DAIRY FARMING

O . H . ECKLES, D .SO .

PROFE SSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY,UNIVERSITY

OF M ISSOURI

AND

G. F . WARREN, PH .D .

PROFE SSOR OF FARM MANAGEMENT, NEW YORK STATECOLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

,CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

NewEarle

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1916

A ll r ights r eserved

COPYR IGHT, 1916,BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electro typed. Published Novem ber , 1 916.

Nurmuob 15m m

J . S. Cu shing Co . Berwick Sm ith Co .

No rwo od , Mass ., U .S.A .

INTRODUCTION

AGR ICULTURE now has a recognized place in bo th high

scho o ls and -co lleges . I f this progress in scientific stu dy is

to continu e , it is necessary that the instru ction be kept on an

equ al edu cational basis with all o ther su bj ects . The cou rses

in agr icultu re m u st stand fo r go od, so lid wo rk su ch as is typi

cal of the entire farm ing indu stry . There is a need fo r text

bo oks that give the basic pr inciples o f the su bj ect br iefly

withou t be ing su perficial . To help in m eeting this need a

ser ies of bo oks, to be known as the Farm Ser ies,is being

prepared . The aim of each bo ok will be to discu ss the phases

of its subj ect that are of m o st im po rtance to the farm er ; that

is,to answer the farm er

’s qu estions, and to m ake these

answers in the fo rm o f underlying pr inciples rather than as

rules . The po sitive advice o r rules that m ay wo rk in one

region m ay be abso lu tely wrong in ano ther r egion, o r at an

o ther tim e in the sam e region . I f one under stands the pr in

ciples invo lved, he will be better able to change his practice

to m eet the ever-changing conditions . Statem ents are o ften

m ade that a farm er Shou ld raise all his cows , that he Sho u ld

produ ce winter m ilk,that he sho u ld bu ild a Silo . Su ch ru les

have no edu cational valu e and u su ally have no practical valu e .

The real problem depends on the facto rs invo lved in each case .

Fo r instance a few o f the po ints that m u st be considered in

deciding whether o r not to bu ild a silo are the adaptation of

Vi INTRODUCTI ON

the farm to co rn produ ction, the pr ice o f hay, the size o f the

herd,the price o f m ilk

,whether winter o r su m m er dairying

is fo llowed,the am ou nt o f m oney available . No ru le can be

m ade that will inclu de all these po ints, fo r m any o f them m ay

be changed next year .

It is fitting that the fir st bo ok o f the ser ies Shou ld deal with

what'

is probably ,the m o st im po rtant sou r ce o f incom e o f

Am er ican farm er s,

dairy farm ing.

A s popu lation increases w e m u st of necessity depend m ore

on dairy produ cts and less on beef cattle . The best m ethods

o f produ cing bee f are very different from the best m ethods o f

produ cing m ilk . Many farm er s who once kept bee f cattle are

changing to dairying . Fo r su ch farm er s a stu dy o f dairying

is o f part icu lar im po rtance becau se it will br ing to them in

fo rm ation that has been wo rked Ou t by long exper ience in

dairy r egions . Even in the old established dairy regions the

changes in pr ices o f land,feed

,labo r

,and dairy produ cts and

the increasing im po r tance o f m anu re fo r gr owing cash crops,m ake a stu dy o f the pr inciples o f dairy farm ing o f pr im e

im po rtance .

The su ccess of the teacher w ill depend in large m easu re on

the extent to which the conditio’ns in the com m unity are

stu died . Many su ggestive qu estions ar e given after each

chapter . Mu ch tim e shou ld be spent in finding answer s to

these . A nu m ber o f labo rato ry exer cises shou ld be given on

farm s in the region. One shou ld not to o lightly condem n the

practices o f the farm ers,bu t Shou ld rather try to learn what

are the natu ral and econom ic conditions that led to the present

practices . Many farm er s in the com m u nity are in all proba

bility far m ing in a m anner that is best fo r present conditions

bu t that m ay not be best a few year s from now when condi

tions change .

This book is adapted fo r u se in scho o ls and co lleges that

INTRODU0TION

w ish to devo te som e tim e to the’

stu dy o f dairy farm ing .

Three to five r ecitations per week and two labo rato ry per iods

per week will u s ually be desirable . At least a par t o f thelabo rato ry exercises

,and preferably all o f them

,shou ld be

given in per iods that are two hou rs long . I f this m u ch tim e

canno t be allowed,the labo rato ry per iod m ay be placed at the

end o f the day ’

so that when farm s are visited,it w ill be po s

s ible to take the longer tim e that is necessary.

It is hoped that the bo ok w ill also prove u sefu l to farm ers

who wish a better u nder standing o f the pr inciples invo lved

in the su ccessfu l operation o f a dairy farm .

G. F . WARREN .

ITHACA , N .Y .

,

April 1,1916 .

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1

IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

M ilk a u niversal fo od , 1— Valu e of m ilk as food,1

Bu tter and cheese as fo od , 2 One dairy cow per fam ily ,3

—A m ounts of dairy produ cts u sed , 4—M ilk inspection, 5

Dairy cattle as a so u rce of m eat,5 Dairy cattle in other

cou ntr ies , 6 The dairy cow an efficient m achine , 7 Cowseffective u sers o f by

-produ cts , 7 Dairying and m ain

tenance of so il fertility, 9 Cows help to provide a fu llyear

’s work

, 9— R eceipts from dairy produ cts , 10.

Qu estions and problem s

Collateral reading

CHAPTER 2

BREEDS OF CATTLE 12 39

Or igin of B reeds : Or igin of dom esticated cattle,12

Origin of breeds , 12—Definition of term s , 13 Classificaf

tion of cattle,14 _

—Valu e o f breeds , let—Pedigrees , 15 .

Da iry B reeds Nu m ber o f anim als registered , 16 Hol

stein-Fr iesian,17 Jersey ,

21 Gu ernsey, 24 Ayrshire ,27 B rown Swiss

,30 Du tch Belted , 30 Kerry ,

30.

D u al P u rp ose Du al Pu rpo se ,31 Sho rthorn,

32

Polled Du rham,34— R ed Polled , 34

- D evon,36 .

B eef B reeds : Hereford, 37—Aberdeen-Angus , 37

Galloway, 38 .

Qu estions and problem s

Labo ratory exercisesCollateral reading

X CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3

SE LECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

Selection of a B reed : Selection o f a breed ,

I ndividu al Selection Selection of individu al cows , 42Extent of var iation o f individu als , 44 High-produ cingcows m o re econom ical produ cers , 46 .

Selection by Type How individu al selection is m ade , 47

-The dairy type , 47— The u dder,50—The m ilk veins

and m ilk wells , 51—The barrel, 52—The sco re card, 53 .

Selection by P erform ance R eco rds : Selection by records,

56 Overrating the im portance of r ich m ilk, 56 Com pletem ilk reco rds , 58 Taking sam ples for testing, 59 Aver

aging tests , 6 1 Perm anent reco rds , 61 Cow testing associations , 6 1— A dvanced registry, 64 R elation o f age of

cow to yield and r ichness of m ilk, 66 .

Selection of a B u ll Selection o f the bu ll, 69—D ifference in transm ission o f dairy qu alities by different bu lls , 71Methods o f selecting a bu ll, 73 Cro ss breeding, 74 .

Qu estions and problem s

Lab o rato ry exercisesCollateral reading.

CHAPTER 4

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 79—93Decline of m ilk produ ction in su m m er 79— Protectionfrom flies , 79 Deho rning, 81 Marking calves , 82Shelter , 82 M ilking the he ifer, 83 Methods o f m ilking,84—Hard-m ilking cows , 85 E ffect o f interval betweenm ilkings , 86—Mi1king m achines , 86 Cow with leakyteats , 87—Bloody m ilk

,87 Chapped teats , 88—Warts

on teats, 88—Bitter m ilk, 88—Kicking cows , 88— Self

su cking cows , 89 How long should a cow be dry 89

D rying u p a cow , 89—M ilking the cow befo re calving, 90—Care o f cow after calving, 90—Managem ent of yo ung

stock , 9 1 Care and m anagem ent of the bu ll,91 .

Qu estions and problem s

Labo rato ry exercisesCollateral reading

CONTENTS Xi

CHAPTER 5

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

Com p osition of feeds and feeding stufis : The u ses o f

feed,94— Chem ical analysis of feeds , 94—Water , 95

A sh , 95 Prote in,95 Cru de fiber , 95 Nitrogen-free

extract, 95— Fat,o r ether extract, 95 D igestibility , 96

Produ ction valu es,96—F eeding standards , 97 Calcu lat

ing a ration,100—The co st of the ration,

105 .

D iscu ssion. of co m m on feed stuffs : Tim othy hay , 106Co rn stover , 106 Hay fr om legu m es , 106 Silage , 107

Co rn, 107 Wheat bran , 107 4 Cats and o at produ cts , 108

Cottonseed m eal, 108 L inseed m eal, 109 Glu ten feed ,109—Beet pu lp and m olasses

,109 Brewers’grains , 109

M ixed feeds, 110 Condiinental stock fo ods, 111 .

F eeding yo u ng stock and ' dry cows : Calf rais ing, 1 12Raising the calf o n skim -m ilk

,1 13 Raising calves when

whole m ilk is sold , 116 T—The u se o f m ilk su bstitu tes , 117

-Feeding fo r veal, 119—F eeding the dairy he ifer , 120Salt requ irem ents , 123 Feeding the cow when dry, 124 .

F eeding the cow in m ilk : Water fo r cows,l25—Tu rn

ing onpastu re , 126 Feed ing grainwhile on pastu re , 127Providing fo r periods o f Sho rt pastu re , 128—A m o unt tofeed , 129 The balanced ration,

131 Su ccu lent feed , 132—Palatability o f the ration, 132—Order o f feeding, 133.

F eed ing cows fo r the m axim u m p rodu ction in ofi cial tests

Obtaining the m axim u m produ ction,133 .

Qu estions and problem s

Labo rato ry exercisesCo llateral read ing

CHAPTER 6

THE DAIRY BARN 139—149

General arrangem ent o f barns , 140—L ighting, 140The flo o r , 141— The platfo rm

,142 The gu tter , 144

The stalls , 144 Mangers , 144 Ties,145 Ventilation,

146 —Cost of dairy barns , 147 .

Qu estions and pr oblem s

Labo ratory exercisesCollateral reading

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 7

COMMON A ILMENTS OF CATTLE

Norm al conditions The pu lse,150—Tem peratu re 151

—Respiration, 151— Excretions, 151 .

Instru m ents and m ed icines : Instru m ents and m edicines,

151—D renching a cow,152 .

Com m on ailm ents : M ilk fever,153—Abo rtion,

155

Tu berculo sis , 156—Infiam m ation o f the u dder,158

Scou rs in calves , 160—L ice , 161— Blo at,162—Cowpox

,

162 —Blackleg, 163 So rghum and kafir po isoning , 164Co rn-stalk d isease , 165 .

Qu estions and problem s

Laboratory exercisesCollateral reading

CHAPTER 8

M ILK AND ITS PR ODUCTS 168 201

Com p os ition of m ilk : Average co m position, 168

Water,168 Fat, 169—Protein

,170 Su gar , 170

—M ineral m atter o r ash

,171 —Co lor o f m ilk

,171 .

F acto rs affecting com p os ition Kind o f anim al, 172

Breed , 173— Stage o f lactation,l74—Individu ality of the

anim al, 175 Interval between m ilkings , 175—F ore m ilkand strippings , 176 E ffect of feed, 176 .

M arket m ilk : Sanitary m ilk,177 Certified m ilk, 181 .

B u tter m aking on the farm B u tter m aking on the farm ,

182 Facilities needed , 183 What is go od bu tter 183

Flavor,184 —Body , color , and salt

,184 Separation of

cream ,185 Ripening o f cream ,

186— Tem peratu re fo rchu rning, 187—Chu rns and chu rning, 188—Salting and

wo rking, 189 Package , 190.

Factory p r odu cts Cream er ies , 191—Cheese m aking,192 Condensed m ilk

,193 M ilk flou r

,194 .

Qu estions and problem s

Labo rato ry exercisesCollateral reading

CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER 9

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVE LOPMENT OF DAIRYINGCattle and grass , 202

—Topography and clim ate , 203L ocation o f beef and dairy cattle , 204 R elation o f trans

portation to dairying, 208 Other adju stm ents du e to

transpo rtation ,213 Marginal regions , 2 14 E ffect o f dis

tance to railr o ad , 214 So il and clim ate as deter m ining thekind of produ ct

,215 Kind o f produ ct and season o f pro

du ction,2 15—

'

Anim al u nit defined , 218 .

Qu estions and problem s

Collateral reading

CHAPTER 10

SY STEMS OF FARM ING ON DAIR Y FARMS 221—239

Crop s for feed : Co rn silage , 221—So iling crops , 223

R o ots,223

' —L egu m es,224—Pastu r e , 224—Ho m e-grown

grain,225 .

Cropp ing system s fo r da iry farm s Pr inciples of a go od

cropping system ,225 —Exam ples o f rotations , 226 .

Cash crops and feed r aised Feed and cash cr ops , 227All feed pu rchased ,

228 Nothing bu t r ou ghage raised , 228

R ou ghage and grain raised ,229— R o ughage and cash

crops raised,229 .

Managem ent of m anu re : Am ou nt o f m anu re produ ced ,230—Fertility o f feed r etu rned by cows , 231— L o sses o f

m anu r e and the ir prevention,232—Valu e o f m anu re , 234

—Valu e o f m anu re depends on the rate o f application,235

—Valu e o f m anu re depends on the am p on*which it is

applied,238 .

Qu estions and problem s

Laborato ry exercises

CHAPTER 11

ME TH ODS O F R ENTING DAIRY FARMS 240—245Cash rent, 240 Share o f crops , 240 Share o f receipts

,

240 a Exam ples o f rented far m s,242 .

Qu estions and problem s

Collateral reading

CHAPTER 12

COST OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS O F MARKE TING

Co st of p r odu ction Cost o f produ cing m ilk, 246 Co sto f raising he ifers , 250.

M arketing dairy p rodu cts : Ways o f m arketing, 253Valu e o f skim -m ilk in cities

,254 .

Qu estions and problem s

Collateral reading

CHAPTER 13

OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS F OR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 258—288

Ways of m easu r ing p r ofit : The m ost im portant facto rsfor su ccess , 258 Ways o f m easu ring profit, 258 .

S iz e of bu s iness Size o f bu siness,259 Relation o f Size

o f farm to efficiency in u se of labo r , 260 R elation of size

o f farm to wo rk done,262 Relation o f size o f farm to

efficiency in u se o f ho rses , 264 R elation of size o f farm to

efficiency in u se of m achinery, 265—R elation of size of

farm to efficiency in u se o f capital,265 —Size o f herd , 267

Su m m ary o f size o f dairy farm s,268 .

R etu rns p er cow R eason fo r po o r r etu rns , 269— Co stsand retu rns m u st both be considered , 271 Po o r produ cersprom ptly sold , 271 Size o f cows

,271 .

Crop yields : So ils fo r the dairy farm ,274—The well

balanced farm , 274 .

D ivers ified and specialized da iryfarm s R elation of cashcrops to profits

,276 R elation o f capitalto am ou nt o f stock

to keep,277—A cres per anim al u nit, 278— R easons for

large profits on divers ified farm s,279 .

Som e su ccessfu lfarm s A su ccessfu l dairy and hog farmin Iowa , 281—A su ccessfu l diversified dairy farm in New

Yo rk, 285 .

Qu estions and problem s

Labo rato ry exercisesCollateral reading

CONTENTS

A PPENDIXAddresses o f cattle breeders associations

,289—Scale of

po ints for a Jersey cow,290— Scale of po ints fo r Ayrshire

cow,291— Scale of po ints fo r Gu ernsey cow

,293 Scale

o f po ints fo r Ho lstein-Fr iesian cow, 294—Im po rts and ex

po rts of dairy produ cts , 296—Legal standards fo r dairyprodu cts , 297 Average co m po sition o f m ilk and its

produ cts,298 Ave rage weights o f m ilk and cream

,298

The Haecker feeding standard,298 Wing

’s m ethod o f

balancing rations , 304—Average weights of feeding-stu ffs ,305—Measu ring grain, 305

—M easu ring ear corn,305

Measu r ing straw,306 Measu r ing hay, 306 Capacity o f

s ilos , 306 .

XV

DAIRY FARMING

CHAPTER 1

IM PORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

G . F . WARREN

1 . M ilk a Univer sal Fo o d . M ilk is the one universal

fo od of mankind . All civilized peoples u se milk from farm

animals . The mo re highly civilized and pro sperous the

population,the greater is the amount o f milk consum ed .

In regions SO far no rth that cows canno t be kept,reindeer

milk is used . In regions like India and the Philippines ,which are to o hot fo r ou r comm on cattle

,the water bu ffalo es

are the dairy anim als and beasts of burden . In the deserts

the milk o f mares and cam els serves as fo od . In regions

where the people are very po o r, goats and Sheep are used

as milk animals . In parts o f South Am erica llam as are

so used . Everywhere civilized m an keeps som e m ilk animal .

2 . Valu e o f M ilk as Fo o d . The value o f m ilk as fo od

is beginning to be better appreciated,but even now its

fu ll value is not always realized . M o st liquids have very

little fo od value ; fo r this reason,all liquids are sometimes

lo oked upon as luxuries . Bu t average m ilk contains 12 to

13 per cent o f dry m atter . This dry m atter is readilydigestible and contains necessary fo o ds in go od propo rtions .

B 1

2 DAIRY FARMING

The edible po rtion o f an average beef animal is only 38 per

cent dry matter . The remaining 62 per cent is water .

1

A quart of m ilk weighs pounds and contains two

thirds as m uch energy value , and nearly half as much pro tein

as a pound o f Sirlo in steak . It is particularly rich in ash,

the bone-fo rming m aterials that are SO essential fo r allyoung

animals . It contains about twice as much o f these as do es

beefsteak . A quart o f skim-milk has over one—third o f the

energy value o f a pound of Sirlo in steak . It is richer in

ash and has alm o st half as much pro tein as the steak,as is

Shown in Table 1

TABLE 1 .

—COMPAR ISON OF SIRLOIN STE AK W ITH M ILK, B UTTER ,AND CHEE SE 2

WATER PR OTE IN A SH

1 po u nd sirlo in steak1 qu ar t 4 m ilk1 qu art skim -m ilk

1 po u nd bu tter1 po u nd cheese (fu ll cream )

AS the value o f milk as fo od becomes better known,it

is mo re widely used by persons of all ages . If m uch that

is spent fo r meat were spent fo r m ilk, we could be as well

fed at less co st . If m uch o f the m oney that is spent fo r

tea , coffee , alcoho l , and o ther stim ulants , that have little

o r no fo od value,were spent fo r milk

,o u r health and o u r

wealth would bo th be im proved .

3 . Bu tte r and Che e se as Fo od . Butter is o ften thought

of as an expensive fo od , but it is the mo st concentrated o f

1 U . S . D ept . A gr . ; Office o f Exp erim ent Stations , Bu lletin (R evised) 28 ,pp . 27 , 28 .

2 U . S . D ept ..

Agr . , Office o f Experim ent Stations , Bu lletin (R evised) 28 .

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4 DAIR Y FARMING

tained an average o f a little mo re than one dairy cow per

family . Because meat is SO expensive we are using less of

it,but we are not decreasing the number of dairy cows .

5 . Am o u nts o f Dairy Pr o du cts Us ed . The number of

dairy cows just about keeps pace with population,but there

have been changes in the u se made o f milk . The amount

of condensed milk produced increased 165 per cent in the

ten years 1899 to The amount of fresh milk used as

fo od has increased rapidly . In New Yo rk City the am ount

consumed per capita has increased one-third in twenty years .

TABLE 3 .

—BUTTE R AND CHEE SE PRODUCED AND C ONSUMED IN

THE UN ITED STATE S , AND M ILK SH IPPED To NEW YORK C ITY

M ILK AND CREAMBUTTER SHIPPED TO NEW YORK

C ITY 4

YEAR

Produ ced Consum ed Produ ced Consu m ed

p er DQ I‘

p er p er

Cap ita 2 Cap ita 3 Cap ita 2 Cap ita3

P ou nds P ou nds Qu arts Qu arts

Approximately 288 quarts of milk per person are used

per year in the farm family . In cities about 112 quarts

per capita 5 are consumed . It is po ssible that this differ

ence has something to do with the better development of

1 Thi rteenth Censu s , Vo l. X , p . 374 .

2 U . S . D ept . Agr . , Bu lletin 177 , p . 7 .

3 Am o u nt produ ced plu s im po rts less exp o rts as given in repo rts o f U . S .

Dept . Agr .

4 D ata fo r New Yo rk C ity fu rnished by The M ilk R epo rter .

5 U . S . D ept . Agr . , Bu lletin 177 , pp . 17 , 18 .

IMP ORTANCE OF THE DAIR Y INDUSTR Y 5

children on farms . Bu t the amount consumed in cities is

rapidly increasing .

6 . M ilk Inspe ction. In recent years great interest has

been taken in improving the milk supply . Physicians and

boards Of health have been agitating and inspecting . AS

in mo st wo rthy publicity campaigns m any statements are .

made that are not true . The agitation has brought pressure

fo r better milk, but at the sam e tim e the extreme statements

made have led many persons to u se less milk than they o ther

wise would . The writer believes that fo r every person who

is injured by milk, many persons suffer from the lack o f it .

We need education fo r better care o f milk on the farm,in

the city,and in the home

,but we also need education as to

the great fo od value of milk so that m o re milk will be used .

Iti s unfo rtunate when one of these interferes with the o ther .

Dairy inspection has done much go od . It will do mo re

go od when mo re wisely perfo rmed . In the past it has to o

o ften been made by persons who do not understand farm

ing o r farmers . The emphasis is o ften placed on unessential

things . An inexperienced youth with an arbitrary score

card turned lo o se among dairy farm ers usually do es mo re

harm than go od . In this way unnecessary antagonism is

Often aroused . Recent investigations have Shown that there

is no relationship between the sco re of a dairy as Shown by

a sco re card and the quality of the milk produced .

1 In a

later chapter the essentials fo r the production of who le

some milk are discussed . The vital po ints are that the

m ilker and the cow bo th be in go od health and that the

milk bekept co ld and as free from dirt as po ssible .

7 . Dairy Cattle as a So u rce o f M eat. Since there is one

dairy cow per family there is approximately one veal calf1 New Yo rk Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station , Bu lletin 398 .

6 DAIR Y FARMING

o r cow available fo r beef each year per family . About

seventeen pounds o f dressed veal per family is used annually

in the United States .

1 Nearly all o f this is produced by dairy

cows . From the comparative number o f dairy cows and

o ther cows, it appears that in addition to veal calves almo st

half o f the beef animals slaughtered are pro duced by dairy

cows . AS population becom es mo re dense, we Shall depend

mo re and mo re on the dairyman fo r o u r meat supply . Beef

from the beef breeds o f animals w ill becom e to o expensive

fo r any but the wealthy, as it now is in densely populated

countries . In the ten years 1900 to 1910 the number o f

dairy cows increased . Butter pro duction increased 9 per

cent and cheese pro duction 7 per cent . Bu t the number of

steers and bulls decreased one-fifth .

8 . Dairy Cattle in Oth er Co u ntrie s . The British Isles

have one dairy cow to eleven persons . They impo rt large

quantities o f cheese and butter . France and the Netherlands

have one cow to five persons . Germany has one cow to Six

persons . Denmark has one cow to two persons . It furnishes

large quantities o f butter fo r England . Japan and China

Show a striking contrast with America and Europe . Their

dense population m akes any kind of anim al fo o d to o expensive

to be used freely except by the wealthy . Instead of one

cow fo r a family, Japan has one head of cattle fo r thirty-seven

persons . The number of dairy cows is not repo rted , but

this probably means that there is not mo re than one cow

fo r from seventy to one hundred persons .

2

As the population in the United States is becoming denser,

we are unfo rtunately fo rced to u se less animal fo o d , but we

1 A ssu m ing that the calves slau ghtered on farm s were as heavy as tho sekilled in slau ghter ho u ses .

2 U . S . D ept . Agr ., Y earbo ok, 19 12 , pp . 6 66—668 . International Insti

tu te o f Agricu ltu re , Vo l. V, No . 10, p . 485 .

IMP ORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTR Y 7

still u se far m o re than any o ther nation. Fo r each person

we now produce over twenty—five tim es as much human fo od

from anim als as is produced fo r each person in Japan.

1

9 . Th e Dairy Cow an Em cient M achine . From a given

quantity o f feed the dairy cow produces mo re hum an fo od

than do es any o ther animal . Acco rding to Arm sby’s stand

ards,the am ount o f feed required to grow and fatten a

1200-pound steer would , if fed to dairy cows , produce about

three tim es as much hum an fo o d .

Bu t the dairy cow m ust be raised , and the growing heifer

is no mo re efficient than the growing beef anim al . Bo th

industries require that cows and bulls be kept . Figures

Showing the returns from the entire beef industry are not

available , but results of the entire dairy industry in one

county,including the feed fo r the entire dairy herds and

including m ilk and meat returned fo r hum an fo od,are given

in Table 4,as well as the results from an entire poultry in

du stry . AS pro ducers of pro tein, hens are the nearest com

petito rs of dairy cattle , but judged on an energy bas is hogs

are second to cows . Bo th hens and hogs consume a higher

class of fo ods so that when com pared with cows they are

net quite so productive as the figures would suggest .

10. Cows Effe ctive Us er s o f By-pro du cts . As population

increases , leSS and less grain is fed to animals because it is

all needed as human fo od . In Europe and o ther densely

populated regions cows are fed less grain than in America .

The dairy cow is the m o st efficient m achine fo r changing

grass,hay ,

straw,co rnstalks

,

’and the by

-products from

mills into hum an fo od . The cow will m ake a larger am ount

o f human fo od ou t of these products than will any o ther

1 Calcu lated on the basis o f anim al u nits aside from ho rses . See page

8 DAIR Y FARMING

TABLE 4 .

—PROPORTION OF FOOD EATEN BY VARIOUS CLASSE SOF LIVE STOCK THAT I S R ETURNE D FOR HUMAN USE

1

PER CENT OF PROTE IN R ETURNED

PER CENT OF ENERGY R ETURNED

Of D igest Of Pr o du cible tio n Valu eFo od o f Fo od

Cow 2

Cow 3

Dairy herds 4

Steer 5

Steer 6

Hen 7

Po u ltry flo ck 3

Ho g9

1 Valu es as hu m an fo od fro m U . S . D ept . Agr . , Bu lletin (R evised)

2 1000-po u nd cow giving 6000po u nds o f 4 p er cent m ilk based on Arm sby’s

feeding standard .

3 Sim ilar cow raised to 2 years on Arm sby’s standard , m ilked 5 years ,

then so ld a s lean beef .4 Fo od eaten by 5 19 1 cows , 1078 heifer s , 874 calves , 158 bu lls , in D ela

ware Co u nty , New Y o rk. Pastu re assu m ed to be o ne-thi rd o f the fo od .

Net pro du ct 24 ,po u nds m ilk, po u nds skim -m ilk, 260po u nds

bu tter , and 559 cows , 235 heifers , 62 bulls , 9 calves fo r beef . M o st o f

the calve s were killed and thrown away at birth .

5 Steer grown to 1000 po u nds in 2 y ear s , then fattened 200 po u nds in100 day s by A rm sby

’s standard . M eat co u nted as fat beef .

6 All fo o d eaten by a steer that grew to 1588 po u nds in 3 y ears , assu m ed

to be fat beef. Ontario Agricu ltu ral C ollege , R ep o rt , 1893 , p . 122 .

7 Fo o d and pro du ct o f 1 hen , average o f 1803 by the writer .

8 All feed except grass fo r an average Of 1803 hens and 60 ro o sters keptone y ear , 27 13 chickens raised . Net p ro du ct eggs above tho seu sed fo r incu batio n , 1080 fowls and 1404 co ckrels and pu llets so ld fo r m eat ,4395 po u nds , reco rds kept by the writer .

9 Ho gs a ssu m ed to have eaten the sam e feed as 1 hen and to have m ade a

gain o f 1 po u nd fo r 5 po u nds o f grain.

IMP ORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTR Y 9

animal . Cows also make u se o f the grasses that grow on

large areas of land that canno t be profitably tilled .

11 . Dairying and M aintenance o f So il Fertility . From mo st

parts of the United States large quantities o f sto ck fo ods

are shipped o u t fo r fo reign u se . In many sections roughage

that is go od sto ck fo od is still destroyed . The introduction

o f dairying helps to keep a larger part of the fertility on the

farm . M any farmers who make dairying a part Of their

farm business consider the m aintenance of so il fertility,and

the u se of waste pro ducts, to be as impo rtant as the direct

profits from the cows .

Experiments fo r many years have Shown that it is po s

sible to m aintain the fertili ty of the so il by m eans of chemical

fertilizers,but as a m atter o f fact farmers who u se farm

manure are m o st likely to keep up the fertility .

Cows H elp to Pr ovide a Fu ll Ye ar’s Wo rk . A farm is pri

marily a place to wo rk . The carpenter who wo rks only

half the year is not likely to accumulate much property,

no r is the - farmer w ho wo rks only half the year likely to

pay for a farm . A lim ited number of cows on the farm

give em ployment in the mo rning and evening when field

wo rk canno t be done . In the No rth where cows are mo st

numerous,the days are so sho rt during much of the year

that a full day’s wo rk canno t be done,unless there are cho res

to do . Cattle also provide wo rk fo r sto rm y days and fo r

co ld days in winter . They also provide wo rk that children

can do befo re and after scho o l .

Farm children are particularly fo rtunate in that they

have to help their fathers in the farm wo rk . In the cities

laws are passed to prevent child labo r,not because all labo r

IS Inju rlou s but because of the conditions under which the

work is done . Farm children learn much by wo rking with

10 DAIR Y FARMING

their fathers . Perhaps the mo st impo rtant thing that they

learn is to persist in necessary wo rk even when they would

rather not. While helping with the cho res the children are

learning and at the same tim e helping to increase the family

income .

12 . R e ce ipts from Dairy Pr o du cts . Co rn is the mo st

valuable pro duct o f American farm s but mo st o f it is fed on

the farm . Dairy pro ducts are probably the largest Single

source o f income of American farmers . The dairy products

so ld from farms in 1909 amounted to nearly

The value o f bo th co tton and wheat so ld exceeded this . Bu t if

the cattle and calves that are also a pro duct o f the dairy were

combined with the milk, the receipts from these sales would

probably exceed the sales o f any o ther product .

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1 . Ge t the lo cal retail price s o f bu tter ,cheese , m ilk

, skimm ilk, and sirlo in steak . M ake a table showing the am ou nt o f

pro tein and energy valu e that $1 will bu y in each produ ct.2 . Define p er capita . Define dry m atter .

3 . Find the am o u nt o f m ilk and bu tter u sed per person in 10

to 12 fam ilie s in yo u r region . Average the se and co m pare withthe averages given on page 4 . Each stu dent m ay repo rt on one

fam ily , o r m o re if there are no t 10 stu dents in the class .

4 . From the censu s reports fo r you r state find the po pu lationand the nu m ber o f dairy cows fo r yo u r cou nty . How m any per

sons are there fo r one cow ? Co m pare with Table 2 . Whatdairy pro du cts are Shipped into yo u r cou nty ? What pro du ctsare shipped o u t o f the co u nty ?5 . R epeat qu e stion 4 fo r yo u r state .

6 . What was the to tal valu e o f all dairy produ cts sold in you r

co u nty in 1909 ? In yo u r state ? Which o f the dairy produ cts soldare m o st im portant7 . What was the valu e o f dairy produ cts com pared with o ther

leading farm pro du cts in yo u r state ?

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CHAPTER 2

BREEDS OF CATTLE

C . H . ECKLES

ORIGIN OF BREEDS

13 . Origin of Do m e sticated Cattle . No cattle are native

to America . All those found in bo th No rth and South

America are descended from cattle brought from Europe

and are the descendants of wild cattle that fo rmerly lived

in Euro pe and Asia . It is not known where o r by Whom

cattle were first domesticated as it o ccurred in prehisto ric

times . It is generally believed that there were two o riginal

fo rms of wild cattle , the one somewhat smaller than the

Jersey, the o ther probably larger than any cattle that live

toi

-day and in type something like the long-ho rned cattle

fo rmerly raised on the ranges o f South America and in

Texas .

14 . Origin o f Br e eds . The differences between these

two wild types account in part fo r the differences between

breeds of cattle , such fo r instance as the ~ extrem e difference

in type between the Jersey and the Ho lstein, o r between

the long-ho rned cattle found in Texas and the Angus o r

the Sho rtho rns .

Other facto rs in the fo rmation o f breeds are climate,fo od ,

and nature of the surroundings . Fo r example,the cattle o f

Ho lland as a result o f living fo r generations in a rich level12

B REEDS OF CATTLE 13

country have become adapted to these conditions and are

not SO well ' suited to rough scanty pastures as the Brown

Swiss,o r the Ayrshires which have been produced on po o r

pastures . On the continent of Europe the breeds and su b

breeds are almo st innumerable . They have chiefly o riginated

in the manner mentioned . In Great Britain alone ten o r

twelve distinct breeds have developed . Up to about the

middle of the eighteenth century these natural influences

were the chief facto rs in the development of breeds . About

that time,largely as the result of the wo rk o f Robert Blake

well,a great interest was aroused in England in improving

cattle .

The beginning of modern breeds m ay be traced largely to

this great m ovem ent . The m ethods used were careful selec

tion,m o re liberal feeding

,and go o d managem ent . In some

cases,as with the Sho rtho rns and the Ayrshires , cro ssbreeding

and inbreeding were at first practiced . At the present

time mo st cattle breeders direct their effo rts towards further

im provement in the breeds alr eady in existence and not

towards the establishm ent of new breeds .

15 . D efinition o f Term s . Scru b and native are terms used

to indicate that an animal do es not carry m o re than a small

amount of the blo od o f an im proved breed .

Grade . This term,generally used with some breed name

,

as Grade-Ho lstein,means that the animal has one-half or

usually mo re of the blo od o f the improved breed . When

the propo rtion of im proved blood is high,the animal is

called a high grade .

”

Crossbred indicates that the animal is the offspring of pure

bred parents of distinct breeds .

Pu re-bred . This term is properly applied to cattle who se

ancesto rs came from the native home o f the breed arid con

14 DAIR Y FARMING

fo rmed to the standards of the breed . Reco rds must be'

available Showing the breeding of these animals and tracing

back in all lines to tho se coming from the o riginal home o f

the breed . Pure-bred animals are som etim es called tho rough

bred,but this term is also used to indicate a particular breed

of ho rses and is usually restricted to that meaning .

Registered. The breeders o f each impo rtant breed o f

cattle have an o rganization fo r the purpo se o f keeping reco rds

and advancing the interests o f the breed . Each of these

o rganizations keeps reco rd bo oks . Any pure-bred animal

that has the breed characteristics m ay be reco rded , provided

bo th parents are already on reco rd . A pure-bred animal

that is reco rded'

is called a registered animal .

16 . Clas sification o f Cattle . The breeds common in

America are generally classed as fo llows :

Dairy Breeds . Holstein, Ayr shire , Jersey ,Gu ernsey , Brown

Swi ss , Du tch B elted .

Du al Purpo se . Sho rtho rn (Dairy Type ) , R ed Polled , Polled

Du rham ,D evon .

Beef . Sho rtho rn, Herefo rd , Aberdeen-Angu s , Galloway .

17 . Valu e of Br e eds . Animals of a distinct breed that is

adapted to the region usually sell fo r mo re than animals o f

mixed o r unim proved breeding even if the latter are equally

go o d animals individually . The value o f the pure-bred is

du e to the fact that'

it is po ssible to predict with reasonable

certainty what characteristics Wlll be inherited by the off

spring . Among dairy cattle it is not uncommon to find ani

mals of mixed breeding that rank with pure-breds as pro

du cers o f dairy pro ducts . These anim als of m ixed breeding ,however

,canno t be depended upon to reproduce themselves

in their o ffspring . Very high grades are mo re likely to

pro duce young like themselves . Pure-breds have been

BREEDS OF CATTLE 15

bred fo r generations with certain obj ects in View,and in

time these characteristics become fixed and are transmitted

with fair certainty .

The breed Sho uld be lo oked upon as a means of retaining

the characteristics that have been developed by the effo rts

o f the breeders in the past . Certain breeds have fo r gen

erations been selected and developed fo r the purpo se of pro

du cing the greatest po ssible amount o f go o d beef from the

least feed . It is reasonable to expect an animal belonging

to one of these breeds to excel one who se ancesto rs have

never been selected fo r any definite purpo se . Other breeds

have been developed as dairy breeds,o r fo r dual-purpo se

u se,and are the m o st efficient anim als fo r these purpo ses .

18 . P edigre e s . A pedigree is a reco rd of the ancestry of

an anim al . Its value lies in the oppo rtunity it affo rds to

study the characteristics of the ancesto rs . Breed asso cia

tions 1 have been o rganized by tho se interested,primarily for

the purpo se of keeping authentic reco rds of the ancestry of

pure-bred anim als . Upon paym ent of the registration fee

an animal that has the required breed characteristics and bo th

o f who se parents are reco rded , m ay be reco rded and assigned

a registration number . By this means it is po ssible to trace

the ancestry o f any registered anim al as far back as the

ancesto rs that were impo rted . In o rdinary u se from three

to six generations are reco rded on the pedigree as studied

by the breeder .

While pedigrees are of great value in making it po ssible

to select breeding animals to better advantage,it is a com

m on mistake to attach to o much im portance to them . An

animal with a pedigree m ay not be any better thano thers

that are high grades Of the same breed . Pedigree alone is1 See addresses on p . 289 .

16 DAIR Y FARMING

no indication of the merit of the animal as an individual,

Since it is merely a reco rd of parentage .

Below is given the pedigree of the Jersey cow, Ro sette

’s

Gipsy M aid , including four generations . The name of the

sire in each case appears at the top , and that of the dam at

the bo ttom o f the bracket .

R o sette’s GoldenLad

57498

Financial Qu een155098

Gu enon’s Golden

Lad

62 168

M y Jo lly Girl206038

Gu enon’s M ag V

189777

DAIRY BREEDS

19 . Nu m b er o f Anim als R egister ed . Some idea of the

greatly increased interest in pure-bred cattle is shown by the

rapid increase during recent years in the number of animals

registered by the breed asso ciations . Over five times as

many Ho lsteins were reco rded in the last ten years as were

reco rded in the previous ten years . Three times as many

Guernseys, twi ce as many Ayrshires , and nearly twice as

Orlando P .

2535 H . C .

R o sette’s 5th P.

288 1 H . C .

R em inder P .

2052 H . C .

Financial Pride P .

6060 H . C .

Gu enon Lad P .

257 1 H . C .

Lo raine8295 1

Gu enon’s Golden

Lad

62 168

M aceo’s M ag V .

174758

BREEDS OF CATTLE 17

many Jerseys -were reco rded as in the preceding ten years .

Although the to tals lo ok large it Should be taken into ao

count that the num ber of registrations fo r each breed in

clu des all since the herdbo ok was established . Probably .

not over one-third of the to tal registered are now living .

In propo rtion to the to tal number of dairy cattle in u se in

the United States the number registered is very small,prob

ably less than one in fifty . Table 5 gives the number of

each breed registered,also a com parison o f the num bers

reco rded in the last ten years and in the previous ten years .

TABLE 5 .

—NUMBERS OF AN IMALS RE GISTERED

BREED 1895—1904 1905—1914

20. Holste in-Frie sian. This well-known breed of cattle

o riginated in Ho lland and is especially well developed in

the province o f Friesland . It is not native,as the name

Ho lstein would indicate,to the duchy of Ho lstein

,which is

a province of No rth Germ any . Some of the first cattle of

this breed im po rted to America were inco rrectly called

Ho lstein,and a breed asso ciation was o rganized under this

name . Later ano ther was started called the Dutch-Friesian.

These two were combined in 1885 under the name Ho lstein

Friesian,which is the o fficial nam e o f the breed in this coun

try . It is now geneTally called Ho lstein in America .

0

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20 DAI R Y FARMING

o r butter from this breed has considerably less yellow co lo r

than that o f Jerseys , and in fact ranks the lowest in this

respect .

TABLE 6 .

— PRODUCTION OF HOLSTE IN C ows IN EXPE RIMENTSTATION HE RDS .

NUMBER OF COW SE GEAV RAREPR E SENTED

Po u nds m ilk per yearP er cent fatPo u nds fat per year

Per cent to tal solids

The highest fat records fo r a year made by this breed up

to April 1, 1916 , were

POUNDS M ILK POUNDS FAT

Du chess Skylark Orm sbyFinderne Pr ide Johanna Ru eFinderne Holingen Fayne

The highest milk reco rd was made by Tilly Alcartra , who

produced pounds of milk in a year, but She did not

give as much fat as a'

number of o ther cows .

In Ho lland , cattle of this breed are used fo r beef production

as well as fo r dairy purpo ses . The calves are especially

well adapted fo r veal as they are large at birth and gain

rapidly during the first few weeks . When dry the cows fat

ten readily, and as is the case with o ther dairy breeds the

gains are m ade as cheaply and rapidly as with animals o f

beef breeds . In the great cattle m arkets the price is always

lower fo r animals o f the dairy breeds than fo r tho se o f beef

breeds . There is some basis fo r thi s discrimination in the

BREEDS OF CATTLE 21

fact that the dairy breeds during fattening depo sit larger

quantities o f fat around the internal o rgans , and tallow is

wo rth but little as compared with the edible meat . The

beef-bred anim als depo sit mo re of their fat in the muscular

tissue giving the m arbled condition so m uch prized . How

ever,the average meat consum er scarcely discriminates be

tween the beef from a Ho lstein and that from a beef-bred

anim al if bo th be of the same age . It is safe to prophesy

that,in the future , dairy cattle will supply a much larger

propo rtion of the beef used in this country, as has loug heen

the case on the continent o f Eur ope .

The strong po ints o f the breed are the high milk yield,

the marked vigo r of constitution especially of the calves,

the good breeding qualities,the quiet dispo sition

,and the

value fo r beef and veal . The weakest po int is generally

considered to be the low percentage of fat,but owing to the

large yield of milk the to tal production of fat is high .

21 . Jer s ey. The Jersey and the Guernsey breeds are

o ften spoken of as the Channel Island breeds . They take

their names from the islands of Jersey and Guernsey , lo cated

in the English Channel . Jersey Island is only eleven m iles

long and nine wide . The clim ate is mild and even . The

cattle are pastured by tethering . The system of agriculture

fo llowed is very intensive Since the average rent of the land

is about $50 per acre . The sale o f pure-bred Jersey cattle

fo r expo rt is an im po rtant source of incom e . Since 1789

the laws o f the island have prohibited the im po rtation o f

cattle,so this breed has been kept pure Since that tim e . Much

attention is given to the type of the animal as well as to the

butter production. Thi s has resulted in the development of

a breed o f great symmetry and beauty .

At the present tim e this breed is used to a lim i ted extent

22 DAIR Y FARMING

in England , and has been taken to allEnglish speaking coun

tries,although by far the greatest number is now in No rth

America . Some were brought to the United States about

1850. From 1868 to 1890 large numbers were imported,

and again Since 1900 several impo rtations have been made

FIG . 2 . Im p o rted Jersey cow , Lady Viola , m any tim es cham pion in theShow ring . A go o d representative o f the I sland type r ather sm all, extrem e

dairy type , u dder alm o st perfect, long level ru m p , very sym m etrical o u tline .

each year . This breed is mo st numerous in the Eastern and

Southern States .

The co lo r m ay be any Shade o f yellow except o range and

ranges from light fawn to dark gray o r black . The mo st

common co lo r is fawn Shading to dark on the lower parts of

the bo dy . The tongue,and the switch of the tail are black in

the maj o rity o f cases . White spo ts are not uncommon,especially on the lower part of the body . These were at

one time strongly obj ected to , but now receive little atten

BREEDS OF CATTLE 23

tion . The co lo r bears no relation to the value of any par

ticu lar cow as a dairy animal . Mature Jersey cows usually

weigh from 750 to 900 pounds . Tho se found on Jersey

Island and tho se recently impo rted are of smaller and mo re

refined type and are known as the Island type in contrast

to the larger, coarser type descended from the early im

po rtations , known as the American type .

Cows of this breed are mo re sensitive than many o thers

on account o f a highly developed nervous tem perament .

When handled gently they become very do cile,when care

lessly handled o r abused they are quite the reverse . They

seem to thrive better than some o ther breeds in warm cli

m ates . As m eat pro ducers they rank very low . The calves

are small at birth , weighing 55 pounds on the average and

they do not gain rapidly fo r the first few weeks . Fo r these

reasons they are not well adapted fo r veal .

The published reco rds o f. Jersey cows owned by the

Am eri can experiment stations are given in Table 7 . On a

farm where fairly go od conditions are maintained a Jersey

herd should be expected to average about 5500 pounds

of milk per year containing on the average 5 per.

cent

of fat. A high average milk yield would be 7000 pounds

per cow .

TABLE 7 .

