Scarred History: An observation of extant physical features relating to alluvial gold mining...

Scarred History: An observation of extant p

alluvial gold mining activity remaining at

Little Spring Creek G

Report prepared by Christian Fielder

A/Prof. Wendy Beck and Dr. Maria Cotter

University of New England, Armidale NSW.

Scarred History: An observation of extant physical features relating to

alluvial gold mining activity remaining at Little Spring Creek

Goldfield, Young, NSW.

Little Spring Creek Goldfield, Young NSW

Report prepared by Christian Fielder (220078764) under the supervision of

Wendy Beck and Dr. Maria Cotter, for Minor Research Project

HUMS507,


October 2013

hysical features relating to

Little Spring Creek

under the supervision of

Minor Research Project


Christian Fielder 2

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to describe and illustrate the nineteenth century methods of gold

mining used at the Little Spring Creek goldfield located in the South West Slopes township of

Young, New South Wales. To date, there have been no archaeological investigations on the

application of gold mining technology at this site. A field survey was conducted at the site to

record the extant features in the landscape. An assessment of these physical remains is used to

fill the gap between the limited historical records that do exist. The field survey revealed

evidence of three successive periods of gold mining having occurred at the site, with the

methods of shallow sinking, ground and hydraulic sluicing having been employed.

Observations were also made on the site’s heritage and conservation value, along with its

potential for future research.

Christian Fielder 3

Table of Contents

Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... 2

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 3

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. 4

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 5

Background ................................................................................................................................. 7

Data Sources and Literature Review ........................................................................................ 10

Fieldwork Methodology ........................................................................................................... 14

Results of Field Survey ............................................................................................................ 15

Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 23

Linking the Archival and Archaeological Evidence................................................................. 28

Heritage and Conservation Considerations .............................................................................. 30

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 31

References ................................................................................................................................ 33

Christian Fielder 4

List of Figures

Figure 1: Extent of Lambing Flat goldfields - 1862 ................................................................... 8

Figure 2: Little Spring Creek goldfield in relation to Young Township .................................... 9

Figure 3: Section of 1878 Geological Map of Young showing position of diggings east of

Little Spring Creek ................................................................................................................... 11

Figure 4: Network of ex-water races (in red) located near Maori Gully .................................. 12

Figure 5: Satellite image of Little Spring Creek goldfield with lined boundary ...................... 13

Figure 6: Site Plan Little Spring Creek Goldfield .................................................................... 16

Figure 7: Site A, mullock heaps. .............................................................................................. 17

Figure 8: Site A, shallow sinking ............................................................................................. 17

Figure 9: Site C. Photograph taken facing east. ....................................................................... 18

Figure 10: Site C. Photograph taken facing west. .................................................................... 19

Figure 11: Sluicing face located east at Site C ......................................................................... 19

Figure 12: Reservoir near Site C .............................................................................................. 20

Figure 13: Head water-race defined by red lines at Site B ....................................................... 20

Figure 14: Site B Plan ............................................................................................................... 21

Figure 15: Portion of dam wall at Site B .................................................................................. 22

Figure 16: Shelf located above the western working face of Site C......................................... 22

Figure 17: Earthen Mound. ....................................................................................................... 23

Figure 18: Cradling for gold at Box Ridge, near Sofala, NSW circa 1860s ............................ 24

Figure 19: Diagram of hydraulic sluicing system .................................................................... 27

Figure 20: Drift islands and exposed bedrock caused by hydraulic sluicing at Site C............. 28

Christian Fielder 5

Introduction

Goldmining methods used during the nineteenth century in New South Wales have attracted

relatively little archaeological research or interest. Academic study in Australian gold mining

activity has traditionally focused on the social and economic similarities and differences

between the gold rushes of California and Victoria (Goodman 1994, pp.10-14). The Lambing

Flat riots in 1861 for example, are often the only single focus of historical research relating to

gold mining in New South Wales (McGowan 2001, p.ii). The former Little Spring Creek

goldfield located at the South West Slopes township of Young, New South Wales still

possesses a landscape heavily scarred by intensive alluvial mining conducted during the

nineteenth century. In order to identify any correlation between the Little Spring Creek

goldfield landscape and the documented primary and secondary records that remain, a specific

research question has been formulated. The research reported in this paper focuses on the

question: What will an observation of the extant features in the landscape located at the

former Little Spring Creek goldfield add to the existing documentary accounts of nineteenth

century alluvial mining processes? It is envisioned that an archaeological survey and analysis

of this site will make a unique contribution, by both adding to, and acting as, an essential

corrective to the purely historical sources.

Archaeological evidence is rarely utilised by Australian historians (Connah 1998; Jack 1993).

To date, there have been no archaeological accounts written about the physical impact and the

extent of mining activity used at the Little Spring Creek goldfield during the nineteenth

century. Simple alluvial mining methods in the form of pan and cradle workings are often the

only single topic of discussion when describing gold extraction in the Young region during

the 1860s (Maroney 1980; McGregor & McGregor 1999). However, the Little Spring Creek

goldfield contains not only a rich archaeological record of shallow surface sinking but also

exhibits different phases of applied technology used to extract and process gold. More

intensive methods of gold extraction in the form of ground and hydraulic sluicing were also

used following the main gold rush of the 1860s (Christison 2008).

