METHODS STRATEGIES

Direct Instruction

The Direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is among the most commonly used. This strategy is effective for providing information or developing step-by-step skills. It also works well for introducing other teaching methods, oractively involving students in knowledge construction.

Possible Methods

Structured Overview Lecture Explicit Teaching Drill & Practice Compare & Contrast Didactic Questions Demonstrations Guided & Shared - reading, listening, viewing, thinking

What is Structured Overview?

Structured Overview is verbal, visual or written summary or outline of a topic. Itcan occur at the beginning of a unit, module or new concept, or it may be used tohelp relate a learned idea to the big picture. A Structured Overview distillsdifficult or complex idea into simple definitions or explanation, and then showshow all the information relates. It is the process of “organizing and arrangingtopics” to make them more meaningful.

What is its purpose?

The purpose of a Structured Overview is to help students place new ideas incontext. Because ideas are simplified, it is easier for students to see “the bigpicture”. In addition, connecting new ideas to information students alreadyunderstand makes it easier to retain.

How can I do it?

There are three main ways in which Structured overview can be used. One is verbalsummary at the start of a new concept. The teacher starts by highlighting the newideas to be learned in a few simple sentences. Then the relationship between theseideas and the ones the students already know is discussed. The structured overviewtakes the role of an advanced organizer. Another type of Structured Overview is awritten summary. The approach is the same as the verbal summary, but students havea written record of the ideas. Generally a combination of verbal and writtenStructured Overview is more effective than either type alone. The final method isa visual Structured Overview. Venn diagrams of concepts, semantic maps, semanticorganizers, webs, and charts are all methods visual Structured Overview. Whenaccompanied by explanation, visual overviews are often very effective at helpingstudent connect ideas.

How can I adapt it?

A Visual Structured Overview can be a very strong tool for students who arestruggling with the content of a subject. While it is used at the beginning or endof a group of lessons with most students, it can be used more frequently ifnecessary. Students who refer to a structured overview more frequently are betterable to articulate higher levels of learning than students who do not. Whenstudents struggle with a subject, the repeated use of a visual Structured Overviewcan have a strong positive effect on learning outcomes.

What is Lecture?

Lecture is a valuable part of a teacher's instructional repertoire if it is notused when other methods would be more effective. If the presenter isknowledgeable, perceptive, engaging, and motivating, then lecture can stimulatereflection, challenge the imagination, and develop curiosity and a sense ofinquiry. Criteria for the selection of the lecture method should include the typesof experiences students will be afforded and the kinds of learning outcomesexpected. Because lecture is teacher-centred and student activity is mainlypassive, the attention span of students may be limited. Many students, because oflearning style preferences, may not readily assimilate lecture content. Inaddition, lectured content is often rapidly forgotten.

What is Explicit Teaching?

Explicit teaching involves directing student attention toward specific learning ina highly structured environment. It is teaching that is focused on producingspecific learning outcomes.

Topics and contents are broken down into small parts and taught individually. Itinvolves explanation, demonstration and practise. Children are provided withguidance and structured frameworks. Topics are taught in a logical order anddirected by the teacher.

Another important characteristic of explicit teaching involves modeling skills andbehaviours and modeling thinking. This involves the teacher thinking out loud whenworking through problems and demonstrating processes for students. The attentionof students is important and listening and observation are key to success.


Explicit teaching is useful for introducing topics and specific skills. Itprovides guided instruction in the basic understanding of required skills, whichstudents canthen build on through practice, collaboration, repetition, hands onactivities and developmental play.

How do I do it?

Explicit instruction is a sequence of supports:

1. setting a purpose for learning2. telling students what to do3. showing them how to do it4. guiding their hands-on application of the new learning.

Explicit instruction begins with setting the stage for learning, followed by aclear explanation of what to do (telling), followed by modeling of the process(showing), followed by multiple opportunities for practice (guiding) untilindependence is attained. Explicit instruction moves systematically from extensiveteacher input and little student responsibility initially — to total studentresponsibility and minimal teacher involvement at the conclusion of the learningcycle.

What is Drill & Practice?

As an instructional strategy, drill & practice is familiar to all educators. It"promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice." Itrefers to small tasks such as the memorization of spelling or vocabulary words, or

the practicing of arithmetic facts and may also be found in more sophicatedlearning tasks or physical education games and sports. Drill-and-practice, likememorization, involves repetition of specific skills, such as addition andsubtraction, or spelling. To be meaningful to learners, the skills built throughdrill-and-practice should become the building blocks for more meaningful learning.


Drill and Practice activities help learners master materials at their own pace.Drills are usually repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool. Effective useof drill and practice depends on the recognition of the type of skill beingdeveloped, and the use of appropriate strategies to develop these competencies.There is a place for drill and practice mainly for the beginning learner or forstudents who are experiencing learning problems. Its use, however, should be keptto situations where the teacher is certain that it is the most appropriate form ofinstruction.

How can I do it?

Drill and practice software packages offer structured reinforcement of previouslylearned concepts. They are based on question and answer interactions and shouldgive the student appropriate feedback. Drill and practice packages may use gamesto increase motivation. Teachers who use computers to provide drill and practicein basic skills promote learning because drill and practice increases studentacquisition of basic skills. In a typical software package of this type, thestudent is able to select an appropriate level of difficulty at which questionsabout specific content materials are set. In most cases the student is motivatedto answer these questions quickly and accurately by the inclusion of a gamingscenario, as well as colourful and animated graphics. Good drill and practicesoftware provides feedback to students, explains how to get the correct answer,and contains a management system to keep track of student progress.

How can I adapt it?

There has been a definite move away from paper-based drill and practice systems tocomputer-based systems. Drill and practice exercises with appropriate software canenhance the daily classroom experience. Given the personalized, interactive natureof most software, the computer can lend itself to providing extended, programmedpractice. Used in small doses, electronic learning experiences can supplement anylesson effectively. Certain software allow students to reinforce specific skillsin a certain subject area. Although not as easily integrated across thecurriculum, drill and practice software can be useful. It usually comes in one oftwo formats. The first focuses on a specific subject area or a part of that area.The most common areas are reading and math. The second type attempts to improveskills in several areas of the curriculum. As with all other types of software,the teacher needs to determine if technology is the best way to work with thesubject matter being dealt with.

Games provide child centered activities to apply problem solving strategies aswell as an opportunity to practice basic skills.

Basic Skills Practice Cards can be designed to be used in many different formats.They can be used with a game board, in a lotto format or as flashcards.

What is Compare & Contrast?

Compare and Contrast is used to highlight similarities and differences between tothings. It is a process where the act of classification is practiced. It iseffectively used in conjunction with indirect instructional methods, but can also

be used directly to teach vocabulary signals, classification, nomenclature and keycharacteristics. It is often presented in either written text paragraphs or achart. Its most common use is as a graphic organizer of content.


Compare and Contrast is used to help students distinguish between types of ideasor group like ideas. It can be used to help students identify language cues,clarify thinking and define ideas.It can also be used to facilitate indirect instruction through concept formationor concept attainment.

How can I do it?

