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Synergising Functional andEnvironmental Planning for Mega-event Led Urban Renewals and Beyond:Lessons from the Expo 2010 ShanghaiChinaYing Denga, S.W. Poonb & H.W. Chana

a Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong KongPolytechnic University, Hong Kongb Department of Real Estate and Construction, The University ofHong Kong, Hong KongPublished online: 25 Mar 2014.

To cite this article: Ying Deng, S.W. Poon & H.W. Chan (2014): Synergising Functional andEnvironmental Planning for Mega-event Led Urban Renewals and Beyond: Lessons from the Expo2010 Shanghai China, International Planning Studies, DOI: 10.1080/13563475.2014.894473

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Synergising Functional and EnvironmentalPlanning for Mega-event Led UrbanRenewals and Beyond: Lessons from theExpo 2010 Shanghai China

YING DENG∗, S.W. POON∗∗ & H.W. CHAN∗∗Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong;∗∗Department of Real Estate and Construction, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT A mega-event-led-urban renewal (MELUR) has been a popular but controversial urbanrenewal instrument worldwide. Adding to the persisting difficulty in the post-event uses of itsphysical legacies is an emerging dilemma of initiating spatial regeneration in an environmentallydegenerated urban setting. This seems especially imperative for host cities from emergingeconomies, while facing the dual pressures of urban degradation and regeneration, tend to favourinstant image-building through flagship construction. The purpose of this study is to propose anintegrated approach to making an intelligent balance between functional adaptation andenvironmental sustainability in planning an MELUR. It presents an in-depth case study of theExpo 2010 Site renewal in Shanghai, China. Modelled on the 3R waste management principle, afive-layered analytic framework is established. First-hand data were gathered through participantobservation, field trips and stakeholder meetings. Besides drawing constructive lessons from theempirical study, a 5R strategy hierarchy is formulated to synergise functional and environmentalplanning for future MELURs and significantly comparable urban renewal initiatives.

Background

Cities: Degeneration and Regeneration Paradox

Worldwide, the estimated urbanisation level from 52% in 2011 to 67% in 2050 (UN 2012)

will further complicate the interweaving processes of shaping and reshaping urban spaces.

In established economies like Europe, retrofitting the already built environment remains

the top priority (IEA 2010b), given an annual rate of about 1% new construction and

less than 0.1% demolition (Garn 2009; TSC 2007). With Asia and Africa still riding a

powerful urbanisation trend, new construction will keep prevailing (Birch and Wachter

2011). An obvious parallel not be ignored is the increasing inner-city deterioration in

most Asian mega-urban cities (Laquian 2005). Representative of this is China’s leading

International Planning Studies, 2014

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13563475.2014.894473

Correspondence Address: Ying Deng, Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic Uni-

versity, Hong Kong. Email: ydeng@polyu.edu.hk

# 2014 Taylor & Francis

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migrant megacities such as Beijing and Shanghai. With a government-led urbanisation

(Bracken 2012; Song and Ding 2007), these ambitious metropolises have experienced a

quick assembly of modernised but monolithic districts with high levels of pollution and

energy intensity on the one side, and an unscrupulous demolition of inner-city with

enriched heritage and of historic interests on the other side.

As a result of decades of the global inter-city competition (Short 2004), this dichotomy

of renewed cityscape typifies the ubiquitous over-commercialisation in the name of

de-industrialisation. One of the apparent costs to such overdoing is environmental degra-

dation – ironically a key driving force of renewing the previous industrialised cities. The

conflict, although unprecedented by magnitude due to globalisation, is not rare in history

(Roberts and Sykes 2000). A noticeable precedent can be found in the early urban renewal

process across American cities since 1940s. As a response to post-war environmental

degeneration and economic recession, the 1950s and 1960s was marked by significant

capital investments in large-scale slum demolition and infrastructural works. However,

the highly disruptive nature of these megaprojects brought in new damages to existing

urban fabrics and further deteriorated the living conditions of poor communities. With

opposition movements against the clearance-based urban renewal programmes peaking

in the 1960s, selective demolition and image-enhancing projects took on subsequently

to show more concerns over environmental impact, historic preservation and community

interests (Altshuler and Luberoff 2003). To resolve the dichotomy now more pervasive in

emerging economies, theoretical and practical rethinking is needed to formulate specific

responses.

MELURs: Functional Adaptation and Environmental Sustainability

This acute conflict between functional transformation and environmental upgrading in

area-based urban renewal initiatives has long received interdisciplinary attention. A less

explored sub-category, however, is mega-event led urban renewals (MELURs). Led by

influential mega-events such as Olympic Games and World Expos, MELURs are collec-

tively a target of controversy. For this, a few common reasons might count. A broader one

could be related to the universal difficulties in achieving all-round sustainability in mega-

projects (Priemus, Flyvbjerg, and Wee 2008). A specific one is the spatial-temporal duality

of mega-event projects – the on-site and citywide construction as well as the pre- and post-

event timeframes (Deng and Poon 2011). As the interdependency and interaction between

environmental and functional restructuring is the focus of this study, the economic, social,

political and cultural implications of MELURs, albeit no less critical and controversial, is

not to be tackled here.