Identifying the actual extent of the Little Spring Creek site will be a difficult undertaking.

These diggings were last worked on any scale almost one hundred and thirteen years ago and

in most instances the workings are in the process of stabilisation, with natural vegetation

taking root along much of the site’s surface. Goldfields such as the Little Spring Creek site

Christian Fielder 6

were often established in isolated areas of land, the boundaries of which were determined by

the process of geological survey according to the extent of the auriferous deposits that they

could yield (Phillips 1867, pp.1-14). However, goldfields are also cultural landscapes which

integrate the mechanisms of society and technology, providing a rich source of past human

activity. The physical remains created by applied technology, especially those mechanisms

used over successive periods, are often difficult to identify (Rapp 1981, p.23). Vast mining

sites, ephemeral features and dispersion of archaeological evidence all add to this complexity.

Through the mining processes of extraction, accumulation and redeposition, the goldfield

landscape forms characteristic topographical features. These features, in addition to the

material remains, often provide information important to the archaeological interpretation of

mining sites (Pearson & McGowan 2000).

Archaeological analysis of the Little Spring Creek goldfield landscape may provide new

detail of the different types of alluvial mining techniques that were used intensively during the

years 1861 and 1862 and also in a secondary phase of gold extraction during the 1870s until

the early 1900s. There is evidence of several particular periods of alluvial gold extraction

remaining at the site, and these phases are represented by distinct landscape elements which,

to date, have not been rigorously documented for the archaeological record. A comparison of

these physical features in addition to the relevant primary and secondary documentation

relating to the site, may offer new archaeological interpretations of nineteenth century alluvial

gold extraction. However, the feasibility of recording this evidence, particularly information

that is ephemeral in nature, relies heavily upon interpretation (Wagstaff 1987). The

interpretation of the landscape will require observation of both the natural and cultural

topography that remains. This archaeological investigation must therefore be undertaken in

conjunction with an analysis of the primary and secondary historical sources available. In the

case of the Little Spring Creek goldfield little documentary evidence exists relating to the

techniques of alluvial mining. Information is limited to succinct observations in official

mining records and brief reports in newspaper articles on the region’s gold productivity

during the nineteenth century.

Although recent attempts to include the Little Spring Creek goldfield on the NSW State

Heritage Register have been made, the site remains susceptible to development as it does not

reside under legislative protection (Christison 2008). This paper will attempt to fill a gap in

the archaeological record by detailing the physical features that remain at the site thus

providing additional information concerning the site’s historical and archaeological

Christian Fielder 7

significance. Various sources of data will be reviewed in order to construct a framework for

the analysis of the applied gold mining methods that were traditionally used during the

nineteenth century. The documentary resources will include material specifically related to

the methods of extracting and processing alluvial gold deposits in the geographical area of

southern New South Wales. Local and regional histories will provide a background source of

information, as will the analysis of historical maps and photographs. As noted, documentary

sources on the Little Spring Creek goldfield are limited, therefore, an examination of the

physical remains will form an integral part of the process of compiling a detailed account of

the processes used in the mining of gold in this area during the nineteenth century. Field

reconnaissance at the Little Spring Creek site will be required in order to take detailed

photographs and measurements of remaining features, such as mullock heaps, water-races,

dams, and tailings. The purpose of undertaking this field survey will be to locate and identify

the archaeological remains of applied gold mining methods extant in the landscape, and to

examine the correlation between this evidence and their relative historical descriptions. No

archaeological features or artefacts will be disturbed in the process of conducting this research

and only non-intrusive fieldwork survey methods will be used.

Background

Gold was first discovered in Lambing Flat (now Young) on Burrangong Station in 1860 by a

cook known as Alexander ‘the Yankee’. The area of alluvial gold was found to be extensive,

with miners soon travelling to Lambing Flat from other goldfields, both from within the

colony and abroad. By October 1861, 1,500 men were working the area. Census reports show

that this number had grown to 10,000 by April of the following year. The Lambing Flat

goldfields were also at the centre of one of the most notorious incidents of the Australian gold

rushes. A series of anti-Chinese riots in the area led directly to the Colonial government

passing Chinese immigration restriction legislation in 1861 (Bayley 1977). In a response to

the continual rioting, NSW Premier Charles Cowper ordered that Chinese miners be

prohibited from working areas rich in alluvium. A furrowed line was ploughed across one half

of the Blackguard Gully diggings, segregating the Chinese and European miners (McGregor

& McGregor 1999 p.64). These events at Lambing Flat were well-recorded at the time, and

have been analysed by a number of historians in recent decades (Carrington 1960; Selth 1974;

Walker 1970). Due to the historical significance of these events, the Blackguard Gully site is

Christian Fielder

listed on the NSW State Heritage Register and

heritage legislation (unlike the Little Spring Creek goldfield)

The rich alluvial deposits on the Lambing Flat gold

years 1861 to 1862.The extent of the Lambing Flat goldfields circa 1862 has been represented

in Figure 1. During this time

been extracted (Bayley 1977

intensity of the shallow ground sluicing techniques employed by miners.

of the prospectors began to leave for more

located in Forbes and Grenfell.

and techniques for gold extraction.

