Of the History of India - Forgotten Books

A SHORT MANUAL

OF THE

H ISTORY OF IN D IA .

WITH AN ACCOUNT OF

IN D IA AS I T IS ;

THE SOIL , CLIMATE, AND PROD UCTIONS ; THE PEOPLE, THEIR RACES,

REL IGIONS, PUBLIC WORKS, AN D IN DUSTRIES ; THE CIVILSERVICES, AND SYSTEM OF ADMIN ISTRATION .

ROPER LETHBRIDGE,M .A.

, C.I.E.

PRESS COMMISSIONER WITH THE GOVERNMENT OF IND IA .

LateScholar of Exeter Col lege, 0xf0rd ; formerly Prmcipal of Kzshnaghur Col lege,Bengal Fel low and sometzme Examiner of the Calcarla Umverszty.

WITH MAPS.

fionbun

M A C M I L L A N A N D 0 0

188 1 .

CON TEN TS.

IN TROD UCTION : — IND IA AS IT IS.

PART

I. THE LAND AND ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES

Il . POLITICAL D IVISION S AN D PLACES OF INTEREST

III . RACES AND LAN GUAGES OF IND IA

IV. SOIL ,MINES,FORESTS, AGRICULTURE, ANDNATURAL

HISTORY

V. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE

VI. INDUSTRIES AND PUBLIC WORKS

VII. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

VIII . L ITERATURE AN D LEARNIN G

IX . RELIGIONS AND CUSTOMS

THE HISTORY OF IND IA .

CHAP .

I. THE CONQUEST OF INDIA BY THE ARYAN - HINDUS

II. THE RISE OF BRAHMAN ISM — THE s sOF MANU

III . THE HINDU SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

IV. THE RISE OF BUDDHISM

V. GREEK CONNEXION WITH INDIA .

vi CONTENTS.

cm’.0

VI. THE TRIUMPH AND DECLIN E OF BUDDHISM

VII. REVIVAL OF BRAHMANISM UNDER T EARLY

RAJPUT KINGS

VIII. EARLY MUHAMMADAN INVASIONS.— MAHMUD OF

s mIX . MUHAMMAD GHORI, AND THE OONQUEST OF HIN

DUSTAN BY THE MUHAMMADANS

X. TEE PATHAN OB. AFGHAN SUL TANS OF DELHI

XI. THE RIVALS OF THE DELHI EMPIRE DURING THE

PATmiN AND EARLY MUGHUL PERIODS

XII. BABAR AND HUMAYI’

IN , THE FIRST MUGHUL EM

PERORS, A.D . 1526— 1556

AKBAR, THE GREATEST OF THE MUGHUL EM

PEBORS,A.D . 1556— 1605

JmANGfR, SHAH JAHAN , AND AURANGZ EB,A.D .

1605— 1627— 1658— 1707

XV. THE DECLIN E AND FALL OF THE MUGHUL EMPIRE

XV] . SIVAJI AND THE RISE OF THE MumumsXVII. TEE PROGRESS AND DECLINE OF THE MAHRATTA

POWER

XVIII. EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA

XIX . THE WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND FREN CH IN

THE OARNATIC

XX . CLIVE, AND THE BATTLE OF PLASSEY

XXI. CLIVE, AND THE GRANT OF THE DiwANf or

BENGAL

221

CONTENTS .

CHAPXXII . WARREN HASTINGS

,THE FIRST GOVERN OR

GENERAL OF INDIA

XXIII. L ORD CORNWALLIS— THE THIRD MYSORE WAR,

AND THE PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF BEN

GAL,A.D . 1786— 1793

XXIV. THE MARQUIS WELLESLEY— TlmCONQUEST OF

MYSORE AND OF THE MAHRATTAS,A.D .

1798 - 1805

XXV. LORD CORNWALLIS AGAIN — SIR GEORGE BARLOW

—LORD MIN TO, A.D . 1805— 1813

XXVI. THE MARQUIS OF HASTINGS— THE NEPAL AND

PINDARI WARS,A.D . 1813— 1823

LORD AMHERST— THE FIRST BURMA WAR, AND

THE STORMIN G OF BHARTPUR,A.D . 1823— 1828

LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK— PEACE AND REFORMS,

A.D . 1828— 1835

LORD AUCKLAND — THE AFGHAN WAR

XXX . L ORD ELLENBOROUGH— TEE CONQUEST OF KABUL

AND THE ANNEXATION OFSum, A.D .1842— 1844

XXXI. LORD HARDIN GE AND Tm: FIRST SI’KH WAR.

A.D . 1844— 1848

XXXII . L ORD DALHOUSIE— THE SECOND SI’

KH WAR,A.D .

1848 — 1856

XXXIII . LORD CANNING— THE SEPOY MUTINY,

A.D .

1856— 1862

XXXIV. INDIA UNDER THE CROWN

vii

PAGE

LIST OF

POLITICAL MAP Frontzspiece

PHYSICAL MAP

MAP OF INDIA , SHOWING D ISTRIBUTION OF RACES

RAINFALL CHART

ISOTHERMAL CHART

ISOTHERMAL CHART FOR JANUARY

IND IA IN THE TIME OF

A SHORT MANUAL

\OF THE

HISTORY OF IND IA .

IN TROD UCTION : — IND IA AS I T IS.

PART I.

THE LAND AND ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES.

1 . Extent. 2 . Hindustan and the Deccan. 3. PhysicalD ivisions ofNorthernIndia. 4. TheHimalaya and SulemanMountain- Z ones. 5 . The Plains of Northern India. 6. The NorthEasternVal leys. 7. The MalwaPlateau. 8 . Physical D ivisionsof Southern India. 9 . The Plateauof the Deccan and Mysore.10. TheWestern Maritima Fringe. 11 . The Eastern MaritimeFringe. 12 . Ceylon. 13. British Burma. 14. Coast- l ine and

Harbours.

1 . Extent.— Indiamay be described roughly as the

countrywhich liesnorth and south betweentheHimalayamountainsandtheGreat IndianOcean. Fromtheport ofKarachi inthe extremewest, to theeasternborders of Assam,

isadistance of about miles; a like distance separatesCape Comorininthesouth fromthe northern extremity ofthePunjab ; and thearea included between these limitshasbeen estimated at about square miles. Indiathusextends fromthe 8thdegree of north latitude to the37th ; and fromthe longitude of 66° 44’ to that of 99° 30’east of Greenwich .

British Burma, comprising themaritime provinces ofB

2 THE LAND AND ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES.

the TransgangeticPeninsula (or Further India) Which arecontiguousto India

,and theAndamanandNikob ar Islands,

belong to India politically, but not geographically. The

rich and important Island of Ceylon, on the other hand,

belongs to India geographically, but not politically ; it is

an English Crown Colony,and is administered by a Go

vernor under the Colonial Office.

2 . Hindustan and theDeccan— IndiaProper, then, asabovedefined, consists of the IndianPeninsula, which isthecentral peninsula of SouthernAsia, With theadjacent part oftheAsiatic continent asfarnorth astheHimalayaMountains.

In the northern part of the peninsula, and just southof the Tr0pic of Cancer, a chain of highlands runsacrossnearly fromsea to sea. It is themost important waterparting inthe country ; thewaters to the north drainingchiefly into theNarbada and theGanges, those to the southinto the Tapti, the Mahanadi, and some smaller streams.

Its general directionis fromwest by south toeast by north .

In the west,between the basins of the Narbada and the

Tapti, it is called the Satpura range ; onthe eastern sideit becomesmerged in the plateau of Chutia N agpur andHazaribagh in Bengal . It Will be seen hereafter that theWesternportion of this chain isalso the boundary betweentwo important sections of the Indian people, betweentheHindi- speaking and the Marathi - speaking races. For al l

these reasons,it is convenient to regard this chain of high

landsasthedivision betweenN orthernand SouthernIndia,which are often called Hindustan and the Deccan re

spectively.

Nom.- It should, however, be remembered that the terms Hin

dustan and theDeccan,’

ascommonlyused, areamb iguous. Hindustanis sometimesused byEuropean geographers to indicate theWholeofIndia ; Whi lstontheother hand themeaning of the termin Indiaissometimesrestricted to those regions in the upper Gangeticval leywhich areoccupied byHindi- speaking races. When Opposed to the

Deccan,’

itmeans b roadly Northern India, ’ as opposed to SouthernIndia ’

; but the boundary is sometimes placed at the Narbadariver,sometimes aswehave placed it above, and sometimes at theVindhya

MOUNTAIN Z ONES. 3

range (whichis aminor escarpment bounding the Narbadaval ley onthenorth). So, too, theDeccan

’

issometimesrestricted in itsmeaning totheterritory forming thenorthernportion of the great plateauof Southern India, and sometimes appl ied special ly tothe FeudatoryState ruled b y the N izamof Haidarabad, nearly coincidentwiththatterritory. In ancient Indian writers, the boundary b etweenHindus~tan and the Deccan is uniforml y placed at the Vindhya range:;but Professor H. H. Wi lson was of opinion that the termVindhyawasancientlye ppl iedtothe Satpurarange and its continuations, nottothemodernVindhyanorth oftheNarbada.

3 . Physical Div isions of Northern India.— N orth

ern India consistsmainly of a vast plain, which includes( 1) the basin of the Indus, and the Thar or Great IndianD esert on the west ; (2) the basin of the Ganges and

its tributaries in the centre and east and (3) twoval leysinthe far east , which formthebasin of the Brahmaputraand its affluents. This plain is flanked onthenorth and

west bymountain- zones, called respectively theHimalayaand the Suleman ranges

Onthe south of some portions of thewesternand central divisions of this plain is the great plateauof Malwaand Baghal khancl , which is separated fromthe centralmountain- axis (thesatpnraand other ranges) by the valleyoftheNarbada .

4. The Himalaya and Suleman Mountain- Z ones

These ranges, the northern and western boundaries ofN orthern India,meet nearly at right angles intheuppercorner of the Punjab . Both are, however, the interruptedserrated barriers of tablelands which formpart of thegreat east - and-westmountain- systemof Europeand Asia ;and geologically they are of the same structure, and comparatively of recent (middle and later tertiary) formation.

Fromthe gorge of the Indus ineast longitude 72° tothat oftheD ihong (chief affluentof the Brahm3,p11tra) ineast longitude 95° a distance of miles

,i the

Himalaya isan unbroken watershed of anaverage heightof feet. Its northern slopes are drained by the

upper streams of these two rivers, which rise withinaB 2


hundred miles of each other,near the great peak of

Kailas feet) , and flow north -west and southeastrespectively until they succeed in breaking through themountain- zone, and find their way, the Indus to theArabian Seanear Karachi , the D ihong or Brahmaputra tothebay of Bengal , in thegreat Gangetic Delta. The southernslopes of the Himalaya are drained by the Indusand itstributaries (one of which , the Sutlej , risesfar within themountain- zone) in thewest, by the Gangesand itssysteminthe centre, and by the Brahmaputra inthe east . Its

highest peak is Mount Everest, feet.Compared with the very gradual slopeof theHimalaya

range on its northern side towardsthe lofty plateaux ofTibet

,the descent on the southern side towardsthe plains

ofHindustan is suddenand great . Still the distancefromthe first outer hills to the central range is rarely less thaneightymiles direct , and oftenmuch more. There is thusample space within themountain- zone for innumerablevalleys of greater or less size ; such are the famous valleyof Kashmir, and the valleys forming the states of Nepal ,Bhotan, Sikkim. Along the base of the outer hills thereis a damp and generallymalariousbelt of3angle, called theTarai

,inhabited chicfly by wild beasts. The rainfall is

much heavier in the eastern than inthe western parts ofthe Himalayas, consequently the forests on the slopes inSikkimand Bhotan are very dense

,and the vegetation

generally very luxuriant,whilst the slopes of thewestern

Himalayasaremore thinly cladwith forest, and naked precipitous crags are of constant occurrence.

West of the point at which the Sutlej bursts throughthe outer ranges, the Himalaya losesthe chain- like linearcharacter it has to the east, and breaks up intomany subparallel and intersecting ranges of great elevation in the

wild border highlands between Kashmir, the Punjab , andKabul , asfar asthe Indus.

West of the Indus, fromtheHinduKush onthe north(which separatesKabul proper fromCentral Asia) asfar

NORTHERN PLAINS. 5

south as the Bannudistrict of the Punjab , the westernmountain- zone is of the same character , though of somewhat less general elevation. The Safed Koh is a loftyrange running nearly east and west fromtheneighbour.

hood of Peshawar to that of Kabul it is thereforenearlyatright angles to theaxis of the westernmountain- zone.

Oneach side of this range runs one of the great passesleading to Kabul that onthe north , along the ravine ofthe Kabul river, being called the Khaibar ; that on thesouth

,partly following the course of thoKuramriver,

being called the Kuram,with the famous ascents of the

PewarKohtal and the ShutargardanPass.

Froma point nearly opposite Bannuto one nearly 0p

posite theconfluence of theIndusand the Sutlej , theSuleman range runs nearly north and south , parallel with theIndus

,and separating the plains of the Punjab fromthe

Kabul plateau and Sewistan. Its highest peak, the

Takht- i- Sulemcin, or Solomon’

s Throne,

’

isunderfeet . Southward the range becomes less elevated, untilat length itturnswestward, to bound the plain leading upto the Bolan Pass

,the great mi l itary and commercial

road to Quetta, Kandahar, Herat, and Western Asia general ly. Fromthis pass southwards the Ham, range, enechelonwith the Suleman

,and from to feet in

height , bounds the highlands of Kalat and Balochistan,

and skirts the valley of the Indus almost to the sea. Al l

this country is nearly rainless,and is swept by the dry

winds fromthe deserts of Balochistan and Persia,and

would b euninhabitable but for irrigation drawn fromtheIndusor its tributaries.

5 . ThePlainsofNorthernIndia — The vast plain ofN orthern India consistsof the IndusValley, the Thar orGreat Indian Desert, and the Gangetic Valley . Thesedivisions run into each other without visible interruption;for though thewaterparting between the twogreat riversis atanelevation of from800 to feet above sea- levelat its highest point somewhere north of Delhi, yet theslopeon each side is sogradual as to be imperceptible.


Thewestern part of this plain consists of the alluvial '

valley of the Indus and its tributaries ; the saline swampsof Cutch (Each) ; the rolling sands and rocky plains ofthe desert, which coversmuch of Sind, the south of thePunjab

,and Western Rajputana ; and the south - easterly

margin of this desert in Rajputana,which is less sterile,

because it receivesmore rain and iswatered by the Luni .We shall see hereafter that thewhole of this region is dry,and some of it almost rainless.

At Mithankot the Indus receives, as a tributary, thecollectedwatersof the FiveRivers, fromwhich the Punjab(Panj - db Five waters) takes its name. These riversal l rise inthe Himalaya

,and flow south - west through the

Panjab . These, commencing with the most southerly

(which is also the greatest) , are the Sutlej , the Bias, theRavi (on which is Lahore) , the Chenab , and the Jhelam(which drains Kashmir) . The plains of the Panjab slopeinsensibly fromnorth - east to south -west, fromthe Himalaya towards the sea. The strips between the rivers are

called Doabs,and consist of Bdngar land and Khddar land.

The Kbddar is the fertile fringe of the river below floodlevel— within which the river often alters its course fromyear to year

,sometimes deviatingmanymiles fromits old

channel . The Bdngar is the higher land between the

rivers, generally arid and sterile, and oftenbare or coveredonly with coarse scrub — though in the northernand lessdry portion of the Punjab it bears luxuriant crops ofwheat.

The water- systemof the Ganges drains an area ofsquaremiles (the area of the Indus valley being

less by some squaremiles) . The Ganges leaves theHimalaya near Hardwar, and flows to the bay of Bengal ,in a direction generally south - east , its course being aboutmiles. The Jamwtd, or Jamnah , joins it at Alla

habad , and above that point has a fair claimto be considered themain stream. Agra, Muttra and

Delhi areonits banks; and the highly fertile tract of land

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south , and thevalley of theSon(a tributary of the Ganges)onthe south - east . Its slope isalmost entirely northward,fromthe Vindhya mountains, its southern wall

,to the

Gangetic plain. With the exception of a small area inthesouth -west

,which drains into the Mahi (an insignificant

river falling into the gulf of Kambay) , thewhole drainageof the plateauis into theGanges. Itsnorthwest and westwall is formed by the Araval i mountains, which crossRajputziua fromitssouth -west corner to theneighbourhoodof Delhi ; the highest peak , Mount Abu, is over feet .The surface of the plateau18 an undulating plain withoccasional hills

,thehighest ofwhich doesnotexceed 2,500

feet .Intervening between this plateauand thecentralmoun

tain- axis of the Sfmtpuras, isthe long narrow valley of theNarbada

,which flows fromeast towest into the Arabian

Sea,or Indian Ocean, atBaroch .

8 . Physical Divisions of Southern India — Indiasouth oftheSétpurasisatriangular peninsula, itsbasebeingthe Satpura mountains and their continuations, its apexat Cape Comorin

,its eastern side resting on the bay of

Bengal,called the ‘ Coromandel Coast

,

’and its western

side resting on the Indian Ocean, called the MalabarCoast . ’ Thewholeofthe interior of this country isa vastplateau, the plateauof the Deccanand Mysore, somewhatinthe shape of a triangle, whose base and sidesareparallelto those of the triangle ofSouthern India. Fringing thisplateauare

,on the north -west

,the valley of the Tapti ;

on thewest,thenarrow belt of hot,moist, and somewhat

rugged country between theWesternGhats and the IndianOc

'

ean; on the cast, a belt (generallymuch broader, but

varying greatly in breadth) of hot, low country betweenthe Eastern Ghatsand the bay of Bengal ; whilst on thesouth , beyond theapex of the triangle, is a hilly regionextending to Cape Comorin.

9. The Plateau of the Deccan and Mysore.

— The

combined valleys of the Tapti and itsaffluent, thePuma,

THE DECCAN AND MYSORE. 9

intervene, in thewesternand central part of the peninsula,betweenthe Satpura mountain- axis and the Deccan plateau. They are occupied by the fine plains of Khandeshand Barar, having a soil famous asthe black cotton soil . ’

Atthe head of the Purna valley the plains of Barar passwithout perceptible interruption into thoseofthetributariesofthe Godavari, which extend far down that river, andformone slope (thelowestportion) of the D eccan plateau.

Eastward , nearly asfar asthe Orissa coast of the bay ofBengal

,is an immense extent ofmountainous country,

drained by theMahanadi and its afiiuents, and comprisinga large portion of the Central Provinces, the southernportion of Chutia N agpur, and Orissa. Themain streamof theMahanadi only emerges fromthese hills through anarrow gorgenear Cuttack (Katak) , just above the headofits delta, which formspart of analluvial plainextendingto the delta of the Ganges.

The Western Ghats are the western barrier of thisplateau, and the Eastern Ghats, a lower and less continuous chain

,are the eastern barrier. Asmay b e inferred

fromthe fact that the great rivers of the peninsula risenear the Western Ghats

,and flow eastward throughthe

line of theEasternGhats, the general slope of the countryis fromtheWestern Ghats eastward to the bay of Bengal ,with a more or less sudden drop at the line called theEastern Ghats. Hencea vertical section of the peninsulafromwest to east

,fromthe Indian Ocean to the bay of

Bengal , would be somewhat asunder

The basin of theGodavari and its tributaries (ofwhichthe chief are theWardha and the Wainganga) coincideswith a broad depression in the D eccan plateau, whichs10pes gently fromN agpur feet high) to the sea.

Another broad depression is caused by the basin of the


Kistna (or Krishna) and its great afiluents, the Bhima andtheTangabhadra,and thisdepressionseparatesthe southernplateau of Mysore (with Bangalore at a height offeet) fromthenorthernplateauof theDeccan proper . The

central part of the plateau, except whereunder field cul tivation,

is a bare grassy country , with a gently undulatingsurface, and occasional ridges of rocky hills or c lusters ofbold isolated peaks, and the general appearance of therugged Krishna valley is of very similar appearance.

A little to thenorth of Madras theEasternGhats trendoff to thewestward, bounding the plateauof Mysore, andat their junctionwith theWesternGhats risesthe bold triangular plateauof the N ilgiri Hills, the highest point ofwhich , Dodabetta, is not less than feet above thesea.

South of the N ilgiris is a broad depression called thePalghat Pass, or Gap of Coimbatore. This depression,

which is only feet high atits highest point, connectsthe low country forming the eastern fringe of the peninsulawith that forming the western fringe, and separatesthe highlands of the N ilgiris fromthose of Travancoreand the southern corner of India.

The plateau of Mysore is drained by three small rivers(called the Ponnar, thePalar, and the Southern Ponnar)onthe east, and onthesouth by the Kaveri (or Cauvery) ,which also drainstheN ilgiris. TheKaveri flows into thebay of Bengal by two arms

,of which thenorthern one

is called the Kalarun (or Coleroon) .

10. The Western Maritime Fringe— The narrowstrip of low country that fringes the peninsula below theWestern Ghats is called Malabar in the south and the

Konkan in the north . It varies in width fromtwentymiles to fiftymiles. It is well watered by short streamsfromthe Ghats, and is somewhat rugged, being muchintersected by short spurs of that range. The rainfallbeing heavy and the climate hot, the forestsaredenseandthe vegetationcharacteristically tropical .

CEYLON . 11

11 . The EasternMaritimeFringe— Outhe east side

of the peninsulathe fringing plain is generally verymuchbroader

,though for a short distance near Madras it is

only thirtymilesacross, and is stil l narrower near Viza

gapatam. In its southern part it is called the Carnatic .

South of Madras it occupies fromone- third to one- hal f the

width of the peninsula, and runs up the valley of theKaveri to the foot of theN ilgiri hills, where it isfeet above the level of the sea. It includesthe alluvialdeltas of the Kaveri, the Krishna, the Godavari, and the

Mahanadi , as well as nearly the entire basins of somesmaller rivers, such asthe Ponnar and Palar . Whilst itcontains someofthe hottest districts in India, it is generally highly productive. The rich district of Tanjore ontheKaveri Delta owes its remarkable fertility to an elabo - t

rate systemof irrigation.

12 . Ceylon.— The island of Ceylon liessouth - east of

Cape Comorin, itswest coast being in the same longitudeasthe east coast of the Indian peninsula betweenNegapa.

tamand Pondicherry . Thesea that separatesCeylon fromIndia is called the Gulf of Manar on the south and Falk’

s

Straits on the north ; it is almost bridged by a chainofcoral reefsand islands (called Rama’

s or Adam’

s b ridge) ,which practically closes al l the channelsagainst navigation,

though attempts have been and are stil l being made toopen the Pamban channel . The northern half of theisland isa plain stillmuch covered by forest . The centralpart ofthe southern half is occupied by a lofty table- land,the homeof the famous coffee plantations of Ceylon

,with

peaks which rise to more than feet, and on theirwestern face are clad with dense forest except wherecleared for coffee cultivation. The eastern part of the

plateau, sheltered fromthemonsoon (see 50) by theloftier hills, consists of Open rolling grassy downs, withforests inthe hollowsand valleys. To the south and westof this central plateau the country is rugged and hillydown to the coast. The loftiest peak is Pedrotal lagal la


feet) , which is close tothe sanitariumof NuwamEliya feet) , a fairly level plain of some milesin circuit, enj oying a cool butmoist climate. Anotherhill

,famous for its Buddhist temple and the imprint of

Buddha’

s foot, isAdam’

sPeak feet) . The diflicul tascent is annually made by large numbers of Buddhistpil grims.

13. BritishBurma — This outlying province of theIndian Empire occupies the finemaritime districts of thepeninsula of Further India.

’

It is about miles inlength fromnorth to south

,but, being inparts very narrow,

its area is notmuchmore than squaremiles. Its

leading physical features are comparatively simple. Frombeyond theupper end of theAssamvalley, a series of subparallel or slightly diverging ranges ofmountains runoutto the southward. Of these, the westernmost range is

called the Patkoi , and separatesAssamfromIndependentBurma. Further south

,one of the continuations of the

Patkoi range is called the ArakanYoma; this range formsthe boundary of Arakz

’m,the northern province of British

Burma,and separates the basin of the Irawadi fromthose

of themany small streams that water the narrow Arakanterritory .

The delta of the Irawadi forms,with its fertile lower

basin,the rich province of Pegu

,the central district of

British Burma famous for rice and teak - timber . The

valley of the Irawadi consists of plains intersected by lowisolated hill- ranges

,generally running north and south

The Arakan Yoma or coast range dips into the sea atCape Negrais, but is continued in the Great and LittleCoco Islands

,theAndamans

,and Nikobars.

The Irawadi basin is bounded on the east by thePeguYoma

,which is a lower range than the Arakan Yoma,

never exceeding feet inheight within the limits ofBritish Burma. East of this range isthenarrow valley ofthe Salwen, and the province of Tenasserim,

the third andmost southerly division of British Burma, consists of the

COAST AND HARBOURS. 13

delta of this river, with a l ong narrow strip ofmaritimeterritory running out southward, and bounded by the

mountains of Siamonthe east.14. Coast lineandHarbours.

— The coast- lineofIndia

is on the whole unbroken, affording few good harbours.

Calcutta isone of themost dangerous ports in theworld,being 80miles up a winding river, with barely 20 feet ofwater at low tide atmany points, and the channel narrowand intricate. Madras is only an open roadstead , with abeach famous for its lines of surf, and al l the portson theCoromandel Coast, fromtheHooghly to Cape Comorin, areof a similar character. In Ceylon there is the first- classharbour of Trincomalee, which isthedockyard of theRoyalNavy intheEast, but it is situated in an inaccessible andunhealthy part of the island. Galle, at the southern ex

tremityofCeylon, hasa good though somewhat dangerousharbour ; it is the coaling station and port of call for al l

the great ocean steamersonthe overland lines to Madrasand Calcutta, aswell as to Singaporeand the IndianArchipelago , China, Japan, and Australasia. Colombo , on the

western coast of Ceylon, is healthily situated, and is thenatural outlet ofthe important export tradeof Ceylon. At

present it is only an open roadstead , but a breakwater isnearly completed which will largely increase its value as aharbour. Ou the Malabar coast are several valuableharbours— Cochin, Calicut, Mangalore ; but they do notcommand the commerce of any extensive tract inland.

Bombay isa very fine harbour thePortuguesearesaid onthis account to have altered its native name (Mombai orMambe) into Buon- bahia, good harbour and being connected by rail with al l parts of India

,its commercial

importance is very great indeed. Surat, thenatural portof the Tapti, and Baroch, that of the Narbada, cannotshelter large vessels during the summer monsoon. Nextto Calcutta andBombay, the chief commercial port of Indiaisnow Karachi . It issituated atthenorthwest corner ofthe deltaof theIndus, and being thenearest portto Europe,

14 POLITICAL DIVISIONS AND PLACES or INTEREST.

and being now connected by rail with the Punjab and

Upper India,it is fast rising in importance.

Eastward of Calcutta isthe port of Chittagong inEastBengal ; it is only available for small vessel sand only valuable as an outlet for the rice of that region. The portsofBritish Burma areAkyab , Rangoonatthemouth of anarmof the Irawadi, and Moulmeinatthemouth of the Salwen.

The coast of Malabar and Travancore is fringed withsand- spits, inclosing

‘backwaters,

’

which are so connectedas to afford a very complete systemof inland navigation.

PART II.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS AN D PLACES OF INTEREST.

15. Modern Pol itical D ivisions. 16. Bengal and Assam.

17. The North-West Provinces and Oudh. 18 . The Punjab .

19 . Rajputana. 20. The Bombay Presidency. 2 1 . The Cen

tral IndiaAgency. 22 . The Central Provinces. 23. The Barars.

24. Haidarabad. 25. The Madras Presidency. 26. Mysoreand Coorg. 27. Himal ayan Frontier States. 28 . North-West

Frontier States. 29 . ForeignEuropeanSettl ements. 30. Ceylon.

31. British Burma. 32. Ancient or Popular D ivisions of India.

15. ModernPolitical Divisions.—India atthe present

day, in regard to its political constitution,may be regardedas a Federation of Governments and States; al l inmore orless direct subordination to a central Supreme Governmentembodiedin theViceroy and Governor- General inCouncil

,

’

representing Her Gracious Majesty the Queen, Empress ofIndia.

Some of these Governments are directly administeredby B ritish ofiicers, immediately subordinate to the SupremeGovernment of India. TheseGovernmentsconstitutewhatis commonly called BRITISH IND lA. They arenow nine innumber, comprising an area of about nine hundred and

forty thousand squaremiles, and containing a population ofabout one hundred and ninetymillions. In these provinces

16 POLITICAL DIVISIONS AND PLACES OF INTEREST.

government, and to submit the conductof their externalrelations tothe Imperial Government . Including al l thepetty feudatories

,thereareno less than460 such Statesin

various parts of India, comprising an area estimated at

squaremiles, and containing a population estimated at The intimacy of the relationswiththeParamonntPower variesin thedifferent States. Inthe

more important a British oflicer,called a Resident or a

Political Agent,is stationed

,whose functions broadly are,

to act as themediumof communication between the

Prince and the supreme Government, and to advise thePrince inmatters ofmoment.

In this sketch we can only notice a few of themost important of theNative States. Those that are attached tothe GovernmentsofBengal , theN orthwest Provinces, thePunjab , Bombay, and Madras, will be b riefly noticed inthe several accounts of those Governments. The othersfal l into five geographical groups: (1 ) Rajputana ; (2)the Central India Agency ; (3) Haidarabad ; (4) theFrontier. States of the northernmountain- zone (Bhotan,Sikkim,

Nepal,Kashmir) (5) the Frontier States of the

westernmountain- zone (Kabul or Afghanistan, Khelat orBalochistan)Altogether outside the federation of the IndianEmpire

area few petty French and Portuguese settlements, whichwill benoticed separately .

16. Bengal and Assam.— The Chief- Commissioner

ship of Assamconsists of the two north - eastern valleys

(those of the Brahmaputra, and of Cachar and Silhat) described in 6, with the intervening and adjacent hilltracts. Gauhati on the Brahmaputra is at present thechief town of Assam; but the seat of the Government isatShillong , thehighest peak of theKhasi hills feet) .

Cherrapunj i , on the southern face of the Khasi hills, isfamous for the heaviest recorded rainfall in the world

(more than500 inchesper annum) . It isinstructive to notethat Shillong, being onthe lee side of thesame range, has

BENGAL AND ASSAM. 17

a ve'ry moderate rainfall , averaging notmuch more than

one- tenth of that of Cherrapunji .

West and south -west ofAssamisthe great LieutenantGovernorship of BENGAL , the largest and by far the richest

andmost populous province of India. It consists of (1 )Bengal Preper, including the delta of the Ganges and theBrahmaputra, with the adj oining tract of country at the

north - east corner of the b ay of Bengal (as far as the

frontiers of Arakan in British Burma) , and the lowervalley of the Ganges Bihar, higher up the GangesChutia N agpur, which is the hilly country south of Biharand west of Bengal ; and Orissa, which lies south -west ofBengal , and stretches d own for a little way along theupper coastofthe peninsula of India, asfar as theMadrasfrontier. The Lieutenant- Governorship of Bengal issometimes called theLower Provinces of Bengal , or simply theLower Provinces. The seat of government is at Calcutta

(populationabout which isalso , during the fivemonths of cold weather, the seat of the Supreme Government of India— Simla, inthe

'

Punjab Himalayas, being theseat of theSupreme Government during the sevenmonthsofhot weather.

The fol lowing are thechief placesof interest inBengal1 . Bengal Proper.

— In the district of the twenty— four Parganas,Calcutta. InNadiyaorKishnaghur district, Nadiyd (Nuddea), theoldHinducapital of Bengal , and the seatof theSanskrit learning of theprovince ; and Plassey or Pal ési, the scene of Cl ive’s victory . In the

Hooghly orHugl i district, Hooghly, the siteofsomeoftheearl iestPortuguese, Dutch, and Engl ish settlements Serampore (or Srirdmpur),formerly a Danish settlement, and long famousasthecentreof a greatmissionary work Chandernagore or Chandernagar, stil l a Frenchsettlement ; Sdtgdon, once the capital of Bengal , now a smal l vil lageclosetoHooghly . IntheMurshidab zld district, Murshidabad (formerlycal led Makhsusabad), once the capital of the Nawabs of Bengal , andstil l the residence of their descendants

, who are pensioners of theBritish Government ; d imbdzdr, the site of one of the earl iestBritish settlements. In the Maldadistrict, Gaur or Lalclmautz', theancient capital of the earl y Muhammadan ,kings of Bengal , now in

ruins. In the Burdwan district (and close to the border of Chutia

C


Nagpur), Rdm‘

ganj (or Rancegunge), having themost important'

coal

mines inIndia : it isa great stationon the East Indian Rai lway . In

the Dacca district, Decca (D luilcd), cal led by the MuhammadansJshangirnagar, inhonour of theEmperor Jahangir, inwhose reign itb ecame the residence of the Mughul Subahdars of Bengal ; contains70,000

‘

inhabitants, and'

was formerly the seat of themost famousmanufactureoffinemusl ins near Dacca are the ruins of s '

t'

trgdon,

onceacapital ofEasternBengal . InChittagong district, d tgaén or

Chittagong , a port, cal led by theMuhammadans, Islamabad.

2 . Bihar.- In Patna district, Patna, the ancient Pal ibotkra or

Pdtalizautra, cap ital of the empireof Magadha, sti l l containsinhab itants, and has amost important situation, b eing both on the

main l ineof rai lway fromCalcutta toDelhi , and alsoon the Gangesnear its junctionwith the Son. In Gayadistrict, the sacred city ofGaye, famous for its Buddhistic remains ; Buddhist pil grims flock

hither fromal l parts tovisit the tree under which Buddha preached,whilstHindupi lgrimscome toadore the impress of Vishnu’s foot onarock. Itmay benoted thatBihar was the cradle of Buddhism, and

contains many remains of Buddhistmonasteries— whence its name,Vikdm ‘mo .nastery InShahabad districtwe haveArrak

,renowned

for itsgal lantdefence atthetimeof theMutiny ; Balcsar (or Bazzartheword has theaccentonthe penul tima), whereMunro defeated MirKasimand the Nawab Vazir of Oudh in A.D . 1764 ; Ckausa, at theconfluence of the Karamnasa and Ganges, where Sher Shah defeatedHumayun in and Rohtds, a famous hil l - fortress near theSon, 1485 feet high. In Manger (or Monghyr) district isM anger,‘the Birminghamof Bengal ,’ with a considerab le ironmanufacture ;and Jamdlpur, a great railway dep6t. In the Santal Parganas is

Ra'

jmakal (formerly Akmalzal) , where the lastAfghanKing of Bengalwas. defeated and ki l led by Akbar

’

s army in 1576 ,and Teliagarb i,

rformerly a famous fortress, reckoned the ‘ keyofBengal .3 . ChutiaNagpur.— Thismountainous provincewasformerly cal l ed

fi drkkand, hr.

‘Jungl e Land it ismainly populated byaboriginal orDravidian trib es, as the Role, Oraons, and others. It was neverthoroughly conquered by theMuhammadan power, and at the presenttime containsmany petty tributary chieftaincies in themore remotel1il l -country. Hazaribdglz IS amil itary station, and reputed thecool estand healthiest station in the Lower Provinces. The highest peak ofthis hi l ly land is Parzsncttlz, a sacred hi l l of the sect of the Jains,4,500 féet

‘

.

4. 0rissa.. - The western portion of Orissa, abutting on Chut1aNagpur and the Central Provinces, is a wi l dmountainous region, inwhich is lost the central mountain-axis separating Northern from

13111511, CHUTIK NEGPUR, ORISSA. 19

SouthernIndia. Inthesemountainsthere arenineteenpetty tributarychieftaincies. Thedistrict is cal led ‘the Orissa Tributary Mahal l s ’

the inhab itants chiefly belong to,

the wild aboriginal tribes— amongstwhomthe Kandlzs were until recently infamous for their humansacrificescal led Mariel» .1 The rest of Orissa is al luvial , andmuch of it swampy. In the

southisLakeChilka, whichreceivesoneofthearmsof the Mahanadi.Asthewhol eof theupper course of the Mahanadi is throughmountainous country, where themountain torrents rise rap idly after rain,

thedeltaofthat river is l iab le toviol ent inundations. Theprovincepossessesnogood port, and owing tothis and tothewil d and ruggednatureofmostof its inland frontier, ithasalways b eenmuch isolated

— whichcaused greatdestructionof l ife inthe great Orissa famine of1866, fromthediflicultyof getting suppl ies fromoutside. The chiefand onl y largetownisKatak (or Cuttaclc) whenAkbar built the fortofAtak (orAttack) onthe Indus, Katak and Atak (thenamesrhyming)were always spoken of as the opposite extremities of the Mughulempire. Purz

'

or Jagcmndth is famous for its temples, whither thousandsflock every year atthe festival whenthe sacredBathor Car of

Jagannath ’ismoved. Of late yearstheauthorities have taken great

precautionstopreventthepracticeofsel f- immolationunder thewheelsofthis famouscar.

The three provinces of Bengal , Bihar, and Orissa areoften called in the Muhammadan histories the three‘

Viléyats,’ or countries. BynativesBengal is called either

Bangdld or Banga Desk, the country of Banga. Anciently,Bengalwest of theHooghlywas calledRdra ; north centralBengal

, Varendra ; north - easternBengal and west Assam,

Kdmmp south Bihar, Magadha. north Bihar,Mitht

'

la

and Kesala.

Thewhole of the southern belt of the,

delta, includingan area ofmore than squaremileson the sea— faceofBengal , is a dense swampy jungle called the Sundasrban

(or Soonderbund) , intersected by innumerablearmsof theGanges, and highlymalarious. These swampsare full oftigers, alligators, and other feroe natures, butare otherwisealmost uninhabited. Steamersg oing up to ~

Calcutta‘

fromthe sea passal

'

ong'

the western boundary of this desolateregion.

At the other extremity of Bengal,on a spur of the

C 2


SikkimHimalaya,more than feet above sea- level,is

the delightful sanitariumof Ddrj iling. A railway,broken

only by the Ganges, now connects the foot of thismountainwith Calcutta ; sothat inthe hottest time of the year,a climate l ike that of England in summer can be reachedby a Calcutta resident in less thantwodays.

For theRailways of Bengal , see Introduction, 63.

There aremany Native States attached to or adjoiningBengal and Assam, inthenorthern and easternmountainval leys

,and in the hilly regions of Chutia Nagpur and

Orissa, but there are none of great importance. The‘

chiefareManipur, betweenAssamand Independent Burma,east of Cachar Hil l Tipamh, south of the Silhatvalley ;and KochBihaf

r,adj oining the Darj il ing district in the

sub -Himalayan country .

The total area of the territories belonging to or connected with Bengal (including the ChiefCommissionershipof Assam) isabout squaremiles; the populationis about On the banks of the Hooghly and

in N orth Bihar the rural population is probably moredense thaninany other country of theworld, reaching insome parts to an average of to the squaremile. Itmay benoticed that these provinces comprise about onesixth of the area, and contain about one- third of thepopulation,

of thewhole of India ; or, to put it inanotherway, that they contain about double the area and nearlydoublethepopulationof al l the Queen’

sEuropean territory .

17. TheNorth-West Provincesand 0udh .— West of

Bihar,and further up the valley of the Ganges, is the

Lieutenant - Governorship of the N orth -West Provinces,to

which isnow (since 1877) added the Chief- Commissionership of Oudh . The Lieutenant - Governorship includestheprovinces of Benares and Gorakhpur, adjoining Bihar ;those of Allahabad, Agra, and Mirath, following one an

other successively aswe go higher up the valleys of theGangesand its great feeder, the Jamnah ; Jhansi , south ofAgra and Allahabad ; Rohilkhand, stretching north of

NORTH-WEST Pnovmcss AND 0 111111. 2 1

Agra towards the Himalayamountains ; and Kumaon, ahill- district onthe spursof theHimalayasnorth of Rohilkhand. TheN orth -West Provincesare about one- third thesize of the Lower Provinces, and contain about one- hal f

thenumber of pe0p1e. They weremade into a LieutenantGovernorship in 1834 ; theseat of government wasatfirstplaced at Agra, butnow isat Allahabad. N orth of theseprovinces

,and nearly shut in between Rohilkhand onthe

west and Gorakhpur onthe east , isthe small but rich andpopulous province of Oudh , which stretches fromthe

Gangeson the south to theNepal slopes of theHimalayaonthenorth .

Lucknow,thecap ital ofOudh, and formerly theseatoftheNawab s

of Oudh, is the largest town in India after Calcutta, Bombay, andMadras— containing a popul ationof The ex - Nawab of Oudhnow l ivesatGardenBeach, near Calcutta— close tothe point atwhichCalcutta passengers land fromthe Peninsular and Oriental steamers.

Lucknow (Lakknau= Lakshmandvati) is said tohave b eensocal led byRama inhonour ofhisbrother Lakshman(seeChapter InEasternOudh is the site

,with extensive ruins, of the famous old city of

Ayodlzyd or Audh, the b irthplace ofRama, near themodern town ofFaizdbctd.

Cawnpore (orKanbpur) , onthe Ganges, in theAl lahabad division,wil l always b e associated with the sadmemories of the Mutiny : the‘Memorial Wel l

’marks the sceneof themassacre. Cawnpore is the

seatof the greatest leathermanufacture in India— Cawnpore saddl es,

harness, &c. , b eing fairly good inqual ity and verymuch cheaper thanEngl ish, areused tosome extent throughout the country : it is al so a

greatmi l itary cantonment, and an important railway station as the

junctionof the ‘East Indian’and Oudh and Rohil khand ’ rai lways.

Al lahabad (the ancient Prayag) is alsoa great railway station [ seeIntroduction,Benares (or d ki), ontheGanges, with populationof isa

sacred city of the Hindus in the Benares division is al so Jaunpur,formerly thecapital of aMuhammadankingdom[see Chapter and

Cbandr, a famoushi l l - fort. Agra, onthe Jamnah, was the capital ofthePathanandMughul emp ires, superseding Delhi , fromthe time ofSikandar Lodi tothatof Shahjahan: it containsmany interesting and

imposing buildingsofthatera— especial ly the famous Taj , themausol eumofMumtaz Mahal l or TaJ Bib i ,

’wifeoftheEmperor Shahjahan.

Near Agra are (1) Fatltpur Sikri, where Babar defeated RanaSanga


in 1527, and crushed the reviving Raq t power (2) Ckandwd, no'

w

cal led Firuzabad, where Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichand of

Kanauj in1194, thereb y securing the Muhammadan conquest of Hindustan; (3) Samogar, where Aurangzeb defeated his brother, DaraShikoh, in 1658 ; and (4) Si/mndra, visited for the tomb of Akbar.ThedivisionofRokil/ckand wascal led Sambkal and Baddon inMughultimes itderivesitsmodernname (the land of the Rohi l las) fromthe

Rohi l laAfghans, a sept of theYusufzai Afghans, whosettled here inthe eighteenthcentury [see 32 and Chapter it stil l includeswithinits boundariesthenativeStateof theNawab of Rampur ; thereisalsoBijnor, famousasthe sceneofKal idasa’sgreatdramaSakuntala.

In the same division is Kanauj (original ly Kanyakuly’

a), whichwasmentioned by Ptol emy in A.D . 140, and was for centuries oneof th'echief Hinducapital sofNorthernIndia, butisnow inruins; itwas thesceneof Humayun’sfinal defeat by Sher Shah in 1540. Matkurd orMuttra isalso in theAgra division, a great Hinducity, sacred (withtheneighbouring B rinddban) as the sceneofKrishna

’

s exploits itwas

sacked byMahmud of Ghazni , andmany of its temples destroyed byAurangzeb . l c

'msi is an outlying division, in Bundel khand,the

country oftheBundelaRajputs; it lapsed totheEast India Companyin 1854, notwithstanding the opposition of itsmartial Rani , and is

famousas the sceneof the ex ploitsof thatprincess intheMutiny. In

theMirathdivisionisMirarlz, the sceneoftheoutbreak of theMutiny,the fortress of Kol (Kol l ) or Al igarh ; Hardwdr (where the Gangesissues fromthemountains), visited bymany pi lgrims, and the scene of

a great pilgrim- fair every twelfth year ; Bnrlsi, where is the chiefEngineering Col lege of India ; and Masuri and Landaur

, twohi l lstations. Inthe Himalayan divisionof Kumaon is Naini Tal , a coolhil l - station, whither the Government of these provinces general ly gofor thehotweather.

The NATIVE STATES attached to this Government arethe Rohill a State of Rampur, already noticed, and the

Himalayan State of Garhwal in Kumaon. The N orthWest Provinces are so called

,though in the centre of

N orthern India,because they formed the north -west pon

tion of theold Bengal Presidency before the annexationofthe Punjab . Including Oudh, they comprise an area ofabout squaremiles, and contain a popul ation ofabout

§ 18 . The Punjab .— Proceeding fromAgra up the

vall ey of the Jamnah, we come to the city and province of


IntheDelhi divisionisDelhi, whosehistorical associationsaretoomanytob ehererecounted ; and (north ofDelhi ) Pdnipat, wherewere foughtnolessthanthreeofthe greatcritical battlesofIndianhistory , in 1525,1556, and 1761 . In the Ambalah division, Ambdlah (or Umballa), agreatmil itary cantonment, and the rai lway- station for Simla, whereLord Mayoreceived theAmirSher Al iof Kabul in 1869 d neswar,where Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithvi 1113

'

s. in 1 192 , and near itthevi l lageof Tirdari (where Prithvi first defeated Muhammad Ghori ,in and the fiel d ofKuruksketra, where the great battle of theMahdblzdratawas fought ; near Lodiana (named after Sikandar Lodi )areMdcklziwdrd (whereHumayun’

s general , BairamKhan, defeated theAfghantroopsofSikandar Sur in and Aliwdl (where Sir HarrySmith defeated theSikhs inthefirst Sikh war, In the Jalaudhar division is Kdngrak, formerly cal led Nagarkot or Bhimnagar, afamous hil l - fort. In the Amritsar division is Amritsar, the sacred

city of theSikhs. In the Lahore division is Lahore (formerly Lukawar), thecapital of the province, withthegreat neighbouring mil itarycantonmentofM idnmir ; and (south of the Sutlej ) Firazpur (a greatarsenal ) , Bhatindak (sacked byMahmudofGhazni in Firuzslzakror Ferozcshdlz (fromthePersianshakr, a town), and Mudki, famous forGough’s victories over the Sikhs in December 1845, in the first Sikhwar. TheRawal pindi divisionwasthe scene of themost interestingincidents of Alexander’s Indian campaign; it nearly correspondswiththeancientkingdomof Tax ila, thecity of Tax i lahaving been situatednear HasanAbdel ; near the present site of Jalalpur, on the Jhelam,

Al exander builthiscity ofBoukepkala ; and on the other side of theJhelam, near themodern Chilianwal lalz, he bui lt the city of Nikaz’a to

commemorate his victory over Porns. Close at hand, in the samedistrict, are the two great battle- fields of Lord Gough in the second

Sikh war, Chil ianwal lak and Gtg'

ardf. Far away to the south, in the

Multandivision, b etweentheChenab , Ravi , and Sutl ej , is thehistoricalcity ofMul thn.

ThePunjab , being oneofthemostrecentacquisitionsof the IndianEmpire, and b eing thegreat frontier province, has a very large garrisonof Engl ish and native troops ; there are consequentl y many largeEngl ishmi l itary stations. Fromthe nature of its frontier it is also

rich in hi l l - stations, such as Simla, Marri (or Murrce), Dalhousie,Dagshai, Sabdtlm, al l ofwhich enjoy a del icious cl imate ; on the otherhand, someofthePunjab stations inthe southare, perhaps, thehottestin India. The province is connected with Calcutta, Bombay ,

and the

restof India, by the‘Sind, Punjab , and Delhi ’ Rai lway , whichruns

intothegreat EastIndian’ l ine b elow Delhi . It has just been con‘

nected withKarachi by the ‘Indus Val ley ’l ine, and in thisway its

REJPUTENA. 5

l ineof communicationwithEngland is now shorter than that of any

other IndianprovinceexceptBombay. The total area of the province,including the attached feudatory States, is squaremiles: itstotal populationabouttwenty-threemil l ions.

19 . Rajputana.— South of the Punjab and west of

the North -West Provinces is the great group of Native

States called Rajputana, or the country of the Rajputs.

It consists of eighteen feudatory States, governed each byitsownruler (under theprotectionof the SupremeGovernment) as a Prince of the empire. The Supreme Government is represented by Residents or Political Agents inthe various Statesor groups of States, and al l theseBritishpolitical officers are subordinate to ‘

the Agent of theGovernor- General for Rajputana,

’

who resides at MountAbuin the southwest, and whois immediately responsibleto theSupreme Government . There is also one district

(Ajmer and Merwara) which is directly administered byBritish officers, and which in fact belongs to the N orthWest Provinces.

TheAraval i Hil ls forma diagonal of Rajputana, fromnorth- east

tosouth- west. Northand westof this l ine thecountry ismoreor lessdesert, though with many comparatively ferti le patches, b ecomingmoreandmoresandy and rocky tothenorth—wcst

,whereitforms partof

theGreatIndianDesert. East and south of theAraval is thecountry,thoughmuchmore fertile, is on the whole hi l ly, until the plains ofBhartpur arereached, whereRajputanajoinstheNorth-WestProvinces.Itwil l be seenhereafter that the fastnessesb f these hil l s and deserts

were therefugeof some of those tribes and dynasties that had b eendominant inthe great empires of Northern India. b efore the Muhammadan conquest : thus, the Maharanaof Udaipur, the head of theSesodia septoftheGehlotclanofRajputs, is the direct representativeof theGehlot princesofVal labhi, inKathiwar, whorul ed anextensiveempire inGujarat fromtheb eginning of the fourth to the end of the

sixthcentury ofthe Christianera and the Maharajaof Jodhpur orMarwar is in l ikemanner the representative of theRahtor princesofKanauj . When the dominant Rajput clan lost its dominion in theferti le districts of Hindustan, thewholeor a part of the clanusual lymarched off westward and carved out a new and poorer lordship inRajputana. There they have retained their clanship , their hold onthe land, and their semi- feudal institutions, tothe present day; and


fromthe development of the States thus formed, or fromsections oroffshootsofthem, al l thechiefRejputStatesofRajputana derivetheirori gin. In themthe land is hel d by the clan; political status ismeasured by kinship with and purity of descent fromthe originalconquerors and the princerulesas thehead of the clan. Thereare,however, threenon—RajputStates— Bhartpur and Dhol pur b eing Jats

,

and Tonk b eing Muhammadan al l thesehave had a modern originthe Nawab of Tonk is the descendant of the Pindari l eader AmirKhan, who was guaranteed this principal ity by the Marquess of

Hastings, onhissubmissionin 18 17.

Raj putana contains about square mil es, . and about ten

mi l l ions of inhab itants; that is, it is about hal f the size of Bengal ,but does not containmuchmore than one— seventh of the number ofinhab itants. Besides the peopl e of Rajput descent, who formthe

aristocracy owning (and oftenal socul tivating) the land, therearemanyother cul tivating tribesor classes, ofwhomtheJateand theGujarsarethemostnumerous. Inthe l astcenturynearly al l the banking tradeofNorthernIndia was inthehandsofnativesofRajputana, cal led by thenameMdrwdrz's; and weal thy and enterprising Marwaris are sti l l tob efound as bankersandmerchantsinmostofthe large towns. Thereareal soinRajputana a largenumb er ofmoreor l essuncivi l ised abori ginaltrib es [see Introduction, Part iii] , of whomthe chief are the Bkils,forming a

,large proportionofthe total populationinsomeof thewi lder

parts of the country . And there are some tribes that claimto bedescended fromamixed parentage, partly Rajput, partl y aboriginal ,ofwhomthe b estknownare theMarsorMhaz

’

rs,fromwhosenumbers

anexcel lentcorpsoftheBritish Indianarmy has b eenrecruited.

Jaipur isa l arge and handsome city and that State (whose Mal 11

'

1rz'

1jé. is the il lustriouschief of theKachwahaclanofRajputs, and a

memb er of theViceroy’sLegislativeCouncil ) has always takena pro

minent part in Indian history, and is at the present time one of themost progressive parts of Native India. In the Jaipur State are

situated Amber, the former capital ; and Rantanbkur, an historicalfortress. InMaiwar or Udaipur, is Udaipur, the presentcap ital oftheMaharanaof Udaipur, who is cal led the ‘Sun of theHindus, ’ and isregarded asthe princeof highest l ineage inIndia : his palace isplacedona ridgeoverlooking amostromanticand beautiful lake. Eastward

is Cintor, formerly thecapital of theState, and the renowned fortresssuccessively takenbyAla-ud-dinand byAkbar. IntheBritish districtofAjmer isAjmer, oneofthemost picturesquetownsof India, alwaysanobject of contention b etween the Rajputs and the Mughal s, andgeneral ly occupied by the latter as the strategical position dominatingRéjputana. Jodbpur, thecapital oftheStateof thatname, isa fenced

THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. 7

city in the desert, containing inhab itants. '

Ih Alwar (orUlwar), northof Jaipur, isLdswdrz

'

, thesceneofLord Lake’scrowningvictory over the Mahrattas in 1803, which terminated the second

Mahratta war. In Bhartpur is Bhartpur, the capital and a fortressonce deemed impregnab l e, but stormed by the British forces underLord Combermere in’

1826 ; and D ig, the scene of the defeat of 11013kar

’

stroops by theBritish in 1804. In Jhalawar is Gagron, the siteof a fortress famous for RanaSanga’s great victory over the forcesofMalwa in 1519. InSirohi is situated MountAbu, a sacred hil l bothfor Hindus and for Jains

, and the residence of the ‘Agent of theGovernor—General for Rajputana,

’whois the immediaterepresentative

oftheBritish Governmentinthisprovince.

Rajputana, though sparsely populated and comparativelysomewhat backward in general prosperity

, is historicallyone of themost interesting provinces of India, for thereinhave remained,more or less intact, and under the s

'

uzerainty of the successive conquerors of India

,the only

modern survivals of themost ancient forms of Hindurule.

§ 20. The Bombay Presidency.— West and south of

Raq tana is the Bombay Presidency, which includes the

British Gove’rnorship of Bombay,together with a large

number of feudatory States.

The part of the Governorship which iswest of Rajputana and adj oins the Punjab, is called Sind, and is thelower val ley of the Indus. South of Sind and Rajputana,and separating Sind fromthe rest of the Bombay Governorship, are Gujarat and Outch (Kachh) , the former occuLpying a peninsula (called Kathiwar) and part of themainland, and the latter being separated fromthemainland bya shallow armof the sea (called the Rann of Catch) ,which is dry in the hot weather. Cutch

, a great part -ofGujarat

,and other portions of the Bombay Presidency

areunder thedirect government of feudatory chieftains (seebelow) . The southern portion of the Bombay Governorship consistsoi z (1) Part of the province called Gujarat ;(2) theKonkan, including the island of Bombay andmuchofthe adjacent mainland. lying between the sea and theWestern Ghats ; (3) Maharashtra, or the country of the

28 POLITICAL 1111115o 5 AND PLACES or INTEREST.

Mahrattas, lying inland, and separated fromtheKonkanby the range of the Western Ghats ; (4) Khandesh , alsoinland, east of Gujarat and north of Maharashtra ; and inthe extreme south (5) N orth Kanara , adj oining Mysoreand theMadrasPresidency , and separated fromtheKonkanby the small Portuguese territory of Goa.

Al l these provinces, except Gujarat, belong to Southern India,forming the western side of the Great Indian Peninsul a ; and the

portions lying inthe south and east, above the Ghats, b eing a part ofthe great plateauoftheDeccan, areofficial l y cal l ed the division of theDeccan. Itwil l be seenhereafter thatmost of the Bomb ay territorieswereacquired by cessionor conquest fromtheMahrattas at the b eginf

ning of the present century. The great city and port of Bombay isoneofthemost important commercial centres of theworld, being thehead and junction, onthe sidenearestEurope, of therai lway trafficofIndia. It contains about inhab itants, and is inferior to

Calcutta inpointof numb ers only by reasonof the greater populousnessof thesuburbandistrictsof Calcutta. IntheKonkan, north- east

ofBombay, is Tanna (or l a t) onthe island ofSal sette and Bassez’

n,

north- westofTanna, stormed by theBritish inthe firstMahrattawar,and famous for the treaty of 1802 withthe last of the Peshwas. In

Maharashtra are Poona, long the capital of the Mahrattas; near it,Kharki, the scene of the outb reak of the Peshwain 18 17. Ahmadnagar, thecapital oftheN izamShahi kingdom; s dp

'

ur, the capital oftheAdil Shahi king dom; and Satcim,

the cap ital of Sivaji’

s descend

ants. In Gujanit are Baroda, capital of the Mahratta chief cal ledthe Gaikwar ; Surat, most famous as one of the earliest Engl ishfactoriesand formany historical associations. In Sind are Haidarct

bdd,the capital near it, Miami or Meeance, the scene of the British

victory in 1843 that secured the conquest of Sind ; and Amarkot, theb irthplaceofAkbar ; Tatta, ontheIndus, theancient capital of Sind ;and westofTatta, the rising port ofKaraoke, withmore thaninhab itants. The total area of the Bombay Presidency, including the

feudatory states attached to it (and including also Baroda, or the

Gaikwar’

sdominions, for administrative purposes now attached to the

SupremeGovernmentofIndia), isabout squaremi les itstotal

population, abouttwenty - fivemil l ions.

21 . Central India Agency.— East of Gujarat and

Rajputana, partly inHindustan and partly in theDeccan,isthe great group of feudatory States known as theGen

tral India Agency, so called because the representativeof

CENTRAL INDIA. 2 9

theparamount power is called the agent of the GovernorGeneral for Central India.

’

T he agency comprises the

seventy-one feudatories of Malwa, Bundelkhand, and

Baghelkhand, with an area of nearly squaremilesand a popul ation of more than eight mill ions. Themostimportant states are : (1) Gwalior, or the dominions oftheMaharaja Sindia, in several detached portions, but ag

gregating an area greater than that of Holland and Belgiumtogether ; (2) Indore, the dominions of theMaharajaHolkar

,comprising a large part of Malwa ; (3) Bhopal,

the dominionsof Shah JahanBegum and (4) Rewah , andthe States of Bundelkhand and Baghel khand, south oftheN orth -West Provincesand west of Chutia Nagpur inBengal .

Intheterritory ofSindia are Gwalior,the capital , with its famous

fortress (the state- prisonof theMughul emperors) , and theLashkar orstanding- camp near it, Mabdrdjpur and Pam'

dr, the scenes of the

b attl es inwhich Sindia’s forceswere defeated by the British in 1843Uffiae

’

n, oneof themostancientand sacred cities of India, the capitalofKing Vikramaditya, and the firstmeridian of Hindugeographers;Nimack (or Neemuck), a great Britishcantonment; and t

'

lsa, famousfor itsBuddhist tepes.

’

InHolkar’

s dominions are Indore, the capital Makidpur, nearUjjain, thesceneofthedefeatofHolkar’sforcesbytheBritish in18 17and Man (or Mizow), a great British cantonment. In Bhopal areRaisin, a fortcaptured bySher Sur and Sekore, aBritishcantonment.

22 . The Central Provinces.— South of the Central

IndiaAgency,and southwest of Chutia Nagpur inBengal ,

is the great British territory called the Central Provinces,governed by a Chief Commissioner .

[NOTE.— Studentswil l dowel l to distinguish clearly between the

British territory known as‘the Central Provinces’

and the group offeudatory native States known as

‘Central India ’or ‘the Central

IndianAgency ’

(described inthe lastsection). ThetermCentral I ndiaissometimes loosely used toincludeboth thesevast regions ]

The Central Provinces consist of three territorieshistorical ly distinct— the Sdgar and Narbadci territories inthenorth (ceded by theR535 of N agpur in Nagpur


inthesouth (annexed by Lord Dalhousie in and the

Tributa/ry Mahalls onthe east. In size and populationthe Central Provinces are about equal to the CentralIndiaAgency, the area of the former being a little lessandthe area of the latter being a littlemore than that ofGreat Britain.

In ancient times the Central Provinces formed . the kingdomofGondwana, thecountry oftheaboriginal Gonds; at present the Gondsand other aboriginal tribesareestimated tonumb er aboutone- fourthofthe population— the remaining three- fourths b eing Hindus in race,

HindusorMuhammadansin rel igion, and speaking Hindi or Marathior Uriya. Thecity ofNagpur contains inhab itants, and Jabalpur butthecountry general ly israther thinly populated,mostofit b eing elevatedupland and forest. It is rich inmineral resources,having very valuab le coal -mines, and hasgrown intogreat importanceasacotton- growing region.

The Chief Commissioner hasunder himfour Commissioners, thoseof Nagpur, Jabal pur, Chattisgarh, and Narbada. There are a largenumb er of feudatory nativeStatesattached to this Government, witha total area of squaremi les and a population ofmore than a

mi ll ion; the largest is Bastar, with an area greater than that ofBel gium.

InthedistrictofN imar,intheNarbadaCommissionership , isBur

Izdnpur, thecapital of theold kings of Khandesh, and near it is thefamous fortress '

of Asirgarh. In the Nagpur Commissionership isnpur, formerly the capital of the Mahratta RajAS of Barar ; andnear it is Kdmtkz’ , a large cantonment of British troops

,and the

historicridgeofSitabaldi.

23. The Barars.

'

— South and west of the CentralProvincesand east of Khandesh in Bombay lies the territory called theBarci/rsor theHaidarabadAssignedD istricts,at present under direct British rule, the chief officer ofGovernment being the British Resident at Haidarabad.

This territory washanded over to theBritish Governmentby the N izamof Haidarabad as security for debts. Its

area is squaremiles, its populationabout twomillionsand a quarter.

Barar isa corruptionof Vz'

darbha, theancientname of the country(seethe story of Nala and Damayanl z', Chap. 1. p. The provinceis divided intothe twoCommissionerships of East andWest Barz'ir.

32 POLITICAL DIVISIONS AND PLACES ormrsnssr.

al l thesouthernportion of that peninsula, and a partof thewestern (or Malabar) coast. These territories containanarea of squaremiles

,and a population of very

nearly of which an area of squaremiles and a population ofmore than areunderdirect British administration. The north - easterndistrictsbordering on Orissa are called the N orthern Circars

(Sarkdrs) the eastern and southerndistricts are the Carnatic thewestern areMalabar and South Kanara .

Attached to the Madras Presidency are five nativeStates

,feudatories of the Empire of these themost im

portant is Travanco're, which enjoysthe reputation of beingoneof thebest - governed andmost enlightenednativeStatesinIndia. Thepresent Maharaja isa princeof great learningand ability. His Highness is an accomplished Englishwriter and speaker, and administershis dominionsonthesame principles as thosewhich govern British India

,and

with distinguished success. A Travancore statesman,Sir

MadhayaR50 , formerly primeminister, is one of themostfamousIndianrulers

,andhasbeenappointed by theGovern

ment of India to direct the affairs of Baroda during theminority of the young Gaikwar. Travancore occupiesthesouthern corner of the Indian peninsula. N orth of it ontheMalabar coast isthesmaller principality of Cochin.

The cl imateof the Carnatic ismuch hotter than that of Bengal ,and the countrymuchmore bare of grass; butmany parts arewel l

watered by irrigation fromthe great rivers,and here the produce of

rice is general ly very large. Madras,the capital , has a population

of itsuffers fromthe disadvantage of having, as a harbour,

only anopenroadstead, with a beach onwhich the surf is oftenveryheavy. Tanjore, with a population of is famous for its greatpagoda, dedicated totheworship of Siva. Chingalpatand s jcveram(orKanckipuram) are placesofhistorical interestnearMadras. Arcot,

famous for Cl ive’s defence, was formerly the capital of the Carnatic;and inthe same district are Vel lor and Wandewask. In the districtof South Arcot are Cuddalore, with inhab itants, Giflj z

'

, Porto

Now, the French settlement of Pondicherry (with an area of 1 13

squaremi lesand a population of and the ruins of Fort SéDavid. Inthe district of Trichim'ipal li is Tm

’

ckz’

népal l i (population

mos1 11111 STATES. 33

oftentakenand retakeninthewarsoftheEngl ish and Frenchinthe Carnatic; and the sacred island of Srirangam. In the districtofMadura isthe ancient town of Madura

,now containing in

hab itants. InMalabar are the ports of Calicut and Cannanore, and

the Palghat Pass; in South Kanarais the port of JVIangalor. The

popular name forMalabar and thecountry tothe south isKerala. In

the Northern Circars are Gumsur, Masulipatam, and Guntur ; the

countrymuch resemb l es the adjoining Bengal province of Orissa, butishotter. The provincesof Malabar and South Kanaraarevery hotand moist, the home of the pepper and teak trees; the fragrantsandal -wood being found in the dry inland country beyond themountainsand bordering onMysore. Madrasisnow connectedwithBombayby a railway. Utalcamcmd, the summer seat of the Madras Government, isontheN ilgiri Hi l l s, at anel evation of feet, and enjoysanannual meantemperatureof only Kunur and Wel l ington are

al sohil l - stationsontheN i lgiris; the slopesof these hi l ls are largelycultivated by Europeancoifee- planters.

