R S S - Academy of IRMBR

ISSN 2309-0081 Shoukat, Khalid & Jafar (2020)

153

I

www.irss.academyirmbr.com November 2020

International Review of Social Sciences Vol. 8 Issue.11

R S S

Challenges and Opportunities in Educating Nomadic Children:

A Case Study of Cholistan Desert

AISHA SHOUKAT Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur.

Email: [email protected]

ALIYA KHALID Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, University of the Punjab, Lahore.

MUHAMMAD JAFAR Lecturer, Department of Social Work, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur.

Abstract

This paper sets out to capture current challenges and opportunities of education for children in Cholistan

desert; it reveals different mode of education, available facilities and challenges that education providers

and would be users of educational facilities meet with. Cholistan being desert area, has an ‘aggressive’

climatic and exceptional geographical conditions which make its access difficult for outsiders making life

hard for Cholistani people. Life in Cholistan revolves around livestock rearing as its main source of

subsistence and hence key factor for seasonal migration to manage water and fodder. To study such

population, qualitative approach was adopted, and data was collected through protracted qualitative

interviews and participants observation. The study reveals that Greater Cholistan lacks the formal

educational facilities leaving the people out of options to send their children for attending school. Their

learning remains limited to informally gained basic knowledge of life skills like animal husbandry and

managing life from their close family members. However, in the case of Lesser Cholistan, somehow there is

availability of formal educational facilities, which is generating an emerging trend of getting modern

education. In this part of Cholistan, pastoralist parents are relatively aware about the need and importance

of education. The study concludes that availability of and access to educational facilities is one of the

determinantal factors for motivating nomadic and semi nomadic parents in Cholistan for educating their

children. In addition, policy makers and stakeholders should consider specific geographical conditions and

requirements while taking initiatives for education of nomadic children.

Keywords: Cholistan, Education, Nomadism, Pastoralists, Migration.

Introduction

Nomadism is the oldest lifestyle of human being since the times when wild animal and plants were major

source for survival of the human beings (Shaheen, 2011). Cholistan, once centre of Hakra Valley

Civilization, lush green and trade mark of cultivation, turned into a desert as a result of climatic changes

which happened in 600 BC (Ahmad, 2013). It is located along with former princely state of Bahawalpur

which came under the rule of Daudpotra Abbasis in the earliest of 18th

century (Auj, 1987). There are mass

sand dunes in the Cholistan having an area of 26,100 km2,

out of which 2,800 km is irrigated area (Farooq,

Iqbal & Ahmad, 2007). Cholistan is believed to be hottest and most dry sandy desert in Pakistan (Ahmad et

al., 2012) and possess distinctive culture having nomadic and semi nomadic lifestyle. Geomorphologically,

Cholistan is divided into two parts known as Greater Cholistan and Lesser Cholistan. Former part consists

of saline alluvial with plain ground covering an area of 7,770 km (Akbar, Khan & Arshad, 1996) whereas

mailto:[email protected]


154

I



R S S

the latter part is based on shifting sand dunes with height ranging from 20-120 feet high (Cholistan

Development Authority, 2009).

The human population in the Cholistan is scattered in sandy dunes spreading throughout the Greater

Cholistan and sizeable number of nomads go for seasonal migration which is driven by search of water and

pasture. Life is Cholistan is largely dependent on huge flocks of cattle such cows, goats, camels and sheep.

The herds not only fulfil economic needs of local people but also dietary requirements in term of meat,

milk, butter and cheese. In the Cholistan, people practice nomadic and semi nomadic culture from

centuries, speak Saraiki language and livelihood activities predominantly revolve around animal husbandry

(Malik, et al. 2015).

Education is considered as a key indicator for bringing socio economic development and planned change in

a society. The functions of education include enabling the next generation in acquiring knowledge and

skills which are necessary to spend smooth life as a useful and productive member of the society (Thio,

1994). Similarly, education is also source of learning culture and transmission of basic societal values from

one generation to another, both systems of education; formal and informal perform this function (Thio,

1994). However, conflict perspective on education differs with the given definitions of education and states

that education creates social differentiation and discrimination through Intelligent Quotient (IQ)

measurement and endorses un-written curriculum like obedience (NesSmith, 1995). The conflcit persective

on education is also applicable in case of Cholsiatn, where pastoralist parents were hesitant to educate their

children because it makes them deviant from nomdic culture including giving up animal herding as a major

source of subsistence.

