Reserach Methods: BMA401 Class Report

UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA

Class ReportBMA401 Research Methods

Kevin Michael SwartsMay 2014

[Type the abstract of the document here. The abstract is typically

a short summary of the contents of the document. Type the abstract

of the document here. The abstract is typically a short summary of

the contents of the document.]

BMA401 Class Report Kevin Swarts March 2014

Table of ContentsIntroduction.......................................................2

Why do Research?...................................................2Knowledge production.............................................2

Scientific method................................................3Major types of research............................................3

Theory and research................................................4Theory vs. Ideology..............................................4

Philosophy and Method..............................................5Ontology.........................................................6

Epistemology.....................................................6The Three Approaches.............................................6

Literature Review..................................................7Research Design....................................................7

Field Research.....................................................8Conclusion.........................................................9

Reference List....................................................10

1 | P a g e


Introduction This assignment reports on some of the issues covered in six

research seminars discussing research methods. This report does not

cover all the topics discussed, but rather uses the topics to expand

the author’s knowledge in topics of interest. The question of why we

do research is answered by pointing to the value of knowledge, the

complexity of knowledge production, and the benefit of scientific

method. The major types of research are covered, including basic

research and applied research, and a quick overview of exploratory

research. The distinction between theory and ideology is examined by

critically analysing the example of intelligent design as an

ideology. Philosophy and method of research is then explored by

discussing ontology, epistemology, and the three main approaches to

research methods. This report then looks at the literature review as

a systematic process, research design by using triangulation, and

field research using ethnography and ethnomethodology.

Why do Research?Knowledge is important. Yet, knowing why knowledge is important is

difficult to explain. Plato (380 BC) raises the question of the

value of knowledge in the Meno. In this classic dialogue, Socrates

discusses with Meno why knowledge is more valuable than mere true

belief, which has come to be known as the Meno paradox (Pritchard &

Turri 2014). The Meno paradox states that ‘if you know what you are

looking for, inquiry is unnecessary; if you do not know what you are

looking for, inquiry is impossible; therefore, inquiry is either

unnecessary or impossible’ (Cohen 2006 p. 1). In unravelling this

paradox, we learn from philosophers and academics that knowledge is

virtuous (Kvanvig 2003), noble (Bartlett 2002), desirable (BonJour

2 | P a g e


2010), and generates new ideas (Paavola & Hakkarainen 2005). These

attributes make knowledge important and highlight the value of

knowledge production.

Knowledge productionKnowledge is produced from both scientific and non-scientific

methods. Non-scientific approaches are based on our ‘gut feeling’

and can be useful because they are quick and easy (Hale 2008; Yang

2001). The non-scientific ways of gaining knowledge include: our

personal experience and common sense, experts and authority, popular

and media messages, or ideological beliefs and values (Neuman 2011).

Yet these methods of gaining knowledge are not very accurate or

reliable, we get what we may think to be true, but it is difficult

to verify that the knowledge is actually true (Oakley-Browne & Tracy

2012). In order to increase the certainty of factual reliability,

researchers use a scientific approach in gaining knowledge.

Scientific methodA scientific approach to research uses scientific method. Despite

its common use, scientific method is a contested idea that is open

to debate and it is therefore difficult to provide a single

definition that will encapsulate the consensus of though on this

issue (Bisgaard 2000; Rudolph 2005). However, Bisgarrd (2000, p.

297): lists six steps that are generally accepted as some form or

part of scientific method:

(1) Recognition and formulation of the problem;

(2) Collection of data from observational studies;

(3) Planned experimentation;

(4) Generation of a working hypothesis or model;

(5) Making deductions (predictions) from the hypothesis or model,

and;

3 | P a g e


(6) Comparing and testing deductions from models with data and

drawing inferences.

