Glossary
Ái nam ái n half- man half- woman, transsexual
n to eat
Áo dài traditional Vietnamese dress, white
tunic
Áo M u spirit clothes
Bà Chúa The Goddess
Bà Chúa Ð Nh t The First Goddess
Bà Chúa Kho The Goddess of the Treasury
Bà Chúa Nguy t H The Goddess of Nguy t H
Bà Chúa X The Lady of the Realm
Bà ng female medium
B c gh cho các ngài ng seats for spirits to sit upon
Bánh bò pastry made of rice flour
Bánh a traditional Vietnamese bread
Bát H i Ð i V ng Great King of the Eight Seas
Bát h ng incense bowl
B b t sát caught close
B b t sát kh l m caught by spirit is so miserable
B ph t to be punished
B c m reburial of human bones
Bóng a spirit or shadow
Bún bò Hu Hu beef noodle soup
Cán b C ng s n Communist cadre
C n Cô the root or calling of a female
spirit
C n ng the root or calling of mediumship
C n Quan or C n Ông Hoàng the root or calling of a mandarin
or prince
C nh ng small cymbal
C n cao s y spiritual destiny
C u The Young Prince
GLOSSARY188
C u bé The Youngest Prince
C u B The Third Young Prince
C u an to ask for peace of mind
Cây g o có ma, cây a có th n ghosts reside in kapok trees,
spirits reside in banyans
Cha b t lính, m ch m ng fathers recruit soldiers and
mothers mark mediumship
Chân h ng the “feet” of burnt incense
Chào cô Hello, Miss
Ch u The Spirit of the Ladies
Ch u Ð Nh The Second Lady
Ch u L c The Sixth Lady
Ch u v n possession songs
Cháy ch the market is on fire
Chùa Buddhist temple
Chúa Bói The Goddesses of Fortunetelling
Chùa Ð ng Bronze Temple
Chùa H ng The Perfume Temple
Cô Princess
Cô Bé B c L The Youngest Princess of B c
L
Cô Bé C a Su t The Princess at Su t Gate
Cô Bé Ðen The Little Dark Princess
Cô B The Third Prince
Cô B The Third Princess
Cô Chín The Ninth Princess
Có duyên to share fate
Có tâm to have a sincere heart
Con children
Con c a các ngài children of the spirits
Công ngh buôn Th n bán Thánh to buy and sell spirits and saints
Cung s fate
Ðàn bà womanly
Dân ca và nh c c truy n folk songs and traditional music
Ðàn ng t hát hay to play musical instruments
sweetly and sing beautifully
Ðàn nguy t moon lute
Ðàn nh fiddle
Ðàn ông manly
Ðàn tranh zither
Ð ng c p cao to be at a higher level or status
Ð o M u Mother Goddess religion
GLOSSARY 189
Ð o Thánh spirit worship
Ð n temple
Ð n th chính principal temple
Ð n th v ng sub- temple
Di cung hoán s to change fate
Ði l to pray and make offerings
Ði l xa to go on a faraway pilgrimage
Di t n refugee
Ði tu to “serve” Buddhism
Ðiên insanity, mental illness
Ð l offerings
Ð i m i renovation
Ð ng n temple medium
Ð ng qu t a fortune- telling initiation ritual
Ð ng th y master medium
Ð c Ông Ð Tam The Third Son
Gh chairs
Gian th ancestral house
Giáng ng incarnation
Gi y b n tissue paper
Gi h i the hours of the pig
Gi tý the hours of the snake
Mõ wooden drum
H kh n to set down the red veil
Hán Nôm Sino-Nôm
H u serving spirits
H u dâng ritual assistants
H u làm vi c ceremonies for work
H u t thanking ceremonies
H u vui ceremonies for pleasure and joy
Hèo cell- stick
H ng d a catching coconuts
H ng d n và d y d ch b o to be guided and taught
K t tóc knotted hair
Kh n ph di n red veil
Khoan khoan hò khoan a rowing song
Không bi t l i do not yet know how to
L c Long Quân The Dragon King
Làm bùa to perform magic or sorcery, to
make an amulet
Làm vi c thánh to do spiritual work
L y d u m n to cut the tongue
GLOSSARY190
L bán khoán ritual to protect children
L c t gi i ti n duyên ritual to end predestined spiritual love
afffairs
L i bát nhang ritual of carrying incense on the head
L gi i h n ritual to dismiss bad luck
L hô th n nh p t ng ritual to sacralize the statue
L kh t ceremony asking permission to postpone
initiation
L trình ng ceremony of presentation
Lên to raise
Lên ng spirit possession ritual
Li t s war dead
L c blessed gifts
L c Bói Gift of divination
L i ra vào exit and entrance
L n x n chaotic
Lung tung disorganized
Ma ghost
Mát m cool, to cool off
M u Tho i The Mother Goddess of Water
M i! Mother!