Provision of education to nomadic children is very challenging task because certain controversaries and

sensitivities are attached with this concept. Historically, education of the nomadic children means imparting

them socio-cultural knowledge and essential skills for economic survival (Oxfam 2011 & Car-Hill 2005).

Being a desert area, Cholistan is lagging behind in socio economic ladder as compared to rest of Pakistan

(Malik, Rahman & Ali 2017). Though there have been initiatives from the successive governments for

education of nomadic children in Cholistan, but so far results are not much satisfactory and encouraging.

The paper has been divided into four section. After introduction, second section captures review of

literature and methodology. Section three is based on findings and analysis while last section four consists

of discussion and way forward.

Nomadic Education with Lens of Literature

Education is one of the important social institution that plays critical role in structuring and shaping of a

society. Education is a cultural universal which is found ever where around the globe. Although there are

different forms and modes of education, but its primary goal is universal everywhere; transmission of

knowledge. In addition to this, there are also certain implicit functions of education like serving as an agent

for bring desired social change, creating and promoting social harmony, serving as a tool for social control

and transmission of culture from one generation to another (Schaefer, 2010)

. Education is believed to be an

effective instrument for bringing socio economic development in a country (Aderinoye, Ojokheta &

Olojede, 2007).

In the last two decades, nomadic education has attracted the attention of scholars and policy makers around

the globe. A range of innovative approaches have surfaced and been applied for education of ever moving

nomads. These innovative approaches have helped to understand perceptions, practices and nature of

problem being faced by mobile communities belonging to diverse ethnicities, culture and means of

livelihood. However, as noted by Sheik‐Mohamed and Velema (1999), still nomads have fewer

opportunities to access and benefit from education. It is widely believed that formal education is not much

useful and beneficial for nomads in their later life (Car-Hill 2005 & Oxfam 2011). Dyer (2006) expressed

challenges of educating the nomads in these words:


155

I



R S S

The nomad is certainly an awkward customer for the services and structures of the modern education

system… It is very difficult to provide them with classes or clinics or take any of the advantages of this

social service.

Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (UNESCO, 2003)

articulates importance of education as under:

Education is both a human right in itself and indispensable means of realising other human rights. As an

empowerment right, education is the primary vehicle by which economically and socially marginalized

adults and children can lift themselves out of poverty and obtain the means to participate fully in their

communities. Education has a vital role in empowering women, street working children from exploitative

and hazardous labour and sexual exploitation, promoting human rights and democracy, protecting the

environment, and controlling population growth (UNESCO, 2003, p. 7).

Nomads are found all over the world even in the toughest region such as arctic, subarctic, tundra, steppes,

deserts, high mountains, sea and lakes and dense forests (Shaheen, 2011). Generally, nomadic populations

are placed in the disadvantaged and hard to reach groups which pose peculiar challenges for the overall

development process in general and education in particular (Carr-Hill, 2005). The author further added that

many social development experts believe that pastoralists can develop by giving up their nomadic lifestyle

and adopting sedentarization which is considered to be pre-requisite for evolution. Education of the nomads

poses both theoretical as well practical challenges, it directly questions underlying assumptions about aims

and objectives of education itself (Krätli & Dyer, 2009). There is widespread misperception that nomadic

pastoralists are the poor, similarly, it is also incorrect to assume that pastoralists are always resistant to

social change, rather they oppose such initiatives which challenges and endangers their existing culture

(Carr-Hill, 2005).

Over last two decades, one of the leading educational issue in developing countries have been the concern

that despite overall increase in education, there are certain social groups which do not benefit from

educational policies, nomads are among the top of these excluded groups (Umar & Tahir, 2000). While

designing educational programme for the nomads, objectives, curriculum, delivery methods, timetable

should be considered as key factors. The stakeholders need to make a fine balance between integrative and

distinctive nature of programme based on social, economic and geographical conditions (Carr-Hill, 2005).

The pastoralists will be willing to send their children conditionally, such as considering age, availability of

few other children for accompanying and for improving existing lifestyle. There are always fears and

doubts on the part of nomadic parents, such as alien language, different place other than home and

emergence of rebelliousness in children after attending formal educational institutions (Carr-Hill, 2005).

