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Met.O. 894 The Marin A quarterly journal of Maritime Meteorology Volume XLVI No. 253 July 1976 95P
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Transcript of Meteorology - Met Office Digital Library and Archive
Met.O. 894
The Marin
A quarterly journal of MaritimeMeteorology
Volume XLVI No. 253July 1976
95P
Met.O. 894
THE MARINE OBSERVERA QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF MARITIME METEOROLOGY PREPARED BY THE MARINE DIVISION OF THE METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE
VOL. XLVI No. 253 JULY 1976
CONTENTSPage
Excellent Awards, 1975 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..94
The Marine Observers' Log .. .. .. .. .. .. 101
Project Stormfury .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 118
75 Years of Maritime Service .. .. .. .. .. ..127
Presentation of Barographs .. .. .. .. .. .. 128
Ice Conditions in Areas adjacent to the North Atlantic Ocean Januaryto March 1976 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..130
Book Review:The Victorian and Edwardian Navy from old photographs .. 135
Personalities ., .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 136
Editor's Note .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..139
Fleet Lists .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..140
Letters to the Editor, and books for retriao, should be sent to the Editor, 'The Marine Observer', Meteorological Office, Eastern Road, Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 2UR
Published for the Meteorological Office byHER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE
© Crown copyright 1976To be purchased direct from HMSO at any of the following addresses: 49 High Hofborn,LONDON WC1V 6HB; 13a Castle Street. EDINBURGH EH2 3AR; 41 The Hayes. CARDIFF CFl IJW; BrazennoseStreet, MANCHESTER M60 8AS; Southey Mouse. Wine Street, BRISTOL BS1 2BQ; 258 Broad Street,
BIRMINGHAM Bl 2HE; 80 Chichester Street, BELFAST BT1 4JY, or from booksellers.
PRICE 95p NET or £4*24 per annum (including postage)
Excellent Awards, 1975
The process for selecting annual Excellent Awards has been modified this year. Instead of three Awards going to a particular ship, i.e. to the Master, Principal Observing Officer and Radio Officer, they are now being made to individuals. Therefore two or more Masters, Principal Observing Officers or Radio Officers from the same ship may each receive an Award. In some cases Masters and Principal Observing Officers have been given Awards where the Radio Officer has not, and alternatively, in others, Radio Officers have been the only officers to receive the Award. Prior to 1975, following the practice established in 1924, three Awards were presented to the best 100 ships but now, with more frequent crew changes during a period of twelve months, a ship may have several Masters, Principal Observing Officers and Radio Officers and, if we continued the old system, difficulties could be experienced in deciding which Master or Officer should receive the Award. In some cases the observation side of the meteorological logbook fully qualified for excellent marking whereas the radio transmissions did not fully meet the require ments. In other cases the radio transmissions could not be faulted, but the observa tions themselves failed to quite make the standard. In each of these cases the higher mark on one side helped to make the aggregate mark required for an Excellent Award. We therefore consider that it is fairer to all concerned to assess the two sides of the work separately.
The method of assessing the logbooks is virtually the same as it always has been and the total number of books awarded also remains the same. Consideration has been made for the type of vessel, her trade pattern, number of observing officers and whether the ship has a high- or low-powered transmitter etc. Marks given for ocean-current data are allocated for the type of observation as much as for the quantity received. Allowances are also made for the method of determining the fixes; obviously more effort is required to work up five or six star sights to obtain a position than by using Satellite Navigator or other electronic position-finding systems.
May we congratulate the Masters and Officers who have gained the Awards and, once again, commiserate with the very many others who have almost, but not quite, reached the required degree of excellence. The list for 1975 appears on pages 95-100 of this issue.
A 'short list' of 6 ships gaining the highest marks, by joint effort of observational and radio work, reads as follows:
1. Antilochus (Ocean Transport & Trading Ltd.), Captain A. J. Palmer.2. Mayfield (Shaw Savill & Albion Co. Ltd.), Captain J. Ferres.3. Summity (F. T. Everard & Sons Ltd.), Captain W. G. Hunt.4. Kowfaon Boy (Ocean Transport & Trading Ltd.), Captain D. T. MacLachlan.5. lUyric (Shaw Savill & Albion Co. Ltd.), Captain H. Nixon.6. Ross Orion (British United Trawlers Ltd.), Skipper A. Osier.
Photographs of the first three ships are shown opposite page 108.Special congratulations are due to three of the above ships. Summity and Kowloon
Bay are appearing for the second time on the short list and Ross Orion has the distinction of appearing for the fourth time, no mean achievement considering that there are approximately 550 ships from which to choose.
The Awards to Trawler Skippers and Radio Officers who make non-instrumental observations, together with the Awards made to Marid ships (vessels employed on short sea trades which take sea temperatures only, though wind and weather are also recorded when reporting in the North Sea), are shown on pages 99-100. Their contribution to the Meteorological Office is extremely important.
94
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Excellent Awards (contd.}
TRAWLERS (non-instrumental)
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The initial Award is normally The University Atlas, followed by Cassettes English Dictionary as a second Award. The book selected this year as the third Award is The Life-giving Sea by David Bellamy.
J.D.B.
20 E 40 SO 80 00 EO 140 60 80
HEMIUS-. -BRITISH CYGNET
BRITISH AVON*±L fife BRITISH AVON r-L 21/22.9.75. .
ENLOMONO '-i
SUGAR REFINER 18.9.75 (•CITY OF AUCKLAND
CITY OF EDINBURGHCALIFORNIA STAR
BRITISH AVON > 7.7.75
KOWLOON BAY*JUPITER MOON
JERVIS BAY^— «5 20.8.75<r
• JERVIS BAY 14.8.75 -
• CITY OF CAPETOWN
160 mr KIT co so etr «r zo w to so so «r izo" i4ir EOT BB
Position of ships whose reports appear in The Marine Observer's Log.I CO
NE BSERVERS^LOG
July, August, SeptemberThe Marine Observers' Log is a quarterly selection of observations of interest and value. The observations are derived from the logbooks of marine observers and from individual manuscripts. Responsibility for each observation rests with the contributor.
Observing officers are reminded that preserved samples of discoloured water, luminescent water etc. considerably enhance the value of such an observation. Port Meteorological Officers in the U.K. will supply bottles, preservative and instruc tions on request.
TYPHOON 'BETTY*
North Pacific Oceanm.v. British Avon. Captain I. B. McNaughton. Singapore to Kawasaki. Observers, the Master and members of the crew.
21 September 1975. The noon-sight for the 2ist was taken at 0335 GMT. Shortly afterwards it was decided that in view of our predicted meeting with typhoon Betty between 1000 and iioo, avoiding action would be taken; accordingly a course of 245 °T was set keeping the wind approximately two points abaft the starboard beam. At this time the wind was N'E, force 7-8, the seas were rough and the barometer reading 1004*9 mD* The reversal in our course was accompanied by a fall in pressure. This steadied for a while then started to fall again no more than was expected with Betty closing slightly.
TYPHOON BETTY 21-22 September 1975
_ _ _ _ _ Ships intended track Ship's actual track
*-----* Betty's predicted track K Betty's actual track
All times are GMTShip
0900/21 sy (intended)
0900/21sJ (predated)
r03oo/: i'0000/21&
Betty^XQSOO/ZOth
132° E 134* E
101
During the next few hours the wind continued to back and the barometer re mained fairly steady. At 1200 the wind was NNW, force 7-8, seas rough and the barometer reading 1003-0 mb.
The latest position for Betty reported by Tokyo Meteorological Office and timed 0600 showed the typhoon to be maintaining a WNw'Iy course and it was decided to run east for a few hours in order to position ourselves behind it, and then continue on the original course. Almost immediately, the pressure began to fall, and the wind speed increased slightly to a steady force 8 and remained so for a few hours.
At 1500 we received the 1200 GMT weather chart and it was clear that Betty had altered course and that we were closer than we would have wished. Accordingly we altered course to i8o°T. The wind was now NW'N, force 8, the seas were heavy, the barometer reading 997*7 mb and there were frequent heavy rain showers.
The pressure continued to fall until about 1760 when the trace on the barograph seemed to begin a series of 'hiccups' and to rise. The wind, although remaining at force 8, backed again and by 2200, when our original course was resumed, it was wsw, force 7. The seas were heavy and the pressure reading 1001 mb.
Position of ship at oooo on 21 September: 22° o6'N, 124° i8'E. Position of ship at oooo on 22 September: 20° 24'!*, 125° 48'E.
TYPHOON 'RITA'
East China Sea
m.v. British Cygnet. Captain R. Towell. Yokkaichi to Bombay. Observers, Mr J. A. West, 2nd Officer, Mr M. A. Gough and Mr D. A. Day, 3rd Officers.
20 August 1975. At 1225 GMT in position 29° i8'N, 131° J^Z'E we received the weather forecast from Shai Observatory advising that a tropical storm centred at 0600 on the 2Oth in position 27° o6'N, 128° I2'E was expected to move NW at 6 knots. The forecast at on8 on the 2ist from Hong Kong advised that the tropical storm had changed direction and was now expected to move NE at 5 knots. At oooi on the 2ist the storm centre was located in position 28° i2'N, 131° i8'E. By the time it was realized that the storm had changed direction we were unavoidably in its path. The following details have been extracted from the logbook.
20 AugustGMT1500: Wind SE, 16 kn. Pressure 997*0 mb. Sea rough with a sw swell running. 1600: Wind SE, 22 kn. Pressure 995-0 mb. Sea rough. Sky overcast, signs of rain
24 n. mile distant on radar screen. 1700: Wind ESE, 27 kn. Pressure 992*9 mb. Sea rough. Intermittent drizzle.
Visibility reduced to 6-7 n. mile in drizzle. 1800: Wind E'ly, 33 kn. Pressure 990-6 mb. Sea rough-heavy. Rain. Visibility
down to 3 n. mile in places. Swell becoming longer and heavier. 1900: Wind E'N, 33 kn. Pressure 986-7 mb. Sea rough-heavy. 2000: Wind ENE, 37 kn. Pressure 983-3 mb. Sea heavy. Heavy rain at times. 2030: Wind NE, 13 kn. Pressure 983-7 mb. Sea heavy. Wind decreased and now
variable NE'ly. Rain became drizzle. Thought to be near centre of storm inposition 28° 03'N, 130° 2o'E.
2100: Wind N*ly, 30 kn. Pressure 983-6 mb. Sea heavy. Very dark to the west.Patches of drizzle becoming more frequent.
2145: Heavy rain reducing visibility. 2200: Wind NW, 44 kn. Pressure 984-6 mb. Sea heavy. Heavy rain and driving
spray. Visibility x n. mile. Vessel on slow speed and sounding fog signals. 2230: Heavy rain continues. Visibility almost nil at times.
102
2300: Wind w'ly, 40 kn. Pressure 988-3 mb. Sea heavy. Sky still dark although looking brighter. Rain still heavy. Visibility improving.
2330: Sky brightened considerably, still overcast but rain giving way to heavy showers. Visibility improved to 6 n. mile. Vessel increasing speed.
— -30° N-
1300000/20th x
/ /
0600/20th,/
135° E
0000/229.
•25° N
0000/18th
TYPHOON 'RITA' 18-22 August 1975
•———• Storm track x- — —x Ship's track
Times are GMT
06
20th
11 00I
BAROGRAPH TRACE PASSAGE THROUGH 'RITA
103
•1010 mb-
-1000 mb-
990 mb -
2i Augustoooi: Wind w'ly, 40 kn. Pressure 991-0 mb. Sea heavy. Weather progressively
improving throughout the day.0300: Wind w'ly, 30 kn. Pressure 996*0 mb. Sea rough to heavy. 0400: Showers cease. 0630: Clouds begin to break. 0700: Wind w'ly, 30 kn. Pressure 997*4 mb. noo: Wind w'ly, 21 kn. Pressure 1000*0 mb.
Position of ship at 2030 on 2oth: 28° 03'N, 130° 2o'E.
Note. The accompanying chart shows the tracks of the British Cygnet and tropical storm, later typhoon, Rita. Shortly after 0600 on the zoth Rita recurved ENE and increased speed from 5 to 10 knots, to cross the ship's path. At 2030 the British Cygnet was briefly in the eye of the storm. Rita subsequently deepened, crossing Japan and causing extensive damage. In the mountains of Honshu up to 660 mm of rain were reported and on Hokkaido floods and land slides along the Ishikari river valley resulted in eight deaths.
LOCAL WINDS
Golf of Tehuantepec
m.v. California Star. Captain I. C. Mackintosh. Los Angeles to Le Havre. Ob servers, Mr N. J. Barr, 2nd Officer and Mr G. S. Hart, 3rd Officer.
