GLOSSARY188

C u bé The Youngest Prince

C u B The Third Young Prince

C u an to ask for peace of mind

Cây g o có ma, cây a có th n ghosts reside in kapok trees,

spirits reside in banyans

Cha b t lính, m ch m ng fathers recruit soldiers and

mothers mark mediumship

Chân h ng the “feet” of burnt incense

Chào cô Hello, Miss

Ch u The Spirit of the Ladies

Ch u Ð Nh The Second Lady

Ch u L c The Sixth Lady

Ch u v n possession songs

Cháy ch the market is on fire

Chùa Buddhist temple

Chúa Bói The Goddesses of Fortunetelling

Chùa Ð ng Bronze Temple

Chùa H ng The Perfume Temple

Cô Princess

Cô Bé B c L The Youngest Princess of B c

L

Cô Bé C a Su t The Princess at Su t Gate

Cô Bé Ðen The Little Dark Princess

Cô B The Third Prince

Cô B The Third Princess

Cô Chín The Ninth Princess

Có duyên to share fate

Có tâm to have a sincere heart

Con children

Con c a các ngài children of the spirits

Công ngh buôn Th n bán Thánh to buy and sell spirits and saints

Cung s fate

Ðàn bà womanly

Dân ca và nh c c truy n folk songs and traditional music

Ðàn ng t hát hay to play musical instruments

sweetly and sing beautifully

Ðàn nguy t moon lute

Ðàn nh fiddle

Ðàn ông manly

Ðàn tranh zither

Ð ng c p cao to be at a higher level or status

Ð o M u Mother Goddess religion

GLOSSARY 189

Ð o Thánh spirit worship

Ð n temple

Ð n th chính principal temple

Ð n th v ng sub- temple

Di cung hoán s to change fate

Ði l to pray and make offerings

Ði l xa to go on a faraway pilgrimage

Di t n refugee

Ði tu to “serve” Buddhism

Ðiên insanity, mental illness

Ð l offerings

Ð i m i renovation

Ð ng n temple medium

Ð ng qu t a fortunetelling initiation ritual

Ð ng th y master medium

Ð c Ông Ð Tam The Third Son

Gh chairs

Gian th ancestral house

Giáng ng incarnation

Gi y b n tissue paper

Gi h i the hours of the pig

Gi tý the hours of the snake

Mõ wooden drum

H kh n to set down the red veil

Hán Nôm Sino-Nôm

H u serving spirits

H u dâng ritual assistants

H u làm vi c ceremonies for work

H u t thanking ceremonies

H u vui ceremonies for pleasure and joy

Hèo cell- stick

H ng d a catching coconuts

H ng d n và d y d ch b o to be guided and taught

K t tóc knotted hair

Kh n ph di n red veil

Khoan khoan hò khoan a rowing song

Không bi t l i do not yet know how to

L c Long Quân The Dragon King

Làm bùa to perform magic or sorcery, to

make an amulet

Làm vi c thánh to do spiritual work

L y d u m n to cut the tongue

GLOSSARY190

L bán khoán ritual to protect children

L c t gi i ti n duyên ritual to end predestined spiritual love

afffairs

L i bát nhang ritual of carrying incense on the head

L gi i h n ritual to dismiss bad luck

L hô th n nh p t ng ritual to sacralize the statue

L kh t ceremony asking permission to postpone

initiation

L trình ng ceremony of presentation

Lên to raise

Lên ng spirit possession ritual

Li t s war dead

L c blessed gifts

L c Bói Gift of divination

L i ra vào exit and entrance

L n x n chaotic

Lung tung disorganized

Ma ghost

Mát m cool, to cool off

M u Tho i The Mother Goddess of Water

M i! Mother!

