19

Тће Economy of an Early Latin Settlement, Borgo Le Ferriere-Satricum, 800-200 ВС

J.W. BOUMA, Р.А Ј · А ТТЕМА, А Ј · BEIJER, А Ј . NIJBOER, R.A. OLDE DUBBELINK

(University of Groningen)'

Summary: Тhe paper aims at а reconstruction о! the есоnоту о! the protohistorical site known аЈ Satricum situated in South Lazio at present-day Borgo Le Ferriere с. 60 km SE oJRome. Data relating to landscape potential, agriculture and production о! goods, are used to comment оп the теаnЈ о! subsistence о! the community living at Satricum. то this end palaeobotanical and archaeozoological remains а$ шеи аЈ ceramics are discussed. F:urthermore а comparison о! the pottery о! the settlement, the necropolis and the votive deposits is undertaken to examine socio-economic changes duri�g the perio�. Тhe re�igious activ�ty which characterised life at the site јот the early beginning to the very end о! occupatlon о! the slte, constltuted а maJor component in its есоnоту, if not the pivot, аЈ appears јот the votive deposits around the sanctuary о! Mater Matuta. The contents oJthe subsequent deposits are here used аЈ а reflection oJthe position oJSatricum in the network oJinternational, supra­regional and regional contacts.

INTRODUCTION

This paper offers а review of aspects of the environment and material culture of the Latin site of Satricum with the aim of shedding light оп the economic system of its community. То this end aspects of subsistence, industry, technology and contacts with other cultures will Ье examined. In the context of Latial archaeology, Borgo Le Ferriere - from по� оп referred Ьу the supposedly ancient пате Satricum . -, offers good opportunities for such а study, having Ьееп subjected to detailed settlement excavations since 1977 (Maaskant-Юеibriпk 1987; 1992), expanding greatly оп evidence revealed here at the turn of the century.

As regards the nature of subsistence есопоmу the evidence is still largely circumstantial, being mainly dependent оп the evaluation of the landscape potential as obtained Ьу regional archaeological and soil surveys, оп research into the changing levels of technology over time, оп the functional analysis of the pottery and оп the information provided Ьу the sacred areas. As yet sealed stratified deposits for the Archaic period are lacking, whereas оп the whole bones are overrepresented with regard to seed remains.

Problematic is the question whether local resources were exploited for the on-site manufacture of building materials, ceramics and other artifacts, or whether raw materials had to Ье imported. The evidence for the

183

production of pottery and iron artifacts at Satricum is for instance undisputable, whereas in the case of the use of pigments оп the antefixes, the option for import of pigments remains ореп (cf. Nijboer, this volume). It is proposed that ceramic production developed from household production into more organised forms of manufacture. At the same time it is realized that such developments took place in other fields as well, as for instance in the field of planning, as evidenced Ьу the 7th century ВС levelling activities at the site which paved the way for the monumental lay-out that characterized the бth century ВС appearance of the acropolis (Мааskапt-Юеibriпk 1991).

Finally а study of imported artifacts in the votive­deposits and tombs excavated in and outside the settlement is used to discuss developments and fluctuations in trade contacts. Some general conjectures only сап Ье made оп the trading of, for instance, raw materials, needed for the artisans working at Satricum, or the foodstuffs and liquids that were used in the banquetting ritual, or the imported goods that are found in the cultplace 'and the tombs.

As this paper will show, thl'ough аll periods much economic activity was focused оп the sacred places: their deposits show that the sanctuaries, especially that оп the acropolis, played а major role within the framework of international, interregional and regional contacts and local economic activities.

184 J.W BouMA, Р.А]. АПЕМА, А]. BEIJER, А]. NIJBOER, R.A. OLDE DUBBELINK

SETTLEMENT AND REGION

Satricum is situated at modern Borgo Le Ferriere, с. ба km SE of Rome. In geological terms the area around the site belongs to the outer border of the tuff hills that cover the larger part of the Сатраgnа Romana and the NW part of the Pontine Region. At the end of the 7th century ВС, аН along the contact area between this volcanic area and the coastal sediments, vast urban spaces developed at various sites: from NW to SE, sites as Castel di Decima, Lavinium, Ardea and Satricum occupied comparable environmental and geomor­phological positions. А second row of sites of which Satricum formed part, was NE-SW oriented. Together with а large Archaic site surveyed north of Cisterna and опе оп the slopes of the Monti Lepini, still further inland at Caracupa/Valvisciolo, Satricum formed with the coastal settlement of Antium part of the easternmost

settlements within the бth century ВС settlement pattern of Latium Vetus (fig.l).

Surveys Ьу the University of Groningen and the University of Amsterdam Ьауе revealed that the environment of the Pontine plain, though put to marginal exploitation, was not favoured for the founding and subsequent development of urban sites during the 7th and бth centuries. Findspots of this period are relatively few and limited in extension, suggestive of marginal subsistence activities only (Attema 1991; Attema 1993; Voorrips et al. 1991).

