Invasive Species Compendium

Datasheet report for Terminalia catappa (Singapore almond)

Pictures

Picture Title Caption Copyright

Mature treeTerminalia catappa (Singapore almond); habit. In exposed coastal situations, the stem may become crooked and/orlean. In sheltered situations the stem is more or less cylindrical and straight.

©CSIRO/AustralianTree Seed Centre

Bole Terminalia catappa (Singapore almond); base of mature coastline tree, showing bark and exposed root system©CSIRO/AustralianTree Seed Centre

Bark Terminalia catappa (Singapore almond); bark.©CSIRO/AustralianTree Seed Centre

Foliage Terminalia catappa (Singapore almond); foliage.©CSIRO/AustralianTree Seed Centre

Inflorescence Terminalia catappa (Singapore almond); inflorescence. ©A.R. Pittaway

Fruits andfoliage

Terminalia catappa (Singapore almond); foliage and maturing fruits.©CSIRO/AustralianTree Seed Centre

Identity

Preferred Scientific NameTerminalia catappa L.

Preferred Common NameSingapore almond

Other Scientific NamesBadamia commersonii Gaertn.Buceras catappa (L.) Hitchc.Juglans catappa (L.) Lour.Myrobalanus catappa (L.) KuntzePhytolacca javanica OsbeckTerminalia badamia DC.Terminalia intermedia Bertero ex Spreng.Terminalia latifolia BlancoTerminalia mauritiana BlancoTerminalia moluccana Lam.Terminalia myrobalana RothTerminalia ovatifolia NoronhaTerminalia paraensis Mart.Terminalia procera Roxb.Terminalia rubrigemmis Tul.Terminalia subcordata Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.

International Common NamesEnglish: beach almond; country almond; Indian almond; Malabar almond; sea almond; tropical almondSpanish: almendra; almendrillo; almendro; almendro de playaFrench: amandier de la Martinique; amandier des Indes; badamier; myrobolanChinese: lan ren shuPortuguese: amendoeira; amendoeira da India

Local Common NamesAustralia: kotambaBrazil: amendoeira-da-India; amendoeira-da-praia; castanha da praia; castanhola; chapéu-de-sol; guarda-sol; sombreiroBrunei Darussalam: telisai; terminaliaCambodia: barang; châmbak barang; kapang; pareang prangColombia: kotambaCuba: almendro de la IndiaFiji: tavali; tiviGermany: etangen baum; indischer Mandelbaum; KatappenbaumHaiti: amadier tropical; amandier des Indes; badannier; zamanne; zammandeIndia: adamaram; badam; badambo; badami; badan; bangla-badam; deshi-bandam; hindi-badam; jangli-badam; patti-badam; vathakottai natavadom; white bombweIndia/Andaman and Nicobar Islands: white Bombay; white bombwayIndonesia: ketapangIndonesia/Java: katapangIndonesia/Nusa Tenggara: ai calesse catapoKiribati: te kunikun; te ntarineLaos: hou kouang; hu kwang; huu kwaang; sômz moox dôngLesser Antilles: Barbados almond; Z’amande; zanmannMalaysia: jelawai ketapang; ketapangMalaysia/Peninsular Malaysia: lingkakMalaysia/Sabah: telisaiMyanmar: badanNetherlands: amandel boom; wilde amandelPapua New Guinea: jara almond; reddish-brown Terminalia; talisPeru: castanaPhilippines: dalinsi; kalumpit; logo; talisaiSamoa: talieSolomon Islands: saoriSri Lanka: kottambaThailand: dat mue; hukwang; khon; taa-pangTonga: telieTuvalu: talieUSA/Hawaii: false kamani; haole; kamani-haoleVanuatu: natapoaVietnam: b[af]ng; b[af]ng nh[os]c; bang bien; bang nu'o'c; mo c[uws]a

EPPO codeTEMCA (Terminalia catappa)

Trade nameAndaman badamIndian almond

Summary of Invasiveness

T. catappa is a perennial tree species that has been extensively introduced into littoral habitats, coastal forests, gardens and parks to be used as an ornamental, shade tree, and sand-dune stabilizer (Orwa et al., 2009; ISSG, 2017). This species has become of the most common trees in littoral habitats and beaches across tropical and subtropical regions of America,India, southeastern Asia, and the Pacific Ocean, due in part to human-mediated introductions, the adaptation of its fruits to be dispersed over long-distances by sea currents and itstolerance to salt-spray, coastal-winds and drought conditions (Thomson and Evans, 2006; Brown and Cooprider, 2013). T. catappa is a prolific seed producer and fruits may remainviable for a long time, even after floating in salt water for considerable time periods.

This species naturalizes readily in littoral habitats and has been listed as invasive in the United States (Florida and Hawaii), Brazil, the Bahamas, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Trinidadand Tobago, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands where it is displacing native vegetation and altering coastal dynamics (Smith, 2010; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; Mir, 2012; Rojas-Sandovaland Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015; FLEPPC, 2017; I3N-Brazil, 2017; ISSG, 2017).

Taxonomic Tree

Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Subphylum: Angiospermae Class: Dicotyledonae Order: Myrtales Family: Combretaceae Genus: Terminalia Species: Terminalia catappa

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Combretaceae is a family of flowering plants comprising 14 genera and about 500 species distributed largely across tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The genus Terminaliaincludes 190 species some of them with economic importance as ornamentals and timber yielding plants (Orwa et al., 2009). The generic name is derived from the characteristicclustered spirals of leaves at the twig tips. Terminalia and other tree species within the Combretaceae often look rather pagoda-like, the branches are often arranged in whorls andconsisting of flattened sprays of leaf rosettes (Stevens, 2012). Key references to the genus include Exell (1954), Coode (1969, 1973, 1978) and Smith (1971, 1985).

Terminalia catappa is the type species for the genus and the specific epithet 'catappa' is taken from its name in Malaysia, viz. ketapang (Wheatley, 1992). Closely related species in theSouth Pacific include T. glabrata Forst. f., T. litoralis Seem. and T. samoensis Rechinger (Fosberg and Sachet, 1981). The species has a vast number of common names, but is mostwidely known as beach, Indian or sea almond.

T. procera is considered by some to be a synonym of T. catappa (see, for example, Sosef et al., 1995). However, other authors consider T. procera (which has a limited distribution inthe Andaman Islands and Myanmar) to be a separate species (Mabberley, 1997; Troup and Joshi, 1984).

Description

Trees to 20 m tall; trunk to 2 m dbh. Bark brownish black, longitudinally peeling. Branches spreading, forming tiers. Branchlets densely brownish yellow tomentose near apex, denselycovered with conspicuous leaf scars. Leaves alternate, crowded into pseudo-whorls at apices of branchlets; petiole 0.5–2 cm, stout, tomentose; leaf blade obovate to oblanceolate,narrowed in proximal half, 12–30 × 8–15 cm, both surfaces glabrous or abaxially sparsely softly hairy when young, base narrow, cordate or truncate, apex obtuse or mucronate; lateralveins in 10–12 pairs. Inflorescences axillary, simple, long, slender spikes, 15–20 cm, numerous flowered; axis shortly white tomentose. Flowers fragrant. Calyx tube distally cupular, 7–8mm, abaxially white tomentose, densely so on ovary, sparsely so on cupular part, adaxially glabrous; lobes 5. Stamens 10, exserted, 2–3 mm. Fruit not stipitate, red or blackish greenwhen ripe, ellipsoid, slightly to strongly compressed, strongly 2-ridged to narrowly 2-winged (wings to 3 mm wide), 3–5.5 × 2–3.5 cm, glabrous; pericarp woody, rigid (Flora of ChinaEditorial Committee, 2017).

