CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Literature and Stylistics ...

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Literature and Stylistics

Stylistics approach is the movement from rhetoric, poetic and dialectic.

“Rhetoric is derived from Greek techne rethorike” (Bradford, 1997, p. 3). It was a

lesson in the Greek school which taught the student to deliver a speech, and the art

to attract people by persuading speech.

“Rhetoric, Plato statement, is not an „art‟ but a „routine‟, and such

a routine, if allowed to take hold of our primary communicative

medium, will promote division, ambition and self-aggrandizement

at the expense of collective truth and wisdom, the principal

subjects of philosophy” (Bradford, 1997, p. 4).

“According to Aristotle, rhetoric is an art, a necessary condition of philosophical

debate” (Bradford, 1997, p.4). These two different arguments from Aristotle and

Plato link rhetoric with modern stylistics.

“Poetic is the process of artistic creation” (Miššíková, 2003, p.11). This

theory taught people to create an art. The work of Aristotle entitled Poetics is the

pioneer in this study. ”In the book Aristotle said that Poetics is art and art is

imitation” (Miššíková, 2003, p. 11).

“Dialectic is a study of creating and guiding a dialogue” (Miššíková, 2003,

p.11). It has close relationship with rhetoric. Dialectic taught student to create

dialogue or speech with effective and attractive language. This method was

introduced by Socrates

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The definitions of stylistics have developed from time to time, because

literature, culture and convention in a society also kept on developing. Stylistic

etymologically comes from Latin word, stilus (style), which means a sharp

pointed device to write. In the Oxford dictionary style refers to “particular way in

which something is done” (Oxford Dictionary, 2005, p.1527). “Stylistics is

usually regarded as the study of style, using linguistic methods to examine a text

and then proceeding to interpret the findings as pertaining to literature” (Lynch,

1997, p. 33). Various definition of stylistics is stated by KuthaRatna (2007, p.

236):

a. A language style analysis

b. A cross study between linguistics and literature

c. An application of linguistic rule in language style research

d. A study researching the use of language within literary works

e. A study researching the use of language by considering aesthetic

aspects and its social background.

In the book Stylistics, Richard Bardford (1997; p, 14) stated that Stylistics

divides into two basic categories: textualist and contextualist. Textualist does not

remark literary style as purely literature but when stylistic features are combined

to enrich the text, the text is considered as literature. Contextualist‟s characteristic

is corelating between text and context.


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1. Contextualist Stylistics

As stated before, Contextualist Stylistic is a type of stylistic analysis

which concern with correlation between text and context. Based on Bradford on

his book, contextualist involves some aspects:

a. The competence and understanding of the reader

b. The domination of sociocultural forces in all linguistic

discourses, including literature

c. The process and interpretion of all phenomena, linguistic and

non-linguistic, literary and non-literary (Bradford, 1997, p. 73)

The aspects above involve some branches of Stylistic such as: reader-

response and stylistics, functional stylistics, feminist stylistics, pragmatic

stylistics, cognitive stylistics.

a. Reader-Response and Stylistics

Based on Barthes theory in Bradford book entitled Stylistics, reader-response in

stylistics is:

“The multiplicity of stylistics levels, registers and frames of

reference that make up a text are focused on „the reader, not

as was hitherto said, the author‟. He does not claim that the

reader invents the test; rather that the structures that enable

us to discuss how its style affects its meaning are part of an

a priori system of expectations that we impose upon it”

(1997, p. 78).

b. Functional Stylistics

“Functional Stylistics focuses on the ways in which the linguistic

system operates in term of its utilitarian functions” (Bradford, 1997, p. 90).


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c. Feminist Stylistics

“Feminist Stylistics transmits social and institutionalized

prejudices and ideologies, specifically the respective roles and the mental and

behavioral characteristics of men and women” (Bardford, 1997, p. 86).

d. Pragmatic Stylistics

This approach views the text of art as discourse between reader

and writer, and the analysis provides comments on specific discourse

characteristics.

e. Cognitive Stylistics

“Cognitive stylistic approach is relevant to the study of textual

world views in general in order to arrive at conclusions about the minds of

characters or narrators” (Semino and Culpaper, 1995, p. 99)

2. Textualist Stylistics

Textualist Stylistics is divided into textualist poetry and textualist

novel.

