Organic farming: A prospect for food, environment and livelihood ...

Organic farming: A prospectfor food, environmentand livelihood security in IndianagricultureMadhab Chandra Mannaa,*, Mahammad Mahmudur Rahmanb,c,Ravi Naidub,c, A.S.M. Fazle Barib,c, A.B. Singha, J.K. Thakura,Avijit Ghoshd, Ashok K. Patraa, S.K. Chaudharie, and A. SubbaraoaaICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, IndiabGlobal Centre for Environmental Remediation (GCER), Faculty of Science, The University of Newcastle,Callaghan, NSW, AustraliacCooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment(CRC-CARE), ATC Building, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, AustraliadICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, IndiaeNRM, ICAR, New Delhi, India*Corresponding author: e-mail addresses: [email protected]; [email protected]

Contents

1. Introduction 32. World and Indian scenarios of organic farming 63. Variants of organic farming in India and abroad 9

3.1 Biodynamic farming 93.2 Nature farming 10

4. Is the supply of organic feed materials sufficient for organic farming in India? 114.1 Crop residue 114.2 Livestock and human excreta 134.3 Municipal solid waste compost 134.4 Green manure 144.5 Vegetables/fruit waste 154.6 Bio-fertilizer 16

5. Feasibility of organic farming to ensure food security 186. Prospects of organic farming for environmental complexities 21

6.1 Organic farming with sewage water 216.2 Organic farming and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 23

7. Quality of produce from organic and conventional agriculture 258. Soil health under organic and conventional agriculture scenarios 279. Socio-economic factors affecting the adoption of organic or conventional

agriculture 29

Advances in Agronomy Copyright # 2021 Elsevier Inc.ISSN 0065-2113 All rights reserved.https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2021.06.003

1

ARTICLE IN PRESS

https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2021.06.003

10. Empowering development strategies in organic farming: Policies and issuesin India 31

11. Challenges and opportunities in organic agriculture 3412. Organic agriculture—A boon for environmental sustainability 3713. Conclusions and future prospects 40Acknowledgment 42References 42

Abstract

Organic farming is an environmentally, economically and socially accepted way to pro-duce food. This review scrutinizes various facets of the practice including its impacton the environment, international markets, and local as well as global food security.First-hand knowledge throughout India and the world was evaluated the various strat-egies and policies implemented for organic agriculture in India. Scenarios depicted hererepresent millions of people from all social and economic backgrounds who haveembraced this agrarian method ensuring the integrity of food. Since organic farmingdepends on animal manures, off-farm organic wastes, crop residues, green manures,and bio-fertilizers, the question arises whether the availability of these organic feedmaterials is sufficient to support widespread organic farming in India. In total, thesesources could supply 7.04Mt. of primary nutrients in India, while in the long-term,organic farming could contribute to food security by harmonizing population growth,food grain production, fertilizer consumption, and prevent or minimize soil nutrientdepletion. Municipal solid waste compost and sewage water are being increasinglyemployed in organic agriculture and very large amounts of organic residues and pol-lutants are added to the soil. Given this, the prospects of organic agriculture to helpsolve environmental problems need to be researched in more detail. Soil C (carbon)sequestration by municipal solid waste compost and sewage water may to some extentstop environmental degradation. Primarily, organic farming could boost the quality offood by enhancing protein, vitamins, minerals, etc. Soil health and ecological functionssuch as biomass production, biodiversity maintenance, environmental protection, etc.,which occur in organic farming could also be maintained or improved. In this way, it ispossible for climatic aberrations could be mitigated or alleviated. However, policiesshould be developed for proper utilization of bio-waste, integrated farming approacheswith organics, prioritizing areas and different kinds of organic farming, better pest man-agement involving bio-pesticides, strengthening the domestic market for organic pro-duce, farmer-to-farmer communication, etc. Our assessment found that organic farminghas huge potential for contributing to food security, risk mitigation, etc., in India. Organicfarming could also address many of the sustainable development goals directly, namely3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16. However, future research should address areas like: (a) Csequestration and critical C input for organic farming; (b) dynamics, biology and bio-chemistry of nutrient cycles; (c) impact of the exposure of organic farming to contam-inants; and (d) producing higher quality food crops.

2 Madhab Chandra Manna et al.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

1. Introduction

The world’s population is expected to grow to 11,000 million by the

beginning of the 22nd century (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012), thus rais-

ing the specter of serious and complex problems in how contemporary agri-

culture is expected to feed such a huge population. The agricultural system

has to safeguard the delivery of adequate affordable food and nutrition for all,

however, at present it is struggling to achieve this with nearly 1 billion indi-

viduals experiencing malnourishment. Human health and environmental

concerns which are serious threat due to intensive use of chemicals have

driven renewed interest in natural ways of farming across the globe. Tomeet

the projected increase of global food demand (70–110%), approximately 1

billion hectares (ha.) of additional cropland using contemporary farming sys-

tems are required by 2050 (Bruinsma, 2009; Riar et al., 2017). Complicating

this are the climatic aberrations and economic uncertainties, which have

impacted on the global food network, thus leading to agricultural systems

having to consider all-inclusive cultivation approaches built on ecological

principles. Numerous other cultivation methods have been followed world-

wide over time, with varying levels of success.

Organic farming, the most preferred farm management strategy is being

encouraged given its positive influence on soil health, the environment, and

farmers’ viability to stay on the land and have incomes. For millennia, the

importance of organics in the soil was not understood in many civilizations

or cultures. Later on, it was observed that certain soils would fail to produce

satisfactory yields if cropped continuously without replacing the depleted

nutrient resources (Swarup et al., 2000). In the last few decades, significant

improvements were noted in Indian agriculture and national food produc-

tion quantities, which were achieved through the better use of natural

resources such as land, water and genetic diversity. However, second gen-

eration problems have become apparent due to excessive farming, improper

use of fertilizers, infrequent application of organic manures, depletion of

essential soil nutrients, visible nutrient deficiency symptoms in many crops

due to the removal of nutrients from soil at greater rates than their addition

(Manna et al., 2012; Rao and Reddy, 2005), declining soil health, increas-

ingly unbalanced soil biodiversity (Batra and Manna, 1997), development of

saline-alkalinity and acidity, and finally the over-exploitation of natural

resources.

3Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

The practice of adding animal and vegetable manures to soils to restore

fertility probably developed from observing some of the second generation

problems described above, but when and how this practice began is not

known. Many traditional farming techniques are still being used and are

considered valuable to this today. Organic farming hybridizes these tech-

niques and combines them with conventional science. Organic farming

is therefore a comprehensive method for controlling growth that supports

and improves the protection of agro-ecosystems including habitats, ecolog-

ical cycles, and how soil ecosystems function. It includes the use of methods

to produce high crop yields without damaging the natural world or human

societies. It focuses on development of farming practices in addition to the

use of external farm resources, considering that locally tailored methods of

agriculturemust suit local or regional conditions. This is achieved by utilizing,

whenever feasible, agronomic, microbial, and mechanical approaches inside

the cultivation framework, as opposed to conventional resources (FAO,

1999). Organic farmers are not abandoning their fields to their animals

and plants; they are in fact utilizing all the necessary information, methods

and resources to interact with nature. The diligent farmer thus establishes a

balanced equilibrium between nature and agriculture where the crops and

animals will flourish and prosper. A key requirement of a successful organic

farmer means having to revaluate their previous assumptions about what

worked; for example, not every insect is a pest or every non-crop producing

plant is a weed that needs to be removed via an artificial chemical spray.

Taking climate change into consideration, which will require farming

systems to be resilient in extreme weather or environmental conditions in

order to be sustainable, researchers have documented four main factors that

make the transformation conventional farming into organic farming pos-

sible: (i) the increasing acreage that farmers select for organic cultivation,

(ii) crop diversification which will impact on organic food production in

the future, (iii) increasing volumes of bio-waste being applied to sustain

greater food grain production, and lastly, (iv) the extent to which the

organic farming sector in developing countries can afford premium prices

for produce that will hopefully expand their economies.

Given India’s economic highs and lows over the last few decades, three

significant and intertwined issues require serious consideration in the farm-

ing industry. Firstly, while cereal output is 251 million tons (Lal, 2004), by

2050 the country needs to fulfill the projected grain demand of 300 million

tons of cereals from rapidly diminishing farm assets due to urbanization and

industrialization. Secondly, the gradual depletion of water and land assets


ARTICLE IN PRESS

contributes to a decline in fertilizer, irrigation, tillage, etc., usage output, as

well as increased pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions from industries and

simply contaminating more acreage and water sources. Thirdly, the release

of harmful substances is closely linked to agricultural production, crop waste

and important health issues (Manna et al., 2012, 2018). Massive cultivation

with inorganic chemicals has thus created the following scenarios:

• Agrochemicals may be drained quickly from the fields and contaminate

land, groundwater, waterways and lakes.

• The long-term excessive usage of fertilizers contributes to poor soils that

are quickly destroyed by wind and rain.

• Dependence on fertilizers and pesticides is increasing, and higher quan-

tities are always necessary annually to achieve the same agricultural

output.

• Pesticides persist in the soil for a long time and enter the food web where

they bio-accumulate in animals and humans, causing serious health

issues.

• Large-scale chemical applications hugely compromise soil fertility lead-

ing to a deteriorating soil structure, poor aeration, and less nutrient trans-

formation and supply.

• New pests and pathogens grow become increasingly immune to chem-

ical pesticides, making them very difficult to manage or exterminate.

• The natural predators of pests are declining due to pesticide usage and

habitat destruction.

• Intense farming produces acidity/salinity and loss of certain micro- and

secondary nutrients in soil over the long-term.

A common concern regarding the organic farming movement is its yield,

(Trewavas, 2004) and it has been asked: will organic farming be able to feed

the world? Is traditional farming feeding the planet successfully? It is very

evident that the high-input/high-yielding processes are actually struggling

to feed the planet, not due to production issues, but due to issues with food

delivery, too many people given the level of resources available, patterns of

social organization and serious questions regarding hunger, discrimination

and gender (Woodward and Vogtmann, 2004). Regarding food security,

maintaining environmental resources requires more investment in natural

resources conservation and regeneration, and significant changes are required

to enhance the safe and competitive capacity of soil, water and genetic capital.

There is a crucial task to manage organic matter to preserve soil and soil

resources and this is concerned with preserving and developing the world’s

soil assets so that it can grow fruit and fiber, while maintaining freshwater

5Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

resources, contribute to electricity generation, environmental management,

habitat conservation and sustain the planet’s natural resources (McBratney

et al., 2014). No comprehensive analyses have been conducted to our

knowledge that provide data on the supply of bio-organics from crop res-

idues, livestock and urban solid waste, their nutritional capacity for food

production and organic farming specifically. Furthermore the generation

of bioenergy, reducing greenhouse gases pollution, and boosting agricultural

production are still under-researched.

The primary objective of this study was to undertake a quantitative and

qualitative analysis and to present evidence on the acceptable levels of

organic agricultural practices that differ among farmers. This study was based

on different variables, including biophysical and socio-economic type farm-

ing practices, the supply of bio-waste, and regional limitations. A further

objective was to develop potential research priorities. The review also aimed

to highlight the common organic farming practices in India and abroad, the

availability of organics and nutrient potential in India, the feasibility of

organic farming to ensure food security, the prospects of organic farming

for environmental complexities, the quality of produce and soil under both

organic and conventional agriculture, socio-economic factors that guide

production in organic and conventional agriculture, and development strat-

egies in organic farming. The analysis highlights the difficulties and possibil-

ities of organic farming and illustrates the potential opportunity to optimize

the value of organic farming. Doing so will help identify farmers’ willingness

to follow their particular practices, since it is of vital importance to imple-

ment effective policies based on a clear understanding of the possible

scenarios.

2. World and Indian scenarios of organic farming

It is speculated that organic agriculture has the potential to fulfill the

world’s food demand with sustainable resource utilization. Hence, it is

developing rapidly and today more than 180 countries (65% are developing

countries) have a share in organic food production throughout Europe,

Latin America, and Oceania, with Australia, Argentina and Brazil having

the largest organically managed land areas. In 2017, organic production

was estimated at 69.8�106ha worldwide. This represents a six-fold increase

since 1999 when data were first collected from the FiBL-IFOAM-SOEL-

Survey 1999–2019 (Fig. 1) on organic agriculture worldwide (Willer and

Julia, 2019). Globally, about 48.2million ha of organic land serve as grassland


ARTICLE IN PRESS

but only 12.1�106ha of farmed land is arable. A further 4.9�106ha of the

world’s organic land is classified as permanent cropland to primarily grow

coffee, olives, nuts, coconuts and grapes.

In terms of arable cropland, Australia is ranked number one with

35.6�106ha of organic agriculture, followed by Argentina with

3.4�106ha, and China with 3�106ha. Australia’s large share of organic

agriculture ensures that half of the world’s organically-managed regions

now rest with Oceania (35.9�106ha). Following Oceania is Europe, which

has the second highest region of land used for organic agriculture (21% or

14.6�106ha of total arable land), followed by Latin America (11.5% or

8�106ha of total cultivable land). Oceania has expanded its organic farming

land by more than 12% within approximately 1 year. Although Oceania and

Europe have witnessed major advances in the quantity of farm land listed as

organic, Africa, North America, and Latin American estimates have stayed

largely stagnant over a 10-year span, remaining steady at or just below 8% of

total cultivable land. Notably, Liechtenstein, Samoa, and Austria have the

highest ratios of organic farmland to non-organic farmland within their bor-

ders, although they do not have the largest number of hectares under organic

control. A whopping 37.9% of the total agriculture of Liechtenstein is listed

as organic, while in Samoa and Australia it is 37.6% and 24%, respectively.

India ranks as having the 10th highest amount of land under organic cer-

tification in terms of cropland. In 2001, the National Organic Development

0.3 0.3

0.4 0.4

0.50.6 0.6 0.6

0.7 0.70.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

0.8 0.9

1

1.11.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Org

anic

sh

are

in (

%)

erutl

ucirga

cina

gro

red

nu

ae rA

Million hectare

Fig. 1 Area under organic agriculture (million hectare) and organic share in (%). Source:FiBL-IFOAM-SOEL-Surveys 1999–2019. Growth of the organic agricultural land and organicshare 1999-2017; Willer, H. and Julia, L., (Eds.) 2019.The world organic agriculture, statisticsand emerging trends 2019. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick, IFOAM-Organics International Bonn. pp. 1–356.

7Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Plan (NPOP) was initiated by the government of India. The European

Commission and Switzerland accepted the NPOP criteria for the develop-

ment and accreditation frameworks as being similar to their national require-

ments. Similarly, NPOP criteria have been listed by the US Department of

Agriculture (USDA) as equal to those in the US. India presently ranks 33rd

in terms of overall land under organic crops as a proportion of overall agri-

culture areas. The governments of Uttarakhand and Sikkim, in India,

proclaimed their systems to be “organic.” The approved region occupies

15% of a cultivable field comprising 0.72 million hectares (2013–14) andis projected to expand to 2.0 million hectares at the end of 2020, while

the remaining 85% (3.99 million hectares) is a woodland and wild region

for the conservation of small trees. The overall region under organic regis-

tration amounts to 4.72 million hectares (2013–14) with an output of

1.24�106 t of certified organic goods (including all food varieties, such as

sugarcane, cotton, oil, seeds, basmati rice, peas, spices, tea, fruits, dried fruits,

beans, coffee and their value added items). Other common organic agro-

products include high-value soya, fruit and vegetables, rice cereals and basmati,

tea, coffee and milk.

The highest area of organic agriculture in the region (0.38 million ha out

of 0.72 million ha) is occupied by cotton cultivation, accompanied by forest

agriculture (0.01 million hectares) and uncontrolled grazing (0.32 million

ha). The Indian market for organic products is export-focused. Out of

the estimated rupees (₹) 5000-crore market for organic products, ₹ 3800

crore comes from exports. It is expected to exceed the USD ($) 1.50 billion(about ₹ 10,000 crore) mark by 2020 (Anonymous, 2017). India’s state of

Madhya Pradesh has the largest area classified under organic certification,

followed by Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan (www.apeda.gov.in). The

key focus for the growth of agriculture is the transition of organic farming

technologies to, and for adoption by farmers. Innovation awareness and

implementation requires the capacity of food producers to learn and appre-

ciate the technology and their willingness to turn knowledge into expertise

and/or practice. Nonetheless, organic goods are valued between 20% and

75% more than the non-organic equivalents elsewhere.