Since the renewal era of mega-events in the 1960s (Hall 1992), they have been a city

branding instrument for catalysing broader urban intervention in host cities (Gold and

Gold 2011; Monclus 2009). With massive investments, this event-based instrument has

left behind visible built legacies, including new tourist facilities, upgraded transport infra-

structures and regenerated wastelands (Hartwell 2007; Orueta and Fainstein 2008). In this

sense, they well epitomise the aforementioned conflicts between new development and

inner-city renaissance. Despite its unfailing popularity, MELURs are highly prone to

create oversized sports stadiums, convention venues, desolated urban islands and urban

gentrification (Andranovich, Burbank, and Heying 2001; Diez 2003; Flyvbjerg, Bruzelius,

and Rothengatter 2003). Post-Olympic Montreal and Sydney, post-World Cup South

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Korea and Japan, and post-Expo Seville are just a few representatives in recent decades.

These planning disasters were largely attributed to an absence of forward thinking in posi-

tioning the renewed land and new facilities well in the host city’s long-range planning

(Deng and Poon 2012).

Adding to this persisting challenge is an emerging dilemma of initiating spatial regen-

eration in a setting that is laden with environmental degeneration. Much of the recent

research regards the building industry as a major barrier to environmental sustainability

in cities (Kibert 2013; Williamson, Radford, and Bennetts 2003), due to its highest rank

of environmental impact among all sectors (EC 2012; UNEP-SBCI 2007, 2009). A

more widely acceptable way, as realised by mega-event organisers, might be embracing

environmental sustainability as an indispensable component in planning MELURs.

Table 1 listed key environmental initiatives and legacies of six ‘green’ Olympic Games

between 1994 and 2012. For the Lillehammer 1994 Olympics, the Norwegian Olympic

Committee add a third pillar of environment to the two existing pillars of the

Olympic movement – sports and culture (TED 1997). In 1999, the Agenda 21 by the

Olympic Movement was adopted as the guiding principles for staging sustainable Olym-

pics (IOC 1999). The staging of ‘Green Olympics’ in 2008 offered an incentive for Beijing

to tackle its long-standing environmental problems (BOCOG 2008). The London 2012

Olympic Park was built to meet rigorous green targets and monitored by energy experts

in fulfilling its low-carbon commitment (LOCOG 2011).

In paper and in practice, these Olympic-led renewals set up a handful of environmental

precedents (Furrer 2002). However, an MELUR of local and global significance is also

susceptible to the victim of its own success. A case in point is the post-Olympic

Beijing. It is widely recognised that the billion-dollar investment greatly improved the

city’s environmental standards before the Games (Zissis and Bajoria 2008). Nevertheless,

the intermittent heavy smog that blanketed Beijing and its vicinity since 2013 sent a harsh

reminder of the magnitude of China’s environmental debts. As a great amount of haze was

blown in from the coal-burning industrial belt of which Beijing sits in the middle, experts

estimated that it might take decades to solve the issue now affecting over half of the

country (Wong 2013). This deserves a greater understanding of the impact such a demon-

stration project could have on urban renewal policies and practices in emerging cities

facing similar issues.

Objectives and Approaches

The connection between the persisting and emerging issues is simply a difference in

degree. Initiating one-off event venues that will soon become functionally suboptimal

or obsolete is as environmentally unsound as keeping existing pollution sources or

energy-intensive facilities. This study hence argues for a combined solution to addressing

functional adaptation and environmental sustainability in the planning process. Given that

Brazil, Russia and the Middle East are to play host to more mega-events after China’s 2008

Olympics and 2010 Expo, this is particularly imperative for emerging economies facing

tremendous spatial restructuring and environmental degradation. Due to a small base of

recent cases in these regions and the difficulty in collecting first-hand data, related litera-

ture is not well updated.

This paper aims at exploring the practical possibility of, in the context of an

MELUR, initiating a large spatial restructuring while enhancing its functional

Planning for Mega-event Led Urban Renewals and Beyond 3

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Table 1. Key environmental initiatives and legacies in six Olympic games 1994–2012

Year Event city Short-term (event-related) environmental initiatives Long-term environmental legacies/impacts

1994 Lillehammer,Norway

† Predominate use of local materials in 10 Olympic venues † The first ‘green’ Olympic Games in history† Involving environmental pressure groups in the planning

process† Signing an environmental agreement between International

Olympic Committee and the United Nations EnvironmentProgram (UNEP) as a guideline for the following Games

† Adopting various energy conservation measures, e.g.efficient glazing and advanced heat exchange system

† Strong emphasis on post-Olympic uses, e.g. the provision ofmultiple-use sports venues for easy conversion and adaption

† Reuse of prefabricated materials in other constructionprojects

2000 Sydney,Australia

† Public consultation on remediation programmes at theOlympic Park areas

† Transforming the bay area from a polluted industrialwasteland to a vibrant haborfront with amenities, wetlandsand parklands

† Involving environmental groups during the bidding andpreparation processes

† The Global 500 Award for Environmental Excellenceawarded to Sydney by the United Nations on WorldEnvironment Day 2001

† Issuing environmental guidelines for the Games† Applying solar energy at the Olympic Village and public

transportation systems2004 Athens, Greece † Using the construction of new Olympic facilities as a

physical demonstration of environmental consciousness andpractice

† Renewed coastal area to reopen the city to the harborfrontand upgrade urban and suburban areas

† Revitalised historical centres through pedestrian links† Upgraded and extended public transport infrastructures† Improved air quality