—PRODUCTION O F JE RSE Y C o ws IN HERDS BELONGINGTo EXPE RIMENT STATIONS

NUMBER OF COW SAVERAGE

R EPR E SENTED

Po u nds m ilk per yearPer cent fatPo u nds fat per year

Per cent to tal solids

24 DAIR Y FARMING

The highest reco rds fo r a year up to April I , 1916 , were

POUNDS M ILK POUNDS FAT

Sophi e 19th "

o f Ho od Farm

Sperm field Owl’s Eva

Em inent’s Bess

In quantity of milk the Jersey is surpassed by o the r

dairy breeds . In u se o f fo o d fo r the econom ical pro duction

o f fat the Jersey and her clo se relative the Guernsey are u n

surpassed . The best-known characteristics of this breed are

the high percentage of fat and the yellow co lo r o f the pro d

u ct. The yellow co lo r adds no thing to the flavo r o r the

fo od value o f m ilk o r cream but m akes the article mo re

attractive to the consumer . The Jersey cow is also an un

usually persistent milker which contributes to her po pularity

as a family cow . This breed is best adapted fo r the produc

tion o f cream o r butter . The weakest po ints are a lack of

Vitality in the calves and lack of go od breeding qualities in

the cow .

22 . Gu ernsey. This breed is a native o f the island of

the same name,which is the second in size o f the Channel

Islands . The ancesto rs of this breed and of the Jersey were

undoubtedly the same,and in fact a century ago the two

breeds were essentially alike . The conditions under which

the two breeds developed are almo st identical , but type

has been em phasized far less than on Jersey Island . As a

result the Guernseys lack the symm etry and unifo rmity of

type characteristic o f the Jersey . The Guernsey cow

weighs about 1000 pounds on the average , o r at least 100

pounds mo re than the Jersey , and is also co arser boned . In

BREEDS OF CATTLE 25

26 DAIR Y FARMING

general the co lo rs resemble tho se of the Jersey,but include

some co lo rs not found in that breed . The common co lo rs

are reddish yellow,o r lemon, o r o range-fawn

,with white

markings . Guernseys are probably a little Slower m aturing

than Jerseys , but are ready to freshen when about 24 months

old . Like the Jerseys they have little adaptation for beef .

TABLE 8 .

— PRODUCTION OF GUE RNSE Y Cows IN EXPERIMENTSTATION HERDS

NUMBER OF Cow sAVERAGE

R EPRE SENTED

Po u nds,m ilk

fip e r year

Po u nds fat per year

Per cent to tal so lids

R eco rds fo r cows belonging to experim ent stations are

given inTable 8 . A herd Should average at least 5500 pounds

o f milk per year containing 5 per cent of fat. A high aVer

age would be 7000 pounds per cow .

The highest reco rds fo r one year up to April 1 1916 , were

POUNDS M ILK POUNDS FAT

M u rne Cowan .

M ay Rilm a

Spo tswo od Daisy Pearl

Guernsey m ilk and butter have a higher co lo r than do the

products o f any o ther breed , and fo r this reason the Guernsey

is especially favo red where cream is so ld in a critical market .

The strong and weak po ints o f this breed are practically

the same as fo r the Jersey . They are best adapted fo r the

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28 DAIR Y FARMING

BREEDS OF CATTLE 29

The Ayrshire cows do not Show the extreme angular dairy

type exhibited by some o ther breeds . They are smo o ther

over the sho u lders and have fuller hind quarters . The udder

developm ent is the m o st perfect found in any breed . Special

attention has been paid to this po int by the Sco tch breeders .

The teats are placed unifo rmly on the udder and are of

unifo rm size . The tendency to sho rt teats has been the

cause of muchUnfavo rable criticism,but the care which has

been taken within recent years to breed fo r longer teats has

largely rem oved this obj ection . In beef produ ction'

Ayr

shires rank high fo r a dairy breed . The calves we igh 65

to 70 pounds at birth and are strong and Vigo rous .

TABLE 9 .

— PRODUCTION OF AYRSH IRE CATTLE IN EXPERIMENTSTATION HE RDS

NUMBER OF COW SA E EV RA G

R EPR E SENTED

Po u nds m ilk per yearPer cent fatPo u nds fat per year

Per cent to tal solids

Results from experim ent station herds are given in Table

9 . An average yield o f about 6000 pounds Of m ilk contain

ing per cent fat m ay be expected from a herd under

farm conditions if given reasonably go od treatm ent . The

milk do es not Show m uch yellow co lo r . The breed is well

adapted fo r the production of m arket m ilk Since it gives a

large am ount o f m ilk o f average com po sition.

The best reco rd up to April 1 , 1916 , is held by Lady of

Willowm oo r with a production of 956 pounds of fat in one

year .

30 DAIRY FARMING

24 . Brown Swiss . These cattle are native to the no rth

eastern part o f Switzerland where they have been bred as far

back as history reco rds . During the winter season the cattle

are kept in the valleys and in the summ er they are pastured

upon the mountain slopes . InAmerica this breed is found in

almo st every state bu t as a rule only in iso lated herds . The

to tal number is small compared with the leading dairy breeds .

In appearance these animals are plain,substantial

, and

well propo rtioned although inclined to be fleshy and o ften

rather coarse in bone . The cows reach a weight Of about

1200 pounds . They are called brown,bu t the co lo r is really

mo re o f a mouse co lo r and varies from a silver gray or light

brown, to a dark brown o r nearly black .

They are no ted fo r their Vitality and go od breeding qual

ities . They are quiet and gentle . The calves are the larg

est of any breed used in Am erica and are easy to raise on ac

count of their strong vitality . As m i lk pro ducers the cows

rank about with the Ayrshires in b o th yield and richness

of milk . A milk yield o f from 6000 to 9000 pounds per year

is o ften obtained, and an average o f 6500 pounds per cow

Should be obtained under go o d conditions . The fat aver

ages a trifle under 4 per cent . Some excellent advanced

registry reco rds have been made by this breed . The best

reco rd up to April 1 , 1916 , is held by Co llege Bravu ra 2d

with a pro duction of pounds of milk and 798 pounds

o f fat in one year .

25 . Du tch B elted . This breed has practically the same

characteristics as the Ho lstein, except that it has a white

band o r belt extending around the body . It is used , to a

limited extent only,in the Eastern States .

26 . Kerry. These cattle are smaller than tho se of any

o ther breed . They are natives o f Ireland . The average

BREEDS OF CATTLE 31

weight of the cows is 650 pounds . The co lo r is black with

a little white on the udder and underline . Ano ther some

what larger type o f this breed is known as the Dexter Kerry .

A few sm all herds are to be found in the Eastern States .

The cows produce a large amount o f milk fo r their Size . The

milk averages about 4 per cent of fat.

DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS

27 . Du al-pu rpo s e . The term dual-purpo se is used to

describe tho se breeds of cattle kept fo r bo th m ilk and beef,

in contrast with the mo re Specialized breeds,which are

kept primarily fo r either m ilk o r beef alone . All dairy breeds

have some value fo r beef,and all beef breeds are sometimes

used fo r m ilk . The real dual-purpo se cow stands about

m idwaybetween the dairy type and the beef type . It m ust

not be expected that a cow of this type will com pare as a dairy

animal with go od individuals o f the special dairy breeds in

m ilk pro duction,o r that her calves can com pete in beef pro

duction with tho se from the special beef breeds . A dual

purpo se cow should be expected to produce about 200pounds

of butter-fat per year as against about 300fo r an equally go od

specim en of a special dairy breed, and her calves Should make

fair beef .

Dual-purpo se breeds have been in favo r in many sections

of the Uni ted States especially in the co rn belt . The dual

purpo se breeds are less economical pro ducers o f dairy pro d

u cts thanthe special dairy breeds and fo r this reason Should

not be cho sen by the m an who is making dairying an impo r

tant part of his farming operations . If the dual-purpose cowis to be used at all

,it should be on the general farm in the

co rn belt where cream is so ld and Skim -m ilk is available fo r

feeding calves and pigs,and where the abundance of roughage

32 DAIR Y FARMING

makes it desirable to have m o re anim als to consume it than

the farmer is prepared to handle in the fo rm of dairy cows .

28 . Sh o rth o rn . The Sho rtho rn is probably the best

known and mo st widely distributed breed of cattle . Its

native ho m e is no rtheast England in the counties o f Yo rk

FIG . 5 .

— D o ris Clay , a Sho rtho rn cow o f the dairy typ e with a m ilkreco rd o f p o u nds in o ne y ear . A du al—pu rpo se cow bu t showingm o re dairy characteristics than is typical.

and Durham . The name Durham,which was fo rmerly ap

plied to this breed to som e extent,is explained in this way .

AS with o ther breeds it is not po ssible to tell exactly how the

breed was o riginated . It is probable that the cattle brought

from the Continent were cro ssed with the native English

sto ck . It is certain that Ho lland cattle were also a facto r

in the improvement . The first systematic breeding began

B REEDS OF CA TTLE 33

about 1780. The m en best known in the early hi sto ry of

the breed are Charles and Robert Co lling,Thom as Bates

,

Thom as Bo o th,and

,m o re recently, Amo s Cruickshank . In

developing this breed mo st attention was given to early

m aturity and go od beef qualities . At the Same time cer

tain breeders,especially Thom as Bates,were eqfrally inter

ested in developing a dual-pu rpo se,o r general-purpo se

,ani

m al in which the dairy qualities and the beef characteristics

Should be well balanced . As a beef anim al the Sho rtho rn

ranks in the first class . Within recent times the beef quali

ties have been best developed in anim als descended from the

herd of Crui ckshank . At the present tim e animals of this

breed seen in the Show ring in Am erica are o f the m o st

pronounced beef type , and their popularity is based upon

their beef qualities . Certain strains,however

,have been

developed by breeders who have m aintained the m ilking

characteristic o f the early type , and as a result at the present

tim e there is a fairly distinct milking type o f pure-bred

Sho rtho rns found in large numbers In England End to a

limited extent in America . In recent years a number of

m ilk and butter reco rds have been made by cows of this

breed that rank with the special dairy breeds .

Herds selected and bred fo r dual-purpo se Should average

about 5000 pounds o f m ilk per year with a fat content o f

from to 4 per cent . The highest reco rd up to April 1 ,1916 , is held by Ro se of Glenside

,pounds of m i lk and

625 pounds of fat in one year .

The dual-purpo se type do es not have so go o d a beef

confo rm ation as the strains developed fo r beef . The beef

anim als o f this breed produce mo re mi lk than do es the Here

fo rd,Angus

,o r Galloway . The Sho rtho rn is mo re widely

distributed than any o ther breed , being widely used inD

34 DAIR Y FARMING

No rth and South America , South Africa , and Australia, as

well as in its native home .

The co lo rs m ay be pure red,pure white

,red and whi te

, o r

ro an. The co lo r canno t be taken as in any way an indication

o f the quality Of the animal . The mature cows usually weigh

about 1400 pounds but m ay reach 1800 pounds o r mo re .

They are larger than the cows of any o ther breed .

Impo rtations to America began as early as 1790,al

though in small numbers until between 1830 and 1840 when

a large num ber were brought into Ohio . The American

Sho rtho rn Breeders’Asso ciation was established in 1882 and

since that time has lo oked after the interests of the breed .

M o re cattle o f this breed have been registered than o f any

o ther .

29 . P olle d Du rham . Po lled Durham cattle are either

pure-bred Sho rtho rns o r nearly so . They are of American

o rigin. The"Single Standard ”

Po lled Durhams were

o riginated by cro ssing native mulley cows with pure-bred

Sho rtho rns . Af ter a certain number o f cro sses o f Sho rt

ho rn blo o d these anIm alS were registered in the Po lled

Durham herdbo ok . The"Double Standard ”

Po lled Dur

hams are so called Since they are eligible to registry in the

Sho rtho rn herdbo ok . They were o riginated from naturally

mulley cows whi ch appeared in pure-bred Sho rtho rns . At

the present time the latter hne o f breeding has practically

superseded the fo rm er . They are in every respect the same

as Sho rtho rns except fo r the po lled characteristics . They

are found in considerable num bers in the Central States

and have m et with considerable favo r on account o f the

po lled characteristics .

30. R ed P olled . This breed is classed as dual-purpo se and

comes nearest at the present tim e,as a breed , to meeting the

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36 DAIR Y FARMING

pure . They are mo st numerous in the M iddle States . They

yield a medium amount o f milk,take on flesh readily

,and

make a fair grade o f beef . As beef animals they do not rank

in the first class,no r can the cows com pete in m ilk and fat

pro duction with the special dairy breeds . A herd kept under

go od farm conditions m ay be expected to average about 5000

pounds o f milk per year, containing clo se to 4 per cent of fat

on the average . A number of excellent milk reco rds have

been made,though none are comparable with tho se of the

Special dairy breeds . The cows usually weigh between 1200

and 1300pounds , but o ccasionally mo re while the bulls reach

a weight o f about a ton. In co lo r they are a deep cherry

red ; white m ay appear on the switch o f the tail, on the

udder, and a few white markings are allowed on the belly .

White on any o ther part disqu alifies the animal fo r registra

tion. American herds of this breed vary widely ih ~ type .

Some breeders have given m o st attention to beef pro duction .

Other breeders have given mo st attention to dairy qualities .

The proper type to maintain is a balance between these two

extremes . The best reco rd up to April 1,1916 , of

pounds of milk and 892 pounds of fat is held by Jean Duluth

Beauty .

31 . D evon. Devon cattle are commonly classed as

dual—purpo se . They were bred and developed in Devon

Shire,England . They are thought to be one of the o ldest

o f the breeds that o riginated in Great Britain . The Devons

are smaller than the distinctive beef breeds , the cows weigh

ing from 1200 to 1300 pounds . The co lo r is a bright red .

The anim al is blo cky and com pact with a no ticeable refine

ment in bone . They are fair m i lk producers , yielding milk

rich in fat,comparing favo rably in this respect with the

Jerseys . The breed is not numerous in the United States

BREEDS OF CATTLE 37

but is fo und to som e extent in the Eastern States . The ir

popularity seem s to be decreasing , judging from the number

that are exhibited at fairs .

BEEF BREEDS

32 . H er eford . Thi s breed has been developed strictly

fo r beef purposes . The cows are m i lked to a very lim ited

extent . A few cows in a herd kept prim arily fo r beef m ay

be utili zed to supply the fam ily of the owner with m i lk,o r at

tim es m ay pro duce enough to m ake it po ssible to sell a

sm all am ount o f dairy products . There are no reco rds of

m ilk production available,although it is known that the milk

o f this breed ranks rather high In ri chness and has much the

same characteristics as that of the Devons . The Herefo rd

probably ranks lowest in dairy qualities . AS,is the case

with all beef breeds , o ccasionally a cow is found that is a fair

m ilk pro ducer,but she canno t be depended upon to transmit

this characteristic . Thi s breed is a native o f Herefo rd in

the south central part of England , where it has been devel

oped fo r about 150 years . The cows reach a weight o f about

1400 pounds and the bulls as high as 2200 pounds . The

m o st distinctive characteristic of the breed is the white

face,which is never absent . This is transmitted very strongly

to practically allanim als having even a sm all amount o f Here

fo rd blo od . Herefo rds are used mo stly fo r grazing on the

plains o f the West and Southwest .

33 . Ab erde en-Angu s . This excellent breed o f beef cattle

ranks about with the Herefo rd as a producer o f m ilk . The

cattle are always black in co lo r and po lled . Only rarely is a

cow found that would be profitable in a dairy . These exceptional cows canno t be counted upon to reproduce this charac

teristic in their o ffspring . They are bred prim arily fo r beef,

38 DAIR Y FARMING

but are o ften used in a limited way fo r supplying milk fo r

the u se of the owners . Angus grades m ay even be found

o ccasionally in mixed herds kept fo r milk . Practically no

reco rds of the amount o r richness o f m ilk are available . A

limited number of fat tests made by the autho r indicate that

the milk o f this breed averages about per cent of fat, o r

about the same as that of the Sho rtho rns .

"

The Angus breed

o riginated in no rthern Sco tland . In Am erica it is found

chiefly in the co rn-producing states . It has not been con

sidered the equal of the Herefo rd on the ranges .

34 . Galloway. This breed is a native of southwestern

Sco tland . The cattle are black in co lo r, always po lled , and

are especially known fo r their long, thick hair, seen to the best

advantage during the winter season in no rthern regions .

They are found chiefly in the M iddle States and on the ranges .

They are strictly a beef breed . No reco rds are available

regarding the yield o f milk o r its richness . As is the case

with o ther beef breeds,o ccasionally a reasonably go od milk

producer is found .

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEM S

1 . Whi ch m eans m o r e , to say that an anim al is pur e-bred o r to

say that it is registered ?2 . Fill o u t a table like the following , inclu ding allbreeds of cattle .

BRE ED COLOR S

BREEDS OF CA TTLE

3 . Tell how each breed o f cattle m ay be distingu ished .

4 . Fr om Table s 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , find the per centage of solids no t fatfo r the m ilk of each breed .

5 . How did Shor thorn cattle co m e to be called Dur ham ?6 . What is m eant by Channel Islands ?7 . On a m ap lo cate the r egion where each breed o riginated .

Give the leading char acteristics of the r egion as to clim ate ,topo g

raphy , and fo o d su pply fo r cattle . Whi ch one o f the regions is m o stlike the region where you live ?

8 . M ake a list o f all the known owner s of pur e-bred cattle in thescho ol di strict o r region, with the br eeds owned and nu m bers o f

each breed .

9 . Whi ch breed of dairy cattle is m o st nu m ero u s in the r egion ?Which one is increasing m o st rapidly ? Why ?10. Why did so m any breeds o riginate in Eu r ope , and why do es

the sam e thing no t happen in Am erica ?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

1 . If different breeds o f cattle are available , m ake com p arisonso f them , and write a description o f the cattle o f each breed 'that wer estu died . The scor e cards given on pag es 290 to 296 m ay b e o f helpin stu dying each breed .

2 . M ake an o u tline dr awing o f the head o f a Jer sey and of a

Holstein cow as seen fro m the front . If po ssible m easu r e the

length and width and draw to scale . The differ ence in the Shapeo f the head is su ppo sed to b e one indi cation that these breeds ar e

descended fro m two distinct fo rm s o f wild cattle .

COLLATERAL READING

Breeds o f Dairy Cattle , U . S . Dept . Agr . , Farm ers’Bu lletin 106 .

Cyclopedia o f Am erican Agricu ltu r e ,L . H . Bailey , Vol. I I I , pp .

301—302 and 330—382 .

Typ e s and Breeds o f Farm Anim als , C . S . Plu m b , pp . 169—332 .

Dairy Cattle and l\I ilk Produ ction , C . H . Eckles , pp . 27-106 .

CHAPTER 3

SELECTION AND IM PROVEM ENT OF DAIRY

CATTLE

C . H . ECKLES

SELECTION OF A BREED

35 . Selection o f a Br e ed . One of the first questions that

arises in starting a herd is the cho i ce o f a breed . There is a

tendency to attach to o,

much impo rtance to this decision .

In cho o sing a breed the fo llowing po ints should be con

sidered .

1 . Kind o f cattle mo st common in the lo cality .

2 . F o rm in which the pro ducts are to be marketed .

3 . Topography, climate,and fo od supply .

Preference of the breeder .

5 . Average pro duction o f milk .

6 . Average production of butter-fat.

7 . Econom y of pro duction of m ilk and fat.

8 . Breeding qualities of the cows .

9 . Vigo r of the calves .

10. Adaptability o f the calves fo r veal,and beef value o f

discarded cows and bulls .

11 . Original co st and probable demand fo r surplus animals .

M o st of the po ints have been discussed in the previous

chapter . The advantages to the farmer o f using the sam e

kind o f sto ck as his neighbo rs,should be given far greater

prominence than his own preference o r any small po ints o f

40

SELECTI ON AND IMPR OVEMENT OF DAIR Y CA TTLE 41

difference between breeds . The advantages m ay be enu

m erated as fo llows

1 . M ay save expense in buying males fo r breeding , and

make it po ssible to m ake mo re u se of a bull that is found to

sire especially valuable anim als .

2 . It is a great advantage in se lling sto ck,since buyers are

attracted by lar ge num bers o f the same breed in one lo cality

3 . M ay save expense in o fficial testing of registered cows

fo r advanced registration .

4 . M akes po ssible a lo cal breed o rganization and creates

greater interest in go od sto ck and proper managem ent .

If the pastures are steep and ro cky,the m o re active breeds

are likely to be m o st successful .‘

Where pastures are luxuriant and where large quantities o r roughage are used

,the

larger breeds are mo re at hom e .

Between sim ilar breeds the preference of the breeder

m ay decide the cho ice . Fo r exam ple,if lo cation and m arket

would suggest the Jersey o r the Guernsey as the mo st

suitable,the cho ice between the two might be easily deter

mined by preference . If the dairy farm er expects to sell

milk for market,who lesale o r retail, his cho ice would hardly

fall on the Channel Island breeds , unless the market is the

exceptional one that will pay enough mo re fo r rich milk to

justify its production. Fo r m ilk pro duction the Ho lstein,

Ayrshire,o r Brown Swiss would be the natural cho ice . On

the o ther hand,if the lo cation is such that cream is to be

so ld,then the Jersey and Guernsey breeds would come in

fo r strong consideration on account of their well-known

economical u se of feed fo r the production o f butter-fat.

Under these conditions the probable value of Skim-m ilk

fo r pigs and fo r calf feeding is still ano ther consideration

and in some cases is sufficient to cause the cho ice to fall

42 DAIR Y FARMING

upon the Ho lstein on account o f the large production of this

valuable by-product .

When selling butter—fat,cream o r butter

,the to tal quan

tity of fat and not the percentage of fat is the impo rtant

po int . Fo r cheese making and fo r market milk,the to tal

so lids , and not fat alone are what is wanted .

It is impo ssible to give data that are entirely satisfacto ry

regarding the relative production of the breeds . The best

figures the autho r has been able to gather are brought to

gether in Table 10. These are yearly reco rds of pure-bred

anim als as repo rted by experiment stations in the United

States fo r anim als owned by them . It is assumed that the

conditions under which these reco rds are made are fairly

comparable with and certainly no m o re favo rable than tho se

found in good herds owned by individuals .

TABLE 10.

— PRODUCTION PER YE AR OF Cows OWNE D BY EX

PER IMENT STATIONS

AVERAGE POUND S AVERAGE PER CENTM ILK FA T FOR YEAR

BREEDNu m ber Per CentC ow s Fat

INDIVIDUAL SELECTION

36 . Sele ction o f Individu al Cow s . The success of a dairy

farm er depends mo re Upon the selection o f the individuals

within the breed than it do es upon the cho ice o f a breed .

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44 DAI RY FARMING

well fo r her entire lifetime . A cow that is a small pro

duoer by inheritance remains so year after year . The aver

age yearly reco rds in Table 11, selected from many kept by

the writer fo r a number o f cows fo r a term o f years,indicate

this fact . Some variation o ccurs,but Table 11 shows that

TABLE 11 .

— Y IELD OF BUTTE R—FAT OF D IFFE RENT IND IVIDUALSBY YE ARS IN P OUNDS

FIR ST SE COND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTHBRE ED YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR

296 4 16 468 499 580

44 115 169 159

336 452 545 425 440

62 17 1 123

282 323 330 450 380 373 390

15 1 167 2 10

the go od cows were go o d producers year after year , while

the inferi o r ones remained po o r j ust as regularly . Occasion

ally a cow has a po o r year because she is o u t o f condition,

but no rmally the results will be unifo rm when the feed and

care are the same .

37 . Extent o f Variation o f Individu als . An abundance

of data has been gathered within recent years to make it

plain that the variation of individuals as milk producers

is the greatest single facto r in the success o f the dairy .

The Connecticut Experim ent Station found the five mo st

profitable in their herd were fed a year at a co st o f‘

each,while the five po o rest consum ed feed wo rth

The best five averaged 304 pounds o f fat fo r the year, and

the po o rest five 189 pounds . One group lacked per

cow o f paying fo r their feed . The o ther group gave

per cow above the co st of feed . Fo r in additional feed

SELECTI ON AND IMP ROVEMENT OF DAIR Y CATTLE 45

FIG . 7 .

— An exam ple o f wide variation in p ro du ctio n . These cowsare registered Jer seys and half sister s . The o ne above averaged 4 18

pou nds o f fat fo r the fir st three y ear s in m ilk. With the sam e treatm entthe one below averaged 109 po u nds o f fat fo r the sam e thr ee y ears . The

variation in the pro du ction was du e to inherited characteristics .

46 DAIRY FARMING

the animals in the better group produced 115 pounds mo re

fat each .

1 Repo rts from the Southern States fo r 719 cows,

covering in each case a full year, show that fo r each

invested infeed the best 10 cows gave returns of while

the po o rest 10 cows barely returned the value of the feed .

The best 30 cows produced three and a half tim es as much as

the po o rest animals .

2

In the University o f M issouri herd one pure-bred Jersey

averaged 480 pounds of fat per year fo r three years , while

her half sister averaged 114 pounds fo r the same period .

A test o f 18 Illino is herds , including 226 cows , Showed the

best herd to average 389 pounds of fat and the po o rest

38 . Th e H igh-pr odu cing Cows M o r e Econo m ical Pro :

du cer s . A striking fact brought ou t by allsuch figures is that

the high producers will give a greater return from the same

amount of feed . It co sts from $10 to $15 mo re per year to

feed the cow that pro duces 350 pounds of fat than it co sts to

feed the cow that yields 200 pounds . It is a com mon m is

take to assume that it co sts no mo re to feed a cow producing

pounds ofmilk per year than it does to feed one yielding

5000pounds ofmilk o f the same quality . The larger pro ducer

must u se mo re feed,but not double that used by the smaller .

The fo rmer will u se about 25 per cent mo re feed than the

latter, while the pro duction o f m ilk is 100 per cent mo re .

In m any herds that have not been carefully culled , a greater

to tal profit might be realized by retaining one-half to two

thirds of the herd and dispo sing o f the inferio r cows,but a

still better return m ay com e from replacing the po o r cows

by go o d ones .

1 Connecticu t Agr icu ltu ral Experim ent Station ,B u lletin 29 .

2 U . S . D ept . Agr .,Bu reau o f Anim al Indu stry ,

25th Annu alRepo rt, p . 67 .

3 Illino is Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station , C ircu lar 102 .

SELECTI ON AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIR Y CATTLE 47

SELECTION BY TYPE

39 . H ow Individu al Selection is M ade . There are in

general two methods of selecting dairy cows . The first is

by type o r confo rm ation, and the second is by reco rds of

production. There is undoubtedly a certain confo rmation

that generally go es with high m ilk production . This con

fo rm ation is generally distinct enough to enable experi enced

judges to select very go o d from very inferio r cows . As a

rule it is fairly easy to select cows that will yield 300 to 350

pounds of fat per year from tho se that will give half that

amount . It is not po ssible,however, to j udge by this means

alone which one will produce 300 and which one 500 pounds

per year . Often even experienced judges will make decided

erro rs in selecting anim als by this method , especially if the

cow‘

is not in the mo st favo rable condition to be j udged .

Since reco rds are available fo r very few cows offered fo r sale,

it‘

is necessary fo r mo st cattle buyers,

to depend largely upon

type .

If it were po ssible to select all cows when giving their

largest yield of milk,j udging by type would be reasonably

accurate . Under practical conditions this is not po ssible ,and cows have to be selected that vary from dry to the high

estgmilk flow . The appearance of a dry cow gives little

indication Of her m erits

40. Th e Dairy Type . The three striking po ints in the

confo rm ation o f a highly developed dairy cow are :

1 . The spare angular fo rm,carrying no surplus flesh

but showing evidence of liberal feeding in her Vigo rous

condition.

2 . The extrao rdinary Size and development of the udder

and m ilk veins .

FIG . 8 . These pu re-bred Jersey s illu strate a wide range in typ e and

also the relation Of type to pro du ction . The cow above shows go o d typ e .

A large barrelwith plenty o f depth fro m hip s to the u dder , well-developedu dder and m ilk veins . She pro du ced 592 po u nds o f fat in a year .

The anim al below,altho u gh perfectly healthy , is very shallow in bo dy ,

has a sm all barrel, and an extrem ely sm all u dder ; She produ ced 122

po u nds o f fat in a year .

SELECTI ON AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIR Y CATTLE 49

3 . The m arked development of the barrel in propo rtion

to the size of the animal .

A high-class dairy cow rarely carries much flesh when in

full flow of milk . At the sam e tim e her alert vigo rous ap

Steer at m iddle o f barr el. Steer at heart girth.

D airy cow at m iddle o f bar rel D airy cow at heart g irth .

FIG . 9 . Cro ss section o f a fat steer co m pared with that o f a high-classdairy cow . No tice the large abdo m en

,bony back,

and sharp withers o f thecow . The skeleton o f the steer is m o re fu lly covered with flesh.

E

50 DAIRY FARMING

pearance , her so ft pliable skin and so ft hair Show that She is

not thin on account o f a lack o f feed . An animal thin in

flesh on account of insufficient feed has a stupid appearance

and shows a lack o f Vigo r,while "

the hair generally is rough

and stands on end . In either case the paunch m ay be large

o r small,depending on the bulkiness o f the feed consum ed .

So characteristic is the

angular appearance o f the

dairy cow that an anim al

that do es not Show this

fo rm when in full flow o f

m ilk Should not be selected .

When the cow is near the

end of the lactation perio d ,o r is dry , she should carry

m o re flesh,and it is a m is

take to be to o qui ck to con

FIG . 10.

— A well-fo rm ed u dder .

dem u 8 ” COW at thlS Stage

No te the length o f attachm ent to the fo r be ing to o beefy .

body ,and the well-develo ed fo re

qu arters .

pThe well-developed beef

anim al on the o ther hand is

square and blo cky . The general shape , leaving the legs

and head o u t o f consideration,is rectangular . The back is

bro ad and level , the thighs full and straight .

This difference in the shape of the body o f a high-class

dairy cow and of a fat steer ready fo r market is Shown by the

cro ss sections in Fig . 9 . These were obtained by a device

that made it po ssible to get the exact outlines .

41 . Th e Udder . A well-develo ped udder is the mo st

impo rtant characteristic to be considered in selecting a cow

fo r milk production. Since this gland has the function o f

secreting the milk,its size and development are o f the great

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52 DAIR Y FARMING

tions of the veins from the udder to the o penings throu gh

which they pass into the abdomen are spoken of as the m ilk

veins . The o penings are known as the milk wells . The

milk veins are one of the mo st reliable indications of dairy

quality,Since a large milk pro duction calls fo r a large flow

F IG . 12 . Udder o f an inferio r cow . FIG . 13 . Avery p endu lo u s

This u dder is large and'

well Shaped bu t u dder , obj ectionable becau se itm eaty ,

and is nearly as large after m ilking interfere s with the cow whenas befo re . walking , and becau se it easily

beco m es so iled .

o f blo o d to the udder , and large milk veins indicate such a

circulation.

43 . Th e Barr el. The term barrel is applied in general

to that po rtion of a cow’s body between the hind and fo re

legs . The dairy cow to be a heavy producer must consume

eno rmous quantities of feed . To do this requires large o r

gans o f digestion . A high-producing cow has wide-sprung

ribs and a deep abdom en,giving great capacity fo r the di

gestive tract and o ther Vital o rgans .

SELE CTI ON AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIR Y CA TTLE 53

An anim al lacking in barrel canno t u se sufficient feed to

make her a large producer . The age o f the animal has some

influence upon the size o f the barrel . The apparent capacity

is a lso influenced to som e extent by the ration fed . Bulky

feeds,such as hay and Silage

,when fed in large quantities

give this effect . In considering the barrel development o f a

cow the depth a s Viewed from the Side Should be observed,

then the width as viewed from behind . Some anim als Show

FIG . 14 .

—A typ ical weak FIG . 15 .

— Udder showing po o r develfo re u dder , a very co m m on Opm ent behind

,and sho rt attachm ent to

defect. the body .

great depth but on account o f being narrow really have a small

capacity . In sho rt a dairy cow Should Show great Vigo r,great capacity to u se fo od

,and Should have a strong de

velOpm ent of the m ilk-secreting o rgans,indicating that she

is likely to u se the fo o d fo r m ilk pro duction .

44 . Th e Sco r e Car d . The sco re cards adopted by the vari

o u s breed asso ciations are Shown on pages 290to 296 . These

are designed to set fo rth the desirable characteristics of the

breed and m ay be studied as a m eans of becom ing f am iliar

with breed types . The preceding discussion o f the dairy

type is general and applies to all breeds . It is based who lly

upon the indi cations o f milk production and do es not take

54 DAIR Y FARMIN G

into account the many sm aller po ints that go to make up a

confo rmation that is symmetrical and pleasing to the eye .

The’

breed asso ciations in preparing their sco re cards, in

FIG . 16 . D efective u dders . The one on the left is that o f a pu re-breddairy cow that pro du ced o nly 10 po u nds o f m ilk daily . This u dder is ex

trem ely sm all, ill—Shaped , weak in the fo requ arters , and the teats are to o

sho rt. The o ne o n the right has very sm all capacity with alm o st no dev elo pm ent in the fo requ arte rs .

certain cases , apparently emphasize po ints in which the

breed is likely to be deficient . An example o f this is the

large number o f po ints given to the fo re udder in the Jersey

sco re card . Befo re using the sco re card the student should

FIG . 17 —A well-develo p ed m ilk vein . On this cow the m ilk ve in is

over o ne inch in diam eter and extends. fo rward nearly to the fro nt legs ,entering the bo dy thro u gh three m ilk wells on each Side . The veins on

the u dder are also very pro m inent.

SELECTI ON AND OF DAIR Y CATTLE 55

H v—l v—l

56 DAI RY FARMING

be familiar with the po ints o f the animal as illustrated inFig . 18 . The u se o f the sco re card is an advantage to the

beginner as a means of impressing the po ints to be taken into

account and their relative impo rtance . It helps to make the

examination systematic and prevents one from fo rgetting

po ints that should be observed . The value of the sco re

card decreases as experience is gained . Judging in the Show

ring is done entirely by comparison.

The sco re card given on page 77 is in u se by the Depart

ment of Dairy Husbandry, University of M issouri, and is

an attempt to give the po ints that are impo rtant in teaching

the selection of dairy cows for milk production . It gives

comparatively little attention to the smaller details of con

fo rmation o r to breed type .

SELECTION BY PER FORMANCE RECORDS

45 . Sele ction by R eco rds . While it is o ften necessary

130’

select cows by appearances when buying , it is not m eces

sary to fo llow this plan after the animals are in the herd . A

mo re"business-like plan is to keep a reco rd o f pro duction fo r

each individual in o rder that the unprofitable animals m ay

be known and rej ected ; The reco rds to be kept will depend

to some extent upon the u se made of the m ilk . If it is so ld

by quantity regardless of quality,then the to tal production

is the impo rtant fact . If the price of milk is based upon the

butter-fat,bo th the quantity and the quality need to be

known .

46 . Overrating th e Im po rtance of Rich M ilk . A com

m on m istake in judging cows by reco rds is attaching to o m uch

impo rtance to the percentage of fat. The cow that produces

the richest milk do es not necessarily give the largest amount

o f fat,no r do es it fo llow that She is the mo st econom ical pro

SELE CTI ON AND IMP R OVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 57

duoer . It is the to tal amount o f fat that counts where fat

is the basis o f m arket value . Figures selected from accurate

reco rds kept by the autho r show the relation between the

yield of milk, the percentage o f fat, and the to tal fat yield .

TABLE 12 .

— R I CH AI I LK vs . H IGH FAT PRODUCTION FOR THE

YE AR

AVE RAGE PER CENT TOTAL FATE IBREED Y I LD M LK YIELD

These figures Show that the highest percentage o f fat is o ften

accom panied by a low to tal yield . On the o ther hand a low

percentage of fat m ay go with either a high o r a low m ilk yield .

The figures given,which are som e o f the extremes taken

from the reco rds o f a large herd,also indicated clearly that

the amount of milk varies much mo re than the percentage of

fat. Fo r this reason it is far m o re impo rtant to know how

much m ilk a cow gives than to know its richness . If all the

anim als in a herd belong to the same breed,it is about three

tim es as impo rtant to know the quantity as it is to have

reco rds of the richness,even where m ilk is so ld by the fat

content . Fo r thi s reason the keeping of individual reco rds

o f cows should always begin with the u se of the scales . The

cow owner should keep the reco rds by weight and not by

measure , and becom e accustomed to thinking of milk yields

in terms of weights .

58 DAIR Y FARMING

Three things should be known in o rder that the relative

profits of each animal m ay be calculated . These are the

amount o f milk, the percentage o f fat,and the co st of feed

consumed . When comparing individual animals these facto rs

rank in impo rtance in the o rder given .

While cows Should be fed acco rding to

their production,it is not generally

practical to keep an individual feed

reco rd of each . The best plan on the

farm is to know the co st o f feeding the

entire herd and the to tal income above

feed,and then make such calculations

as m ay seem necessary to determine

whether certain low—producing cows

Should be kept .

47 . Co m plete M ilk R eco rds . The

most satisfacto ry plan o f keeping reco rds

is to weigh the milk of each cow daily .

This do es not require much extra tim e

when proper arrangements are made .

The experience of every one who has

tried it is that no time spent on the farmFIG . 19 . A go o d

scale fo rweighing m ilk. pays better . A Spring balance , graduate dThe second po inter isset to read "ero when to pounds and tenths , Should be provided

the

h

e

c

r

i

npty pail is at and placed at a po int convenient fo r theac e

milkers with the milk Sheet clo se athand .

The advantages of daily weighing m ay be summed up as

fo llows

1 . It makes it po ssible to rej ect the unprofitable cows .

2 . M akes po ssible economic feeding . Individual cows

should be fed in propo rtion to the amount o f milk they

produce .

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60

m m m m

DAIRY FARMING

FI G. 20. Fo rm fo r daily m ilk reco rd sheet.

SELECTI ON AND IMP ROVEMENT OF DAIR Y CATTLE 61

The reading gives the bu tter n fat per 100 pounds o f milk .

When butter is made , some curd, salt

,and considerable

water remain with the fat to make up no rmal marketable

butter . The amount of butter generally exceeds the fat

by about one-sixth and m ay be estim ated if desired by add

ing this amount to the fat.

49 . Averaging Te sts . A common mistake results from

averaging tests . A direct average of the tests made fo r a

certain cow each month during the year will not be a fair

average test o f the to tal am ount of milk pro duced during

the year by this anim al . This results from the fact that

the am ount of m i lk represented by each test is not the sam e .

To find the true average test fo r the year the to tal fat yield

fo r the perio d covered by the tests m ust be divided by the

to tal yield of milk . The same method must be used in get

ting the average test fo r the herd .

50. P e rm anent R e co rds . M anywho begin keeping reco rds

do not m ake m uch of a success on account of not having a

suitable fo rm fo r a permanent reco rd . Fig . 22 is a fo rm

that has been used with go od satisfaction by the autho r fo r

a num ber of years .

Using a blank bo ok, a page m ay be ruled fo r each cow.

Space sufficient fo r several years m ay be provided in this

way in-a conci se fo rm . In pure-bred herds the pedigree and

reco rds of Offspring m ay be put on the page Oppo site the

m ilk reco rds .

51 . Cow-te sting As s o ciations . Keeping reco rds, es

pecially of a large herd , invo lves considerable attention to

details . To provide fo r thi s,coOperative cow-testing asso ci

ations have been established in many places . This plan

o riginated in Denmark in 1895 , and the number of asso ci

ations has Since increased with great rapidity . At present

62 DAIR Y FA RMING

SELECTI ON AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIR Y CATTLE 63

64 DAIRY FARMING

over 400 asso ciations are in operation in that country and

probably an equal number in o ther countries of Europe .

These asso ciations are fo rmed by groups o f farmers own

ing from 500 to 1000 cows . A m an is employed who go es

from farm to farm spending a day at each . He weighs the

milk from each cow and tests it fo r fat content. He cal

cu lates the yield o f each cow fo r the month,the co st of feed

,

and income above feed co st. He also advises the farmer

as far as po ssible regarding m ethods of feeding and o ther

details . The co st is usually from $1 to per cow each

year . In a few cases in the United States the m an who do es

the testing also keeps a full set o f co st accounts fo r the farm .

52 . Advanced R egistry . One of the impo rtant facto rs

in the improvement of dairy cattle is the system of advanced

registration as conducted by the asso ciations representing

the different dairy breeds . The o rdinary registration o f

animals insures the purity o f their breeding,but do es not

indicate their individual merits . Advanced registration

gives an accurate reco rd of the production. Cows must be

registered in the herdbo ok befo re the tests are made . If

the production reaches o r exceeds a certain standard , they

are registered again in ano ther Series . Thi s is called advanced

registration. The weighing o f the milk and the testing fo r

fat are done by representatives of the"

experiment station

in the state where the cOw is owned . This insures an ac

curate reco rd made by a disinterested person.

M any changes in the rules and requirements have been

made fo r the various breeds since the system was begun in

1890. At present the standards set by the different breeds

are not unifo rm ,and o ccasional changes are made , so it is

necessary fo r a breeder o f pure-bred cattle to become familiar

with the rules and practices governing his breed at the time .

SELECTI ON AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIR Y CATTLE 65

In general it m ay be said , that while fo rmerlymost ofthe tests

made covered seven days only, now all the tests except fo r

Ho lsteins cover a full year . Where the year test is made,

the owner weighs the milk each milking and the experiment

station m an weighs and tests it fo r fat two days each month .

The average percentage of fat fo r the two days is taken as the

average fo r the month . The Ho lste in breeders still u se the

seven-day planmo st extensively, although many year tests are

also m ade .

Where a seven-day test is made , a two -year-o ld cow must

produce 8 pounds o f fat fo r advanced registration. The

amount required increases with the age o f the cow . A

five-year-old must produce 12 pounds o r mo re of fat to be

entered. The minimum fo r a year varies from 214 to 250

pounds o f fat with the several breeds fo r two—year-o lds, andfor mature cows varies from 322 to 360 pounds .

The great value of the advanced registration system is the

po ssibility it affo rds of putting the selection o f breeding

animals upon a sound basis . In selecting a male fo r breed

ing purpo ses , the pedigrees of its ancesto rs fo rm about the

only basis fo r j udgment as to the probable character of its

offspring . If the reco rds Show the pro duction of each cow

in the pedigree , it becomes po ssible to j udge the value o f the

anim al fairly accurately . Advanced registration is u n

questionably the strongest facto r now in operation fo r the

rapid improvement o f dairy cattle . The great m ass o f dairycattle are not

,and need not be

,registered animals , and hence

are not eligible to advanced registration. However,the

system is equally valuable fo r grades , since improvement is

transmitted to grade herds by the pure-bred Sires . The

addresses of the different breed asso ciations are given on page

289 . Further info rmation can be obtained from them .

F

66 DAIR Y FARMING

The fo llowing list includes the cows having fat reco rds

of 950 pounds o r mo re in a year up to April 1,1916

M ILK IN FA T IN STATE INNAME OF COW BREED

1 YEAR 1 YEAR WHICH OWNED

Du chess Skylark Orm sby M inn .

Finderne Pr ide JohannaR u e

FinderneHohngenFayne

M urne CowanOna Bu tton D eKo lM ay B ilm a .

Bano stine Belle DeKo l

.

Pontiac Clo thildeDeKol2d

So phia 19th o f Ho od

Farm

High-Lawn Harto g DeKo l

Colantha 4th’s Johanna

Sperm field Owl’s Eva

Lo thi an M aggie DeKo lM aple Crest PontiacFlo ra Hartog

M ilanhu rst Am erica De

Ko lCrown Pontiac Jo seyM aple Crest PontiacSpo tted Anni e Ohio

Pearl Longfield DeKo l .

Caro line Pau l PartheneaEm inent

’s B ess

Daisy Grace B eKo l

Finderne M u tu al FayneSpo tswo o d Daisy PearlLily o f Willowm o o r

Jacoba IreneTilly Alcartra

53 . R elation o f Age of Cow to Yield and Richne s s o f

M ilk . Under o rdinary’

farm conditions the dairy cow fresh

ens the first time at from 24 to 30 months o f age . On an

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68 DAIR Y FARMING

average the production o f milk fo r the lactation perio d in

creases each year until the cow is about five years o ld,after

whi ch the pro duction remains fairly constant until the

animal reaches at least 11 o r 12 years .

On the average a well-grown two-year-old m ay be expected

to pro duce 70per cent, a three-year-o ld 80 per cent, and a four

year-old 90 per cent o f the milk and fat that she will pro

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n

LACTATIONPERIOD

FIG . 24 . Influ ence Of age on yield o f m ilk and percentage o f fat,averages fo r six Jersey cows fo r twelve y ears .

duce when mature . The highest production fo r a year m ay

come anywhere between the 4th and 11th year . Two -year

o lds that are not well grown m ay not give over half as much

as when. mature . If a cow continues to breed,her milk

flow usually Shows little decline until She is 12 years old and

sometimes even o lder . Probably the maj o rity o f dairy cattle

are re j ected from the herd on account o f failure to breed ,o r from udder troubles befo re the effect of advancing years can

be observed to have had any effect upon the milk production.

