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Gated Communities in Istanbul: The New Walls of the City

Tüzin Baycan-Levent and Aliye Ahu Gülümser

EURODIV PAPER 51.2007

DECEMBER 2007 KTHC - Knowledge, Technology, Human Capital

Tüzin Baycan-Levent and Aliye Ahu Gülümser, Department of Urban and Regional Planning Istanbul Technical University

The special issue on Cultural Diversity collects a selection of papers presented at the multidisciplinary and multinational Marie Curie project on “Cultural diversity in Europe: A series of Conferences” (EURODIV).

EURODIV focuses on cultural diversity in Europe and aims to understand the ways of dealing with diversity and its dynamics in the globalisation era. Its primary objective is to provide top-level training opportunities to researchers in the first years of their research career. EURODIV is a four-year project (2006-2009) co-ordinated by Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei (FEEM) and supported by the European Commission, Sixth Framework Programme, Marie Curie Conferences and Training Courses (contract no. MSCF-CT-2004-516670).

Schedule of Conferences:

• First Conference “Understanding diversity: Mapping and measuring”, 26-27 January 2006, FEEM, Milano, Italy. Contact person: Valeria Papponetti, valeria.papponetti@feem.it

• Second Conference “Qualitative diversity research: Looking ahead”, 19-20 September 2006, K.U.Leuven, Leuven, Belgium. Contact person: Maddy Janssens, maddy.janssens@econ.kuleuven.ac.be, and Patrizia Zanoni, patrizia.zanoni@kuleuven.ac.be

• Third Conference “Diversity in cities: Visible and invisible walls”, 11-12 September 2007, UCL, London, UK. Contact person: Valeria Papponetti, valeria.papponetti@feem.it

• Fourth Conference “Diversity in cities: New models of governance”, 16-17 September 2008, IPRS, Rome, Italy. Contact person: Raffaele Bracalenti, iprs.it@iprs.it

• Fifth Conference “Dynamics of diversity in the globalisation era”, 15-16 September 2009, FEEM, Milan, Italy. Contact person: Valeria Papponetti, valeria.papponetti@feem.it

EURODIV goes in parallel with SUS.DIV, the Network of Excellence on sustainable development in a diverse world. For further information on EURODIV and SUS.DIV, please visit the web site: www.ebos.com.cy/susdiv.

This batch of papers has been presented at the Third Conference “Diversity in cities: Visible and invisible walls”

Gated Communities in Istanbul: The New Walls of the City

Summary Gated communities emerged in Istanbul in the 1980s with the impact of globalization, and liberal socio-economic policies. This paper investigates the patterns of gated communities in Istanbul Metropolitan Area (IMA). The study is based on newly built gated developments which are constructed in the IMA after the 1980s. The information gathered from 161 newly built gated communities is used to categorize gated communities in the IMA on the basis of their physical characteristics and their development processes. The patterns of gated communities in Istanbul show that there are four types viz. (i) gated towers, (ii gated villa towns, (iii) gated apartment blocks, (iv) gated towns. The results of our study demonstrate that gated communities have emerged in both inner and outer city. Therefore, with regards to the choice of location, gated communities create pressure on natural environment and they have become a threat for sustainability of natural resources. Keywords: Gated Communities, Istanbul, Typology of Gated Communities, Housing Market Developer

JEL classification: R14, R21, R31, R33

Address for correspondence: Tüzin Baycan-Levent Department of Urban and Regional Planning Istanbul Technical University Taskisla 34437 Taksim Istanbul Turkey Phone : +902122931300 ext.2296 Fax : +902122514895 E-mail: tuzin.baycanlevent@itu.edu.tr

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Gated Communities in Istanbul: The New Walls of the City

Tüzin BAYCAN-LEVENT Aliye Ahu GÜLÜMSER

Istanbul Technical University

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Taskisla, 34437, Taksim, Istanbul TURKEY

tuzin.baycanlevent@itu.edu.tr gulumser@itu.edu.tr

Abstract Gated communities emerged in Istanbul in the 1980s with the impact of globalization, and liberal socio-economic policies. This paper investigates the patterns of gated communities in Istanbul Metropolitan Area (IMA). The study is based on newly built gated developments which are constructed in the IMA after the 1980s. The information gathered from 161 newly built gated communities is used to categorize gated communities in the IMA on the basis of their physical characteristics and their development processes. The patterns of gated communities in Istanbul show that there are four types viz. (i) gated towers, (ii gated villa towns, (iii) gated apartment blocks, (iv) gated towns. The results of our study demonstrate that gated communities have emerged in both inner and outer city. Therefore, with regards to the choice of location, gated communities create pressure on natural environment and they have become a threat for sustainability of natural resources.