This vessel has gradually built up a reputation for encountering bad weather in the region of the Pacific Coast of Mexico. In 1973 the ship was homeward-bound from Los Angeles with a cargo which included the famous Flying Scotsman. The conditions encountered on that occasion could never be met on British Railways, consisting, as they did, of near hurricane-force winds and a mountainous swell lasting two days before reaching the sanctuary of calmer waters.
21 September 1975. At 0200 GMT as we passed Acapulco the winds were light variable. By 1600 we were entering the area of the Gulf of Tehuantepec and the wind began to freshen from the north. By 1800 the wind had reached force 6 from the north and a very prominent northerly swell was building up causing the ship to roll moderately. By 1900 a belt of rain running NE to sw across our track was visible on the radar screen. From its appearance it was a very narrow belt of very heavy rain. Within 30 minutes we had reached the rain belt and as we entered it the wind dropped very quickly. Ten minutes later we were in bright sunshine and light N'ly winds the belt of heavy rain appeared to mark the limit of the strong winds.
The facsimile weather-analysis chart showed that tropical storm 'Eloise' was situated over the Yucatan Peninsula producing a northerly airflow through the mountains on either side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The wind funnelled out over the Gulf and progressively built up a heavy swell.
Experience has shown that the further away from the coast we are, in the Gulf, the stronger is the wind and the heavier the swell.
It might be of interest to record that masters and officers on this vessel have collectively nicknamed the Gulf of Tehuantepec 'Windy Gap'.
The following are details extracted from the logbook:
GMT1200: Wind WNW, force 3. Sea slight.1500: Wind NNE, force 5. Sea moderate to rough.1800: Wind NNE, force 6. Sea rough.1930: Wind N'E, force 3. Sea slight.
Position of ship at 1800: 13° 54'N, 95° oo'w.104
Land over 150 metres above sea level
95*W
TROPICAL STORM 'ELOISE1
funnelled through mountains
Belt of rain
PACIFIC OCEAN
Note. An earlier report of the 'Tehuantepecer' from the California Star was published in the April 1974 edition of The Marine Observer. In the Note which followed that report it was stated that in a northerly air flow a funnelling of the wind takes place through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec owing to the land topography. The effects may be felt as far as about 100 n. mile from the coast in the region of the Gulf. These 'northers' may occur at any time of the year but are more frequent during November, December and January. One-seventh of the Tehuantepecers reach force 10-12 and the onset may or may not be accompanied by rain or squall cloud. Further, the barometer cannot be relied upon to give any warning of this wind and significant air-temperature fluctuations are unusual, though sea-surface temperatures may fall after the onset owing to upwelling.
THE SOUTHERN EQUATORIAL TROUGH
Indian Ocean
m.v. British Avon. Captain I. B. McNaughton. Durban to Bandar Ma'shur. Ob servers, the Master and Mr J. E. Howe, 2nd Officer.
7 July 1975. At 0930 GMT steering course O25°T at 16-5 kn torrential rain was encountered. The visibility dropped rapidly and the engines were put on stand-by and the speed reduced. During the next few minutes the wind veered and decreased slightly from i4o°T, 16 kn (estimated) to 23o°T, 13 kn. Bearing in mind the ship's position and the weather conditions encountered, it was thought that the vessel had passed through the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The other weather conditions at the time of the observations were as follows.
Pressure 1012-0 mb (corrected), air temp. 27-o°c and wet bulb 24-8.105
We would be grateful for your comments on our observation and our position relative to the ITCZ as, in Meteorology for Mariners (Met O 593), the ITCZ is shown to be further to the north.
Position of ship at 0930 GMT: 02° IS'N, 49° 35'E.
Note, The ITCZ is, in fact, well north of this position during July, lying over southern Arabia as the boundary between the strong flow of the sw monsoon (over the Arabian Sea) and the Nw'ly winds of the Red Sea, Arabia and the Persian Gulf. During this monsoon, however, there is another line of discontinuity in winds near the Equator. This is sometimes called the Southern Equatorial Trough and lies between the SE 'trades' (mainly of the southern hemi sphere) and the SW monsoon winds (mainly of the northern hemisphere). The structure of the Southern Equatorial Trough is not adequately known. It can be associated with ascent of air and consequent cloud and rain but the activity is not usually continuous. Stretches of the trough may have no rain and even little cloud.
EFFECT OF FUNNEL-EXHAUST GASES ON CLOUDS
Eastern South Atlantic
s.s. Kowloon Bay. Captain D. T. Maclachlan. Port Kelang to Southampton. Ob server, Mr B. M. N. Harnzah, 2nd Officer.
17 August 1975. At approximately 0800 GMT, whilst the vessel was steaming at about 26 knots on a course of 323°T, it was noticed that the hot funnel-exhaust gases were having an unusual effect on the low cumulus clouds in the vicinity of the vessel. The wind at the time was SSE at an estimated speed of 28 kn and therefore the exhaust gases from the runnel rose vertically at first and then very slowly drifted out to starboard and forward in an arc.
Close observation of a small cloud from the starboard bow revealed that the cloud was rotating on a horizontal plane in a clockwise direction as would be seen from above, and also turning, again in a clockwise direction, in the vertical plane. The vertical turning movement appeared to be 2^ 3 times faster than the horizontal movement. There also appeared to be a tendency for the cloud to be 'sucked' to wards the rising exhaust gases. Further observation of other clouds showed that this latter tendency was more accentuated on clouds abaft the beam than those forward. In addition, as the clouds began their movement towards the rising exhaust gases, the smaller clouds began to dissipate and the larger ones to assume a more ragged appearance. On closer approach to the gases the smaller clouds dissolved completely, and the larger were much reduced in size. When over the ship the latter were lifted to a higher level where they either dissolved or spread out into a thin layer.
Air temp. I7'9°c, wet bulb 15-6. Cloud, i okta small cumulus with ragged edges and little vertical extent but having well-defined bases.
Position of ship: 28° oo's, 13° o6'E.
Note. The rotation of small clouds described above was caused by turbulence as rising warm exhaust gases entrained surrounding air.
WATERSPOUT
Sola Sea
s.8. Benlomond. Captain A. Yuill. Masinloc to Sandakan. Observers, Mr C. }. A. Cladingbowl, 2nd Officer and Mr W. Arthur, Cadet.
106
(a)0650 GMT
??a £'•• surface. -,——3s»' —•
(b) (c)0700 GMT
27 August 1975. At 0650 GMT a waterspout, bearing 255°^ range 5 n. mile by radar, was observed just after the vessel had emerged from a heavy rain shower. The tail gradually retreated into the cloud ten minutes after it was first observed. The column of water 1-2 m above sea level eventually dissipated amidst a cloud of spray.
The sketches show the stages of the waterspout during the final ten minutes of its life. The bending of the column by vertical wind shear is clearly shown in sketches (a) and (b).
Position of ship: 09° s8'N, 119° 57'E.
ST ELMO'S FIRE
Caribbean Sea
s.s. City of Edinburgh. Captain S. Murray. Rotterdam to Cristobal. Observers, Mr N. Macnish, ist Officer and Mr B. Wood, Cadet.
21 September 1975. At 0600 GMT the vessel was proceeding through the Mona Passage in a thunderstorm when St Elmo's Fire was observed on the bridge-wing whip-aerials and on the loud-hailer brackets. At the top of the aerial and at each joint a purple-coloured glow was seen. On the loud-hailer brackets sparks in rapid succession gave the impression of a flame. The sparks were 10-15 mm long, they came vertically out of the brackets and were again purple-coloured. The phenome non, which was at all times accompanied by a faint hissing sound, lasted for about two hours.
Position of ship: 17° 3o'N, 69° lo'w.
CURRENT RIP
North Atlantic Ocean
m.v. Gazana. Captain R. Baily. Mina al Ahmadi to Minatitlan. Observer Mr N. Stevens, 3rd Officer.
8 September 1975. At 1200 GMT whilst on a course of 2990T at a speed of 18 knots, a line of very confused seas with many white crests was observed some 10 n. mile sw of the vessel. As the vessel proceeded along her course, it became apparent that she was converging with this line and in fact crossed it at 1400. The Une was about 100 metres in width and a check on the compass showed it to be runningNW/SE.
107
The sea temperature at 1200 was 26*5°C and when read again at 1415 was found to be 29-0. At 1415 the line began to converge again and by 1430 the vessel was running along in the centre of the disturbed water. At 1450 the sea temperature from within the disturbed water was 28-0 and at 1500, when the line had begun to diverge to the sw again, the sea temperature was 27*0.
The ship's position at 1500 was approximately 5° 42'N, 49° 33'w and as the ship proceeded, the line continued to diverge but remained visible until 1530 at which time the sea temperature was again 29*0.
The wind was from the east throughout but increased from force 3 at 1130 to force 4-5 by 1200, at which force it remained until 1530 when it began to decrease and by 1600 was again force 3. A swell of approximately one metre was running ESE throughout.
At all times when the vessel was crossing or proceeding within this line of dis turbed water, there was an increase in vibration and the wake, which had previously been visible for two or three n. mile, was soon lost within the first two or three cables astern.
Position of ship at 1200: 5° i8'N, 48° 50'W.
Note i. The Gazana experienced a current rip, probably at the confluence of the main WNW- going South Equatorial current and an inshore branch, induced by the coastline to set NW and reinforced by water from the River Amazon. Note 2. The following is an extract from the South America Pilot, Volume i:
"The waters of Rio Amazonas rise during six months, and then, having reached their highest level, fall during the other six months of the year. During August and September, the snow on Cordillera de los Andes begins to melt, but its influence is only slowly felt by Rio Amazonas. The river begins to rise in November; the inundations in its lower parts take place from January to May inclusive; the north-easterly winds, which then prevail and blow fresh at the mouth of the river, retard the stream and contribute greatly to the inundations.
'The rise is from 9 to 15 metres and, at times, the whole basin is under water. By a singular operation of natural causes, the water in the southern tributaries of Rio Amazonas is high, while that in the northern ones is low, and vice versa. In Rio Madeira, a southern tributary, the water is at its highest in April, the difference between high and low river being about 15 metres.
"The outflow of muddy water from Rio Amazonas discolours the ocean to a distance of up to about 70 n. mile from its mouth; its limits are well-defined by the abrupt change of colour. Northward of the mouth, the South Equatorial current sets north-westward and deflects the river current; it has been reported that the stream of Rio Amazonas has been found in Lat. S°N, Long. soj°w. A vessel outside the line of demarcation, where the ocean water is of a bluish-green colour, has been observed frequently to leave a wake of muddy water, in sharp contrast with the surface water; this phenomenon occurs in depths of up to 15 metres, and is caused by the lower layers of river water extending further seaward than the surface layer.'
RADAR ECHOES
Sooth African waters
m.v. Jupiter Moon. Captain R. G. Macdonald. East London to Durban. Observers, the Master and Mr C. J. Hondius, Chief Officer.
m.v. Jupiter Moon is a South African Selected Ship.14 August 1975. At 0555 GMT unidentified echoes to seaward were observed on the
radar screen (see photograph opposite page 109). The coastline was just discernible in the haze and no cloud-line could be seen in the direction of the echoes. The other weather details at this time were as follows: air temp. 22-8°c, wet bulb 18*5, sea temp. 20*8, wind NNE, force 2 (during the previous six hours the wind had shifted frequently), pressure 1008*1 mb, visibility 7 n. mile.
108
(Opposite page 108)
Copyright Skyfotos Ltd. Antilochus (Ocean Transport & Trading Ltd.), Captain A. J. Palmer.
Copyright Skyfotos Ltd Mayfield (Shaw Savill & Albion Co. Ltd.), Captain J. Ferres.
Summity (F. T. Everard & Sons Ltd.), Captain W. G. Hunt.
THE THREE SHIPS WHICH GAINED THE HIGHEST MARKINGS FOR THEIR METEOROLOGICAL LOGBOOKS DURING THE YEAR 1975 (see page 94).
(Opposite page 109)
Photo by Captain R. G. Macdonald
The radar screen of the Jupiter Moon showing the echoes observed on 14 August 1975 onthe 12 n. mile range (see page 108).
!»*.*Photo by courtesy of RNBWS
An adult White-tailed Tropic-bird (Phaeton lepturus) (see page in).
On berthing at Durban at 0830 the Pilot advised that a strong westerly wind was due. The strong westerly duly arrived at 1200 and was accompanied by rises in pressure as indicated on the barograph trace (see sketch).
Position of ship: 30° <>7*5's, 30° 58'E.