Mê tín d oan superstition
M m soft
Mi n ng c mountainous highlands
Mi n xuôi lowland rice paddies
M c a open the gates
M i incense ropes
Múa chèo ò rowing dance
Nam Tào B c Ð u Two Star Spirits
N ng heavy
Ngài spirits and gods
Ngân hàng a ph the bank of hell
Ngày vía religious calendar
Ngh ch naughty
Ng c Hoàng Taoist Jade Emperor
Ng i seats
Ng i g i h n ghost caller
Nh p ng possession
Nh light
Nóng tính hot- headed, hot- tempered
N c country
m d illness
GLOSSARY 191
m gi v false illness
m v t petty illness
Ông ng male medium
Ông Hoàng prince
Ông Hoàng B y The Seventh Prince
Ông Hoàng Chín The Ninth Prince
Ông Hoàng Ð Nh t The First Prince
Ông Hoàng M i The Tenth Prince
Ông L t snake spirits
Pê- ê Thanh Gay Man Thanh
Ph t The Lady Buddha
Phép permission
Ph bò beef with noodles
Phú quý sinh l ngh a wealth gives birth to ritual form
Ph Tây H West Lake Temple
Quan Âm Buddhist Goddess of Mercy
Quan L n Great Mandarin
Quan L n Ð Ng The Fifth Mandarin
Quan L n Tu n Tranh
Quan L n Ð Nh t The First Mandarin
Quan L n Ð Nh The Second Mandarin
Quan L n Ð Tam The Third Mandarin
Quan L n Ð T The Fourth Mandarin
Quan Ng H Five Tiger Spirits
S petition sheet
S ng fortunate
Tam Ph Three Realms
Tam sinh three meats
T t Lunar New Year
Tha release
Tha không b t lính ch m ng released from recruitment
Thánh gods or spirits
Thanh ng spirit medium
Thanh la small gong
Thánh M u The Mother Goddess
Thánh M u Ð a The Mother Goddess of the Earth
Thánh M u Th ng Ngàn The Mother Goddess of the
Mountains and Forests
Thánh M u Th ng Thiên The Mother Goddess of Heaven
Thành tâm sincere
Th y bói fortune- teller
Th y cúng ritual master
GLOSSARY192
Th y pháp sorcerer
Th công th a house and land spirits
Th gi i thi u letter of introduction
Th l c granted blessed favors
Thu c B c northern herbal medicicine
Th ng compassionate
Thuy n nhân boat person
Thuy n r ng dragon boat
Ti n s doctoral degree
Tiêu sáo bamboo flute
T tôm Vietnamese card game
Tr n t ph to pay spirits of the four realms
Tr n Tri u Tr n Dynasty
Tro r m n p sticky rice stem ashes
Tr ng ban small drum
Tr tà exorcism
T Ph Four Realms
T tr Four pillars
T i bóng self- pitying shadow
Vi c âm yin work
Vi c tr n yang work
Vi t ki u overseas Vi t
Vua cha The King
Vua Cha Bát H i King of Eight Oceans
Vui happy
V ng Cô Ð Nh t The First Royal Damsel
V ng Cô Ð Nh The Second Royal Damsel
V t biên to leave the country
Xe p bicycle taxi
Xin l c to ask for auspiciousness
Xôi sticky rice
Notes
Chapter 1 Border Crossings: Setting the Theoretical Stage
1. Water is essential to the wet rice agriculture of Southeast Asia and
many Vietnamese traditions and rituals invoke the concept of water.
2. Although the Vietnamese government allowed U.S. Vietnamese to
visit the homeland, U.S. policies technically prevented such travel
until 1995 when the ties with Vietnam were normalized.
3. Punctuated gradualism is a term usually associated with evolutionary
biology, denoting change that occurs in small but rapid bursts.
4. One exception is the work of Philip Taylor who writes about overseas
Vietnamese in the book Goddess on the Rise (2004).
5. The authors would like to thank the Wenner- Gren Foundation for
Anthropological Research for their generous support, which made
this research possible.
6. See Ngô Ð c Th nh (1996, 2006) for a basic introduction to Ðao
M u.
Chapter 2 Spirited Research: Studying Lên Ð ng in Vietnam and California
1. See Norton (2000a,b, 2006, 2009) and Kendall and Hi n Th
Nguy n (2010) for a thorough discussion of gender traversing.
2. Also known as Lý Công U n. He was responsible for moving the
capital from Hoa L in Ninh Bình province to Ð i La (known today
as Hà N i) in the year 1010.
3. According to legend, Thánh Gióng did not talk until he heard a call
from the king to fight against foreign invaders. He became a hero
and yearly festivals are held in his honor.
4. Festivals are held at Lý Bát Ð , Bà Chúa Kho, and Dâu Buddhist
temples. One popular festival, the Lim festival, involves the folk sing-
ing performance of Quan H . UNESCO inscribed it on the repre-
sentative list of intangible cultural heritage of humanity in 2009.
NOT ES194
5. Phù Lãng pottery was used for burials in the past and the art has
recently been restored. It has become a product for export as well as
local consumption. The pottery is used for daily use and decoration
at home, as well as in restaurants and gardens.
6. The Ðông H prints depict well- known folk stories about mice wed-
ding ( ám c i chu t), catching coconuts (h ng d a), and so on.
These prints were so popular in past that people bought them to hang
on their walls for decoration, especially during the New Year. This
handicraft nearly died out before the Renovation and was restored by
Nguy n Ð ng Ch and his family members.
7. Cultural Villages are recognized by the state as sites of particularly
rich cultural heritage. They may have important temples, monuments,
and festivals, or produce traditional arts. Additionally, they are recog-
nized for maintaining traditional etiquette and social organization.
8. The general population of 1.7 million in Santa Clara County includes
115,000 Vietnamese according to the U.S. Census as cited in San
Jose Mercury News, Saturday, January 24, 2009.
9. The median household income in Santa Clara County is $83,074;
the median household income of Vietnamese in the area is $67,629
(Swift 2009).
10. The reference for this article has been omitted in consideration of
confidentiality.
11. Madison Nguyen was criticized for asking the San Jose City Council
to name a section of Silicon Valley the “Saigon Business District.”
Critics claimed that she ignored her constituents who wanted the
area to named “Little Saigon.” Her main critic was the activist and
strident anticommunist former general Lý Tóng, who held a hunger
strike as a form of protest against Nguyen. As it turned out, residents
voted against the recall on March 3, 2009 (San Jose Mercury News,
March 4, 2009).
Chapter 3 Ð o M u Spirits, Temples, and Rituals
1. The number of eggs on the altar and pieces of wood in the coffins
represent the number of spirits associated with males and females:
males have seven souls and females have nine.
2. The word “M u” means mother in classical Chinese and is similar
in meaning to the Vietnamese word “m .” The first meaning of the
word implies a woman who gives birth to someone and is a noun
for addressing a mother. Besides these meanings, the words m u or
m are titles of respect and veneration. Queens of Vi t dynasties,
e.g., were called Qu c M u (National Mother) or V ng M u (Royal
Mother) (Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996: 14–15).
3. Some mediums refer to the religion as Ð o Thánh (Spirit worship),
and others refer only to the possession ritual. In general there is a lot
NOT ES 195
of regional variation. In northern Vietnam the term lên ng is used,
but in the Mekong Delta people use the term h u bóng.
