Thrust Restraint Design for Ductile Iron Pipe- Seventh Edition

Strength and Durability for Life®

DESIGN

Thrust Restraint Design for Ductile Iron PipeSeventh Edition

Last Revised: May 2016

1

ForewordPublished in 1984, the first edition of Thrust Restraint Design for Ductile Iron Pipe presented suggested design procedures for the restraint of thrust forces in pressurized, buried Ductile Iron piping systems.

DIPRA’s Technical Committee reviewed the 1984 edition and approved revisions to the suggested design

procedures, which were incorporated in the second edition issued in 1986.

The second edition was reviewed by DIPRA’s Technical Committee in 1988, resulting in only editorial

revisions that were incorporated in the 1989 edition.

In 1991, DIPRA’s Technical Committee reviewed the 1989 edition. This review incorporated pressure classes

and 60- and 64-inch-diameter pipe. In addition, the following topics were addressed in the third edition

issued in 1992:

1. Encroaching restrained lengths

2. Combining thrust blocks and restrained joints

3. Pipe in casings

4. Future excavations.

The third edition was reviewed in 1996. This review resulted in a clarification to the equation used for

determining restrained length of a tee branch, as well as the addition of a section that addressed all

combined vertical offsets. A clarification in the unit frictional force for standard asphaltic coated pipe vs.

polyethylene encased pipe, with the addition of the “unit frictional resistance” term (Ff), was also included.

The fourth edition was issued in 1997.

The fifth edition was issued in 2002. It included: 1) the addition of a cautionary note for the design of gravity

thrust blocks when one leg is not horizontal; 2) the addition of well-graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures

to the table of soil parameters; 3) cautionary notes were added regarding how to analyze encroaching

restrained joints whose bend angles approached 90º and; 4) the elimination of Appendix A (values for Fs,

(Fs)

b, and R

s), and Appendix B (restrained joint design tables for horizontal bends). Appendices A and B

were eliminated due to the extensive use of DIPRA’s thrust restraint design program which is capable of

generating the data contained therein. This program can be downloaded from DIPRA’s website at

www.dipra.org.

The fifth edition was reviewed in 2006, resulting in only editorial revisions and changes of format that were

incorporated in the 2006 edition.

Conservative assumptions, along with an explicit safety factor, have been employed to assure a conservative

design with an adequate overall safety factor. In order to facilitate the use of these suggested design

procedures, soil types have been divided into broad categories with significantly different characteristics.

Because actual soil conditions vary widely, however, anyone using this paper as a guide should conduct soil

tests to ensure that the proper design parameters are chosen for the soil type present at the site of the

pipeline project. For any given project, the ultimate responsibility for the proper use of the equations and

other data provided in this paper rests with the design engineer. When using restrained joint pipe, consult

the DIPRA member companies regarding proper installation procedures.

2

Table of Contents

Thrust Restraint

Thrust Force

Design Pressure

Pipe-soil Structure

Thrust Blocks

Restrained Joints

Horizontal Bends

Unit Frictional Force, Fs

Polyethylene Encasement

Unit Bearing Resistance, Rs

Vertical Down Bends

Vertical Up Bends

Tees

Reducers

Dead Ends

Encroaching Restrained Lengths

Equal Angle Vertical Offset

Combined Horizontal Equal Angle Bends

Combined Vertical Equal Angle Offsets

Restrained Length

Select Backfill Considerations

Combining Thrust Blocks and Restrained Joints

Pipe in a Casing

Future Excavations

Deflected Unrestrained Ductile Iron Pipe Joints

Computer Program

Restrained Length Calculation Procedure

Nomenclature

References

Tables

1. Horizontal Bearing Strengths

2. Dimensions and Unit Weights of Pipe

and Water

3. Suggested Values for Soil Parameters and

Reduction Constant, Kn

4. Soil Classification Chart

Figures

1. Push-on Joint

2. Internally Balanced Force

3. Thrust Force

4. Thrust Force for Various Configurations

5. Bearing Block

6. Gravity Thrust Block

7. Horizontal Bend /Vertical Up Bend

8. Unit Normal Forces on Pipe

9. Standard ANSI /AWWA C150/A21.50

Laying Conditions

10. Vertical Down Bends

11. Tees

12. Reducers

13. Dead Ends

14. Equal Angle Vertical Offset

15. Combined Horizontal Equal Angle Bends

16. Combined Vertical Equal Angle Offsets

3

4

6

6

6

8

9

10

10

11

14

14

15

16

16

17

17

18

19

20

20

20

20

20

20

21

21

22

22

7

12

13

13

3

4

4

5

6

8

9

10

12

14

15

16

16

17

18

19

Thrust Restraint

Ductile Iron Pipe and fittings are most often joined

with push-on (Figure 1) or mechanical joints. Neither

of these joints provides significant restraint against

longitudinal separation other than the friction

between the gasket and the plain end of the pipe

or fitting. Tests have shown that this frictional

resistance in the joint is unpredictable, varying

widely with installation conditions and other

factors that are insignificant in other respects. Thus,

these joints should be considered as offering no

longitudinal restraint for design purposes.

At many locations in an underground or

aboveground pipeline, the configuration of the

pipeline results in unbalanced forces of hydrostatic

or hydrodynamic origin that, unless restrained, can

result in joint separation.