Plant Type

Broadleaved Perennial Seed propagated Tree Woody

Distribution

T. catappa is native to the Malaysian Peninsula, Southeast Asia and the Andaman Islands. This species together with Casuarina trees and coconut palms is one of the most commontrees across tropical and subtropical coastal habitats (Brown and Cooprider, 2013). It can be found naturalized across tropical and subtropical America, the West Indies, tropical andtemperate Asia, and East and West Africa (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991; Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further detailsmay be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region Distribution LastReported Origin First

Reported Invasive Planted Reference Notes

Africa

Botswana Present Introduced Invasive Haysom and Murphy (2003)

Burundi Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Cabo Verde Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Cameroon Present Introduced PROTA (2017)

Congo, DemocraticRepublic of the

Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Congo, Republic of the Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Gabon Present Introduced PROTA (2017)

Gambia Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Ghana Present IntroducedPROTA (2017); Badii et al. (2015);CABI (Undated)

Kenya Present Introduced PROTA (2017); CABI (Undated)

Liberia Present Introduced PROTA (2017)

Madagascar Present IntroducedValkenburg and Waluyo (1991);CABI (Undated) Cultivated

Malawi Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Nigeria Present Introduced PROTA (2017); CABI (Undated)

Réunion Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Rwanda Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Senegal Present Introduced PROTA (2017); CABI (Undated)

Seychelles Present NativeThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated) Native and cultivated

Somalia Present Introduced PROTA (2017); CABI (Undated)

Sudan Present Introduced PROTA (2017)

Tanzania Present IntroducedPROTA (2017); Mwatawala et al.(2009); CABI (Undated)

-Zanzibar Island Present Introduced PROTA (2017); CABI (Undated)

Uganda Present Introduced PROTA (2017); CABI (Undated)

Zimbabwe Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Asia

Continent/Country/Region Distribution LastReported Origin First

Reported Invasive Planted Reference Notes

Afghanistan Present Introduced Orwa et al. (2009) Cultivated

Bangladesh Present Orwa et al. (2009); CABI (Undated)

Brunei Present CABI (Undated b)

Cambodia Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

China Present IntroducedFlora of China Editorial Committee(2017); CABI (Undated)

-Guangdong Present IntroducedFlora of China Editorial Committee(2017); CABI (Undated)

-Hainan Present IntroducedFlora of China Editorial Committee(2017)

-Yunnan Present IntroducedFlora of China Editorial Committee(2017); CABI (Undated)

India Present Native

USDA-ARS (2017); Sakthivel et al.(2012); Selvaraj et al. (2017); CABI(Undated)

-Andaman and NicobarIslands

Present NativeThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated) Native and cultivated

-Karnataka Present Planted Selvaraj et al. (2017)

-Kerala Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Maharashtra Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Odisha Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Punjab Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Tamil Nadu Present Planted Sakthivel et al. (2012)

-Uttar Pradesh Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-West Bengal Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Indonesia Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

-Irian Jaya Present CABI (Undated b)

-Java Present CABI (Undated b)

-Maluku Islands Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Sulawesi Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Sumatra Present NativeValkenburg and Waluyo (1991);CABI (Undated)

Japan PresentCABI (Undated a); Sahashi et al.(2015)

Present based onregional distribution.

Continent/Country/Region Distribution LastReported Origin First

Reported Invasive Planted Reference Notes

-Ryukyu Islands Present CABI (Undated b)

Laos Present Native Orwa et al. (2009); CABI (Undated)

Malaysia Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

-Peninsular Malaysia Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Sabah Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Sarawak Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Myanmar Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

Nepal Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Pakistan Present IntroducedValkenburg and Waluyo (1991);Tariq et al. (2007); CABI (Undated) Cultivated

Philippines Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

Singapore Present Orwa et al. (2009); CABI (Undated)

Sri Lanka Present Orwa et al. (2009); CABI (Undated)

Taiwan Present IntroducedFlora of China Editorial Committee(2017); CABI (Undated)

Thailand Present NativeThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated) Native and cultivated

Vietnam Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

North America

Anguilla Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Antigua and Barbuda Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Bahamas Present Introduced Invasive Smith (2010)

Barbados Present Introduced InvasiveHaysom and Murphy (2003);Broome et al. (2007)

Belize Present Introduced Davidse et al. (2009)

Bermuda Present Introduced Orwa et al. (2009)

Bonaire, Saint Eustatiusand Saba

-Saba Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

-Sint Eustatius Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

British Virgin Islands Present Introduced InvasiveRojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2015)

Guana, Tortola, VirginGorda

Continent/Country/Region Distribution LastReported Origin First

Reported Invasive Planted Reference Notes

Cayman Islands Present IntroducedAcevedo-Rodríguez and Strong(2012)

Costa Rica Present Introduced Orwa et al. (2009); CABI (Undated)

Cuba Present Introduced InvasiveOviedo Prieto et al. (2012); CABI(Undated)

Curaçao Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Dominica Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Dominican Republic Present Introduced Invasive Mir (2012); CABI (Undated)

El Salvador Present Introduced Orwa et al. (2009)

Grenada Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Guadeloupe Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Guatemala Present IntroducedDavidse et al. (2009); CABI(Undated)

Haiti Present IntroducedAcevedo-Rodríguez and Strong(2012); CABI (Undated)

Honduras Present Introduced Davidse et al. (2009)

Jamaica Present Introduced InvasiveTownsend and Newell (2006); CABI(Undated)

Martinique Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Mexico Present IntroducedDavidse et al. (2009); CABI(Undated)

Montserrat Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Nicaragua Present Introduced Davidse et al. (2009)

Panama Present IntroducedDavidse et al. (2009); CABI(Undated)

Puerto Rico Present Introduced Invasive Planted

Haysom and Murphy (2003); Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez(2015)

Saint Lucia Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Saint Vincent and theGrenadines

Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Sint Maarten Present Introduced Naturalized Broome et al. (2007) Naturalized

Trinidad and Tobago Present Introduced Invasive CABI (Undated)Original citation: Trinidadand Tobago Biodiversity(2016)

U.S. Virgin Islands Present Introduced InvasiveRojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2015)

St Croix, St Thomas, StJohn

Continent/Country/Region Distribution LastReported Origin First

Reported Invasive Planted Reference Notes

United StatesPresent,Localized

Introduced USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

-California Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

-Florida Present Introduced Invasive PlantedHaysom and Murphy (2003);FLEPPC (2017)

-Hawaii Present Introduced USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

Oceania

American Samoa Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Australia Present NativeThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

-Northern Territory Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

-Queensland Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

Cook Islands Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Federated States ofMicronesia

PresentThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

Probably aboriginalintroduction

Fiji Present NativeThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

French Polynesia PresentThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

Probably aboriginalintroduction

Guam Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Kiribati Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Marshall Islands Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

New Caledonia Present Native USDA-ARS (2017); CABI (Undated)

Niue Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Northern Mariana Islands Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Papua New Guinea Present NativeThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

Samoa PresentThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

Probably aboriginalintroduction

Solomon Islands Present NativeThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

Tokelau Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Tonga PresentThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

Probably aboriginalintroduction

Tuvalu Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

Continent/Country/Region Distribution LastReported Origin First

Reported Invasive Planted Reference Notes

Vanuatu Present NativeThomson and Evans (2006); CABI(Undated)

Wallis and Futuna Present Planted CABI (Undated b)

South America

Argentina Present Introduced Davidse et al. (2009)

Bolivia Present Introduced Davidse et al. (2009)

Brazil Present Introduced Invasive CABI (Undated b)

-Acre Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Amazonas Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Bahia Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017)

-Ceara Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017)

-Distrito Federal Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Espirito Santo Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017)

-Mato Grosso Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Mato Grosso do Sul Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Minas Gerais Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Para Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Paraiba Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Parana Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017)

-Pernambuco Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017)

-Piaui Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Rio de Janeiro Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017)

-Rio Grande do Norte Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Roraima Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

-Santa Catarina Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017)

-Sao Paulo Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017); CABI (Undated)

-Sergipe Present Introduced Invasive I3N-Brasil (2017)

-Tocantins Present Introduced Naturalized Marquete and Loiola (2015) Naturalized

Colombia Present Introduced Orwa et al. (2009)

Continent/Country/Region Distribution LastReported Origin First

Reported Invasive Planted Reference Notes

Ecuador Present Introduced Jørgensen and León-Yánez (1999)

-Galapagos Islands Present Introduced Jørgensen and León-Yánez (1999)

French Guiana Present Introduced Funk et al. (2007)

Guyana Present Introduced Funk et al. (2007)

Paraguay Present Introduced Davidse et al. (2009)

Peru Present Introduced Davidse et al. (2009)

Suriname Present Introduced Funk et al. (2007); CABI (Undated)

Venezuela Present Introduced CABI (Undated) Original citation: Hokcheet al. (2010)

History of Introduction and Spread

The rind of the fruit, comprising light, pithy/corky tissue, enables the fruits to float and be naturally dispersed long distances by sea currents (Kadambi, 1954; Nakanishi, 1989; Troupand Joshi, 1984). The extent to which its range has also been extended through movement by humans is difficult to determine.

