COURSE DESCRIPTIONS

UNIT: NETWORKING STRATEGIES

UNIT CODE: HCOB 2210

INSTUTOR: MOSES O. GWEYI- PhD BA (Finance), MBA (Finance), BCOB

(Finance)

COURSE PURPOSE

To equip learners with the necessary skills required for

effective networking in modern co-operative business

organizations

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

1) Explain meaning and benefits of business networking

2) Understand the key components of communication

3) Critically evaluate the MLM success strategies

4) Understand the dynamics in groups

5) Explain the Application of computer networks in organization

6) Evaluate Organizational response to change

7) Examine the various sources of inter-organizational linkages

COURSE DESCRIPTION

Introduction to networking; meaning of networking, business

networking, types of business networking, benefits of business

networking, successful business networking, principles of

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effective networking: communication networks; meaning of

communication, components of communication, direction of

communication flow, seven C’s of effective communication,

effective listening skills, characteristics of a good listener,

barriers to effective human communication, importance of

communication in an organization: multi-level marketing; meaning

of multi-level marketing, history of MLM, legality and legitimacy

of MLM, MLM success strategies: group dynamics; defining groups

and teams, difference between groups and teams, types of groups,

characteristics of groups, groups development model, group

conflict, group cohesion, group decision making, effective and

ineffective groups contrasted: computer networks; meaning of data

communication, communications channels, meaning of computer

networks, types of computer networks, networks topology,

application of computer networks in organization :inter-

organizational linkages; meaning of inter-organizational

linkages, principles of inter-organizational linkages, forms of

inter-organizational linkages: change management; meaning of

change, kinds of change, overcoming barriers to change, models of

change models, organizational response to change: stress

management; meaning of stress, causes of stress, signs and

symptoms of stress, types of stress, coping with work stress.

TEACHING METHODOLOGY

Lectures, tutorials, case studies, individual and group

presentation

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INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Whiteboards, markers, handout, presentation, LCD projectors,

Computer, flipcharts, Video

COURSE EVALUATION

CATs and Assignment 30%

Final Examination 70%

Total 100%

RECOMMENDED COURSE TEXT BOOKS

REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS

COURSE JOURNALS

REFERENCE JOURNALS

LESSON ONE

INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS NETWORKING

Introduction

This is our first lesson on

Specific Objectives

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After studying this lesson you should be able to:

Meaning of Business Networking

Types of Business Networking

Benefits of Business Networking

Tips of Successful Business Networking

Power Principles of business networking

Meaning of Business Networking

Business networking is a socioeconomic business activity by which

groups of like-minded businesspeople recognize, create, or act

upon business opportunities. A business network is a type of

business social network whose reason for existing is business

networking activity. There are several prominent business

networking organizations that create models of business

networking activity that, when followed, allow the business

person to build new business relationships and generate business

opportunities at the same time. A professional network service is

an implementation of information technology in support of

business networking. Many business people contend business

networking is a more cost-effective method of generating new

business than advertising or public relations efforts. This is

because business networking is a low-cost activity that involves

more personal commitment than company money. Country-specific

examples of informal networking are guanxi in China, blat in

Russia, and Good ol' boy network(US)/Old boy network(UK).

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In the case of a formal business network, its members may agree

to meet weekly or monthly with the purpose of exchanging business

leads and referrals with fellow members. To complement this

business activity, members often meet outside this circle, on

their own time, and build their own one-to-one business

relationship with the fellow member.

Business networking can be conducted in a local business

community, or on a larger scale via the Internet. Business

networking websites have grown over recent years due to the

Internet's ability to connect business people from all over the

world. Internet businesses often set up business leads for sale

to bigger corporations and businesses looking for data sources

for business.

Business networking can have a meaning also in the ICT domain,

i.e. the provision of operating support to businesses and

organizations, and related value chains and value networks.

Types of Business Networking

Online business networking

Businesses are increasingly using business social networks as a

mean of growing their circle of business contacts and promoting

themselves and their business online. In general these business

networking tools allow business professionals to build up their

circle of business partners trusted to do business with. By

connecting these business partners the business networking tools 5

allow individuals to search for certain business people within

their network. Through introductions, the members of these tools

then can get in contact with new prospective business partners.

Since businesses are expanding globally, social networks make it

easier to keep in touch with other business contacts around the

business world. Specific cross-border e-commerce business

platforms and business partnering networks now make globalization

accessible also for small and medium sized businesses.

Face-to-face business networking

Many professionals tend to prefer face-to-face networking over

online-based networking because the potential for higher quality

business relationships is possible.[citation needed]

Face-to-face networking can also occur through referral business

networking clubs.

General business networking

Before online business networking, there existed face-to-face

networking for business. "Schmoozing" or "rubbing elbows" are

expressions used among professional business professionals for

introducing and meeting one another in a business context, and

establishing business rapport.

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Networked Businesses

With business networking developing more business, many

businesses now have this as a core part of their business

strategy. Those businesses that have developed a strong business

network of business connections suppliers and businesses can be

seen as Networked Businesses, and will tend to source the

business and their suppliers through the network of relationships

that they have in place. Networked businesses tend to be open,

random, and supportive, whereas those relying on hierarchical,

traditional managed approaches are closed, selective, and

controlling. These phrases were first used by businessman Thomas

Power, businessman and chairman of Ecademy, an online business

network, in May 2009.

Benefits of Business Networking

Business Networking is a really valuable way to expand your

knowledge, learn from the success of others, attain new clients

and tell others about your business.

1.   Generation of referrals/Increased business

This is probably the most obvious benefit and the reason most

business owners decide to participate in networking activities

and join networking groups.

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The great news is that the referrals that you get through

networking are normally high quality and most of the time are

even pre-qualified for you. You can then follow up on these

referrals/leads and turn them into clients. So you are getting

much higher quality leads from networking than other forms of

marketing.

The increase in business from networking is the major advantage,

but there are many others as well.

2.   Opportunities

With a motivated group of business owners comes an abundance of

opportunities! There are always lots of opportunities that come

from networking and in fact this is where the benefits of

business networking are huge! Opportunities like joint ventures,

client leads, partnerships, speaking and writing opportunities,

business or asset sales… the list goes on, and the opportunities

within networking are really endless.

Just make sure you are jumping on board with the right

opportunities and don’t go jumping into every opportunity that

comes your way. The opportunities that you get involved in should

align with your business goals/vision, otherwise you might find

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that you are spinning your wheels chasing after opportunity after

opportunity and getting nowhere.

3.   Connections

“It’s not WHAT you know, but WHO you know”. This is so true in

business. If you want a really successful business, then you need

to have a great source of relevant connections in your network

that you can call on when you need them.

Networking provides you with a great source of connections, and

really opens the door to talk to highly influential people that

you wouldn’t otherwise be able to easily talk to or find.

It’s not just about who you are networking with directly either –

that person will already have a network you can tap into as well.

So ask the right questions to find out if the person you are

networking with knows who you want to know!

4.   Advice

Having like-minded business owners to talk to also gives you the

opportunity to get advice from them on all sorts of things

related to your business or even your personal life and obtaining

that important work-life balance.

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Networking is a great way to tap into advice and expertise that

you wouldn’t otherwise be able to get hold of. Just make sure you

are getting solid advice from the right person – someone that

actually knows about what you need to know and is not just giving

you their opinion on something that they have no or very little

experience in.

5.   Raising your profile

Being visible and getting noticed is a big benefit of networking.

Make sure you regularly attend business and social events that

will help to get your face known. You can then help to build your

reputation as a knowledgeable, reliable and supportive person by

offering useful information or tips to people who need it. You

are also more likely to get more leads and referrals as you will

be the one that pops into their head when they need what you

offer.

6.   Positive Influence

The people that you hang around with and talk to do influence who

you are and what you do, so it is important to be surrounding

yourself with positive, uplifting people that help you to grow

and thrive as a business owner. Networking is great for this, as

business owners that are using networking are usually people that

are really going for it, positive and uplifting.

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7.   Increased confidence

By regularly networking, and pushing yourself to talk to people

you don’t know, you will get increased confidence the more you do

this. This is really important as a business owner, because your

business growth is very dependant on talking to people and making

connections.

Networking is great for people that aren’t confident as it really

pushes them to grow and learn how to make conversations and

lasting connections with people they don’t know.

I was certainly not confident when I started networking, in fact

it completely petrified me! But as I do it more, the more

confident I get and the easier it becomes, and the more benefit I

get from it.

8.   Satisfaction from helping others

I really love helping other people, and networking is a fantastic

way that allows me to do this easily. Networking is full of

business owners that have problems or issues within their

business that need solving, and there is great satisfaction from

helping someone to solve a problem they have and get a fantastic

result from it.

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9.   Friendship

Lastly, this one is more personal related rather than business

related, but is a big benefit none-the-less. Many friendships

form as a result of networking because (mostly) you are all like-

minded business owners that want to grow your businesses, and you

meet and help each other regularly, so naturally strong

friendships tend to form. Some of my strongest friendships have

been started from networking.

Tips of Successful Business Networking

Top Tips for Networking at Events

Some 'top tips' for networking are listed below. One of the most

important is having a one-minute 'elevator pitch' about your

business idea or a tag line about yourself (a few words you can

say after your name by way of introduction). Being able to

articulate your business opportunity in a short space of time is

essential and during the Enterprise Tuesday programme we will

have sessions on pitching your ideas.

Check the delegate list beforehand and decide who you

particularly want to speak to and what you want to talk to

them about.

Have a one-minute 'elevator pitch' ready to describe your

distinctive competence.

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If you feel awkward, go with someone who is not and ask them

to help you.

Arrive early and check the name tags to see who else has

arrived.

If other members of the team are with you, work the room

between you.

Avoid spending too much time at the bar or in dead areas

where it is hard to move onto another person you want to

talk to if you get bored.

If you do feel trapped, find someone else that the person

you are with might enjoy speaking to.

Ask others to introduce you to the people you want to meet.

Get drinks for people who are having a good conversation.

Power Principles of Effective Business Networking

Networking is choosing interdependence over isolation and realizing the power of cooperation over competition. It links people and information to one another for the mutual benefit of everyone involved.

One of the reasons networking has gotten a bad reputation is because many people are selling in the name of networking, but those who are truly masterful at networking do so in a very quiet, yet powerful manner. These people know the power of grace and respect. They've developed their personal power and know how to connect with people to share their power.

You have that personal power within you, and your network is unlimited! The following 12 People Power principles show you how to be a source of power for yourself and others.

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1- The Power of GivingAction Questions

In what ways could I be more giving and supportive?

In which personal relationships could I be more giving?

In which professional relationships could I be more giving?

Who will I call and ask, "What do you need?" and "How can I help?"

The "boomerang effect" of giving is the guarantee of networking. A boomerang always comes back because that is the design of the instrument. In the same way, what you give always comes back in some form because that is the design of the law of giving.

However, the only way the boomerang can return is if someone first takes action and throws the boomerang. Giving is a powerfulway to activate your network, because human nature inherently provides the desire to respond in kind.

Get your "giving power" into action. Pass along support and information to others. Then all you have to do is watch for that boomerang and catch it on its return.

2- The Power of Interdependence

Make a powerful and mature shift from the mental state of "I can do this on my own" to "I honor the power and results that are accomplished from working effectively with others."

Expand your thinking beyond yourself-- the "I can do it on my own" mentality limits your outreach and effectiveness as a networker. Many of us need to retrain ourselves to think positively about interdependence. Think of yourself as a multi-dimensional entity of resources and contacts.

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Who you are consists of all of your life experiences and the people who influence who you are as a person. You are larger thanwhat you see in your mirror. You are a culmination of connectionsthat provide an unlimited source of knowledge and opportunities.

Make the Shift from...

Independent to   Interdependent

"They probably don't have time. . . ."   "I call on people in a way that

respects their time."

"I can do this myself. . . ."   "I work efficiently and

effectively with others."

"I know what needs to be done here. . . ."   "I run my ideas by others to check

my thinking."

"I don't want to bother people. . . ."   "I acknowledge others by asking

and including them."

"I don't know them well enough to call. . . ."   "I will expand my network by

calling on people."

"They probably don't know anyone. . . ."   "I'll never know if I don't ask!"

3- The Power of PraiseSend Notes Frequently That Say...

Thanks for your support. Thanks for your friendship. Thanks for the referral. Thanks for the ideas you shared with me. Thanks for the words of encouragement. Thanks for the opportunity to learn more

about your business.

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Thanks for the opportunity to do business with you.

Thanks for taking the time to. . . .

Praise calls attention to the good, the helpful, and the positive. By praising yourself and others you bring people to a higher level of energy and awareness. Humans thrive on positive reinforcement.

There are two ways to regularly acknowledge people in your network: speaking in person or over the phone, and sending notes.Make sure you are giving and receiving positive feedback in your life on a daily basis.

Sprinkle the word "thanks" throughout your day. Tell people specifically how they influence your life in a positive way. Handwritten notes convey the personal touch we often yearn for inour society-- you'll brighten someone's day and maintain your ownattitude of gratitude.

My favorite story about sending notes is from someone who attended a musical performance and sent the performer a one-word note: "Stunning!" That person's experience and appreciation was so eloquently and beautifully conveyed with that one word!

Who Are the Five Most Well-Connected People You Know?

By consciously building relationships with people who know people, you are multiplying your reach. List five people you knowwho are well connected and identify what you will do to strengthen your relationship with each of them. Ask...

How can I be a valuable resource for this person? How can this person be a valuable resource for me? What will I do to strengthen this relationship?

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4- The Power of Quality Connections

Everyone has a vast and powerful network. However, for some people the connections have become weak and rusty from neglect. Clean up those communication connections so that you can network with all the people in your life in an easy, natural and consistent manner.

Networking is as simple as friendship and as complex as match making. It is about people being there for one another. People are much more likely to be "people loyal" than they are to be brand loyal, and your network will naturally grow and blossom as you strengthen and nurture your relationships. Never underestimate the power of your contacts!

5- The Power of Staying in Touch

Staying in touch with people what keeps your relationships close and connected. All of us at times get busy and even though we think of giving someone a call, often times we don't follow through on the thought. Make a point to call people to stay in touch and reconnect.

Focus on calling at least one person a week to wish them well or see how they're doing. Call someone you have not talked with in along time and let them know you are thinking of them. Networking simply happens through conversation, yet someonehas to be willing to reach out and initiate the conversation.

Seven Types of Calls to Cultivate Your Network

The "Reconnection" Call: A call to someone you haven't talked to in a while for the purpose of reestablishing the relationship andgetting an update on what the person is doing. You can acknowledge that it's been a long time, express your interest in catching up, and even if it feels awkward at first, most relationships can pick up again fairly quickly.

The "Follow-Through" Call: A call to follow up on a project or idea; might involve giving or asking for information, scheduling

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an appointment or staying in touch about an opportunity.

The "New Contact or Referral" Call: A call to someone you've justmet or been referred to by someone you know, for the purpose of getting to know each other and seeing if and how you can provide mutual support. Remind people how you met, or tell them who referred you.

The "Thinking of You" Call: A call that has no particular agenda other than saying hello and keeping communication lines open. Does not involve a sales pitch.

The "Asking for Support" Call: A call made to request information, ideas, contacts or support of some kind. Be clear about what you want and how you think this person can be of help.

The "How Can I Help?" Call: A call to offer support or make yourself available as a resource. When you hear about a project or challenge that someone is facing, call.

The "Developing Friendship" Call: Sometimes you meet someone and recognize an easy, natural rapport that leaves you wanting to gettogether again. This call is focused on creating an opportunity for a personal or professional friendship to develop.

6- The Power of Knowing YouWays I Can Be of Value to Others

Introduce people to other people I know Recommend products and services that have benefited me Share information that I have learned through my success and

failures Provide feedback regarding ideas Provide encouragement Share my expertise Brainstorm and contribute ideas Learn about other people's businesses so that I can promote

and refer business to them

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Provide a new insight or idea Send other information I come across that could be of

interest or value to them

You are a wealth of information, ideas, and contacts. You must believe that this is true and train yourself to think and respondas someone who has value to offer.

A positive sense of self, an awareness of the value you can be toothers, and a positive attitude, all contribute to your success in networking. Identify your goals in all areas of your life and utilize your resources to assist you in accomplishing those goalswith more ease, fun, and efficiency.

7- The Power of Small Talk

Small talk is a style of conversation that allows people to get to know one another in a non-threatening manner. Small talk is not insignificant chit-chat.

Expand Your Comfort Zone

Are you at ease making conversation with someone you don't know, or do you avoid making eye contact? Ask yourself the following questions:

What steps am I willing to take to expand my comfort zone? In what settings am I willing to take the initiative to

approach new people? Who do I know who is good at generating conversations with

new people? What do I notice about this person that can be helpful?

It is the exploratory stage in conversation that leads to discovering commonalties and opportunities-- and conversation is where networking happens.

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Learning to approach people with confidence is a professional skill. It is not about making people talk or cornering people on elevators, but about your ability to open the door to conversation with the people right around you.

When you focus on putting people at ease and show an interest in learning more about others, small talk leads to connection, trustand rapport. Have you ever noticed yourself in a conversation that seems to be going nowhere? Then all of a sudden you find that you have something in common with the other person and the conversation takes off.

Be interested in and curious about people. Most people are waiting on someone else to make the conversation interesting.Remember you are part of the conversation, and you have the powerto direct the conversation to a topic that is of interest and value.

Opportunities exist all around you-- wherever people are, networking is possible.

8- The Power of ListeningKey Phrases to Listen For

"I want . . ." "I need . . ." "I'm looking for . . ." "I'm involved in a project

that . . ." "My goal is to . . ." "I'm having a problem with

. . ."

Listening is the heart of communication, but most people listen as if listening is simply a matter of not talking.

Listening is about being mentally engaged in what the other person is saying. Masterful listening means giving your full

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attention to someone else to create a connection that goes beyondthe words that are being said.

It is through listening that people connect and develop trust andrapport. It is about more than just hearing the words. Listening and responding to your clients or prospects when there is nothingin it for you will help you to strengthen your relationships withthem and reap rewards in the future.

Also, listen for what non-business needs you can fill. There are many opportunities to do this: recommending an auto mechanic, a florist, a dentist, a travel agent. The sale is just the beginning in building a client relationship that will lead to a lifetime of repeat business and referrals.

9- The Power of Speaking UpStart Your Introduction With . . .

"I love helping people . . ." "I make sure my clients . . ." "I enjoy . . ." "I am committed to working with

people to . . ." "I am dedicated to . . ." "I love working with . . .

to . . ." "My focus is to . . ."

Are you one of those people you grew up hearing the phrase, "Don't toot your own horn!" and responded by going to the other extreme? If so, it's time you learned to speak up!