14 AUG 15 AUG
8 12 16 20 24 4 8 12 16 20 24 4 8
Note i. Mr R. G. Flavell of the Radio Society of Great Britain comments:'We had hoped to be able to investigate the refractive index structure of the troposphere
in the neighbourhood of the ship. Unfortunately, however, the Meteorological Station at Durban does not carry out TEMP soundings (investigation of upper-air conditions), and the nearest place that does is too far away to be of value for such a local event. However, the wave- like appearance of the radar patterns forming the subject of the report closely resembles observations of clear-air turbulence as described in a number of meteorological contexts in recent years. The subject has been treated at length in a paper by Ottersten, Hardy and Little entitled Radar and Sodar Probing of Waves and Turbulence in Statically Stable Clear-air Layers, published in Boundary-layer Meteorology, Vol. 4, 1973, pp. 47-89. The authors describe a case illustrating a single-layer echo at about 6 n. mile which was shown to develop a wave formation which broke and evolved into a braided structure, rich in echo, finally becoming a double layer after some 15 minutes, a time very comparable with the duration of the phenomena reported by the observers.
'This aspect of the paper drew heavily on work carried out by Browning and Watkins of the Meteorological Research Unit, Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, written up origin ally in Nature, Vol. 227, 1970, pp. 260-263 under the title Clear-air Turbulence by High- power Radar, Perhaps you might consider inviting Dr Browning to comment on the photo graph as well.'
Note 2. Dr Browning comments:'High-power lo-cm radar with large aerials can pick up echoes from refractive index
fluctuations due mainly to humidity gradients at an inversion capping the boundary layer at heights of typically one-third of, to a little over, one n. mile. The marine radar in this ex ample, however, was probably a low-power 3-cm radar with a small aerial, all of which would indicate that it could not have detected echoes of that kind. On the other hand, swarms of insects occasionally congregate at, beneath or above such air-mass boundaries and these might well be detected by this kind of radar. Insects sometimes stay mainly within a given air mass in such a way as to tend to outline the wave-like boundary of that air mass. The winds in the present example were weak and variable which is not inconsistent with insects having been carried seawards from the nearby land mass.
'I do not know what are the beam-width characteristics of this marine radar or the eleva tion angle at which the beam was carried. If it was centred at 2 degrees elevation, say, the photograph would be consistent with an inversion being intersected at a mean altitude of about one-third of one n. mile.
'The above is necessarily tentative in view of the limited amount of information available on this occasion.'
109
FISH
North Atlantic Ocean
m.v. Benlawers. Captain J. R. Rodger. Cape Town to Hull. Observers, Mr W. Sinclair, 2nd Officer, Mr I. Madver, 3rd Officer, Mr C. Stevenson and Mr J. Lumsden, Cadets.
27 September 1975. Throughout the day numerous schools (about 50-100 per school) of what appeared to be Sperm whales were observed, all apparently heading in a northerly direction. Numerous schools of dolphins and a turtle were also ob served. Most of the schools on sighting the ship headed towards us but on getting to within 200 m they all veered away. Several fish, which appeared to be like swordfish, were seen to skim across the surface of the water standing on their tails. These fish were about i m in length, silvery-blue in colour and had sharp snouts about £ m in length.
Position of ship at 1200 GMT: 11° 36'!*, 17° 3o'w.
Note. Mr P. J. Whitehead, Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History), comments:
"The "swordfish" were most likely garfishes (Belonidae) or perhaps sauries (Scombreso- cidae).
'A garfish is described as being a fish with long spear-like snout and green bones.'A saury is described as a long-billed sea-fish/
SQUID
Sooth Pacific Ocean
m.v. Limpsfield. Captain J. A. Williams. New Plymouth to Balboa. Observers, the Master, Mr I. Barker, 3rd Officer and Mr D. Lane.
6 August 1975. At 2330 GMT while the vessel was stopped a number of squid a little over a metre long were observed. They were, in the main, white or grey in colour and had reddish-brown fins and a band of the same colour on the body just behind the head (some had two bands). A stripe ran the length of the body but it was difficult to determine whether it ran down the topside or the underside.
They appeared in the glare of the decklights to be just drifting in the lee of the vessel (none were observed to windward) with their tentacles outstretched umbrella- fashion. As darkness increased they were to be seen just below the surface of the water but when we switched on the Aldis lamp they dived down away from the direct light; they soon reappeared when the light was switched off.
Another creature was observed in the light of the Aldis lamp. It appeared as a yellowish glow, somewhat similar to cats' eyes, which moved about very erratically. When one did come close enough to give us a better sighting, the cats' eyes proved to be the eyes of a small grey fish about 15 cm long.
Flying fish were also observed at the same time. Some of them were seen to be attempting to fly up the beam of the Aldis lamp with rather comical results.
At 2330 the air temp, was 2i'8°c, wet bulb 21-0, sea 22-0. Wind E'N, force 4. Pressure 1015*2 mb. Sea and swell moderate. One okta of altocumulus (CM 3).
Position of ship: 11° 34/8, 101° 37'5'w.no
MARINE LIFE
North Pacific Ocean
m,v. Sugar Refiner. Captain C. N. L. Davies. Guaymas to Singapore. Observers, Mr J. H. Clark, Chief Officer, Mr R. N. Franklin, 2nd Officer and Mr G. Leith, 3rd Officer.
18 September 1975. From 1600 to 2300 GMT the vessel steamed through an extensive shoal of Velella. It was impossible to estimate the size of the shoal as it was visible along the ship's side only, but for most of the time as many as 90 could be counted passing down the side per minute; at other times several minutes would elapse during which none would be sighted.
During a stoppage at sea a specimen was caught in a bucket and preserved. While stopped, the Velella were observed to be making a southerly course at a speed sufficient to leave a small wake behind them. The wind was northerly, force 3 throughout.
Position of ship at 1600: 21° 28'N, 121° 5i'w. Position of ship at 2300: 21° 2O*N, 123° 33'w.
Note. Dr P. F. S. Cornelius, Head of the Coelenterate Section, British Museum (Natural History), comments:
'Vast shoals of Velella are of course frequently reported but it is good to place another on file. I am grateful to the officers who procured the specimen, which will be placed in the collection.'
BIRDS
North Atlantic Oceanm.v. City of Auckland. Captain F. Smith. Cape Town to Cardiff. Observers, the Master and crew.
8 July 1975. The bird reproduced in the sketch was found in the hatch stowage- space No. 4 by Mr B. Tucker, Deck Cadet. It appeared at first to be quite lively and no injuries were immediately obvious. It was easily approachable and showed no sign of fear unless roughly handled. It took some water and a small amount of fish.
The bird was silvery-white in colour, there were black edges to the wings, black marks around the eyes, and black and sooty-grey specks covered the back of the head. The tail, white in colour, was like a wide fan with a long narrow feather, 31 cm in length, protruding from the centre of the fan. The feet were black, narrow and
in
webbed. The overall length was 59-5 cm, beak 4-5 cm and wing-span 34 cm each wing. The Chief Engineer and three quartermasters tentatively identified the bird as a 'Bosunbird'.
The following day the bird showed little interest in life and was, for the main part, asleep. It did take some water but no food.
Late the same evening the bird was found dead by the 3rd Officer where it had been kept hi a pulled-out drawer in the Cadets' study. The cause of death was not known. It is believed by many on board that the bird was suffering from internal injuries and came aboard to try to recover.
Position of ship at 1800 GMT: 17° 36'N, 18° 30'w.
Note. Captain G. S. Tuck, D.S.O., R.N., Chairman of the Royal Naval Birdwatching Society, comments:
"This is a very good description and an excellent sketch, of a Tropic-bird. These birds breed on the Cape Verde Islands. They are quite often found on the decks of ships as they follow them at night in search of squid thrown up by the ship's wake. The birds become con fused by the lights, hit some part of the structure and fall to the deck dazed or stunned, where they are found next morning.
'Tropic-birds are beautiful white sea-birds of the tropical-ocean belts. They fly with quick strong wing-beats, usually at some height above the sea. There are 4 species.
Adult plumage1. The Red-billed: Mainly white with black-topped primary wing feathers. Upper parts are finely covered with black barring, bill coral-red, legs yellowish, feet black, and long white central tail feathers.2. The White-tailed: Similar to the Red-billed but upper parts are entirely white and crossed by a black band. Bill usually yellow, sometimes blackish, legs yellow, feet black. Plumage may show tinge of pink.3. The Red-tailed: Silky white, shafts of primary wing-quills oily black, flank feathers streaked black, bill coral-red, legs pale blue, feet black, central tail feathers thin, blood-red.4. Sub-species of the White-tailed Tropic-bird is the Christmas Island Tropic-bird found in the Indian Ocean. This is distinguished by the golden hue of its plumage.
Immature birds of all species show much barring over upper parts and lack elongated tail streamers. In adults in moult the tail streamers are sometimes absent or just growing.'
Indian Ocean
s.s. Jervis Bay. Captain L. E. Howell, Cape Town to Sydney. Observer, the Master.14 August 1975. At 0330 GMT a small duck was observed flying, neck extended
and with rapid wing-beat, around the vessel. It looked quite out of place amongst the soaring, gliding Albatrosses. Later it was clearly observed when it settled on the forecastle-head deck.
It was about 18-23 cm m length, the head was light velvety-brown, eyes appeared to be black, the bill slate-blue, underbody light fawn, body feathers light brown and dark brown, speckled. There were white tips to the edge of the innermost main flight feathers and the legs were light grey-blue. It walked with legs at a very bent angle as does a shuffling Shearwater. There were low quacking noises when it was disturbed.
Apart from Amsterdam Island about 350 n. mile ahead, the nearest land would be either Crozet Island or Kerguelen Island, both about 800 n. mile to the south. The bird flew around the vessel on and off all day, but was not seen on the following day,
'In my many crossings at various latitudes hi this ocean,' writes the Master, 'I have never before come across a duck!'
Position of ship at 0700: 36° 53% 69° 43'fi.112
Note. Captain G. S. Tuck, D.S.O., R.N., Chairman of the Royal Naval Birdwatching Society, comments;
'The reference to a duck which came aboard so far out to sea is, of course, most unusual. It was clearly a small duck and the nearest approximation might be the Hottentot Teal (Anas hottentotta) quoted as being 35 cm in length and the smallest duck in southern Africa. It shows a white edge to its speculum in flight as described, the flight is fast, it is usually seen in pairs and sometimes in flocks, but who knows from where such a duck could have come?'
Arabian Sea
m.v. British Avon. Captain I. B. McNaughton. Ras Tanura to Kawasaki. Observer, Mr D. McCallum, Chief Officer.
14 August 1975. At 1330 GMT the bird shown in the sketch landed on the flying- bridge rails and stayed there for about ten minutes before flying off again.
The bird was about the same size as a skylark, the shaded areas in the sketch were black and the light areas a pale pink. As it spread its wings to balance against the wind, two other points were noted the back and underside of the wing appeared to be pink, and the bird seemed to raise a crest when buffeted by the wind: this may, however, have been gusts of wind ruffling the feathers.
Position of ship: 22° 2o'N, 61° 3o'E.
Note. Captain G. S. Tuck, D.S.O., R.N., Chairman of the Royal Naval Birdwatching Society, comments:
"This is Sturnas roseus, a Rose-coloured Starling. The sketch giving positions of plumage is very useful. The bird shows a crest at times.'
"3
North Pacific Ocean
m.v. Sugar Refiner. Captain C. N. L. Davies. Guaymas to Singapore. Observers, the Master, Mr G. J. B. Leith, 3rd Officer, Mr S. J. Kingston, 3rd Engineer and other members of the crew.
18 September 1975. At 1730 GMT a bird was observed as it landed on No. i Hatch; it was a smallish dark bird with light markings.
Mr Kingston, our bird-watcher, was informed and he tentatively identified the bird as a Black Turnstone in winter plumage. After three or four fruitless forays up the foredeck during succeeding nights, the bird was finally caught at midday on the 23rd in Mr Kingston's home-made bird trap an old fruit box delicately balanced on a stick with rope attached, inside the box lay a bowl of gastronomical goodies a spread the bird could not refuse.
On closer inspection the bird was definitely identified as a Black Turnstone. The upper parts were mostly a light brownish-grey with some lightly speckled buff on the crown and the nape. The underparts were mostly white or whitish with some buff colouring on the throat and breast, the wings carried a striking pattern in black and white.
It soon became obvious that the bird was very thin and bony. During the days before capture it had been observed trying to feed on some grain, residue of our cargo which may have been left lying in hatch tracks and in corners under the hatch coamings, but it obviously wasn't particularly enamoured of it. However, it did peck out and eat the eyes of a flying fish which was lying on deck; this was probably the only food taken before its capture.
For its first real meal we offered very finely chopped pieces of lamb, lean and fat alike, which it seemed to enjoy immensely. The next day we offered half a tin of sardines which it seemed to enjoy even more than the lamb. On this same day it indulged in a spot of the aquatic sports, almost drowning in a soup bowl filled with water in the process.
Within 24 hours of captivity, Fred, as the bird had been named, became very docile and friendly towards its guardian, Mr Kingston. It would feed from his hand and fly or jump to an outstretched hand or arm.