The most common form of comparison and contrast is a chart. The paper is divideddown the middle and the two columns have specific functions. The comparison sideis used to list similarities between two things, and the differences are listed inthe contrast column. The student typically completes the chart after a form ofdirect instruction such as reading, listening or viewing. Following the completionof the chart, some form of debriefing is used to help student make generalizationsbased on the items that fall into each category or column. This debriefing mightbe discussion, journaling, or any other form of reflective thinking.

How can I adapt it?

Comparison and contrast is a useful method for improving reading skills andlistening skills. When students are struggling with finding meaning in either thespoken or written word, a comparison and contrast for specific language tools is apowerful tool. Specific words signal comparative ideas in language. For example incomparison, at the same time, or similarly signal sameness and on the other hand,but, nevertheless yet, however, and in contrast show that things are inopposition. Students can be given a list of words and then use them as cues topull ideas out a passage. This is a decoding tool that can be adapted across gradeand subject.

What are Didactic Questions?

Didactic questioning offers the teacher a way to structure the learning process(McNeil & Wiles, 1990). Didactic questions tend to be convergent, factual, andoften begin with "what," "where," "when," and "how." They can be effectively usedto diagnose recall and comprehension skills, to draw on prior learningexperiences, to determine the extent to which lesson objectives were achieved, toprovide practice, and to aid retention of information or processes. Teachersshould remember that didactic questions can be simplistic, can encourage guessing,and can discourage insightful answers or creativity. However, effectiveness ofthis method can be increased by the appropriate addition of "why" questions, andthe occasional use of "what if" questions.


Didactic and socratic questions are effective techniques that seek to draw thestudent into the lecture as a participant.

Indirect Instruction

In contrast to the direct instruction strategy, indirect instruction is mainlystudent-centered, although the two strategies can complement each other.

Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing,investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It takesadvantage of students' interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generatealternatives or solve problems.

In indirect instruction, the role of the teacher shifts from lecturer/director tothat of facilitator, supporter, and resource person. The teacher arranges thelearning environment, provides opportunity for student involvement, and, whenappropriate, provides feedback to students while they conduct the inquiry (Martin,1983).

Possible Methods

Problem Solving Case Studies Reading for Meaning Inquiry Reflective Discussion Writing to Inform Concept Formation Concept Mapping Concept Attainment Cloze Procedure

What is Problem Solving?

There are two major types of problem solving – reflective and creative. Regardlessof the type of problem solving a class uses, problem solving focuses on knowingthe issues, considering all possible factor and finding a solution. Because allideas are accepted initially, problem solving allows for finding the best possiblesolution as opposed to the easiest solution or the first solution proposed.


The process is used to help students think about a problem without applying theirown pre-conceived ideas. Defining what the problem looks like is separated fromlooking at the cause of the problem to prevent premature judgment. Similarly,clarifying what makes an acceptable solution is defined before solutions aregenerated, preventing preconceptions from driving solutions. Some people arguethat problem solving is the art of reasoning in its purest form. In the classroom,problem solving is best used to help student understand complex ethical dilemmas,think about the future or do some strategic planning.

How can I do it?

Reflective Problem Solving follows a series of tasks. Once you have broken the studentsinto groups, the students define the problem, analyze the problem, establish thecriteria for evaluating solutions, propose solutions and take action.

Define the Problem: List all the characteristics of the problem by focusing on thesymptoms, things affected, and resources or people related to defining theproblem. In the end, pair down the thinking to a clear definition of the problemto be solved.

Analyze the Problem: Use the evidence you collected in step one to decide why theproblem exists. This step is separate from defining the problem because when thesteps are done together it is possible to prejudge the cause.

Establish Criteria: Set a clear objective for the solution. If the problem is too hard,break the objectives into two categories – musts and wants. Don’t discusssolutions yet, just what criteria a solution must meet.

Propose Solutions: Brainstorm as many different solutions as possible. Select the onethat best meets the objectives you stated as a part of the criteria for asolution.

Take action: Write a plan for what to do including all resources you will need tocomplete the plan. If possible, implement the plan.

Creative Problem Solving uses the same basic focus, but the process is less gearedtowards solutions and more towards a focus on brainstorming. The focus is oncreating ideas rather than solving a clear existing problem. Sometimes the problemis pre-defined, and the group must focus on understanding the definition ratherthan creating it.

Orientation: Similar to defining the problem, orientation also focuses on being surethe group is prepared to work together. The group might take the time to agreeupon behaviors or ways of saying things in addition to setting the context andsymptoms of the issues. The group generates a series of headings that group thetopics they must address.

Preparation and Analysis: Decide which headings are relevant or irrelevant. The groupfocuses on similarities and differences between ideas and works on grouping theminto like categories. The group asks how and why a lot, and focuses on the rootcause of the problem in a way that is similar to analyzing the problem.

Brainstorm: The group generates as many potential solutions as possible. At thispoint, all ideas are considered to be good ones.

Incubation: Before deciding which solution is the best, the group should leave theproblem for as much time as reasonable. Often several days or a week is idealdepending on the ages of the students. Leave enough time to develop distance butnot long enough for students to lose the gist of their earlier work.

Synthesis and Verification: Start by establishing the criteria for a good solution, thenlook at all the brainstormed solutions and try to combine them to create thesolution with the greatest numbers of positives and the smallest numbers ofnegatives.

How can I adapt it?

If you are working in a multi-grade room or on a project that involves a diversegroup, problem solving is a great process for achieving consensus. You can alsouse parts of the process to help students challenge set thinking patterns.

What are Case Studies?

Case studies are stories or scenarios, often in narrative form, created and used as a tool for analysis and discussion. They have a long tradition of use in highereducation particularly in business and law. Cases are often based on actual eventswhich adds a sense of urgency or reality. Case studies have elements of simulations but the students are observers rather than participants. A good case has sufficient detail to necessitate research and to stimulate analysis from a variety of viewpoints or perspectives. They place the learner in the position of problem solver. Students become actively engaged in the materials discovering underlying issues, dilemmas and conflict issues.

Case content will usually reflect the purposes of the course. A history class might examine the European geopolitical situation that impacted the Quebec Act of 1760. A french class may look at issues around teaching english to spanish speaking kids in southern California. A media studies class could consider the factors in debating the cancellation of a television program. A biology class may investigate the ethics of stem cell research.


Used as a teaching tool, case studies are tools for engaging students in research and reflective discussion. Higher order thinking is encouraged. Solutions to casesmay be ambiguous and facilitate creative problem solving coupled with an application of previously acquired skills. They are effective devices for directing students to practically apply their skills and understandings. A proponent of case use, Prof. John Boehrer, states that cases move "much of the responsibility for learning from the teacher on to the student, whose role, as a result, shifts away from passive absorption toward active construction" Students learn to identify delineate between critical and extraneous factors and develop realistic solutions to complex problems.They have the opportunity to learn from onanother. For teachers, it offers an opportunity to provide instruction while conducting formative evaluation.

How do I do it?

Case studies are suitable for most curricula where students would benefit from theapplication of learned facts to a real world situation. It is particularly useful where situations are complex and solutions are uncertain. Cases can serve as the basis for a class discussion or as a project for individuals or small groups. A single case may be presented to several groups with an expectation of each groups solutions presented at some date. Alternatively a scenario may be presented as a launching pad for a discussion.

See the resource page (link below) for guides and materials.

How can I adapt it?