You don't have to brag or be aggressive. But you must learn to speak with pride and confidence about who you are and what you have to offer.

Always speak to the value and benefit of what you provide people.Most people introduce themselves by merely giving their name, title and the name of their company. To connect with people you

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must include in your introduction a phrase or tag line that helpspeople relate to what you can do for them.

10- The Power of AskingHow to Be Effective with Your Requests

Be clear about what you want Ask for what you want Make your request as concise and specific as

possible Make your request with no demands and no

strings attached Ask in such a way that people feel

acknowledged and included Ask often

People are often hesitant to ask for help or information for fearof rejection or concern about bothering people. In reality, most people feel flattered, acknowledged and glad to help, but you have to be the one to open the door and give them permission.

The power of asking is that it builds relationships, and allows people to get involved in creating opportunities. Asking for helpand information is a way of including people and actually acknowledging them for the contribution or knowledge they have toshare. There are so many contacts available to you from the people who are all around you.

11- The Power of Thinking BigStretch Your Reach!

Who are some of the people you have never contacted because you thought they were out of your reach? List their names; then ask yourself the following questions about each one:

Why do I want to contact this person? What do I think this person can do for me?

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What could I do for this person? Which of the people I know could be the link or stepping-

stone in contacting this person?

When you notice yourself thinking, "I've called everyone I know,"think again!

Everyone has anywhere from 250 to 3,000 contacts. If you know 250people and each of those people knows 250 people, then at the second level of your network are over 64,000 people! Every personyou know could be a resource for an influential, life-changing contact with someone.

Don't ever think that something is out of your reach. Don't ever think you've contacted everyone there is to contact. You have thechoice and opportunity to have your network lead you to resourcesbeyond your imagination.

12- The Power of Commitment

The difference between a mediocre networker, who occasionally produces results and experiences sporadic satisfaction and gratification, and a master networker, is the level of commitmentthey have. That comes from a deep awareness of the long-term value of networking.

Is networking a good idea? Absolutely. It is the most cost-effective marketing tool for growing your business and reaching an endless stream of influential contacts. But there is also documentation that people who have a strong support system tend to live longer and recover more quickly from illness.

With commitment, these principles become a natural part of who you are. Good ideas are not the basis for results you produce in your life - your daily actions and habits are!

Making a commitment to yourself, your relationships, and these principles is the most powerful step you can take toward a life of richness.

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Networking is like a treasure hunt. With a treasure hunt, you know there are jewels out there, you just don't know where, and the fun is in finding the jewels.

With networking, too, there are jewels out there everywhere-- youjust don't know where. So you meet this person, talk to this person, go to this meeting, call another person ... and sometimesnothing will happen until all of a sudden you'll find one of those jewels!

And sometimes those jewels show up in the most unexpected places.

Let your life be a treasure hunt! Let it be fun. Let it be an exploration, and I guarantee you'll have a life full of jewels!

LESSON TWO

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COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Introduction

This is our first lesson on

Specific Objectives

After studying this lesson you should be able to:

Meaning of Communication

Components of Communication

Kinds of Communication

Direction of Communication flow

Seven C’s of effective Communication

Effective listening skills

Characteristics of a good listener

Barriers to effective human communication

Importance of Communication in an organization

Meaning of Communication

Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share") is the

activity of conveying information through the exchange of ideas,

feelings, intentions, attitudes, expectations, perceptions or

commands, as by speech, gestures, writings, behaviour and

possibly by other means such as electromagnetic, chemical or

physical phenomena. It is the meaningful exchange of information

between two or more participants (machines, organisms or their

parts).

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Communication requires a sender, a message, a medium and a

recipient, although the receiver does not have to be present or

aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of

communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances

in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating

parties share an area of communicative commonality. The

communication process is complete once the receiver understands

the sender's message.

Communicating with others involves three primary steps:

Thought: First, information exists in the mind of the

sender. This can be a concept, idea, information, or

feeling.

Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or

other symbols.

Decoding: Lastly, the receiver translates the words or

symbols into a concept or information that a person can

understand.

Communication Process

Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal

messages. It is a continuous process. Pre-requisite of

communication is a message. This message must be conveyed through

some medium to the recipient. It is essential that this message

must be understood by the recipient in same terms as intended by

the sender. He must respond within a time frame. Thus,

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communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a

feedback from the recipient to the sender on how well the message

is understood by him.

Components of Communication

The main components of communication process are as follows:

1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which

it takes place. This context may be physical, social,

chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with

context. The sender chooses the message to communicate

within a context.

2. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends

the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic

or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the

required response. For instance - a training manager

conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may

be an individual or a group or an organization. The views,

background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of

the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal 27

and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining

interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same

terms as intended by the sender.

3. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to

communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of

recipient. Communication process begins with deciding about

the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main

objective of the message is clear.

4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the

message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for

transmitting the message else the message might not be

conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of

appropriate medium of communication is essential for making

the message effective and correctly interpreted by the

recipient. This choice of communication medium varies

depending upon the features of communication. For instance -

Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed

to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen

when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as

misunderstandings are cleared then and there.

5. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for

whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree

to which the decoder understands the message is dependent

upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their

responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder

on decoder.

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6. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication

process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of

the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct

interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be

verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles,

sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of

memos, reports, etc.

Kinds of Communication

1) Oral Communication

Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It

includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct

conversation or telephonic conversation. Speeches, presentations,

discussions are all forms of oral communication. Oral

communication is generally recommended when the communication

matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction is

required. Face to face communication (meetings, lectures,

conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant so as to build a

rapport and trust.

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Advantages of Oral Communication

There is high level of understanding and transparency in

oral communication as it is interpersonal.

There is no element of rigidity in oral communication.

There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions

previously taken.

The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication.

Thus, decisions can be made quickly without any delay.

Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also

saves upon money and efforts.

Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution.

The conflicts, disputes and many issues/differences can be

put to an end by talking them over.

Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group

energy.

Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging

morale among organizational employees.

Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and

confidential information/matter.

Disadvantages/Limitations of Oral Communication

Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as

business communication is formal and very organized.

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Oral communication is less authentic than written

communication as they are informal and not as organized as

written communication.

Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily

interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long

speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.

Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they

are unsteady.

There may be misunderstandings as the information is not

complete and may lack essentials.

It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of

the receivers/audience.

Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used

as legal records except in investigation work.

2) Written communication

Written communication has great significance in today’s business

world. It is an innovative activity of the mind. Effective

written communication is essential for preparing worthy

promotional materials for business development. Speech came

before writing. But writing is more unique and formal than

speech. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their

organization in correct order in sentences formation as well as

cohesive composition of sentences. Also, writing is more valid

and reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous,

writing causes delay and takes time as feedback is not immediate.

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Advantages of Written Communication

1) Written communication helps in laying down apparentprinciples, policies and rules for running of anorganization.

2) It is a permanent means of communication. Thus, it is

useful where record maintenance is required.

3)

4) It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities. While

in case of oral communication, it is impossible to fix and

delegate responsibilities on the grounds of speech as it

can be taken back by the speaker or he may refuse to

acknowledge.

6) Written communication is more precise and explicit.

8) Effective written communication develops and enhances an

organization’s image.

10) It provides ready records and references.

12) Legal defenses can depend upon written communication as

it provides valid records.

Disadvantages of Written Communication

Written communication does not save upon the costs. It costs

huge in terms of stationery and the manpower employed in

writing/typing and delivering letters.

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Also, if the receivers of the written message are separated by

distance and if they need to clear their doubts, the response

is not spontaneous.

Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not

immediate. The encoding and sending of message takes time.

Effective written communication requires great skills and

competencies in language and vocabulary use. Poor writing

skills and quality have a negative impact on organization’s

reputation.

Too much paper work and e-mails burden is involved.

3) Non Verbal Communication

Scenario 1 – You are sitting in front of an interview panel with

arms crossed. So far you have not been asked a single question,

however, your crossed arms have spoken louder than the words.

Tip 1 – Never keep your arms crossed especially during formal

one-on-one meetings. It suggests you are not open to feedback and

could also suggest that you are trying to dominate the situation.

Scenario 2 – You are giving a presentation to a group of 20

people. You keep your gaze fixed at the centre of the class /

room through the presentation – your gaze has spoken louder than

your words.

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Tip 2 – Your gaze at one person should not be more than 4 - 5

seconds while delivering a presentation / communicating with a

large group unless you are addressing an individual.

Scenario 1 and 2 clearly demonstrate the importance of Non Verbal

Communication.

What is Non Verbal Communication ?

It is communication of feelings, emotions, attitudes, and

thoughts through body movements / gestures / eye contact, etc.

The components of Non Verbal Communication are:

Kinesics: It is the study of facial expressions, postures &

gestures. Did you know that while in Argentina to raise a

fist in the air with knuckles pointing outwards expresses

victory, in Lebanon, raising a closed fist is considered

rude?

Oculesics: It is the study of the role of eye contact in non

verbal communication. Did you know that in the first 90 sec

- 4 min you decide that you are interested in someone or

not. Studies reveal that 50% of this first impression comes

from non-verbal communication which includes oculesics. Only

7% of comes from words - that we actually say.

Haptics: It is the study of touching. Did you know that

acceptable level of touching vary from one culture to

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another? In Thailand, touching someone's head may be

considered as rude.

Proxemics: It is the study of measurable distance between

people as they interact. Did you know that the amount of

personal space when having an informal conversation should

vary between 18 inches - 4 feet while, the personal distance

needed when speaking to a crowd of people should be around

10-12 feet?

Chronemics: It is the study of use of time in non verbal

communication. Have you ever observed that while AN employee

will not worry about running a few minutes late to meet a

colleague, a manager who has a meeting with the CEO, a late

arrival will be considered as a nonverbal cue that he / she

does not give adequate respect to his superior?

Paralinguistics: It is the study of variations in pitch,

speed, volume, and pauses to convey meaning. Interestingly,

when the speaker is making a presentation and is looking for

a response, he will pause. However, when no response is

desired, he will talk faster with minimal pause.

Physical Appearance: Your physical appearance always

contributes towards how people perceive you. Neatly combed

hair, ironed clothes and a lively smile will always carry

more weight than words.

Remember, “what we say” is less important than “how we say it” as

words are only 7% of our communication. Understand and enjoy non

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verbal communication as it helps forming better first

impressions. Good luck!

Communication Flows in an Organization

1. Downward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows

from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a

downward communication. In other words, communication from

superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a

downward communication. This communication flow is used by

the managers to transmit work-related information to the

employees at lower levels. Employees require this

information for performing their jobs and for meeting the

expectations of their managers. Organizational publications,

circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all

examples of downward communication. In order to have

effective and error-free downward communication, managers

must:

Specify communication objective

Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and

unambiguous.

Utilize the best communication technique to convey the

message to the receiver in right form

2. Upward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows to a

higher level in an organization is called upward

communication. It provides feedback on how well the 36

organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward

communication to convey their problems and performances to

their superiors.

The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how

well they have understood the downward communication. It can

also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas

and to participate in the decision-making process.

Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal

workforce in an organization because the employees are given

a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the

higher levels. The managers get to know about the employees

feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and

organization in general. Managers can thus accordingly take

actions for improving things.

Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box,

Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help in improving upward

communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -

performance reports made by low level management for

reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude

surveys, letters from employees, employee-manager

discussions etc.

3. Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes

place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is

called lateral communication, i.e., communication between

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peers, between managers at same levels or between any

horizontally equivalent organizational member. The

advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:

It is time saving.

It facilitates co-ordination of the task.

It facilitates co-operation among team members.

It provides emotional and social assistance to the

organizational members.

It helps in solving various organizational problems.

It is a means of information sharing

It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a

department with other department or conflicts within a

department.

4. Diagonal Communication: Communication that takes place

between a manager and employees of other workgroups is

called diagonal communication. It generally does not appear

on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training

module a training manager interacts with an Operations

personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task.

5. External Communication: Communication that takes place

between a manager and external groups such as - suppliers,

vendors, banks, financial institutes etc. For instance - To

raise capital the Managing director would interact with the

Bank Manager.

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Seven C’s of effective Communication

There are 7 C’s of effective communication which are applicable

to both written as well as oral communication. These are as

follows:

1. Completeness - The communication must be complete. It

should convey all facts required by the audience. The

sender of the message must take into consideration the

receiver’s mind set and convey the message accordingly. A

complete communication has following features:

Complete communication develops and enhances

reputation of an organization.

Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial

information is missing and no additional cost is

incurred in conveying extra message if the

communication is complete.

A complete communication always gives additional

information wherever required. It leaves no questions

in the mind of receiver.

Complete communication helps in better decision-making

by the audience/readers/receivers of message as they

get all desired and crucial information.

It persuades the audience.

2. Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e,

communicating what you want to convey in least possible

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words without forgoing the other C’s of communication.

Conciseness is a necessity for effective communication.

Concise communication has following features:

It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.

It underlines and highlights the main message as it

avoids using excessive and needless words.

Concise communication provides short and essential

message in limited words to the audience.

Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to

the audience.

Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.

3. Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the

shoes of others”. Effective communication must take the

audience into consideration, i.e, the audience’s view

points, background, mind-set, education level, etc. Make an

attempt to envisage your audience, their requirements,

emotions as well as problems. Ensure that the self-respect

of the audience is maintained and their emotions are not at

harm. Modify your words in message to suit the audience’s

needs while making your message complete. Features of

considerate communication are as follows:

Emphasize on “you” approach.

Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the

audience. This will stimulate a positive reaction from

the audience.

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Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what

is possible” rather than “what is impossible”. Lay

stress on positive words such as jovial, committed,

thanks, warm, healthy, help, etc.

4. Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message

or goal at a time, rather than trying to achieve too much at

once. Clarity in communication has following features:

It makes understanding easier.

Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the

meaning of message.

Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and

concrete words.

5. Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being

particular and clear rather than fuzzy and general.

Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message

has following features:

It is supported with specific facts and figures.

It makes use of words that are clear and that build the

reputation.

Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.

6. Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should

show the sender’s expression as well as should respect the

receiver. The sender of the message should be sincerely

polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. Courteous

message has following features:

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Courtesy implies taking into consideration both

viewpoints as well as feelings of the receiver of the

message.

Courteous message is positive and focused at the

audience.

It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver

of message.

It is not at all biased.

7. Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that

there are no grammatical errors in communication. Correct

communication has following features:

The message is exact, correct and well-timed.

If the communication is correct, it boosts up the

confidence level.

Correct message has greater impact on the audience/

readers.

It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts

and figures used in the message.

It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the

message.

Awareness of these 7 C’s of communication makes you an effective

communicator.

The 10 Principles of Listening

A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but

also to what is left unsaid or only partially said.42

Effective listening involves observing body language and noticing

inconsistencies between verbal and non-verbal messages.

1. Stop Talking

“If we were supposed to talk more than we listen, we would have two tongues and one

ear.” Mark Twain.

Don't talk, listen.  When somebody else is talking listen to what

they are saying, do not interrupt, talk over them or finish their

sentences for them.  Stop, just listen.  When the other person

has finished talking you may need to clarify to ensure you have

received their message accurately.

2. Prepare Yourself to Listen

Relax.  Focus on the speaker.  Put other things out of mind.  The

human mind is easily distracted by other thoughts – what’s for

lunch, what time do I need to leave to catch my train, is it

going to rain – try to put other thoughts out of mind and

concentrate on the messages that are being communicated.

3. Put the Speaker at Ease

Help the speaker to feel free to speak.  Remember their needs and

concerns.  Nod or use other gestures or words to encourage them

to continue.  Maintain eye contact but don’t stare – show you are

listening and understanding what is being said.

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4. Remove Distractions

Focus on what is being said: don’t doodle, shuffle papers, look

out the window, pick your fingernails or similar. Avoid

unnecessary interruptions.  These behaviours disrupt the

listening process and send messages to the speaker that you are

bored or distracted.

5. Empathise

Try to understand the other person’s point of view.  Look at

issues from their perspective.  Let go of preconceived ideas.  By

having an open mind we can more fully empathise with the

speaker.  If the speaker says something that you disagree with

then wait and construct an argument to counter what is said but

keep an open mind to the views and opinions of others. 

6. Be Patient

A pause, even a long pause, does not necessarily mean that the

speaker has finished.  Be patient and let the speaker continue in

their own time, sometimes it takes time to formulate what to say

and how to say it.  Never interrupt or finish a sentence for

someone.

7. Avoid Personal Prejudice

Try to be impartial.  Don't become irritated and don't let the

person’s habits or mannerisms distract you from what they are

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really saying.  Everybody has a different way of speaking - some

people are for example more nervous or shy than others, some have

regional accents or make excessive arm movements, some people

like to pace whilst talking - others like to sit still.  Focus on

what is being said and try to ignore styles of delivery.

8. Listen to the Tone

Volume and tone both add to what someone is saying.  A good

speaker will use both volume and tone to their advantage to keep

an audience attentive; everybody will use pitch, tone and volume

of voice in certain situations – let these help you to understand

the emphasis of what is being said. 

9. Listen for Ideas – Not Just Words

You need to get the whole picture, not just isolated bits and

pieces.  Maybe one of the most difficult aspects of listening is

the ability to link together pieces of information to reveal the

ideas of others.   With proper concentration, letting go of

distractions, and focus this becomes easier.

10. Wait and Watch for Non-Verbal Communication

Gestures, facial expressions, and eye-movements can all be

important.  We don’t just listen with our ears but also with our

eyes – watch and pick up the additional information being

transmitted via non-verbal communication.

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Barriers to effective human communication

Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the

message and intention of the message being conveyed which may

result in failure of the communication process or an effect that

is undesirable. These include filtering, selective perception,

information overload, emotions, language, silence, communication

apprehension, gender differences and political correctness

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Following are the main communication barriers:

1. Perceptual and Language Differences: Perception is

generally how each individual interprets the world around

him. All generally want to receive messages which are

significant to them. But any message which is against their

values is not accepted. A same event may be taken

differently by different individuals. For example : A

person is on leave for a month due to personal reasons

(family member being critical). The HR Manager might be in

confusion whether to retain that employee or not, the

immediate manager might think of replacement because his

teams productivity is being hampered, the family members

might take him as an emotional support.

The linguistic differences also lead to communication

breakdown. Same word may mean different to different

individuals. For example: consider a word “value”.

a. What is the value of this Laptop?

b. I value our relation?

c. What is the value of learning technical skills?

“Value” means different in different sentences.

Communication breakdown occurs if there is wrong perception

by the receiver.

2. Information Overload: Managers are surrounded with a pool of

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information. It is essential to control this information

flow else the information is likely to be misinterpreted or

forgotten or overlooked. As a result communication is less

effective.