Novel and poetry belong to literary work which has different devices to analyze. It

also influences the way Stylistics analyzes these two literary works.

In general, Textualist Stylistics analyzes novel and poetry by correlating

the context of the author and the reader. The context has close relation with the

message that is going to be delivered by the work itself. Textualist Stylistics


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correlates the context of the author and the reader to find the real message of the

works.

Diagrams from Bradford below, try to explain Textualist Stylistics.

a. Poetry Textualist Stylistics

CONTEXT

(referential)

MESSAGE

(poetic)

ADDRESSER ADDRESSEE

(emotive) (conative)

CONTACT

(phatic)

CODE

(metalingual)

.(Bradford, 1997, p. 41)

This diagram explains us about the correlation between addresser and

addressee. The context of the text will connect the addresser and addressee. It will

influence the degree of contact between addresser and addressee. This correlation

will affect the message of the text, and influence how the message is delivered to


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the addressee as a code. This diagram is based on“the cause-and-effect principles

of sociolonguistics”. (Bradford, 1997, p.42)

Addresser is the one who wants to deliver a message to the addressee,

from emotive to conative. Phatic utterances are used to deliver the message, it is

correlated to the referential. The addresser uses metalingual code to create poetic

in the poem.

b. Novel Textualist Stylistics

DISCOURSE

addresser addressee

initiates decodes

[message] [message]

TEXT

(Bradford, 1997, p. 56)

Discourse is the communication transaction between the addresser and

addressee. This communication is affected by social and cultural background of

addresser and addressee. Text is the form of communication between addresser

and addressee. Text can be understood by understanding the background of them.

“Discourse is a general name of the vast network of linguistic and contextual

elements that affect the „message‟” (Bradford, 1997, p. 56).


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B. Figurative Language

Stylistics has close relation to poetic devices. Richard Bradford in his book

“Stylistics” provides clear explanation about the correlation between poetic

devices and stylistics; poetic form and the way in analyzing poem using poetic

devices. Poetic devices or Stylistics devices that are used in Bradford are: (1).

Poetic Form: rhythm and rhyme, stanza, metre, syntax, diction and vocabulary,

(2). Poetic Language: figurative language, imagery and tone.

As stated before, this research focuses on analyzing figurative language of

love in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century love poems using Stylistics theory.

“Figurative language is a way of saying other than the literal meaning of the

words” (http://www.frostfriends.org/figurative.html). Figurative language brings

the reader to imagine the real meaning of words in the poems. Poets need

figurative language in their poems to hide the real meaning of the poem, beside

that figurative language beautifies the poems.

There are some figurative languages that are usually used in poem:

allegory, allusion, ambiguity, analogy, apostrophe, connotation, contrast,

euphemism, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, paradox, personification, simile, symbol,

and synecdoche. These figurative languages are used to hide the real meaning of

the poem. It makes the poem poetic.


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Allegory is a word or phrases that represent an abstract meaning. This

kind of figurative language can be understood by reading the whole poem. The

message is conceal behind the poetry. Allegory in "Moby Dick" by Herman

„Melville‟ is a clear example of allegory; where the great white whale is more than

a very large, aquatic mammal; it becomes a symbol for eternity, evil, dread,

mortality, and even death, something so great and powerful that mostly humans

cannot accept about the message of it.

Allusion is a brief reference to some person, historical event, work of art,

or Biblical or mythological situation or character. This figure of speech has close

correlation to intertextual theory (one text refers to another). Dante Alighieri's,

14th century epic poem Divine Comedy, has numerous allusions. There are some

allusions in the first part of Alighieri‟s poem, Inferno. In this stanza, Dante alludes

to Greek mythology. „Phaethon‟ and „Icarus‟ are Greek mythological characters

that fall down from air into the eighth circle of hell.

I doubt if Phaethon feared more - that time

he dropped the sun-reins of his father's chariot

and burned the streak of sky we see today -

or if poor Icarus did - feeling his sides

unfeathering as the wax began to melt,

his father shouting: "wrong, your course is wrong."