Position of ship at 1800 GMT on 18 September: 21° 30'!*, 122° i8'w.
South Australian waters
s.s. Jervis Bay. Captain L. £. Howell. Cape Town to Sydney. Observers, the Master, Mr P. Wood and Mr A. J. Fee, 2nd Officers.
20 August 1975. During the day a number of different species of Albatross were sighted and all but one was identified. The unknown, and one which followed the vessel all day, was all-white (Albino?), except for isolated patches of colour on the body and upper wings and a yellow bill. In both shape and size it resembled the black-browed Albatross.
Position of ship at 1200 GMT: 40° 30*8, 135° o6'E.
Note. Captain G. S. Tuck, D.S.O., R.N., Chairman of the Royal Naval Birdwatching Society, comments:
'I feel it may have been the less usual All-white Giant Petrel of the southern type (Macro- itectis giganttus). They may be juvenile or adult, the white feathers being acquired at the nest, and birds remain white for life. A few are wholly white but moat have some black spots. All-white birds may have ivory horn-bills and flesh-coloured legs.'
INSECT
Pacific Ocean
m.v. Phemius. Captain R. J. Paterson, Keelung to Kobe. Observers, the Master, Mr G. J. Roberts, 2nd Officer, Mr R. M. Selvarajah, 3rd Officer and Mr R. Cooper, Cadet.
4 July 1975. At 0300 GMT an insect resembling a moth was seen to be flying about in the wheel-house. The observers were unable to take a close look at the insect as it kept flying around. Moreover, no one wished to risk the possibility of being stung. In order to learn more about the insect, a small dose of insecticide was administered.
The most interesting point about it was its spring-like tongue underneath the snout and a very prominent groove running fore and aft, in which the tongue was stored (see drawings). The tail end fanned out like a fish fin, and a fish-fin-like protrusion was observed on either side of the body. The tail and protrusions, it was thought, enabled the insect to maintain stability in flight. It had twin wings and looked very much like a Harrier aircraft in flight.
Position of ship: 32° ZQ'N, 133° 32'E.
VIEW FROM ABOVE
very sharp pointed snout
white band from snout to neck of 0-1 cm thickness
dark brown band of 0-12 cm thickness
antenna dark brown 0-9 cm
leg dark brown V5 cm
4 yellow circular patches
maximum width 0-82 cm
pattern on wing dark brown of
0-12 cm thickness
six squaredark brown
patches
clearly visible wing veins
dark brown band of 0-3 cm thickness
two white rectangular patches
Length of snout to tail edge 3-67 cm Wing span at rest 3- 67cm Wing tip to snout 3-5 cm
Mostly a very light off-brown colour
with darker super-impressions
skin appeared to be hairy in texture
twin wings reddish-brown'
springy-looking tonguewhich is stored in groove
in the undercarriage
bottom half reddish-brown
broad rectangular white area
fish-fin-liketail and sideprotruding
top ends of wings very light brown
top half light yellow (hairy)
deep groove wherefeeler or tongue
is stored(see inset)
Note. Mr A. H. Hayes of the Department of Entomology, British Museum (Natural History), comments:
'This is Macroglossum pyrrhostica Butler, of the moth family Sphingdae. It is a relative of our humming-bird hawk-moth. This species is found from north India to Japan eastwards to Lombok, Indonesia.'
LUMINESCENCE English Channel
m.v. Eagle. Captain J. Robinson. Southampton to Lisbon. Observers, Mr D. Ray and Mr J. Reeves, 2nd Officers.
5 July 1975. At 2215 GMT an unusual luminescence was observed in the water on both sides of the ship besides the more common light-green hue of the bow wave. Initially it was thought we were passing through a large shoal of mackerel or other fish and these were disturbing luminescence in the sea.
On either side of the ship for a distance of at least 60 m there appeared to be many thousands of dots of light each with a tail judged to be from 2 to 15 cm long, in the vague shape of a tadpole or fish and swimming rapidly in all directions away from the ship, some crossing each other and a few even turning complete circles. An attempt was made to see something with the Aldis lamp but to no avail. Oc casionally one could see ahead a patch of light 3-6 cm across, which, on the near approach of the ship i.e. 15-30 m away, would suddenly burst out into a seething mass of light, this being similar to the bursting of a firework, as the fish swam out and away. Air temp. i5°c, sea temp. 19°. Wind ENE, force 2-3. Ship's speed 21 knots.
Position of ship: 49° i2'N, 4° 24'w.
Note. Dr P. J. Herring of the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences comments:"This report is particularly interesting and the officers are undoubtedly correct in their
interpretation of the sighting as a large shoal of small fish in water containing a dinoflagellate "bloom". You may perhaps be interested to know that efforts are currently being made both in the northern Atlantic and off South Africa to identify fish shoals and make some estimate of their size by noting the degree of luminescence caused in certain areas by the shoals. Such observations are made at night from low-flying aircraft equipped with image intensifiers, and show some commercial promise.'
116
(Opposite page 116)
Radio Room of a liner in 1912. Photo by Marconi International Marine Company
1;
Photo by Marconi International Marine Company Radio Room of a modern cargo vessel (see page 127).
i o
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8).
ABNORMAL REFRACTION
South Atlantic Ocean
m.v. City of Capetown. Captain G. H. Salter. Beira to^Rotterdam. Observers, the Master, Mr M. S. Shakespeare, 3rd Officer and Cadet."
28 September 1975. At 1048 GMT unusual inverted refraction was observed off Cape Town (see sketch i). The phenomenon was observed for about 15 minutes when a distortion of the refracted image occurred (see sketch 2). This lasted for
MOUNTAIN TOPS VISIBLE ABOVE HAZE
about another 15 minutes after which the image had merged with the ship. The weather details were as follows: barometer reading 1014*7 mb, dry bulb i8*o°c, wet bulb 15*6, wind SSE, force 2, rippled sea, low swell.
Position of ship: 33° 58's, 17° yj'E.
METEORS
North Atlantic Ocean
s.8. Oronsay. Captain J. A. Lefevre. Bermuda to Port Everglades. Observers, Mr R. Pinchen, 3rd Officer and Mr F. McKeeman, Coxswain.
12 August 1975. An unusually large number of meteors was observed between 0300 and 0730 GMT; the shower was also unusual in that a large variety of meteors was observed. Most of them were of short flight-duration and moving quite fast, others were fainter and moving very fast indeed.
They all seemed to originate in an area close to the Square of Pegasus, all that is but one, a very bright meteor close to the star Fomalhaut on a bearing of about 20o°x and at an altitude of about 30°. It moved quite slowly burning with a yellow light, which, at its brightest, was comparable with that of Jupiter fairly close by. It finally burned out, turning slightly orange as it did so, on a bearing of 175 °T and at an altitude of 5°. The meteor was observed for approximately i£ seconds. A trail was not observed.
Position of ship at 0600: 29° 13'**, 70° 38'w.
117
Project StormfuryHURRICANES CAN THEIR DESTRUCTIVE FORCE BE REDUCED?
(This article is reproduced from the Mariners Log Vol. 19. No. 5, September 1975, by kind permission of theEditor.)
Project Stormfury was formed in 1962 as a co-operative venture of the Department of Commerce and the Department of Defense. Its objective is to investigate ways for man to alter tropical cyclones beneficially. The organization has changed during the past few years, and the project is now basically a National Oceanic and Atmo spheric Administration (NOAA) program.
The general name of the family of storms which includes hurricanes is tropical cyclones. Members of this family are called tropical depressions, tropical storms, cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons, depending on their strength and location. These storms are convectively driven low-pressure systems whose winds flow counter-clockwise around the storm in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Their wind speeds generally increase inwards towards the storm centre. In relatively mature storms, a band of clouds is formed, called the eyewall, which encircles the centre of the circulation, with an average radius of 10 to 15 n. mile from the storm centre. The wind speeds usually reach their maximum strength in the region of the eyewall and become relatively calm in the nearly cloud-free eye. These maximum wind speeds can exceed 175 kn. The centre of a mature storm, especially at middle and upper levels, is much warmer, and has a much lower surface pressure, than the exterior portions. Figure i shows an artist's conception of a hurricane with a pie-shaped section cut away all the way into the eye.
Figure x. An artist's conception of a hurricane. A pie-shaped section has been cut away all the way into the eye. The vertical scale has been enlarged by a factor of about xo compared to the horizontal scale. The eye, rainbands and cirrus shield
are illustrated.118
The losses caused by a single hurricane, typhoon, or cyclone can be large enough to determine the success or failure of some nation's economy. The average annual cost of hurricane damage to the United States alone is now about $450 million. Hurricanes Betsy (1965) and Camilla (1969) caused more than $1*4 billion damage each (Gentry, 1974). The loss of property is of course only part of the picture. Other losses, such as loss of business, increased material and food costs due to a loss of productivity, increased shipping costs etc., would increase these numbers to even greater proportions. These factors do not include the loss of human life. The damages resulting from hurricanes are basically caused by the wind, storm surge and rainfall. Nearly all storms which make landfall cause damage from each of these three factors. However, the relative percentage of damage for each factor varies widely, depending upon the storm and where it comes ashore. For instance, the damage resulting along the Texas coast from hurricane Celia (1970) exceeded $450 million and was mostly caused by wind (Gentry, 1974). On the other hand, the storm surge along the Gulf Coast during the passage of hurricane Camilla in 1969 reached 7-6 m in some locations (Simpson, 1970) and accounted for much of the damage. Finally, the torrential rains associated with hurricane Fi£ (1974) caused inland floods and mudslides in Honduras resulting in the deaths of from 3000 to 10 ooo people (Hope, 1975).
The strength of the storm, its speed and direction of movement and its associated rainfall pattern, all play important roles in determining the damage caused by a given storm. The rainfall and storm-surge height are dependent upon the strength of the storm, its speed of movement and the local topography, including the ocean bottom near the coast. The resulting damage is dependent upon these factors, the types of structures and the preparedness of the local residents.
Tropical cyclone damage could be reduced with the proper alteration of the listed storm parameters. Only alterations of the strength of the storm are considered possible in the near future. These alterations would, of course, change the wind speed and possibly the storm surge, but should have no significant effect upon the rainfall.
Project Stormfury experiments are designed to alter the balance of forces in the region surrounding the eye of the tropical cyclone, thus causing a redistribution of the energy concentrated near the storm's centre. A tropical cyclone draws most of its energy from latent heat released during the convective overturning of the atmo sphere. At low levels, warm moist air spirals over the tropical sea towards the storm's centre carrying copious quantities of latent and sensible heat. As this air flows into the storm, it acquires some additional energy from the ocean. Most of this air flows upwards through the eyewall and/or into the surrounding rain-band clouds. The inflowing air releases latent heat by forming water droplets and ice particles in the clouds, and thus furnishes most of the energy for driving the storm. The air, slowly turning as a result of the rotation of the Earth, gathers tangential speed through partial conservation of its absolute angular momentum during its slow inward spiral. This process produces increasingly stronger winds as the air gets progressively closer to the storm's centre, until the air flows upwards and then away from the storm's core at high levels. A process which would cause this low-level, moisture-laden air to rise at a greater distance from the storm centre than would naturally occur would produce a reduction in the wind speeds. It would also cause a change in the thermal structure of the storm, since there would be an increase in the rate of latent-heat release in the new region of ascending air motion and a decrease in the region where the air formerly rose. The question then is how to alter the mass flow in the hurricane.
Radar observations in hurricanes containing a well-formed eyewall indicate that many of the areas located outward from the eyewall, away from the storm centre, contain clouds that do not extend to the outflow level. Other observations indicate that most of these clouds contain large quantities of supercooled liquid water (water with a temperature lower than o°c). Numerical calculations based upon buoyancy
119
indicate that these clouds can be caused to grow through the dynamic seeding process. Injection of silver iodide particles (which appear to the cloud to be ice particles) into these clouds causes the droplets to freeze, releasing the latent heat of fusion (335 kj/kg). This additional heat increases the buoyancy of that portion of the cloud (causes that portion of the cloud to be warmer and therefore lighter than the surrounding air) and thus triggers an increase in the ascending flow. As the air rises it expands and cools and water vapour condenses or sublimates (forms water drop lets or ice particles), releasing considerably more latent heat (25i2kJ/kg). The result is that the seeded clouds grow to the outflow level and thus provide new convective conduits which intercept the inflowing moisture-laden air near the surface, causing it to rise to the outflow layer and be carried away from the core of the storm. This increased heating in the seeded clouds on the exterior edge of the eyewall, along with the decreased fuel supply for the old eyewall, also results in diminished horizontal temperature gradients. The reduction in wind speeds follows naturally from this sequence of events. That is, air flowing inwards and accelerating because of the partial conservation of angular momentum ascends in this new convective area before it reaches the tangential speeds that it would have achieved had it continued to spiral into the old eyewall.