JEL Classification: R14, R21, R31, R33 Keywords: gated communities, Istanbul, typology of gated communities, housing market developer 1. Diversity of gated communities Gated communities are a part of the trend of suburbanization that is based on the creation of self-contained, separate communities with carefully constructed identities as well as the typical patterns of the rapid spread of proprietary urban communities of the 21st century (Webster et al., 2002). In parallel to the increasing diversity and multiplicity, gated communities have increasingly become a major trend in the housing market in both developed and developing countries. They have radically transformed urban environment with their different characteristics in which social segregation and identity features have become more prominent and strict than the past. In the literature, there is no single definition and no common consensus regarding the concept of ‘gated communities’. Numerous terms are used to refer to this phenomenon. The terms used by researchers include: “gated communities” (Blakely and Snyder, 1997a-b; Davis, 1992a-b; Landman, 2000a-b; Low, 2003), “gated enclaves” (Grant, 2003), “enclosed neighbourhoods” (Landman, 2000c). The definitions and perceptions regarding what constitutes a gated community vary quite considerably; however, on the basis of the definition in the book “Fortress America: Gated Communities in the United States” (Blakely and

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Snyder, 1997b), the first written documentation about gated communities, a general definition can be given as “physical privatized areas with restricted entrance where outsiders and insiders exist”. The recent examples of gated communities are shaped by global socio-economic changes, marketing strategies of developers (Webster, 2002) and the spreading of architectural concepts and lifestyles by international migration (Blakely and Snyder, 1997b). Gated communities remained rare until the advance of the retirement developments of the late 1960s and 1970s which were centrally planned (Housing, City Planning, Land and Environmental Planning Department, 2003). Blakely and Snyder (1997b) have founded some 20,000 gated communities in the US accommodating over three million units (with seven to eight million residents), but more recent estimates (McGoey, 2003) put the number of gated communities at more than twice that (Grant, 2003). Walled and gated developments are not only an American phenomenon (Blandy et al., 2003). On the contrary, gated communities are a global phenomenon albeit most extensively documented in the US (Blakely and Snyder 1997), and are now developing in many countries (Grant and Mittelsteadt, 2004). Gated communities, scattered all around the world, differ from country to country, with respect to their characteristics and in particular with respect to different reasons of development viz. security, ethnicity and prestige (Gulumser, 2005). For instance, gated communities in the US are the indispensable type of housing for American cities, mainly for urban elites (Blakely and Snyder, 1997 a-b). In contrast, in Latin American countries, the phenomenon has first emerged as summer resorts then become a solution for ethnicity (Coy and Pöhler, 2002). In Europe the primary reason for use of gated communitieis is the seasonal use of houses in coastal zones, on the other hand, in major cities like London and Amsterdam they have become a fashion trend. By contrast, in Asia and in Africa, these communities are solutions for daily problems like high crime rate and ethnic conflicts (Landman and Schöntiech, 2002; Glasze and Alkhayyal, 2002; Jürgens and Gnad, 2002). Despite the different reasons of development, gated communities continue to grow with such a pace. They dramatically restructure the urban patterns of many cities around the world. One of the greatest challenges for a better understanding of radical urban transformation is perhaps the parallel emerging phenomenon of gated communities that is fast moving from the US cities to the UK and to other European cities (Blandy et al., 2003; Moobela, 2003). Gated communities; represent the hope of security, appeal to consumers searching for a sense of community and identity, offer an important niche marketing strategy for developers in a competitive environment, keep out the unwelcome, often come associated with attractive amenities, and increase property values (Baron, 1998; Bible and Hsieh, 2001; Blakely and Snyder 1997a-b; Grant, 2003; McGoey, 2003; Roitman 2003; Townshend, 2002; Webster et al., 2002). On this basis, there are many types of gated communities with differing degrees of amenities, exclusivity and security (Gooblar, 2002). Researchers have developed their own typologies on the basis of the causes, consequences and significant implications of gated communities including issues like ethnicity, income, travel etc. (Blakely and Snyder, 1997a-b; Burke, 2001; Luymes, 1997; Grant and Mittelsteadt, 2004; Landman, 2000a). With this background, the aim of this study is to highlight the patterns of gated communities and to develop a physical typology for gated communities in Istanbul while focusing on the physical and spatial characteristics of 161 newly built gated communities. Section 2 provides a comparison of different typologies developed by researchers. Sections 3 and 4 then investigate the emergence and typology of gated communities in Istanbul. The final section