26. Mysoreand Coorg.

- In the southern- central partof the peninsula, south of the Haidarabad territory and

separated fromit by someMadrasdistrictscalled theCededD istricts, are the principalities of Mysore and Coorg, atpresent under the rule of a British Chief Commissioner.ButMysore isnow being transferred to the young Maharajaonhisattaining hismajority, and it will henceforth rank asone of ourmost important native feudatory States.

Mysore occup ies a lofty tab leland, with an average elevation offeet. Thenativecapital isMysore, witha populationof

and near itisthe famous Seringapatam, the capital ofHaidar Al i andTippu, now almost lnrulns. During theBritishrule Bangalore (witha populationof has growntobe themost important town inMysore; it has a large Britishcantonment, and enjoys a cool and

pleasantcl imate. Other places of historical interest are Bednar and

thehil l - fortressofNandzdrug . Coorg is now British territory, a veryrugged andmountainous region, general lymore than feet abovesea- level . Itecapital isMerkdra. With theMadras (Malabar) districtof theWaindd (or Wynaad) which adjoins it on the south, Coorg israpidly rising intoimportanceas thehome of Engl ish eofi

'

ee- planters,whoalsosuccessful ly cultivate tea and cinchona.

27. HimalayanFrontier States.

— In the valleys andslopes of the Himalayas are four native States, namely,

D

34 POLITICAL DIVISIONS AND PLACES or 1111 1111113 1 .

Bhotdn, in theH imalayaslopesnorth of AssamandBengal ;Sikkim, in thosenorth of Bengal ; Nepal , inthe slopesandvalleys north of Bengal , the N orth -West Provinces, andOudh and Kashmir

,which occupies a large and beautiful

valley inthe inner Himalayasnorth - east of the Punjab .

Bhotanwas anciently calledMadra. The entirepopulation of these vast mountainouswildshas been estimated atabout theBhotiyasarea turbulent race

,closely con

nected with Thibet , and having scarcely any politicalconstitution of their own. The Dev Réjci, supposed to bethe political chief, livesnear thewestern frontier but the

extent and efficiency ofhisjurisdiction arenotascertained.

The Dharma R(Zjd is the chief spiritual authority . The

passes leading into Assam,including some vall eys of great

fertility, are called the Bhoian Dua'

r/rs. The Duars immediately adjoining Assamwere taken fromthe Bhotiyasn 1866, as a punishment for their incessant raiding, andwere annexed to British territory . The Bhotiyas are

Buddhists.

Sikkimis amuch smaller andmore compact territorythan Bhotah

,but aswild andmountainous, and as thinly

peopled . Its inhabitants are called Lepchas, but there aremany Bhotiya and Nepalese immigrants. The Maharajais in frequent and friendly communicationwith the BritishD eputy- Commissioner of Darj iling, a district formerly belonging to Sikkim. The country is drained by the upperwatersand tributaries of the Tista.

Nepal occupiestheupper valleys of three tributaries ofthe Ganges— theRapti

,Gandak

,and Kosi

,and the adjacent

mountain- regions. It extends fromSikkimontheeast toKumaon onthe west, and has anarea estimated atsquare miles, and a population estimated at

The ruling race are called Ghm'kcis, who conquered the

country about the year 1767; most of the agriculturistsareNewars. A Chinese army overran the province in 1792

,

and dictated an ignominious peace within a fewmiles ofKhatmandu, the capital . In 1814- 15 occurred the war

FRONTIER STATES. 35

with theBritish , closed by the submission of theNepaleseat the treaty of Sigaul i in 1816. The late Sir JangBahadur , PrimeMinister of Nepal

, was formanyyearsthe virtual ruler of the country, and loyally helpedthe British Government during the Mutiny . Since hisdeath, his brother has been chief ruler in the name ofthe titular Maharaja . A British Resident is stationed at

Khatmandu. The NepaleseHimalayas, especial ly thoseontheSikkimfrontier , are theloftiestmountainsintheworld ;the highest peaks being MountEverest feet) , and

Daulagiri and Kanckinjinga (both over feet) . The

frontier of Nepal on the side of British India consists of apestiferous belt of jungly swamp

,already described under

the name of the Tami ; behind this is another belt ofsplendid forest- trees, fromwhich the lower terracesof theHimalayas commence to rise. Most of the Nepalese are

Buddhist in religion, though the rulers are Hindus, and

speak a Sanskritic language called Pcimatiya (hill - language) .

Kashmir is themost important of the frontier states,andmore closely connected with the British Governmentthan the others. Its territory now includesnot only thebeautiful valley of that name, but also extensive regionson the Upper Indus

,cal led Little Thibet and Ladakh ,

Gilgit,Chitral

,&c. Outhe conquest of the Punjab the

British Government bestowed Kashmir on Raja GulabSingh of Jammu

,the father of the present Maharaja of

Jammuand Kashmir,on his paying a portion of the

Sikh indemnity. The ‘Happy Valley has always beenfamed for the beauty of its scenery, for its lake, itsflowers

,and its fruits

,

'

and a good many English visitorscome there every summer in search of health or sport.TheMaharaja isone of the chief feudatories of theIndianEmpire

,and has been created a and a Councillor

of the Empress. The capital is Srinagar.

28 . North -West Frontier States.

— As we trace the

frontier of the Punjab and Sind westward and southward,

36 110 1 11 101 1. DIVISIONS 4sli PLACES OF INTEREST.

fromthe confines of Kashmir round to the sea nearKarzichi, we find a largenumber of wild or semi - civilisedtribes, whoeither assert a savage independence or ownanuncertainallegiance tomilitary rulersatKabul inAfghanistan, at Kalét in Balochistan, and sometimes at othercentres. Of late years themostimportant of these chiefshas usually been the ruler of Kabul , called theAmir orWal i of Afghanistan [ see Chapter XXIX , and be

sides the country of Kabul preper, and the Kohz'

stcin,or

mountain regions adjoining, the Amir of Kabul has forsome time (until the present war) succeeded inholding insubjectionthe provinces of Ghazni and Kandahar southward, Herat and the rich and fertile valley of theHarirudwestward as far asPersia

,with some extensive possessions

north of the HinduKush range, knownas Afghan Turhistan. The Khan of Kalat is the chief ruler in Ba

lochistan.

Al l these tribes are as a rule Musalmans. Perhaps the l east

civi l ised are those found b etweenKabul and the Kashmir territory ,including the Afm

'

clis of the Khaibar Pass ; the inhab itants of theSwat Val ley (theSwat river is a tributary of the Kabul river, whichitsel f fal ls intothe Indus) whoown the sovereignty of aMuhammadansaint or ascetic, a spiritual ruler cal led the Akhund of Swat ; the

inhab itantsofBuner, and ofthe Chitral frontiersof Kashmir. In the

wi ld and almostunexplored country adjoining the Chitral frontiers are

a curious race cal led theBards, occupying anindefinitearea known as

Dardistan; they are said tospeak a language closely resemb l ing that

primitiveAryanspeechwhich was the parent of Sanskrit. and Greek

and Latinand al l theother Aryanlanguages. TheAfghanscal l theseDards and al l other non-Musalman inhab itants of themountains bythe vaguename ofK(Uirs or infidels, a termal so appl ied toHindusand Christians. TheAfghansare alsocal led Paflnifls.

Quetta, in the territory of Kalat,is a permanent

British cantonment, dominating the BolanPass [see29 . ForeignEuropeanSettl ements— Therearethree

small Portuguese settlements in India,namely

, Goa (area,squaremiles, population a town and dis

trictbetween theKonkan and N orth Kanara ; D lmctn, a

CEYLON . 37

town intheBritish district of Surat (population,and D iu, an island near the peninsula ofKathiwar (population,

There are also five petty French settlements, of whichthe chief are the town of Pondicher

‘

r south of Madras

(population,and the town of Chandernagar, be

tween Hoogh ly and Serampore, on the river Hooghly,

above Calcutta (population,30. Ceylon.

— Ceylon is geographically an Indianisland, though

'

it hasnopolitical connection withthe Indian Empire

,as it is an English Crown colony, and is

ruled by the English Government in London through a

governor,and notby theViceroy of India. It is a little

smaller than Ireland, with apopulationofnearlyThe native name is Singhala, but the Hindus cal l itLanka

,and theMuhammadanname (ia Arabic) wasSildn,

of which theEnglish name Ceylonisonly another spelling .

Thetruenativesof CeylonareSinghal ese (or Cingal ese), and speakSinghal i (or Cingalese), a language immediately derived fromthe

Sanskrit— Pctli being the sacred language of their Buddhist scriptures,and stil l more closely connected with Sanskrit. But themajority ofthe inhab itantsof thenorthern parts of the island, andmost of thecool ies (labourers) 0 11 the numerous coffee plantations of theCentralProvince, are Tamils— immigrants

,or descendants of immigrants, from

the Madras coast. There are a good many Muhammadans. who are

here cal led M oormen al somany descendants of the old Portugueseand Dutchsettlerswhomarried inthe island— the latter b eing general lycal led Burg/ze

frs.

Themaritimeprovincescame intopossessionofthePortugueseaboutthemiddleof the sixteenthcentury ; the Portuguesewere driven outby the Dutch in 1658 , and the Dutch were conquered by the Engl ishin 1795. Themountainouscountry of the interior remainedunder theruleof thenative kings of Kandyunti l 18 15. Anurdd/zapum, in the

northernpartof the island, was in former timesthecap ital , and there

are sti l l extensiveruins there,nearly buriedunder jungl e.

Colombo, the Portuguese capital , is now the seat of government,and isa large and flourishing city of people. The approachingcompletionof the breakwater is l ikely to give a great impetus to its

trade. There isa large exportofcoffee,cinnamon

,and the other pro

ductsofthe isl and, and an import tradeinrice fromIndia andmanu


factured goods fromEngland. The short rai lway fromColombo toKandy , which has lately been extended into the heart of themountainous coffee- districts, is a triumph of engineering ski ll , as the l inehas to ascend some tremendous passes with very steep gradientsowing , however, tothe great trade and traffic, it is one of themostprofitab le l ines in the world, and returns a considerab le revenue toGovernment, which owns it.Kandy, atanelevationof about feet, is sti l l thehead- quarters

oftheSinghal i aristocracy (thoughthe surviving memb ers of the oldroyal fami ly are

‘ interned ’

at Vel lore in the Madras Presidency).The famous templecontaining Buddha’s tooth, an object of venerationthroughout theBuddhistworld, and the goal ofmany pi lgrimages fromChina, Siam, and Burmah, isatKandy whi lstonAdam’

sPeak

feet) is amark on the rock, said to b e the impression of Buddha’

s

foot.

The scenery and vegetation of the south- central mountain regionare unsurpassed ; here there are numerous Engl ish cofi

'

ee- planters,l iving ina cool and pleasantcl imate, and producingmost of the coffeethat is used in Great Britain. The sanitariumof NuwamEl lyn is

situated ona b road plateau,nearly feet above the sea, towhich

the Government of Ceylon general ly repairs during the hotmonths.

Lower down, atPemdeniya, close toKandy , are the famous BotanicalGardens, perhapsthemost b eautiful in theworl d. Jafiiza, on a smal lisland, at thenorthernextremity ofCeylon, is theseatofan importantmission; it is al so the head- quarters ofthe pearl fishery, which iscarried onatcertain intervals in the gul f of Manaar under Government supervision.

Gal lo (or I’oint- de- G'

al le) and Trincomalee are ports that haveal ready b eenmentioned. The whole coast- l ine between Gal le and

Colombo, and further, is fringed by a b eautiful and productive b elt ofcocoa- nut palms, fromwhich immense quantities of coir and othervaluab l e commodities are 111anufactured for exportation.

There are about Christians in Ceylon, of whomabout

areRomanCathol ics, chicflydescendantsoftheoldPortuguesesettlersand their converts.

31 . British Burma.

— Unlike Ceylon,BritishBurma

is geographically distinct fromIndia, being a portion ofFurther India,

’

the great peninsula that forms the eastern shore of the bay of Bengal , whi lst politically it is

essentially a part of the IndianEmpire, being administeredby a Chief Commissioner and other Indian officers underthe direct orders of the Viceroy . It contains anarea of

40 POLITICAL D IVISIONS AND PLACES or INTEREST.

convicts are transported fromal l parts of India. Port.

B lair, the capital , has themelancholy interest attached toit of having beenthe scene of themurder of Lord Mayo

,

whowas here stabbed by anAfghan convict. The nativeAndamanese

,supposed to number about are savages

of the lowest type,and are reputed to have cannibalistic

propensities. The Nikobareans are little better ; and oneof thechiefreasonswhythese islandsare held by theIndianGovernment is to suppress the piracy and wrecking forwhich they were famous.

32 . Ancient or Popular Divisions of India.

— As in

France the modern names of the ‘departments ’ havesuperseded the old ‘provinces,

’

so in India the administrative divisions of the Indian Empire have supersededthe old divisions both Hinduand Muhammadan. Manyof these ancient divisions, however, are of considerablehistorical importance. It will b e well for the studentto know something about them

,and also something about

some divisions that still exist in the language of thepeoplethough unrecognised official ly.

The chief divisions of theMughul Empire inthe timeofAkbar (cal led Sabahs, the jurisdiction of a Stibahdcir orviceroy) are given in themap atpage 207.

Inaddition to thesemay b e noticed, as Muhammadandivisions, the following

l arkhand (j znc- land), the northern partofGondwana, closel ycorresponding tothemodern Chut1a Nagpur in Bengal .Rokil/dzand (thecountry ofthe immigrant Rohi l la Afghans) , which

is al soamoderndivisionoftheNorth-WestProvinces, westofOudh.

Bundel/c/zand (thecountry of the Bundela Raq ts), which is al so

amodern name, including the southern portions of the North-West

Provinces, and the adjoining native States ; with Bdghcl /dzand (thecountry oftheBaghela R‘

d l l tS), eastofBundelkhand.

Sambhal , which was anearl ier namefor thewestern partofRohi lkhand and some adjoining districts.

Mcwdt, inMughul times famous as a land of turbulent freebooters,was southwest of Delhi , and included most of themodern State ofAlwar inRajputana.

Dad!) (the land of two rivers) is appl ied to al l countries between

ANCIENT DIVISIONS OF INDIA. 41

two rivers which unite ; but the Doab general lymeans the countrybetweenthe Gaugesand the Jammah.

The Mughul Sdbahof Lahore, with parts of those of Delhi andMul tanor Sind, formthemodernPunjab .

TheMughul Sdbahof Kabul seems tohave included Eastern and

SouthernAfghanistanand EasternBalochistan. In earl ier Musalmantimes, Afghanistanwasdivided into(1 ) Khiba

’

or Glazlj z'

, the country ofthe Khi lj i Afghans, b etweenKuramand Ghazni (2 ) Bob , thecountryof theRohil laAfghans, betweenGhazni and Kandahar ; (3) Gkor, thecountry oftheGhori Afghans, b etweenBal kh and Merv, north of theHinduKushmountains.

Some of themost interesting Hindudivisions of veryancient times are the followingKdmrup was Lower Assam.

JlfadmwasBhotanand Upper Assam.

Odmor Uticala wasOrissa.

Anya, Banga, Varendm, Rdrc’

c, B( Zgri, were divisions of Lower

Bengal (Bangw- des).Vriy

’

iwasthe earl iestnameof Tirhut in Bihar ; which was afterwards thekingdomofM ithila, and was probab ly also included in the

realmofVaisdl i. Thecentreof the great empire ofMagad/zawas in

SouthernBihar.

d kiwas theBenares country ; north- westof it, totheHimalaya,wasKapila, or Kapilavastu.

Panckdla wasRohilkhand and theadjacent districts.

The greatAndkmkingdomof Telmgana, (with its capital at Warangal ) had its centre in the north- east of the Deccan (Haidarabadterritory) , and extended at times over the eastern part of the peninsula. Theportionofthisempire adjacent toOrissawascal ledKal inga,and wasoftenindependent.

The vast territories ofKcsala or Makdkosala extended fromthe

westernconfinesof Tel ingana and Kal ingga to the eastern boundsofMalwa (then cal led Ufiayini or Uflain, fromits capital ) and of

Maharashtra. Vidarbha wasBarar.

Viratawas a kingdominthenorth- east of Raj putana. Taxila (orT alcslzasila) wasa city and realminthenorthofthePunjab , conqueredbyAlexander, and visited by the Chinese pi lgrims.

Saurasktm(cal led byMuhammadans Sorath) was Kathiwar ; andonce formed the centre of the great Val labhi emp ire of Gujarat, andcontained the capital Val lab lzi.

The extreme southern corner of the peninsula (now Travancore)was cal led Malakata ; and north of thiswas a large territory cal led

42 RACES AND LANGUAGES or INDIA.

Dmvzaa (whence the term‘Dravidian With its capital at.Conjeveram(Kanchipuram).

TheKanicanis the termformerly appl ied (and stil l inuse) for thelow country b etween the Western Ghats and the sea the simi larcountry onthe essterncoast iscal l ed, inthenorth theNorthernCircars,inthesouth the Carnatic.

PART III .

RACES AND LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

33 . A. Col lectionofmany Nations. 34. Foreigners. 35. Mu

hammadansofForeignDescent. 36. Races that have occupied the

Country since the dawnofHistory . 37. Successive Waves of Conquest. 38 . AryanRaces. 39 . Non- AryanRaces. 40. Dravidians.

41 . Miscel laneousNon- AryanTribes.

33 . A Collectionofmany Nations.— The population

of India is composed ofmany distinct races, some differing widely fromothers in habits and customs, in lan

guage,in religion

,and evenin appearance ; and thecom

mon name Indian,l ike the common name European, is

applied to al l themembers of a collection ofmany nations.

Wewill here analyse this collectionas it existsat thepresent day ; it will be seen hereafter that a clear understanding of this difference of racewill b e of the highestimportance in the studyofthe earliest history, and will benecessary for the profitab le study of the history of latertimes.

34. Foreigners.

— Itwill beuseful to exclude atoncefromour analysis al l inhabitants of a distinctly foreignorigin. Amongst these should b e counted not ‘only Europeans (including Eurasians or the offspring of amixedparentage) , Chinese, and the other non- Indian Asiatics,and themany alien nationalities of comparatively recent.

settlement in the country ; but also such communities as

the Armenians, the Jews of Cochin and other parts, and

44 moss AND LANGUAGES or INDIA.

theParsis, l who, though long resident here, have alwaysbeen insignificantinpoint of numbers, have always retainedtheir alien characteristics

, and havehad noinfluenceon thehistory ofthe country .

35 . Muhammadans of Foreign Descent .— Wemayalso exclude atoncefromour analysisthoseMuhammadanswhoare of foreign descent

,

2 that is, those Muhammadanswho are not descended fromconverted Hindus. Theirnumber has been estimated at nearly one- half that of theentire Musalman population. They are chiefly found intheupper basin of the Ganges, but they forman importantelement in the population throughout N orthern India.

They are divided into four classes : ‘

Sayyids,Mughuls,

Pathans, and Shekhs. TheSayyids claimdescent fromtheProphet, taking the prefix Sayyid before their names, andsometimes the title Shah . TheMughulsare, as their nameimplies

,descendants of the companions or followersof the

Tartar conquerorsof India, and are lessnumerous thantheother classes. They are generally fairer in complexionthan the‘

rest,and have a Tartar cast of countenance; the

name is,however

,very commonly applied to Persians

resident in India. They are often known by the affix Beg,and sometimes use the prefix Mir or Mirza . The Pathansare of Afghan origin, and are always known by the afiix

Khan. The Shekhs are a miscellaneous class,generally

including al l thoseMuhammadanswhodonotbelong to anyof the other classes. The Muhammadan aristocracy are

much attached tothe languages of their ancestors,Persian

and Arabic , and study themcarefully ; but their commonlanguage is Hindustani (which is also a commonmedium

The Parsis, chiefly resident in and about Bombay ou the west

coast, belong tothe ancient Persian race, and are the descendants of

refugees fromPersia who fled to India on the fal l of the SassanianDynasty inthe seventh century (secIntroduction,

It ishardly necessary toob serve that the broad division of thenativesof India, intoHindusand Muhammadans, is founded on a dis

tinction of rel igion only , and it is of no ethnological importancewhatever.

succassws WAVES or coxounsr. 45

of communicationfor al l classes and in al l parts of India)This language was originally merely the Urdu, or campdialect of the Musalman invaders, and was formed by a

mixture of Persianwith the vernaculars of thebasin of theGanges.

36. Racesthathaveoccupied theCountry sincetheDawnOfHistory.

— Theremainder of the inhabitantsbelongto those raceswhich have occupied the country since thedawnofhistory . They formthevastmajority of thewholepopulation. But amongst these are included numerousnations which difier fromeach other in al l characteristicsof race— appearance

,manners, language— as widely as

they differ fromthosenationalitieswhich we have alreadyexcluded as beingmanifestly and historically foreign.

37 SuccessiveWavesofConquest.— Al l thecountriesbest known in history have been peopled by successivewaves of conquering invaders pressing more andmoreonthe earliest inhabitants ; and the latter, as we can assignto themno other origin

,are usually called aborigines, or

children of the soil . It has almost invariably happenedthat theconquering racehasitself occupied themost fertilelands of the country

,especial ly the river basins, and has

either reduced the aboriginal tribes to a condition ofserfdom, or has driven themtothe more remote districts.

In cases where a second race of invadershasfollowed onthe first

,and has succeeded in conquering it inits turn

,the

latter hasusually beencompelled to occupy themoreremotedistricts, and has driven the aborigines still further back,into the inaccessible fastnesses of mountains and forests.

It has long beenknown that India forms no exception tothe general rule. The combined result of al l researchesclearly proves, by themost complete induction

,that at

least one such wave of conquest poured over the countryin early times; and we have obtained a fairly intelligib leaccount of that conquest (which will be b riefly discussed inour first chapter) by combining the testimony of ancientliterature with the results of investigations into modern

46 moms AND LANGUAGES or INDIA.

race- characteristicsand language. The last-mentioned in.

v estigationsappear evento point to another and earlier tideof invasion. For the sake of clearness

, we shall firstconsider those raceswhichcame into India' on the clearlydefined wave of conquestmentioned above— those, namely ,

which are called the Aryan races, of whose advent andorigin a short account will b e given hereafter . The

original language of these tribeswas one common to themwith the ancestors of Englishmen and Germans, Frenchmenand Italians, Welshmen and Bretons

,Poles and

Russians, Greeks and Persians. Of al l known languages,

living or dead,theonemost like this primeval language is

doubtless Sanskrit ; and the various Indian vernaculars inuse atthe present day, which are derived fromthis stock

,

together with the extent to which it ismodified in themrespectively , will afford us some guide in determining thefull effcets of this invasionon the population of India.

38 . AryanRaces.— TheAryans, entering by thenorth

west passes, and descending first the valley of the Indus,

and then that of the Ganges, attained their full strengthand development on the latter river . HenceHindi initspurest forms is very nearly connected with the parentSanskrit. Noless than 58 dialects of this great languagehave recently been enumerated ; l of which perhaps themost important areKanauji, probably thedescendant of thedialect of theold Aryanwempire of Kanai

'

ij, and Maithili

(similarly related to the language of theAryan kingdomofMagadha) . Various dialects ofHindi are spoken throughoutthe N orth -West Provinces, Oudh , Bundelkhand, Rajputana

,and the province of Bihar inBengal ; aswell as in

the greater portion of the Central Prov inces, and inmanyparts of the Punjab , Bombay, and Madras. Hindi hasretained the written character called N agari , hardly perceptib ly differing fromthat inwhich the ancient Sanskrit

maswritten. Fromits central position,itswide diffusion,

Languagesof theEastIndies, byR. N . Cust. 1878 .

48 moss AND LANGUAGES or INDIA.

The other Aryan languages of India— each having a

larger or smaller number of dialectic varieties— are the

followingPashtu

,the language of theAfghans

, spokeninPeshawar and the other Afghan districts in or adjoining the

BalochiandErahnt’

,thelanguagesof Balochistan, spoken

onthe frontiers of the Punjab and Sind.

Kashmiri,inKashmir .

N epcilz'

, inNepal .Sinhalese, or C

'z

'

ngalese, in Ceylon.

39. Non-Aryan Races.- The remainder of the indi

genous racesof India we have classified asnon-Aryan and

many,perhapsmost, scholars inclinetothe belief that there

is a sufiicient family likenessbetween al l of themto justifyus in grouping themthus. But their diversities are stillnumerous and great . One such diversity

,clearly defined

and obvious,meetsus atthe outset.

40. Dravidians.- A large portion of this remainder

consistsofnationshardly, if atal l , less civilised and polishedthan those of theAryanstock, living in townsand villages,in plains and river basins. Their location, it is true, issituated to the south of themountain rangeswhich cutoff

the Deccan fromHindustan, and is therefore remote fromthe coveted lands of the fert ile northern plains

, but the

soil they cultivate is generally good, and often rich . Theyfor themost part profess a religionwhich ismore or lessbased on the Brahmanical religion of their Aryanneighbours, and their manners and customs are generally notvery unlike those of the latter . Above al l

,they possess

polished and cultivated languages, one at least of which

(Tamil) boastsa considerableliterature. Atthe same timetheir personal appearanceusually testifies that they arenotconnected by descent with theAryans and theevidenceoftheir languages decisively proves that they belong to an

entirely different race. This racehasbeencalled D rav z’

dian,

fromDrcivida, once thename of a considerable district of

NON - ARYAN ‘RACES. 49

Southern India. Of the D ravidian languages, Teluguisthe speech ofthe largest community and thefinest tribesofSouthern India. On account of its softaccent andmusicaltone

,it has been called by Europeans the Italian of the

East . Telugu- speaking peoples occupy the greater portionof the eastern side of theDeccan, a territory whose limitscoincide insome respectswith those of the ancient kingdomof Tel ingana, and which is bounded onthe north- west byMarathi - speaking races, and on the north by the Uriyas.

The Canarese language is the vernacular throughout thegreat part (including al l the southern portion) of the

valleys and tablelands betweenthe Eastern and WesternGhats

, which formed our second geographical division ofthe D eccan, and itextends in parts to the western coast .

Its name is derived fromthat of the ancient Carnatickingdom

,fromwhich also spring thenames of the British

districtsKanarc’

oand the Carnatic. The Tcimil language,

which is frequently called JVIaZabar, is chicfly spoken onthe Coromandel coast . Tamil

,and itswestern variety Ma

l ayalam(which is real ly spoken on the lower part of theMalabar coast) , are the vernaculars of the whole of thesouthern corner of India, including both the eastern and

thewesternmaritime fringes of the peninsula. This language showsmarks of great culture and refinement

,and

possesses a considerable literature. The architectural and ’

other remains that are scattered over the country,the state“

of the language and the extent of the literature, confirm

the traditions that the Tamilian race attained a high stateof civilisation in very remote ages probably long beforetheAryan invasion of India.

The other D ravidian languages of Indiaaremore or lessuncultivated, and are confined to limited areas. Theyare

Tulu,spoken on the west coast of the Madras Pre

sidency.

Kudagu, in Coorg.

Toda,and Kata, intheN ilgiri Hills.

E

50 RACES AND LANGUAGES or INDIA.

Kandlz,in theN orthern Circars and Orissa.

Gond, in the N orthern districts of Madras and inthe

Central Provinces.

Omanand Rajmahcili, inBihar (Bengal) .

41 . Hill and JungleTribes.— Theother great branches

of the non-Aryan races and tongues of India embraceal lthose scattered remains of a primitive population that arenow found especially in themore remote or inaccessibledistricts -in the rugged mountains of the north - eastfrontier— ih the sub -Himalayan region and the Tarai orswampy junglewhich forms a belt between that regionandthe plains— in the vast forests and on the hills of CentralIndia— and throughout the whole extent of both rangesof Ghats and the least accessible parts of the adjoining hil ldistricts. Tothese alsomay probably be added a considerable portion of the lowest stratumof the population of theplains

,who preferred slavery to exile fromtheir ancient

homes, and who probably ultimately formed the greaterpart (in N orthern India) of that vast class who wereuniformly repressed by theol d Brahmanic systemunder thegeneral caste-name of Sudras [see Chap . II .

It is not necessary here to speak of these scatteredlanguages and races in any detail . Their chief divisionshave beennamed as follows

The Kolao'ian Family, in Bihar and the Central Pro‘vinces, of which the best- known tribeis the Sanicilz

'

.

The Thibeto- Bwvnan Family, including many branchesin Nepal , Sikkim,

Assam,Eastern Bengal

,Manipur

, and

Burma.

TheKhakiFami ly,1nAssam.

THE GEOLOGY or INDIA. 51

PART IV.

SOIL, MINES, FORESTS,AGRICULTURE, AND NATURAL

HISTORY .

42 . The Geology of India. 43. Mines. 44. Forests.

45 . The Botany of India, and its Agricul ture. 46. State Eu

couragementof Agricul ture. 47. The Z oology of India.

42 . Geology of India.. — The great alluvial plain ofthenorth of India separates the geologicallymodern rocksof the Himalaya and Sulaimanmountain- zones fromthe

peninsular region, whoserocks are of the highest antiquity.

Immediately along the foot ofthesub - Himalaya,thereis

a zone about ten or fifteenmileswide, called the Bhdbaror Jhem’

,composed of coarse gravel and shingle brought

down by the mountain- torrents. It forms an elevatedmargin of the great plain

,and has a dry surface except in

the rains. Mr. Medlicott says,

Streams of considerablevolume soon sink into the porous ground, to reappearalong the lower fringe of the coarse deposits.

”

In partsthis zone is covered with magnificent forests of Sailtimber ; along the foot of the Nepal Himalaya theBhabaris commonly called The sal Forest.

’

This dry forest - zone is succeeded by a line of swampclothed by a thick growth of reeds and grass : this iswhere the streamsmentioned above reappear. It is calledThe Tarai ,

’

and iswell known as the homeofmalariaandjungle- fever.

The great plain itself,though rightly called al luvial , is

by nomeansal l subject to flooding by the rivers. Much ofit is considerably raised above the rivers, and is called the

ol d alluvium,

’

or,by the cultivators

,Bhdngar. The low

lying land, subject to flooding, is called Khddar.

The geological character of the Himalayan mountain- zone

,and that of thoSulaiman, are very similar to

each other . Mr. Blanford says thatthe axesof thegreaterranges of theHimalaya consist of ahighlymetamorphosed :

E 2

52 SOIL , MINES, Fonnsrs, AGRICULTURE, ETC.

rock , a kind of gneiss ; and this is followed by'

an enormous thicknessof stratified rocks lessmetamorphosed

, on

which rest (at least on thenorthern side of the chain) 3.great series of stratified rocks containing fossils of almostevery great formation fromtheSilurian to thenummul iticor lower eocene epoch . An interesting feature in thephysical geography of the Himalayas is that the highervalleysare

,or at some former time have been

,fil led with

enormous deposits of sand and gravel . That portion ofthe sub -Himalaya which is known as theSivalik Hills isfamous for its gigantic fossil mammalia of species nowextinct

,including the hippotherium, and themonstrous

sivatherium, a four - horned deer ; andmore astonishing stillis the fossil colossochelys of the Sival iks, an enormous tortoisewhichmust have been seventeen feet long and sevenfeet high

,illustrating the well - known Hindufable of the

tortoise that supported an elephant .The plateaux of Mysore, the Deccan, and Chutia Nag

pur, on the other hand, consist of rocks of the highestantiquity ; and on the whole it may be said that duringlong geological ages the hills of the peninsula have ex

isted as land whilst the area of the mountain- zones havebeen sea, theupheaval of the latter hav ing taken place incomparatively recent geological times.

A great part of Western India is of volcanic for.mation : in the plateauof the Deccan, north of Belgaum,

the rock formation is one of unbroken sheets of basalti clava and other volcanic rocks. Of

'

theMalwa and Baghelkhaud plateau, the southwestern part is covered by sheetsof volcanic rock the remainder is formed by very ancientsedimentary rocks (sandstones, shales, and limestones) ofunknown date, or of the stil l older crystalline rocks onwhich these rest.

InMal wa, and the plains of Khandesh and Barar,the

disintegrated trap - rock gives a black soil of immensedepth and richness, known as the ‘ black cotton soil on

this is grownmost of the Indian cotton.

MINES. 53

43 . Mines.— Themineral wealth of India liesmainly

in itsmagnificent coal - seams, its salt-mines, and its ironfields; and to thesemust now b e added the petroleumofBurma.

Indian coal is inferior inquality to English coal , havingfarmoreash, and atleast sixteenper cent . lessfixed carbonButits quantity isalmost inexhaustib le. Thecoal - bearingarea is estimated at about square miles, beinggreater than thatpossessed by any country intheworld, ifwe excepttheUnited States, China, and Austral ia. Inone

coaLfield alone, that ofRaniganj inBengal , the coal available has been roughly estimated to be fourteen thousandmillion tons. This field

,through which the ‘ chord- line ’

of the East Indian Railway passes,has supplied al l the

coal used by that railway fromits Opening , and the yieldhasmore than doubled in a very few years. There are

four groups of Indian coal - fields z— ( l ) those of the Rajmahal Hillsand the Damudar Valley (includingRaniganj ) ,inBengal ; (2) those in Chutia Nagpur and Rewah ; (3)those in the Narbada Valley and the Satpura Hills;

'

and

(4) recently opened fields in the valleys of the Godavariand theWardha.

Iron has been rudely manufactured by some of thepoorer castesinIndia fromtimeimmemorial

,butnoscientific

manufacturehasyetbeen attempted with success. In the

Salemdistrict of the Madras Presidency magnetic ironores occur in immense beds

,50 to 100 feet thick, the out

crop of whichmay b e traced formiles. AtIiohara,inthe

Chanda district ofthe Central Provinces,hematiteabounds

atone spot there is amass of dense red hematite,forming

an isolated hill 120 feetabove the level ofthe surroundingcountry, which would probab ly yield from to

tons of iron without going below the surface.

Hematite also occurs in inexhaustib le quantitiesinBundelkhand and in the Narbada Valley and iron is also foundlargely in theDamudar coal - fiel d

,and inKumaon.

The salt-mines and salt - quarries in the Salt Range, in

54 SOIL, MINES, Fonnsrs, AGRICULTURE, are.

thePunjab, areunequalled for richnessand purity intheworld. There are also many copper mines in theHimalayas

,in Rajputana

,and elsewhere ; lead, silver

,and

antimony are found (the last in great quantities) in theHimalayas; whilst there are exceedingly richtin depositsin Tenasserim, which have never been worked, owing tothe difficulties of the country. Cobalt is found nearJaipur inRajputana.

44. Forests.— Forest conservancy in India is rap1oly

progressing,both in extent and in the skill with which it

is directed. Its objects are,to insure supplies of timber

and fuel for theuse of posterity as well as of the presentgeneration

,tomoderate the climate and protect the land

fromdestructive floods; and themain principles of Indianforest - conservancy are stated to b e the definition and

demarcation of reserved forests,the prevention of jungle

fires,the exclusion of cattle, the Opening of roads, and the

cutting and clearing away of creepers and grass round theyoung trees ”

. The existence of forests,and their charac

ter,mainly depends on climatic conditions of temperature

and rainfall. In the arid tract of Sind and the Punjab ,forests of bab i

'

il (Acacia Ambient) l inethe Indusat variouspoints

,which in Middle and Upper Sind aremixed with

tamarisk and theEuphrates poplar ; whilejhund or kundi(Prosopz

'

s spicigera) , an acacia- like tree, Salvadora, and an

arborescent leafless caper (Cuppen'

s aphyl la) , occupy vasttracts in rear of the b ab i

'

i l forests. The dry belt of thePunjab has woods on the high land between the riverscalled mkhs

,also composed mainly of Prosopt

’

s, Capparis,

and Salvadora. Thewoodlands of a portion of Rajputanaaremainly composed of a beautiful tree, with small leavesand drooping branches, a species of Anogeissus; and.

the

southern dry belt, inMysore, is the region of sandalwood.

Outside the dry zones, the teak extends over the peninsulato thenorthern slopes of the VindhyaHills, while the Sai l

(Sheree robusta) , themost important timber treeof Indianext to teak

,formsextensive forests along the foot of the

56 sou, MINES, Fonnsrs, AGRICULTURE, ETC.

cultivated in the Punjab , and. toa somewhat lessextent inthe plains of theUpper Gauges the export to England isincreasing . Various small- grained grasses (sometimescalled millets) are cultivated to an enormous extent

,es

pecial ly inCentral India and the Deccan; and these grains,with rice and wheat, formin perhapsnearly equal pr0portions the staple food of the country . Other grasses verylargely cultivated aremaize, sorghum(called jawdr) , andsugar - cane

,and themany kinds of bamboos. Millions of

bamboosareyearly exported fromtheN orth -WestProvincesdownthe Ganges. The commonest specieshasstems fortyto eighty feet high, and these stems are used throughoutthe country for every conceivable purpose in which lightness and strength of wood are required. Arums

,too

,

abound ; and though these plants are poisonous,the pulp

fromthe roots when cooked is both wholesome and

nutritious.

The palms are perhaps themost distinctive feature ofIndian vegetation

,as they are also one of themost useful .

The cocoa-nut palmflourishes best within reach of thesaline air fromthe sea : the finest cocoa- nuts are producedin Ceylon and on the Bengal sea- board

,and an enormous

amount of coir (formatting, cordage, &c. ) isprepared fromthem. Oneof the commonest of the palms is the sugarpalm

,closely allied to thedate- palmof Arabia : itislargely

cultivated for sugar,whilst teddy is tapped fromthe

Palmyra,and the betel -nut palmis cultivated for itsnut

,

which is chewed almost universally. In the south ofIndia the beautiful talipot - pal rn takes the place of thePalmyra the leaves of both are largely used asfans. The

canes or rattans formby their sharp prickles themostimpenetrable of al l jungles a single canehas been tracedin the jungle for eighty yardswithout theend being foundin themountainssomekinds areused to make suspensionbridges.

Plantainsare the cheapest andmost generally diffusedruit of India, and, being plentiful nearly the whole year

BOTANY. 57

through , they forman important article of food. The

mango is considered the best of Indian fruit, but good

mangoes are costly. The lichi is also an excellent fruit,

which has been introduced fromChina. The pine- apple,

brought fromAmerica, is now abundant everywhere, but

is inferior to theAmerican fruit in quality . Oranges areprobably indigenous. Mandarin oranges come to perteetion in the SikkimHills and elsewhere, and the small acidlime is commoneverywhere. Oneofthe commonest fruitsof India

,the jak, is disliked generally by Europeans on

account of its fetid odour . The peach bears fruit freely inCalcutta and elsewhere, but it is of inferior quality ; andmost English fruits grow inthe hills, buttheapricot aloneattains excellence. In the cold weather most commonEnglish vegetables— potatoes

,cabbage, caul iflower, peas,

beans, asparagus, lettuce, &c.

— are freely grown in the

plains of Bengal , chiefly for European residents. Yams,

called ‘native potatoes by the English, are abundant.

The pomegranate and the guava are found throughout

Hemp iswild in India, and the intoxicating narcoticcalled bhang ismanufactured fromit, but its fibre is notusedmuch . A cultivated variety is covered with resinousdots

,whence ismade ganjd, another intoxicating drug .

San,or Indian hemp

,is cultivated for its fibre, but less

than formerly botanically it isnota hemp atal l, but has

theflower and fruit of the bean tribe. Indigo (which isalso of the bean tribe) is cultivated inBengal for its bluedye. Themost important fibrenow grown inIndia isjute,which isexported fromBengal to England to the yearlyvalue of nearly four millions sterling. The experts of

cottonaverage in value tenmillions sterling per annum,

chiefly fromCentral India, the Central Provinces, and

Barar. Nocottonisnow grownatDacca,formerly sofamed

for its finemuslins, of which a whole piece could passthrough anEnglish wed

'

ding- ring.

Several kinds of coffee are found wild in India : the

58 SOIL , MINES, Fennsrs, AGRICULTURE, ETC.

Arabian coffee is cultivated largely in Ceylon and on the

hills of the south of India,generally at an elevation of

to feet . Tea isprobably indigenousinAssam;i t is cultivated

, chicfly by English planters, in Assam,

Cachar,the DarJil ing Tarai, and Kangra inthe Punjab

Himalaya ; and about twentymillion pounds are annuallyexported. Tea- planting and cofi

'

ee- planting are popularavocationswith Englishmen

,because they are carried on

chiefly in the cool climateofthe hills.

The Opium- poppy is cultivated as a Governmentmonopoly inBihar

,and is also grown largely in Malwa

,where

the Government share of the profitis obtained by a heavyexport duty .

Many different kinds of peas,vetches, lentils, and

beans,and also of cucumbers and melons, are grown

everywhere,and enter largely into the food of the people.

The beans called gram(by thenatives dhc’ma’. and channa)

are chiefly cultivated as food for cattle, horses, and sheep ,butare also eaten by the people.

The habitats of the chief forest and timber trees ofIndia have been given in the sectiononForests. The bestof al l

,the teak

,is planted inmany parts

,and grows wild

in the Western Ghats,in the north - east of the Deccan

,

and inmany parts of Further India. The sail often growsto the height of 100 feet . The beautiful and fragrantsandalwood is indigenous in Western Mysore and otherparts of Southern India. The

‘

yew andmany kinds of firs-ofwhich themajestic deodar or Himalayan cedar is themostrenowned— are found in themountain zones ; so isthe walnut

,and so are many kinds of oak. At high

elevations— above feet at least— are found thefamousrhododendronswhich producesuch gloriousmassesof colourin springtime. In India are several hundred species oforchids

,including some of themost gorgeous intheworld

and the tree- ferns of themountain passes are strikinglygraceful .

The large fig- trees,such asthe banyan and the sacred

STATE ENCOURAGEMENT or AGRICULTURE. 59

pipal , abound in India, and are among itsmost characteristic trees. The banyan is well- known for its habit ofdropping roots from‘

its branches, which again strikeupward aswell as downward on reaching the ground , so

that one tree becomes an arcaded grove. Another fig,the india-mbber tree

,growswild in the junglesof Assam.

It is preserved for the caoutchouc which flows fromits

aerial roots,andmuch caoutchouc isalso brought infor sale

by the jungle tribesonour frontiers.

Gingersare found in great beauty and variety : manyare cultivated for their aromatic roots, and arrowroot isprepared froma nearly allied plant . Many kinds of pepper,too

,areplentiful

,and generally cultivated : the pain is a

kind of pepper,and the habit of chewing b eteLnut and

lime wrapped up in a leaf of pain prevails throughoutIndia

,Further India, and the Asiatic Archipelago . The

red- pepper , botanically a very different plant, isalso commouly grown. Cinnamons of various kinds are found inmost jungles fromCeylon to theHimalayas: the cinnamonof commerce is cultivated chiefly in Ceylon.

There aremany wild vinesinIndia, ofwhich theberriesare generally hardly eatable: the grape- vine succeedswell

,

however,inKashmir and Kabul

,whence the grapes are

brought toIndia.

The still watersof tanksand ponds, sonumerous everywhere in India, are adorned with the flowers of the lotus,the sacred water- bean andmanymost beautiful kinds ofwater - lily abound.

46. State Encouragement of Agricul ture. The

Government of India has long recognised the fact that oneof itsmost important duties is to encourage the agriculture of India by helping the cultivators to improve theirmethodsand to extend their operations.

First must b e noticed those kinds of encouragementwhich the present Government hasinherited fromitsnativepredecessors

,v iz . (1) State systems of irrigation, embank

ments, and roads (for these see Introduction

,63

60 sow, MINES, FORESTS, AGRICULTURE, ETC.

and (2) Takdvi advances. These latter are advancesmadeby Government to owners and occupiers, ata low rate ofinterest, for the construction of minor agricultural works

,

and generally for the improvement of their estates.

Secondly , there are thosekindsof encouragement whichhave been originated by the present Government, and

which generally have beenthe outcome ofmodern sciencesuch are

, the establishment of model and experimentalfarms the introduction and acclimatization of new creps

,

or improved varieties of old crops the communicationofnew and improvedmethodsof agriculture the publ ication ofmeteorological reports to guide cultivators, and ofreports or other resultsof inquiries regarding newmarkets,new commodities, andnewmethods. A few instancesmustsuffice. Cotton cultivationhas been immensely improvedof late years by the extensive introduction of Americanseed , by the operations of the experimental farms inwhichhybridizationhas been perfected andmany other improvements efiected

,and by the discovery and adoption of

improved methods of picking,cleaning, packing, and

transport . The great tea plantiug industry ofAssamwas

commenced by a Government experiment ; and a similarexperiment with cinchona (for theb ark fromwhich quinineismade) , and another with ipecacuanha, arenow promisingto have important results. The production and manufacture of tobacco have greatly improved of late years.

Much has been done for sericulture, and for the cultivation of the numerous silk - producing Bombycidce that areindigenous in India. Large rewards are atpresent offeredby Government for theperfecting ofmachinery for turningthe abundant rhaea or Chiua- grass into fib re, as i t is capableof producing a fibre far superior to the jutenow solargelycultivated inBengal .

47. The Z oology of India.— The fauna of India is

hardly less varied thanitsflora. It is the home of one ofthe two kinds of elephants (the other being the Africanelephant) that now remain to usout of themany species

Z OOLOGY. 61

that existed in geological times and of two kinds ofrhinoceros. It may also be regarded asthe head- quartersof thefelidae of theworld, having the lion inWesternandCentral India, the tiger everywhere (butnot in Ceylon) ,the panther everywhere, theblack leopard inthenorth - east

,

the cheeta or hunting- leopard (found wild only in CentralIndia and Rajputana) , two other kinds of leopards, andseven species of tiger- cat.

The hyaena,wolf, jackal , and fox are common through

out India : the jackal,l ike the dog,

is very subject tohydrophobia. The Indianbear isgenerally distributed, andtwoother species of bear are found intheHimalaya.

The hills and jungles abound in various kindsof'

deer ;the large sdmbhar in al l parts; the spotted deer in the

Sundarbans, in Central India, and themountains of thepeninsula. There are four Indian antelopes- them’

l - gai

bluecow being the largest. There are two species ofwild oxen and thewild buffalo is found intheHimalayanTarai and theBengal Sundarbans.

Monkeys abound everywhere; thereare about seven oreight species.

The Gangetic porpoise, a mammal, should here be

mentioned it is found inthe riversofBengal and Cachar,

and anallied speciesinthe Indusriver- system. It ismuchlike thedolphin, which is found in the adjacent seas.

There are a great number of species of rats,mice

,

shrews,and bats in India the commonmusk - ratof Indian

houses is really a kind of shrew.

Ofthe birds, wemaymentionthevulture, theuniversalscavenger, aided in the rains and cold weather by the

gigantic crane called the adjutant,

’

the common kite, and

the common Indian crow. The last- named, which re.

sembles inhabits the English jackdaw,is by far themost

numerous and characteristic bird of the towns,as the

green parrot isofgardensandmango - groves. Innumerableherons called paddy- birdsappear inthepaddy- fields duringthe rains and in the cold weather largeflocksofwild duck

62 SOIL , MINES, FORESTS, AGRICULTURE, ETC.

and wild geese, with several kinds of snipe. JungleJ‘

owl

and pea- fowl are found in the jungles of the plains

,whilst

in the Himalaya there are several magnificent kinds ofpheasants. The humming - birds in India are generallycalled sun- birds. There aremany thrushes

,some of them

good singers, as the bulbul ; but as a rule the birds otIndia lack themelodiousnotes ofmore temperate climates.

Several species of falcons are trained by theHindus for thesport of hawking.

The crocodile (or mugger) is common inmost of thelarge rivers of India, and is particularly destructive tohuman life in a country where bathing is a religious dutyaswell asa sanitary necessity . The gdvz

’

al,or long - snouted

crocodile of the Ganges, is a distinct species,and 1s

believed to live on fish,not to attack men. There are

many kinds of lizards ; one little species is abundant inhouses; whilst everywhere in Bengal the huge go- sarp

(sometimes six feet long) is common, and dreaded by thepeasantry, though really quite harmless.

Many Indian snakesare so intensely venomous that abite froma fresh snake (that is, fromone that has notjust '

l ost its poison in biting something else) is certain death toa man. Of this kind the most famous

,and the most

abundant, is the hooded cobra it is found inevery garden,

and as it moves slowly in escape, and is fond of enteringhouses

,it is the cause of several thousand deaths every

year in India. The common kamit (a little snake nevertwofeet long, and oftenmuch smaller) is not less deadly ;and the daboia, a kind of viper, is if possiblemore so. In

Bengal alone there aremore than twenty species of deadlysnakes many of these, however, are rare or only found inthe hills. The marine snakes

,found in the sea on the

Coromandel Coast, aremost deadly ; though most freshwater snakes (very common in the paddy - fields of Bengal)are harmless. There aremany pythons or boas that arenot poisonous, but kil l their prey by compression : thesesometimes reach a length of twenty feet.

64 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE.

PART V .

METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE.

48 . Meteorology of India. 49. The Monsoons. 50. TheRainfal l . 5 1. Hot- weather Temperature. 52 . Temperatureduring the Rains. 53. Temperature during the Cold Weather.54. Storms and Storm- waves. 55 . Annual and D iurnal Range

of Temperature. 56. Hi l l - cl imates of India. 57. GeneralCl imaticResults.

48 . Meteorology of India. The meteorologicalphenomena of India offer material for study particularlyinteresting and instructive, for tworeasons first, becausethemeteorological systemis complete in itself

, and for

causes to explainthe phenomena we have notto look b eyond the limits of the northernmountain- chaius and the

southern seas; and secondly, because specimens of nearlyal l themore striking forms of meteorological phenomenacan be observed under peculiarly favourable conditions.

In this place we can only notice a few of themore prominent features

,observing particularly those which afi

'

ect

the climate.

Only about half the area of India iswithinthe tropicsthe tropic of Cancer passes about sixty miles north ofCalcutta, and consequently a great part of northern Indiaiswithinthe temperate zone. Yet itis on the wholeoneof the very hottest countrieson the face of theearth , beingonly rivalled by the north -west corner of South Americaand by partsofAfrica. The earth ’

sequator oftemperature,

or line of greatest heat, passes north and south throughCeylon and the southern part of the peninsula, passingaway on the west to South Arabia, on the east to Java.

The great heat of India, as compared with other countriesunder the same latitude, is doubtless to a large degree dueto themighty unbroken wal l ofmountains by which itisscreened onthenorth fromthe cold winds fromNorthernAsia.

There are, however, great differences of temperature

THEmonsoons. 65

both of average temperature and of actual temperature at

one and the same time of year — in various partsof India.

These variations are produced, not only by difference oflatitude

,butalso by various other causes— the prevailing

winds,the rainfall

,the elevation and dryness of the soil

,

and soon. lVe shal l first consider some of these causes.

49. The Monsoons.— The most striking feature of

Indianmeteorology is the alternation of themonsoons.

During thecol d -weathermonths— t

’

e during N ovember,

D ecemb er,and Jannary— the prevailing winds inIndia are

fromthe Punjab to the hotter plains of Bengal,and

.

alsotothe seasonboth sidesofthepeninsula also fromUpperAssamto theBay of Bengal , and fromCentral IndiatotheArabian Sea, in al l cases conforming to the regular rulethatthewind wil l set froma cold place towards a hotterregion. On the land

,the course of these winds ismuch

altered by l ocal pecul iarities,especial ly by irregularitiesof

the surface ; but on the sea they blow with considerab leregularity fromthe north - east. Hence the period of theirprevalence is often called ‘the north - east monsoon

,

’

but

this is amisleading term,except for mariners ; it is better

tocall itthewintermonsoon. The winter wind is alwaysa very gentleone stormsnever occur in thePunjab andN orth -West Provinces the air is often quite calm

,and the

sky isgenerally clear.During the rainymonths

,fromJune to September, the

general‘

course of the wind is nearly exactly Opposite to

that indicated above. The Punjab is now the hottest partof India

,and thither now the winds tend fromal l parts.

In Southern India and Ceylon,the east coast is' now the

hottest,and thither also the winds tend fromthe west

coast. Atsea the direction ofthewind ispretty constantfromthe south - west whence themoist and comparativelycool air fromthe southern seas is carried

,generally with

considerable violence,to the hot and parched land . Hence

this period is commonly called Thesouth -westmonsoonbut

,as inthecase of the othermonsoon

,the termisamis

F


leading oneon land, and it is better to call itthe summermonsoon. So great is the violence with which it blowsthat themail - steamers in their passage fromAdento Galle

,

in Ceylon, are timed to take several days longer during itscontinuance than at other parts of the year. InBengalthe rains come on gradually ; but on thewestern coast ofIndiathe ‘burst of themonsoonisavery strikingmeteorological phenomenonthat has oftenbeendescribed, attendedby tremendous electrical disturbance.

The ‘ hot weather,’

par excel lence, intervenes betweenthe end of thewintermonsoon and the burst of thesummer monsoon. This period, and the period of themoresudden change fromthe summer to the winter monsoon,are the times of cyclones and other great storms. In

Lower Bengal and Orissathegeneral set ofthewind at thistime is fromthe sea to the highly heated interior and it isthe breath of this breeze that reaches Calcutta fromtheBay of Bengal, thatmakes the nights of Calcutta duringthis fiery season somuch more endurable than those ofmost parts of India. But this breeze only extends abouttwohundredmiles inland

,atthemost ; intheupper parts

of Bengal,and further inland

,hot drywesterly windspre

vail during the day, dying away to astifling calmatnight .These hot winds are generally very painful and trying ;they areworst ofal l in the desert partsof Sind, Rajputana,and the Punjab

,where they are sometimes the veritable

simoom,fatal to life. Another phenomenon of the hot

season inUpper India is the dust- storms, which sometimesoccur in the afternoon

,after the atmosphere has been

intensely heated in themorning. They are explained tob e caused by the excessively heated air in contact with theground at some particul ar point expanding upward, thesurrounding heated air rushing violently into fil l thespace,and carrying with it thick clouds of dust that fil l theupperair. Thecooler air above descends to take the place of thatwhich has escaped

,and hence a dust - stormis always fol

lowed by a refreshing fall inthe thermometer.

THE RAINFALL. 67

Generally, on the sea- coast,atthe timeswhennosteady

monsoon is blowing, the wind b lows fromthe (comparatively) cool sea to the heated land during theafternoonand

evening ; and fromthe (comparatively) cooled land to thewarmer sea in the early morning before sunrise. These

are called the land and sea breezes at places likeMadras,Bombay, and Colombo , the sea- breeze ot

'

the evening islooked forward to with .

longing during the intense heat of

the day in thehotweathermonths.

50. TheRainfall .— India initsvariouspartspresents

every extreme of climate in regard to humidity: The

largest recorded rainfall of theworld is that of Cherrapunji,a small station on the southern faceof theKhasi Hills,where theaverage exceeds500 inches per annum. In

’

the

desertsof the north -west of Rajputana, and the adjacentdistricts of Sind and the Punjab , it often happens that not

a drop of rain falls in the year, and the average cannot be

putatmore than 3 or 4 inchesper annum and' betweenthese two extremes every variation of humidity is to befound .

The heavy tropical rains of the summermonsoon depend for their intensity, in various parts, on the course ofthemonsoon and the character of the surfaceover whichit blows. We have seen that thewinds of thatmonsoonreach the shoresof. India fromthe south -west , laden withthemoist vapours of the Southern Seas. When

'

a chainofmountains runs athwart . their course a portion of theair isdrivenupwards, expandsand cools, and soprecipitatesa part of its vapour in heavy rain. These conditions aremost perfectly fulfil led inthe caseof theKhasi Hills theyalso hold intheouter Himalayas, Sikkim, and the adjoiningcountries, theYemasof Arakan and Pegu, and theWesternGhats. In al l these regionsthe rainfal l is prodigious. It

diminishes rapidly in proportion to the increasing distancefromthe hills, but in each case there is a broad belt inwhich the rainfall exceeds 100 inches every year. These

,

then (as will be seen by reference to the,accompanying

F 2

68 METEOROLOGY AND oumrs.

chart), are the regions of maximumrainfal l East andN orth -East Bengal , Lower Assam,

Arakan,and Pegu

,the

west coast of the peninsulaunder theWesternGhats, andthewest coast of Ceylon.

The summermonsoon, on striking theHimalayasnorthof Bengal , is deflected in a westerly direction; it sweepsal ongupthevalley oftheGangesthrough Oudh ,

theN orthWest Provinces, and the Punjab ; still precipitating its

moisture incepious rain, thequantity of which diminishesgradually in its progress. That branch of the monsoon,

too,that comes fromthe Arabian Sea has a great tract oE

country to pass over before it reaches the Punjab,and

somemountain- ranges. Moreover, the great heat of thePunjab

,Sind, and Raq taua preventsmuch condensa

tion; hence these regions are those ofminimumrainfall ,especially in summer . The average annual rainfall ofLahore is only 18 inches ; that of Rawalpindi , which is

much nearer theHimalaya, about 30 inches; whilst that ofMultan is only 6 inches.

The summer monsoon, after passing a range ofbills (such , for instance, as theWestern Ghats), has l ostmuch of itsmoisture ; and on descending into the hotterregions beyond becomes comparatively dry. Hence thelee side of such ranges is a region of comparatively smallrainfall. Thus, the rainfall of Shillong, the headq uartersof the AssamGovernment, on the lee side of the rainyKhasi Hills, isnot greater than that of Calcutta— about 60inches that of Poona, in the Bombay Deccan, just east oftheWestern Ghats, is only 26 inches though not very farfromBombay

,where the rainfall (being that of the rainy

belt under the Ghats) ismore than 70 inches. In Ceylonthis phenomenon is evenmore strongly marked. NearNuwara- eliya

,atthe summits of themountains

,there are

v alleys a fewmilestothewest which are deluged with theheaviest rain during the summermonths, whilst thevalleysa fewmiles to the cast are almost cloudless.

In thisway the east coast of Ceylon, and that of the

THE RAINFALL . 69

Peninsula (the Carnatic), get comparatively little of thesummer rains. Buttowards the end of the summermonsoon, the heatofthe Carnatic having thusbecome comparatively excessive, the monsoon- wind of the Bay of Bengalb ecomes deflected tothewest, tothis hot region; and thusthe rainsof the Carnatic and eastern Ceylon come chiefly

RAIN FALL CHART .

in October and November. Until recently itwassupposedthat these rains were brought by the beginning of thenorth - east (thewinter)monsoon but it isnow found thatas the w1nter monsoon gradually becomes establishedfurther and further south

,it brings dry weather to the

Carnatic as elsewhere.

51 . HotWeather Temperature.— Ifwe exceptminor


l ocal differences of temperature,due solely to differences of

elevation, we shall find that broadly in the hot summermonths, fromMarch to June, the relative temperature ofdifferent partsof India isdeterminedmainly by thedistancefromthe cooling influence of the sea and the sea- breezes.

InApril and May the hottest part of India is Rajputana,

with Indore, Bhopal , Barar, and the western part ofN agpur , which regions are al l includedwithin an isothermof InJunethe region ofmaximumheatmovesnorthward to the Punjab ; where, allowing for difi

‘

erences‘

éf

elevation, the average temperature of the day ’is'

I SOTHERMAL CHART l 'Ott MAX.

below At this season the coolest part of theEmpireisBurma, with portionsof Assam, with an isothermof 80°and next comeLower Bengal , with theeast and west coastsof the peninsula

,under an isothermof

52 . Temperature during the Rains.— With the set

ting in of the summermonsoonthe temperature falls con-i

siderab ly inal l those parts that are affected by it. The

difference ismost perceptib le in those parts reached by themonsoon that were before hottest

,as in Central India ;

butthe Punjab and Sind are still the hottest parts,for

there the rainfall is scanty . During September, the high

’

latitude of the Punjab now removing it more from'the


north west,and they general ly produce a refreshing fall of

the temperature.

But by far the most remarkable storms of India,perhaps of theworld

,are the cyclones that originate some

where intheBay of Bengal , occurring generally in May,

June,October, and November. Theseareviolentrevolving

storms,in which the wind circulates with great velocity

around an area of low b ar 'omet1 ic pressure— the directionof circulation in the northern hemisphere being

,of cou1se,

a lefthanded one; that a directionopposite tothat ofthe hands of a clock. These storms generally advancefromthe Bay of Bengal over the land in a directionbetweennorth and west . If a place is situated exactly onthe path of the centre of a cyclone advancing fromthe

south, the hurricane at first sets in fromthe north- east

,

then changes to east-north - east,where it continues with

prodigiously -increasing forceuntil the central calmcomes,

when in the course of a few minutes the wind dr0ps

altogether . After an interval , varying froma fewminutestoalmost an hour

, the hurricane suddenly bursts again,but fromthe opposite quarter, thewest ; and as the stormpasses away the wind gradually goes round tosouth -west.If the place is on either side of the path of the cyclonecentre, of course the veering of thewind is different ; andby observing the veering oi

’

the wind it is always possibleto determine the direction in which the stormis passing .

The path of a cyclone ismarked by widespread devastation,

treesand huts being thrown downinal l directions.

As the cyclone reaches the land fromthe Bay it isgenerally accompanied by a rising of the sea above itsusual level

,called a storm-wave. When this enters a

shallow estuary like that of the Hooghly or the Megnz'

t,

the increase of friction causes thewater to be piled up toa terrificheight and thewave pours over thesurroundinglowlands ina sudden and complete deluge. In the stormwave that accompanied the great cyclone of October 5,1864, upwards of people were drowned in the

CYCLONES. 73

districts surrounding Calcutta ; nine steamers,over

tons burden,twenty - two other ships and steamers

, and

an incalculable number of small craft, were wrecked inthe river Hooghly and one of the P . and O. Company ’

s

largemail - steamerswas blown cleanout of the water andlanded high and dry on the bank Opposite Calcutta.

The phenomenon of the bore, familiar to al l those whohave lived on such rivers astheMegna and the Hooghly,is produced by the actionof friction between the water ofthe advancing tide and the shallow b ed of an estuary ;the friction retards the advanceofthe water and causes itto be heaped up in a perceptible wave

,which at certain

conditions of the tide is of considerable height, and oftencapsizes boats that are caught by it near the shore.

55. Annual and Diurnal Range of Temperature.

There is a very wide difference, both in the annual and inthe diurnal range of temperature

,between various partsof

India. The range is, of course, greatest in those provincesthat are situated far fromthe sea and have a dry climateit is least in the insular and maritime parts. The difference betweentheminimumtemperature and themaximuminthe course of the year inmany Punjab stations isnotless than 100° italso is very great inRajputana and theCentral Provinces. On the other hand, at Gal le, in thesouth -west corner of Ceylon, the highest summer temperature of the year is only about 16° higher than theminimumwinter temperature. TheAndamanand N icobarIslands have a similar equable climate next comesBritishBurma ; next themaritime parts of Lower Bengal ; andsoon.

The averagediurnal range correspondswith theannualrange. In thePunjab it is about 30° on themean of theyear

,and 40

°inApril in the Central Provinces itis20°or

25° onthemean of the year, and in March 30° orwhile atGalle it is only 65

° on themean of the year, andthe greatest average difference in any onemonth is lessthan

56. Hill Cl imatesofIndia.— The differenceoftempe


rature caused by elevationis,of course

,wel l known to every

one. India possesses somany sanitaria— hill - stationswithamore or less cool cl imate— at different elevations and

with different aspects, as toafford almost every variety otclimate. The difference of temperature due toelevation isa little greater in the hills of the Peninsula than it is intheHimalayaMountains it is greater inthe eastern partof theHimalayas than inthewestern and it is everywheregreater inthe summer than in the winter. But

,broadly

,

for thewhole of India, the differencemay be said to b e a

reduction of 1 ° of heat for every ascent of from350 to 500feet . It must b e remembered that this reduction is fortemperature in the shade; the actual power of the sun’

s

rays inthe hills is as great as,or greater than

,it is inthe

plains.

Fromwhat has been said about the rainfall, as affectedby the courseof themonsoon

,it will beseenthat those hill

stations that l ie on the weather- side of a range of hillsrunning athwart the course of the summer monsoon willhave anexceedingly wet climate thoseonthe lee- sz

’

dewillhave a dry climate. Similarly, the hil l - stations in the

eastern part of theHimalaya (where the summermonsoonfi/rst deposits its rains) will b emuch wetter than thosefurther west. Thus

,Darjiling, in theEasternHimalaya,

hasan annual rainfall of 120 inches; Chakrata, inthewest,ata slightly greater elevation

,only 58 inches. Se Ma

habaleshwar, near Bombay, on the western coast of theGhats

,has 260 inches; whilst Poona, ata lower elevation,

on the eastern side of the Ghats, has only 31 inches.

Cherrapunj i,ontheweather- side of the Khasi Hills, has a

rainfall of 500 ; and Shillong, onthe lee- side,only 60.

The hill- stations most frequented by Europeans are

generally at anelevation of from to 7500 feet abovethe sea ; and, subject to theminor differences just noted,enj oy an average summer temperature in theshadescarcelyhotter than that of the South ofEngland. Thus, Darjiling

(the sanitariumof Lower Bengal), atanelevation offeet, hasan annualmean temperature of and amean

HILL CLIMATES. 75

temperature of less than 60° for themonth of May, themonth ofgreatest heat in the plains. Chakrata

,one of the

sanitaria of theN orth -West Provinces, at an elevation offeet

,has an annual mean temperature of and a

mean 'for May of Marri (or Murree) , in thePunjab ,elevation annualmean mean for May 65° and

soon. Very similar, inpoint of average temperature, areSimla, ,Dagshai, Subathu, Dalhousie— al l in the Punjab ;MountAbu

,inRajputana ; Naini - tal , Ranikhet, Masuri (or

Mussoorie) , and Landour, in the N orth -West Provinces ;Mahabaleshwar, in Bombay (rather lower thanthe rest)Utakamand, andWellington

,both in the N ilgiri Hills, in

the Madras Presidency ; Nuwara- eliya,in Ceylon and

Shil long,intheKhasi Hills

,Assam(elevation about

feet) .