SELECTI ON AND IMPROVEMEN T OF DAIRY CATTLE 69

The richness ofmilk is less affected by age than is the quan

tity . The average fat content remains practically constant

from year to year except that after the cow is eight o r nine

years old the percentage o f fat always declines slowly and

gradually with advancing years . A Jersey cow,for example

,

that averages per cent fat when in her prime will decline

to about per cent when 12 to 15 years of age . The fol

4 000 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320

DAYS INMILK

FIG . 25 .—Influ ence o f the advance in lactation perio d u pon the m ilk

yield and fat content, averages fo r ten m atu re cows and ten two -year-old

lowing g1ves the average percentages o f fat by

periods fo r four Jerseys the reco rds of which are

fo r 9 years .

Lactation perio d 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Per cent fat

SELECTION OF A BULL

54 . The S election o f th e Bu ll. The successful develop

ment o f a dairy herd depends m o re upon the se lection o f the

bull than on any o ther one thing,unless it be the proper

culling ou t o f inferio r cows . One-half the inh eritance o f each

young animal in the herd comes from the bull , and for this

reason his influence on the herd is far greater than is that of

70 DAIRY FARMING

one cow who will have at m o st only a few daughters . Thi s

is the basis o f the old but true saying, the bull is half the

herd .

”

The main oppo rtunity fo r improvement in a native o r

medio cre herd is by using a go od sire . Fo r example,one

F IG . 26 . An excellent three-q u arters-bred cow , showing what a pu rebred sire can do in two generatio ns . The grandm other o f this cow was

a‘

rather po o r m ilker . She herself p ro du ced in nine y ears , beginningwhen she was two years old , pou nds o f m ilk and 38 14 p o u nds o f

bu tter .

1

bull might be the sire of 20 daughters in a herd in one year .

If the dams be capable of pro ducing only 200 pounds of fat

yearly, and if the sire represents a breed o r strain the cows

o f whi ch are capable of producing 350 pounds o f fat per year,it is evident that

,if the daughters averaged only half way

between,there would be an increase of 75 pounds per cow

1 The Co rnell R eading-co u rses , Vo l. I II , No . 54 , p . 53 .

SELE CTI ON AND IMPROVEMEN T OF DAIR Y CA TTLE 71

annually . It is not at all uncom m on to find even greater

differences than this in actual practice .

The first cro ss of im proved blo od m akes the offspring one

half, the second,three-fourths

,the third

, seven-eighths o f

the same blo od as the improved breed . The continued u se

of pure-bred sires of the same breed fo r 10 to 15 years will

change a scrub herd until it will have essentially the sam e

characteristics as the improved breed . The careful breeder

gives a great deal o f thought to the selection o f the sire for

his herd . The m o re skilled the breeder,the greater the care

taken in this respect . Alm o st any pure-bred bull will im

prove a scrub herd,but only the bull o f the best inheritance

will increase o r even maintain the standard of a highly de

veloped herd .

55 . Difference in Transm is sion o f Dairy Qu alitie s by

Diff er ent Bu lls . There is a wide variation in the way

different bulls transm it dairy qualities . This fact is

illustrated by the data in Table 13,com piled by the autho r .

from the reco rds o f the Jersey herd owned by the University

ofM issou rl . This herd is descended from three cows . Com

plete m ilk and butter-fat reco rds fo r 21 years m ake these

com parisons po ssible . The com parisons are made in each case

between the pro duction o f the daughters of the various sires

used and the dam of these daughters . The figure 4381, fo r

example,given as the m ilk production o f the daughters o f

M issouri R io ter is an average of the production o f each

daughter which is found in turn by taking the average of all

the lactation periods o f the particular animal . If in any case

the daughter had only three o r fewer lactation periods , the

com parison is between tho se and the co rresponding periods

fo r the dam .

72 DAIRY FARMING

TABLE 13 .

—INFLUENCE OF THE S IR E SHOWN BY A COM PAR ISON

OF THE R E CORDS OF DAUGHTE R S W ITH DAM S

AVERAGES FOR ALL LACTATION PERIODS

D am s D au ghters

M isso ur i R io terlVI ilk YieldPer cent fatYield o f fat

Hu goro tu s

M ilk yieldPer cent fatYield o f fat

Lo rne o f M eridale

M ilk yieldPer cent fatYield o f fat

M isso u r i R io ter 3rdlVIilk yield

Per cent fatYield o f fat

M inette’s Pedr oM ilk yieldPer cent fatYield o f fat

Daisy’s Pr ince o f St. Lam bert

M ilk yieldPer cent fatYield o f fat

Brown Be ssie’s R egistrarM ilk yieldPer cent fatYield o f fat

Fairy’s Lad

M ilk yieldPer cent fatYield o f fat

SELECTI ON AND IMP ROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE‘

73

M any interesting comparisons m ay be made o f the com

parative values o f these bulls . Fo r example,the daughters

o f Lo rne of M eridale averaged 1491 pounds of milk mo re

per year fo r their entire lifetim e than did their dams . Eleven

o u t of thirteen were superio r to their dams . If thirty

daughters of this bull had been m ilked in one herd,their

production would have exceeded that o f their dams by

pounds per year . At per 100 pounds the income would

be $671 per year mo re for the thirty daughters than fo r their

mo thers . If the anim als were daughters o f M issouri R io ter,they

’

wo u ld have produced 999 pounds each less than their

dams o r a total of pounds less m ilk than their mo thers

in a year : At per 100 pounds thi s would be a decrease

of $450. It would then make a difference o f $1121 per year

Whether these thi rty cows be daughters of M issouri R io ter

o r Lo rne of M eridale . If we make the comparison directly

from the average yield o f the daughters, the difference would

be pounds of m ilk per year wo rth $751 at per

100 pounds . If the greatest extremes be taken fo r com par

ison,as M issouri R io ter 3d and M issouri R io ter, the dif

ference is far greater .

56 . M etho ds o f S electing a Bu ll. There are two ways of

selecting a bull

1 . On the basis o f his pedigree and appearance .

2 . From the reco rds o f his daughters .

The pedigree is the mo st reliable means of j udging the

probable value o f a young bull . The system of advanced

registration now in u se m akes it po ssible to Obtain reliable

info rm ation concerning the dairy qualities of mo st of the

registered anim als . In selecting a young bull one should

have these reco rds befo re him . The po ints to be considered

are especially the reco rds of the cows that are the clo se an

74 DAIR Y FARMING

cestors o f the bull . It should also be observed to what

extent the bulls have sired high-producing cows . A wellbred bull should have a large num ber of these reco rds in his

pedigree .

M any persons overvalue an ammal that carries a small

fraction o f the blo od of one no ted animal . A pedigree that

shows mo derately go o d parents and grandparents is better

than one that has one o r two unusually go od ancesto rs and

the rest medio cre . A no ted animal farther back than grand

parents has no very great significance if the nearer relatives

are not go o d .

It is doubtful if the confo rmation o r appearance o f the

bull in any way indicates hi s value as a sire of superio r m i lk

ing cows . On the o ther hand it is po ssible to j udge from his

confo rmation to some extent as to the probable type o f his

daughters . The only really safe plan fo r the owner o f a

highly developed herd is to select a bull having daughters

in milk so that he m ay know the characteristics that the

bull transmits to his offspring . This,of course

,can only

be done in a few cases but is always advisable when po ssible .

Care m ust be taken not to intro duce disease by obtaining

a bull from a diseased herd .

57 . Cro s s-br e e ding . Cro ssing means the mixing of the

blo o d of two distinct breeds . It is a practice that is com

m on among American farm ers . The obj ect sought is to

combine the m o st desirable characteristics of the two breeds .

The practice has no thing to recomm end it . Breeds have

been developed and are kept pure in o rder that certain char

acteristics m ay be transmitted regularly to the offspring .

When two distinct breeds are cro ssed the chain of inheritance

is broken and all po ssible combinations of the characteristics

o f the two breeds appear . Fo r example,a farmer having

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76 DAIR Y FARMING

What differences in produ ction are fo u nd fo r different cows in thesam e herd ?

6 . Define lactation period .

7 . D o you know any farm er in the region who weighs the m ilk

from each cow ?

8 . Distingu ish between r ich m ilk and high yield o f bu tter-fat.

9 . HOW is m ilk sold in this region, by pou nd , qu art, o r on bu tterfat asis ?

10. What is the ob ject o f having di stinct breeds and keepingthem pur e ?

11 . What is the distinction between a grade and a cro ss-bredanim al?

12 . Who in thi s cou nty owns any advanced r egistry cows ?13. If a Jersey heifer calved at two years of age and in a year pro

du ced 3000 po u nds o f m ilk , testing 5 per cent f at, how m u ch m ilkcan she be expected to produ ce when m atu r e What Willher yearlyprodu ction o f bu tter-fat probably be ? Co m pare with the averagefo r experim ent station herds . I s she a go o d heifer ?14 . Considering the pr o por tion o f fat to r em ain the sam e when

the heifer beco m es a cow , co m plete the following table . Considerthe average bu tter-fat produ ction o f the experim ent station herds o fthe br eed as 100 per cent when filling the last colu m n . Whi ch onesare go od anim als ?

PRODUCTI ON IN FOLLOWING YEAR PROBABLE

FAT PR oCOM PARI SON

DUCTIONPER YEARWHENM ATURE

BREED

15 . Fr om the figu res given on page 17 do e s there seem to be any

danger o f over-produ ction o f pu re-br ed cattle in the near fu tu re ?

SELECTI ON AND IMPROVEMEN T OF DAIR Y CATTLE 77

SCORE CARD FOR DA IRY Cows

Cow’s NUMBER

SCALE OF POINTS

INDICATING EFFICIENCY OF M ILKSECRETING SYSTEMUdder large , evenly qu artered , wellheld u p , not m eaty , attachm ents long ,te ats squ arely p laced , and o f co nvemient s1ze

M ilk Veins—capacio u s , entering largewells

INB ICATING CAPACITYM u zzle wideJaw wide 1n angle , StrongBarrel deep , w ide , long , w ell held u p ,

w ith ribs bro ad , long , far ap art , slanting , well sp rung

INDICATING CONSTITUTIONALSTRENGTH AND VIGORNo stril large , expanded

Eye p rom inent, bright, intelligentChest wide , deep

Skeleton—develo ped fo r strength , o f

go od qu ality : r oo m y, long , and levelat pelvi s

Skin—lo o se and m ellow Showing go odcircu lation and secretion

Carriage energetic , p ro m pt, alert

INDICATING DAIRY TEMPERAMENTBo dy wedge Shap e . General app e arance

angular and lean, yet clean-cu t andneat 1n every p art

BREED TYPEPo ints char acte r istic o f the p articu larb reed ,

su ch as size , co lo r , tem p eram ent,ru ggedness o f bu lld , etc .

SCORE

Fill o u t the following , show ing which cow y o u wo u ld place first, second , etc. , and com

p are with the sco re as given above . If m ilk reco rds are available also , co m p are with these .

FIRST SECOND TH IRD FOURTH

78 DAIRY FARMING

LABORATORY EXERCISES

3 . Th e Parts of a Cow . Go to a dairy barn o r o therwise arrangeto have a cow to stu dy . Witho u t the textbo ok let each stu dentpo int o u t each o f the par ts o f a dairy cow as shown in Fig . 18 .

4 . M ake o u t a P e digr e e . If herdbo oks of any breed ar e available , o r if they can be bo rr owed fro m a breeder in the region,

m ake apedigree . If advanced r egistry bo oks are available , fillin the A . R . 0 .

data . If difi er ent stu dents take different ani m als , the pedigr eesm ay be com pared to see whi ch anim al shows the best breeding . If

any farm er in the region has advanced registry anim als , pedigreeso f these m ay be wo rked o u t, and the sam e anim als m ay be u sed fo r

ju dging , so that com parisons m ay be m ade on the basis o f bo thbr eeding and individu ali ty .

5 . Ju dging D airy Cattle . Go to a dairy barn o r o therwise arrangeto have cows to stu dy . Using a sco r e card like the one on page 77 ,m ake

‘

co m parisons o f two o r m o r e anim als .

Give the r easons fo r ranking the anim als in the order given.

Begin the reasons with the m o st im po rtant difier ence between theanim als co m pared and give all the leading di fferences . M ake the

answers ter se and concise .

6 . We ighing M ilk . If any farm er in the r egion desir es to co o per~ate with the scho ol, take the class to his farm and get the m etho d ofweighing star ted as directed on page 58 . Te st the m ilk , and co m

plete the reco rds m onthly . Feed r eco rds m ay also be taken by a

m em ber of the class weekly o r m onthly . A still better exercise fo rstu dents who are living on farm s is to have them keep the m ilk rec

ords .

COLLATERAL READ ING

Cyclopedia o f Am erican Agricu ltu re , L . H . Bailey , Vol. III , pp .

26—43 , 5 1 , 303—306 , 308 .

The Dairy Herd , Its Fou ndation and M anagem ent , U . S . Dept.Agr . , Farm ers

’Bu lletin 55 .

D airy Cattle and M ilk Produ ction , C . H . Eckles , pp . 17-26 ; 1 16

174 .

CHAPTER 4

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

C . H . ECKLES

58 . D ecline of M ilk Pr odu ction in Su m m er . M ilk pro

duction o f the average herd falls off rapidly in the latter

part of the summer . It is not uncommon fo r the amount

of milk so ld by a farmer in August to be no mo re than half

that marketed during June . At the season when this rapid

decline of milk o ccurs the animals are greatly annoyed by

flies . The flies are o ften lo oked upon as the m ain cause o f

this decline . There are go od reasons fo r believing that the

effect of the fly is overestimated . Where so iling o r grain

feeding is practiced,the decline at this season is little mo re

than the no rmal one fo r the stage of lactation represented

by the cows . The m ain cause fo r the decreased production

at this time of the year is undoubtedly the failure of the

cows to eat a sufficient amount of feed . This lack of feed

m ay com e from po o r pasture du e to dry -weather,o r it m ay

result from the fact that the cows do not graze sufficiently

because o f the hot weather and the annoyance o f flies . The

cow is sensitive to excessive heat,and thi s is probably inmo st

cases a stronger facto r than the flies . The main precaution

to be observed is to make certain that the animals have

plenty of feed easily accessible .

59 . Pr o te ction fr om Flie s . Cattle in this country are

troubled mo st by two kinds of flies,known as the stable

fly and the ho rn fly . The stable fly resembles the house fly79

80 DAIR Y FARMING

except that its mouth parts enable it to bite while the house

fly cannot. The ho rn fly is a native o f Europe and"

was

introduced into this country about 1886 . It is recognized

from its habit of feeding with wings spread , and it usually

travels in swarms . It is also seen at times gathered around

the base of the ho rn.

M any o f the flies that annoy cattle are hatched in manure .

The first precaution to be observed,in any attempt to re

duce the number,is to avo id an accumulation ofmanure where

it will remainmo ist,especially near the barn. Ho rse manure

is preferred by these pests,but they breed in any ,

even that

dropped in the fields by the animals . No practical m ethod

has been devised that will do mo re than reduce the number

o f flies very slightly . Large fly traps in the barn have been

used with some success . Screens on the barn are generally

found wo rse than useless since the flies accompany the

animals into the barn and then remain in the barn if the win

dows are screened .

M ilk rooms should always be pro tected by screens, on

account o f the serious danger of flies carrying germs of

human diseases into the milk .

In recent years a great many preparations designed to

repel flies have been placed on the market . These fly re

pellents consist chiefly o f some co al tar products with the

addition of fish o il,res1n

,o r pine tar . Results at three

experim ent stations go to show that there is little value in

using these preparations . If they are applied daily, it is po s

sible to keep the flies away fairly well,but it is questionable

whether the animal do es not suffer mo re from having the

po res of its skin clo sed up with the o ily substance than it

does from the insect . There is no appreciable increase in the

m ilk flow when these substances are used .

MANAGEMENT OF DA IR Y CA TTLE 81

60. D eho rning . There are m any reasons fo r deho rning

the anim als in the o rdinary business herd . Ho rns are

responsible fo r frequent inj ur ies and serve no useful pu r

po se . Deho rned cattle m ay be housed in much sm aller

space and are fed and watered together with much m o re

convenience . As a m atter of safety it is we ll to deho rn

bulls . There is no reason for be lieving that any bad effects

fo llow . It is not advisable to deho rn anim als that are to

be used for exhibition purpo ses . Whi le anim als without

ho rns are o ccasionally found in the show ring,they are at

a disadvantage .

Calves m ay be deho rned successfu lly by using caustic

po tash (po tassium hydrate) when they are a few days old .

Thehair is clipped away from the small buttons whi ch later

develop into ho rns . The caustic po tash is mo istened and

rubbed on the spo t Until the skin bleeds slightly, o r is j ust

ready to bleed . Care should be taken not to u se to o much .

If su ffi cient po tash has been applied, a dent will be left in

the skull after a few days and no ho rns will ever develop .

Persons who have had considerable experience sometim es

u se thi s method on calves that are nearly a month old,but

it is best dohe during the first week, after that mo re skill

is requir ed . A few cases have been repo rted where so much

water was used that it ran down into the eyes and put them

o u t. One m an used so much po tash that ho les were eaten

thr ough the skull and the calves killed . Such accidents are

inexcusable . In using po tassium hydrate wrap paper around

the end of the stick to prevent inju ring the fingers .

After an animal is at least one year of age , it m ay be de

ho rned by using the saw o r special deho rning clippers . De

ho rning with the saw o r clippers should be done in co o l

weather in the spring o r autum n.

G

82 DAIR Y FARMING

61 . M arking Calve s . In raising pure-bred cattle it is

impo rtant that some system of marking be adopted whi ch

will make it po ssible to identify the individuals . This is

mo re impo rtant with dairy cattle than with beef breeds,

since the calves are taken away from the mo thers so on after

birth . A number o f systems of markings are in u se . One

plan is to insert tags in the ears . There are m any fo rms of

these . They are numbered,and if desired the name o f the

owner is included . The general obj ection to this system is

the po ssibility that the tags m ay be to rn o u t. Ano ther plan

is to place a num bered brass tag on a strap about the neck .

This is rem oved when the animal is larger and well known

to the owner .

The tatto o system is also used with success . This con

sists in printing letters o r num bers in the skin o f the ear with

India ink . The instruments are so made that a combina

tion o f letters o r figures m ay be used . These tatto o m arks

when pro perly applied are permanent and do not disfigu re

the animal . They canno t be seen at a distance,but make

it po ssible to po sitively identify the anim al . This system is

the mo st satisfacto ry with breeds having light-co lo red skin.

The system fo llowed by the writer is to place a strap bear

ing a number on a brass tag around the neck of the calf befo re

it is taken from its mo ther . This strap is left on until the

anim al is nearly mature . The tatto o mark is then pu t on

the ear .

The co lo r markings of Ho lsteins,as shown on the diagram

of the application fo r registry o r on the pedigree , enable one

to identify these animals . Bu t ear tags o r o ther marking

systems are also desirable when large numbers are kept .

62 . Sh elter . The housing o f the dairy cow naturally

depends upon clim atic conditions . She should not be ex

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84 DAIR Y FARMING

trouble from tying . at any later time . Befo re freshening,

the heifer should be tied fo r a m onth o r mo re in the stall

where she is to stand when in m ilk . A careful m an should

handle her and take care not to excite her . It is espe cially

necessary to u se patience and care when she is first milked .

64 . M etho ds o f M ilking . There is a great difference in

the efficiency ofmilkers . One m an m ay get 20 per cent mo re

milk than ano ther from the same cow . A careless milker

m ay dry up a cow within a few months while a go od milker

m ay keep up the milk flow fo r the entire year . M en who

care fo r cows should always move among them quietly and

not startle them by sudden movements o r loud talking .

The cow canno t contro l the secretion o f milk by her will

but it m ay be affected by excitement . Anything unusual,

such as the presence of a dog o r a stranger at milking time,

will cause some cows to give less milk . Changing m i lkers is

likely to result in a lo ss o f milk fo r a few milkings,but if

the new m ilker be '

equ ally proficient the cow will so on return

to {5115"usual amount . However

,the milkers should be

Changed as little as po ssible . The milking should be done

quickly and quietly . If the cow is accustomed to eating

grain while being m ilked, she will not do well without having

it every time . She can easily become accustomed to being

milked either befo re o r after eating , but always should be

treated in the same manner . Care should be taken to get

all the strippings , since while the first milk drawn m ay cOn

tain as low as 1 per cent o f fat, the last contains from 6 to 9

per cent . The teats should always be dry when milked .

Wetting the teats is allto o common but it is a filthy practice .

A small amount o f vaseline rubbed on the hands serves

the sam e purpo se as wetting the teats and is not at all

objectionable .

MANAGEMEN T OF DAIR Y CA TTLE 85

65 . Hard-m ilking Cows . Some cows cause considerable

annoyance because they milk unusually hard . This condi

tion,which is caused by a strong m uscle (sphincter muscle)

that clo ses the opening o f the teat , can be remedied by

proper treatm ent . Instruments

are made by means of which it is

po ssible to overcom e the difficulty

with no danger to the anim al .

In mo st cases the u se of teat

plugs alone is f su fficient. These

plugs,which are m ade o f rubber

o r lead,are placed in the teat

duct and allowed to rem ain there

until the next milking . This is

continued until the muscle is some

what relaxed and the opening

remains larger . In severe cases a

cutting instrum ent known as the

teat slitter (bistoury) is used .

This operation should be per

fo rm ed by a veter1nar1an o r one

having experience in the u se o fTe at shtter

such Instruments . In u sm g teat o r bisto u ry . Teat expander .

plugs,m ilk tubes

,o r any inStru Fm . 28 .

—Instru m ents u sed in

ments which are inserted in thetreating hard-m ilking COWS '

duct of the udder,great care must be taken to sterilize the

instrum ents tho roughly befo re using them,fo r if germ s gain

access they m ay cause serious trouble . A two per cent

so lution of carbo lic acid o r a Weak so lution o f creo lin is

suitable fo r disinfecting instruments . It can also be done

by bo iling them In water just befo re using . The teats should

be tho roughly cleaned before inserting any instrument .

Lead teat plu g .

86 DAIR Y FARMING

66 . Efi ect o f Interval b e twe en M ilkings . If the cow be

milked twice a day at twelve hour intervals, there IS usually

no marked difference between the night and mo rning m i lk .

If the periods are unequal, the larger amount o f milk and the

po o rer quality fo llow the longer perio d . Heavy-producing

cows and all that are being handled to obtain the largest

reco rd should be milked three times a day . Few cows can

produce over 60 pounds of milk with two milkings,and when

75 to 80 pounds per day is reached, the production will sel

dom go higher unless the cow is milked four times each

twenty-four hours . Heavy-producing cows m ay profitably

be milked thr ee times a day . With cows of o rdinary ca

pacity the increased yield is not sufficient to pay fo r the

extra labo r . A cow that will produce 60 pounds per day with

two milkings as a rule will increase to at least 70 if milked

a third tim e . The richness o f the milk of heavy milkers is

increased somewhat when they are milked mo re than twice

per day . If many ; cows in the herd are giving over 50

pounds when milked twice a day, it will pay to try milking

three times .

67 . M ilking M achine s . A satisfacto ry milking machine

has long been one o f the greatest needs of the dairy farm er .

While it can hardly be said that the m ilking machine is o u t

o f the experimental stage , still it seems sufficiently well

developed to be considered a com mercial success at the pres

ent time . It is tho roughly demonstrated that by its u se a

skilled operato r can do as goo d wo rk as the average milker .

It is still a question whether the amount ofmilk obtained dur

ing the lactation period by a milking, machine is equal to

that obtained by a go od milker . It is quite certain that the

cow is not inj ured by the u se of the milking machine .

Provided the machine is properly cleaned and used , the

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88 DAI R Y FARMING

70. Chapped Te ats . Chapped teats m ay o ccur 1n co ld

weather . The application of vase line fo r a few times at

the first appearance o f the trouble will usually check and

cure it . Fo r severe cases the teats should be tho roughly

washed and so ftened with warm water, after whi ch glycerite

o f tannin m ay be applied .

71 . Warts on Te ats . These are o ften troublesome but

usually disappear o f themselves . They m ay be treated by

applying vaseline o r olive o il. If large, they m ay be cut ofi

with a pair of sharp scisso rs and the spo t touched with a

stick of caustic po tash .

72 . Bitter M ilk . This trouble i s mo st o ften foundWhereone o r two cows are kept to provide a family milk supply .

The trouble is confined mo stly to cows that have been in

milk seven months o r mo re . It rarely o ccurs when the ani

m al is receiving green feed . The m ilk has a peculiar taste ,described by some as salty but m o re o ften as bitter . The

taste is present in the fresh milk but it seems to become mo re

no ticeable as the m ilk stands . The cream from milk o f thi s

kind churns with difficulty and sometimes will not churn

at all.

The cause of this trouble and a remedy fo r it canno t be

given with certainty . It mo st frequently o ccurs when the

animal is overfed with grain . The only treatment that

offers prom ise o f removing the trouble is to reduce the grain

feed to the amount actually needed by the animal,o r pfef

erably less , fo r a while and to give two o r three do ses o f

1 to If pounds of Epsom salts at intervals of from three to

four days .

73 . Kicking Cows . The habit o f kicking is du e usually

to wrong m anagem ent . Cows kick at first from either

fear o r pain. If not properly handled, they m ay develop

MANAGEMENT OF DAIR Y CATTLE 89

the habit . Striking a cow that kicks makes her wo rse .

In case the cow’s teats are so re , u se vaseline , o r in severe

cases , u se a m ilking tube,until the injury can be healed . If

the cow is afraid handle her gently . In som e cases gentle

measures will not wo rk . Some old cows that have go t

into the habit canno t be cured . Such animals should be

tied during m ilking . Thi s is best done by using a rather

heavy strap with a buckle and a lo op . The strap is put

around one leg above the ho ck and the end drawn through

the lo op . The strap is then put around the o ther leg and

buckled so the two legs are held clo se together . The cow

so on learns to stand quietly as long as the strap is in place .

74. Self-su cking Cows . This habit is not very common

but it is difficult to break up when once it is acquired . Oc

casionally one cow will suck ano ther one . If an o rdinary

cow contracts the habit,the best plan is to dispo se o f her .

A fairly effective treatment seems to be to put a bull ring in

the cow’s no se and hang a second ring from the first . The

second ring can generally be taken off after a time .

75 . H ow Long Sh o u ld a Cow b e Dry ? Practically all

experienced dairym en agree that cows should be dry fo r a

period befo re freshening . A cow will produce m o re m i lk

if allowed six weeks to recuperate , than she will if milked

continuously . Heavy milk production is a severe tax upon

an animal . A cow that has not been dry fo r a sho rt time

will start at a considerably lower level of milk production

than will one that has had a chance to rest . Under o rdinary

conditions six weeks.

is sufficient,but if a cow is in a thin

condition it is better to make the period longer .

76 . Drying u p a Cow . The mo st com mon method of

drying a cow is to lengthen the interval betweenmilkings , by

at first omitting one m ilking each day . After a few days

90 DAIRY FARMING

the milk is drawn only once in two days until the secretion is

stopped . There is less danger o f inj uring a cow in drying

her up than is generally thought . The secretion of milk

near the end of the lactation period depends largely upon

the stimulation of the nerves in milking and therefo re stops

readily if this stimulation be removed . If a cow is produc

ing as little as 10 pounds per day, milking can be stopped at

any time with no po ssible inj ury . The udder will fill slightlyfo r the first few days

,after which the secreted milk is ab

so rbed and no inj ury follows . If this plan is fo llowed, it is

best not to draw any milk after once stopping . If the ani

m al is pro ducing much mo re than 10 o r 12 pounds per day,her feed should at first be reduced fo r a few days and the

character of the ration changed to one low in pro tein,such

as timo thy hay ,with little o r no grain. As so on as the pro

duction of milk begins to drop decidedly it is safe to stop

abruptly . The autho r has fo llowed this plan fo r a number

of years with high-pro ducing cows without the slightest injury

in any case .

77 . M ilking the Cow b efo r e Calving . It is the practice

of some to milk the heavy m ilkers several tim es befo re the

birth of the calf,thinking the udder m ay be inj ured . As a

rule this is not a go od practice . It increases the danger of

trouble at the time of freshening and do es not relieve the

congested condition of the udder to any great extent . It is

only advisable with the heaviest milkers when they are

suffering greatly from the distention of the udder .

78 . Car e o f Cow after Calving . The vitality of the cow

is low after calving and she should be treated carefully .

She should be pro tected from co ld winds and severe weather .

Her drinking water is best warmed fo r a day o r two if the

weather is co ld . The ration fo r the first few days shou ld be

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92 DAIR Y FARMING

The bull should not be allowed to run lo o se with the herd .

He should be kept in a paddo ck where plenty of exercise is

po ssible . A ring should be put in his no se at the age of about

one year . A bull shou ld be handled carefully and firmly at

all times . Teasing should never be allowed . He do es not

appreciate petting o r unnecessary handling, and is best let

alone excep t when it is necessary to handle him . He should

be handled in a firm manner and made to respect his keeper

but should never be abused . The bull of a dairy breed is

m o re likely to be Vlcm u s than one of a beef breed since the

fo rmer are much mo re active and nervous . It should

always be taken fo r granted that the bull is dangerous and

that he canno t safely be trusted . The animal should be

tho roughly trained for tying and leading when a calf . He

m ay then be tied o r led at any time later even if handled only

at long intervals .

The main m istake made in handling aged bulls is in hou s

ing them to o clo sely Without exercise . Plenty Of exercise is

the m o st im po rtant facto r in preserving the vitality of a

breeding animal . Fo r any but the m o st severe climates the

best housing fo r the bull during all seasons o f the year is a

shed pro tected from the co ld winds but open on one side .

Some expo sure to the weather especially during the co o ler

part of the year helps to keep him in go o d physical condi

tion . Where it is necessary that the bull be kept in show

condition all the tim e,as fo r example in high-class breeding

establishments where buyers are present frequently, the

bull is generally kept in a box stall where he m ay be gro omed

and where he is pro tected from the weather . Under these

conditions some provision must be m ade to exercise him

regularly o r he is likely to become infertile . The ties , fences,and gates should always be strong and kept in go od repair

MANAGEMEN T OF DAIR Y CATTLE 93

so that the animal m ay not have a chance to learn his eno r

mous strength

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEM S

1 . Atwhat tim e of the year do m o st cows in you r r egi’

on freshenFro m thi s fact and fro m Fig . 25 , abo u t how m u ch less m ilk shou ldbe given in Au gu st than in Ju ne ? Fro m the cr eam ery o r o therbu yer o f m ilk find the to tal am ou nt o f m ilk r eceived in April, M ay ,

Ju ne , Ju ly , and Au gu st . How do es thi s co m pare with the natu r aldrop2 . What proportion o f the cattle in you r r egion are deho rned ?

How is deho rning done ?3 . What sy stem s o f m arking cattle are u sed in you r region ?4 . Why do dairy cattle r equ ire war m er barns than beef cattle ?5 . Ar e any advanced r egistry reco rds m ade by breeder s in this

region ? How m any tim es a day do they m ilk ?6 . How long are m o st o f the cows dry in the best dairy herds o f

yo u r region ?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

7 . R em oving th e H o rns from a Calf . Fo llowing the directionon page 8 1 r em ove the ho rns fr o m a calf less than thr ee weeks old .

8 . M ilking Conte st. A m ilking conte st m ay be held . Farm er s

sho u ld act as ju dges . So m e of the po ints to consider shou ld beThe eff ect o f the m anner o f handling the cow on her co m po su r e ;how clean the m ilk is kept ; how co m pletely the m ilk is rem ovedfrom the udder ; and how fast the wo rk is done .

COLLATERAL READING

Stable Fly , U . S . D ept . Agr . , Farm er s’Bu lletin 540.

Dehorning Cattle , U . S . Dept. Agr . , Farm ers’Bu lletin 350.

CHAPTER 5

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

C . H . ECKLES

COMPOSITION OF FEEDS AND FEEDING STANDARDS

81 . Th e Use s o f Fe ed . A dairy cow uses feed for the

fo llowing purpo ses

1 . Fo r maintaining the body .

2 . To supply the material fo r m ilk .

3 . Fo r development of the fetus .

4 . Fo r growth in case the animal is immature .

5 . To produce gain in weight .

Three general classes o f fo od m aterial are required .

1 . Pro tein o r nitrogenous material .

2 . Carbohydrates and fat.

3 . Ash o r mineral matter .

The main problem of feeding is to supply the proper

amount o f the foo d m aterial of the three classes in the least

expensive fo rm . It IS evident that the first step is to know

what the anim al requires for fo od and how -to prepare a

ration that will m eet this demand .

82 . Chem ical Analysis o f Fe eds . When a chemist makes

an analysis o f any fo o dstuff , clover hay fo r example , he

determ ines the amounts of water, pro tein,ash, crude fiber,

nitrogen-free extract,and fat that the substance contains .

All feedstuffs contain these same constituents, but in widely

varying quantities .

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96 DAIRY FARMING

Includes suffi cient o ther pro ducts to make it somewhat

inaccurate to call it fat.

The crude fiber,nitrogen—free extract

,and fat all serve

much the same purpo ses in the body . They supply heat to

keep the body warm ,and m aterial to be built into fat and to

be burned o r o xidized in the body to furnish energy .

89 . D ige stibility. An animal is not able to digest a ll

o f the substances in any fo odstuff . The propo rtion of the

pro tein,fo r exam ple

,that m ay be used depends largely upon

the nature of the feed . The grains are mo re tho roughly

digested than the hays . The amounts of each of the su b

stances that can be digested from any feed are determined

by what are called digestion trials . The chemist m akes

such a trial by analyzing the fo o d consum ed during a certain

perio d,and at the same time co llecting all the dung excreted

and analyzing that to find o u t how much passes through

the alimentary canal . The difference between the amount

consumed and the amo unt vo ided is called digestible . Such

tests have been made of all com mon feeding stu ffs,so the

practical feeder has data at hand regarding bo th the com

po sition of feeds and their digestibility to serve as a guide

in preparing suitable rations .

90. Pr o du ction Valu es . The values of different feeds are

not always in propo rtion to the digestible nutri ents . If a

foo d is hard to digest , some of the energy derived from it is

required to make up the lo ss du e to the hard wo rk o f diges

tion. Co rn and o ther grains are easily digested , and fo r this

reason,

’

energy from grains is wo rth mo re to the animal than

is the same amount of energy from timo thy hay o r o ther

co arse feeds . Timo thy hay if burned gives off as much heat

o r energy as do es co rn meal,but

,in one experiment , Arm sby

found the animal digested only 44 per cent of the timo thy,while

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 97

77 per cent of the co rn meal was digestible . On account of

the energy required for digestion still less was available fo r

u se in sto ring up fat, or fo r producing milk . On the basis

of digestibility 168 pounds o f timo thy was equal to 100

pounds o f co rn, but for production purposes , that is , for

sto ring fat, producing milk, o r making growth , 269 pounds

of timo thy was necessary to equal 100pounds of co rn . Table

14 gives a comparison o f the amounts of energy available

from co rn and from timo thy hay .

TABLE 14 .

—ENERGY VALUE S PER 100 POUNDS OF C ORN ME A LAND T IM OTHY HAY

,E A CH C ONTAIN ING F IFTE EN PE R CENT

VYATE R

C ORN M EAL TIM OTHY HAY

Heat valu e when bu rned .

Heat valu e o f m aterial digestedPr o du ction valu e

It IS not safe to compare roughagewith gram on the basisof digestible nutrients , but such 5. Comparison between dif

ferent classes of hay-1s fairly reliable , and grains m ay be

com pared with grains on the basis. of digestible nutrients .

The best way thus far found fo r cofnparing different feeds is

on the basis o f the energy values fer production . The

feeding standards given on pages 298 m_

304 are based on

digestible m aterial . Arm sby’s standards given in this

chapter are based on pro duction valiIeS.

91 . Fe eding Standards . The many analyses that have

been m ade enable u s to know how much o f each of the sev

eral constituents is contained in all co m mon feeds on the

average . It is also known that the cow needs all of theseH

98 DAIR Y FARMING

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100 DAIR Y FARMING

The maintenance requirement naturally. increases with

the size of the animal,but not in direct propo rtion.

As a result of his investigations,Arm sby suggested .05

pounds of digestible pro tein and .3 therms energy value fo r

each pound of milk . This was based upon average milk

containing 4 per cent of fat. The autho r 1 has recently pro

po sed the following modification of Arm sby’s standard to

adapt it to the feeding of cows not producing average m ilk :

D IGESTIBLE PROTE IN ENERGY R EQUIRED PERPER CENT FA TR EQUI RED PER POUND M ILK POUND M ILK

P ou nds

050

052

055

058

062

066

070

075

Where it is not practicable to take the richness of the milk

of each cow into account the fo llowing m ay be used and the

requirement based upon breed average

D IGESTI BLE PROTEIN PERPOUND M ILK ENERGY PER POUND M ILKBREED

P ou nds

28

92 . Calcu lating a Ration. Let it be assum ed that the

cow to be fed weighs 1150 pounds and produces daily 30

1 M isso u ri Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station,R esearch Bu lletin 7 .

FEEDING DAIR Y CA TTLE 101

pounds o f m ilk testing per cent fat. Acco rding to the

preceding table the maintenance requirem ent would be as

fo llows

Digestible pro tein .56 po u nds

Energy therm s

Fo r the production of 30 pounds of per cent milk

there would be '

needed

D ige stible pro tein (30 x .058 ) po u nds

Energy (30 X .33 therm s

The to tal requirements then are as fo llows

D IGESTIBLEPROTEIN ENERGY VALUE

Fo r m aintenanceFo r m ilk pro du ction

To tal

The problem is to find a ration that contains thi s amount

of digestible pro tein and has thi s energy value . Other

problems also enter Into the question,such as bulk and the

com parative co st o f the several feeds available . In cal

cu lating a ration we always begin with the roughage , since

on mo st farm s considerable roughage is on hand that should

be used to the best advantage , and, as already po inted o u t,

the cow is adapted fo r consuming coarse feeds and must

have a certain bulk in her ration at all times . We will as

sume that on the farm where the fo rego ing ration is to be

fed,co rn silage

,clover hay ,

and co rn are on hand , and wheat

bran and co ttonseed m eal m ay be purchased if necessaryto provide the proper ration.

102 DA IR Y FARMING

TABLE 15 . DRY MATTER , D IGE STIBLE PR OTE IN , AND ENE RGY

VA LUE S PER 100 POUNDS 1

TOTAL D RY D IGESTIBLE ENERGYFEEDING STUFFM ATTER PROTEIN VALUE

P ou nds P ou nd s Therm s

Green fo dder and silageAlfalfaClover crim son

Clo ver red

Co rn fo dder green

Co rn silage 2Hu ngarian grassRapeRye

Tim o thyHay and dry co ar se fo dder sAlfalfa hayClover hay red

Co rn fo rage field cu r edCo rn sto verCowpea hayHu ngarian hayOat haySoybean hayTim o thy hay

Straws :Oat strawRye strawWheat straw

R o o ts and tu ber sCarro tsM angels

Po tato esRu tabagasTu rnips

GrainsBarleyCo rn

Co rn-and-cobm ealOatsPea m eal

1 U . S . D ept . Agr . , Farm ers’Bu lletin 346 .

2 Owing to an erro r , the o riginal pu blication gave the pro te in o f co rnsilage as bu t .88 is co rrect.

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104 DAIR Y FARMING

This leaves pounds of pro tein and therm s o f

energy to be supplied by the grain. If co rn is grown on the

farm,we will u se it as far as po ssible in making up the grain

ration. The am ounts to be used can only be found by trial .

We will'

start with the fo llowing : co rn 6 pounds,bran 3

pounds,co ttonseed meal pounds .

D IGESTIBLEPROTEIN

35 po u nds co rn silage10 po u nds clover hay6 po u nds corn3 po u nds bran1 .5 po u nds co ttonseed m eal

To tal In rationR equ ired

This ration give s mo re energy than is necessary and is

deficient in pro tein. Since co ttonseed meal is the highest

in pro tein we will om it 1 pound of corn and increase the

co ttonseed meal to 2 pounds . We then have

D IGESTIBLEPROTEIN ENERGY

P ou nds

35 po u nds co rn silage

10 po u nds clo ver hay5 po u nds co rn3 po u nds bran2 co ttonseed m eal

'

To tal in rationR equ ired

This ration approaches the standard clo sely -enough fo r

practical purpo ses . It is not essential to have an exact

FEEDING DAIR Y CATTLE 105

agreem ent with the standard,since the compo sition o f the

feed varies to some extent and the individual requirements

o f the anim als are also subj ect to som e variations .

93 . Th e Co st o f the R ation. In the fo rego ing,no atten

tion has been given to the relative co st of the feeds used in

m aking up the ration . This question is one of great impo r

tance,and must always be taken into account . In pre

paring the ration the co st should be calculated at the sam e

tim e,and trial m ade of various com binations that offer to

reduce the co st .

A careful study o f the figures In Table 15 will be o f great

assistance in the selection o f the mo st economical ration. If

the ration at hand is sho rt in pro tein,and the purchase o f

som e concentrate to supply this deficiency is contemplated,

a study should be made o f the am ount of digestible pro tein

in various feedstu ffs, together with the pri ce . A go o d plan

is to calculate the co st per pound of digestible pro tein to

ascertain in what feed it can be purchased mo st econom ically .

Fo r exam ple,if co ttonseed meal co sts $32 per ton,

one pound

o f digestible pro tein would co st cents,if the value o u t

side the pro tein be igno red . With bran at $20 per ton a

pound o f digestible pro tein Would co st cents,and with

o ats at 50 cents per bushel , o r per ton,it would be

wo rth cents . Under these conditions it is readily seen

which feedstuff would be the cheapest source of pro tein fo r

the ration deficient in that constituent .

If the question 1s that o f providing the cheapest ration

as a who le and not m erely supplying a lack of pro tein,it is

equally im po rtant to study the energy value of the several

feeds as carefully as is done with the pro tein . It is readily

seen,fo r example

,that while bran has an energy value Of

therms per 100 pounds , co rn has a value of If co rn

106 DAIR Y FARMING

and bran are the same price per pound , co rn is by far the

cheaper feed . With bran at $20 per ton, a therm o f energy

co sts cents,while in co rn at $26 per ton the same energy

co sts only cents . When planning the ration to be pu r

chased,o r even the crop to be grown in some cases

,it is well

to make such calculations as suggested and determine whi ch

are the cheapest feedstuffs under the existing conditions .

D ISCUSSION OF COMMON FEEDSTUFFS

No particular feed' o r combination o f feeds is essential fo r

the m o st economical pro duction of m ilk . The first consider

ation is to grow the mo st suitable cro ps on the farm in o rder

that the amount purchased m ay be as small as po ssible

without reducing the efficiency of the ration . In the brief

discussion which fo llows,only the mo st common feedstuffs

are considered .

94 . Tim o thy Hay . The value o f this hay as a feed fo r

dairy cows is o ften greatly overestimated . It is unpalatable

except When cut early and therefo re will not be consumed

in suffi cient quantities . The most serious objection is the

low pro tein content .

95 . Corn Stover . This is the name applied to dried co rn

stalks from which the ears have been removed . It m ay be

utilized to a sm all extent . It has the same characteristics

and objections as tim o thy hay ,and canno t be depended upon

fo r mo re than a part o f the roughage .

96 . Hay fr o m Legu m e s . Hay of this class is especially

valuable fo r the dairy cow . It includes the common clovers,alfalfa

,the cowpea

,soybean

,field pea, and o ther less co m

m on legumes,such as vetch and crimson clover . Fo rage

from this class o f plants when properly cured is highly

palatable , and contains a relatively large am ount o f pro tein.

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108 DAI RY FARMING

o f lightening up the mass so that it is easier fo r the digestive

j uices to act upon it . This is o f special impo rtance in con

nection with such feeds as co ttonseed meal,that have a ten

dency to fo rm a pasty m ass in the stom ach .

Wheat m iddlings, o r sho rts, 1s a valuable feed fo r the cow,

but it is mo re like co rn meal in com po sition and prop

erties than like bran . As a rule it is better to make u se of

bran rather than sho rts fo r the cow in milk .

100. O ats and C at Pr o du cts . Oats is an excellent feed

fo r cows and growing anim als when the co st is not pro

hibitive . Wo ll found o ats to be about 10 per cent mo re

valuable per pound than bran as feed fo r cows . In general,

it m ay be said that o ats are themselves an excellent feed .

Bu t if the balance of the ration is deficient in pro tein,o ats

do not contain enough pro tein to make up the sho rtage .

The valuable by-pro ducts o f o ats are mainly from o atmeal

mills,and consist of o at sho rts and finely divided parts o f

the grain. Besides these , a much larger quantity o f hulls

must be dispo sed o f by these m ills . Hulls are mo stly crude

fiber and are about like o at straw in feeding value . The

by-products o f the o atm eal mills are therefo re valuable

,to

the extent that they contain the parts o f the grains . Oat

hulls are used largely to fo rm a po rtion o f various m ixed feeds .

101 . Co ttons e e d M eal. This by-pro duct

.

is left after

the o il is extracted from co ttonseed . It contains a higher

amou nt of pro tein than any o ther comm on feed . Fo r this

reason it is especially valuable fo r balancing rations deficient

in pro tein,fo r instance tho se in which co rn and co rn products

fo rm a large pro po rtion . It should not be fed to excess .

As a rule from two to four pounds per day is the maximum .

However,in the South

,where it - is abundant , it is fed in

much larger quantities with go o d results .