While aspects of case studies are found in all grade levels, the cognitive goals of the activity are best mated to students who are abstract thinkers. Using a Piagetian position then, the activity is best suited for middle years and older students. Case studies bridge the gap between the very teacher centred lecture method and pure problem based learning. Room is left with cases for teachers to provide direct guidance and the scenarios themselves provide hints and parameters within which the students must operate.

Assessment and Evaluation Considerations

The resolution to a case is only the last component in a process. Assessment should be based on the teacher's pre stated objectives. Aspects for observation and evaluation can include:

quality of research grammatical/structural issues in written material organization of arguments the feasiblity of solutions presented intra group dynamics evidence of consideration of all case factors Case studies may be resolved in more than one manner.

What is Reading for Meaning?

Children become curious about printed symbols once they recognize that print, liketalk, conveys meaningful messages that direct, inform or entertain people. Byschool age, many children are eager to continue their exploration of print.

One goal of this curriculum is to develop fluent and proficient readers who areknowledgeable about the reading process. Effective reading instruction shouldenable students to eventually become self-directed readers who can:

construct meaning from various types of print material; recognize that there are different kinds of reading materials and different

purposes for reading; select strategies appropriate for different reading activities; and, develop a life-long interest and enjoyment in reading a variety of material

for different purposes.

To assist teachers in achieving these goals, this curriculum advocates the use ofa wide variety of fiction and non-fiction resources including:

environmental signs and labels rhymes, chants, songs poetry wordless picture books predictable books cumulative stories maps, charts novels print resources from all subject areas notes, messages, letters folktales myths and legends writing by students and teachers newspapers, magazines, pamphlets mysteries

The resources shared with students should stimulate their imaginations and kindletheir curiosity. Familiarization with narrative and expository materials, andfrequent opportunities to write in all subject areas, facilitate the readingprocess. By becoming authors themselves, students increase their awareness of theorganization and structures of printed language.

To read for meaning, students must simultaneously utilize clues from all cueingsystems. Readers bring knowledge and past experiences to the reading task toconstruct interpretations and to determine if the print makes sense to them. It iseasier for readers to understand print when the content is relevant to theirpersonal experiences. Familiar content and topics convey meaning or clues throughthe semantic cueing system. When students are comfortable and familiar with thecontent of a passage, they can predict upcoming text and take greater risks inreading. Research has repeatedly shown that fluent readers risk more guesses wheninteracting with unfamiliar print than poorer readers. They derive more meaning

from passages than readers who frequently stop to sound or decode words byindividual phonemes or letters.

Knowledge of word order and the rules of grammar which structure oral language,guide readers' predictions for printed language. Such language-pattern cluescomprise the syntactic cueing system. Readers should constantly question the textto ensure that what they are reading makes sense and sounds like language.

Reading experiences that focus on relevant and familiar content, vocabulary andlanguage patterns increase students' chances of constructing meaning and beingsuccessful readers. At the elementary level, successful reading experiencesreaffirm students' confidence as language users and learners. The holisticapproach to the reading process stresses the importance of presenting studentswith whole and meaningful reading passages. This approach is based on theprinciple that the readers' understanding of an entire sentence, passage or storyfacilitates the reading and comprehension of individual words within thosepassages.

The graphophonic cueing system relates sounds to printed symbols. When print istranslated into words that are in their listening vocabularies, readers willrecognize and comprehend the words. If the sounded words are unfamiliar toreaders, they must rely on the other cueing systems to construct meaning. Teachersare reminded that students may know the common sound-letter relationships andstill be unable to obtain meaning from print. For that reason, this curriculumemphasizes that phonics should be taught or practiced in context and inconjunction with the other cueing systems.

What is Inquiry?

Inquiry learning provides opportunities for students to experience and acquireprocesses through which they can gather information about the world. This requiresa high level of interaction among the learner, the teacher, the area of study,available resources, and the learning environment. Students become activelyinvolved in the learning process as they:

act upon their curiosity and interests; develop questions; think their way through controversies or dilemmas;

look at problems analytically; inquire into their preconceptions and what they already know; develop, clarify, and test hypotheses; and, draw inferences and generate possible solutions.

Questioning is the heart of inquiry learning. Students must ask relevant questionsand develop ways to search for answers and generate explanations. Emphasis isplaced upon the process of thinking as this applies to student interaction withissues, data, topics, concepts, materials, and problems.

Divergent thinking is encouraged and nurtured as students recognize that questionsoften have more than one "good" or "correct" answer. Such thinking leads in manyinstances to elaboration of further questions. In this way students come to therealization that knowledge may not be fixed and permanent but may be tentative,emergent, and open to questioning and alternative hypotheses.

Deductive Inquiry

The focus in deductive inquiry is on moving students from a generalized principleto specific instances that may be subsumed logically within generalizations. Theprocess of testing generalized assumptions, applying them, and exploring the

relationships between, specific elements is stressed. The teacher co-ordinates theinformation and presents important principles, themes, or hypotheses. Students areactively engaged in testing generalizations, gathering information, and applyingit to specific examples. Deductive inquiry is based upon the logical assimilationand processing of information.

Inductive Inquiry

The information-seeking process of the inductive inquiry method helps students toestablish facts, determine relevant questions, develop ways to pursue thesequestions, and build explanations. Students are invited to develop and supporttheir own hypotheses.

Through inductive inquiry, students experience the thought processes which requirethem to move from specific facts and observations to inferences. To help studentsaccomplish this, the teacher selects a set of events or materials for the lesson.The student reacts and attempts to construct a meaningful pattern based onpersonal observations and the observations of others. Students generally have somekind of theoretical frame when they begin inductive inquiry. The teacherencourages students to share their thoughts so that the entire class can benefitfrom individual insights.

What is Reflective Discussion?

Reflective discussions encourage students to think and talk about what they haveobserved, heard or read. The teacher or student initiates the discussion by askinga question that requires students to reflect upon and interpret films,experiences, read or recorded stories, or illustrations. As students question andrecreate information and events in a film or story, they clarify their thoughtsand feelings. The questions posed should encourage students to relate storycontent to life experiences and to other stories. These questions will elicitpersonal interpretations and feelings. Interpretations will vary, but suchvariances demonstrate that differences of opinion are valuable.


to use questions to stimulate reflection and extend comprehension to challenge students' thinking by inviting them to interpret, infer,

summarize, form conclusions and evaluate selections to extend personal responses by considering the views of others to share personal thoughts, feelings and images evoked by literature

selections, films, illustrations and experiences

How do I do it?

Pose a question to initiate discussion. This question should be an inferential or open-ended question to which there

is no single correct answer. This question should require students to make an inference or assumption, or

to interpret what they have observed, heard or read. The first question should reveal students' understanding of the main theme,

message or purpose of the selection. Additional questions posed by teacher and students should serve to clarify

and extend personal interpretations. Discussions should encourage students to relate events and characters to

other selections and to life experiences. Resulting questions, concerns or issues may be resolved by rereading

passages or viewing films a second time.

How can I adapt it?

Students could initiate discussions about resources in all subject areas. Reflective discussions can be incorporated into the following strategies:

o Book talks o Conferencing o Co-operative learning o Literature study o Reading logs


Monitor students' interest and participation in sharing interpretations andresponses.