3. Inattention: At times we just not listen, but only hear. For

example a traveler may pay attention to one “NO PARKING”

sign, but if such sign is put all over the city, he no

longer listens to it. Thus, repetitive messages should be

ignored for effective communication. Similarly if a superior

is engrossed in his paper work and his subordinate explains

him his problem, the superior may not get what he is saying

and it leads to disappointment of subordinate.

4. Time Pressures: Often in organization the targets have to be

achieved within a specified time period, the failure of

which has adverse consequences. In a haste to meet

deadlines, the formal channels of communication are

shortened, or messages are partially given, i.e., not

completely transferred. Thus sufficient time should be given

for effective communication.

5. Distraction/Noise: Communication is also affected a lot by

noise to distractions. Physical distractions are also there

such as, poor lightning, uncomfortable sitting, unhygienic

room also affects communication in a meeting. Similarly use

of loud speakers interferes with communication.

6. Emotions: Emotional state at a particular point of time also

affects communication. If the receiver feels that

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communicator is angry he interprets that the information

being sent is very bad. While he takes it differently if the

communicator is happy and jovial (in that case the message

is interpreted to be good and interesting).

7. Complexity in Organizational Structure: Greater the

hierarchy in an organization (i.e. more the number of

managerial levels), more is the chances of communication

getting destroyed. Only the people at the top level can see

the overall picture while the people at low level just have

knowledge about their own area and a little knowledge about

other areas.

8. Poor retention: Human memory cannot function beyond a limit.

One cant always retain what is being told specially if he is

not interested or not attentive. This leads to communication

breakdown.

Overcoming Communication Barriers

Eliminating differences in perception: The organization should

ensure that it is recruiting right individuals on the job. It’s

the responsibility of the interviewer to ensure that the

interviewee has command over the written and spoken language.

There should be proper Induction program so that the policies of

the company are clear to all the employees. There should be

proper trainings conducted for required employees (for eg: Voice

and Accent training).

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Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should

be emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and jargons should be

avoided.

Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main

communication barrier which must be overcome on priority basis.

It is essential to identify the source of noise and then

eliminate that source.

Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a

difference between “listening” and “hearing”. Active listening

means hearing with proper understanding of the message that is

heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her

message is understood or not by the receiver in the same terms as

intended by the speaker.

Emotional State: During communication one should make

effective use of body language. He/she should not show their

emotions while communication as the receiver might misinterpret

the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the

message is in a bad mood then the receiver might think that the

information being delivered is not good.

Simple Organizational Structure: The organizational structure

should not be complex. The number of hierarchical levels should

be optimum. There should be a ideal span of control within the

organization. Simpler the organizational structure, more

effective will be the communication.

Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to

prioritize their work. They should not overload themselves with

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the work. They should spend quality time with their subordinates

and should listen to their problems and feedbacks actively.

Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback.

The contents of the feedback might be negative, but it should be

delivered constructively. Constructive feedback will lead to

effective communication between the superior and subordinate.

Proper Media Selection: The managers should properly select

the medium of communication. Simple messages should be conveyed

orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of

written means of communication should be encouraged for

delivering complex messages. For significant messages reminders

can be given by using written means of communication such as :

Memos, Notices etc.

Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective

communication in an organization the managers should ensure that

the individuals are meeting their targets timely without skipping

the formal channels of communication. There should not be much

pressure on employees to meet their targets.

The importance of communication in an organization can be

summarized as follows:

1. Communication promotes motivation by informing and

clarifying the employees about the task to be done, the

manner they are performing the task, and how to improve

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their performance if it is not up to the mark.

2. Communication is a source of information to the

organizational members for decision-making process as it

helps identifying and assessing alternative course of

actions.

3. Communication also plays a crucial role in altering

individual’s attitudes, i.e., a well informed individual

will have better attitude than a less-informed individual.

Organizational magazines, journals, meetings and various

other forms of oral and written communication help in

moulding employee’s attitudes.

4. Communication also helps in socializing. In todays life the

only presence of another individual fosters communication.

It is also said that one cannot survive without

communication.

5. As discussed earlier, communication also assists in

controlling process. It helps controlling organizational

member’s behaviour in various ways. There are various levels

of hierarchy and certain principles and guidelines that

employees must follow in an organization. They must comply

with organizational policies, perform their job role

efficiently and communicate any work problem and grievance

to their superiors. Thus, communication helps in controlling

function of management.

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LESSON THREE

MULTI-LEVEL MARKETING

Introduction

This is our first lesson on

Specific Objectives

After studying this lesson you should be able to:

Meaning of Multi-Level Marketing

History of MLM

Legality and Legitimacy of MLM

MLM success strategies

Meaning of Multi-Level Marketing

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Multi-level marketing (MLM) is a marketing strategy that uses a

multi-level or networking paradigm to help its members earn more

income. It is also sometimes called network marketing or referral

level, since the bulk of the earnings that an individual may

acquire is mainly based on his or her product sales and the sales

of the people that he or she has recruited on the program.

Although there are some ideas that MLM is mostly a scam, this is

not necessarily true. There are legitimate MLM opportunities and

there are several MLM Success Strategies that can help anyone

interested in joining such a company.

History of MLM

Nobody knows exactly when MLM began, because it really evolved

over a number of years, prior to World War II. Most observers

agree that Nutrilite – now an Amway subsidiary – was the first

true MLM company. In addition to being the founders of network

marketing, they were the founders of the vitamin and food

supplements industry, way back in the 1920s. So the historical

connection between MLM and nutritional products dates back over

most of the twentieth century – a fact unknown to most people

(especially those who think that, somehow, MLM companies are

johnny-come-latelies to nutrition. Most of the major product

breakthroughs in that industry have been pioneered by MLM

companies, in fact.)

Legality and Legitimacy of MLM

54

MLM businesses operate in the World in more than 120 countries.

But every of them are not good. They use many terms for attract

new businesses like “affiliate marketing” , “home-based

business”, “home-based business franchising”, “Network

marketing”, “Direct Marketing”, “MLM Marketing” etc. In a day one

to more MLM company were born in hole World and dies after few

days or months. So you must be careful which company you select

for work. Many of them are doing pyramid scams or illegal work.

Remember pyramid scams are not MLM though they try to present

themselves as legitimate MLM businesses. Pyramid scams are

illegal Because plans that pay commissions for recruiting new

distributors inevitably collapse when no new distributors can be

recruited. And when a plan collapses, most people – except

perhaps those at the very top of the pyramid – end up empty-

handed.

Today of our world the FTC(Federal Trade Commission) are

controlling all about MLM .

The FTC warns “Not all multilevel marketing plans are legitimate.

Some are pyramid schemes. It’s best not to get involved in plans

where the money you make is based primarily on the number of

distributors you recruit and your sales to them, rather than on

your sales to people outside the plan who intend to use the

products.” and states that research is your best tool, giving

eight steps to follow:

• 1) Find — and study — the company’s track record

• 2) Learn about the product

55

• 3) Ask questions

• 4) Understand any restrictions

• 5) Talk to other distributors (beware of shills)

• 6) Consider using a friend or adviser as a neutral sounding

board or for a gut check

• 7) Take your time

• 8) Think about whether this plan suits your talents and goals

However, there are people who hold that all MLM s are essentially

pyramid schemes even if they are legal.

10 MLM Success Strategies

Achieving MLM success is not a mystery, but it seems like

everyone knows somebody who has failed with a network marketing

opportunity. As a result, some people have become very skeptical.

How can you expect to succeed if you focus on the fears and

attitudes of those who have failed?

The path to success is clear when you focus on the mlm success

strategies used by mlm winners. Here are 10 strategies for

success that separate the winners from the failures.

1) Have the Right Mindset. Before you even get started in

multilevel marketing (or any home-based business), you have to

have the right mindset. This means setting aside all the

negativity you're hearing from everyone else, and focusing in on

how to be successful in this industry. If you can do this then

you will find yourself moving up the ladder instead of being

stagnate.

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2) Set Goals and Follow Through. MLM success will come more

easily if you take a few minutes to set some real goals and write

them down. Then develop an action plan to work your way to

achieving those goals. Now, it's easy to set goals, but it's

difficult to follow through with them. And the truth is that the

“fortune is in the follow-up.” Sometimes life's events just get

in the way and keep you from accomplishing your dreams. Or do

they? Listen, there is no easy road to success and there will be

many obstacles in the way. The MLM winners are those who overcome

each one and continue to move forward.

3) Look for Successful People to Prospect. Most people who join a

network marketing company are afraid to prospect to successful

business people. However, successful business people know what it

takes to succeed and they are the ones who are most likely to be

successful with the opportunity your offer. While I agree

wholeheartedly that you shouldn’t pre-judge people and exclude

prospects just because they may not be employed at the time, why

not maximize your success by going to people who already know how

to be successful?

4) Use Your Sponsor. Many newcomers to network marketing start

out working with their upline and then they drift away and start

trying to go it alone. Remember, your upline’s success is tied

directly to your success, so ask for his help, watch how he does

things, and learn from him. If your upline is only a few minutes

57

more experienced than you, go to his upline until you find a real

expert who can guide you.

5) Take Advantage of Training Opportunities. MLM success is not a

mystery. Good companies offer load of training. Take advantage of

it. Keep taking advantage of it, even if you have already heard

it before.

6) Win the Numbers Game. MLM is, at many levels, a numbers game.

The more people who hear about your opportunity, the more likely

it is that larger numbers will join. If 10% of those who hear

about an opportunity join, that means that if you share the full

opportunity with 10 people, 1 will join. If you share it with

100, 10 will join. Learn that stats for the company you belong to

and set hard targets for presenting the opportunity. Then develop

a plan and follow through.

7) Organize Your Time. Planning everything out is crucial part of

everyday life. Those who fly by the seat of their pants end up

having more issues, than those who prefer an organized schedule.

Poor time management is one of the things that causes new network

marketers to flounder. Time is your most preciaous resource. MLM

success depends on elarning how to manage it.

8) Educate, Don't Sell! Time and time again, I see people trying

to sell their MLM business as opposed to educating their contacts.

Remember, these people you're speaking with day in and day out

only know a small portion about your company. If you can teach

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them the path to success, it will build a good rapport. They will

also be able to see the big picture as opposed to short-term

success. Remember, nobody likes a hard sell and nobody trusts

someone who acts like the stereotype of a used car salesman (no

offense to the several excellent and honest used car salesmen

that I know).

9) Never Present to Your Own Close Friends and Family. If you've

ever tried to be involved with an MLM company, everyone always

talks about getting a hold of your "warm list." This is simply

all the friends, relatives, and co-workers you know that you have

a good relationship with for the most part. Unfortunately, these

same people have become extremely skeptical and want to see you

make money first (well most of them anyways). As someone I know

who has been extremely successful with network marketing puts it,

“Your friends and family won’t believe that you are an expert on

a business you just learned about 5 minutes ago. However, they

will believe that you met someone who is an expert.” So, invite

your close friends and family to learn about the opportunity, and

then put them in front of an expert (your upline) to do the

actual presenting. Make sure you establish that person as an

expert before they start, and then sit back and let your upline

explain the business. Eventually, you will be presenting to the

friends and family of your downline, so take advantage of this

opportunity to listen closely to how it’s done.

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10) Be the Team Member You Want Your Team Members to Be. Your

team will follow you. If they see you staying in action, they

will stay in action. If they see you setting goals, they will set

goals. If they see you attending training, they will attend

training. Get the picture? Take a moment and write down the

characteristics that you would like to see in your downline. Then

be those things. Your team will look to you to show them the path

to MLM success.

LESSON FOUR

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GROUP DYNAMICS

Introduction

This is our first lesson on

Specific Objectives

After studying this lesson you should be able to:

Meaning of groups dynamics

Difference between groups and teams

Types of groups

Characteristics of groups

Groups development model

Group conflict

Group cohesion

Group decision making

Effective and ineffective groups contrasted

What Are Group Dynamics?

Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist and change management expert, is credited with coining the term "group dynamics" in the early 1940s. He noted that people often take on distinct roles and behaviors when they work in a group. "Group dynamics" describes the effects of these roles and behaviors on other group members, and on the group as a whole.

More recent researchers have built on Lewin's ideas, and this work has become central to good management practice.

A group with a positive dynamic is easy to spot. Team members trust one another, they work towards a collective decision, and they hold one another accountable for making things happen. As well as this, researchers have found that when a team has a

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positive dynamic, its members are nearly twice as creative as an average group.In a group with poor group dynamics, people's behavior disrupts work. As a result, the group may not come to any decision, or it may make the wrong choice, because group members could not explore options effectively.

What Causes Poor Group Dynamics?

Group leaders and team members can contribute to a negative groupdynamic. Let's look at some of the most common problems that can occur:

Weak leadership: when a team lacks a strong leader, a moredominant member of the group can often take charge. This can lead to a lack of direction, infighting, or a focus onthe wrong priorities.

Excessive deference to authority: this can happen when people want to be seen to agree with a leader, and therefore hold back from expressing their own opinions.

Blocking: this happens when team members behave in a way that disrupts the flow of information in the group. Peoplecan adopt blocking roles such as: The aggressor: this person often disagrees with

others, or is inappropriately outspoken. The negator: this group member is often critical of

others' ideas. The withdrawer: this person doesn't participate in

the discussion. The recognition seeker: this group member is

boastful, or dominates the session. The joker: this person introduces humor at

inappropriate times. Groupthink  : this happens when people place a desire for

consensus above their desire to reach the right decision. This prevents people from fully exploring alternative solutions.

Free riding: here, some group members take it easy, and leave their colleagues to do all the work. Free riders may

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work hard on their own, but limit their contributions in group situations; this is known as "social loafing."

Evaluation apprehension: team members' perceptions can also create a negative group dynamic. Evaluation apprehension happens when people feel that they are being judged excessively harshly by other group members, and they hold back their opinions as a result.

Strategies for Improving Team Dynamics

Use these approaches to improve group dynamics:

1) Know Your Team

As a leader, you need to guide the development of your group. So,start by learning about the phases   that a group goes through asit develops. When you understand these, you'll be able to preemptproblems that could arise, including issues with poor group dynamics.Next, use Benne and Sheats' Group Roles   to identify positive and negative group roles, and to understand how they could affectthe group as a whole. This will also help you plan how to deal with potential problems.

2) Tackle Problems Quickly

If you notice that one member of your team has adopted a behaviorthat's affecting the group unhelpfully, act quickly to challenge it.

Provide feedback   that shows your team member the impact of her actions, and encourage her to reflect on how she can change her behavior.

3) Define Roles and Responsibilities

Teams that lack focus or direction can quickly develop poor dynamics, as people struggle to understand their role in the group.

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Create a team charter   – defining the group's mission and objective, and everyone's responsibilities – as soon as you form the team. Make sure that everyone has a copy of the document, andremind people of it regularly.

4) Break Down Barriers

Use team-building exercises   to help everyone get to know one another, particularly when new members join the group. These exercises ease new colleagues into the group gently, and also help to combat the "black sheep effect," which happens when groupmembers turn against people they consider different.Also, explain the idea of the Johari Window   to help people openup. Lead by example: share what you hope the group will achieve, along with "safe" personal information about yourself, such as valuable lessons that you've learned.

5) Focus on Communication

Open communication is central to good team dynamics, so make surethat everyone is communicating clearly. Include all of the forms of communication that your group uses – emails, meetings, and shared documents, for example – to avoid any ambiguity.

If the status of a project changes, or if you have an announcement to make, let people know as soon as possible. That way, you can ensure that everyone has the same information.

Opinionated team members can overwhelm their quieter colleagues in meetings. Where this happens, use techniques such as Crawford's Slip Writing Method  , and make sure that you develop strong facilitation   skills.

6) Pay Attention

Watch out for the warning signs of poor group dynamics.

Pay particular attention to frequent unanimous decisions, as these can be a sign ofgroupthink  , bullying  , or free riding. If there are frequent unanimous decisions in your group, consider

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exploring new ways to encourage people to discuss their views, orto share them anonymously.

Difference between groups and teams

Here are ten key differentials to help you mould your people into a pro-active and productive team.

1. Understandings.  In a group, members think they are grouped together for administrative purposes only.  Individuals sometimes cross purpose with others.  In a team, members recognise their independence and understand both personal and team goals are best accomplished with mutual support.  Time is not wasted struggling over "Turf"or attempting personal gain at the expense of others.

2. Ownership.  In a group, members tend to focus on themselves because they are not sufficiently involved in planning the unit's objectives. They approach their job simply as a hired hand. "Castle Building" is common.  In ateam, members feel a sense of ownership for their jobs andunit, because they are committed to values-based common goals that they helped establish.

3. Creativity and Contribution.   In a group, members are told what to do rather than being asked what the best approach would be.  Suggestions and creativity are not encouraged.  In a team, members contribute to the organisation's success by applying their unique talents, knowledge and creativity to team objectives.

4. Trust.   In a group, members distrust the motives of colleagues because they do not understand the role of other members. Expressions of opinion or disagreement are considered divisive or non-supportive.  In a team, memberswork in a climate of trust and are encouraged to openly express ideas, opinions, disagreements and feelings. Questions are welcomed.

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5. Common Understandings.   In a group, members are so cautious about what they say, that real understanding is not possible. Game playing may occur and communication traps be set to catch the unwary.  In a team, members practice open and honest communication.  They make an effort to understand each other's point of view.

6. Personal Development.   In a group, members receive good training but are limited in applying it to the job by the manager or other group members.  In a team, members are encouraged to continually develop skills and apply what they learn on the job.  Theyperceive they have the supportof the team.

7. Conflict Resolution.   In a group, members find themselvesin conflict situations they do not know how to resolve.  Their supervisor/leader may put off intervention until serious damage is done, i.e. a crisis situation.  In a team, members realise conflict is a normal aspect of humaninteraction but they view such situations as an opportunity for new ideas and creativity. They work to resolve conflict quickly and constructively.

8. Participative Decision Making.   In a group, members may or may not participate in decisions affecting the team.  Conformity often appears more important than positive results.  Win/lose situations are common.   In a team, members participate in decisions affecting the team but understand their Leader must make a final ruling whenever the team cannot decide, or an emergency exists.  Positive win/win results are the goal at all times.

9. Clear Leadership.   In a group, members tend to work in anunstructured environment with undetermined standards of performance.  Leaders do not walk the talk and tend to lead from behind a desk.  In a team, members work in a structured environment, they know what boundaries exist and who has final authority.  The leader sets agreed high standards of performance and he/she is respected via active, willing participation.

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10. Commitment.   In a group, members are uncommitted towards excellence and personal pride.  Performance levelstend to be mediocre.  Staff turnover is high because talented individuals quickly recognise that

(a) personal expectations are not being fulfilled

(b) they are not learning and growing from others and

(c) they are not working with the best people.

In a team, only those committed to excellence are hired. Prospective team members are queuing at the door to be recruited on the basis of their high levels of hard and soft skill sets.  Everyone works together in a harmoniousenvironment.