4. Tam Ph (Religion of Three Realms) is another kind of mother god-
dess religion, although spirit mediums are not altogether clear about
the relationship between Tam Ph and T Ph . Some say that each
represents different levels of the religion, others say they are separate
religions. Many mediums in Silicon Valley say that people who follow
Tam Ph are able to incarnate Tr n H ng Ð o.
5. According to Nguy n Kh c Kh m (1983b: 25), the Vietnamese word
ng shares roots with the Chinese word t’ung, which has two mean-
ings: (i) a child, a minor; and (ii) boy servant. Durand (1959) and
Ngô Ð c Th nh (1996) wrote that the Chinese word referred to a
virginal boy under fifteen years old, who was innocent, pure of body
and mind, and easily possessed by spirits. Later on, the word came
to be associated with all mediums, regardless of age or gender. The
Chinese word t’ung did and still has the meaning of “medium” in
some south Chinese dialects, especially in the area of Amoy, Fukien,
and Kuangtung (Nguy n Kh c Kh m 1983b: 27–28). This region
was the cradle of the Pa- Yueh (Sino- Vietnamese: B c Vi t) tribes,
which, in prehistoric times, had many affinities and mutual relation-
ships with the proto- Vietnamese, called the L c Vi t. Thus, the word
t’ung as used for a medium in south China, and ng, a medium in
Vietnam, “might simply mean a possessed medium, that is a medium
for some spirit or deity to enter him or her” (ibid.).
6. Some authors say there is a possible total of seventy or seventy- two
spirits in the pantheon (Nguy n Th Hi n 2002); others say there
are ten mandarins, twelve ladies, ten princes, and ten–twelve young
princes (Ngô Ð c Th nh 2006); some mediums say that each mother
goddess has her own set of spirits along with five tiger spirits and two
snakes; and other mediums say there are fewer.
7. Early descriptions of the religion say the goddesses are the wives
of three (or four) kings (Coulet 1937; Giran 1912). The kings (vua
cha) are recognized by spirit mediums but are not often mentioned
in speech or literature (Durand 1959; Nguy n Kh c Kh m 1983a).
The status of the kings is similar to that of the Jade Emperor; they
are important but they remain in the background while the Mother
Goddesses are active in people’s thoughts and behaviors. That helps
to explain why one sometimes hears the conflicting statement that
the Jade Emperor rules over the four realms but the mother god-
desses have the highest position in the pantheon.
8. The four immortals in Vietnamese folk belief include Ch Ð ng T ,
Li u H nh, Thánh Gióng, and T n Viên.
9. She was a beautiful, educated woman and an accomplished musician
who married a scholar with a doctoral degree (ti n s ). They were
married twenty- one years before she died. Afterward, she reappeared
NOT ES196
in a number of places known for their beauty. The temples in Ph
Cát and Sòng S n, Thanh Hoá province, have been erected in her
honor (Durand 1959: 30; Giran 1912: 274) but her primary temple
is located in Ph Gi y, Nam Ð nh province (Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996:
22- 40; Nguy n Th Hi n 2002). According to a brief version of her
story recorded by the Italian missionary Adriano di St. Thecla in the
eighteenth century, Princess Li u H nh was murdered and thrown
into a river because “she had sung, as [people] say, disgracefully and
impudently “ (St. Thecla 2002: 145; see also Dror 2007: 66). St.
Thecla thus hinted at the controversial possibility that Li u H nh
may have been a woman of easy virtue during her earthy existence.
10. The Dragon King is the husband of Âu C and is also known as the
Dragon Lord.
11. In another version, the Mother of the Mountains and Forests was
incarnated as an ethnic minority and the daughter of a kind and
virtuous couple. They had difficulty bearing children and required
assistance from the Jade Emperor. He helped them to give birth to a
daughter who was devoted both to her parents and to the poor. She
was familiar with and fond of the flora and fauna of the highlands
and often used magic for healing (Durand 1959: 33).
12. The Chúa Bói spirits include: Chúa Th ng Thiên, Chúa Nguy t
H , Chúa Lâm Thao, Chúa Bà Nam Ph ng, Bà Chúa Cà Phê, and
Bà Chúa M i.
13. In northern and southern Vietnam five mandarins are regularly
incarnated but in central Vietnam and in California, there are six.
The Sixth Mandarin is Quan L n Ð L c (Tr n V n Toàn 1966).
14. Giran (1912: 270) believes they are also related to five cardinal points.
The First Mandarin (Quan L n Ð Nh t) wears red clothing and is
associated with the Realm of Heaven; the Second Mandarin (Quan
L n Ð Nh ), who wears green, is of the Realm of Mountains and
Forests. His origin was celestial but he descended to earth to care for
the mountains and forests. He was incarnated as the son of a wealthy
family and became a gifted poet at the age of four (Durand 1959).
The Third Mandarin (Quan L n Ð Tam) wears white clothing.
According to legend he is a prince of the Water King of Ð ng Ðình
Lake who manifests himself in waterfalls and springs (Nguy n Th
Hi n 2002). The Jade Emperor commanded the Fourth Mandarin
(Quan L n Ð T ), who wears gold, to descend to earth to help
people. The Fifth Mandarin (Quan L n Ð Ng ) is also called Quan
L n Tu n Tranh (Nguy n, Kh c Kh m 1983a: 27). He wears blue
clothing and chases evil spirits, heals the sick, and reunites families
(Durand 1959). There are several legends about the Fifth Mandarin.
Some say he lived as a snake in the Ðò Tranh River of H i D ng
province, others say he was a son of the great general Tr n H ng Ð o
(Nguy n Th Hi n 2002; Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996, 2006).
NOT ES 197
15. The First Lady is an incarnation of the Mother of Heaven among Yi
people. The Second Lady is the Mother of Mountains and Forests
and she is Mán, the Third is a Muong incarnation of the Mother of
Water, and the Fourth is a guardian of the Four Realms (Ngô Ð c
Th nh 1996a; Nguy n Th Hi n 2002).
16. The Seventh and Tenth Princes were literary mandarins in imperial
courts (Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996a; Nguy n Th Hi n 2002).