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concludes with a discussion on the patterns of gated communities by comparing different types of gated communities in Istanbul. 2. Typology of gated communities In the literature, there are four major methods of classifying gated communities. However, all of these methods are based on the research topic and are relevant to the case study that the authors have used in their studies. Based on these methods, a typology for Istanbul was developed for this paper. In this section we will summarize each of the four different typologies. Typology of Blakely and Snyder Basic typology of gated communities is defined by Blakely and Snyder (1997b) and is based on North American gated communities. During their research, Blakely and Snyder identified several distinct development types serving very different housing markets with security guards. Each type of gated community has some system of access control, but differs substantially in how they address the development of a sense of community within their walls. In this typology, there are 3 main categories, viz. “lifestyle communities”, “prestige communities” and “security zone communities”. From these 3 categories, 9 sub-categories are derived. The first category, “lifestyle communities” have gates that provide security and separation for the leisure activities and amenities offered within. There are three distinct types of lifestyle community: the “retirement community”; the “golf and leisure community”; and the “suburban new town”. The second category is “prestige communities”. These are amongst the fastest-growing forms of gated communities. Their gates symbolize distinction and prestige and through this they create a secure place on the social ladder. They lack recreational amenities of the lifestyle communities, often differing little from a standard residential subdivision only by their gates. The gates are motivated by a desire to project an image, protect current investments, and control housing values. They include the sub-categories; the “rich and famous communities”; “top fifth communities”, the very affluent; and “executive communities” for the middle class. The two first categories are based on newly built gated developments; however, the third category of Blakely and Snyder’s typology, “security zone community”, concerns existing developments. These developments are the defensively fortified developments formed not by developers but by their inhabitants, because of the fear of crime and outsiders. This category includes three types: the “city perch”, the “suburban perch” and the “barricade perch”. These are called ‘perch’ because the gates are built by residents rather than by developers. Typology of Burke A second typology is that of Burke. Burke (2001) has defined 5 types of gated communities in the American, British and Australian context. This classification is based on the physical and social characteristics of the differing communities, as well as their geographic location. These 5 types include both existing and newly built gated communities. The first type “urban security zones” are existing communities which are gated in order to reduce social problems, unwanted pedestrian or vehicular traffic. The second type “secure apartment complexes” block pedestrian or vehicular entry of non-residents, but do not have private open spaces for the dwellings or do not have communal outdoor areas and facilities available to the us of all residents. The following type “secure suburban estates” are the ones most commonly perceived to be gated communities. Most of them consist of low-rise villas or townhouses and

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are developed in the suburbs. In these settlements lifestyle features are absent, but a small communal pool or gymnasium will exist. The fourth type “secure resort communities” include within their walls one or more lifestyle features such as a lake, lagoon or golf course, and they also contain a variety of elements that are indicative of resort style living, such as gardens, pathways and elaborate lighting. The last type is “secure rural-residential estates”. These are ex-urban estates, located most often at the edge of the rural fringe of major centres, which incorporate a gated entrance and other security features within a rural residential subdivision. They exclude explicit lifestyle features other than the rural landscape and the range of features that are indicative of resort-styled living. Typology of Luymes Another typology of gated communities has been developed by Luymes (1997). Luymes has formed an urban matrix and classified residential enclaves through control of access, and the solidification of their perimeters. His basic typology is based on access control and perimeter control, and he obtained his data from field surveys and a review of marketing information. For Luymes, the physical “typology of control” in contemporary enclave communities is often established along socio-economic lines. The most affluent enclaves include an elaborate security system with a 24x7 guarded gatehouse, or else they are enclosed as a secondary enclave. Retirement and resort communities are another group that favour walls and guarded, gated access. Upper-middle class enclaves advertise gated access, without the guard. The distinction is most clearly illustrated in master-planned communities where more expensive ‘custom’ homes are in guarded sub-developments while ‘speculative’ homes are built in gated, but unguarded, neighbourhoods. Typology of Grant and Mittelsteadt The fourth typology is the typology of Grant and Mittelsteadt (2004) is based on the basic typology of Blakely and Snyder and adds considerations of the characteristics of amenities and facilities, the level of affluence, and the type of security features and spatial patterns. Their reason to develop this typology was the need to elaborate and refining the simple classification of the existant typologies which were primarily developed on the basis of American examples. Grant and Mittelsteadt (2004) classified gated communities through a continuum of “enclosure” depending on the use of the term “gated” in a variety of ways. They classify gated communities in 8 types, viz. (i) ornamental gating, (ii) walled subdivision, (iii) faux-gated entries, (iv) barricaded streets, (v) partially gated roads, (vi) fully gated roads, (vii) restricted entry bounded area,s and (viii) restricted entry, guarded areas. For Grant and Mittelsteadt (2004), their classification reflects the degree of enclosure identified in gated projects. Each of the categorizations of their classification has some utility in differentiating the forms, but merely offers a limited picture of the varieties of gated communities that exist. Amongst these four typologies a common factor is a focus upon the security aspects of the communities. Conversely, there is no common focus on aspects such as location, social and physical characteristics (Table 1). For example, amongst the four typologies discussed, only Blakely and Snyder’s typology is focused on describing the social characteristics of gated communities in terms of a sense of community. In contrast, the typology of Luymes is focused only on the security features while the typology of Grant and Mitellsteadt is concerned about physical features of gated communities. Therefore, the typologies of gated communities differ between researchers according to their interests and approaches and of course in terms of the urbanization pattern of the city itself.