Dyer (2010) while referring nomads in India, asserted that continuation of formal education of the

pastoralists is impossible because of their mobile living style, besides they have also to continuously

migrate from one place to another in search of water and fodder. During migration from one place to

another, their children get drop from the educational institutions and re-enrolment becomes a challenge for

them. Wenger (1991) found that pastoralist settings cannot adjust such learners whose survival is dependent

on such education which makes them successful pastoralists who have got necessary skills for animal

husbandry. This education is also expected to inculcate in the learners the skills for managing migration,

identification of resources such as fodder and water and ability to form social network for supporting and

strengthening pastoralism. In this mode of education, youngsters get the necessary skills and knowledge

from elder members of the group. Since an informal mode of education, it has informal rules which are

flexible according to needs and priorities of the learners and are in sharp contrast to rules in the formal

educational institutions.

It is significant to mention that in the given conditions, pastoralists children who are out of school are not

random, but those who are actively involved in taking care of their animals (Krätli & Dyer 2009).


156

I



R S S

Dyer (2012) predicted that education and future of pastoralists is interdependent because pastoralists are

facing serval challenges at global level for sustaining their herd sizes as pastures are shrinking constantly

and pastoralists are meeting ever increasing challenges of livelihood. The author further added that lack of

education, because of its delivery method is not accessible for pastoralists, leaves them powerless to take

care of their interests.

Materials and Methods

The present study was ethnographic in nature as it aimed at exploring challenges and opportunities for

educating nomadic children in Cholistan. The data were collected from 50 study participants who were

elderly women who were vocal and well versed with local culture and practices regarding education. The

study participants were recruited through purposive sampling and data were collected through protracted

qualitative interview and participants observation. The recorded data were transcribed into English and

main themes and then sub themes were drawn from it. The data were analysed by content analysis

technique and findings were verified by member checking technique as suggested by Creswell (2014), the

findings were shared with the participants to check whether they were satisfied with what was sent to them.

Findings and Analysis

The findings of the study have been organized under these subheadings.

Beginning of Education in Cholistan

As mentioned in the introduction, geographical and climatic conditions of the Cholistan are hostile and

„aggressive‟, so literally accessing Cholistan especially Greater part is not an easy job for the outsiders. The

story of education in Cholistan starts with establishment of Cholistan Development Authority (CDA) in

1980. Before this, there was no concept of formal education and educational institutions in the area. There

were few mosques serving as source of learning holy Quran and other basic Islamic rituals such as making

ablution and offering congregational prayers and observing fasting. This arrangement was functional only

during favourable season, i-e until the nomadic people were able to feed their herds and make them drink

water from their own toba (water storing mud made pound). As soon as the toba gets dry, the nomads have

to move to the next destination where they could find water and open pastures for their animals. That was

why learning opportunities from mosque were also irregular and mostly seasonal.

Under the given socio economic and geographical conditions, children in Cholistan were learning survival

skills in informal way; these skills included mainly cattle herding and preparing few handicrafts. Female

members of the family were playing significant role in transforming local cultural values and traditions to

the next generation. This learning was not time, age and syllabus specific because of its informal nature.

Before the advent of formal education system in the Lesser Cholistan, mostly learning was through

informal ways throughout the Cholistan.

Current Educational Opportunities in Cholistan

The environmental and geographical conditions in the Lesser Cholistan are less harsh and the area is not

prohibitive like Greater Cholistan. Here, vehicular moment is possible, although there is no availability of

metallic and smooth roads to travel from one location to another. The semi-nomadic population in Lesser

Cholistan was to some extend aware about the importance of education and its socio-economic benefits

because of frequent interaction with the people from nearby settled areas including small towns in the

vicinities. That is why, there were literate men and women in this part of the Cholistan which reflect

presence of education. Since last two decades, there has been an increasing tendency of the getting formal

education especially awareness about giving quality education including various vocational and skill-based

education.


157

I



R S S

The presence of a number of formal educational institutions in Lesser Cholistan has caused a visible change

in entire spectrum of social life. The presence of educational institutions has triggered the tendency of

educating the children instead of handing over them herds of sheep, goats and camels for grazing in the

open pastures of the Cholistan.