For some persons, and even for some Europeans,the

climate ofthe above-named hill - stations is too cold, and

the elevation too great . Pachmarhi, the sanitariumoftheCentral Provinces, at an elevation of feet

,has an

annual mean temperature of the Deb ra Dim,a

beautiful plateauor terrace inthe sub -Himalayanregionofthe ~N orth -West P rovinces, at an elevation of feet,hasan annualmean of 70° Belgaum

,inBombay

, elevationfeet, annualmean temperature Bangalore, in

Mysore, e levation feet,annual mean temperature

Hazaribagh , in Bengal, elevation feet, annualmeantemperature There aremany such stations as

these in various parts of India and Ceylon— notquite highenough tolbe called sanitaria

,and yetenjoying onthewhole

an agreeable climate.

57. General Climatic Results— It has often b eenobserved of English residents in India that those who

residein a particular p rovince generally . consider the

climate of that prov ince superior to the climate ofmostother provinces: thus; the Anglo - Punjabi generally thinks

himself better off, inspointof climate, thantheEnglishmanin Lower Bengal ; the latter thinks himselfmore fortunate

76 MEI’

EOROLOGY AND CLIMATE.

than the Anglo -Madrasi ; and soon. The reason of thisis

, that each province possesses its own advantages ofclimate

,lacking in most other provinces ; and as the

climate of the particular province would be almost intolerable for Europeans if it did notpossess these particularadvantages, theEnglish residentsnaturally pity the lotofthose who live in provinces which donot possess themforgetting that the loss is general ly counterbalanced bygains in other directions. Wewill consider each provincein detail .

The Punjab has the great advantage of glorious coldweather— much colder andmore bracing than elsewhere,and also longer — in fact

,sufficiently cold and sufficiently

long to reinvigorate the constitutionafter the great heat ofthehot- weather and the rains. It has also the advantageof possessing many excellent hill - stations

,easily accessible

fromal l parts. On the other hand, the heat of the summer ,especially in the desert districts of the south

,is simply

terrific— almost greater thancan be borne by Europeansandmoreover this great heat lasts far on into the rainyseason

,the rains being very light in the Punjab . A.

Persian proverb enumerates the ‘blessings ’ of Lahoreheat , dust, beggars, flies, and deadmen’

s boues.

’

British Burma,onthe other hand

,hasa climatenearly

the exact Opposite of that of the Punjab. Here amoistequable heat throughout the year is the characteristic ; inthe hot weather cooler andmore pleasant than other partsof, India, and with not even a suggestion of the fiery dryheat of thePunjab and Rajputana ; but excessively steamyinthe rains, and with absolutely no bracing cold-weather.For the English denizens of Burma thereare nocool hil lstations ; in lieuthereof they can only take a sea- voyage,which

,however

,has generally nearly an equally good

effectonthe health . The climate of themaritime plainsof Ceylon is very much like that of British Burma ; butthe interior

,including al l the coffee districts, is elevated,

and enjoys a cool climate throughout the year— the only

CLIMATIC RESULTS. 77

drawback being the very heavy rainfall , especially on the

western slopes.

The climateof Assam,too, is on thewhole verymuch

like that ofBritish Burma, except thatmuch of it isconsiderab ly higher , and consequently cooler. Fromthe pointof v iew of health here

,however , the advantage of the

greater coolness is probablymore than counterbalanced bythe jungly nature ofmuch of the country, which makes itrathermalariousand feverish ,

Between the extremes of Burma,on the one side

,and

of the Punjab on the other,are geographically situated

the plains of Lower Bengal and those of the N orth -WestProvinces and Oudh and the respective climates are

exactly what we should expect from the geographicalposition. Thehotweather ofBengal isconsiderab ly hotterthan that of Burma, though happily free (at any rate inthemoremaritime parts) fromthehotwindsof thePunjaband Upper India. The rains are here

,perhaps

,as steamy

and stifling as they are in Burma ; but the cold- weathermonths of N ovember, December , and January are far

cooler,drier

,andmore b racing. Much of Chutia Nagpur,

and some partsofBihar, both in the Lieutenant- Governorship of Lower Bengal , are elevated and dry ; and thoughsomewhat hot in the hotweather they are undeniab lymore healthful

,at least for Europeans, thanmost partsof

India. On' the other hand,many districts of Eastern

Bengal are even damper thanBurma,'

hotter,and farmore

malarious. Bengal , too, 1 8 not rich in hill- stations Darjiling (which is very cool and healthy, though rather damp)has only quite recently beenmade accessible fromCalcuttaby theN orthernBengal StateRailway ; and this, the onlysanitariumof the province, is still practically inaccessiblefrommany districts;

Taking Calcutta, the chief city of India, by itself, itmay be said that there are only about six weeks inthe year( September and the first part of October) in which theclimate is exceedingly disagreeable4 — being very steamy,


hot,and still . During the hot- weathermonths the nights

arenearly always cooled and refreshed by a pleasant breezefromthe Bay of Bengal ; the cold-weather months are

perfectly dry, cool , clear, and pleasant . Calcutta,too

,has

the inestimable (though artificial ) advantages of a plentiful supply of the purest water, good drainage, wel l - builthouses

,and for thewealthy al l the appliancesand luxuries

that can be devised to ameliorate the climate— includingplenty of ice, a richly supplied market, excellent bazaars,andmany shopsas good as those of London or Paris. The

evidence of the death - rate shows that Calcutta is on the

whole as healthy as similar cities in Europe; and thoughfor Europeans themortal ity is doubtless somewhat higher,the conditions of European life there are by nomeans so

hard as inmost tropical countries.

The cl imate of theNorth -West Provinces and Oudh isat al l times drier than that of Lower Bengal ; far lesssteamy in the rains, and colder andmore bracing in the

cold weather . On the other hand, the hot weather is far

hotter (though not sohot as the Punjab, Rajputana, andparts of the Central IndiaAgency) and herewe getthoseterrible hot winds, described in 49

, which almost scorchthe l ifeout of European residents. The province is welloff for hill- stations— Naini - Tal , Masuri , Chakrata ; one or

other of the three being fairly accessible fromal l parts.

Much of the Central Provinces iselevated land, and

enj oys the same climate as Chutia Nagpur, described above.

During the rains this part of India,by almost universal

consent, isthe pleasantest, being cool without anyexcessivemoisture. Outhe other hand

,someof thelow- lying valleys

are jungly, hot, andmalarious; and during thehotweather,except in the highlands, the climate generally is as hot as,or hotter than, that of theNorth -West Provinces.

Between the climates of theN orth -West Provinces and

oi'

thePunjab may be placed those of the Central IndiaAgency (approximating to the former, though hotter, except in the highlands) and of Rajputana (approximating

80 INDUSTRIES AND PUBLIC WORKS.

PART VI.

INDUSTRIES AND PUBLIC WORKS.

§ 58 . Agricul tureand Land Tenures. § 59. Foreign Commerce.

60. Inland Trade and Communications. § 61 . Manufactures.

62 . Miscel laneous Industries. § 63 . Pub l ic Works : Rai lwaysand Telegraphs. 64. Pub l ic Works: Irrigation. 65 . Roads,Harbours, Lighthouses.

58 . Agricultureand Land Tenures.— India is essen

tial ly an agricultural country ; the vast majority of itspeople are engaged in occupations connected with the

cultivation of the land,and the resources of both people

and Government aremainly derived therefrom. In 1878 ,out of a total revenue of fifty- ninemillions sterling morethan twenty millions sterling came directly fromlandrevenue. In the Punjab , according tothe last census, outof a total adultmale population of no less than

are returned as actively engaged in cultivation.

The chief products of Indianagriculture have alreadyb een described, in the section on Botany. They consistmainly of the three great food- staplcs : (1 ) Rice, every.

where, butespecially in British Burma, Bengal , and the

Carnatic ; (2) wheat (and some barley and other similargrains) , chiefly in the Punjab and Upper India ; (3) themillets (under various native names, such as régi, jowcir,cholam, everywhere, butchiefly in Madras, Bombay,and the Central Provinces. In addition to these it wasshown that an enormous number of other productions

,

entering largely into the food of the people, are cultivatedextensively ; such as various kinds of lentils

,beans

,cu

cumbers,plantains

,and innumerable other vegetables and

fruits.

Of the above, some of the rice and an increasingquantity ofwheat is grown for exportation but the bulkis consumed in the country. Of the commodities that aregrownchicfly for exportation themost important, inregard

AGRICULTURE AND LAND- TENURE'

S. 8 1

tovalue,is the opium,

which was exported in 1878 to thevalue ofmore thantwelve and a quartermil lions sterlingbut

,in regard to extent of cultivation,

themost importantis cotton, which was exported in 1878 to the value of tenmillionssterling. Nextcomeseeds (linseed, &c. to thevalueof seven- and- a- quartermillionssterling ; thenjute, over fourmillions ; then indigo , three- and- a- halfmill ions ; then tea,

over three millions ; then coffee, over one- and- a- quartermill ions. The cultivation of indigo , tea,

and coffee ismainly in the hands of European planters settled in the

country,whoemploy and direct native lab our . Except in

these industriesEumpeanshavevery littledirect connexionwith the agriculture of India

,and even in these the

employment of native capital is being rapidly extended.

Al l this vast and profitab le export trade has grown upwithin comparatively a few years. The chief developmentofthe cotton cultivation took place in consequence of theAmerican civil war stepping the supply to Europe ofAmerican cotton ; and the jute trade isstillmoremodern.

In al l partsof India agricul tural operationsare carriedonwith the aid of bullocks, which are also employed for

al l purposes of draught and carriage. The cow,being a

sacred animal among the Hindus,is not killed for food ;

butdairy produce is everywhere amost important part ofthe food of the people. Hence the breeding of stock and

the tending of cattle occupy a very large portion of theagricultural population. Owing to the religious scruplesoftheHindus, until recently nousewas ever made of theabounding herds of India except during life ; but lately aconsiderable export trade in hides and hornshassprungup, which has quadrupled in value during the last ten‘

years,and isnow of the yearly value of about fourmillions

sterling. In Madras much trouble has been taken in

endeavourstoimprovethe breed of native sheep and the

valueof the expertsof wool isnow about amillion sterling

per annum.

The systemof land~tenure varies greatly in the variousG


provinces of India, and even inthe sameprovince ; and thetermsof the settlement of laud- revenue vary accordingly.

The subject isfar too complicated to be here considered indetail ; a few technical termsmay be explained, and thesimpler methods of settlement in the various provincesindicated . The immediate cultivators, or actual farmers,are general ly called ryots (ra-iyats) ; and in cases whereGovernment collects the revenue directly fromthem,

and treats themas proprietors, the tenure is called ryot

wcim'. Where Government collectstherevenue fromlandholderswho themselves settle withtheir tenants, or ryots,the tenure is called zamindriri

,the landholder being called

a,zaminddr ; or (under slightly altered circumstances) thetenure is called tdlugddri, and the landholders tdluqddrs (itshould be remembered that the termtdluqisalso a commontermfor a certain fiscal area) . Under such tenuresasthezaminddri there is oftenmuch sub infeudation

,the holders

intermediate between the zamindars and the ryots having

Bengal the commonest being thevarious kinds ofpatmdars( roughly translated leaseholders) but though these ‘

inter

mediate holders often possessfixed and evenperpetual legalrights

,they have usually

'

no direct concernwith theGovernment settlement of revenue. When the Governmentdemand is settled with villagecommunities, or the colleetivemembers of a hamlet or township, the tenure is calledm’

xyacha/ra, or by other namesaccording to circumstancesthe district accountants (appointed by Government) are

called kanungoes, the v illageaccountants (appointed by thelandholders) arecalled patwdrz

’

s. Theaboveareonly'

a veryfew of the commonest terms of the various Indian systems.

Throughout the greater part of India,the ‘

settlementof the amount of the land revenue payable to Governmentisfixed for a certain number of years (commonly thirty) ,after careful survey and valuation. These settlement Operations take a long time

,and empl oy a largenumber of

AGRICULTURE AND LAND - TENURES. 8 3

the civil officers of Government, and secure to . Government at least a share of thenatural increase in the amountand value of production. But in those portions of theLieutenant - Governorship of Bengal that formed the old

Mughul provincesof Bengal , Bihar, and Orissa the settlement wasmadepermanent in 1793 ; thereby securing tothe landholders (here called zamindars) al l the advantagesof future improvementsand increasein value of land. The

old province of Orissa consisted only of the districts ofMidnapur

,and part of Hooghly, now included inBengal ;

themodern province of Orissa is a later acquisition,and

the Permanent Settlement wasnotextended to thewholeofit. The Bengal systemof land- tenure is

,then

,zamindciri.

InAssama ryotwari systemis prevalent,the settlement

being an annual one. In the N orth -West Provinces theprevailing systemis a settlement for thirty yearswith thevillageproprietors, the Government share being. broadlycalculated at about . fifty.five per cent . of the assumedrental . There isstill verywidedifference of opinion regard.

ing themerits of the revenue systemof . this province, and

preposals have often beenmade to introduce a permanentsettlement . In Oudh the settlement is chiefly . with the

talugddrs, whohere forma powerful territorial aristocracy,like the zamindc’trs of Bengal . In the Punjab the settlement is verymuch like thatof the N orth -West Provinces

,

but the organisation of the - village communities is moreperfect . Inthe Central Provincesare found almost al l theforms of land- tenureknown to India, the commonest beingthat knownasmcilguzciri, where the estate ismanaged by asingle proprietor

,and the land isheld by cultivatorswhose

rents are thrown intoa common stock. With some ratherimportant exceptions the land- tenure of .Madras is ryot

wcim’

,the settlement being an annual one. Amongst the

more famous exceptions may bementioned some landscalled indon, held rent- free in various ways. In Bombay ,too

,the systemischicfly ryotwcir

fi,thesettlement being for

thirty years. In Sind,however

,the tenure is a kind of

G 2


zaminddr'i. In Burma the systemis ryotwdri ; but the

settlement is very light , being here supplemented by a

capitation- tax,and also by the rice- duty , whichmainly falls

on the cultivator .

59 . Foreign Commerce.— The total value of the

imports of commodities into India for the year ending in1880 was nearly forty millions sterling ; the total valueof the experts was about sixty - sevenmillions sterling .

The difference between the value of the experts and thatof the importswas paid for partly by treasure (of whichabout ten millions sterling was imported into India, inexcess of that carried away) , and partly by ‘CouncilBills.

’The Council Billsare paymentsmade inEngland

,

partly for the expenses of the Indian Government inEngland, and partly as interest for capital sunk in the IndianNational D ebt, in the IndianRailways, &c.

TheIndianexportsarealmost entirely thoseagriculturalproductionsnoticed in the last section. There is, however,a rapidly increasing export of cottonmanufactures and

cotton- twist and yarn,manufactured in Indianmills ; theexperthas doub led in five years

,and is chicfly to China.

Manufactured jute, too (mostly in the shapeof gunny- bags,

sent to Australia and elsewhere for wool- packing) , is ra

pidly increasing as an itemof export ; and immense quantities of gunny - bags are also used for the internal trade inrice. Seventy- five per cent. of the foreign trade of Indiaiswith England and China ; but large quantities of rawcotton are now sent to France, Germany, Austria, and

Italy. The export of saltpetre,which is produced largely

inBengal and elsewhere, was formerly very considerable,and isnew again taking itsold rank .

Of the total imports of India more than half consistof cotton goodsand cotton- twist and yarn; the vastpepu

lations of India being new to a large extent clothed with

the cheap cotton fabrics produced in Lancashire. About

one- tenthconsists of manufactured iron and othermetalgoods; nearly one- fortieth is railway- plaut and rolling

COMMERCE. 8 5

stock . Coal is imported to the annual valueof amillionand themost important of the other 1mports are raw and

manufactured silk,manufactured wool , sugar, machinery,

provisions, liquors, hardware, and books.

60. Inland Tradeand Communications.

— The exportof indigo isnotas greatas it was some years ago and the

exportofraw cottonhasdiminished since the pacificationof America; innearly every other branch of foreign tradethere is a steady increase year by year . But the internaland inter- provincial tradeof India is increasing with fargreater rapidity

,owing to the fact that railway com

munication and other facilitiesfor the rapid conveyance ofmerchandisenow exist— and are cheap— in regions wherenotmany years ago everything had to be carried in theslow bul lock - carts of the country . Themodern securityof the communications, too , evenmore than their rapidity,has tended enormously to develop internal traffic. On the

great rivers and canals of the country,and especially on

the Ganges,the traffic is enormous— the greatand rapidly

increasing railway traffic tending innoway to diminish thewater- borne trade.

Both fromitsownextent and importance,and fromits

obvious economical advantages,the inter- provincial trade

in food- grains takesthefirstplaceinthe internal commerceof India ; and its full development is now seen to b e the

true remedy for those terrible famines which hav e periodical ly devastated the fairest provinces of the Empire.

India isof such vast extent, and its various provinces so

diversified in their physical aspects,that the failure of

the food- crops in any part can always b e supplied out ofthe surplus harvests of the other parts

,under the improved

conditions of communication ; and when these conditionsare further perfected itseems likely that the remedy willb e capable of being applied without the deplorable augmentationofprices thathas hitherto beena necessary preliminary, and thathascaused somuch suffering and

'

death.

In recent famines British Burmahas taken her place

8 6 INDUSTRIES AND PUBLIC WORKS.

as a very trustworthy source of rice supply. The largeincrease inthe commercial marine of the country bringsthe rice to the ports of India rapidly ; and thence the

great extension of railwaysand of feeder - roads carries thesupplies cheaply to al l parts of the interior . In thisway,too, and by the rivers, the teeming agricultural wealth ofLower Bengal and the Carnatic is usually available fordistribution throughout the country— tending to levelprices and to prevent suffering . By thesemeans, also , itisnowpossible for each part of the country to devote itsagriculturemainly to the production of those staples forwhich its soil and climMic conditions best fit it : forinstance

,the cotton- growing countries of Malwa and the

Deccan,and the jute- growing districts of Dacca and

Eastern Bengal , are largely fed fromother regions thatgrow food- grains.

51 . Manufactures.— India possessesal l the requisites,

except capital,for the greatest development ofmanufac

turing industry . In her teeming populations,thrifty,

sober, and hard-working

,she has a far larger and b et

ter supply of cheap lab our than any other country oftheworld except China. Shehas plenty of coal , of iron,

of raw cotton, of raw fib re,and of other raw materials.

Now that the country has become settled and quiet underBritish administration

,English capital will b emore and

more freely attracted towards the boundless field ; as yet

themanufactures of India areonly in their infancy .

Bombay is rapidly rising into importance as a cottonmanufacturing centre, there being already a considerablenumber of largemills in the neighbourhood of the city,chicflyworked by limited companies. The samemay b esaid of Calcutta as a jute-manufacturing centre. The restof the Indianmanufactures are chicfly of the

‘domesti cclass - fi.e. carried on at the homes of themanufacturers,generally poor Operatives. Ofthesethemost important , asbeing universal , is themanufacture of the coarse potteryused everywhere in India. It is made by the leumcir

8 8 INDUSTRIES AN D PUBLIC WORKS.

sects— whohavesettled atZanzibar and on the north - westof Madagascar .

There is a considerable,and growing , inland frontier

trade with Central Asia and Thibet . The trade of thePovindahs (literally

‘ runners ’

) with Central Asia acrossthe mountains of Afghanistan is an old and famousone.

The laifilas (caravans, consisting of long stringsof camels)cross the mountains with escorts armed to the teeth

,

advance and rear guards,picquets and sentries

,like a

beleaguered army . They bring fromCentral Asia borax,

gold- dust,and other commodities and carry thither Eng

l ish cotton goods, &c. The rest of this trade is chiefly bythree routes across the Himalaya : (1) through Kashmir ,fromthe Punjab ; (2) through Kumaon, fromtheN orthWest Provinces ; and (3) through Sikkim, fromBengal .

It is sufficient here to mention the extensivefisheriesof the coast and the great rivers— including some pearlfishing on the south coast

,opposite Ceylon. In British

Burma, Orissa, and Bengal the fisheries supply a veryimportant part of the food of the people ; and fish is

also largely eaten in the N orth -West Provinces and the

Punjab .

63 . Public Works : Railways and Telegraph .

Next to the estab lishment of universal security for lifeand property

,the greatest boon bestowed on India by the

English rule has doubtless been the opening-up of thecountry by railways and feeder - roads. At the end of

1878 traffic was opened on no less than milesofrailway, carrying thirty- eightand ahalfmillions ofpassengers

,and seven and a halfmillion tons ofmerchandise.

The total cost of these railwayshas beenabout 120millionssterling ; and the bulk of this enormous capital has beenraised in England by means of guaranteed companies(t.e. companies guaranteed a certain rate of interest by theIndian Government) . The employés of the various linesnow opennumbermore than of thesemorethanninety- five per cent. are nativesof India, and rathermore

RAILWAYS AND TELEGmriis. 8 9.

than areEuropeans. Railwaymaterial to the valueof about forty millions sterling has been imported intoIndia for theuse of these guaranteed companies or for theStateRailways.

The great trunk - l iuesarethe following1 . Calcutta to Bombay , v id Allahabad and Jabalpur .

This line is called the East Indian Railway ’ fromCaloutta to Jabalpur ; fromJabal pur to Bombay, the GreatIndian Peninsula ’

(vulgb Railway ; but carriagesrun through between Calcutta and Bombay .

2 . Calcutta to D elhi , Lahore, Jhelam(and ultimatelyto b e extended to Peshawar) , called the ‘East IndianRailway fromCalcutta to Delhi

,aid Allahabad and

Cawnpore ; from Ghaziabad (the Delhi junction) to

Lahore it is called the ‘Sind, Punjab , and D elhi ’ Railway ; and beyond Lahore, the

‘N orthern Punjab State ’

Railway .

3 . Bombay to Madras, v z'

ci Gul bargah and Raichore,called the Great Indian Peninsul a ’ Railway fromBombayto Raichore ; thence toMadras the Madras Railway.

Tomake up these three great trunk lines the East

IndianRailway contributes miles the Great IndianPeninsula Railway

,miles ; the Sind, Punjab , and

D elhi Railway, 663 miles ; and the Madras Railway (including also another line fromMadras acrossthe peninsula,111362 the Coimbatore Gap, to Bepur, ontheMalabar coast) ,858 miles.

Only inferior in importance to the above great lines

1 . The l ine fromMadras to the Malabar coast , mentioned above.

2 . The Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway,from the

Gangesat Cawnpore (where also it j oins the East IndianRailway) to

r

Lucknow, and then to Shahjahanpur, 712

miles.

3 . The Eastern Bengal Railway, fromCalcutta totheGangesatGoalando (159miles) whence

,on thenorthern

90 mnusrmss AND PUBLIC WORKS.

side of the river, theNorthernBengal StateRailway (324miles) traverses the rich district of Central and N orthernBengal tothe foot of theHimalayasunder Darjiling .

4. TheSouthIndianRailway (617miles) fromMadrasto Tuticorin

,just opposite Ceylon.

5. The Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway

(421miles) fromBombay to Surat, Bharoch , Baroda, andAM adab ad with an important branch toKathiwar

,and

to be ultimately connected with the Rdjputcina. (State)Railways, which wil l carry the line on to Delhi

, on the

East IndianRailway.

6. The Indus Val ley (State) Railway (915 miles)fromKarachi to Multan,

m'

d Kotri ; at Multan it j oinsthe Sind, Punjab , and DelhiRailway, thus completing thecommunicationbetweenKarachi and Lahore.

There aremany other State railways— that is,lines

constructed by and belonging to Government, such asthe

TirhutRailway, inBihar, originally commencedasa faminerelief work . Several of these lines aremainly promoted bythe great Native Chiefswhose names theyhear ; these are

the N izam’

s railway (121 miles) , Sindia’

s railway(seventy- fivemiles) , Holkar’

s railway (eighty- sixmiles) ,the Gaikwar

’

s railway (fifty- fivemiles) .

Many of the railways here b riefly mentioned have anumber ofmore or less important branches. Fromeverystationon these miles of railway feeder - roads radiatein various directions, Opening up thewhole country to thecommerce of theworld.

There arenow 240 telegraph - otfices in India,connected

bymore than miles of wire. Every railway- stationand every important place in the country is thus broughtinto communication with the telegraph systemof thecivilised world.

64 . Public Works Irrigation.— In every part of

India there arenow extensive irrigation works,intheway

either of wells, or of tanks, or of canals. The GaugesCanal is probably the greatest work of irrigationever con~

92 INDUSTRIES. AND runmc WORKS.

and here fromtimeimmemorial thecare of every b eneficent'

Government has been to aid the cul tivators by the con

struction of irrigationworks. In Sind these works havegenerally takenthe formof leading thewatersof the Indusinto old deserted channels. In the Multan district theirrigationunder native rulewas very complete ; by its aid

a rainless and parched territory was converted into a

succession of beautiful gardens shaded by date- palms and

theEnglish rulershave carefully kept up and improved theold works. In Bhawalpur, too, a very complete systemwas constructed under the auspices of anEnglish politicalofficer and the canals of theBari - doab , in thePunjab , arefamous. InMerwaramany thousands of wel ls and tankshave been dug since the commencement of English rule ;and tothe effect of these is generally attributedmuch ofthe improved condition of theBhils, Mers, and other tribes,formerly little better than savages, of this province.

Oneof the greatest and most famous of the irrigationworks constructed under native rule was the grand canalof Firuz Shah thishas recently beengreatly enlarged andimproved ; it leads fromthe Jamnahatthe point atwhichit emerges fromthe Sival ik Hills to Delhi— with someimportant branches.

Inthe delta of theMahanadi the efforts of the irrigationengineers aremainly directed tosecuring the countryagainst the destructive effects of the suddenfloods to whichthat river is especially liable fromthenature of its course.

Amagnificentseries of scientificembankments and canalshasnow been constructed

,which serves both to protectthe

country fromthe violence of the inundation and to utilisethe water which would otherwisecausesomuch destructionof life and property .

During the twelveyears between the beginning of 1868and the end of 1878 about ten- and- a- halfmillions sterlingwasexpended by Government on extraordinary worksofirrigationin India ; inaddition to anordinary expenditureof about per annum.

THE GOVERNMENT or INDIA. 93

65. Reads, Harbours, L ighthouses.—

'1‘he construc

tion and repair of roads throughout the country was

formerly a heavy charge on the Imperial revenues ; thisexpense is now,

however , borne by local ‘ road- cesses,’

which are raised and Spentunder the supervision of localcommittees. Onthe other hand, the improvement of thevarious harbours and anchorages of India has latelyreceived a great deal ofattention, and necessitated a con

siderab le expenditure. The construction of Karachi harbour

,the improvement of the port of Cochin

,with the

adjacent ‘backwaters,’

the lighting of Bombay harbour,

the investigation of various schemes for a ship - channelbetween India and Ceylon,may b ementioned as instancesof this activity . The erection of lighthouses along the

coast hasmade great progress though stillmuch remainsto b e done in this way, except on the coast of BritishBurma

,whichiswell lighted. There are nineteen light

housesonthe coast oftheMadras Presidency,and nearly

asmany on that of Bombay.

PART VII .

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION .

66. The Government of India. 67. The Local Governments.

68 . The IndianCivi l Service. 69 . The IndianD istrict. 70. The

Departmental Services. 71. The IndianStaff Corps. 72 . IndianTaxation. 73. Local Sel f—government. 74. Pub l icInstruction.

66. TheGovernment ofIndia.— Inour chapter on the

Political Divisions ofIndia the'

political constitutionof theEmpirewas l ikened,

to a Federation of Governments andStates— ial l in more or less direct subordination to a

central Supreme Government , embodied in the Viceroyand Governor- General in Council

,

” representing Her

GraciousMajesty the Queen-Empress.

’

The Supreme Government resides in Calcutta fromN ovember to March , and in Simla fromApril to October ;

94 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION .

whence it supervises the administration of the wholeEmpire. TheViceroy is aided and advised by twoConncil s

,theExecutive Council and theLegislative Council . He

has the power of issuing orders that have the force oflegislationunder certain peculiar circumstances, and withdefinite limitations ; but, broadly, the legislative powerbelongs to the Legislative Council

,of which themembers

of the Executive Council are ex qzficiomembers, and ofwhich theViceroy is the President . In addition to themembers of the Executive Council the LieutenantGovernors of Bengal and of the Punjab are ea: ofieio

memberswithin their respective jurisdictions ; and thereare al so a certainnumber of additionalmembers

,

’

not lessthan six and notmore than twelve, nominated by the

Government,ofwhomat least hal f must be unconnected

with the public service. These additionalmembers giveto the Legislative Council something of a representativecharacter The official half consists of distinguished civilians chosen for their special knowledge of various parts ofIndia whilst thenon- otficial half consists of native chiefsor gentlemen of rank, with some of the leadingmerchantsand barristers of the Presidency. TheViceroy possessesanabsolute power of veto .

TheExecutive Council , forming with theViceroy the

Supreme Government of India, ’ consists of five ordinarymembers,’ with the Commander - in- Chief

,whois called an

extraordinarymember .

’

The departmental systemhasof late years been introduced , under which each membertakes special chargeof one department of theState— muchas Cabinet Ministers do in England . Thus

,there is a

member who is Finance Minister ; another member whois Minister for Home Affairs, Revenue, and Agriculture ;a third who is Minister of Public Works ; a fourth whois War Minister ; a fifth who is Legislative Minister ;whilst the Viceroy himself generally combines with hisown Special functions those also of Foreign Minister.

It will be observed that , with regard to the control of


to the position in the IndianEmpire held by the Fendatory States. These Statesare ruled by their ownhereditary Princes

,who are generally more or less autocratic

withintheir owndominions,and whoare connected with the

Empireon termsusually strictly defined in treaties, saunde,or other documents of record. Inal l cases there is a stipu

lation, expressed or understood, that al l their external re

lations (with each other or with foreign Powers) shall b econducted through themediumof the Imperial Government; and there is also a similar stipulation that theyshall keep the peace andmaintain good government withinthe limits of their own territories, whilst in returntheyare guaranteed security fromforeign fees

,and general

protection. Inmany cases thesemutual obligations arelargely extended and increased for instance

,most Feuda

tories are bound to aid theEmpire in case of need withtroops ormoney, andmany pay a fixed contribution to theImperial revenues. Butthe stipulations abovementionedindicate the general principles of the connection betweentheEmpire and its feudatories.

The Governorships of Madras and Bombay,though

inferior in size and importance to some other provinces,are more independent of the Supreme Government, inheriting in their constitution theprestige of their ancientposition as

‘Presidencies ’

at a time whenmost of theterritories of N orthern India were not under Britishdominion. The Governors are aided by a Council. Theyhave their own Commanders- ih- Chief

,their own army

,

their own Civ il Service and they correspond direct withthe Secretary of State for India in London. They ezercise al l the patronagewithin their respective charges; andthe recent decentralisation’ of finance has given themsubjec t to certain control fromthe Supreme Government,tocertain obligations to contribute for Imperial purposes,and to certain restrictions of general principles— muchindependence both in the expenditure and in the raising oftheir own revenues. TheGovernorsare appointed by the

THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS. 97

Crown in England ; and though occasionally an Indiancivilianof extraordinary ability is selected, they aremoreusually statesmen of English or colonial experience.

The Lieutenant - Governorship of Bengal is far largerand more populous than any other prov ince of India.

Indeed, this Lieutenant- Governor exercises rule, virtuallysupreme, over a population larger than that ruled by theEmperor of Germany or any other European potentate,except the Czar. The Lieutenant - Governor hasa Legislative Council , but no Executive Council . There is no

command- in- chief separate fromthat of India whilst theArmy and the Civil Service are

,inname at least, only a

part of the services which work thewhole of N orthernIndia fromthe Punjab to Assam. In al l other respectssave, also , that the Lieutenant - Governor does not correSpend directly with the India Othee, and that he hassomewhat less pay and a smaller personal statf— he is onprecisely the same footing as a Governor . There are

about the samenumber of secretaries to Government andot

'

under - secretaries ineach case and,except in regard to

the army, the samenumber of departmental chiefs. Forinstance

,under the orders of a Lieutenant- Governor there

are, for educationalmatters, a D irector of Public Instruotion for police organisation,

an Inspector- General ofPol ice; an Inspector - General of Jails

,an Inspector

General ofRegistration,a Sanitary Commissioner

,and so

on. The same description applies broadly to the Lieutenaut- Governors of theNorth -West Provinces and of thePunjab , except that neither of these prov inces possesses 3.

Legislative Council . The Lieutenant - Governors are appointed by the Viceroy, subject to the sanction of theSecretary of State. In Bengal and the N orth -West

Provinces they are alwaysmembers of the Bengal CivilService ; in the Punjab the Lieutenant - Governor may b eamilitary officer, butisusually a Bengal civil ian.

The powers exercised by a Chief Commissioner onlydiffer fromthose of. a Lieutenant - Governor in compara

H


tively unimportant points. The patronage in a ChiefCommissionership is supposed to belong to theViceroy ;but practicallymost of it is dispensed on the recommendation of the Chief Commissioner . And in other respectsthe powersof an Administration (astheseminor Governments are sometimes technically called) hardly differ fromthose of a Government

,

’

which is the title given to theruling authority inaGovernorship or Lieutenant Governorship . It may be added that the title of a Governor (likethat of theViceroy

,of the Commander - in- Chief in India,

and of the Madras and Bombay Commanders- in- Chief) isHisExcel lency ; that of a Lieutenant - Governor and of aChief Commissioner isHisHonour.

One exceptional formof Government remains to b enoticed

,that of Barar— called also ‘ theBardrs

,

’ or ‘the

Haidambacl Assigned Districts] As this fine provincewasonlymade over to the British Government as security fortreaty - paymentson the part of the N izamof Haidarabad,it is in theory administered by its present Government ofBritish officers only in trust for the N izam. Consequentlythe officer who is virtually at the head of theAdministration is the Resident at Haidarabad ; and al l surplusrevenues, after meeting the cost of government and the

secured treaty - payments, are paid to theN izam.

§ 68 . The Indian Civil Service.— The title of ‘

the

Indian Civil Service ’

is,by a curious anomaly that is

really a survival of ancient forms, usually restricted to a

small portion,a corps of the actual Civil Service of

India ; the very heterogeneous remainder being commonlygrouped under the title of

‘the Uncovenanted Civil Ser

vice.

’

The Civil Service is appointed partly onthe resultsof an open competition held annually in London, partly

(but only for natives of India) by nomination in India.

By law nearly al l the highest appointments in India are

reserved for the members of this service,as also are al l

the chief l ocal executive and judicial appointments, whichfromthe backbone of Indian administration. Al l district


this periodmake it one of themost important parts of anIndian civ ilian’

s career . In two or three years more,or

perhapsa little longer , he isappointed, first acting,

’ then‘ permanent, ’ or ‘ pucka ’

(pakha) . Joint -Magistrate, with

pay varying fromabout £800 to a littlemore thanper annum.

Nors.

- Civi l ians are entitled to two years’ furlough after eightyears' service, and thereafter oneyear after four years; and on leavingfor Europe they retaina l ienontheir permanent appointments, juniorsbeing appointed to act or ofiiciate for themona certainproportionof their salary . The resul t of this necessary arrangement is, thatalargenumber of thecivil officers, actual ly atwork inIndia atany onetime, are oflicz

’

atmg for absentees or for those who are themselvesofficiating for absentees, usual ly at a salary somewhat greater thanthatof their own pucka, appointment, and somewhat l essthanthatoftheabsentee.

The newly appointed Joint-Magistrate, if he is not

already stationed at the district head- quarters— which iscalled the sudder (sadrz chief) station— generally has torepair thither . Herehis dutiesare largely, though by nomeans entirely

,judicial ; and under recent arrangements

for separating the executive fromthe judicial branch ofthe Service, he is called upon to decide which branch hewill elect for his future promotion. If he electsthe judi

cial branch hewill be promoted indue course (generally,roughly Speaking, at someperiod betweenhis twelfth andtwentieth years of service) to be, first acting and thenpermanent ‘D istri ct and Sessions Judge

,

’

on a pay in

creasing fromabout to per annum, with

the chance of ultimately becoming aHigh Court Judgeonper annum. If he elects the executive branch he

is promoted in likemanner to be first acting and thenpermanent D istrict Magistrate and Collector

,

’with a pay

generally similar to that of the Judge with the chance ofbecoming a Commissioner of D ivision

,

’on a pay of about

and possibly a Chief- Commissioner, withper annum,

or a Lieutenant - Governor , with per

annum. There are also , of course, al l thenumerous high

THE INDIAN DISTRICT. 101

appointments connected with the staff of the Local Governments, and with that of the Supreme Government ,to be fil led fromthe ranks of the Civil Service ; and

it occasionally happens that a young Assistant or JointMagistrate is appointed to be an Assistant or UnderSecretary to Government, and remainsonthe‘ central staffto the end of his career . This

,however, is very unusual

the coursewhich has been sketched above is the regularline of the Indian Civil Service, fromwhich it generallyhappens that the central staff is recruited by turns. Itmay be said broadly that every Indian civilian, with healthand good conduct, is certain to become either a D istrictJudge or a D istrict Magistrate; other preferment is notabsolutely certain; but it wil l be seen presently that theseofficers formthe backbone of the Indian systemof ad

ministration. After twenty - fiveyears’

service (of whichtwenty - onemust b espent in India, noton furlough), everymember of the Civil Service is entitled to a pension of

per annum. Part of this,however

,is provided

by the accumulation of a small percentage that has beendeducted fromhis pay every month during the wholeperiod of service.

69 . TheIndianDistrict. — The district has beenwellcalled the ‘unit of the Indian systemof administration.

Here there is,froman executive point of view, a little

imperiumin imperio: the Magistrate and Collector is re

sponsible for everything that happenswithinit, and throughhimthe Goyernmentacts in everything . Ouabout a levelwith the Magistrate, as far as dignity and responsibilityare concerned

,but entirely removed fromal l executive

cares, is theD istrict Judge, whohas notonly a very largeoriginal jurisdiction, but is also the Court of Appeal forthewhole district. Subject to the appeal to the Judge’sCourt (whence, also , in certain cases anappeal lies to theHigh Court of the Province

,and thence to the Privy

Council in England), there are a number of SubordinateCourts

,located at various convenientor important places

102 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

inthedistrict ; these are usually presided over by nativejudicial officers called Munsifs, who are sometimes promoted to the rank of Subordinate Judge (formerlycalled sadr amin). Under the Magistrate, as the chiefexecutive ofiicer

,are the Joint-Magistrate, three or four

Assistant-Magistrates, belonging to the Covenanted CivilService ; and a larger number of Deputy-Magistrates, whoare generally native gentlemen. The Deputy -Magistrates

(withsometimes Sub - Deputy-Magistrates) belong to whatis called the Subordinate Executive Service and the

Mumfs and Subordinate Judges to f the SubordinateJndicial Service both of which are included under thegeneral term‘Uncovenanted Civil Service.

’

Each district is divided into four or five subdivisions

,each admi

nistered by either an Assistant or a Deputy Magistrateresident therein ; and often conterminouswith this jurisdiction is that of a Munszf. There is also ineach districta D istrict Superintendent of Police (often a militaryofficer) , who isthe Magistrate

’

s assistant and adviser inpolicematters, and whohas himself one or twoAssistantSuperintendentsunder him. The pol ice forcehas a largenumber of petty officers, called in Bengal head- cmwtab lesand inspectors, and is itself a sort of irregul ar militaryforce. There is also generally a D istrict -Engineer, oftenamilitary officer, whois responsible both to the Magistrateand also to the Public Works Department for the roadsand other public works of the district

,and whohas under

hima staff of supervisors and other petty , officers. And

there is generally a doctor,called the Civil Surgeon of the

district , whois responsible for sanitation, &c.,and is also

oftenthe Superintendent of the D istrict Jail .In thismanner and with these chief ofiicers is anor

dinary Bengal district administered. The MagistrateandCollector issubordinate, and reportstotheCommissioner ofthe D ivision, which includes four or hye districts; and theCommissioner is subordinate to the Board of Revenue at

Calcutta,and generally to theLocal Government. A some


tatives of theEmpire in the Feudatory States, with a fewothers. Thisservice is fil led almost exclusively by officersof the Staff Corps ( seenext section) , or bymembersof theCivil Service ; and appointments aremade by theViceroy .

TheMedical Department (which is official ly a branchof the army) is filled up by open competition inEngland .

Thewidely diffused Engineer Service,or Department

of Public Works,is recruited partly by trainedmen from

theRoyal Engineering Col lege at Cooper’sHi ll (to whichentrance is gained by open competition in London) , partlyfromthe officers of the Royal Engineers and [of the StaffCorps

,and partly fromlocal nominations in India. Those

who enter this service begin as Assistant Engineers ;fromwhich position they are promoted to be ExecutiveEngineers (usually the rank of theofficer whohas chargeof the public works of one district) . Thence the promotion is to Superintending Engineer , who generally supervises the Executive Engineers of al l the districts in a

division thence to be Chief-Engineer, whois the headof the public works of a province, and whose pay is about

or a year . There are also a large numberof Stat? appointments connected with this service in the

Government of India, and a largenumber appropriated tothe Special works of Irrigation,

Railways,&c.

The Department of Public Instruction, like the CivilServiceproper , consists of twobranches ; one the superioror ‘Graded Service, under covenant with the Secretarvof State; the other the subordinate or Uncovenanted Service. The former isnow appointed solely by the Secretaryof State inEngland, and consistsmainly of graduates ofOxford and Cambridge selected by the Secretary of Statefromthe Honour Lists of thoseUniversities; the latter isappointed by the Local Governments

,and consistsmainly

of graduates of the Indian Universities. The GradedEducation Service is a very small body , numbering onlyabout 100 inal l India. A member of it on first appointment is posted to be a Professor inone of the Government

INDIAN DEPARTMENTS. 105

Colleges; hispay beginsat£600 per annum, and rises in

four years to £900 ; thence, by‘

promotion to higher gradesof the service, to inthe third grade, to in

the second grade,and to in the first grade. A

Professor in course of time is promoted to be a Principalof a College

,or an Inspector of Schools for a division of

a province ; and, final ly, hemay become the head of theEducational Department of his province, called D irectorof Public Instruction,

’

Whose pay inmost provinces isper annum.

The Subordinate Educational Service is one of the

largest official bodies in India. It consists of deputy- in

spectors and sub - inspectors of schools,head-masters and

junior masters of Government schools,and of a few sub

professors and lecturers in the colleges. The pay risesfroma very small sumtoamaximumof£600 per annum.

This branch of thedepartment isreserved for native gentlemen; indeed, an increasing number of native graduatesarenow qualifying themselves for

,and being admitted to,

the graded'Service.

The patronageof thePolice department is,perhaps, the

most important that isnow left in the hands of the localGovernments. In each of the larger provincesthe department consists of an Inspector - General

,whosepay is

per annum, with a central staff and a considerablenumberof district superintendents and assistant superintendentsscattered through the various districts. The pay of thelatter in Bengal commences at £300

,rising gradually to

per annumfor first grade district superintendents.

The Forest D epartment,on the other hand

,is now

recruited entirely in England by Open competition. The

pay and prospects of the officers in this department aregenerally considered good. Their duties have been indicated in the sectiononForests.

The appointments to the superior grades of theFinanceDepartment aremade by Open competition in India. The

competition is generally very severe ; and, although Latin


and French may b e taken up as subjects, the prizes notunfrequently fall to clever native students. The pay ofthis department is on a very liberal scale, rising to between

and per annumin the regular line, besidessome central Staffappointments.

The appointments in the Geological Survey, and thosein the scientific (electrician) branch of the TelegraphDepartment

, are made by the Secretary of State in

England.

The Postal and Registration Departments are bothvery large indeed ineach one or twoof thehighest postsineach prov ince are held bymembers of the CovenantedCivil Service

, whilst all theother appointmentsare reservedfor native gentlemen. There are also many other minordepartments generallymanned in thisway.

71 . The Indian Staff Corps.— Since the abolition of

the old Indian Army, the place formerly occupied by its

officers has been taken by the officers of the Bengal ,Madras

,and Bombay Staff Corps. The two great pecul i

arities of themilitary service of English officers in Indiahave always been

, first, that many military officers are

habitually and permanently employed in civil duties and,

secondly, that a large number of Engl ish officers are employed with native regiments. The three Indian StaffCorps prov idemen for these peculiar duties ; this is themeaning of the term Staff Corps ’

in Indiar— ameaningnecessarily different fromthat which it hasinevery othercountry in the world. The Staff Corps consist, first, oftheseofficersof the ol d IndianArmieswhoweretransferredto themon the amalgamation of theEnglish and Indianmilitary services; and, secondly, of these officers of theEnglish Army who elect to b e transferred to these corpsfor the particul ar duties indicated

,and who pass certain

required examinations. In this waymilitary officers, byjoining theStaff Corps

,besidesbecoming eligible for service

with native regiments (inwhich the conditions of serviceare particularly favourable) ,may obtain employment in


twomillions each , abkciri being levied on al l intoxicatingliquors and narcotic drugs. The sale of stamps

, which isbel ieved to Operate to some extent as a check on ex

cessive litigation, realises between twoand threemillions.

These are al l the really important sources of revenue no

other yields alone asmuch asonemillion, though the postotheeand the telegraphs taken together producemore thanthat sum; and the contributions fromNativeStatesamountto about three- quarters of amill ion. Twoforms of directtaxation (the incometax , and the license- tax on trades andprofessions) have sometimes been imposed ; but they havegenerally been at very low rates and for temporarypurposes.

In addition to the above revenues a large amount isnow raised and expended locally inthe various provinces,in the formsof road- cesses

,education- cesses, &c.

73 . Local Sel f- government.— One of the most interesting features of Indian development during the last fewyearshas been the growth ofmunicipalities. Besides thethree great Presidency cities there are now no less than894municipalities in various parts of the country , with anaggregate population of about fourteenmillions, who are

thus becoming gradually acquainted with the rudimentaryprinciplesof selfgovernment . Thesemunicipalities, duringthe year fromApril 1 , 1876, to March 31

,1877, raised

and expended an annual income of about one- and- a- quartermillions sterling. Themost important sources of ;municipal revenue are octroi - duties and taxes on lands and

houseswithinmunicipal limits the chief objects ofmunicipal expenditureare (1) conservancy, (2) policeand registration, (3) constructionandmaintenance of roads.

§ 74. Public Instruction.— There is a vast systemof

public instruction in India,fromthe petty Village school

up to the great Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, andMadras. The schools and colleges supported or aided bythe Statenumbered, in 1878 , noless than withan

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION . 109

average daily attendance of The total cost

( including receipts fromfees, endowments, &c.) wasaboutone- aud- a- halfmillionssterl ing per annum.

Of course the vast bulk of the institutions here enumerated are simple village schools, which only receivea smallgrant - in- aid fromthe State, toekeoutthe tiny fees of thevillagers in supporting the schoolmaster. But al l these

schools are periodical ly inspected, and at least a certainrude efficiency guaranteed. Then

,above these

,there are

a large number of excellent Anglo - vernacular schools,’

schools in which English is taught as a language, inaddition to the ordinary subjects of a simple education.

Then in each z ila,or district

,there is, asa rule, at least one

higher - classEnglish school,wherein al l the ordinary sub

jects of a liberal education are taught— English and Sanskrit (or, for Muhammadans, Arabic) , taking the placeassigned to Latin and Greek inEngland. These schoolsare

‘atfiliated to theUniversity of Calcutta, or Bombay,

or Madras, as the casemay be that is

,they sendup every

year candidates for the entrance ormatriculation examination. Inthe year 1878 therewere candidatesforthematriculation of the Calcutta University, of whom

succeeded and becameundergraduates; at Madrasthere were candidates

, of whom807 passed ; atBombay

,candidates

,of whom217 passed. Ouen

tering the University the undergraduate is required tobecome amember of oneof the colleges. Al l three IndianUniversities are broadly on themodel of the LondonUniversity

,and their affiliated colleges are situated in various

parts of the country,sending up their students for exami

nation at certain stated intervals. After two years’ studyin a college, there is the Little-

go examination, which iscalled the firstexamination inarts

,

’

or, b riefly, theE A.

after four years there is the examination for the BA.

degree and,after a further year

,that for honoursand the

M.A. degree. In al l these University examinations thepapers are set in English ; and the standard is, on the

1 10 LITERATURE AND LEARNING.

whole, not inferior to that of the English Universities— themere pass. standard for the B .A. degree being probablyrather higher . Besides the Faculty of Arts there are in

each University Faculties of Law, Medicine, and CivilEngineering . The Calcutta Medical School is, inpoint ofaverage number of students

,the largest in the world .

About one hundred Bachelors of Arts, thirty Masters ofArts

,thirty Bachelors of Law,

and ten Bachelors of CivilEngineering annually pass the Calcutta University abouthalf asmany are produced by the MadrasUniversity, andabout one- quarter by Bombay .

PART VIII .

LITERATURE AND LEARNING.

75. Ancient and Modern L iterature. 76. Ancient Sanskritand Pali L iterature. 77. Muhammadan L iterature. 78 . ModernVernacular L iterature.

75 . AncientandModernLiterature— Thoughmodernlearning has vastly increased of late years in India thebulk of its standard literature still consists of the greatproductions of early ages. By far the greater portion ofthis literature is to be looked for in the immense stores ofSanskrit learning and poetry handed down fromancienttimes ; with (especially among the Buddhists of Ceylon,Nepal

,and Burma) a considerable amount of Pali, a lower

formof the same language. Next in importance comestheMuhammadan literature of theMiddleAges

,written in

Persian or Arabic . And,lastly

,there is themodern ver

nacular literature,daily increasing both inamount and in

excellence.

76. Ancient Sanskrit and P511 Literature.— The

religious literature of the Hindi’

is is commonly divided bytheminto S'

ruti,or Revelation

,and Smm’

ti,or Tradition.

Under the former head are comprised the Samhitds and

and Brdhxmanas of theVedas; whilst the latter includes


the Puréna, or History . The second was the Nydya, orLogic . The third was theM zfimdnsa, or Moral Philosophy.

The fourth was theD lumna- Sdstm, or Jurisprudence. Of

this fourth Upanga the best known is theMdnavadharmascistm

,or Laws of Mann (see Chap . II.) the law- book

of the Manavas, a subdivision of the sect of the Taittiriyas.

The twogreat epic poems of theMahabharata and theRamayana will be fully discussed in the text of this History (see Chap . 1 . 3 , 4, There are, however, someepic poets of amuch later age. Of theseKdliddsa

,better

known as the greatest Hindudramatist (the Shakspeare

of India — seenext paragraph) , wrote the celebrated poemcalled Raghuvansa, or History of the Race of Rama ; beginning with Dilipa, the father of Raghu, and mainlydevoted to the celebration of the exploits of Raghuand

his godlike grandson, Rama. The purity of sentiment,

and the tenderness and fidel ity of the characters repre

sented, are characteristic both of theRaghuvansa and of al lthe other works of Kalidasa. He also wrote theKumdmSambhava, or Birth of Kartikeya. the God of War

,to

gether with some other poems of thenature of epics. The

other great epic poets areBhdram’

, Sri-Harsha, andMdgha,

whosewritings, with those of Kalidasa, have been digni

fied by the titlesMahdKdvya, or the Great Poems. Bharavi is the author of the Kirdtdrjuniyd, which contains an

account of the conflict carried on by Arjuna against Sivain the formof a Kirata or wild hunter . Sri-Harsha

’

s

principal work istheN aishadha- Charita,or theAdventures

of Nala, Raja of Nishadha. Magha is the author of Sz'

su

pdla Bodha, an epic poemon the death of Sisupala. A

fifth epic poet, named Soma-Deva,is the author of the

VrihatKathd.

We come now to the Sanskrit dramatists. Of theseby far the greatest isKalidasa, who is said by the Hindusto have beenone of the gems of the Court of Vikramaditya,

’ King of Ujjain (see Chap . Hismost im

SANSKRIT DRAMAS. 1 13

portant drama is Sakuntald, or the Lost Ring, the plot ofwhich is taken froman episode in the Mahabharata. Ithas been translated into English , French , Bengali , Hindi ,and other languages. The plot is as follows : Sakuntalawas the daughter of the great Rishi Visvamitra

,by

Menaka,who had been sent fromheaven by Indra to

allure the sage fromhis austere penances. WhenVisvamitra returned to his penances Menaka went back toheaven, and Sakuntala was adopted by theRishi Kanwa

,

and subsequentlymarried in the Gandharvamanner to theRaja Dushyanta. Being cursed by a Rishi , named Durvasa, shewas fated to b e forgotten by her husband ; butas some remission of this cruel sentence it wasdecreed thatDushyanta should again remember her on seeing a ringwhichhe had given her. The loss of this ring in the

waters of the tank , the grief of Sakuntala at being disowned by her husband, the ultimate recovery of the ringinthe belly of a fish

,and the final recognition and happi

ness of Sakuntala, are the chief incidents of the play .

The son of Dushyanta and Sakuntala was Bharata,the

ancestor of the Pandas and Kurus. It isworthy of notethat

,whilst the higher classesare represented in the play

as speaking the classical Sanskrit, the lower classes speaka debased formof Prdkm’

t.

The other great drama of Kalidasa is called the Vikramorvasi. It is the story of the loves of King Vikrama ofPrayag

,and the nymphUrvasi, whowas changed into a

climbing- plant .The Toy- Cart (Mrichohhakati) is the name of a cele

b rated drama of domestic life, said to be by a certain kingnamed Sudraka. Its scene is laid in Ujjain its hero aBrahmannamed Oharudatta, whoisamodel of virtue, butwhohas been impoverished by his generosity .

Six other famousSanskrit dramasremainto b enoticed.

The firstis called Mdlati and Mddhcwa ; it waswritten byBhavdbhz

’

ctz’

,a Brahman of Barar

, whose popularity as a

dramatist rivalled that of Kalidasa. Bhavabhi’

itiwas‘

also


theauthor of two other great dramas— the Uttara-EdmaC'harz

'

ta (the plot of which is derived fromthe seventhbook of the Ramayana) , and the Mahdvim- O

'

harita (seeChap . I. The fourth is the Mudrci- d shasa

,by

Visdkhadatta,wherein is dramatised the revolution by

which Chandragupta succeeded the Nandas in the kingdomof Magadha (see Chap . VI . The fifth is calledRatndval z

’

,or the Necklace, a play attributed to King

Harsha of Kashmir,who reigned from1113 to1125 A.D .

The sixth is a theological and philosophical drama byKrishna Misra

,called Pmbodha- O

'handrodaya, or the

rising of themoon of awakened intellect . ’ It wasprobablycomposed in the twelfth century

, and its object wastheestablishment of Vedanta doctrine.

Themost famous lyric poemin Sanskrit istheMegha

Duta, or Cloud-messenger,by the great dramatist Kalidasa;

and another by the same author is called theRitu- Sanhdra,descriptive of the seasons. A lyric poem,

half dramatic ,half pastoral , called Gita about the loves of theherdsmanKrishna and hisshepherdessRadha, waswrittenby Jayadeva about the twelfth century . Jayadeva

’

s versesare distinguished by themost exquisitemelody .

We comenow to theN itikathd,or fablesand workson

ethics. Themost celebrated work of this class is the

Panchatantm,so called fromits being divided into five

sections, or five col lections of stories. It is attributed toVishnu- Sarma, and is the foundation of a similar colleetion of fables called theHitoloaclesa, or Salutary Instruotion.

’The Panchatantmwas translated into Pehlevi by

the orders of Naushirvan, King of Persia fromA.D . 531 to599 and hence, under thename of theFab lesofBidpa/iorPihmy, was translated into most of the languages of thecivilised world. ItsArabic form

,under thename of Kalila

wwDamna, was also very celebrated . The story of thecomposition of thePanchatantv'a is curious. A certain kinghad three sonswhoweredeficientinability and application.

Hemade this known to his councillors, and asked their


A remarkable change in the character of the literatureof India is observable at the time of the Muhammadaninvasions. At this period, for the first time

,we obtain

numerous and valuable historical works. This taste forhistorical literaturewas inherited fromtheArabs by theIndianMuhammadans. TheArabshad been

, during the

latter part of theDark Ages inEurope, the chief cultivators of science ; and Arabic literature had at a veryearly period attained a high stage of development . The

Persian literature of India was largely indebted to thescholarship of the Arabs. It will b e sufficient for ourpresent purpose if we notice a few of the chief historiansand poets, authors of themost famousworks.

Themost celebrated historian of India wasFirishtah,

whowas born atAhmadnagar about A.D . 1570. He livedat the court of IbrahimAdil Shah II .

,of Bijapur

,from

A.D . 1589 to about 1612 and to thatmonarch he dedicatedhis great work, the Tarikh Fifm

'

shta. This is a generalhistory of India, commencing A.D . 975 and terminatingwith 1605. It was translated into English by Dow

,and

has been the foundation of the history of the Muhammadan period in India, as given inmost English standardworks.

Hardly less celebrated is the great historical work ofAbu] Fazl , the primeminister of Akbar (seewhich is called the Akba/r- Namah. The first volume ofthis gigantic work contains the history of the family ofTimur, as far as it concerns India. The second volume isdevoted to the detailed history of nearly forty- six years ofthe reign of Akbar. The third volume— by far the mostcelebrated of al l— is called theAin- i-Akbari

,or Institutes

of Akbar, containing a minute account of every department of government, of every part of the empire, and ofeverything connected with theEmperor’s establishments

,

public and private. The brother of Abu] Fazl,named

Faizi,was also a very learnedman and a great writer. He

especial ly devoted his attention to Sanskrit literature ; and

MUHAMMADAN LITERATURE. 1 17

translated into Persianmany great Sanskrit works, including theMahabharata.

In 1341 an African traveller, named Ibn Batutah,

visited Delhi . He was received with great respect,and

appointed to the office of judge by the king, MuhammadBin Tughlak (see Chap . X . Seeing

,however

, someevidence of Muhammad’

s capricious and cruel temper,he

resigned his office. The king, without taking offence,attached himto an embassy to China, and thus honourably dismissed him. His Travels (which have been translated inEnglish and French) containvery valuableaccountsof India.

The chief historian of the later Mughul period wasMir Muhammad

,better knownasKhafi Khan. Aurangzeb

(see Ch'

ap . XIV .) strictly ordered that no history shouldbewritten; butMir Muhammad wrotehis in secret duringthe latter part of Aurangzeb

’

s reign (about A.D . and

hence obtained the titleKhafi Khan (theconcealed) .

There aremany other historians, to whoseworks (somein Arabic

,butmostly in Persian) we need only b riefly

al lude. Sultan Babar wrote Memoirs of his own life,which aremost graphic and interesting : they were original ly written in Turki

,but were translated into Persian.

Utb iwrote the Tdrikh Yamini, the history of the periodof Sab aktigin and his great successor Mahmud. Hasan

N izamwrote the d -ul -madsir, memoirs of the lives ofMuhammad Ghori

,Kutb -ud- diu

,and Altamsh. It was

written atDelhi aboutthe year 1210 it is partly in verse,

and containsmuch Arabic . A more important historyis that of Minhaj-us- Siraj

,whose work

,the Tabakdt- i

N dsiri, is the most trustworthy authority for the historyof the Afghan period down to the accession of Balban.

Twovaluable histories of the later part of the same periodare both called Tcirihk- i- Fimiz- Skdh

'

one being writtenby Z ia-uddin Barni

, the other by Shams- i- Siraj Afif.

Other historians areAbdul -Kadir Badaoui and N izam-ud

dinAhmad, whowrote in the time of Akbar ; MuatimadKhan

, whowrote the Jahdngir-Ndmah; Muhammad Bin

1 18 LITERATURE AND LEARN ING.

saleh , whowrote the ShaikJ ahé/n- Ncimah; MirzaMuhammad Kasim

,who wrote theAlamgz

'

r-Ncimah; and Sayyid

GhulamHusain Khan, a relative of the Nawab Alivirdi

Khan (see Chap . who wrote a history of theeighteenth - century Hindustaninthe year 1783.

Amongst many others we may mention three veryfamous Muhammadan poets of India— Ferdausi

,Ansari

,

and Amir Khusrau .

Ansari and Ferdausiwere both ornamentsof the courtof Mahmud of Ghazni . The latter has been call ed the

PersianHomer ’ hewrote theShdh- Ndmah,in praise of

Mahmud.

Amir Khusrauwasone of the illustrious literary exileswhofled fromPersia to the Court of Balban to avoid theMughuls. Hewrote an immense amount of poetry

,some

of which has been considered very beautiful . Twoof hismost celebrated poems are (1 ) on the loves of KhizrKhan and Dewal Dev i (see Chap . X .) and (2) on the

meeting between theEmperor Kaikubad and his father,

Bughra Khan (see Chap .

78 . ModernVernacular Literature.— The literature

of themodern vernaculars of India is of recent growth,

except in Tamil,which possesses somemediaeval poetry of

great beauty.

At the present timethe Bengali literature is themostflourishing. Formerly a mistaken view of the philologyof the Bengali language caused many of the best authorsin that language tomake their writing Sanskrit ratherthan true Bengali ; and even now there is a tendency toaimat a highly Sanskritised style

,the result of which is

a great divergence between the written and the spokenlanguage. Of late years

,however

,thewider diffusion of

criti cal and philological scholarship has tended to correctthis defect of pedantry, and to strengthenand purify thelanguage. A recently published History of Bengali Lite.

ratwre by a well - known Bengali author gives a valuableaccount of the early growth of the language. There are

atthe presentmoment a considerablenumber of ‘standard

120 RELIGIONS AND CUSTOMS.

PART IX .

RELIGIONS AND CUSTOMS.

79. BréLhmanismor Hinduism. 80. Its History. 8 1. Its

ModernAspect. 82 . Avatars. 8 3. Legends. 84. HinduClergy.

85 . HinduSects, and HinduReformers. 86. TheBrahma Samaj .87. Sikhs. 8 8 . Buddhism. 89 . Jainism. 90. Musalmans.

91 . Parsis. 92 . HinduCaste. 93. Obsolete or Prohib itedCustoms. 94. ChristianMissions.

79. Brahmanismor Hinduism.— Of the 240mill ions

whoinhabit the IndianEmpire it is estimated that about185 millions profess a religionmore or less closely con

nected with,or derived from

,the ancient faith of the

Aryan Hindus that found its earliest expression in the

hymns of the VEDAS (see Chap . 1 . When we lookatHinduismin its presentmanifold forms of developmentor degeneration

,and consider also its past history , it will

be evident that it is (in the words of Monier Williams)like a huge irregular structure which hashad nosingle

architect but a whole series,and has spread itself over an

immense surface by continual additions and accretions.

’

80. Its History.— The history of Brahmanism— its

origin in the simple doctrines,partlymonotheistic , partly

pantheistic,of theVedas— its development into a priestly

systemas shown in the Institutes of Mann, and a series ofphilosophical systems as seen in the Darsanas— its furtherdevelopment into a popular religion, powerq y appealingtohuman sympathies in the stories of the godlike avatdrsor Incarnations of Vishnuin the heroic forms of Krishnaand Rama, as shown in the great epics of thc Mahdbhcirataand the Rdmdyana— its hual development, not alwaysunaccompanied by degradation

,in the legends and tra

ditions of thePardaus— will be b riefly traced in the courseof our first chapter.

8 1 . Its ModernAspect. — Brahmanismin itsmodern

MODERN ASPECT or BRA'

HMANISM. 121

aspect has twosides— ~one esoteric , philosophical , the re

l igion of the few— the other exoteric, popular, the religionof themany ; and, as in other religions, the differencebetween these two sides is wide, in proportion to the

ignorance and credulity of themasses and the exclusivenessofthe educated and priestly classes.

Philosophical Brahmanism,based on the Upam

’

shcwl oftheVedas

,isa Spiritual Pantheism; it teachesthat nothing

really exists buttheone self- existent Spirit called Brahma(neuter) , al l else isMdyci, or Illusion ; nothing exists butGod

,and everything existing is God. Men, animals

,

plants, stones, pass through innumerable existences, andmay even rise to be gods; butgods,men, animals, plants,and every conceivable emanation fromthe Supreme Soulaimat

,andmust end by, ABSORPTION (or rather reabsorp

tion) into their source, Brahma.

’

It is hardly necessary to say that idolatry and polytheismare indignantly disclaimed by the highest teachersof this philosophical Brahmanism. The numerous gods,represented by images

,are regarded by themas simply

manifestations of the one universal Spirit . They say

worship before images, not to images, is practised by usas a condescension to weak -minded persons and again,Our sacred books insist on the unity of the SupremeBeing

,and abound in the grandest descriptions of His

attributes : He is “themost Holy of al l holies

,

” “the

mostBlessed of the blessed,” the God of al l gods,”

the

Everlasting Father of al l creatures,” omnipotent

, omniscient, omnipresent, ” He is the life in al l ,

”

the Father,Mother, Husband, and Sustainer of theworld,

”the Birth

and Death of al l,

”theone God hidden in al l beings

,and

dwelling asa witnesswithin their hearts.