Neuman (2011 p. 14) prefers to direct research methodology away from

scientific method, and instead grasp the orientation or attitude of

science, yet he still provides a series of steps for both

quantitative and qualitative data in a scientific approach to social

research. These steps vary to the generally accepted steps proposed

by Bisgarrd (2000); nevertheless, the results of scientific research

are taken to be reliable because they follow a distinctive method of

producing knowledge (Gower 2012). The process may not be the same

for each scientific study, but the important factor is that they all

follow some form of knowledge production that is organised and

grounded in empirical data (Neuman 2011). The reliability from using

scientific method enhances the value of research knowledge.

Major types of researchThe major types of research are Basic Research and Applied Research.

Basic research, sometimes called pure research, seeks to advance the

fundamental knowledge of the world. Basic research is often

published in peer-reviewed academic journals and the primary

audience is the scientific community (Neuman 2011). Some critics

consider basic research to be pointless because of a lack of

practical applications (Pillemer, Suitor & Wethington 2003).

However, most people and organisations recognise the value of basic

research, and developed governments understand the value of basic

research as a long-term investment (Studt 2006).

Applied research is different to basic research in that it is used

for addressing practical problems and coming up with workable

solutions (Richardson 2004). Applied research can be used by various

4 | P a g e


practitioner organisations to inform them when making important

decisions. By basing decisions on applied research, businesses can

gain a competitive advantage because the knowledge gained through

applied research is more reliable than non-scientific methods of

gaining knowledge (Brownell 2003). Applied research can also be used

to bridge the gap between pure academic research and professional

practice (Richardson 2004).

There are three main purposes for research; exploratory,

descriptive, and explanatory. Of these three purposes, exploratory

research is most useful when approaching new research topics that we

know little about (Neuman 2011). Using this type of research, new

information can be gained to formulate a problem, develop more

precise research questions, and suggest a testable hypothesis to

address in future research (Crawford 1997). Due to the limited prior

knowledge and conceptual development, exploratory research often

uses qualitative methods which can be ambiguous and uncertain

(Mansourian 2008). Exploratory research is most suitable for new and

emerging academic fields, such as Social Customer Relationship

Management (SCRM) (Askool & Nakata 2011; Dutot 2013).

Theory and researchA theory is a generalisation about a phenomenon that explains why or

how something occurs (Frey et al. 1991). Good theory helps us to

understand the complexities of life (Kaplan 1964). Sometimes theory

can be confused with references, data, variables, diagrams, and

hypotheses; which are not theories because they fail to explain why

or how something occurs (Sutton & Staw 1995). Research is important

for theory because it is the vehicle for theory development (Fawcett

1999). Not all research creates new theory; however research can

5 | P a g e


produce knowledge, such as lists of variable and constructs, which

can be used for theory development (Sutton & Staw 1995).

Theory vs. IdeologyMany people confuse scientific theory with ideology. Neuman (2011)

makes it clear that both theory and ideology are different by

listing seven distinctive features that separate ideology from

theory. Yet the distinction between theory and ideology is not so

clear in the use of examples. Neuman (2011 p. 58) uses the example

of intelligent design as an ideology that does not qualify as a

theory, and also uses the debate between intelligent design and

evolution as an illustration of the misunderstanding of scientific

theory by many lay people.

The idea that intelligent design is not a creditable science is a

view that is shared by other scientists. In a sensational book

titled, The God delusion, Dawkins (2006) claims that belief in God is a

delusion, and therefore any scientific explanation of intelligent

design is impossible. The US National Academy of Sciences (2014)

also supports the idea that intelligent design is not supported by

scientific evidence. In 2005, after taking witness from the

scientific community, the US Supreme Court ruled that intelligent

design could not be taught in a Pennsylvanian school’s biology class

because it was not considered science. These examples show that

there are credible scientists that support Neuman’s (2011) example

of intelligent design being an ideology.

However, support for Neuman’s (2011) example is not shared by all

scientists. A number of reputable scientists have published work

supporting the theory of intelligent design. Owen Gingerich (2006),

a research professor from Harvard University, published a book in

the same year as Dawkins in which he presents the argument of

6 | P a g e


intelligent design. Francis Collins (2006) is physician-geneticist

and former atheist who also published a book supporting the

scientific argument for intelligent design. Paul Davies (2006) is

physicist and cosmologist who also wrote a book called The Goldilocks

Enigma where he also argues for the idea of intelligent design.

