frameworks for IWRM, initiateddiscussions with stakeholders on an interim institutionalarrangement for IWRM and commenced an exercise of stakeholdermapping and data collection for preparation of a water resourcessituation report.

7. The factors that led to selection of Rwizi catchment as the pilotarea from amongst four candidate catchment areas in Ugandan includethe existence of water scarcity and conflicts related to sharing ofthe water, a moderately large catchment area spanning fivedistricts (Bushenyi, Mbarara, Ntungamo, Isingiro and Kiruhura), akeen and interested political leadership in the five districts,availability of hydrological records on the Rwizi river and theexistence of NGOs and CBOs operating within the water andenvironmental management sectors.

8. One of the outcomes of consultations held within the catchment areais the appointment of an Interim Catchment Management Committee(ICMC) to steer IWRM processes in the catchment.

OBJECTIVES 9. The Interim Catchment Management Committee shall be the organ

charged with the responsibility of overseeing and steering theintroduction of IWRM in the catchment area.

10. The specific objectives/functions of the ICMC shall include: a. Lobbying district councils for issuance of policies and bye-

laws related to wise management and conservation of water andenvironmental resources in the Rwizi catchment

b. Promoting integrated planning within the districts inmanagement of land, water and environmental resources;promote and facilitate the mainstreaming of IWRM intodistrict and town development plans, district environmental



action plans, poverty eradication action plans, investmentplans and other relevant plans

c. Approving catchment management plans prepared through aparticipatory process

d. In collaboration with DWRM, mobilizing resources forimplementation of catchment management plans

e. Overseeing implementation of catchment management plansincluding enforcement of existing bye-laws related to waterand environmental resources management

f. Raising public awareness within the catchment area on waterand environmental issues

g. Encouraging and increase stakeholder participation in theIWRM process

h. In collaboration with DWRM, resolving conflicts related touse of the water resources of Rwizi river basin.

EXPECTED OUTCOMES 11. Outcomes expected to result from the activities of the ICMC

include: a. Appropriate policies and bye-laws for protection of water and

environmental resources adopted by districts b. A catchment management plan prepared and integrated within

district plans c. Catchment management plans implemented d. Cross-sectoral collaboration during planning and

implementation of water and environmental resourcesmanagement activities strengthened.

e. Level of awareness within the catchment on IWRM concept andissues raised.

f. Conflicts related to the use of the water resources of Rwiziriver basin resolved

LEGAL STATUS 12. The ICMC shall be gazetted and charged with the above functions by

the Minister of Water and Environment as provided for under Part IVSection 107 of the Water Act (Cap 152 of 2000)

ROLE OF THE DIRECTORATE OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 13. The Directorate of Water Resources Management shall be the

representative of central government on issues concerning waterresources management in the Rwizi catchment.

14. The role of the DWRM in the management of Rwizi catchment shallinclude:

a. Establishing and operationalising lower IWRM structures suchas the Stakeholders’ Forum expected to operate below the ICMC

b. Offering technical advice to the ICMC and other organs of theRwizi catchment on matters concerning IWRM.

158 MSc thesis


c. Carrying out capacity building including training of IWRMorgans and stakeholders in Rwizi catchment

d. Complementing the efforts of the catchmentinstitutions/structures on awareness rising related to IWRA

e. Mobilizing funds needed to support IWRM activities in thecatchment

f. Carrying out monitoring and evaluation of IWRM activities g. Enforcing water laws and regulations including issuance of

water abstraction and waste water discharge permits. h. Linking the pilot catchment to other water sector activities

and organs such as the Water Policy Committee and the Waterand Sanitation Sector Working Group

MEMBERSHIP 15. Membership of the ICMC shall be comprised of the political and

technical leadership of the districts; technical officers from thewater, environment, wetlands, forestry, agriculture and communitydevelopment sectors and key stakeholders from the catchment area.

16. The ICMC shall have 21 members as follows: a. All District Chairpersons (5) b. All Chief

Administrative Officers (5) c. One District Woman Councilor d. One District

Environment Officer e. One District Water Officer f. One District

Agricultural/Veterinary Officer g. One District Planner h. One District

Community Development Officer i. One District Health Inspector j. The Area Manager,

NWSC Mbarara k. The Mayor, Mbarara Municipality l. One Representative

of Water User Associations/CBOs m. One prominent person from within the catchment area

17. The technical officers from the gender, environmental, water,agriculture, health and community development sectors shall be comefrom the districts in the catchment area selected in such a way asto ensure balanced representation of the districts in the ICMC.

MEETINGS 18. The ICMC will meet at least once every month in the first six

months and thereafter quarterly or more frequently as necessitated.19. It is first meeting, the ICMC will elect office bearers (a

Chairman, Vice Chairman and Secretary) adopt rules and proceduresfor conducting business as well as a provisional work plan.

FUNDING OF ICMC ACTIVITIES 20. IWRM is not a “one off” or “project” type of activity with a start

and end date; it is a continuous effort by society to manage andregulate the use of water and environmental resources. In thisregard, catchment-based IWRM should, in the long term, be embeddedwithin governments planning, budgeting, regulation, implementationand monitoring mechanisms.



21. In the medium term (until such a time that IWRM organ areintegrated in the local government structures) the DWRM shallmobilize funds from central government and development partners tosupport IWRM activities in the pilot catchment.

22. The funds mobilized by DWRM shall be used to supplement districtfunds channeled directly to the districts from governmentconsolidated funds.

23. District plans should be used as a means for prioritizing andimplementing actions recommended by the ICMC and lower IWRM organs.

160 MSc thesis

Environmental Flows for Sustainable Water Resource Management in Uganda

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