Lambing Flat were constructed

sluicing operations. Two examples of

Blackguard Gully. Ground slu

was undertaken along Burrangong Creek and its tributaries

some other areas of the diggings by

been used effectively on the Californian goldfields

Figure 1: Extent of Lambing Flat goldfields

Folk Museum.

on the NSW State Heritage Register and is therefore afforded protection under State

(unlike the Little Spring Creek goldfield).

ts on the Lambing Flat goldfields were extensively

The extent of the Lambing Flat goldfields circa 1862 has been represented

During this time, it was estimated that over 6,600 kilograms

Bayley 1977, p.33). These deposits would soon be worked out

shallow ground sluicing techniques employed by miners.

began to leave for more profitable goldfields in the district such as those

Forbes and Grenfell. Those that decided to stay in Lambing Flat sought other areas

echniques for gold extraction. Dams located in the higher reaches of creeks surrounding

constructed, as were lengthy water-races to supply water for

Two examples of these reservoirs remain today at Victoria Gully and

Ground sluicing operations continued into the 1870s and extensive slui

was undertaken along Burrangong Creek and its tributaries. This practice was superseded in

some other areas of the diggings by the introduction of hydraulic sluicing, a method that had

been used effectively on the Californian goldfields during the 1850s (Bayley 1977

Figure 1: Extent of Lambing Flat goldfields - 1862 (not to scale). Source

8

therefore afforded protection under State

extensively mined between the

The extent of the Lambing Flat goldfields circa 1862 has been represented

kilograms of alluvial gold had

n be worked out due to the

shallow ground sluicing techniques employed by miners. By mid 1865, many

in the district such as those

Those that decided to stay in Lambing Flat sought other areas

higher reaches of creeks surrounding

to supply water for larger

Victoria Gully and

into the 1870s and extensive sluicing

This practice was superseded in

the introduction of hydraulic sluicing, a method that had

Bayley 1977).

(not to scale). Source: Lambing Flat

Christian Fielder

The former Little Spring Creek

along the western bank of Little

in the 1860s. After much of Lambing Flat had been abandoned for more lucrative ventures

elsewhere in the district, approximately ninety miners continued to work the

sinkings. During the latter part of the nineteenth century

Gold Mining and Prospecting

formed to capitalise on large

The Little Spring Creek goldfield

activity, which provides the physical evidence examined in this paper.

Figure 2: Little Spring Creek goldfield in relation to Young Township

Government, Land & Property Information Spatial Information Exchange website.

Little Spring Creek goldfield is located on a 3.898 hectare portion of crown land

Little Spring Creek (Figure 2). Mining first began in this area


approximately ninety miners continued to work the

ing the latter part of the nineteenth century organisations such as

and Prospecting Company and the Burrangong Steam Sluicing Company

large scale hydraulic sluicing activities at the site

Little Spring Creek goldfield landscape still reflects all of these phases of

, which provides the physical evidence examined in this paper.

Figure 2: Little Spring Creek goldfield in relation to Young Township


9

hectare portion of crown land

Mining first began in this area early


approximately ninety miners continued to work the site’s shallow

such as the Burrangong

Company and the Burrangong Steam Sluicing Company were

at the site (Bayley 1977 p.35).

of these phases of past mining

Figure 2: Little Spring Creek goldfield in relation to Young Township. Source: NSW


Christian Fielder 10

Data Sources and Literature Review

As previously indicated, primary and secondary sources of information relating to the mining

techniques employed at the Lambing Flat gold diggings, including those specifically citing

the former Little Spring Creek site, are extremely limited. Historic material relating to mining

methods used at other goldfields of a similar era are well documented and could be used to

inform assessment of the Little Spring Creek site. Wherever possible, information relating to

alluvial gold mining methods used in southern New South Wales between the periods of 1850

to 1900 was sought. Documentary material relating to goldfields in the Southern Tablelands

and Snowy Mountains region (such as the Braidwood and Kiandra diggings) proved

invaluable, as extensive alluvial mining also occurred in these areas between the specified

dates. This archival material is comprised primarily of newspaper and journal reports,

nineteenth century mining manuals, lease and parish maps as well as photographs.

Official records of the Department of Lands and Department of Mines for New South Wales

were utilised extensively for the purposes of researching the methods of alluvial gold mining

in the nineteenth century. These included annual reports, lease and claim folios and mining

and geological survey reports and their accompanying maps. The annual reports are

comprised of individual accounts written by mining authorities at the time. These reports

document the workings, mining methods being applied, and details of mine infrastructure

such as water-races, and the installation of sluicing boxes or hydraulic sluicing pumps. A

geological map of Young produced for the 1878 Department of Mines (NSW) Annual Report

details some areas where gold mining was being conducted in the township. Figure 3 is a

section of this map, and indicates a portion of ‘diggers holes’ located to the east of Little

Spring Creek.


Figure 3: Section of 1878 Geological Map of Young showing position of diggings east of

Little Spring Creek. Source: Department of Mines (NSW) 1878 Annual Report.

The New South Wales Government’s Land and Property Spatial Information Exchange

website has five digitised historical maps relating to the parish of Young from 1891 to 1954.