Generically, these unbalanced hydrostatic and

hydrodynamic forces are called Thrust Forces. In

the range of pressures and fluid velocities found in

waterworks or wastewater piping, the hydrodynamic

thrust forces are generally insignificant in relation

to the hydrostatic thrust forces and are usually

ignored. Simply stated, thrust forces occur at any

point in the piping system where the direction or

cross-sectional area of the waterway changes.

Thus, there will be thrust forces at bends, reducers,

offsets, tees, wyes, dead ends, and valves.

Balancing thrust forces in underground pipelines is

usually accomplished with bearing or gravity thrust

blocks, restrained joint systems, or combinations

of these methods. Presented herein is a general

discussion of the nature of thrust forces as well as

suggested approaches to the design of both thrust

block and restrained joint systems for balancing

these forces. The suggested design approaches are

conservatively based on accepted principles of soil

mechanics.

3

FIGURE 1

Push-on Joint

Thrust Force

The internal hydrostatic pressure acts perpendicularly

on any plane with a force equal to the pressure (P)

times the area (A) of the plane. All components

of these forces acting radially within a pipe are

balanced by circumferential tension in the wall

of the pipe. Axial components acting on a plane

perpendicular to the pipe through a straight section

of the pipe are balanced internally by the force

acting on each side of the plane (Figure 2).

Consider, however, the case of a bend as shown in

Figure 3. The forces PA acting axially along each

leg of the bend are not balanced. The vector sum of

these forces is shown as T. This is the thrust force. In

order to prevent separation of the joints, a reaction

equal to and in the opposite direction of T must be

established.

4

FIGURE 2

Internally Balanced Force

FIGURE 3

Thrust Force

T = 2 PA sin (Ø/2)

Figure 4 depicts the net thrust force at various other

configurations. In each case the expression for T can

be derived by the vector addition of the axial forces.

5

FIGURE 4

Thrust Force for Various Configurations

ReducerTee

Dead End

Closed Valve

Wye

Design Pressure

The design pressure, P, is the maximum pressure

to which the pipeline will be subjected, with

consideration given to the vulnerability of the pipe-

soil system when the pressure is expected to be

applied. In most cases this will be the test pressure

of the pipe, applied shortly after installation when

the pipe-soil system is normally most vulnerable.

Pipe-soil Structure

For buried pipelines, thrust restraint is achieved by

transferring the thrust force to the soil structure

outside the pipe. The objective of the design is to

distribute the thrust forces to the soil structure in

such a manner that damage does not occur to the

restrained pipe system and joint separation does not

occur in unrestrained joints.

Thrust Blocks

One of the most common methods of providing

resistance to thrust forces is the use of thrust

blocks. Figure 5 depicts a typical bearing thrust

block on a horizontal bend. Resistance is provided

by transferring the thrust force to the soil through

the larger bearing area of the block such that

the resultant pressure against the soil does not

exceed the horizontal bearing strength of the soil.

Design of thrust blocks consists of determining

the appropriate bearing area of the block for a

particular set of conditions. The parameters involved

in the design include pipe size, design pressure,

angle of the bend (or configuration of the fitting

involved), and the horizontal bearing strength of

the soil.

6

FIGURE 5

Bearing Block

The following are general criteria for bearing block

design.

—Bearing surface should, where possible,

be placed against undisturbed soil. Where

it is not possible, the fill between the

bearing surface and undisturbed soil must

be compacted to at least 90% Standard

Proctor density.

—Block height (h) should be equal to or less

than one-half the total depth to the

bottom of the block, (Ht), but not less than

the pipe diameter (D’ ).

—Block height (h) should be chosen such

that the calculated block width (b) varies

between one and two times the height.

The required bearing block area is

Then, for a horizontal bend,

where Sf is a safety factor (usually 1.5 for thrust

block design). A similar approach may be used to

design bearing blocks to resist the thrust forces at

tees, dead ends, etc. Typical values for conservative

horizontal bearing strengths of various soil types are

listed in Table 1.

In lieu of the values for soil bearing strength

shown in Table 1, a designer might choose to use

calculated Rankine passive pressure (Pp ) or other

determination of soil bearing strength based on

actual soil properties.

Gravity thrust blocks may be used to resist thrust at

vertical down bends. In a gravity block, the weight

of the block is the force providing equilibrium with

the thrust force. The design problem is then to

calculate the required volume of the thrust block

of a known density. The vertical component of the

thrust force in Figure 6 on page 8 is balanced by the

weight of the block.

It can easily be shown that Ty=PA sin Ø. Then the

required volume of the block is

where Wm=density of the block material. Here, the

horizontal component of the thrust force

must be resisted by the bearing of the right side of

the block against the soil. Analysis of this aspect will

follow like the above section on bearing blocks.

Calculations of Vg and T

x for orientations other

than when one leg is horizontal should reflect that

specific geometry.

7

TABLE 1Horizontal Bearing Strengths

Soil

MuckSoft ClaySiltSandy SiltSandSandy ClayHard Clay

*Although the above bearing strength values have been used successfully in the design of thrust blocks and are considered to be conservative, their accuracy is totally dependent on accurate soil identification and evaluation. The ultimate responsibility for selecting the proper bearing strength of a particular soil type must rest with the design engineer.

