Organic metal–organic semiconductor blended contacts in single crystal field-effect transistors
-
Upload
independent -
Category
Documents
-
view
3 -
download
0
Transcript of Organic metal–organic semiconductor blended contacts in single crystal field-effect transistors
Dynamic Article LinksC<Journal ofMaterials Chemistry
Cite this: J. Mater. Chem., 2012, 22, 16011
www.rsc.org/materials PAPER
Dow
nloa
ded
by U
NIV
ER
SIT
A D
EG
LI
STU
DI
BO
LO
GN
A o
n 30
Aug
ust 2
012
Publ
ishe
d on
25
June
201
2 on
http
://pu
bs.r
sc.o
rg |
doi:1
0.10
39/C
2JM
3292
5EView Online / Journal Homepage / Table of Contents for this issue
Organic metal–organic semiconductor blended contacts in single crystalfield-effect transistors†
Raphael Pfattner,ab Marta Mas-Torrent,*ab C�esar Moreno,d Joaquim Puigdollers,d Ram�on Alcubilla,d
Ivano Bilotti,e Elisabetta Venuti,e Aldo Brillante,e Vladimir Laukhin,abc Jaume Vecianaab
and Concepci�o Roviraab
Received 9th May 2012, Accepted 19th June 2012
DOI: 10.1039/c2jm32925e
A novel approach to blend organic source and drain electrodes with semiconducting organic single
crystals in field-effect transistors is described. The devices fabricated show a very high performance
which is ascribed to a notable reduction of the contact resistance as measured by Kelvin probe
microscopy. The average mobility is found to be four-fold that obtained from devices where no
interpenetration of the two materials takes place. This work highlights therefore the importance of the
contacts in organic field-effect transistors not only in terms of the alignment of the energy levels but also
with respect to the interface morphology.
Introduction
During the last decade, there have been dramatic advances in the
area of organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) mainly motivated
by the low-cost production and large-area coverage that organic
materials offer.1,2 However, to study the intrinsic charge trans-
port properties of organic semiconductors (OSC), single crystal
devices are required due to their high molecular ordering and the
absence of grain boundaries.3–5 In this sense, single crystals of
dithiophene-tetrathiafulvalene (DT-TTF)6 have been shown to
be very promising due to their high field-effect mobility (mFE) and
solution-processability.6–8 It should be considered though that
the OFET performance is not only determined by the active
material but also depends greatly on the device architecture and
composition. A critical issue thus, in obtaining high performing
devices, is to reduce the parasitic contact resistances at the source
and drain electrodes,9–11 which can have a strong impact on the
overall device charge carrier mobility.12,13 Recently, the organic
charge-transfer salt tetrathiafulvalene-tetracyanoquinodi-
methane (TTF-TCNQ) has been used as source and drain
contacts in OFETs by evaporating the organic metal on
aInstitut de Ci�encia de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC), CampusUAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain. E-mail: [email protected] Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials andNanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, SpaincInstituci�o Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avancats (ICREA), ICMAB-CSIC, 08193-Bellaterra, SpaindDept. Eng. Electronica and Center for Research in NanoEngineering(CrNE), UPC, Barcelona-08034, SpaineDipartimento di Chimica Fisica e Inorganica and INSTM-UdR Bologna,Universit�a di Bologna, 40136 Bologna, Italy
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: AdditionalOFET device characterization, Raman, AFM, and KPM analyses. SeeDOI: 10.1039/c2jm32925e
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
previously deposited OSCs (top-contact configuration, TC) or by
evaporating the OSC on the TTF-TCNQ contacts (bottom-
contact configuration, BC).14–21 The improved performance
observed in all these devices was ascribed to a better matching of
the energy levels, a more favourable organic–organic interface, a
smaller change of the electrical potential at the OSC–organic
metal interface, or to the lower temperatures applied in the TC
configuration for the evaporation of the source and drain
contacts compared to when gold contacts are used, which do not
damage the OSC.
Here we report a novel approach to grow the source and drain
TTF-TCNQ contacts in DT-TTF (Fig. 1A) single crystal OFETs
using a solution-based technique to deposit the OSC. We
demonstrate not only that the organic metal contacts are
compatible with wet techniques but also that the method
employed here results in a blending of the contacts with the OSC
greatly reducing the contact resistance and significantly
improving the device performance.
