Marine carbohydrate

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From Abdul Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed, Mohaddeseh Adel, Pegah Karimi and Mahvash Peidayesh,

Pharmaceutical, Cosmeceutical, and Traditional Applications of Marine Carbohydrates. In: Se-Kwon Kim,

editor, Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, Vol. 73, Burlington: Academic Press, 2014, pp. 197-220.

ISBN: 978-0-12-800268-1

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CHAPTER TEN

Pharmaceutical, Cosmeceutical,and Traditional Applicationsof Marine CarbohydratesAbdul Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed1, Mohaddeseh Adel, Pegah Karimi,Mahvash PeidayeshInstitute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1Corresponding author: e-mail address: [email protected]

Contents

1. Introduction 1981.1 Resource of marine carbohydrate 1981.2 Marine carbohydrate market value 1991.3 Special areas of conservation 201

2. Pharmaceutical Products and Biological Application 2022.1 Blood coagulation system 2032.2 Anticancer activity 2042.3 Antioxidant activity 2052.4 Antiviral activity 2072.5 Antilipidemic activity 2082.6 Immunomodulating effect 208

3. Cosmeceutical Products and Functional Applications 2093.1 Fucoidan 2093.2 Carrageenan 2123.3 Alginates 213

4. Marine Food and Traditional Application 2134.1 Marine food carbohydrates and fibers derived as an antioxidants and their

antioxidative activity 2134.2 Thickeners, stabilizers, and emulsifiers 215

5. Conclusion 215Acknowledgment 216References 216

Abstract

Marine carbohydrates are most important organic molecules made by photosyntheticorganisms. It is very essential for humankind: the role in being an energy source forthe organism and they are considered as an important dissolve organic compound(DOC) in marine environment's sediments. Carbohydrates found in different marine

Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, Volume 73 # 2014 Elsevier Inc.ISSN 1043-4526 All rights reserved.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800268-1.00010-X

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environments in different concentrations. Polysaccharides of carbohydrates play animportant role in various fields such as pharmaceutical, food production, cosmeceutical,and so on. Marine organisms are good resources of nutrients, and they are rich carbohy-drate in sulfated polysaccharide. Seaweeds (marinemicroalgae) are used in different phar-maceutical industries, especially in pharmaceutical compound production. Seaweedshave a significant amount of sulfated polysaccharides, which are used in cosmeceuticalindustry, besides based on the biological applications. Since then, traditional people, cos-metics products, and pharmaceutical applications consider many types of seaweed as animportant organism used in food process. Sulfated polysaccharides containing seaweedhave potential uses in the blood coagulation system, antiviral activity, antioxidant activity,anticancer activity, immunomodulating activity, antilipidepic activity, etc. Some species ofmarine organisms are rich in polysaccharides such as sulfated galactans. Various polysac-charides such as agar and alginates, which are extracted from marine organisms, haveseveral applications in food production and cosmeceutical industries. Due to their highhealth benefits, compound-derived extracts of marine polysaccharides have various appli-cations and traditional people were using them since long time ago. In the future, muchattention is supposed to be paid to unraveling the structural, compositional, and sequen-tial properties of marine carbohydrate as well.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Resource of marine carbohydrateCarbohydrates are largemolecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen. Carbohydrates are called saccharides. They are energy transporters

and are structural components in marine organisms. Carbohydrates are classi-

fied as monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides, and oligosaccharides.

Among these classes, marine and terrestrial organisms contain polysaccharides

that have the storage and structural role. The storage polysaccharides are gly-

cogen and starch, and the structural units are polysaccharides like cellulose and

chitin.Carbohydrates are important due to their activity in the immune system,

fertilization, and food storage. The storage form of carbohydrates are unstable.

It is utilized and degraded by in situ heterotrophic organismswhile they deposit

the organic matter from the surface to depths (Handa & Tominaga, 1969).

Besides the polysaccharides, monosaccharides are useful for human and cure

many diseases.

Marine carbohydrates are one of the most important organic compounds

that are produced by photosynthesis in marine living organisms. In marine

environments, carbohydrates are considered as derivative organic compound

(DOC) in seawater and sediments (Arnosti & Holmer, 1999). Dissolved

carbohydrates are the known suitable intermediate for production and

198 Abdul Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed et al.


consumption during mineralization (Arnosti & Holmer, 1999). Carbohy-

drates are the main source of metabolic energy for organisms, and are hetero-

trophic and produce their energy by using photosynthesis. Structural

polysaccharides are playing a critical role in degrading pathways of organic

matter in marine environments. There is a possibility that carbohydrate poly-

saccharides have pyruvate, sulfate, acetate, and consist of acidic groups such as

amino sugar. These compounds incorporate in various pathways and processes

in the marine environment. Formation of humic acids, detoxifications, bio-

film productions, and extracellular enzyme binding are a few of this incorpo-

ration. Hence, many polysaccharides are produced by aquatic organisms.