Note students' ability to orally express their thoughts, feelings andunderstandings.

Note students who pose questions to clarify their understandings. Observe students' ability to listen to and respect the views and opinions of

others.

What is Writing to Inform?

Writing that reports information to others can vary greatly in content and format.Many learning experiences culminate in expository or informative writingactivities. Students must have opportunities to read a variety of resources andprinted materials for information. During writing, students can apply theirknowledge of the structures and formats of these materials to organize and conveyinformation.


to develop students' awareness of the organizational structures ofinformative text

to develop students' abilities to use writing to organize, sequence, recordand report knowledge and experience

to increase students' ability to read and comprehend informative orexpository text

How do I do it?

Introduce expository structures to students by reading various resources inall subject areas. When reading informative text, focus students' attentionon the structure and organization of ideas.

A shared experience, students' interests, or a unit or topic of study in anysubject area should provide the topic for collaborative writing andreporting activities.

With students, determine an appropriate topic. Brainstorm, categorize and web what is known about the topic. Have students consider the audience to determine the appropriate content and

format of the report. Sequence main ideas and supporting details, incorporating sub-headings if

appropriate. Collaboratively prepare a draft by developing charted ideas into sentences

and paragraphs. Read the draft and discuss the clarity of the information conveyed. Revise the draft incorporating students' suggestions. Have students consider the audience and purpose of the writing as they

prepare the final draft or copy. Have students prepare any accompanying visuals.

Share, display or present the final version to appropriate audiences.

How can I adapt it?

Writing to inform may include the following strategies: o Brainstorming o Categorizing o Co-operative learning o Experience charts o Making books and charts o Researching o Webbing


Observe students' ability to organize and convey information throughwriting.

Note students' use of their knowledge of text structures to read informativematerials for meaning.

Teacher Notes

Classroom resource collections should include expository text. Daily reading to students sessions should include expository as well as

narrative selections. Elementary students should gradually become aware of the structures and

language of expository text. Common organizational patterns of expositorytext include:

o Description -- features or characteristics of the topic are described.Some examples may be provided.

o Sequence -- events or items are listed or ordered chronologically. o Comparison -- the subject or topic is compared and contrasted with

other things or events. o Cause and Effect -- the author explains the cause of an event and the

result. o Problem and Solution -- a question is presented and solutions are

proposed. Students should have opportunities to orally express ideas and

understandings before being expected to convey information in writing. During the Emerging Phase, students should have opportunities to inform

others by dictating, drawing and writing their ideas.

What is Concept Formation?

Concept formation provides students with an opportunity to explore ideas by makingconnections and seeing relationships between items of information. This method canhelp students develop and refine their ability to recall and discriminate amongkey ideas, to see commonalities and identify relationships, to formulate conceptsand generalizations, to explain how they have organized data, and to presentevidence to support their organization of the data involved.


In this instructional method, students are provided with data about a particularconcept. These data may be generated by the teacher or by the students themselves.Students are encouraged to classify or group the information and to givedescriptive labels to their groupings. By linking the examples to the labels andby explaining their reasoning, the students form their own understanding of theconcept.

Concept formation lessons can be highly motivational because students are providedwith an opportunity to participate actively in their own learning. In addition,the thinking process involved helps them create new and expanded meaning of theworld around them as they organize and manipulate information from other lessonsand contexts in new ways.

How do I do it?

Concept formation involves the recognition that some objects or events belongtogether while others do not. Students are provided with data about a particularconcept and are encouraged to classify or group the data. Once the objects havebeen grouped according to a particular categorization scheme, the grouping isgiven a label. This type of strategy could be used when identifying differentterminology of computer software applications. Teachers may ask students toidentify and list a number of items found in a setting, group the items thatbelong together using common characteristics, label the groupings, and rearrangeand relabel items into subgroups, if students feel that is possible. The teacheris the initiator of the activity and guides students as they move cooperativelythrough the task.

What are Concept Maps?

A concept map is a special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge andgathering and sharing information. Concept mapping is the strategy employed todevelop a concept map. A concept map consists of nodes or cells that contain aconcept, item or question and links. The links are labeled and denote directionwith an arrow symbol. The labeled links explain the relationship between thenodes. The arrow describes the direction of the relationship and reads like asentence.


Concepts maps can be used to:

Develop an understanding of a body of knowledge. Explore new information and relationships. Access prior knowledge. Gather new knowledge and information. Share knowledge and information generated. Design structures or processes such as written documents, constructions, web

sites, web search, multimedia presentations. Problem solve options.

How can I do it?

1. Select o Focus on a theme and then identify related key words or phrases.

2. Rank o Rank the concepts (key words) from the most abstract and inclusive to

the most concrete and specific. 3. Cluster

o Cluster concepts that function at similar level of abstraction andthose that interrelate closely.

4. Arrange o Arrange concepts in to a diagrammatic representation.

5. Link and add proposition o Link concepts with linking lines and label each line with a

proposition.

Critical Questions:

What is the central word, concept, research question or problem around whichto build the map?

What are the concepts, items, descriptive words or telling questions thatyou can associate with the concept, topic, research question or problem?

Suggestions:

Use a top down approach, working from general to specific or use a freeassociation approach by brainstorming nodes and then develop links andrelationships.

Use different colors and shapes for nodes & links to identify differenttypes of information.

Use different colored nodes to identify prior and new information. Use a cloud node to identify a question. Gather information to a question in the question node.

What is Concept Attainment?

Concept Attainment is an indirect instructional strategy that uses a structuredinquiry process. It is based on the work of Jerome Bruner. In concept attainment,students figure out the attributes of a group or category that has already beenformed by the teacher. To do so, students compare and contrast examples thatcontain the attributes of the concept with examples that do not contain thoseattributes. They then separate them into two groups. Concept attainment, then, isthe search for and identification of attributes that can be used to distinguishexamples of a given group or category from non-examples.


Concept attainment is designed to clarify ideas and to introduce aspects ofcontent. It engages students into formulating a concept through the use ofillustrations, word cards or specimens called examples. Students who catch ontothe idea before others are able to resolve the concept and then are invited tosuggest their own examples, while other students are still trying to form theconcept. For this reason, concept attainment is well suited to classroom usebecause all thinking abilities can be challenged throughout the activity. Withexperience, children become skilled at identifying relationships in the word cardsor specimens. With carefully chosen examples, it is possible to use conceptattainment to teach almost any concept in all subjects.

Advantages:

helps make connections between what students know and what they will belearning

learn how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives learn how to sort out relevant information extends their knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one example of

that concept students go beyond merely associating a key term with a definition

concept is learned more thoroughly and retention is improved

How do I do it?

Steps of Concept Attainment:

1. Select and define a concept 2. Select the attributes 3. Develop positive and negative examples 4. Introduce the process to the students 5. Present the examples and list the attributes 6. Develop a concept definition 7. Give additional examples 8. Discuss the process with the class 9. Evaluate

A Math example:

First the teacher chooses a concept to developed. (i.e. Math facts thatequal 10)

Begin by making list of both positive "yes" and negative " no" examples: Theexamples are put onto sheets of paper or flash cards.