2006 Turin, Italy † Applying Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for theGames’ overall project management

† Adopting Environmental Management System (EMS) andthe SEA procedures as useful tools to coordinate allinitiatives area-wide

† Implementing project environmental monitoring plans † Piloting the implementation of EMS in mega-events† Drawing up annual environmental reports of the Games† Verifying the compliance of projects and building sites with

required environmental performances

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2008 Beijing, China † USD 15.7 billion spent on various initiatives to enhance thecity’s environmental quality from 1998 to 2007, e.g.temporary shut-down of pollution-intensive factories,enacting traffic control before and during the Games

† Upgraded transit systems

† Establishing EMS in line with ISO 14001 standards † Improved waste management infrastructures† Improved air quality† Major Olympic projects as role models of environmental

protection† The establishment of the Green Olympic building

Assessment System2012 London, UK † Establishing rigorous green targets for the Olympic Park † Strong emphasis on post-Olympic uses, e.g. flexible

downsizing of the Olympic stadium for multi-functionalvenues afterwards

† Adopting monitoring by energy experts to realise low-carbon commitments

† Issuance of the London 2012 Olympics sustainability reportsas a step forward towards benchmarking good practices forsustaining built legacies

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adaptability and environmental gains in the long run. To this end, a strategy hierarchy

is formulated as an adaptable matrix to encourage more critical thinking on not just

future MELURs but comparably sophisticated urban renewal practices. As an initial

attempt to consolidate experience into new patterns, the case study method was

employed, given the emerging nature of the topic with virtually few precedents to

follow, and the wide usage in studying area-based urban renewals (Babalis 2003;

Berg, Braun, and Otgaar 2002; Lehrer and Laidley 2008; Monclus 2009; Smyth

1994). The Expo 2010 Site renewal in Shanghai China is used as a case to illustrate

the possibility of balancing new construction and adaptive reuse in an MELUR, and

to gain practical lessons from the synergising of functional and environmental planning

with the following objectives:

. To understand how environmental imperatives at the global, national and local levels

are identified and dealt with in planning an MELUR.. To establish a conceptual model outlining a renewal strategy hierarchy which individu-

ally and collectively facilitate the convergence of the two traditionally separate

practices.. To identify the drivers and hinderers to make the performance leadership of such dem-

onstration projects have positive spillover effect.

The significance lies in that, since the modern incarnation of the World Expo in 1851,

Expo 2010 Shanghai China was the first one held in a developing country. Nevertheless,

what makes this case interesting is more due to its close ties to pressing issues such as

functional restructuring, environmental degradation and rapid urbanisation ubiquitous

among emerging economies. The availability of first-hand data provided unique insights

into its overall complexity. Multi-sourced data was gathered from participant observation

which will normally facilitate a better understanding of social events of contemporary sig-

nificance (Alasuutari, Bickman, and Brannen 2008; Bryman 2004). Data before 2008 was

sourced mainly from key Expo project developers and consultants as well as the Expo

2010 Organiser, where the first author worked as a key project coordinator from the

site-wide renewal to key building projects between 2004 and 2007. This was supplemented

by written records, including internal and published reports, meeting minutes and notes,

project photographs and drawings. Data afterwards were collected through desk research,

site surveys and regular meetings with key project involvers. The rest of this paper is struc-

tured in four sections. The first explores the global, national and local backdrops of the

Expo 2010 Site renewal, and formulates the 5R multi-level model to study the case.

This is to be followed by a five-layer analysis of the application of this model, and discus-

sions of the positive and negative aspects of the case. Conclusions are made in the last

section.

Three-tier Environmental Challenges

Although the Expo 2010 Site renewal has sparked various academic interests, little has

been studied on a systematic integration of functional and environmental planning key

to this complex waterfront renewal. This might stem from lacking a holistic

understanding of the contextual basis of this case at the international, national and

local levels.

6 Y. Deng et al.

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The Expo Movement

Among others this largest Expo-led urban intervention in history is widely noted for its

ambitious infrastructure projects and building flagships as a visible part of rebranding

Shanghai towards a global city (Bracken 2012; Greenhalgh 2011). Historically, upgrading

transport networks and other key urban infrastructures as well as revitalising rundown

inner-city areas would not have been accomplished, accelerated or advanced in the

absence of the Expos (Greenhalgh 2011; Monclus 2009). Nevertheless, there is a less

noted but essential linkage between the Expo development and environmental issues.

To illustrate this, Table 2 compares a number of Expo themes and topical environmental

issues since 1970 (BIE 2008; Edwards and Hyett 2001; McDonough and Braungart 2002;

UN 1987, 2005).