” 1

Practically, themost prominent dogma of philosophical

Anadmirab leaccountofthemodernaspectsofBrahmanismistob e found in Professor Monier Wil l iams’s ModemIndia, fromwhichthese quotationsaretaken.


Brahmanismis the transmigration of souls, ending onlywith absorption into the Supreme Being. It isnotdiffi.

culttosee that, inits exoteric and popular side, Brahmanism(or Hinduism, as it is there commonly called) tendstobecome a polytheism

,inwhich the manifestations of the

Supreme Being,as gods represented by images, are adored

by the ignorant worshipper .

§ 82 . Avatars.— One of themost interesting doctrines

of Brahmanismis that of Incarnation. Vishnu,as the

Pervader and Preserver, is believed to have passed intomen to deliver theworld fromthe power of evil demons;hismost famous Avatars

,or Incarnations, were Krishna

andRdma.

The gods themselveswere originally regarded as directemanations fromtheSupremeBeing aspersonal divinities;and these divine personalities are generally grouped in

threes, or multiples of three. We shall see, in Chap . I. ,

that the triad of theVedas consisted of Indra, Agni, andSurya ; .that of the later Pauranik religion, better known,consisted ofBrahma (masculine), Vishnu, and Rudra- Siva.

Amongst the young of al l classes,amongst women

,and

amongst the unlearned generally,the lives and deeds of

Krishna and Rama (alluded to in somewhat greater detailin the sections on the Mahdbhdmta and theRdmdyana,Chap . I. 3

,4) are still listened to and dwelt on with

undying interest and affection.

83. Legends.— TheHindushave innumerable legends

associated with their religious beliefs derived chiefly fromthe great epics and fromthe Puranas. Of the moreancient legends perhaps themost curious is that of theDelugeofMann

,of which the earliest account is that of the

Satapatha Brdhmcma. There were no less than fourteenmythological personages named Manu theDeluge isconnected with thename of the seventh Manu, whoisnottobe confused with the lawgiver . The story, b riefly told,was to the effect that Manuonce found a fish in thewaterbrought to himfor washing his hands; and the fish

,in


most remarkableare theLéngwyats, fol lowers of Basava (orBusappa) , numerous in the southern and western parts ofthe Peninsula and Mysore ; they abjureall respect for castedistinctions and al l Observances of Brahmanical rites and

usages,and worship noidols but the Phallic emblemand

the bul l . Widely Opposed to these are the Smcirtas, orobservers of Smrz'ti (see Introduction, the followersof the great reformer Sankara, wholived about the seventhor eighth century of our era, and who re- established thestrict observance of Brahmanismin Southern India afterthe Buddhist period. The two great Vaishnava sects ofSouthern India are the followers of Rdmdnuja, who led a

great Vishnuvite revival in the twelfth century, and thoseofMadhva. InRajputana there isa remarkableVaishnavasect call ed the Val labhdchdryas, who have amost famousshrine at t hdwcimin Maiwar. The great reformer ofBengal was Chaitanya, who preached a pure formofVaishnava worship

,and whose followers are still nu

merous.

86. TheBrahma Samaj .— The latest religious reform

is a theistic movement, of which Bengal is the centre,known as the Brahma Samaj , which now sends missionaries into al l parts of India. It originated with RajaRammohan Rai

,who die& in 1833 . It is now led by a

Calcutta preacher of remarkable eloquence, named KeshabChunder (or Kesava Chandra) Sen, and its chief strengthlies amongst thehighly educated graduatesof the CalcuttaUniversity. Its fundamental doctrines are declared byKeshab Chunder to be the Fatherhood of God, and theBrotherhood of Man,

’

and its devotional formulae largelyemploy the language of theEnglish Bible.

Itmay here b enoticed that among themore enlightened followers of ‘ orthodox Hinduismaremany whocallthemselves ‘Theistic Brahmans

,

’

Theists, or Vedantists,whoprofess a formof Theismevolved fromthe teach ingsof theVedas (see above) .

87. Sikh8 .— A large proportion of the population of

BUDDHISM. 125

thePunjab , includingmost oftheupper classes, are Sikhs.

Thename is Siksha, a disciple, and means al l disciples ofthe Guru, or spiritual teacher— the title specially given tothe apostles of the Sikh religion. The sect was foundedby GuruN anak

,inthe time of Babar (see Chap . XII .

its doctrines inculcate theworship of one god, in a formresembling Muhammadanismin some points

, but it isespecially remarkable for the extreme reverence paid tothe sacred animal thecow .

88 . Buddhism.— Within the limits of the Indian

Empire Buddhismismainly confined to British Burma,Nepal

,and to the Himalaya Mountains. Its history and

its doctrineswill b e described in the parts of Chapter I.

describing the Buddhist period. In strictness it is an

atheistical religion, and its dominant dogma the transmigration of souls ending only (bymerit) in extinction.

Still,there is evident a tendency to exalt reverence for ‘

thememory of Buddha into a worship ; and temples are

erected over his rel ics, such asa tooth or a hair . WhilstBuddhismhasnot any prayers properly socalled, nor anyclergy for the offering of prayers, it is remarkable for anelaborate and gorgeous ritual , and for the enormousnumber ofmonasteries in which the religious devote themselves to the pursuit of N irvcina (extinction) by the

suppression of passion. The rosaries and praying-wheelsof the Buddhists are famous ; yet the formof wordsunceasingly turned round and round in their prayingwheels— which sometimes are even turned by machinery— are devotional ejaculations rather than prayers. The

religion has a lofty morality of universal charity and

benevolence.

89. Jainism.-Akin to Buddhismis Jainism

,which

is still professed by considerable numbers in RajputanaandWesternand Southern India, especially about Ahmadabad. This religion was formerly believed to have beenan offshoot of Buddhism,

but it appears to have had an

independent origin, and to b e of equal or even greater


antiquity . It lays great stress on the'

doctrine of thetransmigration of souls

,and

,as a consequence, it enj oins

a care for animal lifewhich is often carried to an absurdextent— e.g. a rich Jaina pilgrimwill have his path sweptbefore himlest he should sin by crushing a beetle or anant unknowingly . As amongst Buddhists

, great. (and inthe case of the ignorant

,semi- divine) honours are paid

to the memory of Buddha ; so, among the Jains, similarhonours are paid to thememory of certain prophets orapostles of their religion— Tirtthankams

,saintswhohaving

conquered al l worldl y desires attained true knowledge.

They are divided into two sects,the Svetdmbaf

rs and the

Digambars. The Digambafrs (or

‘sky

- clothed ’

) were formerly forbidden to wear clothing

,and they still eatnaked.

The chief holy places of the Jains are atMount Abu,in Rajputana

,Palitana

,in Kathiawar

,and the Mountain

of Paresnath(the greatest of the To'

rtthankams) , inHazaribagh

,Bengal . Their sacred books are called Angus, and

arewrittenchiefly ina Pali dialect called Ardha-Mcigadhi.

90. Musalmans.— It is estimated that about fortyonemillions of the inhabitants of India profess Islam; sothat theEmpire contains a far larger number of Mahammadane than are found inany purely Muhammadan State.

IndianMusalmans (with the exception of immigrants, anddescendants of immigrants

,fromPersia) belong generally

to the Sunni sect,like the Turks. Some details of the

composition of the Muhammadan population were givenin 35. The doctrines of Islamare summed up in the

single phrase—‘ there is but one God

,and Muhammad is

the Prophet of God.

’

During the last few years the

Muhammadans of Bengal and N orthern India havemadegreat progress in educationand enlightenment ; they havea great Collegein Calcutta, called the CalcuttaMadrasah ,

’

partly supported by Government, which yearly contributesmany learned scholars to the rolls of the Calcutta University ; and there aremany literary associations of Muhammadans inthe chief cities of N orthern India.

128 mansions AND cus'roms.

on a sort of Monotheistic Pantheism, and regards Fire,

Sun, Earth, and Sea asthe principal manifestations of theone Supreme Being

,called Ormazd (the creator of the

twoforces of construction and destruction, Spentamainyusand The Parsis wear a peculiar headdress,something like a brownmitre. Theirmethod of disposingof their dead ismost remarkable. The bodies are takeninto low round towers (the famous ‘Towers of Silencewhich are never entered by any living beings except thecaste of corpse- bearers

,and which are open to the air

on top,and here they are exposed in open stone coffins,

to be devoured by the vultures which are always inattendance in vast numbers.

Much of the commerce of Bombay is in the hands ofParsis ; and the recognised head of that community was,some years ago, created a Baronet by Her Majesty .

92 . Hindu Caste.— The caste systemof India is

somewhat difficult to b eunderstood by foreigners, becauseit is partly a religious, partly a social system; and foreigners find it difficult to distinguish between these twoparts of the system. Perhaps it might be accuratelydescribed as a social system,

maintained and enforced by astrong religious sanction. That the system

,as it at pre

sent exists,has its disadvantages is notdenied by itsmost

intelligent advocates; but they assert, withmuch apparentjustice

,that the countervailing advantages are of infinitely

greater importance— aud that consequentlythe enlightenedIndian reformer should strive rather to correct the evil sthat exist than to uproot or even to mutilate the systemitself.A Hinducaste consists of a number of families— some

times of an immense number of families— scattered aboutin various parts of the country, some very poor and othersvery rich

,but al l presumablymore or less nearly related

to each other, and al l governed by the same rules as

regardsmarriage and al l other religious and social ob servances. Caste- fellows alone (with very insignificantexcep

CASTE. 129

tions) can eattogether, or enjoy that close social intimacythat inother communitiessometimesexistsbetween friendlyfamilies; on the other hand, the caste- rules are alsolutelybinding on al l membersof the caste, and the wretchedmanwhobreaks these rulesand isexpelled fromhis castebecomes a personwithout a friend or an associate in the

world— a social felon,for no other caste (not even the

lowest) will receivehim.

Fromthis description it will readily be perceived thatthe advantages and disadvantages of castemust dependmainly onthe character of the caste rules. These rulesare enforced in each caste by its owneldersand itsownpriests— usually notBrahmans, though Brahmansmay, onsolemn occasions, officiate for al l . The English laws ofIndia will afford protection fromanyflagrantlyunjust orOppressive decreesofsuch tribunals, but asa fact they arevery rarely appealed against, and are usually efficacious.

The crimes, which are punished by fines and penances,thus provided against are immoral conduct openlypersisted in ; flagrant dishonesty ; neglect of caste lawsabout marriage, or provision for children or widows, orother helpless relations ; neglect of religious ceremonials,eating or drinking with forbidden persons habitualslander ; and, in fact, al l kinds of ill - living . In thiswaycaste discipline steps inas an aid toreligion

, in the pre

servation of decent morality, and in keeping its subjectsfromlawlessness. It has beenwell observed of theHinducharacter Their religion and the priestsurgeHindus togood works, to kindness to Brahmansand the sacred cow,

to honour parents and elders and betters,to b ekind to

dependants, to b e charitable to the poor and hospitable tostrangers. And whilst theseactive good qualitiesare inculcated by their religion, caste discipline often comes inas an aid to religion to forbid and punish vices of al l

kinds.

’

Asthewhole social systemof theHindus thus hinges'

on its caste rules,it has followed that the caste systemhas

K


been denounced for every point inwhich that social fabricis at present faulty. For instance, caste- rul es enforceearlymarriage as a religious duty, insist onendogamousmarriages (that is, marriage within a small and limitedcircle) , and to a certain extent on femal e seclusion; and insome castes theymakethe castea trade- union. But thesedefects in the social systemof the Hindus— which are

acknowledged as defects bymost enlightened Hindus— are

entirely independent of caste, and they wil l doubtlesscease ~to - b e enforced by caste- rules as soon as Hindusociety has sufficiently advanced on the path of progressto admit of thenecessary reforms.

Among the various castes, and even among the subdivisions of the same caste, there is a recognised scale ofprecedence. Thus

,the social (and almost religious) su

periority of Brahmans is universally acknowledged and

Bengal Kulz'

n Brahmans take precedence of al l otherBrahmans

,of whomthere aremany classes.

~Buteducation and the incessant redistribution of wealth are rapidlycreating other social distinctions not less real

,and in

ordinary l ife far more efficient, than that between theBrahmanand the low- casteman; in fact, the respect paidto the Brahman in India does not differ widely fromthe

respect paid to good birth in al l civilised countries, except

that in India this respect isenforced by a strong religioussanction. InBengal the largeand important Kayastha caste— sometimes called the literary caste — enj oysan amountof social consideration notmuch inferior to that enjoyedby the Brahmans; and amongst the titled classes of Bengal

— the Maharajas,Rajas

,and RaiBahadurs— aswell as in

Calcutta native society,there are to be found representa

tives of a great many castes outside the pale of the

twice- born.

’

93. Obsolete or Prohibited Customs.— That the

Hindusocial systemhas less immobility than is usuallyattributed to it by thosewhowould abolish caste in orderto do away with child-marriages and female seclusion, is


inBengal and other parts of India— and especially at thegreat temple of Puri , inOrissa— under thename of Jagannath

,

‘Lord of theWorld ’

; and once every year, at theRath-

yatrd, or Car Festival ,’ his image is brought outon

a car, with the images of his brother Balarama and his

sister Subhadra, and the hugemass is dragged along byords

,to which thousands of worshippers attach them

selves. These processions still take place at Serampore,near Calcutta, and elsewhere, but are under strict policesupervision to prevent self- immolation. It was found that

the self- condemned victimswere generally persons sufi‘

er

ing fromleprosy. or some other incurable disorder ofmind or body, whosought to hallow their suicide in thisway.

In the sameway the cloak of religionwasused by thehighway stranglers, the Thags (or Thugs) , who declaredthat their Victims were sacrificed to the goddess Kali .These gangs have been entirely suppressed by the

Government .Perhapsone of themost curious of these saperstitious

customswasthe practice of sitting dhamci. ’ Whenamancould not obtain payment fromhis debtor

,or redress

froma person whohad injured him, or justice froma

ludge, hewould sometimes seat himself atthe door of theoffending person and resolutely starve himself to deathunl esshe obtained his demand. The practicewasmadepenal in 1820.

94. ChristianMissions.— The Government of India

is, of course, stri ctly neutral in al l religiousmatters and

the country is a field open to themissionary efiorts of al lreligions, provided that nothing is said or done to imperi lthe public peace, or openly to wound the religious feelingsof others. Amongst the courteousand order- loving nativesof India religious disturbances are extremely rare ; theonly quarrels of this kind that have of late happenedoccurred a few years ago between the Sikhsand Musal

mans of Amritsar, in the Punjab , the Sikhs objecting to

CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. 133

allow Muhammadanbutchers to slaughter kine in or neartheir sacred city . Although Christian missions

,from

various causes, have never been very successful in India,

there is probably nocountry in theworld where theworkisattendedwith lessactual annoyance or obstruction. Pro

testant missions have prospered in the extreme south ofIndia (especially inthedistrict of Tinnevelly) , also

’

amongsttheKolsand other jungletribes of a low type of civilisationin the highlands of the Central Provinces

,and among the

Karens and similar tribes in British Burma in themoreadvanced countries of Bengal and N orthernandWesternIndia the efforts of Protestant missionaries have of latebeen chiefly concentrated on the education of the young

,

the result being the establishment of a very largenumberof schools and colleges inwhich theBibleis regularly read.

and explained.

The pages of Gibbon have familiarised English readerswith the early history of Christianity in India. There aremany legends of the evangelising labours of St. Thomasthe Apostle

,and of his martyrdomat Meliapore and

though these traditions lack historical support yet it iscertainthat therewere Christian converts in Ceylonandonthe southernMalabar coast beforethe closeof thesecond .

century. Ofthe famousmission despatched by Al fred theGreat under Sighelm,

Bishop of Sherborne, Gibbonsneeringlysuggests that they collected their cargo and legendatAl exandria but long before this period therewere largebodies of Syrian Christians inMalabar, owning the authority of theNestorianPatriarch ofSelenica.

The most heroic chapter of the history of Indianmissions is that which recountsthe life and death of thefirstand infinitely the greatest of the Jesuitmissionaries,St. FrancisXavier. Though hewasthe bearer of pontifical and regal credentialshewent outin the garb of an

ascetic to livea life of the hardest privationandmost nuceasing toil . On his voyage— to quote Sir John Kaye

’

s

words Christianity in India,

’

p. 17) he pillowed his

134 RELIGIONS AND cusroms.

head upon a coil ofmpes, and atewhat thesailorsdiscarded but there was not a seaman in that labouringvessel , therewas not a soldier in that crowded troopship,whodid not inwardly recognise the great soul that glowedbeneath those squal id garments; no outward humiliationcould conceal that knightly spirit, nosicknessand sufferingcould quench the fire of that ardent genius.

’

The Indianconverts of this apostolic ardour are stated; by Catholicwriters

,tohavenumbered not less than churches

rose athis bidding in hundreds of villageson thewesterncoast, in Ceylon, in Travancore, and even in‘

the distantlands of Malacca, Java, and Japan. His labours

,his

sufferings, and his triumphs seemto have' been alikeunparalleled ; and he died a glorious death , caused by'the

privations he had endured, just when he was about toattempt to introduce Christianity into China, towards theclose of 1552 .

It wasnot long before disputes about jurisdiction arosebetween theRomanist successorsof St. FrancisXavier andthe descendants of the old Syrian Christiansof Malabar,wholookedup to theauthorityofthePatriarch of Babylon.

As long asthe Portuguese power was predominant on the

coasts of India theRomanists had the better of thiscontroversy ; buttheNestorians reasserted their independenceas soon asthe Portuguese had givenway to the superiorenterprise and energy of theDutch .

Atthe presentmoment theRoman Cathol ics of Ceylonnumber whilst the Protestants of that islandnumber The Christians of Indiawere returned atthe last censusasnumbering but in the returnsthere isnodistinction drawnbetweenRomanCatholicsandProtestants, though the former are, of course, ina largemaj ority.

The first Protestantmission to Indiawasa Danish oneatTranquebar ; and the old Danish settlements of Tranquebar and Seramporehave always beenthe head quartersof Protestant efiorts, which were there formerly allowed

1 36 RELIGIONS AND cus'roms.

lest native Opinion should take alarmatthe advent of somanymissionaries. The consequence of thiswas that thewhole community took up their residence at Serampore

,

under the protection of the Danish flag ; there they laboured and died

,and there is now peacefully continued

(though under British rule) the work which theycommenced .

In fame only second to the Serampore missionarieswasHenry Martyn, amissionary chaplain in the serv ice ofthe East India Company. In 1814 the first Bishop ofCalcutta was appointed and that see has since beenadorned by such well- known names as those of Heber

,

Wilson,Cotton

,and Milman. Butthe ecclesiastical estab

lishment of the Indian Government is not amissionaryone

,as its duties are tominister to the spiritual wants of

the Christian servants of the Government , especially theBritish troops; and evenHenry Martyn’

s labours,as long

ashe remained in India, weremainly directed to the translation of the Bible and similar works, in addition tohis

ordinary clerical dutiesamongst his own countrymen.

THE HISTORY OF INDIA.

CHAPTER I.

THE CONQUEST OF INDIA BY THE ARYAN -HINDUS.

1 . Sourcesoftheearly history. 2 . Thehistoricteaching oftheVedas. 3. The l egends of the Mahabharata. 4 . The l egendsoftheRamayana. 5. Thehistoricteaching oftheEpics.

1 . SourcesoftheEarlyHistory.— In

'

veryancient timesin India noone ever thought of sitting down and writingan account of the events which he saw or heard of as

occurring in the country ; and in consequence of this.

negligence no trustworthy history was written in Indiauntil after the Muhammadan conquest— ie until someperiod notnine hundred years ago. Al l we know,

therefore

,about the earlier history of this countrymust b e

derived,not fromregular histories or annals

, but fromother sources

,such as legends or ancient popular tales,

hints collected fromancient rel igious or poetical writings,references to Indian affairs by the historians of othercountries

,hints derived fromthe writings on coins, or

ancient inscriptionson stone or metal, and other sources

of which weneed not Speak here.

The information about early Indianhistory,derived in

thisway,may b e broadly classified asfollows1 . The history

'

of the Aryan origin of the Hindus,and of theAryan invasion of India, derived mainly fromphilological inquiries into the Sanskrit language— the

Speech of these Aryan invaders— and fromhints to b egathered fromtheir sacred books

,the Vedas (see next

section) .

2 . The history of a subsequent age, sometimes calledtheHeroicAge, derivedmainly froma similar sifting of

138 THE CONQUEST or INDIA BY THE ARYAN - HINDUS.

incidental evidence to be extracted fromthe great epicpoems of theHindus.

3 . The history of the Brahmanic Age, that ensued onthe subjugation of Hindustan during the heroic period

,

derived froma consideration of the laws of that age thatare still extant .

4 . The history of the subsequent Buddhist period,

and of the Greek connection with India,derived largely

fromBuddhist and Indo - Greek coins,frominscriptions

on stone or metal (especial ly the famous inscriptions ofAsoka) , froma sifting of the evidence of the sacredwritings of the N orthernand SouthernBuddhists (foundrespectively in Nepal and in Ceylon) , compared with thecontemporaneous writings of the Chinese pilgrims whovisited India during this period, and (above al l ) withthose of the Greek authors whowrote about the invasionof India by Al exander and the subsequent relations of theGreekswith India.

5 . The history of theBrahmanic revival that followedthe expul sion of Buddhism,

and of the long dark age of‘Mediaeval Rajas

,

’

who rul ed the country for many centuries before the coming of the Muhammadans, derivedfromthe later religiouswritings of theHindus (cal led thePuré/nas) , and also fromthe annal s and ancient poemsofthe Raj put royal families, which were generally handeddowninthe traditions of theRajput bards

,and reduced

to writing ina later age.

2 . TheHistoric TeachingoftheVedas.— Theaccounts

both of theearly Aryan invadersand of their predecessorsinthe country aremainl y derived fromanexaminationoftheHymns of theVedas, themost ancient religious booksof theAryans, supplemented by the hints derived frominvestigations into the languages of the various Aryantribes, and froma comparison of themanners, customs,and languages of thenon- Aryan tribesat present inhabiting some parts of India.

It hasbeenstated already (seeIntroduction, 76) that


these nations originally lived together as one tribe, inhabiting a country abounding in mountains

,lakes, and

forests,and possessing a rather cold climate— probably the

elevated country of Central Asia about the banks of theOxus. TheEuropean tribeswere the first to leave, one byone

,this early home of their race ; the Persian and Hindu

Aryans seemto have long remained together. Finallythese tooseparated ; and theHinduAryans directed theirmarch

,through theHinduKush andHimalayaMountains,

towards the plains of India.

TheseAryan invadersweresettled, during thecenturiesto which the Vedas chiefly refer , in the Punjab . The

Saraswati (a small river between the Sutlej and the

Jamnah,which now loses itself inthe sands of the desert)

at thisearly period flowed into the Indus; and fromthe

sacred character which isusually ascribed to it, 1 it is b el ieved to have flowed through the centre of the chiefAryan settlements, which were probably located on its

banks during many hundreds of years. They were a

people partly pastoral , partly agricultural . That they hadattained a certain degree of civil isation is obvious fromthe fact they they possessed houses

,chariots

,mailed

armour,ships

,and merchandise. The systemof govern

ment was apparently a patriarchal one— the head of thefamily being the chief of the tribe and also its priest .The country, created or frequented by theDevatas, or godsof the Vaidik Aryans, is called Brahmdvartta by Manu ;and it is probable that thisnamewasmeant to include all

that part of the Punjab which was occupied by this racebefore it penetrated further into Hindustan.

Gradually theAryan invaders,crossing the Saraswati ,

began to push their conquests southward and eastward inHindustan. The period of their advance has been calledthe Heroic Period of Indian history

, and probably occupiedmany centuries. They appear first to have occupied

Somegreatauthorities identify theSaraswati withthe Indus.

THE ARYAN INVASION . 141

the country fromthe Saraswati to the Ganges, called byManuBrahma’rshi- desa, or the country of divine sages, thepeculiar country of the Brahmans. Then they passed onto the Madhya- desa, or middle land, extending asfar as

the junction of the Jamnah and the Ganges, and fromtheVindhyamountains, on the south , to theHimalayas, onthe north . And finall y they becamemasters of thewholecountry, fromtheWesternorArabianSeatotheEasternSea,orBayof Bengal , cal ledArycivartta, or theland oftheAryans.

It is obvious thatmany social , religious, and constitutional changesmust have occurred amongst the invadersduring the centuries of their slow advance downthe valleys of the Jamnah and the Ganges. At the commencement of thisperiod they probably still retained the patriarchal simplicity of theVaidik times. Gradually, asmanyclans or familiesunited for purposes of warfare

,the heads

or chiefs of some of these clans gotmore power than the

rest,and becameRajas or Kings. At the same time they

ceased to actas priests for their clans, finding itmore conv enient to employ substitutes ; these substitutes graduallybecame the hereditary priests of the people ; and in thisway it is probable that the Brahmanic priesthood spranginto existence during the Heroic Period. At first theywere doubtless subservient to themilitary class, called theKshatriyas ; and they probably remained so during thetimes of war and disturbance that accompanied and followed the Aryan conquest of Hindustan. Butwhentheinvaders began to settle down peacab ly in their owncountry the Brahmans commenced a series of encroachmentson the power of theKshatriyas

,which terminated in

the completesupremacy of theformer . The establishmentofthe power of the Brahmans

,and the humiliation of the

Kshatriyas, probably occupied a long series of years; butit is represented in the legends as having been aecompl ished in one bloody war. The Kshatriyas are said tohaveslaughtered a tribecalled theBhrigus and inrevengeP arasu Rama twenty-one times extirpated the whole race


of the Kshatriyas. This is obviously an exaggerationthe truth probably being that thoseKshatriyaswhorefusedto acknowledge theBrahmanic systemwere conquered andslain or banished.

The language of theearly Aryan-Hindus,the Sanskrit

,

of which we getthe earliest known formin theVedas,is

one of themost beautiful andmost perfect languagesof theworld. It formsthe basisofmost of themodern languagesof N orthernIndia (see Introduction, Part It reachedits highest development in the great epic poems of theHindus

,theMahdbkcirata, and theRdmdyana. The events

commemorated in the Mahabharata and the Ramayanaappear to have occurred at undefined periods during theHeroic Age, and are reproduced in the poems

,mixed up

with an infinitenumber of additions and exaggerations.

3 . The Legends of the Mahabharata — The Mahabharata is a vast storehouse of legends, containing (it isbelieved) one hundred thousand stanzas. It is said to

have been compiled byVyasa ; butVyasameans simply anarranger

,and seemshardl y to b ea proper name— the same

name being given also to the compiler of theVedas.

The poemconsists of amain story (the Great War

between the Pandavas and the Kauravas) and a largenumber of long and important episodes.

The legend of the GreatWar isas followsA royal family, said to b e descended fromtheMoon

,

and hence cal led the lunar race,had removed fromPrayag

(or All ahabad) to Hastinapura, a town on the Gangesnotvery far fromthe site of themodern Delhi . Bharatahadbeen king of this city, and was ancestor of twobrothers— the younger named Pandu

,and the elder Dhrita

rashtra. Panduruled the kingdomsuccessfully for sometime, but at length abdicated

,and retired with his wife

and his five sons (the Pandavas) to the jungles of theHimalayas. Dhritarashtra succeeded to the throne inhisbrother’sabsence. Before long Pandu died inhismountain retreat ; andhiswidow Kunti and his five sons, the


Virata,whose Raj a they helped in a war against the

Kauravas. Krishna, afterwards worshipped as an avatar

or incarnation of Vishnu, had several times appeared asan ally of the Pandavas, and is represented as a hero ordemi- god of the first rank . His part in the poemis so

important that he hassometimes been considered the realhero of the Mahabharata. He now endeavoured to bringabout a reconciliation between thecousins, but failed and

thereupon followed the catastrophe of the whole poem.

The twoparties, with their respective allies, met on the

bloody field of Kurukshetra. Krishna,theRaja of Virata,

and theRaja of Panchala helped thePandavas; D ronaandtheRaja of Madrawere the chief allies of theKauravas;and onthe battle- field appeared the ancestors of most ofthe princes of India of later times. The battle lasted foreighteen days. Al l the Kurus except three were slain,when the fighting ended. These three

,however

,in the

succeeding night treacherously murdered al l the Pandavatroops in their sleep, with theexceptionof thefivebrothersand their wifeD raupadi. The"Pandavaswerenow triumphant , and Yudhisthira was Raja of Hastinapura aswellas of Indraprastha. But they weremiserable atthe lossof al l their relatives. They resigned the kingdom

,and

with their wife retired to theHimalayas, where they weretranslated to heaven by Indra.

There aremany well - knownand important episodes inthe Mahabharata. A beautiful phil osophical dialoguebetweenKrishna and Arjuna, just before the commencement of the great battle of Kurnkshetra, is called the

Bhagavadgita. It is an illustration of Yoga doctrine (seebelow) , and was probably a late addition to the poem.

Another beautiful episode is the legend of the lovely

Sdeit'rz'

,and her devoted love for her husband Satyavan.

Sheultimately saved himfromthe death to which hehadbeen fated, by her importunity in demanding his life fromYama, god of death .

Themost celebrated of these episodes is the exquisite

THE RAMAYANA. 145

story of Nala and Damayantz’. Damayanti wasthe beautiful daughter of Bhima, King of Virdarbha or Barar (seeIntroduction, and Nala was the youthful Raja of

the neighbouring kingdomof N ishadha. They loved oneanother ; and Nala won the hand of Damayanti at the

Swayamvara, in Spite of the Opposition of four godswhoalso loved the damsel . Hereby he attracted the jealousyof thedemonKali, bywhosemachinationshe subsequentlylost al l his possessions in gambling, and retired in despairto the jungles. He was accompanied by the faithfulDamayanti, but deserted her in the forest at the instigation of the demon. The poemismainly occupied withthewanderings of Damayanti, her return to her father ’scourt

,her long search for the lost Nala, and their final

happy reunion.

TheHam'

vansa, or Family of Vishnu, forms a sort ofappendix to theMahabharata. It recounts the adventuresof Krishnaand thefateof hisfamily, but commenceswithanaccount of the creation of the world

,and of thepa

triarchal and regal dynasties.

Another episode is The Story of the Deluge of Mann,

corresponding to theDeluge of N oah (see Introduction) .

The story of Sakuntala, the subject at a later period ofa beautiful drama by Kalidasa (see Introduction) alsoappears in the formof an episode in the Mahabharata ;and there aremany others— al l the episodes occupyingabout three- fourths of the poem.

4 . LegendsoftheRamayana — Thescene of theMahabharatawasmainly laid inthenorth -west ofHindustan butthescene of theRamayanaisfarmoreextended initsrange.

TheAryan Hindus are represented in theRamayana notonly as possessing rich and powerful kingdomsinAyodhyaand Mithila(themodern Oudh and Tirhut) , but also as

penetrating into the forests of Gondwana and the Deccan,and even invading Lauka

,themodern Ceylon. The author

of thepoemwasValmiki . He is thought by some to havelived intheage of Rama, whoisthe hero of the legends.

146 THE CONQUEST ormumBY THE ARYAN - HINDUS.

Rama, afterwards worshipped as an incarnation . ofVishnu

, wasthe eldest son of Dasaratha, king of the» richand prosperous city of Ayodhya or Oudh ; of the race ofIkshwaku, said to be descended fromthe sun

,and hence

cal leda solar race. Hehad threehalf- brothers, of whomonewas Bharata, son of Kaikeyi, the second wife of Dasaratha; and the otherswere Lakshmana and Satrughna, sonsof Sumitra, a junior wife. Lakshmana was the everfaithful friend of Rama, whilst Satrughna was devotedto Bharata. By snapping the great bow. of Mahadevapossessed by Janaka, King of Mithila, Rama won for hisbride the lovely Sita, the daughter of Janaka ; and hisbrothersmarried the three other princesses of Mithila.

Dasaratha, overjoyed atthe heroismof his , son, attendedhis nuptials; and on his return to Ayodhya prepared tocelebrate theelevation of Rama to thedignity ofYuvaraja,or heir - apparent.At this time the happiness of the royal family was

marred by themaliceof a waiting-maid,who excited the

jealousy of Queen Kaikeyi, and induced her to demandtheotficeof Yuvaraja for her sonBharata. Dasarathahad

long before promised Kaikeyi to grant her .any twoboonsshe pleased to ask ; andthe queen shut herself up, w ithtearsand shrieks, in theKrodhdga/ra, or chamber of anger,until the ol d king consented, in the utmost misery

,to

banish Rama for twice sevenyears, and to instal Bharata

Rama piously prepared to obey his father’s commands,

and endeavoured to consolehismother Kausalya, 'hiswifesat, andhis brother Lakshmana. The two latter refusedto leave him and in their company the hero left the cityamid thewailings of the people.

Every step of the wanderings of Rama iswell knownby tradition, and the journey is annually traversed bythousands of pilgrims at the present day. Fromthe

banks of the Ghogra he went to those of the Gumti,thencetotheGanges, inthe neighbourhood of Al lahabad,

148 THE CONQUEST or 11mmBY THE ARYAN - HINDUS.

The story of Rama is traced thus far in the first six

sectionsof theRdmdyana ; and the same partof the storyformsthe plot of Bhavabhuti ’s famous drama the Mahd

vimcham’

ta. The seventh section of theRdmdyana, probably added at a later data, gives the sequel

,which is

also the pl ot of Bhavabhuti’

s Uttararam-charz’

ta— Rama ’ssubsequent life atAyodhya, his jealousy of Sita and her

banishment, the birth of histwo sons,his recognition of

themand of the innocence of hiswife, their reunion, herdeath , and his translation to heaven.

‘Itisnoteworthy,’

says Professor Williams,

‘that thelegends of Rama havealways retained their purity and

the adoration of this noble-minded and guileless incarnationof Vishnu , and the memory of his pure and devoted

wife, have ever exercised a beneficial influence on the

morality ofHindustan. The name of Rama, as

‘Ram!Ram! is a common formof salutation at the present

day.

5. The Historic Teachings of the Epics.- As the

Mahabharata doubtless refers to real quarrels that occurred

amongst the invading Aryans during their conquest ofHindustan, and to real struggles between thoseAryansand the aboriginal tribes, soin the fabulousstories of the

Ramayana there is d oubtlessa reference to a real invasionof South India and Ceylon by anAryan conqueror in very

early times. Noportion'

of these conquestswas,however

,

retained by theAryans; for long after,in B.C. 546

, Cey

lon was still inhabited by Rakshasas (monsters, tie. nu

conquered aborigines) , who are said to have been sub

sequently conquered by the Hindu warrior

Amongst the D ravidian races of the southern coast ofIndia thereare still ancient familieswhobear thename ofIkshwakuor Okkaku, Rama’

sancestor.

Ithas been stated above that the events referred to inthese poems occurred at various undefined periods in theHeroic ag eof India. The compilation of partsof theMahabharatawasprobably later thanthat oftheRamayana, butas

HISTORIC TEACHING or THE EPICS. 149

a rule the historical facts concealed under the legendsprobably refer to amuch earlier time. This is, however ,opposed to the opinionof perhaps themajority of Hinduscholars, who not only regard the Ramayana as moreancient than the Mahabharata, but also bel ieve that itrefers to an earlier period. But it appears that theAryanswere, atthe time referred to in the Mahabharata,mainlysettled in the upper valleys of the Ganges and Jamnah ;whilst in the time of the Ramayana they had full andpeaceable possession of Oudh , and were pushing their conquests into the South of India.

The habits of the people described in the Mahabharatawere primitive ; their patriarchal households, under themild despotismof the head of the family or clan, weremost simple in their arrangements. Even thosewho are

described inthe legendsasPrincesandRajastended cattleand cleared land by burning down jungle ; theymarkedthe calvesof their herds at stated periods

,and regularly

performedmost of theusual labours of farmersand rustics.

Theirmealswerealso simple they were prepared by themother or wife

,and women took theirmeals humbly after

themen. Flesh -meat and wine appeared at their ban

quets. Al l themen of a clanwere brought up togetherand trained to defend their cropsand cattle against enemies and robbers ; and thus they were al l more or lessproficientin pugilism, wrestling, archery, throwing stones,casting nooses, and theuse of the rudeweapons of the age.

Othermarksof thiswarlike period were (1) a wifewascarried off as a prize by the conqueror of the husband ;(2) thenotion that a challenge to fight should always beaccepted, that a third party should never interferewhilsttwocombatants are fighting, that death is to be preferredto dishonour, and that revenge ismore or lessa virtuousaction. The belief that the soul of a dead hero can be

comforted by the society of a favourite female appears tohave been the origin of the later rite of Sati, or widowburning. This revolting rite

,however, was probably not


generally established till many centuries later .

1 Themost degrading customof this early age was polyandry,or themarriage of onewoman to manymen, as exemplified in the case of D raupadi. The commonest vicewasgambling.

Between the age described in the Mahabharata and

that described in the Ramayanamany years and perhapsmany centuries elapsed, during which the Aryan-Hinduscompleted and settled their conquests in Hindustan. Of

this period there is absolutely no history,except such as

may be derived fromthe hints in the two poems themselves. Many of the episodesin the Mahabharata

,prob

ably added ata later period , appear to refer to this time,whereintheAryanheroesare described asfighting againstthe black - skinned aborigines, who are sometimes calledDaityas, sometimesAsuras, and often represented asRak

shasas (monsters) , or Nagas (serpents) .

IntheRamayana thehabitsof the people are describedasmuchmore civilised and even luxurious than in theMa

habharata. The primitive simplicity of the patriarchalhousehold had disappeared ; and, though there is greatexaggeration inthe accounts, it appears certain that theremust have beena good deal of"weal th and luxury in the

palaces of the Maharajas. Polyandry no longer existed ;nothing remained of it except the Swayamvara (seebelow) . Polygamy (themarriage of oneman to severalwomen) and evenmonogamy (themarriage of oneman toonewoman,as inthe caseofRama and Sita) had takenitsplace ; and themainmoral purpose of the Ramayanawasto expose the evils of polygamy in the family quarrelsthat resulted fromit inthe palace of Dasaratha.

Three remarkable customs or ceremonies, frequentlyspoken of in the epic poems

,remainto be describ ed.

The SWAYAMVARA,or public choice of a husband by a

1 It istruethatMadri , the favouritewifeof Pandu, becameSaltonher husband’sfuneral pi le, toprovethatshewasthe b est beloved butthisstory isprobab ly a later additiontotheoriginal legend.

CHAPTER II .

THE RISE or BRAHMANISM— THE LAWS or MANU.

1 . The riseof the power of the Brahmans. 2 . The LawsofMann. 3. Their date. 4. Mann

’

s caste- system. 5 . The

Government. 6. The Vi l lagesystem. 7. The AdministrationofJustice. 8 . Rel igionand Manners.

1 . TheRiseoftheBrahmans.— The Aryan conquest

of Hindustan, effected during the period treated of in the

Mahabharata and the Ramayana,wasmainly carried out

whilst the Brahmanswereemployed asmere animal sacrificers

,and before theyhad attained political power. During

the rise of theAryan-Hinduempires the Brahmansmayhave occasionally struggled to assert their supremacy ; butinsodoing theymetwith considerable Opposition fromtheMaharajas. Inthe early times the latter were their ownpriests ; and marriage rites were performed, not by a

Brahman,butby thefather of the bride. Gradually , asthe

Aryan conquests became more settled, and wealth and

luxury increased, sacrificesbecamelarger and theMaharajas

began to employ priests as their substitutes in religiousceremonies. In this way the Brahmans came to be

regarded as themediumof communication between the

people and their gods. They seemto have practisedastrology

, and to have assumed the possession of supernatural powers. Finally they asserted for themselves a

divine origin fromBrahma,the Creator, whomthey now

exalted above al l the Vaidik deities; and consequentlytook upon themselves to put down the popular gods, toprescribenew religious doctrines, and to introducenumerous ritesofpurification and consecration. They werenownecessarily present at the ceremonies in connection withevery birth

,marriage

,and death . The prayers and in

cantations of the Brahmans were supposed to bealwaysnecessary to insure the long life and prosperity of indiv idualsand famil ies; to procure a favourable seed- timeand anabundant harvest ; topromote the success of every

THE LAWSor MANU. 1 53

undertaking to purify thewater of wells and strengthenthe foundation of dwelling - houses and to ward off everydanger. In this way they gradually acquired that powerover theminds of the people which was shown in the

Laws of Manu (theMdnava Dharma Sdstm) , and whichmade themthemost despotic priesthood ever known inhistory .

2 . The Laws of Manu.— The Laws of Mann areone

of the Smm’tis, or Dharmascistms. They were compiledlong after the full establishment of the power of theBrahmans

,and hence labour to magnify that power in

every way. They afford a good general view of the stateof India and of Indian society , as it existed fromthatperiod to the time of the Buddhist rule— t

’

e for several

centuries before 300 B.C.

3 . Their Date.— ~The actual date of compilationwas

probably about 300 years B.C.,or even later ; indeed, it is

expressly stated inMann that extensive portions of Indiaand powerful kingdoms were in the hands of heretics,obviously referring to theBuddhists (see Chap . The

Aryanshad now conquered the wholeof Hindustan fromGujarat to Bengal ; but the Brahmans had not probablyadvanced further to the east than Kanauj , onthe Ganges.

The Aryans were directed to choose their Brahman preceptors fromBrahmarshi-Desa, the country of BrahmanRishis.

4. Mann’

sCasteSystem.- The distinct and authori

tative settlement of the early caste systemis one of themost prominent featuresof the Laws of Manu. The fourcastes were : (1) the Brahman, or priestly caste ; (2) theKshatriya

,ormilitary caste; (3) theVaisya, or industrial

caste ; (4) the Sudra, or servile caste. The three first

casteswere called twice- born and al l the laws tend totheir elevationand to the depression of the Sudras. The

moststriking points in the caste systemas it existed at

the times of these lawswereFirst

,the extraordinary dignity and sanctity accorded

154 THE RISE or BRAHMANISM— THE LAWSor MANU.

tothe Brahmans,for whose good al l other persons and all

thingswere thought tobemade some of their privilegeswere also enj oyed, but in a far smaller degree

,by the

Kshatriyasand Vaisyas.

Secondhy, the bitter contempt and even hatred felt anddisplayed against Sudras ; their only duty was to servethe other castes

,and especially the Brahmans but

,if they

wereunable to obtain any service, then they were allowedto earn a precarious subsistence (butnever to get rich) bymeans of handicrafts. This degraded condition of theSudras seems to indicate that they were the remains ofconquered races, the conquerorsbeing the twice- born.

’

Thirdly, the absence of any provision for the regul arperformance of themechanical arts and handicrafts, whenthe Sudraswereableto find serviceasprescribed inthe law.

Itmay benoted that the Kshatriya and Vaisya castesare said by some to be now extinct ; though theRajpi

’

its

and a few. other tribes claimto be descended fromthe

former, and a few industrial tribes call themselvesVaisyas.

The greatmajority of Hindusatthe present day belong tocastes unknown in the time of Manu (see Introduction,

5 . TheGovernment.

— Thegovernment inthe variousStates was under aRaia, whose power was desPotic, aocording to the arrangements of Mann, except that hewasbound to abide by the advice of the Brahmans. It is anoteworthy fact that as the power of the Brahmans increased

,thejurisdi ction of theRajasbecamemore deSpotic.

Under the king were the lords of villages; undereach of the latter were lords of 100 villages— the hundredv illages corresponding to what is now called a Parganah.

Under these, again, were the headmen of the villages, theMamdals or Patels; and al l theseofficers were regarded asofficers of theRaja .

6. The Vil lage Systemof Manu .

— In the villagecommunities the systemof administration seems to havebeen almost identical with that which has prevailed in

CHAPTER III.

THE HINDU SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY .

1 . Originand Date. 2 . TheSix Darsanas.

1 . Originand Date.— TheHindus have always been

fond of the study of philosophy, and (aswas pointed outinour Introduction, 81) the esoteric side of the nationalrel igion

,Brahmanism,

has always been highly philoso

phical and speculative initsnature. Buddhism,too

,whose

risewill b e depicted in thenext chapter, was essentially aphilosophical systemrather than a religion ; its pure andsimple codeofmorals

, being of the nature of an adjunctto this philosophical system, was, perhaps, themain causeof its rising superior to al l the other schoolsof philosophycontemporary with it

,and establishing itself asone of the

greatest religions of theworld. For some centuriesbeforethe rise of Buddhism

,commencing at variousundefined

times during the period treated of in the last chapter , thespeculations of the Hindu sages began to assume thoseforms which ultimately became fixed and classified as

the respective teachings of the six famous philosophicalschools— the six Darsanas

,or ‘ demonstrations.

’

One, in

deed , of these schools, the Vedanta, or Uttae z'mdnsci,

appears to have beenevoked to some extent by the teachings of Buddhism

,and to have arisen after the time of

Buddha. The other schools are clearly earlier ; thoughsome authorities think that the doctrines of all

,as now

known to us,bear traces of Buddhist influence. It is

,

however, probable that these traces are rather indicationsof the general tone of Hindu thought at the period, towhich Buddhismitself owedmuch . How far the Greekphilosophy was indebted to the Hindu

,or the Hindu to

theGreek, is, again, avexed question: the highest authorityon the subject (Colebrooke) says that the Hindus werein this instancethe teachers, notthe learners.

’

THE SIX DARSANAS. 157

2 . The Six Darsanas.— The names and founders of

the respective schools were : (1 ) the Scikhya system,

founded by Kapila ; (2) the Yoga systemof Patanjal i; (3)theNydya systemof Gautama ; (4) the Vaisesht

'

ka systemof Kanada ; 5) the Parva-Mz

'mcinsci of Jaimini ; and (6)the Uttara-Mimdnsd, or Vedanta. of Vyasa.

The Sdnkhya and the Yoga are generally classed together, and are, indeed, nearly allied. The Sankhya,how

ever, appears to have been essentially atheistic ; it takesitsname fromits numeral or discriminative tendencies.

The Yoga, on the other hand, is distinctly theistic ; itasserts the existence, not only of individual soulswith theSankhya, butalso ofone al l - pervading Spirit free fromtheinfluencesaffecting other souls.

Similarly, the Nydya and Vaiseshika are commonlyclassed together. Nydxga is called

‘the logical school ’ ;

but this term, of course, refers to itsmethod, not to itsaims. It is said to represent ‘the sensational aspect ofHinduphilosophy,

’ treating the external frankly asa solidreality . Vaiseshika is called ‘

the atomic school,

’ teachingthe existence of a transient world composed of varyingaggregations of eternal atoms. It issupplementary to the

Both theParva-Mimcinsci and the Uttara-Mimdnsci arecommonly included inthe general termVedanta the end

or object of the Vedas,’more strictly applied to the latter

only . The aimof both is to teach the art of reasoning asan aid to the interpretation of theVedas. The principaldoctrines of the Vedo

’mta proper are,that God is the

omniscient and omnipotent cause of the existence, con

tinuance, and dissolutionof the universe. Creation is an

actof Hiswill He is both the efficientand thematerialcause of theworld.

’Atthe consummation of al l things

al l are resolved into him.

’ ‘He is adwat'

ta, without a

second.

”The famous:Sankaracharya was the great

apostle of thisschool (see Introduction,From'

an‘ historical point of view the Persanes are

158 THE RISE or BUDDHISM.

valuable, both as indicating the early specul ative activityof theHinduintellect

,and moree specially as illustrating

theriseofBuddhism.

~1 ~

CHAPTER IV.

THE RISE OF BUDDHISM. .

1 . Originof Buddhism. 2 . Gauta‘

u‘

xa, Buddha.

1 . OriginofBuddhism.— The doctrinespfBuddhism

appear to have been originally ,those of a .philosophical

school nearly akin to and .,perhaps identical with the

Sd/nkhya, described above. Buddhismwasatfirsta systemof phil osophy, nota religion and it only became a religionbecause one of its. representatives turned with it to thepeople, expounded it ina popul ar form,

attached to it theabolition of casteand of other social disqualifieations, andcombined it with a pureand simple codeofmorality. It

is interesting to observe that the Buddhist legends.

abouttheir great apostle represent himas a prince of Kapilasasm, the abode of Kapila — Kapila having been the

founder of the Sci/nkhya school . And with respect to thepopular tendencies of the religion it isnoteworthy that theBuddhist Scriptureswere almost certainlywritten in the

language. of the people, and not in the high Sanskrit,which had by this time becomeunintell igible to al l exceptthe learned for the Scriptures of the SouthernBuddhists

(of Ceylon, Siam, cite.) were in Pal i , the language ofMagadha, where Buddhismwas first preached ; and the

Scriptures of the ThibetanBuddhistswere in the Sanskritof Kashmir, where they were first committed to writing.

The date of the promulgation of Buddhismasarel igionisnot certain, for the various Buddhist eras, which startfromBuddha’

s death (or attainment of Nirvana differ

widely on the point. The Buddhists of Ceylon, however,are agreed in placing Buddha’

s death at about 544

160 THE RISE or BUDDHISM .

directing his will towards the one thought of liberationfromthisc1role, by remaining true to thisaim, and strivingwith steadfast zeal aftermeritorious action only wherebyfinal ly, having cast aside al l passions, which are regardedasthe strongest fetters in this prison- houseofexistence, heattainsthe desired goal of complete emancipation fromre

birth . This teaching contains, in itself, nothing absolutelynew onthe contrary, it is entirely identical with the corresponding Brahmanical doctrine only the fashion in

which Buddha proclaimed and disseminated it was something altogether novel and unwonted . For while the

Brahmans taught solely in their hermitages, and receivedpupils of their own caste only , he wandered about thecountry with his disciples, preaching his doctrine to thewhole people, and (although still recognising the existing

easte- system,and explaining its origin

,as the Brahmans

themselvesdid, by the dogma of rewardsand punishmentsfor prior actions) receiving asadherentsmenof every castewithout distinction. To these he assigned rank in the

community according totheir age and understanding, thusabolishing , withinthecommunityitself, thesocial distinctionsthat birth entailed, and opening up to al lmen theprospectof emancipation fromthe trammels of their birth . This ofitself sufficiently explains the enormous success that attended his doctrine the Oppressed al l turned tohimas their

redeemer. If by this alone he struck at the root of theBrahmanical hierarchy, he did sonot less by declaringsacrificial worship (the performance of which was the

exclusive privilege of theBrahmans) to b eutterlyunavailing and worthless, and a virtuous disposition and virtuousconduct, on the contrary, to be the only real means ofattaining final deliverance. He did so further by the factthat

,wholly penetrated by the truth of his Opinions, he

claimed to be in possession of the highest enlightenment ,and soby implication rejected the validity of the Veda as

thesupreme source of knowledge.

’

Weshall seehereafter that theBrahmansonly recovered

THE GREEK EPISODE. 161

their popular influence, aftermany centuries of eclipse, bya counter - appeal to the people, before whomthey placedthe worship , powerfully attractive to human sympathies

,

of the avatars or incarnations of Vishnu, Krishna, and

Rama.

Buddha’

s death— hisattainment ofNirvana, extinctionorfinal deliverance fromexistence— isnow generally placedin the year 504 Fromthat time to the present theplaces connected w ith themost important events ofhis lifehad beenthe goal of innumerablepilgrimsfromthe variouscountries which have accepted his religion— the sub

Himalayan scenes ofhis birth and early youth Rdjagm’

ha,

wherehe became a religionmendicant , or Bhikshu; Pdtal ipairs, wherehe converted theKing of Magadha thejungleof Gays,

wherehe attained to enlightenment as aBuddha ;and the deer - forest near Kasi

,or Benares, where he first

proclaimed his gospel .

CHAPTER V .

GREEK CONNEXION WITH INDIA.

1 . Historical importance of the Greek Episode. 2 . The In

vasionofthePunjab bythePersians. 3. TheInvasionofAlexandertheGreat. 4 . TheInvasionofIndia bySeleukus. 5. TheBactrianGreeks. 6. Greek accountsoftheAncientHindus.

1 . Historical Importance of the Greek Episode.

The Greek connexion 1s amost important episode in earlyIndian history. It gives us glimpses of the condition ofIndia

,and of current Indian history

,in the trustworthy

pages of Arrian and other classical writers but, above al l ,

it givesus a link by which wecan connect the legends andtraditionsand coinsof theHinduswith theevents ofGreekhistory

,and thereby obtain a basis for Indian chronology

which otherwisewould be absolutely wanting. This verynecessary link is afforded by the identification of the

M

162 GREEK CONNEXION WITH INDIA.

Sandracottus of the Greek writers with the king Chandragwpta. of theHindus (seenext chapter) .

The history of the Greek connexion is really anepisodeof the Buddhist period ; and, as themost important andbest- known events of the connexion happened during theearlier portionof that period, abrief noticeof themis givenin this chapter.

2 . The Invasion of the Punjab by the Persians.

The Greeks invaded India as conquerors of the Persians ;theway thither was led by the Persians. Not long afterthe death of Buddha

,in 521— 518 B.c. , Darius HystasPes

invaded thePunjab . He crossed the Indus by a bridge ofboats

,built for himby his Greek admiral

,Skylax , who

subsequently sailed down the river to itsmouth and re

turned home by sea. Darius succeeded in conquering a

part of the Punjab,which he formed into a Persian

satrapy ; and it is worthy of note, as showing in whatabundance India formerly produced gold, that in the

tribute derived fromthe Indian satrapy came a greatpart of the gold that found its way into the Persiantreasury .

3 . The Invasion of Alexander the Great.— Near1ytwohundred years afterwards the Empire of Persia wasconquered by the Greeksunder Alexander the Great ofMacedon; and in the year 327 B.C.

,Al exander proceeded

to invade India.

He started fromBactria (themodernBalkh , or AfghanTurkestan) , crossed theHinduKush by theBamian or oneof the other passes betweentheKabul territory and CentralAsia

,and descended to Orthostana1 (themodernKabul) .

Thencehe sent part of hisarmy by the route through theKhurd Kabul Pass

,Jagdalak , andtheKhaibar,now famous

for the sufferings, exploits, and triumphs of the British

Indian armies in the twoAfghan wars of 1839— 42 and

1878 - 80 ; whilst he himself, with another brigade, penetrated to the valley of the Indus through the still more

That is, highfort’

-BalaHissar, according toCunningham.


cause Porus had drawnup the Raq t legions to disputehis passage of the Jhelamat Jalalpur— exactly bn the sitewhere

,on January 13

,1849

,Lord Gough fought the in

decisive battle of Chil l ianwal lahwith the Sikhs. Alexander ’s battle of Chil l ianwal lahhas been well described byGeneral Cunninghamand by SirW. Napier . The followinggraphic summary is fromMr. Moberly’s ‘Alexander theGreat in the Punjab

First, hewaited onthe north b ank of the Jhelamwith theutmostpatienceunti l , by a series of ski l ful manoeuvres

,hehad thrownPorus

quiteoffhis guard. Hethen, withequal ski l l , sent the greater partofhis army across the deep and dangerous river which lay b eforehimbythehazardous ex pedient of a nightmovement, which prospered atal lpointsunder his personal guidance. He thenmarched straight uponthe enemy , whohad formed tomeet himon ground chosenby themselves. Not al lowing himsel f tob e b etrayed into anymovement ofimpatience, heheld hiscavalry wel l in hand til l the infantry had notonly come up, but also recovered b reath and steadiness after their{hurriedmarch. Then avoiding the front of Forne’s infantry l inewhich wasstrengthened byanumb er of elephants standing bastion- l ike

- at distances of 100 feet fromeach other— he charged with his ownsuperior cavalry the Indian horse whichhad gathered tomeethimonPorus

’

s left flank, having previously arranged that themoment these‘caval ry advanced beyond their supports to repel himthey should b ea ttacked alsointhe rear by a division of his own horse, reserved forthis special purpose. Tomeet the doub l e assaul tthey resorted toone

tof those changes of front in whichIndian caval ry are oftensosur

y risingly rapid— facing partly tothe front and partly tothe rear. Yet

Al exander was beforehand with them; and his renewed charge threw”

themintoutter confusion b efore they could ful ly assume their newformation. F lying along the front of their own infantry, they tookrefuge inthe spaces l eft b etweenevery two el ephants, and (as itwoul dseem,

in the absence fromArian’s accountof the ful l detail s) passed assoonas possib lethrough the intervalsofthe footregiments, soas tobefor themoment quite outside the battle. As soonas they wereoutoftheway the Indianelephantswere sent on, supported by the infantry ;butwereatoncemet face tofacebytheMacedonianphalanx . Inspiteof the terrib le lossinflicted by the el ephants, themass ofmenpressedonwards,slewwiththeir javel insmostofthemahoutsandofthewarriorsinthehowdahs, and goaded the animals themselves intomadness, witha destructive effectwhich wemay easily conceive, whenwe imagine theterrib ly closepressoftheinfantry al l around, and theway inwhich the

BATTLE OF THE JHELAM. 165

frenz ied creatureswould actwhendrivenback upontheranks of theirfriends. But the pressure soon b ecame fiercer sti l l , for the Indiancaval ry, recovering heartfor amoment, rode round the b attleand oncemore charged the Macedonian horse only , however, to b e againrepel led and again driven towards the place where the infantry fightwas going on. Intheirmad attempt toregaintheshel terof whathadbeenthe l ineof elephants, they hopel essly clubbed the wholemassoftheir comrades; and Alexander, who al l the time had his cavalryperfectly inhand, and freetomove athis pl easure, had no difficul ty inconverting theconfusion intoaheadlong anduniversal rout by formingwith ita cordon round al l thecombatants, and then directing chargesuponthe b leedingmass fromevery point of thecompass insuccession.

This battle was fought in April or May, 326.

When after this great victory Poruswas brought to Alexander

,themagnanimous conqueror was amazed at his gi

ganticstature and delighted with his noble bearing. In

response to the dignified appeal of Porus, fiaotkwag pmxpfiaat, w

’A7\é£a v3pe

— tob etreated like a king— Alexandershowed himthe utmost courtesy and generosity ; and

thenceforth the restored Indianmonarch was the faithfulally of the Greeks. Alexander founded two cities nearthe sceneof his victory

,and then proceeded onhis south

wardmarch these citieswereN ikaia,south of theJhelam,

the ruins of which have been identified by General Cunninghamat l lfong ; and Boukephala, north of the Jhelam,

wherenow stands Jalalpur .

Tofollow the Greek invader through the various epi

sodes of the Punjab campaignwould be beyond the scopeofthe presentwork . Hemet the Kathaez’ , whose capitalwas atSangala

,notfar fromthemodern Lahore and in

the courseofhis return voyage down the Indus, theMal li,who inhabited theMultan district . His furthest point ofadvancewas the shore of theSutlej beyond thishisMacedonians refused to go, notwithstanding the impassionedappealsoftheir leader

, who had heard of the power andriches of the great king ofMagadha, and who longed forthe spoils and the glory of the conquest of Paltaiputra.

The soul ofAlexander scorned retreat; so, after returning


as far as the Jhelam,he determined to court new dangers

by following the Jhelamto the Indus,the Indus to the sea,

and so home to his Persian dominions— much as LordEllenborough in the first Afghan war ordered the Kan

dahar column to retreat to India by way of Kabul .’

Himself with part of his army embarked on the river ;whilst his generals Krateros and Hephaistion marcheddown the banksWith the rest of the army

,abreast ofhim.

Arrived atthe sea, part followed the admiral Nearchus inthe footsteps of Skylax by sea ; Alexander and the otherwingmarched home to Susa, through the burning Gedrosian desertsof Balochistan.

4 . The Invasion of India by Seleukus.— After thedeath of Alexander, his Punjab Viceroy, after murderingPorus

,was himself driven out by the great Sandracottus

(see next chapter) . Subsequently,Alexander ’s famous

general Seleukus,whohad seized on a part of the Greek

conquests inAsia, determined torenew his greatmaster ’sattempt on India, and actually marched as far as the

Ganges to attack Sandracottus. Here,however

,a treaty

wasmade,by which Seleukus agreed togive Sandracottus

his daughter inmarriage, and gaveup tohimtheprovinceseast of the - Indus in return for a yearly tribute of fiftyelephants. A Greek ambassador

,named Megasthencs, lived

formany years atthe court ofPétal ipntra andhisaccountof the country and the people is a most valuable illustration of the history of the tim&

5 . TheBactrian Greeks.— Bactria was the name of

that province of the Greek empire in Asia that wasnorthof Afghanistan ; it is now called Balkh . Under the successors of Seleucus the Greek governors of Bactria becamekings

,and for some centuries the kings of Bactriamain

tained a powerful empire in this part of Asia,which often

included large portions of the west and north -west ofIndia. Ultimately , a dynasty of Bactrian kings, who al l

bore thename of Sotér, were driven out of their northerndominions into India ; and formany years they ruled over

168 THE TRIUMPH AND DECLINE or BUDDHISM.

though the religionhasformany centuries ceased to flourishin the land of itsorigin.

A Buddhist Council,ormeeting of the chief followers

of the faith , was held shortly after the death of Buddha ;and a second followed it.

Both of these were held in the realmof Magadha the

former atRajgriha, the ancient capital , and the latter at

Pétal iputra, which had in themeantime takenthe place ofRajgriha as capital . The proceedings of these Councilswere doub tless conducted inMdgadhi, then the vernacularlanguage of Bihar ; thiswasone of the spoken forms of thewritten Sanskrit which are known asPrakm’

t; and it wasdoubtless identical (or nearly so) with thePcili, which hasalway been the sacred language of theSouthernBuddhists,those of Ceylon,

Burma,and Siam.

But themost important and famous of these Councilswasthe third, which was held in the seventeenth year ofKing Asoka of Magadha. This was in the year 245 B.C.

We shall see in the next section,inwhich we shall give

some account of the great Mauryan dynasty to whichAsoka belonged, the reasonwhy we are able to fix

,with

something like certainty, the dates of the chief events ofthisperiod of Indianhistory . ThisCouncil washeld at theroyal city of Patal iputra and Buddhismwas publicly proclaimed as the State religion of the empire of Magadha,then paramount throughout India‘

.

A fourth Council was held inKashmir afew yearsafterthe Christian era ; it was held under the auspices of thegreat k ing Kanishka or Kanerki (see whose coinsprovehimto have reigned until A.D . 40.

2 . The Buddhist Scriptures.— At one of the two

earlier councils the Buddhist canon of sacred booksseems to have been drawnup. At the third Council

,that

of Asoka, itwas revised and reformed. In the followingyear Makewlra, the great apostle of Ceylon,

took it withhimto that island— doubtless in the Magadhi or Palilanguage, though they were not written out in that lan

THE EMPIRE or MAGABRA. 169

guage in Ceylonuntil some centuries later and thisistheversmnnowregarded as sacred by theSouthernBuddhists,which has been translated into the languages of Ceylonand of Further India. At the fourth Council

,that of

Knishka, another version of the canon was made, probably inKashmiri Sanskrit, amuch purer formthanmostof the Prakrits of the plains of India ; and this is thesacred version of theN orthernBuddhists. Ofthisversiona copy in the original Sanskrit has been obtained fromNepal ; ithas been translated into Thibetan (the translation being inone hundred volumes l) , Chinese, Mongolian,Kalmuck, and other languagesof Central and EasternAsia.

The canon is called the Tm’

pitaka (ih Pali,Tipitaka) ,

or ‘the Three Baskets.

’

The first pitaka, or division,

called the Sutra-

pitaka, may be considered the gospel ofBuddha for it consistsoftheutterances and discoursesofBuddha himself, and his conversations with his hearers.

The second is the Vinaya-

pitaka, which contains rules ofreligious discipline and conduct; and the third is the

Abhidhafrma-

pt’

taka,dogmatic and philosophical discussions.

3 . The Emp ireofMagadha.

— We have already hadoccasion to speak once or twice of the great empire ofDl agadha, or Bihar, which was the first that brought al l

Indiaunder one The capital of thesekingswasat first at Rajgriha ; and subsequently it was at Patal iputra, on the Ganges, now called Patna. We havementioned a king of Magadha who was one of the converts of the greatBuddha ; and another whose power andriches attracted the envy of Alexander the Great. The

name of this latter king wasNanda,called theRich

,no

torious for his cruelty and his avarice. His peopleweredisaffected ; and his fall (which forms the subject of theplot of the great Sanskrit drama called Mudra - rakshasa)was at length compassed chiefly by the instrumental ity ofa Brahman named Chanakya. Nanda was succeeded bythe famous CHANDRAGUPTA

,of the Maurya race ; and this

Mauryan dynasty occupies themostprominent placeinthe


Buddhist history of India. The legends about Chandragupta are conflicting ; but it appears that hewas aman oflow origin

,who succeeded inmastering the Punjab after

the retreat of Alexander the Great , and ultimately pos~sessed himself of Nanda’

s empire inMagadha.

Hehas been identified, beyond any reasonable doubt,with the Sandracottusmentioned byArrian and other classical historians of Alexander ’s campaign, and later on as

negotiating a treatywith SeleucusN icator of Syria throughtheambassador Megasthenes. This identification is of thehighest historical importance

,as it is theone l ink that con

nects early Indian history with the chronology of Greece ;in fact

,everything in Indian chronology dependson this

one date. Chandragupta reigned for twenty- four years,

from315 to 291 B.C. His treaty with Seleucus resulted inhismarrying theHellenic daughter of theSyrianking and

during hisprosperousreignhe conquered a great portion ofN orthern India.