The organic farming movement in India is led by members and associates

of the International Federation ofOrganic AgricultureMovements (IFOAM),

Bonn, Germany. The All India Federation of Organic Farming (AIFOF) is a

member of IFOAM. AIFOF has a large number of NGOs, farmers, organiza-

tions, promotional bodies, corporate entities and institutions as members. The

Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority


ARTICLE IN PRESS

http://www.apeda.gov.in

(APEDA), in India states that Madhya Pradesh has the highest area under cer-

tified organic agriculture (0.233 million ha), followed by Maharashtra (0.086

million ha) andRajasthan (0.066million ha). Among the hill states, Sikkim has

the highest (0.061 million ha) while Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest area

(71ha) under organic agriculture. Among the southern states, Karnataka

has the highest (0.031 million ha) and Tamil Nadu has the lowest area

(3640ha) under certified organic agriculture. In 2001, India’s government

implemented the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP).

This programme performed a variety of functions, including an accredita-

tion scheme for certification agencies, standards for organic production,

and promotion of organic farming. As a result of the NPOP, many states

in India have adopted organic farming. Uttarakhand and Sikkim consider

themselves to be organic states. As well, many farmers’ organizations and

NGOs have been formed over time, which are not only practicing organic

agriculture but also experimenting with it.

3. Variants of organic farming in India and abroad

There are several alternative methods of conventional organic farming

followed worldwide such as biodynamic farming, nature farming, zero bud-

get natural farming, etc.

3.1 Biodynamic farmingBiodynamic (BD) agriculture is a key organic farming approach that was

suggested almost a century ago by Steiner (1924). It aims at diversifying,

increasing sustainability and promoting ever-evolving farms that could pro-

vide humankind with long-term ecological, economic and physical resil-

ience. This involves aerobic composting methods, combined agricultural

systems utilizing animal manures, crop rotations, and animal health treat-

ment, leading to environmental conservation, protecting biodiversity and

enhancing farmers’ livelihoods. The biodynamics concept stands on the

basic principal of dynamics of energy, which can neither be created nor des-

troyed in nature. This farming method visualizes the soil as a dynamic living

system, one which interacts with the environment to produce healthy and

biologically active soil. In turn, it produces food aimed to nourish and vital-

ize humanity. Soil is an ecological harbor of living organisms that support

plants to grow under the influence of the earth’s magnetic fields and the cos-

mic energy of the sun, moon, celestial bodies and seasonal cycles. According

toWikipedia, until 2016 biodynamic techniques were used on 161,074ha in

9Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

60 countries and Germany has a 45% share of the global area (Khulbe and

Srinivas, 2017). Preparing for biodynamic agriculture and its effect on soil

and the multiplication of soil biodiversity has been extensively researched

(Carpenter-Boggs et al., 2000a,b; Droogers and Bouma, 1996; Goldstein

et al., 2004; Pfiffner and Mader, 1997; Raupp and Konig, 1996; Reganold

et al., 1993; Turinek et al., 2008; Zaller, 2007; Zaller and Kopke, 2004).

Researchers have concluded that applying a biodynamic enhanced com-

posting process on the phyllosphere has substantially improved crop yield

and soil biological activity compared to conventional farming. Furthermore,

Bouma (1996) reported that soil structure and crop productivity significantly

improved under biodynamic farmingmethods comparedwith conventional

organic farming. Soil organic matter equilibration and its pathways are still

unexplored and need further to be investigated by the scientific community.

3.2 Nature farmingThe system of nature farming aims to minimize the external inputs to farmland

and improve soil’s fertility. Through nature farming, soil enrichment occurs

through the propagation of beneficial soil microbes which involves the

natural symbiosis of soil microflora, fauna and crop plants. For example,

mulching can perform a multitude of functions, such as maximizing soil

moisture content, forming a protective cover for detritivores such as earth-

worms, increasing bioavailability, and minimizing weed propagation

(Paoletti, 1999). Many studies have documented that nature farming, with

the minimum external inputs—excepting the application of plant nutrient

supplements—improves soil fertility by increasing micro flora and bio-

availability. Nature farming encourages productivity in a multi-cropping

system and proliferation of micro and macro flora, with the added benefit

of minimizing labor and production costs (Devarinti, 2016; Nileemas and

Sreenivasa, 2011; Shaikh and Gachande, 2015; Shubha et al., 2014;

Swaminathan et al., 2007). However, more investigations are required to

validate the advantages of nature farming for all crop types. Some researchers

reported that application of “Beejamruth,” a seed treatment concoction using

bovine manure, bovine urine, lime (CaCO3) and a handful of local soil, sub-

stantially improved naturally occurring beneficial microbes, improved the

productivity and protected the crops from soil-borne disease (Swaminathan

et al., 2007).

Similarly, the application of “Jeevamruth,” which is prepared from

bovine manure (10kg), bovine urine (5–10L), jaggery (1–2kg), pulse flour


ARTICLE IN PRESS

(1kg), and a handful of soil along with 200L of water, helps to decompose

organic matter, supplying available plant nutrients and providing plant

growth-promoting hormones (Kloepper, 1993; Lazarovits, 1997; Suslov,

1982). Global reform in agrarian farming methods was established in 1993,

known as “La Via Campesina,” with members using the above nature farming

methods (Jeevamrita and Beejamrita, liveMulch) under the banner “Zero Budget

Natural Farming” (Sarma, 2016). The phrase “Zero Budget” refers to not

spending any money on purchased inputs. “Natural farming” means farming

without chemicals to sustain the ecological balance, soil health and produc-

tivity. Although some farmers are practicing natural farming abroad and in

India, it is still not scientifically substantiated.

4. Is the supply of organic feed materials sufficientfor organic farming in India?

Organic farming frameworks depend on “animal manures, off-farm

organic wastes, crop residues, green manures, mineral bearing rocks, aspects

of biological pest control, and tilth to supply plant nutrients and control

insects, weeds and other pests,” according to Goswami and Rattan

(2004). Recycling of crop residues constitutes the core of organic farming

along with on-farm generated organic manures. Due tomultiple uses of crop

residues in Indian society, only a limited portion is available for recycling.

Studies reported that the major sources of organic wastes are crop residues,

and livestock, city and horticultural wastes. In this section, six important

organic material sources, their potential and their usage are discussed in more

detail.

4.1 Crop residueIn the year 2010, the overall amount of N+P2O5+K2O contained in food

grain crop residues (524.2Mt) was about 10.85Mt. and from the actual avail-

able crop residue (173Mt) it amounted to approximately 3.58Mt. in India

(Table 1). Cereal residues have contributed a maximum of about 70% of the

total residue whereas rice and wheat share 34% and 22%, respectively, of the

total cereal residue. Thus, crop residues play a vital role in the recycling of

nutrients, in addition to the role of chemical fertilizers in crop production

(Bansal and Kapoor, 2000; Chhetri et al., 2016). The continuous depletion

and burning of crop residues can lead to net losses of nutrients (70% CO2,

30% N, 20% P, 50% S and 20% K), which can ultimately lead to higher

nutrient cost input in the short-term and a reduction in long-term soil

11Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

quality (MNRE, 2009; Pathak et al., 2010). It is typical in northern India for

farmers to either burn crop residues or remove stubble from the field.

Similarly, sugarcane tops are usually burnt, which results in the transforma-

tion of plant tissue-bound nutrients into forms that are easily lost via vola-

tilization and leaching (Padre et al., 2016; Pathak and Wassmann, 2007).

Northern Indian farmers strongly believe that in-situ burning is required

Table 1 Projection of the amount of tappable nutrients from different organic sourcesfor agriculture in India.Resources Year

2000 2010 2025 2050

Generators

Human population (million) 1000 1120 1300 1600

Livestock population (million) 489 537 596 694

Crop residues (million tons) 300 524.2 860.5 1421.03

Resources (considered tappable)

Human excreta (dry) (million tons) 13 15 17 20

Livestock dung (dry) (million tons) 113 119 128 143

crop residues (million tons) 99 173 284 468.9

Nutrient potential (million tons N+P2O5+K2O)

Human excreta 2 2.24 2.6 3.2

Livestock dung 6.64 7.0 7.54 8.44

crop residues 6.21 10.85 17.81 29.41

Nutrient (considered tappable) (million tons N+P2O5+K2O)

Human excreta 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.6

Livestock dung 2 2.1 2.26 2.5

crop residues 2.05 3.58 5.87 9.7

Total 5.65 7.48 10.23 14.8

Tappable¼30% of dung,80% of excreata,33% of crop residue

Organic sources and nutrient potential estimated for 2025 and 2050 from the base value of 2003and 2010.

Source: Compiled from MNRE (Ministry of new, Renewable Energy Sources). 2009. Govt. of India,New Delhi. www.mnre.gov.in/biomassresources; Tandon HLS (1997) Plant nutrient needs, supply,efficiency and policy issues, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi, pp. 15–28.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

http://www.mnre.gov.in/biomassresources

to clean fields prior to sowing or preparing the land, as burning is a fast pro-

cess that vacates the land. It is also estimated that every million tons of

increased food grain production will produce 1.2–1.5Mt. of crop residue.

Thus, the estimated and projected N+P2O5+K2O supply from crop resi-

dues is 3.58, 5.87 and 9.7Mt, respectively, during 2010, 2025 and 2050, also

respectively (see Table 1).

4.2 Livestock and human excretaOne estimate revealed that the potential availability of manure produced

from some livestock (cattle, sheep, goats and pigs) is the major source of

organics for farming in India. Manure production was 537 million tons in

2010 and from the available manure (119Mt), about 2.1Mt. of N

+P2O5+K2Owas generated (Table 1). Out of the total quantity of available

cattle manure, approximately two-thirds is being utilized to produce fuel

cake in villages and only one-third is being used as a manure for agricultural

land (Bhattacharjya et al., 2019; Manna et al., 2015). The same study esti-

mates that every million increase in the cattle population will provide an

additional annual increase of 1.2Mt. of dry dung. Thus the estimated and

projected N+P2O5+K2O supply from livestock manure is 2.1, 2.26 and

2.5Mt., during 2010, 2025 and 2050, respectively (Table 1). The potential

availability of human excreta during 2010 amounted to 15Mt with a nutri-

ent potential of about 1.8Mt. of N+P2O5+K2O. Each onemillion increase

in the human population will discharge an additional 16,500 t of feces (dry

basis), and consequently the estimated N+P2O5+K2O supply from human

excreta is 2.1 and 2.6Mt. during 2025 and 2050, respectively.

4.3 Municipal solid waste compostThe third largest source of off-farm organic material is municipal solid waste

(MSW). India’s cities are projected to generate around 82.2Mt of waste dur-

ing 2020. This number is set to rise to 107Mt by 2030 (Table 2). Large

metropolises such as Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata, with populations greater

than 10 million are generating 4000–6000 t of MSW daily, while smaller cit-

ies such as Bhopal, Nagpur, Chennai, and Bangalore produce approximately

half of that quantity at approximately 1500–3000 t of MSW/day (Manna

et al., 2014). Although about 40% of the matter in MSW is considered to

be biodegradable, only 14% (10.3Mt) of the MSW were composted in

2015. MSW is a heterogeneous mixture of biodegradable and non-

biodegradable materials consisting of at least 60–70% disposable items

13Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

generally thrown out as garbage (Chakraborty et al., 2011; Kalyani and

Pandey, 2014). From the disposable fraction, MSW contains 35.2–47.1%compostable biodegradable materials, 2.1–5.4% plastics, 0.4–0.5% rubber

and leather, and the smallest fraction containing non-degradable materials

(Manna et al., 2012). It was estimated that about 14.17Mt. of biodegradable

municipal solid contained 0.20Mt. NPK (Manna et al., 2018). Although

increasing, the composted percentage of MSW is only set to reach 15 million

tons by 2030 (Table 2). The inability to properly manage MSW in India can

be attributed to a lack of financial and operational autonomy, poor scientific

approach, and inadequate resources.

4.4 Green manureThe important green manure crops include sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea),

dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) and cow-

pea (Vigna unguiculata). Biomass production of cowpea, dhaincha and sunn

hemp may vary from 16.4–31.7 t/ha at 6 to 7 weeks of age in northern

India’s environment (Beri et al., 1989; Grewal and Kolar, 1991). Under

moisture stress conditions, sunn hemp is a better green manure crop than

cowpea, sesbania and cluster bean (Agrawal et al., 1993). Green manuring

done prior to planting aKharif crop also contributes to the nutrition of wheat

in winter in the northern Indian environment (Aulakh et al., 2000). The

higher nitrogen (N) uptake rates by rice from green manure compared with

urea, indicate superior synchronicity between green manure N availability

and N uptake by rice (Clement et al., 1998). Cowpea, sesbania and cluster

bean are shrubs whose height is maintained at 2–3m for green leaf manure.

Leguminous green manure crops, in addition to N-fixation have the ability

Table 2 Municipal solid waste generation from urban areas in India and estimatedquantity of compost production from it.Year MSW (Million Tons per Annum) Compost (Million Tons per Annum)

2005 57.5 8.1

2010 64.8 9.1

2015 73.4 10.3

2020 82.2 11.7

2025 94.4 13.2

2030 107.0 15.0

Source: Sharma, P.D., Singh, M. and Ali, M., 2006. Recycling and utilization of urban and rural wastesfor the welfare of the society. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Soil, Water and Envir-onmental Quality-issues and strategies. Indian Society of Soil Science, pp. 387–401.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

to utilize insoluble phosphates through a well-developed root system and

upon mineralization release phosphorus in soluble forms. They also make

available inaccessible potash in the soil. Green manuring also increases bio-

availability through its beneficial effect on the chemical and biophysical

properties of soil (Meelu et al., 1994; Singh et al., 1992). Recycling of green

manure in organic farming plays a pivotal role in supplying plant nutrients,

improving soil health and promoting biodiversity. The potentially available

green manure in India amounts to approximately 4.5Mt. and it contains

0.20Mt. NPK (Manna et al., 2018).

4.5 Vegetables/fruit wasteThe horticultural and plantation industries are estimated to generate approx-

imately 263.4Mt. of by-products and wastes, and of this mass, 134Mt. is

considered recyclable (Table 3). Processing units from agricultural and food

industries generate a variety of primary crop produce into foodstuffs and

products for various sectors. An inadvertent aspect of this is the production

of a large amount of waste and by-products, which often surpass the number

of finished products. Quantification of the amount of organic waste pro-

duced from these industries is difficult due the poorly organized nature of

manufacturing operations and other factors. Agricultural processing waste

was estimated to be 184.3Mt. in 2010 with approximately 95% of this waste

resulting from sugarcane crushing (114Mt. of bagasse), paddy processing

(56.7Mt. of husk and bran) and groundnuts (4.8Mt. husk).

Table 3 Estimated production of crop residues from the horticultural and plantationsectors during 2008–09.

Crop

Total production ofmain product inmillion tons

Estimatedproduction ofby-product inmillion tons

Estimatedavailability ofsurplus by-productsin million tons

Fruits 69.45 83.34 41.67

Vegetables 133.07 173.00 86.50

Plantation crops 12.08 7.00 5.48

Others crops/

items

4.25 <1 <1

Total 218.85 263.36 134

Source: Compiled from Anonymous, 2009. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. Directorate of Economicsand Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt of India, New Delhi. http://www.dacent.nic.

15Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

http://www.dacent.nic

http://www.dacent.nic

4.6 Bio-fertilizerBio-fertilizers aim to employ microbes in solubilizing nutrients from the soil

nutrient pool and supplying it to plants. Aside from promoting sustainable

plant growth, bio-fertilization could constitute one possible approach for

nutrient supplementation in organic farming. Bio-fertilizers are ideal for this

purpose. Apart from supplying the nutrients, they also enhance soil pro-

cesses, which may augment the availability to plants of nutrients from soil.

Very often the efficient microorganism does not vigorously colonize in the

rhizosphere so consequently their effect remains subtle. For this reason, arti-

ficially multiplied strains of efficient selected microbes are required to be

applied to accelerate the microbial processes in soil.

Commonly used microorganisms as bio-fertilizers include the following:

nitrogen fixers (N-fixer), K and P solubilizers, growth-promoting rhizo-

bacteria (PGPRs), endo- and ectomycorrhizal fungi, cyanobacteria and other

useful microscopic organisms (Table 4). In addition to increasing bioavail-

ability, the use of bio-fertilizers leads to improved plant growth and tol-

erance to abiotic and biotic factors ( Ju et al., 2018). These potential

biological fertilizers could play a key role in soil productivity and sus-

tainability in addition to safeguarding the environment as an eco-friendly

and cost-effective alternative for farmers. Bio-fertilizers have the poten-

tial to reduce chemical fertilizer use. For instance, Rhizobium, Azolla,

Azospirillum and Frankia alone can substitute �50–100kg, 20–40kg,15–20kg and up to 195kg of urea in agricultural fields, respectively

(Table 4). In global agricultural systems, it is estimated that rhizobial

N-fixation contributes an appreciable portion of N, from 20 to 22TgN

per year up to 40TgN per year (Herridge et al., 2008).

