MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 1

Mobile-Assisted Language Learning:

A Literature Review

Khansa AL-Qudaimi

Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University

English Language Department

14 May 2013

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 2

Introduction

The digital age is characterized by the rapid growth of information and communication

technologies. Among all communication mediums, mobile devices as cell phones, Personal

Digital Assistants (PDAs) and smartphones currently are the most powerful ones. Therefore,

educators have been attempting to provide learning environment through mobile devices and

aiming at developing mobile learning (m-learning) tools for educational purposes (Miangah &

Nearat, 2012). As the demand of acquiring foreign languages increases and people’s free time

decreases, mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) offers the ideal solution. Hence, this paper

aims at spotlighting how the various tools, teaching methods and applications of MALL and m-

learning in general have been appearing and revolving to maintain effective learning process.

MALL: An overview

History

According to Salaberry (2001), capturing audio language samples dated back to the

emergence of audiovisual recording devices as reel-to-reel, Video Cassette Recordings (VCRs)

and Personal Computers (PCs). Broadcast devices, as phonographs, radios and televisions, were

considered as sources for authentic speech. The advent of the audiolingual theory in the 1950s

sparked the use of authentic audio samples for educational purposes in language laboratories.

However, the shift to the behaviorist theory in the 1960s replaced the language laboratories with

drill-based computer-assisted instruction. A new vision of the role of technology in education

triggered the immersion of the portable package of self-contained knowledge manipulator, Xerox

Dynabook in the 1970s (Kay & Goldberg, 1977). Since then, the computer-mediated

communication in educational contexts has been progressing as technologies continue to shrink

in size (Chinnery, 2006). The arrival and popularity of the internet alongside the development of

PDA, laptop and mobile devices in the 1990s gave rise to the next generation of e-learning

(Sharples, 2000).

The use of telephone for distance learning was not associated with the release of mobile

devices. In 1988, Twarog and Pereszlenyi-Pinter (1988) utilized the telephone to provide

distance-language learners with feedback and assistance. In 1996, instructors at Brigham Young

University used telephone and computer to teach English courses as distance-learning from

Hawaii to Tonga (Green, Collier, & Evans, 2001). In 2001, Dicky (2001) taught English

conversation courses via teleconferencing in South Korea. Yet, it is only over the past ten years

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 3

that phone learning has developed to offer the needed tools for educational institutes,

workplaces, museums, cities and rural areas around the world via cell phones or mobiles

(Gholami & Azarmi, 2012). Mobile learning brought to the light diverse methods and techniques

to assist language learning and learning in general.

Characteristics

What essentially characterizes the mobile for learning is its size and weight which make it

portable. Thus, in MALL there is no need for learners to sit in a classroom or at a computer to

get the material. Such learning is reinforced when people experience shortage of free time due to

working for long hours.

Input and output capabilities such as keypad vs. touchpad, screen size and audio functions

are significant too. Depending on them, mobile device was considered by Miangah and Nearat

(2012) as an extension, but not substitution for existing learning devices. Hence, not all learning

contents and activities are applicable for mobile devices (Gay, Stefanone, Martin & Hembrooke,

2001).

Mobile phones, PDAs and smartphones offer various additional uses beside the phone and

Short Message Service (SMS), including Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), voice-

messaging, video recording, cameras, internet and wireless access and, therefore, file-sharing

between teachers and students and amongst students themselves. Data can be transferred easily

to the PCs. Further, some of the PDAs and smartphones have handwriting recognition feature.

Nevertheless, the future success of these devices to Beatty (2003) is tied to their ability to

accommodate voice recognition.

Such different features in the market are compatible to the different needs of the users. Their

costs also vary. But the basic activities can be performed by all mobile phones. Thus, teachers

need to put in their consideration costs and devices.

Learners' skills in using mobile devices must be put into account. Besides, their prior

knowledge and experience in using mobile for learning is crucial. Their attitudes towards

learning via mobile devices play a vital role in learners' output quality.

The attributes of mobile as an inexpensive and sophisticated device have increased the

number of its users. A study conducted by the World Bank in 2012 shows that around three-

quarters of the world’s inhabitants have access to a mobile phone (Russell & Cieslik, 2012).

Another study carried out at Urmia University in Iran indicates that 44% of mobile phone owners

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 4

browse the internet via their mobiles. This manifests the potentiality of such devices for learning

and urges educators to provide tools and software for learners in teaching contexts.