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Table 1 The main areas of interest of different typologies of gated communities

Method of Typology Secu

rity

rea

son

Secu

rity

leve

l

Secu

rity

type

Loc

atio

n

Soci

al c

har

acte

rist

ics

(s

ense

of

com

mun

ity)

Phy

sica

l cha

ract

eris

tics

Main Area of Interest Blakely and Snyder � � � � � � Community

Burke � � � � Function

Luymes � � � Security level

Grant and Mittelsteadt

� � � � � � All components mainly physical components

3. Gated communities of Istanbul: the new walls of the city 3.1. The emergence of gated communities in Istanbul Turkey met with the phenomenon of gated communities after the 1980s by the formation of a new mass housing legislation. The first gated communities have emerged in metropolises and big cities. Today this type of housing has increased its share in the housing market not only in big cities but also in small cities. Particularly, in coastal zones where gated communities offer housing as second or summer housing (Baycan-Levent and Gulumser, 2004a-b). Developers in the housing market are attracted by Istanbul, which has the highest potential for investment. Istanbul is one of the 10 most crowded cities of the world. Istanbul Metropolitan Area (IMA) consists of 27 municipalities and the city is located on 2 continents, Asia and Europe that is separated by Bosphorus (Figure 1). While the European side is essentially the business and commercial area including the Central Business District (CBD) of the city, the Asian side is the residential area (Ergin, 2001). Gated community development in Istanbul started in the 1980s following economic and political changes. With the appearance of a new social class in this period, gated communities became a marketing angle and another way to target specific submarkets for developers. Therefore, developers of large-scale real estate investments produced their projects by taking this reality, and the needs of this new social class into consideration (Bali, 2002). Initially, gated communities emerged in both the inner and the outer city close to business districts; north (Göktürk-Kemerburgaz, Zekeriyaköy-Demirciköy) and southwest (Bahçeşehir, Büyükçekmece) on the European side and near the second Bosphorus Bridge (Beykoz) and north (Ömerli) on the Asian side (Colliers Rescoe, 2003). However, today they can be located all over the city.

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Figure 1 Map of IMA by districts

According to the study “Spatial Segragation’s Process” of Jean François Pérouse (Tempo Dergisi, 2003), approximately 400 gated communities have been established in Istanbul and approximately 60-70 thousand people live in these communities. Pérouse (1999, 2001) pointed out that people who live in gated communities, are usually celebrities/sportsmen, or work in the media and finance sectors or employed by international firms (Tempo Dergisi, 2003). Since 2000, total area of newly built housing has reached to approximately 30 million square meters (Colliers Rescoe, 2003). This new trend in housing has emerged in the last ten years in the periphery of the CBD of both continents Europe and Asia. 3.2. New walls of Istanbul As mentioned before, although gated communities exhibit some similarities, generally they differ by country, thus the need to classify the gated communities in Istanbul. Based on this point of view, the aim of this study is to highlight the patterns of gated communities in Istanbul and to develop a physical typology. The study is based on 161 newly built gated developments which are constructed in Istanbul after the 1980s. Our study includes the housing complexes which have restricted entrances and security features where there is a clear distinction between outsiders and insiders. Data and information used in classifying 161 gated communities in Istanbul are based on advertisements for gated communities in the 3 main Turkish newspapers and on the in-depth interviews done by developers and sellers of gated communities. New walls (gated communities) of Istanbul are evaluated on the basis of 9 physical characteristics viz. location, land size, construction area size, number of inhabitants, number of units, unit size, unit type, target profile and amenities. Although, the physical characteristics of gated communities have a great diversity, it is possible to classify them mainly on the basis of their unit types, target profile and location. As a result, the patterns of gated communities in Istanbul show that there are four types of gated communities (Table 2) viz. (i) vertical gated developments/gated towers, (ii) horizontal gated

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developments/gated villa towns, (iii) horizontal gated developments/gated apartment blocks, (iv) mixed type gated developments/gated towns.