Table 2. A selected list of Expo themes and topical environmental issues (1970–2015)

Decade Year Host city Main themes of the Expos Topical environmental issues

1970 1970 Osaka Progress and harmony formankind

Energy scarcity

1974 Spokane Tomorrow’s fresh newenvironment

Earth day 1970

1975 Okinawa The sea we would like to see Stockholm conference on thehuman environment 1972

1980 1982 Knoxville Energy turns the world Global warming1984 New

OrleansThe worlds of rivers – fresh

water as a source of lifeConcept of sustainable

development1985 Tsukuba Dwellings and surroundings –

science and technology forman at home

World conservation strategy of theinternational union for theconservation of nature 1980

1986 Vancouver Transportation andcommunication

Brundtland commission 1987

1988 Brisbane Leisure in the age oftechnology

1990 1992 Seville The era of discovery Earth summit Rio 19921993 Daejeon The challenge of a new road of

developmentKyoto protocol 1997

1998 Lisbon The oceans: a heritage for thefuture

ISO 14001 1996

Water distribution and qualityBiodiversity

2000– 2000 Hanover Humankind, nature andtechnology

Health of cities

2005 Aichi Nature’s wisdom Sustainable design andconstruction

2008 Zaragoza Water and sustainabledevelopment

Sustainability and health

2010– 2010 Shanghai Better city and better life Hannover principles 20002012 Yeosu The living ocean and coast Copenhagen climate conference

20092015 Milano Feeding the planet and energy

for life

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A noticeable case is Expo 2005 Aichi Japan as the immediate predecessor of Expo 2010.

From the outset, the site selection was beset with a controversy between the Expo theme

‘Nature’s wisdom’ and the organiser’s intention to turn the proposed site into a large resi-

dential development afterwards (Deng 2004b). Due to domestic outcry about potential

environmental damage and external intervention of the Wildlife Conservation Society,

three proposed sites were abandoned. As a compromise, a youth park at the fringe of

the city of Nagoya was chosen as the Expo site with restricted temporary development.

To reduce negative environmental impact on the natural habitat, event facilities were care-

fully positioned. All national pavilions were temporarily housed in prefabricated modular

structures. While the use of 3R building materials was a highlight during construction,

these pavilions were operated in a climate-adaptable manner (Deng 2004a, 2005;

Linden et al. 2011). By development scale and complexity, Expo 2005 was not comparable

to previous Expos featuring spectacular pavilions and significant urban regeneration.

However, its progressive thinking on the environmental front (Linden et al. 2011)

would offer insights for China with a miraculous economic rise at the expense of

massive environmental degradation.

China’s Situation

In 2010, China became the world’s biggest construction market (Betts et al. 2011) and

largest greenhouse gases (GHG) emitter and energy consumer in absolute terms (IEA

2010a). Although energy efficiency in buildings has been prioritised since the 1980s

(Shui et al. 2009), existing office towers and shopping centres are still noted for indiscri-

minative use of energy-intensive glazing and central air-conditioning systems (Qiu 2010).

The mitigation of GHG emissions and energy efficiency in buildings became a crucial part

of the national commitment of a 20% cut in energy consumption per unit of GDP in the

11th (2005–2010) and 12th Five Year Plans (2011–2015) (NDRC 2006, 2011). The

staging of Expo 2010 coincided with a state declaration to shift away from an invest-

ment-driven economy to an environmentally conscious one. However, a controversial

power cut was adopted by many local authorities rushing to meet the reduction target in

2010 (Hook 2010). It had a strong resemblance to the short-term measures in meeting Beij-

ing’s Olympic bid commitments. Could there be any longer-term alternative to these

Band-Aid approaches in the Expo-led urban renewal amid China’s dual challenges of

economic transition and environmental crisis?

Shanghai’s Context

MELURs have played a popular role in transforming disused waterfronts into vibrant civic

centres including the South Brisbane, the Olympic Port in Barcelona, the Homebush Bay

Area in Sydney and the Faliron Coastal Area in Athens (Craig-Smith and Fagence 1995;

Desfor et al. 2011; Garcia-Ramon and Albet 2000). Similarly, Expo 2010 was situated on a

piece of 5.28 km2 riverfront dockland as an early industrial and manufacturing base of

Shanghai. As shown in Figure 1, the Expo 2010 Site (hereinafter referred as ‘the Site’)

stood astride the Huangpu River which divides the port city of Shanghai into two strategic

parts – Puxi (River West) and Pudong (River East). The Site’s defining features – down-

town edge and industrialised riverfront, brought the following two major challenges.

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Environmental improvement. Aiming at becoming a world-class metropolis, Shanghai

unveiled a four-phased renewal programme spanning a planning area of 74 km2 along

both banks of the Huangpu River in 2001.1 As part of this unprecedented renewal pro-

gramme, the Site was to be revitalised as an extension to the existing urban cores

(Deng and Poon 2012). As the birthplace of China’s early industrialisation in the nine-

teenth century, the Site and its vicinity were highly concentrated with industrial uses

from coal-fired power plants, steel mills and shipyards. As shown in Figure 1, decades

of rapid urban growth shortened distance between the area and the expanded inner-city.

The adjacency hence constituted a major source of environmental pollution. With

under-developed infrastructures and a majority of ailing residential quarters developed

in a piecemeal manner over time, the area posed a sharp contrast to the futuristic Lujiazui

financial and trading district 8 km away to its north-east.

After two decades’ intensive development since the 1990s, the Lujiazui has transferred

from a piece of plain farmland into a hub of over 300 office towers for multinational

corporations. Yet, its signature skyline as a result of ‘a firework of international design

input’ is criticised as ‘a monument to yesterday’s technology’ (Droege 2006). Represen-

tative of speedy mimicry of western central business districts (CBDs), this high-rise

compacted district was also highly energy-intensive. The visual contrast between the

pre-Expo Site and the Lujiazui was no longer a central concern compared with the

imperative of incorporating environmental sustainability into place branding. As a due

response to China’s inescapable environmental mandate, the Expo Organiser pledged to

Figure 1. Location map of the Expo 2010 site in Shanghai, China (as in 2005).