One map produced in 1933 provides some detail about the former gold mining features that

existed at Young during its mining boom. Figure 4 is an enlarged section of this map and

shows a network of ex-water races located on the property of G and J Eastlake. These water-

races flowed toward the former diggings at Maori Creek, which was situated approximately

two and half kilometres to the south-east of Little Spring Creek.


Figure 4: Network of ex-water races (in red) located near Maori Gully. Source: NSW


Unfortunately, these maps often had scales too large to allow for reliable examination of

specific diggings. The maps were limited in detail and were designed to show the location of

the goldfields within the township, rather than the specific features that were built upon them.

Detail of water-races or other features relating specifically to gold mining activity at the Little

Spring Creek site were virtually non-existent on historical maps. Historical parish maps of

Young were useful only to the extent that they document the general layout of the township

and its environs.

Historical photographs are often useful for the purpose of visual comparison of the landscape

impact when researching goldfields (Pearson and McGowan 2000 p.8). The invention of

photography in 1834 resulted in Australia's gold rush era being recorded visually as well as

being documented in reports. Otto Holtermann, for instance, extensively photographed the

goldfields of Hill End providing a descriptive and visual recording of the town’s social history

Christian Fielder

and the impact of mining on

Flat or Young during its gold rush are

during 1944 provided some

such as Little Spring Creek

do not reveal the distinct landscape transformations of the mining process

imagery of Little Spring Creek

and clearly shows the remaining cultural disturbances in the landscape

Figure 5: Satellite image of Little Spring Creek goldfield

Google Earth, 2013.

Little reliance should be placed on

Flat diggings, as regrettably

literature on the history of Lambing Flat or Young often exclude

relating to the methods of gold extraction and instead focus

European and Chinese miners. T

book entitled Rich Earth: History of Young and the Shire of Burrangong New South Wales

(1977) and to a lesser degree

of the history of the Lambing Flat gold era includ

of the day and contains important data relating to civil records and gold mining productivity

on its landscape (Burke 1973). Archival photographs

Flat or Young during its gold rush are mysteriously rare. Aerial photographs

some means of historical comparison of topography. Natural f

Spring Creek do stand out in aerial photographs, but unfortunately

distinct landscape transformations of the mining process

Little Spring Creek does allow for an excellent analysis of topographical features

and clearly shows the remaining cultural disturbances in the landscape (Figure

: Satellite image of Little Spring Creek goldfield with lined boundary

should be placed on the majority of local histories produced on the Lambing

regrettably most are unreferenced and highly anecdotal. The available

Lambing Flat or Young often excludes much important material

relating to the methods of gold extraction and instead focuses on the conflict between

European and Chinese miners. Two notable exceptions can be found in William Bayley’s

Rich Earth: History of Young and the Shire of Burrangong New South Wales

and to a lesser degree Roll-Up (1999) by Hector and John McGregor

Lambing Flat gold era includes information sourced from

contains important data relating to civil records and gold mining productivity

13

hotographs of Lambing

graphs taken of Young

topography. Natural features

but unfortunately the images

distinct landscape transformations of the mining process. Google Earth

topographical features

Figure 5).

with lined boundary. Source:

majority of local histories produced on the Lambing

unreferenced and highly anecdotal. The available

much important material

on the conflict between

wo notable exceptions can be found in William Bayley’s

Rich Earth: History of Young and the Shire of Burrangong New South Wales

McGregor. Bayley’s account

es information sourced from official records

contains important data relating to civil records and gold mining productivity


in the book’s appendix. This publication is referenced and information was obtained mainly

from local nineteenth century newspapers such as the Burrangong Argus (1864-1914),

Burrangong Chronicle (1873-1902), and Miner (1861-1862). Other district newspapers that

reported mining activity in either Lambing Flat or Young included the Yass Courier,

Illustrated Sydney News, Sydney Morning Herald and Town and Country Journal. Periodicals

cited by Bayley include Department of Mines annual reports from 1875, Mines and Minerals

Statistics and information derived from the Government Gazette.

Fieldwork Methodology

In addition to an examination of the primary and secondary resources available, it was

necessary to locate and identify the archaeological remains at the Little Spring Creek site. The

first step in recording this site was to locate it accurately. This was achieved by obtaining the

site’s standard Australian Map Grid (AMG) reference, and using the largest scale topographic

map available for the area (1:25 000) as a base map. A Global Positioning System (GPS) was

also used to indicate the location and boundary of the area, and to record significant features

within the site itself. A site plan could then be created indicating important features such as

mullock heaps, shallow sinkings, dams, water-races and tailings as well as areas of sluicing

activity.

Two survey methods were used to produce detailed site plans. The tape offset technique was

used in conjunction with the less accurate compass and pacing technique. Before starting the

survey, ground reconnaissance was conducted to identify the extent of the remains, the edges

of the mining area and the location of elements within it. This allowed for the outer boundary

of the plan to be plotted on A4 and A3 sized graph paper and then filling in the detail by

taking bearings from the key landscape features. Three sample areas were then chosen based

on distinctive cultural transformations still evident in the landscape (and thus relating to

characteristic mining phases). These sample areas were then assessed according to the past

mining activity and labelled: Site A (area of shallow sinking), Site B (area of ground

sluicing), and Site C (area of hydraulic sluicing). These three areas were chosen to help

describe the main mining features and to differentiate between the main technologies that

were utilised at the site.