Mê tín d oan superstition

M m soft

Mi n ng c mountainous highlands

Mi n xuôi lowland rice paddies

M c a open the gates

M i incense ropes

Múa chèo ò rowing dance

Nam Tào B c Ð u Two Star Spirits

N ng heavy

Ngài spirits and gods

Ngân hàng a ph the bank of hell

Ngày vía religious calendar

Ngh ch naughty

Ng c Hoàng Taoist Jade Emperor

Ng i seats

Ng i g i h n ghost caller

Nh p ng possession

Nh light

Nóng tính hot- headed, hot- tempered

N c country

m d illness

GLOSSARY 191

m gi v false illness

m v t petty illness

Ông ng male medium

Ông Hoàng prince

Ông Hoàng B y The Seventh Prince

Ông Hoàng Chín The Ninth Prince

Ông Hoàng Ð Nh t The First Prince

Ông Hoàng M i The Tenth Prince

Ông L t snake spirits

Pê- ê Thanh Gay Man Thanh

Ph t The Lady Buddha

Phép permission

Ph bò beef with noodles

Phú quý sinh l ngh a wealth gives birth to ritual form

Ph Tây H West Lake Temple

Quan Âm Buddhist Goddess of Mercy

Quan L n Great Mandarin

Quan L n Ð Ng The Fifth Mandarin

Quan L n Tu n Tranh

Quan L n Ð Nh t The First Mandarin

Quan L n Ð Nh The Second Mandarin

Quan L n Ð Tam The Third Mandarin

Quan L n Ð T The Fourth Mandarin

Quan Ng H Five Tiger Spirits

S petition sheet

S ng fortunate

Tam Ph Three Realms

Tam sinh three meats

T t Lunar New Year

Tha release

Tha không b t lính ch m ng released from recruitment

Thánh gods or spirits

Thanh ng spirit medium

Thanh la small gong

Thánh M u The Mother Goddess

Thánh M u Ð a The Mother Goddess of the Earth

Thánh M u Th ng Ngàn The Mother Goddess of the

Mountains and Forests

Thánh M u Th ng Thiên The Mother Goddess of Heaven

Thành tâm sincere

Th y bói fortune- teller

Th y cúng ritual master

GLOSSARY192

Th y pháp sorcerer

Th công th a house and land spirits

Th gi i thi u letter of introduction

Th l c granted blessed favors

Thu c B c northern herbal medicicine

Th ng compassionate

Thuy n nhân boat person

Thuy n r ng dragon boat

Ti n s doctoral degree

Tiêu sáo bamboo flute

T tôm Vietnamese card game

Tr n t ph to pay spirits of the four realms

Tr n Tri u Tr n Dynasty

Tro r m n p sticky rice stem ashes

Tr ng ban small drum

Tr tà exorcism

T Ph Four Realms

T tr Four pillars

T i bóng self- pitying shadow

Vi c âm yin work

Vi c tr n yang work

Vi t ki u overseas Vi t

Vua cha The King

Vua Cha Bát H i King of Eight Oceans

Vui happy

V ng Cô Ð Nh t The First Royal Damsel

V ng Cô Ð Nh The Second Royal Damsel

V t biên to leave the country

Xe p bicycle taxi

Xin l c to ask for auspiciousness

Xôi sticky rice

Notes

Chapter 1 Border Crossings: Setting the Theoretical Stage

1. Water is essential to the wet rice agriculture of Southeast Asia and

many Vietnamese traditions and rituals invoke the concept of water.

2. Although the Vietnamese government allowed U.S. Vietnamese to

visit the homeland, U.S. policies technically prevented such travel

until 1995 when the ties with Vietnam were normalized.

3. Punctuated gradualism is a term usually associated with evolutionary

biology, denoting change that occurs in small but rapid bursts.

4. One exception is the work of Philip Taylor who writes about overseas

Vietnamese in the book Goddess on the Rise (2004).

5. The authors would like to thank the Wenner- Gren Foundation for

Anthropological Research for their generous support, which made

this research possible.

6. See Ngô Ð c Th nh (1996, 2006) for a basic introduction to Ðao

M u.

Chapter 2 Spirited Research: Studying Lên Ð ng in Vietnam and California

1. See Norton (2000a,b, 2006, 2009) and Kendall and Hi n Th

Nguy n (2010) for a thorough discussion of gender traversing.

2. Also known as Lý Công U n. He was responsible for moving the

capital from Hoa L in Ninh Bình province to Ð i La (known today

as Hà N i) in the year 1010.

3. According to legend, Thánh Gióng did not talk until he heard a call

from the king to fight against foreign invaders. He became a hero

and yearly festivals are held in his honor.

4. Festivals are held at Lý Bát Ð , Bà Chúa Kho, and Dâu Buddhist

temples. One popular festival, the Lim festival, involves the folk sing-

ing performance of Quan H . UNESCO inscribed it on the repre-

sentative list of intangible cultural heritage of humanity in 2009.

NOT ES194

5. Phù Lãng pottery was used for burials in the past and the art has

recently been restored. It has become a product for export as well as

local consumption. The pottery is used for daily use and decoration

at home, as well as in restaurants and gardens.

6. The Ðông H prints depict well- known folk stories about mice wed-

ding ( ám c i chu t), catching coconuts (h ng d a), and so on.

These prints were so popular in past that people bought them to hang

on their walls for decoration, especially during the New Year. This

handicraft nearly died out before the Renovation and was restored by

Nguy n Ð ng Ch and his family members.

7. Cultural Villages are recognized by the state as sites of particularly

rich cultural heritage. They may have important temples, monuments,

and festivals, or produce traditional arts. Additionally, they are recog-

nized for maintaining traditional etiquette and social organization.

8. The general population of 1.7 million in Santa Clara County includes

115,000 Vietnamese according to the U.S. Census as cited in San

Jose Mercury News, Saturday, January 24, 2009.

9. The median household income in Santa Clara County is $83,074;

the median household income of Vietnamese in the area is $67,629

(Swift 2009).

10. The reference for this article has been omitted in consideration of

confidentiality.

11. Madison Nguyen was criticized for asking the San Jose City Council

to name a section of Silicon Valley the “Saigon Business District.”

Critics claimed that she ignored her constituents who wanted the

area to named “Little Saigon.” Her main critic was the activist and

strident anticommunist former general Lý Tóng, who held a hunger

strike as a form of protest against Nguyen. As it turned out, residents

voted against the recall on March 3, 2009 (San Jose Mercury News,

March 4, 2009).

Chapter 3 Ð o M u Spirits, Temples, and Rituals

1. The number of eggs on the altar and pieces of wood in the coffins

represent the number of spirits associated with males and females:

males have seven souls and females have nine.

2. The word “M u” means mother in classical Chinese and is similar

in meaning to the Vietnamese word “m .” The first meaning of the

word implies a woman who gives birth to someone and is a noun

for addressing a mother. Besides these meanings, the words m u or

m are titles of respect and veneration. Queens of Vi t dynasties,

e.g., were called Qu c M u (National Mother) or V ng M u (Royal

Mother) (Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996: 14–15).

3. Some mediums refer to the religion as Ð o Thánh (Spirit worship),

and others refer only to the possession ritual. In general there is a lot

NOT ES 195

of regional variation. In northern Vietnam the term lên ng is used,

but in the Mekong Delta people use the term h u bóng.

4. Tam Ph (Religion of Three Realms) is another kind of mother god-

dess religion, although spirit mediums are not altogether clear about

the relationship between Tam Ph and T Ph . Some say that each

represents different levels of the religion, others say they are separate

religions. Many mediums in Silicon Valley say that people who follow

Tam Ph are able to incarnate Tr n H ng Ð o.