These authors are all distinguished scientists, and it would be

difficult to reasonably expect that they are lay people that have a

misunderstanding of scientific theory.

Some academics also apply scientific method to study of intelligent

design. The IDEA Center (2008) maps out the theory of intelligent

design using the process of scientific method that is similar to the

generally accepted method presented by Bisgarrd (2000). Luskin

(2011) also demonstrates how intelligent design meets the

requirements of a scientific theory set by the U.S. National Academy

of Sciences through the use of scientific method. Anika Smith (2007)

from Evolution News produces a list of eminent scientists who support

and contribute to the theory of intelligent design. Furthermore,

the Discovery Institute (2012) also produce a list of peer-reviewed

and scientific publications supporting the theory of intelligent

design. Intelligent design may well be an ideology; however the

demonstrated use of scientific method and the peer-reviewed

publications show that Neuman’s (2011) example of intelligent design

highlights the ambiguity and confusion between ideology and theory

rather than clarifying the distinction.

Philosophy and MethodAll scientific research rests on the assumptions and principles of

ontology and epistemology (Neuman 2011). Understanding the basics of

these philosophical positions helps researchers become aware of

their assumptions about reality and truth, and how their assumptions

7 | P a g e


impact on the research methodology. As these philosophical

foundations will impact on future research, they warrant a brief

analysis in this report.

OntologyOntology is the study of being; what is or what exists, and what it

is to exist (Lawson 2004). It aims to answer what constitutes

reality and how can we understand existence. Two basic positions are

formed through ontology; realism and nominalism. Realists believe

that a real world exists independent of human interpretation and

scientific theories are approximations of universal truth (Cacioppo,

Semin & Berntson 2004; Yaffe 2009). Nominalists assume that there is

no such thing as universal entities and that our experience of

reality is dependent on subjective cultural viewpoint (Rodriguez-

Pereyra 2008). Realism and nominalism are positioned on a continuum

with varying viewpoints in between. The critical-realist recognises

that subjective-culture may impact our experiences with reality, yet

still maintains that social science can discover the real properties

and causal powers of social structures and systems (Neuman 2011;

Little 2013).

EpistemologyEpistemology is they study of knowledge and justified belief; what

are the conditions and sources of knowledge, and what makes our

beliefs in knowledge justified (Steup 2005). Epistemology is

important for research because research is the production of

knowledge, but how can we be sure that the knowledge we produce is

true and reliable? In answering this question, the ontological

position of the researcher will impact on their epistemological

position (Crotty 1998). A realist will with gather empirical

evidence to explain causal relationships between real objects and

produce objective knowledge (Neuman 2011; Yaffe 2009). A nominalist

8 | P a g e


holds the view that gathering empirical evidence will not lead to

knowledge about reality because interpretations and the subjective

views will greatly influence the observations and it is impossible

to separate an objective reality from our perceptions (Neuman 2011).

A researcher’s ontological position will impact their

epistemological response to ensuring the reliability of their

research.

The Three ApproachesThere are three major approaches to the social sciences; positivist

social science, interpretative social science, and critical social

science. Positivist social science uses the approach from the

natural sciences that uses empirical observation to build general

laws and explain the casual relationships between social phenomena

(Macionis & Plummer 2005). Interpretative social science is an

approach that studies social activity with an empathetic

understanding to describe meaningful social action. Critical social

science studies social activity and also seeks to change it in a

form of value-based activism to ‘to liberate human beings from the

circumstances that enslave them’ (Horkheimer 1982, p. 244 cited by

Bohman 2005). These three approaches are based on the philosophical

assumptions on the nature of reality and the purpose of social

science (Neuman 2011). There is no single correct approach, but the

ideas about the approaches will influence a researcher’s

methodology.