FEEDING DAIR Y CA TTLE 109

102 . Lins e ed M eal. This valuable feed is the residue

after linseed o il is extracted from flaxseed . It ranks next

to co ttonseed meal in pro tein,and on the market usually

sells fo r a little mo re . It seem s to exert a very favo rable

effect upon anim als of all kinds . Like co ttonseed meal,it

is especially valuable as a means o f supplying the pro tein

usually lacking in the farm-grown ration.

103 . Glu ten Fe ed . Thi s is a by-product from starch

and gluco se factories . It consists o f the co rn grain after the

starch is extracted . In pro tein content it ranks about

m idway between bran and o il meal , and is'

a palatable and

valuable feed

104 . Be et P u lp and M olas se s . Fo rmerly beet pulp was

fed to cattle in the neighbo rho od o f beet-sugar facto ries,

but now much of it is dried . The feeding value of dried beet

pu lp is a little less per pound than co rn,which it resembles

in the relative am ount of pro tein and carbohydrates present .

It swells greatly when mo istened and canno t be pressed into

a com pact mass . Fo r this reason it is easily digested and

is valuable to lighten up a grain ration that o therwise would

fo rm a mass in the stomach not easily penetrated by the

digestive ju ices .

Low-grade mo lasses is ano ther by—product of cane and

beet-sugar facto ries . It is o ften so ld in com bination with

o ther feeds,such as beet pulp and alfalfa hay, and som etimes

with nearly wo rthless materials such as peanut hulls, weed

seeds, co co a waste , o r peat mo ss . M o lasses serves a useful

purpo se in m aking unpalatable feeds m o re readily consumed .

Unfo rtunately it is to o o ften used to disguise material o f

little o r no feeding value .

105 . Br ew er s’Grains .

‘

Fresh brewers’grains are

’

fed in

large quantities where they m ay be hauled directly from the

110 DAIR Y FARMING

brewery . Considerable obj ection has been raised by city

health autho rities to the u se of this feed . If fed in moderate

amounts under proper sanitary conditions , it Is not ob

jectionable . However, the u se of it is so o ften abused that

o fficials in some lo calities have found it easier to prohibit

the u se than to regulate it . The obj ection comes from

feeding these grains exclusively,from allowrng decompo si

tion to begin befo re feeding, and from the very obj ection

able sani tary conditions that exist if special care is not taken

to keep the feed boxes,feeding troughs

, and,in fact , the

entire stable,clean. Thi s feed should not be used in

‘

excess

of twenty pounds per day ,and should be supplemented with

hay and some o ther grain,such as co rn .

The greater part of the brewers’grains now produced are

dried,and in thi s fo rm m ay be transpo rted long distances .

This feed is rich in pro tein. Four o r five pounds m ay be

used in the ration to advantage . At present the larger part

of this by—product finds a market in Europe .

106 . M ixed Fe eds . No sm all propo rtion o f the grain

supplied the dairy cows of the United States is in the fo rm of

mixed feeds . As a class,m ixed feed is to be lo oked upon

with suspicion. Where the unmixed grains and by-products

m ay be bought on the m arket,it is always safer to purchase

them and to m ake such mixtures as m ay be best to supple

ment the available farm feeds . The main purpo se of the

manufacturers o r dealers in putting feed mixtures on the

market is to dispo se of material of inferio r quality o r of some

by—product of little o r no value . One of the mo st common

ingredients ofmixed feeds is o at hulls , from o atm eal facto ries .

In many cases the hulls are ground fine to escape detection,and the claim is made that ground o ats is a part of the

mixture . A carefulexamination will usually disclo se the fact

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112 DAIRY FARMING

animals . The best of these substances generally have fo r

their base common feedstuffs , such as linseed meal o r wheat

middlings,while o thers contain low-grade mill refuse o r even

ground bark o r clay .

’

To the base 1s added various o ther

substances,such as common salt , charco al, sulphate of iron

,

gentian,pepper

,and Epsom salts , and o ften tumeric o r iron

o xide fo r co lo ring . Some m ay have a small value as a toni c,

but if such treatment is desirable , the necessary drugs should

be purchased at a drug sto re , and m ay be had fo r a small part

of the surri asked fo r the same in the fo rm of sto ck fo o d .

M any experiment stations have made feeding tests which

have shown that no value was derived from the u se of the

several brands of commercial sto ck fo ods . M oney expended

fo r this class of articles will give far greater returns if used

fo r the purchase of o rdinary feed .

FEEDING YOUNG STOCK AND DRY Cows

108 . Calf R aising . The careful dairyman sees in the

best heifers the po ssibility of cows that will not only replace

the discarded members of the herd but help to raise the aver

age production. The question is o ften asked as to whether

it pays to raise the calf . The answer is that Only under

exceptional conditions can the farmer affo rd not to raise the

well-bred heifer calves . Some farmersnear large cities where

feed is high in price find it mo re profitable to buy all their

cows , but as a general practice in mo st farm ing sections, the

best heifers should be raised .

The dairy-bred calf is almo st always raised by hand . A

discussion of the subj ect is naturally divided into two parts

on account of the two common conditions

1 . Calf raising where skim-milk is on hand .

2 . Raising the calf where who le milk is so ld .

FEEDING DAIR Y CA TTLE 113

109 . Raising the Calf on Skim -m ilk . It is well known

that calves m ay be rarsed on skim-m ilk practically as well

as when fed who le milk .

A skim-milk calf is not

quite so fat during the

first few weeks but grows

equally as well as the

one receiving the u n

separated milk and de

velops into an equally

go od animal . Skim-m i lkFI G . 30. A thrifty Ho lstein heifer sixdlfiers from Whole m llk

m onths old , raised on skim -m ilk after theonly in the much smaller first two weeks with very little grain. It

w as fed 200 po u nds o f whole m ilk, and

it contains .

The calf m ay be taken from the cow at birth o r allowed

to nurse two o r three days . It should be given its mo ther’s

FIG . 31 . The sam e anim al shown in Fig . 30when fo u r years o ld , a

go od type o f cow and a go od produ cer .

114 DAIR Y FARMING

milk fo r the first few days,later mixed milk is as go od .

Care must be taken no t to overfeed at any time . Fo r the

first two weeks ten to twelve pounds per day i s all that the

largest calf will require . A small one needs even less . It m ay

be fed in two feeds , but three feeds are better fo r the first

two o r three weeks . Each animal should be fed by itself

so that it is cer

tain to get the

proper amount

of milk . As the

calf g ets o lder

the amount of

milk m ay be in

c r e a s'

e'

d s om e

what , but it is

not necessary to

f e e d o v e r 1 6

FIG . 32 .

—A Ho lstein heifer calf six m onths o ld , pounds a day atraised on whole m ilk. To tal m ilk consu m ed 2960

pou nds ,any trm e . A

large calf can

take up to 20 pounds without injury . The m ilk must

always be fed fresh and sweet. M ilk that has been standing

some time,even if it does not taste sour, isnot in the best

condition fo r feeding . The milk should have a temperature

o f 90°F . o r higher while the calf is young , bu t later it

becomes less sensitive to a slight change in tem perature .

After about two weeks the feeder m ay begin to replace

the who le milk with skim-milk . This should be done

gradually, about a week being given to the change . The

amount fed should not be greater because skim-milk is

given in place of who le milk .

By the time the calf is a month old it will begin to eat

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116 DAIR Y FARMING

month old. The calf does equally well fo r the first three or

four months with hay o r with pasture grass fo r roughage.

Ano ther exceedingly impo rtant po int is the necessity for

cleanliness of the pails and troughs used for calf feeding . A

go od rule is to have the calf pails as clean as the milk pails .

The barn o r stalls must also be clean and light . Dark,damp

,

o r dirty stalls Often result in serious sickness . The best

part of the barn should be used fo r the calf pens . The

raising o f the calf on skim-milk m ay be summarized as

fo llows

1 . Take the calf from its mo ther not later than the third

day .

‘

2 . Feed mother’s milk fo r two weeks,then change gradu

ally to skim-milk .

3 . Especially avo id overfeeding . Keep the calf a little

hungry,and make sure that each calf receives its proper

amount .

4 . Feed the skim-milk warm and fresh every time .

5 . Feed dry grain,preferably co rn meal

,as so on as the

calf will take it .

6 . Keep the utensils and stalls clean at all times .

110. R aising Calve s wh en Wh ole M ilk is Sold . The

main difficulty in calf raising where who le milk is so ld on the

market is the matter o f expense .

To raise a calf on who le milk means that the milk consumed

m ay be greater in value than the calf raised . If the calf is fed

who le milk as freely as skim-milk is given,it would consume

2000 to 2500 pounds befo re it is weaned . At per hun

dredweight, the feed up to six months would represent a

value of $30 to $38 . It is evident that this su m can be

expended with profit only on very valuable calves .

As a result of this situation the practice of not raising even

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 117

the best heifer calves is to o com mon. This po licy stands

in the way of im provement of the herd . The I llino is Ex

perim ent Station found the average profit per cow to be

mo re each year in tho se herds in which a pure-bred

bull was kept and calves raised .

Th e Us e o f M ilk Su b stitu te s . Several calf meals

advertised as m ilk substitutes are on the market . These are

so ld under a trade nam e and the com po sition is not given .

In general they are a m ixture o f linseed meal,oatmeal

,

wheat middlings,and co rn meal . In some cases bean meal

,

ground fiaxseed,o r skim-m ilk powder is included . The

Co rnell University Experiment Station 1obtained go od

results by'

the u se of a commercial calf meal compo sed of

oatm eal,wheat meal

,flaxseed

,and dried skim-milk . The

calves received in addition a grain m ixture consisting of

co rn,o ats

,and wheat bran

,three parts each . The calves

were fed who le m ilk alone fo r the first week after which the

calf m eal was gradually intro duced . The feeding of milk

was gradually reduced until at the end o f about one month

the calves were receiving only the calf meal , grain m ixture,

and hay . M o st of the calves were able to grow fairly well

on this ration,and they developed into go od cows . The

average quantities of feed used up to five months of age

were :

Average gain per dayTo tal co st of feed

1 Co rnell University Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station, Bu lletins 269

and 304 .

118 DAI R Y FARMING

Excellent results were also obtained by the same station by

the u se o f dried skim-milk powder . The quantities of feed

required fo r each calf up to five months with this ration were

Whole m ilk 185 pou ndsM ilk powder 230 pou ndsHay 370 po u ndsGrain 114 po u ndsGain per day pou ndsTo tal co st o f feed

The Illino is Experiment Station conducted an experiment

to determine the minimum amount o f milk necessary to

raise a calf . M ilk feeding was continued to the age of from

42 to 56 days . Who le milk was fed the first three weeks

fo llowed by skim-milk up to the age o f eight weeks . It

was concluded that it is advisable to feed milk long enough

to give the calves a go od start . After the age o f eight weeks

the calves thrived on grain and hay . The grain ration was

a mixture of co rn,4 parts ; o ats

,4 parts ; and bran and lin

seed o ilmeal,1 part each . The to tal amounts fed per animal

were who le milk, 134 pounds ; skim-milk,422 pounds . The

to tal value of the milk used was fo r each calf . 1

These results show clearly that the milk can be reduced to

an amount that do es not make the co st o f raising the calf

excessive . When grain is substituted fo r milk under the

conditions discussed,it must not be expected that the calf

will appear as fat and thrifty as one receiving milk . How

ever,there is no reason for believing that the dairy qualities

o f the cow are inj ured in any way . If a go od ration is fed

as the calf grows o lder,it will make up any deficiency in

size that m ay result from the lack o f mo re milk in the ration

when young .

1 Illino is Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station,Bu lletin 164 .

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120 DAIR Y FARMING

in Table 16 show the average gain and weight for calves of

three breeds as found by the autho r .

113 . Fe eding th e Dairy H eifer . No special difficulties

are experienced in raising heifer calves from the tim e o f

weaning until they come into milk . If pasturing is practiced,

no further attention o r additional feed is necessary so long

as the grass is abundant . The winter ration should consist

of a goo d quality of roughage with a small amount o f grain.

A go od ration is co rn silage and clover o r alfalfa hay ,with a

grain allowance o f about 2 o r 3 pounds daily per animal .

A mo re liberal grain ration will cause a mo re rapid growth

o f the young animals and earlier maturity . It is po ssible by

heavy grain feeding to have a heifer as mature at the age o f

18 months as ano ther fed entirely on roughage is at 24

months . Liberal feeding during the growing period and

the better condition of the animal whi ch fo llows result in

a larger milk yield during the first year than is the case when

less is fed . The size of the animal when mature is influenced

to some extent by the manner o f feeding during the growing

period . In experiments by the autho r,heifers fed a liberal

ration measured over an inch mo re in height when mature

than did heifers fed a ration with less nutrients .

1 At the

age of 18 months the difference was nearly inches, bu t

the group rece1v1ng the lighter ration continued to grow for

several months after the heavier fed group had ceased grow

ing . The lighter fed group , however, remained slightly

smaller . Ano ther facto r that has som e influence on the size

o f the cow when mature is the age at which she comes into

milk . A heifer that freshens at an early age , for example,

20 to 22 months fo r a Jersey , and 22 to 24 fo r a Ho lstein,

will not develop into so large an animal as she would if she1 M issou ri Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station , Bu lletin 135 .

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

122'

DAIR Y FARMING

were somewhat o lder . ~ The difference will not be very

marked unless the animal has also been fed a light

ration up to this time and is therefo re imm ature fo r

the age .

Heavy grain feeding when young, accompanied by late

breeding,will develop a heifer tOher maximum size . A

ration that do es not supply an abundance of fo od in an

easily digestible fo rm,as

,fo r example

,hay and silage alone

,

together with early calving will result in a slower growth

of the animal and a somewhat smaller size at maturity .

The best practice to fo llow IS one between these two ex

tremes . A heifer fed exclusively on roughage is to o slow

in reaching maturity,while the heavy feeding o f grain is to o

expensive . A go od developm ent can be had by feeding

good roughage together with about 2 o r 3 pounds of grain

per day during the winter season . The figures in Table

17 as found by the"writer,will be o f assistance to the

farmer who wishes to know whether his young animals are

being fed so that their development is up to the average

o f the breed .

TABLE 17 .

— AVERAGE HEIGHT AND WE IGHT OF DA IRY HE IFER S

JERSEYS HOLSTEINS

We ight We ight

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121 DAI RY FARMING

to it . If the cattle run o u t every day, the best way to salt

them is to keep a constant supply in a box in the yard .

The plan of salting the cattle at intervals o f one o r two weeks

is no t to be recommended .

115 . Fe eding th e Cow wh en Dry. The milk yield of a

cow throughout her entire lactation period is influenced by

her condition of flesh at calving time . Fo r go od results it

is very im po rtant that she be in go o d flesh at this time .

A high producer will yield fully 20 per cent mo re during the

year if in go o d o rder at calving time . Less trouble is also

experienced when the calf is bo rn. All mam mals naturally

take on flesh befo re the young is bo rn . Thi s reserve sto re

of fo od is needed to aid in the pro duction of milk . We

expect a dairy cow to give several times as much milk as

the calf requires . The impo rtance of her being fat is there

fo re all the greater . The grain given to a dry cow is not

lo st . It is used to sto re up fat in the bo dy fo r the purpo se of

milk pro duction. If when a go od cow is dry,she is fed

sufficient grain to get her in go od flesh,it is j ust as sure to be

returned in m ilk as is the grain fed when the cow is giving

m ilk . The astonishing reco rds of milk and fat production

obtained within recent years from cows under official test are

du e in no small measure to a realization of the impo rtance

of having the cow Well fed befo re freshening and in a high

state of flesh .

The feeding o f the cow when dry will depend upon her

condition whenmilking ceases . If in go od flesh, only a little

mo re than a maintenance ration should be given. If not

in go o d condition, a mo re liberal ration is advisable, su ffi

cient to insure her being in go od flesh when she freshens .

The character of the ration fed at this time need notvary

materially from that given to the cows in milk . Go od pas

FEEDING DAIR Y CA TTLE 125

ture,legum e hay,

and ro o ts o r silage are adapted fo r u se

as roughage . As the time fo r freshening approaches,the

cow should by all means have a laxative ration if she has

not been receiving it befo re ; if on pasture , no special atten

tion is called fo r in thi s respect . The cow should have ex

ercise , and no thing is better than freedom in a smo o th pas

ture o r freedom in a barnyard in winter .

FEEDING THE Cow IN M ILK

116 . Water fo r Cows . Large am ounts of water are

necessary fo r pro ducing the m ilk itself and fo r the digestion

and assim ilation of the la rger quantities o f feed required to

m ake it . The autho r found by experim ents that a cow

producing 27 pounds of m ilk per day drank 77 pounds of

water . The same cow when dry drank only 15 pounds per

day . Ano ther cow producing over 100 pounds of milk per

day used an average of 250 pounds o f water . These figures

show that the water requirement is in propo rtion to the

m ilk produced and the fo od consumed . They also show that

the question of water supply is m uch mo re im po rtant fo r

the cow in milk than fo r the dry cow . Dry cows need not

be watered mo re than once daily in winter tim e and do not

seem to want it o ftener . During the sum m er the demand

fo r water 1s greater on account o f the greater evapo ration

from the skin. Cows on heavy feed , pro ducing large quan

tities of m ilk,should always have access to water at least

twice daily . Fo r the bes t results,water of go od quality should

be supplied clo se at hand,since if the anim als are required to

walk long distances in co ld weather, they m ay not drink a

sufficient amount and the milk flow m ay be reduced fo r this

reason. Water contam inated by drainage from barnyards

o r with sewage should be avo ided fo r sanitary reasons, as

126 DAIR Y FARMING

well as for the additional reason that cows m ay not drink as

much as is needed fo r the best results .

In very co ld climates it is profitable to warm the water

fo r dairy cows . It is cheaper to warm the water with a tank

heater by burning co al o r wo od than to supply the necessary

heat by allowing the animal to burn high-priced feed in its

bo dy fo r this purpo se . A cow pro ducing 25 pounds of m ilk

daily requires about 1 pound o f co rn daily to warm the water

used if it be given at the freezing po int . Larger pro ducers

would require a co rrespondingly larger amount fo r this pur

po se . Ah even mo re impo rtant reason fo r warming water

is that a heavy-milking cow will not drink enough water if

it is near the freezing temperature . The activities of the

o rgans of digestion and milk secretion are almo st sto pped

fo r a while if a cow drinks 30 o r 40 pounds o f ice water .

Where water is warmed it is generally brought to a tempera

ture of about 60° F .

117 . Tu rning on Pastu r e . Cattle are pastured in summer

over the greater part of this country and every owner of a

cow welcomes the time when the cow m ay be turned o u t to

pasture . In changing from dry to green feed it is best to go

somewhat slowly , especially with heavy-milking cows . The

young immature grasses are mo stly water and it is almo st

impo ssible fo r a heavy-milking cow to eat enough to supply

the necessary nutrients .

Ano ther reason fo r making the change slowly is the effect

upon the taste o f the m ilk . When a cow is changed suddenly

from grain to grass, the milk m ay be given a strong taste ;while if this change is made gradually, little o r no change in

taste is no ticed .

A common mistake is to pasture to o clo sely in the fall and

to turn ou t to o early in the spring . The cows should be

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128 DAIRY FARMING

Ho lstein, Sho rtho rn,o r Ayrshire

,producing

25 pou nds m ilk daily 2 po u nds grain daily30 pou nds m ilk da ily 3 po u nds grain daily35 po u nds m ilk daily 5 po u nds grain daily40 po u nds m ilk daily 7 pou nds grain daily

It must be kept in mind that this applies onlyWhen pastures are abundant . When a small amount of grain is fed

as a supplement to pasture,little attention

'

is necessary as

to the relative amount of pro tein and'

carbohydrates that

it contains . When co rn is the cheapest grain,it m ay be fed

alone if desired . Any mixture of common concentrates

serves the purpo se,since it is to tal digestible nutrients that is

needed and the pro tein is usually supplied in ample amounts

by the grass . When larger amounts of grain are fed,mo re

care must be taken to have enough pro tein.

119 . Pr oviding fo r P erio ds o f Sh ort Pastu re . Unfo rtu

nately the season of abundant pastures is o ften sho rt . In

many lo calities a dry period of several weeks o ften o ccurs

at times during the summer season. It is probable that as

much lo ss o ccurs from improper feeding at such times as

is caused by im proper fe/eding during the Winter . As long

as the cows are on pasture , and o ther wo rk is pressing, the

farmer is inclined to let the cows get along the best they can.

It is well known to all experienced dairymen that if a

cow is once allowed to decline in her milk pro duction, it is

difli cu lt to bring her back to no rmal . To make a large

profit from the cow,a large yearly pro duction must be had

and to obtain this o rdinarily requires that the flow of m ilk

be kept up fo r 10 months ou t of the year . It is possible tO

supplement sho rt pasture by the feeding of grain, but this is

as a rule unnecessarily expensive . It will pay , however, if

no o ther feed is available . Provision fo r sho rt pasture is

FEEDING DAI RY CATTLE 129

best made either by having green crops on hand that m ay be

cut fo r feed , o r by feeding silage o r alfalfa hay during this

perio d . The u se of green crops cut and taken to the animals

is known as the so iling system . In recent years the u se o f

co rnsilage fo r summer feeding is meeting with the greatest

favo r and prom ises to displace the practice of so iling to a

large extent , because it is much less expensive . Fo r s ummer

feeding a silo of small diameter is recommended in o rder that

the silage m ay be fed fast enough to prevent spo iling . I f the

silage is not needed it can be kept fo r winter u se .

120. Am ou nt to Fe ed . One of the m o st common m istakes

made in feeding cows is in not feeding them enough . If a

cow do es not respond in milk yield when well fed, she should

be so ld . The cheapest production is obtained from a high

producing cow well fed . The cow may be lo oked upon as

a m ilk-producing machine,whi ch we supply with the raw

material in the fo rm o f feed . This raw material is manu

factu red into milk . The same rule ho lds as with any m anu

factu ring plant ; it is ru n mo st economically near its full

capacity . One should understand that , first of all, the animal

must u se a certain am ount of its fo od to m aintain the body .

This is called the ration o f maintenance and is practically

the sam e whether the animal is being utilized fo r full capacity

o r merely being kept without pro ducing any milk at all.

About 50 per cent of all the feed she can consum e is used by

a medium dairy cow fo r this purpo se . It is evident that

after go ing to this expense it is the po o rest economy to re

fuse to give the o ther 50 per cent of a full ration, which would

be used entirely fo r milk production . Since only half o f a

full ration is available fo r making milk, it is clear that if

through mistaken ideas of economy the cow is fed 75 per cent

of a full ration the amount she has available fo r producingK

130 DAIR Y FARMING

milk is reduced 50 per cent . The heavy-milking cow is the

one mo st com m only underfed . It is o ften observed that

heavy-m ilking cows rapidly get thin in flesh after calving and

m ay drop greatly in the am ount of m i lk within a sho rt time .

This is the result o f underfeeding . If a certain cow has a

capacity to pro duce only 25 pounds of milk daily and is al

ready receiving enough feed fo r this am ount,it is a waste of

feed to increase her ration as she will not co rrespondingly

increase in milk . If a cow of this type is given m o re feed

than she needs,she uses part of it fo r laying on fat and so on

commences to appear smo o th and beefy . The practical

question arises then as to what means m ay be em ployed to

determine how much feed a certain cow needs . The mo st

accurate plan is to calculate the ration acco rding to the feed

ing standard as described in paragraph 92 .

There are in addition certain observations that m ay be

made the basis of practical feeding o perations . One is the

condition o f the animal in regard to flesh . The inclination

to give milk is so strong in a go od cow that when underfed

she will continue fo r some time to give mo re than is provided

fo r by her ration and will supply the rem arnm gmaterial that is

required from her body . This results in a gradual lo ss in

weight . When a cow in milk lo ses weight, it means that

she is underfed and unless her ration is increased so on she

will drop materially in m ilk yield . On the o ther hand if a

cow in milk is gaining in weight,it is evident that she is

getting mo re feed than she is using and her ration m ay be

cut down .

Ano ther suggestion is to no te carefully the amount of milk

the cow produces at her best,which will be within a sho rt

time after calving . Then be sure to feed enough to su p

po rt this amount of milk production. Later, as she declines,

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132 DAIRY FARMING

pro tein are fed . In fo rmulating a ration the roughage isthe first consideration,

since the character of this po rtionlargely determines the kind of grain to be fed . The cheapest

source of pro tein is generally leguminous hay ,such as clover,

alfalfa, o'

r cowpea . If an abundance of any one of thesecan be grown,

the problem of making an economical rationis greatly Simplified . If alfalfa hay is fed, it is not necessary

to u se concentrates that are rich in pro teins . If mixed

hay and co rn silage are used,at least one-third of the grain

should be rich in pro tein.

122 . Su ccu lent Fe ed . In o rder to Obtain the best re

sults it is necessary to have a po rtion of the ration o f a su c

culent character . This term is applied to feeds that contain

much water,such as green grass

,co rn silage , ro o ts , and

cabbage . Such feeds seem to have a value outside o f the

actual nutrients they contain on account o f the favo rable

efiect u pon the digestion o f the animal . In the co rn-belt,co rn silage furnishes the cheapest and best succulent feed

fo r winter . In o ther sections,especially no rth of the co rn

belt,the growing o f ro o t crops is generally practicable . They

supply this desirable element of the ration in an entirely

satisfactory fo rm .

123 . Palatability o f th e Ration. An anirnalwill give better

results if it relishes its ration. Sometimes even if a feed

containing enough nutrients is offered , a sufficient amount

is not eaten on account o f a lack of palatability . Hay and

other coarse feeds Show the m o st variation in this respect ,

depending upon tim e of cutting and manner of curing . It

is advisable to have the grain compo sed of a mixture of two

kinds o r mo re as this increases palatability . A ration fo r

very high-pro ducing cows should be a mixture of five o r

six feedstuffs . Succulent feeds are always palatable and

FEEDING DAIR Y CA TTLE 133

they aid digestion by keeping the anim al in good condition.

When a go od ration has been selected there is no reason fo r

change fo r the sake of variety . If the animal craves a change

in ration, it is an indication that the ration it has been receiv

ing is deficient in som e particular .

124 . Order of Fe eding . Regularity in feeding is o f

greater impo rtance than any special routine . The common

practice is to feed twice daily giving about one-half the grain

and roughage at each feed . The grain is generally fed first

and the hay feeding reserved until the milking is done to

avo id having dust in the barn . Silage should also be fed

after m i lking to prevent po ssible odo rs in the milk . The

cow readily becomes accustomed to a certain routine and

this sho u ld not be varied any m o re than is abso lutely neces

sary . She m ay be accustomed to receive grain either befo re

o r after m ilking,o r be easily taught to demand it while the

milking is being done .

FEEDING Cows FOR THE MAXIMUM PRODUCTION IN

OFFICIAL TE STS

125 . Obtaining th e M axim u m Pr o du ction. The maxi

mum production is obtained from high-producing cows by

a com bination of expert handling and the best po ssible

ration. Such cows canno t be fed entirely by any rule , nor

can their ration be calculated by a fo rm ula . The individual

animal and her characteristics must be taken into account .

One of the essential things is havrng the animal in the proper

condition o f flesh at calving . She should be dry fo r two

months o r mo re fo r the best results,and be fed a liberal

am ount of grain du ring this period . Som e fo rm of su c

cu lence is abso lutely necessary as a part o f the ration.

Ro o ts, such as com m on beets,sugar beets, o r mangels are

134 DAIR Y FARMING

even better than silage fo r this purpo se,and m ay be fed up

to 50 pounds or mo re per day .

The cow must be brought up to the full ration carefully

after calving,using about three weeks fo r this purpo se . The

grain ration should consist of a mixture of several concen

trates,all of which are palatable . So long as the animal re

mains in no rmal condition,no change In the grain ration is

necessary . Special attention’

m u st be given to the physical

condition o f the cow . A careful herdsman always clo sely

observes the character of the dung excreted , and learns

to j udge when the digestion is no rmal . At the first

indication of lack o f a keen appetite the ration is cut down

until the animal is again in condition to utilize the full

amount . If the digestion gives indication of even slight

diso rder,a purgative

,such as Epsom salts

,1 to 15 pounds

at a do se, should be administered at once . The grain

should always be eaten with a relish,and the animal

should show a dispo sition to want a little mo re than she

receives .

A ration fo r a heavy-milking cow must be rich in

pro tein. Much mo re grain sho uld be fed in propo rtion

to the roughage than with an o rdinary producer . In

fact,fo r the maximum pro duction o f a great producer,

the nutrients will need to be largely supplied by con

centrates .

The following daily ration was fed by the writer to a Jersey

cow that was producing daily 40 pounds of milk, containing

2 pounds Of fat. The cow weighed about 900 pounds and

pro duced during the year pounds of m i lk and 680

pounds of fat. The same grain mixture was fed during the

greater part of the milking period , including the pasture

season.

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136 DAIR Y FARMING

5 . Calcu late the am o u nts o f co rn and clover hay requ ir ed tom aintain a cow weighing 1000 po u nds .

6 . Find the am o u nt o f pro tein and energy requ ired fo r a 1250

po u nd cow produ cing 40 po u nds o f m ilk daily , containing per

cent o f fat.

7 . Fr o m the feeds in Table 15 , calcu late a ration that will satisfy the conditions in problem 6 . H ow do es the ration agree withthe standards on page 304 ?

8 . Find the pr o tein and energy in the fo llowing rations

Ration 1 Ration 2

Co rn silage Tim o thy hayAlfalfa hay Co rn fo dderCo rn C o rn

Co ttonseed m eal Bran

What is the lim iting facto r in the second ration ?Fo r how m u ch per cent m ilk do es each ration su pply pro tein

in addi tion to m aintaining a 1000-pou nd cow ?

9 . Calcu late a ration for a 900-pou nd Jersey cow giving 23pou nds of m ilk daily , u sing the co m m on feeds o f the r egion .

10. When bran is wo rth $20, co ttonseed m eal $30, clover hay $10per ton ; and co rn 70 cents , and o ats 50 cents p er bu shel, find whi chis the cheapest sou r ce o f pro tein. Whi ch is the cheapest so u r ce o fenergy ?

11 . Obtain the lo cal pr ices o f pu r chased feeds in the region.

Which is the cheapest so u rce o f energy ? Of pro tein ?12 . With prices given in pr oblem 11 , calculate the cheapest

po ssible satisfacto ry ration fo r a Sho r thorn cow weighing 1200

po u nds and giving 30 po u nds o f m ilk daily .

I s skim -m ilk u su ally available fo r calf feeding in thi s r egion ?What are the com m on calf feeds u sed ?14 . Let each stu dent find the approxim ate am o u nts of m ilk and

o ther feeds u sed in raising a calf to six m onths o f age fo r hi s own farmo r so m e o ther farm . At no rm al prices , what is the feed wo r th ?Have all these r epo rts com pared and averaged . Co m pare withresults on pages 115 , 250 and 252 .

15 . Pro ceed in a sim ilar m anner to find the u su al m ethod o f feed

ing heifers in the r egion .

16 . What is the u su al date fo r tu rning cows to pastu r e in yo u rregion ? Abou t what tim es are they taken o ff o f pastu re in the

FEEDING DAIR Y CA TTLE 137

fall? At what tim e are the pastu res no t likely to fu rnish eno u ghfeed ?

17 . What effect do es the m anner o f feeding the heifer have on

the am ou nt o f m ilk that she is likely to give as a heifer ? As a m a

tu r e cow ?

18 . What conclu sion wo uld you draw from o bserving that a

cow when giving m ilk was gradu ally getting thinner ? What conelu sion if she were gaining in flesh ?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

9,Raising a Calf . Let each stu dent who can arrange to do so ,

raise a calf , fo llowing the dir ections that apply to the conditions .

Keep track of all the feed u sed , and see if the calf can b e raised at

less than the u su al co st . Thi s is particularly im po rtant in r egionswhere whole m i lk is sold .

10. Stu dy of Fe eding on a Dairy Farm . Obtain perm ission to

Visit a dairy farm , pr eferably one where the farm er has scales thatwill weigh cattle ; o r stu dents m ay do thi s . wo rk fo r herds on theirhom e farm s . A spring balance and tape m easur e will be r equ ired .

M ake a li st of the cows in the herd , and find o u t the followingfacts abo u t each . Or if the herd is to o large , u se five o r six cowsthat ar e giving difi erent am ou nts o f m ilk . Each stu dent m ay do

the wo rk fo r one cow .

C ow 1 Cow 2 C ow 3 Cow 4

Age

Breed

WeightPo u nds m ilkPer cent fatPr o tein fo r m aintenancePro tein fo r m i lk

To talPro tein o f fo o dEnergy for m aintenanceEnergy fo r m ilk

To talEnergy o f fo o dGaining o r lo sing flesh

188 DAIR Y FARMING

How m u ch m ilk is each giving ? If the farm er do es no t know,

arrangem ents can be m ade to have one stu dent o r the farm er weighthe m ilk fo r one o r two days . What m ixtu r e o f grain is fed ?

How m u ch grain is each getting ? If the farm er do es no t knowthe weight o f a day

’s feed ,

he can m easu r e o u t what he is u sing

and thi s can be weighed . What do es the grain m ixtu re weigh perqu art ? In the sam e way the am o u nts of silage and o ther feedsm ay be o btained . Weigh each cow . A sk the farm er

’s opini on

a s to whi ch cows are gaining and whi ch lo sing in flesh . Obtainsam ples o f m ilk fo r each cow , and te st fo r fat.

Calcu late the am o u nt o f energy and pr o tein fo r m aintenanceof each cow , the am o u nt nece ssary fo r m ilk pro du ction , and

,

the

am o u nt in the feed . The results m ay be su m m arized in a table likethe one shown on page 137 .

D o es it seem pr obable that any one o f the cows is no t obtainingeno u gh pro tein o r eno u gh energy ? Ar e there practical ways inwhich the ration m ay be cheapened by u sing difi er ent feeds ? Itm ay be that the farm er will be willing to experim ent with increasingo r decr easing the feed o r with u sing a difierent m ixtu r e . If he is

willing to do so , the r esu lts sho u ld be followed carefu lly .

11 . Raising H e ifers . Obtain m easu rem ents o f a nu m ber o f

heifers , and co m pare with the resu lts on page 122 .

COLLATERAL READ ING

Com pu ting Rations fo r Farm Anim als by Use of Energy Valu es,U . S . D ept . Agr . , Farm er s

’Bu lletin 346 .

Handling and Feeding Silage , U . S . Dept . Agr .,Farm er s

’Bu lletin

578 .

The Feeding of Farm Anim als , U . S. D ept . Agr . ,Farm ers’Bu lleé

tin 22 .

Feeding Skim -m ilk Calves , U . S . Dept . Agr . , Farm ers’Bulletin

233 , pp . 22—25 .

Feeds and Feeding , Henry and M o rr ison.

Cyclopedi a of Am erican Agricu ltu r e , L . H . Bailey , Vol. III , pp .

56—118 , 308 , 310, 313—317 .

The Feeding o f Anim als , W . H . Jo rdan .

Dairy Cattle and M ilk Produ ction, C . H . Eckles , pp . 254-294 .

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140 DAIR Y FARMING

that barns must be constructed with mo re attention to tho se

details that make it po ssible to keep milk clean.

126 . General Arrangem ent o f Barns . The style of barn

construction will necessarily vary with the lo cality,climate

,

and many o ther facto rs . The interio r arrangements of the

cow barn, however, m ay be much the same in barns differ

ing widely in general plan of construction. The mo st com

m on arrangement of dairy cows in a barn is in two rows,

FIG . 36 . Flo o r plan o f a go od barn in which the cows face the center .

The calf pens and m ilk ro om are no t shown.

facing either towards the center o r towards the wall . If a

manure carrler 1s used,it is mo st convenient to have the

heads together , as this saves time in feeding with no lo ss In

cleaning . If a wagon is to be driven through the barn fo r

cleaning,the cows should face the wall . M o re than two

rows require that the barn be to o wide fo r efficient lighting

and fo r convenience in handling the cattle . The barn should

be lo cated where there is go o d drainage and where it is con

venrent from the standpo int o f labo r .

127 . Lighting . One of the mo st serious defects in many

barns,especially in old ones , 1s lack o f sufficient light . A

light barn is mo re healthful fo r the anim als,and it is the

first step toward removing the obj ectionable features o ften

THE DAIRY B ARN 141

connected with dairy wo rk . A dark barn is almo st always

a dirty barn. By having plenty o f sunlight , dirty conditions

are easily seen and are . usually co rrected . There Should be

about four square feet of glass per cow . The best arrange

ment is to have the windows extend from the ce iling about

F E E D A L L E Y

FIG . 37 Flo o r plan o f a barn fo r 20 cows .

halfway to the flo o r,as this makes it po ssible fo r the sunlight

to reach farther into the barn

128 . Th e Flo o r . One of themo st impo rtant considerations

of all is the flo o r . A satisfacto ry flo o r is com fo rtable fo r

the cows,sanitary

,easily cleaned

,durable

, and not to o ex

pensive . The flo o rs mo st comm only used are wo o d ; con

crete , o r dirt,with wo o d o r concrete gutters . A flo o r o f

dirt , although comfo rtable fo r the cows,is only allowable

under c onditions where it is not'

po ssible to have a better

142 DAIR Y FARMING

one . The main obj ection,of course

,is that it canno t be

kept clean. A fairly good arrangement in a cheap barn is

a dirt floo r fo r the cows to stand upon with a cement gutter

behind,provided with a strip extending fo rward about one

fo o t to catch the urine . A tight wo oden flo o r is comfo rtable

fo r the cows and m ay be kept in go od sanitary condition if

FIG . 38 . A well-lighted barn .

in go od repair . The main obj ection to this material is its

high first co st and lack o f durability . Concrete is durable

and sanitary,but not so comfo rtable for the cows as the o thers .

It requires a liberal u se o f bedding . In putting in a con

crete flo o r care must be taken to have the surface given a

rough finish,o therwise the animals will slip and so oner o r

later seriously inj ure themselves . It is not necessary to

make the flo o r as thick as is sometimes recommended .

On so lid earth four inches is as go od as mo re .

129 . The Platfo rm . The best arrangement fo r keeping

cows clean is the platfo rm and gutter . It is well to have theplatfo rm about 6 inches wider at one end than at the o ther

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144 DAIR Y FARMING

rising and, by stopping the lo ss o f heat , also makes the con

crete warmer fo r the cow to lie on. One o f the best flo o r

arrangements is one inwhich the flo o r,manger

,and passage

ways are of concrete with a wo oden platfo rm on top of the

concrete under the cows .

In this case two inches

of concrete under the

plank is sufficient if

placed on so lid ground .

130. Th e Gu tter . The

gutter is Often made too

shallow . It should be

preferably about 8 o r 9

FIG . 40.

—M o dern stalls and ties . Steel lHCIleS and abo u t

constru ction gives a neat appearance , is 101nChCSW1de and shouldsanitary , strong , and du rable .

be tight to prevent urine

from getting under the flo o r . A common plan is to have the

passageway behind the animals 2 to 4 inches lower than

the platfo rm .

131 . Th e Stalls . When the cow is tied in a stanchion,

the stall should be 42 to 44 inches wide fo r the large breeds,while 36 to 42 inches is sufficient fo r the smaller breeds .

Partitions are used in many barns , but some dairymen pre

fer to dispense with them fo r the sake of facilitating the move

ment of the cows in getting in and o u t of the stalls, and for

convenience in do ing cho res .

132 . M angers . Concrete is the best material fo r mangers

from the standpo int of sanitation and durability . The mo st

common type o f concrete manger is the continuous, whi ch

is built in the fo rm of a trough befo re the cows . By having

the feed alley raised,feed can be swept into the manger with

o u t lifting . (See Fig . The main advantage of this

THE DAIRY BARN 145

style is the ease of feeding and cleaning . It m ay also be used

fo r watering in the barn . Som e objections are m ade to this

style of construction on account o f the chance it affo rds fo r

one cow to rob ano ther o f a po rtion of its feed . Partitions

FI G . 4 1 . Types o f m angers .

o f sheet iron o r concrete are som etim es used to overcom e this

difficulty .

133 . Tie s . The cow should be fastened so that she lies

down exactly where she stands o r a little fo rward if po ssible .

The mo st Obj ectionable way is to tie a cow to a m anger so

that she m ust back up to he down . Thi s resu lts‘

in covering

the cow with filth . The m o st com m on ties in u se are various

fo rms o f stanchions . There is no better way to keep the cow

clean than to tie her with a stanchion,properly constructed ,

and stand her on a platfo rm o f the right dim ensions pro

146 DAIR Y FARMING

Vided with a gutter of sufficient depth . The old style rigid

stanchion is not a satisfacto ry tie,as the cow has no free

dom and canno t lie in a natural po sition. M any fo rms of

stanchions are in u se that are entirely satisfacto ry . These

are generally hung on sho rt chains at top and

bo ttom and are constructed o f either wo od o r

steel . The double po st slip chain tie is equally

com fo rtable fo r the anim als,but not so con

venient fo r u se . Stanchion o r chain ties m ay

be attached to either iron o r wo o den frame

wo rk as suppo rts .

134 . Ventilation. An abundance o f fresh

air is as essential as plenty o f feed . The mo st

simple fo rm of ventilation is by windows . This

wo rks best when the sash is hinged in the mid

dle o r at the bo ttom so that the air can be

adm itted by tipping the top of the window sash

slightly into the ro om . This throws the air

A $nsfi—e

. towards the ceiling and away from the anim als .

fondairy cows . This fo rm o f ventilation can be used satisfac

£1

3?iiific

aiifi to rily in mild climates . In no rthern latitudes‘

f3L WOOden 1in‘ it is not satisfacto ry during severe weather onm g and hangso n chains at account of the di fficulty of properly controlhngthe m p and

the intake o f air during rapid changes o f windbottom to al

low freedom o f and tem perature .

m ovem entThe best fo rm ofventilation yet devised is the

King system . This consists of a large flu e,opening near the

flo o r and extending above the ro o f, fo r taking o u t foul air . A

number of smaller o penings arranged at intervals o f 10 to 12

feet along the walls allow fo r the intake o f air . The intakes

Open to the outer air near the ground,pass upwards inside the

wall and open into the barn near the ceiling . These open

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148 DAIR Y FARMING

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1 .What m aterials are u sed fo r barn flo o r s in yo ur region ?

Describe the flo or in som e go o d barn, and tell how it was

m ade .

2 . What difi erent kinds o f stanchions are u sed ?

3 . Are m anu re carr iers u sed in any barns ? If so , what kind isu sed , and what did it co st ?4 . D o es any barn in the r egion have the King system o f ventila

tion ? If so , describe it .5 . If any barn has been bu ilt in the region in the past few year s ,

find the co st p er cow .

6 . Draw a flo o r plan fo r a barn to hold 6 ho r ses , 15 cows , andyo u ng sto ck . Or change the nu m ber s o f sto ck to su it the conditions . Show di m ensions o f stalls , m angers , etc . , and lo cation of

m ilk ho u se .

LABORATORY EXERCISES

12 . Stu dy o f a Barn. Arrange with the owner to Visit a go od

dairy barn in the region , and stu dy its general arrangem ent . A

tape m easu re and therm o m eter will be r equ ir ed .

Som e o f the po ints to be determ ined ar e as fo llowsLength ,

. width , height o f po sts , height o f peak , height of ceilingin cow barn .

Capacity fo r hay ,silage , grain. See page 305 .

M ake a diagram o f a cro ss section o f the flo o r sim ilar to figu r e 39 ,

indicating the dim ensions o f‘

the feed alley ,m anger , platfo rm ,

gu tter , etc .

How wide a place is allowed fo r each cow ?

What kind o f stanchions are u sed ? What did they co st ?

How m any cu bic feet o f air space is ther e per cow ?

What system o f ventilatio n is u sed ? D id the air appear to bego od when yo u entered the barn ? What is the tem peratu r e in thebarn ?HOW are the windows arranged ? How m any squ are feet o f

glass is ther e per cow ?

Is there a m ilk ho u se ? How m any feet m u st be traveled with them ilk fr o m each cow ?

Ar e the arrangem ents for feeding the cows and fo r cleaning thebarn convenient ?

THE DAIR Y BARN

COLLATERAL READING

Cyclopedia o f Am erican Agricu ltu r e , L . H . Bailey , Vol. I , pp .

245—260.

Ice Hou ses and the Use o f Ice on the Dairy Farm , U . S . D ept .Agr . , Farm ers

’Bu lletin 623 .

A Plan fo r a Sm allDairy Hou se , U . S . Dept . Agr . , Farm ers’Bu lle

tin 689 .

Lightning and Lightning Condu cto r s , U . S . Dept . Agr . , Farm er s’

Bu lletin 367 .

Ho m em ade—"

Silo s , U . S . D ept . Agr . , Farm ers’Bu lletin 589 .

Ventilation fo r Dwellings , Ru ral Scho o ls and Stables , F . H . King .

Co st o f Fencing Farm s in the Nor th Central State s , U . S . Dept .

Agr . , Bulletin 32 1 .

CHAPTER 7

COMM ON AILM ENTS OF CATTLE

C . H . ECKLE S

THE autho r makes no attempt at giving directions fo r

the treatment of such diseases and accidents as call fo r the

services o f the competent veterinarian. The farmer should

depend largely upon the qualified veterinarian as his adviser

in matters concerning the health of his animals,but there

are certain,

common troubles that every manager of dairy

cows should know how to handle . The discussion which

fo llows aims to present a few of the facts that every dairy

m an should know . The discussions are in the nature of

advice fo r the owner o f dairy sto ck and are not expected to

take the place o f expert advice by the veter1nar1an.