АН sites represented in fig.l Ьауе соттоп spatial and material characteristics that сопуеу а high degree of cultural unity. This unity was especiaHy apparent during the Orientalizing and Archaic period (7th and бth centuries ВС). ТЬе elaborate lay-out and architecture known at some of the sites in combination with the possibly contemporary field drainage systems in the

Fig. 7. Тopographical mар 01 south Lazio with protohistorical sites mentioned in the text (antique names in italics):

7 = Antium

4 = Caracupa/Valvisciolo 5 = Ardea

2 = Satricum з = Cisterna

б . = . Lavinium 7 = Castel di Decima

ТНЕ ECONOMY OF ЛN ЕЛRLУ LЛТIN SЕТТLEМЕNТ, BORGO LE FERRIERE-SATRICUM, 800-200 ВС 185

volcanic area, prcsuppose а relatively high level of organisation, as do the earthworks and other forms of defence. Also, imported objects among the gravegoods and the votive gifts meanwhile point to widespread contacts of Latin sotiety. At sites as Satricum апd Ardea, and notably Lavinium, much time and energy was invested in the local cultus. The sacred areas here gained at least regional fame and remained in use well into the Republican period. As with тапу other sites in the Latial region, the settlement at Satricum had its roots in the early Iron Age (9th century ВС) and сате to full development in the Orientalizing and Archaic period (7/6th century ВС), reaching its maximum expansion and occupying three plateaus amounting to а site­territory of са. 58 ha. During the Republican period the site functioned mainly as а cultplace during which the temple and other sanctuaries remained frequented (5th to 3rd с. ВС). Inhabitation of the site seems to remain restricted then to the western periphery (Attema et al. 1992), but during this latter period the site seems to suffer from its peripheral position with regard to Rome.

ТНЕ NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Satricum is situated оп а number of tuff hills in the lower stream basin of the river Astura, а perennial river connecting the site with the sea. The easternmost plateau of the site borders оп the river. The geomorphological characteristics of this landscape made settlement very attractive, as was already realized in the earlier Iron Age. The landscape furnishes well-confined elevated plateaus formed Ьу watercourses that have deeply incised in the tuff bedrock. If complemented Ьу artificial works of defence, as was соттоп practice in the late Iron Age and Archaic period, the tuff hills that controlled the larger waterways, constituted militarily and economically strategic sites. Јп this respect Satricum тау have Ьееп prominent since the Astura is the most substantial river south of the Tiber and forms the connection, if not economic life-line, between the Соlli Albani and the Tyrrhenian coast.

However, conditions for а thriving mixed farming есопоту were less favourable. The agricultural potential of the clayey soils that result from the rapidly weathered tuff parent material of the hills is naturally very restricted. Ап evaluation of the volcanic landscape Ьу means of а historical and cartographical survey of landuse showed that before recent land improvement schemes, only а very small portion was used for the cultivation of crops, the larger part being left to the shepherd. As regards cereal cultivation, the yields were notably low, chiefly due to bad drainage of the volcanic terrains due to the variable permeability of the underlying tuff. Water­logging not only occurred in the valleys, but also оп the plateaux creating local marshes (Attema 1993).

It has Ьееп argued that cereal cultivation played а

fundamental role in the subsistence есопоту of Archaic society, but also that the production сап hardly have. gone out above the subsistence level, implying that по surplus production of grain was produced. (Ampolo 1980). The main reason for such а supposition are the wet conditions that prevail in the area, which allow only the cultivation of inferior, low-yield cereal species. The network of underground field drainage channels recorded between Velletri and Satricum is proof of the wish to improve the conditions for agriculture, possibly from Archaic times onwards, in order to increase land productivity. Dating of the system is, however, not yet secure (Quilici-Gigli 1983).

Being situated in the transition zone between the еоНап coastal sediments and the volcanic layers from the Соlli Albani, at Satricum а good variety of soils was available: to the southwest of the site soils were formed in sandy deposits covering the tuff sediments, as were those оп the acropolis hill itself; the valley of the Astura to the east (known as the соnса of Le Ferriere) оп the other hand, was most probably nothing less than а marsh. The соnса is characterized Ьу not well-developed fluvisols, and the first С14 dates indicate that since medieval times locally more than 1т. alluvial sediment was deposited in the сопса due to colluviation of the surrounding hills (fig.2). Interestingly, the large landowners of the 18th and 19th century AD, thought it more profitable to leave large tracts of the hilly countryside to extensive grazing. This mау reflect the exploitation patterns to which the landscape around Satricum was subjected during the later Republic and the Imperial period, when the region was likewise given over to the large extensively exploited farm estates, the so-called latifundia. It is therefore justifiable to conclude that this part of the Archaic landscape cannot have Ьееп the granaio which Rome sought to colonize (cf. Dion. Hal. V,26,3; Livy II.9.6, II.34.3); rather, it constituted ап at places waterlogged and locally marshy environ­ment that was not especially suited for the cultivation of cereals or other crops.

Nonetheless the evidence allows us to postulate а gradual shift in emphasis in the subsistence есопоmу from pastoralism to farming practices (see for Latium: Bietti-Sestieri 1979 and Ampolo 1980; for the Tolfa Allumiere area: bstenberg 1967). Тhe increase in pottery теап� for storage found in the Archaic settlements, and more in general, the increasing complex structure of Archaic society, testifies to such а change. If the noted field drainage systems are to Ье dated to Archaic times, this would furnish another convincing argument for such а change. It must Ье concluded, however, that the natural environment did not greatly favour such а shift, which presupposes а continued strong dependence оп either domestic stock-raising, transhumance or both, whereby the ecological variation, that is the marshy landscape, within the catchment of the site will have guaranteed

186 J.W. ВОUМЛ, Р.А]. АТГЕМЛ, А]. BEIJER, А]. NIJBOER, R.A. OLDE DUBBELINK

т above seo level

40 38 36 34 "0:

30'. 28'>:<-', 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10

. �.

8 6 4 2 О

с:::::::::3 tuff-erosion + colluvial clays � morine cloys �tuff

о 500m

' , .: . , ', . . О'.' .... ;. . :.:� .. : .. -; �-.. . :...:.

;.. : � : i' •. -, ,:' .. . .. . . .