M-learning

Tools for m-learning

The different uses of mobile devices mentioned above, as SMS, internet access, and audio

functions form the basis of m-learning tools. One of the central tools of m-learning is SMS-

based learning in which the learner receives text messages to support their learning process

outside of classroom (Kukulska-Hulme, 2009). Many have experienced this tool, for instance,

Griffiths University in Australia performed teaching Italian language via sending two to three

SMS messages a day to the learners. Those messages included several language skills; such as,

grammar and vocabulary beside administration news, literature and homework (Pachler,

Bachmair & Cook, 2010).

Another effective m-learning tool is moblogging which is defined by Mielo (2005) as “using

cell phone or PDA to post words and/ or pictures to a website.” (p. 29) Blogs are recent trend in

language teaching. They ignite language creation, facilitate sharing ideas and collaborative

activities. By using them, time and space boundaries disappear; learners discuss their ideas in a

virtual place on move. Also, authentic personal and visual contents become accessible (Gholami

& Azarmi, 2012).

Blogging and sharing thoughts are not restricted to written language. The widespread of a

new form of media known as podcasting motivates users to have audio blogs or podcasts. These

podcasts are downloadable and can be transferred to a media player. Other listeners can

subscribe to any podcaster they like in order to be able to receive updates. Actually, podcasting is

already widely utilized in language learning by learners who record their own content or access

authentic resources (Chinnery, 2006). In respect to podcasting and English language teaching,

Lomicka and Lord (2011) conducted a study on 73 language educators to discover their goals

beyond podcasting. The study revealed that respondents viewed podcasting as a tool that can aid

in developing both receptive and productive language skills. 41% of the participants used it for

listening practice while 23.2% of them used it to enhance speaking practice and presentation

skills. 12.33% of the educators utilized it to provide pronunciation practice to their students.

Other advantages, like increasing students' independence, exposure to authentic material and

cultural information, collaboration with peers, writing practice, vocabulary learning, motivating,

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 5

providing feedback, promoting digital literacy and enhancing class discussion, ranged from

5.48% to 1.37%.

As far as DPAs and cell phones as tools for MALL are concerned, Thornton and Houser

(2003) implemented a study to compare between them by developing a website primarily for

mobile devices. The web-page's main aim was to teach English idioms via illustrative videos,

animations and multiple-choice quizzes. Students browsed the web-page by DPAs or mobile web

and video phones. The results demonstrated similar positive results for all devices, but PDAs

were rated in their video quality higher than other devices because of their larger screen size and

their higher resolution. Yet, all students encountered difficulties with the listening tasks though

the usage of headphones or native English-speaking actors were denied by the researchers.

These results spotlight the limitations of mobile devices for learning purposes. The small

screen size, memory size and keypad or touchpad sophistication may frustrate learners.

Nonetheless, mobile devices are still evolving. Specialists have developed many alternatives like

supplemental keyboards and memory cards. However, enhancement of mobile devices and

offering new features to assist teachers in MALL is undoubtedly fundamental. Miangah and

Nearat (2012) suggest adding video and voice chat properties to encourage efficient audio-visual

chats between language teachers and their students in regard to the learning material and

feedback. Moreover, mobile devices do not aid the variant written characters of some languages

as some are written from right to left and others use the opposite direction. Thus, Miangah and

Nearat (2012) prompt research and experiment on MALL-based techniques in order for them to

be more compatible with languages and their different orientations, as Arabic, Parisian, Chinese

and other languages and expand their usage scope.

Despite their limitations, mobile devices display a plenty of capabilities and functions that

are convenient for students who prefer renewed teaching methods. Learners who encounter lack

of free time or money favor them as well. Further, learners who live in some of the developing

countries or rural sides where no PCs are available find them beneficial.

M-learning and teaching

The communicative potential of mobile devices can be seen as a crucial prerequisite for m-

learning. Thus, the application of m-learning in teaching draws the foreground of the socio-

cultural dimension. At the same time, it impacts the cognitive dimension of learning alongside

the lessened and ready-to-use amount of taught information (Pachler, 2009).

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 6

Such effects of m-learning can occur either in-classroom or out-of-classroom usage of

mobile devices in teaching. In-classroom utilization activates close interaction, conversation and

decision-making among students due to m-learning activities, especially if students are divided

into small groups. Such learning experience can hardly be achieved out of classroom. On the

other hand, m-learning is more useful for implementing activities outside the classroom since it

connects learners to real-world experiments. Furthermore, out-of-classroom learners can improve

their language skills on the move and exploit their free time; an advantage that cannot be

achieved in the classroom (Kukulska-Hulme, 2009).