(http://www.buzze.com/article/allusion-examples.html)

Ambiguity is a figure of speech which has double meaning. In poem,

ambiguity is used to gain richness of the poem meaning. Ambiguity is divided

into two, they are: lexical ambiguity (single word) and structural ambiguity

(sentence or clause). There is an example of ambiguity in “Counting the Beast” by


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Robert Graves. Ambiguity appears in the third line “And if no more than only you

and I”. „More‟ in the poems indicates something large. It can be future (because

this couple will not know about their future), place (they are the last couple), or

condition (their love).

You, love, and I,

(He whispers) you and I,

And if no more than only you and I

What care you or I?

Counting the bests,

Counting the slow heart beats,

The bleeding to death of time in slow heart beats,

Wakeful they lie.

(http://www.clt.astate.edu/wnarey/Shakespeare%20Survey%20Course_files/sampl

e_poetry_explication.htm)

Analogy is a comparison word or phrases inapoem. Usually, it compares

something familiar with something unfamiliar. Analogy is found in “Nothing

Gold Can Stay” by Robert Frost. In this poem, Frost makes an analogy of

Nature‟s first green with „gold‟. In the fact gold is not green.

Nature's first green is gold,

Her hardest hue to hold.

Her early leaf's a flower;

But only so an hour.

Then leaf subsides to leaf.

So Eden sank to grief,

So dawn goes down to day.

Nothing gold can stay.

(http://www.poeticterminology.net/04-analogy-poetry-type.htm)

Apostrophe is speaking directly to inanimate object. This figurative

language sounds like the author trying to speak with something or someone.

Apostrophe is found in the poem by Geoffrey Chaucer entitled “Complaint to His


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Empty Purse”. In this poem Chaucer tries to complain or speak to his purse „To

you, my purse‟.

To you, my purse, and to non other weight

Complayne I, for ye be my lady dere!

(Pickering and Hoeper, 1997, p. 755)

Connotation is associations and emotional overtones meaning of word. Its

meaning is larger than literal meaning. The example of connotation is found in

Samuel Taylor Coleridge‟s poem, “Sonet to the Reaverend W.L. Bowles”.

“Coleridge here uses plastic to mean having superhuman. In the dictionary plastic

means power of molding or shaping formless material” (Pickering and Hoeper,

1997, p. 711)

As the great Spirit erst with plastic sweep

Mov‟d on the darkness of the unform‟d deep

(Pickering and Hoeper, 1996, p. 711)

Contrast is strikingly different words or phrases which are arranged

closely. It can be character, opposite etc. The example of contrast is found in the

poem by Langston Hughes “I, Too”. In this poem, Hughes contrasts „I‟ and

„They‟. It implies „I‟ for minor and „They‟ for major.

I am the darker brother

They send me to eat in the kitchen

(http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/i-too/)

Euphemism is a figure of speech which expresses something to lessen the

effect to the reader or understatement. The example of euphemism is found in the

poem by Robert Browning “My Last Duchess”. „There stand as if alive‟ is

euphemism of death.


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Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands;

Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands

As if alive. Will't please you rise? We'll meet

The company below, then. I repeat,

The Count your master's known munificence

Is ample warrant that no just pretense

Of mine for dowry will be disallowed;

(http://www.poeticterminology.net/euphemism.htm)

Hyperbole is overstatement. Hyperbole has a purpose to attract

emotional and attention of the poem reader. The example of hyperbole is found in

the poem by Andrew Marvell “To His Coy Mistress”. In the poem Marvell

expresses his love to “His Coy Mistress” in hyperbolic word and phrase. He is

hyperboling time.

An hundred years should go to praise

Thine eyes and on thy forehead gaze

Two hundred to adore each breast

But thirty thousand to the rest

An age at least to every part

And the last age should show your heart

(Mugijatna, 2009, p.46)

Irony is a contradictory of word or phrase which shows the difference

between appearance and reality. Based on Pickering and Hoeper in his book

Literature, irony is divided into three forms:

“(1) dramatic irony, (2) situational irony and (3) verbal irony.

Dramatic Irony is the reverse of what its participants suppose it to

be. Situational Irony is a set of circumstances turns out to be the

reverse of what is appropriated or expected. Verbal irony

involves a contrast between what is literally said and what is

actually meant” (1996, p. 733-734).