5. According to Nguy n Kh c Kh m (1983b: 25), the Vietnamese word

ng shares roots with the Chinese word t’ung, which has two mean-

ings: (i) a child, a minor; and (ii) boy servant. Durand (1959) and

Ngô Ð c Th nh (1996) wrote that the Chinese word referred to a

virginal boy under fifteen years old, who was innocent, pure of body

and mind, and easily possessed by spirits. Later on, the word came

to be associated with all mediums, regardless of age or gender. The

Chinese word t’ung did and still has the meaning of “medium” in

some south Chinese dialects, especially in the area of Amoy, Fukien,

and Kuangtung (Nguy n Kh c Kh m 1983b: 27–28). This region

was the cradle of the Pa- Yueh (Sino- Vietnamese: B c Vi t) tribes,

which, in prehistoric times, had many affinities and mutual relation-

ships with the proto- Vietnamese, called the L c Vi t. Thus, the word

t’ung as used for a medium in south China, and ng, a medium in

Vietnam, “might simply mean a possessed medium, that is a medium

for some spirit or deity to enter him or her” (ibid.).

6. Some authors say there is a possible total of seventy or seventy- two

spirits in the pantheon (Nguy n Th Hi n 2002); others say there

are ten mandarins, twelve ladies, ten princes, and ten–twelve young

princes (Ngô Ð c Th nh 2006); some mediums say that each mother

goddess has her own set of spirits along with five tiger spirits and two

snakes; and other mediums say there are fewer.

7. Early descriptions of the religion say the goddesses are the wives

of three (or four) kings (Coulet 1937; Giran 1912). The kings (vua

cha) are recognized by spirit mediums but are not often mentioned

in speech or literature (Durand 1959; Nguy n Kh c Kh m 1983a).

The status of the kings is similar to that of the Jade Emperor; they

are important but they remain in the background while the Mother

Goddesses are active in people’s thoughts and behaviors. That helps

to explain why one sometimes hears the conflicting statement that

the Jade Emperor rules over the four realms but the mother god-

desses have the highest position in the pantheon.

8. The four immortals in Vietnamese folk belief include Ch Ð ng T ,

Li u H nh, Thánh Gióng, and T n Viên.

9. She was a beautiful, educated woman and an accomplished musician

who married a scholar with a doctoral degree (ti n s ). They were

married twenty- one years before she died. Afterward, she reappeared

NOT ES196

in a number of places known for their beauty. The temples in Ph

Cát and Sòng S n, Thanh Hoá province, have been erected in her

honor (Durand 1959: 30; Giran 1912: 274) but her primary temple

is located in Ph Gi y, Nam Ð nh province (Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996:

22- 40; Nguy n Th Hi n 2002). According to a brief version of her

story recorded by the Italian missionary Adriano di St. Thecla in the

eighteenth century, Princess Li u H nh was murdered and thrown

into a river because “she had sung, as [people] say, disgracefully and

impudently “ (St. Thecla 2002: 145; see also Dror 2007: 66). St.

Thecla thus hinted at the controversial possibility that Li u H nh

may have been a woman of easy virtue during her earthy existence.

10. The Dragon King is the husband of Âu C and is also known as the

Dragon Lord.

11. In another version, the Mother of the Mountains and Forests was

incarnated as an ethnic minority and the daughter of a kind and

virtuous couple. They had difficulty bearing children and required

assistance from the Jade Emperor. He helped them to give birth to a

daughter who was devoted both to her parents and to the poor. She

was familiar with and fond of the flora and fauna of the highlands

and often used magic for healing (Durand 1959: 33).

12. The Chúa Bói spirits include: Chúa Th ng Thiên, Chúa Nguy t

H , Chúa Lâm Thao, Chúa Bà Nam Ph ng, Bà Chúa Cà Phê, and

Bà Chúa M i.

13. In northern and southern Vietnam five mandarins are regularly

incarnated but in central Vietnam and in California, there are six.

The Sixth Mandarin is Quan L n Ð L c (Tr n V n Toàn 1966).

14. Giran (1912: 270) believes they are also related to five cardinal points.

The First Mandarin (Quan L n Ð Nh t) wears red clothing and is

associated with the Realm of Heaven; the Second Mandarin (Quan

L n Ð Nh ), who wears green, is of the Realm of Mountains and

Forests. His origin was celestial but he descended to earth to care for

the mountains and forests. He was incarnated as the son of a wealthy

family and became a gifted poet at the age of four (Durand 1959).

The Third Mandarin (Quan L n Ð Tam) wears white clothing.

According to legend he is a prince of the Water King of Ð ng Ðình

Lake who manifests himself in waterfalls and springs (Nguy n Th

Hi n 2002). The Jade Emperor commanded the Fourth Mandarin

(Quan L n Ð T ), who wears gold, to descend to earth to help

people. The Fifth Mandarin (Quan L n Ð Ng ) is also called Quan

L n Tu n Tranh (Nguy n, Kh c Kh m 1983a: 27). He wears blue

clothing and chases evil spirits, heals the sick, and reunites families

(Durand 1959). There are several legends about the Fifth Mandarin.

Some say he lived as a snake in the Ðò Tranh River of H i D ng

province, others say he was a son of the great general Tr n H ng Ð o

(Nguy n Th Hi n 2002; Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996, 2006).

NOT ES 197

15. The First Lady is an incarnation of the Mother of Heaven among Yi

people. The Second Lady is the Mother of Mountains and Forests

and she is Mán, the Third is a Muong incarnation of the Mother of

Water, and the Fourth is a guardian of the Four Realms (Ngô Ð c

Th nh 1996a; Nguy n Th Hi n 2002).

16. The Seventh and Tenth Princes were literary mandarins in imperial

courts (Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996a; Nguy n Th Hi n 2002).

17. The Cô spirits are sometimes translated into English as damsels

(Nguy n Th Hi n 2002), princesses (Fjelstad and Nguy n 2006), or

little ladies (Endres 2006). We have decided to use the term “prin-

cesses” because they are youthful and younger than the lady spirits

who rank above them.

18. Although several scholars have counted twelve C spirits in the pan-

theon (e.g., Durand 1959; Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996), our own field-

work has discovered many more, a discrepancy that is probably the

result of regional variation.