The conquests of Chandragupta were continued by hisson Bindusara ; but the greatest monarch of theol d dynasty

,and perhaps the greatestmonarch of ancient times

in India, was Chandragupta

’

s grandson,Asoka. He as

cended the throne ofMagadha about the year 263 B.C.,and

reigned for about forty years,till 223 B.C. The great

Buddhist Council of 245 B.C.,held under his auspices

,has

already beenmentioned. He is said to havemaintainedBuddhist priests inhis palace, and to have erectedstugoas (topes, or Buddhist relic - temples) throughout

India: Many inscriptions made by order of Asoka havebeen recently discovered in various parts of India

,and are

commonly known astheEcliats ofAsoka. They are in thePath language one found atKapur- di- giri, inAfghanistan,being inthe Bactrian Pali character, written fromright toleft — a] l the others in the Indian Pali, fromleftto right .These inscriptions show a great tenderness for animal life,and are otherwiseBuddhist in character . They are clearlythemoral precepts of a Buddhist king ; and though they


tended power,and deserves a passing notice here. Hewas

KANISHKA of Kashmir, who belonged to a dynasty knownas the Saka

,or Indo- Scythian. Their coins show themto

have been partly Greek in origin Kaniska’

snameappearsasKanerki in its Greek formon thecoins, which also provehimto have reigned down to A.D . 40. He founded the

city of Kanishkapura, in Kashmir, and the site of its ruinsis still known as Kampur - sarai . He also built manyBuddhist stupas, or topes. Referencehasal ready beenmadetothe great Buddhist Council (the fourth) held under hisauspices

,whereat the text of the Buddhist Scriptures are

accepted by theN orthernBuddhistswas final ly settled.

Other dynasties,known to us inmuch the samemisty

way astheIndo - Scythians,were the Scihs of Saurashtra or

Kathiawar ; and the Gupta dynasty of Kanauj , and ofVal labhi in Gujarat .

5. TheChinese Pi lgrims.— Themost famous of the

ChineseBuddhist pilgrims to India, whose writings havebeen found and translated in China, are Fa- ht

'

an and

Hiouen- Thsang. Fa- hian’

s travelswere in A.D . 399— 414 ;

he found Buddhismstill flourishing ,though Brahmanism

had begun to lift its head again. When Hiouen- Thsangv isited India

,in A.D . 622 — 645

,the revival of Brahmanism

wasmoremarked : the ancient and faithful seat of thatrel igion

,Kanauj , was the capital of a great king named

Silddz’

tya, whose power was acknowledged throughoutN orthern India. Still , there weremany great Buddhistprinces in various parts ; and many immensemonasteries,and other religious foundations

,such as hospitals for the

sick .

6. Jainism.-The religionof theJainsisnow believed

tobe of about equal antiquity with Buddhism(see Introduction

, § but it only rose to eminence, as the Statereligion ofmany Indian realms

,during the period of the

decline of Buddhism. In Southern India it long heldwide sway

,until the preaching of Sankaracharyaabout the

eighth century A.D . substituted for it the worship of Siva

RISE or THE RKJPUTS.

and Vasudeva. Both the Pandya dynasty of the extremesouth andtheOhola dynasty of Kanchipuram(Conjeveram)and Tanjorewere at times Jain in religion. Sowere theearly kings of theBal ldla dynasty of Dwara Samudra

,in

Mysore ; andmost of the splendid temples erected by theOlzdlukya kings of Kalyanwere also Jain.

CHAPTER VII .

REVIVAL OF BRAIIMANISM UNDER THE EARLYRAJPUT KINGS.

1 . Riseof theRaq ts. 2 . Maiwar and other Raq t States.

3. The HinduKings of Bengal . 4. The HinduKings of theDeccan. 5. ThePuranas.

1 . RiseOftheRajputs.— Ofthemany centuriesduring

which Brahmanismwas gradually driving Buddhismoutof India the history is souncertain and obscure that weshall notdwell upon it at length . The periodwasmarkedby the rise and progress of a largenumber ofRajput principal ities, not only in that part of India which is nowcalled Rajputana

,butalso throughout the N orth of India.

Some of these Rajput principal ities still exist,such as

Maiwar or Udaipur, and Jodhpur or Marwar ; and fromthe chronicles

,which are preserved in the families of the

chiefs of these States,some accounts of their early history

have been preserved.

Most of these early Rajput principalitieswere devotedtoBrahmanism; and theRajput princesweredoubtlessthechief auxiliarieswhomthe Brahmans used in recoveringtheir power over India. This is probably themeaning ofthe legend inthe Puranas, which says that the ancestors ofthe Rajputs weremiraculously created in order to drivethe enemies of the Vedas out of the land. The legend

,

which is called the legend of theAgnikulas,’is as follows

When the holy Rishis, or sages, who dwelt on Mount

174 REVIVAL or BRKHMANISM UNDER EARLY RKJPUT KINGS.

Abu, complained that theVedaswere trampled under foot,

and that the land was in the possession of Rakshasas (orBuddhists) , they were ordered by Brahma to recreate therace of Kshatriyas

,who had been extirpated by Parasu

Rama. This was effected by pur ifying the ‘ fountain offire with water fromthe Ganges, whenthere sprang fromthe fountain four warriors, called theAgnikulas, or generation of fire

,who

,amidst manymarvels

,cleared the land

of the Rakshasas. Many of the modern Rajputs claimdescent fromtheseAgnikulas, who thus propagated Brahmanism.

For some centuries during the period of which wearespeaking

,the most powerful family in India

,and the

greatest of al l the Rajput dynasties, was called Andhra.

Branches of thisgreat family reigned inMagadha (whencethey had expelled the Buddhist kings) , in Warangal

,in

that part of theDeccan called Telingana, south of Orissa,and also inUjjain inMalwa [ see Int. which was themost famous city of India at that time. The greatest kingof theAndhra dynasty was the heroic VIKRAMADITYA

,King

of Ujjain. He is said to have sprung fromthe Pramaras,

the chief race of theAgnikulas and innumerable legendsare told of the extent of his conquests

,of his bravery and

virtue,of the beauty of his throne, and the magnificence

of his court . Some of these legends are doubtless true ofRaja Vikramaditya himself whilst others probably belongto the lives of other great kings of ancient times, whosenames had been forgotten by the old historians

,or had

never been known to them,so that they assigned al l the

grandeur and al l the conquests to Vikramaditya. Theseold historians say that he wasunequalled inwisdom, justice, and valour , and that hehad spent a large part of hislife in travelling through various countries as a fagtr, inorder to learnthewisdomand arts of foreign nations. Itis said that he was fifty years old beforehe attempted tomake any conquests; and that then

,withina fewmonths,

he subdued the countries of Malwa and Gujarat, and soon

176 REVIVAL or BRSHMANISM UNDER EARLY 115mmKINGS.

of Kanauj , who was a Rahtor Rajput ;l and sometimes

the King of Patan,in Gujarat, who was a Salonkhya

Raj put .

3 . The Hindu Kings of Bengal . — 1t is said that,fromthe times of the Malzc

'

tbhdmta to the period of theMuhammadan invasion in A.D . 1203

,four dynastiesof kings

reigned inBengal . Of these the last butonewasa series

of princes whose name was Pal , whoreigned fromthe

eighthto the latter part of the tenth century. They arethought to have been Buddhists. Of one Raja of thisfamily, D eva Pal Deva, it is stated that he reigned overthewhole of India, and that hehad evenconquered Thibet .This statement probably simplymeans that this Raja wasacknowledged as Maharaja Adhiraj. The capital of thedynasty was at Gaur ; it was afterwards transferred toNuddea (Nadiya or Navadwtpa) .

The Pal dynasty was succeeded by another line ofkings called Sena. About 964 A.D . a king belonging tothis family reigned inBengal named Adisura, who invitedfive Brahmans fromKanauj to settle in Bengal . The

Brahmans came,each attended by a Kayastha. These are

said to b e the ancestors of the five high classes of Brahmans and KayasthasinBengal . Adisura was probably thefounder of the Sena dynasty .

One of theSena kings, named Bal lala Sena, settled theprecedence of the descendants of the five Kanaujya Brahmans. The last was Lakhmaniya, or Sn Sena, drivenoutfromNadiya by Bakhtiar Khilji [see Chap . IX .

4 . The Hindu Kings of the Deccan.— Far away in

theSouth of Indiaseveral powerful kingdomsexisted duringthis period, of which the chief were the Pcindya dynastyof Madura, and the Chola dynasty, first at Kanchipuram(Conjeveram) , and afterwards at Tanj ore ; and the Okem

Some time in the eleventh century AD . the RéhtorsweredrivenoutoftheKanauj byanother setofRajputs, and estab l ished themselvesinMarwar and their representativeatthe present dayistheMaharajaofJodhpur orMarwar.

EARLY MUHAMMADAN INVASIONS : MAHMUD or GHAZ NI. 177

dynasty in the ex treme south , and on the western or

Malabar coast . These have already been mentioned inthe section on the declineofBuddhism.

In Orissa the Kesafrt

’

or ‘Lion ’ kings ruled for cen

tariesat Jajpur and afterwards atKatak and they werefollowed by the Gangetic dynasty (Gangci Vansa) . The

Hindukings of Orissa bore the title of Gajpati, or‘Lord

of Elephants.

’

5. The Puranas— The religionwhich gradually b ecame established in India on the expulsion of Buddhismdiffered considerably fromthe early religion of theVedas,as also fromthe philos0phic teachings of the Darsanas.

Ithas been b riefly explained in the chapter onReligions inthe Introduction. The full exposition of this religion isto b e found in the series of religiousand historicalwritingscalled the Purcinas. The recognised Puranasare eighteenin number, and are cal led Puranas because they professto teach that which is old - theold faith of theHindus.

They are generally supposed to date only from800 A.D .,

many of thembeing ofmuch later date. But they give aview ofthe religion of the revival of Brahmanism

,and are

mainly devoted to an interpretation of the beliefs of thevarioussectsof worshippers of Vishnu, Siva, &0 . Besidesthis they are storehouses ofmythological and legendarystories; they containnot only genealogiesand livesof gods,but also genealogies of kingsand heroes ; and fromsomeof the latter

,gleams of historical truthmay be derived.

CHAPTER VIII.

EARLY MUHAMMADAN INVASIONS.— ~MAHMUD

OF GHAZ NI.

1. Early Muhammadan Invas1ons. 2 . Sabaktigin of Ghazni .3 . Mahmud of Ghazni . 4. Decl ine and Fal l of the Ghaznavi

Dynasty.

1 . Early Muhammadan Invasions.— We havenowarrived atthe period when theMuhammadansfirst began

N

178 EARLY MUHAMMADAN INVASIONS: MAHMUD or GHAZ NI.

to invade and conquer India ; and fromthis time thehistory is full and clear

,for the Muhammadans were

always fond of the study of history , and therewerealwayssome Muhammadanwriters who wrote down anaccountof events shortly after their occurrence.

As early as the year 712 A.D .,and only ninety years

after the foundation of the Muhammadan religion in

Arabia,a Musalman Arab

,named Multanwnad Kufisim

,

invaded and conquered Sind, and held it for a shorttime. But itwasnotuntil the end of the tenth century

,

when the religion of the Prophet had spread overAfghanistan and al l those regions of Central Asia to thenorth -west of India, that the great Muhammadan in

vasionstook place.

At this timethe great empire of Kanauj extended farwestward into Rajputana, jand probably into Sind ; andhardl y less powerful , and occasionally even paramount

,

were the Rajput'

dynasties of Ajmer , in Rajputana, andAnhalwara or Patan, inGujarat . These, with theBrahmandynasty of Lahore, the Tuar Rajputs of Delhi, and the

Sesodia sept of the Gehlot Rajputs of Maiwar,were the

Hindusovereignties that werefirst attacked by theMuhammadan invaders.

§ 2 . Sabaktig'in of Ghazni. — Sabaktigin, Sultan of

Ghazni , inAfghanistan (called the first of the Ghaznav i

dynasty) , was originally a Turki l slave ; by his bravery

and abil ities he rose to b emonarch of a vast empire,

including Afghanistan,Balochistan

,and Turkistan. A

pleasing legend is told by some‘

of the old historians toillustrate the kind andmerciful disposition of Sab aktigin,which somuch endeared himto his followers. It happened

,

The wandering hordes of Tartars that inhab ited the whole ofCentral Asia fromtheCaspianSea tothe north of China weredividedmtothree greatraces (1) the i

‘

lfanclcds, whol ived farthesttothe east,111 thenorthof China ; (2) the Mongols or Muglmls, who l ived inthecentre, fromThibet

°

northward ; and (3) the Turkis, whol ived westoftheMughals.

180 EARLY MUHAMMADAN INVASIONS: MAHMUD or GHAZ NI.

ceeding his father as Sultan of Ghazni , he would devotehimself to the conquest of India.

In the year 996 A.D . Sabaktigin died ; and Mahmudimmediately proceeded to carry outhisearly determination.

His earnestwish was both to possess himself of the wealthof India

,and also toforce the proud Rajputs toaccept the

Muhammadan religion; and inhonour of his zeal for Islamthe spiritual head of theMuhammadans

,called theKhalif

,

sent hima kht’

lat of extraordinarymagnificence, togetherwith the high - sounding titles of Right Hand of theState,Guardian of the Faith , and Friend of the Chief of theFaithful . ’ The Chief of the Faithful was

,of course, the

Khalif himself, who doubtless hoped that Mahmud woulddiffuse theMuhammadan religion throughout India. Mah

mud hereuponvowed that every year hewould undertakea holy war against Hindustan.

’

During thethirty - four yearsofhisreignSultanMahmudof Ghazni invaded India seventeen times ; and of theseseventeen expeditions twelve are famous. His zeal in thedestruction of Hindutemples and idols obtained for himthename of ‘

the Image- breaker ’

; and the vast plunderwhich he carried away fromIndia greatly enriched hisown country , andmade Ghazni themost beautiful and thewealthiest city of the age. The richest spoils were thoseof the great Hindushrines of Nagarkot, in theHimalayas ;Thaneswar

,between the Saraswati and the Jamnah ; and

Somnath,in Gujarat and those of the sacred city of

Mathura .

Itmay benoted that Mahmud’

s expeditions extendedas far eastward as Kanauj , in Oudh , and asfar southwardas Somnath , in Gujarat ; but he only made a permanentsettlement inthe Punjab , where he established aViceroyat Lahore. This was the commencement of Musahntindominion in India.

Themost famous of Mahmud’

s expeditions were the

twelfth and the sixteenth . The twelfth expedition, in

A.I) . 1018 — 19,was against Kanauj and the sacred city of

MAHMUD or GHAZ NI. 18 1

Mathura or Muttra, on the Jamnah. Mahmud was nowdetermined topenetrate into the heart of Hindustan. His

army consisted of horse and foot ; these

were gathered fromal l parts of his dominions, includingthe recent conquestswhich hehad made inBukhara andSamarkhand. Hemarched fromPeshawar along the footof themountains, crossing the Punjab rivers as near totheir sources as possible, and presented himself beforeKanauj . Thiswas a stately city full of incrediblewealth ;and its kings

,whooften held the title of ZlIahcirad Adhircij ,

kept a splendid court . The Raja threw himself on the

generosity of Mahmud,who admitted himto his friend

ship,and after three days left his city uninjured.

Fromthence he advanced to Mathura, sacred as the

birthplace of Krishna, which was givenup to the soldiersfor twenty days. Its temples struck Mahmud with admiration

,and kindled in himthe desire to cover the barren

rocks of Ghazni with similar edifices. Hinduslavesafterthiswere sold inthe army of the conqueror at tworupeeseach .

The sixteenth expedition— which was also the last, ecept a small and unimportant one a little later— was

undertaken by Mahmud in 1026— 27A. D . against the famoustemple of Somnath

,in the Gujaratpeninsula. Themarch

was long,including 350 miles of desert ; and Mahmud

madeextraordinary preparationsfor it. He passed throughMultan

,and thence across the desert to Anhalwara

,whose

Raja,named Bhim

,fled beforehim. The struggle before

Somnath was terrible, and lasted three days. TheRajputprinces assembled fromal l parts to defend their holiestshrine ; but their desperate valour was unavailing

'

againstthe bravery and enthusiasmof Mahmud and his veterans.

The treasure obtained wasimmense; some of theMuhammadanhistorians say that the imageof Somnath— whichtheBrahmans had offered to ransomby the payment ofmany crores of gold coins— when broken by Mahmud ’

s

own hand was found to contain amassof rubiesand other

18 2 EARLY MUHAMMADAN INVASIONS : MAHMUD or GHAZ NI.

precious stones far exceeding in value the offered ransom.

Mahmud attempted to return to Ghazni by way of Ajmer ;buttheRajputs barred hisway, and hehad oncemore tobrave themarch acrossthe deserts of Sind.

An interesting story is told of Mahmud to show hismagnanimity and the readiness with which he acceptedgood advice even when it was disagreeable. It is saidthat some Balochi robbers, having taken possession of astrong fortresson the road by which merchants travelledfromGhazni into Persia, were in the habit of plunderingal l the caravans that passed that way. One day theyrobbed a body ofmerchants, and killed a young man ofKhorasan who was of their number . His ol d mothercomplained to Mahmud

,whotold her that such accidents

occurred in that part of the country because it wastoofarfromhis capital for himto b e able to prevent them. The

old woman replied,Keep nomore territory thanyoucan

manage properly.

’

The Sultan was somuch struck bythe justice of this remark that he ordered a strong guardto be furnished to al l caravans traversing that road

,and

proceeded toextirpate the robbers that infested it.

Another well - known story that is told of Mahmudshowshis character ina less favourable light , for it showsthat his avaricewas even stronger thanhis sense of justice. Ferdausi (see Introduction, 77) was one of thegreatest poets of theworld

,and wasmuch encouraged by

Mahmud,who was very fond of poetry . Ferdausi at

length determined to ~write a grand heroic poem,which

should make his name and that of his patron Mahmudfamous throughout al l ages ; and Mahmud in a fit ofgenerosity declared hewould givehima goldmuhur (sixteen rupees) for every verse of the poem. Ou this promise 'the great poet went away

,and soon returned with the

Sheik Nci/mah— a poemwhich will be famousas long asthePersian language exists. The poemcontained no lessthan verses and Mahmud

,repenting of his former

generosity ,meanly ofi'

ered Ferdausi only rupees,or

184 MUHAMMAD GHORI, AND THE CONQUEST or HINDUSTAN .

far the greatest andmost famouswas theKing of Ajmerand Delhi .

Prithvi Raja,or RaiPithaura

,represented theflower of

Rajput chivalry, and hasalways beenone of the favourite

heroes of the Hindus. Hismother was a Tuar Raq t

princess of Delhi ; his father was Someswar, an heir ofthe Chohans of Ajmer . Jaichand, Raja of Kanauj , washiscousin, being the son of another Tuar princess

,sister of

Prithv i’smother. Prithvi,however, notwithstanding the

oppositionof Jaichand,had succeeded tothe twothrones ofDelhi and Ajmer . His praises are sung in the poems ofChand Bardai , his devoted admirer and friend.

About this period the Chohan empire was greatlyweakened by twodeadly fends, which broke out betweenthemand their Rajput neighbourson the north - east andon the south - east somewhere about the year 1170 A.D . In

both these wars the arms of Ajmer were successful ; theSalonkhyaRajputs of Anhalwara acknowledged the superiority of the Chohans, whilst Kanauj was compelled toacquiesce in the supremacy of Ajmer .

2 . Shahéb ud- dinor Muhammad Ghori.— But soonthe heroi c Prithvi had to meet an enemymore formidablethan any that theHindushad yetencountered. Thefierce

and gigantic Afghans of Ghor had already conqueredMultan and the Ghaznavi kings of Lahore. They wereunder the command of a bold and determined soldiernamed Shahdb -ucl - din

,better known in history asMUHAM

MAD GHORI, whowas j oint Sultan of Ghor with hismorepeaceful brother Ghias-uddin

, and who, though he hadbeen once defeated in an attack ontheRajputs of Anbalwara, was bent on effecting the conquest of Hindustan.

In 1191 the Ghorian Sultan advanced fromLahore acrossthe Sutlej in the direction of D elhi , and captured the fortress of Sirhind, north of themodern Ambalah. Prithv imarched out tomeet him,

at the head of amighty armyof Ohohan Rajputs and their all ies; and a hard- foughtbattle took place at a v il lage called Tirciorz

’

,near Thanes

THE BATTLE or THANESWAR. 185

war. A Muhammadan historian givesthe following briefaccount of this battle : ‘ The battle array was formed ;and the Sultan Shahab -uddin

,seiz ing a lance

,made a

rush upon the elephant which carried Gobind Rai of Delhi

(one of Prithvi’

s chief heroes) . The latter advanced tomeet himin front of the battle ; and then the Sultan, whowas a second Rustamand the Lion of the age, drove hislance into themouth of theRai and knocked two of theaccursed wretch ’

s teeth downhisthroat. TheRai,on the

other hand,returned the blow and infl icted a severewound

on the armof hisadversary. The Sultan reined back hishorse and turned aside

,and the painofthewound was so

insufferable that he could not support himself on horseback . The Musalman army gaveway, and could not b econtrolled. The Sultanwas just falling

,whena sharp and

brave young Khilj i Afghan recognised him,jumped upon

the horse behind him,and

,clasping himround the body ,

spurred on the horse and bore himfromthemidst of thefight. When the Musalmans lost sight of the Sultan a

panic fell upon them; they tied, and halted notuntil theywere safe fromthe pursuit of the victors.

’

3 . The decisiveBattleof Thaneswar.— Prithvi Raja

,

after this glorious v ictory,set to work to forma great

confederation of al l the Rajput States, so that hemightb e able to renew his successes against the dreadedAfghansif

'

they should return. Hewas so far successful that noless than 160Rajput princes followed his bannerswhenhemarched outa second time tomeet Muhammad Ghori ; butthe persistent jealousy of Prithv 1 s cousin

,Raga Jaichand

of Kanauj , greatly weakened theHinducause.

In themeantime Muhammad had returned to Ghor,and had spared nopains tomakehis army invincible. The

punishment he is said to have inflicted on those Ummdsorchiefswhohad run away fromthe battle field atTiraori isamusing. He forced themtowalk round the city of Ghorwith their horses’ food- bags

,fil led with barley, hanging

about their necks as if they were donkeys— at the same

186 MUHAMMAD GHORI, AND THE CONQUEST or HINDUSTAN .

time forcing themto eat the barley or have their headsstruck off ; andmost of theUmaras preferred to eat the

barley . In the following year Muhammad Ghori againadvanced uponDelhi , burning toavengehis disgrace and

again theMusalman and Hinduarmiesmet on the field ofc ineswar, 1193 A.D . One hundred and twenty thousandhorsemen bearing heavy armour, and forty thousand lightarmed cavalry

,fol lowed the Muhammadan leader towin

for himthe land which he claimed by right of the con

quests of Mahmud of Ghazni , and to force the haughtyRajputs to accept the religion of the Prophet . On the

other hand, hundreds of thousands of brave Rajputs inthe army of Prithvi felt that they were fighting for theirhomes, their country , their religion, and al l that was dearto them. They fought with the desperate valour of patriots; but al l was of no avail against the hardy and

well - disciplined veterans of Muhammad Ghori . GobindRaj

,whohad wounded the Sultan in the former battle

,was

killed in the middle of the contest ; and it is said thatMuhammad recognised the head of his old foe by the twoteeth which he had himself broken. When at lengthPrithvi saw that the day was against him

,and that the

Hindus were hopelessly routed, he alighted fromhis ele

phant,and

,mounting a horse

,he galloped away fromthe

battle fiel d, in the hope of collecting his scattered forcesfor another attempt at resistance. Hewas

,however

,very

soon captured and put to death ; and the MuhammadanEmpire in India was firmly establ ished by this one battle.

4. Completionof theMuhammadanConquest.— The

Raja Jaichand of Kanauj,traitor not only to his cousin

Prithvi butalso to his country,paid dearly for his folly,

for in the following year (1194) hewas totally defeated byMuhammad Ghori in a great battle at Chandrawar

,in the

D oab (now Firuzabad, in theAgra division) . MeanwhileD elhi and other Rajput capitalshad beenreduced by Kutbud- din. Kuth -uddin

,famous as theMuhammadan general

whocompleted the conquest of Hindustan, had been the

CHAPTER X .

THE PATHAN OR AFGHAN SULTANS or DELHI.

1 . The Slave Kings of Delhi . 2 . TheKhi ljiKingsof Delhi .3. The Tughlak Kings of Delhi . 4. The Sayyid and Lodi

Dynasties.

§ 1 . TheSlave Kings of Delhi.— SultanKuth -uddin,

becausehehad beenone of the slaves of Sultan Muhammad Ghori

,was called ‘

the Sultan, the slave of the Sultanof Ghor ’

; and as in likemanner his successors wereeither slaves or the sons of slaves, the dynasty was calledthe dynasty of the slaves of the Sultans of Ghor ’

- or,

shortly,the SlaveKings.

’They reigned for nearly a hun

dred years,until the year 1290 A.D . ; and during this period

nearly every vestige of theHindupower inN orthern Indiawasdestroyed ; whilst the Muhammadangenerals whohadconquered Sind

,Bengal , and other remote prov inces

,

though they often rebelled and endeavoured tomakethemselves independent

,were generally kept in close subjection

to the Imperial throne of Delhi . Themost famous of thesovereigns that reigned during this period were ALTAMSH

,

his daughter RAZ iAH (the only Empress that ever reignedinDelhi until the assumption of the Imperial title by ourpresent Gracious Queen) , and BALBAN .

Al tamshwas the greatest of al l the Slave Kings. He

reduced to submission both the Muhammadan King ofSind, and also the Khilj i chiefs whohad succeeded Ma

hammad Bakhtyar Khilj i as rulers of Bengal . He alsosubdued al l themost important Hindu principalities inHindustan ; and so firmly established his power that hisdaughter

,three of his sons, and one grandson inherited it

in their turn. He ruled from1210 to 1235 A.D .

Raziah,whowasalways called Sultan, just as if shehad

beenaman,was a woman of wonderful energy and ability,

and seemed atfirst to have inherited al l that capacity forgovernment which had distinguished her father Altamsh.

THE SLAVE KINGS or DELHI. 1 8 9

She, however, displeased al l her nobles by showing unduefavour to anAbyssinian slave inher court ; and shewas at

length deposed and put to death, to make roomfor one ofher brothers.

Balbanwasthe vazir of the last of the sons ofAltamsh,and had himself married one of the daughters of thatmonarch . He was aman of unsparing rigour, and kepthis army in a high stateof discipline. Themost importantevent of his reignwasthe rebellionof Tughral , whomhe had made governor of Bengal , who in 1282 A

‘

.D . as

sumed independenceunder the title of SultanMaghis-ud

din Tughral , and succeeded indefeating twoseveral armiessent to subduehim. At length the~Sultanmarchedagainsthiminperson; and oneofhis commanders, namedMuhammad Sher, coming upon the forces of the rebel somewhatunexpectedly , dashed upon his camp with themost astohishing bravery

,though atthe head of only forty troopers.

The rebels thought that they were attacked by the wholeImperial army, and took to flight. Tughral was overtaken,and hisheadwasstruck off and brought to the Sultan, whonow confided Bengal tothe care ofhis second son

,Bughra

Khan. By the death of his elder brother Bughra’

. Khanbecame heir to the empire

,and was begged by Balban to

come back to D elhi ; buthe preferred his quiet and securerule in Bengal

, and ultimately his eldest son,Kaikubad

,

became emperor, whilst Bughra himself remained at

Lakhnauti asKing of Bengal .Ah ambitious vazir of theEmperor Kaikubad

,named

Nizam-uddin, endeavoured to sow discord between the

father and son, because Bughra Khan had warned his sonagainst themachinations of the vazir

,and remonstrated

with Kaikubad about his licentious habits. The resultwas that the father and sonmet

,each at the head of an

army,in the plains of Bihar . For two days the armies

remained encamped near each other ; onthe third day theold King ofBengal wrote a letter to hisson with his ownhand

,begging for an interview. Atfirst thewicked vaz ir

190 THE PATHKN OR AFGHAN SULTANS or DELHI.

succeeded inpreventing this interview and evenwhen itwasarranged

,hepersuaded theweak young Kaikubad that

it was necessary for his dignity,as Emperor of Hindu

stan, thathis father theKing of Bengal should first prostrate himself three times before him. At length the timefor themeeting arrived. The son proceeded first to theDarbar tents with great pomp ; then the aged fatherapproached slowly

,and as soon ashe came in sight of the

throne madehis first prostrationy as he camenearer hemade the second prostration and when he arrived atthefoot of the throne wasabout tomake the third

,when the

prince,deeply affected atthe humi liation ofhis father, and

stung with remorse at his ownundutiful conduct,rushed

into the ol dman’

s arms,and after tenderly embracing him

and imploring his forgiveness,forced himto sit on the

throne,whilst he himself took a respectful place below.

The designs of the vazir were thus frustrated, and heshortly afterwards died by poison.

Bughra Khan after this reigned peaceably inBengaluntil his death , 1292 A.D . buthis unfortunate sonKaikubad was deposed and assassinated in 1290 by Jalal -uddin

,

the first emperor of theKhilj i dynasty.

2 . The Khil jiKings of Delhi, and the Conquest ofthe Deccan.

- TheKhilj i tribewere nominally Afghans orPathans, though really they were Turkis (see note on

page 178 ) whohad long settled inAfghanistan, and whoaided in the Muhammadan conquest of India. Jalal -uddin

,whowasthe head of this tribe, wasvazir of the Sultan

Kaikubad,and he ultimately dethroned and killed his

master . The KhilJl dynasty only ruled for thirty years,from1290 to 1320 A.D . ; but this period is an importantone, for during the reignsof Jalal -ud- dinand of the ferocious and bloodthirsty ALfi - UD - DIN -KHILJf (nephew and

murderer of Jalal -uddin) the Muhammadan armies ofDelhi conquered the Deccan.

Nors.

— The three chief Statesof the Deccan at that time wereMaharashtra, capital Deogiri (afterwards cal led Daulatabad) ; Tel in

1 92 THE PATHKN on AFGHAN SULTANS or DELHI.

whocutdownthe Musalman guardsand carried off theirking and his daughter in safety. The Rana afterwardsrecovered Chitor

,and became a feudatory of the empire

,

sending a contingent of foot and horse to theimperial armies of Delhi .Another romantic incident, which occurred during the

campaigns in the Deccan, is sufficiently interesting to b ementioned here. Dewal Devi

,the daughter of theRaja of

Gujarat,was renowned as the most beautiful damsel in

India ; and the honour of her hand had been so eagerlysought for by theHinduprinces that armieshad been set

in motion on her account . By chance she and al l her

escort were captured by the Imperial army shewas sent

to D elhi , and there she found her own mother,Kamala

D evi,established asthe favourite queen in the Emperor ’s

palace. It was not long before the young heirapparent,

Khizr Khan,saw and appreciated her charms. The love

wasmutual ; and though the Emperor was atfirstangry,he at length consented to thematch , and the young l oversweremarried in due form. The story of their loveshasbeen the subject of a beautiful , though rather lengthy,Persian poemby Amir Khusrau(see Introduction,

The crimes of Ala-ud- dinwerebelieved to havebroughta curse on his family . By themachinations of the suc

cessful general , Malik Kafur,the heir - apparent Khizr

Khan was thrown into prison ; and on the death of hisfather was blinded, a young brother named Umar beingset up by Kafur as a puppet - king. Malik Kafur was

,

however, soonmurdered in an émeuteof thepalace- guards.

Umar, in his turn, was blinded by his brother Mubarak,who also murdered Khizr, married the Princess Dewal

Devi , and sethimself up as Sultan. Soon the fortunes ofthis ill - starred familyunderwent a fresh change. Mubarak

abandoned himself to the wildest excesses; and final ly,

with every malemember of the royal family, wasmurdered by one of his profligate favourites, a Hindu of thelowest caste named Mal ik Khusrau, a slave who had

THE TUGHLAK DYNASTY. 193

embraced Islam,and had risen to be a general in the

Imperial armies. The poor Princess D ewal Devi wasoncemore forcibly remarried ; the baseborn usurper tookher into his own seraglio , and distributed amongst hiscreaturesthe ladies of those noble families whohad distinguished themselvesas adherents of the fallen dynasty.

Khusrau,though professedly a Muhammadan, perse

outed al l whobelonged to that religion whilst theHindunobles hated himas an upstart and a renegade. Conse

quently he was soon defeated by an uprising ofmalcontents, under the leadership of a brave Musalman generalnamed Ghaz i Beg Tughlak,

who had been Viceroy ofLahore. Khusrausuffered the just penalty of his crimes;and Tughlak , weeping atthe thought that notone scion ofthe royal Khilji house survived to mount the vacantthrone, appealed to the nobles to elect one of themselvesas Sultan of Delhi . Al l the people with one voice salutedTughlak himself as ShahJahcin, Emperor of theWorldand he became Sultan, under the title of Ghias-uddin

TUGHLAK SHAH.

3 . TheTughlak Dynasty : the Invasionof Timur.

Eight kings of the Tughlak dynasty ruled in Delhi fornearly a hundred years, from1320 to 1412 A.D . Duringthis period the great Pathan Empire of Delhi graduallyfell to pieces, the fragments forming independent andsometimes powerful kingdoms. This was owing partly tothe weakness and folly of some of the Tughlak kings,partly to thewant of loyalty amongst thegreatMuhammadan generals, whooften regarded themselves asthe equalsoftheirmaster atDelhi . Thedisintegrationof thePathanEmpirewas hastened, too, by the short but terrible invasion of Timur the Tartar , sometimes called Tamerlane byEuropeanwriters, whosacked Delhi inthe reign of Mahmud Tughlak, in 1398 A.D .

Themost important reigns of this dynasty were thoseof Muhammad Shah (1325 Firi

’

iz Shah (1351

and Mahmud Shah (1329 During the

0

194 THE PArmiN on AFGHAN SULTANS or DELHI.

reign of Muhammad Shah,a large portion of the Deccan

became independent under theBalemani dynasty (seeChap .

XI . 1) and in the reign of Firuz Shah , nephew of Muhammad

,Haji Ilyas establ ished the independence of the

Afghan dynasty of Bengal (see Chap . XI . Jaunpur,Gujarat

,and Malwa became independent Muhammadan

kingdoms during the reign of Mahmud Shah,the grandson

of Firuz . But themost striking event of this period wasthe successful invasion of Hindustan by Timur, towhichreference hasalready beenmade

,and which foreshadowed

theMughul conquestmore than a century afterwards.

Timur was of the Chaghtai race, the leader of the immense hordes of Turkis and Mughul s that had subdued al lCentral andWesternAsia. His chief citieswereBukharaand Samarkhand. Though only a rude Tartar

,he had

some pretensions to learning , and left an account of hislife written by himself. These pretensions appear to haveinduced in himmore respect for learned men thanwasusual amongst the Tartars. Many learned men accompanied his army on itsmarch ; and it is amusing to notethat he ordered themin times of danger to b e placedbehind the women

,and the women to b e placed behind

the army .

Timur states inhis autobiography that hewas inducedto invade India because of the civil wars that were ragingthere betweenthe feeble Sultan Mahmud and hisnobles.

The fortress of Bhatnir capitul ated to him,notwithstand

ing which the luckless inhabitantsweremassacred. Then

hemarched on towardsDelhi ; hemettheSultanMahmudunder thewalls, and utterly defeatedhim,

and thenentered

the Imperial city. Mahmud fled to Gujarat, whencehe didnot return to Delhi until long after Timur had left India.

The latter professed a wish to Spare the inhabitants of thecity

,but a slight disturbance having brokenoutamongst

them,he allowed an indiscriminate slaughter . For five

days the conqueror continued feasting, while his troopsplundered and slew the hapless citizens and they carried

196 THE RIVALS or THE DELHI EMPIRE.

Sikandar 1 establishedhis authority over Bihar, the easternRajput states

,and the whole of N orthern India with the

exception of Bengal buttheweakness and cruelty of hisson

,Ib rahimLodi , again plunged the country into a state

of anarchy,and brought about the fall of the Pathan

empire. Babar, the great Chaghtai leader of theMughulsand Turkis of Central Asia, sixth in descent fromTimur,was invited into India by some of Ibrahim’

s discontentednobles; in 1524 A.D . he obtained possession of Lahore ;and two years later, in 1526 A.D .

,fought the celebrated

battle of Panipat , inwhich Ibrahimlost his kingdomand

his life. This battle, called the First Battle of Panipat,transferred the empire of Hindustani fromthe Pathans2

to the Chaghtai (commonly called theMughul ) Sultans.

CHAPTER XI.

THE RIVAIfg OF THE DELHI EMPIRE DURING THE

PATHAN AND EARLY MUGHUL PERIODS.

1 . The Bahmani Kingdomand its ofi'

shoots in the Deccan.

2 . TheHinduKingdomof Vijayanagar. 3. Bengal . 4. Jaun

pur, Gujarat, andMalwa. 5 . TheRaj puts.

1 . The Bahmani Kingdomand its offshoots intheDeccan.

— We have already noticed that during the weakrule of the later Pathan Sultans of Delhi

,a number of

other Muhammadan States arose in various parts of Indiaand obtained independence. Of these the greatest wasthe Bahmani Kingdomof the Deccan

,founded by an

Afghan general named Zafar Khan during the reign of

1 Sikandar Lodi transferred thecapital of HindustanfromDelhi toAgra and the latter city was thechief residenceof theSultansdowntothe timeofShéhJabtu.

2 TheSultansofDelhi fromMuhammad Ghori toIbrahimLodi arecommonly cal led PatkdnsorAfghans ; but.mostofthemwerereal ly notAfghtnbutTurki (seenoteon

‘page 178 ) intheir origin.

THE BAHMANI KINGDOM. 197

Muhammad Tughlak . Zafar Khan defeated theI

generals

sent against himby the Sultan of Delhi and establishedhimself atKul bargahas independent Sultan of the Deccan.

He had formerly been the slave of a Brahman namedGango , whohad treated himwith great kindness, and hadforetold his future greatness ; and in honour of his ol dmaster

,henow took the title of SultanAla-ud- dinHasan

GangoBahmani, whence the dynasty founded by himis

called the Bahmani dynasty . It consisted of noless thaneighteen kings

,who in turn ruled the Deccan for more

than one hundred and fifty years, from1347 to 1526 A.D .

In thevery year inwhich the Pathan dynasty was expelledfromDelhi by the battle of Panipat

,the last of the

Bahmani kings ceased to reign in the Deccan. Evenbefore this date

,however

,several independent Stateshad

Sprung up on the ruins of the Bahmani power ; and ultimately five great D eccani kingdoms were formed, whichwere eventually subjugated by the Mughul Emperors ofDelhi. These five dynastieswere

The Adil Shdhi dynasty of Bijapur, founded byAdil Shah in 1489 . It had many wars both with theMahrattas (see Chap. XVI. ) and with the Mughals

,and

was final ly subverted by Aurangzeb in 1686 A.D .

— The N izcimShdhi kingdomof Ahmadnagar .

Chand Bibi defended this state against the armies ofAkbar ; and Malik Ambar was one of its statesmen and

heroes (see Chaps. XIII . and XIV) It was destroyed byShah Jahan in 1637A.D .

— The Kaib Shdhz’

dynasty of Golkondah,on the

eastern side of the Deccan, subverted by Aurangzeb in1687A.D .

— The Imacl Sho’ohi kingdomof Barar at Ilichpur,annexed by Ahmadnagar in 1574.

-TheBartel Shdhi dynasty of Bidar .

2 . VIJayanagar.— TheHindukingdomofVij ayanagar

in the Deccanwas founded, like the Bahmani kingdom,in


the reign of Muhammad Tughlak, about 1336 A.D . It wassometimes called the kingdomof Bijanagar or Narsingha,and occupied the territories now called the MadrasPresideney and wasfinal ly destroyed by a combination of theMuhammadan kings of Bij apur , Ahmadnagar , Gol kondah,and Bidar

,in the great battle of TALIKOT on theKrishna,

A.D . 1565. The aged King of Vijayanagar,named Brim

Réja’

,was slaughtered in cold blood by the allies

,who

behaved with great cruelty after the battle. The brotherofRamRaja afterwardsestablished himself atChandragiri,seventymilesnorth - west of Madras and in 1640 A.D .madea grant to theEnglish of the site of the city of Madras.

3 . Bengal . — Shams-uddin Ilyas,commonly called

Haj i Ilyas, successfully defended himself in the fort ofEkdalah

,near Panduah

,againstFirl

’

iz Tughlak in 1353 A. D .,

and thus established his independence in Bengal . His

dynasty lasted with some interruptions for more than a

century .

’

Atone time aHindudynasty , founded by s é

Ganesa (called by Musalman writers Kans) , of D inajpur,obtained power for a short time.

At a later period, Bengal was rul ed by a short - liveddynasty of Abyssinian slaves ; and the succession was

much broken in the latter part of the fifteenth and the

beginning of the sixteenth century.

SultanAJa-uddin,a Sayyid

,succeeded theAbyssinians

in1449 . He gave an asylumto the unfortunateHusainShah of Jaunpur, when the latter was defeated by BuhlolLodi of Delhi (see Chap . X . but subsequently wascompelled tomake an alliance with Sikandar Lodi . Two

of his sons reigned after him; the last, Mahmud Shah,

was expelled by Sher Shah in 1538 (see Chap . XII .

and though restored by Humayi'm

, he died shortly afterwards.

Members of the family of Sher Shah ruled in Ben

gal until 1 564 ; when Sulaiman Shah , of the Kararaniclanof Afghans, obtained the throne. He made peacewith Akbar’s general , MunimKhan. The subjugation of


But the Muhammadan kings of Malwa and Gujaratlooked on their Rajput neighboursastheirnatural enemies

,

and the rightful objects both of their religiousenthusiasmand their desirefor plunder. BetweentheGujaratmonarchsand the Sesodia Rajputs of Maiwar, a constant strugglefor territory went ou. The sacred hill ofAbuwas occupiedby the Musalman troops ; Chitor was twice besieged ;Bundi was sacked ; and in 1454 A.D . Muhammad Khilj i

,

the King of Malwa, marched up asfar asAjmer,then in

the hands of the Raq ts,and took the fort by storm.

Fromthat time Ajmer remained in subjection to Malwafor about fifty years, and frequent predatory excursionsweremade into the sparsely populated districts of Marwar .

TheRajputswere expelled fromthe plains north -west ofAhmadabad by the Gujarat forces ; whilst the King ofMalwa took fromthe ChohanRaq ts of easternRajputanaa great part of their southern lands, and for some timeoccupied both the great fortresses of Rantanbur and

Chanderi . After the stormof the invasion of Timur hadweakened the Tughlak dynasty inDelhi, the Rajputs for ashort time regained some ground intheeast butthey wereagain beaten back by Sikandar Lodi . Fromtheend of thefifteenthcentury thepermanent territory ofthe independentclanswas confined within thosenatural barriers formed bythe difficult country which stil lmore or lessmarksofftheirpossessions in Central India ; though in several parts

,and

especially about Gwalior, the Mahratta usurpations haveoverlaid the ancient dominion of the clans.

The period of the disruption of the lastAfghandynastyof Delhi , briefly noticed inour last chapter, was signalised

in Rajput history by a transient revival of the ancient

military prestige of the Rajput clans. A ruler of greatpolitical ability aswell asmarvellous personal valour, theRana Sanga ofMaiwar, arose among themto take advantage of the weakness of their hereditary enemies. The

Muhammadan States of Mzilwa and Gujarat were, as wehave already mentioned, at this time engaged in deadly

A RfiJrur REVIVAL. 201

warfare between themselves. Sanga was bravely and

skilfully aided by a vassal chief, Medini Rao, to whomhehad given the fortressand territory of Chanderi ; and thesetwo fought with great success against both Malwa and

Gujarat. Muhammad Khilj i II . of Malwa onone occasiondefeated Medini Rao

,with great slaughter of theRajputs

,

atMandu but in 1519 hewas himself defeated atGagranby Sanga and the chivalry of Maiwar. The Musalmanking was captured by Sanga and in 1526 theRana, withthe aid oftheMuhammadansof Gujarat, subdued thewholeof Malwa

,and annexed to his own dominions the fine

eastern provinces of that kingdom,and thus oncemoregot

possession of the famousRajput strongholds of the easternmarches.

By this conquest Sanga raised the power oftheRajputsto the highestpointwhich it has reached inmodern times.

He now held the undisputed hegemony of al l theRaj putclans ; and the empire of Hindustan, with the historicalposition of Mahcinijci Adht

'

rdj , seemed within the grasp ofhis ambition. But in the very year of the conquest ofMalwa

,Babar and his Mughuls appeared on the scene of

Indian history to extinguish the efi’

ete Pathan dynasties ofDelhi ; and to this new and irresistible force the shortlived power of the Rajput revival soon had to succumb .

The battle of Fathpur Stkm’

,to b e noticed in our next

chapter, extinguished the last chance which theRajputs

ever had of regaining their ancient empire and of restoringHindurule to the plains of Northern India.

CHAPTER XII.

BABAR AND HU MAYI’

JN , THE FIRST MUGHULEMPERORS, A.D . 1526- 1556.

1 . Babar. 2 . Humayun. 3 . Sher Shah and the SurDynasty.

1 . Babar.— Ithas already beennoticed that Babar

,as

a descendant of the great Timur,belonged to the Chaghtai

tribe,a tribenearly akinto theMughuls. Likehisancestor

hewrote an accountof hisown life,and theseMemoirsare

remarkable for their simplicity and absence of affectation.

Hisearly life in Central Asia was one of remarkably div ersified fortune. Hewas sometimesa captive

,sometimes

a v ictoriousmonarch ; and hisundaunted bravery, patiencein adversity

,perseverance

,and elasticity ofmind are truly

admirable. The remarks that he used to make in his

Memoirs,wheneverhewassuccessful , show that he deserved

success: ‘Not to me,O God !but to thee be the glory of

the victory,

’said the pious and chivalrousBabar

,when he

won the battle of Panipat asnarrated in Chapter X .

This great victory, indeed, only gavehimpossession ofD elhi and Agra, the dominions of IbrahimLodi . PrinceHumayi

’mimmediately marched eastward, and conqueredthe whole country as far as Jaunpur. In the followingyear

,1527

,the Rajputs

,as described in the last chapter,

made their great effort , under the renowned Sanga, tofollow up the successes which they had already gainedagainst theMusalmans of Malwa and Gujarat, and againstBabar ’sown predecessors inDelhi . ButSanga had now a

more formidable foe tomeet. Hewasjoined by thefaithfulMedini Rao

,by the Rajas of Marwar and Jaipur , and by

the bulk of theRajput chivalry ; buthe was totally routedby Babar inthe decisive battle of FATHPUR SIKRI,and the storming of Chanderi early in 1528 firmly establ ished the Mughul superiority . The brave Rajputs ofChanderi perished to amanin the desperate struggle and

204 B&BAR AND HUMAYIIN,THE FIRST MUGHUL EMPERORS.

in the course of the same year Bihar and Bengal also submitted to Babar ’s arms.

Babar ’s death is remarkable. Humayun,hiseldest son,

was dangerously ill,when Babar conceived the idea of

offering hisown lifefor hisson’

s,according to awell - known

Eastern custom. In the accomplishment of this lovingresolve

, he walked round the b ed of the sick youth threetimes

,praying solemnly to God that the diseasemight be

transferred tohimself. After this act,heexclaimed

,inthe

full belief that his prayer was heard, I have borne itaway .

’

And,strangeto say, Humayun recovered fromthat

hour ; whilethefather, whose health wasalready decaying,began rapidly to decline. With exhortationsonhis lips tohis children and courtiers that they should live in concord

,

he died December 26, 1530.

Babar ’s character was disfigured by cruelty to enemiesbut he was marvellously brave, patient, and generous.

Hismilitary skill was very great. Many stories are toldto show his keen sense of justice and honour . On one

occasion,when a rich caravan fromChina was lost in the

snows on themountains withinhis dominions, he orderedal l the goods to be collected, and sentmessengers to Chinato proclaimthe accident and bring the owners tohisCourtto receive back their goods. They were at length found

,

and presented themselves before Babar after a lapse of twoyears, when he entertained themsumptuously

,and scru

pulously gave themal l the goods they had lost .2 . Humayun.

— Humayun succeeded, and reignednominally for twenty - six years

,from1530 to 1556 A.D . but

during nearly sixteenyears of this period he was an exilein the Court of Shah Tahmasp of Persia, and theAfghanSher Stir and his successorswereEmperors of Hindustan.

A war against Bahdddr Sheik, King of Gujarat [ seeChap .

XL,4] is remarkableon account of a daring exploit per

formed by Humayun; with only 300 followers he sealedthewalls of Champanir, the strong fortress inwhich weredeposited the treasures of Bahadur.

SHER snfis AND THE SITE DYNASTY. 205

Thiswar was followed by a fatal attempt todriveSherStir [ seenext section] fromthe throneofBengal, which hehad lately seized. The emperor took Gama; the capital ofBengal ; butwas subsequently treacherously surprised bySher in themidst ofsomenegotiationsat Chausa, and onlyescaped capture (1539) by leaping onhis horse and plunging inthe river Ganges. He wasnearly drowned

,when a

watencarrier rescued him,and brought himsafely to the

other bank , whencehe escaped to Agra. By theaid of hisbrothers (whohad formerly plotted againsthim

, butnow

united to oppose Sher) , hewasable to raise another army ;buthewas again totally defeated in a battle near KANAUJ

and was now compelled to fly to Persia, enduringmany hardships in his flight. The Persian king ShahTahmasp atfirsttreated himungenerously, trying to forcehimto become a Shiah, as the Persians were, thoughHumayi

’

in,likemost Hindustani Muhammadans

,was a

372727273.

Nora — TheShiah andsunni are the twogreat sects intowhich theMuhammadansaredivided.

At length , however, hegavehimsome tr00ps to aid himin regaining his dominions

,and in 1556 Humayunagain

obtained possession of Delhi and Agra. We must nowrevert to the history of the dynasty thathad been rulinginHindustan during Humayiin’

s long Persianexile.

3 . Sher Shahand the Sur Dynasty.— Sher Stir was

a braveAfghan soldier, whohad gradually by hisskill andvalour— unhappily often disgraced by treachery — acquiredthe sovereignty ofBengal [see Chap . XI . After thedefeat of Humayl

'mat the battle of Kanauj in 1540,Sher

became Emperor of Hindustan,and for five years ruled

wisely and benevolently . He is said to havemadea roadfromBengal to the banks of the Indus with a caravanserai at every stage, and wells at intervals of amile and ahalf. If his successors of theStir dynasty had beenaswiseand brave as Sher, it is probable that Humayun and hisMughals would never have been able to return to India.

206 AKBAR, THE GREATEST or THE MUGHUL EMPERORS.

Butthe thirdmonarch of the line,Muhammad Adil Sheik,

wasa despicable tyrant ; and his successors, Ibrahimand

Sikandar, weremerely rebels against his authority

, who

were temporarily successful in establishing themselves at

Agra and Delhi . SoHumayun, on his return to India in1556 with some Persian troops, was soon able

,by the aid

of hisfaithful general BairarnKhan (see Chap . XIII .

to drive Sikandar Sur away to theHimalayaMountains,

and to take possession of the two capitals. He died sixmonthsafter re- entering Delhi, 1556 butthe empire wasstill ina very unsettled state

,for Sikandar was hovering

about the slopes of themountains with an army, whilst

the brave and skilful vazir of Adil Shah , named Hemu,wason the borders of Bengal .

CHAPTER XIII .

AKBAR, THE GREATEST OF THE MUGHUL EMPERORS.

A.I) . 1556— 1605.

l . The early l ife of Akbar. 2 . BairamKhan. 3 . Beml'iand thesecond battleofPanipat. 4. The fal l ofBairam. 5 . Ah

bar'sConquests. 6 . Akbar’

s deal ings with the Rajputs. 7. The

ConquestofBengal . 8 . Chand BibiofAhmadnagar. 9 . GeneralremarksonAkbar’scharacter and administration.

1 . Early l ifeofAkbar.— Akbar wasthe thirdMughul

Emperor, and under himthe Mughuls overranand conquered al l N orthern India

,and a considerable portion of

the Deccan.

Akbar was born at Amarkotin Sind, whilst hisfatherHumayunwas flying fromSher Shah, in 1542 and when

still an infant (in 1543) he fell into the hands of hisuncleKamran (whohad obtained the government of Kandahar) ,and remained in his custody until 1555. Akbar

’

s wet

nurse, whohad the title of Ji JiAnagah, with her husbandAtgahKhan, had charge of the young child during theseyears and theaffectionwhich Akbar

‘

afterwardsdisplayed,

208 AKBAR, THE GREATEST or THE MUGHUL EMPERORS.

throughout their lives,to his foster -mother and foster

father, iswell known. Manyyears afterwardsAtgahKhanwas slain in the royal palace by the dagger of a noblenamed AdhamKhan ; when Akbar himself immediatelyran to the spot

, struck AdhamKhan a blow inthe facewhich sent himspinning to the ground, and thenhad himthrown headlong froma pinnacle of the palace. The son

of Ji Ji Anagah, called Mirza Aziz,wasraised to thehighest

rank by Akbar ; and, with the title of Khan- i- Azam,was

one of the greatest generals under Akbar and his suc

cessor. Aziz,who was a very bold man, often offended

Akbar ; but the latter would never punish him,always

saying,

‘Between me and Aziz there isa river ofmilk,

which I cannot cross.

’

When Bumayl’

in died,Akbar was only thirteenyears

and fourmonthsol d and the young prince,with his guar

dian or atdlz’

q, the great BairamKhan, had to encounterthe Afghan armies both ofAdil Shah and of Sikandar .

2 . BairamKhan— BairamKhan was a Shiah ofTurkish descent, and hisname isone of the most distinguished in Indian history . Hehad been the faithful companion of Humayfininhis exile and whilst inPersiahadbeenmade a Khan by Shah TahmésP. An interestingstory is told of the devotiontohimof one of his followersnamed Abdul Kasim,

Governor of Gwalior . Bairamwasflying fromSher Shah ; and was on his way to Gujaratwhen he was intercepted by one of Sher Shah ’

s commanders. Abul Kasimwaswith him; and,

being amanof imposing stature

,wasmistaken for Bairam. The latter

immediately stepped forward, and said, I amBairam.

’

No,’

said Abul Kasim,

‘he is my attendant,and

,brave

and faithful ashe is, hewishes to sacrifice himself forme ;solethim Abul Kasimwas then killed , and Bairamescaped to the protection of the King of Gujarat, andthence toPersia.

Humayi’

in’

s restoration tothe throne of Hindl'

l stanmayjustly be ascribed to themilitary skill and general abilities

BAIRKM KEEN . 209

of Bairam. He won the battleofMdchhdwcimh, which wasthe first great blow to theAfghan power and just beforeHumayfin’

s death, wasappointed atc'

olz'

g of PrinceAkbar,and sent with himagainst Sikandar Stir. On Akbar

’

s

accession he received the title of d n Bé bé,and acted

as regent for the young king, and was the commanderin- chief in the operations against Hemfi

,and afterwards

against Sikandar.3 . Remix. and theSecond Battleof Panipat.— In the

meantimeHemfi boldlymarched towardsDelhi , and defeatedone detachment of Akb ar’

s troops under Tardi Beg .

Bairamcaused this officer to be executed for his rashnessin attacking Hemii, on account of which executionhe incurred the hatred of al l the Chaghtai nobles, whoweregenerally Sfinnis ; for Tardi Beg was a Chagtéi Sfinni,whilst Bairam(as we have said) was a Turki Shiah .

The latter immediately prepared to attack Hemfi ; and at

length a great.

battle was fought on N ovember 5,1556

, at

Panipat,between the vanguard of Bairam’

s army underKhdn Z amdn and the army of Adil Shahunder Hemfi.

Beml ’i was defeated, captured, and slain and thisSecondBattleofPcim

'

patcompletely established theMughnl powerfor Sikandar shortly afterwards submitted to Akbar

, and

waspardoned.

4. Thefal l ofBairam.— Theregency of Bairam

,owing

to his firmness in administration and his great militaryability

,was remarkably successful buthe carriedmatters

with a high hand asthe atdlz’

g of the young Emperor, andbecame very obnoxious to the Umardsor grandees. Akbarhimself was persuaded to assume the supreme power inhiseighteenth year (1560 At length Bairam

,seeing his

power gone,brokeout into rebellion but was soon over

come,and threw himselfonthemercy ofAkbar

, whotreatedhimwith theutmostgenerosity and affection. Bairamnowset out to visit Mecca, theMuhammadanway of retiringfrompublic life ; butwasassassinated inGujarat .

5 . Akbar’

sConquests. — The fall of Bairamleft Akbar

2 10 AKBAR, THE GREATEST or THE MUGHUL EMPERORS.

to govern alone. He proceeded to consolidate his power:in India with themost wonderful courage, prudence, andability ; and before his death was absolutemaster of al lHindustan (including Kashmir and Kandahar) and part ofthe Deccan, and wasone of themost powerful and famousmonarchs of that age.

He first had to contend with a rebellion of his ownnobles ; Khan Zaman, the victor of Panipat, being the

chief rebel . When this rebellion was put down, he subdued in successiontheRaq ts of Maiwar

,Gujarat

,Bihar

,

Bengal,Orissa, Kashmir, Sind, Kandahar ; also Ahmad

nagar,Khandesh , and part of Barar . Akbar

’

s invariablepolicy was to deal mercifully and even generously withthe conquered, generally making any conquered prince agrandee (or Umard) ofhis court and anofficer ofhisarmy ;and in thiswayhe obtained the gratitude and affection ofa large

'

numb er of Indian princes, especially amongst theRajputs of Jaipur and Jodhpur. It would b e tedious if weattempted to narrate the history of al l these extensiveconquests; itwill be sufficient ifwegive a brief account of

(1 ) Akb ar’

s dealingswith the Rajputs, (2) his conquestof Bengal

,and (3) his wars with Chc

'md Bibi,the famous

queen of Ahmadnagar , in the Deccan.

6. Akb ar’s dealings with the Rajputs.

— The Rajaof Jaipur (Amber) was Bihari Mall . Akbar eventuallymarried his daughter : and Salim(Jahangir) , the heirapparent, wasmarried to another princess of the samefamily . This Raja was the first who formed such an

al liance. Raja Bihari ’s son, Rajzi Bhagavan Das, Akbar’

s

brother - in- law,wasone of themost distinguished courtiers

in this reign; and was appointed Amir -ul -Umara,and

governor of the Punjab . Bhagavan’

s son,Raja ManSingh ,

wasone of Akbar’

s best generals; and as a commander ofseven thousand was of higher rank than anyMuhammadanofficer. He did good service in the Punjab and Kabul ;and, as governor of Bengal , settled the affairs of thatprovince, and put downtheAfghan rebellions.

2 12 AKBAR, THE GREATEST or THE MUGHUL EMPERORS.

intheMughul empire,until the timewhen there ceased to

b e a Mughul emperor to command their allegiance.

7. TheConquest ofBengal . — After Gujarat had sub

mitted, Akbar’s next conquestwas that of Bihar, Bengal ,and Orissa. MunimKhan

,the successor of BairamKhan

asKhan- Khanan,and Akb ar

’

s governor of Jaunpur, hadextorted promises of submission fromSulaimanKararani,theAfghan chief of Bengal ; but D iifiD Khan

,the son of

Sulaiman, had asserted his independence. Akbar himselfmarched against himin 15745

,and took fromhimHajipur

and Patna ; leaving MunimKhan as governor of Bihar,

with orders to follow D aud into Bengal . Raja Todar

Mall,the celebrated financeminister, was the life and soul

of this expedition D aud was reduced to submission atthe

battle of Mughulmdri, near Jaleswam(Jel lasor) in Orissa,and wasallowed to retain possession of Katak (Cuttack) .

Shortly afterwards, D aud again rebelled,and overran

Bengal . Khan Jahan had succeeded MunimKhan (whohad died of the effects of the climate of Gaur) ; and he,with Todar Mall as second in command

,defeated and slew

D aud atthe battle ofAkmahal l,in 1576 A.D . Khan Jahan

subsequently defeated the remnants of D aud ’

s followers atSétganw,

near Hugli ; and gradually conquered the wholeof Bengal beforehis death in 1578 A.D .

Notlong afterhis death,however

,amore serious insur

rection than ever broke out amongst the great MughulJcigirddrs of Bengal and Bihar

, who had been grantedlands in the conquered provinces.

[No'rn.

— A j dgz'

rdc’

zr is the holder of a j dgir, z’

.e. land given (general ly as a reward for distinguished conduct) toa persononconditionofhis performing certain services to the supreme lord. These serviceswerenearly alwaysof ami l itary nature

,z'

.e. the jagirdar was bound toattend his lord intimeof need with a specified number oftroops ; andif the ruleswere exactly fol lowed, the surplus revenues of thejz

'

igir,

after paying the stipendsof thejagirdar himsel f and his troops, oughttob e paid tothe supreme lord. It was the enforcement of this lastrul e that led tothegreatmi l itary revolt inBengal ofwhich we arenow.speal-tinn1

CHKND 13f or AHMADNAGAR. 2 13

Before this revolt of the Jagirdars was entirely putdown

,theAfghanshad again risen in Orissa and had over

runpart of Bengal ; and these provinceswere only final lyconquered and settled during the long and successfulgovernorship of Raja Man Singh of Jaipur (see who

ruled Bengal for Akbar from1589 to 16041.8 . GhanaBibi of Ahmadnagar.

- In Chap . XI . 1 ,

the origin of the kingdomof Ahmadnagar and of theother Musalman kingdoms of the Deccan was b rieflynoticed. In consequence of the dissensions in Ahmadnagar between theHinduand Abyssiniannobles, Murad

(second son of Akbar) and Mirza Khan (son of BairamKhan) were sent to take possession of the city, 1595 A.D .

The city of Ahmadnagar was then in the hands of thecelebrated Chand Bibi

,the aunt of the infant Sultan

,

Bahadur N izamShah. Shemade peacewith her fatherin- law the King of Bijapur

,conciliated the Abyssinian

nobles,and defended the city with astonishing skill and

bravery against Prince Murad, whowasnow pressing the

siege. A breach wasmade in thewall, and the defenderswereon the point of giving up the city, whenthe Sultanaappeared in full armour

,veiled

,with a drawn sword in

her hand ; and standing in the breach she renewed the

struggle, which ended at nightfall by the withdrawalof the Mughul armies. The dawn beheld the breachthoroughly repaired, and the queen- regent

,who had not

quitted her post, ready tomeet the assailants. ButMuradabandoned the siege

,and a peacewas concluded. Akbar

in 1599 arrived in personatBurhanpur Daulatabad hadbeen taken

,and Prince D anyal (Akbar

’

s third son) , withMirza Khan

,was sent on again to besiege Ahmadnagar

,

Chand Bibi had beenmurdered by the opponents of herl ittlenephew the Sul tan. TheMughulsnow took the city,madea great slaughter of the traitors

,and took the young

king prisoner .9 . Akbar

’

s character and administration. WhenAkbar was growing old and was sick unto death , there

2 14 AKBAR, THE GREATEST or THE MUGHUL Enrnnoas.

were great discussionsas to whether his son Salim(afterwards the Emperor Jahangir) or his grandson Khusraushould succeed him. But the Sultan himself at lengthsolemnly nominated Salimashissuccessor

, in the presenceof theUmaras or grandees ; and shortly afterwards died

,

having donehis best to inculcateunity and loyalty by hisdying words.

Akbar was strongly built and handsome in person,

sober and abstemious inhis habits. Hewas fond of hunting and athletic sports

,and oftenwalked thirty or forty

miles in a day. Hewas very studious,mostmethodical in

the despatch of business, understood Sanskrit, encouragedevery kind of literature, and superintended many important literaryundertakings. Hewasvery afiectionateboth tohis family and to his friends; humane, and compassionate.

He founded a new sect of Muhammadanism,which he

called the Divine Faith,’and of which he declared him

self the head and becausehe allowed the disciples of thisfaith (the elect to prostrate themselves before himin

private,though not in public ,many orthodox Muhamma

dansaccused himof assuming rights that belong only toGod . Hewasalso accused of worshipping the sun ; andhe certainly had a great leaning to the religious views ofthe Pa

’mzsz's (see Introduction, whosee in the sun a

manifestation of the Deity . But the peculiar feature ofhis religion wasuniversal toleration.

He desired to treat al l his subjectsalike,to abolish the

distinction of Hinduand Muhammadan, and thus to fusethe discordant elements of his empire into one homogeneouswhole. Nearly every conquered king or general

,

whether Hindu or Musalman, who showed signs of submission and loyalty, received proofs of Akb ar

’

s lenity andfavours in the shape either of anappointment at court orof the command of a district . Inthe seventh year of hisreign he abolished the jiziah (a poll - tax on al l Hindus

and other infidels, which had been exacted with great

severity under someof the Afghan kings) and al l taxeson

2 16 JAHANGfR, 8 11511 JAHXN, AND AURANGZ EB.

sively the imperial throne ofHindustan, were three of therichest andmost powerfulmonarchs that haveever lived intheworld. The last of them

,Aurangzeb

,though inferior

to the great Akbar in personal character,was fully his

equal in general abil ity,in resolution, and energy ; whilst

he reigned with absolute sway over amuch larger empire.