It is worth mentioning that education is mainly concern of those nomadic parents who are relatively

economically well off and can financially afford educational expenses of their children. One can find both

public and private formal educational institutions in Lesser Cholistan making the educational service

accessible for the locals. The public schools are imparting education from nursery to secondary school.

Table 1: Government Schools for Boys and Girls in Cholistan

District Govt.

schools

Level of schools Male Female Male

Enrolment

Female

Enrolment

Bahawalpur 100 Primary,

Elementary

Secondary

79

4

2

6

8

1

8015

1622

Bahawal-

nagar

6 Primary

Elementary

Secondary

3

2

1

195 335

Rahimyar

Khan

22 Primary

Elementary

Secondary

20

2

0

0

0

0

1818

0

0

0

Total 128 110 18 10028 1957

The given table illustrates total number of government schools for both boys and girls in the Cholistan. It is

evident from the table that there were 110 schools for boys as compared to 18 for the girls. Likewise, the

given figures reveal that enrolment of male students was 10028 whereas female students were 1957. This

huge gap in the number of schools and enrolled students of both sexes speaks volumes about the gender

discrimination regarding education.

Existence of private schools in the nearby towns and villages proved to be an opportunity for the parents to

make a choice before getting enrolled their children. Although mainly, only financially well-off parents

were sending their children to the private schools, but relatively poor parents were also making

arrangements for some quality education to their children. The economically well-off parents were reported

to have purchased own accommodation for making stay of their children in the urban area. Semi-nomadic

parents were also willing and motivated to allow their children stay in hostels in the nearby urban areas for

attainment of education.

Table 2: Summary of Total Number of Schools in Cholistan

No. of

Boys

High

Schools

No. of

Girls

High

Schools

Total

No. of

boys

Elem.

Schools

Total No. of

Girl‟s

Elementary

Schools

Total

No. of

boys

Primary

Schools

Total No.

of girl‟s

Primary.

Schools

Co-edu.

Schools

*

Total

Boys

Enrolled.

Total

Girls

Enrolled.

03 01 07 07 93 06 131 10,843 4,929

Schools run by Government of Punjab, CDA, National Commission for Human Development, National

Education Foundation, and Punjab Education Foundation


158

I



R S S

The given figures reflect few opportunities for the girls for getting formal education. An encouraging

aspect is acceptance of co-education in more than 100 hundred schools.

Religious seminaries locally known as Mudrassa was also serving an important source of educating the

children especially regarding religious beliefs and rituals. There are also economic dimensions involved in

sending children to Mudrassa instead of formal school, the former offer free education along with

boarding, lodging, clothes, books and so on. A monthly progress report by Punjab Literacy Department

highlight the shortage of schools in the Cholistan in these words:

In greater Cholistan, having an area of 18130 square Kilometres, there are 7 state run formal schools and

due to inaccessibility by the children, no private sector organization has intervened in the desert area

regarding starting and promotion of formal education (Government of Punjab, 2013).

Challenges in Educating Females

Female education in Cholistan was still being perceived as an act of giving undue freedom and liberty to

the girls who would be rebellions of the existing nomadic culture. This mind set creates doubts and

suspicions on the part of parents when girls reach to school going age. However, trend for female education

is on increase especially in the Lesser Cholistan where there is better access to basic facilities as compared

to Greater Cholistan. Availability of roads and means of transportation have given opportunities to the

parents for making choices regarding education of their children. Educated females in Cholistan have to be

more conscious and careful about maintaining their adherence to local cultural values because they are

watchfully observed by family and community members. Sometimes, educated females had to cover their

head and face as an expression of modesty and conformity with local culture.

In the context of Cholistan, ideal role of females does not demand to be formally educated. They are

supposed to perform set of routine chores such as cooking, bearing and caring of children, fetching water,

collecting wooden fuel and looking after their animals left at home. Cholistan is one of the living example

of gender discrimination where deep rooted patriarchal system leaves females helpless and dependent on

the male members of family for taking decisions regarding their social and personal life. Being uneducated

and little aware about socio-economic factors, roles and responsibilities performed by females are under

rated and many times un-recognized. This situation is further aggravated by local geographical and climatic

conditions of the area which hinder free mobility of human beings from one place to another for availing

opportunities, if any. As Cholistan is characterized by ever shifting sand dunes, it is almost unreachable for

the CDA and other NGOs for taking initiatives for provision of basic services such as education health and

safe drinking water.