Among that, chitin is one of the most abundant compounds. Marine algae’s

carbohydrate contents and carbohydrate production is proportional to the

amount of respiration and the light. Respiration and carbohydrate production

significantly decreased when the algae maintained in the dark place.

Marine algae has made of sulfated polysaccharides (SPs) in the cell wall

structure, which is rare to find in marine animals and plants. The hydroxyl

group of simple monosaccharide replaced by a sulfate group. This SP plays

important role in ionic regulation and has various biological activities in

marine organisms. Polysaccharides mostly extract by water. Molecular

weight is an important factor in choosing the temperature of the water.

For example, the high molecular weight, SP usually extract by hot water

and for low molecular weight compounds, cold water used. Molecular

weight of polysaccharides determined by gel permeation method

(Shanmugam & Mody, 2000). In the next step, polysaccharides precipitate

by alcohol from the water extract. The precipitate digests by water and filter

then freeze-dried. The sulfate content of marine organism’s carbohydrate

usually measured by one-dimensional and two-dimensional nuclear mag-

netic resonance spectroscopy and sometimes it measured by methylation

analysis (Han, Yao, Yang, Liu, & Gao, 2005).

1.2. Marine carbohydrate market valueOceans are a major habitat of living organisms as far as supporting the life of

nearly 50 present of all different species on Earth. This is contributing to the

variety of ingredients that are consuming through life cycle of marine

organisms and many more that are producing afterward reaction processes.

Overview of the existing commercial and research activities, which consider

pharmaceutical products and biological functional application of marine car-

bohydrates, is given in this chapter. Wide variety of polysaccharides extract

199Pharmaceutical, Cosmeceutical, and Traditional Applications


from marine plants and animal organisms are produced by marine bacteria.

This means that the field of marine polysaccharides is constantly evolving.

There is an enormous amount of bioactivity,mostly onmicroalgae, with news

about new investments and research programs emerging on an almost daily

basis. Among different organisms such as macroalgae (seaweeds), microalgae

(phytoplankton), and marine animals (as carbohydrates produce or containing

carbohydrates as structural units) algal share is the largest. As shown in

Fig. 10.1, there is a different field of using algae products in the world markets.

Fucoid is the one that helps human life in various aspects among algal

products. Fucoidan is the most abundant SP that extract from marine brown

seaweeds and marine invertebrates such as sea cucumber. Preliminary

research suggests that it may support the human immune system and also

have anticancer activity, antioxidant activity, and antiviral activity. Fucoid

is present in different products such as veggie capsules, liquid beverages,

body creams, and skin serums. Different products from different companies

offer different prices. Base prices for veggie capsules (60 capsule of 70%

fucoidan) from Doctor’s Best company is from 24.03 $ up to 50.99 $. Inaddition, the selling fucoidan content products are around 154 $/50 mg.

Heparin is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan and plays a role as an anticoag-

ulant. It is produced by mast cells and basophils and is a naturally occurring

anticoagulant. In 2011, the global market for heparin is expected to grow at a

compound annual growth rate of 12% from 2012 to 2018. It is widely used as

an injectable anticoagulant and the price of every unit description, dosage

(5000 IU�1 ml�5 ml) is averagely 5$ from different brands such as Leo

Market size

1 €/kg

Mar

ket v

alue

Biomass for energetical use

Proteins, feed

Fine chemicals, food

Pharmacutical, cosmetical

100 €/kg

10 €/kg

Figure 10.1 Branding paradigm for bottom of the pyramid markets, measuring thealgae products business excellence.



Laboratories Ltd. Alginate isolated from seaweeds, it is mostly found in all

type of marine organism, this can support for the cell walls growth and pri-

mary metabolite production. In 2011, FAO reports alginate market as

10,000 tons for food and pharmaceutical usage and 20,000 tons for all tech-

nical grades. The total market had a value of about US$195 million. Anti-

microbial wound dressings are a product contain alginate. A mixture of

alginate, carboxymethyl cellulose, and silver-coated nylon fiber make a

unique composition that manages exudate effectively in infected or heavily

colonized wounds. This product manufactured by Vygon, offers Silvercel

Non-Adherent Wound Dressing Size 5�5 cm Box of 10 with the price

of US$45.92 in the United Kingdom.

Agar as gelling agent comes from South East Asian seaweed. Agar is used

vastly in scientific purposes especially in biology as filler in paper sizing fabric

and as a clarifying agent in brewing. Also it is used in the food industry to

preserve fruits, ice cream, and other desserts or to thickener for soups. Coast

biologically manufactures agar from the red seaweed, Pterocladia lucida, with

growing in abundance in the clear unpolluted seas that surrounds New

Zealand’s long coastline. Hence, the researchers are using the agar-agar

and the market demands are reasonable one. Price of agar depends on its

ingredients and brands. For example, there are different types of agar of dif-

ferent companies as a medium for bacterial culture (Table 10.1). As Fig. 10.1

shows, microalgae and microalgae as a source of biomass for energetical uses

have a large size market. Table 10.2 indicates the sections market demands

on the purpose of energetical uses.