In Hawaii, T. catappa was introduced probably before 1800. Now it can be found naturalized at low altitudes, mainly near beach shores. Similarly, across the archipelagos of Polynesiaand Micronesia it is considered an aboriginal introduction to the eastern parts of its current range, widely naturalized across coastal areas (Thomson and Evans, 2006).

In the West Indies, T. catappa appears in herbarium collections made as early as 1871 in the Dominican Republic, 1880 in Martinique, and 1881 in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands(US National Herbarium).

Introductions

Introduced to Introducedfrom Year Reason Introduced

by

Established in wild through

References NotesNaturalreproduction

Continuousrestocking

Hawaii 1800Horticulture (pathwaycause)

Yes NoThomson and Evans(2006)

DominicanRepublic

1871Horticulture (pathwaycause)

Yes No

Martinique 1880Horticulture (pathwaycause)

Yes No

Puerto Rico 1881Horticulture (pathwaycause)

Yes No

Risk of Introduction

The likelihood of new introductions of T. catappa is very high. This species is extensively commercialized and planted across tropical and subtropical coastal habitats. Additionally, it isa prolific seed producer and seeds float and can be carried considerable distances by sea currents and still remain viable (Thomson and Evans, 2006; Orwa et al., 2009). A riskassessment carried out for PIER (2017), however, gave the species a low risk score of 4.

Habitat

T. catappa grows in coastal thickets, beaches, rocky shores, sand dunes, parks, gardens, and edges of mangrove swamps. It is a pioneer species in disturbed sites across littoralhabitats and in sandy areas just above the level of high tides (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991; Thomson and Evans, 2006; Orwa et al., 2009).

Habitat List

Category Sub-Category Habitat Presence Status

Brackish Inland saline areas Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)

Brackish Inland saline areas Present, no further details Natural

Brackish Inland saline areas Present, no further details Productive/non-natural

Terrestrial

Terrestrial Managed Disturbed areas Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)

Terrestrial Managed Disturbed areas Present, no further details Natural

Terrestrial Managed Disturbed areas Present, no further details Productive/non-natural

Terrestrial Managed Rail / roadsides Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)

Terrestrial Managed Rail / roadsides Present, no further details Natural

Terrestrial Managed Rail / roadsides Present, no further details Productive/non-natural

Terrestrial Managed Urban / peri-urban areas Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)

Terrestrial Managed Urban / peri-urban areas Present, no further details Natural

Terrestrial Managed Urban / peri-urban areas Present, no further details Productive/non-natural

Terrestrial Natural / Semi-natural Wetlands Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)

Terrestrial Natural / Semi-natural Wetlands Present, no further details Natural

Terrestrial Natural / Semi-natural Wetlands Present, no further details Productive/non-natural

Littoral Coastal areas Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)

Littoral Coastal areas Present, no further details Natural

Littoral Coastal areas Present, no further details Productive/non-natural

Littoral Coastal dunes Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)

Littoral Coastal dunes Present, no further details Natural

Littoral Coastal dunes Present, no further details Productive/non-natural

Littoral Mangroves Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)

Littoral Mangroves Present, no further details Natural

Littoral Mangroves Present, no further details Productive/non-natural

Biology and Ecology

Genetics The chromosome number reported for T. catappa is 2n = 24 (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991).

Reproductive Biology T. catappa is an andromonoecious species, with male and perfect flowers occurring on the same tree. Usually perfect flowers occur at the base of the raceme and male flowers directlyabove. Flowers of both types are greenish-white or light brown. This species yields fruits by autogamy and geitonogamy, but it is also facultatively apomictic. Flowers produce traces ofnectar and large quantities of pollen and are visited and pollinated by insects including bees, flies, wasps and ants.

In India the bee genera Trigona and Apis and the fly genera Chrysomya and Sarcophaga are the most important pollinators. Trees growing isolated or in urban areas tend to be totallyapomictic (Atluri et al., 2003; Orwa et al., 2009).

Typically 1–5 fruits are formed on the basal part of the flower spike. Fruits are sessile, laterally compressed, ovoid to ovate, smooth-skinned drupes. During maturation, fruits changecolour from green, through yellow to bright red or dark purplish-red at full maturity (Coode, 1978; Whistler, 1992a, 1992b; Jensen, 1995). Fruit size varies considerably, e.g. 3.5–7 cm x2–5.5 cm (Exell, 1954), with Walter and Sam (1993) reporting an exceptional range in length from 2.5 to 10 cm. The kernel consists of two delicate and intricately entwined cotyledonsenclosed in an inconspicuous cream-coloured (sometimes red) testa (Evans, 1991).

Physiology and Phenology T. catappa sheds its leaves all at once, after they have turned yellow/red. In Southeast Asia and Peninsular Malaysia, this process occurs usually twice a year (January–February andJuly–August). Across tropical America, trees lose their leaves during the dry season (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991; Brown and Cooprider, 2013).

Flowers normally appear in early summer and fruits follow quite late in the year in India. In China, T. catappa has been recorded flowering from March to June and in October andfruiting in May and from July to September (Orwa et al., 2009; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017). Apparently trees never flower when defoliated (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991).

Flowering and fruiting occur sporadically throughout much of the year in Hawaii (Little and Skolmen, 1989), Fiji (Smith, 1985) and Vanuatu (Walter and Sam, 1993), but flowering andfruiting of cultivated trees seem to be more synchronous in Vanuatu. Flowering peaks around October to January and is followed by fruiting around March to June. In the South Pacific,T. catappa produces fruit sporadically throughout the year at lower latitudes, and has heavier crops towards the end of the year at higher latitudes (Evans, 1996). In Samoa, fruitingoccurs in June-July and February-March (Foliga and Blaffart, 1995), while in New Guinea the productive period is between November and March, especially December-February(Bourke, 1996).

Longevity T. catappa is a perennial (deciduous or semi-deciduous) tree (Thomson and Evans, 2006).

Activity patterns T. catappa is a fast growing tree at juvenile stages, moderating the speed of growth as it ages (Brown and Cooprider, 2013). In cultivation, plants usually start flowering and fruitingwithin 2 to 3 years after planting. Seeds may remain viable for a long time. They germinate readily, even after floating in salt water for considerable time periods. Germination typicallyoccurs 3–8 weeks after sowing with germination rates >50% (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991; Thomson and Evans, 2006).

Associations T. catappa is a food plant for the larval stages of the brown awl butterfly Badamia exclamationis. The foliage is also used for feeding tasar or katkura silk worms (Thomson and Evans,2006).

Within its native distribution rage, T. catappa often grows associated with species such as Acacia simplex, Tournefortia argentea, Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum,Casuarina equisetifolia, Cocos nucifera, Cordia subcordata, Excoecaria agallocha, Hernandia nymphaeifolia, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Morinda citrifolia, Scaevola taccada, Schleinitziainsularum, Terminalia littoralis, Thespesia populnea, and Vitex trifoliata (Thomson and Evans, 2006).

Environmental Requirements T. catappa is well-adapted to grow in littoral areas across subtropical and tropical climates with mean annual rainfall ranging from 1000 mm to 3500 mm and mean annual temperaturesaround 13–36°C. It has the capability to grow in a wide range of soil types, including saline and alkaline sand, sandy loams, loams, and heavy clays with pH ranging from 4.0 to 8.5.Seedlings and saplings tolerate moderate shade levels but require high light levels to grow. Mature trees prefer full sunlight. The species tolerates strong and steady coastal winds,drought, and coastal salt spray (Thomson and Evans, 2006; Brown and Cooprider, 2013).