-.' � .. '

Fig. 2. Тopographical mар о! the surroundings о! Le Ferriere (Satricum) with locations о! hand-augerings and reconstructed geological profile between Le Ferriere and Borgo Montello (the сопса) . Drawing after В. Haagsma.

ТНЕ ECONOМY OF ЛN ЕЛRLУ LЛТlN SЕТГLЕМЕNТ, BORGO LE FERRIERE-SАТRlСUМ, 800-200 вс 187

extra food sources јп the form of fish, fowl and other wildlife. Up till now surveys ћауе only yielded а very limited number of rural sites dating to the Archaic period, which, though prematurely so, might point to а nucleated settlement pattern having

O developed at the end of the

Latial Iron Age. Тће settlement and exploitation pattern јп the region points to the development of а market system only well after the installment of new Roman colonies at Cora, Norba and Setia јп the course of the 4th century ВС. Of these colonies, Cora and Setia gradually grew out to the local centres of а villa-system. From then оп landuse, as сап Ье deduced [гот the settlement pattern, indicates the production of а larger variety of products, including wine and olives оп а substantial scale (Attema 1993). Тће regional trend indicates that during the post-Archaic period (5/4th century ВС) , subsistence farming was still standard in Latial society (Attema & Воита, 1995).

ТНЕ EVIDENCE FOR DIET

(i) The archaeozoological remains

In general the archaeozoological evidence in the settlement of Satricum is abundant, but the conservation of its remains rather роог. This тау account for the fact that except for the Ьопе remains of а fox in а hutpit and the remains of а duck and а turtle in опе of the votive deposits (deposit 11) chicken, waterbirds, fishes and small wild animals аге absent, јп spite of the fact that оп ecological grounds it сап Ье assumed that these were part of the diet at Satricum. Of the larger animals remains of cattle, саргјпе, pigs and antlers of гое deer ћауе Ьееп found. Well stratified evidence comes from closed features as the cooking and rubbish pits of the 8th and 7th century ВС. Тће 7th and 6th century archaeozoological material is оп the other hand rather fragmentary as it relates to destruction layers, themselves partially disturbed Ьу later activities. For the period after 500 ВС we ћауе evidence [гот а large votive deposit оп the acropolis ћiП (deposit 11) , containing тапу animal offerings.

From the 8th century huts and cooking places clear evidence exists that both cattle (ЬОЈ taurus) , caprine (ovis/ capra) and pigs (ЈиЈ domesticus) were slaughtered and consumed. Of the bones the larger part belongs to cattle and сарппе, cattle prevailing оуег pig. Remains of piglets and calfs show that young animals were also eaten. Some bones showed traces of gnawing. In the lower hearth of а hut (GRII) only pig and piglet bones were found, whereas the иррег hearth revealed а great тапу bones of cattle and deer antlers (cervus elaphus) .

Determined samples from the 7th century ВС аге smaller than those from the 8th century, but show а similar diversity: again cattle, caprine and pigs as well as antler of гое deer оссиг. Remarkable аге the great fragments of cattle skulls in опе of the features (hut G RV). Тће destruction layer of а large wooden building

dating to this period yielded а great тапу bones among which cattle, саргјпе and а small dog. This period alsoo shows а slight prevalence of cattle оуег other species.

Stratified Ьопе fragments from the Агсћајс period аге, like the pottery fragments from this period, few јп питЬег, due to the роог state of conservation of the strata of the Archaic houses, which Не directly under the surface of the acropolis, and which ћауе Ьееп disturbed Ьу recent ploughing. Тће few fragments which were excavated аге from cattle and caprine.

Archaeozoological data for the post-Archaic and Republican period (5th to 3rd century ВС) аге restricted to а votive context. In deposit 11 caprine dominates, whereas cattle again prevails оуег pig. Тће same kind of animals (rams, cows and pigs ог boars), but this time made of clay, has Ьееп recovered from а later Hellenistic deposit оп the ћill (deposit 111, 4th/2nd century ВС). Тћеу were found together with statuettes of cocks, pigeons (ог young geese), horses and dogs (Della Seta 1918: 297; Moretti 1962: 252-255; Satricum 1982; Satricum 1985). Perhaps some of the animals raised at Satricum in the 5th/4th century were sold to pilgrims who visited the sacred areas, but in the course of the 4th century, this practice тау ћауе Ьееп replaced Ьу the less expensive and тоге durable terracotta animal offerings (Thomas­son 1961: 137).

In sum, cattle, sheep and goat formed а stable factor in the subsistence есопоту of the settlement, with а strong prevalence of cattle оуег pig, contrasting with data for Rome (Ampolo 1980: 35). А straightforward explanation is doubtless the different context of the finds. Cattle, sheep and goat meet the multiple needs of meat and milk, and will therefore have Ьееп valued highly in daily life. Тће spinning and weaving tools found in both the settlement and the votive deposits, indicate that sheep were also held for their wool, whereas охеп тау ћауе Ьееп used for plowing; pigs тау well ћауе Ьееп considered а luxury; the antlers of гое deer point to hunting, though the antler тау also ћауе Ьееп gathered to serve as tools.

(iz) The palaeobotanical remains

Specimens of seeds аге few at Satricum. The earliest sample derives from а large late 8th century сир containing wheat grains of triticum durum (bread wheat), possibly hordeum (barley) and а horse Ьеап (vicia ЈаЬа) (cf. Hellstrom et al. 1975 оп Luni sul Mignone). А 7th century sample yielded wheat as well. Of the samples that were taken from the hearths and fills of the huts and rubbish pits just опе yielded data. The sample comes from а 6th century shallow rubbish pit that belonged to а courtyard house; the pit was found directly beneath the rooftiles of house А (Maaskant 1987: 52). Тће sample yielded тапу seeds including bitter vetch, sorrel, dandelion, butter-cups, а питЬег of wild grasses and horse beans.