17. The Cô spirits are sometimes translated into English as damsels
(Nguy n Th Hi n 2002), princesses (Fjelstad and Nguy n 2006), or
little ladies (Endres 2006). We have decided to use the term “prin-
cesses” because they are youthful and younger than the lady spirits
who rank above them.
18. Although several scholars have counted twelve C spirits in the pan-
theon (e.g., Durand 1959; Ngô Ð c Th nh 1996), our own field-
work has discovered many more, a discrepancy that is probably the
result of regional variation.
19. Li u H nh is the spiritual mother.
20. Spirit mediums incarnate Tr n H ng Ð o’s two daughters and his
third son. They are known as First Royal Damsel (V ng Cô Ð
Nh t), the Second Royal Damsel (V ng Cô Ð Nh ), and the Third
Son (Ð c Ông Ð Tam). Other spirits associated with the Tr n
dynasty are the Princess at Su t Gate (Cô Bé C a Su t) and Young
Prince at Su t Gate (C u Bé C a Su t) (Ph m Qu nh Ph ng 2006:
36).
21. It was difficult for Hi n to identify some of the female spirits of the
Mountain and Forest Realm because of their unique blends of ethnic
clothing that did not belong to any specific ethnic group. Even today
she has problems identifying these spirits.
22. Other terms for mediums are “god” or “spirit” medium (thánh ng),
master medium ( ng th y), and temple- medium ( ng n).
23. Spirit mediums do not sponsor possession ceremonies while they are
menstruating, and often have to change the date of their ceremonies
in accordance with their menstrual cycles.
24. Sometimes the spirit of a dead person possesses a living family mem-
ber, usually a relative, during the funeral, on the anniversary of his or
her death, or on the day of exhuming bones in order to rebury them
in the final tomb (b c m ). Ghost callers (ng i g i h n) are medi-
ums whose spiritual guide allows them to be possessed by the dead.
Other mediums specialize in possession by dead soldiers. They help
families to locate and recover the remains of soldiers who are missing
in action (Nguy n Th Hi n 2002: 55).
25. White clothing is associated with transitional phases in Vietnamese
rites of passage. For example, schoolgirls traditionally wear white, as
do family members of the deceased at funerals.
NOT ES198
26. Medium’s assistants are also known as the “four pillars” (t tr ).
There is always a maximum of four or a minimum of two assistants
who are usually the master medium’s disciples.
27. Tr n H ng Ð o and his daughters, if they are incarnated, appear
after the mother goddesses but before Bà Chúa. Also, the animal
spirits come after the young prince spirits.
28. The religious music has been brought to the stage and even to the
mass media in Vietnam, but without the performing context of the
possession ritual, the songs lose their full artistic, religious, and his-
toric meaning (Nguy n Th Hi n 2002).
29. A ch u v n band usually has two singers. One plays the two- stringed
moon lute ( àn nguy t) and the other plays a set of percussion instru-
ments that include a small drum (tr ng ban), small cymbal (c nh
ng), and a small gong (thanh la). A larger ch u v n band might
have several singers playing additional instruments such as a bam-
boo flute (tiêu sáo), the sixteen- stringed zither ( àn tranh), and the
two- stringed fiddle ( àn nh ) (Norton 2000b: 77; Tô Ðông H i and
Ph m V n Ty 1992: 63).
30. The right hand signals female spirits and the left hand male spirits.
The number of fingers raised on each hand designates the specific
spirit so that the First Mandarin raises one finger on the left hand
and the Second Lady lifts two fingers on the right hand. Because
a specific spirit within a rank is named by a number (i.e., the First
Mandarin or the Second Lady), the number of fingers indicates
which spirit in the rank comes down. When the number is above five,
mediums raise fingers on both hands. For example, when the medi-
ums want to signal that the First Mandarin possesses them, they raise
the index finger of their left hand, but if the Sixth Lady possesses
them, they raise the five fingers of their right hand and one finger of
their left hand, and so on.
31. For the torch and fan dance of the lady spirit the medium usually
holds a torch in one hand and a fan in the other hand. She crosses
them in front of her, raising them up and down during the dance.
During the flower basket dance of the Second Princess, the medium
imitates the action of carrying two flower baskets on the two ends
of a stick. During a rowing dance of the Third Princess, the medium
puts the two oars together and pushes and pulls them as if rowing
a boat. For the dance of the Second Mandarin the medium holds a
sword in his right hand, raising it in front of him and moving his
feet forward and backward. In the dance of the Fifth Mandarin,
the medium holds the spear with his two hands and raises it up and
moves it to the right and then to the left three times; afterward, he
turns the spear around in front of him with small footsteps.
32. At a lên ng ritual, there are four trays of food made for different
altars. One tray is for the four palaces, including the three meats (tam
NOT ES 199
sinh) of a whole boiled duck, a chicken, and a pig head; one is for
the Buddha with only vegetarian foods; one is made for the realm of
mountains and forests including twelve dishes of produce that sym-
bolize the mountain region: bamboo root; water products such as
fish, shrimp, and crab; and products symbolizing soil, such as rice,
sticky rice, lemon, chili, and ginger. The fourth tray is for wandering
ghosts. This tray includes mainly plain rice gruel, popcorn, cakes,
and so on. These four trays of food are offered before mediums per-
form their rituals (Nguy n Th Hi n 2002: 131).
33. The votives may include an elephant, a large horse, five middle- sized
horses of five colors (representing the four realms and an additional realm
between them), two small horses for two young princes, a figure with a
human face but a snake’s body, a boat or a ferry, and a tray of twenty-
four hats and twenty- four pairs of shoes. There may be a set of green
manikins in the form of a mother goddess and twelve ladies offered to
the Mountains and Forests Realm, or a set of white manikins including a
mother goddess and twelve ladies offered to the Water Realm.
34. Although many ceremonies foster feelings of happiness, some medi-
ums make a distinction between ceremonies for joy and happiness
(h u vui) and those for work (h u làm vi c). The former usually
include yearly ceremonies, but the latter are ones in which the spirit
has a particular job to do. The job might be to change someone’s fate
or to rid someone of bothersome and potentially harmful spirits.