Numerous methods of teaching can be assisted by m-learning either inside or outside the

classroom. One method is game-based learning in which the materials are designated to be

integrated with aspects of the physical environment. The real-world knowledge and the game's

visual world are linked by the m-learning activities. This has been applied in MALL by a

researcher who formulated a game-based language learning for English as a Second Language

(ESL) learners. He aimed at enabling the learners to revise the needed content for Cambridge

First Certificate in English exam (Gholami & Azarmi, 2012).

Another method that can be aided by m-learning is the collaborative approach in which

different learners exchange their knowledge, skills and attitudes through interaction. This

encourages learners to support, motivate and evaluate each other and, therefore, obtain

substantial amount of learning. This can be attained simply by using mobile devices as an

environment that is dependent on its user ahead of the device as remarked by Miangah and

Nearat (2012).

Beside their pedagogical utilization, mobile devices have been used as a flexible means of

student-teacher communication for practical or administrative matters; such as, course updates

and reminders. Likewise, student-student synchronous and asynchronous communication can be

held via mobile devices to portray social interaction that is mediated by cultural tools (Pachler,

2009).

In addition to communication as a practical matter, mobile devices have been used as

referrals to related websites and up-to-date instructional resources (Levy & Kennedy, 2005). As

an example, Thornton and Houser (2003) developed a web page for PDAs and smartphones to

support the English course. Dias (2002) also created a web page for mobile phones to gather

links of English language learning websites. In his page, students had the ability to comment and

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 7

communicate asynchronously with their teacher, amongst themselves and with any guest

lecturer.

Via collaborative, communicative, and knowledgeable activities and games with and

supported by mobile devices, m-learning has the potential to meet the required conditions for

effective learning, particularly as a process of cognitive and social development.

Whether occurred face-to-face, distance or online, Copaert (2004) signifies that developing

MALL environment must precede deciding the role of mobile devices in the learning process. In

other words, devices are basic equipment of learning, but the learner should be ahead of

technology. In this respect, Salaberry (2001) agrees with Copaert and opposes “technology-

driven pedagogy,” but he overstates by declaring that modern technologies have not offered

pedagogical benefits as obvious as traditional second language instruction. Beatty (2003)

provides further exaggerated caveat by claiming that “teachers need to be concerned about

investing time and money in unproven technology." (p. 72) Fair and reasonable opinion is stated

by Chinnery (2006) who considered technologies, including mobile devices, as instruments and

instructional tools in language instruction but not instructors in themselves. Hence, the effective

use of any instructional tool in language learning requires thoughtful application of second

language pedagogy.

Language skills and m-learning

Mobile devices, as instruments, contain various activities to the different skills of language

learning; such as, vocabulary, pronunciation, reading, grammar, listening and speaking. Different

activities are supported and performed by mobile devices depending on the used model and its

facilities.

Vocabulary

For vocabulary learning, SMS and e-mail messages are common methods of learning new

vocabulary based on the lessons covered in the classroom. Regarding SMS, Levy and Kennedy

(2005) created SMS-based vocabulary learning to teach Italian language by sending idioms,

definitions and example sentences to the learners amounting nine to ten messages per week.

Feedback was collected via quizzes and follow-up questions. Results indicated that the messages

were very helpful for learning vocabulary. Another two studies were generated at the same time

by Thornton and Houser (2003) to teach English language at a Japanese University. One study

compared using SMS versus e-mail messaging. The other study compared using SMS versus

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 8

paper-based vocabulary learning. In the first study, students were divided into two groups; one

received vocabulary via SMS messages, and the other received mini-lessons of vocabulary three

times a day organized in chunks in order to make them readable on the tiny screens. In both

studies, students received identical lessons; definitions of five words per week and the use of

them in different contexts. Students were tested weekly. The results showed that SMS students

learned over twice the number of vocabulary words as the e-mail students. Besides, SMS

students improved their scores by nearly twice as much as students who had received their

lessons on paper. Concerning their attitudes, the vast majority preferred the SMS instruction. The

authors concluded that the effectiveness of their lessons was derived from delivering messages as

push media. Therefore, students were able to frequently rehearse and space study, and utilize

recycled vocabulary.

Teachers can use m-learning tools to create exercises on vocabulary covered in the

classroom. Students may be given the questions in the classroom and asked to complete them via

their mobile phones before sending them back to the instructor (Miangah & Nearat, 2012).

New vocabulary can also be sent to students' mobile phones accompanied by pictorial

annotations for better understanding. This was experienced by Chen and Hsu (2008) who was

teaching English verbs by sending pictorial annotations attached to the verbal words. Post-test

results reflected that this method assisted learners with lower verbal and higher visual ability to

retain vocabulary.