During the course of these three long and prosperousreigns theMughulsweregraduall y conquering theMuhammadan kingdoms of the Deccan (see Chap . XL ) . UnderAurangzeb they completed those conquests

,and they first

came into contact with the Mahrattas, who afterwards soeffectually humbled the Mughul power . We cannot attempt to give the details of the various campaigns in the

Deccan. Itmay, however, b enoted (1) that the power ofAhmadnagar was sustained

,during nearly the whole of

Jahangir’

s reign,by a famousAbyssiniannobleof that city,

named MALIKAMBAR,whoadministered the government in

thenameof the successor of Chand Bibi (2) thatAhmadnagar wasfinal ly subdued early inthe reign of Shah Jahan

(1637) and (3) that Bijapur, and at last Golkondah, wereconquered by Aurangzeb in 1687 and 1688

,after many

arduous campaigns.

2 . Jahangir.— Some of themost interesting incidents

of the reign of Jahangir are connected with hismarriagewith the celebrated Mihrmmz'sa'. Khdnum

,the widow of

Sher Afkan, which took place in 1611 .

Shewas called afterhermarriage NfirMahall (the lightof thepalace) ; and subsequently obtained the name bywhich she ismost commonly known

,N l

'

ir Jahan (the lightof theworld) . She

,was of a noble Persian family

,which

had been reduced to poverty ; in consequence of whichher father emigrated to India. On theway,

atKandahar,Nur Jahanwas born. Tosuch poverty were they reducedthat the infant , whowas afterwards to becomethemightyempress of wide- world renown

,was exposed on the high

road,where amerchant saw the child

,and compassionately

took it for his own. The child ’

s ownmother was em

JAHKNGI’

R. 2 ] 7

ployed byhimas itsnurse ; and to his kindnessher familywas indebted for an introduction to the court of Akbar.Here.

the father and eldest son soon rose into notice; andthemother had free access to thehdramofAkbar, wherethe young and beautiful girl saw and captivated Jahangir

,

then Prince Salim. To remove her fromthe Prince’

s

sight shewas, by Akbar’

sadvice,married to Sher Afkan

,

a young Persian,whowasmadegovernor of Burdwan.

When Jahangir became emperor hesuggested to Kutbud - din

,Viceroy of Bengal , that he should induce Nur

Jahan’

s husband to divorce her. Her husband refused ;and in the quarrel thatensued both theViceroy and SherAfkanwere killed. Nur Jahan was sent to Delhi ; butshe

,looking upon the emperor as themurderer of her

husband,rejected his overtures with disdain. Atter '

a

length of time,however

,a reconciliation took place, and

Nfir Jahan became Empressot'India. Her name wasputon the coinage with the Emperor ’s. Her influence wasunbounded. Her father wasmade primeminister ; andher brother

,Asaf Khan

,was given a very high appoint

ment . They used their power well ; and though Jahangirstill indulged innightly drunken debauches, the affairs ofthe kingdomwere henceforthmanaged with prudence andhumanity .

The year 1615 wasmarked by the arrival of a grandembassy fromJamesL ,

King of England, to the EmperorJahangir . Sir ThomasRoe was the ambassador, and hewas received with great honour, being assigned the highestplace at court at al l public ceremonies. By his influencetheEnglish trade with India was encouraged . We shallseeina futurechapter that thePortuguesehad already establ ished themselves in the country ; and fromthis time theEuropeansettlements in India rapidly grew inimportance.

The intriguesof theEmpressNur Jahan to insure thesuccession of Prince Shahryar

,Jahangir ’s youngest son

(who had married the daughter she had borne to SherAikan

, her firsthusband) droveShah Jahan (thethird son

2 18 JAHEN GI’

R, smiH JAHKN , AND AURANGZ EB.

of the emperor) into rebellion. Shah Jahan had greatlydistinguished himself inmany wars, and henow succeededinmaking himsel f supreme in Bengal for twoyears. He

subsequently submitted to his father .

Mahabat Khan,a famous general

,had been brought to

Delhi fromhis government of Kabul,by Nur Jahan

, who

hoped that he would aid her in carrying outher wishesin opposition to Shah Jahan. He did soatfirst

,and the

reputation which hewon in the campaigns in the Deccanmadehimthemost eminentman inthe empire, except perhaps the queen’

sown brother,Asaf Khan. Buthe became

a friend and partisan of Prince Parwiz,whomNur Jahan

hated asmuch as Shah Jahan,and thus he incurred the

bitter hostility of the Queen.

Mahabat was summoned to j oin the Emperor,as the

latter wasmarching with his army towards Kabul . He

came,attended by Rajput horsemen devoted tohis

service but on his arrival was told that he could not seethe emperor . Seeing that his disgrace was resolved em,he determined to avert it by a stroke of unparall eledaudacity . Hewaited until theemperor’str0 0pshad crossedthe Jhelam

,and whenJahangir himselfwasabout tofollow

he suddenly secured the passage of the river with a partofhisRajputs, whilst with the rest he seized theemperor ’sperson. Nur Jahan strovein vain to liberateher husband,and at length resolved to sharehis captivity . She narrowly escaped being put to death by the victor . Mahabatwasnow supreme, and retained his power fornearly ayear.

Nur Jahan at length succeeded in effecting the escape ofthe emperor , and Mahabat was compelled to fly to thesouth , wherehe j oined Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan soon after this succeeded hisfather as emperor, and he ordered Nfir Jahan to lead a strictly secludedl ife

,but generously allowed her a magnificent income.

This generosity, however, wasmarred by the fact that he

slew his brother Shahryar and everymale of the race ofBabar.

JAHANGfR, sufifi JAHKN, AND AURANGZ EB.

and al l his familymiserably perished iiiArakan; and MirJtimlah, after a great campaign, inwhich he overranKochBihar andAssam

,died atDacca.

Aurangzeb was incessantly atwar inthe Deccan,either

fighting with the Mahratta Sivaj i (see Chap . XVI) ,or

engaged in the conquest of Bijapur and Golkondah,as

narrated in 1 . He also had to encounter some seriousinsurrections of theRajputs (seeChap . XIII. towardswhom

, as towards al l hisHindusubjects, b e displayed themost furious intolerance and bigotry.

Nom.— Amongst other acts of b igotry Aurangzeb revived the

Jz'

zz'

ak,whichhad b een abol ished by Akbar. TheJiz z

'

ahwasa pol ltax levied on every personwhowasnota Muhammadan. Ithad been

an instrumentof greatoppressionby some of thePathanSul tans,and

wasdetested by al l Hindus.

In the course of one of these Rajput rebel lions hisfavourite son

,PrinceAkbar

,joined the rebels, and endea

voured to seizetheMughul throne ; butAurangzeb, thougha very ol dman

,successfullymet this new danger , and the

young Akbar ultimately died as anexile in Persia.

During this reigntheEnglish and French settlements(aswe shal l see in Chap . XVIII.) were rapidly rising intoimportance.

Under Aurangzeb the Mughul power attained itsgreatest splendour and its widest extension ; by the timeof his death it was rapidly falling into decay. Pure andeven austere inhis private life, and a rigid Muhammadan,he is generally regarded by Musalman historians as the

greatest of theMughul dynasty greater eventhanAkbar.In general ability

,in resolution, in energy he was fully

Akbar’

s equal . Like that illustriousmonarch,hewasjust

and laborious ; but in almost every other respect hischaracter is almost the reverse of that of Akbar . Bothweremasters of policy ; butAurangzeb always prefem’

ed a

crooked policy— to attainhisendsby stratagemor trickery .

Akbar was perfectly liberal and tolerant, generous toal lmen, and speciallymerciful to a fal lenenemy Aurangzeb

THE DECLINE AND FALL or THE MUGHUL EMPIRE. 22 1

was a bigot and a persecutor, suspicious of al l men, cruelto the conquered

,and ready to avail himself of everymean

advantage. Hisuniversalmistrust destroyed hisownhappiness, impaired the success of every undertaking

, and

undermined the empire. His heir Muazzamonce incurredhis unjust suspicions

,and was imprisoned for six years

,

from1687 to 1694 . The contrast between the charactersoi

'

Akbar and Aurangzeb is best exhibited by their treatment of the Hindus

,and Specially of the Rajputs. We

have seen that Akbar converted theRajputs fromenemiesinto themost loyal supportersof histhrone, whilstAurangzeb caused themto detest him. He evenmade it difficulttocarry on the administration of the empire, by orderingthat noHindus should b e employed as public servants;and he insisted onexacting thejiziahnotonly inHindustan,buteven in the Deccan. The consequence of al l thiswasthatmost ofhisHindusubjectswere in heart alliesof theMahrattas; and to this causemay b e ascribed,mainly , therapid decay of the empire.

CHAPTER XV.

THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE MUGHUL EMPIRE.

1 . The Successors of Aurangzeb . 2 . The Sikhs. 3. The

Provinces become independentof Delhi . 4. The Invasionof NadirShah

,the Persian. 5 . The Invasions of Ahmad ShahAbdal i

, the

Afghan. 6. ShahAlamII. and the lastofthe fami ly ofTimur.

1 . The Successors of Aurangzeb .— At the death of

Aurangzeb therewastheusual contest amongst his sonsand final ly the eldest , Muazzam,

slewhistwobrothers,and

succeeded to the throne with the title of Bahcidtir Sheik.

He reigned six years. He owed his successmainly to a

powerful nobleman named Z ulfikar Khan; and the samenobleman also secured the succession of thenext emperor

,

Jahcinddr Shah, whoobtained the throne on the death ofBahadur. Z ulfikar wasthe vazir oftheEmperor Jaba'hdar

222 THE DECLINE AND FALL or THE MUGHUL EMPIRE.

Shah , and possessedmore real power . than his master .

Jab andar and his vazir had taken care to slaughter al l theother sons and relations of Bahadur on whomthey couldlay their hands ; but Farrukk Siyar, a grandson of theEmperor Bahadur, had succeeded his father in the government of Bengal , and had been able to escapethemurderinghands of Jab andar. The latter had hardly reigned twelvemonthswhenFarrukh Siyar induced twopowerful noblestohelp himwith a large body of troops, and he defeatedJahandar in a great battle near Agra

, and put himtodeath

,together with the vazir Z ul fikar. The two nobles

whomadeFarrukh Siyar emperor were the Sayyid HusainAli

,Governor of Bihar

,and his brother

,Sayyid Abdullah ,

Governor of Allahabad. For several years they possessedal l power in the realm. When they found that FarrukhSiyar

,after reigning in this way about six years

, was ln

cl ined to diminish their authority, they assassinated him,

and seton the throne three emperors, one after another,

who reigned in quick succession— the two former ones,

named Rafi -ud- darajat and Rafi -ud- daulah,dying after

short reigns of twoor threemonths each , intheyear 1719 .

The third emperor nominated by the Sayyids was call edRaushanakhtar and he assumed the imperial title ofMuhammad Shah. Shortly afterhisaccessionthe Sayyidswere overthrown and slain by a combination of othernobles; the battlewhich final ly destroyed their power wasfought at Shahpur, between D elhi and Agra. TheseSayyids, Husain Ali and Abdullah , are often called

‘the

king -makers.

’

It will be seen fromthe above short account that thesix Mughul emperorswhofollowed Aurangzeb were al l setup in turn by great noblemen, the first two by Z ulfikdrKha

’m,the last four by the Sayyids. Consequently these

noblemenwere farmorepowerful than theemperors themselves. Al l the other great nobles of the empire began tohope in likemanner to elevate themselves to royal power ;sothat beforethe death of Muhammad Shah (whoreigned


JeswantSingh, Rana of Jodhpur or Marwar, had beenamighty prince during the reign of Aurangzeb . The in

surrection of the Raq ts against Aurangzeb (see Chap .

XIV . 6) had beenmainly toavenge the wrongs of Jeswant ’s children ; and themost important provision of thepeacewas

,that Ajit Singh, his eldest son, should be re

stored to the throne of Marwar on the attainment of hismajority . After the death of Aurangzeb , the three greatRajput States of Maiwar

,Marwar

,and Jaipur formed a

triple alliancewith the view of asserting their independence and though this confederationwas often brokenupby internal feuds

,it served tomaintain the Rajput power

until the country was overwhelmed by the wave of Mahratta conquest . Ajit Singh turned out a wise and powerful ruler, and the Emperor Farrukh Siyar was glad tomake peace with himby marrying his daughter . FromMuhammad Shah , Ajit Singh obtained theacknowledgmentofhis independence and fromthis timetheRajputs ceasedto have any close dependence on the Mughul Empire.

Shortly after the death of Muhammad Shah , theMahrattaarmies established themselves inAjmer

,in 1756 A.D . and

fromthis time till the establishment of the English supremacy

,nearly fifty years later, Rajputana incessantly suf

fered fromMahratta violence and oppression.

N izam-ul -mulk, Subahdar of the Deccan under FarrukhSiyar, was the head of the confederacy of nobles whichoverthrew the Sayyids in the battle of Shahpur

,in 1720

(see He thenmade himself vazir of the EmperorMuhammad Shah , butsubsequently returned to his Subahof the D eccan,

which became fromthis time independent(see Chap . XIX . Hewastheancestor of thepresentN izamof Haidarabad.

The chief confederate of Nizam-ul -mulk inhis opposition to the Sayyids was SacidatKhé/n

,whohad originally

been a Persianmerchant, and whohad risen to be Subahdar of Oudh . Saadat Khanmade himself independent inOudh

,and his descendantswereKings of Oudh until that

THE INVASION or NADfR sufiu. 225

country was annexed to the British Indian Empire in

1856.

Bengal , too , became virtually independent inMuhammad Shah’s time. Shujci-uddin

,the last Subahdar nomi

nated by the Mughul emperor, died whilst N adir Shahwas inD elhi ; and hisson was setaside by thefamousAliVirdiKhan, one of theUmaras of the Court , whopossessedmuch ability and experience. Muhammad Shah afterwardsconfirmed himinhisusurped dominion,

butAliVirdi wasreally independent .

4. The Invasion of Nadir Shah .— The ruin of the

Mughul empirewashastened by twoterrible foreign invasions during the reign of Muhammad Shah . In themidstof the difficul ties caused by the increasing power of theMahrattas the terrible Neidir Sheik of Persia swept downonthe haplessMughul emperor.

This famouswarrior, originally a shepherd ontheshoresonthe Caspian Sea, had delivered Persia fromtheoppressionofAfghaninvaders, andhadusurpedthePersianthrone.

In retaliation for the Afghan invasion hehad conqueredHerat and Kandahar ; and now,

on the pretext that theMughuls had sheltered some of his Afghan enemies, hadadvanced on Kabul

,and thence to the Indus

,which he

crossed inN ovember 1738 . The emperor hadunderratedthe power ofN adir’s force, and there are also suspicions oftreachery on the part of the great commanders

,Asaf Jab

(the N izam) and Saadat Khan. Hence the invader metwith no resistance till he was within one hundred milesof Delhi . Here

,at KARNAL

,hemet and utterly routed

the Indian army ; and Muhammad had no resource buttogive himself up as a prisoner

,and he entered Delhi in

the train of the conqueror . At first N adir behaved withgreat courtesy towardshiscaptive, and appeared inclined tospare the vanquished people ; butenraged by some risingsof the inhabitants of Delhi

,in which many Persians were

slain, he at length gave orders for an indiscriminatemassacre, which lasted for nearly awhole day. Shortly after

Q


wards, ladenwith an immense booty (which included thecelebrated peacock throne of Shah Jahan) he leftDelhi andreturned home

,having first reinstated Muhammad on the

throne, and having sentmessengers to the chief Indianpotentates (including the Mahrattas) to threaten themwithhis vengeance if they did not obey the emperor.

5 . The Invasions of l it Shah Abdali. -The

three successors of Muhammad Shah asEmperors of DelhiwereAhmadShdh,Alamgir (calledAlamgirII .

, todistinguishhimfromAurangzeb, whowas also called Alamgir) , andSheikAlam(called ShahAlamII.

,to distinguish himfrom

Bahadur Shah , whowas also called Shah Alam) . Whatlittle shadow of the old Mughul power which had belongedto Muhammad Shah was entirely lost during these reigns,and the successors of Shah AlamII. were only emperorsinname

,and were really pensioners of the British Govern

ment .The horrors of the invasionofN adir Shah wererepeated

no less than six times during these reigns by Ahmad SheikAbdcili. He was the chief of the Afghan tribe cal led Ahdali or D urani

,which is stil l a powerful clan inAfghani

stain; hehad beenN adir’

streasurer,and had seized al l his

money, together with the kingdomof Kandahar, whenhismaster wasassassinated in 1747. He immediatelymarchedagainst Delhi at the head of a strong Afgh anarmy butin

this first invasion he was driven back by the skill andvalour of PrinceAhmad (afterwards theEmperor AhmadShah) and the Vazir Kamar -uddin, in the great battle of

SIRHIND . This defeat of theAfghans wasthe last exploitof theMughul arms, and imparted some glory to the concluding year of the reign of Muhammad Shah . Butinthe

following year the Abdali chief returned to India, and

extorted fromhis namesake, the Emperor Ahmad Shah,the cession of the Punjab , which fromthis time (1748)was severed fromtheDelhi empire, forming atfirsta partof the Duranikingdom, and subsequently theheadquartersof the Sikh kingdomof Ranj it Singh . Ghazi -uddin

, a

228 SIVAJI AND THE RISE or THE MAHRATTAS.

Mahratta War. He was then granted a pension by theEnglish, and the sceptre of Hindustan passed into the

hands of the British Government . Retribution fell onGhulamKadir for

,falling into the hands of the Mah

ratta chief Sindia,hewas horribly tortured and mutilated

,

and at length his head was sent to be laid atthe feet of theol d emperor whomhehad treated so cruelly . One of thegrandsons of Shah Alam

,whohad beentortured by Ghulam

Kadir,was that Muhammad Bahadur who

,in 1857

,j oined

the Sepoymutineers, and permitted, ifhedidnotinstigate,similar atrocities inthe sameplace inDelhi

,perpetratedon

innocentEnglish prisoners ; and who paid the penalty ofhis crimes by dying asa prisoner ina distant land beyondthe sea.

CHAPTER XVI.

SIVAJI AND THE RISE OF THE MAHRATTAS.

1 . Maharashtra. 2 . TheRiseofSivaJx. 3. TheMurder ofAfzal Khan. 4 . Wars with Aurangzeb . 5 . Sivaji

’

s Prosperity .

6. HisDeathand Character.

1 . Maharashtra — Having traced thebroad outl ine ofthe history of the Mughul empire to its fall , wemust nowrevert to the period of the rise of theMahratta power.the power which chiefly contributed to the downfall of theMughul s, and which for a short tme seemed likely to taketheir place as paramount in India.

The country of the Mahrattas,formerly called Maha

rashtra,included al l the southern portion of theBombay

Presidency, with the Barare and large portions of the‘Central Provinces, of the Central IndiaAgency, and of thed ominions of the N izamof Haidarabad . It was boundedon thenorth by the Satpura Mountains and on the west

b y the sea ; and extended eastward beyond Nagpur, intheCentral Provinces.

The Mahratta Hindus had in early times long foughtagainst the Musalman invaders, but they were conquered

THE RISE or swan. 229

l ong beforethe fall of the Pathan dynasty of Delhi ; andfromthe time of Akbar to that of Aurangzeb part of theMahratta nationwas subject to theMughul emperor

,and

the rest to the Muhammadan kings of Ahmadnagar andBijapur .

2 . TheRise of Siva31.— Siva31, the great founder ofMahratta power

,wasborn atthe fort of Saoner in the year

1627A.D .

— the year of the death of Jahangir and accessionof Shah Jahan. He belonged to a respectable family ofRajput descent

,named Bhonslé. His father was Shaby ,

whowasatfirstanofficer under Malik Ambar, of Ahmadnagar

,and afterwards entered the

'

army of the king ofBijapur

,and fought for Bijapur against Mahabat Khanand

the armiesofShahJahan. The story went that a goddessappeared to Shahj i

,and predicted that one of his family

would become a king,and would restoreHinducustoms,

protect Brahmans and kine,and be the first of a lineof

twenty - seven rulers of the land.

Sivaj i was early taught al l that itwas considered necessary for a Mahratta Chieftain to know

,but henever could

write his name. He was brought up a zealous Hindu,

thoroughly versed inthemythological and legendary storiescurrent among his countrymen. Hishatred of Mahammadane prepared himfor a life of incessant hostility toAurangzeb and the Muhammadan powers of the Deccan.

At the age of nineteen hewas already sofar an adept inthe art of guerilla warfare as to b e able to make himselfmaster of the hill- fort of Tornea

,twentymilessouthwest

ofPoona. He found a large treasure in the ruins nearthis fort

,which he Spent in building another

,which he

called Raigarh .

HiS '

success emboldened him; and he now in quicksuccessiongot into his power the fortresses of Singhgarh,Supa, and Purandhar. Al l this time he tried tolull thesuspicions of theKing ofBijapur

,Muhammad Adil Shah

but at length Muhammad’

s anger and fears were rousedby Sivaji

’

s continued success. The Bijapur king sent for


Sivaj l’

s father,8 1151131 , and built himup in a stone dun

geon,leaving only asmall aperture, which was to be closed

if in a fixed time Sivaji did not surrender himself. Sivaj ithereupon entered into correspondence with Shah Jahan

,

whoby hisartful representationswas induced to intercedewith theKing of Bijapur for Shahji

’

s release. Theemperoralso gave Sivaj i the command of horse.

3. TheMurder ofAfzal Khan.— In 1659 theBijapur

authoritiesmade an attempt to crush Sivaj i,which he ren

dered unsuccessful by an act of treachery celebrated inMahratta history . He enticed their commander

,Afzal

Khan,to a conference ; and in the customary embracehe

struck a wagnakh (a steel instrument with three crookedblades

,like the claws of a tiger) , which hehad secreted for

the purpose,into the bowels ofhisunfortunate enemy

,and

quickly despatched himwith a bichwa,or scorpion- shaped

dagger . The Bijapur troops,disheartened at the loss of

their general,were cut to pieces or made prisoners. The

decisive advantagegained by thisactof detestabletreacherygreatly benefited Sivaji

’

s position, and many successfulcampaigns followed.

4 . Wars withAurangzeb .— In 1662 Shaista Khan

was the Mughul Viceroy of the Dakhin ; and Sivaj i,at

peacewith Bijapur, attacked theMughuls, and ravaged thecountry to Aurangabad

,where the Viceroy lived. Shaista

Khanmarched southward,and took up his abode inPoona,

in the very house where Sivaji was brought up. Sivajinow performed one of those exploitswhichmore than any

thing elsemake hisname famous among his countrymen.

With a part ofhismen atnightfall he sl ipped unperceivedinto the city

,mingled with a marriage procession, passed

through the out- ofiices of thewell - knownhouse, and almostsurprised the Khan in his bedchamber. The Mughulescaped with the loss of two fingers ; but his son and

attendantswere slain. Sivaj i made off, and ascended hishill - fort of Singhgarh(twelvemiles off) amidst a blaze oftorches. If this adventure did nothing else, it inspirited


obtained most favourable terms fromAurangzeb , and infact was left in perfect independence, though doubtlessthis was done with the intention of crushing himwhenan opportunity should present itself.

5. Sivaji’

sprosperity .

— In 1674 SiV3J1 was solemnlyenthroned atRaigarh . Hewas thenweighed against gold

,

and the sum,

pagodas,given to Brahmans. From

that time he assumed the most high - sounding titles,and

maintainedmore than royal dignity inal l his actions.

His kingdomwas now both extenswe and powerful,

and the extraordinary faculty which theMahrattasalwayspossessed for plundering made himalso a very richmonarch . In 1676 he still further extended his influenceand empire by a very successful expedition into the Car

natic. His latter daysweremuch embittered by the bad

conduct of his son, Samb aji, whowas a youth of violenttemper and unrestrained passions, and whoactually, atonetime, deserted to the camp of theMughul general becausehis father had punished himfor some outrageous conduct.

6. Hisdeathand character.— Sivaj i died atRaigarh

,

of fever , brought on by a swelling in his knee- j oint, on

April 5,1680. Hewas a daring soldier, a skilful general

,

and an able statesman. Though the predatory warfarewhich he carried onnecessarily caused dreadful sufferings,hewas alwaysanxious tomitigate those sufferings as faras possible. In order to gainhis ends hewas sometimesguilty

,as in themurder of Afzal Khan

,of the utmost

cruelty and treachery . Buthe wasnever wantonly cruel ,and it was possibly remorse for his crimes that caused thereligious zeal

,which hehad alwaysmanifested, to degsne

rate inhisol d age into superstition and austerity . Thisrel igious zeal had the effect of infusing into the Mahrattasan intense national enthusiasm,

which attached to theircause al l thoseHindusubjects of Delhi whowere discontented with their Muhammadanmasters.

THE FIRST Pssuwfi.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE PROGRESS AND DECLINE OF THE MAHRATTA

POWER.

1 . Balaj i Viswanath, theFirstPeshwa. 2 . Baj i 3 210 , theSecondPeshwa. 3 . The Mahratta Confederacy. 4. Balaj i Baj i Rao,theThird Peshwa. 5 . The Third Battle of Panipat. 6. MadhuRao, Fourth Peshwa. 7. NarayanaRao, Fifth Peshwa. 8 . MadhuRaeNarayana, Sixth Peshwa; and theFirstMahrattaWar. 9 . The

BattleofKurdla. 10. Baj i Rao II.,the last of the Peshwas; and

theSecond MahrattaW'

ar. 1 1 . The Third Mahratta War. 12 .

CausesoftheDownfal l of theMahratta Power.

1 . Balaj i Viswanath, theFirstPeshwa.— The short

reign of Sambajt'

,the sonof Sivaj i , was entirely takenup

with wars against the Portuguese (see Chap . XVIII.)and theMughals

,and hewas at length taken prisoner by

Aurangzeb,and put to a cruel death . Siva31

’

s grandson,a boy of six

,was at the same time captured, and kept

a prisoner for years amongst theMughuls. He is generally known by the nickname Sa’hu(thief) , given himbyAurangzeb

,and the result of his education attheMughul

Courtwas that he became indolent and luxurious. Whenhewasat length liberated after the death ofAurangzeb,he will ingly professed himself a vassal of the Mughulempire

,and left al l the government of theMahratta king

domto hisminister, Bdldji Viswdndth.

Genealogical Table of Stvay'

z’

s Family.

Sivaj i .

Siva31 , Sambaj l ,RajaofSatara. RajaofKolhapur.

234 THE PROGRESS AND DECLINE or THE MAHRATTA POWER.

Bctldjt Viswcindthwas a wise and able Brahmanwhowas taken into Szihu’

s service about the year 1712 , andmadePeshwaorminister

,an office which hisability soon

made paramount even over the kingly one, and which hewas able to make hereditary in his family. Fromthistime the succession of Mahratta Rajas, descendants ofSivay ,

is of lesshistorical importance than that of theirso- called primeministers, the Peshwas, whowere the realheads of theMahratta power.

In 1718 the dissensions between the Sayyids and

N izam-ul -mul k,which ended inthe battle of Shahpur (see

Chap . XV . 1) enabled the Peshwa to interfere in the

affairs of Delhi . Hemarched an army to Delhi to help theSayyid Husain, and in 1720 obtained fromhima treatygranting theMahrattas the chauth or fourth part of therevenues of the D eccan,

the sio'desh/muhhi (see Chap . XVI.

and the swdrcijt'

(absolute control) of the districtsbetweenPoona and Satara.

2 . BajiR’

ao,theSecond Peshwa.

— Ba’

.laji died shortlyafter this treaty, and was succeeded by hiseldest son, Ba

'

rjtRdo

,whowasthe greatest and ablest of al l the Peshwas.

Before 1736 he had conquered, fromthe Mughuls, thewhole of Malwa and the territory betweentheNarbada

’

. and

the Chambal ; and in that year he forced theN izam-ulmulk

,whohadmarched fromthe D eccan to help the em

Genealogz’

cal Tableof theMahratta Peshwds.

Balaj i Viswanath, FirstPeshwa.

Baj i Rho, Second Peshwa.

Balaj i Baj i Rao, Third Peshwé .

I l IViswasRao, MadhuRao, NaréyanaRao, Baj i RaoIL ,

ki l led at Panipat. Fourth Peshwa. FifthPeshwa. Seventh Peshwa.

IMadhuRaoNarayana,

Six th Peshwa.


tainhave alwaysborne thename of Bol kar, and have oftenbeen the rivals of the Sindia dynasty asthe leaders of theMahrattas.

Raghup EkouelewasRaja of Barar. TheBhonsl é

dynasty subsequently extended their power to the Bay ofBengal

,by conquering Katak and nearly the whole of

Orissa fromthe Nawab of Bengal . These eastern territorieswere taken fromthemby theEnglish in the SecondMahrattaWar of 1803 (see 10) and ultimately the

dominions of the last Raja of Barar were annexed by LordDalhousie in 1 853.

Damaj i Gaihwdr was Raja of Baroda in Gujarat ;and his descendants, who have always borne the title ofGaikwar

,are still reigning in Gujarat as feudatories of

the British Indian empire.

Besides al l these therewas of course thePeshwa, whosecourt fromthis timewas held at Poona, and whowas re

garded as the head of thewhole confederacy .

§ 4. Balaji Baj i Réo, Third Peshwa'

t.— The eldest son

of Baj i Rao wasBdldji Beiji Rho, and succeeded as ThirdPeshwa ; the younger son was called Raghoba. Balaj iBaji Raoreigned from1740 to 1761 , a period full of important events

,of which we can here only speak of the

threemost important . Thesewere twogreat wars againstthe Mughuls under the N izamof Haidarabad ; and thedisastrous conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali , the Afghaninvader (see Chap . XV.

The firstwar againsttheN izamof Haidarabad, SaldbatJung, was in 1751— 52 . The Peshwa was defeated at

RAJAPUR by the French allies of Salabat , under the celeb rated Bzwsy (see Chap . XIX . 2) butbefore the end ofthe year he obtained a large cession of territory fromtheN izam.

The second war occurred in 1760. The Peshwa hadobtained possessionofAhmadnagar ; sotheN izam,

SalabatJang

,marched against him. The result was a complete

victory for the Peshwa , at the great battle of UDGfR ; and

THIRD BATTLE or PANIPAT. 237

theN izamwasnow compelled to cede to theMahrattasal lthenorth -western portions of his dominions.

Theconflictwith Ahmad Shah Abdal imust benarratedin thenext section.

5 . TheThird Battleof Panipat. - In 1758 Raghob a,the brother of the Peshwa , foolishly invaded the Punjab ,which formed a part of the dominions taken fromthe

Mughul emperor by theAfghan king, Ahmad ShahAbdal i .A Rohilla chiefnamed Nazib -ud- daulah

,whohad been left

by Ahmad Shah Abda li inDelhi,together with theMuham

madan Nawab of Oudh , now took up arms against theMahrattas; and theAbdali King of Kandahar himself immediatelymade hismost terrible invasion of India. The

Peshwa was engaged (see last section) in conquering theNizam sothe Afghanswerefirst opposed only by Hol karand Sindia, whose troopswere twice totally defeated and

cutup by them.

At last Viswas Rao, the son of the Peshwa,and

SivadasRaoBhao (commonly called ‘the Bhao cousinof the Peshwa , and one of the best Mahratta generals,marched northward to recover the lost reputation of theMahrattas

,and todrive theAfghansout of India. Al l the

Mahratta chiefswere ordered to j oin and thetotal numberof Mahratta troops assembled was horse

,

foot,and about Pindaris and followers. They had

also 200 pieces of cannon. The Afghans,with some

Muhammadan allies, had horse,

foot, and 70

pieces of cannon. FromOctober 28 to January 6,1761

,

continual skirmishes took place; but the Abdal i steadilyrefused a general engagement. The improvident Mah

rattaswerewithout provisions ormoney, and were in factclosely besieged.

The Muhammadan prince, ShuJa-ud- daulah of Oudh,

had been endeavouring to effect an accommodationbetweenthe invaders and theMahrattas ; but Ahmad Shah knewhisown strength and thedistressed conditionof theenemy

,

andwasdisinclined to cometoterms. Atlength ,onJanuary


7, 1761 , Sivadas Ra'

owrote a note to ShUJa-ud- daulah,saying, The cup isnow full to the brim, and cannot holdanother drop

‘

; and thewholeMahratta army,prepared to

conquer or die,marched out to attack the Afghan camp .

Fromdaybreak till 2 P.M. the rival cries of Bar,Bar

,

Madeo’

and ‘ din,din

,

’ resounded. The Afghans werephysically stronger ; and in this terrible struggle theirpowers of endurance at last prevailed against the fierce

enthusiasmof theMahrattas. By 2 RM . ViswasRaowaskilled. In despair Sivadasa Rao descended fromhis elephant

,mounted his horse, and charged into the thickest of

the fight. Hewas seen nomore. Holkar left the field

early, not without some imputation of treachery . Thousands perished in the fight, and the remainder were surrounded, taken prisoners, and cruelly beheaded the nextmorning. Fromthe th e of the fatal field of FathpurSikri

, whentheRajput chivalry of Sanga went downbeforethe fiery onset of Babar

’

s veterans, nosuch signal reversehad fallen on theHindurace. The Peshwa died shortlyafter he received the news of this battle, by which theMahratta hopes of supremacy in India were greatly diminished, if notdestroyed.

6. Madhu Rao, Fourth Peshwa.— MaclhuRdo

,the

bravest of al l the Peshwas, succeeded his father BalajiBaj i whenhewas only seventeen years of age. H1s uncleRaghoba, an ambitious and intriguingman, was his guardian whilst his tutor and spiritual guide was aMahrattaBraman named RamSastri . This Brahman was profoundly learned, and a pattern of integrity and prudence ;he reproved al l wrong- doers

,however high their rank

,and

awed themost dissolute; hewasdistinguished by themostextraordinary industry , zeal , and benevolence, and his

memory is still revered by the Mahrattas. MadhuRao ’sreign wasmainly occupied with wars (in whichhe was

generally successful) against the N izamof Haidarabad ,the

Raja of Barar, and thenewly risenSultanof MysorenamedHaidar Ali (see Chap . XX .

240 THE paoensssAND DECLINE or THE MAHRATTA rowsa.

After themurder of N arayana Rao,Raghob a declared

himsel f sixth Peshwa ; but his hopes were frustrated bythe birth of a posthumous son of N arayana

,and by the

combination against himof NanaFarnavis and al l the

other great Mahratta leaders, 1774 .

8 Madhu RaoNarayana, Sixth Peshwa; and the

FirstMahrattaWar.— MadhuRaoN arayanawas the post

humous son of Narayana Rao; but Raghoba professed tothink himan imposter, and induced theEnglish to favourhis own claims to the dignity of Peshwa . The EnglishGovernment, which wasnow under WarrenHastings (seeChap. XXII ) , atfirst refused to help Raghoba ; but finding that his Opponent N ana Farnaviswas intriguing withthe French , they at length consented to do so

, and the

fighting that ensued is called the First Mahratta War.

This war was undertaken by the English at a time veryunfortunate for them for they were immediately attackedby Haidar Ali, Sultan of Mysore, and by the N izam,

as

well as by Sindia and the other Mahrattas.

Themost important events of thewar wereThe famousmarch of Colonel Goddard and a small

body of English troops fromCalcutta,right across India

,

toSurat, in 1779 afterwhich he droveaway the combinedforcesofSindiaand Bolkar, and subsequently took thetownof Bassein by storm.

The Convention of Wargcim, a treaty by which a

smal l Bombay army purchased itsescapefromtheMahrattaforces by which it was surrounded, 1779.

The First MahrattaWar was concluded by the Treatyof Sal bc

’

n’

, of which the chief stipulations were, that theFrench and other Europeans (except the Portuguese)should be excluded fromtheMahratta dominions, and thatHaidar Ali should be compelled to giveup someterritoryhehad conquered fromtheEnglish , whilst theEnglish agreedtoacknowledge the infant MadhuN arayana asPeshwa

,on

condition that Raghoba should be given a pension by theMahrattas, and allowed to livewherehe pleased, 1782 .

THE SECOND MAHRATTA WAR. 241

9 . TheBattleofKurdla. The chief incidents of thelongminority of MadhuRaoNarayanawere connectedwiththe great increase of the power of Mahddaji Sindia, whowas supreme at Delhi , and gradually became themostpowerful of theMahratta princes, and quite independent ofthePeshwa . After his death in 1794, Nanci Famavts (theminister of the Peshwa) was the chief ruler of theMah

rattas,and he soon began to quarrel with the N izamof

Haidarabad, because the latter had not regularly paid upthe tribute which had been agreed upon after the battleof Udgir.War was begun in December 1794 ; and at KURDLX.

(March 1795) a victory was obtained by the Mahrattas,more the result of a panic among the Mughuls thanofMahratta bravery . But N izamAli was obliged to treat.

An obnoxiousminister,Maasir -ul -mulk

, who had resistedtheMahratta claims, wassurrendered. The young Peshwawas seen to look sad ; and when asked the cause by theNana

,he replied,

‘ I grieve to see such a degeneracy astheremust b e, on both sides, when the Mughuls can so

disgracefully submit to , and our troopscanvaunt somucha victory obtained without anefl

‘

ort.

’

The young Peshwawasjust twenty- one years of age. Shortly after this fortanate battlehe committed suicide, 1795 , in a fit of il ltemper, becausehewas not allowed toseehis cousinBaj iRao

,the son of Baghcha, with whomhehad contracted a

great friendship .

10. Baji Rao II.,the last of thePeshwas ; and the

Second MahrattaWar.— Ba

’

tji Edo became Peshwa aftermany intrigues. JeswantRaoHolkar

,son of Takap Hol

kar (see suceeeded inthe same year to the throneofIndore

,and after long warsagainst Daulat RaoSindia and

the Peshwa , at last pressed the latter sohard that hewasobliged to fly to the English for help . In 1802 Baj i Raosigned the celebrated Treaty of Bassez

’

n,which was the

commencement of the Second MahrattaWar,by which he

agreed (1) to receive an English force quartered inhisR


dominions for their protection, and to pay twenty - six lakhsfor itsmaintenance annually ; (2) to receive

noEuropean of any hostile nation into his dominions ; (3)to giveup al l claims to Surat

,and to leave his disputes

with the N izamand the Gaikwar to Britishmediation(4) to remain the faithful ally of England. Ful l protection to himand to his territories was guaranteed bythe British .

On the outbreak of the Second Mahratta War,the

great Lord Wel lesleywas Governor - General of India ; andunder himwere twofamous generals— his brother

, General

Wel lesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington,England’

s

greatest soldier) and Lord L ake. Their chief OpponentswereDaulatRota Sindia. and Raglmji Bhonslé of Barar.

The first great battle fought by General Wellesley wasatASSAI, on the borders of Barar and KhandeshBoth Sindia and Raghup Bhonsl é fled fromthe fiel d

,and

theEnglish gained a complete victory,though atthe cost

of one- third of General Wel lesley’

sarmy.

Multitudes of townsand fortresseswere captured by theEnglish during the course of the war, butwe need onlymentiontwogreat battles, those of DELHI and f swfisi

,won

by Lord Lake. Atthe battle of Delhi,a French general

,

named Bourgm’

n,was the commander of Sindia’

sarmy he

wasutterly routed by Lord Lake, whonow entered Delhi,and took under his protection the Emperor ShdhAla/m,whohad long been in the power of the Mahrattas (seeChap . XV . This was in September 1803 ; inN ovember of the same year L ord Lake gained a decisivevictory atLaswari over al l the remaining Mahratta forces;and before the end of the year, both Sindia and theRajaof Barar had submitted to the British arms

,and had ceded

a large part of their territories.

11 . The Third Mahratta War.— In the following

year, 1804, a war broke out with the Mahrattas under

JeswcmtRdoHolktir, whohad takennopart in the formerwar. In this, as in the former war, a large number of

CHAPTER XVIII.

EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA.

1 . D iscovery of the Sea- route fromEuropetoIndia. 2 . Al

buquerque, the greatPortugueseViceroy of India. 3 . Extentofthe

PortuguesePossessions. 4. TheDutch inIndia. 5 . EarlyEngl ishExpeditionstoIndia. 6. Progressof theEngl ish Settlements. 7.

TheEngl ishinBengal . 8 . Early FrenchSettlements inIndia.

1 . Discovery of theSea- route fromEuropetoIndia.

Atthe end of the last chapter wehad traced thehistoryof theMahratta power down to the time of its fall . At

the end of the preceding chapter we had similarly seen

theextinction of theMughul empire. Wenow oncemorerevert to an early period, to follow the history of thepower that wasultimately to succeed to the supremacy.

TheEuropeannations that have at various timesmadepermanent settlement in India are the Portuguese

,the

Dutch,theDanes, theEnglish , and the French . Of these,

the Portuguese and the French have played an importantpart in its history

,aswell as the English , whoultimately

became the paramount power in India. Al l these settlements were at first made only for purposes of trade,though the Portuguese very soon began to entertain the

idea of founding an Indian empire.

During the Middle Ages, European intercourse withIndia wasmainly carried on by the enterprise of themaritimenations inhabiting the shores of the Mediterranean

,

and latterly chiefly by the Venetians and Genoese, whotraded with the ports of Syria and Egypt , whither Indianproducewas brought through Persia or by theRed Sea.

Butduring the fifteenth century the Portugiiese becamegreat navigators. In 1498 a great Portuguesemariner,named Vasco da Gama

,discovered a searoute to India

around the coast of Africa,and this put thewhole trade

betweenEuropeand theEast into the hands of the Portu

guese, who retained it for a long time. Vasco da Gama

EXTENT OF THE PORTUGUESE POSSESSIONS.

landed in the territories of a petty chief,named the

Zamorinof Calicat, a placeonthe coast betweenGoa andCochin

,and thePortuguese settlementswere atfirstmade

on thiswest coast, though notwithout Opposition fromthenativeRajas.

2 . Albuquerque.— At length the Portuguese settle

mentsbecamenumerous,and theKing of Portugal thought

it best to appoint aViceroy of India to governthese settlements and carry on the wars against the native kings.

The second of these Portuguese viceroys was the greatAl buquerque, who landed in 1508 ; and who, after havingtakenGoa (which still belongs to the Portuguese) and a

greatmany other places,was inhisold age dismissed from

his othee by theungrateful King of Portugal , in 1515 .

3 . Extentofthe Portuguese Possessions.— The Por

tuguese empire in the East attained its highest powerand its greatest prosperity under Albuquerque, whomhiscountrymen

,thoughungrateful to himinhis lifetime, have

unanimously styled the Great.

’A few townsand factories

were added to it during the seventy years that followedhisdeath , buttheseadditionswereunimportant. Thestudentmust, however, remember that this empire was almostwholly a maritime one. The Portuguese fleets weremasters of the Indian Seas, and they possessed manyvaluable seaports

,at which they carried on an extensive

trade,and which were guarded by their ships of war.

These portswere scattered over an immenseextent of coast,fromthe eastern coastsof Africa and the island of Ormuzonthewest, to theMalay Peninsula and the islands of theEastern Archipelago on the east. At the end of the sixteenthcentury

, when their power began to decline, theirmost important possessions were : Goa and someminorports on thewest coast of India

,Ceylon

,and Malacca, in

the Malay Peninsula. Besides these they had importantsettlements inBengal

,ofwhich thechief wereHooghly and

Chittagong,with D iu

,in Gujarat

, andmany other placesofess importance. But they never possessed more than a

246 EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA.

fewmiles of territory, even in the neighbourhood of theirgreatest cities, and their powerwasusually confined strictlyto the limits of their factory or trading settlement .

4. The Dutchin India.— Towards the end of the

sixteenth century, the enterprising navigators ofHollanddetermined totry to take into their own hands some oftheIndian commerce hithertomonopolised by thePortugueseand during the foll owing fifty years they gradually succeeded indriving the latter outofmany of theirsettlements,and in taking fromthemthemaritime supremacy whichthey had possessed on the coast of India. Ch/insumhinBengal was the capital of the Dutch settlements. Butthey soonhad to meetmore powerful rivals thanthe Portuguese; for theEnglish had already commenced to settlein India.

Early Engl ishExpeditions toIndia.— The first

attempts of the English to reach India, like those of theDutch

,were by the north - east passage through theArctic

Seas, and the corresponding north -west passagealong thenorthern shores of N orth America ; andmany expeditionswere sent, andmany lives andmuch treasure lost, in thesefruitless expeditions.

ThefirstEnglish expedition that sailed for India by thedirect route round the Cape of Good Hopestarted in 1591under Lancaster and some others; but it degenerated intoa piratical cruise

,and ended disastrously, al l the ships

being lost or deserted successively. N otwithstanding thisil l - success, the British EAST INDIA COMPANY was incor

porated by Queen Elizabeth in 1600. [ Itmay here b e

noted that a second Company was seton foot in1698 and

the ol d and the new Companies were amalgamated in1708 ] Its first expedition was in 1601 , againunder thecommand of Lancaster

,and was eminently successful ; and

was quickly followed by others.

6. ProgressoftheEngl ish Settlements— Jahtngirin

1613 gave permission to the English to establish fourfactories in the Mughul dominions. The trade of the

248 EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA.

toMadras, and to Calcutta, originallymeant that the chiefof each of these factories respectively was supreme alsoover the subordinate factories in that part of India. In

1742 the Mahrattas attacked Bengal , demanding chauth.

Itwas then theMahratta ditch was dug around Calcutta,

toafford protection against a repetition of the attack .

8 . Early FrenchSettlements.— The first expedition

sent to India by the French was in 1604 butsubsequentlya French East India Company was formed, and in 1674

the French governor,Martin (the real founder of French

power in India) bought Pondicherry, on the south - eastcoast

,fromtheKing of Bijapur. The Dutch atone time

bribed the Mughul generals of theEmperor Aurangzeb tohelp themto take Pondicherry fromthe French ; butitwas afterwards restored

,and Martin greatly enlarged and

fortified it,andmade it a great commercial city . In 1688

the French obtained fromthe Emperor Aurangzeb the

settlement of Chandernagar on the Hooghly, above Calcutta ; and subsequently they acquired several otherpossessions.

In 1741 the great French statesman,Duplez

’

w,whohad

beenfor tenyearsGovernor of Chandernagar, wasappointedGovernor of

'

Pondicherry and Governor - General of theFrench possessions in India. He immediately formed theplan of expelling theEnglish fromIndia

,and of establish

ing a French empire here ; and an opportunity shortlyoffered itself of making the attempt

,for a war broke out

between the English and the French in Europe,which

lasted from1740 to 1748 .

COMMENCEMENT or THE STRUGGLE. 249

CHAPTER XIX .

THE WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN

THE CARNATIC.

1 . TheCommencementoftheStruggle. 2 . Temporary Successof Dupleix . 3 . Cl ive, and the Defence of Arcot. 4. TheBattl e

ofWandewash, and final ruinoftheFrench Cause.

1 . TheCommencementoftheStruggle.— The struggle

b etweentheEnglish and the French 1n India wasmainlycarried on in the Carnatic

,and lasted fromabout 1746 to

the final capture of Pondicherry by the English in 1761 .

It commencedunfavourably for theEnglish for theFrenchunder Dup leiae and another great French general calledLabourdonnais took the town of Madras, which was thechief seat of theEnglish in those parts

,intheyear 1746.

The old Nizémml -mulk,of whomwe have already

spoken several times (see Chap . XV. 3,and XVII.

though nominally only Mughul Subahdar of the Deccan,had long been independent at Haidarabad. The Carnatichad also attained independenceunder its Nawab butthefirst independent Nawab, D ost Ali, had been defeated and

slain by theMahrattas,and his son- in- law

,Chanda Saheb,

imprisoned,and in 1743 an officer of the N izam

,named

Amuar -udd in,had been appointed N awab of the Carnatic .

Shortly after the capture of Madras,Anwar-uddin

demanded thatthe town should be givenup tohimby theFrench

,butDupleix objected ; and when the Nawab sent

his sonwith an army of men to enforce this claim,Dupleix ordered one ofhis best officers, a braveand skilfulgeneral

,named Paradts

, toresist them. Paradishad underhimonly 230 Europeansand 700 sepoys, yetwith thissmallforceheutterly routed the Nawab ’

s army . This battlehadvery important indirect results for it proved

,both to the

European leadersand to thenative chiefs,that native Indian

troopsare littlebetter thanuseless against Europeans, evenwhen they have immense oddson their side.

250 WARSor THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN THE CARNATIC.

Paradis was now made Governor of Madras ; but a

strong fleet soon arrived to help the English, and they

were able, not onl y to drive the French outofMadras, butalso to besiege theminPondicherry. Then

,in 1748

,came

a short peace, and al l things returned to the condition inwhich they had been before thewar.

2 . Temporary Success of Dupleix .— In 1748 the old

Nizzim-ul -mulk died, and therewas immediately a contestfor the throne of Haidarabad between Muzafiar Jung,grandson of the deceasedNizam,

and hisuncleN asir Jang,whowas theN izam’

s second son. Muzafi'

ar,onfinding his

uncle too strong for him,went to satara toimplore the

aid of the Mahrattas ; and whilst at satara he formed aromantic friendship with Chandd Saheb , whowas in prisonthere, and who claimed to be the rightful Nawab of theCarnatic as son- in- law of D ost Al i. The French took upthe cause both of Muzaffar Jang and of Chanda Saheb ;and Dupleix ransomed the latter fromthe Mahrattas, andimmediately took the fiel d with theunited forces of Muzatfar

,of Chanda, and of the French . They defeated and slew

Anwar-uddin and his eldest son at the great battle ofA_MBUR, inwhich the famousBussywas the general of theFrench . Muzafi

'

ar Jang wasnow for a short time Sl’ibahdar of the Deccan,

and Chanda Saheb was Nawab of theCarnatic but their triumph was not for long. The

younger son of Anwar -ud- dinwas Muhammad Ali,after

wardsNawab of the Carnatic , and henceforward a prominent actor in thiswar and henow implored the aid of theEnglish . Therewasthus a triple alliance on each sidethe English siding with N asir Jang and Muhammad Ali,against the French

,who sided with Muzafi

'

ar Jang and

Chanda Saheb .

Thewar was carried on with continual changesoffor.

tune. Nasir Jang and Muzafi'

ar Jang having each in turn

secured the Sfibahdarship of the Deccan, were each in

turn assassmated. At last the French setupSalcibatJang,a younger son of the ol d N izam-ul -mulk

,and therefore

252 WARS or THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN THE CARNA'

I‘

IC.

besieging Trichinapalli , 1751 . Withhislittleband of heroesreduced to 320men and four officers, hemade good hisposition for seven weeks against men headed byRaja Saheb , the son of Chanda Saheb . Thepeople, seeingClive and hismenmarch steadily in a stormof thunderand lightning, said they were fireproof, andfled beforehim.

The hero contemptuously refused Raja Saheb’s bribes, andlaughed at his threats. When provisions failed in thebesieged town

,the sepoys came with a request that they

might cook the rice,retaining for themselves only the

water it was boiled in, handing over every grain of it totheEuropeans, whorequired, they said

,more solid food

such self- denial and heroic zeal had Clive’s influenceinspired in thesemen! Morari Rao

,the Mahratta chief

of Gutti,and his men,

whowerenotfar fromAmbur,

waiting to see the course of events,joined Clive, say

ing, Since the English can sonobly help themselves,we

Will help them.

’ Mr. Saunders exerted himself energetically to aid the gallant garrison; and after a desperateassault

,inwhich he lost 400men, Raja Saheb raised the

siege. Themoral effect of thismemorable defencewasincalculable in firmly establishing the prestige of the

English .

Clive now gained victory after victory ; and in March1752 he demolished the townof Dupleix -jath - abad and thepillar of Dupleix

,as a sign that he had demolished the

French power in India.

After many struggles Chanda Saheb was slain,and

the French army with forty -one guns surrendered to theEnglish at SRiRANGAM,

near Trichinapalli,in June 1752 ;

and atlength the brave and gallant Dupleix wasrecalled indisgrace by the ungrateful French Government, in 1754 ;he died in Paris ten years after, a ruined and brokenheartedman.

4. The Ruin of the French Cause.— Although the

French general Bussy was still al l - powerful atAurangabad

with the Subahdar Salabat Jang, yet the new French

CLIVE, AND THE BATTLE or rmsssr. 253

governormade very large concessions to theEnglish , anda peacewaspatched up Muhammad Ali, the ally of theEnglish

,being acknowledged as Nawab of the Carnatic .

The peace, however, only lasted until 1757, and thencommenced the final struggle. Clive had been appointedgovernor of Madras, but had been almost immediatelycalled off to Bengal , to exact terrible retribution for

the atrocities of the Black Hole. Count LALLY was sentoutearly in 1757 by the French Government to fighttheEnglish in the Carnatic, and was sofar successful that atthe end of 1758 he laid siege to Madras, but was subsequently compelled to retreat to Pondicherry .

At length,in 1759, English reinforcements arrived

under Colonel Eyre Coote, whowas the hero of thiscampaign. Lally and Bussy, with the whole French army

,

attacked the town of Wandewash (Wandwds) , and Cooteinstantly marched against themto relieve it. In the

Battle of WANDEWASH (January 22,

the Frenchwere totally routed

,the heroic Bussy was taken prisoner

,

and al l hope of establishing a French empire in Indiawasdestroyed.

In a very short time al l the towns held by the French,

or subject to their influence, were successively taken byCoote ; and in January 1761 Pondicherry itself surrendered

,and Lally was sent as a prisoner of war to Madras.

He was subsequently beheaded in Paris in 1766. The

French East India Company ceased to exist in 1769.

CHAPTER XX.

CLIVE, AND THE BATTLE OF PLASSEY.

1 . The IndependentNawabsof Bengal . 2 . TheMassacre of theBlack Hole. 3. TheConquestofBengal by Cl ive.

1 . The Independent Nawabsof Benga1.— Whilst the

twomost powerful nationsof Europe, theEnglish and theFrench , had beenfighting intheCarnatic for thesupremacy

CLIVE, AND THE BATTLE OF PLASSEY.

of theDeccan, the skill and bravery of the great Clivehad

in themeantime obtained for theEnglish an ascendency inBengal which very soonmade themthe paramount lordsofHindustan. The conquest of Bengal wasnot

,however

,

thought of by themuntil a dreadful outrage perpetratedon themby the N awabmade it necessary to inflictonhima terrible punishment by depriving himof his kingdom.

This came about in the following way.

It has al ready beennoticed that under theweak rule ofthe twelfth Mughul Emperor

,named Muhammad Shdh, the

great subahs or provinces of Bengal , Bihar, and Orissabecame virtually independent under the powerful NawabAltVirdiKhan (see Chap . XV. A great part of AliVirdi

’

sreignwasoccupiedwith warsagainst the .Mahrattas,

whocontinually invaded and devastated hisdominions; andat last

,in order to obtain peace for Bengal ,he was obliged

to giveup totheMahrattaRaja of Barar nearly thewholeof Orissa.

Nora — The whole of Orissa south of Balasore remained in the

handsof theMahrattasunti l conquered by the Engl ish in the Second

MahrattaWar in 1803.

Ali Virdi,though he has been styled usurper , on the

whole ruled wisely and well . His subjects, both Hinduand Muhammadan

,increased considerably in wealth and

prosperity. He exacted large sums fromthe Englishmerchants 'who were settled at Calcutta, and was veryanxious to prevent their obtaining any political power inthe country ; buthe did his best to protect themand toencourage their trade

,sothey gladly paid al l his demands.

In 1756 AliVirdi Khan died, and was succeeded byhisgrandson Siraj -md- daulah

,amonster of cruelty and lust .

He oppressed his Hindu subjects in the most atrociousmanner ; degrading the noblest families of Bengal by hisl icentiousness, impoverishing themby his extortions, and

terrifying thembyhis inhuman oppressions.

2 . Massacre of the Black Hole.— Amongst many

other acts of wickedness,he endeavoured to getpossession

256 CLIVE, AND THE BATTLE or PLASSEY.

prisoners,during a night of the hottest season of the year,

weremore terrible than anything that has ever beendescribed . They endeavoured by alternate threats and bribesto induce their jailers either to put an end to their torturesby death

,or to obtain better quarters fromtheNawab ; but

themiscreant Siraj was asleep,and the guards were (or

pretended to be) afraid to wakehim. Atfirstthe strugglesof the victims for the placesnear the windows

,and for the

few skins of water that were handed in to them, wereterrific; but the ravings of madness gradually subsidedinto themoans of exhaustion ; and in themorning onlytwenty- three wretched figures, almost in the pangs ofdeath

,were extricated froma pestilential mass of dead

bodies. It is uncertain whether the Nawab was reallyan active accomplice in this wholesalemurder ; butinhisanxiety to discover the treasures which he supposed theEnglish had concealed, he took no pains to prevent it, andhe evidently felt no subsequent remorse about it. Hewas

morally responsible for it, and a terrible vengeance wasjustly inflicted onhim.

3 . Conquest ofBengal by Clive.— The news of these

disasters in Bengal soon arrived in Madras, and fill ed the

settlement with consternation. But Colonel C l ive and

Admiral Watson were now at Madras. They were soonready to sail to avenge themassacre inBengal , with 900English tr0 0psand sepoys, al l full of enthusiasmforthe cause and of confidence in their leaders. Variousdelays

,however

,occurred and they did not arrive inthe

river Hooghly till December 1756. And now commencedin earnest thework of retribution; Budge- budge was soontaken

,Calcutta occupied

,and the town of Hooghly

stormed.

After the recapture of Calcutta by Cliveon January 2 ,1757, Siraj -ud- daulahmade pressing overtures for peace,offering to reinstate the English in their former position.

The honest old Admiral Watson disapproved of any ao

commodation with the author ofthe Black Holemassacre,

coseunsr or BENGAL BY CLIVE. 257

”

saying that the Nawab should b e ‘well thrashed but

Clive frompolitical motives agreed to sign the treaty ,February 9 , 1757. Olive now seized the opportunity to

humble the French in Bengal . Notwithstanding the 0p

position of theNawab , whoaided the Frenchwithmenandmoney, he attacked Chandernagar, and, with the aid of

Admiral Watson and the fleet,he captured the town in

May 1757.

Meanwhile, theHindusubjects of theNawab had beengoaded to desperation by his frantic excesses ; and a

powerful conspiracy was seton footagainsthim, headed byRaja Raiclurlabh, his treasurer, and Jagat Seth , therichestb anker in India- j oined by Mirjafar, the Commander- in

Chief,andmany discontentedMuhammadans. TheEnglish ,

represented by Mr. Watts,the resident at Murshidabad,

entered into the conspiracy with alacrity ; and it was feltby Clive

,and indeed by al l the Council at Calcutta

,that

Siraj -ud- daalahmust b e crushed if theEnglish settlementwished for peace and security. The conspirators agreedthat MirJafar should be set up as Nawab in the placeofthe tyrant, and that the English should receive fromthe

gratitude of Mirjafar ample compensation for al l theirlosses, and rich rewards for their assistance.

Umachand,a crafty Bengali

,was the agent employed

to transact business betweentheEnglish and the Nawaband hewasanactive helper in the plot. But at the lastmoment he threatened to turn traitor and disclose al l to

theNawab unlesshewere guaranteed a payment of thirtylakhs Clive and the other conspirators werein despair ; and at last they condescended to cheat Umachand

,in order to escape fromtheir present difficul ty.

Twocopies of the treaty betweenthe English and Mirjafarweremadeout; one on white paper was the real treaty ,inwhich nomention wasmadeofUmachand’

s claim the

other on red paper, a mere fictitious treaty,in which

Umachand was guaranteed al l the money he demanded,

was shownto the faithless Bengali . This piece of decepS

258 CLIVE, AND THE BATTLE or PLASSEY.

tionhas always beena stainonClive’scharacter . AdmiralWatson (whohad already shown himself to be an honestEnglish gentleman in objecting to a temporising policywith the Nawab) refused tosign the false treaty— sohis

signaturewas forged by the others.

Clive now wrote in peremptory terms to the Nawab ,demanding full redress of al l grievances, and announcinghis approach with an army to enforce his claims; andimmediately afterwards set out fromChandernagar, with650 European infantry, 150 gunners, sepoys, a fewPortuguese, and 10 guns. The Nawab ’

s army consistedof infantry

,cavalry

,and an immense train

ofartillery. AsCliveapproached theNawab ’sencampmentnear Kasimbazar, Mirjafar appears to have lost courage,for he ceased to communicate directly with the English ,whilst it was known that hehad taken solemn oathsto hismaster that he woul d be faithful to him. Under thesealarming circumstances

,Clive called together his officers

ina council of war,to decide whether they shoul d fight

against such enormous odds,or shoul d wait for a better

opportunity. The majority of thirteen, 1ncluding C l ivehimself, voted for the latter course ; only seven, at thehead ofwhomwasEyre Coote

,voted for immediatefight.

After dismissing the Council , Clive took a solitarywal kin an adj oining grove, and after an hour

’

s solemnmeditationhe came to the conclusion that Cootewas right, andthat the attack ought to b emade at once. Accordingly,early next morning he crossed the river with his littleband and cameuponthe Nawab ’

sarmy about daybreak inthe fields and groves of PLASSEY. During the early part ofthe day the English remained almost entirely on the defensive, contenting themselves with repelling the chargesof the enemy’

s cavalry,and keeping up a desultory can

nomade. At length,however

,some of the Nawab ’s chief

officers having fallen, the tr00ps of Mirjafar (whohad

hitherto remained undecided) were seen to separate themselves somewhat fromthe rest of theNawzib ’

sarmy ; Clive

CHAPTER XXI.

CLIVE, AND THE GRANT OF THE DiwANi or BENGAL .

l . Cl ive as Governor of Bengal . 2 . The Nawab Mirjzifar.

3 . TheNawab MirKasim. 4. TheappointmentoftheEast IndiaCompany as D iwan of Bengal by the Mughul emperor. 5. Cl ive'sReforms.

1 . Cl ive, GovernorofBengal .— Clivewastwicegovernor of theEnglish settlements in Bengal the firsttime forthree years, from1757 to 1760 the second time for

eighteenmonths,from1765 to 1767. We have seen that

onhis arrival in 1757 he had found the English affairsin Bengal utterly ruined , and the Englishmerchants andofficers driven away ; before his departure in 1767 he

was undoubtedly themost powerful man in India, and

the English wereunquestioned masters of Bengal , Bihar,and Orissa

,and formally acknowledged as such by the

Mughul emperor .

2 . The Nawab Mirjéfar.— Fromthe time of his

accession to the Nawabship of Bengal after the battle ofPlassey

,Mirjafar was littlemore than a tool of Olive, and

wasNawab only inname. As long as Clive remained inIndia b e retained this position. Clive fought his battlesfor him. At one time, when Ali Gauhar, now called theEmperor Shah Alam11 . (see Chap . XV) , invaded Bihar,Clive sent an English army against himunder ColonelCail laud

,whosoon defeatedhiminthefirstbattleof PATNA,

and drovehimand hisally, the Nawab-Vazir of Oudh , outof the province. Clive ruled Bengal , andMirjafar enj oyedhis riches and pleasuresatMurshidabzid.

But when Clive went away to England for fiveyearsthenew governor (Mr. Vansittart) and his Council foundthat the Nawab wasmadly extravagant in his expenses,and wasunable to pay themal l he owed ; sothey determined to deposehim,

and to setuphis nephew Mir KasirnasNawab. Thiswas soondone; and in the next section

MfR KASIM. 261

will be found an account of the rule of Mir Kasim,and of

his deposition. After this Mirjafar was again set up as

Nawab by the Calcutta Council, whomadehimpayheavilyfor the favour ; and in January 1765 he died, partly ofvexation at their enormous and incessant demands. His

sonwasputon the throne, on the payment of'moremoney

to the Council ; his namewas N dzz’m-ud- daulah. Hewas

the last of theMughul Subahdars of Bengal ; for duringhis time the D iwani of the province was given by theemperor to the English East India Company, who thusbecame legal ly (as they al ready were real ly) the lords ofBengal .

3 . MirKasim.-When Mir Kasimwas put into the

place of his uncleMirjafar he gave theEnglish the threedistricts of Burdwan

,Midnapur

,and Chittagong. This

was in 1760.

But thenew Nawab was a clever and vigorous ruler,and he determined to try tomakehimself independentoftheEnglishmasterswhohad given himhis throne. He

abandoned Murshidabad ashis capital , and went to live atMonghir (or Manger) , in the hope of being more independentat such a great distance fromCalcutta. Heproceeded to collect a large army

,and to discipline it inthe

European fashion.

About this time the Mughul Emperor,Shah AlamII.

,

again attempted a permanent occupation of Bihar,when

he was again defeated in the second Battle of PA'

I‘

NA byColonel Carnac . After this defeat the Emperor aecompanied his conqueror, Colonel Carnac , to Patna, whereMir Kasimcame to pay himhomage, and was in conse

quence formally invested by the Mughu l with the Subahdarship ofBengal , Bihar, and Orissa.

At length anopenquarrel brokeout betweenMir Kasimand theEnglish Council in 1763 . Mir Kasimappears tohave been at first in the right

,for the conduct of the

Council wasunjust and tyrannical . But the Nawab disgraced himself and his cause by the Massacreof Patna

262 . CLIVE, AND THE GRANT or THE Diw for BENGAL .

whenhewas hard- pressed inthe fortress of Patna by the,advance of the English army, in a fit of rage andmadnesshe ordered al l hisEnglish prisoners (148 innumber) to b ekilled in cold blood. The English tr00ps soon advancedand took Patna, and Mir Kasimwas compelled to flee intoOudh , where he took refuge with the Nawab -Vazir ofOudh (as the ruler of that country was then called) andShah Alam

,the Mughul emperor. These two great

princes determined to help Mir Kasim; so the threemarched towards Patna, 1764. They were

,however

,re

pulsed by the English army, and at last took up a positionatBaksar , on the Son; and in October 1764 followed thegreat battle of BAKSAR. Major Munro was in command oftheEnglish forces. The Nawab -Vazir wasutterly routed

,

with the loss of 160 pieces of cannon.