Types of groups

1) Social Groups

Social groups are everywhere and are a basic part of human life; everywhere you look there seems to be groups of people! Amain focus of sociology is the study of these social groups. A social group consists of two or more people who regularly interact and share a sense of unity and common identity. In other words, it's a group of people who see each other frequently and consider themselves a part of the group. Except in rare cases, we all typically belong to many different types of social groups. For example, you could be a member of a sports team, club, church group, college class, workplace, and more.

2) Primary Groups

Primary groups are those that are close-knit. They are typically small scale, include intimate relationships, and are

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usually long lasting. The members of primary groups feel a strong personal identity with the group.

The nuclear family is an example of a primary social group

The nuclear family, which consists of a pair of adults and their children, is a good example. Members of a nuclear family typically interact on a daily basis. For them, the family is an important source of identity and purpose. Love and affection bindthe family members together, and their relationships are enduring. Even when members move away from each other, they are still a part of the family.

Although the nuclear family is considered the ideal primary group by some sociologists, it is not the only example. Many people are also a member of a group of close friends. This group is usually small, and the relationships are still close-knit and enduring, so it is also a primary group. The term 'primary' is used with these groups because they are the primary source of relationships and socialization. The relationships in our primary groups give us love, security, andcompanionship. We also learn values and norms from our family and friends that stay with us for most, if not all, of our lives.

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3) Secondary Groups

Secondary groups are another type of social group. They have the opposite characteristics of primary groups. They can be small or large and are mostly impersonal and usually short term. These groups are typically found at work and school. An example of a secondary group is a committee organized to plan aholiday party at work. Members of the committee meet infrequently and for only a short period of time. Although group members may have some similar interests, the purpose of the group is about the task instead of the relationships. Sometimes, secondary groups become pretty informal, and the members get to know each other fairly well. Even so, their friendships exist in a limited context; they won't necessarily remain close beyond the holiday party.

A classroom project group is an example of a secondary social group

Other common examples of secondary groups are class project groups, college classes, sports teams, work teams, and neighborhoods. All of these groups are only temporary - even if they last for a year - and the relationships within the group arefairly shallow and typically touch-and-go. Of course, there are times when we do meet people in secondary groups that become a part of one of our primary groups. This demonstrates that the distinction between primary and secondary groups isn't always

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absolute or concrete. You may meet your best friend at work or school in a secondary group, and he or she then becomes a member of your primary group.

4) Reference Groups

The last type of group we'll discuss in this lesson is a reference group. Reference groups are groups that we look to for guidance in order to evaluate our behaviors and attitudes. They are basically generalized versions of role models. You mayor may not belong to the group, but you use its standards of measurement as a frame of reference. For example, if a teenagerwants to know if she is slim enough, she may use supermodels asa reference. Or, if a recent college graduate is unsure if an offered salary is fair, he may use the average starting salary of graduates from his school as a reference.

Frequently, people hope to be identified with their reference groups (especially if they aren't members of them), so they tryto act like those they think typify these groups. If your reference group is a particular athletic team, you will dress, speak, and act quite differently than if your reference group is a local wine club. So, a reference group helps to shape not only a person's expectations and outlook but also appearance and style.

Groups’ development model

Psychologist Bruce Tuckman first came up with the memorable phrase "forming, storming, norming, and performing" in his 1965 article, "Developmental Sequence in Small Groups." He used it to describe the path that most teams follow on their way to high performance. Later, he added a fifth stage, "adjourning" (which is sometimes known as "mourning").

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1) Forming

In this stage, most team members are positive and polite. Some are anxious, as they haven't fully understood what work the team will do. Others are simply excited about the task ahead.

As leader, you play a dominant role at this stage, because team members' roles and responsibilities aren't clear.

This stage can last for some time, as people start to work together, and as they make an effort to get to know their new colleagues.

2) Storming

Next, the team moves into the storming phase, where people start to push against the boundaries established in the forming stage. This is the stage where many teams fail.

Storming often starts where there is a conflict between team members' natural working styles. People may work in different ways for all sorts of reasons, but if differing working styles cause unforeseen problems, they may become frustrated.

Storming can also happen in other situations. For example, team members may challenge your authority, or jockey for position as their roles are clarified. Or, if you haven't defined clearly howthe team will work, people may feel overwhelmed by their workload, or they could be uncomfortable with the approach you'reusing.

Some may question the worth of the team's goal, and they may resist taking on tasks.

Team members who stick with the task at hand may experience stress, particularly as they don't have the support of established processes, or strong relationships with their colleagues.

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3) Norming

Gradually, the team moves into the norming stage. This is when people start to resolve their differences, appreciate colleagues'strengths, and respect your authority as a leader.

Now that your team members know one-another better, they may socialize together, and they are able to ask each other for help and provide constructive feedback. People develop a stronger commitment to the team goal, and you start to see good progress towards it.

There is often a prolonged overlap between storming and norming, because, as new tasks come up, the team may lapse back into behavior from the storming stage.

4) Performing

The team reaches the performing stage when hard work leads, without friction, to the achievement of the team's goal. The structures and processes that you have set up support this well.

As leader, you can delegate much of your work, and you can concentrate on developing team members.

It feels easy to be part of the team at this stage, and people who join or leave won't disrupt performance.

5) Adjourning

Many teams will reach this stage eventually. For example, projectteams exist for only a fixed period, and even permanent teams maybe disbanded through organizational restructuring.

Team members who like routine, or who have developed close working relationships with other team members, may find this stage difficult, particularly if their future now looks uncertain.

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Using the Tool

As a team leader, your aim is to help your people perform well, as quickly as possible. To do this, you'll need to change your approach at each stage.

Follow the steps below to ensure that you're doing the right thing at the right time:

1. Identify the stage of team development that your team is at from the descriptions above.

2. Now consider what you need to do to move towards the performing stage. Figure 1, below, will help you understand your role, and think about how you can move theteam forward.

3. Schedule regular reviews of where your team is, and adjustyour behavior and leadership approach appropriately.

Figure 1: Leadership Activities at Different Group Formation Stages

Stage Activities

Forming Direct the team, and establish clear objectives, both for the team as a whole   and for individual team members.

Storming Establish processes and structures. Build trust   and good

relationships   between team members. Resolve conflicts   swiftly if they occur.

Provide support, especially to those team members who are less secure.

Remain positive   and firm in the face of challenges to your leadership, or to the team's goal.

Explain the "forming, storming, norming,

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Stage Activities

and performing" idea, so that people understand why problems are occurring, andso that they see that things will get better in the future. Coach   team membersin assertiveness   and conflict resolutionskills  , where this is necessary.

Use psychometric indicators such as Myers-Briggs  and the Margerison-McCann Team Management Profile   to help people learn about different work styles and strengths.

Norming Step back and help team members take responsibility for progress towards the goal. (This is a good time to arrange a team-building   event.)

Performing Delegate   tasks and projects as far as you can. Once the team is achieving well, you should aim to have as light a touch aspossible. You will now be able to start focusing on other goals and areas of work.

Adjourning Take the time to celebrate the team's achievements – you may work with some of your people again, and this will be much easier if people view past experiences positively.

Organisational Conflicts

Conflict can be defined as any kind of disagreement orantagonistic interaction. It is normally as a result of

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incompatible relationships between two or more parties. It existswhen one party interferes or is perceived to interfere with theattainment of the goals of another party.

Levels of conflict

Level 1 – intra- personal conflict:

- It exists only within an individual and arises when one hasto choose between incompatible goals e.g whether to act inthe individual’s interest or in the interest of theorganization.

Level 2 – Interpersonal conflict

- It results when two or more individuals disagree overissues, actions or goals.

Level 3- Intra- group conflict:

- This is conflict within a group of persons in theorganization e.g committees. Intra-group conflict can besubstantive or affective.

- Substantive conflict is based on intellectual disagreementwhile affective conflict is based on emotional response tosituations.

Level 4 – Inter- group conflict:

- It takes place between groups e.g management and employeesor between different sections of a department

Sources of intergroup conflicts

- -Group conflicts can be due to:- Differences in Group Goals- -When groups in organizations perform different functions,

they develop their own goals and norms. This can lead togroup conflict

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- -If reward system is pegged on group performance rather thanthe overall organizational performance, it tends to create awin-lose situation (competition) hence conflict

-- Task Interdependence;- - Pooled interdependence;- when 2 work groups do not directly

interact with each other but are affected by each other’sactions

- Sequential interdependence;-When one groups performancedepends on another group’s prior performance

- Reciprocal interdependence;- When two or more groups aremutually interdependent in accomplishing their tasks

- NB: Conflict occurs if one group does not meet theexpectations of another group

-- Competition for limited resources - -Occurs if two or more groupds are sharing limited

resources. Examples of resources are money, facilties,power, status, prestige etc.

-- Competitive Reward Systems- -Competition where tasks are performed independently

increase level of performance - -However, if rewards are based on departmental performance

of these departments and have tasks that require high levelsof interdependence, conflict can arise

-- Leadership Differences- -If leaders of one group have differences with a leader

(member) of another group, conflict between groups may occuri.e. interpersonal conflicts can yield to intergroupconflicts

-- Differences in work environment/orientation

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- -Differences in work orientation can cause intergroupconflict

- -People from different orientation e.g. (functional andtechnical) backgrounds view tasks differently with differentapproaches

- -This causes conflict if each group insists on its own wayof working

Level 5- Intra- organizational conflict

- This is conflict within an organization. It may be vertical,horizontal etc. Vertical conflict exists betweensupervisors and subordinates while horizontal conflict ariseemployees at the same level of authority.

Level 6 – Inter-organizational conflict:

- This is a conflict between different organizations

Stages of a conflict

- Conflict is a dynamic process that has the following stages:1. Latent stage

- This is the first stage in the development of a conflict. Itis a stage during which the conditions for conflict exist. Alatent conflict exists when people have power differences,compete for scarce resources or strive for autonomy that maycause some form of disagreement. In most cases parties tosuch a conflict are unaware of the conflict. It is the mostsilent stage in conflict development (covert conflict)2. Perceived stage

- At this stage parties start knowing that a conflict exists.They may however deny that it exists if asked. They aregenerally uncomfortable with each other but do not expresstheir discomfort.3. Felt stage

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- The conflict becomes personalized to the individuals orgroups involved and parties involved become anxious.4. Manifest stage

- At this stage observable behavior designed to frustrate theother party become violent. It is the most overt stage ofthe conflict. It entails both aggression and withdrawal ofsupport.5. Aftermath stage

- This is a situation after the manifest conflict. It arisesafter the main conflict has been suppressed or resolved. Atthis stage, relationships are yet to be normalized, there islimited interaction between parties, tension is still highand unless well managed high and unless well managed, it cango back to the manifest stage.

Causes of conflict

1. Competition for resources:- Organizational resources scarce hence members compete for

them e.g budget allocations, working tools, working spaceetc. The likelihood of conflict increases with an increasein scarcity of resources.

2. Task interdependence- If two or more parties depend on each other for task

accomplishment, the point of interaction can lead toconflict.

3. Jurisdictional ambiguity - If responsibilities overlap or there are gaps, conflicts

tend to increase especially if there is no clear boundaryfor each party

4. Violation of territory:- People establish their territories which they also try to

protest. If such territories are interfered with it theylead to conflict.

5. Status differences

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- If status differences cause one party to react in a hostilemanner towards another, it may lead to withholding ofcooperation and cause conflict.

6. Communication barriers:- If people are unable to communicate effectively they may

misunderstand each other leading to a conflict.7. Individual traits:- The personality traits of individuals may contribute to

conflicts e.g uncompromising behavior, excessiveassertiveness.

8. Differences in values and perceptions:- If different persons see an event from different

perceptions, they may also conflict if they are unable toreconcile their perceptions.

9. External environment change:- A change In demand, competition from other firms, government

intervention or change in technology may have a directinfluence on the organizational goals hence cause conflicts.

10. Goal conflictbetween different sub-units of the organization:

- If the organizational goals are conflicting, they may alsocause conflicts within the sub-units implementing them.

11. Poor jobdesign and task allocation:

- This may make it difficult for subordinates to performeffectively and cause vertical conflict with theirsupervisors.

12. Poorleadership and management styles:

- This may cause resistance by subordinates that ultimatelyleads to conflicts.

13. Structuralconflicts:

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- If the organization structure is complex it may causeconflict among employees.

Effects of conflicts

Positive effects:

1. Conflict may enhance security and identity of the partiesinvolved because the parties come out in a distinct mannerduring a conflict.

2. It is a safety valve that maintains group cohesion becauseit acts as an outlet of tension rather than holding thetension to explosive levels.

3. When conflicts occur some members may be ejected so that htremaining ones may be left in harmony.

4. Conflict with an external source can increase cohesion asthe group unites against the outsiders

5. May lead to positive change when things are improved as aresult of the conflict.

6. Issues can surface during the conflict so that they can beclarified and the source of antagonism eliminated.

7. Enables training of managers in conflict management bycreating practical situations.

8. If the conflict is as a result of competitions for resourcesit will enable effective resources allocation in future.

9. It improves social relationships by improving communicationand producing positive future associations that have respectfor each other.

Negative effects:

1. It wastes a lot of resources2. It is time consuming because people waste valuable time on

the build up to conflict on the struggle and on theresolution of the conflict.

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3. It causes people to loose sight of the organizational goalsas they loose in the settlement of a conflict.

4. Some people feel defeated and demoralized when they loose inthe settlement of a conflict hence reducing their level ofconflict.

5. The distance between people may be increased by conflictreducing co-.

6. An environment of distrust and suspicion is created leadingto poor interpersonal relationships.

7. It may increase the rate of labour turnover as peoplebecome increasingly dissatisfied with their workenvironment.

8. May cause fatigue and stress due to the tension and anxietythat is created.

9. It may reduce the effectiveness of community as people keepto themselves in an attempt to withdraw from the conflict.

Techniques (methods) of conflicts management

- Different strategies are available for managing conflict.The effectiveness of each method depends on the situationencountered.

- They include:1. Withdrawal: - This is where one or both parties withdraw from or avoid the

party with which they are in conflict. This is normally anoption under the following conditions:a) When the issues under a conflict are trivial.b) When there is no chance of winning the conflict.c) When a delay is necessary to gather more information or

facts.- This method may reduce conflicts and avoid costs associated

with it but in a short term but the underlying issues remainunresolved and the conflict may emerge in the longer.

- Smoothing :

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- This is where the differences are played down and areas ofagreement emphasized. This is appropriate where maintenanceof good relations is more important than the issues inconflict hence it is used where the issues are notsignificant

- It can also be used if the issues to the conflict are moreimportant to the other party than to oneself and wherepeople realize that they are wrong.

2. Compromise:- This is where each party gives up something in exchange of

what it wants. Neither party gets all that it requires.- Compromise is an option under the following circumstances:a) Where management require a short term solution so as to

pursue other important goals.b) Where the goals of both sides are equally importantc) Where opponents have equal power and both sides are willing

to end their differences. However, compromise is usually ashort term solution.

3. Use of super-ordinate goals collaboration- This is over emphasizing a goal that is above individual

objectives and which may overshadow the differences betweenthe conflicting parties. The common goals can harmonisetheir interest. Collaboration is necessary in the followingcircumstances(a) Both parties

concerned are too important to be compromised(b) When the

commitment of both sides is needed for consensus (c) Where

insights of both parties need to be merged into anoverall solution.

4. Forcing- A manager compel one party to accept a certain solution. In

this case formal authority is applied so that one party is

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overruled whether or not it agrees with the results.However, forcing may stop a conflict for a short while butwill not have solved the main problem hence the conflict mayresurface in the longrun.

5. Mediation and arbitration- This calls for a third party intervention. Arbitration is

where the 3rd party makes a binding decision. Thearbitration is given authority to act as a judge and thedecision is considered final. In a mediation, the thirdparty assists the conflicting parties to reach an agreement.The mediator only suggest, recommends reach a solution.Mediation is normally an option when there is communicationbreakdown between the parties. It may have long termsolutions if the parties agree to end the conflict.

6. Restructuring the organization- Management may redesign the organization to avoid conflicts

arising from existing structures and methods.- This can be done by:

(a) Redesigningjobs

(b) Reassigningduties

(c) Change ofauthority relationships to improve on management styles

(d) Transfers andredeployment of employees to physically separate thosewith conflicting personality

(e) Re-organizing the physical layout of the organization tominimize potential areas of conflict

(f) Improvingcommunication channels to bring about more understanding

Outcome to conflict management

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- The conflict management process may lead to the followingoutcomes:1. Win- loose outcome

- This is normally a zero-sum outcome for loosers. - This is where the magnitude of gain by one party is offset

by equal loss for another party. This is normally a resultof methods such as forcing where majority or authority ruledetermines that the minority loose as the majority win. Thewin- loose outcome does not lead to a longterm solutionbecause the losers recollect themselves, change theirstrategies and restart the conflict.2. Loose-loose outcome:

- No party is a winner although each may gain somethingthrough compromise. Each party sacrifices or loosessomething significant .When this happens none of theparties is completely satisfied with the outcome. Thisoutcome is a result of methods such as arbitration andcompromise.

3. Win- Win outcomeThis is where both parties gain. The conflict managementfocuses on the goal of each other and develops strategies toachieve these goals. It exists in situation such as super-ordinary goals

Managing conflicts between organisationsConflicts between organizations mainly became of competition inacquiring inputs and marketSuch conflicts can be managed by taking the following measures

1. Encouraging fair competition by emphasizing ethical businesspractices

2. Developing competitive strategies that may not interferewith the other organization strategies

3. Focusing on organizational goals

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4. Dialogue between the organizations representatives incase ofany conflicting issues

5. Mergers and conditions so as to work together rather than tocompete

6. Use of industrial courts to solve dispute between theorganizations

Group cohesion

Group cohesion is the sum of all the factors causing members of agroup to stay in the group or be attracted to the group. You can think of group cohesion as the 'social glue' that binds a group together.

Cohesiveness is a measure of the attraction of the group to its members (and the resistance to leaving it), the sense of team spirit, and the willingness of its members to coordinate their efforts. Compared with members of a low-cohesive group, those in a high-cohesive group will, therefore, be keen to attend meetings, be satisfied with the group, use "we" rather than "I" in discussions, be cooperative and friendly with each other, and be more effective in achieving the aims they set for themselves. The low-cohesive group will be marked by absenteeism, the growth of cliques and factions, and a sense of frustration at the lack of attainment.

Questions to ask on group cohesiveness are:

How satisfied are members with the group and their part in it?

Did members seem glad to see each other again?

Did there seem to be a sense of shared purpose or was everyone "doing their own thing"?

Did any subgroup or private conversations develop?

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Was the quality and quantity of communication high or low?

Did members turn up on time and stay to the end without looking distracted?