Total bio-fertilizer production in India rose from88,029.3 t (solid carrier-

based) and 6240kL liquid inoculums during 2015–16, to 109,020.1 t (solid

carrier-based) and 7526kL during 2016–17. Category-wise for the year

2016–17, the liquid inoculums of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) were

the highest producers of bio-fertilizer. The potential nutrient supply through

bio-fertilizer is a negligible amount of NPK (0.40 million tons per annum).

Despite an increase in bio-fertilizer production, there is a huge gap between

capacity and actual production of bio-fertilizer throughout the country

(NCOF, 2017). The discussion suggests that the future is positive since sur-

plus waste recycling will cumulatively lead to the Indian states’ reduction in

fertilizer consumption. It is, however, not adequate to fulfill the nutrient

requirements for sustainable crop growth.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 4 Microbial groups involved in nutrient cycling in soil ecosystem.S. No. Group Micro-organism Mechanism of action References

1. Diazotrophs Rhizobium Fix 50–100KgN/ha and yield increase of

10–70% over uninoculated control in legumes

Singh et al.

(2013)

Azospirillum (A. brasilense, A. lipoferum,

A amazonense, A. halopraferens and

A. irakense)

Yield increases by 43% in wheat, 44% in finger

millet and 60% in barley and can substitute

15–20kgN/ha as inorganic fertilizer

Chapke et al.

(2018)

2. Phosphate

solubilizing

microbes

Bacillus and Pseudomonas Chelation via 2-ketogluconic acid, lactic,

citric, gluconic and glyconic acids for

phosphorous uptake by plants

Dhandapani

(2011)

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi Mineralization via enzymes like phytases Kalayu (2019)

3. Iron chelator Bacillus megaterium and Azotobacter

vinelandii

10–35% increase in grain yields over

un-inoculated control

Ahemad and

Khan (2010)

4. Plant growth

promoter (PGPR)

Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Glomus sp Phytohormones (IAA, ethylene, cytokines),

nutrient acquisition via HCN, nitrogen

fixation, P-solubilization and siderophore

production

Yadav et al.

(2017)

ARTICLE

INPRESS

5. Feasibility of organic farming to ensure food security

As food security continues to grow as a long-term concern, organic

farming could address several issues such as: (i) global population growth

(80 million per year according to UNFPA, 2010), which, especially in

developing countries, will require more efficient use of resources and less

dependence on non-renewable resources (Azadi et al., 2010); (ii) land deg-

radation (Eswaran et al., 2001); (iii) calls for agricultural systems to adapt to

extreme weather/climate conditions if sustainable crop yields are to

maintained; and (iv) pest management, which is expected to worsen as a

result of climate change (Coakley et al., 1999). A shift to organic farming

is essential in order to renew key agricultural resources (mainly water, soil

and nutrients) and to secure future food production.

First and foremost, sustainability is the major issue of any production sys-

tem. The issue is how the food requirements of India will be met if all its

agricultural land is converted to organic farming. This sentiment has been

echoed by Noble Laureate Norman E. Borlaug, who claimed that substitu-

tion to universal organic farming without the use of chemicals would reduce

crop yields (Goswami and Rattan, 2004). For example, India’s population

has increased from 376.33 million in 1950 to 1234.3 million by 2010,

and is expected to grow to more than 1503.64 million by 2030. This rep-

resents a population growth rate of 1.2% (Anonymous, 2017, Fig. 2).

Moreover, India has the second largest agricultural land area in the

world, which grew from 80 million tons during 1960 to 291.1 million tons

in 2020. To project future demand, food grains supply has been extrapolated

using past growth trends and it is expected to be about 342 and 377 million

tons by 2030 and 2050CE, respectively (Amarasinghe et al., 2007).

Furthermore, India is the second largest producer of N fertilizer in the world

and the third largest producer of P fertilizer, whereas potash is totally impo-

rted. The supply of plant nutrients from chemical fertilizers is the key to

increasing agriculture production by enhancing the land’s productivity.

However, a discrepancy has emerged between supply and demand of fertil-

izers in India, leading to an increased dependence on imported fertilizers. In

view of the importance of fertilizers in agricultural growth and increasing

supply-demand gaps, there is a need to forecast future demand. From

1950 to 1951, the level of productivity was governed by the limited fer-

tilizer use, and the amount of grain produced was only 50.8 million

tons (Mt). During 2014–15 food grain increased to 252.6Mt. (Fig. 3).


ARTICLE IN PRESS

-0.5%

0.0%

0.5%

1.0%

1.5%

2.0%

2.5%

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

2060

Pop

ulat

ion

(mill

ion)

Gro

wth

rate

(%)

Year

Population ( million) Growth Rate

Fig. 2 Population(million) and growth rate (%) in India over year. Source: Anonymous,2015. The Projection of World Population by 2060. Department of Economics and SocialAffairs of the United Nation Secretariat (UNDESA, Report,2015); Anonymous, 2017.Population Estimates for India for Each Year From 1950- 2050. The Mid-Year PopulationEstimates are From the United States Census Bureau, www.bluemarblecitizen.com/worldpopulation/India.

-50

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Fer lizer Consump on ( a)

Nutrient removal (b)

Food grain produc on

Gap (a-b)

Mill

ion

tonn

es

YearFig. 3 Fertilizer consumption, nutrient removal and food grain production(Million Tons).

19Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

http://www.bluemarblecitizen.com/worldpopulation/India


Fertilizer (NPK) use increased to 21.75Mt. in 2014–15 compared to a

mere 0.06Mt. in 1950–51. At the current (2018–19) level of crop produc-tion, crops removed about 52.01 million tons of NPK from the soil,

whereas fertilizer application was around 27.28 million tons, leaving a

gap of 24.72 million tons. An estimated 10.23Mt. of nutrients will be con-

tributed by the year 2025, made possible through accessing all sources of

organic materials, including crop residues (5.87 million tons), livestock

manure (2.26 million tons), and human excreta (2.10 million tons)

(Table 1). Additionally, 0.20, 0.04 and 0.20 million tons of NPK can be

tapped annually from MSW compost, bio-fertilizers and green manure,

respectively. The existing organic waste surplus is limited by current agri-

cultural practices involving fuel cake burning.

However, a long-term trend to take up organic farming could be

encouraged. As organic farming produces lower short-term crop yields

(Maeder et al., 2002), there are some trade-offs between organic farming

and the two other approaches (biodynamic farming and nature farming)

with respect to long-term sustainability and the potential to increase prod-

uct quantity. The implication of these trade-offs is that although organic

farming in the short-term may produce reduced agricultural output, in

the long-term it may produce larger yields (Badgly and Perfetto, 2007)

by addressing the main threats to food security: soil degradation, climate

change, and pest problems. Nevertheless, we cannot ignore the current

one billion people experiencing hunger (FAO/WFP, 2010) and 3.7 billion

malnourished (Pimentel, 2011) people worldwide. Therefore, we still need

conventional and safe biotechnological methods to complement organic

farming and feed the population. Accordingly, the transition to total

organic farming should be a gradual shift in order to meet the growing

demands of hungry and malnourished people.

The expansion of modern, resource-intensive agriculture has increased

the world’s yields of wheat, rice, and maize by a factor of 2.6–3.6 over the

last 50 years. The major increase in yield has been attributed to higher pro-

ductivity per hectare rather than an increase in cropland area (FAO, 2011).

This improvement has been achieved at the expense of costly high-energy

inputs and unwanted environmental effects such as nutrient losses, soil deg-

radation, and compromised biodiversity (Tilman et al., 2001). Other ben-

efits linked lately from organic agriculture include reduced N losses to the

environment and, more importantly, enhanced soil C sequestration.

Jointly, these may offset between 60% and 92% of contemporary agricultural

greenhouse gas emissions if all land were converted to organic practices


ARTICLE IN PRESS

(Niggli et al., 2009). In essence, more stabilized organic matter and higher

substrate use efficiency do not seem to be exclusive features of organically

managed systems. Henceforth, despite the fact that organic farming could

not support enough food grain production initially, in the long-run it can

enhance food production and other ecological services.

6. Prospects of organic farming for environmentalcomplexities

6.1 Organic farming with sewage waterOrganic agricultural practices impose a strict purity criterion, requiring the

highest level of quality for their sources in order to limit potential exposure

to contaminants and synthetic materials. Ironically, wastewater is an impor-

tant source of water, organic matter and nutrients for irrigation in develop-

ing countries and is applied to around 10% of the world’s entire irrigated

surface ( Jim�enez, 2006). Of the world’s total arable land, 17% is irrigated

and produces 34% of all crops (Pescod, 1992). In a highly intensive cropping

system, wastewater is utilized in land irrigate systems due to the high demand

for water. The accessibility of wastewater as well as the productivity boost

that the added nutrients and organic matter provide, enable the potential of

year-round sowing. Wastewater in open channels effectively flows to irri-

gate very small plots of farmland where agricultural products can be grown

in small quantities (Cockram and Feldman, 1996; Ensink et al., 2004).

Agriculture in India consumes a large amount of untreated wastewater.

Wastewater normally contains smaller amounts of phosphorus than is

required by crops (6–12mgL�1), but does not damage the environment,

even if applied for long periods of time through effluents, because it is sta-

ble and can be accumulated in soils (Girovich, 1996). Potassium exists in

high concentrations in soils (3%) but it is not bio-available to plants.

Approximately 185kgha�1 of potassium is required, yet this is often sup-

plemented by sewage (Mikkelsen and Camberato, 1995). At high levels,

phosphorus can reduce Cu, Fe, and Zn availability in alkaline soils.

Boron is toxic to several crops.

There are 35 metropolitan cities in India (each of more than 10 Lakhs

population), which generate about 15,644 million liters per day (MLD)

of wastewater and 38,254 MLD is generated by cities having more than

0.5 million people. Wastewater generated by household activity, industries

or garbage landfills is called sewage which is classified as municipal water pol-

lution. Sewage contains solid matter in the form of suspended colloidal and

21Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

dissolved organic matter, detergent, mineral matter, nutrients and gases.

Sewage is one of the major causes of water-borne diseases and therefore,

the proper treatment of sewage is critical to prevent the spread of disease.

Cattle can suffer from health or growth problems if they consume forage

polluted with wastewater. Some protozoa can infect animals if they survive

in irrigated crops, although this is not the main transmission pathway. Past

treatment of sewage mainly involved the removal of suspended solids, oxy-

gen demanding materials and harmful bacteria. Modern disposal of the solid

residue from sewage has been improved by applying municipal treatment

processes. It is estimated that the projected wastewater from urban centers

may exceed 120,000 MLD by 2051 (Bhardwaj, 2005). Since wastewater

is inherently contaminated and may require further treatment using syn-

thetic chemicals, it is unclear as to whether it can be used in organic farming

applications or not. Despite this unclear situation, countries such as Vietnam,

Kuwait, Israel, Tunisia, Jordan, Morocco and China extensively use waste-

water for agricultural farming. Wastewater is also used by farmers in

water-scarce regions of the developed countries of North America and

Europe.

The treatment of this wastewater is carried out in three stages namely,

primary, secondary and tertiary disinfection treatment. In India, a country

where water is scarce, it has been realized that using sewage for irrigation

can solve many problems. However, the danger of applying the treated

wastewater is the potentially adverse chemical composition of the water,

which is entirely dependent on the source and level of treatment. In many

cases treatment is limited in that more than 90% of India’s states do not have

any sewage treatment plants. The standards established in the Organic Foods

Production Act of 1990 (“OFPA”) tended to favor the purity of organics

specifically related to regulating inputs used in their production and the

organic product must meet the highest standard for water quality. OFPA,

however, did not provide a well-defined specification of wastewater. In

the European Mediterranean region, 40% of sewage sludge is used as a soil

organic amendment due to its high organic matter content (Lamastra

et al., 2018).

The drawbacks of wastewater reuse are: firstly, a long-term increase in

salinity and metals; secondly, pathogens contained in wastewater affecting

people and livestock; and thirdly, the presence of harmful organic

materials. A primary concern regarding chemical compounds in wastewater

is the presence of metals. No human toxicological threshold for metals has

yet been established for wastewater intended for irrigation (e.g., for cobalt


ARTICLE IN PRESS

and copper) or the thresholds are rather high (i.e., boron, fluorine, and zinc).

Cobalt, copper and zinc are not considered harmful because plants are not

likely to absorb them in sufficient quantities to prove toxic to consumers as

they are more likely to destroy the plant before consumption (Chang et al.,

2002). The critical levels of concentrations of heavy metals in solid waste

when prepared from treated sewage-sludge of different countries, have been

listed for safe use in agriculture (Table 5).

6.2 Organic farming and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissionsIn general, organic farming uses fewer chemicals including pesticides, fertil-

izers and herbicides than non-organic practices, saves water and controls

erosion. Further, reduced-tillage systems sequester more carbon than con-

ventional systems (Ghosh et al., 2018, 2019; Govaerts et al., 2009), do not

worsen global warming and result in better soil quality and a smaller envi-

ronmental footprint (FOA, 2011; Ghosh et al., 2019, 2020; Manna and

Singh, 2001). Additionally, organic agriculture provides larger sinks for car-

bon dioxide in soil compared to conventional agriculture due to its higher

biomass levels and lower rates of soil respiration (Ladha, 2016; OECD,

2003). The lower GHG emissions generated by organic cropping are

largely due to the replacement of N fertilizer with biological N fixation

in leys, resulting in less CO2 and N2O from fertilizer manufacture and less

N2O per unit of production (Audsley et al., 2010; Clark and Tilman, 2017;

Nemecek et al., 2011, 2016; Williams et al., 2006).

Table 5 Critical levels of heavy metals concentration (mg/Kg) in solid waste preparedfrom treated sewage-sludge of different countries.Name of heavy metal Japana United Statesb Indiac European Uniond

As 75 – 8–23 –

Cd 85 10 2–9 0.4–3.8

Cr 3000 900 66–1098 16–275

Cu 4000 800 – 39–361

Pb 840 900 7–32 13–221

Hg 57 8 12–596 0.3–3

Ni 420 100 26–154 9–90

Zn 750 2500 – 142–2000

Sources: aBenckiser and Simmarmata (1994); bWallace and Wallace (1993); cDubey et al. (2006);dEuropean Commission (2001).

23Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

In contrast, researchers have claimed that organic farming is associated

with increased GHG emissions. Some scientists posit that if agriculture

remains profit-driven, the long-term effects of organic farming will only

have little success in environmental protection and curtailing the effects

of climate change. Conversely, according to one recent study, converting

the world’s agriculture to organic methods would actually produce far more

carbon dioxide emissions. In Australia, agriculture adds about 14% of total

emissions. McGee (2014) studied the emissions of GHGs under certified

long-term organic farmland and compared it with conventional agriculture

using a fixed-effects panel regression to estimate the correlation between

greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production and organic farming.

McGee concluded that GHG emissions from organic farming are far greater

than those from conventional agriculture. Williams (2006) found that

organic tomato production emitted 30% more greenhouse gases than con-

ventional agriculture, primarily due to lower yields. In California, Venkat

(2012) found that GHG emissions from organic production were on aver-

age 10.6% higher than conventional production. A study by Smith et al.

(2019) in England and Wales concluded that the impacts of 100% conver-

sion to organic farming improved resource efficiency. However, reduced

outputs would mean that more imports would be required to maintain food

supplies.

The displacement paradox of whether or not organic agriculture is

suppressing greenhouse gas emissions, is tangled up within the broader

question of environmental sustainability in market/capitalist economies.

However, the study on organic farming predicts significant drops in food

production of around 40% compared to conventional farming. This is due

to smaller crop yields and the introduction of nitrogen-fixing legumes into

crop rotations, and reducing the amount of land available for production.