Fig. 1 (A) Molecular structure of DT-TTF. Optical microscopy images
of DT-TTF single crystals grown from toluene (B) and PhCl (C); other
crystals were broken to measure one single crystal.
J. Mater. Chem., 2012, 22, 16011–16016 | 16011
Fig. 2 Schematic representation (left) and output characteristics (right)
of a typical BC device prepared from PhCl.Measured (A) the same day of
fabrication, (B) one day after fabrication and storage under ambient
conditions and darkness, and (C) measured after five days of storage
under ambient conditions and darkness.
Dow
nloa
ded
by U
NIV
ER
SIT
A D
EG
LI
STU
DI
BO
LO
GN
A o
n 30
Aug
ust 2
012
Publ
ishe
d on
25
June
201
2 on
http
://pu
bs.r
sc.o
rg |
doi:1
0.10
39/C
2JM
3292
5E
View Online
Results and discussion
Conventional TC single crystal OFETs of DT-TTF (ref. 22) were
prepared from drop casting a solution of DT-TTF either in
chlorobenzene (PhCl) or toluene (c¼ 1 mg ml�1) on top of the Si/
SiO2 substrates and allowing the solvent to evaporate slowly. It is
well-known that different polymorphs can be formed when
modifying the experimental conditions, which can have a crucial
impact on the device performance.23 However, in this case, it was
previously shown that the crystallisation of DT-TTF in both
these solvents (i.e. toluene and PhCl) leads to the same poly-
morph.8 Then, TTF-TCNQ contacts were thermally evaporated
on the top through a shadow mask. The extracted average
mobility value in the saturation regime was found to be mFE ¼1.5 cm2 V�1 s�1 with a low threshold voltage of about VTH ¼0.12 V (see ESI†). No difference in performance was observed
between the crystals prepared from toluene and PhCl solutions,
confirming that both solvents result in crystals of similar quality.
The slightly enhanced performance achieved in comparison with
previously reported TC devices with DT-TTF,8 using Au and
graphite source and drain electrodes, is in agreement with the
results published for other TTF-TCNQ based OFETs.14–21
BC devices were also fabricated by drop-casting the DT-TTF
solution on a substrate containing a previously thermally evap-
orated TTF-TCNQ electrode array. Also here toluene and PhCl
were employed to solubilise the OSC. In this crystallisation
process, the crystals are formed in the solution and then fall
down on the substrate.8 After a few hours, the solvent evaporates
and single crystals can be observed by optical microscopy on top
of the organic electrode array. Differences in the OSC crystal–
organic metal interface between the devices prepared using the
two solvents were already noticeable in the optical microscopy
images. While the crystals grown from toluene are not disturbed
on the TTF-TCNQ electrode (Fig. 1B), when using PhCl the DT-
TTF crystals seem to ramify once they come in contact with the
organic metal (Fig. 1C). Further, atomic force microscopy
(AFM) analysis of the single crystals grown on top of the TTF-
TCNQ electrodes also elucidates the different connection of the
OSC with the charge transfer salt, showing that in the case of
PhCl the crystals and electrodes are interconnected (see ESI†).
This is caused by the fact that the TTF-TCNQ salt shows certain
solubility in the most polar solvent PhCl.
Following, all the prepared devices (i.e. more than 20 for each
fabrication process) were measured in air. For toluene based DT-
TTF single crystal OFETs with TTF-TCNQ BC electrodes an
average field-effect mobility of 0.6 cm2 V�1 s�1 and a low
threshold voltage were extracted in the saturation regime,
showing a very similar performance compared to already pub-
lished DT-TTF single crystal OFETs with Au BC electrodes
(average mFE ¼ 0.57 cm2 V�1 s�1).8 The OFET performance of
these devices stored in air remained constant for over a month.
Surprisingly, the electrical characterization of the devices
prepared from PhCl just after fabrication exhibited a very poor
performance with hardly any source–drain current (ISD).
However, after some days of storing the devices under ambient
conditions and darkness a clear field-effect could be observed.