Climate

Climate Status Description Remark

Af - Tropical rainforest climate Preferred > 60mm precipitation per month

Am - Tropical monsoon climate PreferredTropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annualprecipitation(mm}/25]))

As - Tropical savanna climate with drysummer

Preferred < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])

Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate Preferred < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Latitude North (°N) Latitude South (°S) Altitude Lower (m) Altitude Upper (m)

25 -30 0 800

Air Temperature

Parameter Lower limit Upper limit

Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) 7

Mean annual temperature (ºC) 20 26

Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) 32 35

Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) 15 17

Rainfall

Parameter Lower limit Upper limit Description

Dry season duration 0 6 number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall

Mean annual rainfall 1000 3500 mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

Bimodal Summer Uniform

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainagefreeseasonally waterlogged

Soil reactionacidalkalineneutral

Soil textureheavylightmedium

Special soil tolerancessaline

Natural enemies

Natural enemy Type Life stages Specificity References Biological controlin

Biological controlon

Anastrephasuspensa

Fruits|pods not specific

Bactrocera correcta Plants|Whole plant not specific

Bactrocera dorsalis Plants|Whole plant not specific

Badamiaexclamationis

Herbivore Plants|Whole plant not specific

Ceratitis capitata Fruits|pods not specific

Cryptotermes brevis Antagonist Plants|Whole plant not specific

Ophiusa coronata Fruits|pods not specific

Paecilomycesvariotii

Pathogen Plants|Seedlings not specific

Selenothripsrubrocinctus

Herbivore Plants|Whole plant not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

T. catappa is susceptible to defoliating insects, especially when young. Seedlings are often defoliated by grasshoppers and beetles in Thailand and Malaysia. In Papua New Guinea,there is a record of trees being killed after attack by beetles of the genus Agrilus which are cambial feeders (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991). In Puerto Rico, the thrip speciesSelenothrips rubrocintus causes leaf discoloration and premature defoliation of adult trees. Trees are also susceptible to termites (i.e., Cryptotermes brevis). The sapwood issusceptible to attack by Lyctus species. In Asia, the fungus species Paecilomyces variotii causes dieback of seedlings (Orwa et al., 2009).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

T. catappa spreads by seeds. Each tree has the potential to produce large numbers of fruits. The rind of the fruit is a light, pithy, or corky tissue that enables the fruit to float and bedispersed by sea currents. Trees are also found away from coastal areas due to fruits being carried inland and dropped by frugivorous birds and bats, and as a result of deliberateplanting by humans (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991; Thomson and Evans, 2006).

Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

Sea currents can disperse fruits of T. catappa over long distances (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991; Thomson and Evans, 2006).

Intentional Introduction

T. catappa has been widely planted as an ornamental and shade tree in many coastal habitats across tropical and subtropical regions (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991; Thomson andEvans, 2006).

Pathway Causes

Cause Notes Long Distance Local References

Botanical gardens and zoos Ornamental and shade tree Yes Yes Orwa et al. (2009)

Disturbance Often naturalized along roadsides, disturbed littoral habitats Yes Yes Thomson and Evans (2006)

Escape from confinement or garden escape Yes Yes Thomson and Evans (2006)

Food Fruits edible – consumed by humans Yes Yes Orwa et al. (2009)

Forestry Timber species Yes Yes Orwa et al. (2009)

Habitat restoration and improvement Trees planted for sand-dune stabilization Yes Yes Orwa et al. (2009)

Horticulture Widely commercialized as ornamental and shade tree Yes Yes Orwa et al. (2009)

Medicinal use Fruits and leaves Yes Yes Orwa et al. (2009)

Ornamental purposes Widely commercialized as ornamental and shade tree Yes Yes Orwa et al. (2009)

Timber trade Yes Yes Orwa et al. (2009)

Pathway Vectors

Vector Notes Long Distance Local References

Floating vegetation and debris Fruits float- dispersed by sea-currents Yes Yes Thomson and Evans (2006)

Water Fruits float- dispersed by sea-currents Yes Yes Thomson and Evans (2006)

Environmental Impact

T. cattapa is a fast-growing species that produces many new seedlings with the potential of invading large areas along the littoral and outcompeting and displacing native vegetation(Gilman and Watson, 1994; ISSG, 2017).

T. cattapa has a deep-rooting system that may alter the dynamics of coastal areas by inhibiting the natural movement of sand dunes and changing soil chemistry. Sand dunes providehabitat for highly specialized plants and animals, which are affected by the presence of this alien species (Smith, 2010; ISSG, 2017).

Threatened Species

Threatened Species Conservation Status WhereThreatened Mechanism References Notes

Panicum fauriei (Carter'spanicgrass)

NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangeredspecies

HawaiiCompetition(unspecified)

US Fish and Wildlife Service(2011)

Social Impact

The fruits of T. catappa contain tannic acid that stains cars and other commodities. Trees produce a significant amount of litter, leaves and fruits, which require constant removal fromparks and gardens (Brown and Cooprider, 2013). The tree is difficult to manage because of multiple trunks, requiring regular pruning because of its fast growth. Exposed surface rootsystem can also be hazardous to humans, sidewalks and buildings (Gilman and Watson, 1994).

Risk and Impact Factors

InvasivenessProved invasive outside its native rangeHas a broad native rangeAbundant in its native rangeHighly adaptable to different environmentsIs a habitat generalistTolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etcPioneering in disturbed areasHighly mobile locallyBenefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)Long livedFast growingHas high reproductive potentialGregariousHas propagules that can remain viable for more than one yearReproduces asexuallyHas high genetic variability

Impact outcomesDamaged ecosystem servicesEcosystem change/ habitat alterationInfrastructure damageModification of nutrient regimeModification of successional patternsReduced native biodiversitySoil accretionThreat to/ loss of native speciesTransportation disruption

Impact mechanismsCompetition - monopolizing resourcesCompetition - shadingCompetition (unspecified)Pest and disease transmissionHerbivory/grazing/browsingRapid growth

Likelihood of entry/controlHighly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

In the horticultural trade, T. catappa is promoted as an excellent ornamental for coastal areas and valued for its shade, edible fruits and ability to stabilize soils (Brown and Cooprider,2013). This species has been used medicinally in India, the Philippines, Indonesia and New Caledonia and the leaves are regarded as a contraceptive. The leaves have a sudorificaction and are applied to rheumatic joints. The tannin from bark and leaves is used as an astringent in dysentery and thrush. It is also regarded as diuretic and cardiotonic and isapplied externally on skin eruptions. In the Philippines a decoction of the leaves is employed as a vermifuge.

The fibrous fruit has a pleasant smell and is edible though not very tasty. Fruit quality can range from sweet to bitter. The kernel is eaten raw or roasted and has an almond-like tastedue to the high oil content (Janick and Paull, 2008). The seed is considered delicious and the pale odourless oil it contains is similar to almond oil. The oil is employed in cooking andmedicinally as a substitute for true almond oil to relieve abdominal inflammations, and, cooked with the leaves, in treating leprosy, scabies and other skin diseases. The foliage is usedas feed for silkworms and other animals (Valkenburg and Waluyo, 1991; Orwa et al., 2009).

T. catappa is often planted for erosion control, land reclamation and soil improvement. This species has a vast root system that binds together both sands and poor soils and it is also agood provider of mulch for the protection of soil and young crops (Thomson and Evans, 2006; Orwa et al., 2009; ISSG, 2017; PROTA, 2017). The tree is often planted in avenues andgardens as a shade tree. It is very well suited for this purpose because of its pagoda-like habit, with long, horizontal branches and large leaves.

The bark and leaves and sometimes roots and green fruits are locally used for tanning leather and provide a black dye, used for dyeing cottons and rattan and as ink. Fruit yield a reddye.

Economic Value Trees of T. catappa provide a red, good-quality, elastic, cross-grained timber often used for the construction of buildings, boats, bridges, floors, boxes, crates, planks, carts, barrels,wheelbarrows and furniture (Thomson and Evans, 2006; Orwa et al., 2009). The distinctive pagoda-like shape of the tree and the red leaves along with its fast growth make it valuableas an ornamental species (Janick and Paull, 2008).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forageFodder/animal feedInvertebrate food for silkworms

EnvironmentalAgroforestryAmenityErosion control or dune stabilizationLand reclamationRevegetationShade and shelter

FuelsFuelwood

Human food and beverageBeverage baseFruitsNutsSeeds

MaterialsDye/tanningEssential oilsGum/resinLipidsMiscellaneous materialsResinsWood/timber

Medicinal, pharmaceuticalSource of medicine/pharmaceuticalTraditional/folklore

OrnamentalChristmas treeCut flowergarden plantPotted plantPropagation materialSeed trade

Wood Products

Boats

ContainersBoxesCrates

Furniture

RoundwoodBuilding polesPosts

Sawn or hewn building timbersBeamsBridgesCarpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)Engineering structuresFlooringFor heavy constructionFor light constructionHydraulic works

Wood-based materialsPlywood

WoodwareIndustrial and domestic woodware

Prevention and Control

Biological Control

The ISSG website suggests that bio-control agents could potentially be used in the control and management of T. catappa, but this website does not provide specific information.Beetles, grasshoppers, leaf rollers, leaf miners, fruit flies have been observed to affecting plants at different stages in India, Malaysia, Puerto Rico and Costa Rica and could potentiallybe used for its bio-control. However, further investigation is needed to establish the effectiveness of such vectors, as well as their possibility of becoming invasive species themselves(ISSG, 2017).