In summary, the Stormfury hypothesis is as follows.
(a) Clouds are seeded outwards (away from the storm centre) from the external edge of a mature hurricane eyewall.
(b) The supercooled water in the seeded cloud freezes, latent heat of fusion is released, the buoyancy of the upper portion of the cloud increases, and increased ascent results hi increased condensation rates and cloud growth.
(c) The seeded cloud reaches the outflow level, providing a conduit for the major vertical mass transport at a larger radius.
(d) The old eyewall circulation weakens as the vertical mass transport is con centrated in the seeded clouds, and the subsidence in the eye decreases.
(e) The maximum wind speeds are reduced owing to the partial conservation of angular momentum and the decreased temperature gradients.
(/) The pressure field adjusts to the wind and temperature fields.(g) Finally, the storm starts to return to its natural state as determined by the
synoptic-scale environment (atmospheric and oceanic conditions surrounding the hurricane), 6 to 18 hours after the final seeding.
The process just described is schematically illustrated in Figure 2, which shows a vertical cross-section through the centre of a storm. The upper panel shows the storm prior to seeding, and the lower panel illustrates the hypothesized alterations in the translational flow and cloud structure.
The hurricane modification research, including simulations by numerical models, and the field experiments conducted in previous years suggest that the maximum winds in hurricanes can be reduced by 10 to 20 per cent when the proper clouds of the storms are seeded with freezing nuclei. This doesn't sound like much of an effect. However, the force exerted by the wind varies with the square of the wind speed; therefore, a reduction of 10 to 20 per cent in the maximum wind speeds will result in a reduction of 19 to 36 per cent in the maximum force of the winds. The wind damage could be reduced by at least an equal amount. Research relating damage to wind speed suggests that the damage would be reduced by an even higher percentage. The storm surge is a function of several parameters, but the principal influences are the sustained wind speed and the slope of the ocean's bottom. This suggests that, in most cases, reducing the maximum wind speeds should also reduce the storm surge. Therefore, if the maximum surface wind speeds can be reduced by only 10 to 15 per cent, the hurricane damage in the United States could be reduced by $50 to $100 million per year, and lives might be saved in areas that are difficult to evacuate.
120
Figure a. Schematic illustration of the hypothesized convective structure and trans- lational now through a storm before (top) and after (bottom) the seeding effect starts
taking place.
Four hurricanes have been seeded since 1961 (Figure 3) hurricane Esther (1961), hurricane Beulah (1963), hurricane Debbie (1969), and hurricane Ginger (1971). All of these cases except Ginger involved seeding in or near the eyewall. In all but one of these cases there were indications of a reduction in wind speed. In no case was there an indication of a wind-speed increase. However, only the two hurri cane Debbie experiments were conducted in a manner closely resembling the present Stormfury hypothesis. The hurricane Ginger rain-sector seeding experiments, on September 26 and 28, 1971, were performed on a poorly defined, diffuse storm. This makes direct comparison with results obtained in hurricane Debbie impossible, although some modifications to the clouds in Ginger did occur as a result of the seeding.
Hurricane Debbie (1969) was seeded five times on each of two different days. The maximum wind speeds decreased by approximately 30 per cent on August 18, and 15 per cent on August 20 (Figures 4 and 5). There is evidence other than the wind speed alone that supports the present Stormfury hypothesis. In fact, the present hypothesis is partially based upon the analysis of the Debbie experiments. For instance, there was a decrease in the middle-level temperature in the eye of Debbie on both the i8th and zoth, and indications of slight increases in temperature outside the eyewall. Also, the water-vapour content in the eye at these same levels increased considerably on both days, possibly indicating a weakening of the circula tion set up by the old eyewall. There was also other evidence as depicted by the changing structure of the storm (Sheets, 1973) and in the radar structure (Black, 1972). In summary, although not conclusive, time sequences of the wind, radar and other data suggest that a modification to hurricane Debbie was achieved. However, more such data analyses are required before definitive statistical support can be claimed.
121
.: ••••77?:
**•*»" at tutu • . • •L_:._.1:_i--,HOOZ !•.•••'''' - • ' " V' _—•--'"" \. .
xv x •._• / b I200Z POSITION V—f~_ *.. '_J._ I Jj°*' "
.. ooooz/ • : - ..'-.-•. t ~~V~ / •••••• ie? • ,.) ;; ..- u
• • • ' j^Vi2 - ';ESTHER It-26 SEPT. 1961
TDEBBIE 13*25 AUG. 1969. \ • '.-..- .:-v,
BEULAH 20-28 AUG. 1963
Figure 3. Tracks of all hurricanes which have been seeded 1961-75.(Times and locations of seeding are indicated.)
The progress of the experimental program and research has continually under gone scientific scrutiny, and periodic symposia have been held. An Advisory Panel consisting of five members from the scientific community provided guidance from 1962 to 1973 on the scientific and technical aspects of the project, and a workshop was conducted in 1974 which involved many prominent scientists in the field of meteorology. These groups recommended increased emphasis on cloud physics, radar, the sequence-of-events approach and the physical analysis (reasoning from cause to effect). The results of the Debbie experiments were so encouraging that increased efforts were urged towards the testing of the Stormfury hypothesis. Also, new instrumentation was being developed which would permit a thorough evalua tion of each link in the hypothesis.
To test the Stormfury hypothesis thoroughly, certain critical variables should be measured to determine the following:
(a) variation with time of wind, temperature, pressure and radar-echo patterns at various levels and positions over periods of 12 to 30 hours, in both natural and seeded tropical cyclones,
(b) availability and extent of potential energy in the form of supercooled water, the distribution of nuclei after seeding and the effectiveness of conversion to ice,
(c) variations of sea-surface temperature and momentum flux, the inflow of latent heat in the subcloud layer and other levels of tropical cyclones, and the modification of these parameters due to seeding,
(d) large-scale circulations in the upper troposphere that act to maintain or to inhibit the hurricane,
122
(f) surface wind and wave fields, the wave-coupled momentum flux and its relation to total momentum flux, surge-damage potential, and the role of surface waves in the ocean-atmosphere feed-back system,
(/) effects of a tropical cyclone on mixing and upwelling of the ocean, and therefore on the sea-surface temperature, and the role of a modified ocean on the dynamics of the cyclone, andparameters of sea-state wave spectra, surface wind and sea-surface tempera ture that may be measured from aircraft using remote-sensing instru mentation.
100
90
_, 80 in
o
TO
PROJECT STORMFURY HURRICANE DEBBIE Modification Experiment
AUGUST 18 19G3 WIND SPEEDS
(It OOC-1«»t)
u a. ina
60
40
BEFORE FIRST SEEDING
AFTER THIRD SEEDING
4 HOURSAFTER FIFTH
SEEDING
5 HOURSAFTER FIFTH
SEEDING
40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 SSW DISTANCE FROM HURRICANE CENTRE (nautical mile.) NNE
100
90
SO
70
o u utSi 60
SO
PROJECT STORMFURY ~ HURRICANE DEBBIE
Modification Experiment AUGUST 20 1969WIND SPEEDS
(12 OOOfcet)
A
BEFORE FIRST .SEEDING
G HOURSAFTER FIFTH
SEEDING
40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 SStT DISTANCE FROM HURRICANE CENTRE (nautical miles) NME
Figures 4 and 5. Hurricane Debbie wind-speed profiles recorded onxS and ao August 1969.
(after Gentry, 1970)
123
The probable Stormfury aircraft employment timetable illustrated in Figure 6 should provide the required measurements. This diagram contains inserts illustrat ing the number of aircraft and crews required, as well as the basic monitoring pattern superimposed upon a simulated radar presentation. The periods of monitor ing by each aircraft are indicated by blocks. The small illustrations directly above or below these blocks depict the portion of the basic monitoring pattern covered during that time period.
STORMFURY AIRCRAFT EMPLOYMENT TIMETABLESTORM LOCATED 600 N.MILES, FROM BASE OF OPERATIONS
PLAN B
NASA 990
CREW 1
AIRCRAFT CREWS2-P3D'S 32-CI30B 2
NASA 1-990 2
-4 To 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 TIME (HOURS) FROM To (Beginning time of first seeding period.)
Figure 6. Stormfury aircraft empfoymenttimetable.
The goal is to establish a modification hypothesis at a confidence level high enough that the technique can be taken from the experimental stage and used operationally. The attainment of this goal will require monitoring of several seeded and unseeded cases. The likelihood of obtaining a sufficient number of experiments in the near future in the Atlantic is small. Therefore, plans are under way to operate from Guam in the western North Pacific (Figure 7), where it should be possible to obtain approximately five seeded and six unseeded cases each year, during the peak typhoon periods of 1977 and 1978.
Three major questions are raised concerning the effects of the modification upon the storm:
(a) what is the chance of increasing the strength of the storm?(b) what is the probability of causing a change in the direction and speed of
movement of the storm ?(c) what changes in the total precipitation may occur?
All evidence presently available indicates that no significant changes should occur relative to these three facets of the storm. However, the guidelines covering the experiments include additional safeguards.
124
The most significant safeguard is that no seeding during these experiments will take place during the period of several hours before the storm makes landfall. The Stormfury hypothesis states that the storm returns to its 'natural' state within the period of 6 to 18 hours after the seeding stops. This is based upon theoretical computations and the results of previous experiments. The most complete case is hurricane Debbie, which underwent a very distinctive decrease in intensity on August 18 (Figure 4), and had returned to nearly its original state by early on the aoth (Figure 5).
120°E 130"E 140e E 150°E 160°E 170° E 180"E
4O°N
30°N
20°N
10°N
ROJZCT STORMFUjnrGUAM— PHILIPPINE AREAHREE MONTH AVERAGE OF
5.5 ELIGIBLE TYPHOON SAUGUST, SEPTEMBER , OCTOBER
(1961-1970)
120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E 160°E 170°E 180°E
Figure 7. Scheduled area (circle) of Stormfury Pacific experiments.
The question of the alteration of rainfall is of concern to some nations. It is believed that the total rainfall associated with a hurricane is basically a function of the synoptic-scale environment. Figure 2 illustrates the hypothesized change in the convective pattern. The primary change is an alteration of the inner core of the storm. Calculations, primarily based upon actual radar observations, indicate that changes of rainfall rates of as much as 30 per cent in the inner core have little net effect on the total accumulated rainfall from the storm as it passes over a given area. Finally, the fact that hurricane Debbie exhibited a typical radar structure at the beginning of both the August 18 and 20 experiments is further evidence that there were no significant long-term effects on the precipitation associated with this storm.
The movement of the storm is also believed to be a function of the synoptic-scale environment, rather than the smaller-scale motions hypothesized to be affected by the seeding. Several calculations and a numerical experiment are presently being made to demonstrate the possible effects on the hurricane movement of seeding in an asymmetric fashion. However, most storms are asymmetric and their movement is as predictable as more symmetric cases. Furthermore, diffusion calculations indicate that materials dispersed in the fashion prescribed by the present hypothesis
are rapidly spread around the storm. In all the cases illustrated hi Figure 3, includ ing the two hurricane Debbie experiments, there were no apparent alterations in the track during, or immediately after, the seeding.
The final question is that of intensity. This is the area where the strongest evidence exists that no detrimental effects take place as a result of the seeding. In all seeded cases, no storm increased in strength during the monitoring period after seeding. Furthermore, the simulations by numerical models indicate that no in crease will result if the seeding takes place as specified by the present hypothesis.
All evidence presently available indicate that the scheme described in the Storm- fury hypothesis may provide a means of decreasing the destructive force of hurri canes. Therefore, it seems that this technique should be explored as rapidly as possible. The plans for testing the Stormfury hypothesis during 1978 are quite thorough and include many safeguards during this testing phase. By the end of these experiments, a practical technology may have been attained for beneficial modification of hurricanes, and a new plateau will certainly have been reached in understanding the processes which maintain and drive a hurricane.
REFERENCES
BLACK, P. G., SBNN, H. V. and COURTRIGHT, C. L.
GENTRY, R. C.
HOPE, J. R.
SHEETS, R. C.
1972
1970
1974
1975
1973
SIMPSON, R. H., SUGG, A. L. and STAFF 1970
Airborne Radar Observations of Eye Configuration Changes, Bright Band Distribution and Precipitation Tilt during the 1969 Multiple Seeding Experiments in Hurricane Debbie. Mm Weath Rev, 100, pp. 208-317.Hurricane Debbie Modification Experi ments, August 1969. Science, 168, pp. 473-475-Hurricane Modification. Weather and Climate Modification, pp. 497-521. Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1974. Mon Weath Rev, 103, pp. 285-293. Analysis of Hurricane Debbie Modifica tion results using the Variational Optimi zation Approach. Mon Weath Rev, 101, pp. 663-684.The Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1969. Man Weath Rev, 98, pp. 293-306.