Fig. 2 shows the output characteristics of one typical device
measured at different days after preparation. The same day of
preparation, grown crystals were found well allocated on the
16012 | J. Mater. Chem., 2012, 22, 16011–16016
electrodes under the optical microscope, but when characterized
electrically, no ISD could be measured (Fig. 2A). We suggest here
that electrically, the crystals in these cases were not connected
properly. After one day a distinct field-effect was measured;
however, high hysteresis effects appeared between forward and
reverse sweeps of the source–drain voltage (VSD). This could be
attributed to some solvent resting at the interface between the
DT-TTF single crystal and the SiO2 as also shown schematically
in Fig. 2B. After further storage under ambient conditions and
darkness for five days, the same device was measured again and
the corresponding characteristics are shown in Fig. 2C. Hardly
any hysteresis between forward and reverse swept VSD was
observed. The device showed textbook like behavior which can
be explained with the well formed connection of the DT-TTF
crystal both with the dielectric and the source–drain electrodes.
Fig. 3 shows the evolution of the mFE and the VTH of the device
during days. As clearly observed, mFE increases in the first five
days and then completely stabilizes at about mFE ¼ 1.9 cm2 V�1
s�1. Similarly, the VTH also varies notably during the first three
days and then stabilizes at about 5 V. After the fifth day, the
performance of the device remains completely stable for weeks.
All the devices prepared from PhCl showed the same trend in
performance, varying only slightly in the time delays until the
device reached the optimum performance.
This effect regarding the improvement of the device perfor-
mance with time was not observed when toluene was used as
solvent, due to its lower boiling point as well as the fact that in
this case no strong interconnections are created between the
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Fig. 3 Evolution of mFE, and VTH for a PhCl solution grown DT-TTF
single crystal OFET with TTF-TCNQ source–drain electrodes. The open
symbol represents day one of measurement, where the device was still not
working properly, i.e. no ISD; assumption: mFE ¼ 0 cm2 V�1 s�1.
Dow
nloa
ded
by U
NIV
ER
SIT
A D
EG
LI
STU
DI
BO
LO
GN
A o
n 30
Aug
ust 2
012
Publ
ishe
d on
25
June
201
2 on
http
://pu
bs.r
sc.o
rg |
doi:1
0.10
39/C
2JM
3292
5E
View Online
organic semiconductor and the organic metal. Additionally,
other effects related to the different solvent polarities which can
influence charge trapping can also take place. All this implies that
the device fabrication process takes a longer time to reach the
optimum performance when PhCl is employed.
Remarkably, the performance achieved when using PhCl was
always higher than with toluene. The characteristics of a typical
device, with a channel width (W) and length (L) of 9 mm and
304 mm, respectively, are shown in Fig. 4, exhibiting an ideal
OFET behaviour and a very high performance. As clearly
observed in the output characteristics shown in Fig. 4A, hardly
any hysteresis between forward and reverse sweeps of source–
drain voltages was found. The device saturated at low opera-
tional voltages and showed a very high hole mobility, extracted
Fig. 4 Electrical properties of a typical PhCl solution grown DT-TTF
single crystal OFET: (A) output characteristics measured sweeping the
source–drain voltage forward and reverse with channel width and length
of 9 mm and 304 mm, respectively. (B) Corresponding transfer charac-
teristics and extraction of the field-effect mobility in the saturation
regime.
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
in the saturation regime, of 2.7 cm2 V�1 s�1. The low threshold
voltage (2.2 V) as well as the switch-on voltage (VSO) reflects the
low level of unintentional doping.
A summary of the mobility values including the standard error
obtained for BC devices either employing Au as source and drain
with DT-TTF crystals grown from PhCl (ref. 8) as well as
employing TTF-TCNQ as source and drain electrodes with DT-
TTFcrystals grownboth from toluene andPhCl is shown inFig. 5.