The height, diameter and slope of key landscape features were also recorded by direct

measurement using a thirty metre fibreglass tape. Lines marking the upper edge of these

features and slopes were noted on the site plan. The relative difference in elevation between

flat and high land could be estimated and written on the plan. References to roads, creek lines,

ridges, fences and property boundaries were also included. Separate notes were taken

describing each key element to enable a detailed plan to be produced in addition to the

creation of an overall site plan.

The site was also extensively photographed using a 10.1 megapixel digital camera. A two

metre range pole with fifty centimetre increments was used as a photographic scale. A north

arrow was also used to indicate the position of view. Key features of the landscape were

chosen for photography as were overall views of the area showing a number of features of the

mining site and its environment. All photographs were recorded in a log describing what they

show, the angle from which they were taken, and the direct GPS co-ordinates of these

photographed features. The photographed features were also noted on the site plan showing

the viewpoint from which each photograph was taken.

Results of Field Survey

The Little Spring Creek site contains evidence of three periods of alluvial gold mining that are

represented by three distinct landscape elements still present in the environs. Figure 6 is the

site plan that was produced as a result of the field survey. The site plan defines the three sites

according to the observation of different modifications in the landscape occurring as a result

of past mining activity. The site plan also indicates the location of where the prominent gold

mining features were photographed during the course of the survey.

Site A runs along the western edge of the Little Spring Creek goldfield and contains remnants

of mullock heaps (Figure 7) as well as an abundance of round surface depressions extending

by approximately 120 metres (west to east) and 100 metres (north to south). The area worked

at Site A appears to be quite large but always very shallow, with sinkings ranging from a

maximum of twenty centimetres to only a few centimetres deep (Figure 8). Other than the

surface sinkings and mullock heaps in Site A, there is no evidence of water-races, tailing

mounds or other landscape transformations.


PHOTOGRAPH AND FEATURE KEY

07 Mullock heaps 08 Shallow sinking 09 Gully face, east 10 Gully face, west 11 Sluicing face 12 Reservoir 13 Head water-race 15 Earthen dam wall 16 Shelf 17 Tailing mound 20 Drift islands and exposed bedrock

LEGEND

Shallow sinking

= = = Water-race

_____ Face of hydraulic sluicings

Figure 6: Site Plan Little Spring Creek Goldfield

Site B

8

7

9

10

11

12

13

15 16

17

20


Figure 7: Site A, mullock heaps.

Figure 8: Site A, shallow sinking

Mullock Heaps

Shallow sinking


The central and eastern sections of the goldfield (Site C) form a deep gully with heavily

eroded cliffs (Figures 9 and 10). The gully contains patches of large open cuttings and high

steep faces that retain innumerable sluicing scars (Figure 11). Mounds of re-deposited gravel

are scattered on the gully floor. Site C is extensive and extends approximately 130 metres

(west to east) and 150 metres (north to south). The height of the gully face varies but is in

parts five metres or more high. Near Site C is a twenty-nine metre low level reservoir situated

very close to the gully, the construction of which is non-natural (Figure 12). There is no

visible hydraulic machinery or infrastructure on the surface in this area.

Figure 9: Site C. Photograph taken facing east.


Figure 10: Site C. Photograph taken facing west.

Figure 11: Sluicing face located east at Site C


Figure 12: Reservoir near Site C

The third distinct area (Site B) lies between the mullock heaps and the gully. A remnant

purpose-built channel is cut through this area and resembles a head water-race (Figure 13).

Figure 13: Head water-race defined by red lines at

Site B


Eight large pits were measured within close proximity to the beginning of the head water-race

(Figure 14). The topography of these pits suggests that alluvial deposits were washed by

channelled water, rather than sunk by picks or shovels. A partial earthen-built dam wall

extending for thirty-seven metres is also present at Site B (Figure 15). The dam wall is on a

rise, with an elevation of 458 metres at its highest point. The water-race appears to start at the

dam wall and extends approximately fifty metres towards sites A and C. Located on the

boundary of Site B is a large shelf of flat ground which falls sharply on top of a gully wall on

the western side of Site C (Figure 16).

Site B - Ground Sluicing Pits and Water-Race

Area: 30m x 10m

Scale: 1:250

General Slope: North, North East

Depth Below Ground Surface

Water-race = 200mm Pit 1 = 700mm Pit 2 = 400mm Pit 3 = 800mm Pit 4 = 700mm Pit 5 = 600mm Pit 6= 300mm Pit 7 = 750mm Pit 8 = 700mm

Figure 14: Site B Plan

-


Figure 15: Portion of dam wall at Site B.

The red line denotes the length of the dam

wall at its highest point.

Figure 16: Shelf located above the western working face of Site C

Shelf


Another prominent feature in the landscape is a 150 metre long mound extending west to east

across the site (Figure 17). The feature consists of an earthen-built elongated mound

approximately eighty centimetres high. An important characteristic of the mound is that it is

located on a fall of land and arranged in such a way to facilitate water drainage for the entire

site. The long mound appears to utilise the natural slope of the site and may have directed

water flow into Little Spring Creek.