The consequences of this victory were very important .

The Nawab -Vaz ir of Oudh , though nominally subject toShah AlamII.

,had long been the real master of the

Mughul Empire. Hewas now thoroughly humbled,and

was subsequently obliged to throw himself on themercyof the English

,whothus succeeded to the realmastery of

_

the central plain of Hindustan. The emperor himself cameinto theEnglish camp at this time.

4. Grant of the Dimini — I have already noticedthat during the absence of Olive in England theEnglishGovernment in Calcuttahad become very corrupt, and the

Members of Council thoughtmoreof enriching themselvesthan of the good of the country ; sotheD irectors of theEast India Company

,though they had not before been

very grateful to Clive for his great services, were nowvery anxious that he should go to India again

,in order

to reformal l these evils and abuses ; and at length Cliveconsented togo, and he landed in Calcutta in 1765. His

firstmeasurewas to enforce the orders of the D irectors,prohibiting the acceptance of presents by their servants.

Hemade al l sign covenants binding themselves to obeythis rule. He then proceeded to the English army at .

CHAPTER XXII.

WARREN HASTINGS,THE FIRST GOVERNOR- GENERAL

OF INDIA.

1. Abol ition of the Doub l e Government in Bengal . 2 . The

Rohi l laWar. 3. Warren Hastings as Governor- General of India.

4. HaidarAliand Tippii, Sul tansofMysore.

1 . Abolition of the Double Government inBengal .— After the departure of Olive fromIndia

,Mr. Verelst b e

came Governor of Bengal and hewas succeeded by Mr.

Cartier, whowas Governor until 1772 . During the wholeof this time Bengal wasunder a double government i.e. itwas rul ed partly by the native officers of theNawab andpartlyby theofficers of theEnglish East India Company.

This state of affairs produced a great deal of mismanagement and corruption, under which both the people and therevenue suffered, whilst the officers of Governmentalonegained. At length the East India Company determinedtoput an end to the double government ; soin 1772 theysent out Warren Hastings as Governor of Bengal , withorders to take upon himself al l the authority which bel onged to the Company asD iwdnof the province.

WarrenHastingshad already distinguished himself invarious important posts in the Bengal Civil Service, and

had been Member of Council at Madras. Immediatelyon his arrival in Calcutta as Governor b e transferred the

seat ofgovernment to that city fromMurshidabad ; he immediatelymade arrangements for the establishment ofnewCourts of Civil and Criminal Justice under the authorityof theEast India Company, and he set to work to drawupa new code of laws.

2 . TheRohill aWar.- Themostimportant event that

occurred whilst Hastingswas Governor of Bengal , before

he became Governor- General of India,in 1774, was the

Rohil la lVar. A tribeofAfghans called Rohillashad conquered and occupied the province on the north - west of

WARREN HASTINGS, rms't GOVERNOR- GENERAL . 265

Oudh , now called after themRohilkhand, during thedisorders of the reignofthe Emperor Muhammad Shah(seeIntroduction, 32 , and Chap . XV . In 1771 the

Mahrattashad invaded Rohil khand ; and theRohillashadoffered theNawab-Vazir of Oudh , according to his account,a sumof forty lakhs, for his protection against them. In

1773 the Mahrattas abandoned Rohilkhand ; the Nawabnow claimed the forty lakhs, whilst the Rohillas affirmedthatnosuch promisehad beenmade. TheNawab appealedto Hastings, who believed his statement

,and ultimately

sent a small English army into Rohilkhand. The resultwas that theRohillas were conquered and their territorygiven to the Nawab -Vazir of Oudh ; whilst the disputedforty lakhsof rupeesweremadeover to theEnglish Government

,together with al l theexpenses of thewar.

3. WarrenHastings, Govemor- General of India.

About this time theEnglish Parliament inLondon,hearing

of themany disorders and abuses of the English rule inIndia

,passed anAct for better regulating the administra

tion of that Government . ThisActwas called theREGULATINGACT ; it waspassed in1773, and came into operationin 1774 . Amongst other changesmade by theRegulatingActitwas ordered that the Governor of Bengal should beGovernor - General of al l the British possessions in India

,

and should rule those possessions according to the adviceof his Council of four . The Governor - General and theMembers of Council had each one vote in deciding on thequestions brought before the Council : in this way eachMemberofCouncil wasalmost aspowerful astheGovernorGeneral himself— a stateof things destructive of al l goodgovernment (butsee Introduction.)WarrenHastings wasnow Governor - General of India.

Ofthe first four Membersof Council,Mr. Barwellhadbeen

long in India, and generally supported themeasures ofWarrenHastings; butthe other threewere entirely unac

quainted with this country , and one of them,Mr. Francis

(afterwards Sir Philip Francis) , wasbitterly hostile to the

266 WARREN HASTINGS, rmsr GOVERNOR- GENERAL .

Governor - General— sothat the latter wasout- voted inthe‘

debates of the Council,and the threenewMemberscarried ~

everything their ownway until the deathof one of themin 1776.

The people during this interval generally regarded thepower and authority of Hastingsas extinct

,andmany ao

cusationswere brought againsthimby personswhowishedto please the factionsmajority in the Council . Ofthesecharges themost seriouswas brought forward by NunclaImmar

,a man infamous for his treachery and '

perfidy.

Francis and his colleagues, however, took himunder theirprotection,

~and encouraged himinhis chargesagainst the

Governor - General . Suddenly Nandakumarwasarrested, atthe suit of an eminentnativemerchant

,for forgery hewas

tried by Sir Elijah ImpeyintheSupremeCourt, was foundguilty by a jury

,and hanged— hanging was atthat time

theusual punishment for forgery. This execution createda great sensation, and Hastings has often been accused ofhaving procured it unjustly to screen himself ; but thereseemsnoreason to doubt that N andakumt’trwasjustly condemned to death . Good proof thatHastingswasinnowayconcerned with the conviction and execution is to b e foundin the fact that the Members of Council might have interfered to refer thematter to England, but they refused todose.

TheJudgesoftheSupremeCourt established inCalcutta,in striv ing to ‘ protect natives fromoppression and giveIndia the benefits of English law

,

’ committedmany greatmistakes. They interfered between the zamindars and

their rayats. Their attorneysstirred up strifeeverywhere.

Hastings interfered to protect the landholders fromthisvexatious interference

,and Parliament was petitioned for

a change of system,andmeanwhile a remedy was disco

vercd. Inthe Sadarw ci/ntAddlattheGovernor- Generalhimsel f and his Council were appointed to preside. Thisthey could notdo , and Hastings offered the appointmentof Chief Judgeof this Court to SirElijah Impey, theChief

268 WARREN Has'rmes, rmsr GOVERNOR- GENERAL .

cred the soldierswhohad beensent to carry itout, and thenthey came and surrounded the place whereHastingswas.

TheRaja escaped fromthe city. The Governor- Generalwas in extreme danger

,ashehad hardly any guardswith

him, yethe did not losehis coolness or presence ofmind,

and ultimately hewasable to reach the fortress of Chanar.Troopswerenow summoned to himfromal l quarters the

Raja ’s army of menwas defeated,and the fortress

of Bijgarh, inwhichhehehad takenrefuge, wastaken. The

troops,however

,seized al l Chait Singh ’

s treasuresthat theyfound inBijgarh, and thes ehimself escaped to Gwalior

,

soHastings was doubly disappointed. He appointed ChaitSingh ’

snephew to beR555. of Benares, and then returnedto Calcutta.

Inthe following year hewasmore successful ingettinga large sumofmoney fromthe Begums of Oudh . Theold

Nawab -Vaz ir of Oudh had died in 1775, and his widowandmother, the Begums, declared that hehad left to themby will al l the immense treasuresof the State of Oudh . The

Engl ish Council atCalcutta, against thewishesof Hastings,had forced theyoung Nawab to allow the Begumstoretainal l thismoney , and thus the young Nawab was left withnomoney, either to payhis army or to dischargehisdebttotheEnglish Government. In 1781 the Nawab declaredthat hewasunable to pay his debt, except with themoneywhich the Begumshad seized ; and charges were broughtforward against these ladies of having helped Chait Singhwith money and with soldiers. Hastings consequentlyallowed the Nawab to extort seventy - six lacs fromthe

Bcgums, wherewith to pay his debt to theEnglish . Thisappears to have been an action of very doubtful justice

,

though it is impossible to ascertain how far the Begumswere originally entitled to al l themoney which they hadseized. However thismay be, the conduct of WarrenHastings

,both towards the Begums and towards Chait '

Singh,was severely censured by the D irectors of theEast

India Company inLondon,sob e determined .to resignhis

HIS IMPEACHMENT. 269

othee as Governor- General . He'

left India in February1785 . Shortly after he reached England his enemies determined to bringhimto trial for hisconduct inIndia, anda famous orator named Burke was especially bitter in hisprosecution of Hastings. The case was tried before theHouse of Lords, theHouse of Commonsbeing theaccusers(such a trial is called an impeachment) . It began on

February 13, 1788 , and was protracted till April 23,

1795, whenhewas completely and honourably acquitted.

The trial cost him100,000l . Though thusreduced tocomparative poverty , he l ived peaceably at Daylesford ti ll hisdeath in 1819 . Once only did he again appear in public

,

and then he was called to give, in 1813, evidence before

theHouse of Commons regarding Indian affairs. On thatoccasion thewhole assembly stood up to dohimhonour.

Some important alterations weremade by theEnglishParliament

,in 1784, in the constitutionof the Government

of India both in England and in this country . The chief

point wasthat the control oftheBritish IndianEmpirewasconfided

,inal l essential points, to aMinister of the King

of England, who was called President of the Board ofControl

,whohad the power of appointing the Governor

General . TheActof Parliamentthatmade thesealterationswas called Pitt ’s India Bill . Mr. Fox had previously eudeavoured to persuade the Engl ish Parliament to passanother law about the IndianGovernment

, which wouldhave put theEnglish dominions in India directly underthe authority of the English Crown, almost as they are atpresent, butthe Parliament refused to sanction thisBill .

4. Haidar Al i and Tippfi, SultansofMysore.— The

pressing want ofmoney whichled Hastings toadept suchseveremeasures against the Raja of Benares and the Be

gums OfOudh wasmainly caused by themany greatwarsinwhich hewas involved about thistime. Thesewarsweredirected against the Mahrattas, the SultanofMysore, theFrench, and the Dutch . The war against the Mahrattas

,

called theFirst MahrattaWar,has been briefly described

2 70 WARREN HASTINGS, FIRST GOVERNOR- GENERAL .

in Chap . XVII. 8 , and we there saw that the aid atfirst

offered to Baghcha by theEnglish was ineffectual , owing tothemany difficulties inwhich theywere involved elsewhere,and -especially thewar with Mysore.

TheState of Mysore,in Southern India, had risen into

importance and power owing to the great abil ities of a

famousmilitary leader, named HAIDARALi. Thismanhadbeenone of the captains of the troops of theHindu Rajaof Mysore

,and in 1761 he had expelled the Raja and his

minister fromthe kingdom,and had established himself as

Sultan. Hehad already collected a considerablenumber oftroops and much treasure; and not long after hehad succeeded in placing himself on the thronehe seized the fortress of Bednor, in which he found an immense heard oftreasure

, which aided himinhis futurewars.

In 1765 the Mahrattas, under MadhuRae, the fourthPeshwa

,invaded Haidar ’e dominions

,and utterly defeated

his army,and he was consequently obl iged to cede to them

al l the territory hehad conqueredonthenorthernfrontiers,and to pay thirty- two lacs In the followingyear

,however

,he recovered some ofhis lost ground, forhe

l ed hisarmy westward into the fertileMalabar country andconqueredmost of that district .

‘

:Herehewas guilty of themost disgraceful treachery

,fo

'

r=though the Z amorin (orpetty Raja) of Calicut cameoutl and submitted to him, hetook that city by surprise and sacked it

,the Z amorin

burning himself inhis palace to avoid a worse fate.

The FirstMysore Waxr broke out between theEnglishGovernment of Madrasand Haidar in 1766, notlong beforeClive left India for the last time. At firsttheMahrattasunder MadhuRao

,and theHaidarabad forcesunder theNi

zam,were in alliancewith theEnglish , buttheywerebribed

by Haidar,and ultimately the N izam’

s forces joined thoseof Mysore. Colonel SmithwastheEnglish general , andhewas atone timeinconsiderabledanger, ashehad onlymen and 16 guns against men and 100 guns ofHaidar and theN izzim. Ultimately, however, he repulsed

272 WARREN HASTINGS, FIRST GOVERNOR- GENERAL .

cutta. Hastings immediately sent Sir EyreCoote to Madrasby seawith some tr00ps, and this brave and skilful generaldefeated Haidar in three great battles during the courseof the year 1781 , atPorto Novo, Pol lilor, and Solingarh.

Butin the following year Sir Eyre Coote was obliged toresignhis command owing to ill - health , and thewar was

carried on throughout the year with varied success,until

at length , in December 1782, Haidar died somewhat suddenly. His sonTippfi, whonow succeeded himas Sultanof Mysore, was distinguished by an implacable hatred ofthe English . Hewas a man of a cruel and ferocioustemper, likehis father, and hardly inferior to himinmilitary skill , whilsthewas far superior in general knowledge.

He carried on thewar against theMadras Government formore than a year longer ; and at last , in 1784, whenanEnglish army under Colonel Ful lertonwas about tomarchonhis capital

,Seringapatam

,he concluded a treaty with

the Governor of Madras (in Oppositionto thewishes of theGovernor - General) , by which it wasagreed that both sidesshould restore the conquestswhich they hadmade. Thiswasmuch tothedisadvantage of theMadras Government ,for the English had made many more conquests thanTippuhad. The treaty which ended this second MysoreWarwas called the Treatyof hfangalore, 1784. We shal lhear of the third Mysore War (1790) in the time ofLord Cornwallis, butthefinal conquest of Mysorewasnoteffected until the reign of the great Marquis Wellesley

( 1798 inthefourthMysoreWar.

THE THIRD mrsonnWAR. 273

CHAPTER XXIII.

LORD CORNWALLIS— THE THIRD MYSORE WAR, AND

THE PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF BENGAL . A.D .

1786 - 1793 .

1 . Reforms in the Administration. 2 . The Third MysoreWar. 3. The Permanent Settl ement of the Revenues of Bengal .4. Reforms in the Law Courts. 5. Sir John Shore, Governor

General .

1 . Reforms intheAdministration.— When Warren

Hastings retired fromthe Governor -Generalship , in 1785,there was some delay before any onewas appointed to thathigh office and in themeantime Sir John Macpherson,Senior Member of Council , acted asGovernor- General . Atlast Lord Cornwalliswas appointed, a nobleman ofgreatfirmnessand energy , and b e commenced his reign by someV igorous reforms in the administration of the Government ,which had sufferedmuch fromcorruptionand bribery

,not

withstanding al l the effortsofOlive andWarrenHastings.

Theofficersand public servantsoftheEast India Companyhad been hitherto allowed only very small salaries

,and as

their opportunities were greatof enriching themselves bytaking bribes and in other dishonest ways

,they had fre

quently yielded to the temptation. Lord Cornwallisnowordered that every officer of theGovernment should receivesuch a good salary asshould leavenoshadow of excuse fortrading or attempting toacquiremoney by impropermeans,and this benevolent order

,combined with great firmness

in punishing al l evil - doers,soon produced a very beneficial

effect.

2 . TheThird MysoreWan— After the treaty ofMangalore and the conclusion of the Second MysoreWar

,in

1784, TippuSultan advanced rapidly inpower and weal th .

During the six years from1784 to1790hehad successfullyresisted amost formidable attack oftheMahrattas and theN izamof Haidarabad ; he had conquered the districts ofKanara , Coorg , and Malabar, often with circumstances of

274 THIRD MYSORE WAR, AND SETTLEMENT or BENGAL .

the greatest cruelty and oppression— destroying al l Hindutemplesand forcing asmany of the people ashe could tobecomeMuhammadans. At last he attacked theRaja ofTravancore, theterritory which liesintheextremesoutherncorner of India. Inhis firstattack on thewall which theRaja of Travancorehad built to defend his country Tippl

’

i

was repulsed with immense loss and with considerabledanger to himself ; sohe determined inhis rage to take aterrible revenge

,andmade large preparations for the con

quest of the littleStatethat had dared todefeat him. ButtheRaja of Travancorewasan ally of the English ; andLord Cornwallisdetermined to prevent Tippufromcarryingouthis designs.

TheN izamofHaidarabadhad justatthistime(1788 — 89)fulfil led anold promise by ceding totheEnglish thedistrictof Gantur, south of the Khrishna ; and henow agreed tohelp the English against Tippfi, being promised that heshould receive someof the conquered territory . TheMah

rattas of Poona also,under the clever minister named

N 11115. Farnavis (see Chap . XVII. promised help onthe same conditions. In 1790 Lord Cornwallis went inperson to Madras to conduct the war. InMarch 1791 hecaptured Bangalore, the second city in point of size andimportance inTippu’s dominions; and twomonths after

wards he totally defeated Tippuand al l his army inthegreat battle of ARIKERA. After this the capital

,Seringa

patam,must itself have been taken, if theMahrattashad

beenathand to help Lord Cornwal l is, as theyhad promisedbut their general Hart Pant had been intent only on

plunder, andhadconsequentlydelayedhismarch solong thatat last Lord Cornwalliswas obliged, for want of supplies,toreturn toMadras. During the rest of the yearhe busiedhimself with preparations for the next campaign, and intaking sundry of Tippu’s fortresses ; and atthevery begin

ning of 1792 bemarched oncemore against Seringapatam.

Thisgreat fortresswasjustaboutto fall indeed , the outer

workshad already been taken, when Tippi’

i agreed to the

276 THIRD MYSORE WAR, AND SETTLEMENT OF BENGAL .

4. Reforms in the Law Courts.— The reformof the

Civil and Criminal Courts next occupied his attention.

Sir Elijah Impey’

s rules were developed into a volume ofregulations by Sir George Barlow ; and the systemofCivil Courts and procedure which , withmodifications, stillexists

,was established.

5. Sir John Shore, Governor- General .— Sir JohnShore, an eminent civilian,

was appointed to succeed LordCornwall is as Governor- General of India ; and he reignedfrom1793 to 1798 . The period of his rule

,however

,was

not distinguished by many important public events ; andashe

,like Lord Cornwallis

,regarded himself bound by the

orders of the D irectors of the East India Company nottointerfere in any quarrels between native princes, wemayproperly include his reign in the same chapter with thatof Lord Corwal l is. This non- i

’

ntervention policy gavegreat encouragement to the ambition both of Tippi

’

i in

Mysore and of the Mahrattas. The Mahrattas were emboldened by it to attack the N izamofHaidarabad

,whose

power they effectually humbled in the battle ofKurdla,as

narrated in Chap . XVII. 9 . Throughout this periodN ana Farnavis, the primeminister of the Peshwa, wasthemost powerful Mahratta statesman.

Ouone occasion, however, Sir John Shore found himself obliged to interferewith the affairs of a native State.

In 1797 the Nawab-Vazir Asaf-ud- daulah of Oudh diedIn vainhad he been exhorted to pay some attention to thewelfare of his kingdom. He lived and died a child in ina

tel lect,and a debased sensualist . A reputed son of the

late N awab,named Vazir Al i, succeeded him; but his

proved illegitimacy and worthless character led Sir JohnShore to displace him,

and elevate Saadat Al i, brother ofthe lateNawab . Mr. Cherry wastheResident atBenares ;and he negotiated the treaty with Saadat Ali, then livingatBenares. Soonafter the new Nawabmarched toLucknow,

where Sir John was encamped. The Governor

General was in extreme peril fromVa7ir Ali 's hordes of

CONQUEST or MYSORE AND or THE MAHRATTAS. 277

lawless soldiers ; but he, with the utmost calmness and

composure,maintained his position,

and the new Nawab

was placed on themusnud, Vaz ir Ali being sent to Benares.

In 1799 Vaz ir Al iassassinated Mr. Cherry inBenares,and

raised a temporary rebellion, but was defeated and takenprisoner .

Sir John Shore, who was created Lord Teignmouth ,sailed for England inMarch 1798 .

CHAPTER XXIV.

THE MARQUIS WELLESLEY— TIIE CONQUEST OF MYSORE

AND OF THE MAHRATTAS. A.D . 1798 - 1805.

l . TheSubsidiary System. 2 . The Fourth (and 1ast) MysoreWar. 3. Formal Annexation of the Carnatic, and of the NorthWestProvinces. 4. TheConquestof theMahrattas.

1 . TheSubsidiary System.— A few words are here

necessary to explain theSUBSIDIARY SYSTEM, which WarrenHastings was the first to introduce in his dealings withOiidh

,and which was the basisofthepolicy oftheMarquis

Wellesley in his dealings with native States. When a

State consented by treaty to accede to this systemit aoknowledged the British Government as the paramountpower in India ; and in return it received the guaranteeof that Government for its safety and integrity . It agreednot to make war or peace without the sanction of theParamount Power, and to maintain a contingent of tr0 0psasa subsidiary forcewherewith to aid theBritish Government in time of need. Such wereusually themain con

ditions of this policy, modified, of course, according tocircumstances (see Introduction) . It superseded altogether the policy Which had been in vogue under LordCornwallis and Sir John Shore

,

'

which had been basedmainly on the foolish idea ofmaintaining a balanceofpoweramongst thenative States, so as to prevent any of thembecoming too powerful .

278 CONQUEST or MYSORE AND or THE nanmrms.

2 . TheFourthand last MysoreWar.— At themo.

ment of Lord Wel lesley’

s arrival the British Empire inIndia was threatened by a combination of a large numberof native chief

'

s, whowere encouraged to resist theEnglish

arms both by the ‘non- intervention ’ policy of the twopreceding Governors- General

,and by the aid and money

of the French,with whomtheEnglish had now been long

atwar. Tippi’

i Sultanof'

Mysore, theN izamofHaidarabad,and Sindia, themost powerful of theMahratta chiefs, wereal l under French influence, and had their armies chieflyofficered by Frenchmen ; whilst Zaman Shah, theDuranimonarch ofAfghanistan and the Punjab — the grandson ofthe terribleAhmad Shah Abdali , whohad so often overrun Hindustan (see Chap . XV . threatened toinvade N orthern India as an all y of Tippi

’

i Sultan. But

Lord Wellesley, byhis extraordinary vigour and ability ,and by themilitary skill and bravery of the soldiersunderhim(especially of his brother, Colonel Wellesley, afterwardsthe great Duke ofWellington) , wasultimately ableto dissipateal l these dangers.

His first step was to conclude a subsidiary treaty(Le. a treaty on the subsidiary principle explained in thepreceding section— with theN izamof Haidarabad ; underwhich theN izamhelped the English in the MysoreWar

with a considerable force, thecommand of which was givento Colonel Wellesley. The Governor - General then proceeded to Madras, to direct the operations against Tippi

’

i,

whohadmadly declared himself a citizen of the FrenchRepublic

,

’

and had publicly asked for the help of the greatFrench general Napoleon Buonaparte (who was at this

time in Egypt) to expel the English fromIndia. Two

armieswere ordered to invade the Mysore territories; oneunder the Commander - in- Chief

,General Harris, was called

theArmy of the Carnatic, and advanced onTippfi fromtheside of Madras the other, under General Stuart, consistedof Bombay tr0 0ps, and advanced on the Malabar side.

Tippi’

i was defeated by each of these armies successively

2 80 CONQUEST or MYSORE AND or THE MAHRA’

I‘

TAS.

The conquestof Mysoremade the English power nuquestionab ly supreme in thc Deccan.

3 . Formal Annexation of the Carnatic and of theNorth-West Provinces.

— Ia 1801 , two years after the fal lof Seringapatam

,the Nawab of the Carnatic (son of the

old MuhammadanAJi— seeChap . XIX . 2 — whohad diedin 1795) formally resigned to the British Government theterritories known as the Carnatic , in return for a largepension

,and this cession enlarged thePresidency of Madras

toits present size.

The Governor- General about the time (1801) intervened in‘

the affairs of Oudh , which had been frightfullymisgoverned and oppressed by the Nawab -VasirSaadat Al iand his Vaz ir , whomoreover had neglected to maintaintheir army inthe efficient and disciplined state promisedby the subsidiary treaty . Lord Cornwallis now compelledtheNawab to remedy this,and to cede certain districts tothe British Government for the support of these troops.

The districts thus ceded comprised a great part of what arenow called theN orth -WestProvinces.

4 . Conquest of the Mahrattas.— The Governor

General had hadmany disputeswith the D irectors of theEast India Company, who disapproved of his extensiveconquests

,and also of his liberal ity in wishing to throw

Open the trade of India— t.e. to allow any one to carryon trade betweenEngland and India thatwished to doso

,

instead of reserving the whole trade for the East IndiaCompany. At last , in 1802

,Lord Wellesley had almost

determined to resign his office, buthe was induced to remainas Governor- General a little longer ; butthiswas amost fortunate thing for British India, for just now happened the TreatyofBassein followed by theSecondMahratta War (1804— 1805) against Sindia and theRaja ofBarar

,and the Third, Mahratta War ( 1804— 1805) against

Bol kar and the Rajzi of Bhartpur, which final ly crushedthe power oftheMahrattasand established theBritish Empire as the Paramount Power throughout India. A short

PEACE WITH THE MAHRATTAS. 2 8 1

account of these wars and their consequenceshasalreadybeen given in Chap . XIX . 10

,11

,12 . This was the

timewhen Orissa was final ly taken fromthe Mahrattas bytheEnglish , 1803 - 1804.

Lord Wellesley left Calcutta in August 1805, after amost gloriousand successful administration. He had ih

creased the dominions of theEastIndia Company tomorethandoubletheir former extent, andhad firmly consolidatedthis gigantic empire.

CHAPTER XXV .

LORD CORNWALLIS AGAIN — SIR GEORGE BARLOW’

LORDMINTO. A.D . 1805- 18 13.

1 . Peacewiththe Mahrattas. 2 . The Vel lor Mutiny. 3. The

Riseof theSikh Power inthePunjab .

1. Peace withthe Mahrattas. — The warlike LordWellesley, whohad made somany conquests, was succeeded by Lord. Cornwal lis, who came out to India to b eGovernor - General for the second time

,butwhodied within

a fewmonthsofhis arrival . Next Sir George Barlow wasappointed Governor- General

,and both Lord Cornwal lis

and Sir George Barlow were determined immediately tomake peace with al l the enemies against whomLordWel

lesley had been fighting . The consequence of this wasthat the Mahratta chief Holkar (see Chap . XIX . 12)obtained peaceon very easy termsinN ovember 1805 and

what was particularly disgraceful to Sir George Barlow inthushastilymaking peace was the fact that the Mahrattaswerenow allowed to revenge themselves on the faithfulRajput allies of the English

,for the Governor - General

declared that he would‘

nomore interfere in any of thequarrels betweenNativePrinces.

2 . TheVel lorMutinys— Dufing Sir GeorgeBarlow’

s

short reign (1805— 1807) occurred also amutiny atVel lor

28 2 Loni) CORNWALLIS — SIR G. BARLOW— LORD MINTO.

amongst theMadras sepoys,whohad beendeluded into the

belief that some changewhich wasmade by the Government in the shape of their head- dresses was intended tobreak their caste and turn theminto Christians. Themutinous sepoyswereat once dispersed or slain

,butnotuntil

they had killed someEuropean fellow- soldiers, whomtheysurprised in sleep . After this Sir GeorgeBarlow was de

prived of theoffice of Governor General , andmadeGovernorof Madras; Lord Minto was appointed Governor - General

,

and reigned from1807 to 1813.

§ 3 . The Rise of the SikhPower in the Punjab .

During the reign of Lord Minto thewar betweentheEnglish and the French , which had been going on formanyyears inEurope

,was continued with great fury

,and the

British Indian troops took away fromthe French al l the

colonies in the East that were held by them,or by their

allies the Dutch , particularly the rich Dutch Island of

Java. About the same time it was feared thatthe Frenchand theRussianswere hOping to disturb the British

“ ruleinIndia

,by stirring up the rulers of the Punjab, of Sind,

of Afghanistan, and of Persia to conspire against the

English . Lord Minto,however

,succeeded in persuading

the kings of Kabul and of Persia, and theAmirs of Sind,tomake treatieswithhim,

by which they promised to havenothing to doW ith any other European Powers. He alsoinduced the great RanjitSingle, the leader of the Sikhs inthe Punjab

,tomake a similar treaty '

; and it will bewellfor as here to goback a l ittle, to note the rise of the powerof the Sikhs in the Punjab .

We have seen,in Chap . XV . 2

,that the Sikhswere

atfirstan inoffensive religious sect, and that gradually, inconsequence of the cruel way in which they were persecuted by the Muhammadan Emperors of Delhi , they b ecame amilitary as well as a religious body . They werenearly extirpated by the Emperor Farrukh Siyar (1713

but they soon recovered theirnumbersand influence'

in the Punjab . This province was subjugated by the

2 84 MARQUISor HasTmGs— NEPAL AND PINDXRI wars.

the finances embarrassed,and many disputes with Native

States pending ; for nine years he ruled‘

with resolutionand success

,and left theEmpire in a flourishing condition.

Hewasa distinguished soldier, an experienced statesman,

and aman of amiablemanners and noble character.The Ghfirkas

,a powerful and warlike tribe

,had estab

l ished themselves in Nepal about the year 1767 (see Iatroduction, § Gradually extending their conquests

,

theyhad thoroughly subjugated thesub -Himalayanvalleys,and were now displaying an inclination to encroach ontheir southern neighbours in Hindustan. The ruler ofNepal had imprisoned the zamindar of Bhfitwal

,and had

seized his territory ; and eighteenBritish policeofficers inthat districthad beenmurdered. The Governor - Generaldetermined to teach the Ghi

’

irkas a severe lesson, and

ordered a Britisharmy to advance into Nepal in four divisions by different routes

,A.D . 1814. Generals Ochterlony

and Gil lespiewere in command of the British troops ; butthe latter was killed in a gallant butunsuccessful attemptto take the fortress of .Kalunga

, and the army metwithseveral reverses. Amir Singh was the general of theGhfirkas. General Ochterlony at length succeeded in

driving himfromthe heights of Ramgarh , which wereexceedingly strong ; the Raja of Bilaspur was detachedfromthe Nepal cause, and the province of Kumaon sub

dued . At last Amir Singh was shutup in the fortressofMalaun; and in May 1815 hewas forced to capitulate toGeneral Ochterlony. Al l the forts between the Jamnahand theSutlej were then givenup, and Garhwal evacuated.

TheCourt of Nepal,terrified by these reverses, nowmade

overtures for peace butthenegotiationswere brokenoff,owing to theunwil lingness of the Nepalese to cede somedistricts of the Tami. General Ochterlony resumedmilitary operations in January 1816, and gained somemorevictories; when at length theNepal Darbar, convinced oftheir inability to oppose the British , agreed to cede al l the

conquered provinces, and peacewas concluded

THE rmnfimWAR. 2 85

2. ThePindéi'i War.— ThePinddrz

’

s were hordes oflawless plundering robbers that had long followed likejackalsthe armies of the Mahratta chiefs, especially thoseof Sindia and Holkar. Assignments of lands had beenmadeto themonthe banks of theNarbada ; and they hadfor some years beenthe scourge of Central India. TheGo

vernor - General now determined to suppress theseenemiesofmankind ; and at the same time firmly toassert thesupremacy of the British power over the Mahratta chiefsthemselves, whohad been encouraged by the Nepal war toconspire. Baj i Rao, the Peshwa atPoona

, was the head :

of this conspiracy ; and Appa Saheb, theRaj a of Barar atN agpur , wasone of the chief conspirators.

Sindia submitted to theBritish, and his representativesare still Maharajas of Gwalior . So did Amir Khan, themost prominent leader of the Pindaris ; and his descendants are still Nawabs of Tank . Baji Rao resisted, andeven dared to attack and plunder the house of theBritishResident atPoona

,N ovember 1817 but hewas soon put

to flight, and after a long series of attempts to withstand

the British armshe was deposed. His dominions wereannexed to theBritish Empire, except a small tract aroundsatara whichwas given to theRaj a whowas the true re

presentative of Sivaji, 1818 . Appa Saheb had attackedtheEnglish atN agpur shortly after Baj i Raohad failed atPoona ; buthewaseasily defeated and taken prisoner, andultimately he escaped tothe Punjab

,where he lived and

died inutter obscurity among the Sikhs.

After the submission of Amir Khanal l the other Pindari leaderswere gradually conquered. The last of thesewasnamed Ohitu. He atone time took refuge among thetroops of Bolhar , who hadmurdered their Queen-Regent

,

Tulsi Bait, because shewas suspected of favouring theEnglish

,and had determined to resist the British arms. A

great battle was fought at MAHIDPUR (December in

which theMahrattas and Pindaris of Hol kar’

sarmy wereutterly defeated by theEnglish generals Hislop and Mal

2 86 LORD AMHERST— THE FIRST ‘

BURMA WAR.

colm. After this the young chief MalharRaoBolkarmadeasubsidia/rytreaty (see Chap.XXIV . 1) with theEnglish .

Chitu, the Pindari leader, fled fromplace to place, beinggradually deserted by his followers ; til l at length hewas devoured by a tiger in the jungles near Asirgarh , inKhandesh

,1819 .

The whole of the Mahratta country,and indeed the

whole of Central India,had been reduced to order and

submission during the course of thiswar. TheMarquis ofHastings returned toEngland in 1823

,accompanied by the

applause of al l .

CHAPTER XXVII.

LORD AMHERST— THE FIRST BURMA WAR, AND THE

STORMING OF BHARTPUR. A.D . 1 823- 1828 .

l . TheFirstBurmaWar. 2 . TheStorming ofBhartpur.

1 . The First BurmaWar."— Lord Amherst arrived in

India as Governor- General a fewmonths after the departure of Lord Hastings .and he soon found it necessary todefend the British power in India against the insultswithwhich it was threatened fromthe ignorance and folly ofthe King of Burma. Burma (s

'

ee Introduction, § 33) isa country far away to the east of the Bay of Bengal, beyond Chittagong and the easternmost partsof Bengal ; andthe Burmese are a people not at al l like theHindus, butsomewhat like the Chinese. A great part of Burma, indeed al l except the inland provinces, now belongs to theIndianEmpire

,and is called British Burma ; and we shall

see in this section (and in Chap . XXXII. 2,about the

Second Burma War) under what circumstances BritishBurma became subject to theEnglish .

The King of Burma had been largely extending his

conquests in the countries on.thenorth - east shores of the

Bay of Bengal . Hisarmieshad overrun the provinces ofArakzinand Assam and his territorieswere now bounded

2 8 8 LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK— PEACE AND REFORMS.

was owing to the fact that many of the enemies of theEnglish rule in Indiahad believed, or pretended to believe,that Bhartpur was such a strong fortress that even the

English could not take it.In 1827 Lord Amherst went to Delhi , and solemnly

informed theKing of Delhi (the representativeof the oldMughiil Emperors, who at this timewas in receipt of apension fromthe British Government) that the Englishwerenow theParamount Power in India. Up to the periodof this declarationthe representative of the Mughul Emperorshad beenregarded asnominal]y theLord Paramountof India

,though his power had long before really passed

into the hands of the British .

Lord Amherst,one of the least eminent of the rulers

ofBritish India, retired in March 1828 ; and Mr. Butterworth Bayley, oneof the distinguished school of statesmentrained under the MarquisWellesley

,acted as Governor

General until the arrival ofhis successor.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK— PEACE AND REFORMS.

A.D . 1828 - 1835.

1 . Peaceful Character of this Reign. 2 . Settlement of Mysoreand Coorg. 3 . Economical and Social Reforms.

1 . APeacefulReign.— LordWilliamBentinckhad for

merly been Governor of Madras and hehad been recalledin 1807. He was consequently anxious to have a chanceof retrieving his reputation, by becoming Governor- Generalof India ; and he fully attained the object of hiswishes, forhisadministrationmarks anera of peaceful improvementand progress in India. It commenced in July 1828

,and

lasted until March 1835 and though not remarkable forany greatmilitary exploits, was distinguished by a large

number of reforms, economical , judicial , and social, of

greater value and importance thanany conquest.

ECONOMICAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS.

2 . SettlementofMysoreand Coorg.—Wemust

,how

ever, noticetheone war that happened during this reign,

which wasthe conquest of the little Stateof Coorg , adjoining Mysore, in Southern India. Its Raja wasamadtyrant , who slew every member of the royal family, andmost cruelly oppressed the people ; and as he defied the

British Government when called upon to amend,it was

resolved to depose him. The war was a nominal one,and only lasted ten days ; the Raja was then sent as

a prisoner to Benares, andthe British rulewas establishedthroughout the province, 1833.

The year before this, in 1832 , it had been found necessary to put Mysore also under a British officer, as theministers of theRaja had been guilty of grossmisgovernment . The country has subsequently prospered wonderfully. TheRajahassincedied, and theBritish Governmenthas recognised the successionofhis adopted sonand heir .

3 . Economical and Social Reforms. - Many importanteconomical reforms were carried out by Lord WilliamBentinck in the civil and military administrations. Of

these the one that provoked most opposition was the

abolitionof double batta. Doub le batla. was an allowancegiven to the army when on serv ice, in addition to theirordinary pay. The judicial reforms carried out at thistimewere of considerable importance, especially with re

ference to the extended employment of native judicialofficers in responsible posts.

But the reformfor which LordWilliamBentinck ismost famous was the abolition of sati or suttee. Thishorrible custom(the self- immolation of widows on the

funeral pile of their deceased husbands— see Introduc

tion) had long been practised in India, though bymanyscholars it wasbelieved notto beauthorised by theSastras.

The Governor- General , aided by Mr. Butterworth Bayleyand Sir CharlesMetcalfe, his two councillors, at this time(December 1829) enacted that any person aiding or abetting a sattshould be visited with the terrors of the law.

U

290 LORD WILL IAM BENTINCK— I’EACE AND REFORMS.

The barbarous superstition is now nearly obsolete in

India.

In1829 theGovernor- General appointed Major Sleeman(afterwards SirWilliamSleeman) as Commissioner for thesuppression of thuggee (see Introduction, The thugswere bands of wretches, half robbers and half fanatics

,

whowere in the habit of decoying away andmurderingdefenceless travellers, especial ly in the forests of CentralIndia. They regarded this occupationnot only asamodeof getting money

,but also as a part of their religion.

Sleeman,however

, succeeded inalmost entirely suppressingthis horrible formof crime.

A great Bengali reformer rose into eminence about thistime. He was called Rammohan Ra1 ; he was both a

learned and a good man,and did his utmost to improve

the condition of his countrymen in every way. At lengththe King of Delhi (whowasmuch distressed atthe humblecondition to which hehad been reduced by the declarationof Lord Amherst, see Chap . XXVII. 2) induced Rama.

mohan Rai to proceed to England ashis agent, toendeayour to get better terms and a larger pension fromthe

English Government and thegreat Bengali died atBristolin 1833.

Lord WilliamBentinck left India in May 1835 ; and

Sir CharlesMetcalfe took his place as Acting GovernorGeneral until the arrival of a successor in March 1836.

Sir Charles Metcalfe seized the opportunity of his shorttenureof power to pass ameasurewhich gained himverygreat popularity . This was the abolition of al l legal restrictions on the liberty of thePress— the despotic powerofthe Governor- General being held inreserve to check anyreally seditiouswriting . Mr. (afterwards Lord) Macaul ay,at this time Legal Member of Council

,introduced this

measure into the Governor - General ’s Council .

2 92 LORD AUCKLAND — TIIE AFGHSN WAR.

Durani clan,founded a powerful empire in Afghanistan

and the Punjab . The frequent invasions of India by thispotentate (see Chap. XV. 5) havemade his name veryfamous in Indian history . Ahmad Shahwas, indeed, thefounder of theAfghannation he

,almost alone inhistory

,

wasable to introduce and tomaintain order in this regionof perpetual anarchy. He lefthis throne to his sonTimurShah , whosucceeded in overcoming his brother and sopreserving his crown butTimur athis death leftnoless thantwenty- three sons, whosewars again convulsed thecountryfor a long series of years. Three of these sons— ZamauShah , Mahmud Shah , and Shah Shuj a— obtained

,each for

himself at various intervals, a precarious and short - livedsupremacy. It happened that in 1809, when (asnarratedabove, Chap . XXV. 3) Lord Minto wished to execute a

treaty,

with the Duranimonarch of Kabul, Shah Shuja hadfor a brief period occupied that position; and it was withShah Shuja accordingly that Lord Minto ’s treaty had beennegotiated. Butsince that timenumerousrevolutionshadoccurred in Kabul and Kandahar. In the very year inwhich Lord Minto ’s treaty had been signed Shah Shul ahad been driven into exile by hisbrother

,Mahmud Shah

and although hehad endeavoured to regain his throne in1834

,after Mahmud Shah had beenexpelled by thepower

ful clan of theBarakzais, hehad notsucceeded indoing so.

Fathi KhanBarakzai , the chief of the clan, had beennominally Mahmud Shah ’

s vazir, but really the ruler ofAfghanistan in the name of that monarch; and when MahmudShah ’

s sons, jealous of the power of theBarakzai , assassinated Fathi Khan, the fellow- clansmen of the latter roseand droveMahmud Shah away to Herat. The Barakzais

,

brothers of the deceased Fathi Khan, for ashort timeagreedtosetup anothermember of the royal family of the Saddozais ; but subsequently they seized the kingdomfor

themselves, fighting over it and killing each other, until atlast v ictory remained with the ablest of the brothers

,

named D OST MUHAMMAD . Atthe time of Lord Auckland’

s

THE AFGHAN WAR. 293

accession D ost Muhammad was the ruler of most ofAfghanistan.

Lord Auckland atfirst tried to conciliate D ost Mahammad butwhen he found that that chief wasnot inclinedtobe friendly to theEnglishhe determined to help ShahShuja (whohad al l along been friendly, and whowasnowl iving asa British pensioner in India) torecover the throneofAfghanistan.

2 . The AfghanWar.— Lord Auckland took up the

cause of Shah Shnjaunder themistaken impression thathewas reallymore popular amongst the peopleofAfghan.

istan than D ost Muhammad ; sothe army which he sent toinvade Afghanistan was not a very strong one. RanjitSingh , theol d Lion of the Punjab

,

’

ashewas often called

(see Chap . XXV. promised to help Shah Shuja withthe power of the Sikhs ; but he died soonafter, and theGovernmentofthe Sikhs fell into disorder.The British army of invasion was commanded by Sir

JohnKeane, accompanied by Mr. (afterwardsSirWilliam)Macnaghten. They firstmarched to Kandahar

,the ca

pital of Southern Afghanistan,where‘

Shah Shuja wassolemnly put on the throne

.They went on to Ghazni,

which they found to be strongly fortified ; but they blewup one ofthe big gateswithgunpowder, and then took thefortress by storm They thenmarched to d ul

,

which they entered inAugust 1839 and now their task ofrestoring ShahShul a was done, for D ostMuhammad hadfled away tothewild country north of Afghanistan. Mostof the army now returned toIndia, a portion remaining tosettlethe country under Shah Shuja ; and at the end of

the following year (1840) D ost Muhammad gave himselfup as a prisoner to SirWilliamMacnaghten.

After this, for nearly a year, everything seemed peaceful . But, in December 1841 , thewhole of Afghanistanrosein insurrection against the small garrisonof Indian troops,and at length the latter were sosurrounded by innumerab leand warlike enemies that they were obliged to purchase a

2 94 LORD AUCKLAND — THE AFGHKN WAR.

safe retreat bymaking themost humiliating promisesandconcessions. The chief leader of theAfghanswasAl tbm'

K han,a son of D ost Muhammad and he

,with the utmost

basenessand treachery, shot SirWilliamMacnaghten ata

conference. The Indianarmy had notproceeded far in itsretreat before the Afghans broke their solemn promisesand fell uponit. The British soldiers, both Europeansandsepoys, defended themselves as well as they could

,and

struggled on in themidst of the greatest privations,from

the piercing cold of these snowymountain- passes, fromthewant of food and clothing, and fromthe terrible difficul tiesof the roadsf But themountains that overhung al l thesepasses were crowded with treacherous and ferocious Afghans

,whokept up amurderous fire on the unprotected

soldiers below until at length,with the exception of a few

ladies ‘

and married officerswhosurrendered themselvesasprisoners to Akbar Khan

,and onemanwho escaped to

carry thenews to Jalalabad, the disordered and stragglingcolumnwas literally annihilated .

The disastersof this campaign,inwhichmany British

soldiers and sepoys thus miserably perished,spread a

gloomover British India,which wasnot removed until the

b rill iant successes of General Pollock and the conquest ofKabul under thenext Governor- General restored theprestige of theEnglish arms. This has thrown a cloud overthe reputation of Lord Auckland

,which would otherwise

have been an honourable one. His abilitieswere greatand before the commencement of theAfghan war his goodmanagement had placed the finances of the country ina.

most flourishing condition. He left India inMarch 1842 .

2 96 CONQUEST or KABUL AND ANNEXATION or smn.

rcturning warmth of summer had melted the snow inthepasses, and rendered it possible for an Indian army tomarch again into Afghanistan

,General Pol lock

,atthehead

of a number of English soldiers and Indian sepoys, forcedhisway through theKhaibar Pass. He soon rescued theIllustrious Gar rison ofJalalabad, and thenmarched on

against Kabul . Another army had been sent fromIndiathrough the BolanPass to rescue General N ott and his

soldierswhowere inKandahar ; and General N ott, beingj oined by this new army

,took Ghazni

,demolished that

fortress,and thenmarched on tomeet General Pollock at

Kabul . The great bazaar of Kabul was utterly destroyed,

as a punishment to theAfghans for their treachery ; andwhen al l resistance throughout the country had beencrushed

,every important fortress captured, and the Eng

lish prisoners rescued, itwas determined to evacuate thecountry. The army marched back quietly through the

dominionsofthe Sikhs to Firi’izpur, inBritish territory ; ithad completely restored the glory of theEnglish armsandv indicated the honour of the English Government . D ostMuhammad and the other Afghan prisoners were set at

liberty ; and for the remainder ofhis life theAfghan kingremembered the lesson taught himby these campaigns,and usuallymaintained a friendly and respectful attitudetowards India.

2 . TheConquestofSind.- During thetroubles of the

Afghanwar theAmirs of Sind had shownmany signs ofhosti l ity to the English

,soLord Ellenborough now deter

mined to teach themthe folly of such conduct .Nors.

— Sind had b een conquered in 1786 by a fierce tri be ofBalochis fromthemountains of Balochistan,

on the westernfrontier.

TheAmirsof Sind were the descendants of these Balochi conquerors,and l ived as feudal nob les in fortified castles, often cruel l y oppressingthe conquered people. They were at al l times very jealous of theBritish power, and tried topreventany trade b eing carried onbetweenSind and theBritishIndiandominions.

Sir CharlesNapier was sent as Commander- in- Chief toSind

, with orders to find out clearly whether the Amirs

WAR wmr GWALIOR. 2 97

were really inclined to be friendly or hostileto theEnglish .

Soonafterwards,however

,a large Sind force attacked the

house ofMaj or (afterwards Sir James) Outram,and thus

commenced the short Sind war. Sir Charles Napier utterly routed the Amirs and al l their forces in two greatbattles, firstatMiami, and afterwards atHaidardbdd (boththese towns are in Sind) . Itwas then decided that Sindshould b eannexed to the British dominions, and that theAmirsshould b esent toBenaresasStateprisoners. Thisextremely severe sentencewas believed by many to be veryunjust and it was thought that Lord Ellenborough oughtto have restored theAmirs topower after punishing themfor their treachery. Asfar asthepoor inhabitantsofSindwere concerned the changewas certainly amost happy one,and the country has since greatly increased in wealth and

prosperity .

3 . WarWith Gwalior.— During theAfghanand Sind

wars the Mahrattas in Gwalior had been growing turbulent. There was an immense and highly disciplined armythere

,and the

'

young Sindia (the Maharaja of Gwalior isalways called Sindia) was only a little boy . A quarrel asto whoshould be Sindia’

s guardian and regent ofGwaliornow threatened to plunge Central India into the horrors ofa Mahratta civil war

,soLord Ellenborough resolved to in

terfere,andmarched twoarmiestowards Gwalior

, expectingthat the Mahrattas would immediately submit. The two

divisionsofthe Gwalior army,however

,confident in their

great numbersand their fine artillery,ventured to resist

,

and two great battles were fought on the same day,

D ecember 29,1843 ; one at Mahdrt

’

tjpm,and the other at

Panm'

afir. In both of these battles the English arms werecompletely triumphant

,and al l the guns

, ammunition, andtreasuresoftheMahrattaswere captured. Ever since thatperiod theMaharaja ofGwalior has beena loyal feudatoryofthe IndianEmpire.

Lord El lenborough had hadmany differencesof Opinionwith the D irectors of the East India Company, and in

February 18 44 hewassuddenly recalled.

CHAPTER XXXI.

LORD HARDINGE AND THE FIRST SIKH ‘NAR.

A.D . 1844— 1848 .

1 . TheFirstSikhWar. 2 . Social Reforms.

1 . The First Sikh War.-Since the death of Ranpt

Singh,in 1839

,the Punjab had been in a dreadful state of

anarchy and confusion. Therehad been numerous assas

sinations amongst the survivors of Ranjit’

s family and

Ministers of State,and many revolutions ; and at last

Dhi’

ilip Singh , the son of RanJit by his favourite wifeChand Kaur

,was set up as Maharaja. The great Sikh

Sardars or 'Chiefs formed themselves into a Council ofState

,and thename of the ‘Khalsa ’

(the pure) was givento thewhole Government . But in 1845 the disorder wasas b ad as ever

,the Maharani Chand Kanr and the other

Sikh leaderswere al l intriguing for supreme power, whil ethe strong and well- disciplined Sikh army was turbulentand anxiousfor war.

In the meantime Sir Henry Hardinge (afterwardsViscount Hardinge) had been appointed Governor- General ; he landed in India in 1844, and left it in 1847. He .

had greatly distinguished himself in thewars of Europeagainst the French

,particularly in the Peninsular War

,

and inthe battle ofWaterloo , where he had lost an arm.

The new Governor - General refused to interfere in the

affairs of the Punjab, and was sincerely anxious tomain

tain peacewith the Sikhs; when suddenly the Sikh armyof itsownaccord invaded British territory by crossing theSutlej , which was at that time the boundary between theEnglish and the Sikh dominions

,December 1845 . It is

believed that the Sikh leaders induced their army todothis in order to relieve themselves from'

the fear of itsturbulence.

Sir Hugh Gough,the Commander- in- Chief, joined

300 LORD I(ARDINGE AND THE FIRST SfKH WAR.

the entrenchments ot'

the enemy . Tej Singh ficd ; butthe aged ShamSingh

,in white garments, devoted l 1iinself

todeath asamarty1 for the Guru, and fell at length on a

heap ofhis slain countrymen. Many thousands ofSikhsgallantly fell at their posts ; and itwas not till after twohours’ fierce fighting at close quarters that the shatteredremnants of the Khalsa army fled in helpless confusionacross the Sutlej

,under the deadly fire of the British

artillery.

Three days later (February 13, 1846) thewholeBritisharmy crossed the Sutlej and, on February 14, Sir HenryHardinge issued a proclamation annonnci11g the intentionsoftheBritish Government, which weresingular]ymoderate.

An interview was accorded to Gulab Singh,the chosen

representative of the Khalsa , and the leading Sikh chiefs,at Kasur ; and ultimately the young Dhulip Singh personal lymade his submission, the citadel of Lahore wasoccupied by the British troops, and the country submittedon the terms imposed by the conquerors. Sufficient

treasure for the payment of al l thewar expenseswasnotforthcoming

,soKashmir and Hazarawere retained ; and

ultimately Kashmir was formed into a feudatory Stateunder Gulab Singh of Jammu, who in return paid onemillion sterling towards this indemnity .

2 . Social Reforms— After al l these great and bloodywars

,inwhich the armies of Sind, of Gwalior, and of the

Sikhs had been successively annihilated,India enjoyed

peace for nearly two years; and Lord Hardingewasab leto apply himself tothose humaneetforts for thesuppressionof cruel customswith which his name is honourab ly connected. The horrib le crimes of thuggee, infanticide, sail ,and human sacrificeswere still prevalent inmany partsofIndia (see Introduction, Ofthe lastthemostfamouswere theM grieb sacrifices inGumsar

,amongsttheKandhs

and other non-Aryan tribes of Orissa, Gondwana, and thehills and forests of Central India. These werenow suppressed. Free trade was at this time promoted by the

LORD DALHOUSIE— TIIE SECOND SfKH WAR.

abol ition of octroi duties; that is, of taxes paid for importing food and other merchandise into some of the largetowns of India.

Lord Hardinge left Calcutta early in 1848 . During

his short administrationhehad gained the affectionsof al lclasses ; and his name will always be remembered withrespect as that of a skilful and gallant soldier and a no

less able and beneficent pol itician.

CHAPTER XXXII .

LORD DALHOUSIE— THE SECOND siKH WAR.

A.D . 1848 - 4856.

l . The Second Sikh War. 2 . The Annexations of Pegu,

Nagpur, and Oudh. 3 . Social Progress in India under Lord Dalhousie’s rul e.

1 . TheSecond SikhWar.— TheEarl of Dalhousiewas

appointed to succeed Lord Hardinge,in the hope that he

would be able to secure peace to India after the recentbloodywars. Hisadministration lasted from1848 to 1856,and ischiefly famous for the vast additionsmade to theBritish IndianEmpire

,by the annexations of the Punjab ,

of Pegu,in Burma

,of Oudh

,of Tanjore

,of N agpur

,of

Satara,and of Jhansi. The policy of increasing the British

Empire in India by annexing other States,thoughnot

originated by Lord Dalhousie, was carried tothe greatestextent by him. Thispolicy was generally adopted out ofpity for the oppressed inhabitants of the States annexed ;but it has long beenabandoned by theGovernment.

The turbulence of the Sikhs soonmade it clear to thenew Governor- General that another Sikh war was inevitable ; and he determined to prosecute it with vigour, andto take possession of the Punjab

, so as to render it impossible for the Sikh soldiery again to disturb the peaceof India. The speech which he is said to havemadeon

302 LORD DALHOUSIE— THE SECOND siimWAR.

coming to this conclusion is a famous one I havewished for peace; I have longed for it Ihave

'

strivien for it.

But if theenemiesof Indiadesirewar,war they shall have;

and, onmy word, they shall have it with a vengeanceThe outbreak of the Sikhs began inMultan

, wheretwoBritish officers were assassinated and preparationsmadefor defending the fortress; and the flame of insurrectionsoon Spread throughout the Punjab. A young Englishmannamed Lieutenant Edwardes (afterwardsSir HerbertEdwardes) , who was stationed near Multan

,immediately

collected sometr0 0psand prepared to attack Multan and

soon the Commander - in- Chief of the British army,Lord

Gough,was in the fiel d With a large force. Multanwas

takenby storm,and after a bloody and indecisive battle at

Chil lianwal lah, Lord Gough succeeded inutterly defeatingthe Sikh army in the victory of GUJARAT (Februarywhich is a small town in the D oab between the Chenaband the Jhelam. TheSikhshad beenj oined by apowerfulbody of Afghan cavalry, whohad beensent to help themby D ost Muhammad, theol d foe of theEnglish . Thebattleof Gujarat was remarkable, because it was won almostentirely by the tremendous fire of the English artillery .

For two days a terrific stormof cannon- balls and shellspounded the Sikh lines and cut down the brave Sikh

'

s bythousands; till at last thewhole Sikh army fled beforethe

English troops. All that remained were at last compel ledtogive themselves ‘up at various places in the Punjab asprisoners to the Eng lish . Amongst thosewhosurrenderedwas Sher Singh , the chief Sikh commander ; and a braveEnglish general named Gilbert, whowas one of' the bestof the leaders under Lord Gough , chased D ost Muhammad’

sAfghan cavalry acrossthe Indus and as far as- the

entrance to the Khaibar Pass.

Lord Dalhousie determined to annex the Punjab to theBritish IndianEmpire, now that theSikhswere thorough lydefeated ; for he saw that that brave people, as long as

they were 111- governed, would b e a continual source of

304 LORD DALIIOUSIE— TIIE 8 1100111) 811111 WAR.

housie advised it, with the unanimous consent of his

Council . The Home Government ordered that the prov ince should beannexed ; and the ex - king was transferredto Calcuttawith a pension.

3 . Social Progress.— A wonderful degree of progressmarkstheadministration of Lord Dalhousie, both in civil isationandmaterial prosperity . The first Indian railwaywas opened in 1853 and railways and telegraph - linesbegan rapidly to Spread over the whole country. Vastschemes of educationwere set on foot ; Universities wereordered to be founded and the Presidency College inCalouttawasestablished in 1855. Gigantic schemesofPublicWorks, too , of auseful kind— such asgreatpublic buildings

,

roads,and canals— were planned

,and large sumsofmoney

borrowed for them. Thecrimeofextracting evidence fromaccused persons by torturing themwas stringently putdown

, and earnestendeavoursweremade to dofull justiceto al l classes. Indeed

,during the brilliant and vigorous

administration of Lord Dalhousie, which lasted eight years,from1848 to 1856, was thoroughly inaugurated that equitableand honourablesystemofgoverning Indiawith ’

a single

view to the happiness and prosperity of the peoplewhichhas been conscientiously followed up by every succeedingGovernor- GeneralLord Dalhousie leftCalcutta onthe 6th of March 1856 .

His health was utterly broken down by his labours and

anxieties, and he died within a few years ; but his famewill always endure asone of the greatest oftheGovernors

General of British India.

THE ssror MUTINY. 305

CHAPTER XXXIII .

LORD CANNING— THE SEPOY MUTINY .

A.D . 1856— 1862 .

g 1 . TheSepoy Mutiny. 2 . Abol itionoftheEast IndiaCompany’sRule.

1 . TheSepoy Mutiny.— Lord Canning wasappointed

to succeed Lord Dalhousie as Governor- General ; and hearrived in Calcutta on the 29th of Feb ruary 1856. The

history of his administration is chicfly connected withtheSepoy Mutiny

,

’

which broke out in 1857, and whichresulted inthe abolitionofthe ruleoftheEast India Company, and inthe assumption of the direct Government ofIndia by Her Gracious Majesty V ictoria, Queen of GreatBritain and Ireland, and Empressof India. The eventsofthe great Mutiny are still sorecent that I shall notattemptto givemore than a very brief outline ofthem. Thebroadgeneral points that should b e remeinb ered by the studentwith regard to the Mutiny are Except perhaps inOudh

, the rising was strictly amuting] , not a rebel l ion— i.c.

it wasan insurrection of traitorous soldiers of the NativeBengal Army, and was rarely joinedmbyany othe1 part of Ithe population except through fear or under compulsion.

(2) Themaj ority of theprincesand chiefsof India displayed,throughout this peri lous time, a noble spirit of patriotismand of fidel ity to the British IndianGovernment— inmanycasesarming their retainers and giving every assistance tothe authorities in resisting the outrages of themutineers.

Themost prominent amongst these loyal chiefs were theMaharaja Sindia of Gwalior, theMaharaja of Jaipur, thoseof Kapurthala

,Patiala, andmany other great Sikh Rajas

and Sardars. (3) The chief leadersofthemutinoussoldiers,who instigated themto commit somany atrocities

,were

thosewhohoped to gainby theanarchy and disorder whichwould follow the subversion ofthe British power amongstthese themost active were themiscreant DhunduPant

306 LORD CANNING— THE ssror MUTINY.

(cal led the N ana Saheb) , the adopted son of the last

Peshwa , afterwards infamous as the author of the 0amporemassacre, who hoped to regain the former power ofthe Mahrattas ; whilst the ol d King? of Delhi and his

sons entertained a foolish hope of being able to restore

the glories of theMughul dynasty.

Thesemisguidedmen endeavoured to effect their purpose by circul ating themost absurd rumours amongst theregiments of the Native army and amongst the ignorantcountry people. They pretended that the British Government wasdetermined to annex the whole of India, and todispossessal l thenative princes above al l , they pretendedthat the Government wished to destroy the religions ofboth Hindus and Musalmans

,and to force al l to become

Christians. Of course no educated persons could be so

foolish’

as to believe these silly stories; but the ignorantand uneducated sepoyswere easily led to think that theyweretrue. Early in 1857anew kind of riflewasintroducedinto the Indian army, ‘ of

'

which the cartridgeshad to begreased before they were put into the rifle to load it; andthe sepoys were falsely told by these traitors that thecartridgeshad been greased withthe fat of pigs and cows,soas to defile both Musalmans and Hindus. Atlength themutiny suddenly brokeout in al l its horrors atMirathonMay 10, 1857, and rapidly Spread throughout Hindustanand the neighbouring provinces. The chief eventswerethe following

(1) The outbreak of themutiny, and themassacres ofEuropeans by the sepoys atMirath, Delhi, Cawnpore, andelsewhere, inMay, June, and July 1857.

(2) The siege of Delhi (June to September) , and thestorming of that fortressby the British troops inSeptember1857.

(3) The defence of Lucknow by theEnglish residents,and itsfirstrelief by thetr0 0psunderHavelock and Outramin September 1857.

(4) The second relief of’

Lucknow by Sir Colin Camp .

308 CANNING— TIIE SEPOY MUTINY.

munition and stores. Every loyal person in India was,

therefore,glad to hear that its fortifications had been

taken by storm on September 14 ; and the wholecity was captured by September 20

,1857. Thus

was this great siege successfully carried through by theEnglish tr0 0ps, aided by some brave Sikh regiments, before a single soldier of themany thousands who werehastening fromEngland to uphold the British power hadset foot in India. The old King of Delhi was captured,brought to trial , and transported for life across the sea toBritish Burma, where he afterwards died . Two of hissons and a grandsonwere shot , andmost of the leaders ofthemutineerswere shot or hanged.

During al l this time a struggle,perhaps themost glo

rions of the whole war, had been going on at Lucknow,

where'

the Residency was defended by Sir Henry Lawrence, one of the best , most generous, and most heroicmen that India has ever known, with a small band ofEuropeans and loyal natives, against countless hosts ofrebels. Ou July 2 he was ki lled by the bursting of ashell

, but the defencewas stillmaintained with theutmostgallantry . At length General Havelock , after havingthrice crossed the Ganges

,and after having gained ia

numerable victories,forced his way through the b esiegq

ing force, and got into Lucknow on September 25 .

The chivalrous Sir James Outramhad been sent to takecommand of the relieving army, buthe generously refusedto supersede Havelock until the city had been relieved

,

and thusthe latter had the pleasure of himselfaccomplishing that for which hehad dared and endured somuch .

During theyear 1858 themutinywas gradually crushedin al l quarters, and the few remaining bands of mutineerswere hunted down and on July 8 , 1859, Lord Canning proclaimed peace

, and July 28 was fixed as a dayof thanksgiving toGod for the happy restoration of orderand quiet .

Twoshortwars, oneagainst Persiaand the other against

ABOLITION ormsr IND IA COMPANY’

S RULE. 309

China, had been waged during 1857 by British Indiantroops. TheEnglish armswere, of course, entirely successful in each case, and the wars were only oti importancebecause the conclusion of the one (that against Persia) ,and the fact that English troops were passing near Indiaon their way to the scene of the other war, enabled theGovernment of Calcutta to send early reinforcements tothe North -West .

2 . Abolitionof the East India Company’

s Rule.

One of the results of the troubles and dangers of theSepoy Mutiny was that Parliament determined that theBritish Empire in India should no longer b e left in the

hands of the East India Company, but that it should beplaced directly under the control ofHer Gracious MajestyQueenVictoria, and should be governed by a Viceroy (orrepresentative of the Queen) in India, and by a Secretary

ofState inEngland. In consequenceof this changeLordCanning became the first VIOEROY of British India

,and

every Governor- General now bears that higher title. A

full descriptionof the present systemof administration isgiven in the Introduction, 66 -74 .

CHAPTER XXXIV.

INDIA UNDER THE CROWN .

1 . RecentEvents. 2 . Lord Canning'

sViceroyalty. 3. LordElgin. 4. Sir Jenn Lawrence. 5 . TheEarl ofMayo. 6 . The

Earl of Northb rook, theEarl of Lytton, and theMarquisofRipon.

1 . Recent Events.— The events that have happened

in India since the abolitionof the ruleof the East IndiaCompany have notyetpassed into the domainof history.

In some cases the policy which dictated the action of theIndian Government is still a subject of dispute betweenrival authorities in others theacts of persons still living

310 INDIA UNDER THE CROWN .

formthe text of the record . Commentwould b e obviouslyout of place in a little work of this nature ; a bare enumeration of a few of themore important eventsmust heresuffice.

2 . Lord Canning’

sViceroyalty.— Lord Canning left

India in March 1862— to die only a few weeks after hereached hisnative land. During the threeyears’ interval ,between the final suppression of themutiny and the de

parture of the firstViceroy,most of the great changes

brought about by the recent convulsions, and by the transfer of the Government to the Crown, became accomplishedfacts.