126
75 YEARS OF MARITIME SERVICE*
1901-76
Seventy-six years ago, Guglielmo Marconi formed the Marconi International Marine Company on the very day that he celebrated his own 26th birthday 25 April 1900. The object of the Company was to enable shipowners to rent wireless apparatus, the services of operators and the use of Marconi shore stations, so ending the isolation of those at sea. The services still operate today, though the shore stations are now under Post Office control.
In 1901, the year of his dramatic bridging of the Atlantic with Morse code transmissions, Marconi started to establish a network of permanent wireless stations specifically for maritime communications. Stations were built that year on the British and Irish coasts and in Belgium and Germany, while US stations on the Nantucket lightship and at Siasconcet were made available, and a station at Belle Isle in the Gulf of St Lawrence was nearing completion.
By the end of 1901, not only had the British and Italian navies adopted the 'new device* but so too had the first British merchant ship, a number of foreign merchant ships, and the Cunard liners Lucania and Campania.
The value of Marconi's invention as a life-saver was established beyond question in 1909 when the wireless-equipped White Star liner Republic collided with the Italian s.s. Florida. Before long, ships were converging on the scene in response to the wireless distress signals. For his devotion to duty during the traumatic experi ence, the Marconi Radio Operator, Jack Binns, assured himself of a place in the annals of maritime history.
During the first decade of the Company's life, the number of wireless-carrying ships increased steadily, but it was the part that wireless played in the arrest of the notorious murderer, Dr Crippen, that supplied the drama. Captain Kendall of the Montrose, suspecting that Dr Crippen and his mistress, Ethel le Neve, were aboard his ship bound for Canada, signalled Scotland Yard by wireless, and on arrival in Canada, they were taken into custody by fast-travelling Inspector Dew of the Yard.
In 1912 came the tragic Titanic disaster. Those who survived owed their lives to wireless and to the devotion and bravery of the Marconi Marine radio officers, one of whom, 'Jack* Phillips, died at his post.
During the First World War, the Company trained 3300 operators for mercantile marine service, and 180 of its own radio operators lost their lives at sea. As often happens in time of war, technological progress hotted up. Radio direction-finding was brought to a fine art, and the range of a ship's wireless-telegraphy station was increased to between 2000 and 3000 n. mile. Wireless telephony too made headway, culminating in a large-scale demonstration in 1920, when delegates of the Empire Press Union on board s.s. Victorian held wireless-telephone conversations over distances in excess of 1000 n. mile. The new Marconi direction-finder was also demonstrated on this voyage, and within six years was adopted by over 200 ships. Another war-time development to go into wide use was the Marconi auto-alarm which, unlike many wireless devices, actually enabled some shipowners to cut down on expenses, as it performed the task of two wireless watch-keepers formerly mandatory on certain ships.
The *2os also saw the introduction of sound-reproducing equipment on board ships, and the 'Marconi Band Repeater', through its microphone, amplifier and loudspeakers, brought live gramophone music to entertain those at sea.
Meanwhile, the fishing industry had not been slow to follow the example of the deep-sea vessels, and by the late '203, 191 trawlers and drifters carried Company
* This article is reproduced from the Marconi publication Aerial (Summer 1975) with the kind permission of the Editor.
127
equipment. By 1930, the newly developed Marconi echo-meter was bringing valuable underwater information, including fish locations, to trawlermen, as does its descendant today, the echo-sounder.
Two years after Guglielmo Marconi's death in 1937, Marconi Marine was again heavily committed to war work, providing radio personnel for the British Merchant Navy and equipment for both British and allied shipping, and moving service depots along the line of battle for the benefit of ships coming into port.
After the war, Marconi Marine decided to direct the radar experience gained by the Marconi Company to the design of completely new equipment for peacetime shipping. In 1946, the first 'Radio Locator' went on exhibition and a radar school was established in Chelmsford to train both shore and sea staff.
In its Jubilee year, 1950, the Company received orders for re-equipping all the lighthouses and radio beacons round the coast of Britain. In the following year it supplemented the already comprehensive Marconi Marine installation on the Gothic which, as the floating headquarters for the Commonwealth tour of the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh, had to meet excessive communication demands. Notable in the '503 was the increasing use of VHP for maritime purposes. The Company was ready to meet the demand with a new range of equipment, exploiting, in the late years of that decade, the advantages of the single side-band mode of operation, which has led directly to Omega, automatic Loran, selective calling and automatic error-correcting systems that ensure accurate telex communication.
In the mid *6os a vast new market for Marconi Marine opened up with the arrival of the first North Sea drilling rig. Over the years requirements have advanced from simple radio-telephone links with the shore to specially designed independent side-band (i.s.b.) equipment providing simultaneous radio-telephony and tele printer transmission.
1970 saw another piece of history being made when Dallas Bradshaw of Marconi Marine became the first woman radio officer to go to sea in the British Merchant Navy. The '703 have also seen the introduction of Marconi Marine electronics officers and the expanding use of the Company's equipment, which include a variety of on-board entertainment systems and the spectacular, fully automatic anti-collision radar, 'Predictor*.
Since 1900, the Company has led the way in marine electronics. A Queen's Award winner for export achievement, it offers to ships of all nationalities the widest range of electronic equipment available from any one company.
PRESENTATION OF BAROGRAPHS
The Annual Barograph Awards were made on 3 February 1976 to 3 of the 4 ship masters who qualified for the period ending in the year 1974.
Once again we were unable to secure the presence of all 4 recipients on the same date, leaving one Award outstanding, that to Captain J. M. Burn of P & O General Cargo Division. At the time of writing Captain Burn is in command of m.v. Tempo on her way home from New Zealand and we are extremely hopeful of obtaining the presence of Captain Burn in March or April to present him with his well-deserved Award.
It would have been unusual had we obtained the presence of all 4 masters at the same time; only once since the introduction of these Awards in 1948 has this been possible.
These Awards are allotted for long service (15 years and upwards), continuity of records and the general outstanding quality of these records, bearing in mind that the work is completely voluntary.
128
The 3 masters able to attend this first presentation, whose names appeared in the April issue of The Marine Observer were Captain M. j J. Heron, Container Fleets, Captain D. S. Millard, Manchester Liners and Captain A. F. Ashton, Bibby Brothers and Company. It also gave us great pleasure to have with us the wives of 2 of the masters, Mrs Millard and Mrs Ashton, and in addition Captain G. B. Hannaford, Marine Superintendent (Personnel), Manchester Liners, and Captain R. Hannah, Operating Manager, Container Fleets.
The presentations were again made by Mr J. K. Bannon, Director of Services of the Meteorological Office. Mr Bannon thanked the 3 shipmasters, together and individually, whilst making the presentations, and emphasized the great value and significance, over the past years, of observations received from merchant ships, and of their continued vital importance for the future.
During the presentation the masters' first meteorological records and record cards were on display for their perusal, which undoubtedly recalled some nostalgia for former less-demanding voyages spent at sea.
The party then retired to luncheon with Mr Bannon and senior officers of the Meteorological Office. After lunch the visitors were escorted around the Central Forecasting Office, the Telecommunication Centre and the Computer Laboratory.
129
ICE CONDITIONS IN AREAS ADJACENT TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN FROM JANUARY TO MARCH 1976
The charts on pages 132 to 134 display the actual and normal ice edges (4/10 cover), sea-surface and air temperatures and surface-pressure anomalies (departures from the mean) so that the abnormality of any month may be readily observed. (The wind anomaly bears the same rela tionship to lines of equal pressure anomaly as wind does to isobars. Buys Ballot's law can therefore be applied to determine the direction of the wind anomaly.) Southern and eastern iceberg limits will be displayed during the iceberg season (roughly February to July). In any month when sightings have been abnormally frequent (or infrequent) this will be discussed briefly in the text.
The periods used for the normals are as follows. Ice: 1966-73 (Meteorological Office). Surface pressure: 1951-70 (Meteorological Office). Air temperature: 1951-60 (U.S. Depart ment of Commerce, 1965). Sea-surface temperature: area north of 68°N, 1854-1914 and 1920-50 (Meteorological Office, 1966), area south of 68°N, 1854-1958 (U.S. Navy, 1967).
JANUARYThe anomalies of pressure and air temperature were less marked than during December
1975; the main anomalies in the vicinity of the ice edge were for south-easterly winds and lower-than-average air temperatures over the White Sea and the southern part of the Barents Sea. Here an excess of ice developed. Elsewhere excesses and deficits of ice persisted through the month in much the same areas as at the end of December 1975.
FEBRUARYOver the Barents Sea ice fields drifted to the east and south-east on account of the anomaly
for milder westerly winds which soon replaced the cold south-easterly winds of the previous month. Between Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya the ice edge approached the position that is normal for the time of year but in the southern Barents Sea the ice receded during February a month during which the ice field normally extends considerably in this area. In the Baltic anomalous winds from the south-west gave temperatures rather above average and delayed the normal southwards extension of ice although there was a persistence of fast ice along the coast of Sweden. Over the Greenland Sea and Denmark Strait a strong anomaly for south westerly winds resulted in some recession and restricted the normal spread of ice north of Jan Mayen so that by the end of the month there was a substantial deficit there. Prolonged and cold north-westerly winds along the west coast of Greenland caused rapid freezing and an unusual excess of ice. Off the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland the ice edge moved eastwards ahead of normal with an anomaly for cold westerly winds. The ice consolidated in the Gulf of St Lawrence and a tongue of pack ice extended through Cabot Strait and as far south as 45 °N.
MARCHThe anomaly patterns for March were much the same as for February, i.e. for cold westerly
or north-westerly winds to the west and south of Greenland and for comparatively mild south-westerly or westerly winds over most of the ice fields east of Greenland. Thus in the colder-than-usual areas west of Greenland excesses of ice persisted, with some extension, the most notable excesses by the end of the month being off the west coast of Greenland and north-east of Newfoundland. In the milder-than-usual areas east of Greenland an ex ceptional deficit of ice developed between Iceland and Jan Mayen and also substantial deficits near Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya. Some deficit of ice persisted over the Baltic though temperatures there were a little below average with a slight anomaly for south easterly winds.
REFERENCES
Meteorological Office, London 1966 Monthly meteorological charts and seasurface current charts of the Greenland and Barents Seas.
Sea ice normals (unpublished) and variouspublications.
U.S. Department of Commerce Weather 1965 World weather records, 1951-60. NorthBureau, Washington, D.C. America.
U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, 1967 Oceanographic atlas of the North Atlantic Washington, D.C. Ocean, Section II: Physical properties.
130
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——
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COD
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Firs
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Last
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osed
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Acc
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aily
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MT)
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low
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(£??:£ fr!?$:ki/\ V).l-/-9\X. X. ActuoActual edge of open pack-ice at end of January 1976
Normal edge of open pack-ice at end of JanuaryMean sea-surface temperature anomaly (°C)January 1976-—•-
Mean surface-pressure anomaly (mb) January \97o Mean air-temperature anomaly (°C)January \976~ ~ ~
132
m^^^^^M^ xv ;^^:^Gi:::Y:.<4i%: •^ <?&?£*
w sm '^
/ y*mm\ !llr
Actual edge of open pack-ice at end of February 1976 Normal edge of open pack-ice at end of Febru.ary — — — Mean sea-surface temperature anomaly (°C) February 1976—--
Mean surface-pressure anomaly (mb) February 1976Mean air-temperature anomaly (°C) February 1976- — —
133
March 1976 if MarchNormal edge of open pack-ice at end
Mean sea-surface temperature anomaly (°C) March 1976 —•—•-
iii
Mean surface-pressure anomaly (mb) March 1976Mean air-temperature anomaly (°C)March 1976 — — —
134
Book Review
The Victorian and Edwardian Navy from old photographs. Commentaries by John Fabb. 260 mm x 195 mm. 172 photographs. B. T. Batsford Ltd, 4 Fitz- hardinge St, London WiH oAH, 1976. Price: ^4-45.
Undoubtedly there are many ways of representing history, and the number of historical novels and even textbooks, which seem to contradict earlier works on the same subject, tend to show that later research and, it is to be feared, sometimes an author's opinion and method of presentation may often obscure a historical truth.
There can be no such doubt about the authenticity of the material in this book, for it is entirely pictorial with, of course, captions, and though some of the pictures belong to the very early days of photography, for instance three separate pictures of Trafalgar survivors taken in 1850, the camera cannot, nor ever could, lie. Indeed the advent of photography in the 1840$ must have brought an entirely new dimension to history and given a personality to the most humble of seafarers.