In order to assess vocabulary retention, in-class polling system can be utilized. This system

was applied by Thornton and Houser (2003) who provided the students with polling software

accessible via mobile phones to be used during the class time. The advantage of this system was

the immediate reception of feedback by students and teachers.

For new words, mobile dictionaries can be used. In this regard, Myers (2000) made several

observations on Chinese learners of English language who used mobile dictionaries. He noticed

that learners practiced unfamiliar words that the looked up their meanings. They had been

recording new learned words in their notes. After many times, they shifted from looking up

Chinese words to English words which indicated their attempt to function in the foreign

language. The positive effect expanded to include their improvement in spelling. However, the

author concluded that students are prompted to use such dictionaries only when the target

language is similar to the native language.

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 9

Pronunciation, reading and grammar

Dictionaries are not only used to find the meanings of words, but also to learn how they are

pronounced. A study conducted at Urmia University in Iran demonstrated that nearly half of the

participants (%48.8) were using their mobile phones’ dictionaries, but numerous respondents did

not have access to dictionary software to install on their mobile phones (Gholami & Azarmi,

2012). Nevertheless, an adequate m-learning program has to contain voice transmission and

sound functions so that learners may download dictionaries to their mobile phones and learn the

pronunciation of unfamiliar new words. Also, via multimedia functions, they may record their

own voices and submit them to the teacher. This would assist in assessing the students'

weaknesses in pronunciation (Miangah & Nearat, 2012).

As far as reading activities are concerned, mobile devices offer various capabilities. Reading

activities can be installed as a well-designed learning course. They can be sent to the learners

through SMS as well. Miangah and Nearat (2012) point out that mobile learning programs that

have text announcer pronunciation are more useful for reading and listening comprehension at

the same time. To provide learners with effective English language learning environment, Chen

and Hsu (2008) created Personalized Intelligent Mobile (PIM) learning system. Due to this

system, students received English news articles on their mobile phones based on their reading

abilities evaluated by fuzzy item response theory. The PIM system would automatically discover

and retrieve unfamiliar words of individual learners from the articles. The results of the study

reflected that this method beside self-assessment feedback responses were effective in enhancing

reading abilities and comparison of the learners.

About grammar, Miangah and Nearat (2012) suggest designating grammatical points as a

program and install it on mobile devices. This program teaches rules that are followed by

multiple-choice activities. Different exercises can be formed, as 'true-false' or 'fill-in the blank',

and practiced by the learners. Vocal services or SMS are also convenient tools for grammatical

explanations.

Listening and speaking

For listening skills, teachers can design a platform in which learners listen to texts by vocal

service on their mobile phones. Then, they may answer listening comprehension quiz based on

that audio text. Another use of m-learning for listening was illustrated by Huang and Sun (2010)

who created multimedia system for English language learners based on their mobile phones'

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 10

capacities. They were asked to access a certain multimedia materials' website and order learning

courses which consist of a set of video materials and exercises. Huang and Sun (2010) believed

that mobile multimedia English listening exercise system promotes learner's English listening

abilities to a higher degree. On the hand, Belanger (2005) spotlighted the Turkish class in which

students used iPods to access authentic materials; such as, news, songs, and poems, and to the

instructor’s vocabulary and translations.

IPods were also utilized for speaking skills. At Duke University experiment in 2004, all

freshmen students were given iPods equipped with voice recorders amongst. These iPods

composed the primary tool for Spanish language classes. Students responded to verbal quizzes,

submitted audio assignments, recorded audio journals and received oral feedback from their

instructor via iPod (Chinnery, 2006).

Insight on MALL applications

There is a plenty of downloadable applications for mobile devices. According to the World

Bank, more than 30 billion mobile applications were downloaded in 2011 only (Russell &

Cieslik, 2012). A portion of this huge number of application is part of MALL and the other

portion can be used for MALL purposes. One example of MALL applications is MOBO City

which is a mobile game that introduces computer technical English vocabulary to the learners

(Ghazvini, Earnshaw, Robison & Excell, 2009).

Further, many mobile English language learning programs have appeared on the fore, for

instance, BBC World Service’s Learning English which provides learners with English language

lessons via SMS in Africa and China. Similarly, BBC Wales offers Welsh lessons. M-learning is

another website for learning English, but it is directed mainly towards non-English speaking

young adults (Chinnery, 2006). Recently, BBC Janala launched a project in 2009 at Bangladesh

in which they aim at reducing the barriers to learning English language, improving English

language skills among the population of Bangladesh, enabling greater access to economic and

social activities and supporting the development of an English language media sector. BBC Jala

subscribers get a daily three-minute audio lesson sent to their mobile phones (McCarthy, 2011).