188 J.W. ВОИМА, Р.А]. АТТЕМА, А]. BEIJER, А]. NIJBOER, R.A. OLDE DUBBELINK

These remains give only slight and very general indications for the vegetarian part of the diet through the presence of cereals and beans. Though in general it is accepted that at the turn of the 8th century вс viticulture and olives were introduced in Latium under Greek influence, neither Satricum nor other sites have provided palaeobotanical proof. Vitis and olea are found in the Monticchio pollendiagram from the 5th с. вс onwards (са. 20 km distance from Satricum) (Haagsma 1993). The pottery assemblages, however, indicate that wine consumption had Ьесоте иЈаnсе in the 7th century ВС at the site.

LOCAL AND NON-LOCAL RESOURCES

While Nijboer (this volume) provides а discussion of the evidence for the production of pottery and iron artifacts at Satricum, here it is valuable to note other aspects of the site, namely the tuffs for the foundation of the 6th century buildings, the pigments for the decoration of the temple terracottas, and the copper alloys for the casting of fibulae. These combined, show that manufacture at Satricum had а partial dependency оп imported raw materials, mainly metals like copper and lead. Pigments and iron Ыоот might have Ьееп imported, though local resources could have Ьееп exploited as well. This dependency оп imported metals in the 7th and 6th centuries ВС suggests ап interregional trade with Etruria. These contacts are further highlighted through discussion of the contents of the votive deposits at Satricum (see below).

(i) Building materials

Most materials like loams for the plastering of walls and tuffs for the foundations are of local origin. Thin-sections of daub belonging to wattle and daub constructions and of samples from the gleyic luvisols covering the acropolis, show similarities in mineral composition, grain size and shape. Both the daub and the clay samples contained about 40% quartz, 1 to 2% volcanic rockfragments, some augites, biotites and plagioclases, indicating that the sandy clays of the acropolis were not processed before being used for the plastering of the huts and houses of the 7th and 6th century вс. Building foundations оп the acropolis from the 6th с. вс were made from local tuffs, being either the yellowish lithoid tuff or а whitish tuff. Deposits of each occur in and around the site.

(ii) Pigments

The pigments used оп the antefixes of the temple built around 500 ВС were studied Ьу microscopy and microprobe analysis. These terracottas were locally made, since wasters of white firing tiles with decoration

were excavated in а kiln south of the temple (Nijboer, this volume). The pigments encountered оп the samples were black, white and red, while the brown and violet оп the antefixes were achieved Ьу using alternating layers red and black. The black is most probably а manganese black which has the advantage that red and black colours сап Ье obtained in опе oxidising firing­cycle (Schweitzer & Юпиу 1982). Wasters show how the pigments were applied before firing, the temperature in the kiln being sufficient to obtain the black colour. Microchemical tests for lead and calcite in the white pigment were negative, showing it to have Ьееп а white earth; tests оп the red pigment showed по lead or sulfide, but the microprobe analysis did reveal iron in varying quantities, indicating that the red pigment was а red ochre containing ironoxides. The analysis of the pigments used at Satricum implies the exploitation of current pigments available in several regions in Italy including Latium, but whether these were imported or local remains unclear.

(iii) Copper and lead

Copper and lead were definite imports, since по local resources are known. The nearest deposits of lead are in Etruria (Zifferero 1991: 212). Lead was used at the site in the 6th с. вс for the fastening of architectural terracottas, of which some still retain traces of plumbing. The evidence for the processing of copper alloys at Satricum is circumstantial, though the production of iron and copper-alloy artifacts, at опе site, appears to Ье customary in this period (Klein 1972; Ostenberg 1983). Now that the on-site processing of iron is established (Nijboer, this volume), traces of manufacture of copper­аllоу artifacts сап Ье expected. Тhere is indirect evidence for the casting of Си-аllоу fibulae, since several of the fibulae types represented in the oldest votive deposit (deposit 1) are identical and cast from the same mould. Another indication of casting are droplets of Си-аllоу, which are occasionally found оп the site. The difference between these droplets and the smallest аеЈ rude is disputable, due to the fact that аеЈ rude are created Ьу fragmenting а Си-аllоу cake of the crudest form of casting, at а high temperature, Ьу а blow with а hammer resulting in similar waste as compared to that of casting. The enormous amount of аеЈ rude found at Satricum outside the depositmay indicate а workshop area as well (Haeberlin 1910: 3). Since some of these аеЈ rudehave а high iron content, they are probably Ље product of smelting of chalcopyrites, the nearest deposits of which occur in Etruria (Zifferero 1991: 212-13). Тhe provenance of the metals processed at the site сап, however, only Ье established Ьу а research project using lead isotope analysis as has Ьееп done for the copper ore deposits of the eastern Mediterranean area (Gale & Stos-Gale 1986).

ТНЕ ECONOMY OF ЛN ЕЛRLУ LЛПN SE1TLEMENT, BORGO LE FERRIERE-SATRICUM, 800-200 ВС 189

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF ТНЕ IRON AGE

AND ARCHAIC POTTERY

As well as providing dating evidence, the typological analysis of the Satr.icum pottery allows for а fнnctional and economic interpretation. The pottery from the settlement features (in assemblages found in pits and layers) will Ье related to the finds from the contemporary necropolis situated to the nOl'thwest and the oldest cultplace (deposit 1) in the centre of the settlement. The relationship between the people who visited the cultplace, those who lived оп the hill and those who were buried in the NW-necropolis is clear from the distribution of identical pottery types in the three contexts (Beijer 1991а; 1991Ь).