The poem by Edwin Arlington Robinson “Richard Cory” is the example of

Irony. In this poem Robinson tells about the perfection of Cory‟s life. Ironically,

at the end of the poem Cory shoots his head.


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So on we worked, and waited for the light,

And went without the meat, and cursed the beard;

And Richard Cory, one calm summer night

Went home and put a bullet through his head

(Pickering and Hoeper, 1996, p. 733-734)

Paradox is ambiguous idea of statement in the poem. It can be phrases,

lines or stanzas. “Paradox involves a contradiction between the physical or

material meaning of words and their spiritual, emotional or supernatural

connotation” (Pickering and Hoeper, 1996, p. 729). The example of paradox is

found in the poem by Edmund Spencer “Ice and Fire”. In this poem, Spencer uses

„ice‟ and „fire‟ which has opposite meaning. It indicates paradox.

What more miraculous thing may be told,

That fire, which all things melts, should harden ice,

And ice, which is congeal'd with senseless cold,

Should kindle fire by wonderful device?

(http://www.buzzle.com/articles/what-is-figurative-language.html)

Personification is attributing human characteristics to another thing such

as animal, object and abstract idea. The example is William Blake‟s poem “The

Clod and the Pebble”. This poem mentions about „Clay‟ and „Pebble‟ that can

sing.

So sung a little clod of Clay

Trodden with the cattle‟s feet

But a Pebble of the brook

Warble out these metres meet

(Mugijatna, 2009, p. 43)

Simile is a comparison of two things which have similarity. Simile has

three components; vehicle, tenor and connective [„like‟, „resemble‟, „similar‟ etc]

(Mugijatna, 2009, p. 36). Simile is found in the poem of Robert Burns “A Red,

Red Rose”. This poem clearly compares „My Luve‟ with „red rose‟ and „melodie‟.


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O My Luve‟s like a red, red rose

That‟s newly sprung in June

O My Luve‟s like the melodie

That‟s sweetly played on tune


Symbol can be explained in two forms. First, symbol based on content is

an image of word that has extraordinary meaning. Second, symbol based on

structure is a comparison without vehicle and connective. Symbol can be divided

into three: “(1) private [its meaning known only to one person], (2) original [its

meaning defined by its context in a particular work], (3) traditional [its meaning

defined by our common culture and heritage]” (Pickering and Hoeper, 1996, p.

760). William Blake in his poem “The Sick Rose” uses symbol to beautify his

poem. „Rose‟ in this poem symbolizes a beautiful girl.

O Rose, thou art sick

The invisible worm

That flies in the night

In the howling Storm


Synecdoche is a figure of speech to attribute a whole part of

something with a word. The word is simple but it represents something bigger

than it is. Synecdoche is found in the poem by T.S Eliot “The Love song of J.

Alferd Prufrock”. „Ragged claws‟ in this poem is crabs in the sea, that are

protected and do not have to face the loneliness and unfriendly of the world.

I should have been a pair of ragged claws

Scuttling across the floors of silent seas... ~

(http://www.buzzle.com/articles/what-is-figurative-language.html)

Metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two different things.


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Metaphor has close structure with simile. If simile compares two different things

using comparison “like, resemble, similar etc”, metaphor is implicit comparison.

Based on Karthik, metaphor is divided into eight: absolute metaphor,

complex metaphor, extended metaphor, implicit metaphor, mixed metaphor,

pataphor, root metaphor, and submerged metaphor (Error! Hyperlink reference

not valid.example-in-literature.htm).

1. Absolute metaphor is a metaphor that there is no connectivity between

former or following assertion and the metaphor.

Example: I am the dog end of every day.

„Dog end‟ is an absolute metaphor. In this example the author insists

the readers to interpret the meaning by themselves. The purpose of

using absolute metaphor is confusing or frustrating the readers.

2. Complex metaphor is a metaphor with layer. The layer is added to the

subject of metaphor.

Example: Let me throw some light on this subject of philosophy

„throw me some light‟ is a complex metaphor. The first metaphor is

light and then the author add throw to layer light.

3. Extended metaphor compares a subject to several subjects. It is also

possible to place extended metaphor to the whole poem. Extended

metaphor is found in William Blake‟s poem “A Poison Tree”. In this

poem, Blake compares „wrath‟, „grow‟ and „tree‟ in his whole poem.