Positive Examples : (Positive examples contain attributes of the concept tobe taught) i.e. 5+5, 11-1, 10X1, 3+4+4, 12-2, 15-5, (4X2)+2, 9+1

Negative Examples : (for examples choose facts that do not have 10 as theanswer) i.e. 6+6, 3+3, 12-4, 3X3, 4X4, 16-5, 6X2, 3+4+6, 2+(2X3), 16-10

Designate one area of the chalkboard for the positive examples and one areafor negative examples. A chart could be set up at the front of the room withtwo columns - one marked YES and the other marked NO.

Present the first card by saying, "This is a YES." Place it under theappropriate column. i.e. 5+5 is a YES

Present the next card and say, "This is a NO." Place it under the NO column.i.e. 6+6 is a NO

Repeat this process until there are three examples under each column. Ask the class to look at the three examples under the YES column and discuss

how they are alike. (i.e. 5+5, 11-1, 2X5) Ask "What do they have in common?" For the next tree examples under each column, ask the students to decide if

the examples go under YES or NO. At this point, there are 6 examples under each column. Several students will

have identified the concept but it is important that they not tell it outloud to the class. They can however show that they have caught on by givingan example of their own for each column. At this point, the examples arestudent-generated. Ask the class if anyone else has the concept in mind.Students who have not yet defined the concept are still busy trying to seethe similarities of the YES examples. Place at least three more examplesunder each column that are student-generated.

Discuss the process with the class. Once most students have caught on, theycan define the concept. Once they have pointed out that everything under theYES column has an answer of 10, then print a new heading at the top of thecolumn (10 Facts). The print a new heading for the NO column (Not 10 Facts).

How can I adapt it?

This activity can be done on the chalkboard, chart paper or overhead projector toa large or small group. It also works well as one-on-one work. Rather thanstarting with the teacher's concept, use a student's concept. Concept attainmentcan be used to introduce or conclude a unit of study.

Variations on the Concept Attainment Model

Present all of the positive examples to the students at once and have themdetermine the essential attributes.

Present all of the positive and negative examples to the students withoutlabeling them as such. Have them group the examples into the two categoriesand determine the essential attributes.

Have the students define, identify the essential attributes of, and choosepositive examples for a concept already learned in class.

Use the model as a group activity.


Have the students:

write the definition from memory. determine positive and negative examples from a given group. create their own examples of the concept. "think aloud" write a learning log do an oral presentation create a web, concept map, flow chart, illustrations, KWL chart, T chart

What is Cloze Procedure?

Cloze procedure is a technique in which words are deleted from a passage accordingto a word-count formula or various other criteria. The passage is presented tostudents, who insert words as they read to complete and construct meaning from thetext. This procedure can be used as a diagnostic reading assessment technique.


It is used:

to identify students' knowledge and understanding of the reading process to determine which cueing systems readers effectively employ to construct

meaning from print to assess the extent of students' vocabularies and knowledge of a subject to encourage students to monitor for meaning while reading to encourage students to think critically and analytically about text and

content

How do I do it?

To prepare materials for Cloze exercises, any of the following techniques may beused:

1. Select a self-contained passage of a length appropriate for the grade levelof the students being assessed. Use materials easily read by the students.

2. Leave the first and last sentences and all punctuation intact. 3. Carefully select the words for omission using a word-count formula, such as

every fifth word or other criteria. To assess students' knowledge of thetopic or their abilities to use semantic cues, delete content words whichcarry meaning, such as nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs. To assessstudents' use of syntactic cues, delete some conjunctions, prepositions andauxiliary words.

4. When preparing the final draft of the passage, make all blanks of equallength to avoid including visual clues about the lengths of omitted words.

5. Have the students read the entire passage before they fill in the blanks. 6. Encourage the students to fill each blank if possible.

7. Although there should be no time limit for this exercise, the time necessaryfor completion should be noted.

8. Suggest that students reread the completed passage.

How can I adapt it?

Examples:

1. Supply choices for the blanks.

Just as ____________have fur, birds have ____________.

(coats, animals) (feathers, wings)

2. When learners have used the technique described above and can replace theappropriate words from the choices supplied, provide passages in which everyfifth word or every tenth word is arbitrarily deleted and only a letter ortwo of the correct word is available, perhaps a beginning consonant orconsonant blend:

With the price of f______ going up all the t______, more people are trying t___raise some of their f_____ in their own back y______.

3. When the learners do well with this task, indicate only the blank with noadditional clues. Accept any word that seems a reasonable fit: Example:

Instead of grass, you _______ rows of lettuce, tomatoes, ________ beans lining thefences _______ in the biggest city.

Experiential Learning

Experiential learning is inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented.Personalized reflection about an experience and the formulation of plans to applylearning to other contexts are critical factors in effective experientiallearning. The emphasis in experiential learning is on the process of learning andnot on the product.

Experiential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all ofwhich are necessary:

experiencing (an activity occurs); sharing or publishing (reactions and observations are shared); analyzing or processing (patterns and dynamics are determined); inferring or generalizing (principles are derived); and, applying (plans are made to use learning in new situations).

Possible Methods

Field Trips Narratives Conducting Experiments Simulations Games Storytelling Focused Imaging Field Observations Role-playing

Model Building Surveys

What are Field Trips?

A field trip is a structured activity that occurs outside the classroom. It can bea brief observational activity or a longer more sustained investigation orproject.

What are their purposes?

Field trips offer an opportunity for students to get exposure to "real" people andevents and the opportunity to make connections with others. Students on fieldtrips visit people and places that they are not normally exposed to during theschool day.

How can I do one?

While field trips take considerable organization, it is important to:

be clear about what the field trip will accomplish prepare students for the learning have a debriefing session for students to share their learning when they

return to the classroom

With actual field trips, teachers can introduce the field trip site prior to theactual visit with pictures or descriptions of the destination. Helping students todevelop a sense of familiarity with the field trip destination before their visitmay enhance the amount and quality of their learning.

How can I adapt it?

Virtual Field Trips allows both students and teachers the opportunity to travel toareas of the world that would otherwise be out of reach Teachers can take theirstudents on a field trip right in their own classroom. Students can gatherinformation about areas in the world that would have been impossible for most ofthem to see.

What are Narratives?

Narrative essays are told from a defined point of view, often the author's, sothere is feeling as well as specific and often sensory details provided to get thereader involved in the elements and sequence of the story.


Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of astory. When the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include allthe conventions of storytelling: plot, character, setting, climax, and ending. Itis usually filled with details that are carefully selected to explain, support, orenhance the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer isattempting to make.

How do I do it?

Students can "tell what happened" by introducing the situation (who, where, andwhen); relaying events in a logical order (firstly, after that, next, etc.); andconcluding by giving the last important event (e.g., at last …).

1. The story should have an introduction that clearly indicates what kind ofnarrative essay it is. Is it an event or recurring activity, a personalexperience, or an observation? It should have a conclusion that makes apoint.

2. You should describe the person, the scene, or the event in some detail. Theuse of dialogue is fine as long as long as you avoid using too much.

3. The occasion or person described must be suggestive in that your descriptionand thoughts lead the reader to reflect on the human experience.