*Bearing Strength S

b (lb/ft2)

01,0001,5003,0004,0006,0009,000

Ab = hb =

SfT

Sb

Vg =

Sf PA sin ø

Wm

Tx = PA (1-cos ø)

b = S

f 2 PA sin (ø/2)

h Sb

1

2

Restrained Joints

An alternative method of providing thrust restraint

is the use of restrained joints. A restrained joint is a

special type of push-on or mechanical joint that is

designed to provide longitudinal restraint. Restrained

joint systems function in a manner similar to

thrust blocks, insofar as the reaction of the entire

restrained unit of piping with the soil balances the

thrust forces.

The objective in designing a restrained joint thrust

restraint system is to determine the length of pipe

that must be restrained on each side of the focus of

a thrust force. This will be a function of the pipe

size, the internal pressure, depth of cover, the

characteristics of the soil surrounding the pipe, and

whether the pipe is polyethylene encased. The

following is a method of accomplishing the design

objective. As with most engineering problems, the

exact nature of the interaction of the restrained pipe

unit and the soil is extremely complex. Limitations

of the ability to measure the actual parameters

involved and limitations on available knowledge of

the precise nature of the interaction require that a

practical design procedure be based on various

assumptions. The assumptions employed in the

following design procedure are, in each case,

conservative. This fact, together with the explicit

safety factor employed in the procedure, results in a

conservative design with an adequate overall safety

factor.

The proposed design equation for horizontal

bends (Equation 3, page 8) and the suggested soil

parameters (Table 2, page 12) are the outgrowth of a

design procedure originally proposed by Carlsen.1

Carlsen’s design procedure was based solely on

theoretical considerations and was conservatively

limited to well-compacted trench conditions.

The modification of Carlsen’s design procedure

embodied herein is the result of full scale tests of

12-inch Ductile Iron Pipe with 45° and 90° bends

buried in clay.2 The data generated by these tests

and data available from model studies with 2-inch

pipe in sand3 confirm the conservatism of the

present design procedure. Future work in this field

should be devoted to large-diameter piping systems,

with the objective of further confirming this

conservatism.

8

FIGURE 6

Gravity Thrust Block

which includes safety factors, is a practical and

conservative general thrust restraint design that has

been verified by available test data and numerous

installed systems.

The bearing resistance is shown as a distributed

force with a maximum unit value of Rs at the bend,

diminishing linearly to 0 at L. This assumption is

based on the fact that the bearing resistance

(passive resistance in the soil) is proportional to

deformation or movement. As the restrained joints

take load, maximum movement will occur at the

bend. The total assumed bearing resistance on each

side of the bend is 1/2RsL cos (Ø/2).

The equilibrium equation for the free body is then

Employing a safety factor and solving for L,

Sf = Safety factor (Usually 1.5)

9

The thrust force must be restrained or balanced

by the reaction of the restrained pipe unit with the

surrounding soil. The source of the restraining forces

is twofold: first, the static friction between the pipe

unit and the soil, and second, the restraint provided

by the pipe as it bears against the sidefill soil along

each leg of the bend. Both of these forces are

presumed to be functions of the restrained length L

on each side of the bend and they are presumed to

act in the direction opposing the thrust force (i.e.,

directly opposing impending movement of the bend).

Horizontal Bends (Figure 7)

Figure 7 is a free body diagram of a restrained pipe

unit where L is the length of the restrained pipe on

each side of the bend. The unit frictional resistance

is shown as a distributed force of unit value Ff. The

total frictional resistance on each side of the bend is

then FfL cos (Ø/2).

It is not purported that Figure 7 represents the

actual pipe-soil behavior with all trench types and

the various restrained joint designs available.

Variations in the way different restrained joints

respond to loadings, along with soil and installation

variables, make this a situation which defies precise

theoretical representation. The approach presented,

FIGURE 7*

Horizontal Bend

PA sin (Ø/2) = F

fL cos (Ø/2) + 1/2R

sL cos (Ø/2)

L = S

f PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff + 1/2R

s

*Free body diagram also applies to vertical up bend.

Ff = F

s; For standard asphaltic coated pipe

Ff = 0.7 F

s; For polyethylene encased pipe

3

for tee branches, dead end conditions and

reducers:

(Fs)

b = πD' C + (2W

e + W

p + W

w) tan δ

Extraordinary installations might result in lesser

loads and frictional resistance on the pipes than

that calculated by these equations and as shown in

Figure 7. When such conditions exist, this must be

provided for in the design.

Polyethylene Encasement

Limited experimental data suggest that the frictional

resistance terms (Fs ) and (F

s )

b should be multiplied

by a factor of 0.70 for pipe encased in polyethylene

film to determine the appropriate value of Ff to use

in the equations.

10

Unit Frictional Force, Fs

A static frictional force acting on a body is equal in

magnitude to the applied force up to a maximum

value. In the conventional analysis, the maximum

static friction is proportional to the normal force

between the surfaces which provide the friction.