19. Li u H nh is the spiritual mother.

20. Spirit mediums incarnate Tr n H ng Ð o’s two daughters and his

third son. They are known as First Royal Damsel (V ng Cô Ð

Nh t), the Second Royal Damsel (V ng Cô Ð Nh ), and the Third

Son (Ð c Ông Ð Tam). Other spirits associated with the Tr n

dynasty are the Princess at Su t Gate (Cô Bé C a Su t) and Young

Prince at Su t Gate (C u Bé C a Su t) (Ph m Qu nh Ph ng 2006:

36).

21. It was difficult for Hi n to identify some of the female spirits of the

Mountain and Forest Realm because of their unique blends of ethnic

clothing that did not belong to any specific ethnic group. Even today

she has problems identifying these spirits.

22. Other terms for mediums are “god” or “spirit” medium (thánh ng),

master medium ( ng th y), and temple- medium ( ng n).

23. Spirit mediums do not sponsor possession ceremonies while they are

menstruating, and often have to change the date of their ceremonies

in accordance with their menstrual cycles.

24. Sometimes the spirit of a dead person possesses a living family mem-

ber, usually a relative, during the funeral, on the anniversary of his or

her death, or on the day of exhuming bones in order to rebury them

in the final tomb (b c m ). Ghost callers (ng i g i h n) are medi-

ums whose spiritual guide allows them to be possessed by the dead.

Other mediums specialize in possession by dead soldiers. They help

families to locate and recover the remains of soldiers who are missing

in action (Nguy n Th Hi n 2002: 55).

25. White clothing is associated with transitional phases in Vietnamese

rites of passage. For example, schoolgirls traditionally wear white, as

do family members of the deceased at funerals.

NOT ES198

26. Medium’s assistants are also known as the “four pillars” (t tr ).

There is always a maximum of four or a minimum of two assistants

who are usually the master medium’s disciples.

27. Tr n H ng Ð o and his daughters, if they are incarnated, appear

after the mother goddesses but before Bà Chúa. Also, the animal

spirits come after the young prince spirits.

28. The religious music has been brought to the stage and even to the

mass media in Vietnam, but without the performing context of the

possession ritual, the songs lose their full artistic, religious, and his-

toric meaning (Nguy n Th Hi n 2002).

29. A ch u v n band usually has two singers. One plays the two- stringed

moon lute ( àn nguy t) and the other plays a set of percussion instru-

ments that include a small drum (tr ng ban), small cymbal (c nh

ng), and a small gong (thanh la). A larger ch u v n band might

have several singers playing additional instruments such as a bam-

boo flute (tiêu sáo), the sixteen- stringed zither ( àn tranh), and the

two- stringed fiddle ( àn nh ) (Norton 2000b: 77; Tô Ðông H i and

Ph m V n Ty 1992: 63).

30. The right hand signals female spirits and the left hand male spirits.

The number of fingers raised on each hand designates the specific

spirit so that the First Mandarin raises one finger on the left hand

and the Second Lady lifts two fingers on the right hand. Because

a specific spirit within a rank is named by a number (i.e., the First

Mandarin or the Second Lady), the number of fingers indicates

which spirit in the rank comes down. When the number is above five,

mediums raise fingers on both hands. For example, when the medi-

ums want to signal that the First Mandarin possesses them, they raise

the index finger of their left hand, but if the Sixth Lady possesses

them, they raise the five fingers of their right hand and one finger of

their left hand, and so on.

31. For the torch and fan dance of the lady spirit the medium usually

holds a torch in one hand and a fan in the other hand. She crosses

them in front of her, raising them up and down during the dance.

During the flower basket dance of the Second Princess, the medium

imitates the action of carrying two flower baskets on the two ends

of a stick. During a rowing dance of the Third Princess, the medium

puts the two oars together and pushes and pulls them as if rowing

a boat. For the dance of the Second Mandarin the medium holds a

sword in his right hand, raising it in front of him and moving his

feet forward and backward. In the dance of the Fifth Mandarin,

the medium holds the spear with his two hands and raises it up and

moves it to the right and then to the left three times; afterward, he

turns the spear around in front of him with small footsteps.

32. At a lên ng ritual, there are four trays of food made for different

altars. One tray is for the four palaces, including the three meats (tam

NOT ES 199

sinh) of a whole boiled duck, a chicken, and a pig head; one is for

the Buddha with only vegetarian foods; one is made for the realm of

mountains and forests including twelve dishes of produce that sym-

bolize the mountain region: bamboo root; water products such as

fish, shrimp, and crab; and products symbolizing soil, such as rice,

sticky rice, lemon, chili, and ginger. The fourth tray is for wandering

ghosts. This tray includes mainly plain rice gruel, popcorn, cakes,

and so on. These four trays of food are offered before mediums per-

form their rituals (Nguy n Th Hi n 2002: 131).

33. The votives may include an elephant, a large horse, five middle- sized

horses of five colors (representing the four realms and an additional realm

between them), two small horses for two young princes, a figure with a

human face but a snake’s body, a boat or a ferry, and a tray of twenty-

four hats and twenty- four pairs of shoes. There may be a set of green

manikins in the form of a mother goddess and twelve ladies offered to

the Mountains and Forests Realm, or a set of white manikins including a

mother goddess and twelve ladies offered to the Water Realm.

34. Although many ceremonies foster feelings of happiness, some medi-

ums make a distinction between ceremonies for joy and happiness

(h u vui) and those for work (h u làm vi c). The former usually

include yearly ceremonies, but the latter are ones in which the spirit

has a particular job to do. The job might be to change someone’s fate

or to rid someone of bothersome and potentially harmful spirits.

35. See Endres 2006, 2007, for a thorough discussion of performative

evaluations.

36. In his article “Some Ideas on Beliefs and Religions Today,” Hà V n

T ng (1998) argues that the word mê tín in the phrase mê tín d oan

(superstition) denotes an extreme belief or religiosity and that the

words di doan have the negative meaning of a mysterious or abnor-

mal phenomenon. The combination of these two compound words

means “superstition” (102). A list of the condemned superstitious

practices was released by the Ministry of Culture and Information—

circular number 04/1998/TT- BVHTT issued on November 7,

1998—stating that “Astrology, the horoscope, ghost calling, spirit

petitioning, spirit message, amulet, exorcism, magical healing, and so

on are superstitious practices, which the Government bans” (quoted

from Tr ng Thìn 1998: 121).