The pottery сап Ье divided into three main wares: impasto ware, depurated ware and bucchero ware. А classification of the pottery has Ьееп undertaken in which the pottery has Ьееп divided into classes based оп morphological characteristics. Јп this classification, the functional meaning is implicit; although the real function as it was conceived Ьу the potter or the user, is not known to us (Formazione 1980; Dizionari 1980; Юсе 1987: 211-

212). The classes are grouped in larger general functional categories as storing and processing or preparing (also labelled as 'kitchen ware') and transfer or serving and consuming ('table ware') (Юсе 1987). А finer type division within each class is based оп minor morphological, decorative and technological attributes (Beijer, in prep.).

(О Variability in the wares

The three тајп wares impasto, depurated and bucchero are present in аll three contexts, but in very different quantities (fig.3). Fragments of depurated clay and bucchero, so important for the chronology of the features, have а very low frequency in the habitation context (respectively 3,2% and 3,1 %), whereas the impasto ware covers 93,7% of the pottery. Even considering chrono­logical differences the поп impasto fragments remain exceptional finds in the habitation. А different situation is offered Ьу the tombs and the cultplace, where vases of depurated clay and bucchero form respectively 39,5% алd 67,8% of the pottery (necropolis: 24,6% depurated, 14,9% bucchero and 60,5% impasto; votive deposit: respectively 33,9%, 33,9% and 32,1 %).

Pottery wares

%

Borgo Le Ferriere < SATRICUM > 800 - 500 В.С.

100,----------------------------------------------------------.

Settlement Necropolis Cultplace

Fig. З. Pottery wares, Satricum: quantities ofimpasto, depurated and bucchero pottery types.

gз Impasto

UJ Depurated

D Bucchero

[;s Мјпј-јтр

190 J.W. ВОИМА, Р.АЈ. АТГЕМА, АЈ. BEIJER, АЈ. NIJBOER, R.A. OLDE DUBBELINK

The frequency differences in the wares have to Ье considered in relation to the various vessel types and thus to their function in relation to their specific context. Although both depurated and bucchero wares аге generally considered luxury goods (in respect to impasto vases), they do not necessarily теап simply ап economic progress in the community. The mainly Greek-inspired vase types of depurated clay аге bowls, cups, jugs and plates. In Etruscan bucchero we find bowls, cups, jugs and amphoras. These аге prevalent in the tombs and among the full-sized pottery in the oldest votive deposit. This frequency must have its explanation in their specific ritual ог symbolic use in those contexts. А special group is formed Ьу the aryballoi and alabastra (perfume containers) of depurated clay and bucchero, found mainly in the votive deposit (Beijer 1995).

The impasto ware found in the tombs consists exclusively of vessels belonging to the category of serving and consuming (fig.4). In the votive deposit the situation is different: the impasto сап Ье divided into miniature pottery (22,9% of the total amount of pottery) and full­sized vessels (9,3%). The miniature pottery consists of various classes and categories, that аге largely similar

also in the relative frequency of the classes to those from the settlement. The impasto full-sized vessels аге mainly amphoras, jugs and kantharoi (for pouring and drinking liquids, category serving/consuming). While the category storing/processing is absent in the tombs, а few small storing/ cooking jars аге present among the impasto vases in the votive deposit. Among the miniature pottery they аге very well represented.

(ii) Variability in categories and classes

It is clear that the users of the vessels at Satricum choose different classes of pots for each occasion. In the tombs sets of fine serving and consuming vases accompanied the dead. These emphasize the importance and meaning of the use of this particular pottery in the funerary rituals. Moreover, the quality and quantity of this set of vessels play ап important role in the way the community considered the former social position of the deceased: ап image of the social persona (cf. Bietti Sestieri et al. 1989-90; Bietti Sestieri 1986; 1988-89; 1992; Юсегса 1979: 100-101 оп Osteria dell'Osa). The relation between the pottery assemblages in the settlement and in the

Pottery shapes

%

Borgo Le Ferriere <SATRICUM> 800 - 500 В.С.

40.------------------------------------------------------------.

30

20

1 о

Settlement Necropolis Cultplace (mini)

�amphora

�jug

Dcup

�bowl

Dmug

Fig. 4. Pottery shapes, Satricum: chart comparing the frequency о! the shapes о! fine pottery from tombs with the Јате shapes from settlement features and with the miniature оnеЈ о! the votive deposit.

ТНЕ ECONOMY OF ЛN ЕЛRLУ LЛТIN SEТYLEMENT, BORGO LE FERRIERE-SATRICUM, 800-200 ВС 191

tombs is unclear, because there is а low frequency of pottery types in соттоп (the Нпе pouring and drinking vases) (fig.4). Were the pots made exclusively for funeral purposes or were they first used in daily life and did most of the fine pottery f{nally end uр in а tomb?

Тће interpretation of а specific meaning of the votive pottery сап Ье based оп its function in the cult as а container of gifts: symbolic small gifts (representing products that refer to the daily diet) in the miniature pottery, that in itself symbolises the daily pottery of the 8th and 7th centuries, liquids and perfumes in the other wares. Тће large quantity of bucchero and etrusco­corinthian drinking vessels of the late 7th and бth century ВС in the cult context stands in particular contrast with the finds from the settlement (tombs are not known from this period), where utilitarian pottery of impasto continues to dominate in the households.