4. The point of view in narrative essays is usually first person. The use of"I" invites your readers into the story.

5. The writing in your essay should be lively. Try to describe ideas and eventsin new and different ways.

Assessment and Evaluation

Writing assessment can take many forms and should take into account both productand process. In process assessment, teachers monitor the process students gothrough as they write by using conferencing, anecdotal records, checklists, or/andself-assessment. In product assessment, teachers evaluate students’ finishedcompositions. Product assessment should be based on many different criteria. Awriting rubric or scoring criteria can be used. In both types of assessment, thegoal is to help students become better and more confident writers.

Sample Writing Process Checklist Rubric for a Narrative Writing Piece

What are Simulations?

A simulation is a form of experiential learning. Simulations are instructionalscenarios where the learner is placed in a "world" defined by the teacher. Theyrepresent a reality within which students interact. The teacher controls theparameters of this "world" and uses it to achieve the desired instructionalresults. Simulations are in way, a lab experiment where the students themselvesare the test subjects. They experience the reality of the scenario and gathermeaning from it. It is a strategy that fits well with the principles ofconstructivism.

Simulations promote the use of critical and evaluative thinking. The ambiguous oropen ended nature of a simulation encourages students to contemplate theimplications of a scenario. The situation feels real and thus leads to moreengaging interaction by learners. They are motivating activities enjoyed bystudents of all ages.

Simulations take a number of forms. They may contains elements of a game, a role-play, or an activity that acts as a metaphor. The chief element is that they havecontext. Board games such as Monopoly or Careers are a type of simulation. Theprimary distinctions between a game and a "sim" are the nonlinear nature and thecontrolled ambiguity. Students must make decisions within its context. Success isusually determined by the industry and commitment of the participants. The goal isnot to win but to acquire knowledge and understanding.

Advantages

Enjoyable, motivating activity Element of reality is compatible with principles of constructivism Enhances appreciation of the more subtle aspects of a concept/principle Promotes critical thinking

Disadvantages

Preparation time Cost can be an issue Assessment is more complex than some traditional teaching methods


Simulations promote concept attainment through experiential practice. Simulationsare effective at helping students understand the nuances of a concept orcircumstance. Students are often more deeply involved in simulations than otheractivities. Since they are living the activity the opportunity exists forincreased engagement.

Issues from Social Studies for example, such as the management of the environment,politics, community, and culture can be more deeply appreciated throughsimulations. Similar to labs in a science class, the process itself educates thestudents. The goal of a sim may be singular or multifaceted. Students might beexpected to gain an understanding of inequity in society while participating in aresource distribution activity. A class gains an understanding of the Canadianpolitical system via a mock election campaign. Simulations can reinforce otherskills indirectly. Debating, a method associated with some large scale sims, is askill sharpened within this context. Research skills are often applied to anactivity.

How do I do it?

Guided by a set of parameters, students undertake to solve problems, adapt toissues arising from their scenario, and gain an awareness of the uniquecircumstances that exist within the confines of the simulation. Some simulationsrequire one day, others may take weeks to complete. Scope and content variesgreatly. This being true, specific guidelines change with the activity. Severalprinciples however apply to all.

Ensure that students understand the procedures before beginning. It improvesefficacy if the students can enjoy uninterrupted participation. Frustrationcan arise with too many uncertainties. This will be counter productive.

Try to anticipate questions before they are asked. The pace of somesimulations is quick and the sense of reality is best maintained with readyresponses. Monitor student progress.

Know what you wish to accomplish. Many simulations can have more than oneinstructional goal. Developing a rubric for evaluation is a worthwhile step.If appropriate, students should be made aware of the specific outcomesexpected of them.

How can I adapt it?

Simulations can typically be adapted internally to address the specificcircumstances of the students and class environment. They can also be offered as areplacement for other teaching strategies thus themselves being an adaptation.

Opportunity for enrichment or modification exists. A Social Studies resourcesimulation can be adapted to fit a unit in Language Arts. The grade 6 and 7 themesof survival can be drawn out from the need to struggle to obtain limitedresources. There are at least 3 ways simulations can be used and internallyadapted to classrooms.

Time - the arc of the activity can be adjusted.

Content - some simulations offer content more appropriate to specific ages.The election simulation listed in teacher resources, for example, has 3separate scenarios. Each possesses a similar theme but the content allowsthe unit to be used from Gr. 5 to 12. See the teacher resource page fordetails.

Expectations - Not all students appreciate the subtleties of a concept aswell as others. Rubrics can be developed to help the teacher determine thelevel of success.

Assessment and Evaluation

The nature of simulations mean that experiences are more real than some othertechniques. Their drawback can be the assessment. Teachers must monitor theprocess to ensure that students both understand the process and are benefitingfrom it. For this reason, it is very helpful to develop a rubric as a guide.Simulations are often best used as part of the process of learning rather than asummative measure of it. Follow-up activities may be helpful to establish ameasure of comprehension. Some prepackaged simulations include assessmentsuggestions. See the resource page for examples. Listed below are a number ofrubrics to use as samples and an interesting rubric generator.

Teachers may ask themselves a number of questions to assess the simulation and itsapparent success.

Does this simulation offer an appropriate measure of realism for my group ofstudents?

Are the desired instructional outcomes well defined? Is the level of ambiguity manageable for this group? Does the student demonstrate an understanding of his/her role? Are problem solving techniques in evidence? Does the research being generated match the nature of the problem? Is cooperation between participants in evidence? Has the student been able to resolve the issue satisfactorily? Does the student provide meaningful answers to probing questions? Will follow-up activities be necessary?

Rubrics - examples

online rubric generator rubric list

What is Focused Imaging?

Imaging, the process of internally visualizing an object, event, or situation, hasthe potential to nurture and enhance a student's creativity (Bagley & Hess, 1987).Imaging enables students to relax and allow their imaginations to take them onjourneys, to "experience" situations first hand, and to respond with their sensesto the mental images formed.

In the classroom, imaging exercises nurture and develop students' creativepotentials. Teachers can encourage divergent thinking by asking students totransform a teacher guided image into several others of their own creation, toimagine various solutions for spatial or design problems, or to visualize aparticular scene or event and then imagine what might happen next.

Imaging provides a focus and an opportunity for open-minded exploration of newconcepts in all areas of study. It can help broaden students' conceptualunderstanding of subject area material, especially complex concepts and processes.

Imaging allows students to connect their prior experiences to new ideas underinvestigation.

What is Role Playing?

In role playing, students act out characters in a predefined "situation".

What Is Its Purpose?

Role playing allows students to take risk-free positions by acting out charactersin hypothetical situations. It can help them understand the range of concerns,values, and positions held by other people. Role playing is an enlightening andinteresting way to help students see a problem from another perspective.

Independent Study

Independent study refers to the range of instructional methods which arepurposefully provided to foster the development of individual student initiative,self-reliance, and self-improvement. While independent study may be initiated bystudent or teacher, the focus here will be on planned independent study bystudents under the guidance or supervision of a classroom teacher. In addition,independent study can include learning in partnership with another individual oras part of a small group.

Possible Methods

Essays Computer Assisted Instruction Journals Learning Logs Reports Learning Activity Packages Correspondence Lessons Learning Contracts Homework Research Projects Assigned Questions Learning Centers

What is Computer Assisted Instruction?

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) refers to instruction or remediation presentedon a computer.