1.3. Special areas of conservationA substantial number of designated marine Special Areas of Conservation

(SACs) have been performed and candidate SACs performed based on rules

and regulations:

Table 10.1 Different types of agar products and their distributor quotationAgar type Size Price (US$)

Bacteriological agar 1 kg 88

Plant tissue culture low nitrification agar 1 kg 119

Noble agar 500 g 98

Standard grade agar 1 kg 73



• Existing traditional activities (e.g., seaweed cutting) may be continued

but a minister approval is needed for any substantial increase of

harvesting seaweed and any new conservation process.

• Any mechanization of seaweed harvesting within the designated areas

would need the approval of the National Parks and Wildlife Services

(NPWS), Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local

Government.

• Seaweed aquaculture has permitted subject to the usual licensing consid-

erations but the NPWS has to be consulted by the Department of Com-

munication, Energy and Natural Resources for approval.

According to the statement, there is no obligatory hindrance as such for the

establishment of seaweed aquaculture in an SAC. Although the applicant for

an aquaculture license may have to prove that the construction of the farm

will not have adverse impacts on the habitat. Therefore, an environmental

survey may need to be conducted before a license issue.

2. PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS AND BIOLOGICALAPPLICATION

Marine algae are good sources of bioactive compound that used in

pharmaceutical and health applications. These compound polymers vary

due to different marine species (Costa et al., 2010). Among marine algae,

seaweeds have a polysaccharide structure, which belongs to the sulfate

group. The structures are called as SPs. Nowadays, sulfate polysaccharides

Table 10.2 Macro- and microalgae generation status, harvesting methods, andmarket value

Resource typeBiomassgeneration Harvesting

Downstreamprocessing Market

Macroalgae

(seaweeds)

Natural

stocks

Aquaculture

Near shore

Offshore

Manual

Mechanization

Biogas

Bioethanol

Biorefinery

Residues

Logistics

Infrastructure

Engines

Microalgae

(phytoplankton)

Natural

stocks

Aquaculture

Near shore

Offshore

Filtration

Sedimentation

Centrifuge

Flocculation

Biodiesel

(lipids)

Fermentation

(biomass)

Biorefinery

Residues

Logistics

Infrastructure

Engines

Aviation



that are isolated from marine algae are becoming important in pharmaceu-

tical food and cosmeceutical industry. Biological activity of SPs is widely

dependent on the forming of chains, molecular weight, and structure of

chemicals in the marine organism (Ye, Wang, Zhou, Liu, & Zeng,

2008). Beside the carbohydrate, other components such as enzymes, antiox-

idants, vitamins, and bioactive peptides are available in most marine organ-

isms (Kim & Wijesekara, 2011). These SPs are playing an important role in

various pharmaceutical purposes such as blood coagulation, anticancer activ-

ity, antioxidant activity, antiviral activity, antilipidepic activity, and immu-

nomodulation activity. In this section, these biological activities are studied

in detail.

2.1. Blood coagulation systemCoagulant factors and anticoagulant factors are interfering together and

blood coagulation may happen. Blood coagulation or thrombogenesis

occurs when blood forms clots. Blood vessel cell wall forms fibrin clots to

stop flow of blood and this may help to heal the injury and repairing the

damage. Anticoagulant activity research from marine organism, is the most

applied and important research through the substitute heparin. Iridae

laminarioides (red algae) was the first marine organism that has anticoagulant

purposes studied on it. Anti-blood coagulation compounds were isolated

from brown marine algae and have important roles. After this discovery,

marine algae used to isolate and become an alternative way to produce anti-

coagulant drugs because of their high SPs. The structure of polysaccharides

provides various pharmaceutical probabilities in different marine organisms.

Most of the anticoagulants reported from marine red algae and marine

brown algae. Sulfated groups in SPs enhance the binding of polysaccharides

to biologically active protein. Higher SPs with a higher molecular weight

have a higher anticoagulant activity than lower sulfate content with lower

molecular weight (Shanmugam & Mody, 2000). However, green marine

algae reported to have SP that is contributing to have anticoagulant activity,

but the isolated amount is less comparable to brown marine algae and red

marine algae (Mao et al., 2009). In addition, the determined SPs have the

potential bioactive properties such as anticoagulant activity isolated from

brown algae, red algae, and green algae, the compounds namely fucoidan,

carrageenan, and ulvans, respectively (Kim & Wijesekara, 2011).