The constant of proportionality, in this case called

the coefficient of friction, depends upon the nature

of the surfaces. Potyondy’s empirical work indicates

that for friction between pipe and soils, the force is

also dependent upon the cohesion of the soil.4

Thus

Fs=A

pC + W tan δ

where

C = fcC

s

Ap

= surface area of the pipe bearing on the soil

δ = fφφ A

p = πD′ (for bends, assume 1/2 the 2 pipe

2 circumference bears against the soil)

= πD′ (for tree branches, dead end conditions,

and reducers, assume the full pipe

circumference bears against the soil)

Values of soil cohesion (Cs) and internal

friction angle of the soil (φ) must be known or

conservatively estimated for the soil at a particular

installation. fc and fφ are related to soil types and

pipe material. Table 3 presents conservative values

of these parameters for Ductile Iron Pipe in seven

general classifications of saturated soils.

The unit normal force W is given by

W = 2 We + W

p + W

w

where the earth load (We) is taken as the prism load

on the pipe in pounds. The earth load is doubled

to account for the forces acting on both the top

and the bottom of the pipe (see Figure 8). The unit

weight of the pipe and water (Wp + W

w) is given in

Table 2 on page 12.

Then

for bends:

Fs = πD' C + (2W

e + W

p + W

w) tan δ

2 4a

FIGURE 8

Unit Normal Forces On Pipe

4b

As discussed above, the full Rankine passive soil

pressure, Pp, can be developed with insignificant

movement in well compacted soils. For some of the

standard Laying Conditions (see Figure 9) for

Ductile Iron, the design value of passive soil pressure

should be modified by a factor Kn to assure that

excessive movement will not occur. Therefore,

Rs= K

nP

pD'

Empirically determined values for Kn can be found

in Table 3. In this context, the value chosen for Kn

depends on the compaction achieved in the trench,

the backfill materials, and the undisturbed earth.

For the convenience of the designer, DIPRA has

developed a computer program – Thrust Restraint

Design for Ductile Iron Pipe – to assist with

calculations for most restrained joint configurations.

It is based on the seven soil types and suggested

parameters in Table 3. The suggested values of the

parameters listed in Table 3 are believed to be

very conservative; however, DIPRA cannot assume

responsibility that these values correspond to actual

conditions at any particular job site.

11

Unit Bearing Resistance,Rs

The maximum unit lateral resistance, Rs , at the

bend is limited so as not to exceed a rectangular

distribution of the Rankine passive soil pressure, Pp,

which is generally less than the ultimate capacity

of the soil to resist pipe movement. Passive

soil pressure is a term generally defined as the

maximum horizontal pressure that will be resisted

by the soil structure without shearing failure of the

soil. Horizontal subgrade pressure will result in a

deformation of the soil structure. The resistance

offered by the subgrade soil increases with this

deformation or strain for pressures less than the

passive soil pressure. In soils having a density that

exceeds the critical void ratio (this condition is

usually obtained in stable, undisturbed soil and in

backfill compacted to approximately 80% or more

of the Standard Proctor density), the movement

or deformation that occurs in developing the full

passive soil pressure is very small in relation to the

allowable, or available, movement at the bend in

restrained push-on or mechanical joint systems used

with Ductile Iron Pipe.

The passive soil pressure for a particular soil is given

by the Rankine formula:

Pp= γ H

cNφ + 2C

s √ Nφ

where:

Pp

= passive soil pressure (lbs/ft2)

γ = backfill soil density (lbs/ft3)

Hc

= mean depth from surface to the plane of

resistance in feet (centerline of a pipe or

center of bearing area of a thrust block) (ft)

Cs

= soil cohesion (lbs/ft2)

Nφ = tan2 (45° + φ/2)

φ = internal friction angle of the soil (deg.)

5

6

12

TABLE 2Dimensions and Unit Weights of Pipe and Water

NominalPipe Size (in)

3

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

24

30

36

42

48

54

60

64

PressureClass

350

350

350

350

350

350

250

250

250

250

200

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

Pipe OutsideDiameter, D’ (ft)

0.33

0.40

0.58

0.75

0.93

1.10

1.28

1.45

1.63

1.80

2.15

2.67

3.19

3.71

4.23

4.80

5.13

5.47

Cross-sectionalArea of Pipe, A (in2)

12.3

18.1

37.3

64.3

96.7

136.8

183.8

237.7

298.6

366.4

522.7

804.2

1152.0

1555.2

2026.8

2602.1

2981.2

3387.0

Wp (lbs/ft)

10

12

18

24

30

39

47

57

66

78

93

123

163

206

261

325

371

410

Ww (lbs/ft)

4

6

13

24

37

53

72

94

119

147

212

329

473

642

838

1078

1237

1407

Wp + W

w*

(lbs/ft)

14

18

31

48

67

92

119

151

185

225

305

452

636

848

1099

1403

1608

1817

*Based on minimum pressure class pipe with standard cement-mortar lining. The difference in Wp + W

w for other pipe pressure

classes is not normally significant in relation to these calculations and these values may be used conservatively regardless of pipepressure class. However, the designer may use actual pipe weights for optimum design if desired.

Type 1*

Flat-bottom trench.†

Loose backfill.

Type 3

Pipe bedded in

4-inch minimum

loose soil.‡ Backfill

lightly consolidated

to top of pipe.

Type 2

Flat-bottom trench.†

Backfill lightly

consolidated to

centerline of pipe.