35. See Endres 2006, 2007, for a thorough discussion of performative
evaluations.
36. In his article “Some Ideas on Beliefs and Religions Today,” Hà V n
T ng (1998) argues that the word mê tín in the phrase mê tín d oan
(superstition) denotes an extreme belief or religiosity and that the
words di doan have the negative meaning of a mysterious or abnor-
mal phenomenon. The combination of these two compound words
means “superstition” (102). A list of the condemned superstitious
practices was released by the Ministry of Culture and Information—
circular number 04/1998/TT- BVHTT issued on November 7,
1998—stating that “Astrology, the horoscope, ghost calling, spirit
petitioning, spirit message, amulet, exorcism, magical healing, and so
on are superstitious practices, which the Government bans” (quoted
from Tr ng Thìn 1998: 121).
37. Decree on Folk Beliefs and Religion, Standing Committee of the
National Assembly, No 21/2004/PL- UBTVQH11, June 18, 2004.
Item 1 of Article 3 states that “the activities of folk beliefs are activi-
ties representing the veneration of ancestors, commemoration and
honoring of those who had great merit towards the country and peo-
ple; the veneration of spirits, traditional symbols and other activities
of folk beliefs which are typical for good values in history, culture
and social ethics.”
NOT ES200
38. During the spring lay Buddhists and monks travel to Chùa H ng
(the Perfume Temple), in H ng Tích cave, and Chùa Ð ng (Bronze
Temple) on the top of Mount Yên T . Spring is the season for large,
social religious events in Vietnam. This is because the weather is
warmer and people have more leisure time after the T t (Lunar New
Year) holiday in mid- winter.
39. Catholics go to Virgin Mary Church in Qu ng Tr province, or
they go to churches or cathedrals for Sunday services and other
celebrations of their patron saints and martyrs. Hi n observed the
Celebration of Saint Tu in October 2007 in the outskirts of Hanoi.
He is one of the 117 martyrs recognized by Vatican II in Vietnam.
Thousands of Catholics from the northern regions of Vietnam went
to the church to pay their respect to the Saint. When Hi n asked a
sixty- year- old woman about the purpose of her trip she said that she
goes to the church not only on the occasion of his celebration, but
also when her family has big events. For example, she went to the
church after building a new house. She went to thank the saint, and
to ask for blessings for good business so she might earn money to pay
off the debt (Nguy n Th Hi n 2007).
40. The most visited temples include the Palace of Mother Goddess reli-
gion located in Ph Gi y, Nam Ðinh province; Tr n H ng Ð o’s
temples in Ki p B c, H i D ng, and Nam Ð nh provinces; the
Ðông B ng temple dedicated to Bát H i Ð i V ng King in Thái
Binh province; and the temple of the Tenth Mandarin (Ông Hoàng
M i) in Ngh An province.
41. Bà Chúa Kho temple is in B c Ninh province about thirty kilometers
north of Hanoi, and Bia Bà temple is on the outskirts of Hà Ðông town
about twelve kilometers south of Hanoi. At the beginning of a lunar year,
individuals and administrative officials crowd to Bà Chúa Kho temple to
ask for auspiciousness (xin l c) and they return there at the end of the year
to thank the spirits (Nguy n Kim Hi n 2008). In addition, Hanoians go
to Bia Bà temple on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month to
pray for good fortune, good luck, and good business.
42. They are sometimes said to be half- man and half- woman (ái nam ái
n ).
43. The film titled Love Man/Love Woman (Nguy n Tr nh Tri) was
released in 2007. Also, a segment on lên ng in the BBC series
presented by Peter Owen Jones Around the World in 80 Faiths was
released in January, 2009.
Chapter 4 Spiritual Callings: Becoming a Medium in the Contemporary World
1. See Kwon (2008) for a thorough discussion of the plight of souls
from Vietnam’s war dead.
NOT ES 201
2. Local spirits enter Buddhist temples and become their protectors.
This was recorded as early as the fourteenth century in Thi n Uy n
T p Van (A Collection of Outstanding Figures of the Zen Community).
There is a story about a Ð o B o superior monk, who resided in Ki n
S temple in Gia Lâm (present- day Hanoi), who wanted to remove
a shrine dedicated to the Earth god (th a). However, the spirit
appeared with the message that he was the protector of the temple.
The spirit and monk then cooperated to rebuild the temple (Taylor
1991).
3. The principal temples dedicated to the Second Mandarin, the
Second, Fifth, Sixth and Youngest Ladies, and the Youngest
Princess of Mountains and Forests are located in L ng S n
province.
4. See more detailed writing on gender in Barley Norton’s (2006, 2009)
work.
5. These blue bowls sit on shelves in temples where they are main-
tained by temple mediums who light the incense on ceremonial
occasions.
Chapter 5 “Lên Ð nging” in Silicon Valley
1. These areas are also places where Vietnamese shop including: (1)
Lion Plaza located on the corner of King and Tully Roads, (2) the
strip malls on Senter Road between Lewis Road and Burke Street,
and (3) Grand Century Mall (the area known as “Little Saigon”) on
Story Road between King and Senter Roads.
2. “Recruit mediums” (cham dong bat linh) refers to the fact that during
a lên ng ritual the Seventh Prince and the Youngest Prince throw
their bell- sticks over participants while they are incarnated into medi-
ums. The sticks fall on a person who is regarded as being called by the
spirits into the spiritual order.
Chapter 6 The Vietnam- Cali Connection
1. Transmigrants are individuals who maintain ties with their home-
land, often becoming involved in the political, social, and religious
lives of both countries (Brettell 2003: 54).
2. Although the name was changed to H Chí Minh City, Phan still
uses the older name for the city.
Chapter 7 “You Have to Respect the Local Spirits”
1. During personal communication with Dr. Ngô Ð c Th nh, a Ð o
M u scholar, Hi n learned that a group of master mediums in
Hanoi are petitioning the state for permission to develop a national
NOT ES202
organization of the religion, which would codify and write down its
doctrine and rituals. Professor Th nh, as well as Karen and Hi n,
worries that the long- term consequences of such an act might be to
reduce flexibility and even expansion of Ð o M u and its lên ng
rituals. See Kendall (2009) for a parallel situation in Korea.