Effectiveness of MALL

Numerous studies have been conducted to assess the effectiveness of MALL. Some

researchers assure its positive effect on language learning process and some others indicate that

using MALL does not aid language learning. One of the first projects in MALL was Spanish

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 11

language program developed by Stanford Learning Laboratory. They utilized both voice and e-

mail in mobile phones. The content of the program encompassed vocabulary practice, word and

phrase translations, quizzes and access to live talking tutors. The results of the study revealed

that mobile devices were effective in automated vocabulary lessons, quizzes if delivered in small

chunks and the live talking tutoring. However, the tiny screen size was not appropriate for

learning new content, but to review and practice. Besides, poor audio quality had affected the

comprehension (Thornton & Houser, 2003).

Another study conducted by Garcia (2002) to evaluate a business Spanish course developed

for smartphones. The course included video clips, exercises and a glossary. The results

highlighted the role of multimedia functions in motivating learners, but they encountered

difficulties in using pointers and touchpad for data entry.

On the other hand, Stockwell (2008) reported that learners preferred using their PCs to

mobile phones. They expressed that unless their teacher asked them, they did not intend to use

their mobile phones due to the cost of internet access, the screen size and the keypad. Hence, it

took them long time to complete the assigned task.

Kiernan and Aizawa (2004) students' of Japan University had similar attitudes. Before

applying their study, Kiernan and Aizawa theorized that language learning must follow the task-

based approach. Thus, they attempted to explore MALL and its usefulness in task-based learning

for ESL students. They placed upper and lower level students in three groups; face-to-face

speaking users, PC e-mail user and mobile phone e-mail users. The study program contained a

pretest, three narrative tasks, three invitation tasks and, then, a repeated post-test. The findings

indicated that the face-to-face speaking users completed the tasks within the time limit, only two

pairs of PC email users and one pair of mobile phone email users completed the tasks. Also, the

face-to-face speaking users had significantly faster performances, and the mobile phone email

users had the slowest. The researchers referred the results to the relative speed of typing versus

speaking, and of typing on mobile thumb pads/ touchpads versus keyboards.

Advantages and disadvantages of m-learning

M-learning is featured by its personalized, spontaneous and informal learning process. It can

be considered as the ideal solution to the barriers of language learning in terms of time, place and

cost. In other words, learning across contexts by the inexpensive mobile device due to its

portability characteristic is a key factor of m-learning. The use of m-learning changes the locus

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 12

of control and shifts it from teacher-led to student-led learning process. Therefore, learners direct

their own learning process and progress based on their cognitive state and according to their

individual needs. It also provides them with the capability of being connected and communicated

with the learning website via the wireless network. This facilitates social interaction, data

exchanging and collaboration with other learners (Chinnery, 2006; Huang & Sun, 2010; Klopfer,

Squire & Jenkins, 2002; Miangah & Nearat, 2012; Pachler, 2009).

In spite of these properties, m-learning may take longer time in performing tasks because of

the tiny screen size, virtual keypad, limited power of storage and multimedia limitations. Even in

designing courses' programs, teachers encounter difficulties in resizing pictures to fit in the small

screen, network connection problems, online chats and slow processing time. In fact, many of the

mobile devices were not formed for educational purposes. Devices that are appropriate for

learning tasks are too expensive for most of the learners to buy. Another clear disadvantage of

m-learning for language learning is the graduate shift from verbal to visual output. Other

disadvantages may include limited nonverbal communications, limited message lengths, lack of

cultural context and potentially limited social interaction (Chinnery, 2006; Copaert, 2004;

Kukulska-Hulme, 2009; Miangah & Nearat, 2012; Pachler, 2009).

Conclusion

Various researches have been conducted towards MALL as a growing field of study in

language learning. Yet, there is still a large amount of information remains uncovered. There is a

lack in research on the methods that aid in providing convenient MALL environment for

learners. In addition, some skills as listening and speaking need further improvements in MALL

research (Miangah & Nearat, 2012). Research on using authentic content, communicative

language practice and task completion is non-existent (Chinnery, 2006). In general, there is a

paucity of application and formal research on MALL.

Although MALL and m-learning encounter different challenges, the use of mobile devices

for educational purposes has been expanding. This expansion urges language teachers and

educators to support the use of m-learning and create new tools that fulfill the needs of language

learners, especially that m-learning enables learners to have their own individualized learning

process that is compatible to their needs and capabilities.

MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 13

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