Literature ReviewThe purpose of a literature review is to focus a research topic into

a specific research question. A literature review summarises,

interprets, and critically evaluates existing published academic

literature in order to establish current knowledge on a particular

9 | P a g e


research topic (McKinney 2008). The functions of a literature review

justify the choice of research question, the theoretical framework

and research method; establish the importance of the topic; provide

background information for understanding the study; show the

significance and relevance of the topic; and establish the study as

one link in developing knowledge in the field (Monash University

2006). Literature reviews also vary in scope and depth, and the

appropriate level of depth with depend on the how much time and

effort can be devoted to the study (Neuman 2011).

Literature reviews can lose focus and consume a significant amount

of the researcher’s time reading irrelevant but interesting papers.

To overcome this, Neuman (2011 p. 133) presents a systematic process

on how to conduct a literature review. First, define and redefine a

topic in the form of a research question. Second, design a search

that is systematic and organised, and set parameters on the search.

Third, locate research reports by using scholarly journals,

scholarly books, dissertations, government documents, and policy

reports. Fourth, after locating published literature, the literature

can be evaluated and the results summarised. This process is similar

to Awasthi and Sangle’s (2012) literature review of the topic

‘Customer Relationship Management’ (1), in which they divided the

review into two phases; first to determine the review scope (2) and

relevant search (3), and second phase is the classification of the

papers (4). A systematic approach, such as proposed by Neuman (2011)

and used by Awasthi and Sangle (2012), can assist researchers in

maintaining focus in their research.

Research DesignAn important part of research methodology is to design the method to

maximise research reliability and validity. Triangulation is a way

10 | P a g e


of improving the accuracy of the research by of looking at phenomena

from multiple points. It can be used to increase the

comprehensiveness and completeness of the research, and improve the

reliability and validity of research findings (Weyers, Strydom &

Huisamen 2011). Neuman (2011) presents four types of triangulation:

measurement, observation, theory, and method. First, triangulation

of measure is using independent measures of the same phenomena to

reduce the uncertainty of its interpretation (Bryman 2011). Second,

triangulation of observation involves several different

investigators observing the same phenomena, often using the same

methodology, throughout the research process (Guion, Diehl &

McDonald 2013). Third, triangulation of theory uses more than one

theoretical position in interpreting the data to help researchers

see the problem form multiple lenses (Hussein 2009). Fourth,

triangulation of method involves the use of multiple qualitative or

quantitative methods to collect empirical data (Guion, Diehl &

McDonald 2013). Triangulation can increase the credibility of

gaining scientific knowledge by improving both internal consistency

and generalisability through combining both quantitative and

qualitative methods in the same study (Hussein 2009).

Field ResearchField research is a method of research where the investigation

happens in the natural environment where the phenomena occurs,

rather than in controlled laboratory settings (Oxford University

Press 2014). Field research started with anthropologist Bronisla

Malinoski, who presented fieldwork as a new research method in which

the researchers directly interacted and lived among native people to

learn their customs, beliefs, and social processes (Neuman 2011).

Later, the Chicago School of Sociology adopted the methodology for

field research, which included direct observation and informal 11 | P a g e


interviews (Department of Sociology 2014). Two extensions of field

research have evolved; ethnography and ethnomethodology. Both

ethnography and ethnomethodology build on the social constructionist

perspective assumption that people build a subjective sense of

reality (Neuman 2011 p. 423).

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that focuses on close

observations of social practices and interactions (Herbert 2000).

Ethnography uses personal experience and participation of

researchers that gather data through interviews, observation, and

documentation (Crabtree 2000; Genzuk 2003). The aim of ethnography

is to provide a thick description of social settings using

qualitative data to infer deeper cultural meaning (Neuman 2011).

Ethnography is a useful research method when conducting exploratory

research because it allows the researcher to collect rich data,

isolate recurring themes, and remain true to the intent of the

original words (Agar 1996; Hernandez & Morales 1999).

Ethnomethodology is the investigation of how people use methods to

make sense and order of the social world (Garfinkel 1967).