What evidence was there of interest or lack of interest among members in what was happening or where the group was going?

Did members talk inclusively about the group-"our group","we", and "each one of us" rather then "the group","I", or "you"?

Factors the enhances group cohesiveness

The forces that push group members together can be positive (group-based rewards) or negative (things lost upon leaving the group). The main factors that influence group cohesiveness are: members’ similarity, group size, entry difficulty, group success and external competition and threats. Often, these factors work through enhancing the identification of individuals with the group they belong to as well as their beliefs of how thegroup can fulfill their personal needs.Similarity of group membersSimilarity of group members has different influences on group cohesiveness depending on how to define this concept. Lott and Lott (1965) who refer to interpersonal attraction as group cohesiveness conducted an extensive review on the literature and found that individuals’ similarities in background (e.g., race, ethnicity, occupation, age), attitudes, values and personality traits have generally positive association with group cohesiveness.On the other hand, from the perspective of social attraction as the basis of group cohesiveness, similarity among group members is the cue for individuals to categorize themselves and others into either an ingroup or outgroup In this perspective, the more prototypical similarity individuals feel between themselves and other ingroup members, the stronger the group cohesiveness will be.

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In addition, similar background makes it more likely that membersshare similar views on various issues, including group objectives, communication methods and the type of desired leadership. In general, higher agreement among members on group rules and norms results in greater trust and less dysfunctional conflict. This, in turn, strengthens both emotional and task cohesiveness.Entry difficultyDifficult entry criteria or procedures to a group tend to presentit in more exclusive light. The more elite the group is perceivedto be, the more prestigious it is to be a member in that group Asshown in dissonance studies conducted by Aronson and Mills (1959)and confirmed by Gerard and Mathewson (1966), this effect can be due to dissonance reduction. Dissonance reduction can occur when a person has endured arduous initiation into a group; if some aspects of the group are unpleasant, the person may distort theirperception of the group because of the difficulty of entry. Thus,the value of the group increases in the group member's mind.Group performanceGroup performance, like exclusive entry, increases the value of group membership to its members and influences members to identify more strongly with the team and to want to be actively associated with it.External competition and threatWhen members perceive active competition with another group, theybecome more aware of members’ similarity within their group as well as seeing their group as a means to overcome the external threat or competition they are facing. Both these factors increase group cohesiveness; leaders throughout human history have been aware of this and focused the attention of their followers on conflicts with external enemies when internal cohesion was threatened. Similar effects can be brought about by facing an ‘objective’ external threat or challenge (such as natural disaster).Consequences of group cohesiveness

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Group cohesion has been linked to a range of positive and negative consequences. Its consequences on performance, member satisfaction, member emotional adjustment, and the pressures feltby the member will be examined in the sections below.PerformanceStudies have shown that cohesion can cause performance and that performance can cause cohesion. Most meta-analyses (studies that have summarized the results of many studies) have shown that there is a relationship between cohesion and performance. This isthe case even when cohesion is defined in different ways. When cohesion is defined as attraction, it is better correlated with performance. When it is defined as task commitment, it is also correlated with performance, though to a lesser degree than cohesion as attraction .Not enough studies were performed with cohesion defined as group pride. When considering cohesion as attraction to the group, cohesion was also positively related to performance. In general, cohesion defined in all these ways was positively related with performance.However, some groups may have a stronger cohesion-performance relationship than others. Smaller groups have a better cohesion-performance relationship than larger groups. Carron (2002) found cohesion-performance relationships to be strongest in sports teams and ranked the strength of the relationship in this order (from strongest to weakest): sports teams, military squads, groups that form for a purpose, groups in experimental settings. There is some evidence that cohesion may be more strongly relatedto performance for groups that have highly interdependent roles than for groups in which members are independent.In regards to group productivity, having attraction and group pride may not be enough. It is necessary to have task commitment in order to be productive. Furthermore, groups with high performance goals were extremely productive.Member satisfactionStudies have shown that people in cohesive groups have reported more satisfaction than members of a noncohesive group. This is the case across many settings, including industrial, athletic,

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and educational settings. Members in cohesive groups also are more optimistic and suffer less from social problems than those in non-cohesive groups.One study involved a team of masons and carpenters working on a housing development. For the first five months, their supervisor formed the groups they were to work in. These groups changed overthe course of five months. This was to help the men get to know everyone working on this development project and naturally, likesand dislikes for the people around them emerged. The experimenterthen formed cohesive groups by grouping people who liked each other. It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups. As quoted from oneof the workers "the work is more interesting when you’ve got a buddy working with you. You certainly like it a lot better anyway."Emotional adjustmentPeople in cohesive groups experience better emotional adjustment.In particular, people experience less anxiety and tension. It wasalso found that people cope better with stress when they belong to a cohesive group.One study showed that cohesion as task commitment can improve group decision making when the group is under stress than when itis not under stress. The study studied forty-six three-person teams, all of whom were faced with the task of selecting the bestoil drilling sites based on information given to them. The study manipulated whether or not the teams had high cohesion or low cohesion and how urgent the task was to be done. The study found that teams with low cohesion and high urgency performed worse than teams with high cohesion and high urgency. This indicates that cohesion can improve group decision-making in times of stress.Attachment theory has also asserted that adolescents with behavioral problems do not have close interpersonal relationshipsor have superficial ones.  Many studies have found that an individual without close peer relationships are at a higher risk for emotional adjustment problems currently and later in life

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While people may experience better emotional in cohesive groups, they may also face many demands on their emotions, such as those that result from scapegoating and hostility.Conformity pressuresPeople in cohesive groups have greater pressure to conform than people in non-cohesive groups. The theory of groupthink suggests that the pressures hinder the group from critically thinking about the decisions it is making. Giordano (2003) has suggested that this is because people within a group frequently interact with one another and create many opportunities for influence. It is also because a person within a group perceive other members assimilar to themselves and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures. Another reason is because people value the group and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures to maintain or enhance their relationships.Illegal activities have been stemmed from conformity pressures within a group. Haynie (2001) found that the degree to which a group of friends engaged in illegal activities was a predictor ofan individual’s participation in the illegal activity. This was even after the individual's prior behavior was controlled for andother controls were set in place. Furthermore, those with friendswho all engaged in illegal activities were most likely to engage in illegal activities themselves. Another study found that adolescents with no friends did not engage in as many illegal activities as those with at least one friend. Other studies have found similar results

Group decision making

Group decision-making (also known as collaborative decision-

making) is a situation faced when individuals collectively make a

choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no

longer attributable to any single individual who is a member of

the group. This is because all the individuals and social

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group processes such as social influence contribute to the

outcome. The decisions made by groups are often different from

those made by individuals. Group polarization is one clear

example: groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme than

those of its individual members, in the direction of the

individual inclinations

Decision making in a formal system

Consensus decision-making Tries to avoid "winners" and "losers". Consensus requires that a majority approve a given course of action, but that the minority agree to go along with the course of action. In other words, if the minority opposes the course of action, consensus requires that the course of action be modified to remove objectionable features.

Voting-based methodsRange voting lets each member score one or more of the available options. The option with the highest average is chosen. This method has experimentally been shown to produce the lowest Bayesian regret among common voting methods, even when voters are strategic. Majority requires support from more than 50% of the members of the group. Thus, the bar for action is lower than with unanimity and a group of "losers" is implicit to this rule. Plurality, where the largest block in a group decides, even if itfalls short of a majority.

Delphi method This method is a structured communication technique for groups, originally developed for collaborative forecasting but also used for policy-making.

Dotmocracy 

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A facilitation method that relies on the use of forms called "dotmocracy sheets" to allow large groups to brainstorm collectively and recognize agreement on an unlimited number of ideas they have authored.

Decision making in a social setting

Decision-making in groups is sometimes examined separately as

process and outcome. Process refers to the group interactions.

Some relevant ideas include coalitions among participants as well

as influence and persuasion. The use of politics is often judged

negatively, but it is a useful way to approach problems when

preferences among actors are in conflict, when dependencies exist

that cannot be avoided, when there are no super-ordinate

authorities, and when the technical or scientific merit of the

options is ambiguous.

In addition to the different processes involved in making

decisions, group-decision support systems (GDSSs) may have

different decision rules. A decision rule is the GDSS protocol a

group uses to choose among scenario planning alternatives.

Gathering Involves all participants acknowledging each other's needs and opinions and tends towards a problem solving approach in which asmany needs and opinions as possible can be satisfied. It allows for multiple outcomes and does not require agreement from some for others to act.

Sub-committee Involves assigning responsibility for evaluation of a decision toa sub-set of a larger group, which then comes back to the larger group with recommendations for action. Using a sub-committee is

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more common in larger governance groups, such as a legislature. Sometimes a sub-committee includes those individuals most affected by a decision, although at other times it is useful for the larger group to have a sub-committee that involves more neutral participants.

Participatory Each participant has a say that is directly proportional to the degree that particular decision would affect him or her. Those not affected by a decision would have no say and those exclusively affected by a decision would have full say. Likewise,those most affected would have the most say while those least affected would have the least say.

Plurality and dictatorship are less desirable as decision rules

because they do not require the involvement of the broader group

to determine a choice. Thus, they do not engender commitment to

the course of action chosen. An absence of commitment from

individuals in the group can be problematic during the

implementation phase of a decision.

There are no perfect decision-making rules. Depending on how the

rules are implemented in practice and the situation, all of these

can lead to situations where either no decision is made, or to

situations where decisions made are inconsistent with one another

over time.Characteristics of Effective Teams

1. There is a clear unity of purpose.

There was free discussion of the objectives until members could commit themselves to them; the objectives are meaningfulto each group member.

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2. The group is self-conscious about its own operations.

The group has taken time to explicitly discuss group process --

how the group will function to achieve its objectives. The group

has a clear, explicit, and mutually agreed-upon approach:

mechanics, norms, expectations, rules, etc. Frequently, it will

stop to examine how well it is doing or what may be interfering

with its operation. Whatever the problem may be, it gets open

discussion and a solution found.

3. The group has set clear and demanding performance goals

for itself and has translated these performance goals into well-

defined concrete milestones against which it measures itself. The

group defines and achieves a continuous series of "small wins"

along the way to larger goals.

4. The atmosphere tends to be informal, comfortable, relaxed.

There are no obvious tensions, a working atmosphere in which

people are involved and interested.

5. There is a lot of discussion in which virtually everyone

participates,

but it remains pertinent to the purpose of the group. If

discussion gets off track, someone will bring it back in short

order. The members listen to each other. Every idea is given a

hearing. People are not afraid of being foolish by putting forth

a creative thought even if it seems extreme.

6. People are free in expressing their feelings as well as their

ideas.

7. There is disagreement and this is viewed as good.

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Disagreements are not suppressed or overridden by premature group

action. The reasons are carefully examined, and the group seeks

to resolve them rather than dominate the dissenter. Dissenters

are not trying to dominate the group; they have a genuine

difference of opinion. If there are basic disagreements that

cannot be resolved, the group figures out a way to live with them

without letting them block its efforts.

8. Most decisions are made at a point where there is general

agreement.

However, those who disagree with the general agreement of the

group do not keep their opposition private and let an apparent

consensus mask their disagreement. The group does not accept a

simple majority as a proper basis for action.

9. Each individual carries his or her own weight,

meeting or exceeding the expectations of other group members.

Each individual is respectful of the mechanics of the group:

arriving on time, coming to meetings prepared, completing agreed

upon tasks on time, etc. When action is taken, clears assignments

are made (who-what-when) and willingly accepted and completed by

each group member.

10. Criticism is frequent, frank and relatively comfortable.

The criticism has a constructive flavor -- oriented toward

removing an obstacle that faces the group.

11. The leadership of the group shifts from time to time.

The issue is not who controls, but how to get the job done.

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LESSON FIVE

COMPUTER NETWORKS

Introduction

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This is our first lesson on

Specific Objectives

After studying this lesson you should be able to:

Meaning of data communication

Principles of data communication

Communications channels

Data transmission: analog versus digital

Meaning of computer networks

Types of computer networks

Networks topology

Application of computer networks in organization

5.1 Meaning of data communication

Data communication systems are the electronic systems that

transmit data over communication lines from one location to

another. End users need to know the essential parts of

communication technology, including connections, channels,

transmission, network architectures and network types.

Communication allows microcomputer users to transmit and receive

data and gain access to electronic resources.

5.2 Principles of data communication

Source – creates the data, could be a computer or a telephone

Transmitter – encodes the information e.g. modem, network card

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Transmission system – transfers the information e.g. wire or

complex network

Receiver – decodes the information for the destination e.g.

modem, network card

Destination – accepts and uses the incoming information, could

be a computer or telephone

5.3 Communication channels

The transmission media used in communication are called

communication channels. Two ways of connecting microcomputers

for communication with each other and with other equipment is

through cable and air. There are five kinds of communication

channels used for cable or air connections:

- Telephone lines

- Coaxial cable

- Fiber-optic cable

- Microwave

- Satellite

Telephone lines (Twisted Pair)

Telephone line cables made up of copper wires called twisted

pair. A single twisted pair culminates in a wall jack where you

plug your phone. Telephone lines have been the standard

communication channel for both voice and data. More technically

advanced and reliable transmission media is now replacing it.

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Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable is a high-frequency transmission cable that

replaces the multiple wires of telephone lines with a single

solid copper core. It has over 80 times the transmission

capacity of twisted pair. It is often used to link parts of a

computer system in one building.

Fibre-optic cable

Fibre-optic cable transmits data as pulses of light through

tubes of glass. It has over 26,000 times the transmission

capacity of twisted pair. A fibre-optic tube can be half the

diameter of human hair. Fibre-optic cables are immune to

electronic interference and more secure and reliable. Fibre-

optic cable is rapidly replacing twisted-pair telephone lines.

Microwave

Microwaves transmit data as high-frequency radio waves that

travel in straight lines through air. Microwaves cannot bend

with the curvature of the earth. They can only be transmitted

over short distances. Microwaves are good medium for sending

data between buildings in a city or on a large college campus.

Microwave transmission over longer distances is relayed by means

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of ‘dishes’ or antennas installed on towers, high buildings or

mountaintops.

Satellite

Satellites are used to amplify and relay microwave signals from

one transmitter on the ground to another. They orbit about

22,000 miles above the earth. They rotate at a precise point and

speed and can be used to send large volumes of data. Bad weather

can sometimes interrupt the flow of data from a satellite

transmission. INTELSAT (INternational TELecommunication

SATellite consortium), owned by 114 governments forming a

worldwide communications system, offers many satellites that can

be used as microwave relay stations.

5.4 Data transmission: analog versus digital

Information is available in an analogue or in a digital form.

Computer-generated data can easily be stored in a digital

format, but analogue signals, such as speech and video, must

first be sampled at regular intervals and then converted into a

digital form. This process is known as digitisation and has the

following advantages:

Digital data is less affected by noise

Extra information can be added to digital signals so that

errors can either be detected or corrected.

Digital data tends not to degrade over time

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Processing of digital information is relatively easy,

either in real-time or non real-time

A single type of media can be used to store many different

types of information (such as video, speech, audio and

computer data can be stored on tape, hard-disk or CD-ROM).

A digital system has a more dependable response, whereas an

analogue system’s accuracy depends on parameters such as

component tolerance, temperature, power supply variations,

and so on. Analogue systems thus produce a variable

response and no two analogue systems are identical.

Digital systems are more adaptable and can be reprogrammed

with software. Analogue systems normally require a change

of hardware for any functional changes (although

programmable analogue devices are now available).

The main disadvantage with digital conversion is:

Digital samples must be quantized to given levels: this

adds an error called quantization error. The larger the

number of bits used to represent each sample, the smaller

the quantization error.

5.5 Computer networks

A computer network is a communications system connecting two or

more computers that work to exchange information and share

resources (hardware, software and data). A network may consist

of microcomputers, or it may integrate microcomputers or other

devices with larger computers. Networks may be controlled by all

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nodes working together equally or by specialized nodes

coordinating and supplying all resources. Networks may be simple

or complex, self-contained or dispersed over a large

geographical area.

Network architecture is a description of how a computer is set-

up (configured) and what strategies are used in the design. The

interconnection of PCs over a network is becoming more important

especially as more hardware is accessed remotely and PCs

intercommunicate with each other.

5.5.1 Terms used to describe computer networks

Node – any device connected to a network such as a computer,

printer, or data storage device.

Client – a node that requests and uses resources available

from other nodes. Typically a microcomputer.

Server – a node that shares resources with other nodes. May be

called a file server, printer server, communication server,

web server, or database server.

Network Operating System (NOS) – the operating system of the

network that controls and coordinates the activities between

computers on a network, such as electronic communication and

sharing of information and resources.

Distributed processing – computing power is located and shared

at different locations. Common in decentralized organizations

(each office has its own computer system but is networked to

the main computer).

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Host computer – a large centralized computer, usually a

minicomputer or mainframe.

5.5.2 Types of computer networks

Different communication channels allow different types of

networks to be formed. Telephone lines may connect

communications equipment within the same building. Coaxial cable

or fiber-optic cable can be installed on building walls to form

communication networks. You can also create your own network in

your home or apartment. Communication networks also differ in

geographical size.

Three important networks according to geographical size are

LANs, MANs and WANs.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a computer network in which computers and peripheral

devices are in close physical proximity. It is a collection of

computers within a single office or building that connect to a

common electronic connection – commonly known as a network

backbone. This type of network typically uses microcomputers in

a bus organization linked with telephone, coaxial, or fibre-

optic cable. A LAN allows all users to share hardware, software

and data on the network. Minicomputers, mainframes or optical

disk storage devices can be added to the network. A network

bridge device may be used to link a LAN to other networks with

the same configuration. A network gateway device may be used to

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link a LAN to other networks, even if their configurations are

different.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a computer network that may be citywide. This type of

network may be used as a link between office buildings in a

city. The use of cellular phone systems expand the flexibility

of a MAN network by linking car phones and portable phones to

the network.

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

A WAN is a computer network that may be countrywide or

worldwide. It normally connects networks over a large physical

area, such as in different buildings, towns or even countries. A

modem connects a LAN to a WAN when the WAN connection is an

analogue line.

For a digital connection a gateway connects one type of LAN to

another LAN, or WAN, and a bridge connects a LAN to similar

types of LAN. This type of network typically uses microwave

relays and satellites to reach users over long distances. The

widest of all WANs is the Internet, which spans the entire

globe.

5.6. Configurations

A computer network configuration is also called its topology.

The topology is the method of arranging and connecting the nodes

of a network. There are four principal network topologies:

a) Star

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b) Bus

c) Ring

d) Hierarchical (hybrid)

e) Completely connected (mesh)

Star network

In a star network there are a number of small computers or

peripheral devices linked to a central unit called a main hub.