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Index
altars, 56, 101, 102, 104–5, 162,
164
American-Vietnam war, see war
ancestor worship, 8, 28, 56, 64, 69,
82, 84, 101, 104, 118, 143,
153, 199
astrology, 97, 161, 199
Âu C , 49
authenticity, 74, 144, 145
Bà Chúa M i, 170–1
B c Ninh province, 28–9, 146
Billy, 130, 131
blessed gifts, 58, 63, 64–5, 103,
110, 112–13, 150–1, 159
boat people, see refugees
Brian, 19–20, 27, 95, 113, 121–3,
128, 132, 161–5
Buddhism, 43, 53, 56, 58, 67, 68,
81–2, 118
Buddhist Goddess of Mercy (Quan
Âm), 43, 75, 82, 111, 176
Catholics, 119–20, 135, 176, 200
see also Christianity
C u Bé (The Youngest Prince),
51, 98, 120, 121, 124–6,
158–60
C u spirits (Young Prince spirits),
51, 60, 87, 94, 96, 109,
124–6, 130, 132, 149, 182
central Vietnam, 25, 27, 50, 57, 62,
79, 115, 148, 159, 196
Ch u (Lady spirits), see Lady spirits
Christianity, 101, 118, 119–20,
130, 135
see also Catholics
Chúa Bói (The Goddess of
Fortunetelling), 27, 49, 96,
128, 146, 170
Cô Bé Ðen, (Little Dark Princess),
see under princess spirits
Cô B (Third Princess), see under
princess spirits
Cô spirits, see princess spirits
collaborative research, 12–14,
30–6, 172–4
see also research methods
communism, 35, 108, 138, 145
anti-communist sentiment, 34–5,
96
compassion, 2, 10, 24, 51, 80, 85,
92, 109, 124, 126, 134, 168,
175
compromise, 37, 167–8
conflict among spirit mediums,
33–5, 36, 37, 50, 62, 66,
116–17, 127, 144, 155, 160
consumption, 8, 9, 13, 115, 178,
194
cooperation, 59
cosmology, 43
Csordas, Thomas, 3, 4, 5, 9, 172
culture shock, 12, 150
Ð o M u
characteristics of, 39, 174–9,
184–5
INDEX214
Ð o M u—Continued
cosmology, 43
definition of, 41
global spread of, 99, 138, 171–2,
175–6, 180–2
origin of, 41
pantheon, 40–53
temples, 53–6, 99, 100–6, 110,
179
death, 18–19, 25, 40, 64, 68, 78–9,
81, 93, 98, 101, 153, 181,
197
destiny
and becoming a medium, 80–2,
83, 88–9, 93, 97, 123
and musicians, 61–2
and opening temples, 54, 111
see also fate
Ð i M i, see Renovation
dreams, 21, 42, 54, 62, 83–4, 91,
111, 118, 119, 123, 125,
174, 176
education, 52, 67, 85, 90, 102, 125,
147
Elise, 130–2, 134, 135, 169, 176
embodiment of spirits, 95, 134, 174
ethnicity, 6, 72, 132–4, 135, 179
fate, 28, 39–40, 83, 85, 93, 97,
111, 199
see also destiny
flexibility, 3, 39, 42, 74–5, 178,
184, 202
flooding, 6–8, 15–16, 182–4
see also water metaphor
fortune telling, 91–2, 97, 119, 120,
123, 131, 132, 153, 158–9,
160–2
Four Palaces, 32, 43, 59, 83, 146,
170, 198–9
see also Ð o M u
gender, 6, 86, 107, 132, 134, 152,
168, 179, 195, 201
traversing gender, 28, 33, 72,
123, 133, 137
see also women
generational differences, 15, 27, 94,
100, 115, 117–28, 146
ghosts, 19, 20–1, 58, 101, 102,
104, 105–6, 130, 162, 174,
181, 199
globalization, 3–5, 8–9, 36, 138,
172, 180–2
goddesses, 11, 40–3, 44, 47–9, 50,
51, 53, 60, 69, 95, 104, 110,
132, 162, 165, 176, 195,
198
see also Chúa Bói
Hanoi, 3, 5, 12, 20, 25, 26, 28,
30, 34, 54, 61, 64, 68, 69,
72, 73, 74, 81, 85, 86, 88,
96, 102, 108, 111, 115, 133,
137, 142, 146, 148, 149,
152, 154, 166, 170, 183
healing, 21, 27, 31, 34, 50, 52, 57,
60, 63, 65, 67, 71, 74, 84,
85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 109, 112,
123, 134, 146, 170–1, 196,
199
health, 8, 18, 21, 22, 41, 54, 62,
63, 78–9, 87, 88, 93, 94,
117, 120, 147, 166
heart
importance of a sincere heart, 75,
126, 164, 178–9
history, 2, 9, 39, 41, 66, 70, 100,
101, 161, 168, 178, 185
H Chí Minh, 54, 55, 68, 75, 96,
108, 162, 168
H Chí Minh City, 25, 26, 44, 68,
143, 148, 169, 201
illness, 49, 54, 78–9, 80, 89, 90,
92, 98, 109, 118, 174, 181
false illness, 84–5
Karen’s illness, 17–20, 95, 112,
169, 172, 173, 175
INDEX 215
knotted hair disease, 20, 21,
83–4
yin disease, 79, 83–4, 86, 92, 95,
159
see also healing, health, spiritual
root
incense bowls, 55–6, 98, 104, 105
initiates, 80, 127
initiation, 14, 21, 27–8, 31, 32, 36,
38, 53, 54, 61–2, 64, 82,
84–5, 86–90, 91, 92, 93,
94, 116, 120–1, 129, 142,
144, 146, 147, 149, 150–2,
153–4, 155–9, 160, 161,
162, 166, 167, 183, 184
Internet, 4, 11, 73, 112, 127, 129,
138, 166
Jonathan, 130, 131
Kim, 120–1, 125, 130, 155–6, 158,
161, 165, 169, 176
Lady spirits, 19, 43, 45, 50, 61,
135, 159, 177, 197
language, 30, 31, 33, 58, 96, 101,