Planning for Mega-event Led Urban Renewals and Beyond 9

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stage a green Expo. Table 3 lists a set of documents which lay groundwork for monitoring

on-site renewal activities from an environmental perspective.

Heritage revitalisation. Besides the bioremediation of contaminated soils in brown-

fields, preservation and adaptive reuse of urban heritage poses another challenge to

Table 3. Timeline of environmental guidelines for the Expo 2010 site renewal

YearMilestones of the Expo2010 Site development Environmental guidelines Sources

2001 Internationalconsultation for mastersite planning

Report on environmentalimpacts of Expo 2010Shanghai China

Application documents forbidding world Expo 2010

2002–2003

Adjustment to the Site’sboundaries andprogrammes

2004 International seminar onthe Site’s planning anddesign issues

Chapter of ecological andenvironmental impacts

Application documents forregistration of worldExpo 2010 ShanghaiChina (2004)

International competitionfor master siteplanning

Approval of the ExpoSite master plan

2005 Publication of the firstedition of the ExpoSite detailedregulatory plan

Chapter of ecological andenvironmental impacts(revised)

Application documents forregistration of worldExpo 2010 ShanghaiChina (2005)

2006 Publication of the ExpoSite urban designscheme

Environmental impactsassessment of the planningarea of Expo 2010 ShanghaiChina

Remedial action decisionon industrial soilcontamination

Publication of the secondedition of the ExpoSite detailedregulatory plan

Design for permanentflagships

2007 Publication of the thirdedition of the ExpoSite detailedregulatory plan

Environmental protection(which specifies the greendesign guidelines of all Expoconstruction)

World exposition ShanghaiChina 2010 participationguide (for officialparticipants)

Ground-breaking formajor on-siteconstruction

2008–2009

Full-swing of all on-siteconstruction

Green guide of Expo 2010Shanghai China

Design specifications for allon-site design andconstruction

Environmental report of Expo2010 Shanghai China(2000–2008)

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rapid urbanisation. To safeguard a site’s climatic, geographical and humanistic characters,

cultural and architectural heritage as well as topography and landscape of vernacular

values are to be protected and preserved (Babalis 2003). This was one of the key strategies

in the riverfront renewal programme aforementioned. A prelude was to revitalise the

source of the Bund that mainly came into being in the early nineteenth century (Figure

1). By renovating 14 historic buildings representing ‘the Exposition of World Architec-

ture’ (China Daily 2004), the Bund area was transformed into a high-end leisure destina-

tion. While heritage protection and preservation is still in its infancy in many Chinese

cities, such high-profile cases are usually expected to set exemplars for others to follow.

Research Framework

As an MELUR normally involves projects of different nature: new and adaptation, tempor-

ary and permanent, on- and off-site; it hence requires specific and holistic strategies to

achieve synergy. While there is no precedent in analysing how to integrate the physical

and environmental planning of an MELUR, a research model needs to be established

for layered analysis.

The 3R Principle

The 3R waste management principle (reduce, reuse and recycle) (EPA 2013) offered a

simple theoretical entry point. It proposed a hierarchy in waste management with different

strategies by order of desirability. Reducing, as the most efficient strategy, aims at mini-

mizing the creation of one-off products to save fresh and especially non-renewable

resources. Reusing adds value to the already exploited resources or used products by max-

imizing their utility either as a whole or in parts. As the last resort due to its potentially

high energy intensity, recycling explores the possibility of using the waste as resources

(Addis and Talbot 2001; Nitivattananon and Borongan 2007; Sinha 2012).

The 5R Strategy Hierarchy

The principle can be further developed to fit in the planning context of an MELUR. The

first priority is to avoid making purpose-built event venues that are prone to post-event

underuse or abandonment. So is an event site which cannot be subsequently well

merged with existing neighbourhoods. A thorough urban context analysis is always

necessary to identify drivers and barriers to intended developments concerning zoning,

density, transportation provision, redevelopment potential and urban connectivity; and

to compare different renewing schemes in line with their environmental impact (Babalis

2003; Paddison 1993; Smiley 2002). All should be incorporated and articulated through

a planning framework for and beyond a mega-event. By putting into perspective the

global, national and local challenges, two more layers could be added. A preventive

layer on top of the original 3Rs was to minimise wasteful construction through pre-post

positioning. A ‘rehabilitation’ layer was to be tied in with on-site heritage and natural

resources. The model concerns the following five aspects from the whole to the parts:

. ‘Repositioning’ deals with the overall site position, layout and programmes, by integrat-

ing the event and post-event land-use and building functions to preemptively avoid

waste of land and natural resources upfront.

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. ‘Reduction via reintegration’ seeks multidimensional trade-offs between new construc-

tion and adaptation, the identification and removal of existing pollution and waste

sources, and the adoption of low-carbon public transportation means.. ‘Reuse’ is a multi-level approach to handling industrial and humanistic heritage of

different categories.. ‘Rehabilitation’ is a site-wide approach to rehabilitating the riverfront’s eco-system as a

landscape legacy for the public.. ‘Recycling’ refers to reshaping buildings and landscape with recycled building com-

ponents and materials.

A Five-layer Site Renewal

This section presents a layered analysis of the Site renewal based on the 5R framework.