Worth noting is the fact that the average OFETmobility in BC
devices prepared from PhCl solution reaches a value of 2.5 cm2
V�1 s�1, which is four-fold that obtained from devices prepared
from solutions of DT-TTF in toluene. The relatively large spread
of mobilities found in the case of PhCl with TTF-TCNQ contacts
can be ascribed to the different degrees of interconnection
between the organic material and both source and drain contacts
(see below). Additionally, it should be noted that similar spreads
in high mobility solution-processed single crystals OFETs are
commonly found.5
The chemical nature of the OSC–organic electrode interface
was studied by confocal Raman microscopy. The spectra of the
intramolecular modes in the range 1350–1650 cm�1 for DT-TTF
crystallised from PhCl lying on the metal contact could be fitted
to the sum of the bands corresponding to TTF-TCNQ and DT-
TTF (see ESI†). The absence of new bands confirms that the two
materials maintain their chemical identity and have not deteri-
orated during the device fabrication. In addition, Raman
phonon spectra (Fig. 6), which detect the lattice modes, were
recorded by a linear scan (arrow direction) on a thin DT-TTF
single crystal grown from toluene or PhCl, starting from the
channel region and moving to the TTF-TCNQ source electrode
(see schematic illustration, Fig. 6C and D). The phonon spectra
of DT-TTF devices prepared from toluene were always the same
in the channel region, far from the TTF-TCNQ electrode, and
when reaching the source electrode (Fig. 6A). This confirms that
the crystalline nature of DT-TTF is also preserved on top of the
organic electrode. On the contrary, in the case of devices
prepared from PhCl, in the contact area where the DT-TTF
crystal reaches the TTF-TCNQ electrode, a fading of the modes
occurs, which can be explained by a disruption of the lattice and,
Fig. 5 Summary of the average mFE extracted for solution grown
DT-TTF single crystal OFETs in a BC architecture with either Au or
TTF-TCNQ as source and drain electrodes and PhCl or toluene as
solvent to grow the single crystals. Data for Au as source and drain
electrodes were taken from ref. 8.
J. Mater. Chem., 2012, 22, 16011–16016 | 16013
Fig. 6 Lattice phonon Raman spectra from the linear scan (arrow
direction) of a toluene (A) and PhCl (B) solution grown DT-TTF single
crystal far (bottom trace) and across the TTF-TCNQ electrode contact
area. Schematic illustration of the Raman scan (C) and (D).
Fig. 8 Contact resistance (R � W) extracted with the effective potential
measured by Kelvin probe microscopy at both the drain (RD, top) and
source (RS, bottom) electrodes for a DT-TTF single crystal grown from
PhCl and toluene at VSD ¼ �5 V.
Dow
nloa
ded
by U
NIV
ER
SIT
A D
EG
LI
STU
DI
BO
LO
GN
A o
n 30
Aug
ust 2
012
Publ
ishe
d on
25
June
201
2 on
http
://pu
bs.r
sc.o
rg |
doi:1
0.10
39/C
2JM
3292
5E
View Online
therefore, supports the idea of blending of the two materials
(Fig. 6B).
To explore the OSC–organic metal interface in detail, focused
ion beam-scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) studies were
performed on the cross-section of the single crystal OFETs. In
devices in which toluene was employed to grow the DT-TTF
crystals, a clear separation between the TTF-TCNQ and the DT-
TTF was observed (Fig. 7). In contrast, in devices with PhCl
grown crystals there is no clear interface between the TTF-
TCNQ and the DT-TTF but, instead, an interpenetration can be
observed, resulting in a larger effective contact area (compare
Fig. 7A and B).
The significant improvement of the device performance in
OFETs with the same electrodes, and the same active materials,
but slightly different fabrication method, was attributed to
differences in the contact resistance caused by the blending of the
OSC and the organic metal. A suitable technique to extract the
effective electrical potential drop close to the electrodes of a
working field-effect transistor is Kelvin probe microscopy
(KPM).11 In fact, by combining the measured electrical potential
close to both the source and drain electrodes whilst also
measuring the source–drain current ISD, the contact resistance
can be calculated. Fig. 8 shows the contact resistance extracted at
the source (bottom) and drain (top) electrode, for solution
prepared BC OFETs, with the DT-TTF single crystal on top of
the TTF-TCNQ electrodes, crystallised from toluene (closed
symbols) and PhCl solutions (open symbols) at VSD ¼ �5 V.
Fig. 7 Cross-section of single crystal OFETs by an FIB-SEM image
with a DT-TTF single crystal (bright regions) grown from toluene (A)
and from PhCl (B), melting into the TTF-TCNQ electrode (dark regions)
on top of a Si/SiO2 substrate.