Chemical Control

In Florida (USA) areas invaded by T. catappa are treated with basal applications of herbicides such as triclopyr (Hadden et al., 2005). In Santa Catarina, Brazil, cutting the tree andapplying 4% triclopyr to the stump was the most effective treatment for T. catappa (Dechoum and Ziller, 2013).

Bibliography

Burgess PF, 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Sabah Forest Records 6. Forest Department, Sabah, Malaysia, 82-85.

Corner EJH, 1988. Wayside trees of Malaya. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. The Malayan Nature Society. United Selangor Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 193-194.

Exell WA, 1954. Combretaceae. In: van Steenis CGGJ, ed. Flora Malesiana, Series I, 4(5):566-568.

Morton JF, 1985. Indian almond (Terminalia catappa), salt-tolerant, useful, tropical tree with 'nut' worthy of improvement. Economic Botany, 39(2): 101-112.

References

Abdul Assis, Gopikumar K, Anoop EV, Assis A, 1992. Correlation studies between seed and seedling characters in Terminalia species. Myforest, 28(2):159-163; 2 fig. (unpaginated); 14ref

Abdullahi AH, Anelli G, 1980. Rivista di Agricoltura Subtropicale e Tropicale, 74: 245

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: SmithsonianInstitution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Addison GH, Henderson MR, 1953. Notes on the planting of ornamental and shade trees in Malaya, with additional notes on Palms and hedges. Malay Forester, 16 (3), (131-46 + 12photos)

Akanbi MO, 1988. The immature stages and chptotaxy of Epicerura pulverulenta Hampson (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae). Insect Science and its Application, 9(5):659-664

Akanbi MO, 1990. Biology, behaviour and seasonal fluctuations of Epicerura pulverulenta Hampson (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae). Discovery and Innovation, 2(2):85-90

Atluri JB, Rao SP, Reddi SC, 2000. Self-incompatibility, nectar resorption and cross-pollination in the Indian laurel Terminalia tomentosa (Combretaceae). International Journal ofEcology and Environmental Sciences, 26: 27-36

Benthal AP, 1946. The Trees of Calcutta and its neighbourhood. Calcutta, India: Thacker Spink & Co. Ltd. 513 p

Boczek J, Davis R, 1984. New species of eriophyid mites (Acari: Eriophyoidea). Florida Entomologist, 67(2):198-213

Bolza E, 1975. Properties and uses of 175 timber species from Papua New Guinea and West Irian. Division of Building Research Report, CSIRO, No.34, 35pp.; 24 ref

Bolza E, Kloot NH, 1972. The mechanical properties of 56 Fijian timbers. Division of Forest Products Technological Paper, CSIRO, No. 62, 51pp.; 13 ref

Bourke M, 1996. Edible indigenous nuts in Papua New Guinea: - their potential for commercial development. WANATCA Yearbook, 20:37-40

Bourke RM, 1996. Edible indigenous nuts in Papua New Guinea. In:Stevens ML, Bourke RM, Evans BR, eds, South Pacific indigenous nuts. Proceedings of a workshop 31 October-4November 1994, Le Lagon Resort, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 45-55; 17 ref

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Brown SH, Cooprider K, 2013. Terminalia catappa. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Lee County Extension, Florida.http://lee.ifas.ufl.edu/Hort/GardenPubsAZ/tropical_almond.pdf

Burgess PF, 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Sabah Forest Record No. 6. Sabah, Sandakan: Forest Department

Cambie RC, Ash J, 1994. Fijian medicinal plants. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia

Cervantes-Reza FA, Horelano-Moncada Y, 1987. Terminalia cattapa (Combretaceae) fruits on the ground at Parque Nacional Cahuita, eastern Costa Rica. Tropical Ecology, 28(2):259-263; 6 ref

Chaubey BB, Dobriyal PB, Kumar S, 1986. Structural factors affecting penetration of fluids in Indian hardwoods: a microscopic study. Journal of the Timber Development Association ofIndia, 32(2):5-11; 4 pl.; 8 ref

Common IFB, Waterhouse DF, 1981. Butterflies of Australia. CSIRO Australia.

Coode MJE, 1969. Manual of the forest trees of Papua and New Guinea. Part 1 (revised issue)-Combretaceae. Division of Botany, Department of Forests, Lae, New Guinea. 1969. pp.86 + 8 maps

Coode MJE, 1973. Notes on Terminalia L. (Combretaceae) in Papuasia. Contributions from Herbarium Australiense, No. 2, 33 pp. + 1 map; 15 ref

Coode MJE, 1978. Combretaceae. IN: Womersley JS, ed, Handbooks of the flora of Papua New Guinea. Vol. 1. Melbourne, Australia; Melbourne University Press

Corner EJH, 1988. Wayside trees of Malaya in two volumes (3rd edition). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: The Malayan Nature Society

Dagar HS, 1989. Plants used as abortifacient and contraceptive by the Nicobarese. Journal of the Andaman Science Association, 5(2):169-170; 10 ref

Das SR, 1993. Notes on plant pathogenic fungi on fruit trees hitherto not recorded in Orissa. Orissa Journal of Horticulture, 21(1/2):89-94; 5 ref

Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2009. Cucurbitaceae a Polemoniaceae. Flora Mesoamericana. 4(1): i–xvi, 1–855. St. Louis, USA: Missouri BotanicalGarden

Dechoum M de S, Ziller SR, 2013. Control techniques for invasive alien plants. Biotemas, 26(1):69-77

Degener O, 1946. Flora Hawaiensis (new illustrated Flora of the Hawaiian Islands). Books 1-4. 2nd edition. Author, Riverdale, New York, USA

Dias MM, 1978. Morphology and biology of Citheronia laocoon (Cramer, 1777) (Lepidoptera, Adelocephalidae). Revista Brasileira de Entomologia, 22(3/4):167-197

Dixon RG, 1970. Species trials and investigations for forestry department. Silvicultural Circular No 1. Apia, Western Samoa; Department of Forestry

Drury H, 1873. The useful plants of India. Second edition. London, UK; Allen

Esposito-Avella M, Brown P, Tejeira I, Buitrago R, Barrios L, Sanchez C, Gupta MP, Cedeno J, 1985. Pharmacological screening of Panamanian medicinal plants. Part 1. InternationalJournal of Crude Drug Research, 23(1):17-25; 5 ref

Evans BR, 1991. A variety collection of edible nut tree crops in Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 8. Dodo Creek Research Station, Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara,Solomon Islands. 96 pp

Evans BR, 1996. Overview of Resource Potential for Indigenous Nut Production in the South Pacific. In: Stevens ML, Bourke RM, Evans BR (eds.): South Pacific Indigenous NutsWorkshop. Port Vila, Vanuatu. ACIAR Proceedings No. 69:10-35

Exell AW, 1953. Florae Malesianae precursores IV. New species of Terminalia from Malaysia. Blumea 1953. 7 (2), (322-8)

Exell AW, 1954. Combretaceae. In: Flora Malesiana, series 1, vol 4 (5), 533-589 (Van Steenis CG, ed.)