Table 2 Summary of typology of gated communities in Istanbul Unit Type Target Profile Location

Gated Towers Apartments of high-rise building Residence

Urban elites CBD

Gated Villa Towns Single unit dwelling Upper class Upper middle class

Periphery

Gated Apartment Blocks Flats Upper middle class Middle class

Inner - outer city

Gated Towns Any type Mixed type Periphery In this section, we will evaluate each type of gated communities in Istanbul individually in terms of their physical characteristics, their development and also the aim of the developers’ for the projects. Vertical Gated Developments/Gated Towers The first and distinctive type of gated communities, vertical gated developments/gated towers has developed in Istanbul since the 1990s for professional urban elites from the media and finance sectors. Gated towers in Istanbul are generally located on the European side, especially in the CBD where office blocks and shopping malls are spreading very rapidly (Figure 2). However, in the last few years, the gated tower developments have also started being prevalent on the Asian side, located in the sub-business districts and in the new residential zones. Figure 2 shows the distribution of vertical gated communities in Istanbul. Gated towers are generally developed in the CBD as a solution for the lack of available land, since the land is very expensive in the city centre and the plots are not large enough to build extended gated communities. Gated towers are developed as mixed-use zones, usually integrated with a shopping mall or office blocks. They constitute one residential high rise building of more than 10 storeys either within a complex or as a single building. Their verticality also provides a solution for uncontrolled urban growth since they can house between 250 and 1000 people. This means, one gated tower can house at least 40 families. However, the types of families can vary quite considerably within the development as the unit size of ‘tower’ ranges between 71 and 530 square meters. Vertical gated developments can also be called “hotel houses” because of the services provided in these developments. From cleaning to spas, from childcare to health facilities, a wide range of services are available in such buildings. All facilities within the building including health, gardening, security, collection of dustbins etc. are provided privately in return for a monthly fee paid by residents. Besides these basic services, a number of services are on offer to enhance the social life of residents, such as sport or fitness centres, social centres, education facilities, crèches and also health centres with an ambulance, a nurse and a doctor for emergencies. However, of the available services the most important one is security which is the fundamental characteristic of a gated community. The security features of gated towers are different from those of other gated developments. Gated towers can be partially open to public access where there are complexes without a strict wall or boom surrounding the whole plot. However, access to the units and building is prohibited and it is only possible with the permission of residents. Their security level is high, with 24 hour security guards and CCTV cameras. Gated towers utilise technology heavily which is used in these developments to enable units to be connected to each other and to the administrative department.

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Technology is sometimes available as smart home technology which allows inhabitants to remotely control the units. Furthermore, technology also enables services to be provided in different ways. For instance, swimming pools are designed to be used as both indoor and outdoor depending on the weather conditions or the desire of the residents. All services inside these developments are provided by private governance. Private governance, or management systems, within these kinds of developments is the key which enables to the self-sufficiency of these communities. Managers are sometimes the developers of the communities or sometimes a private firm working under the control of developers. The main difference from the management of other systems of buildings is that they act like municipalities. In other words, vertical gated developments act like hotels with their services and make the life of their residents easier by creating a new world that is isolated from the city.

Figure 2 Distribution of gated towers in Istanbul

Although gated towers provide a comfortable life for their residents they are highly risky investments for their developers. Developers (or investors, since in Turkey there is no clear distinction) decide to build a community as they have land, money or a project to meet the demand in the housing market. In other words, they take the risk because these developments represent a valuable investment. However, developers in Istanbul sometimes forget to take into account a potential crisis during the construction period, such as a national economic crisis or international terrorism, which force the developers to take out loans during construction. For example, after September 11 customer demand for gated towers diminished. Even though the developers used several marketing techniques viz. above the line (i.e. advertising in magazines and newspapers) or below the line (i.e. PR); they could not encourage customers to buy a dwelling in these towers. Their slogans, attractions or the use of PR did not generate sales in some of these developments. They also offered various methods of payment such as individual payment schedules and discounts on cash payments, but nothing changed the reduced sales.

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Generally, developers use a sales model which is dependent on the successful delivery of one type of unit sell a dwelling. In this model, several types of unit are delivered but the majority of units are decorated and include white goods only. These delivery types, provided services, location and also the new world created within the development increased the value of the property of such settlements. Except for the developers of the communities which are affected by an unexpected crisis, developers generally find themselves successful. The factors behind their success are that they are reliable (i.e. delivery of the units at the expected time), that they realize their promises, that their perception of quality is consistent with the expectations of their customers, and of course the success of their previous projects. From the developers’ point of view, the new life styles that are created for the residents within vertical gated communities and the economic success of the projects are the main contributors to the city. In addition to such contributions, vertical gated developments also provide a physical, social and economic contribution to the city. Their main physical contribution is an improved infrastructure brought by them to their surrounding areas such as better roads, better technical infrastructure and public transportation. Another contribution of vertical gated developments is that they create secured areas not just inside these developments, but also in the near vicinity. ‘Creating secured areas’ is not the sole characteristic of these areas since they also contribute to the regeneration of neighbourhoods. Besides these social and physical contributions, the most important contribution of these developments is the socio economic contribution of ‘new job opportunities’. The highly developed services on offer require a number of employees. This ‘new employment resource’ is an opportunity to reduce the unemployment in the city.