Type 4

Pipe bedded in sand,

gravel, or crushed

stone to depth of

1/8 pipe diameter,

4-inch minimum.

Backfill compacted

to top of pipe.

(Approximately

80% Standard

Proctor, AASHTO

T-99.)§ (See

Table 1 for notes.)

Type 5

Pipe bedded to

its centerline in

compacted granular

material,** 4-inch

minimum under

pipe. Compacted

granular or

select‡ material

to top of pipe.

(Approximately 90%

Standard Proctor,

AASHTO T-99.)§

FIGURE 9

Standard ANSI/AWWA C150/A21.50 Laying Conditions for Ductile Iron Pipe

* For 14-inch and larger pipe, consideration should be given to the use of laying conditions other than Type 1.† “Flat-bottom” is defined as “undisturbed earth.”‡ “Loose soil” or “select material” is defined as “native soil excavated from the trench, free of rocks, foreign material, and frozen earth.”†† AASHTO T-99 “Standard Method of Test for the Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a 5.5 lb (2.5 kg) Rammer and a 12 in. (305 mm) Drop.” Available from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.** Granular materials are defined per the AASHTO Soil Classification System (ASTM D3282) or the Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D2487), with the exception that gravel bedding/backfill adjacent to the pipe is limited to 2” maximum particle size per ANSI/AWWA C600.

13

TABLE 3Suggested Values for Soil Parameters and Reduction Constant, K

n

SoilDesignation*

Clay 1

Silt 1

Clay 2

Silt 2

Coh-gran

Sand Silt

Good Sand

and Gravel

SoilDescription*

Clay of Medium to Low Plasticity, LL‡<50,

<25% Coarse Particles§ [CL & CL-ML]***

Silt of Medium to Low Plasticity, LL‡<50,

<25% Coarse Particles§ [ML & ML-CL]***

Clay of Medium to Low Plasticity w/Sand or

Gravel, LL‡<50, 25-50% Coarse Particles§ [CL]***

Silt of Medium to Low Plasticity w/Sand or Gravel,

LL‡<50, 25-50% Coarse Particles§ [ML]***

Cohesive Granular Soils, >50% Coarse Particles§

[GC & SC]***

Sand or Gravel w/Silt, >50% Coarse Particles§

[GM & SM]***

Clean Sand or Gravel, >95% Coarse Particles§

[SW, SP, & GW]***

φ(deg)

0

29

0

29

20

30

36

γ***(pcf)

90

90

90

90

90

90

100

Cs

(psf)

300

0

300

0

200

0

0

3

.40

.40

.60

.60

.60

.60

.60

fφ

0

.50†

.75

0

.50†

.75

.40†

.65

.50†

.75

.75†

.80

2

.20

.20

.40

.40

.40

.40

.40

fc

.50†

.80

0

.50†

.80

0

.40

0

0

4

.60

.60

.85

.85

.85

.85

.85

5

.85

.85

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

* See “Select Backfill Considerations” on page 19.** For conservatism, values for γ shown in Table 3 and used in this procedure are lower than the soil weight values used to calculate earth loads in ANSI/AWWA C150/A21.50. All other values in Table 3assume saturated soil conditions and were also selected as such for conservatism.‡ Liquid Limit.§ “Coarse Particles” are those particles held on a No. 200 Sieve.*** See Table 4 for more detailed soil descriptions.† These values to be used for Laying Condition Type 2.

† For more detailed information about classification criteria, please consult ASTM D2487.* Based on the material passing the 3-in. (75-mm) sieve.

TABLE 4Soil Classification Chart (Adaptation of ASTM D2487† )

Major Divisions

Group Symbols

GW

GP

GM

GC

SW

SP

SM

SC

ML

CL

OL

MH

CH

OH

PT

Typical Names

Well-graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines

Poorly graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines

Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures

Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures

Well-graded sands and gravelly sands, little or no fines

Poorly graded sands and gravelly sands, little or no fines

Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures

Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures

Inorganic silts, very fine sands, rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands

Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays,

silty clays, lean clays

Organic silts and organic silty clays of low plasticity

Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sands or silts, elastic silts

Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays

Organic clays of medium to high plasticity

Peat, muck and other highly organic soils

A21.50 Laying Condition

Kn

Co

ars

e-g

rain

ed

So

ils M

ore

th

an

50

% r

eta

ined

on

N

o. 20

0 s

ieve*

Fin

e-g

rain

ed

So

ils 5

0%

o

r m

ore

pass

es

No

. 20

0 s

ieve*

Gra

vels

50

%

or

mo

re

of

co

ars

e

fracti

on

re

tain

ed

on

N

o. 4

sie

ve

Gravels WithFines

Sands WithFines

CleanGravels

Highly Organic Soils

CleanSands

San

ds

Mo

re t

han

5

0%

of

co

ars

e

fracti

on

pass

es

No

. 4

si

eve

Silt

s A

nd

Cla

ys

Liq

uid

lim

it5

0%

or

less

Silt

s A

nd

Cla

ys

Liq

uid

lim

itg

reate

r th

an

50

%

The following design equations for vertical bends,

tees, reducers, and dead ends were derived with

assumptions similar to those used in the derivation

of the horizontal bend equation (Equation 3). Space

does not permit full discussion of the derivations,

nor does it allow discussion of all possible fittings

and thrust configurations.