NORMAL CONDITIONS

136 . Th e Pu ls e . The heart o f the cow no rmally beats

50 to 60 times per minute . It is mo re rapid in young animals

than in old, and is increased by excitem ent o r exercise . The

mo st convenient way to take the pulse of a cow is to stand

on her left side and reach over the neck and feel the pulse

on the lower side o f the right jaw . A quick , bounding pulse

indicates inflammation at some po int in the body . The

trained veterinarian becomes very skillful in diagno sing dis

ease by the feeling of the pulse .

150

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152 DAIR Y FARMING

ble,this IS

'

all the mo re impo rtant . The fo llowing instru

ments and medicines are mo st o ften needed,and it is

advisable to have them on hand

M ilk fever outfit,if high-producing cows are kept

2 milk tubes of different sizes

3 teat plugs of different sizes

Tro car, if there is much trouble from bloating

Syringe

Drenching bo ttle

Clinical thermometer

A liberal amount of carbo lic acid o r some o ther go o d dis

infectant should always be on hand,as frequent u se will be

found fo r it . Crude carbo lic acid can be used in a 2 per cent

so lution,when applied to the anim al’s body

,o r in . a 5 per

cent so lution fo r disinfecting o ther obj ects,such

as the flo o r of the barn,o r instruments .

An abundant supply of Epsom salts should

also be provided , as o ccasion fo r using it will

come Often . In mo st herds entirely to o little

u se is made o f this impo rtant medicine . A

do se of 1 to 16 pounds of salts fo r the grown

animal should be the first treatment in nearly

FIG. 44 .

all cases of Sickness . In every case where an

M ilking tu bes , anim al shows lo ss o f appetite o r sickness theu s e d Wh e nteats are in cause o f whrch Is not known

,a physrc should

ju red °r S°r°° be given at once and the feed reduced . A

second dose after three o r four days is o ften beneficial . If

the appetite of the anrm al has returned , the ration can again

be increased to the no rmal .

141 . Dr enching a Cow . The common m etho d of adm in

istering medicine to a cow is to mix with water and give from

a bo ttle . This is known as a drench .

” When g iving a

COMMON A ILMEN TS OF CA TTLE 153

drench,the head o f the animal should be elevated by tying

,

o r it m ay be held by an assistant . The Operato r stands on

the left side , and grasps the no se with the thumb and fingersin the no strils . The bo ttle used should be adapted fo r the

purpo se,having a long

,strong neck . The m outh o f the

bo ttle should be inserted in front of the back teeth resting

on the tongue as far back as the m iddle . If the anim al

coughs,the head should be at once lowered to allow the liquid

to escape from the windpipe . If this is not done,the m ed

ioine m ay pass down into the lungs,and cause sickness .

Unless there is some special reason fo r do ing so,it is not

customary to give over 1 to 2 quarts at a time . Unless the

herdsman is tho roughly info rmed regarding the treatm ent of

cattle ailments,he will seldom have o ccasion to adm inister

medicine o ther than Epsom o r Glauber salts except under

the direction of a veterinarian.

COMMON AILMENTS

142 . M ilk Fever . M ilk fever o ccurs only with high-pro

du cing cows . It never affects a cow with her first calf and

rarely with the second . The well-fed, heavy-m ilking cow

is the one mo st likely to be stricken . The disease is so typi

cal that it is easily recognized . In practically every case

it o ccurs within 48 hours after calving. Every heavy-milk

ing cow should be watched carefully until this time has

elapsed . The first symptoms are restlessness and excite

ment . Within a sho rt time paralysis o f the hind legs be

gins,resulting ih a staggering gait . The anim al so on falls

and is unable to rise . The cow assum es a characteristic

po sition,whi ch is of great value in diagno sing the disease .

The head is turned to one side and rests on the chest with themuzzle po inting towards the flank . When thi s po sition is

154 DAIRY FARMING

assumed , the cow becomes unconscious and remains so until

death , which o ccurs within about 24 hours "if treatment is

not given. Fo rtunately the air treatment,which was dis

covered a few years ago by Anderson inDenmark, makes it

po ssible to re lieve nearly every case .

When this is properly applied,the cow

will recover com pletely within a few

hours and no bad effects follow . With

ou t treatm ent,recovery seldom o ccurs .

An approved apparatus is shown in

Fig . 45 . The essential parts are a

m ilk tube,a receptacle o f some kind

in which clean co tton is placed to catch

the dust in the air pumped through it,and a rubber bulb o r pump of some

kind . In case a regular apparatus is

not at hand,one that will serve the

purpo se can be im provised from mate

rials generally found in a drug sto re .

FI G . 45 .

— M ilk Fever In using the apparatus the o perato r

$11

,

1

55,t ih

ihfffliu

giéi should first tho roughly clean his hands ,Of the teat and air is likewise the cow’s udder and teats,pu m ped thro u gh sterrliz ed co tton placed in the with warm water and so ap , followedsm all cylinder ‘ by a 2 per cent so lution of carbo lic

acid o r creo lin . That po rtion of the apparatus whi ch

ho lds the co tton,the rubber tube

,and milk tube , must be

clean,and preferably bo iled fo r 15 m inutes befo re using,

then disinfected by the u se of the carbo lic acid o r creo lin .

The receptacle fo r ho lding the co tton is filled with o rdinary

co tton,o r

,better still

,abso rbent co tton,

which m ay be

purchased at m o st drug sto res . The milk tube is inserted

into one o f the teat Openings without drawing any milk, and

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156 DAIR Y FARMING

tagiou s and m ay spread through a herd from a single 1n

fected animal brought into the herd . From 50 to 75 per

cent of the cows in an affected herd o ften abo rt . The

remainder are either naturally immune o r carry the calf to

full time In spite of the disease . The calf is usually bo rn at

the sixth o r seventh month and, at this early stage

, always

dead . After having once . abo rted many o f the cows are

im mune and afterwards carry the calf in a no rmal manner .

Others abo rt twice befo re becoming immune . Some as the

result o f abo rtion be come sterile o r shy breeders . The

disease is spread either by the male o r by the germs from

an affected anim al getting on the feed consumed by ano ther .

Two metho ds of testing cows fo r infection with this dis

ease have recently been devised . These metho ds as yet

can be carried o u t only by a skillful operato r supplied with

the facilities o f a scientific labo rato ry . It is probable that

these methods will be adapted fo r u se by a large num ber o f

veterinarians . Such a test m ay make it po ssible to keep

herds free from abo rtion by excluding animals having‘

the

disease .

No satisfacto ry treatment has yet been discovered fo r

contagious abo rtion. The main precaution now is preven

tion as far as po ssible by keeping the disease.

o u t o f the herd .

It is not safe to buy an aged bull o r a cow from a herd where

the disease exists . If‘

an abo rtion o ccurs,the fetus and after

birth should be burned o r buried . The abo rting cow should

be iso lated and the stall where she stood disinfected with a

5 per cent so lution of carbo lic acid .

144 . Tu b e rcu lo sis . This disease is caused by a certain

species o f bacteria . The bacteria canno t develo p from the

surroundings o r conditions o f handling , but m ust com e from

ano ther animal having the disease . The germs that cause

COMMON AILMEN TS OF CA TTLE 157

the disease escape from an infected anim al in the slobber

from the mouth , with the m anure , and, sometimes in the

case o f udder infection,with the milk . As a rule a cow do es

not die quickly from tuberculo sis . The disease usually pro

gresses slowly . The anrm al m ay have it for years without

any indication o f ill health . The disease m ay attack alm o st

any o rgan o f the anim al’s body but is com mon,as with

hum an beings, in the lungs . Anim als that have plenty o f

feed and fresh air m ay som etimes recover . Go od ventilation

and go od feed and care are im po rtant in contro l of the

disease .

It is im po ssible to tell by external appearances,except in

extrem e cases,Whether the anim al is affected o r not. Fo r

tu nately we have in the substance known as tuberculin,an

agent that is fairly reliable in showing the presence of the

disease even in the sm allest degree . The test is made by

first taking the temperature of each animal three o r four

tim es at intervals o f two hours . Tuberculin is then inj ected

beneath the skin . After eight o r nine hours tem peratur e

readings are again taken and repeated five to eight tim es

at two -hour intervals . A rise in temperature suggests that

the disease m ay be present , but experience is necessary for

accurate interpretation o f the results . The interderm al

method,whi ch is also used

,consists in inj ecting the tuber

culin in so ft skin,usually on the under side of the tail . If

the disease is present,a swelling appears and remains for

several days .

A dairym an accustom ed to the u se of instruments can

conduct the test himself after first assisting a competent

operator . It is safer,however

,to have the wo rk done by a

trained veterinarian in o rder that no m istakes m ay be made

and that the test m ay be recognized by health o fficers and

DAIR Y FARMING

pro spective buyers . M any states have laws governing the

u se o f tuberculin. These laws are o ften changed,and are

som etimes far from satisfacto ry . Fo r these reasons one

should understand the law befo re he tests his herd .

The tubercular o rgani sm In cattle is slightly different from

the hum an fo rm,but som etim es the bovine fo rm is found in

human beings . It is thought that tuberculo sis of the lungs

is rarely if ever contracted from cattle,but some o f the

cases o f tuberculo sis in the intestines and glands , especially

in young children,are thought to be so contracted .

145 . Infl am m ation o f th e Udder . This is one o f the mo st

common troubles with dairy cows . It varies in severity from

a mild case,when the milk is only slightly stringy for a few

days , to severe cases, where the udder becomes so swo llen

that no milk can be drawn. It m ay end with the permanent

lo ss of the udder .

Inflam m ation o f the udder is not the same as the conges

tion that o ccurs in heavy-milking cows just after calving .

Congestion at this time is to be expected and need not cause

anxiety,as long as the milk can be drawn from each quarter

and the milk appears no rmal . When the udder is inflamed,

the cow should not receive much grain until the udder so ftens .

The ration fed should be laxative in nature and of a light

character, such as bran. The m ilk should be drawn several

times daily and the cow carefully pro tected from co ld and

expo sure .

Garget is a com m on name fo r m ild cases o f inflam mation

o f the udder . Sometimes there are swellings in the udder,o r the milk m ay be stringy o r lum py . In m any cases no

special cause can be discovered,although expo sure to severe

weather,lying with the udder on a co ld flo o r

,inj ury by

bruises,o r to o heavy grain feeding m ay bring it about .

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160 DAIRY FARMING

apply antiphlogistine , the udder m ay be packed in ice, which

is replenished as fast as it m elts and allowed to remain

several .hours .

In the beginning o f any treatment o f thi s trouble a drench

should be given containing from 1 to 1% pounds of Epsom

salts . One ounce of saltpeter is also g1ven In many cases to

stimu late the action o f the kidneys and m ay be continued

two o r three days .

146 . Sco u rs in Calve s . The mo st common trouble ex

perienced in calf raising is indigestion, which shows its pres

ence by scours . Care should be taken to distinguish between

common scours resulting from indigestion,

. and navel in

fection,one symptom of whi ch is scours .

Navel infection is sometimes called either whi te scours

o r calf cho lera . It is a contagious germ disease which gains

access to the calf’s body through the navel co rd so on after

birth . It appears within one o r two days after birth . The

calf is very sick from the first and nearly always dies . The

eyes are sunken,and a comm on sym ptom

,although it is

not always observed , is the passage of white,foul-smelling

dung . If one case o ccurs,o thers are likely to appear

,es

pecially if o ther calves are bo rn in the same stall . Often sev

eral cases o ccur in succession in the same barn . The trouble

m ay be avo ided by making sure that the calf is dropped in

a clean stall and that the navel co rd is not allowed to come

in contact with any manure o r dirt until the co rd is dry .

If the calf is dropped in the pasture , there is little danger

unless it is brought at once to the barn. If it is bo rn in a

barn where previous cases have o ccurred,the only safe plan

is to tie up the co rd at birth in a clean bandage,having ap

plied a m ild disinfectant, such as weak creolin o r tincture of

iodine .

COMMON AILMENTS OF CA TTLE 161

Calves raised by hand should be watched clo sely fo r signs

of indigestion. The m ain treatment,as po inted o u t in the

discussion of calf feeding,lies in prevention. Often the first

indication of diso rder is fo u l-smelling dung . If thi s is

no ticed,the ration should be at once cut down to one-half o r

one-third the usual amount . Often light feeding fo r a few

times will remove the trouble with no further treatment .

It is well to '

add to each pint of milk one teaspo onful of a

mixture of one-half ounce of fo rmalin in 1512‘Ounces of water .

The fo rmalin should be given fo r two o r three days at least .

After two o r thr ee feedings,if the calf improves, the milk

m ay be increased to the usual quantity .

When a severe case o f scours o ccurs , the feed should be at

once reduced . A drench o f three ounces o f casto r o il in a

pint o f milk m ay be given with advantage . It is well to

give the fo rmalin m ixture for several days during recovery

from a severe attack .

147 . Lice . During the winter season especially,cattle

are o ften affected with lice . Calves and young cattle are

mo st o ften affected , but o lder cattle are not exempt , and they

m ay suffer badly from this pest . The presence of lice m ay

be suspected if the cows are seen rubbing the neck and shoul

ders on trees and po sts . When they are badly infested,

their hair usually begins to com e ou t in spo ts . Several

substances m ay be used to kill the li ce . Any of the co al tar

dips and compounds on the market m ay be employed with

success . The mo st satisfacto ry treatment is kerosene emul

sion. To make this,disso lve one-half pound of hard so ap

in one gallon of bo iling so ft water . As so on as the soap is

disso lved,add two gallons of kero sene . M ix by pumping

with a spray pump o r by stirring o r by o ther m eans until a

thick creamy emulsion is fo rmed from which the Oil do esM

162 DAIR Y FARMING

not readily separate . Befo re using,add this mixture to

19 gallons o f water . The emulsion m ay be applied with a

spray pump,o r with a brush

,wetting the entire animal

tho roughly . The above amount is enough for twenty cows .

148 . Blo at. This trouble comes from the fo rmation o f

an excessive amount of gas in the paunch . It o ften results

from pasturing on alfalfa o r clover,but m ay o ccur with any

kind o f feed . It is known by the excessive swelling of the

left flank . If relief is not obtained in time , the animal

m ay die from suffo cation du e to the great pressure on the

lungs . In mild cases driving the animal at a rapid rate

fo r some distance m ay be sufficient . Co ld water thrown in

quantities upon the cow’s sides m ay reduce the pressure .

The Kentucky Experiment Station recommends for acute

bloating that a quart of 15 per cent so lution of formalin be

given as a drench fo llowed by placing a wo oden blo ck in the

animal’s mouth for a short time .

1

In case relief canno t be obtained o therwise, the gas must

be removed without delay . This is best done by the u se

o f a tro car . In using this instrument a spo t is selected on

the left side equally distant from the last rib,the hip bone ,

and the backbone . The skin is cut for about an inch , then

the tro car is thrust into the paunch . The sheathof the tro

car is allowed to remain in the opening as long as any gas

escapes , which m ay be several hours . It is generally advis

able to give a do se of 1 to 15 pounds of salts after a case o f

bloating .

149 . Cowpox. Thi s trouble is common with dairy cattle .

It appears as pustules especially on the udder and surround

ing parts . The virus used in the vaccination of hum an

beings against smallpox is obtained from cows that have had

1 Kentu cky Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station , Circu lar 5 .

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164 DAIR Y FARMING

appear even though no cases have been known for a long

tim e . Calves in go od flesh are the mo st subject to its at

tack . Calves affected with the disease live a few days but

seldom recover .

The disease is easily reco gnized . The calf at first appears

merely lam e and stiff . Swe llings will usually be fo rmed on

some part o f the body,and when these are rubbed a pecu liar

crackling sound is no ticed resulting from the gas that has

fo rmed in the tissue . When the calf is examined after

death the affected quarter will be found to be congested

with dark blo od and almo st black in co lo r,which condition

gives rise to the common name o f the disease . It is useless

to attempt to treat the animals already aflected . When

a case o ccurs,tho se not sick should be vaccinated at once .

There is then little danger that the trouble w ill spread .

In lo calities where the disease is common,vaccination should

be practiced on all calves,as a preventive

,without waiting

fo r the disease to appear . The vaccine used fo r the pur

po se m ay be purchased and applied by the owner him self,

o r a veterinary surgeon m ay be employed if the owner pre

fers .

151 . So rghu m and Kafir Corn P o is oning. So rghum and

kafir co rn are im po rtant fo rage crops in that part o f the

country bo rdering on the semiarid . Under certain conditions

these plants develop a po ison,which is frequently the cause o f

lo sses o f sto ck,especially cattle . The danger o ccurs when the

growth of the cro p is checked by dry weather and at times in

second growth so rghum o r kafir . The trouble o ccurs only

when the animal eats the green plant . The damage usually

happens when thesto ck break through the fences and eat the

green crop in the field,although o ccasionally cattle are turned

into such a fie ld by some one who is igno rant of the po ssible

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

danger . Death will sometimes o ccur within half an hour

after the fo o d is eaten. As small a quantity as two pounds

sometimes causes death .

The Nebraska Experim ent Station 1 reco rds a case where

21 cows o u t o f 32 died Wi thin an hour after being turned

into a field o f stunted kafir co rn. When these crops are

put into the silo o r made into bay fo r some reason the dan

ger disappears . Little can be done to treat an animal af

fected . In fact,as a rule the anim al is dead befo re the

owner knows it is sick . Prevention,by excluding sto ck from

such fields during seasons when the presence of the po ison

is suspected,is the only safe course .

152 . Co rn-stalk Dis e as e . In the states of the M iddle

West,where co rn is grown in large quantities

,the com mon

practice is to husk the co rn from the standing stalks and

leave the stalks in the field . Later the cattle are turned

into the field to gather as m uch of the stalks and leaves as

they will utili ze . Stalk fields are gen’erally pastured during

the early part o f the winter . Frequent lo sses o f cattle o ccur

during the time they are given access to the stalk fields .

The ailm ent is known as the co rn-stalk disease . It mo st

com m only o ccurs during periods of co ld o r wet weather and

always after the stalks have become tho roughly dry . The

trouble usually o ccur s dur ing the first few days after the

cattle are put into the stalk field .

The disease appears suddenly . The animal afflicted is

reluctant to move and when for ced to do so shows an u n

steady gait.Later there are indications o f severe pain such

as kicking towards the body, bellowing, and m o aning . The

animal m ay fro th at the mouth and attempt to"

attack any

one com ing near . Death usually o ccurs within one o r two

1 Nebraska Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station , Bu lletin 7 7 .

166 DAIR Y FARMING

days . All attempts to find the specific cause o f the disease

have so far failed . It has been proved that smu t in co rn is

not the cause . Tho se who have given the subj ect mo st

attention believe the trouble is the result of acute indiges

tion caused by eating to o much coarse indigestible fo od . It

is po ssible that under certain conditions some po isonous

substance is developed in the stalks .

No satisfacto ry m edical treatment has been found . As

with many o ther diseases , attention has to be directed to

wards prevention . Cattle should always be watered and well

fed befo re being turned into a stalk field fo r the first time,

and some laxative fo od,such as alfalfa o r clover hay , should

be given daily . Plenty of water should be readily accessible .

The animals should be turned into the field fo r only a sho rt

time the first day ,gradually lengthening the tim e each day

as they become accustomed to the feed . Fo rtunately this

trouble do es not o ccur from feeding co rn fodder cut and

sho cked in the field,o r from co rn put in the silo .

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1 . Let each stu dent m ake a list o f as m any cases o f deaths of

cattle in the com m u nity as he can find , giving the cau se o f deathand telling whether a calf , cow , steer , o r bu ll. C o m bine these re

ports to find the com parative nu m ber o f deaths from each disease .

2 . What is the cau se o f each o f the diseases fo und ? How m ay

each be controlled ?3 . Sim ilarly repor t on as m any cases as po ssible of cows that were

sold o r slau ghtered , giving the r eason Why they were discarded .

LABORATORY EXERCISES

13. M iscellane ou s Exercis e s . If po ssible m ake arrangem ents todo the following wo rk with a cow that is no t very valu able . A clinical therm om eter , drenching bo ttle , carbolic acid, teat plu gs , andm ilk tu be will be requ ired .

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CHAPTER 8

M ILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

C . H. ECKLE S

COMPOSITION OF M ILK

153 . Average Com po sition. M ilk is composed of water,fat

,pro tein

,sugar

,and ash o r m inerals . The milk of all

species -of animals and of every individual within the species

contains these same constituents,bu t the propo rtions are

subj ect to wide variations .

Cow’s milk weighs approximately pounds per quart.

(Density is It is not po ssible to give any single

statement that will give mo re than a general idea o f its

compo sition on account of the wide variations du e to the

influence of breed and o ther facto rs . If a quantity of milk

be taken as representative of the to tal amount so ld for city

trade o r of that so ld to butter or cheese facto ries, it would

have approximately the fo llowing compo sition

PER CENT

.7

154 . Water . M ilk contains on an average about

per cent o f water . The extreme variations are from about

83 to'

90 per cent . The water in milk serves the same168

MILK AND I TS PRODUCTS 169

purpo se as foo d as o rdinary water . It should not be

concluded from the high water content that milk has a

low fo od value .

155 . Fat. The fat is commercially the mo st valuable

part of m ilk . It is also the mo st variable in am ount . It

m ay range from to per cent and o ccasionally even

beyond these lim its . The fat exists in the fo rm o f minute

FIG . 47 .

— Photom icro graph showing fat globu lesin Sho rtho rn m ilk. M agnified 400 diam eters .

globules,to o small to be seen by the naked eye but readily

seen under a m icro scope . It is in a state o f suspension,that

is,the fat globules are flo ating in the milk . When m ilk

stands undisturbed fo r som e time,the fat rises to the top in

the fo rm o f cream . Churning of cream is the uniting of

these fat globu les by mechanical m eans until they fo rm a

lump of butter . The main facto rs influencing the am ount

o f fat are : (1) breed , (2) stage o f lactation, (3) individuality

170 DAIR Y FARMING

Of the cow, (4) interval between milkings, (5) po rtion of

the milking,fo re milk o r strippings .

As fo od , fat serves as fuel to supply heat fo r the body,and

energy to keep up the body functions . The su rplus is sto red

as body fat, which serves as a sto rehouse o f reserve material

fo r future u se . Fat do es not m ake growth of bone o r muscle .

156 . Pr o te in . The pro tein varies in amount from to

per cent in extreme cases . M ixed milk usually varies

between 3 and per cent . Pro tein contains nitrogen

combined with hydrogen,carbon

,and small quantities of

pho spho rus and sulphur . The pro teins in milk are a mix

ture of several kinds . Two only need to be m entioned since

they make up nearly the entire amount . These are casein

and albumin. The case in is that part of m ilk which curdles

on souring . It also gives the white co lo r to the milk . In

cheese making rennet is added to the milk to co agulate the

casein,which takes mo st o f the fat with it in a mechani cal

way . The album in is present to the amount of about

per cent . It is m uch like the album in o f an egg o r that in

blo od . It is coagulated by heating and m ay be seen as a

scum on the surface of bo iled milk . It go es into the whey

in cheese making .

The pro tein m ay be said to be the mo st valuable fo o d con

stitu entofmilk . Itsuppliesmaterial necessary fo r the growth

Of bone and m uscle and to keep up the repair o f the bo dy .

Part of the casein is in a sem i—disso lved condition . A po rtion

o f the undisso lved part,and inso luble impurities that were

in the milk,make up the well-known separato r slime .

157 . Su gar . The fo rm o f sugar known as lacto se is found

only inmilk . Its chem ical compo sition is practically the same

as that of cane sugar, although it is less sweet in taste . It

has the same fo od value as o rdinary sugar a nd like it fur

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172 DAIR Y FARMING

butter and fo r cream o f a somewhat yellow co lo r is based

entirely upon lo oks .

FACTORS INFLUENCING COMPOSITION

160. Th e Kind Of Anim al. A s already stated,the milk

o f all species contains the same constituents but in different

propo rtions . Table 19 gives the average compo sition of

human milk and o f that from several domestic animals .

TA BLE 19 .

— C OMPOSITION OF M ILK OF D IFFERENT ANIMALS

SPECIES PROTE IN SUGAR

The compo sition of human milk is o f great impo rtance

in connection with the problem of infant feeding . Within

recent years it has become m o re and mo re the practice to

mo dify cow’s m ilk when used fo r infant fo od so that it ap

pro aches the no rmal milk Of the human mo ther . The mo st

marked difference in com po sition between human and cow’s

milk is the decidedly lower pro tein and higher sugar content

in the fo rmer .

The general plan fo llowed in mo difying cow’s milk fo r

infant feeding is to add sufficient water to reduce the pro

tein content to that found in human milk . Cream is then

added to resto re the fat content to from to per

MILK AND I TS PRODUCTS 173

cent and sufficient sugar, usually m ilk su gar , to raise the

content of this constituent to that found in hum an m ilk .

A knowledge of the compo sition of milk pro duced by

the common domestic animals will be found o f value at

times . For example , if it becom es necessary to raise a co lt

by hand , a study of the table giving the com po sition of m are’s

milk will Show clearly that even average cow’s m ilk should

be diluted with water befo re being used fo r this purpo se .

Cane sugar is o ften added .

The exceedingly rapid growth o f small animals is ex

plained by the very rich milk that small species always

produce . As a general rule the larger the species , the slower

the growth of the young,and the sm aller the amount o f so lids

in the milk . Anim als living in arctic regions o r in the o cean

are exceptions . These conditions require a large amount of

fat fo r fuel to keep the young animal warm . Thi s interesting

fact is illust rated by the compo sition o f the reindeer’s m ilk

and also by that o f certainmarine animals such as the walrus

and the po rpo ise which secrete the richest milk known .

161 . Bre ed . The milk from different breeds of cows

differs in compo sition. Table 20 gives a summ ary o f all

the published reco rds of American Experiment Stations on

this subj ect up to 1913

TABLE 20.

— COMPOSITION OF M ILK BY BREE DS 1

BREED TOTAL SOLIDS PROTEIN SUGAR

1 U . S . Dept . Agr . , Bu reau o f Anim al Indu stry , Bu lletin 156 .

174 DAIR Y FARMING

It will be no ted that the main variation is in the fat,al

though the pro tein shows sufficient variation to be of impo r

tance . Sugar varies but slightly, and the ash practically

none . The breed o f the cow also has a marked influence

upon the size o f the fat globules . Those o f the Jerseys and

Guernseys are much larger than tho se of the Ho lsteins . The

larger fat globules in Jersey milk result in quicker and mo re

complete separation of the cream by gravity ; also in a s light

difference in the ease of churning . The breed of the cow

likewise has a marked influence upon the co lo r of m i lk and

especially upon the co lo r of the butter . In amount o f co lo r

the Guernsey ranks first,fo llowed by the Jersey, Sho rt

ho rn,Ayrshire

,and Ho lstein in the o rder named . There

is no basis fo r the common claim that certain breeds pro

duce milk o r butter o f a better flavo r than o thers . Ou t

side the po ssible variation in co lo r, the mo st expert j udge

canno t distinguish the product of one breed from that o f

another when o ther conditions are the same .

162 . Stage o f Lactation. The stage o f lactation stands

second only to the breed in impo rtance as a facto r influencing

the com po sition of milk . The amount o f the different con

stitu ents and also the nature of the fat itself is influenced in

this way . The mo st marked effect is upon the amount o f

pro tein and fat.

The figures in Table 21 obtained by the autho r show the

average fo r eleven cows representing three breeds whi ch were

kept on a uni fo rm ration fo r an entire lactation period to elim

inate changes du e to feed . A decided increase in the amount

o f fat and protein is shown,but little change in the sugar

content .

The stage of lactation also has a marked effect upon

the size o f fat globules . After the cow has been in milk

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176 DAIR Y FARMING

are usually about the same at each milking . If the intervals

are no t equal , the larger yield of m ilk and a lower percentageo f fat fo llow the longer interval . When the milking is done

three times o r mo re daily,the variation in fat content is

generally considerable,even though the intervals between

m ilking are equal . As a rule,the milk drawn near the no on

hour has the highest fat content . Where the com po sition

is varied by unequal intervals,the variation is confined

mo stly to the fat.

165 . Fo r e M ilk and Strippings . The first milk drawn from

the cow contains a low percentage o f fat, while the last is sev

eral tim es richer in this constituent . The first milk as a rule

contains from to per cent , whi le the strippings range

from 5 to 10 per cent . The o ther constituents o f the milk

are practically the sam e in all parts o f the milking . Numer

o u s variations o ccur from day to day that canno t be ex

plained by any o f the facto rs described . A single sample of

milk from a cow m ay be entirely misleading .

166 . Effe ct o f Fe ed . The erro r is o ften m ade o f assuming

that the richness o f milk varies with the feed . While it

is po ssible under certain conditions to make a variation of

po ssibly to per cent by giving certain feeds, it is

only under conditions so abno rmal that it is o f scientific

interest only and has no practical bearing . As far as the

o rdinary practice is concerned, the feed has no influence

upon the richness o f the m ilk . If a certain cow averages

per cent fat fo r a year,no one knows how to feed her to

make her m ilk average per cent fo r the fo llowing year .

The richness o f a cow’s m ilk is fixed by heredity and canno t be

permanently changed by any means . It is a well-known fact ,however

,that a cow In a high state Of flesh at time o f calving

gives richer m ilk fo r a sho rt time than do es one thin in flesh .

MILK AND I TS PROD UCTS 177

M ARKET M ILK

167 . Sanitary M ilk . M ilk som etim es acts as the carrier

o f human disease germ s . The danger that such germ s will

get into milk during handling is m uch greater than isthedanger of the transm ission Of any disease directly from the

cows . While the danger o f carrying disease is great,it is

FIG . 48 . A sm all to p m ilk pail helps to prevent contam ination du ringm ilking . Strainers and cloth over the Opening are o f little valu e . Som e

o f the m o st sanitary dairies u se the typ e s illu strated .

certain that dirty o r partly spo iled m ilk is even mo re serious

and is responsible fo r m uch sickness and m any deaths among

children .

The production o f m arket milk that is reasonably safe

fo r fo od,is no t difficult and need not invo lve heavy ex

pense,except that m o re intelligence is necessary fo r its

production and greater intelligence dem ands higher wages .

It is certain that if the public wants go o d clean milk the

178 DAIR Y FARMING

price must be som ewhat higher than it has been in the past .

The first requirement is that the cows must be healthy .

The milk from a cow suffering from sickness of any kind ,including garget in the udder, should not be used . The

m i lkers should be in go od health and sho uld take special

pains that no po ssible chance i s given fo r the germs of

typho id fever to get into the m ilk . Care should be taken

that contaminated water is not used fo r washing the

utensils .

Sani tary milk means prim arily clean milk . In fact, the

requirements fo r pro ducing sanitary milk can be described

in two wo rds . The first i s cleanliness , and the second

is co ldness . The source

of mo st Of the dirt that

finds its way into milk is

filth from the cow’s body .

A dirty cow invariably

FIG . 49 . M ilk p ails and cans sho u ld means dlrty Inllk’ The

have all seam s filled with so lder as in b. stable should be SO con

glt

lin

t

s

éls

kxgh

cie

a

a

fs hke a are v ery dlffi'

structed that it is po ssible

to keep the cow clean. A

cow should be brushed daily to keep the lo o se dirt off the

bo dy . The stable and yard should , of course,be kept in

a go od condition o f cleanliness . The milker should wear

clean clo thes and should m ilk with dry hands .

Next to cleanliness o f the cow stands cleanliness of the

pails, strainers , and o ther utensils . These should be first

cleaned with a brush, using warm water and some washing

powder . Spe cial attention Should be given to the seams .

After being tho roughly cleaned,they should be scalded with

bo iling water o r better heated in steam when this is avail

able . After being scalded,they should be p laced where

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180 DAIR Y FARMING

from the m ilk,acco rding to the metho d used in bacterio

logical labo rato ries , to determine the number o f bacteria

\T.

"c

FIG . 5 1 . Influ ence o f tem peratu reon the gr owth o f bacteria . a repre

sents one o riginal bacteriu m ; b, the de

scendants o f one bacteriu m in m ilk kept24 ho u rs at 50

°F . ; 0 r epresents the

nu m ber o f descendants when m ilk is no t

co o led .

present . There were

found to be bac

teria per cubic centim eter

in the fresh m ilk . This

is a low count,showing

that the milk had been

taken under excellent

sanitary conditions . One

can was co o led at once

to 50° by placing it in ice

water and stirring . The

o ther can still showed a

tem perature o f Bo th

were now put in a ro om

co o led with ice to a temperature o f which is a typical

tem perature fo r a go od ice box.

lated below

Nu m ber o f bacteria at beg inningTem peratu r e o f ro o m

Tem peratu re o f m ilk at beginningTem peratu r e after 12 ho u rsTem peratu re a fter 24 ho u r sTem peratu r e after 36 ho u rsNu m ber o f bacteria after 36 ho u rs

The results are tabu

C OOLED M ILK

The bacteria counts were made in bo th samples at the

end o f 36 hours . The co o led sample contained bac

teria per cubic centim eter,and the unco o led the eno rmous

num ber of in the same quantity . The sample

MILK AND I TS PRODUCTS 181

co o led slowly soured within 40 hours,while the o ther re

mained perfectly sweet fo r five days .

If a large quantity o f m ilk is handled , it should be co o led

by means o f a water co o ler, many styles o f which m ay be

purchased at reasonable prices . The next best plan i s to set

the cans in ice water and stir the milk frequently .

The general subj ect o fmilk sanitation m ay be summ arized

in thefo llowing statem ents

1 . Use only healthy cows .

2 . M ilk should not be handled by any one su ffering from

a contagious disease o r asso ciated with a person so affected .

3 . The cow’s body should be kept free from manure .

4 . The milker should have clean clo thes and should milk

with dry hands .

'

5 . The utensils”must be properly washed and sterilized .

6 . The milk must be tho roughly co o led immediately and

kept co ld until consum ed .

168 . Ce rtified M ilk . This name is applied to m ilk pro

du ced acco rding to a s et o f rules prepared by a medical m ilk

comm issi on. Such o rganizations have no relation to either

state o r city inspectiOn . Representatives of the asso ciation

make chemical analyses and bacteria counts o f the milk at

frequent intervals . They also examine the sanitary condi

tions of the prem ises where the milk is produced and the

health of the cattle and of the m ilkers at regular intervals .

If all rules are com plied with and the num ber of bacteria

is below the maximum num ber fixed by the rules , the com

nnss10n certifies to the condition of the milk and allows the

dairym an to sell it with its approval . The rules are very

strict , requiring great cleanliness in every detail . As a

result certified milk m eans the highest po ssible quality from

a sanitary standpo int . Such milk usually retails at about

182 DAIR Y FARMING

15 cents per quart , and the producer receives po ssibly 8 centsat the farm . At present only a very small amount of milk

is produced under these conditions, as the market is limited .

FIG . 52 . Practical m ilk co o lers fo r farm u se . The one on the left ism o re efficient, bu t m ore expensive . Cold water , preferably ice water , isu sed fo r co o ling .

It is only practicable to conduct such a business where a large

City m arket is easy o f access and when suitable arrangements

can be made to market the pro duct .

BUTTER M AKING ON THE FARM

169 . Bu tter M aking on the Farm . Although the creamery,

has become a facto r o f great impo rtance in the dairy develop

ment of the country,still acco rding to the last census , 994

million pounds of butter per year , o r 61 per cent o f the to tal,was made on farms . The greater part of this was produced

on farms where fewer than ten cows were kept . The quality

of farm-made butter varies from the po o rest to the best .

The average quality, however , is far below that made in the

creameries . This is du e largely to the fact that little at

tention is given to having proper utensils and facilities, on

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184 DAIR Y FARMING

172 . Flavo r . The proper flavo r is hard to describe,but

m ay be said to be a pure butter taste and o do r . It should

be entirely free from any o ther taste,such as m ight be de

scribed as rancid , stale , o r strong . The flavo r of the butter,whether it be go o d o r bad

,in at least nine cases o u t of ten

,

is produced during the souring,o r ripening

,of the cream .

There are a few exceptions to this rule . A few feeds,such

as onions , turnips , o r new rye pasture , will give a taste to

butter . In a few cases , butter made from the m ilk o f a cow

near the end of her milking period,has a slightly obj ection

able taste .

173 . Bo dy, Co lo r , and Salt. Bo dy, co lo r, salt , and pack

age m ay ‘

be said to depend upon m echanical conditions .

They are entirely under the contro l of the butter maker, pro

vided suitable facilities are at hand . Faults in these quah

ties are not to be attributed to the feed,

‘breed,o r season of

the year .

The body Should be waxy and firm,but not brittle o r

salvy . It should no t stick to the knife when cut,neither

should it crumble . PrOper bo dy results from havrng the

churning tem perature right,stopping the churning at the

right stage,and wo rking the butter the proper amount .

The co lo r should be that of butter pro duced by cows on

pasture . During the season when dry feed is used,a sufh

cient amount o fVegetable co lo ring should be added.

to the

cream to give the proper shade of yellow . The mo st Com

m on defects in co lo r are having it to o high o r to o low,o r

having a streaky o r uneven co lo r known as mo ttles . The

latter condition is du e to uneven distribution of the salt, a

result o f insufficient wo rking .

The salt should be sufficient so that a person eating the

butter do es not no tice either a deficiency o r an excess . In

MI LK AND I TS PRODUCTS 185

addition to to o heavy o r to o light salting,the m o st common

fault is gritty o r undisso lved salt .

The amount of water left in butter is som ewhat variable .

The usual rule is to estim ate that a given number o f pounds

of butter-fat will give one-sixth m o re pounds of butter .

174 . Separation o f Cr e am . In certain lo calities it is the

practice to churnthe who le milk, but this results in an

unnecessary lo ss o f butter-fat in the butterm ilk . Until

recent years cream has

been secured entirely by

allowing it to rise to the

top of the milk . Since

the introduction of the

cream separato r, about

1 8 8 5, th e s e p a r a t o r

method has become mo re

and m o re general .

Th e m o s t e f f i c i ent

gravity m ethod consists

in using a narrow deep

can set in ice water o r

very co ld spring o r well

water,and skim m ing the

cream at the end o f 12 o r

15 hours . A Wldely used F IG . 54 . Fo r bu tter m aking pu rp o sesbut very 1nefficient Way fo u r cowswith a cream separato r are equ al

to five when shallow pans are u sed to raiseof securing cream is the the cream ,

s h a l l o w-p an s y s t em

,

which consists in placing the m ilk in pans and cro cks not

over four inches deep and keeping it at a m o derate tem per

ature . The cream is then skim m ed from the sur face at

the end Of 24 o r 36 hours . By u se o f the deep-setting

186 DAIR Y FARMING

method it is po ssible to recover. about 90 per cent Of thecream . By the shallow-

pan metho d fr om 75 to 80 per

cent is recovered .

The centrifugal cream separato r is now practical wherefive o r mo re cows are kept although it is o ften used fo r evena smaller number . The separato r makes it po ssible to re

cover about 98 per cent o f the butter-fat and to obtain the

cream in a condition that m akes it po ssibleto produce the highest grade of butter . It

also results in a considerable saving of labo r,

and the skim-milk is in the best po ssible con

dition fo r feeding to calves .

175 . Ripening of Cr eam . This subj ect

requires considerable attention since the m ar

ket value of the butter is largely contro lled

F IG . 55 .—Canby the cream ripening . Cream should not

u sed fo r raising be held to o long . When churned,it Should

$331

1; 8

1

57216359 9 have a pure , sharp

,sour taste with no ob

jectionable taste , such as bitter,rancid , o r

stale . Cream ripeningfis du e to the development of bacteria .

Butter facto ries u se a starter to help contro l the souring,

but this is not generally practical fo r the‘

small farm,unless

considerable cream is handled . The proper ripening of the

cream is contro lled by two things first,by observing proper

cleanliness in every detail o f milking , separating , and hand

ling the cream second,by proper contro l o f the tem perature

o f the cream during the ripening pro cess .

The fo llowing statement is based upon the assumption that

churning will be done two o r three tim es weekly and not

daily . The best pro cedure under these conditions is to

keep theI

cream from the first milking at a temperature o f

70° but not co lder . This can be done by setting the can in

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188 DAIR Y FARMING

when the cream 1s from cows far advanced in the stage of

lactation and generally during the season when dry feeds

are fed exclusively . Under

these conditions the fat

itself is hard , the fat

globules small, and the

amount of casein In the

milk large . All these con

ditions combine to make

churning difficult . If a

cream separato r. is in u se,

the trouble m ay be partly

removed by.

mixing the

cream while still sweet

with three o r four times

its vo lume of warm waterFIG . 57 .

- The m o st widely u sed , and and running this mixturem o st sati sfacto ry chu rn fo r farm u se .

through the separato r

This affects the flavo r o f the butter somewhat , but makes

the churning easier by removing

part o f the casein

177 . Chu rns and Chu rning .

Fo r farm u se no thing is better

than the o rdinary barrel churn

without any inside fixtures .

Large farm dairies can advanta

geo u sly u se a sm all-sized com

bined churn and wo rker . The

cream should be strained into the

churn through a wire o r hair Fm , 58 .

— Co m bined chu mStrainer to rem ove particles Of and bu tter wo rker , adapted fo r

u se on the farm where large

curd,which if not removed Show am o u nts o f bu tter are m ade .

MILK AND I TS PRODUCTS

as white specks in the butter . If butter co lo r is used,it

should be added to the cream in the churn. The churn

should be stopped when the butter granules are about the

Size o f kernels of co rn,o r a httle smaller in thin cream .

The buttermilk is drained off through a strainer . The

butter is next washed to,

rem ove the rem ainder o f the but

term ilk,by adding about as much water as there was

FIG . 59 . Bu tter in prop er condition to sto p chu rning .

buttermilk . This shou ld be at a temperature of 50°

to

56°F .

178 . Salting and Wo rking . After washing,the butter is

placed on the wo rker and the salt distributed over it .

The wo rker and the ladles used are previously put to so ak in

hot water, then tho roughly co o led in co ld water befo re using,to prevent

'

the butter from sticking to them . The amount o f

salt m ay vary some with the m arket,but usually one ounce

per pound o f butter is the amount preferred . The butter

190 DAIR Y FARMING

is next wo rked to distribute the salt and to make the butter

into a compact mass . If there is trouble in getting the

salt diss’

o lved , the butter m ay be allowed to stand a few

hours in a co o l place after the wo rking is partly done . A

second wo rking is then given. The wo rking should be done

slowly and mo stly by pressure rather than by sliding the

ladle o r wo rking utensil over the butter . The wo rking should

stop when the salt is all disso lved and the body of the butter

compact and waxy . Observation of the condition of the

butter and of the time required is the best way to learn the

proper stage at which to stop wo rking . Overwo rking makes

the butter sticky and so ft in texture , underwo rking results

in mo ttled butter .

179 . Package . When butter is placed on the market,

the package is of great impo rtance . It should be neat

and attractive and of

proper size . The rec

tangu lar one-pound

prints meet with the

mo st favo r every

where . They should

be wrapped in go o d

p a r c hm e n t p a p e r ,

FIG . 60.

—A hand bu tter wo rker that givest h m ay be pu r"

go o d results when bu tter is m ade on the chased In the properfarm

size , 8 X 11 inches,at

very low co st . When butter is shipped o r handled in quan

tities, it is also well to rise a paraffined paper box over the

parchment paper,known as a carton,

which pro tects the

butter . To secure and retain a go od retail trade requires

a unifo rmly high quality o f butter and a constant supply

during the year .

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192 DAIR Y FARMING

far as 400miles , but generally within a 50-mile radius . Some

o f these facto ries have the capacity o f fo rty average-sized

lo cal Cream eries . The cream received is usually sour and

to o old fo r the best results in butter m aking . However,by

skillful m ethods o f handling,in

the way of pasteurizing and neu

tralizing the cream with lime

water, it is po ssible to make a fair

grade of butter . ThiS type of

creamery is mo st common where

the producers of cream are widely

scattered so that a lo cal creamery

canno t obtain sufficient raw ma

terial. Under these conditions the

FIG . 63 . Bu tter print. The centralizer creamery serves a usefulrectangu lar print sells best . purpo se , but where the supply Of

cream is sufficient a lo cal facto ry is to be recom m ended .

181 . Ch e e s e M aking . This impo rtant industry is carried

on m o st extensively in Wisconsin and in New Yo rk . In

1909 these two states pro duced over 79 per cent o f the to tal

product in this country . The milk o f about cows

is used fo r this purpo se in the United States and the value

of the product is nearly 50 m illion do llars annually . Only

about 3 per cent of the cheese is made on farms . M ilk fo r

cheese m aking m ust be well cared fo r . This requiresa fairly

liberal supply o f m ilk within a sm all area . On the average 10

pounds of m ilk are required fo r 1 pound o f cheese . Com m on

American Cheddar , which is the mo st com mon kind , contains

about one-third water , one-third fat, and one-third casein.

In the pro cess o f cheese m aking the m ilk is co agulated while

it is in a perfectly sweet condition by the additibn o f rennet

extract . Rennet is a substance obtained from the wall o f

MILK AND I TS P RODUCTS 193

the stomach of calves that have been slaughtered for veal .