Horizontal Gated Developments/Gated Villa Towns The best known type of gated communities, horizontal gated developments/gated villa towns, are detached or attached single unit dwellings with a private garden built for upper or upper-middle class families with children. As can be seen in Figure 3, gated villa towns are concentrated in the north of Istanbul as they require large areas depending on their size. Therefore, the small sized projects (10-20 units) are located in the city. The reason to choose the north of Istanbul as location is mainly to have a good panoramic view. Other reasons include to benefit from natural areas and from land resistant to earthquake. Gated villa towns are generally developed as alternative residential zones due to the demands of creating playgrounds, reducing traffic and keeping away kidnappers and thieves. Gated villa towns use their horizontality to set up a more “people-friendly” settlement while regenerating lost social values with traditional or international patterns brought from other countries mainly from America and realise the ideal city of residents. The characteristics of gated villa towns depend mainly on their location. For instance, such towns located in the inner city can house 10 families (10 units) whereas the suburban towns can contain up to 724 units. Not only does the number of units or sheltered families vary, but the size of dwellings can vary between 168 and 750 m2 as the plot size of town can be between 500 and 2000 m2. As a consequence, gated villa towns sprawl horizontally on extensive lands with large numbers of people.

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Figure 3 Distribution of gated villa towns in Istanbul

The differences resulting from the location also affect the services and self-sufficiency of these settlements. The indispensable amenity for these developments is the social centre or the common space of the settlements’ but other services such as having a shopping centre, a restaurant-bar-café or a cinema are only available in the suburban gated villa towns since they are far away from the city. Gated villa towns provide some public facilities like gardening, security, collection of dustbins within them, but the other facilities like education and health is not always highly developed or present. In terms of education facilities, they usually have a crèche; while as health services they only have a nurse or an ambulance for emergencies. The most attractive service provided in these settlements is the specialized sports like golf or riding etc. These facilities have a membership system which is rarely open to non-residents. Besides these services, if we focus on the main element and service ‘security’ is obtained first by walls and booms and then a single guarded entrance. The security level is high with 24-hour security guards, CCTV and an automation system used to connect all units to each other and to the administrative department. Some settlements also include a smart home technology to this system. The management system is another sign of self-sufficiency and is similar to the vertical communities. The managers act like municipalities. For example, they can punish their residents or others who break the rules written in their contracts. Although, not related to the location but to the size of the development, gated villa towns are again highly risky investments for their developers. To mitigate these risks, developers divide their projects into stages and do not begin the next stage without finishing the first one. This precaution is not sufficient and these projects can be still problematic due to the difficulties in buying land from several landowners in order to find the total area required for the development. So, some developers begin their work without buying the whole land and start from the initial stage on the owned land, and then try to buy the rest of the land. Besides these risks, the demand for gated villa towns never diminish since first, they respond to the fear of earthquake by their location on the resistant lands, second, they create alternative lifestyles taken from international examples and stimulate the sense of community. Developers use almost the

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same marketing techniques, payment types and encouragement techniques as vertical communities do. But they are more successful than vertical communities with respect to the demand in the market and also the reliability and the quality of developers. Gated villa towns do not only contribute to the life of residents but also to other citizens’ life. These developments radically transform urban environment, first physically, second socially and last economically. They change the environment physically by generating new residential zones undefined in plans, or in non-planned areas. For developers, these zones help gain access to the empty lands while limiting illegal developments. They also bring better infrastructure and public services to the villages and the suburbs, but this creates pressure for the natural environment and agricultural lands. As a social effect, the huge contrast created between the residents of the area and the gated town in terms of their income groups and their understanding of quality of life can be shown. This situation can destroy the culture of the old residents in time. The most significant contribution is again the creation of alternative job opportunities to the residents of the area.

Horizontal Gated Developments/Gated Apartment Blocks Horizontal gated developments/gated apartment blocks, the oldest examples of fully gated communities in Istanbul, have a similar tendency to the gated villa towns as they are an alternative to gated villa towns for middle income families. These types of developments are not very distinct from the usual group of apartment blocks (estates) and are usually built with the plans of Konaks – an archetype of old Turkish houses –. In other words, having security and, distinctive and attractive plans change the aspects of these communities towards gated apartment blocks. They were first built for upper, upper middle or middle income families since they are the choice for families who cannot afford gated villa towns. Being the oldest examples, a large number of gated apartment blocks are located in the city mainly on the European side; they are also located in the vicinity of gated villa towns in the suburbs (Figure 4). The locations of these apartment blocks are usually in the high society’s districts on the European side or in the new residential zones on the Asian side. They have a tendency to sprawl through the Asian coast; this is mainly lead by the presence of available lands, the increasing demand and the changing profile of customers from upper to middle class. Gated apartment blocks are the most modest type of gated communities in terms of the services although the services can vary quite considerably according to their customer profile. These developments do not offer specialized services apart from a common space/social centre. This social centre is sometimes transformed into a common sports area with tennis courts, swimming pool, kindergarten etc. or is only a common space for gathering residents together. Although all public services are given privately by managers, the health service and other amusement services do not exist in these developments. The obligatory service of gated communities, ‘security’, is provided by 24-hour CCTV cameras and is unlike other communities in that they do not have an automation system or high quality technology. They are not really self-sufficient developments and are plant product investments developed by mass housing developers and differentiated by the quality. The developers often act like contractors which mean they give a number of units to the land owner without buying the land. Additionally, developers do not spend a great amount of their finances for marketing since gated apartment blocks are more affordable. Affordability of these blocks brings the success to the developers by helping them reach their target easily.