Heparin is a bioactive drug that is widely used as blood coagulation from

the glycosaminoglycan group of carbohydrates and it used to isolate from pig



intestine. Nowadays, researchers are looking for another resource of heparin

that can be isolated easier, cheaper, and safer. Marine algae may be a good

source of heparin in blood coagulation therapy. Marine anticoagulant drug

has been isolated from the marine echiuroid worm ( Jo, Jung, & Kim, 2008);

Mytilus edulis ( Jung & Kim, 2007); starfish (Koyama, Noguchi, Aniya, &

Sakanashi, 1998); Ecklonia cava, a brown algae ( Jung et al., 2007); and Mon-

ostroma nitidum, a green algae (Mao et al., 2008). In extraction of anticoag-

ulant SPs from brown algae, after using hot or cold water (depends on its

molecular weight), CaCl2 or mild acid may be used. To monitor heparin

activities in blood coagulation, activated partial thromboplastic time

(APTT) method is used. APTT is the most common method to check hep-

arin activity. Peptide factors of heparin bind closely to the clotting factor and

stop the flow of blood in the body. These factors are nontoxic and used as

ingredients in the pharmaceutical industry.

Sulfated alginate derivatives reported to have anticoagulant activity and

antithrombotic activities among different marine species (Yao et al., 2006).

Since 1998, China isolate propylene glycol mannate sulfate from alginate

and used in pharmaceutical to depress blood viscosity and blood anticoag-

ulants (Changhu, Guangli, Takashi, Junji, & Hong, 1998). Carrageenan iso-

lated from red algae is another anticoagulant that contains 23–35% of sulfate

groups and classified into different groups due to its solubility in potassium

chloride (heparin). Carrageenans have anticoagulant activity, which is

15 times less than heparin activity. Anderson and Proc reported the first

polysaccharides isolated from different species such as Eucheuma spinosum

and Gobiodon acicularis have carrageenan contributing anticoagulant activity

(Anderson, 1969). However, carrageenan isolated from kappa has anticoag-

ulant activity (Silva et al., 2010).

2.2. Anticancer activityCancer is an unregulated cell growth and division which was induced by

cancer drugs and going under chemopreventive therapy to induce the can-

cer cell formation. Producing anticancer drugs from natural marine products

are becoming important, as the cancer is a popular disease among

populations. Therefore, the novel anticancer drug production becomes

important in the pharmaceutical industry.

In vitro tumor cell lines treated withmarine carbohydrate for inhibition of

tumor, antiproliferative activity and antimetastatic activity. SP is an impor-

tant element in all these researches. Porphyra yezoensis (Rhodophyceae) study



of cancer cells showed that SPs in P. yezoensis made an apoptosis in vitro and

the normal cells were not affected (Kwon & Nam, 2006). Polysaccharide

GA3 that is extracted from Gymnodinium sp., is called GA3P (Gymnodinium

sp. A3 phosphate), is an extracellular acidic polysaccharide that has a

D-galactone sulfate and lactic acid and inhibits the growth of human leuke-

mic cell lines. It is shown that GA3P has inhibitory effects on cancer cell lines

(Table 10.3) such as topoisomerase I and topoisomerase II (Umemura et al.,

2003). Besides, fucoidan has an anticancer activity; it contains SPs and rel-

ative molecular weight. By increasing the molecular weight, anticancer

activity might be lower. Hence, many polysaccharides isolated from marine

organisms can only inhibit the growth of human cancer cells (Ahmed,

Vijayakumar, Pallela, Abdullah, & Taha, 2013).

2.3. Antioxidant activityNatural antioxidant compounds have gained considerable attention in the

past few decades. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers the electrons

or hydrogen to the oxidation processes. Antioxidants block starting of oxi-

dation reaction by using high-energy molecules. Oxidation makes damages

on different parts of macromolecules such as lipid membrane, protein, and

even DNA molecules and all of them may cause tissue injury in organisms

(Butterfield et al., 2002). Antioxidants inhibit the oxidation process such as

vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients that protect the cells from damaging

of oxidation. In marine polysaccharides extractions such as antimicrobial,

anticancer, and antiviral, marine carbohydrates are supposed to have a high

antioxidative effect. Most of the organisms have antioxidant activity to

defense themselves against oxidative damages. The bioactive compounds

and antioxidants that marine organisms produce are important in the phar-

maceutical industry.

Keissleriella sp. is a marine fungus that has antioxidant activity (Wang

et al., 2007). De Souza et al. (2007) reported the fucoidan and lambda car-

rageenan have the highest antioxidant activity among the SP extracts from

brown and red seaweeds. Antioxidant activity mostly analyzes by DPPH

methods, ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and deoxyribose

assay. DPPH assay is a radical scavenging activity determinant. DPPH is

abbreviated of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl that is a chemical organic

compound. It contains of stable free radical molecules. Deoxyribose assay

is a reactivation of tannins toward hydroxyl radicals. FRAP assay determines

the antioxidant power in addition to ferric reducing ability. Lonicera japonica



Table 10.3 Cancer in major organs, involving cell line and growth index differentiationby GA3POrigin of cancer Cell line GI50

a (μg/ml)