Ethnomethodology is different to ethnography in that it is not

concerned with what people are doing, but how they make sense of it

(David & Sutton 2010; Garfinkel 1984). Rather than analyse society

to find an objective truth, ethnomethodology is concerned with the

procedures in which individuals use to form their view of social

order. Dispite being a movement that has been marked by

inconsistency and is far from being coherent or homogenous;

ethnomethodology has made a significant contribution to sociology

and empirical investigation of everyday life (Atkinson 1988; Psathas

1995).

12 | P a g e


ConclusionIn conclusion, this report has demonstrated that knowledge

production is valuable, and scientists use scientific method to

increase certainty and factual reliability of knowledge. Basic

research is valuable in advancing human knowledge and is a valuable

long-term investment, while applied research is useful for

organisations to gain a competitive advantage and to bridge the gap

between basic research and professional practice. Exploratory

research is suitable for new and emerging academic fields, such as

social customer relationship management. The distinction between

ideology and scientific theory is clear in principle; however some

examples, such as intelligent design, highlight the ambiguity and

confusion when investigated further. A researcher’s ontological

position on reality and epistemological position on knowledge will

impact their response to ensuring the reliability of their research.

There are three major approaches to social science (positivist,

interpretative, and critical social science) influence a

researcher’s methodology. A literature review is best done using a

systematic process to maintain focus in the research. Triangulation

is a part of research design that improves reliability and validity.

Ethnography is a method of field research that is useful when doing

exploratory research. Ethnomethodology is different to ethnography

and it seeks to understand how people make sense of the world.

13 | P a g e


Reference ListAgar, M 1996, The professional stranger (2nd ed.), Academic Press, Toronto,

Canada.

Asher, A & Miller S 2014, 'A Practical Guide to Ethnographic

Research in Academic Libraries ' viewed 9 April 2014,

<http://www.erialproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Toolkit-

3.22.11.pdf>.

Askool, S & Nakata, K 2011, ‘A conceptual model for acceptance of

social CRM systems based on a scoping study’, AI & Society, vol. 26,

no. 3, pp. 205-220.

Atkinson, P 1988, 'Ethnomethodology: A Critical Review', Annual

Reviews, vol. 14 pp. 441-65.

Awasthi, P & Sangle, PS 2012, ‘Adoption of CRM technology in

multichannel environment: a review (2006-2010)’, Business Process

Management Journal, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 445-471.

Bartlett, RC 2002, ‘Socratic Political Philosophy and the Problem of

Virtue’, The American Political Science Review, vol. 96, no. 3, pp. 525-533.

Bisgaard, S 2000, 'The role of scientific method in quality

manangement', Total Quality Management, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 295-306.

Bohman, J 2005, Critical Theory, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,

Stanford University, viewed 7 April 2014,

<http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/>

BonJour, L 2010, ‘The Myth of Knowledge’, Philosophical Perspectives, vol.

24, pp. 57–83.

14 | P a g e


Brownell, J 2003, 'Applied research in managerial communication: The

critical link between knowledge and practice', Cornell Hotel and

Restaurant Administration Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 39-49.

Bryman, A 2011, 'Triangulation', Encyclopedia of Social Science Reserach

Methods, Sage Publications, viewed 9 April 2014,

<http://www.sagepub.com/chambliss4e/study/chapter/encyc_pdfs/4.2_Tri

angulation.pdf>.

Cacioppo, JT, Semin, GR & Berntson, GG 2004, ‘Realism,

Instrumentalism, and Scientific Symbiosis: Psychological Theory as a

Search for Truth and the Discovery of Solutions’, viewed 8 April

2014,

<http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/

csb04.pdf>.

Cohen, M 2006, Meno’s Paradox, viewed 2 May 2014,

<https://faculty.washington.edu/smcohen/320/menopar.htm>.

Collins, F 2006, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief, New

York.

Crabtree, A, Nichols, DM, O'Brien, J, Rouncefield, M & Twidale, MB

2000, ‘Ethnomethodologically informed ethnography and information

system design’, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol. 51,

no. 7, pp. 666-682.