4. Implicit metaphor is a metaphor that hides the subject behind the

context of the poetry.


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Example: We were drinking the white

„White‟ in the example above is metaphor of white wine.

5. Mixed metaphor is a collective metaphor. Every metaphor in it has any

logical relations.

Example: If we want to get ahead we‟ll have to iron out the remaining

bottlenecks.

In the example above there are two metaphors, „iron out‟ and

„bottlenecks‟. „Iron out‟ means faced and bottlenecks means

spectacles.

6. Pataphor is an extreme metaphor. Pataphor is a metaphor that creates a

new word without any references.

Example: Panting hard, he hand-braked the corner, power-sliding into

the doorway.

This metaphor is extreme metaphor. The whole line of the example is a

pataphor.

7. Root metaphor is unrealized metaphor. It is realized as metaphor when

the readers understand about the situation of the poem or the culture

behind it.

Example: Life as journey.

Religions see life as a single arrow pointing toward a future endpoint.

Others see it as part of an endlessly repeating cycle.

8. Submerged metaphor describes something simple into expressive

statement. The reader is given a place to think wide about it.


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Example: Her thoughts were on the wing.

„The wing‟ in the example above means wide thinking.

C. Nineteenth and Twentieth Century American Literature

American Literature is strongly influenced by English Literature. English

literature which is written in English language makes American people read

books. American literature develops in about three hundred years after English

colony came to America for the first time. American literature is started at 1607

until now. Three hundred years period of American literature, every century has

different characteristics and eras. As the research analyzed Nineteenth and

Twentieth Century love poem, these are the characteristics of those two eras:

1. Nineteenth Century

The beginning of Nineteenth Century is the beginning of American

Literature growth. English Literature influenced quite strong in American

Literature. The American man of letter at that time imitated English literature in

their literary product. Fifty years after their peak of fame, man of letter such as

Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, Oliver

Goldsmith and Samuel Johnson were imitated by American man of letters

(VanSpanckeren, 2004; 14).


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American literature found the culture freedom after more than fifty years

struggled free from imitating English literature (VanSpanckeren, 2004; 14). This

revolutionary culture creates some eras of literature in this century such as:

Naturalism, Transcendentalism, Romanticism, Realism. Those four eras in

Nineteenth Century have close characteristics in the way poet express their poem.

In this era poem was dominated by nature words. Emily Dickinson, as the one

well-known poet in Nineteenth Century, in her poem “A bird came down the

walk” uses bird, dew, grass, ocean and butterflies. Henry Wadsworth

Longfellow, a poet from 1839, in his poem entitled “My Lost Youth” uses many

nature words such as: sea, island, hill, tree etc.

a. Naturalism

Naturalism in United State begins in the 1890‟s. Naturalism is

literature expression of determination (VanSpanckeren, 2004; 53). In this

era, man of letters gave focus on labors‟ live. They chose negative theme

on their literary product such as: seduction, divorce, prostitute, crime, and

poverty.

Their literary product influenced by the environment and the

condition at that time. In this era, industry and farming is growing fast and

there are a lot of farmer and industrial labors. This condition created

discrepancy between the rich man and their labor. The poor with all of the

problems started to reject religion as their savior and believed that nature


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is a big machine that rules the world. The men of letters in this era are

Henry Adams, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser etc

b. Transcendentalism

This era was coming from a small village called Concord. This

village is a place where some man of letters solitude themselves to create

their literary products (VanSpanckeren, 2004; 27). In this village,

transcendentalism was found. Transcendentalism is a doctrine of self

independence and individualism, different opinion of every individual is

good and unique. The men of letters in this era are Ralph Waldo Emerson,

Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Margaret Fuller etc.

c. Romanticism

There are two characteristics of this era, romanticism poem and

romanticism prose. Romanticism poetry is “the poetry of desire, a desire

that can never be satisfied, an indefinite desire that must end in

melancholy (Falk & Foerster, 1962; 183). Romanticism prose is a roman

[prose which sharp, emotional, and symbolic] (VanSpanckeren, 2004; 36).