As a result, crops like wheat and barley would significantly fall behind in

production. Due to significantly poorer productivity in other countries,

this would require five times the amount of land that is currently used

for food in India. Converting grassland to arable uses also reduces the

amount of carbon stored in the soil, as shown in other countries. The

best-case scenario for India, with the least amount of land change, will

result in an overall footprint comparable to those under conventional agri-

culture. The widespread adoption of organic farming practices would lead

to: firstly, net increases in GHG emissions as a result of lower crop yields;

secondly, increase in livestock to supply manure; and thirdly, the subse-

quent need for additional production by increasing land resources and asso-

ciated land use changes overseas.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

7. Quality of produce from organic and conventionalagriculture

Organic foods, as described by Lockie (2006), are foods that are grown

without using growth hormones, chemicals or artificial fertilizers. The gen-

eral belief of consumers regarding organic food products is that they are free

from pesticides, chemical fertilizers and residue-free safe products (Huang,

1996; Jolly et al., 1998). The cultivation of land with organic farming

methods extends considerable environmental, social and health benefits,

increased nutrient recycling and nitrogen fixation, soil formation, better

protection for erosion, flood control, and carbon sequestration. It also offers

greater rural employment and a better quality of food, in terms of safety and

nutritional content. When comparing relative yields of cereals (rice, wheat,

maize, millets) with oilseed and pulses using the organic method, the target

yields of cereals have been reduced in their production. However, oilseed

and pulses grown using the organic method generated significantly higher

yields after 15 years of cultivation in vertisol. Comparing the relative com-

position of organic cereals demonstrated a higher proportion of proteins

(crude protein, wet gluten), a favorable composition of amino acids (cyste-

ine, cystine, methionine), and a higher proportion of mineral elements con-

tent and starch content than cereals produced by conventional methods. The

comparison further concluded that for the initial 3–4 years, productivity

declined in many high feeder cereals but over time it become stable because

in the organic method about 30–40% of plant nutrients are supplied from

organic sources during the first year and about 10–15% release the nutrients

to the soil for subsequent year crops.

Therefore, the residual accumulation of nutrients through organic sources

may be able to supply nutrients to crops as good as the conventional method

after 3–4 years and save costs by avoiding the need to purchase inorganic fer-

tilizers. After 7 years of rice-based organic farming in the eastern Himalayas,

India, the crop productivity and the content of N, P and K under integrated

nutrient management was as good as what the organic method produced (Das

et al., 2017). The selected quality parameters of wheat such as starch content

andwet gluten contentwere greater under low-input agriculture than the con-

ventional method (Kolvalina et al., 2010; Krejcirova et al., 2006; Willer and

Kilcher, 2009). Some experiments (Rembiałkowska, 2000; Worthington,

2001) indicated that the amount of total proteins was lower in organic than

conventional crops, however, protein quality when measured by the content

of basic amino acids was higher in organic crops.

25Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

To measure the quality of fruits, the most important parameters are total

soluble solid, acidity, ascorbic acid, juice volume, reducing sugar, total sugar,

lycopene content, flavonoid, etc. Researchers observed that these parame-

ters are relatively greater in produce grown by organic farming methods

compared to conventional methods (Anthon et al., 2011; Das et al.,

2017). The relative yield and composition of vegetables from the last

12 years showed that conventional practices yielded 24% (weight basis)

higher although the produce from the organic system had 28% higher

dry matter (Lampkin, 1994). The produce composition of vegetables, e.g.,

β-carotene, total carotenoids, total sugar, reducing sugar, ascorbic acid, andspecific gravity, are the major quality parameters used to assess the produce

quality. Cultivation of vegetables by the organic method resulted in these

quality parameters being as good as conventional farming (Das et al.,

2017; Parray et al., 2007; Ramesh et al., 2008). Several studies indicate that

10–60% more healthy fatty acids (like conjugated linoleic acids) and

omega-3 fatty acids occur in organic dairy products (Butler et al., 2008,

2010). In crops, vitamin C ranges from 5% to 90% higher while secondary

metabolites range from 10% to 50% higher in organic produce; further-

more, less residues of pesticides and antibiotics are present (Huber and

van de Vijver, 2009). Organic food contains greater levels of minerals

and dry matter and 10–50% higher levels of phytonutrients compared to

conventionally grown produce (Heaton, 2002). The Parsifal study showed

30% less eczema and allergy complaints and fewer instances of obesity

among 14,000 children fed with organic and biodynamic food in five

EU countries (Alfv�en et al., 2006). In animals, organic feed leads to better

fertility (Staiger, 1988) and strengthened immunity (Finamore et al., 2004).

The quality of produce depends on a complex interaction of factors,

including soil type, ratio of mineral nutrients in manure or compost, climatic

conditions, genotypes, etc. The possible reason for inferior produce quality

evident in conventional farming is that readily available plant nutrients in

chemical fertilizers (N, P or K) perhaps enhance sudden vigorous growth

and develop a disproportionate ratio of biochemical composition inside

the biological system as crops grow. For example, due to excessive

urea-N application in rice fields, the biomass of the crop develops exten-

sively but the nutrient composition and concentration in the seed grain is

not significantly greater than organically grown rice. Although the propor-

tions of inorganic plant nutrients are relatively low in organic manure they

may act as slow release amendments to develop a proportion ratio of bio-

chemical composition (C:N:P:S). In organic practices, organic fertilizers


ARTICLE IN PRESS

(compost, manure) are used; these also include organically bound nitrogen.

Vogtmann (1985) states the possibility of nitrogen compounds being

absorbed by plants from the humus in a specific quantity, and hence the mar-

ginal possibility of excessive nitrates accumulation in plant organs.

Moreover, in manure a substantial amount of microbial-mediated

metabolites such as enzymes, plant growth-promoting hormones, vitamins

and other micronutrients are present. These collective compositions may

support better constituents in crops grown through the organic farming sys-

tem. However, manure enhances a soil’s rhizospheric physical and biological

activity, more earthworms, improves the soil structure, lowers bulk density,

enhances penetrability, and leads to a thicker topsoil (Reganold, 1992).

Mycotoxins are poisonous compounds produced by the secondary metab-

olism of poisonous fungi (molds), which occur in food products (Kouba,

2003). Mycotoxin production is largely dependent on temperature, humid-

ity and other favorable environmental conditions. Despite the risk of fungi-

cide mitigation, studies have not shown that organic food is more susceptible

to mycotoxin contamination than conventional food (Benbrook, 2006;

Kouba, 2003; Lairon, 2009). However, these issues need to be checked,

researched and explained through worldwide research.

8. Soil health under organic and conventionalagriculture scenarios

Organic farming techniques such as balanced crop rotations, organic

amendments, reduced tillage, surface mulching, integrated organic farming

systems, reduced application of synthetic nutrients and the absence of pes-

ticides give both apparent and intangible benefits. These benefits include:

increased soil fertility, soil quality, and better soil structure (Bhattacharyya

et al., 2003; Ghosh et al., 2019; Mondal et al., 2019; Niggli et al., 2007;

Shannon et al., 2002; Sharma et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2008), superior soil

aggregate stability and carbon pools (Ghosh et al., 2019; Maeder et al.,

2002; Sharma et al., 2013), enzymatic activities (Bhattacharyya et al.,

2003; Das et al., 2019; Ghosh et al., 2019, 2020; Sihi et al., 2017) and

increased microbial functional diversity (Nautiyal et al., 2010). This

increased diversity is partly caused by the fact that macro fauna are no longer

eliminated by pesticides (Niggli et al., 2007). Macro fauna, such as earth-

worms play crucial roles in water infiltration, drainage and water-holding

(Giller et al., 1997). Therefore, optimized water retention and resistance

to drought is developed (Muller and Davis, 2009). As a result, drought

27Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

periods will cause less overall damage to crops in organic farming compared

to other approaches. Research even suggests that water retention in organic

farming plots is 100% better than conventional plots (Lotter et al., 2003) and

organic systems, under dry conditions, often have 7–9% higher yields than

conventional methods (Ramesh et al., 2005).

In field cultivation using organic methods, surface mulching improved

moisture retention by reducing soil evaporation (Bayer et al., 2006;

Jordan, 2004; Martens, 2000). Growing organic rice was more energy effi-

cient (approximately four-fold better) than conventional growing methods

(Mendoza, 2002). Organic agriculture reduces energy requirements for pro-

duction systems by 25–50% compared to conventional chemical-based agri-

culture (Niggli et al., 2009). In Germany, organic farms sequestered 402kg

carbon/ha per annum, while conventional farms experienced net losses of

202kgcarbon/ha (Clark et al., 1999; K€ustermann et al., 2008; Niggli et al.,

2009) and in India organic farming sequestered 250–345kg/carbon/ha/yrin horticultural, grassland and forage systems, horticultural intercropping sys-

tem and leguminous-based cropping systems (Ghosh et al., 2019;Ghosh et al.,

2020; Manna and Singh, 2001). In conventional farms, 60%more nitrates are

leached into groundwater over a 5-year period (Drinkwater et al., 1998). In

organic farming, soil faunal population rose by 148% (Dumaresq et al., 1997)

over conventional farming systems. In organic farming, biodiversity increases

resilience to weather unpredictability (Niggli et al., 2008). Furthermore,

organic farming reduces soil erosion caused by wind and water, as well as

by overgrazing, at a rate of 10 million hectares annually (Pimentel et al.,

1995). Through the application of compost and the introduction of

leguminous plants into the crop sequence, agricultural productivity is dou-

bled by improving soil fertility techniques (Dobbs and Smolik, 1996;

Edwards, 2007).

One of the longest-running organic agricultural trials (ongoing for more

than 150 years) is the Broadbalk experiment at Rothamsted in the UK,

where it was observed that under a manure-based organic farming system,

the yield of wheat increased (3.45 t per ha) over conventional systems using

chemical fertilizers (3.40 t per ha). In another experiment, the soil quality

improved more in the manured plots than in those receiving chemical fer-

tilizer, based on a greater accumulation of soil carbon (Pimentel et al., 2015).

In a 15-year long-term field experiment under organic farming, soil micro-

bial biodiversity and microbial elemental stoichiometry were investigated

(Ghosh et al., 2019). The geometric mean enzyme activity was�55% higher

for organic farmingwhen compared to conventional farming. It was strongly


ARTICLE IN PRESS

and positively correlated with soil quality index. The organic residue mul-

ching with integrated nutrient management under conservation agriculture

(CA) substantially improved soil physical quality parameters. The organic

farming soil had higher microbial functional diversity, community level

physiological profiles, diversity indices and evenness than the soil in conven-

tional farming systems (Nautiyal, 2009; Nautiyal et al., 2010). All these stud-

ies concluded that repeated application of organics over the year improved

the soluble phase of water soluble carbon, carbohydrates and particulate

organic matter that acted as a source of energy for flora and faunal activities

in the long run (Ghosh et al., 2019; Manna et al., 2006, 2007).

9. Socio-economic factors affecting the adoptionof organic or conventional agriculture

Organic agriculture is a universally known alternative to conven-

tional agricultural production systems, owing to its ability to help the envi-

ronment, soil quality, human and animal health and economic well-being

of farming communities. With larger landholdings, organic farmers are

more concerned with nutrient cycles and reducing production costs,

whereas medium-sized and smallholder organic farmers are clearly moti-

vated by the better price for organic farming produce that they will be paid.

Higher productivity is a key important motivation along with soil health,

sustainability, produce quality, etc., for conventional farmers with larger

land holdings. Moreover, there was a huge yield discrepancy among differ-

ent farms using similar techniques. The improvement of both conventional

farming and organic farming must be addressed by additional training.

Furthermore, the global food system has been affected by increasing inten-

sity of climatic aberrations (Nelson et al., 2009) and economic uncertainties

(Kastner et al., 2012). In today’s globalized economy, developed countries

have wealthier consumers who can afford to pay high prices for organic

products, whereas in developing countries organic produce is not yet

affordable to the population. This is due to the premium prices and thus

the organic sector in developing countries is still largely export oriented.

Nonetheless in the countries that are experiencing rapid economic

development, domestic organic markets are expanding significantly, partic-

ularly for small and medium-sized landholding farmers (Rundgren, 2006;

Sirieix et al., 2011). The adoption rates of organic farming practices may vary

among farmers depending on certain factors, including those of a biophysical

and socio-economic nature. Important biophysical factors are scale of

29Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

production, level of research support, local ginning capacity, access to qual-

ity seed, access to irrigation, access to timely inputs, production costs, price

paid for seed, access to credit, timely payment for the crop and availability

of season-long farmer training (Page and Ritchie, 2009). In conventional

production, high use of agrochemicals is known to adversely affect soil

and human health (Bachmann, 2012; Page andRitchie, 2009). Organic pro-

duction offers a suitable alternative to small and marginal farmers with

prospective advantages of lower costs for farm inputs, improved soils and

environment as well as competitive gross margins (Forster et al., 2013;

Lakhal et al., 2008; Rajendran et al., 2000). For example, in India less than

5% of the cotton production area is certified as organic (Kathage and

Qaim, 2012; Stone, 2011). The share of the domestic market is steadily

increasing due to recent economic improvements and consumer awareness

(Chandrashekar, 2010). Some important agricultural products of horticul-

ture, fruits, vegetables, rice and organic cotton are exported through global

commodity chains from India worldwide. The countries of Europe and

North America are the major consumers of organic food with these regions

comprising 97% of global revenues. Asia, Latin America, and Australia are

the major producers and exporters of organic produce (Willer and

Kilcher, 2009). Over the last decade, rapid urbanization has led to a substan-

tial growth in aromatic rice (basmati) production in India. Local govern-

ments in India have attempted to promote (organic) basmati cultivation

in the rural periphery of Uttarkhand.

Climatic uncertainty is one of the biophysical parameters with poten-

tially greater impacts on organic farmers compared to conventional farmers

because organic farmers have limited options and capacities for the produc-

tion of bio-pesticides to control pests and diseases linked to climate variabil-

ity. Extreme rainfall events, drought and seasonal variations wield much

influence on the frequency and magnitude of pest and disease attacks faced

by organic growers worldwide (Organic Trade Association, 2015). Local

organic growers perceive that input costs like labor for hand weeding,

spraying, lack of good variety, seed and water availability, and mechanical

operation are the major factors that encourage organic farming. Moreover,

potentially low prices for their produce and high input costs are of great con-

cern to organic farmers in addition to poor seed quality (Hillocks and Kibani,

2002; Page and Ritchie, 2009; Riar et al., 2017).

Conventional rice farming by small landholders in India is characterized

by modest returns and substantial environmental damage. Organic farming

has not been judged as an appropriate alternative to conventional farming


ARTICLE IN PRESS

due to inevitably low yields, small profit and less food security. In addition,

due to the lack of justifiable support prices, lack of state support and expen-

sive certification procedures for organic products (Sarkar et al., 2011), small

landholders are less interested in organic methods and prefer conventional

coarse rice cultivation. However, many researchers have demonstrated that

the conversion of conventional coarse rice cultivation to organic basmati

rice is a viable alternative for small landholders in India (Eyhorn et al.,

2018) and that the organic option generated between 1.4 and 2.9 times

greater financial return (Shiva and Pandey, 2006). Production of organic

fruits, vegetables and spices in India has tremendous scope for small land-

holder farmers (Mariappan and Zhou, 2019; Nandi et al., 2015; Patil

et al., 2014). Researchers concluded that based on an analysis of farmers’ atti-

tudes, five factors, i.e., market, environment, support, benefit and cost and

community acceptance, are the major barriers to the paradigm shifting from

conventional systems to organic farming (Mariappan and Zhou, 2019;

Nandi et al., 2015; Patil et al., 2014).

Another important issue for organic growers is a fair-trade system to buy

products from developing countries at a profitable level, and to market them

in developed countries at a premium price (Bird and Hughes, 1997;

Pelsmacker et al., 2005). Both innovations can be mutually strengthened

as fair trade with organic production standards opens and develops newmar-

ket prospects. Waibel and Zilberman (2007) contend that setting certifica-

tion standards and labeling will lead to an increase in accepting cleaner

technologies. Further, Parvathi and Waibel (2013) modified Waibel and

Zilberman’s (2007) concept to add that environmentally cleaner technology

has to be marketed by small landholding farmers to obtain maximum profit.

In conventional marketing, growers only get back their production costs but

not marketing costs. The environmental and marketing costs of organic

farming should be included costs for outputs are being estimated. To achieve

the desired profit, environmental impact as well as marketing and social costs

of production should be paid by the consumers. Otherwise, smallholding

farmers will experience losses in terms of human, natural, financial, and

physical capital.

10. Empowering development strategies in organicfarming: Policies and issues in India

The organic farming industry has grown immensely in size and effi-

ciency in the past two decades, and is now a global leader in agriculture.

31Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

However, despite its success, organic agriculture is faced with the ubiquitous

trends of globalization and the subsequent challenges of sustainable develop-

ment, which is similar to mainstream agriculture. In India, the organic farm-

ing policy promoted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare

aims to be technically sound, economically viable, environmentally friendly,

and socially acceptable. The country’s natural resources must be employed

in such a way to strengthen the rural economy and people’s livelihoods.

Furthermore, the policies of the Ministry seek to maximize land use and

crop potential for organic farming, improving productivity, and thus accel-

erating the growth of agricultural business for local farmers, agricultural

workers and their families. The report of the Task Force on Organic

Farming (2001) observed that vast areas of India, where agricultural

chemicals are used in limited quantity and crop productivity is low, could

be explored for potential organic farming. During the 12th five-year plan,

a Central Sector Scheme was initiated and called the “Paramparagat Krishi

Vikas Yojana” or “PKVY.” The objective was to promote organic farming

by the: (i) establishment of 1000 farm clusters of 50 acres each in different

states; (ii) adoption of the Participatory Guarantee Scheme (PGS) for organic

certification for the domestic market; and (iii) increase in enhancing the

awareness of various components of organic farming for small landholders,

such as training or education schemes.