It is secreted by glands in the lining of the stomach in all

young anim als that live on a m ilk diet . The casein as it is

co agulated by the rennet inclo ses the fat with it and fo rm s

curd . This curd is cut into small pieces,and the water

gradually expelled by careful stirring and heating . When

the proper stage is reached , the curd is put into a press and

sufficient pressure is applied to cause it to unite into a so lid

mass . When the pressing is completed,the cheese is put away

fo r ripening . Newly made cheese is no t go od to eat. It

lacks flavo r as well as digestibility . It is kept fo r a perio d

o f from six weeks to six months fo r curing and ripening

The temperature of the curing ro om must b e carefully

contro lled , as to o much heat will inj ure the quality of the

cheese . The difficulty o f proper contro l o f the ripening is

the mo st serious obj ection to making cheese on the farm,

and the greatest difficulty to be overcom e in operating a

facto ry in a climate subj ect to great extremes o f heat . Dur

ing the ripening, the pro tein largely changes from an inso luble

to a so luble fo rm and in this way becomes m uch mo re digesti

ble . The typical flavo r is developed at the sam e tim e .

182 . Condens ed M ilk . The pro cess of condensing m ilk

was invented by Bo rden in 1856 . Fo r the year 1909 the

value o f condensed milk in the United States was nearly 34

million dollars . The pro cess consists in rem oving a po rtion

of the water from the milk by heating it in a partial vacuum .

The milk used must be fresh and in go od condition. The

milk is condensed until 2% parts of the fresh milk make 1

part o f the condensed .-Two classes o f condensed m ilk are

com monly m ade . One is known as sweetened,since cane

sugar is added until the finished product contains 40 per

cent sugar ” Condensed milk of this class is preservedO

194 DAIR Y FARMING

chiefly by the large amount of sugar present . The o ther

class is the unsweetened . No thing is added to the milk .

The preservation depends upon heating the pro duct after

it is in cans in a steam oven under pressure until it is

com pletely sterilized . Several grades of this class are made .

A condensed m ilk facto ry can only be operated where a large

supply of perfectly fresh milk can be obtained . The con

densary is usually a go od market fo r milk,but the farmer

supplying the milk has the same trouble raising his calvesas in the case where who le milk is so ld in any o ther fo rm .

183 . M ilk Flo u r . A few facto ries make powdered milk,

o r m ilk flour . Fo r this a part of the fat is rem oved,and

the m ilk is dried to make a fine white powder that keeps

well . When water is added,the powder disso lves .

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEM S

1 . Whi ch is heavier , cream o r skim -m ilk ?2 . What pu rpo se do es each o f the constitu ents of m ilk serve

when u sed as fo od ? Whi ch is the m o st im po rtant constitu ent ?3 . Com pare the am o u nt o f fat in Holstein m ilk with the am ou nt

in Jer sey m ilk when the latter is considered as 100 per cent . Com

pare the pr o tein in the sam e way .

4 . Why is the percentage o f fat no t an accu rate m easu re of the

valu e o f m ilk as fo od ?5 . I s it po ssible to increase the per centage o f fat in m ilk by

changing the feed ?6 . I s the co lo r o f m ilk a su r e indication o f the per centage of

bu tter-fat contained ?7 . Wher e do es each constitu ent o f the m ilk go when m ilk is

u sed fo r bu tter m aking ? Fo r cheese m aking ?8 . What r easons ar e ther e fo r stripping a cow ?

9 . What ar e the legal standards o f yo u r state fo r m ilk and

bu tter ? So m e o f this info rm ation is given on page 297 . What arethe r estrictions on the sale o f oleo m argarine ?10. What principle o f physics is the basis fo r the o peration of

the cream separato r and of the Babco ck m ilk test ?

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196 DAIRY FARMING

while ho t. The re sidu e on the filter paper is the albu m in. The su gar

and the ash r em ain in the filtrate .

18 . M ilk Su gar . The m ilk su gar is no t easily separated fro mthe ash . Its pre sence m ay be dem onstrated by u sing Fehling

’s

solu tion as fo llows . To 10 c . c . o f the filtrate add 5 c . c . o f Fehling’s

solu tion and bo il. The r ed precipitate shows the presence o f su gar .

19 . Ash o f M ilk . The presence o f ash m ay be dem onstrated as

follows . Take 25 c . c . o f m ilk in an evapo rating dish . Add a few

drops o f acetic acid . Place evapo rating di sh and contents on a sand

bath and evapo rate to dryness .

'

Allow to char slightly ,then place

on a wire gau ze o ver a gas bu rner and heat u ntil contents char . R e

m o ve the gau ze and heat o ver a fu ll flam e u ntil all o f the carbon isbu rned o ff. The gray r e sidu e is the ash , o r m ineral m atter .

THE BABCOCK TEST FOR M ILK

20. Te st o fWhole M ilk . Apparatu s needed : a hand power cen

trifu ge o r te sting m achine , 4 to 6 m ilk te st bo ttles , a pipette to

m easu r e the m ilk , an acid m easu r e , o rdinary co m m ercial su lfu ricacid , a sm all sam ple o f m ilk , and so m e ho t water . The apparatu sm ay be pu r chased fr o m any dealer in dairy su pplies . Sulfu ric acidm ay be obtained at any dru g sto r e .

Sam pling the M ilk. The accu r acy o f the test depends largely onthe sam ple taken . The m ilk to be tested sho u ld be tho r o u ghlym ixed , preferably by po u ring several tim e s fro m one jar to ano ther .

The m ilk sho u ld be at o rdinary ro om tem peratur e . The sm all end

of the pipette is placed in the m ilk and the m ilk drawn in by su cking slowly at the u pper .end . The m ilk is drawn so m ewhat abovethe m ark which indicate s c . c . , and the fir st finger is then qu icklyslipped o ver the top o f the pipette . The m ilk is then allowed toescape slowly u ntil the surface is at the m ark on the pipette . The

sm all end o f the pipette is now placed in the neck of the test bo ttleand the m ilk allowed to flow into the test bo ttle . The last drop

"

rem aining in the po int o f the pipette sho uld be blown o u t into thetest bo ttle . It is always well to m ake du plicate tests o f eachsam ple .

Adding the A cid. When all the sam ples are m easu r ed o u t, the

acid sho u ld be added . The acid m easu r e is filled to the c . c .

m ark with acid that is at r o o m tem peratu r e . The acid is now

po u r ed into the test bo ttle ,holding the bo ttle in an inclined po sition

so that it ru ns down the neck and side o f the bo ttle and fo rm s a.

clear layer at the bo tto m . Next take the bo ttle by the neck and

MILK AND I TS PRODUCTS 197

give it a gentle ro tary m o tion u ntil the cu rd o f the m ilk is entirelydisso lved, and the m ixtu re,

o f acid and m ilk is o f a u nifo rm dark co f

fee color and very ho t. Thi s change in appearance and in tem peratur e is the result o f the action o f the acid u pon the constitu ents ofthe m ilk , all o f whi ch are di ssolved except the fat, whi ch is no t

aflected .

’

Whi rling the B o ttles . The bo ttles are now pu t in the centrifu ge . They sho u ld be qu ite ho t throu gho u t the whirling . Te sting sho u ld no t be done in a cold ro o m . It is generally necessary toplace som e bo iling water in the bo ttom o f a hand centrifu ge to keepu p the heat du ring the whirling . The te st bo ttles sho u ld be placedin the m achine so that they balance each o ther . The m achine iso perated fo r five m inu tes at the proper speed fo r the m achine , 700

to 900 revo lu tions of the di sk p er m inu te , depending u pon the sizeo f the revolving parts . At the end o f five m inu tes the m achineis stopped , and ho t water is added to each bo ttle by m eans o f the

pipette u ntil the contents com e u p to the bo tto m o f the neck .

Then whirl the m achine two m inu tes m o r e and a dd .ho t .waterto bring the fat colu m n near the top of. the gradu ations

‘

on'

theneck . Whirl one m inu te and the tests ar e r eady fo r r eading .

The fat should be clear and free from black sedim ent below , o r

fo am on top .

Reading the Test. The test bo ttles sho u ld be placed fo r a few

m inu tes in a deep pail o r pan o f water , the tem peratu r e o f which isregulated to 130

°

F . The fat sho u ld be in a flu id condition . In

reading , the test bo ttle sho uld be held in a perpendicular po sitionon the level with the eye .

The reading on the gradu ated scale sho u ld be no ted at the top

and bo ttom o f the fat colu m n . Thi s r eading is m ade fro m the ex

trem e bo tto m o f the fat colu m n to the straight line whi ch is seen

acro ss the top ,and no t to the curved line which appear s

.

ju st below.

The difl erence between the two r eadings is the percentage o f fat in

the m ilk . The neck of the bottle is gradu ated into large divisionswhi ch r epre sent per cent, and these again into sm aller divisions ,each of whi ch m ay be per cent, o r per cent , depending u ponthe style o f the bo ttle .

Su ggestions on M aking the Babcock Test. 1 . U se the index

finger , no t the thu m b , fo r clo sing the pipette .

’

Keep the finger dry .

2 . Draw the m ilk abo ve the m ark when m easu ring , and then holdthe pipette on levelwith the eye as the m ilk is allowed to flow a

dr op at a tim e u ntil the m ark is reached .

198 DAI RY FARMING

3 . Ho ld the bo ttle in a slanting po sition when adding acid,and do no t allow the m o u th o f the bottle to po int toward any

one while the m i lk and acid are b eing m ixed , as o ccasionally the

contents m ay be fo rced o u t su ddenly .

4 . Wash the pipette thoro u ghly , and . dip it in ho t water afteru sing .

5 . The testing m achine m u st be fastened secur ely to a heavytable o r bench . Start and sto p the m achine slowly .

6 . If black sedim ent appear s in the fat colu m n, the indicationsar e that the acid was to o str ong . U se slightly less . If white specksare present , it is pr obable the action o f the acid was to o weak . U se

a little m o re , o r warm the m ilk 10 o r 20degrees before adding the acid .

7 . Wash the test bo ttles at once after u sing by m eans of hot

water and so m e washing powder . R inse tho rou ghly in clean waterto rem ove all traces of washing powder .

8 . R em em ber the acid is po ison and will burn the clo thing o r

skin . If spilled on anything , po u r on plenty o f water and add so m e

lim e , so da , o r washing powder to neu tralize the acid .

21 . Cream Te sting . When cream is sold on the basis o f the

fat content, the sam ples fo r testing m u st be weighed rather thanm easu r ed . A test m ay be m ade by the following m etho d , bu t it

m u st be kept in m ind that the results are no t entir ely accu rateand tend to be lower than the tru e r eading .

M ix the cream tho r ou ghly and by the u se of the m ilk-testingpipette , place c . c . in a clean cu p o r beaker . Next fill the pipetteto the m ark with water and add to the cream . Add a second pipette fu ll o f water in the sam e m anner . M ix thoro u ghly and te st inthe sam e m anner as wou ld be done fo r m ilk . Since the m ixtu retested is only one-third cream , the per centage o f fat fo u nd m u st bem ultiplied by thr ee to give the percentage o f fat in the cream .

VAR IATIONS IN . AM OUNT OF FAT IN M ILK

22 . Fat in M ilk of Difi er ent Cows . Obtain sam ples o f m i lk

from several difl erent cows and determ ine the per centage of fat ineach with the Babco ck te ster . If the weight o f m ilk can be takenat the sam e tim e , calculate the am ou nt o f bu tter-fat each cow

pr odu ced . Sam ples for te sting sho u ld be taken by thoro u ghlym ixing all the m ilk produ ced by the cow befo re taking o u t the

sm all po rtion fro m which the test is to be m ade .

23 . Fat in M ilk o f D iffer ent Br e eds . Take sam ples from cowsof as m any breeds as ar e available and test each fo r fat.

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200 DAIRY FARMING

o nce and sto re in ice water o r in an ice box . Adju st the tem pera*tu re o f the o ther sam ple to between 70°

and 80°

and leave in a warmro om .

. How long be for e each so u rs

CREAM SEPARATORS

30. Separ ation o f Cr e am . The stu dents shou ld obtain sam pleso f skim -m ilk fro m as m any so u r ces as po ssible , som e from cr eamseparato r s , and o ther s fro m places wher e the cr eam is separated bygravity . M ake the Babco ck test, pr eferably u sing a special skimm ilk te st bo ttle . What was the lo ss o f bu tter-fat by each m etho do f separation ?

BUTTER AND CHEESE

31 . Stu dy of a Facto ry. Visit a bu tter , cheese , o r condensedm ilk facto ry , and learn a s m u ch as po ssible o f the m ethods o f m anu

factu r e , also of the m etho ds o f bu ying , selling , and m anagem ent .32 . Ju dging Bu tter . If the assistance o f a cream ery m an o r

o ther co m petent ju dge o f bu tter can be had , the class m ay gathera nu m ber o f bu tter sam ple s r epresenting the lo cal su pply , and ju dgethem with hi s assistance .

CHEESE

33. M aking Cu rd . Dissolve a r ennet tablet acco rding to the

di

r ections of the m anufactu r er , add i t to m ilk and o bserve the effect.C o m pare the cu rd fo rm ed with that fro m so u r m ilk in taste and con

di tion. Cu rd m ade in thi s way is u sed in cheese m aking .

34 . Fat in Che e se . Weigh o u t 5 gram s o f chee se , cu t it intosm all pieces , and pu t in a m ilk te st bo ttle . Add 10 cc . o f warmwater and acid as in testing m ilk . After the cheese is dissolved ,

com plete the te st as fo r m ilk .

Since the te st bo ttle is gradu ated fo r 18 gram s , the per centage o ffat fo r the chee se m u st be calcu lated fo r that am o u nt by di vidingthe fat r eading by the weight o f cheese taken in gram s and m u ltiplying the resu lt by 18 .

COLLATERAL READING

The Pr o du ction o f Clean M ilk , U . S . D ept . Agr . , Farm ers’Bu lle

tin 602 .

Bacteria in M ilk , U . S . D ept . Agr . , Farm er s’Bu lletin 490.

The Car e o f M ilk and Its Use in the Ho m e , U . S . D ept . Agr . ,

Farm ers’Bu lletin 4 16 .

MILK AND I TS PRODUCTS

The Use o fM ilk as Fo o d , U . S . D ept . Agr . , Farm er s’Bu lletin 363 .

The Application o f R efrigeration to the Handling o f M ilk, U . S .

Dept . Agr . , Bu lletin 98 .

Farm Bu tter M aking , U . S . Dept . Agr . , Farm ers’Bu lletin 541 .

Cream Separator s onWestern Farm s , U . S . Dept . Agr . , Farm ers’

Bu lletin 201 .

Ho u sehold Tests fo r the D etection o f Oleo m argar ine and R eno

vated Bu tter , U . S . D ept . Agr . , Farm er s’Bu lletin 131 .

Cheese M aking on the Farm , U . S . D ept . Agr . ,Farm er s

’Bu lletin

166 .

Cyclopedia of Am erican Agr icu ltu re , L . H . Bailey , Vol. III , pp .

175—246 .

M edical M ilk Co m m i ssion and Certified M ilk , U . S . Dept . Agr . ,

Bu lletin 1 .

C ondensed M ilk and M ilk P owder , 0 . F . Hu nziker .

M ilk and Its Pr odu cts: H . H . Wing .

CHAPTER 9

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF

DAIRYING

G . F . WARREN

Cattle and Gras s . Cattle raising goes with the

raising of hay and fo rage crops . How clo sely the growth of

these crops limits the pro duction of cattle is shown by Figs .

64 . D istribu tion o f the hay and fo rage crops o f the United States .

Co m pare with Fig . 65 .

64 and 65 , taken from the United States Censu s repo rts .

In the South and in the arid regions there are a few

mo re cattle than the hay and fo rage crops would suggest ,because some of the cattle in these regions are pastured all

the year and therefo re require little o r no hay .

202

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204 DAIR Y FARMING

have such pastures keep cattle o r sheep . In regions whereall the land is well adapted to cro ps

,cattle producti on i s

usually but not always a mino r business . Bu t cattle are

o ften fattened in such regions . Very frequently the final

facto r in determining whether cattle shall be kept is the

presence o r absence o f land that is go od fo r pasture , but not

go o d fo r cro p production. Fo r instance,in parts of the

co rn-belt there Is so little rough pasture land that fewer

F IG . 66 . Using the stony land fo r pastu re .

cows are kept than o therwise would be . M o st of the milksupply fo r Chicago and fo r New Yo rk com es from no rth of

these cities, partly because o f the presence o f pastures and

partly because of'

the co o ler climate .

186 . Lo cation o f B e e f and Dairy Cattle . It is apparent

that the number of cattle in a region iS directly dependent

on the presence o f hay and fo rage crops , o r on ranges .

Whether the cattle shall be o f the beef o r dairy type de

pends prim arily on the distance to the centers o f popu

lation. Beef animals can be shipped long distances . They

are'

therefo re grown farthest from the centers o f population.

THE DE VELOPMENT OF DAI RYING

Seventy-four per cent of the steers and bulls'

in the United

States are west of the M ississippi R iver, but only thirty

per cent of the population is in that region.

The relative weight and bulk o f the feed and of the human

fo od made fro m it,the perishability of the product , and the

co st o f feed are the prim ary facto rs that determine where

different animal products shall be raised . When a

'

liberal

FIG . 67 . A dair y reg i on where the level land is u sed fo r crops , the side

b ills fo r p astu re and the po o rest land is left in wo ods .

u se of co rn silage and pasture is m ade,and if we include

the-feed fo r the young sto ck as well as fo r the mature ani

m als , a pound of butter represents approxim ately 100 pounds

of feed . A pound of cheese o r dressed beef represents about

50 pounds of feed,and a pound o f milk 5 pounds o f feed .

If drier feeds are used,the quantities will be less , bu t

approxim ately the sam e propo rtions will still ho ld . With

hay and grain a cow _ som etim es gives a pound of milk fo r

each pound of feed . A steer fed in a box stall fo r three

years used 38 pounds o f feed fo r each pound o f dressed beef . 1

1 Ontario Agricu ltu ral C ollege , R epo rt , ' 1893 , p . 122 .

206 DAIR Y FARMING

Evidently cattle m ay be used to condense large quantities of

roughage into beef and butter fo r shipment to distant m arkets .

Ano ther facto r favo ring the lo cation o f beef cattle in the

regions of least population is the fact that beef animals can

thrive on ranges that are to o po o r to support a go od dairy

cow . In the irrigated valleys of the No rthwest that have

FIG . 68 . D istribu tion o f dairy cows in the United States . The largestnu m bers o f dairy cows are kept in the co ol regions that have go o d blu egrass pastu res .

excellent blue-grass pastures dairy cows have practically

displaced beef cattle,but the dry range grasses that are

j ust above the irrigation ditch are given over to beef cattle

o r sheep . M o st o f the beef animals are raised west of the

M ississippi R iver, although many of them are fattened east

o f it .

In 1910 the New England,M iddle Atlantic and East

No rth Central States had over 4 o u t o f each 10 dairy cows

in the United States , but had less than 1 o u t o f each 10

o ther cows .

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208 DAIRY FARMING

calves . The age at which the steers are so ld also shows

an adjustment to feed prices .

'

The Western States keep

their steers to two o r three years o f age , as is shown by the

fact that they have twice as many of the o lder ones as of

the yearlings .

During the past few years there has been some discussionabout introducing beef cattle in the No rtheast

,but there

FIG . 69 . R eceipts fro m the sale o f dairy p ro du cts . This m ap showsthe location o f the centers o f co m m ercial dairying , as contrasted with tho sein which cows are kept to su pply pro du cts fo r hom e u se only .

1

i s little chance fo r such an enterprise to succeed . The su m

m er pastures are fairly cheap,but the co st o f winter feed fo r

a beef cow is m o re than the value o f her calf .

187 . R elation o f Transpo rtation to Dairying . Not only are

the relative po sitions o f beef and dairy cattle determined by

the problem o f transpo rtation,but in dairy regions the kind

o f pro duct that is to be produced is contro lled by the dis

tance that the products m ust be shipped : Butter, cheese ,1 U . S . Dept. Agr . , Yearbo ok, 19 15 , p . 395 .

THE DE VELOPMENT OF DAIR YING 209

milk flour, and condensed milk are concentrated fo r their

value and can be shipped long distances . Cream fo r direct

u se can be shipped farther than milk because it is m o re con

centrated for its value . It i s sometimes shipped from St.

Pe r centof Iowa

pr i ce200

75

Iowa. II". Incl Ohio NY Ma ssFIG . 70. Average farm p rices fo r five y ear s , 19 10

—19 14 . A s we go

eastward the prices o f hay and co rn rise faster than do es the price o f bu tter .

This favo rs the p ro du ction o f bu tter where feed is cheap .

Lawrence County, New Yo rk, to Washington,

D . C .,about

500 miles .

M ilk is the mo st bulky of the dairy products fo r its value

and is also very perishable, so that it is produced nearest to

the places where it is to be consumed . The city m ust

reach o u t j ust far enough to obtain its necessary supply .

M ilk is now regularly shipped to New Yo rkCity from po ints

over 300 m iles away .

Farms that are favo rably situated fo r the sale of m ilk

canno t affo rd to produce butter for sale on the who lesale m ar

ket. Hay and o ther feeds are to o valuable nearer the cities .

210 DAIRY FARMING

One who under such conditions produces butter o r cheese

is using mo re expensive raw materials and gets little if anymo re fo r his product .

In 1912 farmers who so ld milk to cities in different parts

o f the United States rece ived an average of cents per

quart above all shipping co sts . The averages varied from

to cents fo r different cities .

1 In the . sam e year the

average farm price o f butter was cents per pound .

2

The price rece ived fo r the milk was probably equal to 36

cents per pound fo r butter .

How difficult it is fo r farmers near cities to compete in

butter production with tho se who have cheaper feed is

shown by a comparison of prices in New Yo rk and Iowa .

The average farm prices in 1914 are given in Table 24 .

TABLE 24 . AVERA GE FARM PRICES IN IOWA AND IN NEW YORK 3

IOWA NEW YORK

Butter was only 19 per cent higher on New Yo rk farms

than on Iowa farms, but hay was 45 per cent higher and

co rn 51 p er cent higher than in Iowa . Other feeds are in

about the same propo rtion. It is evident that butter and

cheese production must shift to the regions o f cheap feed .

This shift is mo st strikingly shown by census figures . All

1 U . S . D ept . Agr . , Weekly News Letter to C rOp R epo rters , Sept. 24 ,19 13 .

2 U . S. Dept. Agr . , Ye arbo ok, 19 12 , p . 686 .

3 U. S . D ept. Agr . , Yearbo ok,19 14 , pp . 5 16 , 570, 626 .

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212 DAIRY F ARMING

period . There is no reason to suppo se that any o ther state

will be a clo se competito r withWisconsin in cheese production.

TABLE 25 .

—POUNDS BUTTER AND CHEESE MADE ON FARMSAND IN FA CTORIES 1

BUTTER CHEESESTATE

1899

New Yo rk —40Wisco ns in 23

M inneso ta 50

These declines in New Yo rk do not mean that the dairy

business has declined ; They merely Show that the readily

F IG . 72 . Lo cation o f cheese facto ries in the United States .

2

transpo rtable dairy products are com ing from regions o f

cheaper feed . At the same time that these decreases have

1 Thirteenth C ensu s , Vo l. V, p . 489 .

2 U . S . D ept. A gr . , Ye arbo ok, 19 15 , p . 397 .

THE DE VELOPMENT OF DAIR YING

taken place in butter and cheese production,the amount o f

milk so ld to be consumed as milk has m o re than doubled

(increased about 121 per cent) . There is still much butter

and cheese produced in New Yo rk and o ther eastern states

and will be fo r som e time to com e . The amount o f land

that is go od fo r pasture but not go od fo r crops is m o re than

enough to supply all the m ilk needed in the cities . The

F IG . 73 . D istribu tion o f chee se pro du ction in the United States .

M o st o f the cheese ‘

is p ro du ced in regions that are co ol, and that have go odpastu res on so ils well su pplied with lim e .

1

rem aining land is used fo r the production of cheese and but

ter . As the populations o f the cities increase , the production

of bo th of these will decrease . Som e butter will always

be m ade because the milk supply canno t be j ust right

fo r’each day’s dem and . The excess is usually made into

butter .

188 . Oth e r Adju stm ent du e to Transpo rtation . Because

of differences in prices o f feed and kinds of products so ld , the

1Wisconsin Agricu ltu ral Exp erim ent Statio n, Bu lletin 231 .

214 DAIRY FARMING

methods o f dairying are very different in different regi ons .

Near cities the co st o f feed is so high and the value of the

pro tein in milk (skim-m ilk) is so great that the raising of

calves is very expensive . M any farmers who are thus sit

u ated regularly buy their cows . Thi s is certain to continue

to be the general practice . This provides a steady m arket

fo r m ature cows from regions where feed and milk are bo th

cheaper . Such m en can raise mo re calves than they need

and can sell some o f them as cows .

Because of the expense o f raising cows where feed is high

priced,the tendency in such regions is to keep the cows

longer . On New Yo rk farm s,there were 7 cows fo r each

yearling he ifer in 1910,indicating that the

"

average cOw

is probably kept until she is 8 o r 9 years old . In Wisconsin

there was one yearling heifer for each cows . In Iowa

there was one heifer fo r each cows . In these states the

cows are kept about half as long as they are in New Yo rk .

189 . M arginalR egions . There are of course many regions

where the conditions are about equally favo rable fo r each

class of dairy products . The region m ay be at the end of

the m ilk-shipping region so that the freight charges,on milk

m ake the net price o f m ilk about the sam e as that -o f butter .

Such regions tend to prevent the price of milk from rising .

If it rises m uch,farmers stop making cheese o r butter and

ship the m ilk and if the price drops, they go back to butter

o r cheese making .

‘

190. Efi ect Of Distance to R ailr o ad . Back from the rail

ro ads on which milk o r cream is shipped there are some

tim es communities o r farms that find it better to make

butter than to haul milk to o far . In many o f the milk-sell

ing regions there are such examples . Sometimes the farm ers

get calves from m en living near the railroad , take them to

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216 DAIRY FARMING

received during the six m onths beginning May Bu t

almost two—thirds (64 per cent) of the cream is used during

the summer m onths .

1

Because pasture is so m uch cheaper than win-ter feed, the

pro du cts that are readily sto red, such as condensed milk

,

Milkpe r qt.

4 0

38

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr May June July Aug.’

Sept Oct. Nov. Dec.

FIG . 75 . Average farm prices o f bu tter and o f m arket m ilk at Shippingstations fo r the five y ears 19 10—19 14 . In o rder to secu re a constant su p plyo f m ilk the prices in the different m onths have to be in' pro p o rtion to the

co sts o f pro du ction in each m onth, bu t the am o u nt o f sto red bu tter preventsthe winter price o f bu tter fro m rising as high as it o therwise wo u ld .

butter,cheese

, and milk flour,are mo st largely pro duced on

grass . About 75 per cent o f the cheese in Wisconsin is pro

du ced in the six m onths beginning with M ay? Over three

fifths (63 per cent) o f the butter received in Chicago is

received during these six months .

3

1 The .M ilk R epo rter , Feb . , 19 15 , p . 16 .

2 Wisconsin Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station, Bu lletin 231 , p. 21 .

3 Chicago Dairy Produ ce , Jan. 16 , 19 15 , p . 5 .

THE DE VELOPMENT OF DAIR YING 217

Of course some butter and cheese is produced in all

months . The problem is whether to have the cows freshen

in the spring, and thereby have mo st of the production m ade

on pasture o r to have them freshen in the fall , and therefo re

have mo st of the production made in winter . It is perfectly

clear that the maj o rity of farmers find that the sum m er dairy

pays best fo r -cheese and butter . M any o f tho se who sell

market m i lk have the cows freshen in the fall

TABLE 26 .

— F IVE-YEAR AVERAGE FARM PRI CES OF BUTTER IN

THE UN ITED STATES , 19 10—19 14 ; AND THREE-YEAR AVERA GEPRI CES OF M ARKET M ILK AT SHIPP ING STATI ONS

,19 13—19 15

M ILK 1 BUTTER 2

Per Cent o f C ents p er Per C ent o fD ec . Pr ice Po u nd D ec . Price

The average farm pri ce of butter in the Uni ted States by

months is given in Table 26 , also the average farm price o f

m ilk that is shipped to the leading cities . The highest

price Of milk is reached in December . The June price is

1 U . S . D ept . Agr ., Weekly News Letter to Crop Co rrespondents , Sept.

24 , 19 13 , Jan . 20, 19 15 , Ap r . 28 , 19 15 .

2 U . S . D ept . Agr . , Y earbo oks .

218 DAIRY FARMING

only 75 per cent of the December price . Butter i s less

variable in price . The butter held in sto rage prevents the

Winter price from rising as high as it would o therwise go .

Under no rmal conditions thi s sto red butter prevents the

winter price from rising high enough to cover the increased

co st of feed as it m ust do in the case o f m ilk . The winter

prices of butter and cheese are based not prim arily on the

co st o f winter feed , but on the co st of summer feed plus the

co st of sto rage .

In spite o f this difference in favo r o f production of butter

on pasture , there are some farms that can pro duce it in win

ter to the best advantage . Occasionally a farm er sells but

ter at retail at such a high winter price that it mo re than

covers the higher feed co st. If the farmer is very sho rt o f

pasture and has an abundance of cheap winter feed,winter

production m ay pay . Sometimes the pressure of o ther wo rk

in the summer is enough to mo re than o ffset the difference in

feed co st . Occasionally a farmer has such profitable summer

wo rk and so much of it that he canno t affo rd to m ilk cows

in the summer,but m ay be able to milk them fo r butter pro

duction in winter .

193 . Anim al Unit D efined . In o rder to compare the

am ount of lives to ck on different farms,it is necessary to

reduce all kinds of anim als to som e common basis . One

cow,bull

,o r ho rse is called an anim al unit . Two head of

young sto ck are counted as one unit . Seven sheep,fourteen

lambs , five ho gs , ten pigs,one hundred hens

,are each

counted as one animal unit . In each case the numbers given

represent a group that eats approxim ately as much fo o d

as a cow o r ho rse,and produces manure wo rth asmuch as

that produced by a cow o r ho rse . Similarly,the num ber of

cattle units on a farm are the approximate equivalent in

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220 DA IR Y FARMING

To tal valu e o f all dairy pro du cts so ld

Average valu e o f dairy produ cts so ld per farm

7 . Co m pared wi th the preceding censu s , which o f the followingare increasing and whi ch decreasing : nu m ber o f cows ; bu tter m ade

on farm s ; bu tter m ade in facto ries ; cheese . In each case give thereasons fo r the change .

8 . A sim ilar stu dy m ay be m ade fo r the co u nty .

9 . How m ay steer s and bu lls bo rn befo re 1909 , and born in 1909 ,

are ther e in yo u r state o r co u nty fo r each 100 dairy cows Com parewith Table 23 , page 207 . What propo rtio n do dairy cows represento f all cattle ? Co m par e with Table 22 , page 203 .

10. H ow m any beef and dairy cows were there in yo u r state o r

co u nty ? HOW m any heifer s bo rn in 1909 ? H ow m any cows fo reach heifer ? Co m par e with the figu r es on page 2 14 .

11 . Are the calves in yo u r region raised , o r sold fo r veal? If

sold , at what age ?12 . D o es yo u r region produ ce all its dairy cows ? Do es it pro

du ce any to be shipped to o ther r egions ?13 . Abo u t what pr opo rtion o f the cows in the dairy herds of

yo u r r egion ar e r eplaced each year ?14 . A t What tim e o f the year is m o st o f the m ilk , bu tter , o r cheese

o f yo u r r egion pr o du ced ? Why ?

COLLATERAL READING

Farm M anagem ent, G . F . Warren, pp . 43—103 , 276—278 .

CHAPTER 10

SYSTEM S O F FARM ING ON DAIRY FARM S

G . F . WARREN

DAIRY farms m ay be classified acco rding to the cropping

system that they u se,also acco rding to whether they raise

o r buy their feed , and m ay be compared in m any o ther

ways .

' A few of these problems o f o rganization are here

discussed .

CROPS FOR FEED

194 . Corn Silage . The m o st striking change in the dairy

industry in the last centu ry has come in connection with the

u se of the silo . Thi s provides a succulent feed in the winter

and makes it po ssible to obtain a better pro duction of milk

at that time o f year . The silo is a m eans of saving co rn

stalks in the best po ssible fo rm fo r winter u se . It do es not

increase the value o f the grain . In fact,there is always some

lo ss in the silo,and the co st of putting co rn into the silo is

mo re than the co st o f husking from standing stalks . Aside

from its value as a succulent feed,it is prim arily a su bstitu

tion of co rn-stalks fo r hay . In regions where the season is

to o sho rt fo r maturing co rn,it m ay still be grown fo r the

silo . In arid regions co rn and o ther crops that would not

produce much grain are nevertheless o f value fo r silage .

Few crops except co rn and sim ilar plants are used gener

ally fo r the silo . Crops that m ake go od hay are best Sto red221

222 DAIRY FARMING

as hay, because hay can be handled mo re cheaply and be

cause the hay crops pack so lo o sely in the Silo that the

lo sses are considerable .

The higher the price of hay, the mo re impo rtant a silo

becomes . The mo re general u se of silo s in the East is pri

marily du e to the high price o f hay . The average farm

price of hay in New Yo rk is 86 per cent above that in Ne

braska, but in every region the price is rising so that interest

in silo s is general .

Next to the price o f hay the number o f cattle is the pri

mary consideration in building a silo . A silo that ho lds

much less than 75 to 100 tons is expensive fo r its capacity .

Bu t such a silo will furnish feed fo r 20 to 30 cattle during

the winter m onths . It is usually not profitable to have a

silo fo r less than 10 cattle . If one has over 20 cattle in a

region where co rn grows well,a silo is usually profitable .

Between these limits the price of hay ,the amount of money

available , the machinery that m ust be purchased , and

whether winter o r summer dairying is fo llowed , will deter

mine whether o r not a silo will be profitable . In Livingston

County, New Yo rk, only 7 per cent o f the farmers who had

fewer than 15 cattle units had silo s,but 83 per cent of tho se

who had 25 o r mo re cattle units had silo s .

Silage co sts mo re than the estimates o ften given. In

the Eastern States it usually co sts about $4 to $5 per ton.

It is Often considered to be wo rth one-third as much as hay .

In the co rn-belt a ton o f silage o ften contains about five

bushels of co rn. To compare the cost of silage with the value

of co rn husked from the standing stalks , we must add to

the value o f the co rn grain the extra co st o f putting it in the

silo, and interest on the money invested in the silo ,

and ah

nual depreciation o f the silo . These extra co sts o ften amount

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224 DAIR Y FARMING

are much grown fo r sto ck fo od in Europe , but in regions

where co rn silage can.

be grown,such crops are not likely to

be raised extensively,because co rn silage is nearly as go od

and is cheaper . The co o l mo ist climate of Europe and the

cheap labo r are favo rable fo r growing ro o ts . Ou r climate

is better adapted to co rn,and ou r labo r is so co stly that

ro o t crops are expensive feed . The farmer who keeps to o

small a herd to j ustify him in having a silo,sometimes finds

that it pays to raise ro o t crops to give a succulent feed in

winter . Ro o ts are a very expensive feed , but a few pounds

a day will o ften increase the milk yield enough to pay . Per

sons who make advanced registry tests usually raise mangels

o r beets to feed to the cows while on test . Ro o t crops also

have a place in regions where the season is so sho rt that

co rn silage cannot be raised .

197 . Legu m e s . The impo rtance of raising alfalfa , clover,o r some o ther legume has already been emphasized . M any

farms in the eastern half o f the United States are better

adapted to clover than to alfalfa,but where alfalfa grows

without to o much difficulty it is preferred . Cowpeas are

the mo st com m on legume in the South . Soybeans , vetch,and many o ther legumes are grown by some farmers , but in

mo st parts of the No rth,alfalfa o r clover is mo re profitable .

198 . Pastu r e . The common pastu re plants in the no rth

eastern quarter of the United States are Kentucky blue-grass

and white clover . On land that is deficient in lime , Canada

blue-grass o r redtop is o ften the chief pasture plant . B lue

grass requires several years to fo rm a go od sod . If the pas

ture land is well supplied with lime and is fairly fertile , the

pasture usually requires little attention,bu t if it i s not

fertile,mo re care is necessary . In the South the common

pasture plant is Bermuda grass .

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 25

199 . Home-gr own Grain. In the co rn-belt it nearly always

pays to raise m o re co rn than the cattle eat. Since there is

an abundance of co rn,it should be fed as liberally as po ssible

and yet have a go od ration . In the Eastern States and

no rth o f the co rn-belt farm -grown oats are Often ground fo r

cow feed . Oats are nearly always to o high in price to be a

profitable feed to buy,but the co sts of marketing the o ats

and hauling o ther feeds to take their place are o ften enough

to make it pay to feed the o ats that one has .

CROPP INGr SYSTEMS ON DAIRY FARMS

200. Principle s o f a Go o d Cropping System . The great

maj o rity of the dairy cows are in the no rtheastern quarter

of the United States (see Fig . east of central Nebraska

and no rth of Washington,DC . M o st of this region is

adapted to timo thy, blue-grass, and clover . Permanent

pastures of blue-grass and whi te clover are comm on. The

usual cropping system is

Co rn o r o ther tilled crops on sod land for one or more

years .

Small grain for one or two years with timothy and clover

seeded in the last year .

Hay fo r one o r mo re years , o r hay fo llowed by pasture .

This is an ideal cropping system fo r the dairy farm . The

thr ee different classes of crops supplem ent each o ther in the

contro l of weeds . The co rn furnishes silage o r grain o r bo th .

The small grain gives its best yield and at least co st when

grown after a tilled crop . The grasses and clover are started

by seeding in the small grain at very low co st . If the land

is adapted to clover , this helps to supply the pro tein thatis not provided in sufficient quantity by the o ther feeds grown

in the ro tation.

Q

226 DA IR Y FARMING

Everywhere a go od ro tation fo r a dairy farm should if

po ssible provide clover , alfalfa , o r som e o ther legume fo r

hay and should provide an abundance o f ~roughage and pas

ture . It should if po ssible provide a cash crop, o r a feeding

crop fo r some o ther class of animals,such as co rn fo r hog

feed .

201 . Exam ple s o f R otations . There are m any variations

of this ro tation plan that fo llow the general principles given

F IG . 76 .

-A go o d basis fo r profitable dairy ing ; high-grade cows on a

go o d blu e-grass pastu re ; co rn fo r the Silo in the backgrou nd ; clover in an

adj o ining field ; tim o thy and o ats also raised .

above . In the southern part o f the region described above ,from southern Pennsylvania to Kansas , a comm on ro tation

is co rn,winter wheat

,clover .

A little farther no rth,co rn is removed to o late fo r the

planting o f wheat,therefo re o ats are grown fo llowing co rn .

In the No rtheastern States , co rn,po tato es

,cabbage , and o ther

tilled crops are usually fo llowed by o ats in which grass is

seeded . The hay is usually left fo r about three years . In

this region hay do es well and is high in price .

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DAIRY FARMING

1 . All feed bought, no crops raised , no thing bu t milk and

discarded cows so ld .

2 . No thing but roughage raised .

3 . R oughage and all o r part of the grain raised .

4 . Sam e as 2,but with some cash crop o r o ther product

so ld .

5 . Same as 3,with some cash crop o r o ther product so ld .

6 . With any of the above methods, the cows m ay be raised

o r m ay be purchased .

7 . The cows m ay be pure-bred so that there i s a consid

erable incom e from the sale of sto ck .

In general,each o f the above types is mo re profitable than

the preceding,provided the conditions are favo rable fo r it .

203 . All Fe ed Pu rchas ed . Some dairy cows are kept in

cities . M o st of these are kept to supply milk fo r home u se,

but some large dai ri es are maintained where all feed must be

purchased . Usually the cows are fed largely on facto ry bypro ducts that are not readily shipped . Bu t sometimes o r

dinary feeds are purchased . The high price received fo r

the m ilk som etim es m akes such an enterprise profitable .

Calves are very rarely raised in cities , because feed is to o

expensive . Ordinarily it is cheaper to pro duce the milk in

the country where pastures are available . It co sts less to

ship milk than it do es to ship the hay and o ther feed required

to make it .

204 . No thing bu t R o u ghage R ais e d . This system is

very common in the hilly and mountainous parts of the

Eastern States . A better system is not easy to devise fo r

some regions where the land is not adapted to any crop ex

cept hay and pasture and where the fields are all so small

and rough as to prevent the profitable growth o f o ther crops .

Because of the sm all amount o f field wo rk , it is no t o ften

S YSTEMS OF FA RMING ON DAIRY FARMS 229

profitable to em ploy m uch hired help . The farm er with

the help of one m em ber of the family at cho re time can m i lk

20 o r 25 cows and, therefo re , under this system,the women

o ften help with the m ilking . The farm er can do the re

m ainder o f the day’s wo rk alone . In haying time he m ay

need a little extra help . Such farm ers usually find that it

pays best to have the cows freshen in the spring so as to pro

duce m o st of the m ilk in sum mer and thus reduce the grain

bill . One o f the im po rtant reasons fo r winter dairying is

to have the sum m er free fo r field wo rk,but on farm s where

little field wo rk is done thi s is no advantage .

Under these conditions the milk pro duction per cow is the

m o st im po rtant problem because profits depend alm o st en

tirely on the cow . It is som etim es po ssible to find som e o ther

product besides m ilk that can be raised without m uch extra

co st . Berries,eggs

,honey

,o r hay will Often add much to

the incom e . Som etimes pure-bred sto ck is kept and a go o d

profit made from the sale o f the surplus anim als .

205 . R o u ghage and Grain R ais ed . Where the land is

go od enough to raise grain,this system pays much better

than the preceding one because the grain feed can be raised

without having to hire much extra labo r,and with practically

the sam e num ber o f ho rses that must be kept anyway .

(See Farm Reco rds on page

206 . R o u ghage and Cash Cr ops R ais ed . One o f the

mo st profitable types o f dairy farm ing is the combination o f

intensive cash crops with a dairy . The manure is used

to grow p o tato es , cabbages . apples,tobacco

,hops , peas ,

o r sweet co rn fo r canning fac to ries,o r some o ther crop fo r

sale . Where the so il a nd m arkets are favo rable fo r one o r

two o f these crops,this system usually pays m uch better

"

than trying to raise the grain feed . It is,o f course

,much

230 DAIR Y FARMING

better to raise the grain feed than no thing . Bu t if instead

o f raising the grain, one can raise cash crops that will paythe feed bill several tim es over

,he should certainly cho o se

the latter course . Hay is ano ther go o d cash crop fo r dairy

farms near large cities . M o st o f the highly,successful dairy

farms in New Yo rk and New England sell some crops,as do

many o f the farms in o ther sections . Some o f these farms

also raise all their grain feed,but mo st o f them buy a consider

able part o f it . (See Farm Reco rds on pages 242 and

Farther from the cities the cash crops are m o re likely to

be grain o r grain marketed through hogs . This is the mo st

commonly profitable type o f dairy farm ing in the co rn-belt .

It is certain to increase greatly in that region . All of the

roughage and mo st o f the grain is raised fo r all o f the farm

sto ck . A little co ttonseed meal , o r o ther nitrogenous feed,

is purchased to balance the ration . M uch mo re co rn is

raised than can be fed to the cows . Thi s is so ld o r is fed to

hogs . If skim-milk is available fo r hog feed , the conditions

are particularly favo rable fo r hog pro duction. (See Farm

Reco rds , page

MANAGEMENT OF MANURE

The success of the dairy farm is in no small measure de

pendent on the u se that is made o f the im po rtant by-pro duct ,manure .

207 . Am o u nt o f M anu r e Pr o du ced . Under the direction

o f the writer,R . E . Deuel determ ined the amount Ofmanure

pro duced by a herd o f 46 cows o f different breeds and ages,

averaging 1008 pounds in weight . He found that excrement

was produced at the rate o f 1335 tons per year . Some years

ago Roberts found the amount to be tons per 1000

pound animal . In each case a little over one ton o f bedding

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232 DAIR Y FARMING

cows,o r cows that are giving little m ilk, o ften return a half

m o re than these am ounts .

If one wishes o rganic matter to plow under to make humus,

he can feed cows and still have 40 per cent o f the humus

making material left . Fo r this reason,it is usually m o re

profitable to feed sto ck than to plow under green-manure

crops .

If one desires nitrogen as a fertilizer,he can feed cows

,

and still get back nearly half o f the nitrogen of the feed . If

he needs pho spho rus and po tassium,he can feed cows

, and

get back over half of these materials that are in the feed .

In addition to the above all of the bedding m ay be recovered .

Som e Of the manure m ay be lo st , but fo r the time cows are

in the barn,if

.

the m anure is reasonably well cared fo r,

it is safe to estimate that over a third of the fertilizing value

o f the feeds will actually be applied to the land .

209 . Lo s s e s o f M anu r e and th eir Pr evention. On many

farm s the manure is allowed to lie around in the barnyard

until a very large part o f it is lo st . Expo sure fo r five m onths

resulted in a lo ss of over half of the value of the m anure .

1

One of the im po rtant reasons fo r keeping cattle is to obtain

m anure,but there is no obj ect in this if the manure is wasted .

If manure is kept m o ist enough so that it will not heat , and

yet if ne ither the liquid in it no r rain water that falls on it,

is allowed to escape , it will keep with practically no lo ss .