Crawford, IM 1997, Marketing Research and Information Systems, Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Crotty, M 1998, The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the

Research Process, Sage, London

15 | P a g e


David, M & Sutton, C 2010, ‘Social Research: an introduction, Sage

Publications, viewed 5 May 2013,

<http://www.sagepub.com/david/Chapter_Ethnomethodology.pdf>.

Davies, P 2006, The Goldilocks Enigma, Penguin Group, London.

Department of Sociology 2014, ‘History & Culture’, University of

Chicago, viewed 5 May 2014,

<http://sociology.uchicago.edu/department/history.shtml>.

Discovery Institute 2012, Peer-reviewed & peer-edited scientific

publications supporting the theory of intelligent design, Center for

Science and Culture, viewed 8 April 2014,

<http://www.discovery.org/a/2640>.

Dutot, V 2013, ‘A New Strategy for Customer Engagement: How Do

French Firms Use Social CRM?’, International Business Research, vol. 6, no.

9, pp. 54-67.

Fawcett, J 1999, The relationship of theory and research, Davis, Philadelphia

Frey, LR, Botan, CH, Friedman, PG, Kreps, GL 1991, Investigating

Communication: An Introduction to Research Methods, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Garfinkel, H 1967, Studies in Ethnomethodology, Prentice-Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey.

Garfinkel, H 1984, Studies in Ethnomethodology, Cambridge: Polity

Genzuk, M 2003, 'A Synthesis of Ethnographic Research', University

of Southern California, viewed 9 April 2014, <http://www-

bcf.usc.edu/~genzuk/Ethnographic_Research.pdf.>.

Gingerich, O 2006, God's Universe, Harvard University Press, USA.

16 | P a g e

http://sociology.uchicago.edu/department/history.shtml


Gower, B 2012, ‘Scientific Method: A Historical and Philosophical

Introduction’, viewed 15 March 2014,

<http://UTAS.eblib.com.au/patron/FullRecord.aspx?p=169175>.

Guion, LA, Diehl, DC & McDonald, D2013, ‘Triangulation: Establishing

the Validity of Qualitative Studies', University of Florida, viewed

9 April 2014, <https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fy394>.

Hale, J 2008, ‘Scientific & Non-scientific Approaches to Knowledge’,

viewed 2 May 2014, <http://www.maxcondition.com/page.php?126>.

Hernandez, TJ & Morales, NE 1999, ‘Career, culture, and compromise:

Career development experiences of Latinas working in higher

education’, The Career Development Quarterly, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 45-

58Herbert, S 2000, ‘For ethnography’, Progress in Human Geography, vol.

24, no. 4, pp. 550-568.

Hussein, A 2009, 'The use of Triangulation in Social Sciences

Research: Can qualitative and quantitative methods be combined?',

Journal of Comparative Social Work, viewed 9 April 2014,

<http://jcsw.no/local/media/jcsw/docs/jcsw_issue_2009_1_8_article.pd

f>.

IDEA Center 2008, ‘Intelligent Design Theory in a nutshell’, viewed

8 April 2014,

<http://www.ideacenter.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/393410a2d36e9b9632

9c2faff7e2a4df/miscdocs/intelligentdesigntheoryinanutshell.pdf>.

Kaplan, A 1964, The Conduct of Inquiry, Harper & Row, New York.

Kvanvig, J 2003, The Value of Knowledge and the Pursuit of Understanding,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lawson T 2004, ‘A Conception of Ontology’, viewed 8 April 2014

<http://www.csog.group.cam.ac.uk/A_Conception_of_Ontology.pdf>.

17 | P a g e


Little, D 2013, ‘What is "critical" about critical realism?’,

Understanding Society, viewed 8 April 2014, <

http://understandingsociety.blogspot.com.au/2013/03/what-is-about-

critical-realism.html>.

Macionis, JJ & Plummer, K 2005, Sociology: A golobal introduction - Positivism,

Pearson, viewed 8 April 2014,

<http://wps.pearsoned.co.uk/ema_uk_he_plummer_sociology_3/33/8574/21

95137.cw/index.html>

Mansourian, Y 2008, 'Exploratory nature of, and uncertainty

tolerance in, qualitative research', New Library World, vol. 109, no.