Improving soil health and biodiversity and arresting the decline of soil

organic matter in tropical regions of India, particularly those representing

a range of climatic conditions such as arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climatic

regions, is an important task for policy-makers. Application of organic

manure and recycling of other organic resources in the soil are the proven

ways to restore or improve organic carbon for sustenance of soil quality and

future agricultural productivity (Dwivedi and Dwivedi, 2007; Manna et al.,

2006). The Indian government’s strategy is to continue promoting organic

farming of crops with good economic potential such as fruits, spices oilseeds,

pulses, vegetables, wheat, cotton, basmati rice, etc. Three priority categories

have already been identified as essential to organic farming: Category-I land

is where fertilizer and agro-chemical consumption is already limited;

Category-II characterizes farmlands that are rain-fed with little irrigation

support; and Category-III includes areas that apply fertilizers and pesticides

at a moderate to heavy capacity. Generally, lands with multiple crops are

included under Category-III. Policy interventions and initiatives for the

development of appropriate strategies/management options/dissemination

of technologies, and their transmission to the farmers through sound insti-

tutional mechanisms, are very much essential.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

The priority policy options relevant to the accepted wisdom of organic

farming are as follows:

• Proper utilization of bio-waste for organic farming. All the precious

bio-waste available in India should be scientifically and systematically

recycled/reused to substitute for chemical fertilizer use. For example,

the crop residues which are burnt in the field should be lawfully stopped.

Similarly, animal excreta should be fully reused in organic farming

instead of use as fuel cake. The third largest organic waste is municipal

biodegradable waste. Hence, policy guidelines to prevent the burning of

crop residues and other bio-wastes in fields need to be banned in place.

Diversion of animal waste toward fuel-cake production should be

stopped and quality organic manure production must be encouraged.

Incineration needs to be checked to ensure the recycling of biodegrad-

able segregated municipal waste for organic farming is carried out. These

considerations need to be retained in the form of enforced policy guide-

lines to prevent groundwater and environmental pollution.

• Integrated farming approach for organic farming practices. Food grain

production with absolute organics is difficult not only India but also

worldwide. Rather, understanding the nutrient management of soils,

diversification of cropping systems (cereals, legume, oilseed, vegetables,

fruits, spices, etc.) and integrated farming systems (animal, fisheries,

poultry) should be the guiding principles of organic farming.

• Prioritization of areas for organic farming. Organic farming should be

popularized on priority areas under low-input agriculture, with adequate

available water and ample supply of organics.

• Alternatives of organic farming. Options such as biodynamic farming

(Menon and Karamarkar, 1994), nature farming, zero budget natural

farming, homeopathic farming (Murthi, 2004), biodynamic agriculture,

Homa farming or “Homa jaivik krishi” (Pathak and Ram, 2003), etc.,

have been attempted. All the claimed benefits of these alternatives need

to be further explored and confirmed in terms of what certain organic

farming packages offer.

• Integrated pest management involving bio-pesticides. Emphasis should

be given in policy guidelines to the effective use of bio-pesticides for

control of diseases and pests. The use of bio-pesticides along with

manure appears to be a better proposition in intensively cropped areas.

• Strengthening the domestic organic market. It should be clear within

policy guidelines the involvement of non-organic growers in market-

based “modernization” and “conventionalization” of organic product

systems. Domestically, conventional agricultural products are offered

33Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

at lower prices that do not reflect the environmental and social costs

entailed in their production, but in organic products, local environ-

ments and communities are forced to bear the burden of external

price-hikes created through the production process. This is often a con-

sequence in localized market systems, because the local population is

generally more aware of how local production takes place. In policy

guidelines, it should be ensured that at the domestic market level,

organic growers are paid a premium price for their products to avoid

trade barriers.

• Most small and large landholders are adopting organic farming with the

good faith of their neighbors. Governments should develop policies and

plan training and educational modules for large-scale awareness and

propagate all the advantages of organic farming such as certification

and standards, marketing, etc.

11. Challenges and opportunities in organic agriculture

Three major consequences of an organic farming system identified by

one Indian study were N deficiency, weed competition and bio-pesticide

use. Similar issues were also noted for organic farming systems in Europe

(Sean et al., 1999) and the US Midwest. In cereal-cereal experiments in

ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science could not solve nitrogen deficiency

problems through different kinds of organic management. However, in

low-input legume-oilseed based cropping systems, researchers were more

successful in improving andmaintaining soil fertility levels in organic systems

(Ghosh et al., 2019; Ramesh et al., 2010). Secondly, the application of

bio-pesticide in organic production systems for pest control is a major

important issue worldwide, but we currently do not have enough informa-

tion on its importance to organic farming systems. In the conventional farm-

ing system, insects and plant pathogens can be effectively controlled by

chemicals, but their residual effect on soil health is enormous. Weed control

is difficult to main in organic farming, especially during wet weather con-

ditions because the farmer is often limited to the use of mechanical and

biological weed control. In contrast, areas under conventional production

often deploy mechanical, biological, and chemical weed control options.

However, other aspects including food security, risk mitigation, lack of sup-

port, and sovereignty of seeds, etc., are also important issues for organic

farming in India. These are expanded on below:


ARTICLE IN PRESS

• Food security: Farmers need to secure their own food supply because

farming is their livelihood.

• No risk mitigation: The biggest fear farmers face is crop loss either

through a pest attack or a plant disease which farmers are not in a position

to control by conventional means. The second impediment is a collapse

in crop yield, which is likely in the initial years following conversion to

organic farming. The reduction in income needs to be accounted for,

planned for and mitigated as much as possible.

• Protection from neighborhood practices: Pesticide and chemical fertil-

izer applications from neighboring farms can compromise the integrity

of an organic farm. When pests are driven out of a conventional farm

through chemical means, they may move to neighboring organic farms.

Thus, a major challenge in the conversion to total organic farming is to

convince all adjacent farms to follow suit.

• Sovereignty of seeds/phenotypes: Availability of quality and vigorous

seeds/plants/animals is another challenge for organic producers. The

vigor of organic seeds is enhanced when there is a diversity of seed vari-

eties, each developed within the context of ecological interaction with

other varieties and the environment. Conventional farming has reduced

the plant gene pool with the most common varieties being controlled by

a few companies.

• Organic farming promotion: It is recommended that the government of

India take different routes for organic farming. Currently, there are signs

of a positive move to embrace organic farming through the creation of

support mechanisms primarily for organic farming exports. The

Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, within the Ministry of

Agriculture, India has set up the National Centre for Organic Farming

whose mission is to promote organic cultivation through technological

advances in human resource development, technology transfers, promo-

tion and production of organic and biological inputs, and generating

publicity through print and electronic media.

• Statutory quality control of bio-fertilizers: In organic farming, bio-

fertilizer application is one of the main nutrient sources for plants.

Conforming to the required quality of bio-fertilizers under the Fertilizer

(Control) Order (FCO, 1985), including revision of standards and testing

protocols, is an important issue for organic growers. The FCOmust keep

in mind the advances being made in research and bringing organic inputs

under a quality control regime.

35Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Conversion of conventional farming to organic farming provides a good

opportunity in Indian agriculture as follows:

(a) Supporting soil health: Regular carbon inputs into soil are essential to

achieving this goal. It is important to select organic carbon sources that

will ensure short-term productivity while building long-term soil

quality.

(b) Rotations: Organized crop rotation may provide a useful opportunity

for increasing income, employment and ensuring operational inputs are

minimized. For example, the introduction of animals into organic

farming may compensate for a decline in income from crops.

Rotations include small grain crops such as wheat, barley, oats, and

rye that are harvested for seed. These typically add 9–11 t of dry matter

per ha to the soil after harvest. By including these common crop vari-

eties in a vegetable rotation, a grower can also mitigate several poten-

tially devastating vegetable crop- and soil-borne diseases, and help solve

nematode problems.

(c) Cover crops: Cover cropping (also called green manuring) is a widely

recognized element of soil quality management in organic production

systems in India. Cover crops can provide a practical and economical

solution for supplying organicmatter, enhancing soil fertility, suppressing

weed growth, attracting beneficial macrofauna, and reducing nitrate

leaching losses into groundwater during periods between crop turnover.

However, cover crops may also seriously limit a grower’s options for

planting and harvesting alternative main cash crops and—depending

on the specific cropping situation—the use of cover crops may result

in potentially adverse consequences. These include soil moisture deple-

tion, temporary immobilization of plant nutrients, increased pest prob-

lems and associated rising management costs.

(d) Carbon sequestration: Anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel com-

bustion, fertilizer production and land-use changes have dramatically

increased the global CO2 concentration, which is expected to reach

600mg/kg before the middle of this century (Wuebbles and Jain,

2001). Knowledge of relative C-storage and flux characteristics of

converted ecosystems (such as agro-ecosystems) are essential for predic-

tive global geosphere-biosphere modeling and amelioration of increased

atmospheric CO2 levels throughC-sequestration. Conversion of natural

ecosystems to agricultural ecosystems causes depletion of the soil’s

organic carbon (SOC) pool by up to 60%, especially in temperate regions

and over 75% depletion in cultivated tropical soils (Lal, 2010).

Since soil C can remain structurally stable for extended periods, lasting


ARTICLE IN PRESS

hundreds to thousands of years undermany circumstances (Lal, 1999; Lal

et al., 1998), the conversion of conventional to organic agriculture plays a

crucial role in C sequestration.

12. Organic agriculture—A boon for environmentalsustainability

Organic farming is often suggested as a solution to reduce the prob-

lems caused by conventional agriculture for the environment (Sandhu et al.,

2010; Seufert et al., 2012). The major impacts of organic farming are on sus-

taining the health of soils, farmers’ incomes, and how well the natural envi-

ronment can continue functioning in the long run (Setboonsarng and

Mardandya, 2015). Conventional agriculture under climate change condi-

tions and intensive land use with mono-cropping, is rapidly depleting

genetic resources worldwide, whereas in organic farming the preservation

of genetic resources through ecological reserves is more cost-effective

(Ahlem and Hammas, 2017; Boone et al., 2019). Most farmers in India pre-

fer to grow traditional varieties of cereals and vegetables for their own con-

sumption due to their own preferred tastes and a traditional reliance on

chemical fertilizers. However, for a sustained livelihood, organic agricultural

practices should be implemented to enhance natural productive bases. Land

productivity can increase over time as organic farming practices are employed,

which addresses a key adaptation strategy in a warming climate. A presump-

tion of organic farming is that as global temperatures increase, organic farmers

mitigate the risk of widespread crop failure and reduced incomes under

extreme weather conditions, which are more likely to be compensated by

other sources in an organic agriculture farm. Groundwater pollution arising

through herbicides, pesticides, runoff, etc., that are harmful to ecosystems

is also alleviated through organic agriculture. Organic agriculture is increas-

ingly practiced in urban areas and promotes sustainability in themby recycling

food and organic wastes through composting.

Amore recent study by FAO revealed that in 2014, GHG emissions from

agriculture, forestry, and fisheries had almost doubled in the last 50 years and

will likely increase by 30% by 2050 if current trends remain the same. The

impact of organic farming is often reflected as a reduction of greenhouse gas

emissions and better performance in terms of biodiversity, water use effi-

ciency, and the quality of soil, water and air (Kremen and Miles, 2012;

Lorenz and Lal, 2016). Under organic farming systems, the carbon footprint

of the agriculture industry is reduced due to organic farming operations per-

forming better on a per hectare scale than conventional agriculture, thus

37Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

helping sequester carbon from the atmosphere and enhance the carbon-

storing capacity of soil (Gomiero et al., 2011; Hole et al., 2005).

Many researchers have highlighted the potential and benefits of organic

agriculture in attaining sustainable development goals (SDG) (FAO, 2018;

Setboonsarng and Gregorio, 2017; United Nations, 2015). The list of

17 SDGs has been documented from six countries with small landholding

organic farmers and crops cultivated in marginal areas (Table 6). To end

hunger, achieve food security, and reduce poverty, agriculture is now con-

sidered to be very important in contributing to SDG1 and SDG2. Organic

agriculture contributes to other SDGs such as SDG 3 (on health), SDG 5 (on

gender), SDG 6 (on water), SDG 11 (on sustainable community), SDG

12 (on responsible consumption and production), SDG 13 (on climate

action), SDG 14 (on life below water), SDG 15 (on life on land), and

SDG 17 (on partnership for the goals) (Table 6).

Table 6 Summary of potential and realized benefits of organic agriculture in relation tothe sustainable development goals (SDG).Sustainabledevelopment goals Realized benefits

SDG 1: No poverty • Provide incomes to poor and marginal farmers

• Low cash costs suitable to poor and marginal farmers

• Sustainable production

• Higher incomes from premiums of organic produce

• Labor-intensive nature can help absorb excess rural labor

and can lower rates of rural–urban migration for work

SDG 2: Zero hunger • Diversified cropping system mitigates risks of crop failure

• More nutritious food

• Improved productivity and sustainability of productive

bases

• Helps protect genetic resources

SDG 3: Good health

and well-being

• Nonexposure to chemicals improves health and promotes

healthy lifestyles

SDG 4: Quality

education

• Effect of spending more for children’s education

SDG 5: Gender

equality

• Providing more avenues for employment of women,

empowering them by way of added incomes

• Its labor-intensive nature provides safe local employment

for women, thus avoiding migration to urban areas

for work

SDG 6: Clean water

and sanitation

• Less fertilizer leaching, which reduces pollution of water

bodies

• Indirect effect of improved access to safe water and

sanitation


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 6 Summary of potential and realized benefits of organic agriculture in relation tothe sustainable development goals (SDG).—cont’dSustainabledevelopment goals Realized benefits

SDG 7: Affordable

and clean energy

• A possible source of energy are the animals in integrated

farms that

• incorporate organic principles

SDG 8: Decent work

and economic

growth

• Organic agriculture provides a safer and healthier

working environment by way of nonexposure to

chemical inputs

SDG 9: Industry,

innovation, and

infrastructure

• Modernization of the organic agriculture sector could

provide training and facilities for farmers, particularly in

the areas of certification, traceability, marketing, and

harvest and postharvest technologies and knowledge

SDG 10: Reduced

inequalities

• The steady incomes from sustainable practices can only

improve over time, hence has the potential to bridge

gaping inequalities

SDG 11: Sustainable

cities and

communities

• The growth of ethical consumerism has increased the

support of consumers for crops produced in

environmentally and socially responsible production

SDG 12: Responsible

consumption and

production

• Systems, such as community-supported agriculture, many

of which are organic operations

SDG 13: Climate

action

• Organic farming practices mitigate climate change and

help farms become resilient to extreme weather patterns

and events

SDG 14: Life below

water

• As synthetic chemicals are not used in organic farms,

agriculture’s negative externalities in water bodies are

minimized

SDG 15: Life on land • Organic practices promote the health of soil to produce

healthy food

• Healthy soils are also a major carbon sink

SDG 16: Peace and

justice, strong

institutions

SDG 17: Partnerships

for the goals

• Under organic contract farming, international

agribusiness firms can provide sustainable livelihoods to

small farmers in developing countries, making these firms

key partners in rural development and agricultural

modernization

Sources: Compiled from FAO, 2018. Sustainable development goals: working for zero hunger. Tran-sforming food and agriculture to achieve the SDGS. FoodAgricultureOrganisation of theUnited nations(FAO). www.fao.org/publications. pp. 1–17; Setboonsarng and Gregorio, 2017. Achieving sustainabledevelopment goals through organic agriculture: empowering poor women to build the future. ADBSoutheast Asia Working Paper Series, No.5. pp. 1–26.

39Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

http://www.fao.org/publications

13. Conclusions and future prospects

Proponents of organic farming claim that it creates integrated,

humane, environmentally and ecologically sustainable agricultural produc-

tion systems where maximum reliance is placed on locally or farm derived

renewable resources, and the management of self-regulating ecological and

biological processes. Marketing organic products may be a challenge as some

consumers think about potential health concerns when purchasing organic

food. Despite broad evidence for links between soil health, food quality and

human health beginning to emerge in the literature, the effects of organic

farming still remain unclear. In the international market, organically pro-

duced food is being promoted by its producers as being of better quality,

more nutritious and containing less toxic chemicals. Another issue is whether

the organic farming system model can meet the burgeoning requirements of

the large and growing population, particularly in India.

Use of organics in Indian agriculture has always been practiced for mill-

enia. In rural areas, most of the crop residues are burnt out in the field itself

and animal dung is used as fuel cakes for energy sources. If the farming system

has to be converted to an organic one, are sufficient inputs available? This has

to be examined in the light of how much on-and off-farm organic residues

are really available at the local level.