The safest place fo r manure is on the land . On some farms

it is po ssible to haul it every day . This is the best po ssible

way to save it . When this practice is fo llowed , it is con

venient to have the barn so arranged that one can drive

through between two rows of cows that have their heads

toward the wall . In regions where little is done except to

1 Elem ents o f Agricu ltu re , G. F . Warren, p . 14 1 .

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAI RY FARMS 233

care fo r the cows and raise feed fo r them , the practice o f

daily hauling is o ften best .

If many acres of crops are grown fo r sale o r fo r u se in

feeding o ther anim als, the field wo rk is so impo rtant that

during much of the year one canno t affo rd to take the time

to haul m anure every day . There are then thre e ways of

keeping the manure . It m ay be left in piles until it can be

hauled , it m ay be kept in covered barnyards, o r m ay be

kept in a m anure shed .

A cheap shed with a concrete flo o r will keep Off the rain

and prevent the liquids from leaching away . A convenient

way o f using such a shed is to have the barn equ ipped with

a manure carrier so that the m anure from the cows,ho rses

,

and o ther animals,can be put in"

the shed . The flo o r Of the

shed should be two to four feet below the flo o r Of the barn

to increase its capacity . The writer has found that a shed

25 feet square will o rdinarily ho ld the manure from about

20 animal units until the time when it can be hauled . The

flo o r need not be expensive . Three inches of concrete on

so lid ground will answer all purpo ses .

A better plan is to have the shed large so that cattle,hogs

,

o r o ther sto ck,can ru n

'

in it . Thi s keeps the manure so lid

and m akes a go od covered shed . With either o f the above

plans , it is convenient to have the barn so arranged that the

cows’heads are together . This saves tim e in feeding , and

the barn can be cleaned with a manure carrier as quickly as

if the cows faced the wall .

The maj o rity o f farm ers throw the manure in piles in the

barnyard . The rains then wash away m uch of the best

part o f it . Even with this method,considerable saving can

be made by having the eave troughs and yard drainage so

arranged that a minimum am ount o f water will ru n through

234 DAI R Y FARMING

the manure . In arid regions even this precaution i s not

always necessary because there m ay be only enough rain to

keep the manure wet without washing it away . With this

method o f handling,it sho uld be hauled away frequently .

If po ssible , all of it should be hauled o u t in the winter and

spring so that as little as po ssible will be lo st by summer

rains . In August usually it can be cleaned up again . Bet

ter care of m anure by using the covered shed method,o r by

some o ther method,is well wo rth consideration.

210. Valu e o f M anu r e . M anure is Sometim es valued

acco rding to its chem i cal analysis . If purchased in com

m ercial fertilizers,the am ount of ni trogen

,pho spho rus

,

po tassium,and calcium in a ton o f manure would co st over

$2 . Bu t what manure is wo rth to a farmer depends no t

on its chem ical analysis but on what he is go ing to do with

it . If it is to be left in the barnyard,it has no value . If

used on som e crops,it m ay have a very high value . On

o ther crops its value is less . If applied in very large quan

tities,its value per ton is less than when used in moderate

am ounts .

The go o d returns that o ften come from com bining dairying

with such intensive crops as po tato es , cabbages , hops , to

bacco,apples

,and grapes are du e partly to the high value of

manure fo r growing such crops . It is j ust as easy by u se of

manure to increase the po tato crop ten per cent as it is to

increase a grain crop by the same propo rtion . Bu t the po

tato cro p has so much greater value per acre that the returns

from such an increase are m uch m o re . M anure has a high

value fo r growing co rn and is chiefly used on that crop in

regions where mo re intensive crops are not raised .

Fo r raising co rn,sm all grain

,and hay ,

manure is o ften

credited to the cows at about $1 to per ton at the barn.

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236 DAIR Y FARMING

cro ps wo rth only The manure would have been

wo rth mo re to the farmer if spread thinner .

The land that received the heavier application is better

fo r future crops but by no means is it better to the ex

tent of the co st o f the heavier application. The best

measure of how m uch better it is,is found in the results of

the last few years . As an average fo r the last four years,

the plo ts that had received 64 mo re tons o f manure per acre

gave crops wo rth only mo re than the crops on the plo ts

using the lighter application. This difference is not enough

to give any promise o f catching up .

The sam e principle is shown by results at the Ohio Ex

perim ent Station. M any different experiments have been

conducted fo r many years . In every case a given quantity

o f m anure has given the greatest returns when spread thinly .

One test in a three-year ro tation of po tato es , wheat , clover,has been continued fo r 21 years . M anure was applied

at the rate of 4,8,and 16 tons on wheat . The to tal values

o f the crops per acre were as fo llows 1

NO treatm ent4 tons m anu r e every three year s (28 tons )8 tons m anu re every thr ee year s (56 tons )16 tons m anu re every three years ( 112 tons ) .

When a to tal o f 28 tons of manure was applied , the ih

creased crops were wo rth per ton of manure . An ad

ditional application o f 28 m o re tons o f'

manure per acre

gave additional crops wo rth Or per ton for the

additional manure . A still further addition o f 56 more tons

gave crops wo rth per ton fo r the last additional manure .

Of course the land that has received the heavier appli

1 Ohio Agricu ltu ral Expe rim ent Station, C ircu lar 144 . Data fo r 19 14su pplied by C . G . William s .

S YSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 237

cation is in better condition,but this is not enough to make

up fo r the past difference in returns . Even with the fer

tility left from all the previous years o f treatm ent the plo ts

that had the heaviest applications were still paying least per

ton of m anure on the twenty-first year .

Of course if there is enough manure,the heavier applica

tion is very desirable,but with a limited amount it is better

to spread it thinly . These figures also indicate the high value

that one can assign to manure if he is keeping a sm all amount

o f sto ck .

If a farmer had 180 tons of manure a year to apply fo r 21

years under conditions like tho se in the Ohio experiment,

the manure would pro duce increased cro ps wo rth

if applied at the rate o f 4 tons every three years,but would

give increased crops wo rth only if applied at the rate

o f 16 tons every three years . If the manure is not wasted ,this am ount is usually available on a farm that keeps 15 cows

in addition to‘

the usual amount of young sto ck,ho rses , etc .

If applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years,it would

provide for 135 acres o f crops . These are about the condi

tions on many 160-acre farms .

If the manure were applied at the rate of 16 tons every

three years , it would provide fo r only 34 acres of crops .

Thi s would be a very sm all farm . Ano ther way to provide

fo r the larger appli cation would be to keep four times as

many cows on the larger area . Bu t this would m ake a very

heavily-sto cked place .

From the above,we see that one of the strong reasons fo r

keeping a

.

moderate num ber of cows is the high value that

can be obtained from the intelligent u se o f sm all applications

o f m anure . One of the reasons why it m ay not pay to sto ck

the farm to o heavily is the sm aller value that manure then has .

238 DAIR Y FARMING

212 . Th e Valu e o f M anu re D epends on the Crops on

which it is Applied . At the Ohio Experiment Station,8

tons of manure was applied on wheat as compared with the

same application on po tato es . The manure gave increased

crops wo rth per ton when applied on po tato es,but gave

only per ton when applied on the wheat crop . If one

farmed 75 acres of this land with this three-year ro tation

and had 200 tons o f manure to u se each year,he would

make $3066 mo re in twenty-one years if he applied it on thepo tato es rather than on the wheat .

With co rn,wheat

,and o ats

,each grown continuously on the

same land at the Ohio Experiment Station,co rn paid the best

prices for manure,wheat next

,and o ats least .

Such experiments indicate the great impo rtance of applying

the m anure on the right crop in the ro tation. They also

indicate the great advantage o f combining dairying with the

pro duction of such intensive crops as po tatoes .

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEM S

1 . M ake a list o f all the farm ers yo u know, with the nu m ber o fcows that they keep , and state whether o r no t they have a silo .

Lists by di fferent m em ber s o f the class can be co m bined to m ake a

cow and silo censu s . What propo rtion o f the farm ers who have 10cows o r less have a silo What pro po r tion o f tho se who have 10 to20 cows have a silo ? What pro po rtion of tho se who have over 20?2 . M ake a list o f all the ~ different kinds o f Silo s o f the region . Of

as m any as po ssible , find the co st (inclu ding labo r by the farm er)and the co st fo r each ton o f capacity .

3 . If any farm er s have Ou t par t of a field fo r Silage and havehu sked part o f the sam e field , find the yield o f silage and o f grain.

How m any bu shels o f co rn in a ton o f silage ? If the u se Of the siloand m achinery and extra wo rk am ou nt to per ton,

what wou lda ton o f the silage co st at the pre sent price o f co rn4 . D oe s any one in the region fo llow a so iling system5 . Are ro o ts raised fo r sto ck fo o d by any farm ers in this region ?6 . What are the be st legu m e s fo r the dairy farm in thi s region ?

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CHAPTER 11

RENTING DAIRY FARM S

G . F . WARREN

213. Cash R ent. When cash rent is paid,the tenant u su

ally furni shes everything but the land . The landlo rd then

has little to do with the farm . In some regions the land

lo rd furnishes the cows and rents the farm and cows .

214 . Shar e o f Cr ops . In regions where grain o r co tton

is the maj o r product,the landlo rd usually receives a Share

o f the cro p . If cows are kept,the landlo rd has no share in

them . Only rarely do es a go o d dairy farm develo p under

these conditions . The landlo rd is not likely to provide

suitable buildings . The tenant justly feels that the manure

produced by the cows he feeds increases the yield o f the

landlo rd’s land with no expense to the landlo rd .

215 . Shar e o f R e ce ipts . In the o lder states the alm o st

universal system o f sharing the products on rented dairy

farms is fo r each party to receive half of the receipts from

all pro ducts o f the farm . The landlo rd furni shes the land

and do es any extensive repairing of buildings . Fo r sm all

repairs to buildings and fences he usually furnishes materials ,and the tenant do es the wo rk . He usually pays the taxes ,pays half the seed

,feed

,fertilizer

,threshing

,silo filling,

hay pressing, and similar bills ,and furnishes half o r mo re

o f the cattle and o ther sto ck from which he shares the in

come .

RENTING DAIR Y FARMS 241

The tenant fu rnishes the human labo r,m achinery

,and

ho rses , and half o f the o ther sto ck,and pays half of the bills

mentioned above . He pays such bills as ho rsesho eing and

m achinery repairs . Each party has half of the receipts and

owns half o f the young sto ck raised .

In regions where little but m i lk is so ld , the landlo rd usually

furnishes all -cows (see page When profitable cash

crops are raised in addition to dairying,the tenant usually

furnishes some of the cows (see farm ,page In either

case the : calves raised are usually a part of the pro duct,to

be divided equally .

M any variations o ccur . If the chances of making a profit

are po o r, the tenant obtains concessions from the landlo rd .

If the chances are go od , the tenant m ay make concessions to

get the place . The landlo rd o ften furnishes some machinery

o r ho rses,usually what he happens to own . The tenant o ften

owns all the hens and receives all the product from them .

Usually he is then required to furnish all the feed fo r them .

A hog o r two is o ften kept in the same way . If hogs are

a n impo rtant enterprise,the feed and returns are divided .

Sometim es the landlo rd pays all the fertilizer bill and o ften

furnishes all the grass seed . Som etimes the tenant furnishes

all the grain fo r ho rses,and sometimes thi s co st is shared .

Co lts usually belong to the tenant but are sometimes shared .

The fertility of the land,character o f the bui ldings , quality

of the cows,distance to market

,price o fmilk

,size of the farm ,

and many o ther facto rs must be considered befo re one can

say what the exact term s of the lease should be . Fo r the

tenant the quality of the cows kept,the fertility o f the land ,

and amount o f go od crop land available are mo\

re impo rtant

than m ino r details in the lease .

It seems probable that thi s general system of rental willR

242 DAIRY FARMING

come to be used in m o st regions where dairying becomes the

mo st impo rtant industry . One advantage of the system is

that it stimulates the keeping o f animals . In several counties

where this has been studied the results Show that the rented

farms keep mo re live-sto ck per acre than do the farms oper

ated by owners .

216 . Exam ple s of R ented Far m s . The results on farms

will show the metho d better than it can be described .

A SUCCESSFUL TENANT FA RM IN WESTERN NEW YORK— 193

A CRE S . A VA RIETY OF PRODUCTS SOLD . C ows SHAREDE QU ALLY

CAPITAL TENANT LANDLORD

Farm

M achinery and to ols6 ho r se s1 bro od sow

Po u ltry20 cowsCalves and

.

bull

CROPS ACRES TOTAL CROP

Co rn

WheatOatsTim o thy and cloverP o tato esField beansApplesPeas fo r canning facto rySweet co rn fo r canning facto rySweet corn stalks and pea vines pu t in silo

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244 DAIR Y FA RMING

A SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM OF 190 ACRES THAT I s HIGHLYSPECIA LI ZED . THE LANDLORD FURNI SHES ALL THE C ows

CAPITAL TENANT LANDLORD

Farm

M achinery and to o lsFeed and su ppliesCowsHeifers and calvesBu ll

5 ho r se sColtHog

Hens

Tu rkeys

CROPS ACRES TOTAL CROP

Silage co rnTim o thy and clover hayOatsM angels

Po tato esOrchard and garden

TENANT LANDLORD

Cattle sales and increased invento ryHidesColt increased invento ryOu tside wo rkHogs

Eggs

Po u ltry$1641

REN TING DAIR Y FARMS 245

TENANT LANDLORD

ExpensesLabo rM achinery u p

-keepBu ilding u p

-keepFeed

Silo fillingIce

Ho rsesho eingStallion serviceGrass seed

TwineThreshingFu el fo r threshing and $110 fillingInsu r anceTaxes

Receipts les s expenses $1329Inter est on tenant’s Capital atTenant’s labo r inco m e

Landlord’s per cent on inve stm ent

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEM S

1 . What are the u su al system s o f r enting in y ou r region ?

2 . D o the'

system s of rental encou rage the keeping o f sto ck ?D o tenant farm s have as m u ch sto ck as farm s Operated by owner s3 . M ake a list o f all the persons yo u can find who have r e

cently changed fr o m hi red m an to tenant . On the average howm any year s did they spend as hi r ed m en ?

4 . M ake a list o f as m any per sons as po ssible who have changedfro m tenant to owner in the past few year s . On the average howm any year s have they been tenants ?5 . Write a lease that seem s to yo u to be fair to bo th parties and

that gives a reasonable consideration to m aintenance o f the fertili tyof the land .

COLLATERAL READING

Farm ' M anagem ent, G . F . Warren, pp . 321—329 .

Cyclopedia o f Agricu ltu re , L . H . Bailey , Vol. IV, pp . 170—185 .

Farm Leases in Iowa , Iowa Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station,

Bu lletin 159 .

CHAPTER 12

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND M ETHODS OF

MARKETING

G . F . WARREN

COST OF PRODUCTION

217 . Co st o f Pro du cing M ilk . Reliable figures on the cost

o f keeping cows are available fo r two regions that repre

sent decidedly different dairy conditions .

Delaware County, near New Yo rk City, is a hilly region

where the pasture season is sho rt . Practically all grain is

purchased . Because o f the nearness to large cities , hay is

very high in price . In this county the average co st pei' cattle

unit fo r over Six thousand cows was $99 . The year who se

reco rds are here quo ted was one o f unusually high feed prices

even fo r the region. In the fo llowing year the co st was $88 .

All the co sts o f keeping the cows and of the calves raised

were charged directly to the cows , raising calves being one

means of offsetting depreciation on cows . How near these

two balance in this region is shown by the fact that the re

turns from cattle and hides so ld were only $1 per cow above

the am ounts spent fo r cattle purchased . Thi s region i s fairly

typical fo r New England and fo r hi lly regions in other states

near the large eastern cities .

R ice County,M inneso ta

,represents a region of very low

priced feed . The figures were obtained several years ago

when feed was cheaper than it is to -day . Hay is wo rth leSs246

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DAIRY FARMING

pure-bred herds the costs are Usually much mo re . Next to

feed,labo r is the most impo rtant co st . The impo rtance o f

having the farm and buildings so arranged as to facilitate

wo rk is at once apparent .

TABLE 29 . COST OF PRODUCING M ILK ON NEW YORK FARM S 1

PURE-BRED HERDS

19 14 19 14

Qu antitiesNu m ber herds 8 5

Nu m ber cowsNu m ber cows per herdNu m ber cattle u nits per

herdAverage valu e of cowsPo u nds m i lk p er cow

Valu e m ilk per cow

Po u nds grain p er cattleu ni t

Po u nds dry fo rage per

cattle u nitPou nds silage p er cattleu nit

Ho u r s m an labo r p er

cattle u nitCo sts p er cattle u nit

GrainD ry fo rageSilage , etc .

Pastu r eB eddingM an labo rHo r se labo rEqu ipm ent labo rInterest

'

Bu ildingsBreeding feesVeterinary and m edicineM iscellaneo u s

1 New Yo rk State Departm ent o f Agricu ltu re , Circu lar 130, p . 82 .

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 249

TABLE 29 .

—C OST OF PRODUC ING M ILK ON NEW YORK FARMSContinu ed

GRADE HERDS PURE—BRED HERDS

19 13

To talRetu rns per cattle u nit

M ilk 1Increase and net sales

M anu re

M iscellaneo u sTo tal

Profit per cattle u nit

From these co sts the value of the manure should be de

ducted to find the returns that the average farmer would

have to get in o rder to make a profit on cows . Fo r R ice

County the value of the calf would also have to be deducted .

This value is included in the Delaware County figures .

Accurate results of co st accounts on a num ber o fNew Yo rk

farm s including 673 cows are given in Table 29 . These

farm s were not especially selected but are somewhat larger

and better managed than the average farm . M o st of them

were lo cated in parts of the state where feed is som ewhat

cheaper than in Delaware County . The accounts are with

the entire dairy herd considered as a unit .

Fo r the grade herds there is a surprisingly clo se agree

ment with Table 28 as to co sts o ther than feed .

‘

The pure

bred herds co st mo re in every way ,but the returns are mo re

1 No tice that this is total m ilk divided by the nu m ber o f cattle u nits .

The valu e o f the m ilk p er cow is given above .

250 DAIRY FARMING

than enough to cover the greater co st. The pure-bred herds

on the average pay best .

218 . Co st of Raising H e ifer s . The co st of raising heifers

on a Wisconsin farm that raised about twenty a year was kept

fo r five years . The fo o d co sts to raise a heifer to two years of

age varied from $39 to $42 . The to talco sts varied from $60

to $65 in different years . The average co st of raising one

group of about twenty heifers is given inTable 30. To these

co sts the value of the heifer at birth should be added and the

value of the m anure produced in the barn subtracted . Of

course , the exact figures should not be expected to apply to

another farm ,but the comparative co sts are wo rth studying .

TABLE 30. AVERAGE COST OF R A I SING JERSEY HE IFERS To Two

YEARS OLD ON A WI SCONSIN FARM 1

RAI S ING To

1 YEAR OLD SECOND YEAR TOTA L 2 YEAR S

Qu antities u sedWhole m ilk,

lb .

Skim -m ilk, lbGrain, 1b .

Silage , lb .

M ixed hay ,lb .

Co rn sto ver , lb .

Days pastu r eHou rs m an labo r

Co stsFeed

BeddingLabo rInterestBuildingsEqu ipm entLo ss by discardingM iscellaneo u s

To tal

1 U . S . D ept. Agr . , Bulletin 49 .

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252 DAIRY FARMING

TABLE 31 . COST O F RA I SING 29 JERSEY HEIFERS AT THE OHI OEXPERIMENT STATI ON .

Average weights ; at birth 55 lb . ; at one year 472 1b . ; at 2 years

758 lb .

R AIS ING To

1 YEAR OLD SECOND YEAR TOTAL 2 YEARS

Qu antities u sedWho le m ilk, lb .

Skim -m ilk , lb .

Grain, lb .

Silage , lb .

Hay , lb .

Stover , lbDays pastu re

Co stsFeed

Other co sts e stim atedTo tal

TA BLE 32 .

— COST OF R A I SING 22 HOLSTEIN H EIFERS AT THE

OHIO EXPERIM ENT STATION .

Average weights ; at birth 82 lb . ; at 1 year 57 1 lh . ; at 2 years

962 lb .

SECOND YEAR TOTAL 2 YEARS

Qu antities u sedWho le m ilk , lb .

Skim -m ilk , lb .

Grain, lb .

Silage , lb .

Hay ,lb .

Stover , lbDays pastu re

Co stsFeed

Other co sts e stim atedTo tal

COSTS OF P RODUCTI ON AND METHODS OF MARKE TING 253

MARKETING DA IRY PRODUCTS

219 . Ways o f M arketing . The m ilk supply inmany sm all

towns and cities is retailed by dairym en who produce part

o r all o f the m ilk that they sell . There are som e oppo r

tu nities fo r retailing m ilk in regions where dairying i s not a

general industry . Such regions are likely to have beef o r

dual-purpo se cattle,and the farmers are not likely to know

how to care fo r a dairy anim al . One who has goo d cows and

who knows how to care fo r them”

Often has a go o d oppo rtu

nity in such a town . Every town that is near to farm land

o ffers an oppo rtunity fo r som e retail dairyman . Som e

tim es there are to o m any in the business so that the business

will not pay fo r the tim e spent , but retailing frequently offers

a go o d chance fo r an energetic m an.

M any farm ers m ake butter to retail in a near-by town o r

to be shipped by parcel po st . The prices received are some

tim es enough to m ake this a go od m ethod o f selling .

The great m aj o rity of dairymen have to sell on a general

market at prices fixed by the purchaser . Som etim es the

conditions are such that the selling part o f the business Calls

fo r little thought,but o ften there are some po ints to study .

Co operation in hauling milk is o ften a great saving o f

time .

If the price of milk varies with the fat content , the farmer

should be able to estimate whi ch is the best kind o f m ilk to

produce . If he has m o re than one m arket , he should be able

to make similar estimates . In regions Where m arket milk

sells fo r so m uch that one canno t affo rd to sell the product in

any o ther way ,one o ften sees farm ers who persist in selling

butter-fat o r butter long after this has ceased to be the best

practice .

254 DAIRY FARMING

220. Valu e o f Skim -m ilk in Citie s . When milk is so ld to

the creamery, the fat basis is , of course , the proper basis of

payment . Argum ent is o ften m ade that payment fo r market

milk should be on the same basis . The public is o ften ac

cu sed o f igno rance because it refuses to pay for m ilk in pro

po rtion to the fat contained .

Fo r human fo od,pro tein is probably the mo st impo rtant

constituent o f milk . How much the cities are willing to

pay fo r skim-milk is shown by the high price that they are

willing to pay fo r milk when they could get the same butter

fat in cream at much less co st . If the o ther constituents

were in proportion to the fat,then the percentage of fat

would be in propo rtion to the value as human fo od , but

the richness in pro tein do es not increase so rapidly as

the fat.

Common retail prices in New Yo rk City are 9 cents fo r

milk,40 cents per quart fo r 23 per cent cream ,

and 38 cents

per pound fo r butter .

1 On the average , m i lk contains about

per cent fat. At these prices the butter-fat co sts

about per pound in m ilk, 82 cents in cream,

and 44

cents in butter .

Evidently,milk is not pu rchaSed merely fo r

its butter-fat,else butter-fat in cream wcu ld sell at the sam e price that it

does in milk . The value that the public places on fat, as

measur ed by the price of cream,shows that about 27 per cent

of the amount paid fo r m ilk is paid fo r fo od that is contained

in the skim—m ilk . Stated in ano ther way, if the value of the

fat is measured by the price of cream,then the fat in a quart

of milk is wo rth cents , and the skim-milk sells fo r

cents . Or , if the fat in milk is considered to have the same

1 Price s fu rnished by the Bo rden Com pany and ve r ified fro m severalo ther sou rces.

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256 DAIRY FARMING

Considering the valu e o f skim -m ilk and the labor o f m akingbu tter , which wo u ld be the best way to sell?

11 . The prices paid fo r m ilk by the Bo rden C o m pany from April,19 15 , to M arch , 19 16 , were as follows , in the r egion where the freightto New Yo rk is 26 cents per 40-qu ar t can.

The abo ve prices will be paid to dairym en where they m aintain,

du ring thi s contract, conditions sco ring no t less than 25 per cent onequ ipm ent and 43 per cent on m ethods , acco rding to the New Yo rkD epartm ent o f Health Sco r e Card , as sco r ed by the Co m pany

’s rep

resentatives . Dairym en sco ring less than 25 per cent on equ ipm ent and 43 per cent on m etho ds , will r eceive ten cents p er 100po u nds less than the above schedu le . M ilk o f interm ediate com

po sition was paid fo r at co rr esponding prices .

Calculate the average price fo r the year fo r m ilk with eachper cent o f fat.

What is the average price fo r fat in 3 per cent m ilk ? What ispaid p er po u nd fo r the additional fat in 4 per cent m ilk ? In 5 per

cent m ilk ? What is the price fo r the addi tional fat above 3 percent in all cases12 . If skim -m ilk is wo r th as m u ch as fo u nd in problem 8 , atwhat

price wo uld bu tter have to be sold to bring as m u ch as the averageprice paid by the Bo rden Com pany fo r 3 per cent m ilk ? Fo r 5 per

cent m ilk ?13 . Using the average pro du ction given on page 42 , what wou ld

be the valu e o f the m ilk fo r one year for a cow Of each breed

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 257

14 . Find the average price paid at r etail in a near-by city fo rbu tter , cream with known fat content, and m ilk . What price ispaid fo r fat in each form ?

COLLATERAL READING

Farm M anagem ent , G . F . Warr en, pp . 440—493 .

U . S . Dept . Agr . , Bu lletin 49 .

CHAPTER 13

OTHER IM PORTANT FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN

DAIRY FARM ING

G . F . WARREN

WAYS OF M EASUR ING PROFITS

221 . The M o st Im po rtant Facto r s fo r Su cce s s . In a dairy

region the mo st impo rtant facto rs have been shown to be

the size o f the business,the returns per cow, the crop yields ,

and the diversity o f the business .

1 M any o ther facto rs have

to do with financial success,bu t on careful examination it will

be found that m o st of them are covered by the above . Fo r

instance , no thing is said about the effective u se o f labo r,but

the mo st impo rtant single facto r contro lling such u se is the

size o f the business . The following are some of the many

o ther facto rs that cause mino r variations in profit on many

farms and that sometimes become the most impo rtant facto rs .

To o much o r to o little capital m ay be invested in buildings

o r sto ck . To o many o r to o few m en o r ho rses m ay be kept .

The region o r farm m ay not be adapted to dairying . The

wrong kind of product fo r the region m ay be so ld . The

barns and fields m ay be so arranged as to aid in the wo rk,

o r they m ay cause a loss of time . Other things being

equal,large cows pay better than small ones .

222 . Ways o f M easu ring Pr ofit. Two things are at wo rk

on a farm money and m en. To be called a financial su c

1 Co rnell University Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station, Bu lletin 349 .

258

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260 DAIRY FARMING

as large a business as many mo re acres o f po o r so il . If milk

is so ld at retail,a sm aller area and smaller number o f cows

m ay represent an equally large business . Bu t evenwhenmilk

is so ld at retail , it is very desirable to have 15 to 30 cows .

How im po rtant a reasonable area o f land is to a dairy

farmer is shown by the results from 1988 farms in New Yo rk

as given in Table 33.

TABLE 33 . R ELATION OF SI ZE OF FARM TO LABOR INCOME .~ 1988

FARM S , TOM PKINS , LIVINGSTON ,AND JEFFERSON C OUNTIES ,

NEW YORK

AVERAGENUMBER OF NUMBER OF

A CRESFARMS ACRES PER

FARM

These farms are fairly typical o f many of the dairy farms

from Dakota to New England . About half the farm is

devo ted to hay ,co rn

,small grain, and o ther farm crops .

The o ther half is pasture,o r wo o ds and waste land . The

farms of less than 100 acres are on the average not paying

the owner mo re than interest and hired man’s wages . There

are of course some small farm s that pay well , but , as a rule ,the larger farms pay better . Similar results have been ob

tained in many o ther states .

224 . R elation o f Size o f Farm to Efi ciency in the Us e o f

Lab o r . In every region where such studies have been made

the small farms accom plish much less per m an than do the

FACTORS F OR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 261

fair-sized farms . Table 34 gives results fo r one county .

The average number o f m en per farm as given in the table

includes all human labo r . Wo rk o f women and children is

expressed in terms of the number of m en that would have

been required to do the sam e wo rk . On the smallest farms,

very little wo rk was done by any one except the operato r .

On the farms —Of over 200 acres,the hired labo r and labo r by

mem bers of the fam ily amounted to the time of one and one

third m en,o r

,counting the time of the farmer

,these farms

had the equivalent of m en .

The farms of less than 30 acres had an average of anim al

units per farm besides wo rk ho rses . Tho se o f over 200 acres

had an average o f animal units besides wo rk ho rses .

The producing enterprises on mo st farms are the acres o f

crops grown and the animals o ther than ho rses .

TABLE 34 . R ELA TION OF SI ZE OF FARM To EFFICIENCY IN THE

U SE OF LABOR . 670 FARM S , JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK

AVERAGENUMBER AN IMAL

AVERAGE OF AN IMAL ACRES OF UN ITS

ACRES A CRES OF UN ITS CROPS EXCEPTCROPS EXCEPT PER M AN HORSES

‘WORK PER M AN

HORSES

The acres of crops grown,the yields o f these crops , the

number o f producing anim als,and the production o f these

animals are a m easure o f the am ount that is being aecom

plished on a farm . The crop yi elds and the production of

262 DAIR Y FARMING

animals are no better on the small farms than on the large

farms,hence the acres o f crops and the animals kept are a

fairly accurate measure of the amount accomplished . The

acres of crops raised per m an varied from 13 on the small

farms to 57 on the largest farms . The number o f animal

uni ts per m an varied from 3 on the small farms to 15 on the

largest farm s (Table

225. R elation o f Siz e o f Far m to Wo rk Done . From co st

accounts and o ther reco rds,we know appro ximately how

much time it takes to do each kind o f farm wo rk under

no rmal conditions . The rai sing of a wheat crop o rdinarily

takes 15 to 25 hours of m an labo r and 20 to 40 hours o f ho rse

labo r per acre . With anything like efficient metho ds Ofwo rk,

20 hours of m an labo r and 30 hours o f ho rse labo r per acreis

sufficient . M any farm ers do better than this . We m ay

therefo re say that a wheat crop represents two days of m an

wo rk and three days o f ho rse wo rk . Ifmuch mo re time than

this is spent,the wo rk is not efficiently done . Thi s m ay be

because the fields are to o small ; because o f po o r machinery,bedau se the land is unusually hard to wo rk , o r fo r o ther

reasons . It m atters not why time is lo st . If it is lo st,the

farm is not efficient .

Similarly the average farmer spends about 150 hours of

wo rk per year on a cow . If the barn o r pasture is unhandy,o r if he has only a half-do zen cows

,mo re tim e m ay be re

quired . Some farmers who get go o d returns spend less tim e .

To care fo r a cow fo r a year m ay be counted as about 15

days’wo rk (see Table

In o rder to com pare farms , all the productive enterprises

are similarly expressed in wo rk units . The income o f the

farm is dependent on the crops raised , the cows and o ther

productive animals kept , the outside wo rk done fo r pay .

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264 DAI R Y FARMING

M uch o ther wo rk m ay be done , such as repairing machinery

and buildings,taking care of wo rk ho rses

,mowing the lawn

,

and the like,but it is the productive wo rk that limits the

income .

On farms in Jefferson County, New Yo rk,the average

am ount o f pro ductive wo rk per m an varied from 102 wo rk

units on the small farms to 294 on the largest farms . Each

m an on the largest farms is accom plishing nearly three tim es

as much wo rk as a m an on the sm all farm s . It must be

remembered also that the crop yi elds and the returns per cow

are as go od on the larger farm s . Each ho rse on the large .

farms is accomplishing twice as much as each ho rse on the

sm all farms . The farms o f less than 100acres are very waste

ful o f bo th m an and ho rse labo r .

TABLE 37 .

— R ELATION OF SI ZE OF FARM To EFFI CIENCY IN THE

U SE OF HORSES . 1248 FARM S , JEFFERSON AND LIVINGSTONCOUNTIES , N EW YORK

NUMBER A CRES OF

OF CROPSHORSES PER HORSE

NUMBER ACRES OFACRES

OF FARMS CROPS

226 . R elation o f Siz e o f Farm to Efficiency in th e Us e of

H o r s e s . The discussion given above is the best way o f com

paring ho rse labo r . Ano ther compari son is shown in Table

37 : On the large farm s,twice as many acres of crops are

raised per ho rse as on the sm all farms . The average co st of

keeping a ho rse,as shown by co st accounts , is about $100 to

FACTORS F OR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING

$175 a year in different parts o f the United States . This

includes feed , labo r, depreciation,and all o ther co sts . From

this the im po rtance of the efficient u se o f ho rses is apparent .

227 . R elation o f Siz e o f Farm to Em ciency in th e Us e o f

M achinery. The small farms are very inadequately equipped

with machinery , as is shown in Table 38 . Even the

TABLE 38 .

—R ELATION OF SIZE O F FARM To EFFICIENCY IN THE

USE OF M A CHINERY . 1248 FA RMS , LIVINGSTON AND JE FFE RSON COUNTIES , NEW YORK

VALUE OF

M ACHINERY

farms of over 200 acres have an investment in machinery o f

only $833 . Thi s represents machinery of all ages . Prob

ably the co st when new would be over twice as m uch,bu t

even this su m will not provide all the well-established m a

chines,such as a grain-binder and manure-spreader fo r each

farm . Bu t,while the sm all farm s are not well equipped ,

their machinery co st per acre of crops is almo st double that

on the larger farms .

228 . R elation o f Siz e o f Farm to Efficiency in th e Us e of

Capital. The sm all farm has relatively much mo re o f its

capital invested in unproductive ways than do es the large

farm . NO matter how small the farm m ay be , the owner

desires a respectable house . Table 39 shows that the small

266 DAIRY FARMING

est farms have 43 per cent of their capital in houses ; the

largest farms have somewhat better houses,but have only

9 per cent o f their capital thus invested .

TABLE 39 .

—AREA RELATED To INVESTMENT IN BU ILDINGS . 578

FARM S , LIVINGSTON COUNTY , NEW YORK

PER CENT VALUEVALUE OF TOTAL OF OTHER

OF OTHER CAPITAL BUILDINGSBUILD INGS IN OTHER PER AN I

BUILD IN GS MAL UN IT

PER CENTVALUE OF OF TOTALHOUSES CAPITAL

IN HOUSESACRES

The barns on the small farms also take a much larger

propo rtion o f the capital . The smallest farms have 19 per

cent of their capital thus invested,the largest farms have

only 11 per cent thus tied up . A barn fo r ten head of sto ck

costs much mo re than half as much as an equally go od barn

fo r twenty head o f sto ck . The smallest farms have an

investment in barns o f $164 per animal unit . The largest

farms have only $50 per animal unit . Yet observations lead

to the conclusion that the sto ck on the larger places is better

housed . If interest,repairs , depreciation,

and insurance on

a building amount to 8 per cent o f the value , then the housing

co st per animal unit will vary from $13 per year on the small

est farms to $4 per year on the largest .

Sim ilar results fo r the United States are shown in Table

40. These indicate , as fo r o ther po ints in this wo rk, that

the results are of general rather than lo cal application. The

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268 DAIRY FARMING

ones,ratherthan leave half of the barn em pty . A cow that

is much to o po o r to keep m ay yet pay as well as an empty

stanchion. Of course,if the farm has to o many cows fo r its

area,

‘

it will pay to sell the po o rest ones and decrease the

num ber . In regions like Jefferson Co unty that are well .

adapted to dairying and not adapted to many o ther things,

herds Of 20 to 30 cows when kept on farm s that are large

enough fo r the herd , are usually mo re profitable than sm all

herds . Of course the num ber of cows should not be increased

o u t o f propo rtion to the farm . On the o ther hand extrem ely

large herds are a disadvantage because the farm fam ily is

o rdinarily not able to do the wo rk and to o much labo r must

be hi red .

TABLE 4 1 .

— R ELATION OF NUMBER OF C ows AND M ILK SOLDPE R C ow To LA BOR INCOM E . 585 FARM S , JEFFERSONCOUNTY , N EW YORK

NUMBER OF C ow s

M ILK SOLD PER C ow1 1—20 Ove r 20

Labo r I ncom e Labor I ncom e Labor I ncom e

Less than $50 $632 48 1 $1046

$51—75 447 704 1093

76—100 599 836 1249

Over 100 760 1054 1959

230. Su m m ary ‘

o f Size o f Dairy Far m s . Unless a dairy

farm keeps four o r five ho rses , it canno t take advantage o f

the great econom y in human labo r that comes from the u se

o f four-ho rse m achinery . Bu t each ho rse ought to raise

20 to 30 acres of crops so that this calls fo r 80 o r mo re

acres of crops . If 25 cows and young sto ck are kept ,there will usually need to be 60 to 100 acres o f pasture .

This calls fo r 140 to 200 acres of land,a very common Size

FACTORS F OR SUCCESS IN DAIR Y FARMING 269

in m o st o f the dairy regions of the United States . The aver

age size of farms among subscribers to Hoard’s Dairym an

was repo rted to be 167 acres . In som e o f the rich irrigated

valleys the pastures and alfalfa are so pro ductive that a

considerably sm aller area provides an equally large business .

In som e very fertile regions like Lancaster County , Pennsyl

vania,where very intensive crops are com bined with dairying

,

a farm'

o f 60 tO80 acres represents as large a business as two

o r three tim es this area in som e regions .

Not every dairym an has money enough to buy a farm o f

the best s1ze,but there are o ther ways of obtaining land .

The usual steps in becoming a farm owner are first,to wo rk

as a hired m an then to becom e a tenant then own a m o rt

gaged farm ; and finally pay Off the m o rtgage . Only 36 per

cent of the farmers in the United States own free from m o rt

gage all the land that they operate . If one who has to o

small a farm knows how to farm and how to live economically ,he will o ften find it profitable to go in debt to buy mo re

land . A m o rtgage is not necessarily a bad thing . The im

po rtant po int to consider is the u se to which the bo rrowed

m oney is put . It m ay not be wise to mo rtgage a farm fo r

the purpo se o f buying an autom obile,but it m ay be go o d

business to m o rtgage it to buy additional cows o r land

that is needed . Ano ther way of enlarging the farm is to

rent additional land . There are half a m illion farmers in

the United States who own part of the land that they operate ,and who rent additional land .

RETU RNS PER COW

231 . R e asons fo r P o o r R etu rns . NO single facto r is

mo re im po rtant than the returns per cow (see Table

Low returns m ay be du e to not having a go od market fo r

270 DAIR Y FARMING

dairy pro ducts , o r m ay be du e to selling the wrong kind

o f product ; fo r instance , making butter in a region where

there is a go o d demand fo r market milk at much better

prices . Low returns m ay be du e to keeping the wrong

kind of cattle fo r the region o r fo r the kind o f product so ld,

o r to po o r production because o f po o r care o r feed,o r to

having cows that are naturally not go o d ones . Befo re

one can intelligently change his practice , he must find o u t

to which of these causes his po o r'

returns are du e . The

preceding chapters have given attention to feeding and

to determining which are the cows that are naturally

po o r,so that no thing mo re need be said on these most

vital po ints .

Even in regions unfavo rable fo r dairying there are usually

som e persons who m ake mo re money by com bining dairying

with their o ther farm wo rk than they would make if they

did not keep cows . Everywhere there must be cows enough

to supply the fresh milk even if butter is shipped in.

Bu t in some regions the prices o f pro ducts are low com

pared with feed prices and o ther co sts . In such regions, a

farmer who is only a fair dairyman m ay find that it pays

best to keep only a few cows o r po ssibly to keep only enough

to supply pro ducts fo r home u se .

In some regions milk is so ld by the quart at the same

price regardless o f the percentage o f butter-fat. In such a

region,herds that give a high test are at so great a disad

vantage that they canno t o ften be made to pay .

Tho se who keep pure-bred cattle sometimes fail to make

a profit because they select a breed that is not desired in the

region. The best market fo r the surplus sto ck of the small

breeder is nearly always in his neighbo rho od . He should

raise the kind that is wanted .

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272 DAIRY FARMING

effective . Bu t the milk produced fo r a given amount o f

barn ro om and labo r i s also impo rtant. Of two animals

that are equally efficient users o f fo o d,the larger animal is

usually much mo re profitable . Table 42 gives the valu e

of the m i lk and value of the feed for 355 cows in

Wisconsin.

TABLE 42 .

—R ELATION OF SI ZE OF Cows TO VALU E OF PRODUCTA BOVE FOOD COST 1

POUNDS VALUEWEIGHT OF AVERAGE NUgF

BEROF VALUE OF VALUE OF

PRggUCTCows WEIGHT

CBUTTER PRODUCT FEED

owsFAT

FOR $ 1IN FEED

It takes very little mo re barn ro om and very little mo re

labo r to care fo r large cows than it do es fo r sm all ones .

M ed-icine,veterinary fees , and many o ther expenses co st

about the same fo r large as fo r small cows . These co sts were

found to be $25 per year in M inneso ta , and $29 in New

Yo rk (page

Acco rding to the figures in Table 42 a herd o f 15 cows av

eraging 1276 pounds in weight would make mo re butter than

20 cows averaging 847 pounds . The saving on labo r, barn

room,and o ther fixed co sts, would be about $125 per year

1 Data fu rnished by F . W . Woll, fo r cows who se reco rds are repo rted inWisconsin, Bu lletin 226 .

FACTORS F OR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 273

by keeping the smaller number o f large cows . Where the

land is level , and particularly if hay o r o ther roughage is

abundant, large cows are usually mo re pro fitable . Even

if small ones are introduced the farmers usually change

to large ones in time . Where the pastures are on steep ,ro cky hi llsides small cows are better able to ho ld their

place ." If pastures are very po o r,the large cow is at:

a

disadvantage . She needs mo re feed,but she is not able

to walk so far as the small one . In the South where

heat and insects are bo th serious enem ies o f the dairy

business,nearly all of the cows kept are o f the small active

breeds .

Reco rds of 110 cows kept by the University o f Nebraska

showed that cows averaging 801 pounds in weight gave an

average Of 263 pounds of butter-fat,tho se weighing 1002

pounds gave 278 pounds of fat,and tho se averaging 1211

pounds pro duced 346 pounds of butter-fat. The production

was in propo rtion to the size .

1

Of course the vital po int is production per cow . If one is

buying a cow with a known reco rd , it i s the reco rd that

should be considered . A large cow that is a failure is a

bigger failure than a small one that is a failure . The best

success comes from keeping large cows that are also good

fo r their size .

When large num bers are 'considered , the pro duction and

feed consumption seem to be abo u t in propo rtion to the size .

The advantage of having large animals is in the saving o f

barn ro om and labo r,j ust as there is an advantage in using

a six-foot mower rather than a four-fo o t one .

1 R eco rds o f cows repo rted in Nebraska Agr icu ltu ral Experim ent StationBu lletin 139 . Cows so rted by average weights fo r the y ear s rep o rted , intothree gro u ps , 900 po u nds o r less , 901—1 100 po u nds , and over 1100 po u nds .

274 DAIRY FARMING

CROP Y i ELDs

The returns from crops and co sts of these crops have as

much to do with the success of the farm as a who le as do the

returns from the cows . It is not enough that the farmer

be a go o d dairyman,he should be a go od dairy farmer .

Sometimes the farmer raises crops that are go o d fo r feed

but cost to o much to raise . M o re frequently the yields are

not go od enough to be profitable .

235 . So ils fo r th e Dairy Farm . Only under exceptional

conditions do es it pay to choo se land that is not naturally

productive . The farmer o rdinarily raises all the hay and

part o f the grain fo r the cows . If he buys grain,he ought

to have fo r sale some product other than milk that will mo re

than pay the feed bill . It is usually difficult fo r a farmer who

has po o r land to succeed in competition with tho se who have

go o d land . Occasionally,but not usually, the po o r land is

enough cheaper to m ake up fo r the difference in quality .

The best dairy so ils are lo am s and clay lo ams that grow

grass well . The great dairy Se ctions of the No rth are on

so ils that grow Kentucky blue-grass and white clover fo r

pasture , clover o r alfalfa hay ,and co rn. Dairy farms do

not as a rule buy much chemical fertilizer . The farmers

who get better crops than their neighbo rs are as a rule

receiving greater profits than the average , but as in the

case of go od returns per cow,the returns are sometimes

obtained by metho ds that are too costly . Sometimes po o r

crops are grown by such econom ical metho ds that they paywell . M any successful farmers have crops a fifth better

than their neighbo rs grow .

236 . The Well-balanced Farm . If a go od-sized business ,

go od cows , and good crops are three o f the mo st impo rtant

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DAIR Y FARMING

farming is the diversity o f the business . It usually pays

better to have cash crops o r o ther pro ducts combined with

the dairy

DIVERSIFIED AND SPECIALI"ED DAIRY FARMS237 . R elation o f Cash Cr ops to

l

Pr ofits . As has previously

been mentioned (page farmers who combine cash crops

o r som e o ther product with dairying,usually make mo re

than do tho se who sell no thing but dairy pro ducts . The

po o rer the cows,o r the lower the price of dairy products

,

the mo re impo rtant it'

is that crops be so ld . Bu t even

with extra go o d returns per cow,tho se who sell some crops

are usually do ing better than tho se who sell no crops,

as is shown in Table 44 . The results here given are

fo r a typical region in New Yo rk . In the co rn-belt the

m o st generally profitable type o f dairy farming is to raise

co rn fo r sale o r fo r hog feed in addition to raising feed

fo r the cows .