Repositioning

To balance the development pace between downtown areas and urban fringes, the Site was

positioned as a mixed-use district to differentiate from the CBD function of the Lujiazui.

Since 2004, site surveys, desk research, study visits to former Expo cities, and inter-

national design competitions and development were carried out. A set of interweaving

issues were debated and tested, including the ratio between permanent and temporary

developments, the functional and environmental relationships between the Site and its

vicinity, the impact of upgrading of energy networks and increasing infrastructure

capacities. The overarching goals were to respect the area’s unique industrialised contexts,

to retain its ecological features and to position different developments in the most suitable

locations. By nature of development, the Site was divided into three distinctive zones

(Figure 2):

. A new construction zone to house five key flagships in Pudong.

. Two mixed zones with both new construction and adaptation in Pudong.

. Two adaptation zones in Puxi.

In line with Shanghai’s stress on ‘Headquarters Economy’ (Shanghai Municipal Gov-

ernment 2012), the Pudong Site was conceived as a convergence for regional headquarters

of state-owned enterprises and international corporations after the Expo. Currently, 24

office buildings have been in the pipeline. Within the new construction zone, five perma-

nent flagships are clustered within walking distance and linked to the rest of the city by

expressways, subways and buses, sightseeing ferries and cruise ships. Based on identified

shortage of related urban infrastructures, a mixture of recreational, exhibition and com-

mercial elements for the post-Expo redevelopment were integrated into the Expo functions

of the four flagships. As shown in Table 4, the functional repositioning of four multi-

purpose buildings has been made efficiently after the Expo without significant retrofitting

due to in-depth feasibility studies and forward planning. The 250,000 m2 Expo Spine

which functioned as the main pedestrian walkway linking the Big4 has been further devel-

oped into a regional complex for commercial, catering and recreational uses in early 2013.

Over 200 pavilions of 360,000 m2 were designed and constructed for post-Expo recycling,

significantly minimising the demolition volume and expediting the redevelopment

process.

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Reduction via Reintegration

Impact appraisal of alternatives among new construction, adaptation and demolition con-

stitutes the first step for the Site to make a fundamental shift away from fragmented land-

use patterns and deteriorated environmental conditions. To expedite economic restructur-

ing and to improve environmental quality, industrial relocation became an essential part of

the renewal strategy. In 2004, two important adjustments to the Site were made. One was

the inclusion of an adjacent squatter area into the Site’s boundaries to expedite the inner-

city renewing process. The other was to keep some residential blocks which were still in

good condition to reduce the total demolition volume and relocation costs. As shown in

Table 5, major environmental challenges originated from energy-intensive power plants

and pollution-intensive industries were removed by stage since 2005. This not only

paved the way for implementing other renewing strategies by expediting the planned econ-

omic restructuring for environmental improvement.

The repositioning of brownfield would naturally lead to the change in transportation

modes (Brow 2010). Expo 2010 is so far the most attended Expo with a total of 73

million visits (BIE 2014). Behind the figures were the challenges of six-month logistics

and traffic arrangements and the opportunities to invest in public transportation which

would play a major part in the infrastructural upgrading of Shanghai. To encourage the

use of public transport, the Organiser in conjunction with planning, transport and traffic

control authorities and research centres conducted extensive studies to integrate the

Figure 2. Site zoning in line with the distribution of industrial heritage.Note: Areas marked by dotted circles were concentrated with industrial heritage.

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Table 4. Functional transition of major on-site built legacies

Name of key building flagshipsFloor area

(m2) Programmatic components Expo uses Actual post-Expo usesExpo Post-Expo

Expo Center Expo Center 142,000 A 2600-seat convention hall Internationalconventions

International conventions such asAPEC and SCO summit

A 5000-seat multi-purpose hall Forums Large-scale banquetsA 3000-seat banquet hall Banquets A standing venue for municipal events

(less than one-third of the totalspatial uses)

A 600-seat conference hall Head-of-state levelVIP services

Meeting rooms of various sizesVIP centresA media centre

China Pavilion China Fine Art Palace 153,000 † A featured top part housing anexhibition zone

China NationalPavilion

Exhibiting Chinese contemporary artsSince late 2012

† A podium enclosing amodularised exhibition space

31 Chineseprovincialpavilions

ThemePavilion

Shanghai World ExpoExhibition andConvention Center

171,000 † Four exhibition halls of80,000 m2

Two large thematicexhibitions

Commercial exhibitions of differentpurposes and sizes

† An underground exhibitionhall of 12,000 m2

Large performances with a seatingcapacity up to 20,000

† An outdoor exhibit area of200,000 m2

† Various exhibit space† meeting rooms of various

sizes† restaurants and VIP centres† A multi-purpose transitional

hall of 7000 m2

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PerformingArts Center

Mercedes-Benz Arena 160,000 A grand amphitheater with achangeable seating capacityfrom 5000 to 18,000

The Expo openingand closingceremonies

World-class cultural, recreational,theatrical and sports events

A music theater Over 200 majorperformances

A branded club for live events

A cinema A bar and lounge with VIP facilitiesAn ice skating rink In its first-year commercial operation

in 2011, 276 events were stagedwith over one million patrons

A children’s playgroundNBA interactive pavilionAn automobile showroom20,000 m2 retailing space and

food outlets

Notes: APEC, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; SCO, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation; NBA, National Basketball Association.