The central unit may be a host computer or a file server. All

communications pass through the central unit and control is

maintained by polling. This type of network can be used to

provide a time-sharing system and is common for linking

microcomputers to a mainframe.

Advantages:

It is easy to add new and remove nodes

A node failure does not bring down the entire network

It is easier to diagnose network problems through a central

hub

Disadvantages:

If the central hub fails the whole network ceases to

function

It costs more to cable a star configuration than other

topologies (more cable is required than for a bus or ring

configuration).

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Node

Bus network

In a bus network each device handles its communications control.

There is no host computer; however there may be a file server.

All communications travel along a common connecting cable called

a bus. It is a common arrangement for sharing data stored on

different microcomputers. It is not as efficient as star network

for sharing common resources, but is less expensive. The

distinguishing feature is that all devices (nodes) are linked

along one communication line - with endpoints - called the bus

or backbone.

Advantages:

Reliable in very small networks as well as easy to use and

understand

Requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers

together and therefore is less expensive than other cabling

arrangements.

Is easy to extend. Two cables can be easily joined with a

connector, making a longer cable for more computers to join

the network

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A repeater can also be used to extend a bus configuration

Disadvantages:

Heavy network traffic can also slow a bus considerably.

Because any computer can transmit at any time, bus networks

do not coordinate when information is sent. Computers

interrupting each other can use a lot of bandwidth

Each connection between two cables weakens the electrical

signal

The bus configuration can be difficult to troubleshoot. A

cable break or malfunctioning computer can be difficult to

find and can cause the whole network to stop functioning.

Ring network

In a ring network each device is connected to two other devices,

forming a ring. There is no central file server or computer.

Messages are passed around the ring until they reach their

destination. Often used to link mainframes, especially over wide

geographical areas. It is useful in a decentralized organization

called a distributed data processing system.

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Advantages:

Ring networks offer high performance for a small number of

workstations or for larger networks where each station has

a similar work load

Ring networks can span longer distances than other types of

networks

Ring networks are easily extendable

Disadvantages

Relatively expensive and difficult to install

Failure of one component on the network can affect the

whole network

It is difficult to troubleshoot a ring network

Adding or removing computers can disrupt the network

Hierarchical (hybrid) network

A hierarchical network consists of several computers linked to a

central host computer. It is similar to a star. Other computers

are also hosts to other, smaller computers or to peripheral

devices in this type of network. It allows various computers to

share databases, processing power, and different output devices.

It is useful in centralized organizations.

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Advantages:

Improves sharing of data and programs across the network

Offers reliable communication between nodes

Disadvantages:

Difficult and costly to install and maintain

Difficult to troubleshoot network problems

Completely connected (mesh) configuration

Is a network topology in which devices are connected with many

redundant interconnections between network nodes.

Advantages:

Yields the greatest amount of redundancy (multiple

connections between same nodes) in the event that one of

the nodes fail where network traffic can be redirected to

another node.

Network problems are easier to diagnose

Disadvantages

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The cost of installation and maintenance is high (more

cable is required than any other configuration)

5.6 Application of computer networks within an organization

Connectivity is the ability and means to connect a microcomputer

by telephone or other telecommunication links to other computers

and information sources around the world.

The connectivity options that make communication available to

end-users include:

Fax machines (Facsimile transmission machines).

E-mail (Electronic mail)

Voice messaging systems

Video conferencing systems

Shared resources

Online services

Fax machines

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Fax machines convert images to signals that can be sent over a

telephone line to a receiving machine. They are extremely

popular in offices. They can scan the image of a document and

print the image on paper. Microcomputers use fax/modem circuit

boards to send and receive fax messages.

E-mail (electronic mail)

E-mail is a method of sending an electronic message between

individuals or computers. One can receive e-mail messages even

when one is not on the computer. E-mail messages can contain

text, graphics, images as well as sound.

Voice messaging systems

Voice messaging systems are computer systems linked to

telephones that convert human voice into digital bits. They

resemble conventional answering machines and electronic mail

systems. They can receive large numbers of incoming calls and

route them to appropriate ‘voice mailboxes’ which are recorded

voice messages. They can forward calls and deliver the same

message to many people.

Video conferencing systems

Video conferencing systems are computer systems that allow

people located at various geographic locations to have in-person

meetings. They can use specially equipped videoconferencing

rooms to hold meetings. Desktop videoconferencing systems use

microcomputers equipped with inexpensive video cameras and

microphones that sit atop a computer monitor.

Shared resources

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Shared resources are communication networks that permit

microcomputers to share expensive hardware such as laser

printers, chain printers, disk packs and magnetic tape storage.

Several microcomputers linked in a network make shared resources

possible. The connectivity capabilities of shared resources

provide the ability to share data located on a computer.

Online services

Online services are business services offered specifically for

microcomputer users. Well-known online service providers are

America Online (AOL), AT&T WorldNet, CompuServe, Africa Online,

Kenyaweb, UUNET, Wananchi Online and Microsoft Network. Typical

online services offered by these providers are:

Teleshopping- a database which lists prices and description of

products. You place an order, charge the purchase to a credit

card and merchandise is delivered by a delivery service.

Home banking – banks offer this service so you can use your

microcomputer to pay bills, make loan payments, or transfer

money between accounts.

Investing – investment firms offer this service so you can

access current prices of stocks and bonds. You can also buy and

sell orders.

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Travel reservations – travel organizations offer this service so

you can get information on airline schedules and fare, order

tickets, and charge to a credit card.

Internet access – you can get access to the World Wide Web.

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LESSON SIX

INTER-ORGANISATIONAL LINKAGES

Introduction

This is our first lesson on

Specific Objectives

After studying this lesson you should be able to:

Meaning of Inter-Organizational Linkages

Principles of Inter-Organizational Linkages

Forms of Inter-Organizational Linkages

Meaning of Inter-Organizational Linkages

Inter-Organizational Linkages refers to relationship that exists

between business and other institutions. Having regular contacts

with other institutions can be benefiting the institution through

healthy exchange and resources including but not limited to

knowledge and expertise.

Organizations may form linkages with potential funders and key

constituents. Linkages can help the organization to keep up with

technology and gain to wide range of resources among other

benefits

Principles of Inter-Organizational Linkages

1) The linkage must be consistent with organizational rules and

regulations

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2) The linkage must be in line with goal and objectives of the

organization

3) The linkage must be cost effective

4) The linkage must be mutually beneficial to all parties

5) The linkage must be reviewed after a specified period of

time

Forms of Inter-Organizational Linkages

1) Strategic alliances, sharing of resources by several

companies, are popular for managing interdependencies. Alliances

include: long-term contracts, networks, minority ownership, and

joint venture. The more formal agreements provide stronger

linkages and tighter control over joint activities. As

environmental uncertainty increases, companies rely on formal

alliances.

2) Long-term contracts reduce costs by sharing resources or

spreading the risk associated with activities such as marketing

and R&D. Contracts, both written and verbal, are the most

informal kind of alliance, because the only connection is the

agreement. A network is a group that coordinates activities via

contract. A network is more formal than a contract because more

ties connect members who share competences, such as R&D skills,

with partners. Partners use those skills to increase efficiency

and reduce the core organization’s costs and size. A company can

perform design work and have partners produce the product.

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3) Minority ownership occurs when organizations buy a stake in

each other, forming a more formal alliance. The Japanese keiretsu

is a group of organizations, each of which owns shares in the

other organizations and works to further group interests. Japan

has two types of keiretsu: Capital keiretsu to manage input and

output linkages and financial keiretsu for linkages among different

companies, usually with a bank at the center.

Toyota is a capital keiretsu with a minority stake in suppliers;

Toyota works with suppliers to improve quality. A financial

keiretsu is an interlocking directorate with members serving on

the bank’s board. At the Fuyo keiretsu, Fuji Bank is the center

with members such as Nissan, Hitachi, and Canon. Members have

other companies with minority ownership in suppliers.

4) Joint ventures are formal strategic alliances among two or

more companies to establish and share ownership in a new

business; a formal legal agreement defines rights and

responsibilities. Each organization sends managers to the new

company.

Q. Name the advantages of joint ventures.

A. Participants can pool distinctive competences, design a new

structure, keep parent companies small, and reduce the difficulty

of managing parent company interdependencies.

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5) Mergers and takeovers are the most formal strategies for

managing interdependencies. A merger or takeover results in

resource exchanges within organizations and prevents control by a

powerful supplier or customer. However, mergers and takeovers are

costly, and problems arise in managing a new business. This

strategy is used if a company must control a critical resource or

manage a significant interdependency.

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LESSON SEVEN

CHANGE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

This is our first lesson on

Specific Objectives

After studying this lesson you should be able to:

Meaning of change management

Kinds of change

Overcoming barriers to change

Organizational response to change

Models of change models

Meaning of change management

Change management is a term that is bandied about freely. Sometimes it's a scapegoat for less than stellar results: "That initiative failed because we didn't focus enough on change management." And it's often used as a catch-all for project activities that might otherwise get overlooked: "When we

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implement that new process, let's not forget about the change management."

It's a noun: "Change management is key to the project." It's a verb: "We really need to change manage that process." It's an adjective: "My change management skills are improving." It's an expletive: "Change management!"

Change management is, therefore, a very broad field, and change management approaches vary widely, from organization to organization and from project to project. Many organizations and consultants subscribe to formal change management methodologies. These provide toolkits, checklists and outline plans of what needs to be done to manage changes successfully.

When you are tasked with "managing change" (irrespective of whether or not you subscribe to a particular change management approach), the first question to consider is what change management actually means in your situation. Change management focuses on people, and is about ensuring change is thoroughly, smoothly and lastingly implemented. And to know what that means exactly in your situation, you must dig down further to define your specific change management objectives.

Typically, these will cover:

1. Sponsorship: Ensuring there is active sponsorship for the change at a senior executive level within the organization, and engaging this sponsorship to achieve thedesired results.

2. Buy-in: Gaining buy-in for the changes from those involvedand affected, directly or indirectly.

3. Involvement: Involving the right people in the design and implementation of changes, to make sure the right changes are made.

4. Impact: Assessing and addressing how the changes will affect people.

5. Communication: Telling everyone who's affected about the changes.

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6. Readiness: Getting people ready to adapt to the changes, by ensuring they have the right information, training and help

Change Management Activities

Once you have considered the change management objectives and scope, you'll also need to consider the specific tasks. Again, the range of possible change management activities is broad. It'sa question of working out what will best help you meet the changemanagement challenge in hand, as you have defined it in your objectives and scope, and how to work along side other people's and projects' activities and responsibilities.

The essence of this is to identify the tasks that are necessary if you're going to give change the greatest chance of success.

Coming from this, the activities involved in managing change can include:

Ensuring there is clear expression of the reasons for change, and helping the sponsor communicate this.

Identifying "change agents" and other people who need to be involved in specific change activities, such as design,testing, and problem solving, and who can then act as ambassadors for change.

Assessing all the stakeholders and defining the nature of sponsorship, involvement and communication that will be required.

Planning the involvement and project activities of the change sponsor(s).

Planning how and when the changes will be communicated, and organizing and/or delivering the communications messages.

Assessing the impact of the changes on people and the organization's structure.

Planning activities needed to address the impacts of the change.

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Ensuring that people involved and affected by the change understand the process change.

Making sure those involved or affected have help and support during times of uncertainty and upheaval.

Assessing training needs driven by the change, and planning when and how this will be implemented.

Identifying and agreeing the success indicators for change, and ensure they are regularly measured and reported on.

Types of Organizational Change

Organizational change is a funny thing. In many cases, everyone

in your organization will have a different view of the same

change. A CEO may see change in terms of organizational structure

& strategy. A manager in operations may see change in terms of

processes. A manager in technology may see change in terms of

systems & tools. In some cases a change is so complex that no one

person has a true end-to-end view of it.  It can be a significant

challenge to align the different types of change across an

organization. The following ten types of organizational change

endlessly overlap. It's rare to have a change that impacts just

one area. 

1. Mission & Strategy

In theory, all changes in an organization are aligned to the

organization's mission and strategy. In reality, changes may be

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difficult to map to strategy or may even contradict it.  When

mission & strategy change the impact may reverberate throughout

the organization. 

2. Organizational Structure

Organizational structure refers to the objectives, roles and

responsibilities of departments, teams and individuals.  Major

changes such as mergers & acquisitions are considered structural

changes. However, structural changes may also be relatively minor

(e.g. establishment of a small new team). 

3. People

Hiring, turnover, roles & responsibilities, training and other

individual changes. People changes may seem minor but taken as a

whole they represent a critical focus for change management. For

example, training is critical to the acceptance of change. 

4. Culture

Changes to the principles, expectations, norms, working habits

and symbols of an organization.  Culture is important to

strategic objectives such as productivity, innovation and

compliance. 

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5. Knowledge

Changes to the knowledge assets of an organization. 

Knowledge supports every program, project, initiative, process

and product. Organizations increasingly identify knowledge as a

important asset and target for change. 

6. Policies & Legal Agreements

A change as minor as a new rule or policy can have a big impact

on an organization. New rules (or changes to legal agreements)

aren't always popular with employees and customers —

implementation and acceptance can be a change management

challenge. 

7. Processes

Changes to business process and tasks represent amongst the most

common type of change. Many organizations have implemented

continuous improvement programs that change processes on a

regular basis. Processes also need to change to support new

strategies or to leverage new technologies. 

8. Technology

Changes to technology infrastructure, systems, automations and

tools. Some firms focus on technology change — letting it drive

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other change within the organization. It's common for change

management to be highly focused on technology changes. 

9. Products, Marketing & Customer Relationships

Changes to products, marketing and sales are a critical focus for

many organizations. For example, new product development is often

key to strategy execution. 

10. Integration

Processes need to work with technology. People need to work with

processes. Rules apply to processes. Rules align with

cultures. Most changes require integration. Integration is

aligning things so that they support, compliment and add value to

each other. It's often the most complex type of change.

Barriers to ChangeIndividual and Organisational Barriers to Change

It is in human nature to resist change. "We resist change. We choose to keep our habits, rather the comfort of our habits" (Dr. Claude Brodeur PhD, http://members.tripod.com/zenol/humanism.html). Change and the phenomenon of it, is fundamental to evolution; and yet it implies some sort of resistance.

Resistance to change can take various forms and the task of filtering out the cause of resistance can often be difficult. Examples include change in work processes where the needs, expectations, and concerns of individuals are ignored.

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 Change and resistance to it forms a knock-on-effect to both the construction and destruction of any organisation. Fear is one of the major forms of resistance to change and I shall discuss this in depth at a later stage. Alas resistance to change can be categorised to the organisational level and the individual level.It is these two separate levels which I shall discuss further exploring what steps may be taken to overcome resistance at both the organisational and individual level. 

The Organisational Barriers to Change

There are a number of barriers to change at the organisational level that, need to be addressed to allow change to be implemented with the least amount of resistance. These include:

Undefined Goals and Objectives An organisation should clarify continually the goals and objectives, outlining roles and specifying performance standards.

Financial and Environmental Lack of working capital in an organisation can prevent it from introducing change that is necessary to stay ahead of competitorsor merely survive as a business. In these circumstances redundancies are almost inevitable. The lack of finance could be due to a variety of factors. These include: a fall in market demand, rise in competition or the degree of turbulence in the market place such as the September 11 th World Trade Disaster; which caused a significant effect on businesses and investment world wide.

Lack of Resources and Bad Resource Allocation Lack of resources is an onset of financial and/or environmental issues as discussed in the above paragraph. Bad resource allocation, occur when managers make bad decisions in allocating resources such as money, time, machinery and staff. Managers should use their imagination to avoid causing conflict situations.

Structural An organisation that follows the traditional hierarchical

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structure tends to resist change more than that which has a more flat structure. Communication between head of departments and employees in traditional hierarchical structures are usually poorwhich causes a rift between Management and Employees.

Insufficient Communication There are two branches of communication, which are communication internally, within the organisation between Employees and Management and externally between the organisation and suppliers and customers.

In organisations where management keep employees in the dark withrespect to change potentially face fierce resistance. Employees may interpret this as a conspiracy against them inevitably leading to an unfriendly atmosphere to work in.

Organisations that fail to communicate with their Customers and Suppliers, changes that are in effect can face disastrous consequences. Example the Tiptree Company that had implemented a £1.5 million warehousing system to handle a larger number of books failed to notify, its customers that it had undergone a radical change without informing it’s customers. Unfortunate for Tiptree, which encountered problems with their new systems for about six months; had tarnished its 1992 British Book Awards Distributor of the Year. (Judy Collins, CRASH 28 th October 2000)

Lack of or Bad LeadershipStrong leadership is required in order to direct the change management process in any organisation. Bad leaders who merely provide are not doing enough to inspire the employees to march ahead. People want to be shown the way.

Lack of Preparation for New Roles Organisations may lack in their planning phase. Failing to prepare and define the new roles that will need to be satisfied when change is implemented; shall give rise to resistance.

Cultural Issues The culture of an organisation is a set of “unwritten rules”. Management may have a set of protocols for employees to adhere to

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perform business processes. The way a task is actually carried out depends namely on the culture. The culture of the organisation can strongly resist to change as employees become too familiar with the current way of doing things.

"Culture is the integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes thought, speech, action, and artefacts and depends on man's capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations."(Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary)

 

Individuals Resisting ChangeThere are a number of barriers to change at the individual level that, need to be addressed to allow change to be implemented withthe least amount of resistance. These include:

Fear News of change can invoke fear among employees. Employees may feel afraid of not being able to fulfil the new proposed changes to work practices that are being imposed. Employees may begin to question the future of their job, which shall cause much discomfort.

People resist change due to anxiety, pessimism and different personal ambitions.

Lack of Input into the changeIndividuals tend to resist change where they play not part in change. The idea of not knowing the change can cause a rift between the employees and management.

 

Overcoming Resistance at Organisational and Individual Level

Organisational Level Overcoming Undefined Goals and Objectives

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Goals and Objectives should be frequently redefined and relayed to all employees. This shall aid towards clearing up any misunderstanding and possible conflicts.

Overcoming Financial and Environmental Issues Organisations should have a contingency fund to cater for changesin demand or develop a very good relationship with their bank manager in case you need to borrow money at hard times. At the other end of the scale if demand sores suppliers must be able to satisfy demand. Benchmarking suppliers shall help determine your best suppliers.

A good supplier may be one that allows you to have a 30 day or more credit account, which leave you with more working capital. Essentially corporate business strategies should have a degree offlexibility to act as a defence to sudden changes.

Overcoming Structural Problems and Insufficient Communication In a large organisation employees may wish to elect a spokes person who can act as a collective voice to air potential barriers directly to management. Surveys can be conducted and results analysed. In a small organisation employees should be encouraged to speak up if they feel that change is causing a conflict.