Fenton R, Roper RE, Watt GR, 1977. Lowland tropical hardwoods. An annotated bibliography of selected species with plantation potential. Wellington, New Zealand: External AidDivision, Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Fisher JB, 1985. Induction of reaction wood in Terminalia (Combretaceae): roles of gravity and stress. Annals of Botany, 55(2):237-248; 15 ref

Fisher JB, Hibbs DE, 1982. Plasticity of tree architecture: specific and ecological variations found in Aubreville's model. American Journal of Botany, 69(5):690-702; 23 ref

FLEPPC, 2017. Florida Exotic Plant Pest Council lists of invasive plants in Florida. http://www.fleppc.org/

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria.http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Foliga T, Blaffart H, 1995. 20 Western Samoan species. Watershed management and conservation education project working paper. Apia, Samoa: Government of WesternSamoa/UNDP/FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization, 1982. Fruit-bearing forest trees: technical notes. FAO Forestry Paper, No. 34, v + 177 pp.; Also available in Fr and Es; many ref

Fosberg FR, Sachet MH, 1981. Terminalia L. (Combretaceae) in eastern Polynesia. Smithsonian Contr. Bot., 47: 13-17

Francis JK, 1989. Terminalia catappa L. Indian almond, almendra. Combretaceae. Combretum family. Publication No. SO-ITF-SM-23, Institute of Tropical Forestry, Rio Piedras, PuertoRico. 4 pp.; 35 ref

Fronius K, Haupthoff W, 1986. A German sawmill foreman in the tropics. [Ein deutscher Sagewerksmeister in den Tropen.] Holz Zentralblatt, 112(16):225-226, 232

Funk V, Hollowell T, Berry P, Kelloff C, Alexander SN, 2007. Checklist of the plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, FrenchGuiana). Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 584 pp

Gamble JS, 1922. A Manual of Indian Timbers. Dehradun, India: Bishen Singh and Mahendra Pal Singh

Genaro J, Kingsolver JM, 1997. Amblycerus schwarzi (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) attacking the seeds of the tropical-almond terminalia (Combretaceae) in Cuba. Entomological News,108(3): 229-230

Gerlach J, 1996. Native or introduced plant species? Phelsuma, 4: 70-74

Gilman E, Watson D, 1994. Terminalia catappa: Tropical-Almond. Report ENH-784. UF/IFAS, Gainesville, Florida, USA

Gopakumar S, Gopikumar K, 1993. Standardisation of containers for growth and vigour of tree seedlings in the nursery. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 6(1):26-36; 5 ref

Graham SA, 1964. The genera of Rhizophoraceae and Combretaceae in the southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 45 (3), (285-301). 85 refs

Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation., xv + 562 pp.; [18 pp. of ref + refs in text]

Guzman E de, Umali RM, Sotalbo ED, 1986. Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of thePhilippine. Manila, Philippines: JMC Press Inc

Hadden K, Frank K, Byrd C, 2005. Identification Guide For Invasive Exotic Plants of the Florida Key. The Nature Conservancy, USA.https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/floridainvasives/workinggroups/InvasivePlants_KeysIDGuide2005.pdf

Hasei HF, 1981. L'utilizzazione dei semi di Terminalia catappa per la produzione di olio alimentare [Use of the seeds of Terminalia catappa for the production of edible oil]. Thesis,Faculty of Agriculture, National University, Somalia. ii + 35 pp.; 14 ref

Hawkeswood TJ, 1986. New larval host records for eight Australian jewel beetles (Coleoptera, Buprestidae). Giornale Italiano di Entomologia, 3(12):173-177

Haysom K, Murphy S, 2003. The status of invasiveness of forest tree species outside their natural habitat: a global review and discussion paper. Rome, Italy: FAO.http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/J1583E/J1583E00.htm

Hayward DF, 1990. The phenology and economic potential of Terminalia catappa L. in south-central Ghana. Vegetatio, 90(2):125-131; 16 ref

Hearne DA, 1975. Trees for Darwin and northern Australia. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service

Heinsleigh TE, Holaway BK, 1988. Agroforestry species for the Philippines. Metro Manila Philippines: US Peace Corps, AJA Printers

Henderson CP, Hancock IR, 1988. A guide to the Useful Plants of Solomon Islands. Solomon Islands Research Department/Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara

Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2010. Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela. 1–859. Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela

I3N-Brasil, 2017. National Database of Invasive Alien Species. Florianópolis, Brazil: Horus Institute for Development and Environmental Conservation.http://i3n.institutohorus.org.br/www

Instituto Horus, 2011. Alien Invasive Species: Fact Sheets., Brazil. http://www.institutohorus.br/inf_fichas_eng

ISSG, 2017. Species profile for Terminalia catappa in the Global Invasive Species Database. http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1581

Ivani Sde A, Silva e Silva BMda, Oliveira Cde, Môro FV, 2008. Morphology of the fruit, the seed and the seedlings of chestnut tree (Terminalia catappa L. - Combretaceae). (Morfologiade frutos, sementes e plântulas de castanheira (Terminalia catappa L. - Combretaceae).) Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 30(2):517-522. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_issues&pid=0100-2945&lng=pt&nrm=iso

Jain DK, Pant SC, 1988. Treatment of processed timber for structural use - I Immersion treatment with organic solvent type preservatives. Journal of the Timber DevelopmentAssociation of India, 34(4):32-36; 4 ref

Janick, J., Paull, R. E., 2008. The encyclopedia of fruit & nuts, [ed. by Janick, J., Paull, R. E.]. Wallingford, UK: CABI.xviii + 954 pp. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20113366221doi:10.1079/9780851996387.0000

Jensen M, 1995. Trees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: an illustrated field guide. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO-Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP), No-38, vii + 229 pp.;29 ref

Joyeux M, Mortier F, Fleurentin J, 1995. Screening of antiradical, antilipoperoxidant and hepatoprotective effects of nine plant extracts used in Caribbean folk medicine. PhytotherapyResearch, 9(3):228-230; 7 ref

Jørgensen PM, León-Yánez S, 1999. Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Ecuador. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 75: 1–1181

Kadambi K, 1954. Terminalia catappa, Linn., its silviculture and management. Indian Forester, 80 (11), (718-20 + 1 photo + 1 map). 11 refs

Keating WG, Bolza E, 1982. Characteristics, properties and uses of timbers. Volume 1. South-east Asia, Northern Australia and the Pacific. xxi + 362 pp.; 24 pl. (col.); 146 ref.Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press

Kininmonth JA, 1982. Properties and uses of the timbers of Western Samoa. Indigenous hardwoods. Rotorua, New Zealand: Forestry Research Institute. 1982, iii + 56 pp.; 2 pl. (1 col.);7 ref

Krishnapillay B, Marzalina M, Haris Mohd, 1993. Seeds and fruits of some common tropical species used as medicine by folk healers. Buletin FRIM, 3(2):9-11

Kroll R, 1996. Les petits fruits [Small fruits]. Paris, France; Editions Maisonneuve et Larose: 142 pp

Kumar S, Ponnuswami V, Irulappan I, Arumugam R, 1991. Variability studies in Indian almond Terminalia catappa L. South Indian Horticulture, 39(6):374-376; 1 ref

Kumar S, Sharma RP, Dobriyal PB, Chaubey BB, 1990. Pressure impregnation of hardwoods: treatment schedules for easy-to-treat Indian hardwoods. Wood and Fiber Science,22(1):3-9; 13 ref

Lanting MV, Jr, 1982. Germination of talisai (Terminalia catappa Linn.) seeds. Sylvatrop, 7(1): 27-34

Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC, eds. 1995. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. 655 pp.; Prosea Foundation, Bogor,Indonesia. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers

Lemmens RHMJ, Wulijarni-Soetjipto N (Editors), 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. pp.195

Lepofsky D, 1992. Arboriculture in the Mussau Islands, Bismarck Archipelago. Economic Botany, 46(2):192-211; 21 ref

Little EL Jr, Skolmen RG, 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and introduced). Agriculture Handbook Washington, 679. Washington, DC, USA: US Department of Agriculture,Forest Service

Mabberley DJ, 1997. The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants. Ed. 2: xvi + 858 pp. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

Mahendra Phulwaria, Kheta Ram, Harish, Gupta AK, Shekhawat NS, 2012. Micropropagation of mature Terminalia catappa (Indian Almond), a medicinally important forest tree. Journalof Forest Research, 17(2):202-207. http://www.springerlink.com/content/gk18265488k31153/

Marquete N, Loiola MIB, 2015. Combretaceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB2251

Martel F, 1998. Rapid rural assessment survey in Samoa, final report. South Pacific Regional Initiative on Forest Genetic Resources (SPRIG)

Matanmi BA, 1988. An outbreak of suspected virosis amongst natural populations of Epicerura pulverulenta Hampson (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae). Nigerian Journal of Entomology,9(1-2):7-10