116, 177, 120, 129–30, 135,
145, 148, 172, 179
Laos, 29, 77–9, 100, 102, 108, 115,
139
legality
of rituals in California, 23,
102–3, 104
of rituals in Vietnam, 11, 67–9,
70, 74, 139
see also prohibition
lên ng rituals, 56–67
and change, 7, 13
duration of ceremonies, 60, 150,
155
and performance, 65, 66–7, 73,
157
regional variations, 162–3, 178
social nature of, 58, 59, 65
standardization of, 177–8
structure of, 75, 155
stylistic differences in, 156–7,
177
transnational expansion of, 1–6,
9, 12–13, 137–68
Vietnamese terms for, 42
Len donging, 129–30
Li u H nh, 41, 44, 47, 49, 195
Loan, 110–11, 113, 117, 177
l c, see blessed gifts
local officials, 68, 69, 70, 78, 86,
92, 96, 104, 139, 141, 142,
155, 200
magic, 39, 49, 56, 103, 153, 157,
162, 164, 165, 167, 196, 199
see also sorcery
mandarin spirits, 43, 44, 49–50, 58,
62, 63, 66, 195, 196, 197
Fifth Mandarin, 37, 42, 44, 50,
57, 81, 112, 196, 198
Master Thanh, 27, 33, 39–40, 54,
91, 137, 146, 149–50, 151,
152, 154, 157, 160–5, 167–9
mediums
and age, 107, 115, 118, 126, 127,
134
criticisms among, 127–8, 129
and ethnicity, 128–35
and gender, 72, 86, 94–5, 107,
123, 132, 134
master mediums, 21, 54–5, 59,
86, 88, 101, 110, 116, 160,
167
outsider perceptions of, 13–14,
67, 68, 87–8
responsibilities of, 87, 88, 98,
110, 117
social class, 72, 113
social relations among, 89, 91,
115–16, 117
temple mediums, 58, 110
terms for, 57
transnational movement of,
96–8, 138–9, 142–68
INDEX216
mental illness, 84, 91, 93, 122–3
migration
and religion, 100, 101–2, 103,
107, 108, 125, 138, 172
see also refugees
modernity, 8, 9, 72, 181, 183
monetarization, 114–15, 116
mother goddesses, see goddesses
Mother Goddess religion, see Ð o
M u
Mr. Viên, 33, 96, 97, 103, 110, 111,
117, 124, 126, 127, 128,
142, 155, 158, 165
Mrs. Nga, 21, 25, 54, 69–70, 74,
80, 82, 84, 88, 92, 177
Mrs. Tuy t, 102, 103, 105, 110,
113, 118
Mrs. Vân, 1, 97–8, 119, 120, 123,
124, 127, 171
music, 23, 32, 40, 50, 59, 61–2, 66,
69, 72, 73, 75, 86, 103–4,
108, 112, 113, 117, 121,
134, 138, 142, 179
see also possession songs
musicians, 57, 59, 65, 112, 142,
149, 151, 156, 163, 165,
179
narratives of conversion, 31, 88, 89,
90–2, 159, 175, 181
Ngô D c Th nh, 41, 66, 69, 73
northern Vietnam, 2, 6, 10, 12–13,
15, 25, 27, 28, 33, 34–5,
43, 47, 67, 74, 75, 108, 109,
128, 133, 138, 145, 148–50,
156–7, 161, 164, 173, 196,
200
parafocus, 95, 129
personality, 60, 86–7, 126
petitions, 36, 57–9, 108, 142, 165
Phan, 17–19, 24, 26, 87, 93, 96,
99, 100, 102, 108, 117, 125,
135, 139–41, 176
Ph Gi y, 41, 44, 49, 53, 73, 196,
200
Ph Tây H , 41, 53
pilgrimages, 8, 41, 55, 71–2, 137,
145
police, see local officials
portability, 9, 179, 184
possession
group, 50, 62, 75, 156–7, 159
kinds of, 42, 60, 157
order of descending spirits, 60–1
and performance, 31, 56, 62,
65–7, 72, 73, 75, 157, 167
spontaneous, 32, 80, 83, 85, 120,
126, 127, 130, 149, 155,
156, 159, 167, 177, 183
Vietnamese terms for, 42
see also lên ng rituals
possession songs (ch u v n), 2, 16,
42, 56, 61, 68, 69, 103, 108,
124, 125, 127, 134, 135,
136, 138, 142–3
see also music
poverty, 55, 84, 90, 96, 115, 140,
141, 143, 145, 151, 164,
178, 180
Prince spirits, 43, 45–6, 50, 61, 86,
195, 197, 201
Seventh Prince, 22, 41, 50, 60,
63, 81, 87, 94, 109, 150
Ninth Prince, 50, 109, 120, 134,
177
Tenth Prince, 41, 42, 43, 50, 87,
150, 179
Princess spirits, 43, 46, 51, 61, 62,
92, 105, 149, 197, 198
Little Dark Princess, 32, 109,
120, 123, 130, 131, 134
Third Princess, 1–4, 10, 16, 51,
60, 84, 94, 97, 109, 120,
131, 185
Ninth Princess, 51, 81, 87, 91,
94, 120, 134, 135
prohibition, 6, 23, 67–70, 142, 148
and reactions to, 23, 24–5, 57,
68
see also legality
punctuated gradualism, 7, 183, 193
INDEX 217
Quân Âm, see Buddhist Goddess of
Mercy
red veil, 59, 60, 87, 88–9
setting down the red veil, 92–4
refugees
escape from Vietnam, 35, 96–8,
100
return to Vietnam
descriptions of first returns,
138–42
fears and expectations, 7,
140–1, 142, 144–5, 147–8,
155, 183
reasons for return, 142–3, 145,
155, 183
see also Silicon Valley
regional variation, 32, 33, 37, 51,
52, 53, 74–5, 108, 115, 145,
168, 194–5, 197
see also lên ng rituals
religions
popular, 40–1, 172, 173, 176,
180–1, 184
and syncretism, 33, 39, 171
religious knowledge, 9, 40–2, 92,