37. Decree on Folk Beliefs and Religion, Standing Committee of the

National Assembly, No 21/2004/PL- UBTVQH11, June 18, 2004.

Item 1 of Article 3 states that “the activities of folk beliefs are activi-

ties representing the veneration of ancestors, commemoration and

honoring of those who had great merit towards the country and peo-

ple; the veneration of spirits, traditional symbols and other activities

of folk beliefs which are typical for good values in history, culture

and social ethics.”

NOT ES200

38. During the spring lay Buddhists and monks travel to Chùa H ng

(the Perfume Temple), in H ng Tích cave, and Chùa Ð ng (Bronze

Temple) on the top of Mount Yên T . Spring is the season for large,

social religious events in Vietnam. This is because the weather is

warmer and people have more leisure time after the T t (Lunar New

Year) holiday in mid- winter.

39. Catholics go to Virgin Mary Church in Qu ng Tr province, or

they go to churches or cathedrals for Sunday services and other

celebrations of their patron saints and martyrs. Hi n observed the

Celebration of Saint Tu in October 2007 in the outskirts of Hanoi.

He is one of the 117 martyrs recognized by Vatican II in Vietnam.

Thousands of Catholics from the northern regions of Vietnam went

to the church to pay their respect to the Saint. When Hi n asked a

sixty- year- old woman about the purpose of her trip she said that she

goes to the church not only on the occasion of his celebration, but

also when her family has big events. For example, she went to the

church after building a new house. She went to thank the saint, and

to ask for blessings for good business so she might earn money to pay

off the debt (Nguy n Th Hi n 2007).

40. The most visited temples include the Palace of Mother Goddess reli-

gion located in Ph Gi y, Nam Ðinh province; Tr n H ng Ð o’s

temples in Ki p B c, H i D ng, and Nam Ð nh provinces; the

Ðông B ng temple dedicated to Bát H i Ð i V ng King in Thái

Binh province; and the temple of the Tenth Mandarin (Ông Hoàng

M i) in Ngh An province.

41. Bà Chúa Kho temple is in B c Ninh province about thirty kilometers

north of Hanoi, and Bia Bà temple is on the outskirts of Hà Ðông town

about twelve kilometers south of Hanoi. At the beginning of a lunar year,

individuals and administrative officials crowd to Bà Chúa Kho temple to

ask for auspiciousness (xin l c) and they return there at the end of the year

to thank the spirits (Nguy n Kim Hi n 2008). In addition, Hanoians go

to Bia Bà temple on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month to

pray for good fortune, good luck, and good business.

42. They are sometimes said to be half- man and half- woman (ái nam ái

n ).

43. The film titled Love Man/Love Woman (Nguy n Tr nh Tri) was

released in 2007. Also, a segment on lên ng in the BBC series

presented by Peter Owen Jones Around the World in 80 Faiths was

released in January, 2009.

Chapter 4 Spiritual Callings: Becoming a Medium in the Contemporary World

1. See Kwon (2008) for a thorough discussion of the plight of souls

from Vietnam’s war dead.

NOT ES 201

2. Local spirits enter Buddhist temples and become their protectors.

This was recorded as early as the fourteenth century in Thi n Uy n

T p Van (A Collection of Outstanding Figures of the Zen Community).

There is a story about a Ð o B o superior monk, who resided in Ki n

S temple in Gia Lâm (present- day Hanoi), who wanted to remove

a shrine dedicated to the Earth god (th a). However, the spirit

appeared with the message that he was the protector of the temple.

The spirit and monk then cooperated to rebuild the temple (Taylor

1991).

3. The principal temples dedicated to the Second Mandarin, the

Second, Fifth, Sixth and Youngest Ladies, and the Youngest

Princess of Mountains and Forests are located in L ng S n

province.

4. See more detailed writing on gender in Barley Norton’s (2006, 2009)

work.

5. These blue bowls sit on shelves in temples where they are main-

tained by temple mediums who light the incense on ceremonial

occasions.

Chapter 5 “Lên Ð nging” in Silicon Valley

1. These areas are also places where Vietnamese shop including: (1)

Lion Plaza located on the corner of King and Tully Roads, (2) the

strip malls on Senter Road between Lewis Road and Burke Street,

and (3) Grand Century Mall (the area known as “Little Saigon”) on

Story Road between King and Senter Roads.

2. “Recruit mediums” (cham dong bat linh) refers to the fact that during

a lên ng ritual the Seventh Prince and the Youngest Prince throw

their bell- sticks over participants while they are incarnated into medi-

ums. The sticks fall on a person who is regarded as being called by the

spirits into the spiritual order.

Chapter 6 The Vietnam- Cali Connection

1. Transmigrants are individuals who maintain ties with their home-

land, often becoming involved in the political, social, and religious

lives of both countries (Brettell 2003: 54).

2. Although the name was changed to H Chí Minh City, Phan still

uses the older name for the city.

Chapter 7 “You Have to Respect the Local Spirits”

1. During personal communication with Dr. Ngô Ð c Th nh, a Ð o

M u scholar, Hi n learned that a group of master mediums in

Hanoi are petitioning the state for permission to develop a national

NOT ES202

organization of the religion, which would codify and write down its

doctrine and rituals. Professor Th nh, as well as Karen and Hi n,

worries that the long- term consequences of such an act might be to

reduce flexibility and even expansion of Ð o M u and its lên ng

rituals. See Kendall (2009) for a parallel situation in Korea.