Overcoming Lack of or Bad LeadershipIt is a natural human instinct to follow leadership as children we look up to our parents and as adults we look up towards our superiors. Leaders must lead the way and be an example for othersto follow. In leading and setting an example to others leaders must take an active role a “hands on approach” side by side with the employees in order to motivate and encourage. As in the wordsof the great, Mahatma Gandhi; “ We must become the change we want to see”(Mahatma Gandhi, http://www.performance-first.co.uk/organisation/orgmain.htm).

“Visionary leaders, no matter how articulate, are not enough. A shared commitment still requires personal contact to make it real” (Handy, 95)

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Overcoming Lack of Preparation for New Roles The importance of planning must be emphasised and reflected. The new roles should be concisely explained to the respective employees prior to implementing change, to stifle out any doubts,fears or resistance.

Overcoming Cultural Issues The cultural characteristics once identified need to be overcome and evolved into a non-blame culture. By doing so the employees shall have the freedom to evolve and try innovative ways of doingtheir jobs without the fear of being penalised for mistakes.

 Individual Level Employees should be directly involved in the change process, which shall motivate and reduce resistance. Extra incentives should be made available to further encourage and reward compliance. Support networks should be established as a means to reinforce the change theory. Appendix 1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs depicts the theory of psychological needs, values of authority, hierarchy and rationality, security needs.

The model consists of many levels. Maslow argues that once the basic level of Air food water and sex are met the next “hierarchical” or “rational” need is for safety. An organisation must concentrate on invoking a sense of “Belonging” to the organisation by keeping them informed, involved and sharing the success.

“Esteem by Others” should be achieved by promoting team work and the occasional appraisals by management.

Force Field AnalysisThe force field analysis helps identify the forces for change (drivers) and forces against change (resistance) in an organisation. Through analysis the author concludes that it important to note that even if you have more forces for change than against this may not actually guarantee you successful change. The key is to remove the barriers to change on the organisational and individual level.

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Figure 1 Field Force Analysis

Twelve Principles for Managing Change

These principles provide the cause and effect of managing change strategically:

1. Thought processes and relationship dynamics are fundamental if change is to be successful.

2. Change only happens when each person makes a decision to implement the change.

3. People fear change it "happens" to them.4. Given the freedom to do so, people will build quality into

their work as a matter of personal pride.5. Traditional organizational systems treat people like

children and expect them to act like adults.6. "Truth" is more important during periods of change and

uncertainty than "good news."130

7. Trust is earned by those who demonstrate consistent behaviour and clearly defined values.

8. People who work are capable of doing much more than they aredoing.

9. The intrinsic rewards of a project are often more important than the material rewards and recognition.

10. A clearly defined vision of the end result enables all the people to define the most efficient path for accomplishing the results.

11. The more input people have into defining the changes that will affect their work, the more they will take ownership for the results.

12. To change the individual, change the system.

Change Management Models

While there are many change management models, most companies

will choose at least one of the following three models to operate

under:

1. Lewin’s Change Management Model

2. McKinsey 7-S Model

3. Kotter’s 8 Step Change Model

Lewin’s Change Management Model

This change management model was created in the 1950s by

psychologist Kurt Lewin. Lewin noted that the majority of people

tend to prefer and operate within certain zones of safety. He

recognized three stages of change:

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1. Unfreeze – Most people make an active effort to resist change.

In order to overcome this tendency, a period of thawing or

unfreezing must be initiated through motivation.

2. Transition – Once change is initiated, the company moves into

a transition period, which may last for some time. Adequate

leadership and reassurance is necessary for the process to be

successful.

3. Refreeze – After change has been accepted and successfully

implemented, the company becomes stable again, and staff

refreezes as they operate under the new guidelines.

While this change management model remains widely used today, it

is takes time to implement. Of course, since it is easy to use,

most companies tend to prefer this model to enact major changes.

Practical Steps for Using the Framework:

Unfreeze

1. Determine what needs to change.

Survey the organization to understand the current state.

Understand why change has to take place.

2. Ensure there is strong support from upper management.

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Use Stakeholder Analysis   and Stakeholder Management   to

identify and win the support of key people within the

organization.

Frame the issue as one of organization-wide importance.

3. Create the need for change.

Create a compelling message as to why change has to occur.

Use your vision and strategy as supporting evidence.

Communicate the vision in terms of the change required.

Emphasize the "why".

4. Manage and understand the doubts and concerns.

Remain open to employee concerns and address in terms of the

need to change.

Change

1. Communicate often.

Do so throughout the planning and implementation of the

changes.

Describe the benefits.

Explain exactly the how the changes will effect everyone.

Prepare everyone for what is coming.

2. Dispel rumors.

Answer questions openly and honestly.

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Deal with problems immediately.

Relate the need for change back to operational necessities.

3. Empower action.

Provide lots of opportunity for employee involvement.

Have line managers provide day-to-day direction.

4. Involve people in the process.

Generate short-term wins to reinforce the change.

Negotiate with external stakeholders as necessary (such as

employee organizations).

Refreeze

1. Anchor the changes into the culture.

Identity what supports the change.

Identify barriers to sustaining change.

2. Develop ways to sustain the change.

Ensure leadership support.

Create a reward system.

Establish feedback systems.

Adapt the organizational structure as necessary.

3. Provide support and training.

Keep everyone informed and supported.

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4. Celebrate success!

McKinsey 7-S Model

The McKinsey 7-S model offers a holistic approach to

organization. This model, created by Robert Waterman, Tom Peters,

Richard Pascale, and Anthony Athos during a meeting in 1978, has

7 factors that operate as collective agent of change:

The Seven Elements

The McKinsey 7S model involves seven interdependent factors which

are categorized as either "hard" or "soft" elements:

Hard

Elements

Soft

Elements

Strategy

Structure

Systems

Shared

Values

Skills

Style

Staff

"Hard" elements are easier to define or identify and management

can directly influence them: These are strategy statements;

organization charts and reporting lines; and formal processes and

IT systems.

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"Soft" elements, on the other hand, can be more difficult to

describe, and are less tangible and more influenced by culture.

However, these soft elements are as important as the hard

elements if the organization is going to be successful.

The way the model is presented in Figure 1 below depicts the

interdependency of the elements and indicates how a change in one

affects all the others.

Let's look at each of the elements specifically:

Strategy: the plan devised to maintain and build competitive

advantage over the competition.

Structure: the way the organization is structured and who

reports to whom.

Systems: the daily activities and procedures that staff

members engage in to get the job done.

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Shared Values: called "superordinate goals" when the model

was first developed, these are the core values of the

company that are evidenced in the corporate culture and the

general work ethic.

Style: the style of leadership adopted.

Staff: the employees and their general capabilities.

Skills: the actual skills and competencies of the employees

working for the company.

Placing Shared Values in the middle of the model emphasizes that

these values are central to the development of all the other

critical elements. The company's structure, strategy, systems,

style, staff and skills all stem from why the organization was

originally created, and what it stands for. The original vision

of the company was formed from the values of the creators. As the

values change, so do all the other elements.

How to Use the Model

Now you know what the model covers, how can you use it?

The model is based on the theory that, for an organization to

perform well, these seven elements need to be aligned and

mutually reinforcing. So, the model can be used to help identify

what needs to be realigned to improve performance, or to maintain

alignment (and performance) during other types of change.

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Whatever the type of change – restructuring, new processes,

organizational merger, new systems, change of leadership, and so

on – the model can be used to understand how the organizational

elements are interrelated, and so ensure that the wider impact of

changes made in one area is taken into consideration.

You can use the 7S model to help analyze the current situation

(Point A), a proposed future situation (Point B) and to identify

gaps and inconsistencies between them. It's then a question of

adjusting and tuning the elements of the 7S model to ensure that

your organization works effectively and well once you reach the

desired endpoint.

Sounds simple? Well, of course not: Changing your organization

probably will not be simple at all! Whole books and methodologies

are dedicated to analyzing organizational strategy, improving

performance and managing change. The 7S model is a good framework

to help you ask the right questions – but it won't give you all

the answers. For that you'll need to bring together the right

knowledge, skills and experience.

When it comes to asking the right questions, we've developed a

Mind Tools checklist and a matrix to keep track of how the seven

elements align with each other. Supplement these with your own

questions, based on your organization's specific circumstances

and accumulated wisdom.

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7S Checklist Questions

Here are some of the questions that you'll need to explore to

help you understand your situation in terms of the 7S framework.

Use them to analyze your current (Point A) situation first, and

then repeat the exercise for your proposed situation (Point B).

Strategy:

What is our strategy?

How do we intend to achieve our objectives?

How do we deal with competitive pressure?

How are changes in customer demands dealt with?

How is strategy adjusted for environmental issues?

Structure:

How is the company/team divided?

What is the hierarchy?

How do the various departments coordinate activities?

How do the team members organize and align themselves?

Is decision making and controlling centralized or

decentralized? Is this as it should be, given what we're

doing?

Where are the lines of communication? Explicit and implicit?

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Systems:

What are the main systems that run the organization?

Consider financial and HR systems as well as communications

and document storage.

Where are the controls and how are they monitored and

evaluated?

What internal rules and processes does the team use to keep

on track?

Shared Values:

What are the core values?

What is the corporate/team culture?

How strong are the values?

What are the fundamental values that the company/team was

built on?

Style:

How participative is the management/leadership style?

How effective is that leadership?

Do employees/team members tend to be competitive or

cooperative?

Are there real teams functioning within the organization or

are they just nominal groups?

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Staff:

What positions or specializations are represented within the

team?

What positions need to be filled?

Are there gaps in required competencies?

Skills:

What are the strongest skills represented within the

company/team?

Are there any skills gaps?

What is the company/team known for doing well?

Do the current employees/team members have the ability to do

the job?

How are skills monitored and assessed?

The McKinsey 7-S Model offers four primary benefits:

1. It offers an effective method to diagnose and understand an

organization.

2. It provides guidance in organizational change.

3. It combines rational and emotional components.

4. All parts are integral and must be addressed in a unified

manner.

The disadvantages of the McKinsey 7-S Model are:

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- When one part changes, all parts change, because all factors

are interrelated.

- Differences are ignored.

- The model is complex.

- Companies using this model have been known to have a higher

incidence of failure.

Kotter’s 8 Step Change Model

This model, created by Harvard University Professor John Kotter,

causes change to become a campaign. Employees buy into the change

after leaders convince them of the urgent need for change to

occur. There are 8 steps are involved in this model:

Step 1: Create Urgency

For change to happen, it helps if the whole company really wants

it. Develop a sense of urgency around the need for change. This

may help you spark the initial motivation to get things moving.

This isn't simply a matter of showing people poor sales

statistics or talking about increased competition. Open an honest

and convincing dialogue about what's happening in the marketplace

and with your competition. If many people start talking about the

change you propose, the urgency can build and feed on itself.

What you can do:

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Identify potential threats  , and develop scenarios  

showing what could happen in the future.

Examine opportunities   that should be, or could be,

exploited.

Start honest discussions, and give dynamic and convincing

reasons to get people talking and thinking.

Request support from customers, outside stakeholders and

industry people to strengthen your argument.

Note:

Kotter suggests that for change to be successful, 75 percent of a

company's management needs to "buy into" the change. In other

words, you have to work really hard on Step 1, and spend

significant time and energy building urgency, before moving onto

the next steps. Don't panic and jump in too fast because you

don't want to risk further short-term losses – if you act without

proper preparation, you could be in for a very bumpy ride.

Step 2: Form a Powerful Coalition

Convince people that change is necessary. This often takes strong

leadership and visible support from key people within your

organization. Managing change isn't enough – you have to lead it.

You can find effective change leaders throughout your

organization – they don't necessarily follow the traditional

company hierarchy. To lead change, you need to bring together a

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coalition, or team, of influential people whose power comes from

a variety of sources, including job title, status, expertise, and

political importance.

Once formed, your "change coalition" needs to work as a team,

continuing to build urgency and momentum around the need for

change.

What you can do:

Identify the true leaders in your organization, as well as

your key stakeholders  .

Ask for an emotional commitment from these key people.

Work on team building within your change coalition.

Check your team for weak areas, and ensure that you have a

good mix of people from different departments and different

levels within your company.

Step 3: Create a Vision for Change

When you first start thinking about change, there will probably

be many great ideas and solutions floating around. Link these

concepts to an overall vision that people can grasp easily and

remember.

A clear vision can help everyone understand why you're asking

them to do something. When people see for themselves what you're

trying to achieve, then the directives they're given tend to make

more sense.

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What you can do:

Determine the values   that are central to the change.

Develop a short summary (one or two sentences) that captures

what you "see" as the future of your organization.

Create a strategy   to execute that vision.

Ensure that your change coalition can describe the vision in

five minutes or less.

Practice your "vision speech" often.

Tip:

For more on creating visions, see our article on Mission

Statements and Vision Statements  .

Step 4: Communicate the Vision

What you do with your vision after you create it will determine

your success. Your message will probably have strong competition

from other day-to-day communications within the company, so you

need to communicate it frequently and powerfully, and embed it

within everything that you do.

Don't just call special meetings to communicate your vision.

Instead, talk about it every chance you get. Use the vision daily

to make decisions and solve problems. When you keep it fresh on

everyone's minds, they'll remember it and respond to it.

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It's also important to "walk the talk." What you do is far more

important – and believable – than what you say. Demonstrate the

kind of behavior that you want from others.

What you can do:

Talk often about your change vision.

Address peoples' concerns and anxieties, openly and

honestly.

Apply your vision to all aspects of operations – from

training to performance reviews. Tie everything back to the

vision.

Lead by example  .

Step 5: Remove Obstacles

If you follow these steps and reach this point in the change

process, you've been talking about your vision and building buy-

in from all levels of the organization. Hopefully, your staff

wants to get busy and achieve the benefits that you've been

promoting.

But is anyone resisting the change? And are there processes or

structures that are getting in its way?

Put in place the structure for change, and continually check for

barriers to it. Removing obstacles can empower the people you

need to execute your vision, and it can help the change move

forward.

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What you can do:

Identify, or hire, change leaders whose main roles are to

deliver the change.

Look at your organizational structure, job descriptions, and

performance and compensation systems to ensure they're in

line with your vision.

Recognize and reward people for making change happen.

Identify people who are resisting the change, and help them

see what's needed.

Take action to quickly remove barriers (human or otherwise).

Step 6: Create Short-Term Wins

Nothing motivates more than success. Give your company a taste of

victory early in the change process. Within a short time frame

(this could be a month or a year, depending on the type of

change), you'll want to have some "quick wins  " that your staff

can see. Without this, critics and negative thinkers might hurt

your progress.

Create short-term targets – not just one long-term goal. You want

each smaller target to be achievable, with little room for

failure. Your change team may have to work very hard to come up

with these targets, but each "win" that you produce can further

motivate the entire staff.

What you can do:

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Look for sure-fire projects that you can implement without

help from any strong critics of the change.

Don't choose early targets that are expensive. You want to

be able to justify the investment in each project.

Thoroughly analyze the potential pros and cons of your

targets. If you don't succeed with an early goal, it can

hurt your entire change initiative.

Reward   the people who help you meet the targets.

Step 7: Build on the Change

Kotter argues that many change projects fail because victory is

declared too early. Real change runs deep. Quick wins are only

the beginning of what needs to be done to achieve long-term

change.

Launching one new product using a new system is great. But if you

can launch 10 products, that means the new system is working. To

reach that 10th success, you need to keep looking for

improvements.

Each success provides an opportunity to build on what went right

and identify what you can improve.

What you can do:

After every win, analyze what went right, and what needs

improving.

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Set goals   to continue building on the momentum you've

achieved.

Learn about kaizen  , the idea of continuous improvement.

Keep ideas fresh by bringing in new change agents and

leaders for your change coalition.

Step 8: Anchor the Changes in Corporate Culture

Finally, to make any change stick, it should become part of the

core of your organization. Your corporate culture often

determines what gets done, so the values behind your vision must

show in day-to-day work.

Make continuous efforts to ensure that the change is seen in

every aspect of your organization. This will help give that

change a solid place in your organization's culture.

It's also important that your company's leaders continue to

support the change. This includes existing staff and new leaders

who are brought in. If you lose the support of these people, you

might end up back where you started.

What you can do:

Talk about progress every chance you get. Tell success

stories about the change process, and repeat other stories

that you hear.

Include the change ideals and values when hiring and

training new staff.

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Publicly recognize key members of your original change

coalition, and make sure the rest of the staff – new and old

– remembers their contributions.

Create plans to replace key leaders of change as they move

on. This will help ensure that their legacy is not lost or

forgotten.

Significant advantages to the model are:

- The process is an easy step-by-step model.

- The focus is on preparing and accepting change, not the actual

change.

- Transition is easier with this model.

There are some disadvantages offered by this model:

- Steps can’t be skipped.

- The process takes a great deal of time.

It doesn’t matter if the proposed changed is a change in the

process of project planning or general operations. Adjusting to

change is difficult for an organization and its employees. Using

almost any model is helpful, because it offers leaders a

guideline to follow, along with the ability to determine expected

results. This is helpful because change is difficult to implement

and manage

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- See more at: http://quickbase.intuit.com/blog/2012/08/28/three-

types-of-change-management-models/#sthash.uJg5x2wQ.dpuf

LESSON EIGHT

STRESS MANAGEMENT

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Introduction

This is our first lesson on

Specific Objectives

After studying this lesson you should be able to:

Meaning of stress

Causes of stress

Signs and symptoms of stress

Types of stress

Coping with work stress

8.1 Definition of Stress

Stress may be defined as "a state of psychological and / or

physiological imbalance resulting from the disparity between

situational demand and the individual's ability and / or

motivation to meet those demands."

Dr. Hans Selye, one of the leading authorities on the concept of

stress, described stress as "the rate of all wear and tear caused

by life."

Stress can be positive or negative. Stress can be positive when

the situation offers an opportunity for a person to gain

something. It acts as a motivator for peak performance. Stress

can be negative when a person faces social, physical,

organisational and emotional problems.

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Stress is a normal physical response to events that make you feel

threatened or upset your balance in some way. When you sense

danger—whether it’s real or imagined—the body's defenses kick

into high gear in a rapid, automatic process known as the “fight-

or-flight-or-freeze” reaction, or the stress response.

The stress response is the body’s way of protecting you. When

working properly, it helps you stay focused, energetic, and

alert. In emergency situations, stress can save your life—giving

you extra strength to defend yourself, for example, or spurring

you to slam on the brakes to avoid an accident.

The stress response also helps you rise to meet challenges.

Stress is what keeps you on your toes during a presentation at

work, sharpens your concentration when you’re attempting the

game-winning free throw, or drives you to study for an exam when

you'd rather be watching TV.