Table 5. Major environmental challenges and solutions

Origin of pollution Source of pollutionAnnual output of pollutants

(tons) Coping strategies

A coal-fired power plant with achimney

Air Sulfur dioxide 7226 The workshop was retrofitted into one of the sub-theme pavilionsand a auditorium hall

Smog 1485 The chimney was converted into an urban barometerA steel mill Waste water 3127 The steel mill was relocated

Air (sulphurdioxide)

1259

A century-old shipyard Waste water N/A The shipyard was relocated and the whole area converted into anindustrial heritage park

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transportation plans of the city and the Expo region. Besides raising the throughput

capacity of international airports and railway stations, cross-river tunnels, new subway

lines and extension, and designated shuttle buses were built before 2010 to enhance

ground traffic capacity and connection between the Site and other urban regions. A park

and ride system was established by encouraging visitors to switch from private cars to

public transportation. While leading to a significant reduction in car commuting, these

measures alleviated traffic pressures around the Expo region and reduced CO2 emissions.

Reuse

To reduce the impacts on areas with industrial heritage, professional appraisals were made

for systematic restoration, renovation and reuse of the Site and industrial building stock

over 230,000 m2. The revitalisation effort started with the restoration of seven listed archi-

tectural heritage (Figure 3). Other industrial facilities with historical interests were reno-

vated for temporary Expo uses and are now home to exhibition, culture and leisure

activities. Featured docks and slipways were retrofitted into leisure and recreational

spaces on the Puxi Site as the cradle of China’s early industrialisation (Figure 3). The

Urban Best Practices Area, which served as a show area for international cities in the

Expo duration, is now under further post-Expo development towards an international

exemplar of eco-community. As shown in Figure 4, the Expo Village, a mixture of over

500,000 m2 new and renovated spaces, is now a riverfront community for hotels,

service apartments and residential high-rises. Adjacent to the Site’s boundaries, the

Figure 3. Revitalisation of on-site industrial structures for both Expo and post-Expo uses.

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organiser’s headquarters were also converted entirely from previous factories and

workshops.

Rehabilitation

In the previous Lujiazui development, only bits and pieces between plots of office towers

were left for greenery under a guiding principle of treating urban land as a source of econ-

omic gain (Marshall 2003). By contrast, about an area of a million m2 has been reserved to

produce a good natural environment for the 8.3 km riverfronts. Systematic rehabilitation

of the riverfront eco-system was paired with landscape design to preserve the wetland

and enhance ecological diversity and a combination of naturalism and humanism. As pre-

cious green legacies in downtown Shanghai, three riverfront Parks (Figure 5) were built by

adopting several eco-technologies, including prioritising local plants for creating the best

effect of summer shading, cooling spray system, porous pavement, bioremediation of con-

taminated soil, trampling-resistant turf, eco-green walls, roof greenery, and water treat-

ment. The recovery of riverfront eco-system would become an environmental bonus for

sustaining the renewing process.

Recycling

Another contribution of the renewal was to make the recycling of construction waste visu-

ally pleasing and aesthetically novel. Besides the large adaptation of industrial buildings

for suitable new uses, the on-site demolition provided unique opportunities for recycling.

As illustrated in Figure 6, building components including bricks, fabrics and scrap iron dis-

mantled from old industrial structures were recycled for multiple purposes: the creation of

sculpture, timepiece and building facades. At the Jiangnan Shipyard Industrial Legacy

Park, sculpture created from scrap iron was blended with well-preserved docks and

quays and carefully designed riverbanks, forming industrial-themed riverfront scenery.

Figure 4. The reuse cases of industrial facilities on and around the Expo Site.

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Figure 5. The rehabilitated riverfront eco-system and the dockland-themed landscape.

Figure 6. Innovative design through material recycling.

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Discussions

This MELUR has brought in various physical and environmental legacies that were built

on an integrated understanding of existing settings and expected place identity of the area.

It indicates the practical possibility to tackling the two challenging tasks of urban centre

extension and inner-city regeneration simultaneously. As set out in the 5R renewal frame-

work, the local targets were aptly set to minimise the post-event underuse of event-led

facilities, remove major sources of pollution, modernise existing building stock, adap-

tively reuse industrial heritage and rehabilitate the riverfront eco-system. In particular,

the largest revitalisation of the industrial heritage in the Expo history is significant in its

own right not just by scale but by innovation. Despite these positive sides, the following

aspects should be given due attention before any desirable spillover effect could be

expected in more livelihood-related urban renewal practices.

Government-led Versus Community-oriented

MELURs are sophisticated and dynamic megaprojects whose decision-making processes

require not only interdisciplinary input but extensive public debate. In particular, the

growing needs and scale in renewing old districts and brownfields as an essential part

of contemporary MELURs have diversified impacts on existing neighbourhoods. By

nature, the Expo 2010 led site renewal is still a continuation of the government-led urban-

isation albeit a modified one in many aspects. A noticeable missing part in this case is the

wide involvement of community and environmental groups in its planning process, which

were a standard operation in several Olympic-led renewals shown in Table 1. There was

devoid of more community-based thinking in the overall planning. For instance, the

post-Expo development of the Expo Village is oriented towards tourists and high-end

residents, given its unique riverfront location and potential economic returns. With an

initial success in the post-Expo repositioning of key building flagships, there is clearly a

continued focus on more flagship developments to accommodate large state-owned

enterprises. All indicates a gentrification trend on the Site and its vicinity, and a further

marginalisation of local residents and smaller businesses already being relocated to

urban peripheries.