The finances of the IndianEmpire, utterly disorganisedby the stormof themutiny, were at this time the objectof the greatest solicitude of the Government . Ah aecompl ished English financier

,named James Wilson

,was spe

cial ly sentoutfromEngland in1861 tobefinancialmemberof the Executive Council ; and by some very strong and

exceptional measures— including the imposition of an incometax

,which was very widely criticised

,and urgently

opposed by theGovernor ofMadras,Sir Charles Trevelyan

- Mr. Wilson contrived to overcome.the pressing financialdifficul ties of theEmpire. He died before the full effectsof hismeasureswere felt ; and was succeeded as FinanceMinister by Mr. Laing, with whosename is associated theestablishment of the Indian paper currency .

Amongst themany things done at this time that haveb sequently been severely criticisedmust b ementioned

the amal gamation of theEnglish and IndianEuropeanforces, by which the local European army was absorbed inthe general body of the Queen’

s forces.

The administration of justice was reformed by the

amalgamation of the Supreme Court (the Queen’

s

Court) , with the old Sudder Courts of the East IndiaCompany ; the Bench of the High Courts of Judicature thus formed being occupied partly by Anglo - Indiancivilians

,partly by Engl ish barristers, and partly by emi

3 12 INDIA UNDER THE CROWN .

practical theology which degeneratesamongst the ignorantinto wild fanaticism; and the latter spirit early showeditself intheir actionswhenthey sacked the sacred cities ofMecca and Medina

,and desecrated the centralmosques of

Islam. An Indian discipleofAbdul Wahab,named Say

yid Ahmad, with a smal l following of his own,preached

the doctrines of hismaster in India early in the presentcentury

,and roused the fanaticismof his converts by

teaching themthat Jihdd, or religiouswar for the extirpation of infidels

,was incumbent on al l trueMusalmans. In

course of time Patna became the secret centre of a considerab leWahabi organisation ; and far awayontheAfghanfrontier

,at Sitz‘dna, they established at this time a rebel

camp,regularly supplied with men andmoney fromPatna

and other centres within British territory . In passingsentenceonone of the rebels Sir Herbert Edwardes saidof theWahabis that instead of appealing to reason and

toconscience,likehisHindu fel low- countrymen inBengal

of theBrahma Samay, theWVahahi seeks his end in political revolution

,and madly plots against the Government

which probably saved the Muhammadans of India fromextinction

,and certainly brought in religious freedom.

’

In

1863 there wasa campaign against these Sittana fanatics,commonly called the Umb eyla campaign.

’

The Indiantroopsunder c eral Chamberlain burnt the headq uartersofthefanatics

,after a stout rcsistance, bothfromtheSittana

men and fromtheir Afghanneighbourswhoj oined them.

4. Sir JohnLawrence.— The successor to Lord Elgin

was chosen during the period when the Wahabi disturbauces were attracting much attention, and the choiceofthe Government fell onSir John Lawrence ; whose admireable administration of the Punjab during the mutiny hasalready beennoticed. Sir John becameViceroy in January1864 ; Sir WilliamDenison

,the Governor of Madras,

having according to rule wielded the Viceregal powerduring the interregnum.

One of the first eventsof the newViceroyalty was a

smJOHN LAWRENCE. 3 13

petty war with Bhoian. The Bhotiyas had long been inthe habitof raiding onBritish territory and ofkidnappingBritish subjects. Amissionsent into Bhotanby Lord Elginin 1863had produced nogood effects

,andhad beentreated

with indignity . So, on the advice of the BritishEnvoy ,Mr. Eden (subsequently Sir Ashley Eden, and LieutenantGovernor ofBengal) , a campaign was undertaken, whicheffectual ly taughtthese savages torespect the power of theIndianEmpire.

Themost important and themost warm]y debated partof Sir John Lawrence’s policy was that which concernedour relationswith Afghanistan. Theold Amir

,D ost Mu

hammad, died in 1863 ; and fromthat time til l the finalsuccess of his son Sher Al i in 1868 an internecine warfarewaswaged amongst the various sonsof the old D ost.

Until 1868 , Sir John Lawrence acted on the principle ofalways recognising the defacto ruler or rulers of thisturbulent country, but of giving themnohelp towardsthemaintenance of their power . In 1868

,however

,he so far

deviated fromthis policy as to give the successful combatant

, Sher Al i Khan, important assistance in the shapeofmoney and arms.

The introduction and improvement ofmunicipal selfgovernment, in the various provinces of India, receivedmuch attention fromSir John Lawrence ; as also did thetenant- rights of cultivators in Oudh and the Punjab .

Among the peaceful triumphs of Sir John Lawrence’

s

reign Sir Richard Temple’s administrationof the CentralProvinces from1862 to 1865 is

,perhaps

,most famous.

During those years the foundationsofthefutureprosperityof thatvast and hitherto little- known regionwere firmlylaid.

InBombay the enormous demand for raw cotton,pro

duced by the outbreak of theAmerican Civil War,caused

amarvel lous influx ofwealth in 1862— 63 and a few subse

quent years this in turn produced a wild speculativemania

, which resulted in amostdisastrous commercial crisis

3 14 INDIA UNDER THE CROWN .

in 1865— 66. The cottonexport tradehas, however, subsequently become established on a stable basis.

Sir John Lawrenceonhisretirement in 1868 was raisedto the peerage as Lord Lawrence.

5 . TheEarl ofMayo.— Atthe beginning of 1869 the

Earl of Mayo succeeded asViceroy of India. The appointment was at firstmuch criticised ; but very soon LordMayo becameone of themost popular Viceroys that hasever ruled

,and itmay now be confidently asserted that no

Englishmanhas ever beensowarmly beloved by theNativePrinces as a class.

He beganwell , by a success inhis dealing with the difficultAfghan question. The Amir Sher Al i Khan camedown to visit himatAmbala (Umballa) , was entertainedina princelymanner

,and ever after was undoubtedly the

warmpersonal friend of Lord Mayo . The strong point ofthisViceroyalty was the introduction of a true Spirit offriendship into the relations between the Indian Empireand its Feudatory Princes and

,amongst other lasting

pledges of this spiritmay b ementioned the establishmentby Lord Mayo of an ‘IndianEton’

- a college atAjmer forthe higher education of the scions of the princely familiesof Rajputana. And therewas alsomuch progress in theinternal administration of British India the financeswere

(by some stringent measures, not adopted withoutmuchadverse criticism) puton a satisfactory footing ; a specialD epartment of the State (recently incorporated with theother older departments) wasestablished for theencouragement of agriculture and commerce ; and therewas a verywideextension of railways, telegraphs,metalled roads, andworks of irrigation.

The tragical end of Lord Mayo ’s Viceroyalty is .wel l

known; this beloved ruler was assassinated by a fanaticalconvict

,whohad been transported formurder, at Port

Blair,intheAndaman Isles, in February 1872 .

6. TheEarl of Northbrook, theEarl of Lytton, and

theMarquisofRipoa — After a short interregnum(during

316 INDIA UNDER 1 1mCROWN.

India, to promoteworksof public utility and improvement,and to ‘

administer its Government for the benefit of al lOur subjects resident therein. Intheir prosperity will b eOur strength

,in their contentment Our security

,and in

their gratitude Our best reward. Andmay the God of al lpower grant to Us and to those in authority under Us,strength to carry outthese Our wishes for thc good ofOur people.

’

IN D E X .

ABD

ABDUL -Hanw BADAON I, HISTORIAN ,

1 17Abdul “Tahah, 311Abol itionof Doub l e Government ihBengal , 264

Abu, Mount, 8Abul Fazl , IndianHistorian, 1 16Acacia Arabian 54

Accountants, Vil lagezandD istrict, 82Adam’

sBridge, 11Adam’

sPeak,12 , 38

Adi l Shahi , Dynasty of Bijapur,

197Adisura, King. 176

AfghanWar, 293

Afghanistan D ivisions in EarlyTimes, 41

Afghans, Invasionsofthe, 227named Pathans, 36

Afridis, the, 36Afzal Khan, Murderof, 230Agra, 6 , 20, 2 1Agricultureand Land Tenures, 80of India, 55StateEncouragementof, 59

AhalyaB61, Queen, 239

AhmadShah Abdal i, 237Invasionof, 226

Ahmadnagar, 28Aj itSingh

,224

Akbar, Early Lifeof, 206India‘ intheTimeof, (Map) , 207Conquestsof, 209and theRajputs, 2 10Conquestof Bengal , 2 12hisWarswith Chand Bib i , 213his Character and Administration, 213

Akb ar, Khan, 294Akmahal . SeeRajmahalAkyab , 14, 39

Ala-ud- dinKhilJi, 190Al buquerque, Portuguese Viceroy ,245

Alexander the Great, Invasion of,162

Al igarh, 22

AliVirdi , Khan, 225, 254Al iwal , 24Battle, 299

Al lahabad,20

Altamash, Slave- kingz , 18 8

Amalgamation’

of Engl ish andIndianForces

,310

Amarkot, 28Ambalah, 24Ambur, Battleof, 250Amherst, Lord 286

Amir Khusrau, Poet, 1 18Amir ofKabul

, 36

Amritsar, 24AncientHinduD iv isions

,41

or Popular D ivisions ofIndia,

40

Andamanand Nicohar Islands,12

Islands, 39Andamanese, the, 40Andhra, 174Andhra, KingdomofTchingana, 41Anga, 41Angel ly trees, 55Annexation of the Carnatic andN .W. Provinces, 280

Annual RangeofTemperature, 73

Anogeissus, 54Ansari , Poet, 1 18

3 18 INDEX.

Antelopes, 61Antimony , 54Ants, 63

Anuradhapura, 37Anwar-uddin

,249

AppaSaheb , 285

Apricots, 57Arab icLanguage, 44Arakan, 12 , 39Yoma, 12

Araval iMts. ,the

,8

Arcot, 32

theDefenceof, by Cl ive,Area of India, 1Argaon, 3 1Arikera, Battleof, 274

Arkanese, the, 39Arrah, 18Arrowroot, 59ArtManufactures, 87Arums, 56Aryabhatta,

theAstronomer, 1 1 1AryanInvasion,

140

Originof theHindus, 137Races, 46

Asirgarh, 30Assai , 31Battleof, 242

Assam, 7, 16

Cl imateof, 77Lower, theAncientKamrup, 41Upper

, theAncientMadra, 41

Aswamedha. or HorseSacrifice, 151AtgahKhan, 206Auckland, Lord, 291

Audh. SeeAyodhya'

t

Aurangabad, 31

Aurangzeb , 2 19

Warsof Stray with, 230

Ayodhya. 2 1

BABAR, Mughul Emperor,'

202

Babul (Acacia Arabica), 54Backwaters

,14

BactrianGreeks, the, 166Badaon. 22

Baghelkhand, 7, 29

Plateau,VolcanicRock in, 52

Bagri , 41BahadfirShah (Shah Alam 22 1

BEN

Bahmani Dynasty , 196Bai l l ie, Colonel , 271BairamKhan, 208Baird, General , 279

Baj i Rae, the Second Peshwa, 23Baj i R510 II.

, last of the Peshwa241

Baksar, Battle of, 262. See al

BuxarBalaghat

,3 1

Balaj i BajiRae, theThird Peshw236

— Viswanath, the’

FirstPeshwa, 2Bal ban, Slave- king, 189Bal lala Sena

,King , 176

Balochistan, 5Bamboos, 56Bangs, 19 , 41Bangalore, 10, 33Bangor, 6BankimChandraChattery , Autho119

Bannu, 5Banyan- tree, 59Barar

,9 , 30

theancientVidarbha, 41Governmentof

,98

Barats the, 30, 98Bari Doab , the, 23Barid Shahl Dynasty ofBidar, 197Barlow, Sir George. 276, 28 1Baroch, 8Baroch, Portof, 13Baroda, 28Barwel l , Mr 265

Bassein, 28Treaty of

,241

Bats,61

Bayley,Mr. Butterworth, 288 , 289

Beans,

Bear, 61

Bednor, 33

BegumsofOudh, 267Benares, 20, 21GiventotheEngl ish, 267

Bench of High Courtsof Judicaturformed, 310

Bengal , Akbar’s Conquestof, 212Civi l Service, 99Conquestof, by Cl ive, 256HinduKings of, 176

320 INDEX.

CACHAR, 7, 16Cal icut, 13 , 33Calcutta, 7, 17Portof, 13Cl imateof, 77

— Presidency Col lege, 304Campb el l , Sir Archibal d. 2 87

Sir Col in, and Second Rel ief ofLucknow, 306

Canarese Language, 49Cannanore, 33Canning, Lord, 305FirstViceroy, 809Viceroyal ty of, 310

Caper (CapparisAplqfllu) , 54Carey, Missionary , 135

Carnac,Colonel , 261

Carnatic, the, 1 1 , 42 , 49Annexationof the, 280Wars inthe. 249

Cartier, Mn, Governor of Bengal ,264

Caste Observances, 127Hindu, 1 12SystemofMann, 153

Cattle, 8 1

Cauvery R. , the. SecKzu'

criR.

Cawnpore, 2 1Cedar, Himalayan, 58Centipedes, 63Central India.Agency, 070, 28

Central Provinces, 1110 , 28

Cl imateof, 78— Systemof Land Tenure, 83Ceylon, 2 , 1 1 ,

37

NativenameSinghala, 37ChaitSingh, 267Chaj Both, the, 23Chambal R. , the, 7Chanar, 2 1Gha'md Bib i , Sul tana of Ahmadnagar, 2 13

ChandaSaheb , 250, 251Chandernagar, 17, 37, 248Chandernagore. See ChandernagarChandwa, 22Chatgaon. SeeChittagongChausa, 18Chenab R , the, 6Cherrapunji , 16Cherry , Mr 276, 277

CON

Cheeta, or Hunting Leopard, 61Chief- Commissioner, PowersofChilianwal lah, 24— Battleof, 164, 302

Chi lka Lake, 19China- Grass, 60

ChinesePi lgrims, 172Chingalpat, 32Chittagong , 14, 18Chitu, 285Chola Dynasty, 176ChristianM issions, 132Christiansof India, 134

ChutiaNagpur, 9 , 18Plateaux , Geology of,

Cinchona, 33

Cultivationof, 60Cinnamon. 37, 59

Circars,Northern, 42

Civi l Serviceof India, 98Cl imate, 65oftheHi l ls, 73

Cl imaticResults, 75Ol i veand theDefenceofArcot, 25hismanyVictories, 252recaptures Calcutta, 256and the Conquest of Benga257and theBattleofPlassey , 258

— Governor of Bengal , 260hisReforms, 265 ; Death, ib.

Coal , Importationof, 85Mines, 53

Coast L ineof India, 13Cobal t, 54

Cocoa- nutPalm, 56Cochin, 13, 32

Cockroaches, 63CocoIslands, the, 12Coffee, 37, 57, 8 1

Coimbatore, 10Coir for Matting , 56Conjeveram(Kanchipuram), 42ColdWeather, Temperaturedurin71

ColeroonR , the. SeeKalaruuR.

Colombo. 13, 37Comb ermere, Lord, 28 7Commerce, Foreign, 84Comorin, Cape, 8ConjeveramorKaichipuram, 32

INDEX .

CON

Conquest of India by the AryanHindus

,137

ConventionofWargam,240

Coorg, 33Conquestof, 289

Coote, Colonel Eyre, 253 , 258 , 272Copper M ines, 54Cornwal l is, Lord, 273 , 28 1Coromandel Coast, 8Cossimbazar, SeeKasimbazarCottonCul tivation, 60

Exports, 57, 8 1Crane, 61

Crocodi les, 62

Crow,61

Cucumbers, 58Cuddalore, 32Customsand ExciseDuties, 107ob soleteor prohib ited, 130

Cutch (Kach), 6Cuttack, 9, 19Cyclones, 72

DACCA, 18

Dalhousie, Earl of, 301gocial Progressunder, 304

Daman, 36Dardistan, 36Dards, the,

36 named Kafirs, ib .

Daij ilmg, 20Darsanas, theSix ,

159

Date-Palm, 56

Daulagiri, Mt., 35

D aulatKhanL od i , 195DaulatRaoSindia, 242Daulatabad. 3 1

Deccanand Hindustan, the, 2Plateau, 8Conquestsof the, 191Geology of the, 52HinduKingsof the, 176

Deer, 61

Deitiesmanifested in the PhenomenaofNature, 11 1Indra, God of the Sky; Agni ,Godof Fire ; Varuna, God oftheFirmament and Rain; Savitri ,Surya, Mitra, God of the Sun;Varya,

the Air ; Maruts, theWinds; Ushas, the Dawn; Aswins, 1 1 1

32 1

Delhi , 6, 24Battleof, 242

Siegeof, 306SlaveKingsof, 18 8

Deluge, Story ofthe, 122Denison, SirWi l l iam, 312

Deodar, HimalayanCedar, 55, 58Deogiri, or Deogharh; nowcal ledDaulatabad, 31

Departmental Services, 103SystemofGovernment, 94craj dt, the, 23cv Raja, 34eva Pal Deva, 176

Devikottah, takenbyCl ive, 251Dewal Devi , Princess, 192Dhaka. SeeDecca

DharmaRaja, 34Dharma-Sastras, Writings suppl ementary totheVedas, 1 11

Dhul ip Singh, 298Dihong R. , the, 4D istrict, the Indian, 101D iu, 37iurnal RangeofTemperature, 73ivisionsofIndia, AncientorPopular

,40, 41

D iwani , Grantofthe, 262Doab ,

40

Doabs, the, 6Dodab etta, Mt., 10

DostMuhammad. 292

Doub leBatta,’

Abol itionof, 289Doub le Government abol ished in

Bengal , 264Downfal l oftheMahrattaPower,243Dramatists and theirWorks, 1 121 14

Drav ida, 42 , 48DravidianRace, 48Duars, the, 34Duck , Wild, 61Dupleix ,

French Statesman, 248 ,Dupl eix - fath- abad (Town of Vic

tory), 251 destroyed, 252DutchinIndia, 246EAST IND IA COMPANY, Engl ish ,

founded, 246 abol ished, 305, 309French, founded, 248

East IndianRai lway,’ 89

322

EAS

EasternBengal Rai lway,’ 89EasternGhats, the, 9EasternMaritimeFringe, the, 1 1Eden, Mr. (after wardsSir Ashley),313

Edinburgh, H.R.H the Duke of,visits India, 3 15

Education Department, 104Edwardes, Lieutenant, 302El lenborough, Lord, 295 ; recal led,297

Elephants, 61Elgin, Lord, 311Ellora, 31Empressof India, Proclamationof,315

Engineer Service, 104Engl ish Expeditions toIndia, 246Settlements, 246

Ep ics, HistoricTeachingsofthe, 148Ethics, Worksou, 1 14EuropeanSettlements inIndia, 244Everest, Mt 4, 35

EvergreenVegetation, 55Excise and Customs, 107Extent, 1

ExecutiveCouncil , Power of, 94Exports, Nature and Valueof, 84

FABLES and Fab lers, 114Faizabad, 2 1Faizi, celebrated Author, 1 16Falcons, 62Famineof, 1860- 61 , 31 1 ; of1873- 74,3 15 ; of 1877- 78 , 3 15

Farrukh Siyar, 222FathpurSikri , 2 1Ferdausi, Poet, 1 18Ferns

,58

Ferozeshah. SeeFiruzshahr.

Feudatory States, 96ForeignCommerce, 84ForeignEuropeanSettlements, 36ForestDepartment, 105Forests, 54Fossi ls, 52FortSt. David, 32Fox , 6 1Fimts elastica, 55Fig - trees, 58Fi lagreeWork, 87

INDEX.

(N N

FinanceDepartment, 105Firishtah, IndianHistorian, 1 16Firfiz Shah , 193Firfiz Shah Canal , 921?iruzabad, 2 1

Firuzpur, 24Firuzshahr

, 24 ; battle, 299

Fish, 63Fisheries, 8 8Francis,Mr. (afterwardsSirPhi l ip)265

French Power in India demol ished252

FrenchSettlements, 248Fruit, 57Ful larton, Colonel , 272

GAIKWAR, 236

Gal le, 13

Gandak R. , the, 7, 34Ganga,made fromHemp, 57GangesR the

, 6

GangeticDynasty, 177GapofCoimbatore. SecPalghatPasGarhwz

'

il 22

GaroHi l ls, 7Gajpati, or LordofElephants, 177Gauhati , 16Gaur

,17

Gautama. SecBuddhaGawilgarh, 31

Gaya,18

Geese, 62

Genealogical Tab leof theHouse 0

Timur, 203ofSavay , 233

theMahratta Peshwas, 234Geological Character of HimalaymandSulaimanMountainZ ones, 5

Geological Survey,106

Geology ofIndia. 5 1

Ghaz i Beg Tughlak, General , 193SultanofDelhi . 771.

Ghaznavi Dynasty, 178 ;Decl ineamFal l of, 183 '

Ghor, 41Ghl

'

l rkz'

ls, the. 34

inNepal , 28 4GhulamKadir. 227Gi lbert

,General , 302

Ginger, 59

324 INDEX.

IBR

IbrahimLod i , 196Ilduz , 187Ilichpur, 31Il lustrious garrison ofJelalabad,295

Imad Shahi , KingdomofBarar, 197Impey, Sir El ijah, 266Imports, Natureand Valueof, 84Imam, Rent- free Lands, 8 3Incarnation, 122IncomeTax , Impositionof, 310India intheTime of Akbar (Map) ,207under theCrown, 309

IndianCivil Service, 98- D istrict, 101Stafl

‘

Corps, 106Historians, 1 16Appl icationoftheName, 42

India- rub ber- tree, 59Indigo, 57, 8 1 Exportof, 85IndusVal ley Railway, 90Industries, Miscel laneous, 87InvadersofIndia, 139Invasionby Seleukus, 166ofthe Punjab by the Persians,162

Indore, 29Infanticide, 13 1Inland Tradeand Communications,85

Insects, 63

Invasion of Alexander the Great,162

InvasionsoftheMuhammadans, 177Ipecacuanha Cul tivation, 60IrawadiR. , the, 12IronManufacture, 53Irrigation, 90, 92Irul - trees, 55Ishwara Chandra Vidyasagara,Author, 1 19

Islamabad. SeeChittagongIslam,

the fol lowersof, 126Isothermal Chart for May, 70, forJanuar 71

Iswara andra Gupta, Poet, 119

JACK DOAB, the, 23Jackal , 61Jafl

'

na, 38

KAN

Jagannath. SeePuriJagatSeth

,257

Jahandar Shah, 221Jahangir

,246

Jahangirnagar. SeeDacca

Jainism,125, 172

JahFruit, 57Jalalpur, 24Jalandhar

,24

Jalal -md- din, 190

Jamalpur, 18James I. of England, Embasrfrom, toEmperor Jahangir, 2 17

Jamnah(Jamuna) R , the, 6Jaunpur, 2 1 Kingdomof, 199Jayadeva, Poet, 1 14

JeswantSingh ,224

Jewel l eryManufacture, 87Jhansi , 20, 22Jharkhand, 18 , 40JhelamR., the, 6Jhelam, Battleof, 164Jhind, 23Jhund (Prosopisspicigera), 54Ji JiAnagah, 206

Judge, theOfficeof, 100Jungle fowl , 62Tribes

,50

Jute, 57, 8 1

KABUL , 4 , 5, 36 ; Amir of, 3

Conquestof, 295Kafirs, 36Kaikobad, Emperor, 189KalarunR. , the, 10KailosMountain, 4Kala

'

tt, 5 , 36

Kal idasa, SanskritDramatist, 1 12his Dramas Sakuntala ’

:1

Vikramorvasi, ’ 1 14Kamrup (Lower Assam), 19, 41Kamthi, 30KanaujiD ialect, 46Kanara, 28 , 32 , 33KanchinjingaMountain, 35Kanchipuram, 42Kandahar, 5Kanafij, 22KandhLanguage, 50Kandy, 38Kamtha, the, 19

INDEX. 325

Kangrah, 23, 24Kanhpur. SeeCawnpore.

Kanungoes, D istrictAccountants, 8 2Kapi la, 41Kapilavastu, 41Kapurthala, 23Karachi , 13 , 28KarensTri be, 39Kasimbazar, 17Kashi , 41. SeeBenares

Kashmir, 4 , 23 , 34, 35

Katak. SeeCuttackKathlwar, 27, 37

theAncientSaurashtraor Sorath,41

Kaveri River, the, 10, 1 1Keane, Sir John, 293Kerala, 33Kesari , or L ion- kings, 177d dar, 6, 51

Khai bar Pass, the, 5, 296KhanofKhelat, 36Khan Z aman, 209Khandesh, 9 , 27Kharki

,28 , 31

Khasi Hi l ls, 7, 16 ; language. 50

Khelat. SeeKalatKhi ljior Ghi lj i , 41Kings of Delhi , and the ConquestoftheDeccan, 190Dynasty , 191

KhizaKhan, 192Khusrau, 193Kiernander, Missionary, 135Kishnaghur, 17Kistna. SeeKrishnaR.

Kite, 61KochBihar, 20Koel . SeeAl igarhKol . SeeAl igarhKolarianLanguage, 50Konkan, the, 10, 27, 42KosalaorMahakosala, 19 , 41Kosi R. , the, 7, 34Kota Language, 49Khrishna Das, 255KrishnaM isra

,Dramatist, 114

KrishnaR. , the, 10, 1 1 , 31Rubachah, 187KudaguLanguage, 49Kul bargahor Gulb argah, 3 1

Kumaon, 2 1 , 22Kunur, 33Kuram, 5

Kurdla, Battleof, 241Kurukshetra, 24Kuth-uddin

, General , 187Kutb - Shahi

,DynastyofGolkondah

197

LABOURDONNAIS, General , 249Ladakh, 35Lahore, 6, 24Lake, Lord, 242

Lakhnauti . SeeGaurLal ly, Count, 253Land Tenures, 80, 8 2Landaur, 22Language, Map of India showingtheD istributionof, 43oftheMuhammadanAristocracy,44

Languagesof India, 42Arab ic, 44Balochi , 48Bengal i , 47Brahui , 48Canarese, 49Cingal ese, 48Gond, 50Gujarati , 47Hindi , 46Hindustani , 44Kanaugi, 46Kandh, 50Khasi , 50Kota, 49Kolarian, 50Maithil i , 46Malabar, 49

Malayalam,49

Marathi , 47Nagari , 46Nepal i , 48Oraon, 50

Pashtu, 48Persian, 44Punjab i , 47Rajmahal i, 50Sanskrit, 46Sindhi , 47Tami l , 48 , 49

326 INDEX.

LAN MAH

Languagesof India (coat)Teluga, 49Thibeto—Burman, 50Toda, 49

Urdu, 45Uriya, 47

Laing , ML , FinanceM inister, 310Lashkar, the, ofGwal ior, 29Laswari , Battleof, 242LawCourts, Reforminthe 276

Lawrence, Sir John (afterwardsLord) , 303, 312Lawrence

, SirHenry, 303 ;ki l led, 308Lead , 54

Leeches, 63Legends of theMahabharata, 142oftheRamayana, 145

LegislativeCouncil , Powerofthe, 94Lentil s, 58 , 80Leopard, Black and Hunting , 61Lepchas, the, 34Lichi Fruit, 57Lieutenant- Governorship ofBengal ,97L imeFruit, 57L ighthouses, 93Linseed, 8 1L ion, 61L iterature, 1 10rel igious

,oftheHindus, 1 10

theVedas,1 1 1

theDharma- Sastras, 1 11EpicPoets, 1 12SanskritDramatists, 1 12- 114

Nithikatha, or Fab lesandWorks

onEthics, 1 14SanskritProseWorks, 1 15SacredWritingsof theSouthernBuddhists, 1 15Muhammadan Literature

,115

IndianHistorians,1 16

Poets, 1 18

ModernVernacular, 1 18Bengal i , 1 18Hindi, 1 19Sanskrit, 1 19Rel igious, 1 19Educational , 1 19Fiction,

1 19

Periodical and Newspaper, 119Literature

,Law, 1 19

Lizards, 62Lytton, L ord , 315Local Governments

, 95 , 108

Locusts, 63Lodi Dynasty , 195Lodiaua, 24

Lohara, Hematite at, 53LotusFlower, 59Lucknow, 2 1

Defence of, 306First Rel ief by Havelock an

Outram, 306

SecondRel ief bySirCol inCampbel l , 306

Luhawar. See LahoreLuni R. , the, 6, 7Lushai , 7

MACAULAY, Mr. (afterwards Lord)290

Machhiwara, 24Battl eof, 209

Macnaghten, Mr. (afterwards Si

Wi l l iam), 293Macpherson, Sir John, 273Madhaya Rao, 32MadhuRae, fourth Peshwa, 238Narayana, sixth Peshwa, 240

Madra (Bhotan and Upper Assam)41

Madras Presidency, 31Area and Population

,32

Civi l Serv ice, 99Governorship of, 96Madras, Captureof, 249Presidency, Climateof, 79Rai lway, 89States attached to, 32SystemofLand Tenure in, 83Treaty of, 27]

Madura, 33Magadha, 19 , 41 , 169Magha, EpicPoet, 1 12Magistrates, 100MagneticIronOres, 53MahabatKhan, 2 18Mahabharata, 176Legendsofthe, 142

Mahanadi , R the, 9 , 11Maharz

'

ljaAdhirfij , 175Maharajpur, 29

328 INDEX.

MON

Monghyr. SeeMangerMonkeys , 61Monsoons , 65Moodkee. SeeMudkiMoormen, 37Mosqui toes , 63Moths , 63Moulmein, 14, 39MirKéSIm, 260 , 261

Muatimad Khan, Hi storian, 117Mubérak, 192Mudki , 24— Battleof, 299Mughul Conquest of theDeccan,215Empire, Decl ineand Fall of, 221

Mughals , the, 44Muhammad Al i. 250Bakhtyz

'

u' Khilj i . 187BinSé leh

'

,Historian, 1 18Ghow , 184

Khilj i II. , 201

Shéh, 193, 222MuhammadanConquest, Completionof, 186

— Early Invas ions , 177D iv i sions, 40L i terature, 1 15

Muhammadans and Hindus , Dist inctionbetween, 44

Multén, 24, 302Munger, 18Municipal i t ies, Growth of, 108Munro , Sir Hector, 271Munsifs,

’102

Murshidabad , 7, 17Musalméns, 126Mus i R. , 3 1

Mussoorie. SacMasuriMutiny , Sepoy , 305 - 307Muttra. SeeMathuréMuzafihr Jang, 250

Mysore, 8 . 33

and Coorg, Settlement of. 289Plateaux , Geologyof, 52War. First , 270Second , 271Third , 273 , 275Fourth , 278

NABHA, 23

Nadiya. SecNuddca

Nédir Shah , Invasionof, 225Négé Hi lls, 7Négari, 46, 47Nagarko t , 24Négpur, 9 , 29 , 30Annexed, 303

Naini Ta] , 22Nalagarh , 23N z

'mé, Farnavis, 239 , 241, 274Nandakimfxr, 266Nandidrug, 33

Napier,Lord

, 315

Napier , Sir Charles, 296Narbadé and Sager Terri tory, 29Narbadé . theRiver, 2 , 8

Néréyana Réo, the Fifth Peshwa239

Nawz'

zbs of Bengal , 253Naz ib-ud- daulah, 237, 261Neemuch. SecN imachNepél , 4, 2 1 , 34

Area. and Population, 34War, 283

Newspapers , 1 19N icholson,

John, and the Fal lDelhi, 307

N icobar Islands , 39N ikaia, 24N ikobareans, the, 40N i lgiri Hills , the, 10, 1 1, 33N imach , 29Nitikutha

'

x, 0r Fables, 1 14

Nizam-ud—din,189

Nizém-ul -Mulk , 224N izam-ud- dinAhmad , Historian,“Nizz

'

xmShéhi, K ingdomof Ahnnunager, 197

Non- AryfmRaces, 48Northbrook , Lord , 315North -EasternValleys , the, 7NorthernCi rcars , 42‘Northern Punjab State Railwa89

North - VVestFrontier States , 35

Provinces ; the, 20Cl imateof, 78Annexation of the, 280Systemof Land Tenure, 83

Nott, General, 295Nudden. 17Nfir Jaha

'm, Emprvss, 2 16

INDEX.

NuwaraEl iya,12, 38

Sani tarium, 38

OAK- TREE, 58

Ochterlony, General , 284Odra orAtkala (Orissa), 41OpiumPoppy , 58 , 8 1Revenue, 107

Oranges,57

GreenLanguage, 50Orchids, 58Orissa, 18 , 254Oudh , 20

annexed , 303Cl imateof, 78Systemof Land Tenure ih, 83

Oudh andRohilkhand Railway, 89Outram, Major (afterwards Sir

James), 297and Rel ief of Lucknow, 306, 308

Oxen, Wi ld, 61

PADMAR. , the, 7PagahnBattle, 287P51 Pr inces , 176Palk

’

sStraits, 1 1Palar R. ,

the,10

,1 1

Pal éei. SeePlasseyPz

'

tlghétPass , 10, 33P511 L i terature, 1 10Pal ibotb ra. SeePatnaPalms, 56Palmyra Palm, 56

Pamban Channel , 1 1Panchéla (Rohilkhand), 41Panchatantra, Famous Fable, 1 14Pémdya Dynas ty , 176Paniér, 2 9

Pénipat, 24

First Battleof, 196Second Battleof

,209

Third Battleof, 237Panini theGrammarian, 1 1 1

Panniér Battle, 297Panther, 61Paradis, General , 249Parisnéth, 18Parrot , 61Pars is , the, 44, 127Parvatiya (Hi l l Language), 35Pétal iputra. SecPatna,

329

Patiél é , 23Pathéns, 36, 44PatkoiRange, the, 12Patna, 18 : Battle Of, 260 ; SecondBattle, 261

Patnidérs, Leaseholders , 82Patwéris, Vi llageAccountants , 82Peaches , 57Pea- fowl, 62Pearl Fishery , 38Pedrotal lagal la, Mt. , 1 1

Pegu, 12 , 39 ; annexed, 303Yoma

,12

Penal Code introduced, 3 1 1Pepper, 33, 59Peradeniya, 38Period ical L i terature, 1 19PersianLanguage, 44Pers ians invadethePunjab , 162Peshz

'

twar, 5 , 23

Peshwés, the,Petroleum, 53

PewérKohtal , the, 5Pheasant s , 62Phi losophy, HinduSchools of, 156PhulkianStates , the, 23Phys ical D ivi sions of Northern India, 3

of South Ind ia, 8Pindz

'

triWar, 285

P ine- apples, 57

P ine- trees (PimasKhasiana) , 55Pipel

— trees , 59Plantain- frui t

, 56

Plants , knownSpecies , 55Plassey, 17Battleof, 258

Poets,112

Pol iceForce, 102 , 105Pol i tical Department , Importanceof, 103

Pol itical D ivis ions of India, 15Pol l ilor, Battle, 272Pollock, General , 294, 296Pomegranate, 57Pond icherry , 32 , 37, 248 , 250Ponnar R.

, the, 10, 1 1

Poon Spars, 55

Poona, 28

Poplar , 54Porpoise, 61

330 INDEX.

PortBlair, 40Porto Novo, 32Battle, 272

PortuguesePossessions , 245Porus , Pr ince, 165Postal Department

,106

Pottery Manufacture,86

Presidmw'ies, 15

Pres idency, Use of theTerm,247

Press,L iberty of the

,290

Proclamat ion of Empress of Ind ia,

3 15

of November 1858 , 315PromptsSpim

‘

gcm, 54

Protestants of Ceylon,134

Prithvi Réjé , 183Publ i c InstructionDepartment , 104,108

Works Department,104

Rai lwaysand Telegraphs , 88Irrigation

,90

Reads , Harbours , and L ighthouses

,93

P{mz't. SeePoonaPunjab

,the, 22

Annexed, 303

Cl imate of the, 76

invaded by Pers ians , 162Systemof Land Tenure

,8 3

Punjabi Language, 47Puranas, the, 177Purandhar

, theAgreement of, 231Puri , 19Purm'zR. , the, 8

QUE'

I‘TA. 5 , 36

RACES OF IND IAAborigines

,45

Aryan,46

Burghers, 37Drav idiane

, 48

Foreigners,42

Hil l and Jungle Tribes, 50Moormen, 37Muhammadans of Foreign De

scent , 44Non-Aryan, 48

that have ocen ied theCountry since the

Ki3mmofHistory

,45

RIC

Races of IndiaSayyids, 44Slkhs

,124

, 223

Singhalese, 37Tamils , 37

Races and Languages of India,

Rafi-ud-darajz'

tt,222

Rafi-ud- dauleh,222

RaghujiBhonsle, 242Rai lway, First Ind ian, 304

Rai lways of India, 89

Rain, Temperature during , 70Rainfall, 67; Chart, 69 ; of Hilstations

, 74Rai sin

,29

Baja't, Jaichand, 185 , 18 6

Raidurl dbh, 257Rajasuya, a Coronat ion Feas t, &c151

Rajmahél iLanguage, 50Réjputz

'ma, 6

Rai lway, 90

Réjputs, the, 199Ri se of the

,173

t m‘

c

'

t’

sBridge, 1 1Ramayana, Legends of the, 145RémmohanR111

,290

Rémpur, 22Rz

'mé Sangé , 200Raneegunge. SecRéuiganjRangoon, 14, 39

Réngun. SecRangoonRéuigani, 18Réniganj , Coal at, 53RanytSingh , 28 2 L ion of thPunjab

,

’293

RéptiR the, 7, 34Réré

,19

,41

Rats , 61RéviR. , the, 6Rawalpindi

,24

Raziéh(Empress), 18 8Rechm't Dozib

,the

,23

Reforms inthe Law Courts,276

Rel igious L i terature of theB indh,

1 10

Rel igious and Customs,120- 136

Rewah , 29Rhinoceros

,61

Rhododendrons , 58Rice

, 55, 80

332 INDEX .

Simla, 17, 24

Sind , 6

Conquest of, 296Systemof Land Tenure ih, 83

Sind Punjab and Delhi ’ Railway,89 , 90

Sindhi Language, 47Sindhsz

'

lgur D0 1'

1b . the, 23Sindia, 29, 235Singhala, NativeNameof Ceylon, 37Singhéli Language, 37Singhalese, Natives of Ceylon, 37Sirmur, 23Sitabaldi, 30‘Si tting dba/rna, ’ 132Sivadés, RéoBhéo, 237Sivaj-ud- dap lah, 254Sivaj i, Genealogical Tableof, 233his Prosperi ty , Character, and

Death , 232Ri se of, 229 murders Afzalt m

, 230

wars wi thAurangzeb,230

Sivfil ik Hill s, famous for FossilMammal ia, 52

Siwé lik Range,the,

Slave- kings of Delhi,188

Sleeman, Major , 290Smi th , Colonel , 270Smi th

,Sir Harry

,299

Smriti , or Tradi tion, Rel igious L i terature of theHindfis, 1 10

Snakes , 62Snipe

,62 ‘

Sobraon, Battle, 299Social Progress under Lord Dal

housie,304

Reforms under Lord Hardingf’ ,300

Sol ingurhBattle, 272Soonderbund. SacSundarbanSorghum, Grass , 56Soma- Deva, Poet, 1 12SouR . the, 7Sources ofEarly IndianHistory , 137South Indian Rai lway , 90SouthernPonnar R. , the 10Spiders

, 63

Sri-Harsh - l , EpicPoet , 1 12Srinagar

, 35

Srira'

tmpnr. S00 Sommpore

TEM

Srirangam, 33 Battleof, 252Stuti , or Revelat ion, Rel igious Lit‘mture of theHindfis, 110

StaffCorps, 106State Encouragement of Agricuture, 59Ofiicers, 94, 95

Rai lways , 90Storms and Storm“faves , 71Strachey , Sir John, 315Stuart , General , 278Sfibahof Lahore, 41 of Kz

'

tbul,4

Subsidiary System,277

Sudraka, K ing, Dramati st, 1 13Sugar-cane, 568 111111a Mountain- zone, Geologic.

character of, 51SuleménMountains , the, 5Sul tanBébar, His torian, 117Sunérgéon, 18Sundarban, 19S1

'

1rat , 37; Port of, 13, 28Sutlej R. , the, 4 , 6Swayamvara, or Publ ic Choice ofHusband , 150

Swe'

ztValley, 36

TAKAVI, Advances of the State, 60Takht- i-Sulemdn, the, 5Talaings , the, 39Tal ipot Palm,

56

Tz'

tlupdz'

w, Landholder , 82Tamari sk

, 54

Témil Language, 48Tamil s , 37TmlgabhadraR. , the, 10Tanjore, 1 1 , 32Taum, 28

TaptiR , the, 2 , 8

Tarai, the, 4, 35 , 5 1

Tarantula Spider , 63Tatta, 28

Taxat ion, 107Taxila

,24, 41

Tea, 33 , 57, 60, 8 1

Teak - trees,33

, 54, 55, 58

Teignmouth , Lord , 276Telegraph Department. 106Tel iégarhi, 18Teluga. Language, 49Temperature

,65 ; Hot“feather,

INDEX.

TEM

Temperature Annual and DiurnalRangeof, 73duri ng theRains , 70during the ColdWeather , 71

Temple, Sir Richard, 307, 313Tenasserim, 12 , 39Thags, the, 132Thénz

'

L. SeeTanna

Théneswar, 24Théneswar, Battleof, 185mar, the, 3 , 6|Thibet (L i ttle), 35Thib eto- BurmanLanguage, 50Thrushes , 62Thuggee, Suppress ionof, 290Tiger , 61Tiger -cat, 61Timfir, Genealogical Table of theHouseof, 203Invades Hindustan, 194invasion of

,193

Tin, 54

Tiparah, 7, 20Tippu, 33of Mysore, 272, 273

Tiréori, 24

Tistz’

z R the, 7Tobacco Cul tivat ion, 60Toda Language, 49Teddy fromthePalmyra.Palm, 56Trade, 1n]and, 85 ; Routes, 8 8Travancore, 10, 32 the AncientMalakuta, 41

Treaty of Bassein, 241of 8 2111351, 240ofYendabfl , 287

Trevelyan, Sir Charles , 310Trichinépal l i, 32Trincomalee, 13Tughlak Dynasty, the Invasion ofTimfir,

193

Tulsei B51, 285TuluLanguage, 49

Umia, Battleof, 236Ujjéin, 29Uméchand, 257Umballa. SeeAmhélahUmritsur. SeeAmri tsarUrduLanguage, 45Uriyé Language, 47

WAR

Utakmand,33

Utb i,Hi storian

, 1 17

VAIS—AL I,41

Val labhi,41

Vansi ttart , Mr 260

Varendra, 19 , 41

Vascoda Gama, D iscoverer of SeaRoute to India, 244

Vaz ir A11,276, 277

Veda, the Rig YajurAtharva 1 1 1 ; D ivision s of the,Sanhi tas and Brahmanas

,1 11

— Hi storicTeaching of the, 138Vegetables , 57Vel lor, 32 ; Mutiny , 28 1VengayTrees, 55Verelst,Mr Governor ofBengal , 264Vernacul ar L iterature, Modern, 1 18Vetches , 58Viceroy of India, Power of the, 94Viceroy , theFiret , 309Vidarbha

,themodernBarér, 41

Vz'

lzdra, 18

Vijayanagar, HindfiKingdomof, 197Vikrdméditya, King of Ujjéin, 174Vildyats, the, 19VillageSystemofMenu

,154

VindhyaRange, the, 3Virétzi, 41

Visékhadatta,Dramatist, 1 14Vi shnu- Sarma, Fabler, 1 14ViswésR50 , 237Vizagapatam, 1 1 , 103VolcanicRocks inWesternIndia, 52Vriji (Tirhut) , 41Vulture, 61

WAHABIS, the, 311Wainéd or Wynaad, 33WaingangaR. , the, 9Wales , H.R.H. the Pr ince of

,Visi t

toIndia, 315Walnut— tree, 58Wandewash, 32 ; Battleof, 253Warangal , 31Ward, Mi ssionary, 135WardhaR , the, 9Wargém, Conventionof, 240

334 INDEX .

‘VAR

Wars of Engl ish and French in theCarnatic, 249Water- bean, 59Water- l ily

, 59

Watts, Mr 257

W'

atson, Admiral, 256Wellesley, General (Duke of Wel

l ingtou), 242, 278Lord, 242 , 278 ; leaves Calcutta,28 1

Wellington, 33WesternGhéts, the, 8

WesternMari timeFringe, the, 10Wheat , 55 , 80Wi lson, James , FinanceMinis ter, 3 10Wolf

, 61

Z UL

WoollenManufactures , 87Wynaad. SeeWainz

'

td

YAMS, 57Yendabfi,

Treaty of, 287Yew- trees

, 58

0

LO N DO N 2 PB l XTED BY

BPO’I’

T ISWO0 DE AN D N N‘V - STREE’P sQUARE

o AK1) PARLIAMENT STREET

Z ABITAH KHAN , 227Z aman Shf'th, 278Z amindér, Landholder , 8 2Z ia-ud- dl

'

nBarni , Hi s torian, 1 17Z iegenbalg , M issiona ry

, 135

Z ones , t'

thar or Jheri, 5 1 Himlayan and Sul aimz'm

, 51

Z oology of India, 60

Z ulfikérKhz'm, 22 1

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P OL IT ICAL EOON OM Y — By Professor STANLEY JEVONS,F R.S. 181110 . 15.

Unquestionably 111 every respect an admirable primer. — Scx-100 LBOARD Cnaomcm.

Z OOL OGY. By Professor HUXLEY. &c. &c.

E LEM EN TARY C LA SS- BOOK S.

’

ASTRON OMY ,b y the Astronomer Royal .

POPULAR ASTRON OM Y. With Illustrations . By Sir

G. B. AIRY, Astronomer Royal. New Edition.181110 . 45 . 6d.

ASTRON OM Y .

ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN ASTRON OM Y. WithColoured D iagramof the Spectra of the Sun, Stars, andN ebulae, and numerousIllustrations. ByJ. NORMAN LOCKYER,

F.R.S. New Edition. Fcap. SW . 55. 651.

Fo

o”. elem. sound, and worthy of attention, not on l y as a‘ popular

ex‘osmon, butas a. scientific Index} -A1'ueNAwM.

32 MACMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE.

EL EM ENTARY cuss-noox s ConfirmedPOL IT ICAL ncououv .

POLITICAL ECON OM Y FOR BEGINNERS. By

MILLICENT G. Fc n'r'r. NewEdition. 18mo. 25. 6d

Clear, compact, and.

eomprehensive.” — D A11.Y News.The relations of capi tal and labour have never beenmore simply or

moreeleaxly expounded. ” — Conrnurouxv v mw.

L OGIC .

ELEMEN TARY LESSONS 1IV L OGIC ; D eductive andInductive, with ccpious Questions and Examples

,and a

Vocabulary of Logical T erms. ByW. STANLEYJEVONS, M .A. ,

Professor of Political Economy in University College, London.NewEdition. Fcap. 8vo. 35. 6d.

Nothing canbe better foraschpol - book. ”— GUARD IAN .

Amanual ahke Simple. interes ting, and scientific.

”— A'

rhmu vu.

PHY SICS.

LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. ByBALFOURSTEWART , Professor of Natural Phil osophy in OwensCollege, Manchester. With numerous Illustrations andChromolitho of the Spectra of the Sun, Stars, and N ebulae. New

Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 45. 6d.

Thebeau- ideal ofascientifictex t- book, clear, accurate, and thorough.”— ED UCAT IONAL Tums.

PRA CT ICAL CH EM ISTRY.

THE 0WENS COLLEGE ? UN IOR COURSE OF

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. ByFRANCISJONES, ChemicalMaster inthe Grammar School, Manchester. With Preface byProfessorRoscos, and Illustrations. New Edition. 18mo.

CHEM ISTRY .

QUESTIONS ON CHEMISTRY. A Series of Problemsand Exercises in Inorganic and Organic Chemistry . ByFRANCIS JON ES, F.C .S Chemical Master in theGrammar School, Manchester. Fcap. 8vo. 35.

AN ATOM Y .

LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY ANATOM Y. By

”

ST .

GEORGE MIVART , F L ecturer in Comparative Anatomyat St. Mary ’s Hospital. With upwards of 400 Illustrations.Fcap. 8vo. 65. 6d.

0

Itmay bequestioned whether any othet work onanatomy contains inlike compass sopreparaionately great amass of information.

”— LAN CET .

Thewmk is excel lent, and should be inthe hands of every student ofhumanamtomy.

"- Mnmcm. T imes

SCIENCE. 33

ELEM EN TARY chassmoox s ContinuedM ECHAN IC S OP M A CH IN ERY .

AN ELEMENTARY TREA TISE . By A . B. W.

KENNEDY, M . Inst . C .E Professor of Engineering and Me

chanical Technology in University College, L ondon. WithIllustrations. [ Z n tfiepre55 .

STEAM

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE . By JOHN PERRY,Professor of Engineering, Imperial College of Engineering,Yedo. With numerous Woodcuts and N umerical Examplesand Exercises. 181110 . 45 . 6d.

The young engineerand those seeking far a eemprehensiveknowledgeof theuse, power, and economy of steam, could not have amoreusefuiwork, as i t is very intelligible, wel l arranged, and practical throughout. ”IRONMONGER.

PHY SICA L GeoGRAP HY .

ELEMEN TARY LESSONS [ N PHYSICAL GEOGRAPH Y. By A. GEIKIE, Murchison Professorof Geology, &c. , Edinburgh. With numerous Il lustrations.Fcap. 8vo. 45 . 6d.

QUESTIONS ON THE SAME. 15. 6d.

GEOGRA PHY .

CLASS-BOOKOF GEOGRAPHY . ByC. B.CLARKE, M.AFcap. 8vo. New Edition, With EighteenColoured

Maps. 35.

N ATURA L PH IL OSOPHY .

NATURAL PHILOSOPH'Y FOR BEGINNERS. ByI. TODHUNTER

,M .A., F.R.S. Part I. The Properties of

Solid and Fluid Bodies. 18mo. 35. 651.

Part II. Sound, L ight, and Heat. 181110 . 35 . 6d.

M ORA L PH IL OSOPHY .

AN ELEMEN TARY TREA TISE . By Prof. E. CAIRD ,

of Glasgow University. [ Inpreparation.

ELECT RI CITY A N D M A GN ET IM S.

EL E/MEN TAA’Y LESSONS [ N ELE CTRICIT Y AND

MAGN E TISM . By Prof. SYLVANUS THOMPSON ,of 'Uni

versity College, Bristol . With Illustrations. [ inpreimmtion.


E LEM E N TARY C LA SS BOOKS Continued.

SOU N D .

AN ELEMEN TARY TREA TISE . By W. H. STONE,M .E. With Illustrations. 181110 . 35. 6d.

PSY CH OL OGY .

ELEMENTARY LESSON S [ N PSYCHOL OGY. ByG.

CROOM ROBERTSON , Professor of Mental Philosophy, &c. ,

University College, L ondon.

AGRICULTURn— ELEMEN TARY LESSONS IN AGRICUL TURE . By H . TAN NER, Professor of Agricul tural Science, University College, Ab erystwith.

[ Inpreparation.

M ARSHA L L — THE ECONOMICS OF JND USTA’ Y. ByA.

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“The book isof sterling value, and wi ll beof great use 56students

'

andteachers. ” — AT H ENE UM .

0t/wr5 inPreparation.

M A N UA L S FOR ST U D E N T S .

Crown 8vo.

DYBB A N D v xmas THE STRUCTURE OF PLAN TS. By

Professor THISEL’

I‘

ON D YER, assisted by SYDNEYVINES, B.Sc. ,

Fellow and Lecturer of Christ’s Col lege,Cambridge. With numerous Illus trations. [Inpreparafz

'

on.

PAW CB‘I‘T — A MANUAL OF POLITICAL ECON OM Y.

ByProfessor FAWCETT , M .P. New Edition, revised and

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PL BXSOH ER— A SYSTEM OF VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS. Translated, with N otes and Additions, fromthe secondGerman Edition, by M . M. PATT ISON MUIR, WithIll ustrations. Crown 8vo. 75 . 6 d.

36 MACMILLAN’


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PARKER and BETTAN Y THE M ORPHOLOGY OF

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TAI'r— AN ELEMEN TARY TREATISE 01V HEAT. By

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THOM SON — Z OOL OGY. BySirC. WYVILLE THOMSON , F.R.S.

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SC IE N T IF IC T EX T -BOOK S.

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In 2 vols . 8vo. Vol . I. 185 . now ready. [ V0] . 11. int/ieprem.

BAL L (R . A .M .)— EXPERJMEN TAL MECHAN ICS. A

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SCIENCE. 37

SC IEN T IFIC TEX T - BOOKS 60711132c

GAM GEE - A TEX T -BOOK,SYSTEAIATIC AND PRAC

TICAL, OF THE PH YSIOLOGICAL CHEM ISTRY OFTHE AN IMAL BOD Y. Including the changes which theT issues and Fluids undergo in D isease. By A. GAMGEE ,

M .D Professor of Physiology, Owens College,

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GEGEN BAUR— ELEMEN TS OF COMPARATIVE ANATOM Y. By Professor CARL GEGENBAUR. A Translation byF. JEFFREY BELL, B.A. Revised with Preface by ProfessorE. RAY LANKESTER, F.R.S. With mimerons Il l ustrations.8vo. 2 15 .

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GRAY — STRUCTUA’AL BOTAN Y, 01? ORGANOGRAPHYON THE BASIS OF M ORPHOL OGY. To which are

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LL .D . 8 vo. 10 5 . 6d.

N EW COM B — POPULAR ASTRON OM Y. By S. N EWCOMB,

LL .D . , Professor U.S. N aval Observatory. With 1 12 Illustrationsand 5 Maps of the Stars. 8vo. 185 .

It is unlikeanything else of its kind; and wil l be ofmoreuse incirculating a knowledge of astronomy than nine- tenths of the books whichhave appeared onthe subject of late years. —

.S‘

aturdayReview.

RBUL BAUX THE KINEMA TICS 017 MACHINERY.

Outlines ofa TheoryofMachines . ByProfessorF REULEAUX.

Translated and Edited by Professor A. B. W. KENNEDY,C E. With 450 Illustrations. Medium8vo. 2 15.

ROSCOE and scuonL BM M ER"

IN ORGAN IC CHEMIS.

TRY. A Complete Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry. By

Professor H . E. ROSCOE, F and Professor C. SCHORLEMMER, F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Medium8vo.

Vol . I. — The Non-Metallic Elements. 2 15. Vol . II.— Meta.ls.

Part I. 185. Vol . II. Part II. -Metals. 185 .

38 MACMIL LAN ’S EDUCATION AL CATALOGUE.

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SCHORL EM M ER— A MANUAL OF THE CHEMISTRY OF

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TH ORPE AN D Rfica — A TREA TISE ON CHEMICALPHYSICS. Ey

v

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N A T U RE SER IE S .

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WHAT THE EARTH IS COMPOSED By ProfessorRoscoe, F.R.S.

THE SUCCESS] ON OF LIFE ON THE EARTE . By

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W117Y THE EARTH S CHEMISTRY IS AS IT IS. By

I. N . LOCKYER, F.R.S.

“

Also complete in OneVolume. Crown 8vc. cloth. 25 .

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BLAN FORD TiIE RUD IMEN TS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHYFOR THE USE OF IND IAN SCHOOLS; withaGlossary ofTechnical Terms employed . ByH . F. BLAN FORD ,F R.S. N ewEdition, with Il lustrations. Globe 8yo. 2 5 . 6d.

EVBRB'I'r— UN ITS AND PHYSICAL CONSTAN TS. By

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GORDON — AN ELEMENTARY BOOK ON

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HEAT. By

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HISTORY. 41

L AM AUE L BL OWPJPE ANALYSIS. By J. LANDAUER.

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MU IR — PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL STU

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M IM L — STUD IES [ N COMPARA TIVE ANATOM Y.

No. I.- TheSkull of the Crocodile : a Manual for Students.

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BEESLY — STORIES FROZ LI THE HISTORY OF ROME .

ByMrs. BEESLY. Fcap . 8vo. 25 . 6d.

The attempt appears tous inevery way successful . The stories areinterestingmthemselves, and are told with perfect Slmpl l Cl ty and goodfeel ing.

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FREEM AN (EDW ARD A .) — OLD -EN GLISH HISTORY.

By EDWARD A. FREEMAN ,LL .D . , late Fellow of

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Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. half- bound. 65 .


GREBN — A SHORT HISTORY OF THE EN GLISH

PEOPLE . ByJOHN RICHARD GREEN ,M .A . , LL .D . With

Coloured Maps, Geneal ogical Tables, and ChronologicalAnnals. Crown8vo. 85. 6d. Sixty - third Thousand.

Stands alone as the one general history of thecountry, for the sakeofwhich al l others . if young and old arewise, wi l l be speedily and surelysetaside. ”

— ACADEMY.

READINGS FROM EN GL ISH HISTORY. Selectedand Edited by JOHN RICHARD GREEN , M .A. , LL .D . ,

Honorary Fel low of j esus College, Oxford. Three Parts.Globe 8vo. 15. 6d. each. I. Hengist to Cressy . II. Cressyto Cromwell. III. Cromwell to Balaklava.

GUEST — LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF EN GLAN D .

ByM . J. GUEST . With Maps . Crown8yo. 65 .

It is.

not toomuch toassert that this is oneof:the very bes t class booksofEnglish H istory for young students ever pubhshed.

”— SCOTSMAN .

H IST ORICAL 0 0 1mm: roa scnoons-

f Edited byEDWARD A. FREEMAN , D .C.L late Fellow of TrinityCollege, Oxford.1. GENERAL SKE TCH OF E UROPEAN HISTORY.

By EDWARD A. FREEMAN ,D .C .L . New Edition, revised

and enl arged, with Chronological Tab le, Maps, and Index.18111 0 . cloth. 35 . 6d.

It supp lies the great want of a good foundationfor historical teaching.

The scheme is anexcellent one, and this instalment has beenexecuted ina way that promises much for the volumes that are yet toappear."EDUCAT IONAL T IMES.II. HISTORY Oi1 EN GLAN D . By EDITH THOMPSON .

N ewEdition, revised and enlarged, with'

Maps. 18mo. 25. 6d.

III. HISTORY OF SCOTLAN D . By MARGARETMACARTHUR. New Edition. 18 1110 . 2 5 .

“Ah excellent summary, unimpeachable as tofacts , and putting themintheclearest andmost impartial light attamab le.

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IV. HISTORY OF ITAL Y. By the Rev . W. HUNT, M.A.

18m0 . 35.It possesses the same sol id ment as its predecessors the same

scrupulous care about fidelity in details. It is disfiniished, too, b

informationonart, architecture, and social pol itics , inw°

ch thewri 5

mp is seenby the firmness and clearness of his touch” — EDUCAT 10NA1.

T imes.

v . HISI ORY OF GERMANY: By 1. SIME, M.A.

181110 . 35."A remarkably clear and impressive history of Germany. Itsgreatevents arewisely kep t as central figures, and the smal lerevents are carefully kept, notonly subordinate and subservient, butmost skilfullywoveninto the texture of the historical tapestry presented to the eye.

"

STANDARD .


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GE OGRAPH Y. By GEORGE GROVE, D .C .L . With Maps.181110 . 1 5 .

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ROMAN AN TIQUITIES. By Professor WILKINS. Illustrated. 18mo. 15.

A little book that throws a blaze of light on Roman History. andis , moreover, intensely interesting.

"-Selwol Board Chronicle.

FRAN CE . By CHARLOTT E M. YONGE. 181110 . 15.

May b e considered a wonderful ly successful pieceofwork Its

generalmerit asa vigorous and clear sketch , givmg in a smal l space a

v ivid ideaof the history of France, remains undeniable.

"— SAT URDAY

REVIEW.

InpreparationEN GLAN D . ByJ. R. GREEN , M .A.

L BTHBRID GE — A SHORT MANUAL OF THE HISTORY

OF INDIA , WI TH AN [ N TROD UCTORYACCOUN T

OF INDIA AS I T 15 . By ROPER L ETHBRIDGE, M .A. ,

C .I.E. Crown 8vo. [ In t/ze157555 .

MICH ELET — A SUMM AIRY OF M OD ERN HISTORY.

T ranslated fromthe French of M . MICHELET , and continued tothePresent Time, by M . C . M . SIMPSON . Globe 8v0 . 45 . 6d.

OTTfi— SCAN D INA VIAN HISTORY. By E. C. OTTE.

With Maps. Globe 8vo. 65 .

PAU L I— PICTURES OF OLD EJVGLAND . By Dr. R.

PAUL I. Translated wi th the sanction of the Author byE. C. OT’mt. Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 65 .

RAMSAY — A SCHOOL HISTORY OF ByG. G.

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TAIT — ANAL YSIS OFEN G'

L ISH HISTORY, based onGreen’sShort His tory of the English People.” By C. W. A . TAIT ,

M.A. ,Assistant -Master

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W H BBLBR— A SHORT HISTORY OF INDIA AND 014

IHE FRON TIER STATES OF AFGH’

AN ISTAIV,

NEFAUL, AND BURMA . By J. TALBOYS WHEELER.

With Maps . Crown 8vo. 1 2 5 .

It is the best book of the kind we have ever seen, and werecommendit toa place tuevery school l 1brary.

”— ED UCA'

1‘

10 NAL TIMES.

D IVIN ITY. 45

Y ON GE (CHARL OTT E M . ) —A PARALLEL HISTORY OF

FRANCE AN D EN GLAND consisting of Outlines andDates. By CHARLOTTE M . YONGE, Author of “ The HeirofRedclyfl

'

e, &c. , &c. Oblong 4to. 35. 6d.

CAMEOS FROM EN GLISH HISTORY. FROM

ROLLO TO EDWARD II. By the Author of “The Heirof Redclyfl

'

e.

”Extra fcap. 8v0 . New Edition. 55.

A SECOND SERIES OF CAMEOS FROM EN GLISH

HISTORY— THE WARS IN FRANCE. New Edition.Extra fcap. 8vo. 55.

A THIRD SERIES OF CAMEOS FROM EN GLISH

HIST018Y— THEWARSOF THE ROSES. New Edition.Extra fcap. Svo. 55.

A FOURTH SERIES— REFORMATION TIMES. ExtraFcap. 8vo. 55.

EUROPEAN HISTORY. Narrated in a Series ofHistorical Selections fromthe Best Authorities. Edited and

arranged by E. M. SEWELL and C. M . YONGE. First Series,1003— 1 154. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 65 . SecondSeries, 10 88— 1 2 2 8 . New Edition. Crown 8yo. 65.

D IV IN IT Y .

For other Works by these Authors, see THEOLOGICAL

CATALOGUE.

ABBOTT (REV . B . A . )— BIBLE LESSONS. By the Rev .

E. A. ABBOTT,B .D . , Head Master of the City of London

School. New Edition. Crown8170 . 45. 6d.

M sc, sugges tive, and real ly profound initiationintoreligious thought.“ GUARD IAN .

ARN OL D — A BIBLE -READ ZA’G FOR SCHOOLS— THE

GREAT PROPHECY OF ISRAEL ’

S RESTORATION

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[ SAIAH XL — LX VI. With the Shorter Prophecies alliedto it. Arranged and Edited, with N otes, by MATTHEWARN OLD . Crown8170 . 55 .

46 MACMILLAN’


CURT B Is— MAN UAL OF THE THIRTY-N INE AR

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GASKOIN — THE CHILDREN’S TREASURY OF BIBLE

STORIES. By Mrs. HERMAN GASKOIN . Edited withPreface by the Rev . G . F . Maclear, D .D . PART I.

— OLD

TESTAMENT HISTORY . 18 1110 15 . PART II.— NEW

TESTAMENT . 181110 . 1 5 . PART III.- THE APOSTLES

ST . JAMES THE GREAT , ST . PAUL ,AND ST . JOHN

THE D IVINE. 181110 . 1 5 .

GOL D EN TREASURY PSA L T ER— Students’ Edition. Beingan Edition of “The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, byFour Friends, ” with briefer N otes. 181110 . 35 . 6d.

GREEK TESTAM EN T . Edited, With Introductionand Appendices, by CANON WESTCOTT and Dr. F J. A. HORT. Two

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HARDW ICK — Works by ArchdeaconHARDWICK.

A HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCHMiddl e Age. F10 111 Gregory the Great to the Excommunication of L uther. Edited by WILLIAM STUBBS

,M .A. , Regius

Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford.

With FourMaps . Fourth Edition. Crown8 90 . 105 . 601.

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UH D URIN G

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K IN G — CHURCH HISTORY OF IRELAND. By the Rev.

ROBERT KING. New Edition. 2 vols . Crown8vo.

macnnan— Works by the Rev . G. F. MACLEAR,

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A CLASS-BOOK OF OLD TESTAMEN T HISTORY.

New‘Edition, with FourMaps. 18mo. 45 . 6d.

A CLASS-BOOK OF NEW TESTAfl/IEN T HISTORY,

including the Connection of the Old and New Testament.With FourMaps. New Edition. 18mo. 55. 611.

A SHILLIIVG BOOK OF OLD TESTAMEN YfIl STORY, for National and Elementary Schools. WithMap. 181110 . cloth. NewEdition.

48 MACMILLAN ’S EDUCAT IONAL CATALOGUE.

SIM PSON — AN EPITOME OF THE HISTOR Y OF THE

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