Life at Sea, Work at Sea, Training, Campaigns, the Royal Marines, the Royal Navy, Leisure, Personalities and Uniform are the headings under which the photo graphs have been assembled and to your reviewer at least the whole book has been a voyage through nostalgic seas for they were the sort of pictures which fired his boyish imagination. Though the era is usually thought of as one of world peace, Britain was involved in many minor conflicts during the nineteenth century, and in these, the Royal Navy was the general handyman: bombardment from the sea, suppressing piracy and the Slave Trade, serving far inland during the Indian Mutiny and in the South African war, when ships' i2-pounder guns were actually landed and taken up country to assist in the relief of Ladysmith, bringing relief to the scene of natural disasters—those were the days when it was said, not without justification, that 'There is nothing the Navy cannot do'.
The passing of sail changed the face of sea life altogether, usually for the better; though it brought with it the torment of coaling ships. Your reviewer was 'in' at the end of that era when he served as midshipman RNR in the last coal-burning battle ship Emperor of India. An introductory remark states 'It is still doubtful if the picture can convey the appalling dust which in six hours of coaling reached every where', for there were no tips, grabs or cranes; every piece of coal was manhandled from the lighter into the bunkers and it was a genuine 'all hands' job, only the medi cal staff 'standing fast'.
The era produced its 'characters' too; the Admiral who insisted on wearing a top hat instead of a uniform cap, a later Admiral who wore a 'button three' jacket in stead of a 'button four'.
The reviewer is particularly intrigued by two pictures in the Royal Marines sec tion, one bears the caption 'No soldier in uniform was allowed to encircle a young lady's waist with his arm. No such order circulated in the Royal Navy in 1899'. The second depicted 'A sailor assisting a Royal Marine at an assignation, 1899'. It should be remarked that even up to the 19303 all non-officer personnel in the Royal Navy and Royal Marines were required to wear uniform all their serving lives, on duty or on leave.
A scholarly introduction by A. P. McGowan, Head of the Department of Ships and a Deputy Keeper at the National Maritime Museum, gives additional life to this book and we should be grateful to Mr Fabb for assembling all the material while there is yet time, lest those days might be forgotten altogether.
L. B. P.
Personalities
OBITUARY.—We regret to record the death at sea of CAPTAIN W. S. COUNSELL on board the Malwa on 20 September 1975.
William Counsell, who was 51, joined Asiatic Steam Navigation Company in 1952 as 2nd Officer and transferred to Hain Nourse in June 1964 as Chief Officer. He was appointed Master in 1965 and, until his sad death, commanded bulk car riers and tankers of Hain Nourse's and P. & O. Bulk Cargo Division's Fleets.
Captain Counsell sent us his first meteorological logbook from the Baron Scott in 1951. Since then we have received a further 17 logbooks bearing his name of which 3 were classed as Excellent. He was selected for an Excellent Award in 1972.
We extend our sincere condolences to his widow and family.
RETIREMENT.—MR T. BERRY, Radio Officer, retired from the Marconi Inter national Marine Company on 12 March 1976 after nearly 41 years at sea.
Theodore Berry joined Marconi as Radio Officer on 18 June 1935. He sailed on various foreign-going vessels until February 1956 when he joined the Manchester Port and then remained with Manchester Liners until June 1969. He completed his career at sea as Radio Officer on vessels of the Esso Petroleum Company.
Our records show that we received the first meteorological logbook bearing Mr Berry's name in 1948 from the Teuiot. Since then he has been associated with a further 24 logbooks from various vessels of which 8 have been classed as Excellent. He gained an Excellent Award in 1963 for his work on board the Manchester Regiment,
We wish him health and happiness in his retirement.
RETIREMENT.—MR R. D. DINGLEY, Radio Officer, retired last January after serving nearly 50 years at sea.
Ronald Davenport Dingley joined Marconi International Marine Company as Radio Officer in September 1926 and remained with Marconi until his retirement. He was Radio Officer aboard the Caprella when she was sunk by enemy action in October 1940.
We received the first meteorological logbook bearing Mr Dingley's name from the Clan Macnaxr in 1949, and since then we have received a further 12 logbooks associated with his valuable voluntary work for us. He gained an Excellent Award in
7$-We wish him health and happiness in his retirement.
RETIREMENT.—CAPTAIN I. E. G. DOWNER retired on 31 March 1976 after serving nearly 35 years with Shell Tankers.
Ivan Downer commenced his career at sea with Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Com pany (as Shell Tankers were then called) in July 1941. He was promoted 3rd Officer in 1944, 2nd Officer in 1946, Chief Officer in 1949 and was appointed Master in 1960.
During his career Captain Downer served on 40 ships of the Shell fleet, ranging in size from 311 tons to 312 ooo tons deadweight, and commanded 19 of these. For a period he was seconded to Shell Exploration Company in the Persian Gulf during which he had command of tugs, survey craft and very small tankers. One of the latter, which Captain Downer believes commenced life trading between Goole and the Saltend oil terminal near Hull, proved to be no match for the Shamal wind of the Persian Gulf and on one passage between Doha and Bahrain almost foundered. She was only kept afloat by Captain Downer's action of going astern until sufficient water was bailed out by means of buckets 1
136
Captain Downer sent us his first meteorological logbook from the Northta in 1952. Since than we have received a further 14 logbooks and SHRED forms bearing his name.
We wish him health and happiness in his retirement.
RETIREMENT.—CAPTAIN J. FERRES retired on i March 1976 after serving nearly 43 years at sea.
Captain Ferres first went to sea in July 1933 on deck with Anglo-American Oil Company with no intention of following a sea career. However, he took to sea life and commenced studying for a certificate with a view to a career within this Com pany.
On obtaining his 2nd Mate's Certificate he remained with Anglo-American Oil Company as 3rd Officer but on gaining his ist Mate's Certificate in 1939 he trans ferred to Standard Oil Company of Hong Kong. Subsequently, whilst undergoing a gunnery course in Belfast, he was offered and accepted a position as 3rd Officer with Furness Withy and Company in 1940. He then served in several vessels of the latter Company, obtaining Ms Master's Certificate in 1942 and being promoted to Chief Officer later that year. Between 1943 and 1944 he commanded Great Lake vessels trading on the Atlantic seaboard. Loss of tonnage by enemy action resulted in his return to home service as Chief Officer. In 1946 he was appointed Staff Captain of the Empire Rapier, a troopship on the Hull-Cuxhaven service.
Captain Ferres was appointed master of the Arabian Prince m May 1955. There followed service in command of various vessels of the Furness Withy Group until his recent retirement from the Shaw Savill Line vessel Drina, During 1975 Captain Ferres was in command of the Shaw Savill ship May field (see photograph opposite page 108), and the meteorological logbook compiled aboard at this time was assessed as one of the best received by the Meteorological Office for the year.
Captain Ferres sent us his first meteorological logbook from the troopship Empire Halberd in 1946. Since then we have received a further 17 logbooks bearing his name of which n have been classed as Excellent. He has been selected for an Excellent Award for 1975.
We wish him health and happiness in his retirement.
RETIREMENT.—MR J. GARDHOUSE, Radio Officer, retired in February from the sea staff of Marconi International Marine Company.
John Gardhouse joined Marconi in May 1929, resigned in April 1949 and re joined in March 1969. During the war Mr Gardhouse was serving on the WiUowpool when she was sunk by a mine in December 1939.
Our records show that we received the first meteorological logbook bearing Mr Gardhouse's name from the City of Carlisle in 1950 and since then he has been associated with a further 7 logbooks from various ships of the V.O.F. He received an Excellent Award in 1974.
We wish him a long, healthy and happy retirement.
RETIREMENT.—CAPTAIN J. D. GUYLER, Commodore Master of P. & O. General Cargo Division recently retired owing to ill-health.
Jack Davidson Guyler joined New Zealand Shipping Company from Ellerman Hall Line in 1940 as 4th Officer and was promoted Chief Officer in 1948. He was appointed Master in 1953.
Captain Guyler sent us his first meteorological logbook in 1946 from the Ruahine. Since then we have received a further 42 logbooks bearing his name of which no less than 30 were classed as Excellent. He received Excellent Awards in 1956, 1961, 1964, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974 and 1975.
We wish Captain Guyler a speedy recovery in health and a long, happy retirement.137
RETIREMENT.—MR E. HEYWOOD, Radio Officer, retired last February after 41^ years' service with Marconi International Marine Company.
Ernest Heywood joined Marconi as Radio Officer in July 1934. From 1954 to 1959 he served on the RathUn Head and from 1959 to 1968 he was Radio Officer on the Manchester Miller.
Our records show that we received a meteorological logbook bearing Mr Hey- wood's name from the Manchester Trader in 1946. Since then we have received a further 20 logbooks with which he has been associated, 11 of which were classed as Excellent. Mr Heywood received Excellent Awards in 1948 and 1966.
We wish him good health and happiness in his retirement.
RETIREMENT.—MR W. C. G. STURGESS, Radio Officer, retired on 31 December 1975 after 42 years with Marconi International Marine Company.
William Carey George Sturgess was born in 1912 and joined Marconi in De cember 1933 being appointed Radio Officer on board the Carare. In October 1939 when outward bound from Barry to South America on the Stonepool his ship was engaged in a successful gun duel with an enemy U-Boat for which Mr Sturgess received a small monetary award. In January 1953 he joined the Dunera and re mained with her until 1965 when he transferred to the Nevasa and served on that ship until January 1975.
During his career at sea Mr Sturgess did much valuable voluntary work for the Meteorological Office and gained Excellent Awards in 1961, 1970 and 1971.
We wish him health and happiness in his retirement.
RETIREMENT.—MR W. WILLIAMS, Radio Officer, retired from Marconi Inter national Marine Company on 31 December 1975 after 46 years at sea. Wilfred Williams was born in 1908 and joined Marconi in July 1929. Between 1930 and 1940 he served in trawlers and during the war years was Radio Officer on board a Canadian Laker employed on the UK coast. More recently he served hi Manchester Liner and P. & O. Cargo ships.
Our records show that we received the first meteorological logbook bearing Mr WiUiams's name from the Suevic in 1965. Since then we have received a further 16 logbooks of which 4 were classed as Excellent. Mr Williams received Excellent Awards in 1966, 1973 and 1975.
We wish him a long, healthy and happy retirement.c. R. D.
138
Editor's Note
Ornithological observations recorded in the additional remarks pages of ships' meteorological logbooks are forwarded to Captain G. 3. Tuck, D.S.O., R.N., of the Royal Naval Birdwatching Society, who endeavours to identify every species re ported for plotting on charts. The number of these observations has increased greatly in recent months and in order to lessen the work involved in identifying the birds, Captain Tuck has requested that whenever possible, the following informa tion be included in each observation.
Description by means of a sketch showing, with arrows, the colours noted on the different parts of the bird—see examples below. The colour and type of bill, e.g. short, stubby, fine curved, stout hooked etc. should be quoted and a note made of whether the feet are webbed or lobed.
Measurements (preferably in millimetres but for large birds in inches or centi metres) as follows:
(a) greatest overall length from tip of bill to tip of tail with bird extended gently along a flat surface,
(b) greatest overall wing-span between tips of spread wings measured across the back,
(c) length of tail from base of central feathers to tip of longest tail feather, and(d) bill length from margin of feathers above to tip of bill.
SKETCH EXAMPLESSketch principal features. Indicate colours with arrows. Emphasize shape of BILLS, LEGS and TAIL, any special HEAD, WING and TAIL markings. Cut off and attach a few feathers to show special markings. WHENEVER POSSIBLE TAKE A PHOTOGRAPH AND ENCLOSE IT.Black pelted Whiw
Black
GreyBlack
Black long
White
White Wagtail length 18 cm or 7 ins.
Long white plumes (Breeding)
Yellow pointed
Blackish
Common Egret length 89 cm or 35 ins.
Membership of the Royal Naval Birdwatching Society is open to all Merchant Navy personnel and many officers of the Voluntary Observing Fleet are already members. Others who might be interested in joining the Society can obtain further information from
Captain G. S. Tuck, D.S.O., R.N. Royal Naval Birdwatching Society 8 Little London Chichester Sussex POig iPH
139
fleet
List
sG
REA
T B
RIT
AIN
(Inf
orm
atio
n da
ted
19.3.
76)
The f
ollo
wing
is a
list
of B
ritish
ship
s whi
ch ha
ve b
een
equi
pped
with
instr
umen
t* an
d w
hich
volu
ntar
ily co
-ope
rate
with
the M
arin
e D
ivisi
on o
f the
Met
eoro
logi
cal O
ffice
.Th
e na
mes
of d
ie M
aste
rs, O
bser
ving
Offi
cers
and
Seni
or R
adio
Offi
cers
are
give
n as
asc
erta
ined
from
the
last
writ
ten
retu
rns
rece
ived
. The
dat
e of
rece
ipt o
f the
last
retu
rn re
ceiv
ed is
giv
en in
the
seco
nd c
olum
n; a
n.as
teris
k in
dica
tes a
new
recr
uitm
ent w
ho h
as n
ot y
et se
nt in
a lo
gboo
k.Al
l ret
urns
rece
ived
from
obs
ervi
ng sh
ips w
ill b
e ac
know
ledge
d, d
irect
to th
e sh
ip, b
y th
e M
arin
e Su
perin
tend
ent o
f the
Met
eoro
logi
cal O
ffice
.Th
e Po
rt M
eteo
rolo
gica
l Offi
cers
will
mak
e per
sona
l call
s on
the
Mas
ters
and
Obs
ervi
ng O
ffice
rs as
opp
ortu
nity
offe
rs, o
r on
notif
icat
ion
from
the
ship
at a
ny ti
me w
hen
thei
r ser
vice
s are
des
ired.