5/6, pp. 273-286.

McGrath, A & McGrath JC 2007, The Dawkins Delusion? - Atheist Fundamentalism

and the Denial of the Divine, Ashford Colour Press, Great Britain.

McKinney, S 2008, ‘Academic writing: Writing a literature review’,

Charles Sturt University, viewed 8 April 2014, <

http://www.csu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/82796/LitReview.pd

f>.

Monash University 2006, ‘Writing literature reviews’, viewed 8 April

2014, <http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/lit-

reviews/index.xml>.

Neuman, WL 2011, Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches,

Pearson Education, Boston.

Oakley-Browne, H & Tracy, S 2012, ‘Busting the knowledge gap’,

Training & Development, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 12-13.

Oxford University Press 2014, ‘Qualatiative Field Research’, viewed

9 April 2014,

18 | P a g e


<http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/tropej/online/ce_ch14.pd

f>.

Paavola, S & Hakkarainen, K 2005, ‘Three Abductive Solutions to the

Meno Paradox - with Instinct, Inference, and Distributed Cognition’,

Studies in Philosophy and Education, vol. 24, no. 3-4, pp. 235-253.

PEW Research 2009, ‘Scientists and Belief’, viewed 8 April 2014,

<http://www.pewforum.org/2009/11/05/scientists-and-belief/>.

Pillemer, K, Suitor, JJ & Wethington, E 2003, ‘Integrating theory,

basic research, and intervention: Two case studies from caregiving

research’, The Gerontologist, vol. 43, pp. 19-28.

Plato 380 BC, Meno, Translated by Benjamin Jowett, viewed 2 May

2014, <http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/meno.html>.

Pritchard, D & Turri, J 2014, ‘The Value of Knowledge’, The Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), viewed 2 May 2014

<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/knowledge-

value/>.

Psathas, G 1995, 'Talk and Social Structure and Studies of Work',

Human Studies, vol. 18 pp. 139-155

Richardson, AJ 2004, ‘Applied Research in Accounting: A Commentary’,

Canadian Accounting Perspectives, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 149-168.

RMIT 2005, Literature Review, Study & Learning Centre, RMIT

Univesity, viewed 8 April 2014

<https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/2_assessmenttasks/assess

_tuts/lit_review_LL/purpose.html>.

Rodriguez-Pereyra, G 2008, ‘Nominalism in Metaphysics’, Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, viewed 8 April 2014,

<http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nominalism-metaphysics>

19 | P a g e


Rudolph, JL 2005, 'Epistemology for the Masses: The Origins of "The

Scientific Method" in American Schools', History of Education Quarterly,

vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 341-376.

Smith, A 2007, ‘Scientists who support intelligent design’, Evolution

News, viewed 8 April 2014,

<http://www.evolutionnews.org/2007/05/scientists_who_support_intelli

003594.html>.

Steup, M 2005, ‘Epistemology’, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford

University, viewed 8 April 2014

<http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/>.

Studt, T 2006, Basic Research Analysis Reveals Lessons Learned, Advantage

Business Media, Highlands Ranch.

Sutton, RI & Staw, BM 1995, ‘What theory is not’, Administrative Science

Quarterly, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 371.

US National Academy of Sciences 2014, ‘Intelligent Design’, viewed

10 April 2014,

<http://www.nas.edu/evolution/IntelligentDesign.html>.

Weyers, ML, Strydom, H & Huisamen, A 2011, 'Triangulation in social

work research: the theory and examples of its practical

application’, Social Work/Maatskaplike Werk, vol. 44 no. 2 pp. 207-222.

Yaffe G 2009, ‘Thomas Reid’, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, viewed 3

May 2014, <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reid>.

Yang, Y 2001, ‘Basic Concepts of Research in Economics’, California

State University, viewed 2 May 2014,

<http://www.csus.edu/indiv/y/yangy/145Ch1.htm>.

20 | P a g e

Reserach Methods: BMA401 Class Report

Documents

Transcript of Reserach Methods: BMA401 Class Report