Computer programs can allow students to progress at their own pace and workindividually or problem solve in a group. Computers provide immediate feedback,letting students know whether their answer is correct. If the answer is notcorrect, the program shows students how to correctly answer the question.Computers offer a different type of activity and a change of pace from teacher-ledor group instruction. Also, computer-assisted instruction moves at the students’pace and usually does not move ahead until they have mastered the skill.

How do I do it?

Typically CAI programs incorporate functions such as:

Assessing student capabilities with a pre-test Presenting educational materials in a navigable form Providing repetitive drills to improve the student's command of knowledge Providing game-based drills to increase learning enjoyment

Assessing student progress with a post-test Routing students through a series of courseware instructional programs. Recording student scores and progress for later inspection by a courseware

instructo

What is Journal Writing?

Journal writing is a learning tool based on the ideas that students write tolearn. Students use the journals to write about topics of personal interest, tonote their observations, to imagine, to wonder and to connect new information withthings they already know.


Using journals fosters learning in many ways. Students who use journals areactively engaged in their own learning and have the opportunity to clarify andreflect upon their thinking. When students write in journals, they can record suchthings as ideas and feelings, special words and expressions they have heard,interesting things that have happened to them or information about interestingpeople. Journal writing offers students opportunities to write without fear oftenassociated with marking. Every journal entry is individualized.

How do I do it?

Journals can be used throughout the day, at different times of the day and fordifferent purposes.

1. Decide what type of journal you want to use in your classroom. Think aboutthe purpose of the journal and how will you use it.

2. Prepare materials. Your students' journals may be looseleaf notebooks orfolders. Individual pages should be contained in some way so that they arenot lost over time.

3. Model initial entries. Using an overhead projector or classroom chart, worktogether to write a sample response. Students can copy the class response intheir own journal or write one of their own.

4. Schedule time for regular journal use. Students are all engaged in the actof writing and this enables individuals to generate ideas, observations andemotions.

While you should not grade or correct the writing in journals – only finishedpieces should be used for grading – you could comment on your students' writing.Offer suggestions, constructive remarks, questions, and encouragement wheneverpossible. Sometimes students will respond to the teacher's comments.

One of the biggest problems with writing journals is that some students use themsimply as a way to record the day's events. They slip into the routine of writingdiary entries without reflection or real purpose. You can reduce this byencouraging your students to write about a variety of topics and take what theyfeel are the better entries and develop them into finished pieces.

Writing Prompts/Journal Topics Journal Writing Prompts

Journals offer students the opportunity to reflect on their world and expand theirawareness of what is happening in their lives. For many students journals become arich source of ideas for writing.

How can I adapt it?

There are several variations of journals that can be adapted to fit the needs ofthe classroom.

Personal Journal

These journals allow students the freedom to write about their feelings,opinions, expressions and about topics of personal interest. If they wish,students may share these entries with others.

Dialogue Journals

Dialogue journals are conversations in writing. Most often the conversationis between the student and the teacher or classmates. These journals areinteractive - the two conversation partners comment on one another'sentries. These conversations encourage students to express themselves inthoughtful and informal ways.

Reading Response Journals

These journals are used to capture students' reactions to books and to tracktheir reading. The entries might include questions, comparisons,evaluations, letters to characters, predictions and comments on style ormood.

Math Journals

The goal of writing in mathematics is to provide students with opportunitiesto explain their thinking about mathematical ideas and then to re-examinetheir thoughts by reviewing their writing. Writing will enhance students'understanding of math as they learn to articulate their thought processes insolving math problems and learning math concepts.

Science Journals

Writing science journals could be a great way for the teacher to have abetter understanding on how the students are thinking about the sciencelesson. Science journals are a way to incorporate personal ideas withobservation and interference. Students can express their opinions with everyexperiment. Encourage students to write questions about process or outcomesof explorations. They can use drawings, diagrams, data charts and graphs.

Art Journals

The art journal gives students a place to plan, to gather resource andresearch materials, to do preliminary drawings and to experiment with media;in short, to explore and document their personal creative processes. On avery basic level, it helps students keep all required and exploratorymaterial together.

Assessment & Evaluation Considerations

The journal can be used as a reference file to help the teacher monitor individualdevelopment and progress. Entries should not be evaluated as finished products.The evaluation of journals should emphasize the content. While each journal isunique, good journals share the following characteristics:

personal observations questions speculations and predictions evidence of developing self-awareness connections between personal experience and new information

A journal is like a good friend who is never too busy to listen.

What are Learning Logs ?

Learning logs are a simple and straightforward way to help students integratecontent, process, and personal feelings. Learning logs operate from the stancethat students learn from writing rather than writing what they have learned. Thecommon application is to have students make entries in their logs during the lastfive minutes of class or after each completed week of class. The message here isthat short, frequent bursts of writing are more productive over time than areinfrequent, longer assignments.


Learning logs are most commonly used in assessing literacy but there are manycrossovers into content areas other than those associated with reading andwriting. Properly understood and used, learning logs become a vehicle for exchangeamong parents, teachers, and students.

How do I do it?

There is some overlap between portfolios and learning logs, in fact, both journalsand learning logs frequently provide artifacts for the student portfolio. The mostvaluable result of learning logs is that as students write to learn, they alsolearn to recognize their own and other’s good work. Both learning logs andjournals assist the learning process. Journals are free flowing , subjectiverelying on opinion and personal experience. Learning logs are concise, objectivefactual and impersonal in tone.

Logs can include problem-solving entries from mathematics or science, observationsfrom lab experiments, questions about lectures or readings, lists of booksstudents have read or would like to red and howework assignments.

The following questions could be used to guide students in making thoughtfulentries in their learning logs:

What did I do in class today? What did I learn? What did I find interesting? What questions do I have about what I learned? What was the point of today's lesson? What connections did I make to previous ideas of lessons?

How can I adapt it?

Writing about Mathematics

Students write an explanation to another student of how to do a mathproblem. They should include the why of the solution as well as the how.

Writing about History

Students place themselves in a historical period or event and write about itfrom the point of view of someone who is there. In their responses, studentsfocus on the what, where, why, how, when, and what if. Or students write adialogue between themselves and a historical personage, focusing on the samedetails.

Focused Writing

Focused writing is an excellent way to begin a collaborative session.Students write non-stop for five minutes on a specific topic they arestudying. The purpose is for students to find out what they know about thetopic, to explore new ideas, and to find out what they need to learn aboutthe topic.


Assessment conference can be three to five minutes long depending on thesize of the class and the length of the activity period.

To see as many students as possible during a class, either reduce the amountof time for each conference or increase the project activity time.

If students are working in a cooperative group, a teacher can meet with theentire group thus decreasing the average per-student conference time.

What are Learning Contracts ?

Learning contracts provide a method of individualizing instruction and developingstudent responsibility. They permit individual pacing so that students may learnat the rate at which they are able to master the material. Learning contracts canbe designed so that students function at the academic levels most suitable to themand work with resource materials containing concepts and knowledge that areappropriate to their abilities and experiences. Although this method focuses onthe individual, learning contracts also provide an opportunity for students towork in small groups. The teacher may select this approach for some students tosupport them as they learn to work independently.