Kidney PXF-63IL

ACHN

9.1

8.3

Lung NCI-H23 2.8

NCI-H226 2.2

NCI-H522 1.3

NCI-H460 3.8

A549 11

DMS273 2

DMS114 2.7

Breast HBC-4 5.2

BSY-1 0.67

HBC-5 6.2

MCF-7 2.9

MDA-MB-231 1.5

Stomach St-4 8.4

MKN1 3

MKN7 5.9

MKN28 7

MKN45 2.9

MKN74 4.6

Ovary OVCAR-3 2.2

OVCAR-4 3.2

OVCAR-5 6.8

OVCAR-8 4.1

SK-OV-3 8.1

a50% growth inhibitory concentration.



is traditional Chinese seafood that contains fucoidan (Ruperez, Ahrazem, &

Leal, 2002). The fucoidan is responsible for hydroxyl radicals and has anti-

oxidant activities. The SP in the cell wall of seaweed has antioxidant activity

that has ionic regulation ability. These SPs, which are available in their cell

walls, do not occur in land plants. Antioxidant compounds play an important

role against various diseases such as aging processes, chronic inflammation,

atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders (Kohen & Nyska, 2002).

2.4. Antiviral activityMarine polysaccharide protecting embryonic eggs against influenza B.

Gelidium cartilagenium (Rhodophyceae) is an example of antiviral marine

organism. Highly SPs in marine organisms had shown significant antiviral

activity in marine organisms (Huheihel, Ishanu, Tal, & Arad, 2002). The

antiviral activity of marine species determines by few factors such as molec-

ular weight, sulfation degree, and constituent sugar (Adhikari et al., 2006).

Degree of sulfation in algal polysaccharide is important and if the sulfation

degree is low or absent, antiviral activity will be absent. As the natural

bioactive compounds of marine SPs algal derived are important in the phar-

maceutical industry; these products used in natural anti-human immunode-

ficiency virus (HIV) medicine. Various studies have been done on antiviral

activity of marine carbohydrates on HIV. This medicine has fewer side

effects due to the natural therapy. Fucus vesiculosus is brown seaweed that

consists of soluble H2O and showed antiviral activity against HIV. Fucoidan

is the most abundant SP in this alga (Beress, Wassermann, Bruhn, & Beress,

1993). Several species of marine algae reported to have anti-HIV activity.

For example, Grateloupia filicina and Grateloupia longifolia produce sulfated

galactones (Wang et al., 2007), Lobophora variegata produces the sulfated

fucans (Queiroz et al., 2008).

SPs are useful in vaginal antiviral therapy. Drug production from marine

for antiviral activity has potential uses and it is widely acceptable as it is lower

in price with lower cytotoxicity and safer. These days marine-derived drugs

are an important production in pharmaceutical industry. Anti-HIV activity of

SPs has in vitro and in vivo inhibition on flaviviruses such as dengue virus (Ono

et al., 2003). Fucoidans that extracted from marine brown seaweeds contain

SPs. This polysaccharide has an antiviral activity against infectious diseases

(Witvrouw&DeClercq, 1997). Herpes simplex virus type1 causes skin infec-

tions in mucosal epithelia of the oral cavity. It can also make serious problems

in the nervous system. The SP isolated from Sargassum patens showed antiviral

activity against this virus (Zhu, Chiu, Ooi, Chan, & Angjr, 2006).



2.5. Antilipidemic activityAntilipidemic is an agent that reduces the level of lipid in the serum. These

antilipidemic marine drugs produced to reduce the role of atherosclerosis

process. The high content of dietary soluble fiber in marine makes it as a

good source for antiobesity drug production. Marine fibers slow down cal-

orie absorption and food digestion. Besides, they moderate appetite and

delay gastric emptying (Paxman, Richardson, Dettmar, & Corfe, 2008).

P. yezoensis is a marine red alga that contains porphyran. P. yezoensis can

use as antihyperlipidepic agent and can reduce the lipid synthesis in human

liver cells (Tsuge et al., 2004). Sulfated group makes this antilipedemic fea-

ture to porphyran. Sargassum sp. is brown seaweed that contains high

amount of SPs. Fucoidan and alginate content was high in Sargassum sp.

These species reported to decrease serum total cholesterol and triglyceride

and increase the high-density lipoprotein (Chen, Wang, Liu, Li, &

Liu, 2010).

2.6. Immunomodulating effectImmunomodulation applies for weakening or modulating the activity of the

immune system. It mostly used for decreasing the immunity of the body for

tissue transplant. Immunomodulation in SPs is mostly about macrophage

modulation. Macrophages are homeostasis modulators by changing the

function of immune cells (Wijesekara, 2011). Polysaccharides isolated from

Enteromorpha intestinalis, have the ability to increase the rate of B and

T lymphocytes production and effect on interleukin-2 and interferon-alpha

production (Xu et al., 2005). SPs that are isolated from marine algae have

anti-inflammatory activities (Abad, Bedoya, & Bermejo, 2008). Anti-

inflammatory effect is important in immunomodulating because of remov-

ing pathogens and cell debris after inflammation. In addition, carrageenan

isolated from red marine algae has an anti-inflammatory activity too. It stud-

ied that the SPs have phagocytosis effect on mouse macrophages (Yoshizawa

et al., 1995). Besides that, some SPs have immune stimulating activity,

which can control macrophage activity and decrease the negative effects

(Schepetkin & Quinn, 2006).