16014 | J. Mater. Chem., 2012, 22, 16011–16016
Further information about the effective electrical potential drop
at the electrodes and the extraction of the contact resistance is
included in the ESI.† Clearly a lower contact resistance (a factor
of about 5 for drain and source electrodes), can be observed in
the OFETs prepared from PhCl, which stays in accordance
with the highest performance found in these devices. Higher
blending between the materials at the OSC–source and OSC–
drain interfaces led to a lower contact resistance. Typically, in
our experiments the contact resistance improvement caused by
the blending of the materials resulted in mobility values four
times larger than when the DT-TTF crystal was lying on the
organic metals (Fig. 5).
Considering all, we can affirm that the methodology employed
for growing the DT-TTF OSC from the more polar PhCl solu-
tion on the top of the organic metal causes a certain re-dissolu-
tion of the TTF-TCNQ contact and subsequent precipitation of
the two materials. This process does not damage the organic
materials but, instead, results in a lower contact resistance in the
devices due to the larger effective contact area, which, in turn,
has a crucial influence on the final device performance.24
Experimental section
TTF-TCNQ electrodes were thermally evaporated at a base
pressure p ¼ 10�6 mbar and a temperature of T ¼ 110 �C with a
typical deposition rate of about 10 �A s�1. The pattern for the
source and drain electrodes was defined using a shadow mask.
EDX-microanalysis was performed to prove the stoichiometry of
the organic charge transfer salt, which was found to be about
TTF1-TCNQ1.
OFETs: DT-TTF was synthesized as previously described.22
For the preparation of single crystal OFETs, Si/SiO2 substrates,
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Dow
nloa
ded
by U
NIV
ER
SIT
A D
EG
LI
STU
DI
BO
LO
GN
A o
n 30
Aug
ust 2
012
Publ
ishe
d on
25
June
201
2 on
http
://pu
bs.r
sc.o
rg |
doi:1
0.10
39/C
2JM
3292
5E
View Online
with typically di ¼ 200 nm of dielectric thickness and the corre-
sponding gate capacitance Ci ¼ 17.25 nF cm�2 were used. The
small molecule DT-TTF was dissolved in chlorobenzene (PhCl)
or toluene (c ¼ 1 mg ml�1) and after being drop cast (drops of
about 50 ml), the solvent was allowed to evaporate slowly (2–3 h),
either on prefabricated TTF-TCNQ source and drain electrodes
(BC-architecture) or directly onto the dielectric for the TC
geometry. The standard current–voltage characteristics of the
OFETs were performed using a two channel Keithley 2612
SourceMeter connected via GPIB to a measurement computer,
equipped with MATLAB and instrument control toolbox 2.5.
Homemade MATLAB routines were used to characterize the
single crystal OFETs in the different regimes. All measurements
were carried out under ambient conditions and darkness (T ¼28 �C and RH ¼ 50%). The field-effect mobility as well as the
threshold voltage was calculated in the saturation regime
applying the widely used relation:25
mSAT ¼ 2L
WCi
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiISD;SAT
pvVSG
!2
where Ci is the insulator capacitance per unit area, and W and L
are the width and length of the crystal between the electrodes,
respectively.
Focused ion beam-scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM):
Experiments were performed on a Zeiss Neon 40 with cross-
beam (FIB/SEM) for observation, selective milling and deposi-
tion, tomography and elemental analysis including a focused ion
beam of gallium with 7 nm resolution. The focused beam of Ga+
ions was used to cut OFETs at the very dielectric–OSC interface
in the vertical direction and to study the cross-section by means
of SEM.