The regular addition of organic materials such as animal manures and

crop residues, green manure helps to maintain soil tilth and productivity,

reduce soil erosion and run-off, as well as soil leaching. However, green

manure is subject to rapid microbial decomposition. On the other hand,

cereal straw, wood bark, composted animal manures, and sewage sludge

are more resistant to microbial attack. These materials would, therefore, pro-

mote more organic stability in low-fertility marginal soils. There is evidence

that net mineralization of nitrogen from added organics depends on the lig-

nin, phenol and N content of the materials. Phenol to N and (lignin + phe-

nol) to N ratios have an inverse relationship with net N mineralization.

There is a need to assess the organic materials for their different components.

How can more on- and off-farm residues be generated to meet the require-

ments of organic farms? This needs more attention by researchers if the use of

farm residues along with necessary requirements of other inputs viz., water,

is to reach maximum capacity.

The organic farming recognizes soil fertility as a complicated system for a

soil-plant-animal continuum where each component has a profound effect

on the other and it is controlled through different natural cycles and flows.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Thus basic data on nutrient cycles during the conversion from conven-

tional to OF, needs to be quantified with extensive research. It turn it must

provide the means to synchronize the release of nutrients from organic

sources into soil solution that can serve the plants’ needs as effectively as

possible.

To enhance soil carbon sequestration, it is desirable that the organic res-

idue ends in recalcitrant humic fractions and enhances bioavailability of the

nutrients from organic sources. A number of studies have indicated that

60–80% of additional C in soil under tropical conditions escapes into the

atmosphere as CO2. Whether adding large quantities of organic residues

would promote global warming is subject to ongoing research. Further char-

acterization of carbon pools under organic farming systems, along with the

development of strategies for encouraging redistribution of C residues into

faster carbon sequestration pools, constitute a priority area of research.

Understanding the biology and biochemistry of the processes operating

in the rhizosphere forms a priority area of research as it will facilitate the use

of bio-inoculants or other bio-releasing agents in a scientific way. Research

on the quantification of the microbial contribution to crop production, per-

fection of techniques for quality bio-fertilizer production and development

of safer transportation, needs intensification as these constitute the core of

how organic farming will develop. Converting conventional farms into

organic ones would change the dynamics of soil ecology which would

completely transform the response of organic soil to different management

practices. Research is needed to study these responses both quantitatively

and qualitatively.

In organic farming, a huge quantity of crop residue is required for the

equivalent nitrogen necessary for high feeder crops, to ensure better pro-

ductivity. It is perhaps the case that the productivity of most cereals is poor.

In organic farming, carbon optimization and increased nitrogen cycling

through soil is an approach which enhances soil fertility and yields while

reducing adverse environmental impacts. For example, soil C: N: P ratios

vary from 219:18:1 to 186:13:1 and soil microbial C: N: P ratios vary from

36:5:1 to 60:7:1. The stoichiometry shift in the soil C:N:P ratio promotes

microbial activity for better soil productivity, which is regulated and

maintained through the maintenance of soil organic matter. More research

is needed to optimize the release of these nutrients through synergistic

exploitation of biological activity; this requires careful mechanical or tech-

nological intervention.

Decomposed organic matter management from difference sources and its

application into soil regulates five major processes, these being: ion exchange,

41Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS

moisture retention, water availability, detoxification (chelation of toxic

metals and degradation of pesticides) and soil conservation through reduced

erosion. Analysis is needed to optimize the choice of bio-wastes in appro-

priate combinations.

In organic farming, nitrogen is a unique nutrient because it is emitted as

atmospheric gases such as ammonia and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). It also

pollutes groundwater as nitrate and thus should be evaluated for nitrogen

dynamics in the soil-water-plant-air continuum. Similarly, phosphorus is

a second limiting nutrient in organic farming, and phosphorus dynamics

in organic systems can be investigated more intensively. In addition, mon-

itoring of dynamics, transport and transformation of micronutrients and

other toxic trace metals in transformed organic farming systems constitutes

another priority area of research.

Microbial contamination arising from untreated manure or bio-solids is a

major microbial hazard. Research has shown that pathogenic microbes can

survive for up to 60 days and at high temperature. Information on survival

time and threshold temperature is a priority research area for evaluating the

safe use of manure in organic farming. Organic farming systems cannot avoid

environmental contaminants such as nitrate, carcinogenic heavy metals, her-

bicides, and other pesticides residues. Safe loading rates need to be worked

out through further research.

Finally, organic farming cannot be sustained at low cropping intensity.

Although organically produced foods are superior regarding health and

safety, there is no scientific evidence to prove their superiority in terms

of taste and nutrition. What will be the most important component crops

in the crop rotations when seeking to control weeds, insect pests, and dis-

eases, besides enabling maximum exploitation of the nutrients so that the

environment is used efficiently and it is not destroyed? This is an exciting

area of future research.

AcknowledgmentThis workwas supported by the IndianCouncil of AgriculturalResearch (ICAR),NewDelhi.

Authors are thankful toDr.N.N.Goswami (Former Vice Chancellor, CSAUAT, Kanpur) for

his untiring guidance and constructive criticism in overall improvement of this manuscript.

ReferencesAgrawal, G.G., Sekhon, N.K., Thind, S.S., Sindhu, A.S., 1993. Response of four green

manure crops to different water stress intensities. Indian J Ecol. 20, 132–135.Ahemad, M., Khan, M.S., 2010. Phosphate-solubilizing and plant-growth-promoting

Pseudomonas aeruginosa PS1 improves greengram performance in quizalafop-p-ethyland clodinafop amended soil. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 58, 361–372.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0065-2113(21)00050-X/rf0010





Ahlem, Z., Hammas, M.A., 2017. Organic farming: a path of sustainable development. Int.J. Econ. Manag. Sci. 6, 456.

Alexandratos, N., Bruinsma, J., 2012. World Agriculture Towards 2030/2050: The 2012Revision. No. 12-03. Food Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO),Rome.

Alfv�en, T., Braun-Fahrl€ander, C., Brunekreef, B., vonMutius, E., Riedler, J., Scheynius, A.,van Hage, M., Wickman, M., Benz, M.R., Budde, J., Michels, K.B., Schram, D.,Ublagger, E., Waser, M., Pershagenm, G., 2006. Allergic diseases and atopic sensitizationin children related to farming and anthroposophic lifestyle—the PARSIFAL study. Allergy61, 414–421.

Amarasinghe, U.A., Shah, T., Turral, H., Anand, B.K., 2007. India’s Water Future to2025–2050: Business-as-Usual Scenario and Deviations IWMI Research Report 123.International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka, p. 47.

Anonymous, 2017. Population Estimates for India for Each Year From 1950–2050. TheMid-Year Population Estimates are From the United States census Bureau. www.bluemarblecitizen.com/worldpopulation/India.

Anthon, G.E., LeStrange, M., Barrett, D.M., 2011. Changes in pH, acid, sugar and otherquality parameters during extended vine holding of ripe processing tomatoes. J. Sci.Food Agric. 91, 1175–1181. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.4312.

Audsley, E., Brander, M., Chatterton, J.C., Murphy-Bokern, D., Webster, C.,Williams, A.G., 2010. How low can we go? An assessment of greenhouse gas emissionsfrom the UK food system and the scope reduction by 2050. Report for the WWF andFood Climate Research Network.

Aulakh, M.S., Khera, T.S., Doran, J.W., Singh, K., Singh, B., 2000. Yields and nitrogendynamics in a rice-wheat system using green manure and inorganic fertilizer. Soil Sci.Soc. Am. J. 64, 1867–1876.

Azadi, H., Ho, P., Hasfiati, L., 2010. Agricultural land conversion drivers: a comparisonbetween less developed, developing and developed countries. Land Degrad. Dev. 22,596–604. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1037.

Bachmann, F., 2012. Potential and limitations of organic and fair trade cotton for improvinglivelihoods of smallholders: evidence from Central Asia. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 27,138–147.

Badgly, C., Perfetto, I., 2007. Can organic agriculture feed the world? Renew. Agric. FoodSyst. 22, 80–85.

Bansal, S., Kapoor, K.K., 2000. Vermicomposting of crop residues and cattle dung withEiseniaFoetida. Bioresour. Technol. 73, 95–98.

Batra, L., Manna, M.C., 1997. Dehydrogenase activity and microbial biomass carbon insalt-affected soils of semiarid and arid regions. Arid Land Res. Manag. 11, 295–303.

Bayer, C., Martin-Neto, L., Mielniczuk, J., Pavinato, A., Dieckow, J., 2006. Carbon seques-tration in two Brazilian Cerrado soil under no-till. Soil Tillage Res. 86, 237–245.

Benbrook, C.M., 2006. FAQS on Pesticides in Milk. Organic Center. Calculated fromUSDAs Pesticide Data Program. http://www.organic-center.org/science.pest.php?action¼view&report_id¼79.

Benckiser, T., Simmarmata, T., 1994. Environmental impact of fertilizing soils by using sew-age sludge and animal waste. Fertil. Res. 37, 1–22. 1994.

Beri, V., Meelu, O.P., Khinds, C.S., 1989. Biomass production, N accumulation, symbioticeffectiveness and mineralization and green manures in relation to yield of wetland rice.Trop. Agri. 66, 11–15.

Bhardwaj, R.M., 2005. Status of wastewater generation and treatment in India. In: PaperPresented at Intersecretariat Working Group on Environment Statistics (IWG–Env)Joint Work Session on Water Statistics, Vienna, 20–22 June. 2005.

Bhattacharjya, S., Sahu, A., Manna, M.C., Patra, A.K., 2019. Potential of surplus crop res-idues, horticultural waste and animal excreta as a nutrient source in the central and west-ern regions of India. Curr. Sci. 116, 1314–1323.

43Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS


















https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.4312

https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.4312








https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1037

https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1037












http://www.organic-center.org/science.pest.php?action=view%26report_id=79
















Bhattacharyya, P., Chakraborty, A., Bhattacharya, B., Chakrabarti, K., 2003. Evaluation ofMSW compost as a component of integrated nutrient management in wetland rice.Compost Sci. Util. 11, 343–350.

Bird, K., Hughes, D.R., 1997. Ethical consumerism: the case of “fairly-traded”coffee. Bus.Ethics 6, 159–167.

Boone, L., Roldan-Ruiz, I., Linden, V.V., Muylle, H., Dewulf, J., 2019. Environmentalsustainability of conventional and organic farming: accounting for ecosystem servicesin life cycle assessment. Sci. Total Environ. 695, 133841.

Bouma, J., 1996. Biodynamic vs. conventional farming effects on soil structure expressed bysimulatedpotential productivity. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 60, 1552–1558.

Bruinsma, J., 2009. The resource Outlook to 2050: By how much do land,water and cropyields need to increase by 2050? In: Proceedings of the FAO Expert Meeting on How toFeed the World in 2050, June 24–26, 2009. Rome.

Butler, G., Nielsen, J.H., Slots, T., Seal, C., Eyre, M.D., Sanderson, R., Leifert, C., 2008.Fatty acid and fat-soluble antioxidant concentrations in milk from high- andlow-input conventional and organic systems: seasonal variation. J. Sci. Food Agric.88, 1431–1441.

Butler, G., Stergiadis, S.C., Seal, C., Eyre, M.D., Leifert, C., 2010. Fat composition oforganic and conventional retail milk in Northeast England. J. Dairy Sci. 94, 24–36.

Carpenter-Boggs, L., Reganold, J.P., Kennedy, A.C., 2000a. Effects of biodynamic prepa-rations on compost development. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 17, 313–328.

Carpenter-Boggs, L., Kennedy, A.C., Reganold, J.P., 2000b. Organic and biodynamic man-agement: effects on soil biology. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64, 1651–1659.

Chakraborty, M., Sharma, C., Pandey, J., Singh, N., Gupta, P.K., 2011. Methane emissionestimation from landfills in Delhi: a comparative assessment of different methodologies.Atmos. Environ. 45, 7135–7142.

Chandrashekar, H.M., 2010. Changing scenario of organic farming in India: an overview.Int. NGO J. 5, 34–39.

Chang, A., Page, A., Asano, T., 2002. Developing Human Health-Related ChemicalGuidelines for Reclaimed Wastewater Andsewage Sludge Applications in Agriculture.World Health Organization, Geneva.

Chapke, R.R., Shyamprasad, G., Das, I.K., Tonapi, V.A., 2018. Improved MilletsProduction Technologies and Their Impact. ICAR-IIMR, Hyderabad.

Chhetri, A.K., Aryal, J.P., Sapkota, T.B., Khurana, R., 2016. Economic benefits of climate-smart agricultural practices to smallholder farmers in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India.Curr. Sci. 110, 1251–1256.

Clark, M., Tilman, D., 2017. Comparative analysis of environmental impacts of agriculturalproduction systems, agricultural input efficiency, and food choice. Environ. Res. Lett.12, 1–11.

Clark, M.S., Horwath, W.R., Shennan, C., Scow, K.M., Lantini, W.T., Ferris, H., 1999.Nitrogen, weeds and water as yield-limiting factors in conventional, low-input, andorganic tomato systems. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 73, 257–270.

Clement, A., Ladha, J.K., Chaliflour, F.P., 1998. Nitrogen dynamics of various greenmanurespecies and the relationship to lowland rice production. Agron. J. 90, 149–154.

Coakley, S.M., Scherm, H., Chakraborty, S., 1999. Climate change and plant disease man-agement. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 37, 399–426.

Cockram, M., Feldman, S., 1996. The beautiful city gardens in third world cities. Afr. UrbanQ. 11, 202–208.

Das, A., Patel, D.P., Kumar, M., Ramkrushna, G.I., Mukherjee, A., 2017. Impact of sevenyears of organic farming on soil and produce quality and crop yields in eastern Himalayas,India. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 236, 142–153.


ARTICLE IN PRESS




















































Das, A., Layek, J., Ramkrushna, G.I., Babu, S., Dev, M.T., Dey, U., Suting, D., Singh, G.,Yadav, D., Lyngdoh, B.D., Prakash, N., 2019. Integrated organic farming system: aninnovative approach for enhancing productivity and income of farmers in north easternhill region of India. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 89, 1267–1272.

Devarinti, S.R., 2016. Natural farming: eco-friendly and sustainable? Agrotechnology 5,2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9881.1000147.

Dhandapani, P., 2011. Insoluble phosphate solubilization by bacterial strains isolated fromrice rhizosphere soils from southern India. Int. J. Soil Sci. 6, 134–141.

Dobbs, T.L., Smolik, J.D., 1996. Productivity and profitability of conventional and alternativefarming systems: a long-term on-farm paired comparison. J. Sustain. Agric. 91, 63–79.

Drinkwater, L.E., Wagonar, P., Sarrantonia, M., 1998. Legume based cropping systems havereduced carbon and nitrogenous losses. Nature 396, 262–265.

Droogers, P., Bouma, J., 1996. Biodynamic vs. conventional farming effects on soil structureexpressed by simulated potential productivity. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 60, 1552–1558.

Dubey, S.K., Yadav, R.K., Chatuvedi, P.K., Goyel, B., Yadav, R., Minhas, P.S., 2006.Agricultural uses of sewage sludge and water and their impact on soil water and environ-mental health in Haryana, India. In: Abstract of 18th World Congress of Soil Science,Philadelphia, 9–15 July 2006.

Dumaresq, D., Greene, R., van Kerkhoff, L., 1997. Organic Agriculture in Australia:Proceedings of the National Symposium on Organic Agriculture: Research andDevelopment 30 June—3 July, 1996. Rural Industries Research and DevelopmentCorporation, Barton.

Dwivedi, B.S., Dwivedi, V., 2007. Monitoring soil health for higher productivity. IndianJ. Fertil. 3, 11–23.

Edwards, S., 2007. The impact of compost use on crop yields in Tigray, Ethiopia. Institute forSustainable Development (ISD). In: Proceedings of the International Conference onOrganic Agriculture and food security. FAO, Rome. At: ftp://ftp.fao.org/paia/organicag/ofs/02-Edwards.pdf.

Ensink, J., Simmons, J., van der Hoek, W., 2004. Wastewater use in Pakistan: the cases ofHaroonabad and Faisalabad. In: Scott, C., Faruqui, N., Raschid-Sally, L. (Eds.),Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture. CAB International, Wallingford, pp. 91–102.

Eswaran, H., Lal, R., Reich, P.F., 2001. Land degradation: an overview. In: Bridges, E.M.,Hannam, I.D., Oldeman, L.R., de Pening Vries, F.W.T., Scherr, S.J., Sompatpanit, S.(Eds.), Response to Land Degradation, Proceedings of 2nd International Conferenceon Land Degradation and Desertification, KhonKaen. Thailand Oxford Press,New Delhi India.