Polysaccharides with higher molecular weight,>90,000 Da, have higher

immunomodulating effect comparing to those with lower molecular

weight. However, the factors such as component of sugar contribute in

immunomodulating activity (Arena et al., 2009). Polysaccharides isolated

from different species of algae and seaweeds have the ability to increase



phagocytes and secretion of macrophages. Many of these SPs used in

immunomodulating effects, taken from algal cell wall. The algae cell wall

contains polysaccharides that contribute in immunomodulating the macro-

phage activity in mammals. Carrageenan has potential uses in stimulating

the immune system and macrophage adjusting (Leiro, Castro, Arranz, &

Lamas, 2007). The high potent activity of marine carbohydrate in

immunomodulating effects such as anti-inflammatory and antiviral activity

makes it important to be studied. Biological application of marine origin

substances isolated from various sources of marine organisms presented in

Table 10.4.

3. COSMECEUTICAL PRODUCTS AND FUNCTIONALAPPLICATIONS

Cosmetics have become an essential part of human life. Many

researches performed on cosmeceutical applications and production of

newer products that have better quality and cheaper price. Novel cosmeceu-

tical products supposed to have a pharma-like ability beside their main func-

tion. Marine carbohydrates provide a vast area in the production of

cosmetics and applied, since ancient time among the people of different

nationalities. SPs in marine organisms provide a good source of antioxidant

in cosmeceutical industry. Most of these antioxidants are isolated from sea-

weeds. Other biological components of marine organisms are incorporating

to make them as an important source for cosmeceutical industry. Here,

fucoidan, carrageenan, and alginate substances that are used in cosmetic

products are discussed.

3.1. FucoidanFucoidan is the most abundant SPs that is extracted from marine brown sea-

weeds and marine invertebrates such as sea cucumber. Fucoidan is important

in cosmeceutical and food production as it is possible to extract from cheap

resources and used in novel drugs and functional food production. In addi-

tion, it is useful in antiviral, anticoagulant, and antibacterial activities.

Figure 10.2 shows the fucoidan chemical structure and its repeating

dimeric units.

Fucoidan is a cell wall stability enhancer and conservation for

antidehydrating. Fucoidan bioactivity is very important in food and cos-

metic application. It is necessary to know that sulfation content and structure

of fucoidan is important in its biological application. Fucoidan is used as



Table 10.4 The biological application isolated from different sources of marineorganismsReferences Organism Source Biological application

Jung and Kim (2007) Mytilus edulis Marine

bivalve

mollusk

Anticoagulant activity

Anderson (1969) Eucheuma

spinosum

Red

seaweed


Anderson (1969) Gobiodon

acicularis

Gobioid

fish


Jo et al. (2008) Echiuroid Sea worm Anticoagulant activity

Jung et al. (2007) Ecklonia cava Brown

seaweed


Mao et al. (2008) Monostroma

nitidum

Green

seaweed


Ye et al. (2008) Sargassum

pallidum

Brown

seaweed

Antitumor activity

Antioxidant activity

Ruperez et al. (2002) Laminaria

japonica

Brown

seaweed


Ruperez et al. (2002) Focus

vesiculosus

Brown

seaweed


Wang et al. (2007) Keissleriella

sp.

Marine

fungus


Beress et al. (1993) Focus

vesiculosus

Brown

seaweed

Antiviral activity, anti-HIV

activity

Ananthi et al. (2010) Turbinaria

ornata

Brown

seaweed


Anti-inflammatory

Rodriguez et al. (2005) Callophyllis

variegata

Brown

seaweed

Antiviral activity

Matsuhiro et al. (2005) Schizymenia

binderi

Red

seaweed

Antiviral activity

Melo, Pereira, Foguel,

and Mourao (2004)

Botryocladia

occidentalis

Red

seaweeds

Antithrombin activity


Zhu et al. (2006) Sargassum

patens

Brown

seaweed

Antiviral activity

Wang et al. (2007) Grateloupia

filicina

Brown

seaweed

Antiviral activity



Table 10.4 The biological application isolated from different sources of marineorganisms—cont'dReferences Organism Source Biological application

Wang et al. (2007) Grateloupia

longifolia

Brown

seaweed

Antiviral activity

Queiroz et al. (2008) Lobophora

variegata

Brown

seaweed

Antiviral activity

Zhu et al. (2006) Sargassum

patens

Brown

seaweed

Antiviral activity

Jiao, Jiang, Zhang, and

Wu (2010) and Xu et al.