Vertical Down Bends (Figure 10)

Note: For conservatism, the weight of the earth, pipe,

and water directly opposing the thrust force is ignored;

however, the weight of the earth, pipe, and water is

used in calculating the Unit Frictional Force, Fs.

Summation of forces in the “Y” direction:

Σ FY = 0 Gives

2PA sin (Ø/2) - 2FfL cos (Ø/2) = 0

Employing a safety factor and solving for L,


Vertical Up Bends (Figure 7)


Notes:

1. Force diagram is identical to that for horizontal bends

(see Figure 7).

2. As the bend system in this case will attempt to

move in the direction of thrust, and against the bottom

of the trench, the values of Kn in this case should be

chosen to reflect the conditions of the trench bottom

on which the pipe rests, assuming adequate bell holes

are provided. In most cases, values representing those

of Type 4 or 5 trench conditions may be used, as the

trench bottom is normally relatively undisturbed.

14

FIGURE 10

Vertical Down Bends

7

8

L = S

f PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff

L = S

f PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff + 1/2R

s

Tees (Figure 11)

Employing a safety factor and solving for Lb,

15

FIGURE 11

Tees

PAb = L

bF

f + 1/2R

sL

r

Lb =

Rs = K

nP

pD'

r

Ff

Sf PA

b - 1/2R

sL

r

Ab = Cross sectional area of branch (in2)

Lb = Length of branch (ft) to be restrained

Lr = Total length between first joints on either side

of tee on the run (ft)

D'r = Diameter of run (ft)

Ff = (F

s)

b ; For standard asphaltic coated pipe

Ff = 0.7 (F

s)

b ; For polyethylene encased pipe

(Fs)

b = Unit frictional force (lbs/ft) on branch

= πD'C + (2We+ W

p+ W

w ) tan δ

(used for tee branches, dead end conditions

and reducers)


Ff = (F

s)

b; For standard ashphaltic

coated pipeF

f = 0.7 (F

s)

b; For polyethylene

encased pipe

9

Reducers (Figure 12)

A1= Cross sectional area of larger pipe

A2= Cross sectional area of smaller pipe


Dead Ends (Figure 13)


Note: If straight run of pipe on small side of reducer

exceeds

then no restrained joints are necessary.

16

L1 =

Sf P(A

1 -A

2)

Ff1

L = S

f PAF

f

L2 =

Sf P(A

1 -A

2)

Ff2

FIGURE 12

Reducers

FIGURE 13

Dead Ends

Ff 2

= (Fs )

b2; For standard asphaltic

coated pipeF

f 2 = 0.7 (F

s )

b2; For polyethylene

encased pipe

Ff 1 = (F

s )

b1; For standard asphaltic coated

pipeF

f 1 = 0.7 (F

s )

b1; For polyethylene encased

pipe

Ff = (Fs )b; For standard asphaltic coated pipeFf = 0.7 (Fs )b; For polyethylene encased pipe

10

12

11

Encroaching Restrained Lengths

Both horizontal and vertical offsets are commonly

encountered in restrained sections of a line. These

offsets should be made with as small a degree bend

as possible in order to minimize the thrust loads and

restrained length required. Also, in these configurations

an increase in line segment length could be detrimental

to the pipeline or surrounding structures due to

over-deflection of the joints; therefore, the restrained

joints should be fully extended (if applicable) during

installation.

In certain configurations, fittings may be close enough

to one another that adjacent calculated restrained

lengths overlap. In situations of this type, one approach

is to:

1) Restrain all pipe between the two fittings

2) Assume 1/2 of the restrained pipe length between

the two fittings acts to resist the thrust force of each

fitting and

3) Using the appropriate equations, calculate the

additional restrained length required on the outer legs

of the fittings.

Following are two such examples:

Equal Angle Vertical Offset (Ø°)* (Figure 14)

For L1:

Σ F = 0

[2PA sin (Ø/2)] = [FfL cos (Ø/2)] +

[FfL

1 cos (Ø/2)]

Employing a safety factor and solving for L1,

For L2:

Σ F = 0

[2PA sin (Ø/2)] = [FfL cos (Ø/2)] +

[1/2RsL cos (Ø/2)] +

[FfL

2 cos (Ø/2)] +

[1/2RsL

2 cos (Ø/2)]



17

FIGURE 14

Equal Angle Vertical Offset (θ°)*

L = - LS

f 2PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff

L = - LS

f 2PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff + 1/2R

s

* As the bend angle approaches 90º, lateral movement of the outer legs approaches zero. For this condition, restrain all pipe between the fittings and restrain the outer legs as dead ends.