Raman spectra of DT-TTF and especially of TTF-TCNQ are
strongly dependent on the excitation energy, so that different
spectra are observed depending on the excitation. Single crystals
and OFETs were placed on the stage of an optical microscope
(Olympus BX40) interfaced to a Jobin Yvon T64000 Raman
spectrometer (647.1 nm and 752.5 nm excitations) or to a
Renishaw System 1000 (514.5 nm excitation). By using a 100�microscope objective, a spatial resolution ranging from 0.7 to
1 mm, depending on the excitation wavelength was reached. The
theoretical field depth was about 7 mm. In these conditions the
full thickness of the crystals was sampled as seen from the Si
bands of the substrate always present in the reported spectra and
subtracted when needed. The spectra were recorded spanning the
region 10–2000 cm�1, with particular attention to the low
frequency region of the lattice phonons (10–150 cm�1). The
incoming power was reduced with a neutral filter whose optical
density was selected in each experiment to prevent thermal effects
on the sample. To explore in detail the organic metal–organic
semiconductor interface, the point to point variation of the
Raman spectra of the DT-TTF single crystals in the OFET was
obtained by moving the sample with a motorized stage of the
microscope. This allowed us to scan each crystal starting away
from the TTF-TCNQ electrode up to the area lying on top of it.
Kelvin probe microscopy measurements were performed with a
Veeco Dimension 3100 microscope operated under ambient
conditions. We used commercial conductive B-doped diamond
coated Si tips with k ¼ 2.8 N m�1 (nanosensors) and a resonance
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
frequency of 75 kHz. Lift mode at a distance of 15 nm from the
surface was used to measure the surface contact potential
difference (CPD) in a second scan after recording the topography
in first step. To detect the electrostatic force, an ac bias (0.5 kHz,
1 V) is applied between the tip and sample, in addition to a dc
bias. By using a lock-in amplifier the electrostatic force can be
nullified by adjusting dc bias to match the CPD. The statistical
error in the KPM signal was determined to be about 20 mV. The
absolute values for the CPD measured signal depend on the
capacitive coupling between the cantilever and the electrodes.
For this reason a scaling is accomplished to correct the difference
between the CPD measured and the voltage applied to drain and
source contacts.26 To apply the voltages to the source, drain and
gate contacts as well as to record the current through the tran-
sistor device in the drain electrode a Keithley 2636 electrometer
was used. As reported,27 contact resistance RS,D can be deter-
mined as RS,D ¼W(DVS,D)/ID whereW is the channel width and
DVS and DVD are the potential drops at the source and drain (see
ESI†) electrode edges, respectively.
Conclusion
Typically in OFETs, special emphasis has been placed on the
matching of the energy levels of the organic semiconductor and
the metal workfunction to ensure efficient charge injection.15,28
Some efforts have been devoted to improving the organic semi-
conductor–metal interface by functionalising the metal with
self-assembled molecular monolayers to modify the metal work-
function or/and achieve higher molecular ordering at the inter-
face.29 In our work, we would like to underline that, besides the
very important matching of the Fermi level of the source and
drain electrodes with the HOMO level of the active material for p-
channelOFETs, the quality of the contact in terms ofmorphology
and interface also plays a crucial role and opens the possibility to
design new strategies to improve the device performance.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the EU Large Project One-P (FP7-NMP-
2007-212311), Marie Curie Est FuMaSSEC, the Networking
Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nano-
medicine (CIBER-BBN), the DGI (Spain) with project POMAS
CTQ2010-19501/BQU and TEC2011-27859, and Consolider
HOPE project CSD2007-07 and Generalitat de Catalunya
2009SGR516.
Notes and references
1 M. Mas-Torrent and C. Rovira, Chem. Soc. Rev., 2008, 37, 827.2 J. Zaumseil and H. Sirringhaus, Chem. Rev., 2007, 107, 1296.3 C. Reese and Z. Bao, Mater. Today, 2007, 10, 20.4 W. Warta and N. Karl, Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys.,1985, 32, 1172.
5 H. Minemawari, T. Yamada, H. Matsui, J. Tsutsumi, S. Haas,R. Chiba, R. Kumai and T. Hasegawa, Nature, 2011, 475, 364.
6 M. Mas-Torrent, M. Durkut, P. Hadley, X. Ribas and C. Rovira,J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2004, 126, 984.
7 M. Leufgen, O. Rost, C. Gould, G. Schmidt, J. Geurts,L. Molenkamp, N. Oxtoby, M. Mas-Torrent, N. Crivillers,J. Veciana and C. Rovira, Org. Electron., 2008, 9, 1101.