European Commission, 2001. Disposal and recycling routes of sewage sludge part 3. In:Scientific and technical re-port. European Commission DG Environment.

Eyhorn, F., Berg, M.V.D., Decok, C., Maat, H., Srivastav, A., 2018. Does organic farmingprovide a viable alternative for smallholder rice farmers in India? Sustainability 10, 4424.

FAO, 1999. Organic agriculture, food and agriculture Organization of the United Nations,Rome. In: Menon, T.G.K., Karamarkar, V.B., Shroff, V.N., et al. (Eds.), OrganicFarming. JNKVV, Jabalpur, pp. 116–118 (1994).

FAO, 2011. The state of food insecurity in the world. In: How does International PriceVolatility affect Domestic Economics and Food security? Rome. Food AgricultureOrganisation of the United nations, FAO, Rome.

FAO, 2018. Sustainable development goals: working for zero hunger. In: Transforming Foodand Agriculture to Achive the SDGS. Food Agriculture Organisation of the Unitednations, FAO, pp. 1–17. www.fao.org/publications.

FAO/WFP, 2010. The State of Food Insecurity in theWorld. Addressing Food Insecurity inProtracted Crisis. FAO, Rome.

45Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS





https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9881.1000147

https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9881.1000147



















ftp://ftp.fao.org/paia/organicag/ofs/02-Edwards.pdf





















http://www.fao.org/publications



FCO, 1985. Tolerance limit of organic fertilizer—part A and part B. In: Fertilizer (Control)Order. Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Developement(Department of Agriculture and Corporation), New Delhi, pp. 73–82. http://www.dacnet.nic.in/ncof/quality_standards.htm/ (June 2006).

Finamore, A., Britti, M.S., Roselli, M., Bellovino, D., Gaetani, S., Mengheri, E., 2004.Novel approach for food safety evaluation. Results of a pilot experiment to evaluateorganic and conventional foods. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52, 7425–7431.

FOA, 2011. Organic Agriculture and Climate Change. http://www.fao.org/oranicag/oa-specialfeatures/en/. Accessed April 5, 2013.

Forster, D., Andres, C., Verma, R., Zundel, C., Messmer, M.M., 2013. Yield and economicperformance of organic and conventional cotton-based farming systems—results from afield trial in India. PLoS One 8, 81039.

Ghosh, A., Bhattacharyya, R., Meena, M.C., Dwivedi, B.S., Singh, G., Agnihotri, R., 2018.Long-term fertilization effects on soil organic carbon sequestration in an Inceptisol. SoilTillage Res. 177, 134–144.

Ghosh, A., Kumar, S., Manna, M.C., Singh, A.K., Sharma, P., Sarkar, A., Saha, M.,Bhattacharyya, R., Misra, S., Biswas, S.S., Biswas, D.R., Gautam, K., Kumar, R.V.,2019. Long-term in situ moisture conservation in horti-pasture system improves biolog-ical health of degraded land. J. Environ. Manage. 248, 109339.

Ghosh, A., Singh, A.B., Kumar, R.V., Manna, M.C., Bhattacharyya, R., Rahman, M.M.,Sharma, P., Rajput, P.S., Misra, S., 2020. Soil enzymes and microbial elemental stoichi-ometry as bio-indicators of soil quality in diverse cropping systems and nutrient manage-ment practices of Indian Vertisols. Appl. Soil Ecol. 145, 103304.

Giller, K.E., Beare, M.H., Lavelle, P., Izac, A.M.N., Swift, M.J., 1997. Agricultural inten-sification, soil biodiversity and agroecosystem function. Appl. Soil Ecol. 6, 3–16.

Girovich, M., 1996. Biosolids Treatment and Management: Processes for Beneficial Use.Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.

Goldstein, W., Barber, W., Carpenter-Boggs, L., Daloren, D., Koopmans, C., 2004.Comparisons of Conventional, Organic and Biodynamic Methods. Michael FieldsAgricultural Institute. Available at Web site http://www.michaelfieldsaginst.org/education/comparison.pdf.

Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D., Paoletti, M.G., 2011. Environmental impact of differentagriculturalmanagement practices: conventional vs. organic agriculture. Crit. Rev.Plant Sci. 30, 95–124.

Goswami, N.N., Rattan, R.K., 2004. Organic farming as viewed by the soil scientists. In:Organic Farming. Indian Society of Soil Science, Bull. 22, pp. 42–49.

Govaerts, B., Verhulst, N., Castellanos-Navarrete, A., Sayre, K.D., Dixon, J., Dendooven, L.,2009. Conservation agriculture and soil carbon sequestration: between myth and farmerreality. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 28, 97–122.

Grewal, H.S., Kolar, J.S., 1991. Central based cropping systems: improve the productivitywith green manuring. Prog. Fmg. 17, 8–9.

Heaton, S., 2002. Assessing organic food quality: is it better for you? In: Powell, J., et al.(Eds.), Proceedings of the UK Organic Research 2002 Conference. Organic CentreWales, Institute of Rural Studies, University of Wales Aberystwyth, pp. 55–60.

Herridge, D.F., Peoples, M.B., Boddey, R.M., 2008. Global inputs of biological nitrogenfixation in agricultural systems. Plant and Soil 311, 1–18.

Hillocks, R., Kibani, T., 2002. Factors affecting the distribution, incidence and spread ofFusarium wilt of cotton in Tanzania. Exp. Agric. 38, 13–27.

Hole, D.G., Perkins, A.J., Wilson, J.D., Alexander, I.H., Grice, P.V., Evans, A.D., 2005.Does organic farming benefit biodiversity. Biol. Conserv. 122, 113–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.07.018.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

http://www.dacnet.nic.in/ncof/quality_standards.htm/






http://www.fao.org/oranicag/oa-specialfeatures/en/





















http://www.michaelfieldsaginst.org/education/comparison.pdf




















https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.07.018



Huang, C.L., 1996. Consumer preferences and attitudes towards organically grown produce.Eur. Rev. Agric. Econ. 23, 331.

Huber, M., van de Vijver, L., 2009. Overview of Research Linking Organic ProductionMethods and Health Effects in the Lab, in Animals and in Humans. Department ofHealth Care and Nutrition, LouisBolk Institute, Netherlands. At http://www.organicfqhresearch.org/downloads/newsletter/fqh_news_march2009.pdf.

Jim�enez, B., 2006. Irrigation in developing countries using wastewater. Int. Rev. Environ.Strateg. 6, 229–250.

Jolly, D.A., Schutz, H.G.K., Diaz-Knauf, V., Johal, J., 1998. Organic foods: consumer atti-tudes and use. Food Technol. 43, 60–66.

Jordan, C.F., 2004. Organic farming and agroforestry: alleycropping for mulch productionfor organic farms of southeastern United States. Agrofor. Syst. 61/62, 79–90.

Ju, I., Wj, B., Md, S., Ia, O., Oj, E., 2018. A review: biofertilizer-a key player in enhancingsoil fertility and crop productivity. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. Rep. 2, 22–28.

Kalayu, G., 2019. Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms: promising approach asbiofertilizers. Int. J. Agron. 2019, 1–7.

Kalyani, K., Pandey, K., 2014. Waste to energy status in India: a short review. Renew.Sustain. Energy Rev., 113–120.

Kastner, T., Rivasa, M.J.I., Kochc, W., Nonhebela, S., 2012. Global changes in diets and theconsequences for land requirements for food. In: Turner, B.L. (Ed.), Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences. vol. 109, pp. 6868–6872.

Kathage, J., Qaim, M., 2012. Economic impacts and impact dynamics of Bt (Bacillus thur-ingiensis) cotton in India. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 109, 11652–11656.

Khulbe, D., Srinivas, P., 2017. Basic concept of biodynamic agriculture. Sabujima 25, 45–48.Kloepper, J.W., 1993. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria as biological control agents. In:

Metting Jr., F.B. (Ed.), Soil Microbial Ecology – Applications in Agricultural andEnvironmental Management. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 255–274.

Kolvalina, P., Capouchova, L., Stehno, Z., Moudry Jr., J., Moudry, J., 2010. Weaknesses ofemmer wheat genetic resources and possibilities of its improvement for low-input andorganic farming systems. J. Food Agric. Environ. 8, 376–382.

Kouba, M., 2003. Quality of organic animal products. Livest. Prod. Sci. 80, 33–40.Krejcirova, L., Capouchova, I., Petr, J., Bicanova, E., Kvapil, R., 2006. Protein composition

and quality of winter wheat from organic and conventional farming. Zembdirbyste 93,285–296.

Kremen, C., Miles, A., 2012. Ecosystem services in biologically diversified versus conven-tional farming systems. Ecol. Soc. 17, 40.

K€ustermann, B., Kainz, M., H€ulsbergen, K.J., 2008. Modeling carbon cycles and estimationof greenhouse gas emissions from organic and conventional farming systems. Renew.Agric. Food Syst. 23, 38–52.

Ladha, J., 2016. Quantifying changes to the global warming potential of rice wheat systemswith the adoption of conservation agriculture in northwestern India. Agric. Ecosys.Environ. 219, 125–137.

Lairon, D., 2009. Nutritional quality and safety of organic food. A review. Agron. Sustain.Dev. 30, 33–36.

Lakhal, S.Y., Sidib�e, H., H’Mida, S., 2008. Comparing conventional and certified organiccotton supply chains: the case of Mali. Int. J. Agric. Resour. Gov. Ecol. 7, 243–255.

Lal, R., 1999. Soil management and restoration for C sequestration to mitigate the acceler-ated greenhouse effect. Prog. Environ. Sci. 1, 307–326.

Lal, R., 2004. Soil carbon sequestration in India. Clim. Change 65, 277–296.Lal, R., 2010. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security.

Science 304, 1623–1627.

47Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS



http://www.organicfqhresearch.org/downloads/newsletter/fqh_news_march2009.pdf




















































Lal, R., Kimble, J., Follett, R., 1998. Land use and soil C pools in terrestrial ecosystems. In:Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., Follett, R.F., Stewart, B.A. (Eds.), Management of CarbonSequestration in Soil. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 1–10.

Lamastra, L., Nicoleta, A.S., Trevisan, M., 2018. Sewage sludge for sustainable agriculture:contaminants’ contents and potential use as fertilizer.Chem.Biol. Technol. Agric. 5, 1–10.

Lampkin, N.H., 1994. Researching organic farming systems. In: Lampkin, N.H., Padel, S.(Eds.), The Economics of Organic Farming: an International Perspective. CABInternational, Wallingford. 1994.

Lazarovits, G., 1997. Rhizobacteria for improvement of plant growth and establishment.Hort. Sci. 32, 188–192.

Lockie, S., 2006. Capturing the sustainability agenda: organic foods and media discourses onfood scares, environment, genetic engineering and health. Agric. Hum. Values 23,313–323.

Lorenz, K., Lal, R., 2016. Environmental impact of organic agriculture. Adv. Agron. 139,99–152.

Lotter, D.W., Seidel, R., Liebhardt,W., 2003. The performance of organic and conventionalcropping systems in an extreme climate year. Am. J. Altern. Agric. 18, 146–154.

Maeder, P., FlieBbach, A., Dubois, D., Gunst, L., Fried, P., Niggli, U., 2002. Soil fertilityand biodiversity in organic farming. Science 296, 1694–1698.

Manna,M.C., Singh,M.V., 2001. Long-term e€ects of intercropping and bio-litter recyclingon soil biological activity and fertility status of sub-tropical soils. Bioresour. Technol. 76,143–150.

Manna, M.C., Swarup, A., Wanjari, R.H., Singh, Y.V., Ghosh, P.K., Singh, K.N.,Tripathi, A.K., Saha, M.N., 2006. Soil organic matter in a West Bengal Inceptisol after30 years of multiple cropping and fertilization. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70, 121–129.

Manna, M.C., Swarup, A., Wanjari, R.H., Ravankar, H.N., 2007. Long-term effects ofNPK fertiliser and manure on soil fertility and a sorghum–wheat farming system.Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 47, 700–711.

Manna, M.C., Rao, A.S., Mandal, A., 2012. Maintenance of soil biological health under dif-ferent crop production systems. Indian J. Soil Conserv. 41, 127–135.

Manna, M.C., Sahu, A., Singh, A.B., Rao, A.S., Khanna, S.S., 2014. Quality CompostProduction From Solid Urban Waste for Enhancing Crop Productivity. ScientificBulletin no: 02/IISS/2014. pp. 1–52.

Manna, M., Sahu, A., Patra, A.K., Khanna, S.S., Chaudhari, S.K., Sikka, A.K., 2015. RapidComposting Technique Ways to Enhance Soil Organic Carbon, Productivity and SoilHealth. ICAR-IISS Technology Folder, pp. 1–8.

Manna, M.C., Rahman, M.M., Naidu, R., Sahu, A., Bhattacharjya, S., Wanjari, R.H.,Patra, A.K., Chaudhari, S.K., Majumdar, K., Khanna, S.S., 2018. Bio-waste manage-ment in subtropical soils of India: future challenges and opportunities in agriculture.Adv. Agron. 152, 89–148.

Mariappan, K., Zhou, D., 2019. A threat of farmers’ suicide and the opportunity in organicfarming for sustainable agricultural development in India. Sustainability 11, 2040. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082400.

Martens, D.A., 2000. Plant residue biochemistry regulates soil carbon cycling and carbonsequestration. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32, 361–369.

McBratney, A., Damien, J.F., Koch, A., 2014. The dimensions of soil security. Geoderma213, 203–213.

McGee, J.A., 2014. Does certified organic farming reduce greenhouse gas emissionsfromagricultural production? Agric. Hum. Values 32, 255–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-9543-.

Meelu, O.P., Singh, Y., Singh, B., 1994. Greenmanuring for soil productivity improvement.World soil resource reports. No.76. FAO, Rome.


ARTICLE IN PRESS










































https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082400

https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082400

https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082400





https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-9543-

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-9543-

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-9543-



Mendoza, T.C., 2002. An Evaluation study of plan international sustainable agriculture pro-gram in Calapan, Oriental Mindoro. In: Report submitted to Plan InternationalPhilippines, 6th Floor N & M Building Chino Roces Ave. Makati City, Philippines,pp. 1–123.

Menon, T.G.K., Karamarkar, V.B., 1994. In: Shroff, V.N., et al. (Eds.), Organic Farming.JNKVV, Jabalpur, pp. 116–118.

Mikkelsen, R., Camberato, J., 1995. Potassium, sulfur, lime and micronutrient fertilizers. In:Rechcigl, J. (Ed.), Soil Amendments and Environmental Quality. CRC Press LewisPublishers, Boca Raton.

MNRE (Ministry of new and Renewable Energy Resources), 2009. Govt. of India,New Delhi. www.mnre.gov.in/biomassrsources.

Mondal, S., Chakraborty,D.,Das, T.K., Shrivastava,M.,Mishra,A.K., Bandyopadhyay,K.K.,Aggarwal, P., Chaudhari, S.K., 2019. Conservation agriculture had a strong impact on thesub-surface soil strength and root growth in wheat after a 7-year transition period. SoilTillage Res. 195, 104385.

Muller, A., Davis, J.S., 2009. Reducing Global Warming: The potential of OrganicAgriculture. retrieved December 11th 2010 from http://orgprints.org/16507/1/mueller-and-davis-2009-ReducingGlobalWarming_PolicyBrief.pdf.

Murthi, G.S.R., 2004. Souvenir, National Conference on Organic Farming for SustainableProduction. Horticultural Society of India, New Delhi, pp. 1–10.

Nandi, R., Gowdru, N.V., Bokelmann, W., Dias, G., 2015. Smallholder organic farmer’sattitudes, objectives and barriers towards production of organic fruits and vegetablesin India: a multivariate analysis. Emirates J. Food Agric. 27, 390–406.

Nautiyal, C.S., 2009. Self purifactory ganga water facilitates death of pathogenic Escherichiacoli.157:H7. Curr. Microbiol. 58, 25–29.

Nautiyal, C.S., Chauhan, P.S., Bhatia, C.R., 2010. Changes in soil physicochemical prop-erties and microbial functional diversity due to 14 years of conversion of grassland toorganic agriculture in semi-arid agroecosystem. Soil Tillage Res. 109, 55–60.

NCOF, 2017. Annual Report., 2016–17. National Centre of Organic Farming.[Online].Cited 24 January 2020 https://ncof.dacnet.nic.in/AnnualReports/AnnualReport2016-17.pdf.

Nelson, G., Rosegrant, M., Koo, J., Robertson, R., Sulser, T., Zhu, T., 2009. ClimateChange: Impact on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. International Food PolicyResearch Institute, Washington, DC, https://doi.org/10.2499/0896295354.