When a student is first beginning to use learning contracts, the teacher provideslearning objectives, identifies a choice of resources, and sets some basic timeparameters for the project. As students become more experienced with learningcontracts, the teacher may choose to involve them in setting the learningobjectives. Learning contracts usually require that students demonstrate the newlearning in some meaningful way, but students are provided choice in the selectionof a method or activity.

Learning contracts can be highly motivating for students. As they become skillfulin making appropriate choices and as they begin to assume more responsibility fortheir own learning, they become increasingly independent, learn to use resourcesto their advantage, and take pride in their ability to teach themselves and sharetheir new learning with others.

What is Researching?

Research projects are very effective for developing and extending language artsskills as students learn in all subject areas. While doing research, studentspractice reading for specific purposes, recording information, sequencing and

organizing ideas, and using language to inform others.

A research model provides students with a framework for organizing informationabout a topic. Research projects frequently include these four steps:

1. determining the purpose and topic 2. gathering the information 3. organizing the information 4. sharing knowledge.


to increase students' ability to access information, organize ideas andshare information with others

to provide opportunities for students to read a variety of referencematerials and resources

to involve students in setting learning goals and in determining the scopeof units of study

How do I do it?

Students at all grade levels can be involved in the process of research.Initially, research should be a collaborative activity. As students becomefamiliar with the procedure they can undertake small group or individual projects.

Determining the Purpose and Topic:

Using procedures such as discussing, mapping or webbing, determine students'interests and awareness levels about a topic of study.

List what is known and questions students have about the topic. Categorize these questions and ideas. Examine each category to determine subtopics and possible directions for

research. Considering individuals' needs and interests, divide research topics or

questions among class members. Research topics could be undertaken by groups, pairs or individuals. Brainstorm the sources of information available in the school and in the

community.

Gathering the Information:

Students gather information using a variety of reference material such asinformation books, magazines, newspapers, encyclopedia, atlases, filmstrips,films or video tapes.

As students initiate their research, the teacher may identify the need forspecific instruction on topics such as:

o determining main ideas o locating specific facts and details o interpreting information conveyed in resources such as pictures,

charts, maps and graphs o detecting opinions and bias o summarizing and paraphrasing information in their own words o recording main ideas and interesting details.

Students could record the information in various ways including using sub-headings or initial questions to categorize information or by recording keywords or phrases.

Sources and page numbers should be noted by students to assist in thedevelopment of a bibliography at appropriate grade levels.

Organizing the Information:

Students review the gathered information to ensure that questions have beenanswered.

Students consider how they will sequence the information.

Sharing Knowledge:

Students consider potential audiences and how they will share what has beenlearned.

Suggestions for sharing knowledge include oral or written reports, displays,creating books and charts, or presentations including visual art, music,dance or drama.

Audiences may include other research groups, the class or younger students.

How can I adapt it?

As a precursor to research, students could compile theme books or scrapbooksby collecting pictures and articles related to a specific topic of study orinterest.

Researching should be conducted in all subject areas. Research may incorporate the following strategies:

o Brainstorming o Categorizing o Conferencing o Co-operative learning o Discussions o Key vocabularies o Letter writing o Making books and charts o Puppetry o Newspaper article writing o Sequencing o Using experiences charts o Webbing o Writing to inform


Note students' ability to access and use a variety of reference materialsfor information.

Observe students' ability to use language to convey meaning to others. Note students' ability to organize main ideas and supporting details in a

logical sequence. Note students' ability to determine an effective format and medium for

sharing information. Note students' ability to share information and understandings in various

ways.

What are Assigned Questions?

Assigned questions are those prepared by the teacher to be answered byindividuals or small groups of students. Students discuss their responsesamong one another or with the teacher. Particular positions or points-of-view should be supported by evidence. In some instances, it may be desirablefor students to generate their own set of questions.

This instructional method is effective when questions are well-phrased sothat answering involves more than mechanical searching and copying from abook or other reference. It can be an efficient way for the teacher to

introduce or review facts, concepts, generalizations, arguments, and points-of-view. Well-selected assigned questions can stimulate higher-levelthinking, problem solving, decision making, and personal reflection.Questions should allow for multiple responses. Because student abilities andlearning styles differ, this method may require some adaptation in order tomaximize learning for all students.

Interactive Instruction

Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing amongparticipants. Students can learn from peers and teachers to develop social skillsand abilities, to organize their thoughts, and to develop rational arguments.

The interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings andinteractive methods. It is important for the teacher to outline the topic, theamount of discussion time, the composition and size of the groups, and reportingor sharing techniques. Interactive instruction requires the refinement ofobservation, listening, interpersonal, and intervention skills and abilities byboth teacher and students.

The success of the interactive instruction strategy and its many methods isheavily dependent upon the expertise of the teacher in structuring and developingthe dynamics of the group.

Possible Methods

Debates Role Playing Panels Brainstorming Peer Partner Learning Discussion Laboratory Groups Think, Pair, Share Cooperative Learning Jigsaw Problem Solving Structured Controversy Tutorial Groups Interviewing Conferencing

LIST OF STRATEGIES

Anticipation GuideAssigned QuestionsAuthor's Chair

Balanced LiteracyBook TalksBrainstorming

Case StudiesCategorizing Classroom ConversationsCloze ProcedureClustering Compare & Contrast

Computer Assisted InstructionConcept AttainmentConcept FormationConcept MapsConducting ExperimentsCooperative LearningCreative Problem Solving

DebatesDecision-making ProcessDemonstrationsDidactic QuestionsDiscussionDrill & Practice

EssaysExperience ChartsExplicit TeachingExpository, Narrative & Persuasive Writing

Field ObservationsField TripsFocused Imaging

GamesGraphic OrganizersGuided & Assisted ReadingGuided & Assisted RetellingsGuided Reading & Thinking

Heterogeneous GroupingHomogeneous Grouping

Independent ResearchInquiryInstructional GroupsInterdisciplinary ApproachInterviewing

JigsawJournal Writing

K-W-L

Laboratory GroupsLearning Activity PackagesLearning CentersLearning Contracts

Learning LogsLectureListen & VisualizeLiteracy Centred InstructionLiterature Based InstructionLiterature Circles

Mind MappingMini LessonsMiscue AnalysisModel BuildingModes of ReadingMultiple Intelligence

Narrated ReadingNarratives Needs-based GroupingNovel Studies

Oratory, Public Speaking and Speech Writing

PanelsPeer Partner LearningPicture Books and Illustrator StudiesPicture Word Inductive Model (PWIM)Probable PassageProblem Solving

QARsQuestioning Levels Questioning Techniques

RAFTRead AloudReading for MeaningRead & ParaphraseRead & RespondRead, Pause & ReflectReaders' TheaterReciprocal ReadingReflective DiscussionReportsResearch ProjectsResponse JournalRole PlayingRunning Record

ScaffoldingScience FairsScience Olympics

Self Monitoring Strategies SimulationsSQ3R Sociograms in LiteratureStory MappingStorytellingStructured ControversyStructured OverviewStudy GroupsSurveys

Talking CirclesTeam Teaching/Modeling of InstructionThink AloudsThink, Pair, ShareThinking StrategiesTutorial Groups

Visual Imaging

WebbingWebQuestsWord WallsWorking with WordsWriting to InformWrite AloudWriter's WorkshopWriting ConferencesWriting Process

METHODS STRATEGIES

Documents

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