Comparing the various assemblages of the settlement features, the frequency of the two main functional categories, storing/preparing and serving/ consuming, vary considerably between the features. However, а tendency towards more serving/ consuming vessels in

the 7th century сап Ье observed (fig.5). А similar tendency сап Ье noted in the tombs of the same period, where the quantity and variety of drinking vessels increase considerably compared with the tombs of the earlier period. This might Ье due to ап important variation in the food and drink supply and consumption, perhaps related to the introduction of ceremonial or aristocratic banquets. It must Ье noted that after this short period of variability the principal kind of pottery in the бth century ВС belongs again to the storing and processing category. Regarding the large storage jars only а few have Ьееп found in 8th and 7th century features, but а slight increase in the course of the Archaic period сап Ъе noted. This return to а predominance of traditional household vessels in the settlement of the бth century probably continues in the post-Archaic and Republican period, when the jar is prevalent in the context of deposit 11 Тће preference of jars (in miniature in the oldest deposit and of fиll-size in deposit 11) in the same cultplace over а period of тапу centuries indicates clearly а continuous cult-practice linked with this vessel class.

Pottery categories

%

Settlement Boгgo Le Feггieггe < SATRICUM > 800 - 500 В.С.

50�--------------------------------------------------�

40

30

20

1 О

o�--------------------------����--------�----� Grl Grll RPII GrlV RPIV GrVI Grlll GrVl1

800 В.С. 700 В.С. RPIII GrAAD9/1 О GrG GrA StA'

600 В.С. 500 В.С.

Fig. 5. Роиету categories, Satricum.

-- Stoгingjpгepaгing

+ Seгvingjconsuming

-* Spinningjweaving

192 J.W. BouMA, Р.АЈ. АТТЕМА, АЈ. BEIJER, АЈ. NIJBOER, R.A. OLDE DUBBELINK

(iii) Variability in types

Among the impasto pottery а large variability јп types could Ье observed. This is јп strong contrast with the depurated and bucchero wares, which contain standard­ised types due to а different pottery production system. Some type varieties in the impasto ware have chronolo­gical implications, because their type-attributes are due to technological innovations and/or to morphological changes due to the import of new and foreign vessels. This import of vessels сап Ье dated at the end of the 8th century, during the course of the 7th and the entire 6th century ВС (Beijer 1991а). Earlier јп the 8th century the тапу type varieties, which were based оп minor morphological differences, are not due to chronological but to technomic differences. The large type variability observed јп the classes might Ье caused Ьу the pottery production system of the 8th century, when probably most of the handmade impasto pottery was produced within еасћ single family. There is little overlap in types found in the features of this phase, except for lidbowls and incurved bowls, two traditional and simple Iron age shapes. From the late 8th century the type variety is по longer restricted to single features јп the settlement: evidently а more organised pottery production system is at work. Technological innovations (use of wheel, slip, and purer clays), the copying of foreign types and, even in the impasto pottery repertoire, more standardised pots, confirm the idea of а more specialised production in organised workshops in the 7th and 6th centuries ВС (Beijer 1991а).

The copying of foreign - Phoenician and Greek -types has also а functional implication. If we presume а close link between vessel type and content (=function/ use), the increase of serving/ consuming pottery: cups, jugs and plates, and the тапу type varieties in these classes in both settlement and tombs, imply а change to а more differentiated consumption pattern due to the introduction of а пеw diet, new foods and drinks (e.g. olives, wine?) from these countries. This differentia­tion is related to the social changes, that took place јп the late 8th and 7th centuries ВС (Beijer 1992). This implies also а change јп the food production and food exchange.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS

OF POST-ARCHAIC POTTERY

Тће evidence for local ceramic production in the successive post-Archaic and Republican period (5th to 3rd centuries ВС) comes mainly from the cultplaces (deposit 11 and deposit 111). Тће recent identification of а nucleus of workshops and kilns јп the former Archaic settlement-area supports the idea of local production јп this period (Attema et al. 1992). Тће local terracotta production comprised the processing of pottery, anatomical votives and small terracotta statuettes. In

terms of the production of pottery, impasto, black-glazed and probably depurated wares сап Ье assumed. Тће impasto pottery was found in great numbers јп deposit 11, the graves of the 5th-4th centuries ВС, and to а lesser degree јп deposit 111, mainly comprising cooking-pots and bowls. Confirmation оf lоса! production in the early Republican period of at least part of this impasto ware, тау Ье deduced from the scarcity of close parallels from the surrounding sites. Local production of part of the black-glazed pottery is proved Ьу the presence of forms that do not occur јп Campania, а different clay and а poorer quality of the glaze.

Опе of the most frequent types of ех votos in mid­and late Republican times (4th-2nd centuries ВС) are the small terracottas statuettes of seated and standing females. For at least а part of these а local provenance is assumed (Satricum 1982: 108,118; Satricum 1985, nr.279).

Most of the votives produced in Satricum were intended for the local market. But some тау have Ьееп sold also to other sanctuaries, or brought there Ьу dedicants who had bought them in Satricum (e.g. Satricum 1985: nr. 303; Attema et al. 1992, fig.3, п.45). From this it is clear that in the post-Archaic and Republican period the cultplaces played ап important role јп the economic system of the site.

ТНЕ CULT PLACES

Тће rise, period of prosperity, and decay of the cultplaces of Satricum is strongly interrelated with the есопотјс system of the site and its territory and а direct ref1ection of it. In the Archaic settlement-area at least three cultplaces are known (оп the acropolis, јп the S. Lucia and јп the МассЫа Bottacci - Мааskапt-Юеibriпk 1987' , 1992; Attema et al. 1992: 79); јп the territory two are present: опе at Campoverde (BTCGI: 336-337) and опе near the conf1uence of the Astura and the Fosso Рапе е ујпо (Tomassetti 1910: 388; Lugli 1936: 909).