A Fair and Equitable Basis

While it was a step forward by revitalising on-site industrial heritage and retaining river-

front features holistically and at a stroke, it will not be easy to duplicate the success in

everyday practices because of financial, institutional, social, procedural and legal impli-

cations. Despite systematic and quality heritage revitalisation, the question remained to

be what else was protected beyond these ‘strategic’ parts? British historian French

(2011) posted a blog, listing a handful of historic buildings which were believed to

have been demolished for the construction of new subway lines and urban beautification

in 2010. It is, therefore, confusing to observe the revitalising of built heritage in designated

areas while eradicating historical traces at other ‘less important’ urban areas in the name of

making a better event city. It is beyond this paper to debate on whether protecting those

demolished old buildings off-site was a worthwhile pursuit, as it might involve complex

multi-criteria assessments and debates. Due to much higher costs than that of simple

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demolition and new construction, it might not be always viable to preserve, restore and

maintain everything that is culturally or historically worthwhile. Among others a signifi-

cant area of criticism over the Expo 2010 led urban renewal is not on its own merits but

rather, the selective strategies for different parts of the city. Many reasons may account for

the falling short of the anticipated role of a demonstration project in catalysing a paradig-

matic change. A repeated mistake is that the emulating of a successful model elsewhere is

not built upon a fair and equitable basis.

Boomerang or Spillover Effect?

In essence, moving industrial and manufacturing enterprises away from megacities to their

peripherals and satellite towns is equal to an adoption of an ostrich policy towards environ-

mental problems. This will exacerbate the problems in the long term and on a broader geo-

graphical scale, which in turn will boomerang back sooner or later to the previous origins.

As China is still lacking the best practice for policy enforcement and monitoring, this

grand demonstration should be used as a starting point for this purpose. Hence, the con-

ceptual model presented above is also intended to encourage others to develop practical

monitoring tools and to establish a comparative framework for evaluating different pol-

icies and approaches. It is not going to take things to another level by applying a

double standard and a piecemealed and ad hoc approach. How far such a mega-demon-

stration is away from the mainstream practice depends on how fragmented the market

demand is. The only way to advance the whole industry is to make green the rule rather

than the exception. The real challenge to test the spillover impact of an MELUR only

begins when its demonstration period is over.

Conclusions

MELURs are miniatures of the fast-forwarded urban sprawl and massive downtown regen-

eration typically found in emerging metropolis. They normally involve huge investments in

generating new infrastructures and facilities but insufficient considerations over their adap-

tability in post-event uses and capacity of merging with existing environments. This paper

presents the case of the Expo 2010 Site renewal in understanding how broad-brush policies

concerning functional restructuring and environmental upgrading can be translated into

practical strategies by the instrument of MELUR. This final section concludes with some

general lessons in this crucial regard. Built upon the lessons learnt from the case, the 5R

strategy hierarchy (Figure 7) is contributed to similar undertakings and encourages further

refinement. Detailed explanations are as follows.

. Functionally, a good renewal plan should stand up to follow-up developments and

changes over time yet still produce a good place thereafter. It should bring strong and

sustained incentives to keep place identities and attract mixed and connected activities,

including travel-generating uses, multimodal public transport means, and quality and

featured environment and amenities.. Environmentally, holistic planning approaches are readily available to make a renewed

area both functionally and environmental sustainable besides applying green design to

new construction and adaptation. They include adequate increase in development

density for future growth, good connections with low-carbon transportation means,

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and making mixed-use facilities to encourage multi-purpose trips and enhance the

overall efficiency of power networks.. Reducing waste from source, in the sense of an MELUR, means a shift from event-

prioritised mentality to forward thinking. New and large facilities should be avoided

were there no good reason for their long-term existence. Their sizes and development

schedules are to be determined largely by their long-term positions in the post-event

city. If applicable, existing building stock, wholly or partially, is most suitable for the

event uses and should be utilised as much as possible.. To curb the overall energy consumption leads to a need to employ both supply-side and

demand-side measures and make a balance among reduction, improvement and inno-

vation. Noticeably in this case, preferences were given to those green methodologies

and technologies that can be sourced locally, mature to apply, safe to use, easy to

operate and hold good possibilities to be applied regionally.. Due to the increasing magnitude of urban renewal, heritage revitalisation will form a

regular component of future MELURs. A host city should have more than a passing

interest in preserving the built heritage as an essential part of urban renewal citywide.

For emerging metropolises at a great risk of being reduced to a mirror image of their

skyscrapers-laden western counterparts, long-term mechanism is in need to have such

positive spillover effect.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the useful comments by Journal editors and reviewers, and the

generous help from people at home and abroad as key information sources on Expo 2010

and related previous mega-events.

Figure 7. The 5R strategy hierarchy of an MELUR.

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Funding

This paper is partly supported by the research fund provided by The Hong Kong Polytech-

nic University for the project Collaborative Research for Sustainable Urban Renewal for

Dense City (Project account: 1-ZVB9).

Note

1. For a detailed account of this riverfront renewal programme in Shanghai, please refer to Deng and Poon

(2012).

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