(2005)

Enteromorpha

intestinalis

Green

seaweed

Immunomodulating

activity, antiaging, and

antitumor activity

Leiro et al. (2007) Ulva rigida Brown

seaweed

Immunomodulating effect

Yoshizawa et al. (1995) Porphyra

yezoensis

Red

seaweed

Immunomodulating activity

Kwon and Nam (2006) P. yezoensis Red

seaweed

Anticancer activity

Tsuge et al. (2004) P. yezoensis Red

seaweed

Antilipidemic activity

Chen et al. (2010) Sargassum sp. Brown

seaweed

Antilipidemic activity

Figure 10.2 Fucoidan structure and repeating dimeric unit.



antiulcer in food production and increases the metalloproteinase-1 enzyme

activity in human skin (Moon et al., 2008). This means that fucoidan is used

as antiaging agent to prevent skin photo aging in cosmetic production.

Fucoidan isolated from macroalgae has various uses in cosmetic production.

It is useful in conditioning agents and emollients too. The cheap, healthy,

and novel uses of fucoidan contained carbohydrate substances make this

derivative to have application in cosmeceutical production.

3.2. CarrageenanCarrageenan is sulfated galactans that are mostly isolated from marine red

algae. Carrageenan is composed of D-galactose units. It is composed of

1,3-linked β-D-galactose and 1,4-linked α-D-galactose. Carrageenan deriv-

atives and structures present in different chemical structures shown in

Fig. 10.3.

Carrageenan is an important production used in the cosmetic industry

because of its physical and functional ability and antioxidant activity. Most

of the carrageenan derivatives consider for cosmeceutical production and

isolated from red seaweeds. On the other hand, carrageenan utilized in anti-

aging, antioxidants, and anticarcinogenic activity. The gelling ability of car-

rageenan is useful in producing a higher texture with higher consistency in

cosmetic production. Other products such as skin lotions, toothpaste

OHO

O

HO

μ−carrageenan κ−carrageenan

OHOH−

O

OCH2OH

OSO3−

OSO3−

OHO

O

HO

ν−carrageenan

OSO3−

O

OCH2OH

OSO3−

OSO3−

OHO

OO

O

O

OH

CH2OH

OSO3−

O

O

HO

λ−carrageenan

OSO3−

OSO3−

O

OCH2OH

OSO3−

OH

OH−

OH−

ι−carrageenan

OHO

OO

O

OCH2OH

OSO3−

OSO3−

θ−carrageenan

O

OO

O

OCH2OH

OH

OSO3−OSO3

−

Figure 10.3 Carrageenan synthesis by the treatment of OH� from red algae.



binders, and shaving foams are available from carrageenan isolated from

marine algae (Ahmed & Taha, 2011).

3.3. AlginatesAlginate is found in marine organisms cell walls. It was isolated from sea-

weeds such as kelp. It is made of two units of guluronic and mannuronic

acids, which is highly dependent on pH and temperature modification. Algi-

nates have a wide application in cosmeceutical industry because of their

thickening high stability and gelling agent. The first alginate application

in cosmeceutical field started in 1927. Alginate is applicable in grafting

the skin in plastic surgery. It makes a nice quality cosmetic convenience

for the patients. In addition, it has application in wound healing because

of hydrogel formation and degradability and providing a moist environment

for wound (Pereira et al., 2013). It was studied that biological activity of algi-

nates depends on its molecular weight, sulfated content, and anionic group

that makes it to have antioxidant activity (Xue, Yu, Hirata, Terao, & Lin,

1998). Alginates bioactivity depends on the presence of molecular weights

of sulfated content and anionic group that makes antioxidant activity.

4. MARINE FOOD AND TRADITIONAL APPLICATION

Human being existence depends on responding to his necessity. Need

to eat food is one of this physical necessities. In order to respond his needs,

man discovered the earth to find his food, so that the history of fishing dating

back to 40,000 years. Due to the wide range of environments and organisms

that survive underwater, we can see a large untapped reservoir of bioactive

ingredients that can be used in various applications such as food. Biomole-

cules derived from marine organisms, play an important role in a number of

applications such as food industry, including efficient food production under

unique conditions such as low temperature or high pressure; providing

added nutritional benefits of foods; and using “natural” pigments, preserva-

tives, or flavors.

4.1. Marine food carbohydrates and fibers derived as anantioxidants and their antioxidative activity

Edible macroalgae (red, green, and brown seaweed) contain a lot of carbo-

hydrates and dietary fibers. Reduced plasma total cholesterol, LDL choles-

terol, and TAG have been observed due to polysaccharides from edible



seaweed (Amano, Kakinuma, Coury, Ohno, & Hara, 2005) and SPs from

seaweed, have potential use as antioxidants (Ruperez et al., 2002).

4.1.1 Chitooligosaccharide derivativesBeside cellulose, chitin is the most abundant biopolymer on earth after one

of the most abundant polysaccharides. Chitin is extracted from the shells of

crabs and shrimps.