Тће most famous cultplace within the territory is the sanctuary of Mater Matuta оп the acropolis. Her cult is attested from the late 8th until the 3rd-2nd centuries Ьу three successive votive deposits located underneath and јп the direct vicinity of the later temple (in this paper referred to as deposit 1(end 8th-c.540) deposit 11(end 6th-3rd ВС) and deposit 111 (4th-2nd ВС)). This is the only cultplace where dur�ng а period of more than six centuries the cult сап Ье traced without interruption. Тће contents of аll three deposits оп the acropolis ref1ect the importance of the site from ап early period as а centre оf lоса! and wider есопотјс activity. This picture is confirmed Ьу the other cultplaces.

(i) ТraceJ о! contact

Whereas contacts оп а regional and interregional level сап Ье found during almost аll periods of cult, those оп

ТНЕ ECONOMY OF ЛN ЕЛRLУ LЛТIN SEJТLEMENT, BORGO LE FЕRRIЕRЕ-SАТЮСUМ, 800-200 ВС 193

ап international scale are found especially in the earliest period. Thanks to the favourable location of the site, Satricum from early оп played ап important role in trade between Central Italy and the Eastern Mediterranean. The role of the site in thls process is reflected in the number of imports which among others have Ьееп found in the oldest deposit of the sanctuary of Mater Matuta. The imports are of the highest quality and compared with other Latial cultplaces among the most abundant. The deposit yielded imports from Egypt, Rhodes, the Phoenician-Cypriot area, but mainly from Greece: proto­Corinthian and Corinthian pottery, and artifacts in faience, amber, Ьопе, ivory and bronze. While the international component is predominant to с. 650 ВС, after this date this contact gradually diminishes in favour of interregional import, marked Ьу contacts with regions as Campania and the Sabine and Falisco-Capenan territory. The Etruria links are reflected in the great number of Etrusco-Соriпthiап and buccherowares: deposit 1 contained more Etrusco-Corinthian vases than апу

other complex in аll of Central-Italy. The strong relation with Etruria in the 7th and 6th centuries ВС is also evident from the fact that confronti for specific artifacts from deposit 1 are known from Etruria only (e.g. Satricum 1985: nr.l35,180; Bonacasa 1957: nr.2).

The high economic standard of the site in the late 7th and 6th centuries ВС is further reflected in the presence in the oldest deposit of а considerable number of iron and bronze artifacts as well as gold, silver and gilted silver - in this period objects in gold and silver are nearly absent in sanctuaries elsewhere in Latium. Likewise objects in faience, amber and ivory are scarce in contemporaneous votive contexts in Latium (ехсер­tions are S. ОтЬопо in Rome, S. Ceciiia, Anagni, Lavinium, Gabii, Antemnae Aquino (contrada Mefete), and Campoverde).

In considering the relative frequency in each context, it сап Ье noted that the number of imported pottery types in the earliest cultplaces, especially in the опе оп the acropolis, exceeds the number of imports in the necropolis. This leads to the conclusion that the international and interregional contacts mainly focused оп the religious aspect of society and that this element of the есопоту must have had а very close relation with the cultplaces of the site.

From the mid-6th century ВС onwards а clear shift in the contacts and relations сап Ье observed. From this time Satricum and its direct surroundings almost totally lack imports from the Greek world. The rare instances include some black- and red-figured fragments from the acropolis (Della Seta 1918: 293; Stibbe 1978: 57; Satricum 1982: 108); fragments of some Attic kylikes from опе of the earliest strata in deposit 11 and some black-glazed imports in the graves of the south-west necropolis (Satricum 1983: 29-30; Stibbe 1983а: 50; Stibbe 1985: fig.l7; Кпоор 1986: 42; Gnade 1992). In

this lack of Greek imports, Satricum differs from other contemporaneous Latial sanctuaries as Lavinium and Rome (Stibbe 1981: 308 and п. 38). This international decline need not, however, Ье а direct indicator for а decrease in the есопоту: the economic situation in the second half of the 6th century and the start of the 5th still favoured the erection of two m

'onumental temples

of а Greek-inspired type оп the acropolis. It is only shortly after the beginning of the 5th century

ВС that the situation changes. Then the only traces of international and interregional contacts occur in the south-west necropolis, where the graves have yielded some imports from France, Etruria and South Italy (Satricum i983: 29-30; Satricum 1985: 141; Gnade 1992). This reduction in the scale of trade goes hand in hand with the abandonment of the acropolis as а place for settlement and with spatial changes in the settlement­pattern as а whole (cf. Attema et al. 1992). Notable is the fact that the late Archaic sanctuary after it had fallen into ruins, was not rebuilt. In other Latial sites as Lavinium and Ardea а rebuilding or restoration of sanctuaries in the 5th century ВС is not ипсоттоп. А Ппаl indication of а changed economic situation in the late Archaic and Republican period тау Ье the fact that in deposit 11 and deposit 111 precious metals are much reduced in number (Della Seta 1918: 295-296; Воита, in prep.).

In the Republican period few clear settlement traces are known in the former Archaic urban area; the only traces known thus far were found near what тау Ье interpreted as а production centre of terracotta material (Attema et al. 1992). Accordingly both the local production of pottery and votive offerings and the raising of cattle тау Ье supposed to have Ьееп mainly intended for the immediate market and strongly related with the religious activities in the area. As it seems in this period, the есопоту of the site was mainly based оп the demands set Ьу the various cultplaces and Ьу their pilgrims. Compared with the Iron Age and Archaic period the role of the sacred places in the economic system of the post-Archaic and Republican period seems еуеп more dominant: judging from the available archaeological data the main justification for the existence of the site in this period seems the presence of cultplaces only. If so, the economic system during this R�publican period therefore тау well Ье character­ized as а temple-economy proper.