Figure 17: Earthen Mound. The

red line denotes the length of the

mound at its highest point.

Discussion

The field survey conducted at the Little Spring Creek goldfield revealed that extensive mining

activity had been carried out during three particular phases. Impact on the landscape caused

by shallow surface sinking as well as from ground and hydraulic sluicing was immense. It

appears that vast depths of overburden had to be removed to access the narrow auriferous

deposits close to the bedrock, leaving numerous surface depressions, as well as deeply eroded

chasms and high sluicing faces. The features located at Site A, are possibly the result of


shallow sinkings where a number of shafts are sunk in close proximity to each other. The

excavated material was then washed in a cradle or sluice box to extract the alluvium. The

photograph in Figure 18 demonstrates this technique being employed at Box Ridge, near

Sofala NSW. This technique was the most basic of alluvial mining methods and was used

extensively in the area during the early stages of gold prospecting (Bayley 1977, p.29).

Figure 18: Cradling for gold at Box Ridge, near Sofala, NSW circa 1860s. Source:

NSW Department of Primary Industries.

The large round pits and head water-race located at Site B suggests that parts of the area were

worked using ground sluicing. This mining technique involved digging narrow channels into

the ground or bedrock to direct water flow from the head-race through a known gold-bearing

site. The ground sluice was often lined with wooden blocks, or stones, to prevent erosion of

the floor and to allow the capture of gold bearing deposits, however this infrastructure is not

visible at Site B. The shelf located below the top of the western sluicing face on Site C

suggests that water flow was directed from Site B for the purposes of saturating and then


loosening gold-bearing deposits. Site B is situated on a rise of land suggesting that a

sufficient flow of water was channelled into ground sluices which escaped via water-borne

tailings toward the lower end of the site to the east. It was a technique used extensively on the

Lambing Flat goldfields throughout the 1860s and 1870s (Christison 2008).

The boundary between Site B and Site C may provide the clearest indications of a deliberate

change in mining methodology and technology used at the Little Spring Creek site. The extant

remains that intersect these sites indicate a change from ground to hydraulic sluicing. The

shelf located on top of the western working face of Site C indicates that water was once

brought over the top of the working face and run down the surface to saturate and loosen

deposits that existed along the western bank of Little Spring Creek (see Figure 16). The shelf

is a very distinct feature of the landscape and does not appear to be caused by natural erosion.

During the process of hydraulic sluicing water was not run down over the working face.

Instead it was hosed, under pressure, onto the alluvial deposit. The method of working

alluvial deposits by ground sluicing depended upon the depth of the auriferous drift and the

topography of the area (Pearson and McGowan 2000 p.96).

Ground sluicing had earlier proved an effective method used at other alluvial goldfields in the

south-east of New South Wales during the 1850s (McGowan 2001 p. 8). The ground sluicing

technique may have been transferred to the Little Spring Creek goldfield after its successful

utilisation on goldfields such as Braidwood, Adelong and Kiandra. Ground sluicing was a

mining process where efficient operation could yield a reasonable gold return from relatively

poor ground. This system certainly would have been an easy adaption to the Little Spring

Creek site, having been described during the initial gold rush of the 1860s as ‘poor man’s

diggings’ (Sydney Morning Herald November 10 1860, p. 5). The alluvium in this area, for

instance, did not require the use of intensive shaft tunnelling or ore-crushing equipment to

extract gold, unlike the quartz reef mines in neighbouring townships such as Grenfell.

Two essentials for a successful ground sluicing operation were an abundant supply of water

and a clear outfall for the tailings (Pearson and McGowan 2000 p.96). The major requirement

was water and difficulties were sometimes encountered in securing a permanent supply near

claims in the Lambing Flat area. Drought had affected the area between 1876 and 1877 and

again between 1880 and 1881 (Bayley 1977 p.186). The mining warden for the Young


district, Mr. Robinson, comments upon the situation in the 1880 Department of Mines (NSW)

Annual Report:

...The season ... has been so dry that few opportunities have been afforded for sluicing, which is the

only mode pursued hereabouts for winning gold.

Again, in the 1881 Department of Mines (NSW) Annual Report, the mining registrar, H.A.

Smith, notes:

...There has been little sluicing done, as water has been too scarce. Until we have a return of wet

seasons, gold-mining in this district will be at a standstill.

Until the early 1880s, rainfall and water supply at the Little Spring Creek goldfield must have

been adequate enough to utilise the ground sluicing technique. As indicated at Site B, a large

dam had been created on a rise of land to the west, and a head-race cut with a sufficient

gradient to supply an uninterrupted flow for sluicing the main working face located at Site C.

The flow of water over the face of the workings loosened the wash-dirt (creating the shelf in

Figure 16) and assisted the miners working below with picks to undermine sections of the

alluvial deposit. As the mass of wash-dirt disintegrated, it then needed to be passed in a

stream of water via a sluice channel. Objects, such as stones, riffle boards or wooden blocks

placed in the sluice further assisted the breaking up of the wash-dirt, causing the deposition of

the heavier gold particles to be obstructed along the channel (Pearson and McGowan 2000

p.157). The extant tailing mound in the north-east of the site also suggests that ground

sluicing was utilised at the site. Non-gold bearing detritus needed to be carried away from the

main diggings after the gold was extracted and was usually redirected back into creeks or

streams via tailing mounds (Pearson and McGowan 2000 p.113).