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Figure 4 Distribution of gated apartment blocks in Istanbul

Gated apartment blocks similar to other gated developments contribute towards the city. These contributions are not very effective, but new gated projects tend to be shaped as gated apartment blocks. This type of gated development will be more common in the future to provide a solution to the lack of available land in the housing market.

Mixed Type Gated Developments/Gated Towns Mixed type gated developments/gated towns constitute of a variety of unit types. In other words, these are a mixture of two or three of the other gated development types. The variety of units can be seen in any of the gated towns. Gated towns are a relatively new kind of town or self-contained satellite city addressing different income levels with different facilities and characteristics. Gated towns are in particular developed in the north of Istanbul’s both European and Asian sides while their spread is mainly through new residential zones on the Asian side (Figure 5). To be located in the outskirts is a must because of the size of units ranging between 130 and 2000 units and the concepts of gated towns. Developers, through adding a foreign word (usually English) meaning “town”, “country” or “city” to the name of the development, insist on their concepts of developing a new suburb or satellite city. By taking into account their concepts as the main marketing strategy, developers try to bring the population by offering high quality and varied services. Even when a gated tower is not present; all imaginable services including hotels for visitors, meeting rooms etc. are provided in gated towns for residents from all income levels. This spectrum is obtained by the secondary projects which are built in the vicinity of pioneering projects that were successful initially by reflecting a concept or a luxury housing project.

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Figure 5 Distribution of gated towns in Istanbul

The idea of creating a new town can also be seen in the management system of gated towns. These developments search ways to legalize themselves as municipalities depending on the rights to present a crowded population in the whole civil network. These private suburbs are not different from usual mass housing developments in line with the regulations. Gated towns have similar contributions to the city as the other types. But the variation created by them and the demand for such towns even though they are not yet legal will transform the city of Istanbul into a city of walled communities if they continue to grow at such a rate. 4. A comparative evaluation of gated communities in Istanbul The new trend of housing, gated communities has become an important factor which affects the urban development and sprawl of the city of Istanbul since 1980s. The urban pattern of Istanbul shows that there are 4 types of gated communities with undeniable distinctions and similar characteristics viz. surrounding walls with an attractive landscape, 24-hour security, social amenities and administrative systems (Table 3). The extensive demands in the market and the desire to be located near the large forests and on the earthquake-resistant lands are also their common characteristics. By using all these, developers of gated communities create alternative lifestyles to residents by offering technology, unlimited and high quality public services. In other words, all the opportunities of a city are provided in a limited area. All of these features make gated communities highly developed in terms of the service sector and oblige them to create new job opportunities for the entire city. Besides common characteristics, gated communities have many differences between the settlements. The main difference is related to the location as they are located on both the European and Asian sides and in both inner and outer city (Figure 6). For instance, vertical

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gated developments located in the city centre, provide all facilities in one single building and force them to create a life with the opportunities of the city where they are located and hence are dependent. Horizontal gated developments/gated villa towns located in the periphery of the city by offering at least all basic facilities within them, try to stimulate their attractiveness with other components. Gated apartment blocks, on the contrary, which are more affordable than gated villa towns differ from each other by the diversity of their locations. In addition, gated towns are in the outskirts while there are still exceptions which utilise the last available large lands in city.