Challenges Educating Males

Based on socio-economic and geographical conditions of Cholistan, there are huge challenges in formally

educating children. Formal education is dependent on a number of factors such as family structure,

financial capacity and availability of formal educational institution in easy access. Considering the

prohibitive nature of Cholistan, getting education is nearly impossible especially in Greater Cholistan

which is characterised by shifting sand dunes and ever moving population.

Social Acceptance of Education: The mindset of the nomadic parents is another critical factor regarding

formal education of children. Elderly parents and grandparents assume that education would spoil their

children especially girls, that is why they urge their children to stay away from educational institutions.

Most of the nomadic parents complain that they have witnessed educated children openly disobeying their

parents and elderly member of the family. So, in their view keeping the children away from mixing up with

children of settled areas would guarantee their strict adherence to traditional culture.


159

I



R S S

Weather conditions and scorching heat especially in the summer is another major hurdle in the formal

education in the Cholistan. In the summer season, when temperature goes sometime even up to 50 Celsius,

Cholistani people fight for survival and hide themselves in their traditional home (Ghopa). Children cannot

move far away from their living place because of life threatening environmental conditions. Similarly,

sacristy of drinking water is yet another striking factor because when tobas get dry, women and children

have to fetch water from far off places.

Major economic activities in Cholistan include animal grazing and growing few seasonal crops, in both

types of activities, whole family including children take active part who miss their schooling. Most often,

adult animal herders keep the children with them for bringing water and taking care of animals during

grazing. Similarly, in case of Lesser Cholistan, in addition to take care herds, women and children also

work in agriculture fields i-e cotton picking and bearing the crops.

Overall, in Pakistan, educational system is facing huge challenges especially poorly trained teachers and

missing classroom facilities, high ratio of dropouts and long distance of school in the absence of viable

transportation service. Situation is worse in the case of Cholistan which lacks basic amenities of life. One

additional problem in Cholistan is absenteeism of teachers because of poor monitoring mechanism and

harsh climatic conditions.

With reference to education in Cholistan, a report of a national English Daily highlights the situation in

these words; -

The CDA operates 75 community schools under the Literate Cholistan Project (LCP) started in 2009 with a

total enrolment of 5,083 children. The senior and junior teachers were employed at a monthly emolument

of Rs.5000/- and 2500/-per month. The salary of the junior teachers is four times less than an ordinary

labourer gets. The govt. of Punjab fixed a minimum wage of Rs.9000/- for the lowest paid workers but

teachers are paid less than that and as a result many teachers left the schools”

“Not only salary matters, the facilities at these schools are also awful. No text books are provided to the

primary level students and there is no drinking water available at these schools. If the students needed

drinking water, they had to return home which are two to three kilometers away. Similar is the provision of

furniture. The students are forced to bring polythene bags to sit on. They come to school carrying books in

one hand and a water vessel (pitcher or matka) in the other” (The Exress Tribune, 2012).

Because of non-availability of locally qualified teachers, project based, and private schools hire services of

outsider for teaching. Serving in the hostile environmental conditions with low salary lessens interest and

motivation of outsider teachers for maintaining regularity and imparting quality education.

Certain factors such as unavailability of schools, lack of physical infrastructure and appropriately qualified

teachers are responsible for mass illiteracy in the Cholistan. In addition, sever hot season, nomadic lifestyle

and misperceptions about education on the part of nomadic parents also play critical role.

Another major challenge in educating nomadic children is related to pedagogy. The students in the

Cholistan are very much different with respect to those in the settled areas. The semi-nomadic children

have different orientation to life and hence habits and manners in their daily life. With semi-nomadic

background, children do not show education friendly attitude in the schools and attracting full

concentration of them poses serious challenge for the teachers and education administrators.

Distance of school from the toba/living place of the children also creates hurdles in education of children in

the Cholistan. In most of cases, schools are located at long distance and lack of roads and transportation

sources makes them nearly unreachable. It becomes literally difficult for children aged 3-6 years to cover

long distance among the sand dunes and that too in severe weather conditions particularly in very hot

summer season.