Recently, chitooligosaccharide (COS) had been in the center of attention

in terms of their pharmaceutical and medicinal applications (Kim &

Rajapakse, 2005) as an antioxidant (Park, Je, & Kim, 2003), antimicrobial

(Park et al., 2003), anticancer ( Jeon & Kim, 2002), antidiabetic (Liu, Liu,

Han, & Sun, 2007), hypocholesterolemic (Kim et al., 2005), anti-Alzheimer’s

(Yoon, Ngo, & Kim, 2009), and anticoagulant (Park, Lee, & Kim, 2004)

properties and adipogenesis inhibition (Cho et al., 2008). In the food industry,

chitosan (edible chitosan, more than 83% degree of deacetylation) and COS

have been used as dietary food additives and functional factors for their health

beneficial effects as well as drug carriers (Xia, Liu, Zhang, & Chen, 2010).

4.1.2 Sulfated polysaccharidesIn recent years, various SPs (the complex group of macromolecules)

extracted frommarine algae with a wide range of important biological activ-

ities attracted much attention in the fields of food, pharmaceutical, and cos-

metic industries. Marine algae as the most important source of nonanimal

plus animals such as mammals and invertebrates (Mourao, 2007) contain

these polymers. These SPs demonstrate various health beneficial biological

activities such as anti-HIV-1 (Schaeffer & Krylov, 2000), immuno-

modulation (Leiro et al., 2007), and anticancer (Rocha et al., 2005) activ-

ities. SPs are by-products in the preparation of alginates from edible

brown seaweeds and could be used as a rich source of natural antioxidants

with potential application in the food industry.

4.1.3 CarotenoidsCarotenoids produced by plants, algae, fungi, and microorganisms, but not

animals are a family of pigmented compounds. They are the most important

pigments in nature that are responsible for various colors of different photo-

synthetic organisms (Rao & Rao, 2007). According to studies, carotenoids

are assumed to be responsible for the beneficial properties in preventing

human diseases including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and other chronic

diseases (Agarwal & Rao, 2000). Marine-derived carotenoids, astaxanthin,



is effective against UVA-induced DNA alteration in human dermal fibro-

blasts, human melanocytes, and human intestinal cells (Lyons & O’Brien,

2002). In addition, fucoxanthin (marine-derived carotenoids) and astaxanthin

are bioactive natural functional ingredients that may be important in human

health as potential antioxidants (Sachindra et al., 2007).

4.2. Thickeners, stabilizers, and emulsifiersAnother property of marine carbohydrates such as algins and

exopolysaccharides from cyanobacteria is to be used for the stabilization of

emulsions or as bioflocculants. These potentials allow a wide variety of unique

food products to evolve in order to have a reasonable life. Polysaccharides are

a common approach in food product formulation to achieve a certain texture,

mouthfeel, and body by thickening the food. Most polysaccharides have an

ability, which is viscosity increases or decreases with increasing shear rate,

once they are dispersed in water. This ability is called “non-Newtonian.”

Some stabilizers result in a solution yield value, i.e., shear stress or applied

force below which the solution will not flow (e.g., ketchup). Because of

the thickening effect and the yield value, addition of suitable polysaccharides

to an aqueous system can stabilize the suspending dispersed phase (could be

solid, liquid, or gas) and prevent it from separating out.

Carrageenan has a unique functional property in its reactivity to protein.

So it is used to stabilize milk protein. Normally, carrageenan is used in com-

bination with other hydrocolloids such as starch, locustbean gum, and car-

boxymethyl cellulose. Furcellaran has a similar function but less extensively

in food. Many functional requirements and various applications such as for-

tification, natural pigments, stabilization, and antimicrobial food coatings are

met by the use of simple and complex carbohydrates derived from marine

food. Thus, development of more efficient and natural food processing tech-

niques can be set in new era’s perspective.

5. CONCLUSION

The importance and application of marine carbohydrate made it a

major compound in different industries and productions. SPs in marine

organisms isolated from different species of algae, bacteria, and fungi playing

an important role in pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food production

because of their bioactive compound. Presence of fucoidan, carrageenan,

agar, and alginate as a SP source in different marine species and their biolog-

ical activities are considerable in production various compounds. Since



ancient time, carbohydrate isolated from marine species used in drug pro-

duction and curing various diseases. Nowadays, marine carbohydrate has

application in novel drug production. Among the carbohydrate group,

SPs are special in the pharmaceutical industry. Besides, carbohydrate isolated

from marine use in the cosmetics industry. Fucoidan, carrageenan, and algi-

nate are the main compounds used in the cosmetic industry. Marine organ-

isms considering as a good source of carbohydrate and their biological

activities such as antioxidants improve them in the food industry. Besides,

food coloring, emulsions, thickeners, and stabilizers are the other role of

marine carbohydrates in the food industry. Studying on marine carbohy-

drates to improve the quality of food, cosmeceutical, and pharmaceutical

industry is one of the ways to improve quality of products. Scientists are still

studying about other biological activities and other applications of marine

carbohydrates to fulfill man demands.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTThe authors would like to thank University of Malaya for the financial support

(RG078-12BIO) and facilities provided to successfully carryout this research.

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