94, 108–9, 127, 132, 134,
176, 178, 179
religious persecution, see prohibition
Renovation (Ð i M i), 6, 7, 8, 68,
70, 72, 110, 112, 138, 139,
143, 180, 181, 183, 194
research methods, 17–38
early research, 18, 20–6
first meetings of the authors,
10–11
perspectives of the authors,
12–14, 31–2, 33
transnational research, 26–38,
172–4
see also collaborative research
revitalization, 71, 72, 75, 110–12,
144, 181
ritual assistants, 59, 62, 63, 65, 73,
99, 109, 115, 117, 127, 148,
151, 152, 156, 176–7, 179
ritual foods, 40, 59, 63, 64, 88, 94,
198–9
ritual goods, 8, 13, 26, 99, 104,
113–14, 138, 143, 144,
148–9, 165, 184
see also altars, incense bowls,
statues
ritual specialists, (th y cúng), 20–1,
39, 56, 58, 71, 79, 83, 93,
105, 108, 112, 127, 179
rituals
to change fate, 39–40
i bát nhang (carrying incense
on the head), 87, 121, 123
to “make-up” a funeral, 78
for the New Year, 169–70
see also initiation, lên ng rituals
Saigon, see H Chí Minh city
Sapa, 19, 95, 165, 169, 170–2
Seventh Prince, see prince spirits
Silicon Valley, 5, 12, 18, 19, 22,
25, 26, 28, 29–35, 74, 96,
99–136, 141–68, 173, 177,
184, 194, 201
snake spirits, 43, 47, 51–2, 81, 97,
105, 126–7, 128, 191, 195
social science research in Vietnam,
8–9, 72–3
social support, 102, 115–16, 117
sorcery, 33, 36, 127, 152–3, 176,
182
southern Vietnam, 6, 74, 108, 113,
138, 141, 148, 145, 148,
151, 196
spirit clothing, 1, 11, 43, 49, 50, 51,
53, 56, 59, 67, 73, 87, 88,
98, 105–6, 124, 142, 148,
149, 170, 178, 179, 196, 197
spirit dances, 1, 22, 32, 43, 49, 50,
51, 60, 62, 63, 66, 86, 117,
124, 150, 157, 159, 170,
183, 198
spirit root, 22, 80, 82–6, 90, 93,
98, 119, 121, 174–5, 179
see also spiritual debt
INDEX218
spirits
evil or harmful, 52, 58, 164, 196,
199
ranking of, 109, 125
transnational, 95–107, 180
see also Ð o M u: pantheon
spiritual debt, 82–3, 93, 101
see also spirit root
spiritual path, 80–2, 93, 94, 97, 121
spiritual punishment, 68, 84, 85,
92, 110, 153
spontaneous possession, see
possession
statues, 23, 32, 40, 42, 54–5, 68,
75, 98, 99, 104, 105, 111,
113, 126, 127, 128, 144,
153, 154, 162, 165, 178
stereotypes, 13–14, 103, 145
suicide, 93, 122, 124
Tania, 1, 17, 19–20, 27–8, 30,
32–3, 35, 36, 81, 95, 97–8,
100, 107, 109, 112, 115,
118–19, 120, 123, 126,
127–8, 130, 132–5, 137–8,
146–55, 158–9, 160–9, 170,
176–7, 181
Taoism, 39, 43, 47, 54, 67
Taylor, Philip, 8, 9, 13, 172, 183
technology, 7, 111, 138
see also Internet
temples, 8, 12, 15, 20, 24, 26, 27–8,
30, 32–3, 37, 40, 41–3, 49,
50, 51, 52, 53–6, 57, 62, 64,
67, 68–9, 71–3, 75, 85–6,
93, 97, 98, 99–106, 107–13,
115–18, 127, 133, 135–6,
142–6, 149, 161, 164,
175–6, 177–9, 182–4, 193,
196, 200, 201
see also Silicon Valley
Tenth Prince, see prince spirits
Th y cúng, see ritual specialists
Third Princess, see princess spirits
Three Palaces, 53, 146, 170–1
see also Tr n H ng Ð o
Tiffany, 33, 81, 100, 118, 119–20,
125, 126, 127, 128, 134,
148–50, 154, 155, 156, 158,
159, 160, 165, 170
tiger spirits, 43, 47, 51–2, 74, 105,
126–7, 128, 149, 195
Tr n H ng Ð o, 52–3, 54, 68–9,
72, 75, 80, 83, 95, 104, 135,
146, 169, 195, 196, 197,
198, 200
trance, see possession
transnational
impact of ritual transnationalism,
143–4, 145, 165–8,
182–4
perspective, 5–6
reasons for transnational travel,
138, 142–4, 145, 155
relations, 8, 144, 146–67
religious or ritual, 1–8, 137–8
transnationalism from above and
below, 5–6, 179–80, 182
video, 4, 27, 31, 35, 36, 73, 112,
127, 138, 143, 147, 152,
160–1, 171
Vietnamese-Americans
and communities in Silicon
Valley, 22, 25–6, 29–31,
99–136
terms for, 27, 29–30, 32, 34
and transnationalism, 137–68
see also Silicon Valley
votive offerings, 8, 29, 57, 64, 72,
88, 137, 142, 145–6, 147–9,
150, 154, 199
war, 6, 7, 34, 35, 77–8, 96, 100,
133, 139, 141, 142, 144,
155, 161, 167, 180, 181
war dead, 35, 78–80, 181, 200
water metaphor, 2–3, 6–8, 15–16,
74–5, 175, 181, 184, 185,
193
INDEX 219
wealth
differences in, 113, 115, 116,
144, 148, 149, 151,
178–9
pursuit of, 13, 85, 93–9, 114–15
as a spirit gift, 86, 90, 91,
113–14
women, 41, 52, 67, 97, 107, 152
as spirit mediums, 72, 87–8, 94–5,
99–100, 102, 118, 107, 175
see also gender
world intangible cultural heritage,
73–4, 193
YouTube, see Internet
Young Princes, see C u spirits