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Index

altars, 56, 101, 102, 104–5, 162,

164

American-Vietnam war, see war

ancestor worship, 8, 28, 56, 64, 69,

82, 84, 101, 104, 118, 143,

153, 199

astrology, 97, 161, 199

Âu C , 49

authenticity, 74, 144, 145

Bà Chúa M i, 170–1

B c Ninh province, 28–9, 146

Billy, 130, 131

blessed gifts, 58, 63, 64–5, 103,

110, 112–13, 150–1, 159

boat people, see refugees

Brian, 19–20, 27, 95, 113, 121–3,

128, 132, 161–5

Buddhism, 43, 53, 56, 58, 67, 68,

81–2, 118

Buddhist Goddess of Mercy (Quan

Âm), 43, 75, 82, 111, 176

Catholics, 119–20, 135, 176, 200

see also Christianity

C u Bé (The Youngest Prince),

51, 98, 120, 121, 124–6,

158–60

C u spirits (Young Prince spirits),

51, 60, 87, 94, 96, 109,

124–6, 130, 132, 149, 182

central Vietnam, 25, 27, 50, 57, 62,

79, 115, 148, 159, 196

Ch u (Lady spirits), see Lady spirits

Christianity, 101, 118, 119–20,

130, 135

see also Catholics

Chúa Bói (The Goddess of

Fortunetelling), 27, 49, 96,

128, 146, 170

Cô Bé Ðen, (Little Dark Princess),

see under princess spirits

Cô B (Third Princess), see under

princess spirits

Cô spirits, see princess spirits

collaborative research, 12–14,

30–6, 172–4

see also research methods

communism, 35, 108, 138, 145

anti-communist sentiment, 34–5,

96

compassion, 2, 10, 24, 51, 80, 85,

92, 109, 124, 126, 134, 168,

175

compromise, 37, 167–8

conflict among spirit mediums,

33–5, 36, 37, 50, 62, 66,

116–17, 127, 144, 155, 160

consumption, 8, 9, 13, 115, 178,

194

cooperation, 59

cosmology, 43

Csordas, Thomas, 3, 4, 5, 9, 172

culture shock, 12, 150

Ð o M u

characteristics of, 39, 174–9,

184–5

INDEX214

Ð o M u—Continued

cosmology, 43

definition of, 41

global spread of, 99, 138, 171–2,

175–6, 180–2

origin of, 41

pantheon, 40–53

temples, 53–6, 99, 100–6, 110,

179

death, 18–19, 25, 40, 64, 68, 78–9,

81, 93, 98, 101, 153, 181,

197

destiny

and becoming a medium, 80–2,

83, 88–9, 93, 97, 123

and musicians, 61–2

and opening temples, 54, 111

see also fate

Ð i M i, see Renovation

dreams, 21, 42, 54, 62, 83–4, 91,

111, 118, 119, 123, 125,

174, 176

education, 52, 67, 85, 90, 102, 125,

147

Elise, 130–2, 134, 135, 169, 176

embodiment of spirits, 95, 134, 174

ethnicity, 6, 72, 132–4, 135, 179

fate, 28, 39–40, 83, 85, 93, 97,

111, 199

see also destiny

flexibility, 3, 39, 42, 74–5, 178,

184, 202

flooding, 6–8, 15–16, 182–4

see also water metaphor

fortune telling, 91–2, 97, 119, 120,

123, 131, 132, 153, 158–9,

160–2

Four Palaces, 32, 43, 59, 83, 146,

170, 198–9

see also Ð o M u

gender, 6, 86, 107, 132, 134, 152,

168, 179, 195, 201

traversing gender, 28, 33, 72,

123, 133, 137

see also women

generational differences, 15, 27, 94,

100, 115, 117–28, 146

ghosts, 19, 20–1, 58, 101, 102,

104, 105–6, 130, 162, 174,

181, 199

globalization, 3–5, 8–9, 36, 138,

172, 180–2

goddesses, 11, 40–3, 44, 47–9, 50,

51, 53, 60, 69, 95, 104, 110,

132, 162, 165, 176, 195,

198

see also Chúa Bói

Hanoi, 3, 5, 12, 20, 25, 26, 28,

30, 34, 54, 61, 64, 68, 69,

72, 73, 74, 81, 85, 86, 88,

96, 102, 108, 111, 115, 133,

137, 142, 146, 148, 149,

152, 154, 166, 170, 183

healing, 21, 27, 31, 34, 50, 52, 57,

60, 63, 65, 67, 71, 74, 84,

85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 109, 112,

123, 134, 146, 170–1, 196,

199

health, 8, 18, 21, 22, 41, 54, 62,

63, 78–9, 87, 88, 93, 94,

117, 120, 147, 166

heart

importance of a sincere heart, 75,

126, 164, 178–9

history, 2, 9, 39, 41, 66, 70, 100,

101, 161, 168, 178, 185

H Chí Minh, 54, 55, 68, 75, 96,

108, 162, 168

H Chí Minh City, 25, 26, 44, 68,

143, 148, 169, 201

illness, 49, 54, 78–9, 80, 89, 90,

92, 98, 109, 118, 174, 181

false illness, 84–5

Karen’s illness, 17–20, 95, 112,

169, 172, 173, 175

INDEX 215

knotted hair disease, 20, 21,

83–4

yin disease, 79, 83–4, 86, 92, 95,

159

see also healing, health, spiritual

root

incense bowls, 55–6, 98, 104, 105

initiates, 80, 127

initiation, 14, 21, 27–8, 31, 32, 36,

38, 53, 54, 61–2, 64, 82,

84–5, 86–90, 91, 92, 93,

94, 116, 120–1, 129, 142,

144, 146, 147, 149, 150–2,

153–4, 155–9, 160, 161,

162, 166, 167, 183, 184

Internet, 4, 11, 73, 112, 127, 129,

138, 166

Jonathan, 130, 131

Kim, 120–1, 125, 130, 155–6, 158,

161, 165, 169, 176

Lady spirits, 19, 43, 45, 50, 61,

135, 159, 177, 197

language, 30, 31, 33, 58, 96, 101,