The men of letters in this era are Herman Melville, Edgar Allan Poe,

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow etc.

d. Realism

Realism was rising in 1860. United State in this era is a developing


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country. United State metamorphosed from small, young and agrarian

country into big, modern and industrialist country (VanSpanckeren, 2004;

47). This condition influenced literature. Literature characteristics in this

era are about something clear and definite literary product and the theme

of the literary product is about daily activity or everyday living, familiar

and local story instead of legend or traditional story about past time (Falk

& Foerster, 1962; 669). The men of letters in this era are Samuel Clemens,

Sarah Orne Jewett, William Dean Howells etc.

2. Twentieth Century

Twentieth century belongs to modernism era. United Stated in this era

started new era in many aspects, such as: industry, farming, social, and literature.

In the modern era, American Literature became huge. The man of latter used

everything as the topic of literature. To achieve poetic in poem, poets in this era

use every possible word to make a comparison in their poem. Robert Frost in his

poem entitled “Departemental” uses table cloth, dormant, race Janizary etc.

William Carlos Williams in his poem “Tract” uses funeral, Christ, glass, France

etc. There are still a lot of nature words in this era but the poets started to involve

it with many other words to reach poetic.

“Poetic achievement is not, of course, just a matter of talking well,

or even talking well in dialect; yet the good poet has an ear for

what he hears in the world around him, and the way he uses it can

be deeply involved in the values of his poetry. The poet has to

know how to use it, and where to begin and where to end”

(Sanders, 1964, p 2-II).

The men of letters in this era are Ezra Pound, T.S Eliot, Robert Frost etc.


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D. Love

1. Definition of love

Love is a word which has a lot of definition. Erich Fromm said “Love

emerges as the answer of the human existence” (2005, p.10). But, everyone can

explain and explore love based on their experience.

“Based on psychology, love tends to look for something „outside

his body‟ to fulfill the need of self existence. The needs are the

need of affection, the need of attention, the acceptance as we are,

respect and responsibility for the psychological need of the spouse.

Based on philosophy, love problem is a as result of a deep thought

activity”(Al Fitroh, 2008, p. 14).

Plato in his book of Symposium also explains about love. According to

Plato Love can be divided into two:

a. Love as desire for the everlasting possession of beauty.

Beauty in this part can be translated into good. In this part, Plato, mentions

about human life always desire about something good. Every human life can

give meaning to „good thing‟ that they love, because everyone has different

desire.


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b. Love as desire for immortality

In this part human life has desire to get immortality in body and soul. If

love wants to posses the good forever then it must desire immortality along

with the good. “I believe that anyone will do anything for the sake of immortal

virtue and the glorious fame that follows; and the better the people, the more

they will do, for they are all in love with immortality” (Socrates in Kaplan,

1961, p. 208). Immortality in body is the production of children and

immortality in soul is the production of work of art and philosophy.

Every single thing in this world has correlation to love, including

literature. Many authors make love as the issue of their work. Topics about

love are easily to find in everyday life. In literary work, love is easily blended

with other topic. By adding love in the literature, it will give more taste in it

and will attract more reader. People will easily interest everything about love.

2. Love in American Society

In the United Stated there is a big issue about love called „free love‟. This

is a movement to freely people in having relationship with no commitment or

without marriage. This movement is started in Nineteenth Century and

continued until Twentieth Century.

Free love started in 1820 when American woman started to have a lot of

activity outside the family. Their activities create a new thought about

marriage. Jone Johnson Lewis stated “many thinkers in the 19th century looked


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at the reality of marriage and especially its effects on women, and concluded

that marriage was not much different from slavery or prostitution”

(http://womenshistory.about.com/lr/freelove/344014/2/). Those women thought

that having children and becoming a wife of husband are form of right

occupation. Marriage for them is kind of thing which limit their activity and

freedom. This movement leads many social classes into series of debates about

free love and all of the related things such as: birth rate, sexual behavior,

marriage law etc.

These debates lead this issue until Twentieth Century. In this era, the

society started to realize about the consequence of free love. Free love has

close relation to sex matter, “free love movement was most significantly about

the enjoyment of sex” (http://www.h-net.org/freelove.html). It leads dangerous

disease called HIV/AIDS virus. The virus spreads via free sex, it is part of free

love, that becomes the habit of free love society. The effect of HIV/AIDS virus

can muffle free love growth in society.


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