160

I



R S S

Economic Problems in Educating children

The economy of Cholistan is largely based on livestock which is being raised in traditional way and paying

little economic reward to the herders. As noted by Berque (1959, nomads lack the necessary skills and

knowledge, which is why they raise cattle with low degree technique and hence high production is totally

reliant on favourable natural conditions, this is also true in case of Cholistan where livestock is

economically less rewarding as compared to settled areas. Having limited earning opportunities, pastoralist

parents meet difficulties in bearing educational cost of their children. Parents of school going children sell

out sheep, goats and dairy products such as milk and butter for fulfilling ordinary educational expenditures.

In many cases, parents make their children stay with relatives residing in urban areas. In such cases, parents

have to continuously financially support their children for smooth continuation of education.

Discussion and Way Forward

Based on the socio-economic and climatic conditions in Cholistan, educating children poses multifaceted

challenges for the parents, teachers and other stakeholders. Generally, it is believed that educated men and

women accept and practice new cultural values and hardly adhere to traditional culture and economic

activities including herding and grazing animals, selling out dairy products and raising seasonal crops. That

is why educating the children is not given top priority by pastoralists parents in the Cholistan.

Major economic activities of semi-nomadic people in Cholistan primarily revolve around livestock and

cultivation of few grains on a very small scale. In local perception whole process of animal husbandry and

selling out dairy products are more suited to an illiterate person than any literate one. That is why some

parents and elderly family members in the Cholistan still argue against education and perceive it as a threat

to their centuries old nomadic culture. Nomadic parents also believe that their children can hardly compete

for job with the applicants of settled areas. That is why some of them believed that education is wastage of

time, energy and hard-earned money. These doubts and uncertainties increase manifold when there is

consideration of female education. It is perceived that formal education spoils girls and they „get out of

control‟ and hence bring a bad name to the family and community.

The nomadic and semi nomadic lifestyle demands different approach and policy iniatives for educating the

children in such areas like Cholistan. Formal education system being adopted for settled and urban areas

cannot be similarly result oriented in case of nomadic and semi nomadic children. Semi-nomadic families

in Cholistan keep on moving from one place to another in search of water and fodder during the dry

months. This seasonal migration creates big hurdles in the continuation of education.

Lack of physical infrastructure in term of school buildings, furniture (basic), books and other essential

inputs in Cholistan make quality of education compromised and below acceptable level. In the entire area

of Greater Cholistan, there are no formal schools which leaves parents with no other choice except teaching

basic survival skills and engaging their children in native occupation; animal husbandry.

Due to hostile geographical conditions, quality of education is poor in the formal schools. Intermittently

absenteeism of students as well as teachers is another serious hurdle in the way of quality education of

children in Cholistan. Gaining insights from international models, CDA has adopted a novel approach for

education of children in Cholistan. It includes a mobile school system in the Greater Cholistan under

Literate Cholistan Project (LCP) which keeps on moving with the movement of children‟s families and

maintain continuity of educational process. In addition to this, under this school system, teacher is carried

out by the designated vehicle and learners are approached at their places (toba) because population is

scattered in the Cholistan and a large number of learners cannot come together as in settled areas.

In the recent years, CDA has allotted land to the original people of Cholistan which has paved ways for

sedentarization of semi-nomadic pastoralists in addition to becoming a viable source of income for them.


161

I



R S S

This shift from semi-nomadic to sedentary lifestyle has opened new widow of educational opportunities for

the children in Cholistan. Staying permanently at one place has made educational institutions accessible

and approachable for previously ever moving families. As noted by half century ago by Foh (1969), formal

education requires degree of settled life, that is why nomadic population was considered exempted from

education.

Following the international precedents like that of India, Nigeria and other African countries regarding

educating nomadic children, stakeholders and policy makers in the Pakistan may draw guideline for

replicating the internationally successful model after making necessary modifications according to local

socio-cultural context. In addition, Stakeholder in Pakistan should introduce a balanced approach towards

education of semi nomadic children in Cholistan. This approach implies that the basic concern of nomadic

parents that they do not want to distance and detachment their future generations from existing nomadic

culture should be properly taken care at policy making level. As suggested by UNESCO (2010), the

stakeholder in Pakistan should focus on mainstreaming disadvantaged groups including nomadic

population which faces extremely educational disadvantages.