Nemecek, T., Dubois, D., Huguenin-Elie, O., Gaillard, G., 2011. Life cycle assessment ofSwiss farming systems: I. Integrated and organic farming. Agr. Syst. 104, 217–232.

Nemecek, T., Schnetzer, J., Reinhard, J., 2016. Updated and harmonised greenhouse gasemissions for crop inventories. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21 (9), 1361–1378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0712-7.

Niggli, U., Early, J., Ogorzalek, K., 2007. Issues Paper: Organic Agriculture andEnvironmental Stability of the Food Supply. Retrieved 20th December 2010 fromhttp://orgprints.org/10752/1/niggli-et-al-2007-environmental-stability.pdf.

Niggli, U., Schmid, H., Flieβbach, A., 2008. Organic Farming and Climate Change.International Trade Centre (ITC), Geneva.

Niggli, U., Fließbach, A., Hepperly, P., Scialabba, N., 2009. Low greenhouse gas agriculture:mitigation and adaptation potential of sustainable farming systems. Okologie Landbau141, 32–33.

Nileemas, G., Sreenivasa, M.N., 2011. Influence of liquid organic manures on growth, nutri-ent content and yield of tomato (Lycopersiconesculentum Mill.) in the sterilized soil.Karnataka J. Agric. Sci. 24, 153–157.

OECD (Organization For Economic Co-operating and Development), 2003. OrganicAgriculture. Sustainability, Markets and Policies. CABI, NY. 2003.

49Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS










http://www.mnre.gov.in/biomassrsources





http://orgprints.org/16507/1/mueller-and-davis-2009-ReducingGlobalWarming_PolicyBrief.pdf













https://ncof.dacnet.nic.in/AnnualReports/AnnualReport2016-17.pdf



https://doi.org/10.2499/0896295354

https://doi.org/10.2499/0896295354



https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0712-7

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0712-7

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0712-7

http://orgprints.org/10752/1/niggli-et-al-2007-environmental-stability.pdf%3e

http://orgprints.org/10752/1/niggli-et-al-2007-environmental-stability.pdf%3e












Organic Trade Association, 2015. 2013 and Preliminary 2014 U.S. Organic CottonProduction & Marketing Trends. https://ota.com/sites/default/files/indexed_files/OTA_FiberAdvocacy_140915.pdf. Available at: [accessed March 21,2017].

Padre, A.T., Rai, M., Kumar, V., Gathala, M., Sharma, P.C., Sharma, S., Nagar, R.K.,Deshwal, S., Singh, L.K., Jat, H.S., Sharma, D.K., Wassmann, R., Ladha, J.K., 2016.Quantifying changes to the global warming potential of rice-wheat systems with theadoption of conservation agriculture in northwestern India. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.219, 125–137.

Page, S., Ritchie, B., 2009. A report on better management practices in cotton production inBrazil, India, Pakistan, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Mali, Senegal & Togo. BetterCotton Initiative (BCI), Geneva.

Paoletti, M.G., 1999. The role of earthworms for assessment of sustainability and as bio-indicators. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 74, 137–155.

Parray, B.A., Ganai, A.M., Fazili, K.M., 2007. Physicochemical parameters and growth yieldof tomato (Lycopersicumesculentum): role of farmyard manureand neem cake. Am.Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci. 2, 303–307.

Parvathi, P., Waibel, H., 2013. Fair trade and organic agriculture in developing countries: areview. J. Int. Food Agric. Mark. 25, 3111–3323.

Pathak, R.K., Ram, K.A., 2003. Biodynamic Agriculture. Extn. Bull No. 14. CISH,Lucknow, p. 42.

Pathak, H., Wassmann, R., 2007. Introducing greenhouse gas mitigation as a developmentobjective in rice-based agriculture: I. Generation of technical coefficients. Agr. Syst. 94,807–825.

Pathak, H., Jain, N., Bhatia, A., Patel, J., Aggarwal, P.K., 2010. Carbon footprints of Indianfood items. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 139, 66–73.

Patil, S., Reidsma, P., Shah, P., Purushothaman, S., Wolf, J., 2014. Comparing conventionaland organic agriculture in Karnataka, India: where and when can organic farming be sus-tainable? Land Use Policy 37, 40–51.

Pelsmacker, P., Driesen, L., Rayp, G., 2005. Do consumers care about ethics? Willingness topay for fair-trade coffee. J. Consum. Aff. 39, 363–385.

Pescod, M., 1992. Wastewater Treatment and Use in Agriculture. Paper 47. Food AndAgriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Pfiffner, L., Mader, P., 1997. Effects of biodynamic, organic and conventional productionsystems on earthworm populations. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 15, 3–10.

Pimentel, D., 2011. Food for thought: a review of the role of energy in current and evolvingagriculture. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 30, 35–44.

Pimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., Sinclair, K., Kurz, D., McNair, M., Crist, S.,Shpritz, L., Fitton, L., Saffouri, R., Blair, R., 1995. Environmental and economic costsof soil erosion and conservation benefits. Science 267, 1117–1123.

Pimentel, D., Paul, H., Hanson, J., Douds, D., Seidel, R., 2015. Environmental, energeticand economic comparisions of organic and conventional farming systems. Bioscience 55,573–582.

Rajendran, A.T.P., Venugopalan, B.M.V., Tarhalkar, P., 2000. Organic Cotton Farming inIndia, Technical Bulletin. Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Nagpur.

Ramesh, P., Singh, M., SubbaRao, A., 2005. Status of organic its relevance to the Indiancontext. Curr. Sci. 88, 561–568.

Ramesh, P., Panwar, N.R., Singh, A.B., Ramana, S., 2008. Effect of organic manures onproductivity, soil fertility and economics of soybean (Glycine max)-durum wheat(Triticumestivum): cropping system under organic farming in vertisol. Indian.J. Agric. Sci. 78, 1033–1037.

Ramesh, P., Panwar, N.R., Singh, A.B., Ramana, S., Yadav, S.K., Shrivastava, R., SubbaRao, A., 2010. Status of organic farming in India. Curr. Sci. 98, 1090–1194.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

https://ota.com/sites/default/files/indexed_files/OTA_FiberAdvocacy_140915.pdf




















































Rao, S., Reddy, K.S., 2005. Emerging strategies for sustaining higher productivity and ensur-ing soil quality under intensive agriculture. Fertil. News. 1, 61–76.

Raupp, J., Konig, U.J., 1996. Biodynamic preparations cause opposite yield effectsdepending upon yield levels. Biol. Agric. Horti. 13, 175–188.

Reganold, J.P., 1992. Effects of Alternative and Conventional Farming Systems onAgricultural Sustainability. Washington State University, Department of Crop andSoil Sciences. at http://www.agnet.org/library/bc/44001/.

Reganold, J.P., Palmer, A.S., Lockhart, J.C., MacGregor, A.N., 1993. Soil quality and finan-cial performance of biodynamic and conventional farms in New Zealand. Science 260,344–349.

Rembiałkowska, E., 2000. Zdrowotna and sensorycznajako�s�cziemniakoworazwybranychwarzyw z gospodarstwekologicznych. Rozprawahabilitacyjna, FundacjaRozwojSGGW, Warszawa.

Riar, A., Moandloi, L.S., Randhir, S.P., Messmer, M.M., Bhullar, G.S., 2017. A diagnosis ofbiophysical and socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ choice to adopt organic orconventional farming systems for cotton production. Front. Plant Sci. 8, 1–11.

Rundgren, G., 2006. Organic Agriculture and Food Security. International Federation ofOrganic Agriculture Movements, Bonn.

Sandhu, H.S., Wratten, S.D., Cullen, R., 2010. The role of supporting ecosystem services inconventional and organic arable farmland. Ecol. Complex. 7, 302–310.

Sarkar, A., Patil, S., Hugar, L.B., vanLoon, G., 2011. Sustainability of current agriculturepractices, community perception, and implications for ecosystem health: an Indian study.Ecohealth 8, 418–431.

Sarma, P., 2016. Campaign to Reduce Use of Chemical Fertilizers, Pesticides. The Hindu.May 28 http://bit.ly/1tpq0rT.

Sean, C., Klonsky, K., Livingston, P., Temple, S.T., 1999. Crop-yield and economic com-parisons of organic, low-input, and conventional farming systems in California’sSacramento Valley. Am. J. Altern. Agric. 14, 109–121.

Setboonsarng, S., Gregorio, E.E., 2017. Achieving Sustainable Development Goals ThroughOrganic Agriculture: Empowering Poor Women to Build the Future. ADB SoutheastAsia Working Paper Series, no.5. pp. 1–26.

Setboonsarng, S., Mardandya, A. (Eds.), 2015. Organic Agriculture and Post-2015Development Goals: Building on the Comparative Advantage of Poor Farmers. AsianDevelopment Bank, Manila. https://openaccess.adb.org/handle/11540/4411.

Seufert, V., Ramankutty, N., Foley, J.A., 2012. Comparing the yields of organic and con-ventional agriculture. Nature 485, 229–232. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11069.

Shaikh,N.F., Gachande, B.D., 2015. Effect of organic bio-booster and inorganic inputs on rhi-zosphereMycoflora population and species diversity of wheat. Int. J. Sci. Res. 4, 295–302.

Shannon, D., Sen, A.M., Johnson, D.B., 2002. A comparative study of the microbiology ofsoils managed under organic and conventional regimes. Soil Use Manage. 18, 274–283.

Sharma, K.L., Srinivasarao, C., Chandrika, D.S., Lal, M., Indoria, A.K., Thakur, P.B.,Srinivas, K., Reddy, K.S., Rani, K.U., 2013. Effect of graded levels of surface crop residuapplication under minimum tillage on carbon pools and carbon lability index in sorghum(Sorghumbicolor(L.) Monch)-cowpea (Vignaunguiculata) system in rainfed Alfisols.Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 48, 2506–2513.

Shiva, V., Pandey, P., 2006. A New Paradigm for Food Security and Food Safety. Navdanya,New Delhi.

Shubha, S., Devakumar, N., Rao, G.G.E., Gowda, S.B., 2014. Effect of seed treatment,Panchagavya application and organic farming systems on soil microbial population,growth and yield of maize. In: Rahmann, G., Aksoy, U. (Eds.), Proceedings of the4th ISOFAR Scientific Conference. ‘Building Organic Bridges’, at the OrganicWorld Congress, pp. 13–15.

51Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS





http://www.agnet.org/library/bc/44001/

http://www.agnet.org/library/bc/44001/


















http://bit.ly/1tpq0rT

http://bit.ly/1tpq0rT







https://openaccess.adb.org/handle/11540/4411

https://openaccess.adb.org/handle/11540/4411

https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11069

https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11069

















Sihi, D., Biswanath, D., Sharma, D.K., Pathak, H., Nain, L., Sharma, O.P., 2017. Evaluationof soil health in organic vs. conventional farming of basmati rice in North India. J. PlantNutr. Soil Sci. 180, 389–406.

Singh, Y., Singh, B., Khind, C.S., 1992. Nutrient transformations in soils amended withgreen manure. Adv. Soil Sci. 20, 237–309.

Singh, S., Singh, R.J., Kumar, K., Singh, B., Shukla, L., 2013. Biofertilizers and greenmanuring for sustainable agriculture. In: Modern Technologies for SustainableAgriculture, first ed. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, pp. 129–150.

Sirieix, L., Kledal, P.R., Sulitang, T., 2011. Organic food consumers’ tradeoffs between localor imported, conventional or organic products: a qualitative study in Shanghai. Int.J. Consum. Stud. 35, 670–678.

Smith, L.G., Kirk, G.J.D., Jones, P.J., Williams, A.G., 2019. The greenhouse gas impacts ofconverting food production in England and Wales to organic methods. Nat. Commun.10, 1–10.

Staiger, D., 1988. The Nutritional Value of Foods From Conventional and BiodynamicAgriculture. IFOAM Bulletin No. 4. pp. 9–12.

Steiner, R., 1924. GeisteswissenschaftlicheGrundlagenzumGedeihen der Landwirtschaft.Rudolf Steiner Verlag, Dornach.

Stone, G.D., 2011. Field versus farm in Warangal: Bt cotton, higher yields, and larger ques-tions. World Dev. 39, 387–398.

Suslov, T.V., 1982. Role of root-colonizing bacteria in plant growth. In: Mount, M.S.,Lacy, G.H. (Eds.), PhytopathogenicProkariotes. Academic Press, London, pp. 187–223.

Swaminathan, C., Swaminathan, V., Vijaylakshmi, K., 2007. Panchagavya: Boon to OrganicFarming. International Book Distributing Co Lucknow, pp. 2165–2175.

Swarup, A., Manna, M.C., Singh, G.B., 2000. Impact of land use and management practiceson organic carbon dynamics in soils of India. In: Lal, R., et al. (Eds.), Global ClimaticChange and Tropical Ecosystems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 261–281. Adv.Soil Sci.

Tilman, D., Reich, P.B., Knops, J.M.H., Wedin, D., Mielke, T., Lehman, C., 2001.Diversity and productivity in a long-term grassland experiment. Science 294, 843–845.

Trewavas, A., 2004. A critical assessment of organic farming-and-food assertions with par-ticular respect to the UK and the potential environmental benefits of no-till agriculture.Crop Prot. 23, 757–781.

Turinek, M., Grobelnik-Mlakar, S., Bavec, M., Bavec, F., 2008. Biodynamic agriculturefrom past to present. Agricultura 6, 1–4.

UNFPA, 2010. State of World Population 2010. From Conflict and Crisis to Renewal:Generations of Change. United National Population Fund.

United Nations, 2015. 70/1. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for SustainableDevelopment. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol¼A/RES/70/1&Lang¼E.

Venkat, K., 2012. Comparison of twelve organic and conventional farming systems: a lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions perspective. J. Sustain. Agric. 36 (6), 620–649.

Vogtmann, H., 1985. €OkologischerLandbau–LandwirtschaftmitZukunft. Pro NaturVerlag,Stuttgart, p. 159.

Waibel, H., Zilberman, D. (Eds.), 2007. International Research on Natural ResourcesManagement: Advances in Impact Assessment. CABI, Wallingford, CT.

Wallace, A., Wallace, G.A., 1993. A possible flaw in EPA, new sludge rule, due to heavymetal interactions. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 25, 129–135.

Willer, H., Julia, L., 2019. The World Organic Agriculture, Statistics and Emerging Trends2019. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick, IFOAM- OrganicsInternational Bonn, pp. 1–356.


ARTICLE IN PRESS






































http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1%26Lang=E
















Willer, H., Kilcher, L., 2009. The World Organic Agriculture, Statistics and EmergingTrends 2009. IFOAM, Bonn, and FiBL. Frick, pp. 1–307.

Williams, A., 2006. Determining the Environmental Burdens and Resource Use in theProduction of Agricultural and Horticultural Commodities. Cranfield University andDEFRA, Bedford.

Williams, A.G., Audsley, E., Sanders, D.L., 2006. Determining the Environmental Burdensand Resource Use in the Production of Agricultural and Horticultural Commodities,Main Report, Defra Research Project IS0205. Cranfield University and Defra,Bedford. Available at www.silsoe.cranfield.ac.uk.

Woodward, L., Vogtmann, H., 2004. IFOAM’s organic principles. Ecol. Farm 36, 24–26.Worthington, V., 2001. Nutritional quality of organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables,

and grains. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 7 (2), 161–173.Wu, T., Chellemi, D.O., Graham, J.H., Martin, K.J., Rosskopf, E.N., 2008. Comparision of

soil bacterial communities under diverse agricultural land management and crop produc-tion practices. Microb. Ecol. 55, 293–310.

Wuebbles, D.J., Jain, A.K., 2001. Concerns about climate change and the role of fossil fueluse. Fuel Process. Technol. 71, 99–119.

Yadav, A.N., Verma, P., Singh, B., Chauhan, V.S., Suman, A., Saxena, A.K., 2017. Plantgrowth promoting bacteria: biodiversity and multifunctional attributes for sustainableagriculture. Adv. Biotechnol. Microbiol. 5, 1–16.

Zaller, J.G., 2007. Seed germination of the weed Rumexobtusifolius after on-farm con-ventional, biodynamic and vermicomposting of cattle manure. Ann. Appl. Biol. 151,245–249.

Zaller, J.G., Kopke, U., 2004. Effects of traditional and biodynamic farmyardmanure amend-ment on yields, soil chemical, biochemical and biological properties in a long-term fieldexperiment. Biol. Fertil. Soils 40, 222–229.

53Organic farming

ARTICLE IN PRESS






http://www.silsoe.cranfield.ac.uk


















Organic farming: A prospect for food, environment and livelihood ...

Documents

Transcript of Organic farming: A prospect for food, environment and livelihood ...