But beyond a certain point, stress stops being helpful and starts

causing major damage to your health, your mood, your

productivity, your relationships, and your quality of life.

8.2 Causes of Stress

Factors that cause stress are called "Stressors." The following are

the sources or causes of an organisational and non-organisational

stress.

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8.2.1. Causes of an Organisational Stress

The main sources or causes of an organisational stress are :-

1. Career Concern : If an employee feels that he is very much

behind in corporate ladder, then he may experience stress

and if he feels that there are no opportunities for self-

growth he may experience stress. Hence unfulfilled career

expectations are a major source of stress.

2. Role Ambiguity : It occurs when the person does not known

what he is supposed to do on the job. His tasks and

responsibilities are not clear. The employee is not sure

what he is expected to do. This creates confusion in the

minds of the worker and results in stress.

3. Rotating Shifts : Stress may occur to those individuals who

work in different shifts. Employees may be expected to work

in day shift for some days and then in the night shift. This

may create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and

it can affect not only personal life but also family life of

the employee.

4. Role Conflict : It takes place when different people have

different expectations from a person performing a particular

role. It can also occur if the job is not as per the

expectation or when a job demands a certain type of

behaviour that is against the person's moral values.

5. Occupational Demands : Some jobs are more stressful than

others. Jobs that involve risk and danger are more

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stressful. Research findings indicate that jobs that are

more stressful usually requires constant monitoring of

equipments and devices, unpleasant physical conditions,

making decisions, etc.

6. Lack of Participation in Decision Making : Many experienced

employees feel that management should consult them on

matters affecting their jobs. In reality, the superiors

hardly consult the concerned employees before taking a

decision. This develops a feeling of being neglected, which

may lead to stress.

7. Work Overload : Excessive work load leads to stress as it

puts a person under tremendous pressure. Work overload may

take two different forms :-

i. Qualitative work overload implies performing a job that

is complicated or beyond the employee's capacity.

ii. Quantitative work overload arises when number of

activities to be performed in the prescribed time are

many.

8. Work Underload : In this case, very little work or too

simple work is expected on the part of the employee. Doing

less work or jobs of routine and simple nature would lead to

monotony and boredom, which can lead to stress.

9. Working Conditions : Employees may be subject to poor

working conditions. It would include poor lighting and

ventilations, unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive

noise and dust, presence of toxic gases and fumes,

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inadequate safety measures, etc. All these unpleasant

conditions create physiological and psychological imbalance

in humans thereby causing stress.

10. Lack of Group Cohesiveness : Every group is

characterised by its cohesiveness although they differ

widely in degree of cohesiveness. Individuals experience

stress when there is no unity among the members of work

group. There is mistrust, jealously, frequent quarrels,

etc., in groups and this lead to stress to employees.

11. Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict : Interpersonal

and intergroup conflict takes place due to differences in

perceptions, attitudes, values and beliefs between two or

more individuals and groups. Such conflicts can be a source

of stress to group members.

12. Organisational Changes : When changes occur, people

have to adapt to those changes and this may cause stress.

Stress is higher when changes are major or unusual like

transfer or adaption of new technology.

13. Lack of Social Support : When individuals believe that

they have the friendship and support of others at work,

their ability to cope with the effects of stress increases.

If this kind of social support is not available then an

employee experiences more stress.

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8.2.2. Causes of Non-Organisational Stress

Certain factors outside the scope of an organisation also cause

stress.

These main sources or causes of non-organisational stress are :-

1. Civic Amenities : Poor civic amenities in the area in which

one lives can be a cause of stress. Inadequate or lack of

civic facilities like improper water supply, excessive noise

or air pollution, lack of proper transport facility can be

quite stressful.

2. Life Changes : Life changes can bring stress to a person.

Life changes can be slow or sudden. Slow life changes

include getting older and sudden life changes include death

or accident of a loved one. Sudden life changes are highly

stressful and very difficult to cope.

3. Frustration : Frustration is another cause of stress.

Frustration arises when goal directed behaviour is blocked.

Management should attempt to remove barriers and help the

employees to reach their goals.

4. Caste and Religion Conflicts : Employees living in areas

which are subject to caste and religious conflicts do suffer

from stress. In case of religion, the minorities and lower-

caste people (seen especially in India) are subject to more

stress.

5. Personality : People are broadly classified as 'Type A' and

'Type B'.157

i. Feels guilty while relaxing.

ii. Gets irritated by minor mistakes of self and others.

iii. Feels impatient and dislikes waiting.

iv. Does several things at one time.

While the 'Type B' people are exactly opposite and hence are

less affected by stress due to above mentioned factors.

6. Technological Changes : When there are any changes in

technological field, employees are under the constant stress

of fear of losing jobs, or need to adjust to new

technologies. This can be a source of stress.

7. Career Changes : When a person suddenly switches over a new

job, he is under stress to shoulder new responsibilities

properly. Under promotion, over promotion, demotion and

transfers can also cause stress.

Common external causes of stress

Major life changes

Work or school

Relationship

difficulties

Financial problems

Being too busy

Children and family

Common internal causes of stress

Chronic worry

Pessimism

Unrealistic

expectations/Perfectionism

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Negative self-talk Rigid thinking, lack of

flexibility

All-or-nothing attitude

8.3 Signs and Symptoms Stress

Modern life is full of hassles, deadlines, frustrations, and

demands. For many people, stress is so commonplace that it has

become a way of life. Stress isn’t always bad. In small doses, it

can help you perform under pressure and motivate you to do your

best. But when you’re constantly running in emergency mode, your

mind and body pay the price. You can protect yourself by

recognizing the signs and symptoms of stress and taking steps to

reduce its harmful effects.

8.3.1 Signs and symptoms of stress overload

The following table lists some of the common warning signs and

symptoms of stress. The more signs and symptoms you notice in

yourself, the closer you may be to stress overload.

Stress Warning Signs and Symptoms

Cognitive Symptoms Emotional Symptoms

Memory problems

Inability to concentrate

Poor judgment

Seeing only the negative

Moodiness

Irritability or short

temper

Agitation, inability to

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Stress Warning Signs and Symptoms

Anxious or racing thoughts

Constant worrying

relax

Feeling overwhelmed

Sense of loneliness and

isolation

Depression or general

unhappiness

Physical Symptoms Behavioral Symptoms

Aches and pains

Diarrhea or constipation

Nausea, dizziness

Chest pain, rapid heartbeat

Loss of sex drive

Frequent colds

Eating more or less

Sleeping too much or too

little

Isolating yourself from

others

Procrastinating or

neglecting responsibilities

Using alcohol, cigarettes,

or drugs to relax

Nervous habits (e.g. nail

biting, pacing)

Keep in mind that the signs and symptoms of stress can also be

caused by other psychological or medical problems. If you’re

experiencing any of the warning signs of stress, it’s important

to see a doctor for a full evaluation. Your doctor can help you

determine whether or not your symptoms are stress-related.

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How much stress is too much?

Because of the widespread damage stress can cause, it's important

to know your own limit. But just how much stress is "too much"

differs from person to person. We're all different. Some people

are able to roll with the punches, while others seem to crumble

in the face of far smaller obstacles or frustrations. Some people

even seem to thrive on the excitement and challenge of a high-

stress lifestyle.

Your ability to tolerate stress depends on many factors,

including the quality of your relationships, your general outlook

on life, your emotional intelligence, and genetics.

8.3.2 Things that influence your stress tolerance level

Your support network – A strong network of supportive

friends and family members can be an enormous buffer against

life’s stressors. On the flip side, the more lonely and

isolated you are, the greater your vulnerability to stress.

Your sense of control – It may be easier to take stress in

your stride if you have confidence in yourself and your

ability to influence events and persevere through

challenges. If you feel like things are out of your control,

you’re likely to have less tolerance for stress.

Your attitude and outlook – Optimistic people are often more

stress-hardy. They tend to embrace challenges, have a strong

sense of humor, and accept that change is a part of life.

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Your ability to deal with your emotions – You’re extremely

vulnerable to stress if you don’t know how to calm and

soothe yourself when you’re feeling sad, angry, or

overwhelmed by a situation. The ability to bring your

emotions into balance helps you bounce back from adversity

and is a skill that can be learned at any age.

Your knowledge and preparation – The more you know about a

stressful situation, including how long it will last and

what to expect, the easier it is to cope. For example, if

you go into surgery with a realistic picture of what to

expect post-op, a painful recovery will be less traumatic

than if you were expecting to bounce back immediately.

8.4 Types of Stress

There are four major types of stress that people experience in

life. Stress is a part of our everyday life, coming from events

that happen. Stress to most people is challenges or problems in

life, such as working long hours, a very full daily schedule or

thinking about our finances. Effects of stress on the body, is a

normal physical response to events that make us feel threatened

or upset. The stress response is the body's way of protecting us,

when working properly; it helps us stay focused, active and

alert. The four major types of stress are Eustress, Distress,

Hyperstress and Hypostress.

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1) Eustress

 Eustress is a type of short-term stress that is a positive type

of stress. When a person needs to have some extra energy or

inspiration, eustress gives us the motivation we need, to winning

or achieving first place in a competition, achieving a promotion

or giving a speech. This stress provides the focus and energy

needed in order to perform at the highest level of the

individuals ability.

2) Distress

Distress is a negative stress brought about by changes or

alterations in an individuals life. Distress is also referred to

as anxiety, severe trauma or mental suffering resulting from

exhaustion or an accident. Distress is a reaction to an upsetting

event, such as being in a bad accident, barely evading death,

serious injury or losing a loved one. When distress and anxiety

go untreated for long enough, people can get depressed. There are

essentially two types of distress: acute stress and chronic

stress.

Acute stress is experienced in response to directly perceived

threat,either physical or psychological. The threat can be

real or imagined; it's the perception of the threat that

activates the response. This type of stress is short-term

and caused by exposure to trauma, such as rape, robbery,

combat or natural disaster.

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Chronic stress is long-term stress that occurs frequently and

if not dealt with accordingly many serious health problems

may develop, such as depression,diabetes,heart disease or

weight-gain or weight-loss. People suffering from this type

of stress get used to it and may even not realize that they

are under this type of stress. Chronic stress is the most

serious type of stress that can lead up to harmful health

problems or even death.

3) Hyperstress

 Hyperstress is the type of stress that comes when a person is

forced to perform above their normal capacity. In the fast pace

world we live in today, many of us can feel 'stressed out' due to

heavy workloads and tight deadlines resulting into hyperstress. A

person experiencing this type of stress can find that their

emotions run higher and the smallest event can trigger a highly

emotional outbreak. 

4) Hypostress

 Hypostress is actually the opposite of hyperstress. Hypostress

happens when a person is constantly bored. Someone in an

unchallenged job, such as a factory worker on an assembly line

doing the same job over and over everyday, may experiences

hypostress. When a person experiences this type of stress they

are frequently restless and uninspired. 

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 If you are dealing with one of these types stress disorders,

understanding them can help you balance and control the stress in

your life. In return you can live a much healthier and happier

life. 

8.5 How to manage stress

You may feel like the stress in your life is out of your control,

but you can always control the way you respond. Managing stress

is all about taking charge: taking charge of your thoughts, your

emotions, your schedule, your environment, and the way you deal

with problems. Stress management involves changing the stressful

situation when you can, changing your reaction when you can’t,

taking care of yourself, and making time for rest and relaxation.

Remember the four As: avoid, alter, adapt, or accept.

Avoid unnecessary stress. Not all stress can be avoided, but

by learning how to say no, distinguishing between “shoulds”

and “musts” on your to-do list, and steering clear of people

or situations that stress you out, you can eliminate many

daily stressors.

Alter the situation. If you can’t avoid a stressful

situation, try to alter it. Be more assertive and deal with

problems head on. Instead of bottling up your feelings and

increasing your stress, respectfully let others know about

your concerns. Or be more willing to compromise and try

meeting others halfway on an issue.

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Adapt to the stressor. When you can’t change the stressor,

try changing yourself. Reframe problems or focus on the

positive things in your life. If a task at work has you

stressed, focus on the aspects of your job you do enjoy. And

always look at the big picture: is this really something

worth getting upset about?

Accept the things you can’t change. There will always be

stressors in life that you can’t do anything about. Learn to

accept the inevitable rather than rail against a situation

and making it even more stressful. Look for the upside in a

situation—even the most stressful circumstances can be an

opportunity for learning or personal growth. Learn to accept

that no one, including you, is ever perfect.

You can also better cope with the symptoms of stress by

strengthening your physical health.

Set aside relaxation time. Relaxation techniques such as

yoga, meditation, and deep breathing activate the body’s

relaxation response, a state of restfulness that is the

opposite of the stress response.

Exercise regularly. Physical activity plays a key role in

reducing and preventing the effects of stress. Nothing beats

aerobic exercise for releasing pent-up stress and tension.

Eat a healthy diet. Well-nourished bodies are better

prepared to cope with stress. Start your day with a healthy

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breakfast, reduce your caffeine and sugar intake, and cut

back on alcohol and nicotine.

Get plenty of sleep. Feeling tired can increase stress by

causing you to think irrationally. Keep your cool by getting

a good night’s sleep.

12 Ways To Eliminate Stress At Work

“Everyone feels overwhelmed and overly busy.”

Is there a way to maintain steady focus throughout the day? Is it

possible to do everything that needs to get done and still have

energy left over after work? How do you keep cool under so many

demands? Informed by 10 years of Harvard research and field-

tested by more than 6,000 clients and trainees, Melnick offers

the following strategies to take your work stress down a peg,

before it takes over your life.

Act Rather Than React

“We experience stress when we feel that situations are out of our

control,” says Melnick. It activates the stress hormone and, if

chronic, wears down confidence, concentration and well-being. She

advises that you identify the aspects of the situation you can

control and aspects you can’t. Typically, you’re in control of

your actions and responses, but not in control of macro forces or

someone else’s tone, for example. “Be impeccable for your 50%,”

she advises. And try to let go of the rest.

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Take A Deep Breath

If you’re feeling overwhelmed or are coming out of a tense

meeting and need to clear your head, a few minutes of deep

breathing will restore balance, says Melnick. Simply inhale for

five seconds, hold and exhale in equal counts through the nose.

“It’s like getting the calm and focus of a 90-minute yoga class

in three minutes or less at your desk,” she says.

Eliminate Interruptions

“Most of us are bombarded during the day,” says Melnick. Emails,

phone calls, pop ins, instant messages and sudden, urgent

deadlines conspire to make today’s workers more distracted than

ever. While you may not have control over the interrupters, you

can control your response. Melnick advises responding in one of

three ways: Accept the interruption, cut it off, or diagnosis its

importance and make a plan. Many interruptions are recurring and

can be anticipated. “You want to have preset criteria for which

response you want to make,” she says. You can also train those

around you by answering email during certain windows, setting up

office hours to talk in person or closing the door when you need

to focus.

Schedule Your Day For Energy And Focus

Most of us go through the day using a “push, push, push”

approach, thinking if we work the full eight to 10 hours, we’ll

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get more done. Instead, productivity goes down, stress levels go

up and you have very little energy left over for your family,

Melnick says. She advises scheduling breaks throughout the day to

walk, stretch at your desk or do a breathing exercise. “Tony

Schwartz of the Energy Project has shown that if we have intense

concentration for about 90 minutes, followed by a brief period of

recovery, we can clear the buildup of stress and rejuvenate

ourselves,” she says.

Eat Right And Sleep Well

“Eating badly will stress your system,” says Melnick, who advises

eating a low-sugar, high-protein diet. “And when you’re not

sleeping well, you’re not getting the rejuvenating effects.”

According to the CDC, an estimated 60 million Americans do not

get sufficient sleep, which is a critical recovery period for the

body. If racing thoughts keep you from falling asleep or you wake

up in the night and can’t get back to sleep, Melnick suggests a

simple breathing trick that will knock you out fast: Cover your

right nostril and breathe through your left for three to five

minutes.

Change Your Story

Your perspective of stressful office events is typically a

subjective interpretation of the facts, often seen through the

filter of your own self-doubt, says Melnick. However, if you can

step back and take a more objective view, you’ll be more

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effective and less likely to take things personally. She recalls

one client who sent a request to human resources for more people

on an important project. When she was denied, she immediately got

angry and defensive, thinking they didn’t trust her to know what

she needed. Yet she never stopped to even consider there might be

budgetary issues on their end. Once she was able to remove

herself from the situation, she called the HR director and said:

Tell me where you’re coming from, I’ll tell you where I’m coming

from and then let’s see if we can find a solution. Ultimately, it

worked

Cool Down Quickly

“When you feel frustrated or angry, it’s a heated feeling in your

body that can cause you to react,” says Melnick. Instead of

immediately reacting—and likely overreacting—she suggests trying

a “cooling breath” technique: Breathe in through your mouth as if

you are sipping through a straw, and then breathe out normally

through your nose. Done right, you’ll feel a cooling, drying

sensation over the top of your tongue. It’s like hitting the

“pause” button, giving you time to think about your response. She

says, “It’s so powerful it will even calm the other person down.”

Identify Self-Imposed Stress

“Learn to stop self imposing stress by building your own self-

confidence rather than seeking other’s approval,” says Melnick.

If you’re too caught up in others’ perceptions of you, which you

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can’t control, you become stressed out by the minutia or

participate in avoidance behaviors like procrastination.

Ironically, once you shift your focus from others’ perception of

your work to the work itself, you’re more likely to impress them.

Prioritize Your Priorities

With competing deadlines and fast-changing priorities, it’s

critical to define what’s truly important and why. That requires

clarity, says Melnick. It’s important to understand your role in

the organization, the company’s strategic priorities, and your

personal goals and strengths. Cull your to-do list by focusing on

those projects that will have the most impact and are best

aligned with your goals.

Reset The Panic Button

For those who become panic-y and short of breath before a

presentation, Melnick says you can quickly reduce your anxiety

with the right acupressure point. Positioning your thumb on the

side of your middle finger and applying pressure instantly helps

regulate your blood pressure.

Influence Others

Even if you’re responsible for your behavior and outlook, you’re

still left dealing with other people’s stressful behavior,

Melnick notes. She advises confronting a problem coworker or

employee by stating the bad behavior in a respectful tone,

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describing the impact on the team and the individual, and

requesting a change. For example, constant negativity might be

addressed in this way: “When you speak in a critical tone, it

makes others uncomfortable and less likely to see you as a

leader. I understand your frustration but request that you bring

concerns directly to me, so we can talk them through.” By

transferring the ownership of the problem, you’re more likely to

resolve it.

Be Your Own Best Critic

Some 60,000 thoughts stream through your mind each day, Melnick

says, and internal negativity is just as likely to stress you out

as an external event. The fix? Instead of being harsh and

critical of yourself, try pumping yourself up. Encouraging

thoughts will help motivate you to achieve and ultimately train

you to inspire others.

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