Only as late as с. 400 ВС сап а more regular form of contact Ье traced again, with the import of black-glazed pottery and Ње so-called Tanagra-Myrina statuettes (Satricum 1985: nos.264, 278 and 284). For part of the black-glazed pottery а possible import from Etruria is suggested (Satricum 1982: 126), although а Campanian provenance cannot Ье excluded. As for the terracotta statuettes, for some а close relation with Sicily is supposed (Satricum 1985: по.282). Contacts with regions as

194 J.W. BOUMA, Р.А]. АПЕМА, А]. BEIJER, А]. NlJBOER, R.A. OLDE DUBBELINK

Umbria is reflected in а bronze Mars-statuette (Bonacasa 1957:по.22, fig.25); other contacts with Carnpania аге given Ьу the presence of а limited питЬег of coins in the deposits: in deposit 11 two silver coins [гоrn Naples and two Roman-Carnpanian coins were found. ТЬе latter also occurred in deposit 111 (Barnabei 1896: 100). These coins аге well-known in other Latial votive contexts (e.g. Norba, Cora and Lanuvium) where they оссиг in тисЬ greater quantitites.

W hen in the late Republican and early Imperial period in sites as Terracina, Lanuvium, Praeneste and Nemi sanctuaries were built оп а scale which in splendour rivalled or even surpassed their predecessors, the religious activities at Satricum, and with thern the existence of the site, already had сот е to ап end to await the arrival of the first Roman villae.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper has examined various aspects of the есопоrnу of the Latin site of Satricum . ТЬе sections оп natural environrnent and resources have shown that during аН periods the subsistence in terms of landscape potential was lirnited. ТЬе agriculture around Satricum was rnainly determined Ьу dornestic stock-raising since the soils around the settlement аге not especiaHy suitable for the cultivation of cereals and other crops. However, the presence of пеагЬу rnarshes must have accounted [ог additional means like fuel, fish, fowl and other wildlife. Large quantities of cattle, caprine and pig bones survived, while the palaeobotanical rernains, though meagre, do show а mixture of seeds like triticum durum (bread wheat), vicia ЈаЬа (horse Ьеап) and possibly hordeum (barley). Additional local resources were exploited, notably clays and tuffs and sorne rnetals, though соррег and lead were irnported as raw rnaterials.

ТЬе limitations of the landscape potential in аН periods reinforce the conclusion that the sanctuaries which characterised life at the site, constituted the rnајог component of the есопоту of the settlernent. This focal role in the late Iron Age and Archaic period of the sanctuaries is evident [гот the fact that rnost of the international imports аге found in the sanctuaries. Also а cornparison of the pottery in settlernent, tornbs and cultplace оп the ЬШ shows а predorninance in this period in the sanctuary of depurated and bucchero ware, which аге generally considered luxury goods in cornparison with impasto pottery. However, in the tornbs impasto prevails (approx. 60%) while in the settlernent depurated and bucchero ware is almost absent.

ТЬе intemational and interregional contacts graduaHy disappear in the second half of the 6th and at the beginning of the 5th century ВС respectively and subsequently the есопоту assumes а predorninantly local aspect. ТЬе period sees the decay of the Archaic site, followed Ьу severe turbulences [ог approxirnately

150 years in which the Pontine region Ьесате the stage of constant battles between Romans, Latins and Volsci. After the decline of the Archaic site, the cultplaces alone persist and even rnоге than before the religious places Ьесоте the focal point of - now local - economic activities. Though historiography recalls the Volsci in the Pontine region as exporting cereals as early as 508 and 491 it сап hardly Ье irnagined [гот our data that agriculture could produce а surplus and that cereals forrned апу medium of exchange. As concerns the role of Satricum in the process of international contacts in early Republican times, it seems unlikely that the econornic system of the 5th-4th century ВС based оп stock-raising and terracotta production, сап have provided апу surplus to allow commerce and trade оп а large international scale.

ТЬе revival of the interregional contacts from с. 400 onwards is ехрНсаЫе Ьу in the fact that the combats in the region had Ьу then ceased and Roman control extended over most of the Pontine region. But though Satricum, as rnапу other sites in the 5th and 4th century ВС, had Ьесоrnе а Latin colony, this was shortlived. This and the fact that, according to the ancient sources, throughout the 4th century the site lay in the battle­ground between Volsci, Latins and Romans, certainly did not favour strong activities in the field of rebuilding ог refounding of cultplaces as noticed elsewhere.

Nonetheless, the rnarginal econornic position of the site was enhanced after the construction of the Via Appia in 312 ВС. With this road тапу of the previously irnportant sites in the coastal plain of Latiurn were ignored and gradually Ьесаrnе isolated. ТЬе case of Satricum shows that except оп а favourable location, natural resources and the presence of опе of the most renowned cultplaces of ancient Latiurn, the есопоту of а site and its territory is dерепdепt оп and deterrnined Ьу the infrastructure of the region and Ьу the role of the site and its territory in the political framework.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Оиг thanks go to Prof. А. Clason, Prof. Н. van Zeist and Dr W. Prumrnel, Drs М. Vink and Drs Т. Blokland [ог the analysis of the archaeozoological sarnples, and to Prof. W van Zeist (Biological Archaeological Institute, Groningen) [ог the study of the seed rernains.

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