The ground sluicing process was superseded by the introduction of hydraulic sluicing during

the late 1800s. The process of hydraulic sluicing utilised powerful jets of water to saturate and

erode the overburden and auriferous drift. However, its implementation on the goldfields of

Young must have been hampered intermittently by the lack of reliable rainfall (Bayley 1977

p.186). The benefit of hydraulic sluicing was that it required considerably less physical

intervention on the part of the miners than ground sluicing. The hydraulic sluicing process

allowed for large areas of auriferous deposit to be removed quickly and efficiently. Water was

brought to the hydraulic sluicing leases, usually from a dam or large reservoir, by means of

water-races which was then directed into a flume. The flume was a metal or wooden trough

that conveyed water from a higher to a lower level enabling water pressure to be accumulated


and then released via a hose and monitor system (Pearson and McGowan 2000 p.160). Figure

19 is a diagram of a typical hydraulic sluicing process that was used on the Kiandra goldfield

circa 1880s.

Figure 19: Diagram of hydraulic sluicing system. Source Lambing Flat Folk Museum.

As indicated earlier, the earthen-built dam towards the west of the site may have contained

sufficient water to supply the entire site for both the purposes of ground sluicing, then in later

years for hydraulic operations. The race which flowed from this dam may have been used to

direct water into a flume erected somewhere above the workings at Site C, then conveyed to

the working floor via a pressure box. The ‘wash’ of auriferous clay and gravel created by the

force of water directed onto the working face then needed to be run through sluice boxes for

gold extraction, with the uneconomic tailings discharged into collection ponds (Pearson and

McGowan 2000 p.160). The low level reservoir located near Site C may have served the

purposes of tailing collection and to drain the back-wash created by the action of hydraulic

sluicing.

It is clear that the extant landscape features formed at Site C are a result of the hydraulic

sluicing process. The intensive removal of auriferous alluvium by the process of hydraulic

sluicing often created vast open chasms such as those located at site C. The deep scarring on

the gully cliffs was also typically formed as a result of spraying water under high pressure

through a hose which eroded vast quantities of auriferous clay and gravel away from the

working face (Pearson and McGowan 2000 p.99). In addition to the extant vertical working

face at Site C, the working floor is scattered with drift islands and large areas of exposed

bedrock (Figure 20). These particular features were formed at points where the natural ground


resisted the erosion created by the high pressure water jets (Pearson and McGowan 2000

p.160).

Figure 20: Drift islands and exposed bedrock caused by hydraulic sluicing at Site C.

Linking the Archival and Archaeological Evidence

Unfortunately there is little archival evidence of techniques such as hydraulic sluicing being

conducted in the Young region. However, newspaper articles indicate that the technique was

being utilised in the area from at least 1887. An article from the Australian Town and Country

Journal dated 1 October 1887 reports:

...YOUNG - The Burrangong Steam Sluicing Co. (Gough and Co.) has got all its machinery, pumping

gear etc. into position. It got up steam on September 16, when everything worked well. The stream of

water thrown on the sluicing ground was very satisfactory.

A brief entry in the 1900 Department of Mines (NSW) Annual Report also indicates that the

system was being employed. The entry states that:

... operations have recently been commenced by the Burrangong Gold-dredging and Sluicing

Company (Limited) to treat the ground to a depth of 30 to 72 feet by means of hydraulic sluicing.

The exact location where these companies were operating in the Young district is not

recorded, although the association with the name ‘Burrangong’ suggests that Burrangong

Creek and its tributaries (including Little Spring Creek) were a focus of their operations.

Mining companies required the investment of large scale machinery and pumping equipment

in order to conduct hydraulic sluicing operations (Pearson and McGowan 2000 p.160).

Curiously, there is no evidence where the stationary flume, pressure box, or piping for the


hydraulic sluicing system once stood at the Little Spring Creek site. It is possible to surmise

that the equipment was detached from the site and later reused at other goldfields, but there

are no documentary accounts suggesting that this occurred.

It is often incorrectly assumed that goldmining sites are the product of a single event or

movement (Ritchie 1991). Cultural transformations in the landscape at Little Spring Creek

represent three distinct phases of applied mining technologies. It is only when each individual

landscape component is assessed in its context that the most effective and accurate

interpretation can be achieved. Research into alluvial gold workings in New South Wales has

been significantly overlooked with attention credited only to those sites that still possess

remaining mining machinery and related infrastructure (McGowan 2001, p.1). There may be

several reasons for this to have occurred. The physical substantiality of large scale mining

equipment such as ore-crushing batteries, boilers and engines together with recognition of

their association with the historical mining process are probably the most apparent reasons.

These types of physical remains still command attention from those interested in the heritage

and conservation of nineteenth century goldfields.