Exce
llent
Aw
ards
are
mad
e at
the
end
of ea
ch c
alen
dar y
ear.
The
nam
es o
f the
Mas
ters
, Prin
cipa
l Obs
ervi
ng O
ffice
rs an
d Se
nior
Rad
io O
ffice
rs ga
inin
g th
ese a
war
ds ar
e pu
blish
ed e
ach
July
in T
he M
arin
e Ob
ttrve
r.It
is re
ques
ted
that
prio
r not
ifica
tion
of c
hang
es o
f ser
vice
, pro
babl
e pe
riods
of l
ay-u
p, tr
ansf
er o
f Mas
ter o
r oth
er c
ircum
stanc
es w
hich
may
pre
vent
the
cont
inua
nce
of
volu
ntar
y m
eteo
rolo
gica
l ser
vice
at s
ea, m
ay b
e m
ade
to a
Per
t Met
eoro
logi
cal O
ffice
r or t
o th
e M
arin
e Su
perin
tend
ent o
f the
Met
eoro
logi
cal O
ffice
at B
rack
nell.
Mas
ters
and
Offi
cers
are i
nvite
d to
poi
nt o
ut a
ny e
rrors
or o
miss
ions
whi
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ay o
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d.F
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td.
F. T
. Eve
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P. &
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S.S
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T. &
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R. S
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td.
Oce
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td.
P. &
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P.
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Texa
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Tank
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Tank
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NAME
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MAST
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J. G
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Cham
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Blue
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d.P.
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Jam
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Ltd.
Jam
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Ltd.
Jam
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Ltd.
Mav
role
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Ltd.
Sir W
m. R
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mith
& S
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Vig
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Mar
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Ltd.
Har
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s (C
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Bibb
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Sir W
m. R
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Wel
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Hou
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of A
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Will
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P. &
O. S
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. S.N
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Bank
Lin
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Line
Ltd
.W
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d.U
nion
-Cas
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.S. C
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td.
Chin
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avig
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n Co
. Ltd
.Bi
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Line
Ltd
. Bi
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Line
Ltd
.Sh
aw S
avill
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.
(SI O
Supp
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NAME
OF V
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L
Albr
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Ba
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Star
. .
Balti
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ngua
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Briti
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City
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C
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Decc
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Echo
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ridge
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Pal
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Jo
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rad
Lord
Nel
son
Met
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Prin
cess
M
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Mob
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dura
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Mob
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M
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Pega
sus
North
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Prim
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Rese
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a
LAST
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TURN
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2.75
2-9-
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MAST
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R. C
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fces
. .
J. E
arl
. .
M. d
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A. C
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C. C
ollin
g . .
J. W
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D
. Will
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hittl
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K
. G.
Mac
Lean
. .
G. B
ryso
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n W
. R.
Kay
s D
. W.
Bow
en
. .G
. M
orris
D
. J.
Bur
dett
N. E
. Lo
ngth
orp
D. H
. G
. M
ortim
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D. B
elk
.. R
. I. P
hilip
R
. D. S
teve
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MiU
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W.
Har
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. .
T. A
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D. F
latte
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T. J
ohns
on
. .J.
Gib
son
T.
G. G
oldi
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OBSE
RVIN
G OF
FICE
RS
R. P
itt.
.E.
Fol
ey, M
. Tom
lin, A
. M. J
ones
, .
J. P
riest
ly,
S. W
illia
mso
n, T
. Ta
ylor
C
. Jot
cham
, A. D
ewar
, F. G
. H
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P. M
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do, A
. Edw
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P.
Bis
hop,
J.
Gur
ton,
E. T
. Sa
nor
R.L
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P. W
hite
.. 6
A. E
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M. G
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J. B
. McG
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SENI
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R/MAN
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Ltd,
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T. C
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Bal
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Uni
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Balti
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Co. L
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BJ».
Tan
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Co. L
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Elle
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Lin
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Lin
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Elle
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Lin
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EUer
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Lin
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Oil
Sear
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S.N
. Co.
Ltd
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& J
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Mob
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Nor
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Oce
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Ltd.
I.F
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ervi
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J.
MBI
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Ltd.
G
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line
Ltd.
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Brit
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Uni
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Uni
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Traw
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Ltd
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Ltd.
T.
Ham
ling
& Co
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.T.
Han
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td.
T. H
amlin
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Co. L
td.
T. H
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Co. L
td.
W. A
. Sou
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Co.
Ltd
.
Trawlers
The following is a list of trawler skippers and radio operators who voluntarily observe and report those elements of the weather which do not entail the use of any meteorological instruments (irrespective of the vessel in which
they sail).
SKIPPERW. J. E. Boyle . . D. Paterson T. W. Pembrokef WallrorK. Westcott
RADIO OPERATORA. Spence E. Witley .. B. H. Colley M. AllisonB.H. Colley
OWNER/MANAGERBoyd Line Ltd. Hudson Bros, Trawlers Ltd. British United Trawlers Ltd. Boyd Line Ltd.British United Trawlers Ltd.
Light-vessels
NAME OF VESSEL MASTERSDowsingEast Goodvrin Falls . .Galloper HumoerNetoarpRoyal SovereignSt. Gotoan Seven StonesSfapvoashSnath's KnollSouth RockTongue . . Vame . ,
(Lt. T ower)
A. Richards, F. TurnerL. Mortimer, F. I. Shilling W. Semple, A. H. RobinsonH. R. Barnes, E. L. Jaeger T. W. Grice, S. F. GooseL. R. Long, G. A. HarrisA. T. Whiston, W. FaggS. R. Woolnough, — . Goddard T. G. Northcott, P. HockingR. Cadman, W. F. DalbyF. Harrison, B. H. HolmesD. Hawkins, J. RocheT. H. Wilson, H. W. Brasted H. Scoats, F. Betts
'Marid' Ships
The following U a list of ahipa recruited for the observing and reporting of sea temperatures from coastal waters around Great Britain. Captains are requested to point out any errors or omissions in the list.
NAME OF VESSELArea ScheldtAnglezarkAsmngtonAvalon . .Bardic FerryBrenda. .Brian BoroimeBritish OspreyCeesarea^Caledonian PrCerdic FerryClansmanClaymoreCofutnbaCorbankDoric FerryDorset CoastDragon..Esso FatoleyEsso MerseyEsto Mtiford RFerrym.llFingal . .Frendo HopeFrendo PndeFrendo StarHambleHebridesHelmsdaleHiberniaInganess Bay LairdsfoxLoch CatronMailing Moyle . . Navigator Penelope EveraPharos . .Pole StarPorteletJRhodri MotorRingnesRosemarkieSt. ClearSt. EdmundSt. GeorgeSarnia . .Slieve DonardSomersetbrookStutexbrookUlster Queen
.
__.
ncess
_
,
avert
_
rd
__
•
MASTERD. W. Best..T. C. WhittakerI. BuckhamR. WildC. K. Hughey— . DiasC. B. PowellT. J. TaylorP. Baker . .M. Hurd-WoodA. D. YoungD. Gunn . .C. McKetraeA. C. Free . .T. Johnston . .R. HockingsR. G. ClareW. H. ConwayF. W. DoghertyP. H. MattocksW. Lowdea . .J. G. Innes . .F. DavidsonL. Bowler . .T. D. Gore . .D. T. HyalopA. KerrJ. Hodgson . .A. F. Ross . .J. PetersA. J. SoulsburyN. CampbellJ. McKinnonT. Bone W. Davey , . T, N. Cannock H. WadhamsM. Fraser . .G. ReidJ. G. McFailJ. F. NeubauerS. R. GurtonD. C. GrayD. WildA. WoodT. DaviesR. CraneB. EstiUT. MinardsP. Lynch
OWNER/MANAGERA.R.C. (Marine) Ltd.Effluent Services Ltd.Stephenson Clarke Shipping Ltd.British RailAtlantic S.N. Co. Ltd.Dept. of Agriculture & Fisheries for ScotlandBritish RailB.P. Tanker Co. Ltd.British RailBritish RailAtlantic S.N. Co. Ltd.David MacBrayne Ltd.David MacBrayne Ltd.David MacBrayne Ltd.Ocean Transport & Trading Ltd.Atlantic S.N. Co. Ltd.P. & O. Short Sea Shipping Ltd.Southern Ferries Ltd.Esao Petroleum Co. Ltd.Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd.Esao Petroleum Co. Ltd,Aberdeen Coal & Shipping Co. Ltd.Northern Lighthouse BoardFrendo (London) Ltd.Frendo (London) Ltd.Frendo (London) Ltd.Shell-Mex & B.F. Ltd.David MacBrayne Ltd.Northern Trading Co. Ltd,British RailElwick Bay Shipping Co. Ltd. Belfast S.S. Co. Ltd.David MacBrayne Ltd.Stephenson Clarke Shipping Ltd. Shamrock Shipping Co. Ltd. Decca Navigator Co. Ltd. F. T. Everard Ltd.Northern Lighthouse BoardNorthern Lighthouse BoardOneaimus Dorey Ltd.British RailTebsen(U.K.)Ltd.W. N. Lindsay & Co. Ltd.North of Scotland Shipping Co. Ltd.British RailBritish RailBritish RailBritish RailComben Longstaff & Co. Ltd.Comben Longstaff & Co. Ltd.Belfast S.S. Co. Ltd.
153
BRITISH COMMONWEALTH
The following lists give the name of Selected and Supplementary Ships, and the number of Auxiliary Ship*'where known (i.e., those which only report when in 'sparse areas'), which voluntarily co-operate with meteorological
services of the British Commonwealth.Information for these lists is required by loth April each year. Information for the January corrective lists is required
by loth October each year,
NEW ZEALAND (Information dated 1.3.76)
NAME OF VESSEL OWNER/MANAGERSelected Ships:
Act 3 Act 4 Act SAthel Viscount Atlas Bttlknes Coastal Trader ErneGlamor Tasman Hawea Holmdale .. Jama Cook John Wilson Kartpo Karetu . . Kotuku .. Kuaka .. La Bonita Ligar Bay Lorena Luhesand . . Maheno . .Milburn Carrier . . N.Z. Aorangi N.Z. Wcdtangi . . Ngahere . . Ngakuta . . Ngapara , . Penrod 74. . Rangatira , . Titoki Toamoana TotaraUnion Aotearoa . . Union Auckland . . Union Australia . . Union Melbourne . . Union New Zealand Union South Pacific Union Sydney Union Tram Tasman Valetta .. Woosung
Supplementary Ships: Arahanga.. Aramoana Aranui Aratika Strath Loyal
Blue Star Port Line Ltd. Blue Star Port Line Ltd. Blue Star Port Line Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Brown & Root International Ltd. Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Shipping Corporation of N.Z, Union S.S, Co. N.Z. Ltd. Bocal Pty Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. N.Z. Government (Fisheries) Tarakohe Shipping Co. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Reef Shipping Co. Tarakohe Shipping Co. Ltd. Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Omega Shipping Co. Union S.S. CoTN.Z. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. N.Z. Cement Holdings Ltd. Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Hunt International Petroleum Co. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Anchor-Dorman Ltd. Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Anchor-Dorman Ltd. Maritime Carriers Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Maritime Carriers Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Maritime Carriers Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Union S.S. Co. N.Z. Ltd. Maritime Carriers Ltd. British Phosphate Commissioners China Navigation Co. Ltd.
N.Z. Railways Department N.Z. Railways Department N.Z. Railways Department N.Z. Railways Department P. & O. (N.Z/) Ltd.
Auxiliary Ships:New Zealand also ha» a fleet of 9 Auxiliary Ships currently reporting.
154
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.76)
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. Ltd
. Ev
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. Cor
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Nav
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Ever
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Chin
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. Ltd
. Ch
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Ever
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.S. C
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Mac
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Ltd
.Sh
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N.
Co.
Ltd
. Sh
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N.
Co.
Ltd
. Sh
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Co.
Ltd
. Sh
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N.
Co.
Ltd
. Ba
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anag
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td.
Barb
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Man
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Ltd
. E
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.S.
Cor
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S/A
Ba
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anag
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td.
Barb
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hip
Man
agem
ent
Ltd
. Ba
rber
Shi
p M
anag
emen
t L
td.
ISBN 0 11 724381 7