Acknowledgement

This paper is part and extension of the PhD thesis of the first author, therefore data used in this paper is also

part of the thesis submitted to The University of Peshawar.

Reference

Aderinoye, R. A., Ojokheta, K. O., & Olojede, A. A. (2007). Integrating mobile learning into nomadic

education programme in Nigeria: Issues and perspectives. The International Review of Research in

Open and Distributed Learning, 8(2).

Ahmad, M., Ghafoor, N., & Aamir, N. M. (2012, Sep-Oct). Antibacterial Activity of Mother Tinctures of

Cholistan Desert Plants in Pakistan. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 74(5), 465–468

Ahmad., F. (2013). Run-off Farming in Reducing Rural Poverty in the Cholistan Desert. Global Journal of

Human Social Science Geography, Geo-Sciences, Environmental Disaster Management. 13(5). 46-57

Thio, A. (1994). Sociology: A brief introduction. HarperCollins College. 3.

Berque, J. (1959). Nomads and nomadism in the arid zone. International Social Science Journal, 11, 481-

510.

Dyer, C. (Ed.). (2006). The Education of Nomadic Peoples: Current Issues, Future Perspectives. Berghahn

Books. (ITESO,)

Carr-Hill, R., & Peart, E. (2005). The education of nomadic peoples in East Africa. African Development

Bank: Tunis.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage

publications.

Dyer, C. (2010). Education and social (in) justice for mobile groups: re‐framing rights and educational

inclusion for Indian pastoralist children. Educational Review, 62(3), 301-313.

Dyer, C. (2012). Formal education and pastoralism in western India: inclusion, or adverse

incorporation? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 42(2), 259-281.

Foh, P. (1969). Compulsory Schooling for Nomads. Western European Education, 1(2-3), 32-40.

Government of the Punjab (2013) Monthly Progress Report by Literacy Coordinator Cholistan

Development Authority Bahawalpur: Literate Cholistan Project dated Date: 4/03/13

Krätli, S. and Dyer, C. 2009. Mobile Pastoralists and Education: Strategic Options. Education for Nomads

Working Paper 1. International Institute for Environment and Development. London. UK

Krätli, S., and C. Dyer. 2009. Education for mobile pastoralists. A strategic literature review. Education for

Nomads Programme, Occasional Paper no. 1. London: International Institute of Drylands and

Environment.


162

I



R S S

Malik, S. M., Rahman, F., & Ali, A. (2017). Sustainability of Subsistence Livelihoods of Agro-Pastoralists

in Changing Socioeconomic Environment of Cholistan Desert-Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of

Commerce & Social Sciences, 11(3).

Malik, S., Ahmad, S., Sadiq, A., Alam, K., Wariss, H. M., Ahmad, I., ... & Mukhtar, M. (2015). A

comparative ethno-botanical study of Cholistan (an arid area) and Pothwar (a semi-arid area) of

Pakistan for traditional medicines. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine, 11(1), 31.

Oxfam, G. B. (2011). Beyond the mainstream: education for nomadic and pastoralist girl and boys Oxfam

House.

Schaefer,R.,Sociology, 12th ed.(New York: McGrew-Hill, 2010). 374.

Shaheen, A. (2011). Living on the Margins: A Socio-historical Profile of the Nomads in Pakistan. Pakistan

Perspectives, 16(1), 41.

Sheik‐Mohamed, A., & Velema, J. P. (1999). Where health care has no access: the nomadic populations of

sub‐Saharan Africa. Tropical medicine & international health, 4(10), 695-707.

The Express Tribune, (2012) "Cholistan ", Published on October, 8.

Umar, A., & Tahir, G. (2000). Researching nomadic education: A Nigerian perspective. International

Journal of Educational Research, 33(3), 231-240.

UNESCO (2003). Right to Education: Scope and Implementation. General comment 13 on the right to

education. UNESCO Economic & Social Council. Retrieved from:

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001331/133113e.pdf

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001331/133113e.pdf

R S S - Academy of IRMBR

Documents

Transcript of R S S - Academy of IRMBR