TABLE 44 . R ELATION OF R ECE IPTS PER C ow AND CA SH CROPSTO PROFITS ON 585 FARM S W ITH SIX OR M ORE C ows . JEF

FER SON COUNTY , N EW YORK

R ECE IPTS PER C ow FROM M ILK AND

ITS PRODUCTSPER CENT OF RECEIPTS FROM CROPS

S50 o r less 35 1 Over $75

Labor I ncom e Labor I ncom e Labor I nco m e

No crops sold 56 57 1 926

1—20 per cent 311 589 962

2 1—40 426 947 1183

41—60 554 1366 1

Over 60 1 2

1 Only two farm s in this grou p .

2 No farm s in this grou p .

FACTORS F OR SUCCESS IN DA IR Y FARMING 277

238 . R elation o f Capital to Am o u nt o f Sto ck Kept . The

am ount o f capital m ust also be considered in determ ining

how many cows to keep . Farmers who are sho rt of capital

usually keep less sto ck than do tho se who have mo re capital .

TABLE 45 . R ELATION OF CAP ITAL AND CA SH CROPS To PROFITS .

578 FARM S , LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK

CAP ITALPE R CENT OF R ECE I PTS FROM CROPS

$5000 o r less Over

Table 45 shows that with small capital tho se who depend

largely on cash crops m ake the mo st,while with larger

capital tho se who derive mo re of their m oney from live

sto ck are do ing best . The exact capital groups will vary

with different land values,but the principle is universal , that

one who is sho rt o f capital should keep less sto ck than one

who has mo re money . This is as one would expect . Live

sto ck represents added capital after one has bought and

equipped his farm . If one is sho rt of money,the abso lutely

essential things are land,m achinery

, and ho rses . One m ay

get along without live-sto ck,but one canno t farm without

land and equipm ent . The maj o rity of farm e rs understand

this principle . When they get m o re money, they increase

the am ount and improve the quality o f their live-sto ck .

Fo r the young m an with small capital it o ften pays to

gradually wo rk into pure-bred cattle . One can begin with

278 DAI R Y FARMING

a few moderate-priced pure-breds and,with a go o d bu ll

,

can gradually develop a go od herd . Ordinary pure-breds

can be improved just as grade cows can be improved . The

advantage of the pure-breds is that after one has them im

proved,they are in greater demand fo r breeding purpo ses

because they are reco rded .

239 . Acr e s per Anim al Unit. Ano ther way of comparing

farms is on the basis o f the number o f acres of cro ps grown

per animal unit kept . Results fo r one dairy region in New

Yo rk are given in Table 46 . The amount of sto ck that it

pays to keep , o f course , depends on the returns that one gets

from it. With very po o r returns,very little sto ck should

be kept . The better the returns , the mo re heavily the

place should be sto cked . With go o d sto ck in the region

here mentioned , it pays best to have an animal unit o ther

than ho rses fo r each 3 to 4 acres o f crops . The exact amount

that it pays to keep will of course vary with different regions

and on different farms,but nearly always it is best to have

the place moderately well sto cked rather than go to either

extreme .

TABLE 46 .

— RELATION OF A CRES OF CROPS PER ANIMA L AND

RECE I PTS PER ANIMA L UN IT To LABOR INCOME . 670 FARM S ,JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK

R ECEIPTS FOR EACH AN IMAL UNIT EX

CEPT HORSESACRES OF CROPS PER ANIMAL UN IT

$50 o r less 351 Over $75

Labor I ncom e Labor I ncom e Labor I ncom e

$2 10 $649 9 895

264 680 97 1

314 763 1053

378 824 9 14

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280 DAIRY FA RMING

cash crops be raised . Even if the cows are highly profitable,it

m ay still pay to raise .cro ps fo r sale , because these crops can

be raised at very little additional co st . It m ight be suggested

that m o re cows be kept to eat the additional crops,but this

calls fo r mo re m en who in turn can raise additional crops .

In regions where cash cro ps are not raised , the women

usually help with the m ilking because the farmer can raise

feed fo r m o re cows than he can milk,and it do es not pay to

keep a hired m an unless there is full wo rk fo r him . Women

can m ilk and do housewo rk between m ilkings . If the

region is well adapted to crops , it pays better to employ m en

and have them do farm wo rk between m ilkings .

"

Figur e 78,

page 279 , shows the distribution of labo r on a very success

ful diversified dairy farm . The owners o f this farm have

fo llowed the same system fo r three generations and have

always been successful .

If a farm is to o heavily sto cked,much feed will have to be

purchased in a po o r year o r som e of the sto ck must be so ld .

In such years feed is likely to be very high and sto ck cheap ,so that whatever one do es he is likely to lo se . .

If a farm is to o heavily sto cked , the returns per ton o f

manure used will be low . The value of m anure depends on

how heavily it is applied . A light application usually gives

better returns per ton of m anure than do es a heavy applica

tion,as shown on page 235 .

If one go es to the o ther extreme and keeps no animals o r

to o few anim als,he will not have a full year’s wo rk . Animals

help to provide winter wo rk,they provide wo rk night and

morning when the days are to o sho rt to allow a full day o f field

wo rk . No tice how little winter wo rk there would be fo r the

farm shown in figure 78 if there were no cows and no manure

hauling .

FA CTORS F OR SUCCESS IN DAIR Y FARMING 281

M o st farms have a considerable amount of low-grade

hay ,mixed hay ,

and o ther products that do not have much

market value o r that are to o bulky to pay to sell . At least

enough sto ck should be kept to m ake u se o f these low-grade

pro ducts . On m any farms there is som e land that will not

pay fo r farming , but that will bring some income as pasture .

Farm ers who -find cash cro ps very profitable Often tend to

keep to o little live-sto ck .

The mo re m oney one has and the mo re profitable his

anim als are , the nearer he should come to exclusive sto ck

farming , but it usually pays to sell at least one cash crop .

In the co rn-belt,co rn marketed through the hog takes the

place o f a cash crop . When little m oney is available and

when sto ck pays po o rly,one should keep fewer animals

,but

it usually pays to produce at least one kind of ani m al o r

animal pro duct. It is desirable that a farm have two to

four impo rtant products fo r sale,and usually at least one

should be an animal pro duct, and at least one a cash

crop .

SOME SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARMS

241 . A Su cce s sfu l Dairy and H og Farm in Iowa . One

can learn much by a study o f successful farms,provided he

is sure that the farm he is studying is really successful . A

farm is a financial success when it pays interest on the

capital invested and pays go o d wages to the o perato r . Some

times unirnpo rtant peculiarities o f the farm are erroneously

considered the cause o f success . A system atic study of a

number of farms will help to avo id this erro r . The reco rd

here given fo r an Iowa farm shows one o f the best -types

of dairy farming for the co rn-belt . (Data furnished by

Pro fesso r H . B . M unger,Iowa State Co llege . )

282 DAIRY FARMING

CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS

160 acres landM achinery and to ols18 cows , 4 heifers , 2 calves1 bu ll17 cows , 2 heifers , 11 calves8 ho r ses , 2 co lts7 ho rses , 3 colts5 ewes18 bro o d sows , 26 o ther hogs and pigs19 bro o d sows , 40 o ther ho gs and pigs100 chickensFeed and su ppliesCash to ru n farm

CROPS GROWN 19 13

AMOUNT AMOUNTCROP ACRES TOTAL Y IELD

SOLD R ECEIVED

In addition,there were 45 acres of ro tated pasture and

17 acres of farmstead ro ads and waste land . Co rn is raised

fo r two years , fo llowed by o ats in which grass is seeded . The

hay is left down two years, part for hay and part fo r pasture .

RECE I PTS3939 lb . bu tter-fat skim -m ilk retu rned12 cattle sold and 6 increase o f invento ryEggs

85 hogs sold and 15 increase o f invento ryHo rses sold and increase o f inventory150 bu shels co rn600 bu shels o atsOu tside labo rM achine wo rk

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284 DAIR Y FARMING

Efiiciency in u se Of labo rCro p acre s per m an 47

Crop acres per ho r se 13Wo rk u ni ts p er m an 298

Wo rk u nits per ho r se 58

FertilityA cres o f crops , inclu ding r o tated pastu re per anim al u nit

The farm represents a go od-sized business . It provides full

wo rk fo r two m en (one besides the owner) andhas enough cro ps

to j ustify the u se o f four-ho rse teams and go od m achinery .

The crop yields are excellent . The returns per cow are

very go od fo r milk so ld to a creamery . The $74 per cow

represents a production of 225 pounds of butter-fat per cow

in addition to new milk for home u se and fo r calves . The

number o f pigs per . sow is go o d .

The farm has three impo rtant pro ducts,

—m ilk, cattle ,and hogs . The co rn raised fo r hog feed

'

takes the place of

the cash crops that are raised by the farm described on page

285 . The farmer has fo r fiveyears used a pure-bred bull and

now has ten pure-bred cows , so that cattle are a third im

po rtant source o f incom e .

The acres o f crops raised per m an and wo rk units per m an

are very go od . The efficiency in the u se of ho rses is only

fai r . It is po ssible that the farm m ight pay a little better

if fewer ho rses were kept .

In Sho rt , the farm is a go od-sized business , has go od crops,go od cows

,go o d diversity

,and uses m an labo r efficiently, and

the place is carrying enough sto ck so that there is a go o d

supply of m anure .

The farm er had a comm on scho o l education. He wo rked

as a hired m an five years , then as tenant five years , after

which he bought this farm and has been operating it four

years . The efficiency facto rs given above when compared

FACTORS F OR SUCCESS IN DAIR Y FARMING 285

with the averages fo r farm s given in preceding tables , show

how well the farm is m anaged .

242 . A Su cce s sfu l Diver sifie d Dairy Farm in New Yo rk .

This farm is typical of the best general type o f dairy‘

farm ing

fo r tho se po rtions o f the Eastern States where intensive

cash crops combine well with dairying .

CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BU SINESS

BEGINNING OF YEAR END OF YEAR

2 11 acres o f land $14000

M achinery and to o ls31 cows2 calves3 calves1 bu ll5 ho r se s25 sheep , 38 lam bs28 Sheep ,

43 lam bs75 chi ckensFeed and su ppliesCash to ru n farm

CROPS GROWN

CROP ACRES TOTAL Y IELD

Co rn fo r silo 120 tonsWheat 330 bu . 3 10 bu . $264

Oats 1006 bu .

Tim o thy and clover hay 83 tons 2 tons 25

Po tato es 2400 bu . 2025 bu . 1050

Apples 40000 lb . 36000 lb . 145

Cabbage

In addition to the above there were 85 acres o f perm anent

pasture and 9 acres of wo ods,farm stead

,waste land

,

'

etc.

286 DAIRY FARMING

R ECE I PTSlb . m ilk

Calves so ld and increase invento rySheep , lam bs , and wo o lEggs

310 bu . wheat2 tons hay2025 bu . po tato esApples

FARM EXPENSESLabo rFeed

FertilizerSeeds

Other expenses

SUMMARYR eceiptsExpen’sesIncom e fro m capital and o perato r’s labo rInterest on average capital 5 %Labo r incom e

EFFICI ENCY FACTORSSize

Acres 211A cres o f crops 117Nu m ber o f cows 31Nu m ber o f m en 35Nu m ber o f wo rk ho rses 5Nu m ber u nits pr o du ctive m an wo rk 835Nu m ber u nits produ ctive horse wo rk 431

Produ ction

Corn 12 tonsPo tato es 200 bu .

Oats 41 bu .

Wheat 30 bu .

M ilk sold per cow 8543 lb .

R eceipt p er cow fro m m ilk $111R eceipt per cattle u nit $112Lam bs raised per ewe

R eceipts p er ewe

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288 DAIR Y FARMING

ployed . Calcu late the u ni ts o f produ ctive m an and ho rse wo rk .

Calcu late the area o f crops and u nits of pro du ctive wo rk per m an and

per ho r se . C o m pare with farm s o f the sam e area in Tables 33—40.

If each stu dent bases hi s repo rt on a different farm , the resu lts m ay

be co m par ed .

3 . To how m any anim al u nits is the sto ck on the abo ve farmequ al? (See p . How m any acr es o f crops p er anim al u nit ?Abo u t what propo rtion o f the m anu re is pro du ced in the barn.

How m any tons wo u ld thi s probably m ake p er year if it is all savedIf the m anu re is well cared fo r , and if eight tons are applied per acre ,how m any year s wo u ld it take to co ver the entire farm ?

4 . What is the valu e o f the barns on the above farm ? How

m u ch is this per anim al u ni t ? Co m pare with Table 39 .

5 . Ar e condi tions in yo u r region natu rally favo rable for largeor fo r sm all breeds o f dairy cattle ?6 . What things aside fro m dairy pro du cts are com m only sold

from dairy farm s in yo u r region ?

7 . A s an average fo r the beginning and end o f the year , how

m any anim al u nits are there on the farm described on page 28 1How m any on the farm on page 285 ?8 . Co m pare the farm s on page s 242 and 244 as to size o f bu siness ,

crop yields , retu rns per cow , wo rk u ni ts per m an and ho rse , and in

o ther way s .

9 . C o m par e each o f the above farm s as to effi ciency in the u se

Of m en and ho rses with farm s o f the sam e area in Table 36 .

LABORATORY EXERCISES

36 . R ecord of a Year’s Bu sine s s on a Farm . Arrange with

so m e dairy farm er to allow the class to go to hi s farm and stu dyhi s m etho ds and o btain a reco rd o f his bu siness fo r the pa st year ,u sing Farm er

’s B u lletin 661 fo r taking the reco rd . Later calcu late

the labo r incom e and wo rk, the efficiency facto rs , and co m parewith the farm s described on pages 28 1 and 285 . What are the

strong po ints and what are the weak po ints of the farm ?

Each stu dent shou ld m akea Sim ilar reco rd and stu dy of the farm

on which he lives .

COLLATERAL READING

A M ethod o f Analyzing the Farm Bu siness , U . S . Dept . Agr . ,

Farm ers’Bu lletin 66 1 .

Farm M anagem ent, G . F . Warren, pp . 535—565 .

APPENDIX

ADDRESSES oF CATTLE BREEDERS’ASSOCIATIONS

Am erican Aberdeen-Angu s Breeder s’A sso ciation, Charles Gray ,

Sec. , Chicago , Ill.

Ayrshire Breeders’A sso ciation, C . M . Winslow , Sec. , Brandon,

Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders’A sso ciation, Ira Inm an, Sec . ,

Belo it , Wis .

Du tch Belted Cattle A sso ciation o f Am erica , E . J . Kirby , Sec . ,

C overt, M ich .

Am erican Galloway Breeder s’Asso ciation, R . W . Brown , Sec . ,

Carro llton, M O .

The Am erican Gu ernsey Cattle Clu b , William H . Caldwell, Sec . ,

Peterbo ro , N .H .

Am erican Herefo rd Cattle Breeders’Asso ciation, R . J . KinzerSec . , Kansas City , M o .

The H olstein-Friesian A sso ciation o f Am erica , F . L . Ho u ghton,

Sec . , Brattlebo ro , Vt .

The Am erican Jersey Cattle Clu b , R . M . Gow , Sec . , 324West23d St. , New Yo rk City .

R ed Polled Cattle Clu b of Am erica , H . A . M artin , Sec. , Go tham ,

Wis .

Am erican Shorthorn Breeder s’Asso ciation, F . W . Harding , Sec . ,

Chicago , Ill.

The P olled Du rham Breeders’ASsociation, J . H . M artz , Sec . ,

Greenville , O .

290 APPENDIX

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COW

Adopted by the Am erican Jersey Cattle Clu b , 1913

DA IRK TEMPERAMENT AND CONSTITUTION

Head, 7 .

A . M ediu m size , lean ; face dished ; bro ad between eyes ;

ho rns m edi u m size , incu rvingB . Eyes fu ll and placid ; ear s m ediu m size , fine , carried

alert ; m u zzle broad , with wide Open no strils and

m u scu lar lips , jaw strongNeck, 4 .

Thin, rather long , wi th clean thro at , neatly jo ined tohead and sho u lders

Body, 37 .

A . Sho u lders light, go od distance thro u gh from po int topo int, bu t thin at withers ; chest deep and fu ll be

tween and ju st back o f fo re legs

B . R ibs am ply spru ng and wide apart, giving wedgeshape ,

" with deep , large abdom en, fir m ly held u p ,

with strong m u scu lar develo pm entC. Back straight and strong , with prom inent spinal pro

cesses ; lo ins bro ad and strongD . Ru m p long to tail-setting , and level fro m hip bones

to ru m p bonesE . Hip-bones high and wide apartF . Thighs flat and wide apart , giving am ple ro om fo r

u dder

G. Legs proportionate to size and of fine qu ality,Wellapart, with go od feet, and no t to weave o r cro ss in

H . Hide lo o se and m ellow

I . Tail thin, long , with go od switch , no t co arse at settingon

Udder , 26 .

A . Large Size , flexible , and no t fleshyB . Broad , level o r spherical, no t deeply ou t between

C . Fo re u dder fu ll and well rou nded , ru nning well fOrward Of front teats

Carry fo rward

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292 APPENDIX

Brou ght fo rwardBrisket LightLegs and Feet Legs straight and Sho rt, well apart ,

shanks fine and sm o o th , jo ints firm ;‘feet m ediu m Size ,

rou nd , solid , and deepBody, 13 .

Back Strong and straight , chine lean, Sharp , and Openjo inted

Lo in Bro ad , strong , and levelR ibs Long , bro ad , wide apart , and well spru ngAbdom en Capacio u s , deep , firm ly held u p with strong

m u scu lar developm entFlank Thin and arching

Hind Qu arters , 11 .

Ru m p Wide , level, and long fro m ho oks to p in bones ,a reasonable pelvic arch allowed

Ho o ks Wide apart and no t pro jecting above back no ru ndu ly overlaid with fat

Pin B one s High and wide apartThighs Thin, long , and Wide apartTail Long , fine , set on a level with the back .

Legs and Feet Legs strong , sho rt , straight whenViewed fro m behind and set well apar t shanks fineand sm o o th , jo ints fir m ; feet m edi u m size , ro u nd,

so lid , and deepUdder , 22 .

Long , wide , deep , bu t no t pendu lo u s , no r fleshy ;firm ly attached to the bo dy , extending well u p behindand far fo rward ; qu arters even ; sole nearly leveland no t indented between teats , u dder veins Welldeveloped and plainly visible

Teats , 8 .

Evenly placed , distance apart from side to side equ al tohalf the breadth o f u dder , from back to front equ al toone-third the length ; length 25 to 31 inches , thi cknessin keeping with length , hanging perpendicu lar , and no ttapering

Mam m ary Veins , 5 .

Large , long , tortu o u s , branching , and entering large

o rificesCarry fo rward

APPENDIX

BrOiIght forward

Escu tcheon, 2 .

D istinctly defined , spreading over thighs and extendingwell u pward

Colo r , 2 .

Red o f any shade , brown , o r these with whi te ; m ahog

any and white , o r whi te ; each co lo r distinctly defined .

(Brindle m arkings allowed , bu t no t desirable )Covering, 6 .

Skin Ofmediu m thickness , m ellow , and elasticHair So ft and fineSecretions Oily , o f rich brown o r yellow cOlo r

Style , 4 .

Alert , vigoro u s , showing strong character , tem peram entinclined to nervo u sness , bu t still do cile

Weight, 4 .

Weight at m atu rity no t less than one tho u sand po u ndsTo tal

SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY COW

Adopted by Gu ernsey Cattle Clu b

Dairy Tem peram ent Constitu tion, 38 .

Clean-cu t, lean face ; strong , sinewy jaw ; wide m u zzle

with wi de-open no strils ; fu ll, bright eye with qu ietand gentle expression ; fo r ehead long and broad .

Long , thin neck with strong ju nctu r e to head ; cleanthro at . Backbone rising wellbetween sho u lder bladeslarge ru gged spinal pr o cesses , indicating go o d developm ent o f the spinal co rd

Pelvis arching and wi de ; ru m p long ; wide , strong stru c

tu re o f spine at setting on o f tail. Long ,thin tailwith

go od switch . Thin, incu rving thighsRibs am ply and fu lly spru ng and Wide apart, giving an

o pen, relaxed confo rm ation thin arching flanksAbdom en large and deep , with strong m u scu lar and naveldevelopm ent, indicative o f capacity and vitality

Hide firm yet lo o se , with an o ily feeling and textu re , butno t

,thi ck .

Carry fo rward

293

294 APPENDIX

Brou ght fo rwardM ilking M arks Denoting Qu antity of Flow, 10.

Escu tcheon wide on thighs ; high and bro ad , wi th thighsoval

M ilk veins long , cro o ked , branching , and prom inent, withlarge o r deep wells

Udder Fo rm ation,26 .

Udder fu ll in frontUdder fu ll and well u p behindUdder o f large size and capacity .

Teats well apart , squ arely placed , and of go od andevensize

Indicating Colo r of M ilk, 15 .

Skin deep yellow in ear , on end of bone o f tail, at base of

ho rns , on u dder , teats , and body generally . Ho of,

am ber-colo redM ilking M arks Deno ting Qu ality Of Flow,

6 .

Udder showing plenty o f su bstance , bu t no t to o m eatySym m etry and Size, 5 .

Colo r o f hair , a shade o f fawn, with whi te m arkings .

Cream -colo red no se . Ho rns am ber-colo red , sm all, cu rved ,

and no t co ar seSize for the breed : m atu re cows , fo u r years old or overabo u t 1050 pou nds

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN- FR IESIAN COW

Adopted by Holstein-Fr iesian A sso ciation

Head Decidedly fem inine in appearance ; fine in conto u rFo r ehead Broad between the eyes ; di shingFace Of m ediu m length clean and trim especially u nder the

eyes , Showing facialveins ; the bridge Of the no se straightM u zzle Bro ad with strong lipsEars Of m ediu m size , o f fine textu re ; the hairplentiful and

soft , the se cretion Oily and abu ndantEyes Large ; fu ll ; m ild ; brightHo rns Sm all ; tapering finely towards the tips ; set m odera

ately narr ow at base ; oval ; inclining fo rward ; Well bent_inward ; o f fine textu re ; in appearance waxy

Carry fo rward

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296 APPENDIX

Brou ght forwardUdder and Teats Very capacio u s ; very flexible ; qu arters

even ; nearly filling the space in the r ear below the twist,extending well fo rward in front bro ad and well held u p

Teats Well fo rm ed ; Wide apart , plu m p , and Of convenientsize

Escu tcheon Largest ; fine st

TABLE 47 .

— IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS

YEAR END ING YEAR ENDINGJUNE 30, 1912 JUNE 30, 19 14

Am o unt Valu e Am o unt Valu e Am o unt Valu e

m p o rts

B u tter , p o u nds

Cheese , p o u ndsC ream , gallonsM ilk

To tal

xp o rts

Bu tter , p o u ndsCheese , p o undsC o ndensed m ilk ,

p o undsOther m ilk and

cream

To tal

NOTES FO R TA BLE 48 , ON PA GE 2971 U . S . D ept . Agr . , Yearbo ok, 19 13 , p . 487 .

2 No state standards .

3 Federal ru lings adopted .

4 Percentage o f fat based on to tal solids .

5 Fat, p er cent ; total solids plu s fat, p er cent.6 Fo r bu tter m aking , 25 p er cent fat.

7 Thi s standard fo r sweetened condensed m ilk Evapo rated m ilk,

s o lids , 24 p er cent ; fat, 7.8 p er cent.8 No repo rt ; 19 10 standard given .

9 By weight .1°No t m o re than p er cent filler .

11 M u st correspond to p er cent solids in cru de m ilk.

12 If artifically co lo red .

13 M u st co rresp ond to 12 p er cent so lids in cru de m ilk.

14 23 -24 p er cent solids , p er cent fat ; 24—25 p er cent solids , 7 .8 p er

cent fat ; 25—26 p er cent solids , p er cent fat ; 26 p er cent solids , p er

cent fat.

1 5 In M ay and Ju ne , solids 12 p er cent.1 6 Fat, p er cent o f total solids .

TABLE 48 .

—LEG AL STAN DARDS FO R D A IRY PRO DUCTS 1

MCONDENSED

H‘K M ILKSTATE

Alabam a 2

A r i zona 2

Arkansas 3

Califo rniaC o lo rado

Conne‘

cticu t’

D elawa re 2

D istr ict o f Co lu m b iaFlo r idaGeo rgiaHawa ii 8IdahoIllino isInd ianaIowaKansas

Kentu ckyLo u isianaM aineM arylandM assachu settsM ichiganM inne so taM ississ ipp i 2

M isso u r iM ontana

NebraskaNew Ham p shireNew JerseyNew M exico 2

New Yo rkNevadaNo rth C aro linaNo rth D ako taOhioOklaho m a

OregonPennsylvaniaPo rto R icoRhode IslandSo u th Caro lina 2

So u th D ako ta 4

TennesseeTexasUtahVe rm ont

VirginiaWashingtonWest V irginia 2

Wisco nsinWyo m ing

18 0 8 1 5

99

9

99

9

99

9

9

99

9

9

9

9

9

9

99

9

9

99

9

9

c

c

00

66

800

8

600

88

800

5

A

U .

8

0

800

6

8800

5

000

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

00

32

2

2

3

2.

5.

00

9

oo

9

9

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

9

9

9

5

9

9

99

0

9

9

9

9

5

9

5

9

99

9

9

0

9

99

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

5

33

3

3

3

33

3

3

3

3

33

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

33

333

33

3

2

25 18 0 82 5

9 25 18 0 80 0

9

9 3 18 O

9 0 18 0 80 0

298 APPENDIX

TABLE 49 .—AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF M ILK AND ITS

PRODUCTS

WATER PROTEIN SUGAR

Skim -m ilk, gravi ty .77

Skim -m ilk, separator . 78

Bu tterm ilk . 70

Whey .42

TABLE 50. AVERAGE WEIGHTS

PRODUCT WEI GHT IN POUNDS PER QUART 1

Average m ilk20 per cent cream25 per cent cream30 per cent eream

40 per cent cream50 per cent cream

THE HAECKER FEEDING STANDARD

The feeding standard fo rmulated by Pro f . T. L . Haecker

of the M inneso ta Experiment Station 2 has found consider

able favo r especially in the M iddle West. This standard is

based upon a long series o f investigations concerning the

requ irements fo r maintenance and fo r the production o f

milk of varying richness . This standard has recently been

modified by Savage in the direction of simplicity in fo rm and

some increase in the nutrients .

This standard makes u se of the to tal digestible nutrients

and do es not exclude the am ide nitrogen as is done by Arm sby .

1 Calcu lated fro m the specific gr avity of cream as given by Farringtonand W011, Te sting M ilk and its Pro du cts , 20th edition , p . 77 .

2 M inneso ta Agr icu ltu ral Experim ent Station, Bu lletins 69 , 79 , 130,140.

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300 APPENDIX

tenance requi rement is first calculated,taking into

'

acco unt

the size of the animal . To this is added the amount neces

sary to produce the m ilk, taking into account the amount and

richness . Fo r example,let it be assumed the problem is to

calculate the ration for a 1150-pound cow producing 30

pounds of per cent milk daily . Acco rding to the pre

ceding statements the requirements Would be as fo llows :

D IGESTIBLE PROTEINPOUNDS

M aintenance 1150 15. (9 70 x 115 ) .81 x l1 .5 )30 lb . m ilk . (30 9 9 7 (30 x 38 )

To tal

The ration to be fed will then be selected and calculated

u sing the average compo sition of feeds as given in Table 51 ,m aking such changes and modifications as are seen to be

necessary in o rder to bring the compo sition o f the ration

reasonably close to'

the standard .

TABLE _ _ 5 1 .

— DRY M ATTER , D IGESTIBLE PROTE IN AND TOTALNUTRIM ENT PE R 100 P o UNDs 1

-TOTAL D RY

M ATTER PROTEIN

Concentrates .

Co rn

Sweet CornCo rn-andfcob M ealf

Glu ten FeedGlu ten Meal

Hom iny Feed (chops )Germ OilM eal

1 This table is adapted from Henry’s Feeds and Feeding , l0th edition,

p. 582.

Co rn Bran

WheatR ed-do g Flo u r

Wheat M iddlingsWheat BranRye

Rye M iddlingsRye Bran

BarleyOatsOatm eal

Oat M iddlingsOat Hu lls

Bu ckwheatBu ckwheat M iddlingsBu ckwheat Hu lls

R ice .

Canada Field PeaCowpeaSoybeanKafir Co rn

Linseed M eal

Co ttonseed .

Co ttonseed M eal

Co ttonseed Hulls

Facto ry By-pro du cts .

Dried Brewers’GrainsWet Brewer s’GrainsM alt Spr o u tsDried D istiller s’GrainWet Beet Pu lpDried Beet PulpSu gar-beet M olasse s

Sflage .

Co rn

So rghu mR ed Clover

Soybean

Cowpea Vine

APPEND IX

TOTAL D RY

M ATTERD IGESTIBLEPROTEIN

301

TOTALNUTR IMENT

302 APPENDIX

TOTAL D RY‘

T OTALM ATTER NUTR IMENT

Dried R o u ghage .

Fodder Co rn with EarsCo rn Stover , Ears rem oved

Tim o thyOrchard GrassR edtopKentu cky Blu egrassBerm u da GrassJohnson GrassBarleyOat

Hu ngarian Grass

Prairie GrassBu ffalo Grass

Hay from Legu m es and

M ixed Legu m es and

Grasses .

R ed CloverAlsike Clo verCrim son CloverSweet CloverSoybeanCowpeaAlfalfa (western U . S . )Hairy (winter ) VetchPeanu t VineOat and Pea

M ixed Grasses and Clover

Straw and Chafi .

WheatRye

Oat

BarleyBu ckwheat

Fresh Green R ou ghage .

Green Co rn and So rghu mfo rage .

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304 APPENDIX

WING’s METHOD o r BALANCING RATIONs

A short method of balancing rations devised by H . H .

Wing is practical and convenient .

He divides the o rdniary grains into three groups low pro

tein (less than 12 per cent) medium pro tein (12 to 25 per

cent) high pro tein (over 25 per cent) . The figures given

in the table are fo r the to tal and not the digestible pro tein.

TA BLE 52 .

—WING’s M ETHOD OF BA LANCING R ATIONs

Low PROTEIN GROUP M EDIUM PROTEIN GROUP HIGH PROTEIN GROUPTo tal Pro te in 12 % o r less To talPro tein 12 % to 25 % To tal Pro te in 25 % o r m i ne

Co rn Wheat b ran M alt sp ro u tsOats M ixed wheat feed . Linseed o il m ealWheat Wheat m iddlings C o ttonseed m ealRye C o tto nseed feed Glu ten feedBarley B u ckwheat fe ed B rew ers

’dr ied gra ins

B u ckwheat Pea m eal D istillers’dried grains

(co rn)Ho m iny chop . Cu ll beans Bu ckwheat m iddlingsD ried be et p u lpC o rn-and-cob m eal

M ixed hay ,co rn silage

,and co rn fo dder are very Similar

in com po sition as far as the relation between the pro tein and

carbohydrates is concerned . When roughage o f this class

is used,a grain mixture made by m ixing equal parts by

weight of one from each of the three groups will make a well

balanced ration . A dairy cow in full flow o f m i lk should

receive all the hay and silage she will eat and the grain mix

ture at the rate o f one pound fo r each 3 o r 35 pounds o f

m ilk that she pro duces , if this m ilk be about the average

compo sition o f 4 . percent . If the m ilk contains 3 to

percent fat, 1 pound grain to 4 pounds o f milk is sufficient .

If alfalfa hay is used the high pro tein feed is not necessary .

APPENDIX 305

TABLE 53. AVERAGE WE IGHTS OF D IFFERENT FEED ING-STUFFS 1

FEED ING F ONE POUNDSTUF M EASURES

Barley m eal

Barley , wholeBrewers’dried grainsC orn-and-cob m eal

Co rn-and-o at feedC o rn branCo rn m eal

C o rn, wholeC o ttonseed m eal .

Distiller s’grains , driedGerm o il m eal

Gluten feedGlu ten m eal

Hom iny m eal

Linseed m eal, new pro cessLinseed m eal, o ld pro cessM alt spro u tsOats , gr o u ndOats , wholeRye branRye m eal

Rye , wholeWheat branWheat , gr o u ndWheat m iddlings (flo u r )Wheat m iddlings (standard )Wheat , whole

RULES FOR MEASUR ING FE ED

M e asu ring Grain. A bushel o f grain contains approxi

mately g cubic feet . To find the capacity o f a bin,find the

number o f cubic feet and m ultiply by g, o r multiply by 8

and divide by 10.

M e asu ring Ear Co rn . Two bushels o f ears are o rdinarily

required to make one bushel o f grain . To find the capacity1 U . S . Dept . Agr .

,Farm ers

’Bulletin 222 .

306'

APPENDIX

o f a crib , find the number o f cubic feet and multiply by o r

multiply by 4 and divide by 10. Seventy pounds of ear

co rn is o rdinarily called a bu shel .

M e asu ring Straw . Few weights of straw have been re

po rted . The writer measured and weighed two barns full

o f settled wheat straw . The mows were 14 feet deep,1200

cubic feet were required fo r one ton.

M e asu ring H ay. Some kinds o f hay are heavier than

o thers . The deeper the m ow o r stack and the longer it hassto od , the heavier the hay is per cubic fo o t . Of course the

bo ttom o f a m ow is much heavier than the top . Usually

about 500 cubic feet of settled hay are counted as one ton.

A barn 30 X 60 feet and 16 feet from flo o r to top of the

plate , and havm g the peak 9 feet above the plate , was filled

as full as po ssible with tim o thy hay and refilled after a few

days . This hay was baled by the writer about five months

later . It weighed 51% tons . On ano ther year it weighed

51 tons . A barn 30 X 42 feet and 16 feet from flo o r to topo f plate , with peak 9 feet above the plate , was similarly filled

,

and baled o u t tons .

Capacity o f Silo s . King gives the weight of a cubic fo o t

o f silage at different depths two days after filling, as fo llows 1

WEIGHT PER CUB I C AVERAGE WEIGHT To THISD EPTH

FOOT D EPTH

P ound s

1 Wisconsin Agricu ltu ral Experim ent Station,Bu lletin 59 .

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308

Cowpea , 106 , 224 .

Cowpox, 162 .

cow-testing asso ciations , 6 1 .

Cream , im po rts and expo rts , 296 .

legal standards , 297 .

separation, 185 .

weight o f, 298 .

Cream eries , 19 1 .

Crim son clover , 106 .

Crop ro tations , 225 .

yields , 274 .

acres p er ho rse , 264 .

acres p er m an , 26 1 .

cash, 227 , 276 .

Cropping sy stem s , 225 .

Cro ssbreeding , 13 , 74 .

Cru de fibe r , 95 .

Dairy pro du cts , receipts fro m ,10.

D eho rning , 81 .

D evon , 36 .

INDEX

Gu tters , 144 .

Haecker feeding standard , 298 .

Hay , we ight o f, 306 .

Heifers , feeding , 120.

co st o f raising , 250.

Herefo rd , 37 .

Holstein, 17

Ice cream , legal standards , 297 .

Inflam m ation o f the u dder , 158 .

Jersey , 2 1 .

nu m ber registered , 17 .

Kaffir po iso ning , 164 .

Kerry , 30.

Kicking cows , 88 .

D iversified farm ing , 227 , 276 , 279 .

Drenching a cow , 152 .

D ry ing u p a cow , 89 , 124 .

D u al pu rpo se , 14 , 31 .

Du tch Belted , 30.

Ether extract, 95 .

Feeding standards , 97 ,298 , 304 .

Feeds , 104 , 300, 304 , 305 .

condim ental, 1 11 .

co sts o f, 246 .

digestibility , 96 .

effect o n m ilk, 176 .

energy in, 104 .

m ixed , 1 10.

pro du ction valu es o f 96 .

retu rned in m anu re , 231 .

u ses o f, 94 .

weights o f, 305 .

Fertility o f feed in m anu re , 231 .

Flies , 79 .

Flo o rs o f barns ,

Galloway , 38 .

Garget, 158 .

Glu ten, 109 .

Grade , defined , 13 .

Gu ernsey , 24 .

no . registered , 17

Labo r co sts , 246 ,248 .

Labo r inco m e , 259 .

Legal standards , 297 .

Legu m e s , 106 , 224 .

Lice , 16 1 .

Light fo r barns , 140.

Linseed m eal, 109 .

M aintenance requ irem ents , 299 .

M angers , 144 .

M anu re , 9 , 230.

am o u nt produ ced , 230.

application o f, 235 .

lo sses o f, 232 .

valu e o f, 231 , 234 .

M arketing , 253 .

M arking cattle , 82 .

M eat fro m dairy cattle , 5 , 20.

M ilk, ash in, 2 .

bitter , 88 .

certified , 18 1 .

colo r o f, 17 1 .

com pared with beef, 2 .

co m po sition o f, 168 .

co ndensed , 193 .

co nsu m ed per capita ,4 .

co st o f, 246 .

energy in, 2 .

fever , 153 .

flo u r , 194 .

fro m different anim als , 172 .

inspection, 5 .

INDEX 309

legal standards , 297 .

prices by m onths , 2 17 .

reco rds , 58 .

sanitary ,177 .

su bstitu te s , 117 .

su gar , 170.

testing , 59 , 196.

valu e as fo o d , 1 .

veins , 5 1 .

weight o f, 298 .

wells , 5 1 .

M ilking , m etho ds o f, 83 , 84 .

m achines , 86 .

M ixed feeds , 1 10.

M o lasse s , 109 .

Nitro gen-free extract, 95 .

Oats , 108 .

Oil m eal, 109 .

Pastu re , 126 , 224 .

feeding grain on, 127 .

Pedigree s , 15 .

Po lled D u rham , 34 .

Popu latio n o f the United States , 3 .

Produ ctio n valu es o f feeds , 96 .

Pro fits , facto rs affecting , 258 .

PrOtein, 95 . Udder , 50.

gulse

bno

gm

d

al

éwg

.

13inflam m ation o f, 158 .

u re re e ne

Rations calculating 100Variations , extent o f, 44 .

R ed Polled 34 .

O

Veal pro du ction ,

~ 1 19 .

Ventilation , 146 .

Reg1stry , advanced , 64 .

Vetch, 106 , 224 .

nu m ber o f ani m als in , 17

R enting dairy farm s , 240.

R esp iration, no rm al, 151 .

R o tations , crop , 225 .

Salt, 123 .

Sanitary m ilk, 177 .

Sco re cards , 53 , 77 , 290.

Sco u rs , 160.

Selection, individu al, 42 .

o f a breed , 40.

o f a bu ll, 69 .

Printed in the United States o f A m erica .

Shelter , 82 .

Sho rtho rn , 32 .

Sflage , 107 , 22 1 .

Silo , cap acity o f, 306 .

Skim -m ilk, co m p o sition o f,fo r calves , 1 12 .

valu e as fo o d , 2 , 254 .

So iling cro p s , 223 .

So ils fo r dairy ing , 274 .

So rghu m p o iso ning , 164 .

Stalls , 144 .

Stanchi ons , 145 .

Straw, weight o f, 306 .

Strippings , 176 .

Su cce ssful farm s , 242 , 28 1 .

Su cculent feed , 132 .

Teats , chapped , 88 .

leaky , 87 .

Tem p eratu re , no rm al, 15 1 .

Tenu re Of dairy farm s , 240.

Tie s , 145 .

Tim o thy hay ,106 .

Topo graphy , 203 .

Transpo rtation and dairy ing ,

Tu berculo sis , 156 .

Water fo r cows , 125 .

in feed , 95 .

Weights o f feeds , 305 .

Wheat bran , 107 .

m iddlings , 108 .

Whey , 298 .

Wing’s feeding standard , 304 .

Wo lff-Lehm ann feeding standard ,

99 .

Wo rk u nits , 263 .

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A nim alHu sbandry fo r Scho o ls

BY MERRITT w. HARPER

A sso ciate Pro fesso r o f Anim al H u sbandry in the New Yo rk State C o llege

Agricu ltur e at C o rnell University

Clot/1, 1 2 7710, £11. 409 pages.

To m eet the dem and fo r a bo ok on Anim al H u sbandry

su itable fo r u se by stu dents o f high scho o l age this bo ok has

been written,and in content, style , and arrangem ent it is

adm irably adapted to the pu rpo se . It be longs to the Ru ral

Textboo k Series prepared u nder the edito rial supervis ion o f

Pro fesso r L . H . Bailey o f Co rne ll Unive rsity.

In the five parts into which the bo ok is divided the au tho r

treats o f ho rses , cattle , sheep , swine , and po u ltry, and each

is discu ssed with refe rence to breeds , ju dging the anim al ,

feeding , and care and m anagem ent. The re is also a chapter

on the general principles o f feeding . Practical qu estions and

nu m e ro u s labo rato ry exe rcises supplem ent the text and

co m pe l the ‘

student to think thro ugh each subject as he

pro ceeds . The bo ok is extensively illu strated . Designed

fo r u se as a textbo ok, it is also we ll su ited fo r u se as a refe r

ence bo ok in scho o ls in which tim e lim itations m ake it

im po ssible to u se it as a text.

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Warren'

s Elem ents o f Agricu ltu re

By G . F . WARREN, Professo r o f Farm Managem ent andFarm Crops, New Yo rk State College o f Agricu ltu re at Cor

nell University670171, 1 2 7720, 45 6 pages,

W ritten by Pro fesso r G . F . Warren, Who is in charge o f the Departm ent o f

Farm M anagem ent and Farm C rops in the New Yo rk State C o llege o f Agr i

cu ltu re , Co rnell University,an au tho rity on qu estions pertaining to practical

agricu ltu re .

Pro fesso rWarren is, m o reover

,a farm er . H e grew u p on a farm in the m id

dle W est and is living at the pre sent tim e on a farm o f thre e hu ndred and

e ighteen acres ,which he s upe rvise s in conne ctionwith his wo rk at the University.

The Elem ents o f Agricu ltu re is a text that do es no t talk down to the

pupil. It g ive s agricu ltu re rank beside physics , m athem atics , and the langu ages ,

as a dignified su bject fo r the co u rse o f stu dy.

In Warren’s Elem ents o f Agricu ltu re there is no waste Space . It is wr it

ten With the ease that characte rize s a writer at ho m e in his su bject, and it iswritten in a style pedagogically co rre ct. The au tho r has b een a teacher o fhighscho o l b oys and girls and knows how to pre sent his subject to themExperts in the teaching o f agr icu ltu re the co untry over have been unanim o us

in praise o f the text. Fo r instance :

Mr . J. E . BLA I R , Su pt. o f Scho o ls , Cor ricana ,Texas .

An exam ination o fWai ren’s Elem ents o f Agricu ltur e ’convinces m e that

it is a b o ok o f u nco m m o n m e rit fo r secondary scho o ls aswell as fo r the pr ivatestu dent. It is tho ro u ghly scientific in m atter , and is wr itten in an attractivestyle ,

that canno t fail to please as well as instru ct.

Supt. E . S S. M ITH, W/Iz

'

tiflg ,Iowa

I am very m u ch pleased withWarren’s Elem ents o f Agricultu re . In m y

opinion it is the o nly b o o k on th e m arket that presents the wo rk o f agricultur esu itably fo r high scho o ls ; to o m any b o oks are to o s im ple and do no t giveeno ughwo rk ; a bo ok fo r high scho o ls m u st be m o re than a prim er .

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Principles of Agronom y

BY J. S. HARRIS AND GEORGE STEWARTUtah Agr icultu ral Co llege

Cl0t/z, 1 2 7770, illu str ated, 43 0 pages, L ist pr ice,

The Principle s o f A gronom y deals with the practice sthat underlie success in crop production and w ill be w elcomed by tho se scho o ls that em phasize , in the agriculturecourse ,

the fie ld cro p studie s . The student is intro ducedin this bo o k to the four e lem ents that will affect his su c

cess In rai sm g cro ps fo r m arket . F irst , the nature o f the

plant and its activities ; then, the compo sition o f so ils ;next, the characteristics o f the principal fie ld cro ps and

details regarding the ir cultivation and care ; finally,the

principles o f farm management . When one has surveyedthe subj ect from the se four po ints o f view he has a clearidea o f what is invo lved in the practical problem o f cro ppro ductio n. H e see s that re sults are dete rm ined by the

characte r o f the plant,by the so il

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ment as we ll as by the crops the m se lve s .

The bo ok will appeal to the practical m an whether hebe student o r farm e r . It dea ls with conditions as theyare , and discusse s practical problems that invo lve bo thprinciple s and applicationsWna t shading d0es 70 plants ; H0w to 777 0dij3/ s o ils

W/zen t0 ir r ig a te ,H 0w to prevent p0ta t0 dis eases ; e tc.

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Lists o f supplem entary readings , provided at the endso f chapte rs , perm it o f extension o f the course into anyfie ld o f special lo cal intere st . The appendix contains ref

e rence mate rial, table s , rules , glo ssary, etc.

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