8 R. Pfattner, M. Mas-Torrent, I. Bilotti, A. Brillante, S. Milita,F. Liscio, F. Biscarini, T. Marszalek, J. Ulanski, A. Nosal,
J. Mater. Chem., 2012, 22, 16011–16016 | 16015
Dow
nloa
ded
by U
NIV
ER
SIT
A D
EG
LI
STU
DI
BO
LO
GN
A o
n 30
Aug
ust 2
012
Publ
ishe
d on
25
June
201
2 on
http
://pu
bs.r
sc.o
rg |
doi:1
0.10
39/C
2JM
3292
5E
View Online
M. Gazicki-Lipman, M. Leufgen, G. Schmidt, L. Molenkamp,V. Laukhin, J. Veciana and C. Rovira, Adv. Mater., 2010, 22, 4198.
9 N. Tessler and Y. Roichman, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2001, 79, 2987.10 T. J. Richards and H. Sirringhaus, J. Appl. Phys., 2007, 102, 094510.11 C. Moreno, R. Pfattner, M. Mas-Torrent, J. Puigdollers,
S. T. Bromley, C. Rovira, J. Veciana and R. Alcubilla, J. Mater.Chem., 2012, 22, 345.
12 D. Braga and G. Horowitz, Adv. Mater., 2009, 21, 1473.13 D. Natali and M. Caironi, Adv. Mater., 2012, 24, 1357.14 B. Mukherjee and M. Mukherjee, Langmuir, 2011, 27, 11246.15 K. Shibata, K. Ishikawa, H. Takezoe, H. Wada and T. Mori, Appl.
Phys. Lett., 2008, 92, 023305.16 K. Shibata, H. Wada, K. Ishikawa, H. Takezoe and T. Mori, Appl.
Phys. Lett., 2007, 90, 193509.17 Y. Takahashi, T. Hasegawa, Y. Abe, Y. Tokura, K. Nishimura and
G. Saito, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2005, 86, 063504.18 Y. Takahashi, T. Hasegawa, Y. Abe, Y. Tokura and G. Saito, Appl.
Phys. Lett., 2006, 88, 073504.19 Y. Takahashi, T. Hasegawa, S. Horiuchi, R. Kumai, Y. Tokura and
G. Saito, Chem. Mater., 2007, 19, 6382.20 H. Wada, K. Shibata, Y. Bando and T. Mori, J. Mater. Chem., 2008,
18, 4165.21 S. Haas, Y. Takahashi, K. Takimiya and T. Hasegawa, Appl. Phys.
Lett., 2009, 95, 022111.
16016 | J. Mater. Chem., 2012, 22, 16011–16016
22 N. Crivillers, N. S. Oxtoby, M. Mas-Torrent, J. Veciana andC. Rovira, Synthesis, 2007, 1621–1623.
23 M. Mas-Torrent and C. Rovira, Chem. Rev., 2011, 111, 4833.24 A device with mobility as high as 6.2 cm2 V�1 s�1 has already been
achieved, indicating that the OSC–organic metal blending can befurther optimised. However, this high mobility value has not beenconsidered in all the data analysis.
25 (a) G. Horowitz, M. Hajlaoui, H. Bouchriha, R. Bourguiga andM. Hajlaoui, Adv. Mater., 1998, 10, 923; (b) E. J. Meijer,C. Tanase, P. W. M. Blom, E. van Veenendaal, B.-H. Huisman,D. M. de Leeuw and T. M. Klapwijk, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2002, 80,3838.
26 S. G. J. Mathijssen, M. Colle, A. J. G. Mank, M. Kemerink,P. A. Bobbert and D. M. de Leeuw, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2007, 90,192104.
27 L. B€urgi, H. Sirringhaus and R. H. Friend,Appl. Phys. Lett., 2002, 80,2913.
28 S. Braun, W. R. Salaneck and M. Fahlman, Adv. Mater., 2009, 21,1450.
29 (a) X. Y. Cheng, Y. Y. Noh, J. P. Wang, M. Tello, J. Frisch,R. P. Blum, A. Vollmer, J. P. Rabe, N. Koch and H. Sirringhaus,Adv. Funct. Mater., 2009, 19, 2407; (b) K. Asadi, Y. Wu,F. Gholamrezaie, P. Rudolf and P. W. M. Blom, Adv. Funct.Mater., 2009, 21, 4109.
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012