13

14

Combined Horizontal Equal Angle Bends (Ø°)*

(Figure 15)

For L1:

Σ F = 0

[2PA sin (Ø/2)] = [FfL cos (Ø/2)] +

[1/2RsL cos (Ø/2)] +

[FfL

1 cos (Ø/2)] +

[1/2RsL

1 cos (Ø/2)]



18

FIGURE 15

Combined Horizontal Equal Angle Bends (θ°)*

L1 = - L

Sf 2PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff + 1/2R

s


15

1) Restrain all pipe between the outermost two fittings

2) Due to opposing forces, the thrust forces of

the middle two fittings (vertical up bends) are

counteracted

3) Assume 1/2 of the restrained pipe length between

the vertical down and vertical up bends acts to resist

the thrust force of the vertical down bends and

4) Using the appropriate equations, calculate the

additional restrained length required on the outermost

legs of the offset system (vertical down bends). The

resulting equation is the same as for the vertical down

bend in the single vertical offset (Equation 13):


Combined Vertical Equal Angle Offsets (Ø°)* –

Under Obstruction (Figure 16)

Vertical offsets are often combined to route a pipeline

under an obstruction or existing utility. If the required

restrained lengths of the vertical up bends do not

overlap, the system may be treated as two individual

vertical offsets (Figure 14). If the required restrained

lengths do overlap, one approach is to:

19

FIGURE 16

Combined Vertical Equal Angle Offsets (θ°)*

L1 = - L

Sf 2PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff 16

Combined Vertical Equal Angle Offsets (Ø°)* –

Over Obstruction

This can be analyzed in the same manner as Figure 16

with the following equation:


Note: This equation also applies to combined horizontal

equal angle offsets (Ø°) – around an obstruction.

L1 = - L

Sf 2PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff + 1/2R

s 17


Restrained Length

In practice, the actual restrained length attained will

generally be in multiples of length of an individual piece

of pipe (normally 18 or 20 feet). The length calculated

indicates the minimum required restrained length for

each side of the bend. Thus, calculated lengths of 0 to

18 or 20 feet normally call for one restrained joint at the

fitting, 18 to 36 or 20 to 40 feet normally require two

restrained joints, etc.

Select Backfill Considerations

If restrained joint pipe is laid in trench backfill with

markedly different support characteristics than the

native soil, special considerations may be required. As

the pipe is pressurized, it will transmit passive pressure

to the backfill that will in turn transmit this pressure to

the native soil. Therefore, the material that results in the

smaller unit bearing resistance (Rs) should be used for

the passive resistance and the unit friction force (Fs)

should be based on the backfill material surrounding

the pipe.

If restrained joints are used in swamps or marshes

where the soil is unstable, or in other situations where

the bearing strength of the soil is extremely poor,

the entire pipeline should be restrained to provide

adequate thrust restraint.

Combining Thrust Blocks and Restrained Joints

Combining restrained joints and thrust blocks by

designing each system independently of the other and

then incorporating both to the piping system normally

yields the greatest degree of security. It is often poor

practice to mix systems based on each system being

designed to resist a percentage of the resultant thrust

force. Both thrust blocks and restrained joint

pipe systems require slight movement before

their respective thrust restraint capability can be

developed. Those movements must be compatible

for the combination to be successful. Because of the

uncertainties of the degree of these movements being

compatible, this design approach must be given special

consideration.

Pipe in a Casing

It is often necessary to install restrained joint pipe

through a casing pipe. The function of restrained joint

pipe is basically to transfer thrust forces to the soil

structure. Therefore, if the annular space between the

two pipes is not grouted in, the length of restrained

pipe inside the casing should not be considered as part

of the restrained length to balance the thrust force.

When restrained joint pipe is installed through a

casing pipe, the restrained joints should normally be

fully extended.

Future Excavations

One particular concern of those with responsibility

for infrastructure pipeline design, installation, and

maintenance is the possibility of substantial excavation

in the close vicinity of previously installed restrained

pipe and fittings including parallel excavations.

Remembering the usual function of restrained pipes

in transmitting thrust forces to the soil structure, it is

obvious that if this structure is removed or significantly

disturbed with the pipeline under pressure, the safety

and stability of the system may be compromised. In this

regard, it would seem reasonable to temporarily shut

down close existing restrained lines to do such work, or

to conduct such operations during lowest pressure

service conditions. Where this is not practical or

possible, alternate provisions might be safely employed.

These precautions might include supplementary thrust

blocking, restraint with laterally loaded piles or batter

piles at the thrust focus, special pipe anchors, or other

careful, sequential, and innovative engineering and

construction procedures. Proper engineering and

construction judgment must be exercised in these

conditions.2

Deflected Unrestrained Ductile Iron Pipe Joints

Unrestrained push-on and mechanical joint Ductile Iron

Pipe are capable of deflections up to 8° (depending on

joint type and pipe size). These joints are well-suited for

diverting pipelines from obstructions or when following

the curvature of streets and roads. In an effort to keep

thrust forces to a minimum, joint deflections should

be utilized whenever possible rather than fittings In

pressurized systems — thrust forces develop at these

joint deflections. In the vast majority of installations

the soil-pipe interaction will result in reasonable

security and stability of the joints. Only in extraordinary

circumstances, e.g., unstable soils, high internal pressure

in combination with very shallow cover, etc., is the

security threatened. In these situations, soil-pipe thrust

resisting principles, not unlike those presented in this

manual, may be applied to these unrestrained joint

situations.

20

Then:

Fs = π(2.67)(80)

2 + [2(1442)+452]tan 13°

Fs = 335.5+770.2=1105.7 lbs/ft

STEP 3: Determine Passive Soil Resistance, Pp

Pp= γ H

cNφ + 2C

s √ Nφ

Where:

Hc = H + 1/2D' = 6 + 2.67 = 7.33 ft

2

Nφ = tan2(45 + φ/2) = tan2(45+20) =2.04

2

Then:

Pp = (90)(7.33)(2.04) + (2)(200) √2.04

Pp = 1345.8 + 571.3 = 1917.1 lbs/ft2

STEP 4: Substitute known and determined values

into Equation 3 listed in STEP 1 to determine required

restrained length.