The introduction of new technology at the Little Spring Creek site was identified in the field

survey as occurring at both sites B and C. The implementation of ground and hydraulic

sluicing methodology was an important advancement in gold extracting technology and

represents a deliberate effort to improve mining production through innovation. Both ground

and hydraulic sluicing methods allowed claims to be worked more effectively than basic

ground sinking techniques. The extant remains accumulating from these two types of mining

activities debunk the mythology that simple pan and cradle equipment were the only methods

being utilised in the area. Another striking feature of alluvial mining at this site was

persistence over relatively long periods of time. From the 1860s until the early 1900s there

was always some mining activity, even during periods of severe drought.

Official records of mining activity from the nineteenth century reflect a certain favouritism

toward the more well established or high gold-yielding areas of the time. The discovery of the

286 kilogram Holtermann Nugget at Hill End in 1872, for instance, received continued

attention and press coverage long after the famous, but perhaps once-off, event occurred

(Mayne 2003, p.33). Mining officials were required to carry out regular goldfield inspections

within their jurisdiction, in order to issue Miners Rights and to record gold yields. However,


efforts to fulfil these duties were often inefficiently pursued by mining inspectors (McGowan

1992, p.44). Droughts, inaccessible bushland, or fear of lawlessness and disorder contributed

to some mining localities being omitted altogether from official records or only partially

documented (Pearson and McGowan 2000 pp.154–155). The series of violent anti-Chinese

upheavals between 1860 to 1861 at Lambing Flat and the subsequent military and legal

intervention that followed certainly refocused attention away from the region’s status as a

profitable gold-winning area. The Little Spring Creek goldfield is not mentioned by name in

official nineteenth century mining documentation. The area is listed simply as part of a large

gold-producing network in the Young district. The site indeed lacks physical mining

infrastructure or even the colourful history that other goldfields such as those at Ballarat or

Bendigo retain. However the extant features at the Little Spring Creek site holds significant

archaeological value covering an extensive area of land which remains highly intact.

Heritage and Conservation Considerations

The overall historical and economic impact of mining in Australia was substantial and

complex. Mining dramatically altered the landscape as bushland was cleared, hills and valleys

defaced and natural watercourses diverted. This has left a permanent impact on the

environment and is evident at sites such as the Little Spring Creek goldfield. Active mining

landscapes may be considered today as a cause of widespread environmental damage. This

may have a negative influence on how society interprets the importance of historical mining

sites. This unenthusiastic perception, in turn, may lead to historical mining sites being

overlooked or erroneously described. The research potential for places such as Little Spring

Creek may also suffer as a consequence.

To the casual observer, the unique landscape features located at the Little Spring Creek

goldfield may appear to be caused by natural processes such as erosion or flooding. The

vacant allotment of land in which the site rests is seemingly an empty paddock that was once

used for agricultural activity. However the evidence of substantial occupation for this area for

mining purposes is extraordinary and the goldfield is a poignant reminder of the different

technologies and innovations used during the nineteenth century. The number of shallow

sinkings alone suggests that the Little Spring Creek diggings could have supported a

population of at least one hundred miners, if not more, from the 1860s through to the end of

the century.


However there are certain threats to the conservation of the site. Some of the most severe

deterioration observed at the site could not be attributable to mining, but to the activity of

agisted livestock (both cattle and horses) on the property. Grazing trails are scattered

throughout the site, and have caused disturbances to much of the surface particularly in Site

A. Commercial development in the area may be another concern for the future preservation of

the site. Several agricultural machinery sale yards are already in the vicinity, especially

surrounding the north-west sector of the site, which according to a report from a local

historian, occupy the site of the former diggings (B James 2013, pers. comm., August 5).

Listing the site on the NSW State Heritage Register may be the only means by which to

protect the goldfield’s rich historical and archaeological significance as well as its potential

for future research. The author contends that the Little Spring Creek site would make a

valuable model of comparative study especially if a researcher were seeking to assess the

environmental impact that ground and hydraulic sluicing activity had on Australian or

international goldfields.

Conclusion

This paper started with the research question: What will an observation of the extant features

in the landscape located at the former Little Spring Creek goldfield add to the existing

documentary accounts of nineteenth century alluvial mining processes? The methods of

mining used at the Little Spring Creek goldfield included simple alluvial gold extraction

methods, such as shallow sinking and cradling, as well as two different types of complex

alluvial workings, the methods of ground and hydraulic sluicing. The field survey conducted

on this site has identified several intact landscape features that were produced as a result of

different mining processes. Historical information, in the form of New South Wales

Department of Mines publications as well as nineteenth century newspaper reports

specifically documenting the Little Spring Creek site is severely limited. The existing

documentary evidence is more useful in understanding the general layout of the former

Lambing Flat or Young goldmining region and for obtaining data on annual production levels,

rather than an explanation as to what mining methods were being utilised.

The archival records that were examined for this paper rarely included information on the

physical impact and extent of mining methodology. However there is importance and value

for historians and archaeologists in studying the material evidence that remains at such sites.


The empirical evidence gathered whilst conducting the field survey shows that landscape

transformations at the Little Spring Creek goldfield are not the product of a single event, but

instead display three distinct phases of alluvial mining activity. The goldfield landscape at

Little Spring Creek represents how society adapted to and changed nature, for better or worse.

Archaeologists cannot afford to be selective about the past. It is important when researching

and assessing mining places, to always consider the broader context in which the mining

occurred. Even those landscapes devoid of physical mining infrastructure or machinery still

have a story to tell.


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