116, 177, 120, 129–30, 135,

145, 148, 172, 179

Laos, 29, 77–9, 100, 102, 108, 115,

139

legality

of rituals in California, 23,

102–3, 104

of rituals in Vietnam, 11, 67–9,

70, 74, 139

see also prohibition

lên ng rituals, 56–67

and change, 7, 13

duration of ceremonies, 60, 150,

155

and performance, 65, 66–7, 73,

157

regional variations, 162–3, 178

social nature of, 58, 59, 65

standardization of, 177–8

structure of, 75, 155

stylistic differences in, 156–7,

177

transnational expansion of, 1–6,

9, 12–13, 137–68

Vietnamese terms for, 42

Len donging, 129–30

Li u H nh, 41, 44, 47, 49, 195

Loan, 110–11, 113, 117, 177

l c, see blessed gifts

local officials, 68, 69, 70, 78, 86,

92, 96, 104, 139, 141, 142,

155, 200

magic, 39, 49, 56, 103, 153, 157,

162, 164, 165, 167, 196, 199

see also sorcery

mandarin spirits, 43, 44, 49–50, 58,

62, 63, 66, 195, 196, 197

Fifth Mandarin, 37, 42, 44, 50,

57, 81, 112, 196, 198

Master Thanh, 27, 33, 39–40, 54,

91, 137, 146, 149–50, 151,

152, 154, 157, 160–5, 167–9

mediums

and age, 107, 115, 118, 126, 127,

134

criticisms among, 127–8, 129

and ethnicity, 128–35

and gender, 72, 86, 94–5, 107,

123, 132, 134

master mediums, 21, 54–5, 59,

86, 88, 101, 110, 116, 160,

167

outsider perceptions of, 13–14,

67, 68, 87–8

responsibilities of, 87, 88, 98,

110, 117

social class, 72, 113

social relations among, 89, 91,

115–16, 117

temple mediums, 58, 110

terms for, 57

transnational movement of,

96–8, 138–9, 142–68

INDEX216

mental illness, 84, 91, 93, 122–3

migration

and religion, 100, 101–2, 103,

107, 108, 125, 138, 172

see also refugees

modernity, 8, 9, 72, 181, 183

monetarization, 114–15, 116

mother goddesses, see goddesses

Mother Goddess religion, see Ð o

M u

Mr. Viên, 33, 96, 97, 103, 110, 111,

117, 124, 126, 127, 128,

142, 155, 158, 165

Mrs. Nga, 21, 25, 54, 69–70, 74,

80, 82, 84, 88, 92, 177

Mrs. Tuy t, 102, 103, 105, 110,

113, 118

Mrs. Vân, 1, 97–8, 119, 120, 123,

124, 127, 171

music, 23, 32, 40, 50, 59, 61–2, 66,

69, 72, 73, 75, 86, 103–4,

108, 112, 113, 117, 121,

134, 138, 142, 179

see also possession songs

musicians, 57, 59, 65, 112, 142,

149, 151, 156, 163, 165,

179

narratives of conversion, 31, 88, 89,

90–2, 159, 175, 181

Ngô D c Th nh, 41, 66, 69, 73

northern Vietnam, 2, 6, 10, 12–13,

15, 25, 27, 28, 33, 34–5,

43, 47, 67, 74, 75, 108, 109,

128, 133, 138, 145, 148–50,

156–7, 161, 164, 173, 196,

200

parafocus, 95, 129

personality, 60, 86–7, 126

petitions, 36, 57–9, 108, 142, 165

Phan, 17–19, 24, 26, 87, 93, 96,

99, 100, 102, 108, 117, 125,

135, 139–41, 176

Ph Gi y, 41, 44, 49, 53, 73, 196,

200

Ph Tây H , 41, 53

pilgrimages, 8, 41, 55, 71–2, 137,

145

police, see local officials

portability, 9, 179, 184

possession

group, 50, 62, 75, 156–7, 159

kinds of, 42, 60, 157

order of descending spirits, 60–1

and performance, 31, 56, 62,

65–7, 72, 73, 75, 157, 167

spontaneous, 32, 80, 83, 85, 120,

126, 127, 130, 149, 155,

156, 159, 167, 177, 183

Vietnamese terms for, 42

see also lên ng rituals

possession songs (ch u v n), 2, 16,

42, 56, 61, 68, 69, 103, 108,

124, 125, 127, 134, 135,

136, 138, 142–3

see also music

poverty, 55, 84, 90, 96, 115, 140,

141, 143, 145, 151, 164,

178, 180

Prince spirits, 43, 45–6, 50, 61, 86,

195, 197, 201

Seventh Prince, 22, 41, 50, 60,

63, 81, 87, 94, 109, 150

Ninth Prince, 50, 109, 120, 134,

177

Tenth Prince, 41, 42, 43, 50, 87,

150, 179

Princess spirits, 43, 46, 51, 61, 62,

92, 105, 149, 197, 198

Little Dark Princess, 32, 109,

120, 123, 130, 131, 134

Third Princess, 1–4, 10, 16, 51,

60, 84, 94, 97, 109, 120,

131, 185

Ninth Princess, 51, 81, 87, 91,

94, 120, 134, 135

prohibition, 6, 23, 67–70, 142, 148

and reactions to, 23, 24–5, 57,

68

see also legality

punctuated gradualism, 7, 183, 193

INDEX 217

Quân Âm, see Buddhist Goddess of

Mercy

red veil, 59, 60, 87, 88–9

setting down the red veil, 92–4

refugees

escape from Vietnam, 35, 96–8,

100

return to Vietnam

descriptions of first returns,

138–42

fears and expectations, 7,

140–1, 142, 144–5, 147–8,

155, 183

reasons for return, 142–3, 145,

155, 183

see also Silicon Valley

regional variation, 32, 33, 37, 51,

52, 53, 74–5, 108, 115, 145,

168, 194–5, 197

see also lên ng rituals

religions

popular, 40–1, 172, 173, 176,

180–1, 184

and syncretism, 33, 39, 171

religious knowledge, 9, 40–2, 92,