Mathew G, 1989. Natural enemies of the bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps Hampson (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) in Kerala (India). Entomon, 14(3-4):335-338

Maximo V, Lanting JR, 1982. Germination of talisai (Terminalia catappa Linn.) seeds. Sylvatrop, 7(1): 27-32

Mbuya LP, Msanga HP, Ruffo CK, Birnie A, Tengnas B, 1994. Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania: identification, propagation and management for agricultural and pastoralcommunities. Technical Handbook: Regional Soil Conservation Unit, Nairobi

Media Komunikasi Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanaman Industri (Malaysia), 1991. Tumbuhan yang berkhasiat melancarkan air susu ibu.] Media Komunikasi Penelitian danPengembangan Tanaman Industri, No. 8, 32-35

Medina-Gaud S, Bennett FD, Franqui RA, 1991. New records of, and notes on, whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) from Puerto Rico. Journal of Agriculture of the University of PuertoRico, 75(3):297-299

Mercer CWL, 1985. Agrilus sp. (Buprestidae) attack on Terminalia catappa L. around the University of Technology Campus [Papua New Guinea]. Klinkii, 3(1):103-105

Mercer CWL, 1986. Research note on Agrilus viridissimus Cobos (Buprestidae). Klinkii, 3(2):89; 3 ref

Mir C, 2012. Estrategia Nacional de Especies Exóticas Invasoras Realizado en el marco del Proyecto “Mitigando las amenazas de las especies exóticas invasoras en el CaribeInsular”. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Santo Domingo, República Dominicana

Mitchell BA, 1964. Ornamental, roadside and shade trees. Malay. Forester 27 (2), (96-144 + 22 photos). 7 refs

Morton JF, 1985. Indian almond (Terminalia catappa), salt-tolerant, useful, tropical tree with "nut" worthy of improvement. Economic Botany, 39(2):101-112; 4 pl.; 47 ref

Nakanishi H, 1989. Dispersal ecology of the maritime plants in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. Ecological Research, 3(2):163-173

Ngiefu CK, Paquot C, Vieux A, 1976. Oil-bearing plants of Zaire. I. Botanical families providing oils of relatively low unsaturation. [Les plantes a huile du Zaire. I. Familles botaniquesfournissant des huiles d'insaturation relativement faible.] Oleagineux, 31(7):335-337; 22 ref

Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0.http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp

Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al., et al. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantasinvasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96

Pacheco de Torres J, 1941. Estudo do lenho de algumas especies florestais de Timor. [A study of the wood of some forest tree species of Timor.] Rev. agron., Lisboa 29 (1), (56-86 +plates)

Papdiwal PB, Deshpande KB, 1979. Occurrence of Xanthomonas pruni (E.F. Smith) Dowson on Terminalia catappa L. Marathwada University Journal of Science (Natural Sciences),18(11):37-38

Paschoal M, Galetti M, 1995. Seasonal food use by the neotropical squirrel Sciurus ingrami in southeastern Brazil. Biotropica, 27(2):268-273; 33 ref

Pedley L, 1990. Terminalia. In: Flora of Australia. Volume 18. Podostemaceae to Combretaceae. Canberra, Australia; Bureau of Flora and Fauna/Australian Government PublishingService

PIER, 2017. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm

Pierlot R, 1958. Report on exotic afforestation species grown in the Belgian Congo and Ruanda Urundi. [Document] 2nd Session Inter-African Forestry Conference, Pointe Noire 1958.pp. 51. Limited distribution

Prins H, Maghembe JA, 1994. Germination studies on seed of fruit trees indigenous to Malawi. In: Maghembe JA, ed, Special Issue: Agroforestry research in the African miomboecozone. Proceedings of a regional conference on agroforestry research in the African miombo ecozone held in Lilongwe, Malawi, 16-22 June 1991. Forest Ecology and Management,64(2/3):111-125

PROTA, 2017. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota.org/

Ranganath HR, Veenakumari K, D'Souza C, 1994. Bactrocera dorsalis A reported from Andaman Islands. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin, 42(1/2):71-72

Rekhate DH, Honmode J, 1983. Studies on forage vegetations with reference to selective grazing in sheep. Transactions of Indian Society of Desert Technology and University Centreof Desert Studies, 8(2):72-75; 9 ref

Reyes CG, Palicpic FB, Tenorio IO, 1991. Kapok, Silkcotton tree; Talisai and Dita. Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE), 3(10):20-26

Rojas-Sandoval J, Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 2015. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Biological Invasions, 17: 149-163

Sankaran KV, Sharma JK, 1987. Three new hosts of pink disease caused by Corticium salmonicolor in Kerala. Indian Journal of Forestry, 10(3):198-199

Schutt P, Schuck HJ, Aas G, Lang UM, eds, 1994. Encyclopaedia of woody plants: manual and atlas of dendrology. [Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas derDendrologie]. Landsberg am Lech, Germany: Ecomed Verlagsgesellschaft

Sen R, Halder AC, Pal DC, 1987. Botany and ethnobotany of Indian almond. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 10(1): 239-240

Sloover JR de, Fagnant M, De Sloover JR, 1994. Buttresses of tropical forest trees and spatial competition. Phytocoenologia, 24: 573-577; 10 ref

Smith AC, 1971. Studies of Pacific Island plants, XXIV. The genus Terminalia (Combretaceae) in Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Brittonia 23 (4), (394-412). [5 ref.]

Smith AC, 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji (Spermatophytes only). Volume 3: Angiospermae: Dicotyledones, families 117-163. Lawai, Kauai, Hawai: Pacific TropicalBotanical Garden. vi + 758 pp

Smith RL, 2010. Invasive Alien Plant Species of the Bahamas and Biodiversity Management. Thesis. Institute of Environmental Sciences, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio

Snaith WA, 1973. Forestry development by a bauxite mining company. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 52(1):79-81

Sosef MSM, Boer E, Keating WG, Sudo S, Phuphathanaphong L, 1995. Terminalia. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC, eds, Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 5(2).Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Leiden, Netherlands; Backhuys Publishers: 474-492

Stevens ML, Bourke RM, Evans BR, eds, 1996. South Pacific indigenous nuts. 1996, 174 pp.; ACIAR Proceedings No. 69; many ref

Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/

Streets RJ, 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press

Suresh S, Ramamurthy R, Venugopal MS, 1994. New record of host plants of cashew leaf webber, Macalla (Lamida) moncusalis Walker (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera) in India. Journal ofInsect Science, 7(2):221

Szolnoki TW, 1985. Food and fruit trees of The Gambia. Hamburg, Germany: Stiftung Walderhaltung in Afrika. Published in conjunction with the Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Forst- undHolzwirtschaft

Taide YB, Babu LC, Abraham CC, 1994. Influence of host species in the initial growth and development of sandal (Santalum album Linn.). Indian Journal of Forestry, 17(4):288-292; 8ref

Thaman RR, Whistler WA, 1996. A review of uses and status of trees and forests in land-use systems in Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati and Tuvalu with recommendations for future action.Working paper 5. South Pacific Forestry Development Programme, RAS/92/361

Thomson LAJ, Evans B, 2006. Terminalia catappa (tropical almond). In: Elevitch CR, (ed). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources, Hawaii.http://www.traditionaltree.org

Tigvatananont S, Areekul S, 1984. The economic importance of the fruit fly Dacus zonatus (Saunders) in Thailand. Kasetsart Journal, 18(3):180-185

Townsend S, Newell D, 2006. Technical Progress Report. I3N Database in Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica: Natural History Division, Institute of Jamaica

Trinidad and Tobago Biodiversity, 2017. Lists of Invasive species in Trinidad and Tobago. http://www.biodiversity.gov.tt/home/trinidad-a-tobago-biodiversity/invasive-alien-species.html

Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1984. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Volume V. Delhi, India: Controller of Publications

United States Department of Agriculture, 1978. Hawaii pest report. Cooperative Plant Pest Report, 3(44/47):620

Uriarte MT, 1994. Air-pollution resistant species recommended for urban areas (A. Highly resistant species). Techno-Info Series, 4(1) Jan-March. Quezon City, Philippines: ERDS-NCR-DENR

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Panicum fauriei var. carteri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Panicum fauriei var. carteri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.17 pp.

USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl

USDA-NRCS, 2017. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Valkenburg JLCH van, Waluyo EB, 1991. Terminalia catappa L. Record from Proseabase. Lemmens RHMJ, Wulijarni-Soetjipt N, (Eds). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia)Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org

Vieux AS, Kabele-Ngiefu C, 1970. A study of some oil plants in the Congo Democratic Republic [Congo-Brazzaville]. Oleagineux, Paris 25, (395-9). [Fr, en, es, 20 ref.)

Walter A, Sam C, 1993. A variety collection of nut trees and fruit trees in Vanuatu. Note Technique, No. 15. Port-Vila, Vanuatu (unpublished)

Walter A, Sam C, 1996. Indigenous nut trees in Vanuatu: ethnobotany and variability. In: Stevens ML, Bourke RM, Evans BR, eds, South Pacific indigenous nuts. Proceedings of aworkshop 31 October-4 November 1994, Le Lagon Resort, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Canberra, Australia; Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR): 56-66

Wheatley JI, 1992. A guide to the common trees of Vanuatu with lists of their traditional uses & ni-Vanuatu names. 1992, xi + 308 pp.; 13 ref

Whistler WA, 1992. Flowers of the Pacific Island Seashore. A guide to the littoral plants of Hawai'i, Tahiti, Samoa, Tonga, Cook Islands, Fiji and Micronesia. Honolulu, Hawaii: IsleBotanica

Whistler WA, 1992. Tongan Herbal Medicine. Isle Botanica, Hawaii, USA

Whistler WA, 1996. Samoa Herbal Medicine. O le Siosiomaga Society Inc. of Western Samoa. Isle Botanica, Hawaii, USA

Whitmore TC, 1966. Guide to the forests of the British Solomon Islands. pp. xi + 208. Oxford University Press, London

Yen DE, 1974. Arboriculture in the subsistence of Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands. Economic Botany, 28(3):247-284; 47 ref

References

Distribution References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp.http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Badii K B, Billah M K, Afreh-Nuamah K, Obeng-Ofori D, 2015. Species composition and host range of fruit-infesting flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in northern Ghana. International Journalof Tropical Insect Science. 35 (3), 137-151. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JTI

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. In: Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the WestIndies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2009. (Cucurbitaceae a Polemoniaceae. Flora Mesoamericana. 4(1)). In: Flora Mesoamericana, 4 (1) St. Louis, Missouri,USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. i-xvi, 1-855.

FLEPPC, 2017. Florida Exotic Plant Pest Council lists of invasive plants in Florida., http://www.fleppc.org/

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of China. In: Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and HarvardUniversity Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Funk V, Hollowell T, Berry P, Kelloff C, Alexander S N, 2007. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Washington, USA: Department of Systematic Biology - Botany,National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 55, 584 pp.

Haysom K, Murphy S, 2003. The status of invasiveness of forest tree species outside their natural habitat: a global review and discussion paper. In: The status of invasiveness of foresttree species outside their natural habitat: a global review and discussion paper, Rome, Italy: FAO. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/J1583E/J1583E00.htm#TopOfPage

I3N-Brasil, 2017. I3N Brazil invasive alien species database. In: I3N Brazil invasive alien species database. Florianópolis - SC, Brazil: Horus Institute for Environmental Conservationand Development. http://bd.institutohorus.org.br/www/

Jørgensen PM, León-Yánez S, 1999. (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Ecuador). In: Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 75 1-1181.

Marquete N, Loiola MIB, 2015. (Combretaceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil)., Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB2251

Mir C, 2012. [English title not available]. (Estrategia Nacional de especies exóticas invasoras realizado en el marco del Proyecto “Mitigando las amenazas de las especies exóticasinvasoras en el Caribe Insular”)., Dominican Republic: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Santo Domingo.

Mwatawala M W, Meyer M de, Makundi R H, Maerere A P, 2009. Host range and distribution of fruit-infesting pestiferous fruit flies (Diptera, Tephritidae) in selected areas of CentralTanzania. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 99 (6), 629-641. DOI:10.1017/S0007485309006695

Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide. Version 4. In: Agroforestree Database: a tree reference andselection guide. Version 4. Nairobi, Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp

Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff M G, et al, 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantasinvasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba. 6 (Special Issue No. 1),22-96.

PROTA, 2017. PROTA4U web database. In: PROTA4U web database. Wageningen and Nairobi, Netherlands\Kenya: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa.https://www.prota4u.org/database/

Rojas-Sandoval J, Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 2015. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Biological Invasions. 17 (1), 149-163.http://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3/fulltext.html DOI:10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3

Sahashi N, Akiba M, Ota Y, Masuya H, Hattori T, Mukai A, Shimada R, Ono T, Sato T, 2015. Brown root rot caused by Phellinus noxius in the Ogasawara (Bonin) islands, southernJapan - current status of the disease and its host plants. Australasian Plant Disease Notes. 10 (1), 33. DOI:10.1007/s13314-015-0183-0

Sakthivel P, Karuppuchamy P, Kalyanasundaram M, Srinivasan T, 2012. Host plants of invasive papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Williams and Granara de Willink) in TamilNadu. Madras Agricultural Journal. 99 (7/9), 615-619. https://doc-00-7g-docsviewer.googleusercontent.com/viewer/securedownload/dsn1aovipa7l846lsfcf94nedj8q2p4u/qo3phtufamvk9q39umu888pbj4t4kkc6/1348647300000/c2l0ZXM=/AGZ5hq8BgbJY1gwaOYa=gp&filename=99-7-9-615-619.pdf&chan=EQAAAOqeu1nfMdjbyOfMSElqQCfRbAOx1kCMBqnRUfeLUnjy&docid=0508176bd4abbdc3e7017b1a89751bc3%7C9c9df36583445f1fe402a841b5e1963b&sec=AHSqidZm

Selvaraj K, Ankita Gupta, Venkatesan T, Jalali S K, Sundararaj R, Ballal C R, 2017. First record of invasive rugose spiraling whitefly Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin (Hemiptera:Aleyrodidae) along with parasitoids in Karnataka. Journal of Biological Control. 31 (2), 74-78. http://informaticsjournals.com/index.php/jbc/article/viewFile/16015/15196DOI:10.18311/jbc/2017/16015

Smith RL, 2010. Invasive Alien Plant Species of the Bahamas and Biodiversity Management., Oxford, Ohio, USA: Institute of Environmental Sciences, Miami University.

Tariq M, Firoza K, Shahina F, 2007. Medicinal plants as new hosts of root-knot and other nematodes from Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Nematology. 25(1), 165-172.

Thomson LAJ, Evans B, 2006. Terminalia catappa (tropical almond). [Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry], [ed. by Elevitch CR]. Hawaii, Permanent Agriculture Resources.http://www.traditionaltree.org

Townsend S, Newell D, 2006. Technical Progress Report. I3N Database in Jamaica., Kingston, Jamaica: Natural History Division, Institute of Jamaica.

USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. In: Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville,Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

Valkenburg JLCH van, Waluyo EB, 1991. Terminalia catappa L. Record from Proseabase., [ed. by Lemmens RHMJ, Wulijarni-Soetjipt N]. Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA (Plant Resourcesof South-East Asia) Foundation. http://www.proseanet.org

Links to Websites

Website URL Comment

GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE EuropeanInvasive Alien Species Gateway

https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6Data source for updated system dataadded to species habitat list.

Contributors

13/04/17 Updated by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

CABI, 2021. Terminalia catappa. In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc

CABI Summary Data

Map Legends - World

CABI, 2021. Terminalia catappa. In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc

CABI Summary Data

Map Legends - Africa

CABI, 2021. Terminalia catappa. In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc

CABI Summary Data

Map Legends - Asia

CABI, 2021. Terminalia catappa. In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc

CABI Summary Data

Map Legends - Europe

CABI, 2021. Terminalia catappa. In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc

CABI Summary Data

Map Legends - Pacific

CABI, 2021. Terminalia catappa. In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc

CABI Summary Data

Map Legends - North America

CABI, 2021. Terminalia catappa. In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc

CABI Summary Data

Map Legends - Central America

Date of report: 07 September, 2021

CABI, 2021. Terminalia catappa. In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc

CABI Summary Data

Map Legends - South America