L = (1.5)(150)(806.3)tan (90/2)

1105.7 + [1/2 (0.85)(1917.1)(2.67)]

L = 181,417.5

1105.7+2175.4

L = 55.3 ft.

NOTE: The DIPRA Computer Program, Thrust Restraint

Design for Ductile Iron Pipe, may be used to facilitate

calculations in determining the required length of

restrained piping.

21

Computer Program

For the convenience of the designer, a computer

program has been developed based upon the

procedures and equations of this manual. It can be

used to assist with calculations of both Unit Frictional

Force and Unit Bearing Resistance. Additionally,

the computer program may be used to facilitate

calculations in determining the required length of

restrained piping. This program can be accessed on

DIPRA’s website at http://www.dipra.org.

Restrained Length Calculation Procedure

EXAMPLE: 30-inch Ductile Iron Pipeline to be buried

under 6 feet of cover in a cohesive granular backfill that

will be compacted to 80% Standard Proctor density to

the top of the pipe (Laying Condition 4). The thrust

restraint design pressure is 150 psi. Determine the

length of restrained piping required at a 90° horizontal

bend.

STEP 1: Establish known values for:

Where:

Rs = K

nP

pD'

Sf = 1.5

P = 150 psi

D' = 32/12 = 2.67 ft

A = 36π(D')2 = 806.3 in2

Ø = 90°

Kn = 0.85 (From Table 3)

Ff = F

s

STEP 2: Determine Unit Frictional Resistance, Fs

Fs = πD' C + (2W

e + W

p + W

w) tan δ

2

Where:

C = fcC

s= (0.40) (200) = 80 psf

fc = 0.40

Cs= 200 psf

We= HγD' = 6 x 90 x 2.67 = 1442 lbs/ft

H = 6 ft of cover (given)

γ = 90 pcf (From Table 3)

Wp + W

w = 452 lbs/ft (From Table 2)

δ = fφφ = (0.65) (20) = 13°

fφ = 0.65

φ = 20°

L = S

f PA tan (Ø/2)

Ff + 1/2R

s

3

4a

} (From Table 3)

} (From Table 3)

5

Nomenclature

A = Cross-sectional area of pipe (inch2) = 36π D' 2

(See Table 2)

Ap = Surface area of pipe exterior (ft2/ft)

b = Thrust block width (ft)

C = Pipe cohesion (lbs/ft2)

Cs = Soil cohesion (lbs/ft2) (See Table 3)

D' = Outside diameter of pipe (ft) (See Table 2)

fc = Ratio of pipe cohesion to soil cohesion

(See Table 3)

Ff

= Unit frictional resistance (lbs/ft)

Fs = Unit frictional force assuming 1/2 the pipe

circumference bears against the soil (lbs/ft)

(Fs)

b = Unit frictional force assuming the entire pipe

circumference contacts the soil (lbs/ft)

fφ = Ratio of pipe friction angle to soil friction

angle (See Table 3)

h = Thrust block height (ft)

H = Depth of cover to top of pipe (ft)

Hc = Depth of cover to pipe centerline (ft)

Ht = Depth to bottom of thrust block (ft)

Kn = Trench condition modifier (See Table 3)

L = Minimum required restrained pipe length (ft)

Nφ = tan2 (45° + φ/2)

P = Design pressure (psi)

Pp = Passive soil pressure (lbs/ft2)

Rs = Unit bearing resistance (lbs/ft)

Sb = Horizontal bearing strength of soil (lbs/ft2 )

(See Table 1)

T = Resultant thrust force (lbs)

γ = Backfill soil density (lbs/ft3) (See Table 3)

W = Unit normal force on pipe

= 2 We + W

p + W

w (lbs/ft)

We = Earth prism load (lbs/ft) = γHD'

Wm = Density of thrust block material (lbs/ft3)

Wp = Unit weight of pipe (lbs/ft) (See Table 2)

Ww = Unit weight of water (lbs/ft) (See Table 2)

Ø = Bend angle (degrees)

δ = Pipe friction angle (degrees)

φ = Soil internal friction angle (degrees)

(See Table 3)

Sf = Safety factor (usually 1. 5)

Vg = Volume of thrust block (ft3)

References

1. Carlsen, R.J., “Thrust Restraint for Underground Piping

Systems.” Cast Iron Pipe News, Fall 1975.

2. Conner, R.C. “Thrust Restraint of Buried Ductile

Iron Pipe,” Proceedings of Pipeline Infrastructure

Conference, Boston, Massachusetts, June 6-7, 1988.

Published by ASCE, New York, NY, 1988, p. 218.

3. Reference U.S. Pipe & Foundry Company research

(Unpublished).

4. Potyondy, J.G., M. Eng., Skin Friction Between Various

Soils and Construction Materials.

5. ASTM D 2487—Classification of Soils for Engineering

Purposes.

22

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Thrust Restraint Design for Ductile Iron Pipe- Seventh Edition

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