94, 108–9, 127, 132, 134,

176, 178, 179

religious persecution, see prohibition

Renovation (Ð i M i), 6, 7, 8, 68,

70, 72, 110, 112, 138, 139,

143, 180, 181, 183, 194

research methods, 17–38

early research, 18, 20–6

first meetings of the authors,

10–11

perspectives of the authors,

12–14, 31–2, 33

transnational research, 26–38,

172–4

see also collaborative research

revitalization, 71, 72, 75, 110–12,

144, 181

ritual assistants, 59, 62, 63, 65, 73,

99, 109, 115, 117, 127, 148,

151, 152, 156, 176–7, 179

ritual foods, 40, 59, 63, 64, 88, 94,

198–9

ritual goods, 8, 13, 26, 99, 104,

113–14, 138, 143, 144,

148–9, 165, 184

see also altars, incense bowls,

statues

ritual specialists, (th y cúng), 20–1,

39, 56, 58, 71, 79, 83, 93,

105, 108, 112, 127, 179

rituals

to change fate, 39–40

i bát nhang (carrying incense

on the head), 87, 121, 123

to “make-up” a funeral, 78

for the New Year, 169–70

see also initiation, lên ng rituals

Saigon, see H Chí Minh city

Sapa, 19, 95, 165, 169, 170–2

Seventh Prince, see prince spirits

Silicon Valley, 5, 12, 18, 19, 22,

25, 26, 28, 29–35, 74, 96,

99–136, 141–68, 173, 177,

184, 194, 201

snake spirits, 43, 47, 51–2, 81, 97,

105, 126–7, 128, 191, 195

social science research in Vietnam,

8–9, 72–3

social support, 102, 115–16, 117

sorcery, 33, 36, 127, 152–3, 176,

182

southern Vietnam, 6, 74, 108, 113,

138, 141, 148, 145, 148,

151, 196

spirit clothing, 1, 11, 43, 49, 50, 51,

53, 56, 59, 67, 73, 87, 88,

98, 105–6, 124, 142, 148,

149, 170, 178, 179, 196, 197

spirit dances, 1, 22, 32, 43, 49, 50,

51, 60, 62, 63, 66, 86, 117,

124, 150, 157, 159, 170,

183, 198

spirit root, 22, 80, 82–6, 90, 93,

98, 119, 121, 174–5, 179

see also spiritual debt

INDEX218

spirits

evil or harmful, 52, 58, 164, 196,

199

ranking of, 109, 125

transnational, 95–107, 180

see also Ð o M u: pantheon

spiritual debt, 82–3, 93, 101

see also spirit root

spiritual path, 80–2, 93, 94, 97, 121

spiritual punishment, 68, 84, 85,

92, 110, 153

spontaneous possession, see

possession

statues, 23, 32, 40, 42, 54–5, 68,

75, 98, 99, 104, 105, 111,

113, 126, 127, 128, 144,

153, 154, 162, 165, 178

stereotypes, 13–14, 103, 145

suicide, 93, 122, 124

Tania, 1, 17, 19–20, 27–8, 30,

32–3, 35, 36, 81, 95, 97–8,

100, 107, 109, 112, 115,

118–19, 120, 123, 126,

127–8, 130, 132–5, 137–8,

146–55, 158–9, 160–9, 170,

176–7, 181

Taoism, 39, 43, 47, 54, 67

Taylor, Philip, 8, 9, 13, 172, 183

technology, 7, 111, 138

see also Internet

temples, 8, 12, 15, 20, 24, 26, 27–8,

30, 32–3, 37, 40, 41–3, 49,

50, 51, 52, 53–6, 57, 62, 64,

67, 68–9, 71–3, 75, 85–6,

93, 97, 98, 99–106, 107–13,

115–18, 127, 133, 135–6,

142–6, 149, 161, 164,

175–6, 177–9, 182–4, 193,

196, 200, 201


Tenth Prince, see prince spirits

Th y cúng, see ritual specialists

Third Princess, see princess spirits

Three Palaces, 53, 146, 170–1

see also Tr n H ng Ð o

Tiffany, 33, 81, 100, 118, 119–20,

125, 126, 127, 128, 134,

148–50, 154, 155, 156, 158,

159, 160, 165, 170

tiger spirits, 43, 47, 51–2, 74, 105,

126–7, 128, 149, 195

Tr n H ng Ð o, 52–3, 54, 68–9,

72, 75, 80, 83, 95, 104, 135,

146, 169, 195, 196, 197,

198, 200

trance, see possession

transnational

impact of ritual transnationalism,

143–4, 145, 165–8,

182–4

perspective, 5–6

reasons for transnational travel,

138, 142–4, 145, 155

relations, 8, 144, 146–67

religious or ritual, 1–8, 137–8

transnationalism from above and

below, 5–6, 179–80, 182

video, 4, 27, 31, 35, 36, 73, 112,

127, 138, 143, 147, 152,

160–1, 171

Vietnamese-Americans

and communities in Silicon

Valley, 22, 25–6, 29–31,

99–136

terms for, 27, 29–30, 32, 34

and transnationalism, 137–68


votive offerings, 8, 29, 57, 64, 72,

88, 137, 142, 145–6, 147–9,

150, 154, 199

war, 6, 7, 34, 35, 77–8, 96, 100,

133, 139, 141, 142, 144,

155, 161, 167, 180, 181

war dead, 35, 78–80, 181, 200

water metaphor, 2–3, 6–8, 15–16,

74–5, 175, 181, 184, 185,

193

INDEX 219

wealth

differences in, 113, 115, 116,

144, 148, 149, 151,

178–9

pursuit of, 13, 85, 93–9, 114–15

as a spirit gift, 86, 90, 91,

113–14

women, 41, 52, 67, 97, 107, 152

as spirit mediums, 72, 87–8, 94–5,

99–100, 102, 118, 107, 175

see also gender

world intangible cultural heritage,

73–4, 193

YouTube, see Internet

Young Princes, see C u spirits

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