Table 3 Comparative characteristics of gated communities in Istanbul

Gated Towers Gated Villa Towns

Gated Apartment Blocks

Mixed

Location CBD Suburbs In the city

Suburbs In the city

Suburbs

Total Land (m2) 4000 -31544 6000-357648 10000-85000 25000-7200000 Construction Area (m2) 11000-255000 4400-184136 16000-134300 27000-1000000000 Population 125-800 40-2750 200-1680 600-40000 Unit No 40-405 10-724 74-560 130-2000 Unit Size (m2) 71-510 168-750 76-450 68-570

Target Profile Upper class

Upper Class Upper-middle Class Families with children

Upper Class Upper-middle Class Middle Class

Upper Class Upper-middle Class Middle Class

Amenities and Services

Public services Restaurant bar cafe Cinema Shopping Social centre -club Sport centre Swimming pool

Public services Restaurant bar cafe Cinema Shopping Social centre -club Specialized sports Sport centre Swimming pool

Public services except health and education Restaurant bar cafe Cinema Shopping Social centre -club Sport centre Swimming pool

Public services Restaurant bar cafe Cinema Shopping Social centre -club Sport centre Swimming pool

Security Level Very High High Normal High Reliability Reliability Reliability Reliability Quality Quality Quality Quality Success

Reasons Of Developers

Price Pioneer

Price Need

Price Need

Price Need Pioneer

Contributions To The City

Better infrastructure Public transport Secured areas Employment Functional use Pioneer Regeneration

Better infrastructure Secured areas Employment Functional use

Better infrastructure Public transport Secured areas Employment Functional use Pioneer No illegal urbanization

Better infrastructure Public transport Secured areas Employment Functional use

Not only the choice but the characteristics of the location create the differentiations between developments in terms of the cost, and environmental characteristics which also have an impact on the increase of property values. For example, gated towers and gated apartment blocks which are integrated in the city, use natural factors such as a good panoramic view, while gated villa towns and gated towns use such factors as panoramic views as recreational areas. The spread of horizontal gated communities (81% of total gated communities in Istanbul) through the north of Istanbul within and large green areas (e.g. forests) creates pressure on the natural environment and becomes a threat for sustainability of natural resources and agricultural lands (see Figure 7).

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Figure 6 Distribution of gated communities in Istanbul

Gated Tower6%

Gated Apartment Blocks37%

Gated Villa Towns44%

Gated Towns13%

Figure 7 The shares of gated developments by their types

Developers of gated communities do not have the same opinion about their success. They found themselves successful according to reliability, achieving targets and quality standards of the project and the firm. The increasing demand and changing life standards during time support the fast production and spread of these communities and they support the idea of developers. Additionally, there is a change in the market strategies from new lifestyle to concept project, in the context of projects from neighbourhoods to towns and in the target profile from upper to middle income families. By contributing to the Society, gated communities strengthen their place in the housing market. These transformations, the widespread and the large demand in the market bring to mind some questions like: Will Istanbul be a city with a walled community pattern? Is this lifestyle

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a need for the community? Do planners take them as special cases or typical houses? Can insiders really find the life they are looking for? These questions can be generalized and can be increased in numbers; however a common language of gated communities must be invented by developers, researchers and local governments.

5. Conclusion Gated communities have become a new development trend as a consequence of socio-economic changes in the modernization period. Gated communities increase by number, sprawl by area and radically transform urban environment in both the developed and developing countries. Gated communities in Istanbul emerged as a demand of a new social class appearing in the liberalization period after the 1980s. Today, they, as being the driving force of the Istanbul’s housing market, do not only address the demands of upper income families but also the demands of middle income families. Gated developments in Istanbul often use the archetype of gated communities, such as the American examples, and therefore these developments in Istanbul physically resemble their American counterparts. Taking into consideration the distinction of culture, community living and values, we examined gated communities on the basis of their physical characteristics not only their enclosures but also the characteristics of their units and their development processes. If gated communities in Istanbul are compared with other examples in the world, they carry some reflections. For example, because of their reason for development and the amenities available, they can be classified within the categories of lifestyle and prestige communities from the typology of Blakely and Snyder. Although they have similarities with Blakely and Snyder’s typology, all categories are not matched. The typology of Burke, on the other hand, is more suitable and adaptable for the Istanbul case; however, this typology is not based on newly built gated developments. The other typology, the typology of Luymes is based on the security level of gated developments and does not have a large spectrum in Istanbul. Security is not a very distinctive aspect for classification since all gated communities have walls or booms with a secured and prohibited entrance. The typologies explained previously, have found some examples in Istanbul but not for all their categories. From this need for a better classification to fit Istanbul’s gated communities, this study investigated the characteristics and development processes of gated communities to define a typology for Istanbul case. The results of our study show that in Istanbul there exist four types of gated communities viz. gated towers, gated villa towns, gated apartment blocks and gated towns. Their sprawl in both inner and outer city of both the European and Asian sides is encouraged mainly through the north periphery where quantity and quality of natural elements are high. On the basis of the demand for resistant land to earthquake and for good panoramic views, this trend creates a great pressure on natural environment and 80% of these developments are located in naturally rich areas. Their choice of location not only has detrimental effects on the natural environment but also on the social environment. The communities located in the outskirts of the city create a chaos and a class division between rural and upper class families. They threaten both natural and social sustainability, while legally building developments through the loops in the regulations. Gated communities shape the urban sprawl by creating new residential zones of the city which are planned and independently.

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